PE 1413 
 .67 
 
 Copy 1 
 
1 
 
 
ENGLISH ; 
 
 OR, 
 
 THE ART OF COMPOSITION 
 
 EXPLAINED IN A SERIES OF 
 
 Instructions an& Examples. 
 
 BY 
 
 G. F/GRAHAM. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PRINTED FOR 
 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, 
 
 PATERNOSTER-ROW. 
 
 1842. 
 
wn 
 
 ^1 
 
 London : 
 
 Printed by A. Spottiswoode, 
 
 New- Street- Square. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Of the numerous works on education which 
 daily issue from the press, none which has yet 
 appeared on the subject of English Composition 
 seems fully to meet the wants of the public, or 
 to afford the beginner that complete assistance 
 which is necessary to the successful pursuit of 
 this study. Without entering into a detail of 
 the defects existing in the systems hitherto 
 published, it may be sufficient to remark, 
 that they all presuppose much more matured 
 thought, and a much closer acquaintance with 
 language, than children can have acquired by 
 the time at which they ought to commence 
 the practice of the art ; and that, consequently, 
 instead of assisting, they have, in many cases, 
 the effect of producing a violent dislike to the 
 study. 
 
 The present work differs materially from all 
 others, on the subject, which have preceded it. 
 A 2 
 
IV PEEFACE. 
 
 It is founded on the application of the principle 
 of Imitation to the simplest expression of 
 thought ; and conducts the mind gradually, by 
 imitative exercises of progressive difficulty, to 
 the practice of connected composition. As a 
 work of such a nature must of necessity be, in 
 some measure, a compilation, the writer takes 
 this opportunity of stating that he has not he- 
 sitated to adopt the ideas of others, whenever 
 he has found them of assistance in the deve- 
 lopment of his plan. Among others, he begs 
 more particularly to refer to the talented author 
 of M Home Education," in accordance with 
 whose views, the lists of words in the chapter 
 on abstract language have been formed. 
 
 In conclusion, the opinion of a celebrated 
 writer may be cited concerning the importance 
 of the subject in question. " It can hardly be 
 necessary," says Grant, "to demonstrate the 
 importance of the English language as a study. 
 Too much attention, surely, cannot be devoted 
 to a subject which not only forms the vehicle 
 of thought, but is, in a certain degree, the in- 
 strument of thought itself." On this assertion 
 it is unnecessary to comment, as it is an opinion 
 which fully accords with the author's own views ; 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 he will therefore merely add, that his great 
 object having been to draw the attention of 
 those engaged in education to the subject, he 
 will be fully satisfied if the work shall in any 
 degree fulfil his intention. 
 
 Albany Street, Regent's Park, 
 July, 1842. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Introduction - - - - 1 
 
 On Language - - - - 19 
 
 On the English Language - - - 23 
 Chapter I. — On the Mechanical Construction of 
 
 Sentences - - - - - 35 
 
 Chapter II. — On Variety of Expression - 67 
 
 Chapter III. — On Abstract Language - - 106 
 
 Chapter IV. — On Fables - - - 133 
 Chapter V. — Historical and Biographical Subjects 156 
 
 Chapter VI. — On Figurative Language - - 213 
 
 Chapter VII.— On Themes - *■ -225 
 
 Chapter VIII — On the Paragraph - - 261 
 
 Chapter IX. — On the Essay - - -303 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 List of Prefixes - - - - - 331 
 
 List of Affixes - - - - - 334 
 
 List of Latin Koots compounded with Prepositions 338 
 
ENGLISH; 
 
 THE AET OF COMPOSITION, 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Of all the branches of education, there is none 
 upon which so little attention has been hitherto 
 bestowed, or which has been taught in so de- 
 sultory a manner, as English composition ; a 
 study, indeed, which appears to be generally 
 considered a matter of secondary importance, 
 and which seldom, if ever, forms a part in any 
 systematic plan of education. 
 
 Notwithstanding this strange neglect, it 
 cannot be denied that there is nothing which 
 more directly tends to develop the mental fa- 
 culties, and induce habits of thinking, than an 
 investigation of the principles of that power by 
 which we express our thoughts ; and as we are 
 most frequently required to communicate our 
 ideas in our own language, it would appear an 
 object of the highest importance that we should 
 study how to do so with perspicuity and ele- 
 
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 Another incentive to this study is the effect 
 it has in forming and enlarging the mind ; for 
 whatever gives the intellect an opportunity of 
 exercise, either in discovering differences, con- 
 necting ideas, or drawing conclusions, must be 
 conducive to its strength ; and since, in writ- 
 ing, the mind is of necessity occupied in these 
 actions, it is fair to conclude that a habit of 
 composing has the strongest tendency to im- 
 prove the mental faculties. 
 
 It cannot have escaped the observation of 
 those engaged in education, that young persons 
 almost invariably exhibit a marked repugnance 
 to express their thoughts in writing. In order 
 to conquer this repugnance, therefore, it should 
 be the main object of all those parents and 
 teachers with whom the study of our language 
 is a question of importance, to use every means 
 by which this seemingly inherent aversion may 
 be overcome. It must be, however, confessed, 
 that the plans of teaching adopted by those 
 who have bestowed any attention upon the sub- 
 ject, appear far from calculated to remove this 
 reluctance. These plans are chargeable with 
 two errors: they either impose upon the be- 
 ginner a task beyond his strength, or defer the 
 study for so long a time, that his aversion to 
 it becomes inveterately confirmed. Books 
 upon English composition seem generally to 
 begin at the wrong end : for instead of training 
 the mind by introducing it first to the use ol 
 simple terms, or proj:>osmg a plain narrative or 
 description as an introductory exercise, they 
 plunge at once into a sea of abstraction, and 
 
THE ART OP COMPOSITION. 6 
 
 bewilder the young mind with questions on 
 which it cannot possibly have formed any 
 ideas. It is absurd to expect children to write 
 upon subjects on which they can have had no 
 opportunities of acquiring information; sub- 
 jects which require a greater depth of thought, 
 and more extensive reading and experience than 
 can, with any reason, be expected from the 
 young. 
 
 The second, and perhaps still more fatal 
 error, is the delay to which I have before re- 
 ferred. By many it has been considered 
 wholly unnecessary to bestow any attention 
 whatever on English composition, till the pupil 
 shall have made a certain progress in other 
 studies, and acquired such an extent of know- 
 ledge, and such habits of observation, as shall 
 enable him to enter upon it with greater ad- 
 vantage to himself. This view of the case is, 
 however, replete with mischief. Common ex- 
 perience proves that every day increases an 
 aversion once conceived, and weakens our reso- 
 lution of reforming inveterate habits. The 
 procrastination of an unpleasant task magnifies 
 its difficulties, and confirms our repugnance to 
 encounter them. 
 
 These facts have been most unaccountably 
 overlooked in all elementary works on English 
 composition. The first subjects usually pro- 
 posed to the learner are abstract ideas or moral 
 qualities, such as education, perseverance, go- 
 vernment, ambition, &c. The unlucky pupil, 
 bewildered in a maze of perplexity, puzzles his 
 brain to discover what to say, and finding 
 B 2 
 
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 nothing to say, is soon obliged to abandon the 
 attempt in despair. 
 
 The plan upon which the present work is 
 formed, will, it is hoped, obviate most of these 
 difficulties ; and, by gradually developing the 
 construction and character of the language, 
 will lead the pupil progressively from the 
 formation of the simplest proposition to write 
 with ease and perspicuity upon any subject 
 which may be proposed to him. The principle 
 upon which the system is based, is imitation. 
 Words first, and then sentences of the simplest 
 form, are laid before the pupil, who is required 
 in his writing to use similar words, and to 
 imitate a given model in the construction of 
 his sentences. These words and sentences are 
 not taken at random, but with a due regard to 
 the source of the ideas which they represent. 
 
 The words recommended to be chosen for 
 the first use of the pupil are those only which 
 have reference to material objects. Since our 
 first ideas are drawn from objects of sense, it 
 appears but reasonable to follow nature as our 
 guide, and to make the learner first use in his 
 compositions no words except those nouns, 
 verbs, and adjectives, which relate to such ob- 
 jects. With this view, a very young pupil 
 may be for some time confined to the simple 
 proposition expressing the connection of a 
 quality with an object. Let any material ob- 
 ject be proposed, such as glass, stone, &c. 
 Glass may be called transparent, brittle, hard, 
 smooth, ground, coloured, cut, painted, blue, 
 red, &c. The teacher should next instruct 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 5 
 
 the pupil how to make this simple proposition 
 fuller and more explicit, by the addition of 
 circumstances, and other qualifying expressions, 
 still strictly confining him to words suggested 
 by the senses, and interdicting the use of those 
 representing moral or intellectual qualities. 
 
 Having proceeded thus far, he will now be 
 qualified to consider the connection of several 
 propositions in one sentence, and should be 
 shown how to determine their respective im- 
 portance, and the relation they bear to each 
 other. By this time it will be found that, be- 
 sides the command of a copious vocabulary, the 
 pupil will have probably acquired some facility 
 of expression. 
 
 When this practice has been continued for 
 some time, and the pupil has acquired the 
 power of composing sentences containing words 
 expressing the objects, actions, and qualities 
 perceptible to the senses, he may be permitted 
 occasionally to introduce abstract terms into 
 his composition. This, however, should be 
 done by slow degrees, and the teacher should 
 be particularly careful that the pupil have a 
 clear idea of the exact meaning; of the word to 
 be introduced. To ensure this, he should not 
 only explain to his pupil the proper sense and 
 application of the word, but also show him the 
 difference in meaning of those which approach 
 in sense to the one in question. For instance, 
 if the word proposed be relaxation, the teacher 
 should lay down the difference between this, 
 and words of a similar import, such as recrea- 
 tion, amusement, diversion, &c. The effect of 
 B 3 
 
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 this will be to stamp a clear outline of the 
 shape and form of the several terms upon the 
 learner's mind, and prevent confusion in his 
 use of them. 
 
 This exercise, carefully and continually 
 pursued, will be found productive of incal- 
 culable advantages to the learner. It is 
 probable that he will not only have partially 
 overcome that strong dislike to composition to 
 which I have before alluded, but will under- 
 stand the proper use of a large portion of his 
 native language, and will have obtained a 
 power of analysing, and correcting his own 
 composition, which no system of training 
 hitherto adopted could have given him. 
 
 In pursuance of this plan, only those models 
 for the mechanical construction of sentences 
 have been laid down which are of most frequent 
 occurrence ; for as it is quite clear that in no 
 work which could have been written would it 
 have been possible to give examples of every 
 form of sentence, I have considered it better 
 to confine myself to those which are oftenest 
 required, and most simple in construction. I 
 have deemed it sufficient to carry out the sys- 
 tem so far only as to direct the learner's atten- 
 tion to the philosophy of construction in gene- 
 ral, and his powers of imitation having been 
 thus awakened, he may pursue the principle to 
 almost any extent, by a careful examination of 
 the diction and forms of expression employed 
 by the best authors in our language. 
 
 It has been my object, in the second chap- 
 ter, to furnish the learner with rules for variety 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. 7 
 
 of expression. I cannot pretend that every 
 mode of variety in language is here presented ; 
 indeed, it is evident from the nature of the 
 subject, that this would have been impossible ; 
 but as the chief intention of the whole work is 
 to give young persons materials for thinking, 
 and to direct the train of their thoughts to the 
 resources of language, it may be presumed that 
 these exercises will be attended with a bene- 
 ficial result. Some, perhaps, may object, that 
 several of the lessons contained in this chapter 
 are too puerile, and scarcely befitting the gra- 
 vity of the subject, as they appear to offer little 
 else than an agreeable puzzle to the mind ; but 
 my experience has convinced me, that they 
 have the effect of inducing habits of thinking, 
 and giving a command of language to those 
 who have put them in practice ; and I can 
 scarcely suppose that their novelty, or the 
 amusement they may afford the youthful mind, 
 ought to be sufficient grounds for objecting to 
 them. 
 
 The reader will, no doubt, observe that 
 nearly all the sentences and exercises in the 
 two first chapters are either narrative or de- 
 scriptive. They have been purposely so 
 written; as, upon the principle before men- 
 tioned, I have thought it expedient that the 
 pupil be made well acquainted with the de- 
 scriptive portion of the language, before he is 
 introduced to those abstract and subtile ex- 
 pressions which require a deeper thought and 
 more matured faculty to understand accurately 
 and use properly. 
 
 B 4 
 
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 After having attentively studied and prac- 
 tised the exercises given in the two first chap- 
 ters, the learner will be fully prepared to enter 
 on the study of abstract language. And here 
 I earnestly recommend, that all who have an 
 opportunity of learning Latin should avail 
 themselves of so great an advantage. I am 
 fully aware that several writers on the English 
 language have successfully shown that a cri- 
 tical knowledge of Greek and Latin has not 
 preserved many authors from grammatical 
 inaccuracies or uncouth phraseology in their 
 English compositions. It has even been in- 
 sinuated, if not actually asserted, that a pro- 
 found knowledge of the classics is incompatible 
 with a good English style ; but whatever mo- 
 tives may have dictated such opinions, it can- 
 not be said that this appears to be a very just 
 view of the question. It is true that many 
 English authors have been so imbued with the 
 spirit of classical literature, as to have intro- 
 duced into their writings idioms unsuited to 
 the character, and contrary to the established 
 usage of the English language ; but, admitting 
 this fact, it is very unfair to infer that the 
 study of the classics is injurious to an English 
 style. This is, indeed, so far from true, that 
 it is well known that the best writers in our 
 language have all been classical scholars. In 
 fine, if it be granted that a large class of En- 
 glish words may be traced to a Latin origin, it 
 will follow that a certain knowledge of this 
 language must give the student much clearer 
 and more distinct ideas of the signification 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 9 
 
 of all the English words derived from that 
 source. 
 
 But this is not the only reason why I re- 
 commend the study of Latin to the attention 
 of the young. A knowledge of a language 
 in which the mutual relations and dependence 
 of words are shown by inflection, is calculated 
 to give much clearer ideas of grammatical con- 
 struction than can be imparted by the study of 
 any language which is not so formed. The 
 cases of nouns, and the tense, number, and 
 person of verbs, are all marked in Latin by 
 termination; whilst in English we have but 
 one or two changes in the noun ; and to ex- 
 press all the modifications of tense, mood, per- 
 son, and number, we admit but of five or six 
 changes in the verb. 
 
 Another advantage to be derived from a 
 knowledge of Latin, is the great assistance it 
 affords us to a proper spelling of English. In 
 fact, it offers us a complete key to the spelling 
 of those words which are most likely to pre- 
 sent us with difficulties ; these being all spelt 
 according to a certain analogy they bear to the 
 Latin words from which they are derived. 
 
 I have been led to these observations on the 
 study of Latin, from the nature of that part of 
 the English language on which the student is 
 now about to enter, and in which a close con- 
 nection is observed between the two languages. 
 The meaning and application of the words in 
 the lists furnished, as well as the various senses 
 in which they may be applied, should be made 
 the subject of conversation between the teacher 
 
10 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 and scholar, before any attempt be made to in- 
 troduce the words in sentences. If necessary, 
 the pupil himself may increase these lists in 
 various ways : the name of an animal, for in- 
 stance, may be made the subject of a list con- 
 taining all the words relating to its parts, size, 
 colour, shape, disposition, &c. A tree, again, 
 would give rise to another collection of words 
 both abstract and concrete, or a vocabulary may 
 be formed of terms denoting the parts, mate- 
 rials, and qualities of a house. This is an ex- 
 cellent practice for the young writer at almost 
 any period of his advancement, as it will bring 
 him into continual intercourse with all parts of 
 the language, and cannot fail to give him 
 an extensive knowledge of things in general, 
 as well as an increased command of expres- 
 sion. 
 
 In recommending the form of the fable for the 
 pupil's first attempt in connected composition, 
 I have been determined by several reasons. 
 Its brevity, the attractive nature of the story, 
 the plain style in which it should be written, 
 and the opportunity it gives the pupil of intro- 
 ducing both abstract and descriptive terms in its 
 construction, are advantages peculiarly adapted 
 to the abilities of a beginner, and which no 
 other form of composition possesses. Notwith- 
 standing, however, all these advantages, I am 
 so fully aware of the diffidence which most 
 learners feel in their own powers of comjwsi- 
 tion, and of the general aversion with which 
 they regard the study, that, in order to facili- 
 tate the task, and render it as attractive as 
 
THE AST OF COMPOSITION. 11 
 
 possible, I have given sketches of several of 
 ^Esop's fables, which they are to complete by 
 supplying the connective parts, and to pre- 
 sent to the teacher in a finished form. Those 
 pupils who have more confidence in their own 
 abilities, and a greater natural disposition for 
 writing, may be shown how to amplify the 
 short sentence which expresses the moral of 
 the fable, but those who are unequal to this 
 task, must express the moral as briefly as pos- 
 sible : or in some cases, where the powers of 
 the learner are not sufficiently developed to 
 admit of his writing it at all, this part of the 
 exercise may be altogether omitted in writing, 
 but should, of course, be explained by the 
 teacher verbally. The assistance given in the 
 sketches may be gradually withdrawn, and the 
 exercise occasionally varied by a fable written 
 from memory on some well known subject, for 
 which, reference may be made to any edition of 
 -ZEsop. 
 
 In the fifth chapter, the subjects submitted 
 to the learner are all historical or biographical. 
 The historical notices are taken from Gold- 
 smith's " History of England." The sketches 
 of the lives of the poets, chiefly from Johnson. 
 Gleig's " British Commanders" has furnished 
 materials for the lives of military men, and 
 Allan Cunningham's " Lives of the Painters " 
 for the biographies of the artists. The autho- 
 rities for the other sketches are referred to in 
 notes at the bottom of the page. I am con- 
 vinced that the habit of referrino; to given au- 
 thorities, and the practice of working out these 
 
12 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 sketches, will give a more complete and lasting 
 information in every department of knowledge 
 connected with English history, than any other 
 plan of English education which has been yet 
 adopted. Moreover, the increased habits of 
 attention required to enable the pupil to write 
 these lives, compared with that which is neces- 
 sary in merely reading accounts of them, will 
 greatly contribute to strengthen his under- 
 standing, and fix more firmly in his memory 
 the facts of which they treat. 
 
 I think it advisable, in many cases, not to 
 require a whole reign or life in one exercise, 
 but merely a portion of it to be written ; and 
 the pupil should occasionally return to the 
 fable, as a relief from the monotonous effect pro- 
 duced by writing for a length of time in one 
 style. The teacher should employ every means 
 which his ingenuity can suggest to place the 
 study in as pleasing and attractive a light as 
 possible, and should neglect no opportunity 
 of diminishing the learner's aversion to com- 
 posing. 
 
 The list of subjects for historical composition 
 given at the end of Chap. V., will furnish the 
 pupil with an exercise for dividing his subject 
 into heads. I should recommend that before he 
 begins to write, the teacher should require him 
 to draw up a sketch of these heads or divisions 
 of the subject, in order that he may treat it ac- 
 cording to a fixed plan, and thereby avoid the 
 confusion into which he is likely to fall in at- 
 tempting to write upon a subject without some 
 previously determined system ; for it is not suf- 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 13 
 
 ficient that the pupil express each thought in- 
 dividually with clearness and ease, but it is also 
 necessary that the whole composition should 
 possess unity and connection. It is this very 
 part of the study which generally presents the 
 learner with the greatest difficulty. His sen- 
 tences, taken separately, and considered singly, 
 may be sensibly, forcibly, and elegantly ex- 
 pressed, and yet the whole writing may pro- 
 duce a broken and disjointed effect, from the 
 want of that unity which is required in every 
 well-written composition. The teacher should, 
 therefore, strongly impress upon the learner the 
 necessity of producing an exercise, the various 
 parts of which shall be all distinguishable, and 
 yet connected in such a manner as to enable 
 the reader to consider them separately, at the 
 same time that he receives a lively impression 
 of the whole subject. 
 
 I now proceed to offer some remarks upon the 
 Theme. This form of composition has long 
 enjoyed a popularity of which it is wholly un- 
 deserving, though not so great a favourite with 
 the pupil as with the teacher. It is not an 
 easy exercise even to those who have had some 
 practice in writing, but it presents peculiar 
 difficulties to the beginner; and when we 
 consider the natural reluctance of the young to 
 any sort of composition, it is no wonder that 
 their dislike to it should be confirmed by the 
 very unattractive shape in which it has been 
 first laid before them. 
 
 It has been argued that the theme is useful 
 in a moral point of view, as it leads the young 
 
14 ENGLISH ; OK, 
 
 to reflect upon the nature and effects of right 
 and wrong, and exercises a salutary influence 
 over their moral conduct. If this were the 
 certain result of such an exercise, no one could 
 hesitate to admit its utility ; but I not only 
 entertain strong doubts of the fact, but even 
 think it very questionable whether general dis- 
 quisitions upon virtue or vice have any prac- 
 tical effect upon the youthful mind. With the 
 young, as, indeed, with those of more advanced 
 age, example is more efficacious than precept, 
 and I do not believe that all the themes that 
 were ever written have contributed to effect 
 the least moral improvement in any one of the 
 children who composed them. 
 
 Besides this, it should be remembered that 
 the theme is a form of composition never likely 
 to be of much practical utility in after life. A 
 knowledge of theme-writing will be of no 
 assistance in writing a letter or a description, 
 neither is it indispensable to the construction of 
 a sermon or a moral treatise. 
 
 Notwithstanding these objections, practice 
 in this species of writing is attended with re- 
 sults worthy of consideration. Its great effect 
 is, that it teaches the pupil to think correctly. 
 It is not so efficacious in making him write 
 elegantly, as in assisting his mind to arrive at 
 just conclusions upon things in general. That 
 this is an important object no one can possibly 
 deny. But the theme should be studied by 
 slow degrees, and with the greatest care, and 
 the pupil be confined, for some time, to the 
 consideration of the definition, which should be 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 15 
 
 well understood and practised before he is al- 
 lowed to advance any opinion on the subject 
 proposed, or make any assertion with respect 
 to its effects. The other divisions should be 
 then gradually added until all the arguments 
 are collected which bear upon the judgment 
 delivered, and the composition assumes a com- 
 plete form. To facilitate this process, I have 
 drawn up, under each of the subjects proposed, 
 some questions which are generally applicable 
 to each of the divisions under which the theme 
 is usually treated. 
 
 The whole of Chapter VIIL, in which I have 
 treated of the paragraph, and laid down models 
 for its construction, contains an exercise, which, 
 as far as I am aware, has never yet been 
 adopted in any plan of instruction. This exer- 
 cise is intended to guide the pupil in the 
 manner of conducting the reasoning he may 
 determine to pursue in his future compositions, 
 and the models laid down are to be considered 
 rather as forms of argument than as examples 
 of style. With the view of instructing him 
 how to reason, I have explained the forms of 
 argument adopted by some of our most eminent 
 authors, and shown him how similar arguments 
 may be exhibited in the same form, in the 
 treatment of any question or assertion which 
 may be proposed for discussion. In writing 
 this exercise, the pupil must remember, that 
 the arguments are not used so much for 
 the purpose of proving the truth of the asser- 
 tion made, as to corroborate that which is 
 already assumed to be true ; and he must take 
 
16 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 especial care, that in every paragraph he writes, 
 all his remarks refer to the leading proposition. 
 There is no error which the beginner is more 
 likely to commit in this exercise, than that of 
 wandering from the subject in question, so 
 that upon reading over his composition, he fre- 
 quently finds, that towards the conclusion of 
 . the paragraph, he has been making some ob- 
 servations which have no connection with the 
 assertion to which all the propositions of his 
 paragraph should refer. To prevent this error, 
 therefore, as the ideas rise in his mind, he should 
 ascertain, before expressing them in writing, 
 what relation they bear to the leading assertion, 
 and should not think of committing one thought 
 to paper, which may have the effect of leading 
 him from his subject, or which will not strictly 
 perform the office required of it in the model 
 upon which he constructs his sentences. 
 
 I have generally found that the apparent 
 difficulty of this exercise has filled with alarm 
 the minds of those who have been required to 
 attempt it. On my explaining its nature, and 
 proposing a model for their imitation, they 
 have all immediately pronounced it far be- 
 yond their strength, and many have even ex- 
 pressed a positive conviction that they should 
 never be able to overcome its difficulties. 
 These same pupils, however, after a few trials, 
 have never failed to accomplish every thing 
 which could be reasonably expected of them ; 
 and, after some practice, have generally not 
 only succeeded in imitating the models, but 
 have unconsciously employed similar forms of 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 17 
 
 reasoning in their other exercises ; thus clearly- 
 proving the salutary effects of giving the mind 
 habits of observation, and the excellent results 
 of the culture of the Imitative Faculty. 
 
 The learner should be warned against another 
 error into which he may fall in composing upon 
 these models. I mean that of closely imitating 
 their style of expression, as well as the form of 
 reasoning which they exhibit. He should en- 
 deavour, as far as he is able, to avoid forming 
 his sentences upon the same grammatical con- 
 struction in which they appear in the model 
 before him. The question with him should be, 
 after every sentence which he adds to the 
 paragraph, not whether it resembles in con- 
 struction that which occupies the same place in 
 the model, but whether it performs the same 
 office towards the other parts of the composition. 
 He must also remember, that although it may 
 be allowable to form his general style upon that 
 of some eminent writer, yet that a close and 
 servile imitation of the style of any author will 
 lead him to copy its defects as well as its beau- 
 ties ; and if it be true that no style can be pro- 
 nounced wholly free from defects, the imitator 
 must of course add to his own errors those of 
 the writer whom he imitates, and thus render 
 his compositions doubly exceptionable. 
 
 I have furnished the pupil with these forms 
 of reasoning with the view of giving an impulse 
 to his powers of observation, and attracting his 
 attention to the arrangement and mode of ar- 
 guing pursued by those who have been consi- 
 dered excellent in this particular. Besides these, 
 c 
 
18 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 there are numberless other forms employed 
 in writing, to which the learner's attention 
 should now be directed ; for, the habit of ex- 
 amining the logic as well as the style used by 
 those English authors who are regarded as 
 models of skill in the art of composing, will 
 tend still further to develop the pupil's powers, 
 and give his compositions correctness and ac- 
 curacy, as well as grace and elegance. 
 
 Since paragraphs are to be considered but as 
 component parts of a whole composition, the 
 pupil, in writing the essay, must bear in mind 
 the directions I have laid down for their con- 
 struction. Then, after finishing his essay, he 
 should carefully peruse each paragraph sepa- 
 rately, and observe whether the assertion with 
 which each commences is well supported or 
 clearly elucidated by the sentences which im- 
 mediately succeed it. He should next observe 
 whether the paragraphs themselves are properly 
 connected, and whether they all bear the ne- 
 cessary relation to the subject itself of the essay. 
 In all cases, throughout the whole course of in- 
 struction, the pupil's exercise should undergo 
 a strict scrutiny from himself, and he should 
 always be required to improve it with his own 
 hand, as far as he is able, before it is presented 
 to the teacher for correction. 
 
 In conclusion, I have to remark, that the 
 system here explained, is no ideal speculation or 
 fanciful theory, unsupported by positive evidence 
 of its effects ; but the practical result of my own 
 observation and attention, which have been con- 
 stantly directed to the subject for many years. 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 19 
 
 It is one which must be admitted to be of the 
 highest importance, and which, notwithstanding, 
 is more neglected than any other branch of 
 English education. This neglect, I am inclined 
 to think, may be chiefly ascribed to the want of 
 a regular system, gradually and progressively 
 developed, in which the reasoning faculty should 
 be conducted from the expression of the simplest 
 proposition to the exercise of its more powerful 
 efforts in the treatment of abstract subjects. 
 This desideratum I have endeavoured to supply, 
 and with whatever success my efforts may be 
 attended, I shall, at all events, have the satis- 
 faction of reflecting that I have contributed to 
 draw public attention to a subject of acknow- 
 ledged importance, and one which ought to 
 form a leading feature in the education of 
 every Englishman. 
 
 ON LANGUAGE. 
 
 An investigation of the principles and cha- 
 racteristics of language is one of the most useful 
 and interesting pursuits in which the human 
 mind can be engaged. Language is the means 
 by which we are enabled to communicate our 
 ideas to others, and perpetuate our thoughts to 
 future ages. It makes us acquainted with the 
 learning and science of our forefathers, and gives 
 us the power of the daily interchange of senti- 
 ment with our fellow-creatures, in which our 
 opinions and ideas may be conveyed to each 
 other almost with the rapidity of thought itself. 
 It is this power which, in conjunction with rea- 
 C 2 
 
20 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 son, raises man to the exalted rank which he 
 holds in the scale of created beings, and which, 
 in proportion as it is polished and refined, is a 
 sure criterion of the advancement made by one 
 nation beyond another in arts and civilisation. 
 
 As words are but the signs of ideas, the ex- 
 tent of our general knowledge must greatly de- 
 pend upon our acquaintance with their use and 
 signification. By an examination and study of 
 the former, the latter become distinct and com- 
 plete; and in proportion as we convey our 
 meaning in a clear and intelligible manner, we are 
 less likely to be misunderstood, or to be involved 
 in error. But it must not be forgotten, that 
 words and ideas are allied by a conventional, 
 not by a natural connection ; and that the true 
 signification of a word entirely depends on the 
 sense which is given it by custom. 
 
 No one who confines his studies solely to his 
 own language will ever be able to understand it 
 perfectly, or ascertain with accuracy its beauties 
 or defects. He who is acquainted with a variety 
 of languages has procured for himself a great 
 addition to his stock of ideas, and has opened 
 fresh and innumerable sources of mental im- 
 provement ; he can not only communicate with 
 the natives of foreign countries without the aid 
 of an interpreter, but is not obliged to rely on 
 translations to acquire a knowledge of then* 
 authors. He has also opportunities of comparing 
 different languages with each other, and of 
 drawing conclusions with respect to their com- 
 parative merits; and lastly, by observing the 
 changes which a language has undergone in the 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 21 
 
 lapse of ages, he will discover that language, so 
 far as it is a record of human feelings and human 
 genius, constitutes an important part in the his- 
 tory of man. 
 
 The formation of the modern languages of 
 Europe may be dated from the commencement 
 of the middle ages. In the fifth century, when 
 the Goths and Lombards, nations of German 
 origin, had established themselves in Italy, 
 modern Italian began to assume its form ; its 
 deviation from the Latin being marked by the 
 use of articles and prepositions, instead of the 
 variation of inflection, and the introduction of 
 auxiliary verbs to show the changes of person 
 and tense. As the Goths extended their con- 
 quests over the Roman empire, the language of 
 the victors blended with that of the vanquished, 
 and the barbarous dialects of many neighbouring 
 tribes contributed to the composition of the 
 modern Italian language. If it has lost much of 
 the force and dignity of its parent, it still retains 
 an elegance of expression and harmony of ca- 
 dence, which never fail to charm every reader 
 of cultivated taste in the works of its great 
 writers. 
 
 Towards the close of the fifth century, the 
 Franks, a people of northern Germany, under 
 the command of Clovis, invaded Gaul, and sub- 
 jugated its ancient inhabitants. Modern French 
 is a mixture of the Germanic dialects with 
 Latin, which, together with the ancient Celtic, 
 had been the common language of Gaul during 
 its subjection to the Roman dominion. The 
 rudeness of expression observable in :x * early 
 C 3 
 
22 ENGLISH; OE, 
 
 writers has been gradually polished, and the 
 language has now attained a high degree of 
 elegance. Its character is favourable to graceful 
 and witty expression, and its idiom possesses an 
 epigrammatic point not to be met with in any 
 other modern European language. On the 
 other hand, it is deficient in dignity, energy, 
 and copiousness ; and, compared with other lan- 
 guages, is found wanting in that energetic sim- 
 plicity required in all the higher productions of 
 eloquence or literature. 
 
 Between ancient and modern languages one 
 remarkable difference is found to prevail. In 
 the former, all the variations as to circumstance, 
 time, or manner in which objects or actions may 
 be represented, was marked by termination ; in 
 the latter, these changes are supplied by prepo- 
 sitions and auxiliary verbs. This latter form of 
 expression contributes greatly to the simplicity 
 of modern languages, and renders them much 
 less difficult of acquirement : still, it must be 
 allowed that they possess defects which more 
 than counterbalance this advantage. What 
 they have gained in simplicity, they have lost 
 in dignity and harmony ; they are more philo- 
 sophical in their construction, but weaker in 
 expression, and less pleasing to the imagination. 
 The improvements and discoveries which have 
 been made in latter times in every branch of 
 the arts and sciences, have greatly increased the 
 vocabularies of modern languages. Hence we 
 may perceive that the moderns far excel the an- 
 cients in copiousness and variety of expression. 
 Of this, numerous instances occur: thousands 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 23 
 
 of names of animals, plants, machines, and im- 
 plements — terms used in agriculture, manufac- 
 tures, navigation, chemistry, and all the branches 
 of natural philosophy, are peculiarly modern, 
 and have no corresponding expressions in the 
 languages of antiquity. 
 
 ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Of all the causes which are found to exercise 
 an influence upon the language of any particular 
 nation, the changes made by foreign invasion 
 are the most marked and permanent, especially 
 when followed by a settlement of the conquerors 
 in the country. A close and frequent inter- 
 course with the inhabitants of neighbouring 
 states, and the result of commercial relations, 
 will also contribute to produce a change in its 
 character. To these causes may be added 
 others, arising from a caprice of fashion ; a 
 pedantic affectation of foreign idiom ; peculiari- 
 ties of expression used by favourite writers, &c. 
 Among all nations, then, language seems to be 
 undergoing a silent but gradual change : many 
 words are daily becoming obsolete, to make way 
 for new expressions, which, in their turn, are 
 destined to resign their place to others perhaps 
 equally short-lived. 
 
 This change may be ascribed to the various 
 impulses which the human mind receives from 
 political or other causes, and may be clearly 
 traced by examining the character and forms of 
 expression used in the language of any people 
 after a long term of political prosperity or 
 C 4 
 
24 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 popular excitement. Thus, in the latter ages 
 of the empire of the Romans, the enervated 
 state of the public mind is clearly perceptible 
 in the writings of their authors : the majestic 
 simplicity and dignity which characterised their 
 earlier writers, had then given way to inflated 
 extravagance and puerile affectation ; the whole 
 body of their language and literature had fallen 
 into decay, and had become corrupted and de- 
 based in proportion as the people themselves 
 had sunk into luxury and effeminacy. 
 
 No language of Europe has been more fre- 
 quently or more strongly affected by external 
 influences than English, the cause of which 
 may be chiefly ascribed to the many revolutions 
 by which this country was convulsed during 
 its early history. Scarcely had one language 
 planted itself and begun to take root in the land, 
 when, in consequence of a fresh irruption of 
 invaders, it was partially destroyed, and another 
 dialect, imported by the conquerors, was grafted 
 on its stem. Thus, one people continually 
 succeeding another in the possession of the coun- 
 try, the temporary language had no sooner begun 
 to assume a fixed form, than it was interrupted 
 in its progress by some overwhelming influence 
 which obscured its character, and deranged 
 for a time its whole fabric. Roman, Saxon, 
 Danish, and Norman were successively the pre- 
 vailing languages of this country within the 
 space of seven hundred years; which may partly 
 account for the fact, that it was not until long 
 after the other languages of Europe had become 
 fixed and settled, that English first assumed 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. 25 
 
 that distinct shape and character in which it 
 now appears. The obstacles which it encoun- 
 tered in its growth do not appear, however, to 
 have impaired its vigour ; and as that which is 
 long in arriving at maturity is generally more 
 solid, and more lasting in duration, we may 
 hope that English, which has taken so many 
 centuries to perfect, will continue for as long a 
 time, not only to nourish in its native land, but 
 to extend the enlightening influence of its lite- 
 rature over every portion of the civilised world. 
 
 A tribe of the Celts, an ancient race whose 
 origin has never been accurately determined, 
 inhabited this country when Julius Cassar made 
 his first descent upon the island. The British, 
 a dialect of the Celtic, was then the common 
 language of the country. We have no authen- 
 tic accounts by which we can judge of the effects 
 produced on the language by the long residence 
 of the Komans in Britain ; but, from the relative 
 position of victors and vanquished, we may 
 suppose that the language of government and 
 judicial proceedings was Roman, and that a 
 knowledge of Latin was necessary to those na- 
 tives who aspired to any employment of dignity 
 under the administration. 
 
 The Saxons, who succeeded the Romans in 
 the possession of the country, having dispossessed 
 of ^ their property the owners of the soil, and 
 driven them into the remote parts of the land, 
 introduced into the island their own language, 
 which was a dialect of the Gothic or Teutonic. 
 Of the Saxon language we have still a suffi- 
 cient number of monuments extant to prove 
 
26 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 clearly that it possessed a considerable degree of 
 force and copiousness, and was capable of ex- 
 pressing with much energy the sentiments of a 
 civilised people. 
 
 Few variations took place in the language 
 from the settlement of the Saxons till the 
 Norman invasion, a period of six hundred years, 
 during which time the intercourse of the inhabi- 
 tants with other nations was scanty and infre- 
 quent. Notwithstanding the repeated incur- 
 sions of the Danes, and the permanent settlement 
 they finally acquired in this country, their 
 inroads produced no marked change in the lan- 
 guage, as the Danish and Saxon were both 
 branches of one common root, the Gothic or 
 Teutonic. 
 
 When the Normans gained possession of the 
 island in 1066, the conqueror left no means un- 
 tried of destroying every vestige of the Saxon 
 language in this country, and promoting the 
 use of the Norman-French in its stead. With 
 this view, it is well known that he carefully 
 excluded the Saxons from every office of dignity 
 in church or state, and ordered all the records 
 and ordinances of the kingdom to be perpetuated 
 to posterity in his native tongue. But the 
 pertinacity with which the people clung to 
 their own customs and language seemed to in- 
 crease with the cruel policy of their haughty 
 conqueror, and was for a long time an effec- 
 tual obstacle to his desires. The Saxons, indeed, 
 had conceived so rooted an aversion towards 
 their cruel masters, and regarded them with 
 such utter abhorrence, that it was not till some 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. 27 
 
 generations had passed away, and the wrongs 
 of the ancestors were forgotten or unfelt by 
 their posterity, that anything resembling a cor- 
 dial unanimity prevailed between the two 
 nations. There is little doubt that this long- 
 cherished animosity on the part of the Saxons, 
 and their obstinate determination not to inter- 
 mix with the Normans, are the causes of all 
 that simplicity and energy which are so strongly 
 characteristic of modern English, and the origin 
 of which may be traced to the Saxon portion 
 of our language. 
 
 Saxon and Norman-French may be consi- 
 dered the grand sources of the modern English 
 language, the course of which has been increased 
 at various times by the tributary streams of 
 other languages, in proportion as our cultivation 
 of commerce, literature, or the fine arts brought 
 us into communication with the inhabitants of 
 other countries. 
 
 The constant intercourse which subsisted for 
 many centuries between this country and 
 France contributed largely to the introduction 
 of French terms, many of which are used by 
 Chaucer, Gower, and Spencer, with scarcely 
 any variation from their original form. From 
 the Italian we have borrowed technical terms 
 referring to music, painting, and sculpture; 
 the Flemish and Dutch have supplied us with 
 nautical terms; most of the terms used in 
 military affairs and fortification are derived 
 from the French ; terms of science and philo- 
 sophy are almost exclusively Latin and Greek; 
 and the substance of the language, especially 
 
28 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 the familiar terms in agriculture, words express- 
 ing degrees of kindred, large natural objects, 
 metals, &c, may be traced to a Saxon origin. 
 
 The heterogeneous materials of which our 
 language is compounded have contributed to 
 make it the most flexible in character of all the 
 languages of modern Europe, and the most 
 easily accommodated to every style of writing. 
 Of this, any one may be convinced who will 
 take the trouble to examine the stately dignity 
 of Johnson — the neatness and elegance of 
 Addison — the purity of expression and plain 
 sense of Swift — and the tender pathos of Gold- 
 smith. In all these, the dignity and majesty 
 of expression may be traced to Latin and, Greek, 
 the simplicity and energy to Saxon, and the 
 wit and elegance to French. Thus English 
 enjoys advantages which no continental lan- 
 guage possesses. Many others excel it in some 
 particular style of writing, but the literature of 
 no other European nation can produce examples 
 of such excellence in every variety of style and 
 subject. 
 
 Notwithstanding the various and dissimilar 
 sources from which our language is derived, no 
 modern tongue is more simple, or less irregular 
 in its structure. Lowth remarks, that this very 
 simplicity of construction has probably led to 
 the neglect into which it has fallen. Other 
 languages, which cost infinitely more time and 
 trouble to acquire, are mastered with a degree 
 of industry and perseverance which can be 
 accounted for only by the fact, that they are 
 looked upon as accomplishments forming a 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. 29 
 
 necessary part of a fashionable education. In 
 the mean time, our mother tongue is scarcely 
 thought worthy of our notice, or occupies no 
 greater share of our attention than is sufficient 
 to preserve us from glaring errors in ortho- 
 graphy or grammar. 
 
 One leading cause of the uniformity and 
 philosophical character of our language, is the 
 order required in arranging the words in a 
 sentence. The collocation in English differs 
 considerably from that which prevailed in 
 ancient languages. In Latin, the system of 
 expressing circumstance, time, place, manner, &c. 
 by inflection, gave a considerable licence in 
 arrangement, which tended greatly to increase 
 the harmony of the language. English is 
 much circumscribed in this respect. Certain 
 inversions are occasionally allowed when the 
 subject requires vivacity, or when the writer 
 finds it expedient to appeal to the imagination ; 
 but such transpositions are exceptions to the 
 general rule, which requires one uniform order. 
 This is, firstly, the subject ; secondly, the verb ; 
 thirdly, the object. All qualifying expressions, 
 whether belonging to the subject, verb, or object, 
 are placed as near as possible to the qualified 
 words, and the same general rule is followed 
 with respect to the principal and subordinate 
 propositions in a sentence. This arrangement 
 has been called the order of the understanding, 
 from the perspicuity with which it enables the 
 mind to comprehend the sense of a sentence. 
 
 The English language may be said to have 
 assumed a fixedness of form and character from 
 
30 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 the beginning of the sixteenth century. What- 
 ever accessions its vocabulary or style of ex- 
 pression may have received since that period, 
 with respect to its structural character and in 
 all its essential qualities it remains in the same 
 state. 
 
 An inquiry into the philosophy of the En- 
 glish idiom would occupy more space than the 
 limits of this work will allow, and is a subject 
 of sufficient interest to deserve to be treated 
 separately. It may, however, be remarked, 
 that those who are desirous of gaining an insight 
 into the character and national feelings of a 
 people, have no more certain way of accom- 
 plishing their object than by examining the 
 nature and peculiarities of their idiomatic ex- 
 pression. Thus, the simple cordiality and me- 
 taphysical turn of the Germans, the lively 
 imagination of the Italians, the light elasticity 
 of the French, and the solid, reflective cast of 
 the English, may be all discovered in the idiom 
 of their several languages, and are the visible 
 reflections of the turn of thought peculiar to 
 each of these nations. 
 
 The roots of that part of English which is 
 derived from Latin or Greek have been long 
 satisfactorily traced ; but it was not until Home 
 Tooke had directed his attention towards inves- 
 tigating the origin of the connective parts of 
 our language, that we had any idea of their real 
 nature. Before his time, it had been advanced 
 by many philologists, that our conjunctions, 
 prepositions, and adverbs had no signification 
 except as they were related to other words ; and 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. 31 
 
 that when detached from sentences, and consi- 
 dered apart, they were wholly devoid of mean- 
 ing. It is most clearly proved, however, in the 
 " Diversions of Purley," that all these connec- 
 tives are in reality parts of nouns or verbs ; and 
 that, in the early ages of society, the want of 
 frequently expressing the same relations caused 
 the adoption of some noun or verb to perform 
 that office. This discovery, which originated 
 with our countryman, has thrown much light 
 upon the subject of Etymology, and done much 
 to remove from it the mass of absurdity and 
 fanciful theory in which it was before enve- 
 loped. 
 
 The disadvantages under which our language 
 is said to labour, in being formed of so many 
 and apparently such incongruous materials, are 
 certainly more than compensated for by the 
 richness and variety resulting from such a form- 
 ation. In these qualities, no modern language 
 can vie with the English. In describing the 
 violent passions of the heart, or the calm dignity 
 of moral sentiment, it displays inimitable power, 
 and infinite variety of expression; and its idiom 
 is peculiarly fitted to grave and dignified sub- 
 jects. In history, philosophy, criticism, and 
 morality, we have works which will bear com- 
 parison with those of any age or country. 
 
 Notwithstanding these beauties, it must be 
 admitted that the English language, possesses 
 many defects, to which a natural partiality to 
 our native tongue ought not to render us 
 insensible. The very nature of its structure 
 involves many disadvantages. The continual 
 
32 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 recurrence of monosyllables, most of them ending 
 in consonants, not only greatly tends to enfeeble 
 the expression, but produces a harsh and grating- 
 effect on a cultivated ear, which is particularly 
 disagreeable to the natives of more southern 
 climates, who are accustomed to softer and more 
 harmonious sounds. Another defect with which 
 our language has been justly charged, is that 
 peculiarity in its genius which removes the ac- 
 cent farther from the last syllable of the word 
 than is allowed in any other language. In 
 English, many words are accented on the fourth 
 or fifth syllable from the end. Instances of this 
 peculiarity occur in the words — legislature, 
 necessarily, congratulatory, imprecatory, and 
 many others. The necessity of pronouncing so 
 many short syllables together, produces a rugged 
 and unmusical effect, and is frequently an in- 
 superable obstacle to foreigners in attempting 
 to master the difficulties of our language. 
 
 Before concluding these observations, I can- 
 not refrain from calling the reader's attention 
 to the extraordinary degree of diffusion the 
 English language has attained, from political 
 and other causes, throughout all parts of the 
 civilised earth. It may be said with truth, that 
 no other language in the world is so extensively 
 spread or so diligently studied as English. 
 Throughout a great portion of Korth America, 
 it is, though corrupted, the vernacular language 
 of the country, and it prevails in many parts 
 of the West Indies. In addition to this, it is 
 diffused over an immense extent of territory in 
 Asia, and with all the inhabitants of civilised 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 33 
 
 Europe, is considered an essential part of a liberal 
 education. Though it would be unreasonable 
 to expect that language, the nature of which is 
 so essentially fluctuating and changeable, should 
 be exempt from the vicissitudes to which every- 
 thing human is subject, still we cannot help in- 
 dulging the pleasing hope that the productions 
 of our great authors will remain, through cen- 
 turies yet to come, the glory of our nation, and 
 the lasting monuments of her genius ; and that 
 our language will continue through distant ages 
 to enlighten and improve mankind, and per- 
 petuate the rich treasures of her learning to the 
 remotest generations of posterity. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 35 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 OX THE MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION OF 
 SENTENCES. 
 
 The simplest elements of written language 
 are letters, each of which is a symbol repre- 
 senting some particular position of the organs 
 of speech. These elements have in themselves 
 no meaning, and become significative only when 
 combined together and formed into syllables and 
 words. 
 
 A syllable is that division of a word which 
 can be pronounced alone, and which produces 
 but one tone. 
 
 All words are the signs of our ideas ; that is, 
 they represent, either when spoken or written, 
 the impressions which our minds have received. 
 These impressions or ideas are various; they 
 are received into the mind through the senses, 
 and are again sent forth or expressed by means 
 of language, either spoken or written. Every 
 word, therefore, which we write or speak, must 
 represent an idea existing in the mind. These 
 ideas may be derived either from objects, 
 qualities, or actions. The word table, for in- 
 stance, will represent the idea of an object, the 
 word long stands for a certain quality, and the 
 word strike expresses an action. These words 
 are termed, in grammar, nouns and verbs. 
 D 2 
 
36 ENGLISH; OE, 
 
 Words, considered separately, represent ideas 
 only'; but in order to express a thought, we must 
 employ at least three ideas. The three words 
 essential to the expression of a thought are 
 called: 1st. the subject; 2nd. the copula; and 
 3rd. the predicate. 
 
 The subject is the person or thing concerning 
 which we write or speak. 
 
 The copula is always some part of the verb 
 to be, and its office is to connect the subject with 
 the predicate. 
 
 The predicate is that which is affirmed of the 
 subject. 
 
 These three parts, when combined, form what 
 is called a proposition, which word signifies an 
 opinion laid down, thus : 
 
 Paper is white. 
 
 Here, the subject, that is, the thing concerning 
 which we write, is paper ; the copula, is, serves 
 to join the subject, paper, to the predicate 
 white ; which last word shows what is affirmed 
 of the subject. This sentence is then a propo- 
 sition, or an opinion declared that the thing 
 called paper possesses the quality expressed by 
 the word white. 
 
 A proposition may, however, be expressed in 
 two words ; though we shall find that these 
 two will contain the three parts necessary for 
 the expression of an opinion : this takes place 
 when an active or neuter verb is used with the 
 subject, thus : " John comes." Here, John is 
 the subject, and the word comes is in itself both 
 the copula and the predicate, for it declares 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 37 
 
 something of John, and it also shows that he 
 exists, or is ; so that the phrase, " John comes," 
 may be explained thus : John — is — (that 
 is, exists) performing the action expressed by 
 the word come; or, according to the other 
 form of the English present tense, John — is 
 — coming. 
 
 Whatever expressions may be added to a 
 proposition are called its complement. 
 
 This word complement means a filling up, 
 and is used here to signify that which fills 
 up or completes the sense of the sentence, 
 thus : 
 
 Good . . men . . are . . beloved . . by all. 
 
 Here the subject is men, with its complement 
 good ; the copula are, and the predicate, beloved, 
 also accompanied by its complement by all. It 
 will be readily perceived that the complements 
 good, and by all, contribute materially to deter- 
 mine the sense of the sentence, which would 
 be otherwise much more indefinite: Men are 
 beloved. 
 
 Simple propositions may be considered under 
 three heads : 
 
 (1.) Enunciative. 
 (2.) Active. 
 (3.) Passive. 
 
 (1.) A proposition is said to be enunciative 
 when the predicate expresses the simple state of 
 the subject, as : 
 
 Ink is black. 
 v 3 
 
38 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 (2.) A proposition is called active, when its 
 predicate shows an active quality, as : 
 John strikes*, 
 
 which, as before explained, may be resolved 
 into "John is striking." And, 
 
 (3.) A proposition is passive when the quality 
 shown by the predicate expresses a passive 
 quality, thus : 
 
 John was struck, f 
 
 Subjects are either simple or compound; 
 they are simple when they express but one 
 single thing, or things taken collectively of the 
 same species, as : " Virtue is desirable, but riches 
 are often preferred." They are compound when 
 they express several things not of the same 
 species, as : " Faith, hope, and charity are theolo- 
 gical virtues."! 
 
 * If a neuter verb be employed to form a proposition, the 
 proposition will nevertheless be active; "John comes" will 
 be equally an active proposition with " John strikes,'' for in 
 both cases an action is declared. 
 
 f A passive proposition always implies an active. If 
 " John was struck," John must have been struck by some 
 person or thing. Suppose by a person : then, John was 
 struck by him : here the active proposition implied will be 
 "He struck John." Suppose by a thing: "John was struck 
 with a rope." This will imply the active proposition " The 
 rope struck John." 
 
 % It must, however, be remembered that whenever either 
 the subject or predicate is compound, the proposition is 
 elliptical, and will imply as many simple propositions as it 
 has subjects or predicates. Thus, the above proposition, 
 " Faith, Hope, and Charity are theological virtues," will imply 
 these three : 1. Faith is a theological virtue, 2. Hope is a 
 theological virtue ; and, 3. Charity is a theological virtue. 
 Again — The expression, " God is y«s£ and omnipotent," con- 
 tains two propositions : 1. God is just ; and 2. God is omni- 
 potent. 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 39 
 
 The predicate is simple when it declares but one 
 quality of the subject, as : " The skies are bright" 
 
 The predicate is compound when it expresses 
 more than one quality of the subject, as : " God 
 is just and merciful." 
 
 Subjects may be expressed in various ways : 
 1. By a pronoun, as : " He is kind ; " 2. By a 
 substance, as : " Iron is a metal ; " 3. By an ani- 
 mal, as : " The dog is faithful ; " 4. By the infini- 
 tive mood of a verb, as : " To act honestly is 
 the duty of all men," &c. 
 
 Predicates also may be expressed variously : 
 1. By an adjective, as: "The scholars are in- 
 dustrious ; " 2. By a substantive, as : " Music is 
 an art; " 3. By a participle, as : " The boys are 
 taught ;" 4. By the active quality contained in 
 a verb, as : " The man spoke ; " and sometimes 
 by a preposition followed by a substantive, as : 
 " The affair is of consequence" &c. 
 
 Lessox I. 
 
 Subjects for Propositions. 
 
 The pupil is required to compose simple pro- 
 positions*, in which the following words are to 
 be employed as subjects, thus : 
 
 * Note. — These propositions should consist of nothing but 
 their three essential parts, viz. the subject, copula, and pre- 
 dicate. The articles, a and the, and the possessive pronouns, 
 my, thy, his, our, and it, may, however, be occasionally in- 
 troduced as complements, in cases where the pupil finds any 
 difficulty. It should be remembered that any tense of the 
 verb to be may be used as a copula, and that the copula and 
 predicate together may be expressed in one word by using 
 an active or neuter verb. 
 
 From the above list, the discretion of the teacher will 
 D 4 
 
40 exglish; ok, 
 
 Ex. The bread is wholesome. 
 
 Bread — fruit — school — books — pens — 
 pencils — scholars — master — slate — exercise 
 
 — writing — wood — water — sea — earth — 
 air — • sky — trees — pen-knife — paper — ink 
 
 — king — queen — lords — wafers — gloves — 
 hat — riband — table — pictures — workman — 
 metal — forest — carpet — jug — ruler — to 
 sing — to play — to dance — to work — to study 
 
 — to walk — to read — to see — to cry — to 
 write — to run — the sister — the brother — 
 the child — uncle — aunt — cousin — house — 
 horse — carriage — wheel — we — they — you 
 
 — thou — I — he — she — it — door — roof — 
 gold — silver — copper — iron — lead — marble 
 
 — stone — cupboard — lock — wall — brick — 
 curtain — blinds — brush — table — chair — 
 map — fire, &c. 
 
 Lesson II. 
 Predicates for Propositions. 
 
 The learner is required to introduce the fol- 
 lowing words as predicates in simple propo- 
 sitions : 
 
 Ex. The way was long. 
 
 Tall — short — narrow — white — black — 
 grey — blue — green — bright — broad — thick 
 
 suggest a choice of those words which may best suit the 
 capacity of the learner. The list itself may be extended, if 
 expedient, but the learner should on no account be required 
 to use abstract subjects in his propositions. 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 41 
 
 — nice — sweet — bitter — warm — hot — cold 
 
 — dry — smooth — rough — light — dark — 
 strong — weak — kind — strict — clever — 
 stupid — idle — diligent — full — good — bad 
 — bright — clear — red — dark — blind — loud 
 
 — soft — sweet — low — high — large — wide 
 
 — small — short — empty — fresh — angry — 
 heavy — light — weak — taught — struck — 
 shown — seen — burnt — shot — covered — 
 hidden — blotted — stained — cried — screamed 
 
 — spoke — talked — passed — shivered — trem- 
 bled — boiled — roasted — melted — looked — 
 saw — found — by him — with me — at home 
 
 — abroad — in doors — far off, &c. 
 
 Here, as in Lesson I., it is left to the 
 teacher's option to employ all, or only a se- 
 lection from the above list of predicates. The 
 teacher should take the greatest care that the 
 learner thoroughly understand the nature of the 
 proposition in every form, as well as of its three 
 essential parts, since his future progress will 
 entirely depend upon this knowledge. He 
 should therefore be repeatedly required to point 
 out and explain the nature of the subject, 
 copula, and predicate, in all the propositions 
 which he composes. 
 
 
 Lesson III. 
 
 Complements. 
 
 I have already explained that complements 
 are those words, which, together with the sub- 
 ject, copula, and predicate, make up or complete 
 
42 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 the sense of a proposition. These complements 
 belong either to the subject or predicate, but 
 never to the copula of a proposition, which 
 must be considered merely as the link connec- 
 ting the state or quality of the subject with the 
 subject itself. Complements are not necessary 
 to the sense of all propositions ; that is, it is 
 very possible sometimes to express ourselves 
 intelligibly without them. There are, however, 
 many cases in which their removal would make 
 the sense of a proposition very indefinite ; and 
 some in which their absence would deprive it 
 of all meaning, for example : " An avaricious 
 man is a miserable being." If, from this pro- 
 position, the complements, avaricious and miser- 
 able be taken away, the remainder, " man is a 
 being," will convey but an indefinite significa- 
 tion ; and it is readily perceived how much those 
 words which qualify the " man " and the 
 " being," contribute to render the sense of the 
 sentence full and intelligible. 
 
 But if, from the following sentence of Dr. 
 Blair, we remove all the complements, we shall 
 be at a loss to discover any meaning whatever 
 in its remaining parts. He says : " The great 
 source of a loose style is the injudicious use of 
 synonymous terms." Take away the comple- 
 ments of the subject, " great " and " of a loose 
 style ; " and those also which qualify the predi- 
 cate, " injudicious" and " of synonymous terms" 
 and the proposition, thus stripped of its comple- 
 ments, will present us with " The source is the 
 use" the signification of which sentence would 
 puzzle any one to explain. 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 43 
 
 Those words taken collectively which serve 
 to limit or fix the meaning of the subject, may 
 be called its complement. This complement 
 may be expressed in various ways, viz : — 1. By 
 an adjective, as : "Good men are happy ; " 2. By 
 a preposition followed by a noun, as : " Men of 
 talent are respected ; " 3. By a noun substantive, 
 as: " James the gar d ener was digging;" 4. By an 
 adverb with an adjective, as: "A very long letter 
 was written ; " 5. By two adjectives, as: "Many 
 brave men were killed ; " and 6. Sometimes by 
 an adjective before the subject followed by a 
 preposition and noun after it, as : " An old man 
 of my acquaintance entered." 
 
 Complements for Subjects. 
 
 The pupil is here required to compose propo- 
 sitions, in which he must employ the following 
 expressions as complements to the subject : 
 
 Ex. The little girl was quiet. 
 
 Diligent — of the painting — in school — at 
 play — this young — the little — the long-pro- 
 mised — his kind — his father's — a useful — 
 of the chair — in the church — an honest — 
 the last — of this book — this * ( ) of 
 the landscape — the north-western ( ) of 
 America — the ( ) deprived of employ- 
 ment — the ( ) during one whole hour 
 — the ( ) acquired by men — the ( ) 
 
 * Wherever this sign ( ) occurs, it is intended to be 
 
 filled up by the subject of the proposition. 
 
44 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 of this stick — a well educated — few good 
 
 — several fine — many excellent — all vulgar 
 and low — here mentioned — an honest — 
 of England — the rich and prosperous — of 
 that animal — eaten by those men — that very 
 obedient — a very useful — sitting in the work- 
 room — deprived of her children — mounting 
 on horseback — of his eyes — on the earth — 
 not any — the greatest ( ) of the soil — 
 the original — of his health — the general 
 ( ) of the island — of ancient times — a 
 wooden — the celebrated though unfortunate — 
 their principal — a clever — the most convenient 
 
 — the ( ) of quadrupeds — the first — 
 the most perfect — a very different — the 
 ( ) of silk — an elegant — a broad two- 
 edged — the beautiful — very much surprised 
 
 — wrapped in a shaggy coat — bursting with 
 rage — much disappointed — the necessary — 
 the fearful — a well -looking — of about forty 
 years — bent with age to the ground — suffer- 
 ing much pain — advanced in life — of immense 
 strength — of enormous size — of various ages 
 
 — of a bright green colour — of the softest 
 texture — a very clever ( ) — not surprised 
 at this — that beautiful — of the organ — be- 
 longing to my father — my sister's — in my 
 
 of France. 
 
 Lesson IV. 
 
 It is evident that actions and states of being 
 may be qualified to an almost endless variety. 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 45 
 
 These actions and states of being are expressed 
 in a proposition by the predicate, which it will 
 be the business of the pupil here to modify by 
 the addition of the following expressions. To 
 show how this may be done, take the following 
 simple active proposition — " He gave." This, 
 as was before shown, may be resolved into — 
 He — was — giving. Now, though this sen- 
 tence conveys a meaning, its signification is 
 certainly capable of being much extended. We 
 may naturallly ask, what did he give ? the an- 
 swer to which question may be, bread, — to 
 whom did he give bread ? — to the poor — 
 when ? during the winter season — how? 
 kindly. With these additions which declare 
 the object, time, persons, manner, &c, of the 
 action, the proposition will now present a very 
 different appearance, and much more denned in 
 signification. He kindly gave bread to the poor 
 during the winter season. 
 
 The same may be observed of the passive 
 simple proposition. " He was instructed " — when ? 
 in his youth — by whom ? by a tutor — of what 
 sort? eminent for his talents and virtues. — He 
 ivas instructed in his youth by a tutor eminent 
 for his talents and virtues. 
 
 The enunciative simple proposition is also 
 capable of being much extended in meaning, 
 though, from the nature of its predicate, it 
 cannot be followed by an object, as in the ac- 
 tive, or by an agent, as in the passive propo- 
 sition — for example : " He was kind," when ? 
 always — to whom ? to his friends — under 
 what circumstances ? when they were in cliffi- 
 
46 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 culties. — He was always kind to his friends 
 when they were in difficulties. 
 
 Complements for Predicates. 
 
 Let the pupil write propositions in which 
 the complements to the predicate may be sup- 
 plied from the following list of expressions*: — 
 Many reasons — with a train of dependents — 
 in security — all set at liberty — under the 
 protection of the officers — in the most exem- 
 plary manner — overgrown with weeds — the 
 advantages of education — by the council — by 
 his only son — at the will of the people — the 
 highest mountain — to prison — to his OAvn resi- 
 dence — these friends — tempting fruits before 
 his eyes — to execute the prisoner — the army 
 of the English — the criminal to the gaoler — 
 with people — with numbers of men — well 
 prepared to receive them — of fighting the 
 enemy — by the sailors — to the archbishop's 
 palace — of the prince's servants — the difficulty 
 of escaping — the king's horse — a crowd of 
 people — a month in the country — on a white 
 charger to town — his friend kindly — along 
 list — a letter from my cousin — the bright 
 stars — his purse in great haste — the high road 
 — nothing since the day before — to assist him 
 — to mount my horse — a vessel of water upon 
 the table — in the park — the inhabitants of 
 England — from the court for want of proper 
 
 * The pupil is not here confined to any one sort of pro- 
 position ; they may be enunciative, active, or passive, as 
 may best suit his convenience. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 47 
 
 assistance — a long jonrney — very much fa- 
 tigued — all his friends — with the sight — a 
 very large library — close to a village for fifty 
 years — by his three sons — in his best clothes 
 — in the orchard — early every morning — 
 his plant destroyed by the heavy shower — 
 through the county of Kent — in torrents upon 
 us — shelter in a forest. 
 
 Lesson V. 
 
 The learner being now acquainted with the 
 nature of complements, is required to compose 
 propositions in which he is to qualify both the 
 subject and the predicate. The following pro- 
 positions will serve as models upon which he is 
 to construct his sentences : 
 
 (subject) (complement to subject) 
 Ex. 1.* A man of about forty years of age 
 (copula) (comp. to pred.) (predicate) (comp. to predicate) 
 was then conducted into the room. 
 
 (subject) (comp. to subject) (copula) (predicate) 
 Ex. 2.| The tree in my garden is growing 
 (complement to predicate) 
 more beautiful every day. 
 
 * In the first example, the subject is, A man, qualified by- 
 its complement, of about forty years of age; the copula, was; 
 and the predicate, conducted, also qualified by its complement 
 of time, then, and its complement of place, into the room. 
 
 f In the second example, the subject is The tree; with 
 its complement of place, in my garden ; the copula, is ; and 
 the predicate, growing, with its complement, more beautiful 
 every day. 
 
48 English; or, 
 
 (comp. to subject) (subject) (comp. to subject) 
 Ex. 3.* The bright colours of the rain- 
 (copula and pred.) (comp. to predicate.) 
 bow extended across the whole sky. 
 
 The pupil is to amplify the following propo- 
 sitions by the addition of complements both to 
 the subject and predicate : 
 
 A hermit lived — the earth was his bed — 
 we marched — a man dropped — the horses 
 were left — the soldier fell — the prisoner was 
 obliged — wood was found — I swallowed — 
 the men drank — the city is surrounded — you 
 will find — the buildings are erected — the 
 streets are unpaved — the vine is cut down — a 
 noise was heard — the sails were stretched — 
 I closed my eyes — the foundations remain — 
 the hill overlooked — I can read — drawings 
 are admired — people pretend — I am glad — 
 Buonaparte was an artillery-officer — the son 
 has been at school — London is supplied — 
 trunks are carried — the criminal stood — 
 threads may be divided — hemp is used — they 
 were taken — the inhabitants were obliged — 
 the father procured — the pillar stands — they 
 arrived at the spot — a man was despatched — 
 the inhabitants flocked. 
 
 * The third example shows the subject, The colours, 
 qualified by its complements, bright, and of the rainbow ; the 
 copula and predicate expressed in one word, extended, fol- 
 lowed by the complement of the predicate, across the whole 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 49 
 
 Lesson VI. 
 The Introductory Clause. 
 
 In order to add to the grace and harmony of 
 composition, the complement of the subject, 
 when it expresses time, place, or manner, is fre- 
 quently placed at the beginning of a sentence, 
 and followed by a comma. This form of the 
 complement may be termed the introductory 
 clause. It gradually introduces the reader to 
 the subject, informs him of the various circum- 
 stances in which it is situated, or under which 
 it acts, and serves to relieve him from the mo- 
 notonous effect which would otherwise be 
 caused by constantly adhering to one mode of 
 construction. Care should be taken, however, 
 that the introduction to the sentence be not too 
 long, as in this case the mind of the reader will 
 be fatigued by the perusal of words which do 
 not in themselves form perfect sense, and his 
 attention will be too long withheld from the 
 subject of the proposition. The following sen- 
 tences will serve to illustrate these remarks : 
 
 " In the year 1492, the continent of America 
 was discovered by Christopher Columbus, a 
 native of Genoa." 
 
 " In the midst of these dangers, the king pre- 
 served a steady and undaunted spirit." 
 
 " During his residence at Pavia, Charles 
 made several additions to the laws he had enacted 
 for the regulation of his subjects." 
 
 The following expressions are to be used by 
 
50 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 the pupil as introductory circumstances to pro- 
 positions : — 
 
 In the mean time — Early the next morning — 
 Notwithstanding these obstacles — In every part 
 of England — In ancient times — In the be- 
 ginning of the 17th century — Thus situated 
 
 — On the thirtieth of July — On the first 
 meeting of the members — After a few months 
 — In this situation of things — Ever since the 
 beginning of spring — Soon after these successes 
 — In the northern parts of Europe — For some 
 time past — Being thus freed from his enemies 
 
 — At the conclusion of the war — About the 
 same time — In the following year — In this 
 respect — Having uttered these words — The 
 affair being thus terminated — After steadfastly 
 looking at him for some time — Riding furiously 
 up to the door — In this dreadful state — On 
 our arrival in town — With this single excep- 
 tion — Having refreshed ourselves at a clear 
 spring — Deprived of the common necessaries of 
 life — Not knowing how to proceed — With the 
 greatest kindness — By pursuing this path — 
 In this manner — Having thus disposed of my 
 mule — From these considerations — &c. &c. 
 
 Lesson VII. 
 
 The subject of a proposition is frequently 
 preceded by two circumstances, as in the fol- 
 lowing examples : — 
 
 Ex. 1. Dying with thirst, and overcome with 
 the fatigue of a long journey, he had scarcely 
 the power to drag himself into the hut. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 51 
 
 Ex. 2. Being led to the stake, and the fire 
 beginning to he kindled round him, he stretched 
 forth his right hand, &c. 
 
 The following expressions must be used by 
 the pupil in his propositions, as double intro- 
 ductory clauses, in the same way as in the above 
 examples : 
 
 Examples. 
 
 Deserted by all his friends, and reduced to 
 beggary — On the following day, having made 
 the necessary arrangements — The next morning, 
 calling his comrades together — In the county 
 of Hertfordshire, not more than twenty miles 
 from London — Yesterday afternoon, walking 
 in the garden — With these words, and with a 
 look of disdain — Last year, about the middle of 
 August — Formerly, when I lived in the coun- 
 try — Firstly, supposing this to be true — Hav- 
 ing made his will, and arranged all his affairs 
 — Taking off his coat, and putting himself in a 
 posture of defence — Panting for breath, and 
 scarcely able to stand — Locking the door, and 
 quietly putting the key in his pocket — On 
 looking in at the window, and perceiving no one 
 in the room — Taking the good woman's hand, 
 and looking earnestly in her face — Hearing a 
 loud noise in the street, and fearing some 
 danger.* 
 
 * Here, as in the foregoing lessons, if the pupil should 
 find great difficulty, the teacher can select from these ex- 
 amples those which he may judge best suited to the scholar's 
 capacity, or may increase them at his own discretion. The 
 greatest care is necessary that the learner should thoroughly 
 understand and correctly imitate every form of sentence set 
 before him. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 A circmnstance is sometimes placed imme- 
 diately after the subject of a proposition, as in 
 the following examples : — 
 
 " His cousin, though three years younger, was 
 much above him in the school." 
 
 " Man, considered in himself, is a very helpless 
 and a very wretched being.'' 
 
 I do not think it necessaiy here to give any 
 list of expressions to be introduced in the situ- 
 ation shown in the above examples ; but I re- 
 commend as an exercise for the pupil's ingenuity, 
 that he shoidd search for them himself. His 
 sentences then will be constructed upon the 
 following model : — 
 
 1. Subject qualified; 2. Circumstance ; 3. 
 Copida ; 4. Predicate qualified, &c 
 
 Lesson VIII. 
 
 On Propositions distinguished as Principal and 
 Subordinate. 
 
 Sentences are called simple when they con- 
 tain but one proposition : those which are 
 made up of several, are termed compound. 
 The number of propositions in a sentence may 
 be easily ascertained by examining the whole 
 period, in which as often as we can discover a 
 subject with its copula and predicate, so many 
 propositions will it contain. It will be proper, 
 however, that the pupil not only be able to 
 point out their number and parts, but that he 
 should also know how to distinguish them as 
 regards their importance. 
 
THE ART OP COMPOSITION. 53 
 
 In this view, all propositions may be classed 
 under two heads ; principal and subordinate. 
 
 The principal proposition in a sentence 
 is that upon which all the others depend. 
 Take the following sentence : " The general, 
 who saw no other way to save his honour, 
 determined upon coming to an engagement 
 with the enemy, and immediately gave the 
 signal for battle." Here, there are three pro- 
 positions, of which two are principal, and one 
 subordinate : 1. The general determined, — 
 2. who (which general) saw, — and 3. (the 
 general) gave, &c. The first principal propo- 
 sition expressed in a sentence may be called 
 the absolute principal ; the other principals are 
 termed relative. In this sentence, " the general 
 determined " is the absolute principal ; " the 
 general gave," &c. the relative principal; and 
 "who saw no 'other way," &c. the subordinate. 
 In the same way, then, that a simple propo- 
 sition is attended by circumstances, some of 
 which precede, and others follow it, so is the 
 principal proposition, in a sentence of this 
 sort, accompanied by other propositions, ex- 
 pressing either its cause or effects. In the 
 example above laid down, the cause of the 
 general's determination was the reflection ex- 
 pressed by the words " who saw," &c. ; and the 
 effect of his determination is shown in the last 
 proposition, " he gave immediate orders," &c. 
 
 Though the cause of an action must in 
 thought precede that action, yet, in the written 
 order of words, the subordinate proposition 
 E 3 
 
54 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 expressing the cause of the action shown in the 
 principal, is not always placed before it ; but 
 when expressed by a relative clause, it is placed 
 between the principal subject and the principal 
 copula, just as in the above example, " who 
 saw," &c. is placed between the principal sub- 
 ject, " the general," and its copula and predicate, 
 " determined." 
 
 The pupil may now proceed to construct 
 sentences of his own composition on the fol- 
 lowing model, in which he must bear in mind 
 two things : lstly, that the conjunction " and," 
 which precedes the principal relative propo- 
 sition, is not considered as belonging to any 
 proposition in the sentence, but merely as 
 connecting the propositions with each other; 
 and, 2ndly, that the subject may be understood 
 in the concluding proposition of the sentence. 
 
 Model 
 
 Principal absolute subject, comp. . . . (sub- 
 ordinate subject, copula, and predicate; com- 
 plement,) princip. absol. cop. and pred. ; . . . 
 || conjunction, || principal relative subj. (under- 
 stood) cop. pred. and complement. 
 
 The following sentences will illustrate the 
 mechanism of this model : — 
 
 (1.) " The 2nd regiment of guards, which 
 had been hitherto kept as a body of reserve, 
 was now ordered into action; and, by the 
 firmness and bravery of the men, soon decided 
 the engagement in favour of the English." 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 55 
 
 (2.) "Philip, king of Spain, whose ex- 
 tensive power gave him grounds to hope for 
 success, now began to put his project into 
 execution ; and made preparations to attack 
 England with a powerful armament." 
 
 (3.) " The monarch, who was now growing 
 old, at length began to think of naming a 
 successor; and, after some deliberation, ap- 
 pointed the Duke, his brother, heir to the 
 crown." 
 
 Subordinate propositions may be di- 
 vided into two classes — determinative, and 
 explanatory. 
 
 A determinative subordinate is added to an- 
 other proposition, to determine or limit the 
 sense of the term which it qualifies, or to 
 express some indispensable quality respecting 
 it : so that the determinative subordinate cannot 
 be removed from the sentence without affecting 
 or destroying the sense of the proposition which 
 it qualifies. 
 
 " The messengers who brought the news of 
 our army's defeat were immediately seized and 
 imprisoned by order of the magistrates." 
 
 In this sentence, the proposition, " who 
 brought the news of our army's defeat," is a 
 determinative subordinate, the removal of which 
 would entirely alter the meaning of the sen- 
 tence. 
 
 The office of the explanatory subordinate 
 proposition in a sentence is, merely to explain 
 more fully, or express some circumstance be- 
 longing to the term to which it relates ; so that 
 it is very possible to suppress the explanatory 
 E 4 
 
56 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 subordinate proposition without destroying, or 
 even in the least degree injuring the sense of 
 the sentence. 
 
 " Shakspeare, who lived in the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth, was the greatest of all the English 
 poets." 
 
 Here, the proposition, who lived in the reign 
 of Queen Elizabeth, is an explanatory subordi- 
 nate ; and it is evident that its removal will not 
 in the slightest degree affect the sense of the 
 remaining proposition, which will then stand 
 thus : " Shakspeare was the greatest of all the 
 English poets." 
 
 General Rule. (1.) A proposition is principal 
 when it begins either with a noun, a personal 
 pronoun, or an infinitive mood. 
 
 (2.) Propositions are subordinate when they 
 begin with a relative pronoun, a conjunction, or 
 an adverb. 
 
 Lesson IX. 
 Analysis. 
 
 The pupil is to copy out the following sen- 
 tences, and analyse them according to the rules 
 he has already learnt; pointing out all the 
 propositions which they contain, and showing 
 their number, nature, parts, &c. ; and let him 
 then construct similar sentences on any sub- 
 jects proposed by the teacher : — 
 
 1. While the servants were getting ready 
 the horses, I employed my time in making pre- 
 parations for my departure. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 57 
 
 2. When returning home, I dismounted, and 
 led my horse by the bridle. 
 
 3. In the course of the afternoon, I sent 
 my portmanteau and trunk to the wharf, to be 
 put on board the frigate. 
 
 4. Prince Charles, who had taken advantage 
 of the wind, which blew from the south-west, 
 moved to the ground on the right of the 
 English, in order that he might come down 
 upon them with greater impetuosity from the 
 heights. 
 
 5. The hall, which is of great extent, was 
 hung round with heavy folds of black velvet in 
 deep festoons. 
 
 6. The river Somme separates Abbeville 
 into two parts, and dividing itself into several 
 branches, forms three islands, on which a great 
 number of mills and factories have been built 
 at various periods. 
 
 7. The river, which is navigable, and rises at 
 least six feet at the flowing of the tide, enables 
 the inhabitants, in number about 14,000, to 
 carry on a good trade. 
 
 8. I crossed the new bridge, near which I 
 saw two boatmen preparing for their work of 
 the day; then, entering a narrow street be- 
 tween some old wooden houses, I endeavoured 
 to obtain a sight of the cathedral. 
 
 9. At the commencement of the long va- 
 cation, which I had resolved to spend at home 
 in Lincolnshire, an acquaintance introduced me 
 to a family whom a change of residence had 
 made our neighbours. 
 
 10. In his prison, and deprived, by the cru- 
 
58 ex&lish; oe, 
 
 elties of the Spanish tyrant, of the sight of her 
 who had soothed all his former sorrows, Adrian 
 Harangner was tortured by many bitter 
 thoughts. 
 
 11. For the purpose of viewing this sublime 
 spectacle with greater satisfaction, the captain 
 and several of his companions had left the gar- 
 rison, and climbed to the summit of the moun- 
 tain. 
 
 12. After being here for some time, the 
 king found it difficult to make himself believe 
 that what he saw was real. 
 
 13. He saw mountains and valleys lighted up 
 with a divine splendour, and watered by rivers 
 which swept over their beds with a sound like 
 that of sweet music. 
 
 14. The king was so utterly amazed at what 
 he saw and heard, that he stood transfixed like 
 one in a dream. 
 
 15. Meanwhile, the king, being left to him- 
 self, began to reflect on the strange situation in 
 which he was placed. 
 
 16. The old man foimd his daughter in tears. 
 
 17. One fine summer morning, he took them 
 into the garden, and, showing them two fine 
 apple-trees, said : K My children, I give you 
 these tree?." 
 
 IS. The Koinans and Albans being on the 
 eve of a battle, an agreement was made between 
 them, that three champions should be chosen 
 on each side, by whom the victory should be 
 determined. 
 
 19. Finding that I was very hungry, she 
 went out to procure me something to eat, and 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 59 
 
 returned in a short time with a very fine fish, 
 which, having caused it to be broiled upon some 
 embers, she gave me for supper. 
 
 20. The French army continued to advance 
 almost unmolested, and thousands fled to the 
 mountains to escape the ravages of war. 
 
 21. His chief delight was to lead his men, 
 under the cover of the twilight glow of an 
 Italian night, through the dark mazes of the 
 forest, or among the huge masses of rock that 
 line the coast, where the wild guerilla crossed 
 his path, or joined his band and gave intelli- 
 gence of the enemy. 
 
 22. The shrill whistle again sounded, when 
 a single blast from a bugle roused every soul 
 in an instant ; and, carbine in hand, they stood 
 prepared for battle. 
 
 23. The British party returned to the fri- 
 gate, and a careful watch was set to look out 
 for the concerted signal. 
 
 24. We returned to her own room, and 
 then begged her to relate to us the history of 
 her life ; for I told her I had come all the way 
 from England to hear it and to see her. 
 
 Lesson X. 
 
 Amplification. 
 
 In order to practise the pupil in the preced- 
 ing rules, the following exercise will be found 
 useful. Let him take a simple proposition, 
 and let him add to this proposition all the cir- 
 cumstances and qualifying expressions which 
 
60 ENGLISH; OB, 
 
 may, without any violation of probability, be 
 annexed to it, thus : 
 
 1. Alexander conquered the Persians. 
 
 2. Alexander, the son of Philip of Macedon, 
 conquered the Persians. 
 
 3. Alexander the Great, the son of Philip 
 of Macedon, conquered the Persians. 
 
 4. Alexander the Great, the son of Philip 
 of Macedon, being chosen generalissimo of the 
 Greeks, destroyed the empire of the Persians. 
 
 5. Alexander the Great, the son of Philip 
 of Macedon, being chosen generalissimo of the 
 Greeks, destroyed the empire of the Persians, 
 the inveterate enemies of Greece. 
 
 6. About 330 years before Christ, Alexander 
 the Great, the son of Philip of Macedon, being 
 chosen generalissimo of the Greeks, destroyed 
 the empire of the Persians, the inveterate ene- 
 mies of Greece. 
 
 7. About 330 years before Christ, Alexander 
 the Great, the son of Philip of Macedon, after 
 a rapid succession of splendid victories, suc- 
 ceeded in demolishing the empire of the Per- 
 sians, the ancient and inveterate enemies of 
 Grecian liberty. 
 
 1. The brothers walked. 
 
 2. The brothers walked towards the river. 
 
 3. The brothers walked together towards the 
 river. 
 
 4. The brothers walked together in silence 
 towards the river. 
 
 5. In the evening, the brothers walked 
 together in silence towards the river. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 61 
 
 6. In the cool of the evening, the two 
 brothers walked together in silence towards the 
 river. 
 
 7. In the cool of the evening, the two 
 brothers, arm in arm, walked together in silence 
 towards the river. 
 
 8. In the cool of the evening, the two bro- 
 thers, arm in arm, walked together in silence 
 towards the river which ran along the bottom 
 of their garden, &c. &c. 
 
 The pupil must amplify the following simple 
 propositions in the manner above shown : — 
 
 1. He took leave of his friend. 2. The tra- 
 veller was received. 3. The officers fled from 
 the scene. 4. The brother commanded. 5. The 
 people died. 6. The prince met. 7. They 
 sailed. 8. The servant found the letters. 
 9. Alfred the Great died. 10. I was curious. 
 11. My brother arrived. 12. The history was 
 written. 13. The men saw. 14. The captain 
 will sail. 15. The barons marched. 16. The 
 stranger understood the question. 17. He 
 praised the man. 18. The people were glad. 
 19. They had reached the shore. 20. She 
 sang. 21. He told us a story. 22. The voy- 
 age continued a fortnight. 23. My com- 
 panions listened to the sounds. 24. My clerk 
 knew the man. 25. He was accosted. 26. 
 The patriarch addressed him, &c. &c. 
 
 Any difficulty attending the execution of 
 this exercise may be overcome by applying the 
 questions how ? when ? where ? by whom ? &c. 
 to the simple proposition. These questions 
 
62 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 will themselves suggest answers, which, when 
 added to the sentence, will extend its significa- 
 tion as to time, manner, place, agents, &c. 
 
 Lesson XL 
 On the Order of Words. 
 
 The next subject for the pupil's consideration 
 will be the order in which the various clauses 
 and parts of a sentence should be arranged. In 
 ancient languages, where the connection be- 
 tween words and their mutual dependence on 
 each other were sufficiently marked by ter- 
 mination, a very great variety of arrangement 
 was admitted. But since, among the moderns, 
 the practice of modifying the signification of 
 words by a change in their termination does 
 not prevail, the}^ are of necessity much more 
 limited in respect of the order in which the 
 words and members of a sentence may be laid 
 down. 
 
 In the English language, however, many 
 inversions and transpositions are allowed ; and 
 the same meaning may often be properly ex- 
 pressed by a different arrangement of the various 
 members in one sentence. 
 
 The usual order in which the ideas forming 
 a simple proposition are expressed, is: 1. The 
 Subject ; 2. The Copula; and, 3. The Predicate ; 
 as : " God is great." Even in this simple form, 
 however, an inversion is sometimes admitted, 
 for the sake of adding force or dignity to the 
 expression. Thus St. Paul, Acts xix. " Great 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 63 
 
 is Diana of the Ephesians," * " Blessed is he 
 that cometh," &c. 
 
 The object, which usually follows the active 
 verb, is sometimes placed before it in the sen- 
 tence, in which case, the subject is put after 
 the verb, as, (S Silver and gold have I none." * 
 
 Sometimes the infinitive mood (depending 
 on a finite verb), is placed first, as, " To conceal 
 his crime he found impossible."* 
 
 For the sake of emphasis, an adverb or pre- 
 position will often begin the sentence, as, 
 " Down came the mast," " In they went," &c* 
 
 In expressing a negation, the negative par- 
 ticle is generally joined to the verb, though, in 
 some cases, in order to enliven the expression, 
 it is placed at the beginning of the sentence, 
 thus, " Never was there such a demonstration 
 of joy," &c* 
 
 Though, on the subject of arrangement, it is 
 imposssible to lay down any rules not liable to 
 exception, the following general remarks may, 
 however, prove useful to the young student : 
 
 Rule 1. Qualifying expressions should be 
 placed near the words which they qualify ; for 
 example : — 
 
 " Several thousand persons died in that town 
 of fever." 
 
 From this arrangement, the reader might 
 infer that the town was one in which fevers 
 
 * These inversions are not used in the plain style of 
 narration or description, but are confined to subjects which 
 require elevation and dignity of style ; as rhetorical dis- 
 courses, history, poetry, &c. 
 
64 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 were of frequent occurrence, whereas the ex- 
 pression, " of fever " is intended to qualify the 
 verb " died" and consequently the sentence 
 should stand thus : — 
 
 " Several thousand persons died of fever in 
 that town;" 
 
 Or, even better, " In that town, several 
 thousand persons died of fever." 
 
 " I saw that it had been changed directly : " 
 
 This should be, " I saw directly that it had 
 been changed." 
 
 Rule 2. The verb should never be placed at 
 too great a distance from its subject : 
 
 " He, together with all those who had been 
 directly or indirectly concerned in the plot 
 against the government, was immediately ar- 
 rested and thrown into prison." 
 
 Here, the subject he, and the verb was ar- 
 rested, are at too great a distance from each 
 other. 
 
 Rule 3. Be careful about the place of the 
 adverb. Errors in the placing of the adverb 
 are frequent among all writers. Nothing is 
 more common than such a phrase as the follow- 
 ing : " I have only written three lines." This 
 order of the phrase will express, " I have done 
 nothing else but write three lines ; " whereas, 
 the meaning which such a sentence generally 
 intends to convey is, " I have written no more 
 lines than three ; " and consequently, the word 
 only should be placed close to the " three lines," 
 and the phrase should stand thus: " I have 
 written only three lines." 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 65 
 
 Rule 4. Never insert a circumstance between 
 two capital members of a sentence, as such an 
 order will render it doubtful to which member 
 the circumstance belongs. 
 
 " Having finished the manuscript, upon the 
 death of his father, he prevailed with his book- 
 seller to undertake the publication of his 
 work." 
 
 As, in the above sentence, the circumstance, 
 (e upon the death of his father" is placed be- 
 tween the two principal members — " Having 
 finished" &c, and " he prevailed upon his hook- 
 seller" it is impossible to determine to which 
 member the said circumstance relates, and we 
 are left in doubt whether to refer it to the 
 finishing of the manuscript, or the prevailing 
 on his bookseller. The sentence may be altered 
 thus : " Having finished the manuscript, he pre- 
 vailed with his bookseller, on the death of his 
 father, to undertake the publication of the 
 work." 
 
 Rule 5. Place the relative pronoun as near 
 as possible to the idea which it determines, or 
 to which it refers : — 
 
 " It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves 
 against the accidents of life, by heaping up 
 treasures, which nothing can protect us against 
 but the good providence of our heavenly Fa- 
 ther." 
 
 This arrangement of the sentence would im- 
 ply that no mortal can protect himself against 
 treasures ; and this was certainly not the au- 
 F 
 
66 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 thor's meaning. The following would have 
 been a better arrangement : — 
 
 " It is folly to pretend, by heaping up trea- 
 sures, to arm ourselves against the accidents of 
 life, against which nothing can protect us but 
 the good providence of our heavenly Father." 
 
 A General Rule. — Place those words which 
 are connected in thought, and which depend on 
 each other, as near together as possible ; and 
 avoid finishing a period with a preposition, or 
 the pronoun it. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 67 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 ON VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 
 
 In the same way as in nature no two things 
 are so exactly alike as to be indistinguishable 
 from each other, so we find it to be with 
 mental perceptions. However clear and dis- 
 tinct the ideas of any two persons may be upon 
 a given subject, we shall never find them ex- 
 pressed in exactly the same terms. The cause 
 of this variety it is not our province here to in- 
 vestigate, but the fact is indisputable. Let any 
 subject be proposed for definition to six or 
 seven pupils, and it will be found, that though 
 each of them correctly understand and well de- 
 fine the subject in question, not one will have 
 expressed the definition in precisely the same 
 terms as any other of their number. Hence it 
 will follow that the variety of forms in which a 
 sentence may be expressed is almost infinite. 
 
 The following lessons are exercises intended 
 to give the student facility in expressing any 
 proposed sentence in a variety of forms. 
 
 Lesson XII. 
 
 Young and inexperienced writers commonly 
 
 make a too frequent and unnecessary use of 
 
 the connective particle and. This little word, 
 
 though very useful when properly employed, 
 
 F 2 
 
68 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 has an awkward and enfeebling effect when used 
 too frequently in a sentence. Its proper office 
 is to connect; and as the fragility of a chain 
 will be increased in proportion to the number 
 of links employed in its formation, so will the 
 force and conciseness of a period be weakened 
 by the too frequent repetition of the connecting 
 particle. 
 
 This conjunction is employed generally in 
 four ways : 
 
 1st. To connect subjects, as : "Industry {and) 
 economy are excellent qualities." 
 
 2d. To connect objects, as : " We saw the 
 men (and) women." 
 
 3d. To connect qualities, as : " The inhabit- 
 ants were contented {and) thankful." And, 
 
 4th. To connect propositions, as : " He 
 hastened to the capital, {and) threw himself at 
 the feet of his sovereign." 
 
 In the three first examples, the use of the 
 conjunction cannot be avoided; but in the 
 fourth, a variety of expression may be intro- 
 duced by substituting the present participle for 
 the indicative mood of the verb used in the 
 first proposition, thus : " Hastening to the 
 capital, he threw himself at the feet of his 
 sovereign." 
 
 Rule. — When a sentence consists of two 
 propositions connected by the word and, 
 change the first proposition into a circum- 
 stance introductory to the second, and take away 
 the conjunction. This change may always be 
 effected by employing the present or past par- 
 ticiple instead of the indicative mood, thus : — 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 69 
 
 " She conducted me into her hut, and lighted 
 
 a lamp, and told me I might remain there for 
 
 the night." 
 
 This sentence may be varied thus : 
 
 " Having conducted me into her hut, and 
 
 lighted a lamp, she told me I might remain 
 
 there for the night." 
 
 Examples for Practice. 
 
 1. Bonaparte left 150,000 men in and 
 about Cairo, and marched for Syria, with the 
 intention of crushing the Turkish armament in 
 that quarter. 
 
 2. He traversed the desert which divides 
 Africa from Asia, and took possession of the 
 fortress El-Arish on the 15th of February. 
 
 3. The general summoned his chief officers 
 to council, and, after long discussion, it was 
 resolved that, in this case, necessity left no 
 room for mercy. 
 
 4. I was extended without consciousness 
 on the ground in the middle of the desert, and 
 left with only four or five men, one of whom 
 had dropped at the same moment with myself, 
 and all without any means of assisting me, be- 
 cause they knew not where to find water, and 
 if they had known it, had not strength to fetch 
 it ; and I should have perished with them on 
 the spot, if Providence, by a kind of miracle, 
 had not preserved us. 
 
 5. I got with difficulty on my horse again, 
 and we proceeded on our journey. 
 
 6. They continued pouring water over my 
 
 F 3 
 
70 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 face, arms, and hands, and at last I was able 
 to swallow small mouthfuls. 
 
 7. The king thus got rid of his virtuous 
 minister, and soon after resigned himself to the 
 direction of a set of men, who afterwards went 
 by the appellation of the Cabal. 
 
 8. He was accustomed, during his exile, 
 to live cheerfully among his courtiers, and 
 carried the same endearing familiarities to the. 
 throne. 
 
 9. He resolved to humble the Presby- 
 terians, and soon divested them of their em- 
 ployments and then places, and gave their 
 offices to such as held with the court, and 
 approved the doctrine of non-resistance. 
 
 10. The king openly espoused the cause of 
 the clergy, and thus placed himself at the head 
 of a faction, and deprived the citizens of 
 London, who had long headed the popular 
 party, of their charter. 
 
 11. His temper had always been easy and 
 merciful, and it now became arbitrary, and even 
 cruel. 
 
 12. He next sailed to Algiers, and compelled 
 the Dey to make peace, and to restrain his 
 piratical subjects from farther injuring the 
 English. 
 
 13. He then went to Tunis, and made the 
 same demands, and was desired by the Dey of 
 that place to look at the two castles, Porto 
 Farino and Goletta, and to do his utmost. 
 
 When the conjunction and connects two 
 ^positions, the latter expressing a consequence 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 71 
 
 of, or deduction inferred from, the former, the 
 words " so, that? may be substituted for the 
 conjunction and, thus : 
 
 " This information appeared vague and un- 
 satisfactory, and the king concluded the whole 
 was a fiction." 
 
 Corrected : 
 
 " This information appeared so vague and 
 unsatisfactory, that the king concluded the 
 whole was a fiction." 
 
 1. From all these symptoms, Columbus 
 was confident of being near land, and on the 
 evening of the 11th of October, he ordered the 
 sails to be furled, and the ship to bring to, 
 keeping strict watch, lest they should be driven 
 on shore in the night. 
 
 2. These objects struck the natives with 
 terror, and they began to respect their new 
 guests as a superior order of beings, and con- 
 cluded they were the children of the sun, who 
 had descended to visit the earth. 
 
 3. At the battle of Marignan, against the 
 Swiss, in 1515, the Chevalier Bayard fought by 
 the side of Francis I. ; and that monarch was 
 impressed with a high opinion of his prowess, 
 and conferred upon him the honour of knight- 
 hood. 
 
 4. His fame for relieving all who were in 
 distress was great ; and when the Spaniards 
 had seized the kingdom of Portugal, Don 
 Antonio, the chief competitor for the crown, 
 applied to him for his assistance. 
 
 5. When he came under the line, the heat 
 
 F 4 
 
72 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 became excessive, and many of his wine-casks 
 burst, and the liquor in them soured, and the 
 provisions in them corrupted. 
 
 The finite verb in the second proposition may 
 be sometimes changed into the active participle, 
 and the conjunction omitted, thus : 
 
 " He dissolved the parliament, and firmly re- 
 solved never to call another." 
 
 Corrected : 
 " He dissolved the parliament, firmly resolv- 
 ing never to call another." 
 
 1. The king and queen expressed their 
 sorrow for what had passed, and promised him 
 their future protection. 
 
 2. He soon after returned to England, and 
 brought with him a rich cargo of the produc- 
 tions of the part of the New World he had 
 discovered. 
 
 3. Saladin, during his last illness, ordered 
 his shroud to be carried through the city, while 
 a herald went before the procession, and pro- 
 claimed with a loud voice : " This is all that 
 remains to the mighty Saladin, the conqueror 
 of the East." 
 
 4. He approached the castle walls, and 
 chaunted with a loud voice some verses of a 
 song which had been composed partly by 
 Richard and partly by himself. 
 
 5. Noah, the ark, and the dove, are circum- 
 stances of tradition in almost all parts of the 
 world, and the flood is the epoch from which is 
 dated the origin of all records. 
 
THE ART OP COMPOSITION. 73 
 
 Lesson XIII. 
 Variety of Expression. 
 
 A sentence may be varied by altering the 
 construction ; the active verb may be changed 
 into the passive, and the subject into the agent 
 governed by a preposition, thus : 
 
 " This bold declaration seriously alarmed the 
 court of St. Petersburg." 
 
 Varied thus : 
 
 " The court of St. Petersburg was seriously 
 alarmed by this bold declaration." 
 
 Examples for Practice. 
 
 1. The general spent part of the day in 
 reviewing his troops in the court-yard of the 
 castle. 
 
 2. The whole audience received the new 
 play with rapturous applause. 
 
 3. The armies of the French emperor over- 
 ran the whole country, and stripped the poor 
 peasants of every thing they had in the world. 
 
 4. Decebalus, king of Dacia, had often de- 
 ceived the Roman emperor, Trajan. 
 
 5. Camillus, general of the Romans, was 
 besieging the city of Falerii. 
 
 6. The queen not only entertained them 
 sumptuously in her own tent, but sent them 
 back loaded with presents. 
 
 7. Among savage nations, we find no dis- 
 tinct trades or occupations. Each person pre- 
 pares such articles only as are necessary for his 
 
74 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 own use, such as his hut, his tools, and his 
 clothing, without receiving assistance from 
 others. 
 
 8. His friend the minister, however, as a 
 kind of compensation, promised that the 
 government should bear the expenses of his 
 travels in such parts of Europe as might 
 appear advisable. 
 
 9. Though withdrawn from active employ- 
 ment, to the more congenial occupation of 
 literary labour, he did not in the least relax his 
 interest in the welfare of his adopted country. 
 
 10. During the intervals of the summer 
 months, Yon Wrangell made various excursions 
 into the interior of Siberia, which, affording 
 little more than what other travellers have 
 described, will not require any notice from us. 
 
 In the following examples let the pupil sub- 
 stitute the active for the passive form of the 
 proposition : — 
 
 1. It was decided to turn towards the op- 
 posite quarter ; but all their efforts were baffled 
 by frequent fissures in the ice. 
 
 2. The same difficulties and dangers con- 
 tinued, and their embarrassments were not 
 diminished by the knowledge that the provisions 
 were beginning; to fail. 
 
 3. A considerable sensation was made by 
 this work ; and, as some contended, the number 
 of capital punishments was soon after increased 
 in a formidable proportion. 
 
 4. The minds of* many were dazzled and 
 imposed on by the author's reasoning, who was 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. 7 
 
 recommended by some of his friends to write 
 something more to enforce the same doctrine. 
 
 5. A hope had been cherished by the father, 
 that the son would follow in his own footsteps, 
 and become a distinguished traveller. 
 
 6. The virtuous poor man may also rejoice : 
 his table is not crowded with flatterers and 
 devourers ; he is not embarrassed with a train 
 of dependents, nor teased with the clamours of 
 solicitation. 
 
 7. In other passages of Scripture, the Lord 
 is said to have scattered his enemies, when they 
 were discomfited before the armies of his ser- 
 vants. The same external means seem to have 
 been employed upon this occasion, accompanied, 
 perhaps, with an awful conflict of the elements. 
 
 8. On the 24th of August, 1820, the cry for 
 liberty which was raised in Spain was responded 
 to in Portugal, and a revolution commenced, in 
 which the army and the citizens acted in concert. 
 
 9. In 1798, Prony was invited by Napoleon 
 to become a member of the Institute of Egypt, 
 which, however, he declined, and his refusal 
 was never entirely forgotten or pardoned. 
 
 10. His education, during his father's life- 
 time, had been superintended by several dissent- 
 ing clergymen ; and on reaching the metropolis, 
 he was admitted, through the interest of a 
 paternal uncle, to a dissenting academy, where 
 his studies were pursued in mathematics, phi- 
 losophy, and theology. 
 
 It is not to be supposed that the active or 
 the passive form may be applied indiscriminately 
 
76 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 to all sentences. Many cases exist, in which no 
 objection could be raised to either form ; but 
 there are also many in which one is unques- 
 tionably preferable to the other. A collection 
 of these cases, however, would be attended with 
 some difficulty, and, when made, might serve 
 only to perplex the student : it is therefore 
 proposed merely to offer some general remarks 
 on this subject, to guide the' learner in choosing 
 the form of his proposition. 
 
 Here, as in all other cases, perspicuity is the 
 great end to be constantly and steadfastly held 
 in view. Let the pupil, then, always adopt that 
 form of sentence which shall most clearly con- 
 vey his meaning to the mind of the reader ; and 
 let it be ever impressed on his own mind, that 
 whatever other beauties his composition may 
 possess, they are of no value when unaccom- 
 panied by this first and most important quality. 
 
 Cases in which the Active form is preferable. 
 
 1. When the object of an active verb is 
 expressed by an infinitive mood followed by a 
 substantive, as — 
 
 " He undertook to deliver lectures in the 
 Town Hall ; " not — 
 
 " Lectures were undertaken to be delivered," 
 &c. 
 
 2. When the object of an active verb is an 
 abstract term, followed by a qualifying clause, 
 as — 
 
 " He perceived the difficulty of arranging this 
 matter with his friends ; " and not — 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 77 
 
 "The difficulty of arranging this matter with 
 his friends was perceived by him." 
 
 3. When the object of the verb is a propo- 
 sition, as — 
 
 i( He found that it was impossible to make any 
 change in his system ; " and not — 
 
 " It was found impossible by him to make 
 any change," &c. 
 
 Cases in which the Passive form of the Propo- 
 sition is recommended. 
 
 1. When the agent is followed by a long 
 relative clause, as — 
 
 Sf He was admitted into this institution by 
 some gentlemen who had been his father's 
 oldest friends, and who had long watched over 
 his interests ; " and not — 
 
 " Some gentlemen who had been 
 
 and who had long, &c admitted him 
 
 into this institution." 
 
 2. When the agent is either not specified, or 
 understood to be persons in general, as — 
 
 " The Romans were considered good sol- 
 diers ; " and not — 
 
 " People, or men, considered the Romans good 
 soldiers." 
 
 " It may be easily conceived how far such a 
 system would tend to the welfare and happiness 
 of the inhabitants ; " and not — 
 
 " People may easily conceive," &c. 
 
 " In the depth of winter, bread was distri- 
 buted to the poor ; " and not — 
 
 " They distributed bread," &c. 
 
78 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 Lesson XIV. 
 Variety of Expression. 
 
 Another fertile source of variety in expres- 
 sion may be found in circumlocution. This 
 word signifies a more diffusive mode of ex- 
 pressing simple terms, by coupling them with 
 some of their natural qualities or attributes. 
 Thus, suppose the pupil be required to express 
 in several words the term God : the attri- 
 butes of God are wisdom, goodness, power, 
 infinity, &c. ; the term may therefore be varied 
 as follows : — The Creator of the human race ; 
 the Maker of the world ; the Almighty Ruler 
 of the universe ; the Father of men ; the boun- 
 tiful Protector of mankind ; the Omnipotent 
 Deity ; the Lord of heaven and earth, &c. 
 
 The pupil is now required to express each of 
 the following words by a circumlocution ; i. e. 
 to use several words in expressing the idea 
 contained in the one : 
 
 Men — women — a tyrant — a dungeon — a 
 territory — an insurgent — a hunter — a plough- 
 man — a soldier — birds — fishes — a stage-coach 
 
 — coals — metals — windows — glass — books 
 — keys — pens — a friend — an enemy — a hero 
 
 — a speech — a slave — a manager — a school 
 
 — a watch — fire — a servant — a lawyer — a 
 physician — a merchant — a sword — a helmet 
 
 — a necklace — a ship — music — an historian 
 
 — a poet — a statesman — a philosopher — a 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 79 
 
 king — a battle — a century — an exploit — 
 history — the sun — the moon — the stars — 
 the firmament — a crown — time — a letter — a 
 council — the populace — a sceptre — an am- 
 bassador. 
 
 Lesson XV. 
 Variety of Expression. 
 
 Let the pupil here be required to discover 
 and write down the simple terms which are 
 expressed by the following circumlocutions : 
 
 The cringing minion of power — the orna- 
 ment of the brow of majesty — a faithful re- 
 pository of secrets — an intoxicating beverage 
 
 — a residence of princes — dispensers of justice 
 
 — the abode of the just — the cloak of wicked- 
 ness — the dissolution of our existence — the 
 dawn of life — the nuptial ceremony — the 
 limpid stream — the aim of our being — the in- 
 heritor of another's wealth — the staff of life 
 
 — the love of our country — a feeling for the 
 miseries of others — the messengers of God — 
 the abode of our first parents — the measure of 
 existence — the organ of sight — an assembly 
 of wise men — the spring of life — an igno- 
 minious death — the companions of our studies 
 in youth — the sure means of wealth — the 
 desolate season of the year — the source of light 
 and heat — abstinence from spirituous liquors 
 
 — the restraint of passion — our natural pro- 
 tectors — his country's defender — the space of 
 
80 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 twenty-four hours — the feathered songsters — 
 the finny race — the wide expanse of ether — a 
 dislike of occupation — a want of knowledge — 
 a state of tranquillity — an immoderate desire 
 of power — an unrestrained desire of riches — 
 an inward monitor. 
 
 Lesson XVI. 
 Variety of Expression. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 The same system which was shown in the 
 last two lessons may be applied also to ad- 
 jectives ; that is to say, that all adjectives 
 which are either derivative or compound words 
 may be otherwise expressed by two or three 
 simple terms : thus, incredible will be, not worthy 
 of belief; irrevocable, not to be recalled. 
 
 The pupil will here express the following 
 short sentences more diffusely by substituting 
 other and more common terms for the ad- 
 jectives employed, thus : — 
 
 " The fact is indisputable." " The fact cannot 
 be disputed," &c. 
 
 He advanced with incredible rapidity. He 
 assumed a ridiculous gravity. It was impossible 
 to refrain from laughing. It was considered 
 highly probable. We pronounced him an un- 
 skilful workman. The young prince displayed 
 extraordinary talents for government. Their 
 undisciplined ferocity was unavailable. The 
 men sawed their way through the ice with 
 inconceivable labour. Their situation was par- 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 81 
 
 ticularly favorable to this species of composi- 
 tion. A good historian is careful not to convert 
 history into romance. He is not satisfied with 
 taking a superficial view of affairs, but examines 
 their proximate and remote causes. Peace was es- 
 tablished on terms highly favorable to theGreeks. 
 My son, thou art invincible. His character was 
 not only estimable, but admirable. Though the 
 river was not wide, it was deep and dangerous. 
 The guides now grew outrageous. Not a rock 
 intercepted the burning glare of an unclouded 
 sun. The sea was calm and smooth. There was 
 a lonely plain. Her husband was dissatisfied. 
 His companions had little success. He was a 
 very agreeable companion. Some games are 
 very dangerous. No one could be more amiable. 
 He Avas a well-bred man. His appearance was 
 engaging. She was unmindful of the danger. 
 The questions became perplexing. The subject 
 was distressing. She remained in a state of 
 painful suspense. He felt unequal to the task 
 of refusing her request. 
 
 Lesson XVII. 
 Variety of Expression. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 This lesson is the converse of Lesson XVI., 
 and the learner is here required to substitute a 
 single word (an adjective) for those expressions 
 which are marked in italics in each sentence, 
 thus : — He could not endure pain. . . . He was 
 impatient of pain. 
 
 G 
 
82 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 He found his uncle in a state of mind border- 
 ing on insanity. His words left on my mind 
 an impression never to be effaced. Their man- 
 ners were without respect, and their minds 
 without education. Through his whole career, 
 the minister never exhibited firmness of purpose. 
 My cousin is easily made angry. The office 
 of consul lasted for a year. Nothing could check 
 the governor's fury. They were most inordi- 
 nately desirous of money. The danger could not 
 be avoided. The general found the peasantry 
 not disposed to favour his cause. The boys 
 returned home wet to the skin with the rain. 
 Though it was a step of the greatest consequence, 
 it was soon found impossible to be executed. 
 His conduct betrayed great want of judgment. 
 No apology could palliate such behaviour. No 
 one can understand the nature of the Deity. 
 The defendant was pronounced free from guilt. 
 His avarice knew no bounds. It is impossible to 
 reply to such arguments. He was averse to 
 mixing in society. I never knew any one so 
 perfectly free from affectation. He succeeded in 
 none of his undertakings. The transaction was 
 declared to be contrary to law. 
 
 Lesson XVIII. 
 Variety of Expression. 
 
 The pupil is required to substitute one word 
 (a verb) for the expressions marked in Italics : 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 83 
 
 His friends found fault with his conduct. 
 Captain Cook sailed round the globe several 
 times in the course of his life. The man 
 spoke impiously of the name of God. The ge- 
 neral surrendered the town to the besiegers on 
 honourable terms. The parties agreed to settle 
 the affair by mutual concession. We have long 
 kept up a mutual intercourse by letters. The 
 commander now drew his forces together round 
 Leipsic. The duke was condemned to lose 
 his head. The inscription is entirely blotted 
 out from the tablet. The merchant entered into 
 an agreement to pay his creditors by monthly 
 instalments. Last year, a bill was passed to 
 deliver the negroes from slavery. The diffi- 
 culties were represented as much greater than 
 they really were. The evidence of the last 
 witness cleared the prisoner from imputation. 
 The magistrate expressed his determination to 
 trace out all the particulars of this mysterious 
 affair. The pupil did not rightly understand the 
 master's explanation. The author will find 
 some difficulty in making his composition suit 
 the taste of modern readers. All the company 
 looked forward with pleasure to the events of 
 the succeeding day. The two princes were 
 bound to each other by every tie of friendship 
 and consanguinity. We are commanded to 
 pay submission to the king and those that are in 
 authority. Who performed the service at church 
 this morning? For this crime, he was con- 
 demned to be thrown headlong from the Tar- 
 peian rock. These customs are still in force. 
 The stranger fell down in adoration at his feet. 
 G 2 
 
84 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 Seeing the desperate state of his affairs, he 
 submitted without resistance to his fate. The 
 young man now made a resolution never again 
 to go astray from the path of virtue. 
 
 Lesson XIX. 
 Variety of Expression. 
 
 The verbs in italics must be expressed by two 
 or three words, which, collectively, convey the 
 same meaning, thus : — 
 
 He was sentenced to be expatriated for ten 
 years. 
 
 He was sentenced to be banished from his 
 country for ten years. 
 
 I prefer the conversation of well-informed 
 persons to that of the silly and frivolous. 
 Permit me, Sir, to ask you one question. To 
 encourage industry, and patronize hidden talent, 
 is the duty of every member of society. It 
 is difficult to distinguish between things appa- 
 rently similar. The police officers were in- 
 formed of the robbery within half an hour after 
 it had happened. He associated with the lowest 
 and most abandoned characters. Human cares 
 are not alleviated by wealth. My brother re- 
 quested me to accompany him as far as the next 
 village. These enterprising men encountered 
 many obstacles in prosecuting their designs. 
 He communicated his opinions on this matter to 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. 85 
 
 his intimate friends, and endeavoured to persuade 
 them to follow his advice. Those who are 
 elated by good fortune, seldom sympathize with 
 the calamities of their inferiors. As he did 
 not comprehend the text, it was not surprising 
 that he should misinterpret its signification. The 
 financial department was entrusted to the new 
 minister, who regulated the affairs of the king- 
 dom with astonishing ability, and accomplished 
 many reforms in every branch of the govern- 
 ment. The bishop was venerated by all classes. 
 After an affectionate address, during which 
 many shed tears, and all were strongly affected, 
 the minister departed, recommending his con- 
 gregation to cherish every virtue which would 
 tend to promote peace and happiness among 
 them. He stood for a long time with his eyes 
 fixed on the ground ; then, slowly raising his 
 head, he thus addressed the multitude. Having 
 thus removed this obstacle, he soon attained the 
 summit of his ambition. The anniversary of 
 the institution ivas celebrated with great re- 
 joicings. He was persecuted with the utmost 
 violence by all the followers of the opposite 
 party. The sergeant's face was dreadfully dis- 
 figured by the blows he had received in the 
 fray, and his whole appearance presented a 
 shocking spectacle. On his arrival in town, he 
 was recommended to an old friend of his father, 
 who received him with great kindness. Nothing 
 could alter his opinion. 
 
 G 3 
 
86 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 Lesson XX. 
 Variety of Expression. 
 
 Adverbs are, in grammar, those words which 
 express the manner or time of an action, or the 
 degree of a quality. Since, then, all adverbs 
 have reference either to time, or manner, or de- 
 gree, it is obvious that they are all contractions 
 expressive of specified manners, times, or de- 
 grees : thus, " enough" may be explained, " a 
 sufficient quantity ; " then, " at that time ;" there, 
 " in that place ; " beautifully, " in a beautiful 
 manner" &c. 
 
 Let the pupil here introduce adverbial ex- 
 pressions, consisting of several words, instead 
 of those adverbs which are marked in italics : 
 
 He obligingly offered me a seat in his car- 
 riage. It was undoubtedly the best mode of 
 travelling. I, therefore, gratefully accepted his 
 offer. At this dreadful spectacle, I involun- 
 tarily shrank back with horror. The horses 
 darted furiously down the hill, and dashed the 
 carriage violently against a bank. The old gen- 
 tleman was instantly taken out, and led into a 
 cottage by the road side. He gradually reco- 
 vered his senses, and, opening his eyes, stared 
 wildly round him. He was soon sufficiently 
 recovered to pursue his journey. I met my 
 cousin exactly where I had seen him the day 
 before. The new preacher is unquestionably 
 more talented than our former pastor. He an- 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. 87 
 
 swered me so solemnly, that I felt quite awed. 
 He sings expressively, and pronounces the words 
 most distinctly. I unconsciously wandered from 
 the beaten track. Whither are you going? The 
 wealth of individuals is frequently dissipated by 
 an extravagant patronage of the fine arts. The 
 nature of the Grecian orders of architecture, 
 very plainly indicates that they were originally 
 executed in wood. The apartments in this 
 part of the building were purposely constructed 
 of stone. The lecturer expressed himself so 
 unintelligibly, that it was impossible to compre- 
 hend him. The influence of this powerful 
 writer greatly contributed to this determination. 
 The king openly espoused the cause of the 
 clergy. Having been previously informed of 
 all the circumstances, the minister easily quelled 
 the insurrection. Though he had so essentially 
 served his country, Sir George Rooke was left 
 to neglect, and soon displaced from his com- 
 mand. It is said that the Scots reluctantly 
 yielded to this coalition. Vast multitudes at- 
 tended the culprit as he went to the hall, 
 shouting loudly as he passed, or silently praying 
 for his success. Though the question was ob- 
 stinately disputed, the prisoner was found guilty 
 by a majority of seventeen voices. The con- 
 science of the wicked is never tranquil. He was 
 extensively engaged in commerce, and insensibly 
 became so deeply involved, as to compromise 
 the credit of the firm. The house was conse- 
 quently obliged to stop payment. All men in- 
 ternally disapproved this conduct, though they 
 dared not openly declare their feelings. Several 
 a 4 
 
88 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 merchants had been unjustly seized, and most 
 cruelly treated. The party was no longer able 
 to withstand the power of the opposition. The 
 second cargo was pronounced in every respect 
 incomparably superior. It will be a sacrifice 
 inexpressibly acceptable to him. We should 
 always speak the truth. 
 
 Lesson XXL 
 Variety of Expression. 
 
 ADVERBS. 
 
 The pupil will substitute single words (ad- 
 verbs) for the expressions marked in Italics in 
 the following sentences, thus : — 
 
 At what time do you intend to set off? — 
 When do you intend to set off? 
 
 He treated the strangers with great hospitality, 
 and dismissed them deeply impressed with his 
 goodness. The stores were embarked without 
 delay, and the vessels weighed anchor that very 
 night. I was, at that time, much younger than 
 I am now, and, of necessity, was much more 
 inexperienced. The pensioner came every day 
 to my office to receive his allowance. He re- 
 ceived it with thanks, and departed, as far as 
 could be judged by appearances, in a high degree 
 satisfied with his visit. He was, to a proverb, 
 penurious and avaricious, and in consequence, 
 avoided by all men. In accordance with this 
 determination, they set out at an early hour one 
 morning, very much excited with their intended 
 exploits. It was not long before they crossed 
 the forest, and, arriving at its further extremity, 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 89 
 
 sat down under the shade of a spreading oak, 
 and began to eat their breakfast, of which every 
 man partook with great appetite. The people 
 had for a long time been clamouring for war, 
 and soon afterwards, hostilities were declared 
 with solemnity. Commodore Anson's fleet was 
 by this time dispersed, and his crew reduced in 
 a deplorable degree. He had asserted that the 
 fort and harbour could be destroyed without 
 difficulty. It rained with such violence that it 
 was impossible for the troops to continue en- 
 camped. The Lord Mayor of London is elected 
 every year. The colonel headed the assault 
 with resolution. They offered of their own ac- 
 cord to conduct this dangerous enterprise. The 
 commander watched the approach of the vessels 
 with great anxiety. By the care of Providence, 
 all the crew were saved from a watery grave. 
 I was surprised to hear him argue in a manner 
 so contrary to philosophy. Their names were 
 called out in the order of the alphabet. In this 
 establishment, all demands are settled once a 
 week. The affair was brought to a close without 
 difficulty. It was at length determined that we 
 should proceed to Geneva without delay. I 
 returned not long since from the continent. I 
 was pleased with the performance in a much 
 greater degree than I had expected. It is evi- 
 dent that he wrote this letter for the purpose. 
 The practice has occurred many times. He 
 fell into this error from not directing his mind to 
 the subject. The army was composed for the 
 greatest part of raw recruits. In the last place, 
 he drew our attention to the poverty and misery 
 which prevailed in all parts. These questions 
 
90 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 when considered one by one, will be understood 
 with much less difficulty. Too much relaxation 
 from study renders the efforts of attention twice 
 as difficult as before. They were asked this 
 question one after the other, and apart from 
 each other. I will endeavour to adhere to 
 principles which are acknowledged by all persons 
 in all places. These two facts occurred at the 
 same moment. The travellers arrived in London, 
 from which place they continued their route in 
 a direction towards the north. 
 
 Lesson XXII. 
 Variety of Expression. 
 
 SYNONYMOUS TERMS. 
 
 Words are called synonymous, when they 
 either convey the same meaning, or approach 
 very closely to each other in signification. 
 Many writers have doubted whether, in any 
 language, two words could be found which ex- 
 press precisely the same idea ; and they have 
 contended that, although words may closely 
 approximate in sense, and agree in expressing 
 one principal idea, there is always a difference 
 between them in degree or circumstance : that 
 the one contains some accessory idea or tinge of 
 expression which distinguishes it from the other. 
 Though this opinion be reasonable in general, 
 and perfectly true as regards languages derived 
 from one source only, it must be admitted that, 
 in English, words approach each other in mean- 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 91 
 
 ing more closely than in most other European 
 languages, a fact which may be easily accounted 
 for by the variety of languages from which 
 English is derived. It is this mixture of dialects 
 which produces that copiousness for which our 
 language is so remarkable, and which gives such 
 an infinite variety to our forms of expression. 
 
 Even in English, however, this extremely close 
 resemblance between words does not very fre- 
 quently occur, and the expression " synonymous 
 term " generally implies a word which may be 
 substituted for another of similar meaning, and 
 by which change no material alteration takes 
 place in the general sense of the sentence. 
 
 The pupil is to supply other terms instead of 
 those written in italics in the following sentences, 
 thus : " He was furnished with every thing he 
 required," may be rendered, " He was supplied 
 with every thing he required," &c. 
 
 As in all similar cases, the minds of different 
 persons were variously affected. The overthrow 
 of the government in England was one part of 
 De Witt's plans. The views of the popular 
 leaders may be collected from the following 
 anecdotes. It was resolved to proceed at once. 
 I am confident that the others will as readily 
 reply in the negative as myself. Horses were 
 there ready for them, and at ten in the morning 
 they reached Feversham, where they got on 
 board a custom-house hoy which had been en- 
 gaged for the purpose. The government, mean- 
 time, was exercised by a council of peers, with 
 the lord-mayor and aldermen. They told him 
 it was the prince's wish that, for the safety of his 
 
92 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 person, he should go to Ham House in Surrey, 
 where he would be attended by his own soldiers. 
 The assembled crowds viewed with mournful 
 looks this final departure of their sovereign, a 
 captive in the hands of foreigners. To raise a 
 new army was now the first object of the 
 ministers. By the joint exertions of all parties, 
 an army of twenty thousand men was assembled. 
 At the first intelligence of the king's march into 
 England, the council of state was in great alarm. 
 He early showed his passion for a military life, 
 and he served with great reputation in the 
 English auxiliary force under Turenne in 1672 
 and the following years. His conduct was not 
 more extraordinary than that of many other 
 eminent men of the time. The dreadful heat and 
 want of air quickly deprived some of life ; others 
 lost their reason and expired in delirium : their 
 entreaties and offers of money to their guards to 
 give them water or to remove them were mocked 
 at or disregarded. He also laboured to excite 
 the feelings of the parliament and city, but to 
 no purpose. For once during his reign, the 
 conduct of the king was praiseworthy. In all his 
 exertions he was cordially aided by his brother. 
 Each party conceded something. 
 
 Lesson XXIII. 
 Variety of Expression. 
 
 SYNONYMES. 
 
 The pupil is here to study the differences in 
 signification, and the proper application of the 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 93 
 
 following synonymous terms, and then employ 
 them in sentences of his own composition.* 
 
 1. Abandon — quit — leave — desert — for- 
 sake — relinquish — give up. 
 
 2. Renounce — abdicate — resign. 
 
 3. Confess — own — admit — allow — ac- 
 knowledge — avow. 
 
 4. Eminent — great — renowned — famous 
 
 — remarkable — excellent. 
 
 5. Temper — humour — disposition — cha- 
 racter — genius. 
 
 6. Consent — assent — dissent ; concord — 
 accord — discord ; unity — union — alliance — 
 junction — combination. 
 
 7. Subsequent — consequent — following 
 after — posterior. 
 
 8. Previous — anterior — before — antecedent 
 
 — prior. 
 
 9. Odd — strange — singular — curious — 
 extraordinary — wonderful. 
 
 10. Utility — advantage — benefit — profit 
 
 — service — use. 
 
 1 1 . Abate — diminish — lessen — decrease. 
 
 12. Boldness — audacity — rashness — te- 
 merity — effrontery — impudence. 
 
 13. Impetuous — violent — furious — vehe- 
 ment — forcible. 
 
 14. Thoughtless — inconsiderate — inadvert- 
 
 * This exercise requires great care and accuracy. It 
 will be generally found advantageous that an explanation 
 of the proper use of the words to be employed be given by 
 the teacher, previous to any attempt on the part of the pupil 
 to employ them in his writing. 
 
94 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 ent — careless — negligent — inaccurate — in- 
 attentive — imprudent. 
 
 15. Auspicious — propitious — ominous — 
 favourable — fortunate. 
 
 1 6. Absolute — despotic — tyrannical — op- 
 pressive — imperious. 
 
 17. Soj ourn — abide — dwell — reside — in- 
 habit — live. 
 
 18. Ability — capacity — talent. 
 
 19. Recant — abjure — retract — revoke — 
 recall. 
 
 20. Repeal — abolish — abrogate — annul — 
 cancel. 
 
 21. Over — above — upon. 
 
 22. Curtail — abridge — contract — abbre- 
 viate. 
 
 23. Epitome — compendium — digest — sum- 
 mary — abstract. 
 
 24. To steal away — abscond — secrete one's 
 self. 
 
 25. Swallow up — absorb — ingulph — en- 
 gross. 
 
 26. Abstain — forbear — refrain — withstand. 
 
 27. Abstinent — sober — temperate — abste- 
 mious ; abstinence — fast. 
 
 28. Consent — comply — accede — acquiesce 
 — agree. 
 
 29. Acceptable — grateful — welcome. 
 
 30. Contingency — casualty — accident — 
 incident. 
 
 31. Accompany — attend — escort. 
 
 32. Effect — execute — accomplish — achieve. 
 
 33. Salute — accost — address. 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. 95 
 
 34. Narrative — account — description — re- 
 lation. 
 
 35. Accurate — exact — precise. 
 
 36. Charge — impeach — accuse — arraign. 
 
 3 7 . Formidable — dreadful — terrible — ter- 
 rific — tremendous — fearful — frightful — 
 shocking. 
 
 38. Acquaintance — familiarity — intimacy 
 — friendship. 
 
 39. Cheer — enliven — inspire — animate — 
 exhilarate. 
 
 40. Life — animation — vivacity — spirit. 
 
 4 1 . Apparent — visible — obvious — clear — 
 plain — manifest — evident. 
 
 42. Insult — affront. 
 
 43. Uncover — discover — detect. 
 
 44. Effective — efficient — efficacious — - ef- 
 fectual. 
 
 45. Distinction — diversity — difference — 
 discrimination. 
 
 46. Attraction — allurement — enticement. 
 
 47. To be — become — grow.* 
 
 Lesson XXIV. 
 Variety of Expression. 
 
 SENTENCES. 
 
 It appears from the preceding lessons, that 
 there are few words in the language which may 
 
 * This lesson may be continued to any extent the 
 teacher may think proper, and reference may be made, for 
 the exact signification of the words to be used, to Crabb's or 
 Taylor's work on synonymes. 
 
96 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 not be supplied by otters producing nearly, if 
 not exactly, the same signification. This is 
 true, not only of words, but also of expressions 
 consisting of several words. It is even possible 
 that almost every word in a sentence may be 
 changed, and yet that the sentence shall convey 
 the same general signification as before the al- 
 teration, thus: — 
 
 " Shall we have the pleasure of seeing you?" 
 
 " Are we to be favoured with your com- 
 pany?" 
 
 The sentences in the following exercise are 
 to be expressed in as many various ways as 
 may suggest themselves to the pupil, either by 
 changing an expression, or substituting one 
 word for another, or several words for one, or 
 one for several. It is to be remembered that 
 the sense of the sentence must be preserved, 
 though the words and expressions be changed, 
 thus : — 
 
 1. We must all die. 2. All men must die. 
 3. All mankind must die. 4. Death is the 
 fate of all men. 5. It is fated that all men 
 shall die. 6. Death is the inevitable lot of 
 man. 7. The dissolution of our existence is 
 fated. 8. To die is a law of nature. 9. The 
 lives of all men are limited. 10. There is 
 nothing more certain than death. 11. Death 
 is the fate which awaits all men. 12. Death 
 is the unavoidable destiny of mortals. 13. No- 
 thing is more certain than that we shall all die. 
 14. All men are mortal. 15. Mortality is a 
 necessary condition of human nature. 16. Death 
 awaits us all. 17. All human beings must 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 97 
 
 pay the debt of nature. 18. We must all re- 
 turn to the dust from which we came. 19. All 
 men must depart from this life. 20. Every- 
 man must quit this mortal existence. 
 
 Let the following phrases be changed ac- 
 cording to the above model : — 
 
 This vigorous measure was a blow which 
 the parliament had never expected. The power 
 of the crown became at this time irresistible. 
 This scheme, like all the former, was frus- 
 trated. The king was not a little alarmed at 
 this invasion, but still more at the success of an 
 undertaking which at first appeared desperate. 
 He was followed to the scaffold with great com- 
 miseration from the populace. These successes, 
 however, were but of short continuance. The 
 ministry had now entirely lost the confidence 
 of the queen. The campaign in Flanders was 
 conducted with the most brilliant success. The 
 parliament were ardent in their expressions of 
 zeal and unanimity. She resolved to become 
 entirely free. His avarice was justly upbraided. 
 My maxim is, " Never to abandon my friends ; 
 to do justice to all the world, and to fear no 
 man." The earl soon found his disappointments 
 and his losses increase. In the mean time, the 
 rebellion was still more unsuccessfully prose- 
 cuted in England. They repulsed the first 
 attack of the royal army with success. For- 
 tune was still as unfavourable as ever. They 
 examined the evidence of several who had been 
 unjustly seized and treated with great cruelty. 
 A secret committee was appointed to examine 
 
 H 
 
98 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 into this grievance. Orders were issued for 
 augmenting the land forces. They bore a 
 dreadful fire for some hours with great intre- 
 pidity. They at length retreated, leaving six 
 hundred men dead upon the spot. By this 
 victory, the king lost five hundred men, and 
 the rebels gained great influence. 
 
 Lesson XXV. 
 
 From the last ten lessons it will appear that 
 there are very few words in the English lan- 
 guage, the meaning of which may not be ex- 
 pressed by other terms. It has been also 
 shown, that not only words in a sentence, but 
 that whole sentences may be altered in expres- 
 sion, without any material interference with 
 their sense. There are many other modes of 
 varying expression, besides those already laid 
 down. For these modes, no strict rules can 
 be given, but it will be a useful exercise for 
 the ingenuity of the student to pursue the 
 practice still further, for which purpose the 
 following model is proposed for imitation : — 
 
 "The approach of day among Few persons have had an 
 
 the Pyrenees, in the month of opportunity of contemplating 
 
 September, is a spectacle the dawn of day in September 
 
 which it falls not to the lot among the Pyrenean moun- 
 
 of every man to witness, and tains, a spectacle scarcely to 
 
 it is one which can hardly be be conceived by those who 
 
 imagined by him who has have never witnessed it. For 
 
 not beheld it. For some time a considerable time after the 
 
 after the grey twilight breaks, appearance of twilight on the 
 
 you behold around you only eastern horizon, nothing can 
 
 one huge sea of mist, which, be seen on all sides but a vast 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 99 
 
 gradually rising, discloses, by 
 fits, the peak of some rugged 
 hill, and gives to it the ap- 
 pearance of a real island in 
 a real ocean. By and by, 
 the mountains become every 
 where distinguishable, loom- 
 ing large through the haze ; 
 but the valleys continue long 
 enshrouded, the fogs which 
 hang upon them, yielding 
 only to the rays of the noon- 
 day sun. Along a valley, 
 immediately beneath our pre- 
 sent position, a considerable 
 column of French infantry 
 made their way during one of 
 the late actions ; and so per- 
 fect was the cover afforded 
 by the mist, that, though the 
 sun had risen some time, they 
 penetrated wholly unobserved 
 to the brow of the hill." 
 
 ocean of vapour, -which, rising 
 by degrees, discovers here 
 and there the point of some 
 craggy rock, and makes it 
 exactly resemble an island 
 rising above the surface of 
 the sea. Presently the moun- 
 tains grow, by degrees, more 
 discernible, throwing out a 
 shadowy indistinct outline 
 through the mist ; but the 
 lower land remains long en- 
 veloped in a thick vapour, 
 which is dispersed only by 
 the influence of a meridian 
 sun. A large body of French 
 foot soldiers, during a late 
 engagement, had filed through 
 a valley just under our pre- 
 sent encampment ; and they 
 were so completely concealed 
 by the fog, although it was 
 some time after sunrise, that 
 they contrived to make their 
 way unperceived to the rising 
 ground above. 
 
 The pupil is here to vary the expressions 
 contained in the following extracts, in the man- 
 ner above exemplified; referring, in cases of 
 difficulty, to the rules laid down in the fore- 
 going lessons. This practice, continued at in- 
 tervals, will be found to considerably increase 
 the learner's facility of expression, and his power 
 over language. If the following passages be 
 found not sufficiently numerous, their number 
 may be increased at the discretion of the 
 teacher : — 
 
 " At a small distance from the house, my 
 predecessor had made a seat, overshadowed by 
 H 2 
 
100 ENGLISH ; OR, 
 
 a hedge of hawthorn and honeysuckle. Here, 
 when the weather was fine and our labour soon 
 finished, we usually sat together to enjoy an 
 extensive landscape in the calm of the evening. 
 Here, too, we drank tea, which was now become 
 an occasional banquet; and as we had it but 
 seldom, it diffused a new joy, the preparations 
 for it being made with no small share of bustle 
 and ceremony. On these occasions, our two 
 little ones always read to us, and they were re- 
 gularly served after we had done. Sometimes, 
 to give a variety to our amusements, the girls 
 sang to the guitar ; and while they thus formed 
 a little concert, my wife and I would stroll 
 down the sloping field that was embellished with 
 blue-bells and centaury, talk of our children 
 with rapture, and enjoy the breeze that wafted 
 both health and harmony." 
 
 " I now proceeded forward, and had walked 
 about two hours, when I perceived what ap- 
 peared at a distance like a waggon, which I 
 was resolved to overtake ; but when I came up 
 with it found it to be a strolling company's 
 cart that was carrying their scenes and other 
 theatrical furniture to the next village, where 
 they were to exhibit. The cart was attended 
 only by the person who drove it and one of 
 the company, as the rest of the players were to 
 follow the ensuing day. i Good company upon 
 the road,' says the proverb, i is the shortest cut,' 
 I therefore entered into conversation with the 
 poor player ; and as I once had some theatrical 
 powers myself, I descanted upon such topics 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 101 
 
 with my usual freedom : but as I was not 
 very well acquainted with the present state of 
 the stage, I demanded who were the present 
 theatrical writers in vogue ? who the Drydens 
 and Otways of the day ? " 
 
 " Since my arrival at this place, we have 
 had an eruption of one of the numerous vol- 
 canoes called Cosiquini, near the coast on the 
 South Sea, distant from this place about 250 
 miles. This eruption commenced on Friday 
 morning, January 16th, with two shocks of an 
 earthquake. These were succeeded by a hollow 
 rumbling noise under ground, which lasted 
 with little intermission until Friday the 23d. 
 About one o'clock in the morning we were all 
 roused out of bed by repeated shocks, after 
 which the noise greatly increased. The ex- 
 plosions of the volcano were repeated every 
 four or five minutes, causing all the houses to 
 rock to the foundations. At ten o'clock they 
 ceased, when we perceived the air to be filled 
 with a quantity of sulphurous dust. This 
 thickened every succeeding hour. At twelve, 
 the sun was quite obscured by it. At one, or 
 half past one in the afternoon, all was dark as 
 midnight ; candles were lighted in the houses, 
 and lamps in the streets. It was painful to 
 open one's eyes, owing to the quantity of dust 
 with which they were immediately filled. The 
 change of temperature was also very remark- 
 able. From having been warm and sultry, 
 the atmosphere became disagreeably cold, and 
 produced a sensation such as is experienced on 
 H 3 
 
102 ENGLISH ; OK, 
 
 the approach of ague. Many of the inhabitants 
 were taken sick, as much, it would seem, from 
 terror, as from the poisonous air they breathed. 
 
 " The next day, the light was no better than 
 twilight, and not until Monday did the sun 
 shine bright again. On the succeeding Wed- 
 nesday, we had a slight shower of rain, when 
 the dust ceased to fall. Even now, however, 
 we are annoyed with it when there is a brisk 
 wind. It is blown off the leaves of the trees, 
 and the roofs of the houses in abundance. 
 
 " In some places near the volcano, there were 
 three days of complete darkness. At Leon, 
 many birds were found dead in the yards, and 
 the dust at that place measured full four inches. 
 A great number of our horses and horned stock 
 have died, suffocated by the quantity of dust 
 they were forced to swallow. Wild animals, 
 deer for example, came into many of the towns, 
 thus fleeing to man as their protector in the 
 time of danger. The explosions were so severe, 
 and the dust so thick, that in some places 
 people could scarcely stand or breathe. The 
 dust was quite hot, as if it had recently left 
 the mouth of a furnace. Quantities of gravel 
 and stones were also thrown to incredible 
 distances." 
 
 " The estate of i Laborde ' (in Haiti), situ- 
 ated about ten miles from the sea coast, is one 
 of the most beautiful properties I ever beheld. 
 Assuredly Jamaica can boast of nothing like it. 
 On entering, we found ourselves in a green 
 savannah, stretching away to the right and left, 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 103 
 
 and in front, as far as the eye could reach. 
 This magnificent meadow was carpeted with 
 the freshest verdure, springing from a rich 
 Hack loam, than which nothing could be better 
 adapted to the cultivation of the sugar-cane or 
 any other tropical joroduction. All around us 
 were clumps of trees of the most picturesque 
 beauty, their dark massive foliage contrasting 
 admirably with the lighter and livelier hue of 
 the grass. The whole prospect bore no unapt 
 resemblance to an extensive park belonging to 
 some wealthy land-owner in England. Had 
 there been deer, I might have fancied myself 
 transported across the Atlantic. At the dis- 
 tance of a mile or two, the savannah terminated 
 in a grove of trees, through which having 
 passed we entered another savannah of equal 
 beauty and extent. Here we saw the ruins of 
 one of the sets of sugar-works. The property 
 had formerly three." 
 
 " Matilda was married, when very young, to 
 a Neapolitan nobleman of the first quality, and 
 found herself a widow and a mother at the age 
 of fifteen. As she stood one day caressing her 
 infant son at the open window of an apartment 
 which overlooked the river Yolturna, the child, 
 with a sudden spring, leaped from her arms 
 into the flood below, and disappeared in a 
 moment. The mother, struck with instant 
 surprise, and making an effort to save him, 
 plunged in after her child, but far from being 
 able to assist the infant, she herself with great 
 difficulty escaped to the opposite shore, just 
 H 4 
 
104 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 when some French soldiers were plundering 
 the country on that side, who immediately 
 made her their prisoner. 
 
 " As the war was then carried on between the 
 French and the Italians with the utmost in- 
 humanity, the soldiers were on the point of ill- 
 treating her, when this base resolution was 
 opposed by a young officer, who, though their 
 retreat required the utmost expedition, placed 
 her behind him, and brought her in safety to 
 his native city. Her beauty at first caught 
 his eye, and her merit soon after his heart. 
 They were married: he rose to the highest 
 post ; they lived long together, and were happy. 
 But the felicity of a soldier can never be called 
 permanent. After an interval of several years, 
 the troops which he commanded having met with 
 a repulse, he was obliged to take shelter in the 
 city where he had lived with his wife. Here 
 they suffered a siege, and the city at length was 
 taken. Few histories can produce more various 
 instances of cruelty than those which the 
 French and Italians at that time exercised 
 upon each other. It was resolved by the 
 victors, upon this occasion, to put all the 
 French prisoners to death, but particularly the 
 husband of the unfortunate Matilda, as he was 
 principally instrumental in protracting the 
 siege. Their determinations were in general 
 executed almost as soon as resolved upon. The 
 captive soldier was led forth, and the exe- 
 cutioner with his sword stood ready, while the 
 spectators, in gloomy silence, awaited the fatal 
 blow, which was only suspended till the general, 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 105 
 
 who presided as judge, should give the signal. 
 It was in this interval of anguish and expect- 
 ation that Matilda came to take her last fare- 
 well of her husband and deliverer, deploring 
 her wretched situation, and the cruelty of fate, 
 that had saved her from perishing by a pre- 
 mature death in the river Yolturna, to be the 
 spectator of still greater calamities. The 
 general, who was a young man, was struck with 
 surprise at her beauty, and pity at her distress ; 
 but with still stronger emotions when he heard 
 her mention her former dangers. He was her 
 son, the infant for whom she had encountered 
 so much danger. He acknowledged her at 
 once as his mother, and fell at her feet. The 
 rest may be easily supposed : the captive was 
 set free, and all the happiness that love, friend- 
 ship, and duty could confer on each were 
 united." 
 
106 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ON ABSTRACT LANGUAGE. 
 
 The foregoing exercises have been confined 
 chiefly to that portion of the English language 
 which is used in description and narration. The 
 words employed have therefore been, mostly, 
 those which have reference to natural objects 
 and their qualities, and the common actions of 
 external nature. There can be little doubt that, 
 in the formation of primitive language, these 
 were the first terms invented; indeed, it is 
 natural to suppose, as the attention of mankind 
 must have been first directed to the objects by 
 which they were surrounded, and with which 
 they were brought into daily contact and inter- 
 course, that such objects were the first to which 
 names would be given. It was not till men 
 turned their thoughts to the powers within them, 
 and began to be conscious of exercising their 
 reason and understanding, that they would re- 
 quire words expressive of mental states or 
 actions. In inventing such words, however, it 
 appears that they did not find it necessary to 
 employ new terms to express mental qualities, 
 but that they merely applied to moral and in- 
 tellectual qualities the expressions they had 
 before used in reference to material objects. 
 We shall find this to be true, not in one only, 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 107 
 
 but in every language on the face of the globe. 
 Accordingly, if we examine abstract terms, 
 which have reference either to the states, 
 qualities, passions, or modes of action of the 
 mind, we shall invariably find in all languages 
 that the words by which these qualities are de- 
 signated were originally employed upon objects 
 of sense. Thus, in our own language, the mind is 
 said to be quick or slow, dull or bright, &c. ; it is 
 also said to weigh, reflect, understand, perceive, 
 &c. Every one of these words has reference to 
 matter, although in order to perceive this rela- 
 tion clearly, it is necessary to be acquainted 
 with the languages from which our abstract 
 terms are derived. 
 
 The human mind possesses a power of disco- 
 vering a resemblance between things not in 
 their outward appearance, but in their circum- 
 stances, or in the relation they each bear towards 
 other things. This sort of resemblance in ef- 
 fects or circumstances is called ANALOGY, and is 
 the foundation of all abstract language. Thus, 
 the word light literally signifies the effect pro- 
 duced upon the eyes by the rays of the sun, but 
 if, using the word in an abstract sense, we call 
 a learned man the light of the age in which he 
 lived, it will be perceived that the word is em- 
 ployed analogically, that is, it is used to express 
 the effect produced upon the mind by the 
 knowledge imparted by a learned man. There 
 is no visible resemblance between a scholar and 
 light ; the similitude is to be found only in 
 their effects. The relation which light bears to 
 the eye resembles the relation which knowledge 
 
108 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 bears to the mind ; that is, as the former dispels 
 obscurity, and enables us to distinguish objects 
 clearly, so does the latter enable the mind to 
 understand and perceive more evidently what- 
 ever may be the object of its attention. 
 
 It is from the principle of analogy that many 
 words in our language which are not abstract 
 terms, are used in a secondary sense. Almost 
 all the names of the parts of the human body, 
 and many words denoting objects of vegetable 
 or inanimate nature, are employed in a sense 
 acquired from the relations they bear to other 
 objects in their primary signification. Thus, 
 we have not only the leaves of a plant, but the 
 leaves of a book, the leaves of a table, gold leaf, 
 &c. Again, the word leg, which is used pro- 
 perly to signify the member which supports the 
 weight of the body, is applied analogically to 
 those parts of mechanical contrivances which 
 perform a similar office : thus we say, the leg 
 of a table, of a chair, &c. 
 
 Lesson XXVI. 
 
 As an exercise introductory to the consider- 
 ation of abstract language, it will be a useful 
 practice for the pupil to make a collection of 
 words used in the manner above explained. 
 Let him construct his own sentences upon any 
 given word in the following list, and use the 
 same term in as many different senses as pos- 
 sible : — 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 109 
 
 Example. 
 
 1. He took his little brother by the hand, 
 and led him into the garden, {primary.) 
 
 2. On looking up at the clock, he perceived 
 that the hand pointed to twelve, (secondary.) 
 
 Sheet — carpet — dress — roof — leaf — leg 
 — hand — eye — wing — face — lap — foot — 
 heart — back — brow — lip — neck — tooth — 
 tail — mouth — scales — arm — head — cap — 
 root — crust — branch — table — ashes — vo- 
 lume — chest — blade — side — bed — drum — 
 tongue — roof. 
 
 Lesson XXVII. 
 
 It will be found upon examination that most 
 terms expressive of our external perceptions 
 may be also used to convey abstract ideas. 
 Some abstract words, however, are much more 
 limited than others both in variety and extent 
 of signification. It will therefore be expedient 
 to adopt some classification of this species of 
 language, to assist in explaining the various 
 senses in which abstract words may be used. 
 With this view the following lists have been 
 formed, in each of which the words are ranged 
 under certain heads, and all bear reference to 
 some leading principle in nature. The teacher, 
 in showing the proper use of these terms, 
 should be particularly careful to explain the 
 analogy which led to the secondary signification 
 of the word in question, and the process of 
 
110 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 mind by which the concrete term came to be 
 used in a moral sense. There can be, indeed, no 
 exercise more practically useful to the pupil than 
 a continual reference of this sort ; none which 
 will more effectually contribute to strengthen 
 his judgment, and give him just and clear 
 ideas upon all subjects. It should, therefore, be 
 the teacher's care, in all the exercises of this 
 chapter, constantly to trace back the abstract 
 signification of the word to be employed, to the 
 sense in which it was originally used. The re- 
 sult of this practice must be, a unity and clear- 
 ness of thought, and a force and conciseness of 
 expression, unattainable by those whose minds 
 have not been similarly trained. For, as the 
 extent of our acquaintance with the external 
 World must be in exact proportion to our know- 
 ledge of the distinctions and differences existing 
 among material objects; in like manner must 
 our power of using correct language be limited 
 to the extent of our knowledge of the true 
 meaning and proper application of words. 
 
 The sources of analogical language are al- 
 most innumerable. Let us first consider it 
 under one head, Motion. This again, may be 
 divided into animal motion, spontaneous motion, 
 motion of fluids, motion of solids, &c. Most of 
 the verbs, adjectives, and nouns which have 
 reference to all these varieties, may be used in 
 a moral as well as a literal sense, and the pupil 
 must compose two sentences on each word in 
 the following lists in which he should employ 
 it respectively, whenever it can be done, in its 
 concrete and in its abstract sense : — 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. Ill 
 
 Example. 
 
 Move. — 1. In endeavouring to move the rock, 
 it fell with a tremendous crash, (primary.) 
 
 2. Not all my most earnest entreaties could 
 move him from his purpose, (secondary?) 
 
 MOTION. 
 
 Move — revolve — roll — whirl — twirl — 
 twist — slide — turn — rise — fall — sink — 
 subside — rush — deluge — pour — drop — 
 distil — spout — sprinkle — spirt — plunge — 
 run — fly — swim — walk — creep — jump — 
 leap — spring — start — climb — advance — re- 
 tire — go — come — recede — bring — march 
 
 — hop — throw — throb — thrust, &c. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Quick — slow — direct — tardy — oblique — 
 circular — waving — steady — perpendicular — 
 equal — horizontal — unequal — uniform — 
 rocking — wavering — swift — accelerated — 
 gentle — sudden — rapid — sluggish — hurried 
 — agitated — speedy — rotatory — retrograde — 
 progressive — voluntary — continued — inter- 
 rupted — hasty — precipitate — violent — free 
 
 — turbulent — tumultuous, &c. 
 
 Billow — current — wave — tide — stream 
 — flood — deluge — motion — movement — 
 gale — breeze — hurricane — velocity — ra- 
 
114 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 light or darkness; growth or decay, either of 
 animal or vegetable life ; the five senses, &c. 
 By pursuing this plan, and using the words 
 thus classified in as many senses as they admit, 
 it will be soon found that the pupil, with the 
 plan recommended to be pursued in page 109, 
 will not only be able to clearly understand and 
 easily trace back to its source any word used 
 in a moral sense, but also to employ analogical 
 language correctly in his own sentences ; and 
 he will thus have acquired, in a comparatively 
 short time, a comprehensive knowledge of his 
 language. 
 
 LIGHT. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Shine. — 1. It was a beautiful day, and the 
 sun shone brightly, {primary.) 
 
 2. His shining talents, as well as the excellent 
 qualities of his heart, placed him far above the 
 common race of man. (secondary.) 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 Shine — dazzle — enlighten — light — blaze 
 
 — flicker — warm — heat — ignite — sparkle 
 
 — fire — flash — radiate — glimmer — glisten 
 
 — glitter — twinkle — brighten — polish — 
 burn — illuminate — scintillate — inflame — 
 flare — cheer — enliven — shoot, &c. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Brilliant — shining — manifest — flaming — 
 bright — clear — lucid — luminous — conspi- 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 115 
 
 cuous — evident — dazzling — flickering — 
 transparent — translucent — sparkling — fiery 
 — radiant — lustrous — glossy — splendid — 
 resplendent — beaming — white — flashing — 
 refulgent — effulgent — fierce, &c. 
 
 Sun — moon — stars — constellation — planet 
 
 — fire — light — flame — blaze — warmth — 
 heat — lamp — torch — spark — flash — radiance 
 
 — brilliancy — brightness — dawn — glimpse 
 
 — lustre — ray — twilight — noon — day — 
 splendour — beam — corruscation — scintilla- 
 tion — effulgence — taper — lightning — gleam, 
 &c 
 
 Lesson XXX. 
 
 DARKNESS. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Cover. — 1. Covering her face with both her 
 hands, she turned away, and burst into a flood 
 of tears, {primary.) 
 
 2. The man attempted to cover his guilt with 
 a lie, but his falsehood was immediately de- 
 tected and exposed, (secondary.) 
 
 Cover — conceal — hide — blacken — ob- 
 scure — eclipse — deprave — lour — tarnish — 
 extinguish — mourn — envelope — darken — 
 pollute — defile — overwhelm — bury — sully 
 — soil — disguise — dim — secrete — screen 
 I 2 
 
116 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 — close — frown — scowl — sadden — blot 
 
 — offuscate — cloud — lurk — stain — disco- 
 lour — mourn — quench — forbode — dye — 
 tinge — faint — fade — stray — err — imprison 
 — blind — perplex — wander — grieve — over- 
 shadow — shade — slander, &c. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Dull — dark — obscure — black — foggy — 
 misty — heavy — deep — nocturnal — baleful — 
 dreary — internal — sad — secret — blind — 
 opake — dim — dusky — smoky — sable — fune- 
 real — swarthy — mysterious — nightly — clan- 
 destine — overcast — private — dingy — gloomy 
 
 — dismal — sepulchral — hidden — sallow — 
 sun-burnt — murky — sullen — unseen — dun 
 — solemn — moody — unrevealed — sombre — 
 darkling — indistinct — occult — pitchy — 
 cloudy — umbrageous — dense — thick — ex- 
 tinct — lurid — livid — tawny — invisible, &c. 
 
 Vapour — sorrow — smoke — dust — cloud 
 
 — night — fog — obscurity — dullness — mist 
 
 — blackness — darkness — grief — blight — 
 grave — dungeon — vault — gloom — cave — 
 cavern — shadow — shade — dusk — ebony — 
 soot — cypress — mantle — cloak — j et — mask — 
 veil — curtain — sepulchre — thicket — mystery 
 
 — secret — midnight — screen — den — raven 
 
 — evening — frown — scowl — ink — blot — 
 twilight — pitch — extinction — stain — spot — 
 sin — tomb — abyss — concealment, &c. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 117 
 
 Lesson XXXI. 
 
 SOUND. 
 Example. 
 
 Speak. — 1. The orator spoke in so low a tone 
 that he was inaudible to the greater portion of 
 those who were present. 
 
 2. The beauty and grandeur of nature speak 
 forcibly to the heart of man, and impress solemn 
 truths on his mind. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 Speak — rant — cry — shout — exclaim — 
 scream — shriek — call — roar — squeak — 
 rattle — explode — murmur — hiss — crash — 
 whistle — screech — bellow — grumble — utter 
 
 — squall — bawl — warble — howl — jingle — 
 dash — tinkle — clash — clatter — splash — 
 whisper — bark — growl — snarl — clamour — 
 whine — vociferate — buzz — ring — sing — 
 yell — knock — crack — crackle — echo — re- 
 sound — reverberate — crash — toll — talk — 
 clap — harmonize, &c. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Sharp — harsh — grating — loud — soft — 
 discordant — prolonged — sustained — continued 
 
 — flat — noisy — sonorous — audible — gentle — 
 rustling — melodious — musical — dissonant — 
 vocal — clamorous — pleasing — liquid — har 
 monious — sweet — clear — loquacious — joy- 
 ful — terrific — confused — querulous — sudden — 
 
 i 3 
 
118 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 eloquent — flowing — low — piercing — silvery 
 
 — honied — brazen — high — redoubled — 
 soothing — deafening — crashing — melancholy 
 
 — exciting — disagreeable — hoarse, &c. 
 
 Noise — sound — tone — music — explosion 
 
 — murmur — voice — thunder — bell — tune 
 
 — whisper — outcry — clamour — eruption — i 
 exclamation — silence — din — hum — trumpet 
 
 — cannon — musket — echo — drum — words 
 — wind — melody — sigh — shout — song — ap- 
 plause — cry — crash — concert — bird — harmony 
 
 — speech — loquacity — lamentation — vowel 
 
 — orator — oration — tongue — brass — accent 
 
 — proclamation — discord — rumour — herald 
 
 — crier — splash — cascade — response, &c. 
 
 Lesson XXXII. 
 
 SPACE, TIME, QUANTITY, &C. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Enlarged. — 1. Since the last visit which 
 I paid my friend, his house has been so much 
 enlarged, that it now occupies nearly twice as 
 much space as formerly. 
 
 2. By a lengthened intercourse with a man 
 of such superior talents, his mind became every 
 day more enlarged, and he now began to take a 
 much more comprehensive view of mankind, 
 and to see things in altogether a new light. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 119 
 
 Extend — widen — lengthen — measure — 
 comprehend — enclose — include — contain — 
 encompass — surround — circumscribe — limit 
 
 — bound — comprise — protract — shorten — 
 contract — spread — expand — amplify — in- 
 crease — dilate — reach — stretch — occupy — 
 decrease — exceed — grow — subtract — en- 
 croach — yawn — step — pass — complete — 
 fill — lessen — engross — range — reduce — add 
 
 — divide — multiply — recede — survey — em- 
 brace — separate — compare — dispose — dis- 
 tend — rule — exclude — erect — build — swell, 
 &c. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 Space — room — place — extension — extent 
 
 — distance — length — breadth — width — 
 size — inch — foot — yard — mile — pace — 
 circumference — circuit — boundary — measure 
 
 — magnitude — geometry — minute — hour — 
 day — month — year — century — age — line 
 
 — road — way — path — street — lane — ex- 
 panse — duration — horizon — ocean — lapse 
 
 — tract — district — region — quarter — part 
 
 — portion — time — quantity — dimension — 
 height — plain — bulk — excess — aperture — 
 interval, &c. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Spacious — roomy — extensive — distant — 
 
 large — wide — narrow — confined — small — 
 
 short — long — great — immense — vast — 
 
 limited — bounded — immeasurable — high — 
 
 I 4 
 
120 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 infinite — finite — near — removed — broad — 
 open — diurnal — equal — commensurate — un- 
 limited — boundless — remote — empty — vacant 
 — void — endless — enormous — huge — entire 
 — whole — complete — level — big — dimi- 
 nutive — full — copious — late — early — 
 minute — tall — fleeting — uttermost — pro- 
 gressive — gradual — tedious — exact — pre- 
 cise, &c. 
 
 Lesson XXXIII. 
 
 COLD. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Freeze. — 1. During the night, the cold was 
 so intense, that many of the sentinels were 
 found frozen to death at their posts the next 
 morning. 
 
 2. " Chill penury repressed their noble rage," 
 " And froze the genial current of their soul." 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 Freeze — shiver — chill — tremble — congeal 
 — cool — blow — quake — shake — bathe — 
 starve — pinch — expose — snow — nip — be- 
 numb — bite, &c. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Intense — piercing — chilly — bitter — 
 biting — nipping — frigid — sharp — keen — 
 cool — damp — raw — exposed — inclement — 
 frozen — congealed — gelid — benumbed — 
 torpid — wintry — stiff — fresh — dead — starved 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 121 
 
 — pinched — extreme — north — east — snowy 
 
 — frosty — icy — cold — insensible — indiffer- 
 ent - — reserved — severe, &c. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 Ice — frost — snow — wind — cold — water 
 
 — frigidity — blast — air — glacier — sleet — 
 hail — breeze — gale — storm — coolness — gust 
 
 — winter — coldness — indifference — dullness 
 
 — shivering — unconcern — reserve — ague — 
 iron — apathy — insensibility — refreshment — 
 rain — inclemency — severity — exposure — 
 chill — torpor — rigour, &c. 
 
 Lesson XXXIV. 
 
 HEAT. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Burn. — 1. The flames, which had for a time 
 somewhat abated in violence, now burst out 
 afresh, and continued to blaze with such fury, 
 that the whole building was soon burnt to the 
 ground. 
 
 2. From that moment the purpose of his 
 mind was fixed, and he burned with an im- 
 placable desire of revenge. 
 
 Burn — inflame — consume — blaze — fire — 
 heat — roast — ignite — toast — boil — incense 
 — kindle — exasperate — enrage — crowd — 
 suffocate — melt — dissolve — evaporate — fer- 
 
122 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 ment — effervesce — glow — vivify — animate 
 
 — hatch — scorch — scald — parch — stifle — 
 irritate — sear — singe — simmer — flush — fume 
 
 — fret — excite — chafe — storm — vex — pro- 
 voke — resent — foam — expand — light — tingle 
 
 — throb — blister — revive — prick — sting — 
 fester — puncture, &c. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 Fire — warmth — flame — furnace — coal 
 
 — combustion — heat — rage — wrath — steam 
 — boiler — anger — passion — spirits — ardour 
 
 — excitement — brand — spark — friction — 
 summer — fervour — ferment — zeal — vehe- 
 mence — animosity — conflagration — torch — 
 fever — flush. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Hot — warm — heated — ardent — fiery — 
 torrid — fervent — inflammable — combustible 
 
 — fierce — brisk — angry — passionate — strong 
 
 — latent — tepid — glowing — burning — in- 
 tense — hearty — cordial — violent — consuming 
 
 — vivid — sultry — unquenchable — zealous — 
 arid — feverish — reeking — fretful — genial — 
 live — impetuous — close — inflamed — flaming 
 
 — excited — boiling — hasty — boisterous — 
 raging — irascible — irritable — testy — tem- 
 pestuous — wrathful — vital — furious — cho- 
 leric — affectionate — vehement — vivacious — 
 spirited, &c. 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. 123 
 
 Lesson XXXV. 
 
 SEEING. 
 
 Example. 
 
 See. — 1. On ascending the hill, a beautiful 
 prospect presented itself to our view ; and the 
 day was so clear, that we could see to the 
 distance of several miles without the aid of 
 glasses. 
 
 2. The minister had too much penetration 
 to be easily deceived by these designs, and saw, 
 at a glance, through all his rival's endeavours 
 to supplant him in the favour of his royal 
 mistress. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 See — look — behold — gaze — view — wit- 
 ness — scrutinize — examine — inspect — per- 
 ceive — distinguish — discern — discover — ob- 
 serve — remark — inquire — search — seek — 
 follow — express — contemplate — mark — note 
 
 — read — peruse — investigate — explore — 
 stare — gape — glance — glare — find — descry 
 
 — survey — spy — scan — discriminate — reveal 
 
 — admire — recognise — reflect — blind — light 
 
 — refract — elongate — wink, &c. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 Spectator — overseer — looker-on — gazer — 
 witness — examiner — inspector — discoverer 
 
 — observer — inquirer — beholder — examina- 
 tion — inquiry — research — scrutiny — inspec- 
 tion — distinction — discovery — observation — 
 
124 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 remark — search — contemplation — perusal — 
 investigation — glance — prospect — aspect — 
 view — landscape — review — sight — spectacle 
 
 — show — glory — phantom — spectre — ap- 
 pearance — apparition — phenomenon — vision — 
 exhibition — representation — eye-glass — mirror 
 — spy — discernment — scene — microscope — 
 scope — reflection, &c. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Glossy — observant — curious — distinct — 
 inquisitive — visible — prying — inscrutable — 
 apparent — plain — obvious — clear — evident 
 
 — manifest — conspicuous — acute — dark — 
 bright — optical — visual — glassy — vitreous 
 — crystalline — refracted — reflected — pellucid 
 
 — microscopic — expanded — weak — strong — 
 short-sighted — light — glazed — heavy — dull 
 — real — steadfast — steady — fixed — intense — 
 imaginary — beautiful — sublime — sensible — 
 external — visible — discernible — ocular, &c. 
 
 Lesson XXXVI. 
 
 HEARING. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Listen. — 1. Though we all listened with the 
 most eager attention, we were placed so far 
 from the preacher, that it was with the greatest 
 difficulty we could hear a word of the sermon. 
 
 2. These arguments at length prevailed upon 
 the criminal to listen to the reproaches of his 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 125 
 
 upbraiding conscience, and receive the religious 
 consolations that were offered to him. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 Hear — hearken — attend — listen — audit — 
 vibrate — undulate, &c. (for other verbs, see 
 under sound.) 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 Auditor — audience — listener — hearer — 
 sound — ear — drum — impulse — concussion 
 — acoustics — undulation; — vibration, &c. (see 
 under sound.) 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Attentive— deaf — acute — careless — heed- 
 less — indifferent — auditory — vibratory — 
 distinct — quick — dull, &c. (see under sound.) 
 
 Lesson XXXVII. 
 
 TASTING. 
 
 Example. 
 
 Bittek. — 1. Among the fruits we met with 
 in this country, was a sort of bitter apple, very 
 disagreeable to the taste. 
 
 2. He is now no longer the gay thoughtless 
 creature of former years ; his face is furrowed, 
 his look haggard and anxious, and his heart a 
 prey to the bitterest anguish. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 Taste — savour — relish — suck — sup — 
 sip — eat — drink — swallow — cloy — feed — 
 dine — bake — boil — roast — fry — stew — 
 
126 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 enjoy — gratify — satisfy — glut — gorge — 
 revel — devour — starve — fast — abstain — 
 want — fare — live — stimulate — excite — 
 enliven — gormandize — overfill — load — in- 
 dulge — exceed — desire — crave — cook — 
 imbibe — revive — refresh — loathe — season 
 
 — broil — famish — entertain — crunch — 
 masticate — chew — banquet — feast — paE 
 
 — satiate, &c. 
 
 Quince — vinegar — sugar — aloes — flavour 
 
 — relish — palate — tongue — appetite — 
 hunger — thirst — wine — water — beverage 
 
 — food — meat — fish — game — fruit — bread 
 
 — viands — sauce — liquor — provisions — 
 fodder — forage — nourishment — corn — vic- 
 tuals — meal — repast — draught — refreshment 
 
 — surfeit — famine — starvation — guest — 
 voracity — avidity ■ — keenness — abstinence — 
 seasoning, &c. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Bitter — insipid — sour — acrid — sharp — 
 cloying — luscious — crude — loathsome — sweet 
 
 — nauseous — delicious — salt — pungent — 
 flat — palatable — nice — good — stimulant — 
 delicate — flavoured — famished — satisfied — 
 hungry — voracious — eager — sumptuous — 
 choice — gluttonous — ravenous — intemperate 
 
 — excessive — craving — greedy — luxurious 
 
 — keen — sharp — acid — ripe — farinaceous 
 
 — dainty — magnificent — pleasing — whole- 
 some — salubrious — nutritious, &c. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 127 
 
 Lesson XXXVIII. 
 
 SMELLING. 
 
 Sweetness. — 1. The rose has ever held a 
 distinguished rank among flowers, as much 
 on account of its sweetness of scent, as for its 
 delicate colour. 
 
 2. Her attractive manners and sweetness of 
 disposition made her a universal favourite. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 Smell — scent — snuff — sniff — sneeze — 
 fumigate — perfume, &c. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Grateful — aromatic — pleasant — sweet — 
 
 fragrant — stifling — faint — odoriferous — dis- 
 cs o 
 
 agreeable — unpleasant — agreeable — fetid — 
 offensive — putrid — olfactory — odorous — 
 delicious — volatile — scented — foul — im- 
 pregnated, &c. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 Flower — smell — odour — musk — rose — 
 scent — carnation — blossom — putrefaction — 
 nose — effluvium — fragrance — exhalation — 
 pink — perfume ■ — jasmine — sweetness — mi- 
 asma — camphor, &c. 
 
 Lesson XXXIX. 
 
 TOUCHING. 
 
 Feel. — 1. The doctor felt his pulse, and im- 
 mediately pronounced him in a high fever. 
 
128 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 2. J. felt so deeply for his misfortunes, that I 
 resolved to employ every means to extricate him 
 from his difficulties. 
 
 Touch — feel — handle — rub — strike — 
 put — lay — place — carry — lift — fetch — 
 bear — stroke — scratch — press — indent — 
 finger — beat — meddle — pat — yield — im- 
 press — seal ■ — tingle — tickle — itch — smart 
 
 — cut — adhere — sting — pull — hammer — 
 knock — dab — slap — sprinkle — hurt — 
 wound — divide — penetrate — knead — split 
 
 — cleave — tread — stamp — print — imprint 
 
 — hit, &c. 
 
 Hand — finger — pathos — stroke — pressure 
 
 — roughness — smoothness — solidity — firm- 
 ness — stone — wood — iron — hardness — • 
 softness — impression — seal — contact — clay 
 
 — wax — body — touch — feeling — sensation 
 
 — pulse — pulsation — down — wool — nettle 
 
 — surface — sensibility — friction — skin — 
 nerve — coating — hide — superficies — sub- 
 stance — matter — earth — arm — mouth — 
 member — adhesion — wet — sensitiveness — 
 moisture — smart — pliability — elasticity — 
 water, &c. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Rough — smooth — hard — soft — pointed 
 
 — jagged — rugged — stiff — pliable — warm — 
 cold — brittle — even — flat — solid — firm — 
 pliant — pathetic — uneven — yielding — prickly 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 129 
 
 — hot — warm — sharp — blunt — tingling — 
 tickling — itching — smarting — fluid — glutinous 
 
 — sticky — elastic — tough — brittle — oily — 
 greasy — adhesive — dry — wet — moist — damp 
 
 — sensitive — delicate — palpable — tangible — 
 malleable — ductile — superficial — bodily — 
 corporeal — substantial — material — close — 
 compact. 
 
 Lesson XL. 
 
 Words used in two Senses. 
 Examples. 
 
 Launch. — 1. Last summer, one of the most 
 beautiful vessels ever built in England was 
 launched at Woolwich in the presence of thou- 
 sands of spectators. 
 
 2. He had not sufficient strength of mind to 
 bear this sudden increase of fortune ; and im- 
 mediately launching into every description of 
 extravagance, was in a very short time reduced 
 to his former state of indigence. 
 
 Reflect — lash — load — illuminate — darken 
 
 — prop — bolster — undermine — devour — 
 digest — handle — tread — sift — winnow — 
 harrow — plough — dig • — sow — reap — hedge 
 
 — inflame — sprinkle — spout — leap — dabble 
 
 — grapple — run — stand — hold — disperse — 
 incline — cultivate — inflict — introduce — ex- 
 tricate — entangle — accumulate — - connect — 
 construct — deviate — distort — elevate — 
 
 K 
 
130 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 agitate — indicate — exercise — insert — invade 
 
 — apprehend — transport — satisfy — embrace 
 
 — insinuate. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 Heart — bile — stomach — spleen — marrow 
 
 — hand — handle — root — stock — shoot — 
 gun — seed — graft — kernel — fruit — head 
 
 — heat — hinge — cloak — jewel — inch — in- 
 flux — infusion — connection — gravity — im- 
 port — circle — sphere — mask — field — face 
 
 — front — pursuit — spring — road — impedi- 
 ment — obstacle — kindred — labyrinth — 
 tongue — limit — mark — impression — print 
 
 — rule — position ■ — slip — staff — stamp — 
 stain — blot. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Sweet — sour — bitter — acrid — crude — 
 sharp — blunt — raw — heavy — light — dull 
 
 — quick — slow — shining — empty — full — 
 rich — poor — hard — - heavy — high — hot — 
 lofty -— low — broad — deep — pointed — in- 
 sipid — copious — plain — fair — solid — ripe 
 
 — simple — soft — new — extensive — dry — 
 open — small — great — nice — bad — little — 
 strong — fine — first — thick — black — last — 
 full ■ — curious — chief, &c. 
 
 Lesson XLI. 
 Words which have lost their original Sense. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 Reduce — meditate — inculcate — incur 
 infer — infringe — instil — ponder — admire 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 131 
 
 involve — perplex — expatiate — afflict — an- 
 ticipate — apprehend — attend — understand — 
 compensate — contend — tend, &c — differ — 
 divert — emanate — extort — exasperate — 
 exult — impose — invest — affront — amuse — 
 asperse — confuse — conclude — compel — con- 
 cur — detect — distinguish — hesitate — stim- 
 ulate — investigate — fluctuate — obviate — 
 provide — provoke — evade — occur — recede 
 
 — extirpate — eradicate — express — define — 
 amalgamate — elapse, &c. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 Melancholy — ambition — acumen — cadence 
 
 — capacity — case — detraction — incentive — 
 instinct — obligation — extasy — rapture — 
 tribulation — incoherence — alliance — aversion 
 
 — repugnance — motive — circumstance — in- 
 fluence — dejection — dependance — deponent 
 
 — idea — inherence — infraction — instant — 
 maturity — expedient — origin — precision — 
 pretension — principle — maxim — eminence 
 
 — preference — profusion — extravagance — 
 compunction — contrition — remorse — stigma 
 
 — pontiff — poltroon — expression — result — 
 recollection — conclusion, &c. 
 
 ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Ambiguous — exorbitant — immaculate — 
 cursory — desultory — constant — extravagant 
 
 — trivial — peculiar — acute — polite — preli- 
 
 K 2 
 
132 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 miliary — previous — prone — sincere — imme- 
 diate — principal — vague — correct — distinct 
 
 — obvious — contingent — precise — humble — 
 congruous — incidental — independent — tor- 
 menting — important — dexterous — profound 
 
 — inconsistent — excellent, &c. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 133 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FABLES. 
 
 When the pupil has had some practice in 
 tracing analogies and employing abstract words 
 in his own sentences, the knowledge he has thus 
 acquired will have sufficiently prepared him to 
 make some attempt at connected composition. 
 The judicious choice of a subject is here of the 
 highest importance, and should not be deter- 
 mined without much consideration : hence the 
 question will arise, which form of composition 
 will be best suited to the powers of the pupil, 
 and will present him with fewest difficulties ? 
 Young persons differ so widely in capacity, that 
 it is scarcely possible to lay down a rule in a 
 case which must greatly depend upon circum- 
 stances ; therefore, I think it advisable, in gene- 
 ral, first to try them with a variety of subjects, 
 solely for the purpose of testing their strength 
 and disposition for composing. Among those I 
 would suggest with this view are : a familiar 
 fable of ^Esop, to be written from recollection ; 
 — a short account of the principal events in the 
 reign of any English monarch; or, a simple 
 narrative of some domestic occurrence. A 
 brief sketch of the life of one of the British 
 poets, or a striking event in ancient or modern 
 K 3 
 
134 ENGLISH; OE, 
 
 history, may also furnish a useful subject for 
 early composition. These, it must be remem- 
 bered, are merely suggestions, and the choice of 
 a subject must after all be left to the discretion 
 of the teacher, who ought to be the best judge 
 of the learner's abilities. But here I again 
 strongly caution him against discouraging the 
 beginner by imposing on him a task beyond his 
 powers ; and to avoid the possibility of such an 
 objection, I recommend that, at first, in all cases 
 the mode of treating the subject in question be 
 discussed between the teacher and the pupil. 
 In these exercises, the pupil need not confine 
 himself to the mere relation of facts, but may 
 be required to intersperse throughout his writing 
 such reflections as may naturally arise from the 
 nature of the subject before him. Such an ex- 
 action will scarcely be deemed unreasonable by 
 those who have acquired the command of ex- 
 pression which cannot fail to result from a study 
 of the former chapters of this work ; and the 
 habit which this exercise will give them, of ex- 
 pressing their opinions, will increase their con- 
 fidence in their own powers, and gradually in- 
 troduce them to the more difficult task of arguing 
 upon abstract questions, and treating moral 
 subjects with correctness. The practice, how- 
 ever, of tracing analogies, and of comparing 
 together words and leases of a similar signi- 
 fication, should not be altogether discontinued ; 
 in addition to which, it may be useful to intro- 
 duce the learner to another exercise, viz. that of 
 classifying the words of which his own compo- 
 sition consists. This may be done in the follow- 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 135 
 
 ing manner: when the pnpil has finished his 
 composition, let him take about fifteen or twenty 
 lines of it, and extract from them all the nouns 
 he has made use of, copying them down ar- 
 ranged under the heads of Natural Objects; 
 Artificial Objects; and Abstract Ideas. The 
 verbs may in the same manner be classed as 
 Bodily Actions, and Mental Actions. Other classes 
 may be formed of Qualifying words, Relatives, 
 Connectives, &c. This exercise will give a fresh 
 impulse to the thought of the student, open to 
 him a new field for reflection, and lead him to 
 an increased accuracy of expression, and a more 
 intimate acquaintance with the nature and use 
 of his language. 
 
 The following model will, perhaps, more 
 clearly show the intention of the above expla- 
 nation. 
 
 FABLE. 
 
 The Fox and the Grapes. 
 
 One sultry day in the month of September, 
 a fox, passing through a vineyard, perceived 
 some delicious-looking grapes nailed up to a 
 trellis. They were far beyond his reach ; but, 
 as he was very thirsty, and the fruit looked ex- 
 ceedingly tempting, he determined not to pass 
 them by, without at least making an attempt 
 to possess them. He therefore leaped up at 
 them several times with all his might, and put 
 every stratagem in practice to obtain possession 
 of them, but in vain. At length, suddenly 
 turning away, and pursuing his path: " Pshaw ! " 
 K 4 
 
136 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 said he, " after all, I dare say they are sour 
 things, and not worth having ; I wonder that 
 I gave myself so much trouble about them." 
 
 Moral — Envy but too often inclines us to 
 condemn as worthless those qualities which we 
 have not sufficient talents to acquire. 
 
 In pursuing the mode of classification above 
 mentioned, we shall collect all the substantives in 
 the above fable, and arrange them under the 
 three heads of, 1. Natural objects; 2. Artificial 
 objects ; and 3. Abstract ideas : 
 
 1. Natural objects. — Fox — grapes — fruit — 
 things. 
 
 2. Artificial objects. — Vineyard — trellis — 
 path. 
 
 3. Abstract ideas. — Day — month — Septem- 
 ber — reach — attempt — might — stratagem 
 
 — practice — possession — length — trouble — 
 envy — qualities — talents — times. 
 
 The verbs may, in like manner, be arranged 
 under the heads of, 1. Bodily actons, and 2. 
 Mental actions, thus : 
 
 4. Bodily actions. — Passing — ptrceived — - 
 looked — pass — leaped — put — turning — 
 — pursuing — said — say — gave. 
 
 5. Mental actions. — Determined — possess 
 
 — obtain — dare — wonder — inclines — con- 
 demn — have — acquire — making. 
 
 6. Qualifying words. — One — sultry — de- 
 licious-looking — nailed — far — beyond — 
 very — thirsty — exceedingly — tempting — 
 not — therefore — several — all — every — vain 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 137 
 
 — suddenly — away — sour — worth — so much 
 
 — too often — worthless — not sufficient — 
 least — an. 
 
 7. Relatives. — Some — they — his — he — 
 the — them — I — myself — us — those — 
 which — we 
 
 8 . Connectives. — In — of — through — up — 
 to — but — as — was — and — to — by — at — 
 up — at — with — and — in — to — ■ of — but 
 in — at — and — after — are — and — that — 
 about — but — to — as — to. 
 
 It may be not improper here to offer some 
 explanation of the principles on which this 
 classification is founded. 
 
 The first class contains the names of all ob- 
 jects whatsoever which exist in a natural state. 
 The earth and all its productions; beasts, birds, 
 fishes, &c, belong to this class. Such objects, 
 however, as present any idea of human inven- 
 tion or contrivance, as plantation, grass-plot, 
 canal, &c, must be included in the second 
 class. 
 
 The second class contains the names of all 
 those objects which are the result of the inge- 
 nuity or the art of man : hence most of those 
 objects which meet our view in doors — articles 
 of furniture, the parts of a house, those tilings 
 which administer to the convenience of do- 
 mestic life, &c, will be ranged under this head. 
 
 All moral qualities and abstract notions form 
 the third division : in this class will be found 
 those nouns expressing the passions, emotions, 
 and affections of the heart ; the faculties of the 
 
138 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 mind; notions of time, space, internal perception, 
 &c. 
 
 Yerbs expressive of bodily action, all the va- 
 rieties of visible motion in external nature, and 
 the actions performed by the senses, make up 
 the fourth class. 
 
 The fifth class consists of verbs denoting in- 
 tellectual action and internal feeling. 
 
 All qualifying words, whether numbers, ad- 
 jectives, adverbs, or participles, belong to the 
 sixth class. 
 
 Pronouns of every kind, whether personal, 
 relative, possessive, demonstrative, or indefinite, 
 are classed as relative words, and make up the 
 seventh division. 
 
 The eighth class consists of the verb " to be," 
 (in all its persons and tenses,) prepositions, and 
 conjunctions ; these being the words used, in all 
 languages, to connect persons, things, actions, 
 and qualities. 
 
 This classification will be found to comprise 
 every word in the language. It must, however, 
 be observed, that since, as before explained, 
 many words are used in two senses, the pupil is 
 expected to classify such words always according 
 to the meaning in which they are used in his 
 composition. 
 
 There are many reasons why the Fable should 
 be selected as the best model for the first at- 
 tempts of the pupil. Its construction requires 
 the employment of both sorts of language, 
 descriptive and abstract; it contains a use- 
 ful lesson ; and it may be generally comprised 
 in a few sentences. Notwithstanding these 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION". 139 
 
 advantages, it not unfrequently presents insu- 
 perable obstacles to the learner, even when re- 
 quired to be written from recollection. I am 
 inclined to think that these obstacles will 
 be found to arise, in almost all cases, from 
 a want of knowing how to determine the 
 order of the required narrative. The ideas 
 contained in the fable may be few and simple, 
 and yet, from inexperience in the arrangement 
 of his subject, the mind of the pupil some- 
 times becomes so bewildered, that he loses all 
 power of expression. With the view of obviating 
 this difficulty, I shall here examine the order in 
 which the ideas are laid down in the fable above 
 quoted, of the " Fox and the Grapes." 
 
 In relating a simple fact, the order of time 
 should be followed ; that is, all the circumstances 
 to be mentioned in the narration should be 
 expressed in succession, according to the time 
 at which they occur. Thus, the writer com- 
 mences by expressing the time at which the 
 fact occurred. — " One sultry day, in the month 
 of September." The heat of the day and time 
 of the year present a lively picture to the mind 
 of the reader, and prepare him for the fact 
 which is to follow : 
 
 " A fox, passing through a vineyard, per- 
 ceived some delicious-looking grapes nailed up 
 to a trellis." 
 
 We are now introduced to the actor in the 
 narrative; and are properly informed of the 
 place through which he was passing previously 
 to being told that " he perceived," since, in the 
 
140 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 natural order of time, he must have been in 
 the vineyard before he could have " perceived." 
 
 " Some delicious-looking grapes." Accord- 
 ing to the established usage of order in the 
 English language, the object, "grapes," comes 
 after the verb, but is preceded by its qualifica- 
 tion, " delicious-looking." 
 
 " Nailed up to a trellis : " A circumstance 
 respecting the grapes. This expression might, 
 perhaps, have been placed before the " graj)es ; " 
 but then it would have separated the verb, 
 " perceived," from its object, " grapes." 
 
 " They were far beyond his reach." This 
 sentence gives us a more definite idea of the 
 distance of the grapes from the ground, and is 
 a necessary preliminary to the succeeding sen- 
 tence. 
 
 " As he was very thirsty, and the fruit 
 looked exceedingly tempting." Two circum- 
 stances are here mentioned previous to the 
 expression, "he determined." These may be 
 considered as two causes of his determination, 
 and are consequently placed with propriety 
 before the action to which they give rise. 
 
 " He determined." The action naturally 
 following the causes above mentioned. 
 
 " Not to pass them by." The object of his 
 determination, and consequently following the 
 verb. 
 
 " Without at least making an attempt to 
 possess them." A clause qualifying the object, 
 and coming after it. 
 
 " He therefore leaped." A bodily action ; 
 the result of his determination. The action of 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 141 
 
 the mind always precedes that of the body. 
 He could not have " leaped " before determining 
 to leap. 
 
 " Several times with all his might." Two 
 circumstances qualifying the action, "leaped," 
 and placed after it. 
 
 " And put every stratagem in practice to 
 obtain possession of them." The cause again 
 before the effect. What he desired was "to 
 obtain ; " and in order to obtain his desire, " he 
 put every stratagem in practice." 
 
 " But in vain." Properly placed after the 
 action just expressed. 
 
 " At length, suddenly turning away, and 
 pursuing his path." Circumstances of time 
 and action, mentioned in the proper order of 
 time before the speech with which the fable 
 closes. 
 
 " f Pshaw ! ' said he, ( after all,' " &c. The order 
 of time again followed. The fox is represented 
 as expressing himself in this way after turning 
 away, &c. 
 
 It is an excellent practice, at this period of 
 his advancement, to require of the pupil to 
 examine a piece of composition according to 
 the plan just shown, and explain the manner in 
 which the ideas are connected. The order of 
 time is usually followed in historical and nar- 
 rative composition, to which species of writing 
 it is expedient that the pupil's attention should 
 be directed in his first attempts. For this 
 purpose, a fable or a short paragraph from 
 English history, may be submitted to his in- 
 
142 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 spection for explanation, according to the 
 manner above shown. 
 
 In pursuit of the above plan, I shall here lay 
 down some sketches of those fables of JEsop * 
 with which most young persons are familiar, 
 leaving them to be filled up by the student, 
 and calling his attention more particularly to 
 the connective parts of his composition. 
 
 The moral is to be expressed more diffusely. 
 
 TABLES. 
 
 1. The Wolf and the Lamb. 
 
 Day — wolf — lamb — time — quench — 
 stream — wolf — higher — lamb — lower — 
 wolf — quarrelsome — accuse — disturbing — 
 lamb — frightened — excuse — wolf — said — 
 " spoke ill — six months " — lamb — not born 
 — wolf — passion — approached — tore — pieces. 
 
 Moral. Innocence — victim — cruelty — 
 power. 
 
 2. The Frogs desiring a King. 
 
 Frogs — easy — life — lakes — assembled — 
 petitioned — Jupiter — king — smiled — log — 
 splash — frightened — (circumstances) — ven- 
 tured — (circumstances) — leaped — not con- 
 tented — another — stork — devour — Mercury 
 — in behalf — replied — own choice — suffer — 
 folly. 
 
 * These fables may be all found in Croxall's edition of 
 yEsop. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 143 
 
 Moral. Bear — present — evil — change — 
 worse. 
 
 3. The Dog and the Shadow. 
 
 Dog — rivulet — flesh — mouth — shadow — 
 mirror — stream — believing — another ■ — other 
 flesh — caught — far from — gaining — 
 greediness — dropt — piece — sank — bottom 
 lost. 
 
 Moral. Avidity — punished. 
 
 4. The Wolf and the Crane. 
 
 Wolf — prey — bone — throat — pain — 
 howled — demand — succour — animal — - re- 
 ward — operate — success — crane — recom- 
 pense — oath — ventured — neck — rapacious 
 throat — {circumstance) — extracted — asked — 
 reward — wolf — disdainfully — unconscionable 
 — head — safe — damage — contented. 
 
 Moral. Examine — character — benefit. 
 
 5. The Stag admiring his Horns. 
 
 Stag — clear — saw — water {circumstance) 
 
 — stood — contemplating — shape — &c. — 
 beautiful — horns ! — graceful ! — agreeable ! — 
 other parts — proportion — perfect — legs — 
 ashamed — slender — unsightly — reflections — ■ 
 alarmed — huntsman — hounds — flies — con- 
 sternation — bounds — plain — distance — copse 
 
 — entangled — horns — held — seized — death 
 
144 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 — words — unhappy ! — too late — pride — 
 ruin — blamed — saved. 
 
 Moral. Judge — not — appearance. 
 
 6. The Fox and the Crow. 
 
 A crow — cheese — flew — tree — eat — a 
 fox — came — sat — compliment — beauty — 
 " feathers — delicate — shape — body — fine 
 voice — complexion — incomparable — no bird 
 — vie. " — crow — pleased — determined — speci- 
 men — voice — sing — instant — dropped — 
 cheese — mouth — fox — snapped — laughing 
 
 — credulity. 
 
 Moral. Beware — flattery — examine — 
 motives. 
 
 7. The ambitious Frog. 
 
 Ox — meadow — foot — frogs — trod — 
 death — mother — happened — huge — saw — 
 lives — what ? — big — old frog — swelling — 
 degree — " larger — straining — more — indeed 
 
 — burst " — big — strove — burst. 
 Moral. Be contented — condition. 
 
 8. The Fox and the Stork. 
 
 Fox — stork — divert — expense — soup — 
 wide — lap — ease — stork — point — bill — 
 famished — few days — returned — invited fox 
 — nothing — table — meat — jar — neck — 
 deep — narrow — stork — long bill — satisfy — 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 145 
 
 fox — hungry — lick — Reynard — vexed — 
 took leave — owned — deserved — punished — 
 example. 
 
 Moral. Do — as — done by. 
 
 9. The Frogs and the fighting Bulls. 
 
 Frogs — peeping — lake — bulls fighting — 
 meadow — calling — look — dreadful — what 
 — happen — bulls' quarrels — not affect — dif- 
 ferent — contention — mastery — " true — dif- 
 ferent — one — conquer — the vanquished — 
 refuge — marshes — tread down — suffer." 
 
 Moral. Quarrels — great — poor — suffer. 
 
 10. The Fox and the Goat. 
 
 Fox — well — {circumstance) — goat — came 
 
 — drink — water — good ? — sweet — too much 
 
 — goat — leaps — fox — horns — out — goat — 
 shift. 
 
 Moral. Consider — character — advisers. 
 
 11. The Countryman and the Snake. 
 
 Villager — winter — snake — hedge — cold 
 
 — compassion — creature — home — hearth — 
 fire — lain — revived — erect — fly — children 
 
 — hissing — countryman — outcry — perceiving 
 
 — matter — mattock — dispatched — reproach- 
 ing — words — " wretch — save — life — die — 
 deserve." 
 
 Moral. Ingratitude — evil — good. 
 L 
 
146 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 12. The Lion and the Mouse. 
 
 Lion — faint — weary — lain — repose — 
 boughs — oak — sleeping — mice — back — 
 wakened — starting — paw — kill — suppliant 
 
 — mercy — stain — character — blood — insig- 
 nificant — lion — {circumstance) — released — 
 prisoner — (circumstances) — fell — nets — dis- 
 engage — roar — mouse — voice — hastened — 
 no fear — friend — work — teeth — gnaw — 
 fastenings — brute — liberty . 
 
 Moral. Generosity — reward. 
 
 13. The Horse and the Stag. 
 
 Stag — horns — drove — horse — pasture — 
 together — horse — man — bridle — saddle — 
 defeated — enemy — thanks — dismissed — an- 
 swer — useful — good — keep. 
 
 Moral. Not — fearing poverty — give up — 
 liberty. 
 
 14. The Country Mouse and the Town Mouse. 
 
 Honest — country mouse — entertained — 
 hole — town mouse — playfellows — acquaint- 
 ances — master — obliged — honours — stranger 
 
 — guest — dish — peas — bacon — oatmeal — 
 cheese — apple — manners — not eat — lest — 
 stranger — not sufficient — {circumstance) — 
 town — "bear — live — melancholy — woods — 
 mountains — rivulets — world — birds — court 
 
 — desert ? — change — better — come — lose — 
 time" — arguments — country — town — night 
 
 — set out — town ■ — evening — midnight — 
 entry — mansion — entertainment — remains — 
 Persian carpet — hangings — courtier — enjoyed 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 147 
 
 — suddenly — start — confusion — fright — 
 mastiff — quiet — comfort. 
 
 Moral. Moderate — comfort — preferable — 
 affluence. 
 
 15. The Lark and her Young ones. 
 Lark — young — corn — ripe — fear — 
 reapers — fledged — remove — fly — look — 
 food — change — notice — absence — tell — 
 back — gone — owner — son — to-morrow — 
 friends — neighbours — help — reap — lark — 
 home — young — told — happened — mother — 
 easy — friends — not ■ — next — departed — 
 same — orders — owner — expected — no one 
 
 — friends — no dependance — relations — early 
 
 — help — young — reported — mother — no fear 
 
 — tell — next — farmer — son — sickles — reap 
 — ourselves — {circumstance) — " time — gone 
 
 — master " — removed — brood. 
 Moral. Act — self — independent. 
 
 16. The Wind and the Sun. 
 Dispute — north-wind — sun — power — de- 
 termined — strength — traveller — cloak — wind 
 
 — blast — shower — instead — draw — body 
 
 — sun — cloud — darted — head — faint — man 
 
 — heat — endure — protection — grove. 
 Moral. Persuasion — gentle — boisterous — - 
 
 harsh. 
 
 17. The Ass in the Lion's Skin. 
 Ass — skin — Hon — clothed — woods — 
 terrified — owner — frighten — ears — betray 
 
 — cudgel — skin — ass. 
 
 Moral. Affectation — ridicule. 
 L 2 
 
148 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 18. Hercules and the Waggoner. 
 
 Carter — mud — stuck — clay — horses — 
 pray — Hercules — assist — god — cloud — 
 idle — whip — shoulder — wheel — way — as- 
 sistance. 
 
 Moral. Heaven — assist — industry. 
 
 19. The Man and his Goose. 
 
 Man — goose — golden — day — not con- 
 tented — increased — abated — kill — cut up 
 
 — treasure — fancied — sorrow — disappoint- 
 ment — nothing. 
 
 Moral. Punishment — covetous. 
 
 20. The Angler and the little Fish. 
 
 Man — river — perch — taking — hook — 
 going — basket — mouth — implore — throw 
 
 — man — reason — favour — fish — young — 
 worth — hence — larger — man — " fools — cer- 
 tainty — uncertainty." 
 
 Moral. Secure — opportunity. 
 
 21. The Ass and the Lion hunting. 
 
 Lion — fancy — hunt — ass — useful — in- 
 structions — hide — thicket — bray — frightful 
 - — contrive — thus — rouse — beasts — hearing 
 
 — stand — outlets — take — escaping — done 
 
 — stratagem — effect — ass — hideously — beasts 
 
 — scamper — lion — posted — seized — devoured 
 
 — pleased — satisfied — ass — desist — enough 
 — long-eared — ambush — approach — confidence 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 149 
 
 — performance — so well — nature — temper — 
 myself. 
 
 Moral. Boasters — cowards. 
 
 22. The sensible Ass. 
 
 Old man — ass — meadow — enemy — ass — 
 fly — speed — ass — whether two ? — man — 
 no fear — not stir — no concern — master — 
 panniers. 
 
 Moral. Revolution — change — masters. 
 
 23. The Goat and the Lion. 
 
 Lion — goat — rock — not reach — pleasure 
 
 — skip — precipice — venture — neck — wonder 
 
 — down — plains — grass — herbs — goat — 
 opinion — hungry — designing — trust — per- 
 son. 
 
 Moral. Beware — interest — counsellors. 
 
 24. The Cat and the Mice. 
 
 House — mice — cat — catch — eat — mice 
 
 — numbers — thin — consulted — preservation 
 
 — jaws — cat — resolution — below — shelf — 
 cat (circumstance) — hungry — prey — recourse 
 
 — hung — peg — wall — pretended — dead — 
 entice — posture — mouse — cunning — edge 
 
 — " friend — there ? — not trust — straw." 
 Moral. Prudence — trusts — deceived. 
 
 25. The one-eyed Doe. 
 
 Doe — eye — graze — sea — secure — harm — 
 blind — water — apprehension — other — coun- 
 L 3 
 
150 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 try — fed — vigilance — thought — security — 
 sly — companions — poaching — purpose — boat 
 
 — sea — shot — doe — dying — "fate —wound 
 
 — side — safe — danger." 
 Moral. Never — too — secure. 
 
 26. The Hare and the Sparrow. 
 
 Hare — eagle -*- shrieked — sparrow — tree 
 
 — refrain — wit — said — "sit — killed ? — up — 
 run — try — swift — escape" — continuing — 
 raillery — hawk — snapped — cries — devour — 
 hare — expiring — comfort — accident — mo- 
 ments — sparrow — " insulted — security — 
 show — bear — befallen." 
 
 Moral. Not — insult — unfortunate. 
 
 27. The Dog and the Thief. 
 
 Thief — rob — night — disturbed — dog — 
 barking — stop — bread — refused — before — 
 suspected — now — bribe — opinion — entrusted 
 
 — house — cease — rogue — lurking. 
 Moral. Suspect — protestations, &c. 
 
 28. The Ass and the little Dog. 
 Ass — favourite — dog — master — caressed 
 
 — fed — meal — reason — skipping — frisking 
 
 — lap — resolved — same — procure — favours 
 
 — accordingly — home — fields — gardens — 
 seated — chair — gambol — awkward — master 
 
 — laugh — earnest — rough — pawed — affec- 
 tionate — jump — lap — terrified — weight — 
 cry — servant — stick — convinced — every 
 one — not — favourite. 
 
 Moral. Not — attempt — unsuited. 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 151 
 
 29. The Dog in the Manger. 
 
 Dog — manger — hay — ox — hungry — 
 eat — cur — suffer — touch — ox — " curse — 
 wretch — not — allow — others." 
 
 Moral. Envy — miserable — selves — 
 others. 
 
 30. The Father and his Sons. 
 
 Husbandman — death — desirous — sons — 
 same course — himself — expedient — called — 
 spoke — effect — patrimony — bequeath — farm 
 
 — possession — treasure — foot — surface — 
 sons — conclude — money — father's death — 
 diligence — dug — farm — no treasure — earth 
 
 — dug — crop — sowed — wealth. 
 Moral. Industry — wealth. 
 
 31. The Old Man and his Sons. 
 
 Old man — sons — quarrelling — authority — 
 reconcile — no purpose — expedient — called — 
 bundle — sticks — one by one — break — in 
 vain — impossible = — bundle — untied — ■ single 
 
 — each — addressed — a sons — unity — you — 
 conjoined — friendship — no harm — bonds — 
 dissolved — fall — injured — designing." 
 
 Moral. Party — weak — unity — strong. 
 
 32. The Thief and the Bog. 
 
 Boy — weeping — well — thief — why — 
 boy — tankard — well — thief — clothes — down 
 
 — groped — long — up — clothes — boy — 
 away. 
 
 Moral. Wicked — punished — wicked. 
 L 4 
 
152 ENGLISH; OR; 
 
 33. Mercury and the Woodman. 
 
 Man — river — hatchet — drop — sank — 
 distress — implement — lamented — Mercury — 
 cause — dived — golden — no — second — sil- 
 ver — no — third — real — joy — gratitude — 
 pleased — two — reward — companions — ac- 
 count — one — river — hatchet — bank — la- 
 menting — Mercury — dive — golden — trans- 
 ported — yes — snatch — God — impudence — 
 own. 
 
 Moral. Honesty — policy. 
 
 34. The Boy and his Mother. 
 
 Boy — school — book — mother — not cor- 
 rect — commended — apple — time — man — 
 robberies — taken — gaol — condemned — execu- 
 tion — conducting — scaffold — crowd — mother 
 
 — sobbing — fate — observing- — sheriff — 
 favour — word — mother — permission — felon 
 
 — whispering — bit — ear — surprise — not — 
 impious — increase — violence — "people — mis- 
 take — wicked — deserves — chastised — child 
 
 — caressing — ignominious."' 
 Moral. Impressions — education. 
 
 35. The Ant and the Grasshopper. 
 
 Winter — ants — corn — heaps — grasshop- 
 per — summer — starve — approach — humbly 
 
 — relieve — grain — asked — passed — summer 
 
 — store — alas ! — passed — drinking — dancing 
 
 — ant — laughing — drink — summer — starve 
 
 — winter. 
 
 Moral. Provide — future. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 153 
 
 36. The Shepherd's Boy and the Wolf. 
 
 Boy — sheep — common — sport — wolf! — 
 drew — husbandmen — field — work — deluded 
 
 — resolved — disregard — earnest — cried — 
 no attention — sheep. 
 
 Moral. Detect — falsehood — never — be- 
 lief. 
 
 37. The Swallow and other Birds. 
 
 Farmer — sowing — flax — swallow — de- 
 sired — birds — pick — destroy — pernicious — 
 thread — nets — ruin — innocent — disregarded 
 
 — flax — above ground — reminded — danger 
 
 — pluck — bud — neglected — high stalk — 
 again — attack — late — ridiculed — silly — 
 swallow — remonstrance — no avail — quiet — 
 society — woods — houses — leaving — birds — 
 cities — men. 
 
 Moral. Groocl advice — unheeded — abandon 
 
 — fate. 
 
 38. The Trumpeter taken Prisoner. 
 
 Trumpeter — prisoner — battle — quarter — 
 innocence — arms — trumpet — sound — com- 
 mand — " resolved — spare — you — not fight 
 
 — instrument — animosity — occasion — war." 
 Moral. Tongue — dangerous. 
 
 39. The Hare and the Tortoise. 
 
 Hare — tortoise — slowness — boasted — 
 speed — "match — tortoise — run — five pounds 
 
 — fox — umpire " — agreed — started — hare 
 

 154 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 — swift — outran — jest — tired — sleep — 
 easy — overtake — tortoise — slow — continued 
 
 — hare — security — overslept — tortoise — 
 won. 
 
 Moral. Industry — preferable — brilliant. 
 
 40. The Man and the Weasel. 
 
 Man — weasel — kill — creature — escape — 
 pitiful — " kill — clear — home — mice "• — " why 
 
 — love — me — pardon — obliged — mischief 
 
 — eating — gnawing" __ took — strangled. 
 Moral. Private — interest — public — good. 
 
 Fables to he written from Recollection. 
 
 1. The Yain Jackdaw. 
 
 2. The Lion and other Beasts. 
 
 3. The Eagle and the Fox. 
 
 4. The Boar and the Ass. 
 
 5. The Kite and the Pigeons. 
 
 6. The Stag in the Ox-stall. 
 
 7. The Dog and the Wolf. 
 
 8. The Lamb brought up by a Goat. 
 
 9. The Peacock's Complaint. 
 
 10. The Viper and the File. 
 
 11. The Ant and the Fly. 
 
 12. The Old Hound. 
 
 13. The Sick Kite. 
 
 14. The Hares and the Frogs. 
 
 15. The Tortoise and the Eagle. 
 
 16. The Frog and the Fox. 
 
 17. The Mischievous Dog. 
 
 18. Jupiter and the Camel. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 155 
 
 19. The Bear and the Travellers. 
 
 20. The Bald Knight. 
 
 21. The Peacock and the Crane. 
 
 22. The Oak and the Keed. 
 
 23. The Fox and the Tiger. 
 
 24. The Lion and the Four Bulls. 
 
 25. The Crow and the Pitcher. 
 
 26. The Forester and the Lion. 
 
 27. The Man and his Goose. 
 
 28. The Leopard and the Fox. 
 
 29. The Cat and the Fox. 
 
 30. The Hawk and the Nightingale. 
 
 31. The Old Man and Death. 
 
 32. The Stag and the Fawn. 
 
 33. The Boasting Traveller. 
 
 34. The Fox and the Mask. 
 
 35. The Eagle, the Cat, and the Sow. 
 
 36. The Fir-tree and the Bramble. 
 
 37. The Bull and the Goat. 
 
 38. The Fowler and the Blackbird. 
 
 39. The Fox and the Countryman. 
 
 40. The Owl and the Grasshopper. 
 
 41. The Jack-daw and the Pigeons. 
 
 42. The Two Crabs. 
 
 43. The Judicious Lion. 
 
 44. Jupiter and the Ass. 
 
 45. The Bear and the Beehives. 
 
 46. The Cock and the Fox. 
 
 47. The Hawk and the Farmer. 
 
 N. B. These fables are all to be found in Dr. 
 Croxall's translation of ^Esop. 
 
156 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 HISTOEICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL SUBJECTS. 
 
 In drawing up the following list of subjects for 
 composition, I have held in view two principal 
 objects ; to furnish the young mind with that 
 sort of subject which should be best suited to 
 its capacity, and to impart that sort of informa- 
 tion which should excite the liveliest interest in 
 the student. In furtherance of these intentions, 
 I have selected the historical style for his next 
 exercise, not only because it is generally simple 
 and easily imitated, but also because it may be 
 made the medium of conveying to his mind that 
 branch of knowledge, the possession of which is 
 of the greatest consequence to* every English 
 student ; and as an acquaintance with whatever 
 is connected with our own country ought to 
 take precedence of every other knowledge, I 
 have chosen England as a grand subject for 
 the pupil's composition, my intention in this 
 chapter being to present it to his view in every 
 variety of aspect. It may be considered under 
 the various heads of History, Poetry, Phi- 
 losophy, Military and Naval Tactics, the Fine 
 Arts, Law, Politics, &c. The historical por- 
 tion of the subject will consist of short sketches 
 of those reigns of English monarchs which 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 157 
 
 afford a peculiar interest, viz. Alfred, Canute, 
 William I., Richard I., John, Henry IV. V. 
 VII. VIII., Mary, Elizabeth, Charles I., James 
 II., William III., and Anne. The military his- 
 tory will contain sketches of the lives of our 
 most eminent military commanders, — Marl- 
 borough, Clive, Wolfe, Moore, and Abercrom- 
 by ; and the naval history will be comprised in 
 biographical notices of Drake, Hawkins, Fro- 
 bisher, Howe, and Nelson. The poetical por- 
 tion will comprise accounts of the lives of 
 Shakspeare, Milton, Dryden, Pope, Addison, 
 Otway, Johnson, Thomson, and Goldsmith. 
 The lives of historians will form another division, 
 comprising the biographies of Gibbon, Robert- 
 son, Hume, and Smollett. Under the head of 
 Fine Arts, will be introduced the lives of Hogarth, 
 Reynolds, Fuseli, Barry, and Sir Thomas Law- 
 rence. The legal and political history will be 
 treated of in short accounts of our most cele- 
 brated lawyers and statesmen, viz. Coke, Hale, 
 Blackstone, Pitt, Fox, and Burke. The history 
 of science will be comprised in notices of the 
 lives of Newton, Boyle, and Herschel ; and the 
 names of Bacon, Locke, Reid, and Stewart will 
 furnish materials for the discussion of the philo- 
 sophical division of the subject. These sketches 
 will be arranged chronologically, so as to present 
 a view of the gradual development and improve- 
 ment of the national intellect and constitution 
 in every branch ; and the practice of working 
 out the subjects proposed, in the form of exer- 
 cises, will not only be improving to composition, 
 but, at the same time, will impart a much more 
 
158 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 lasting information in every branch of knowledge 
 connected with English history, than could be 
 gained by a mere cursory perusal. 
 
 Alfred. 849—901. 
 
 Born 849 at Wantage in Berkshire — son of 
 Ethelwolf ; his mother was Osburgh, daughter 
 of Oslac, butler to Ethelwolf but well de- 
 scended. 
 
 His early education neglected — his natural 
 thirst for knowledge — skilled in bodily exer- 
 cises. 
 
 His enemies the Danes : i. e. the Scandina- 
 vians. (Sweden, Denmark, and Norway.) Com- 
 mander of his brother's armies — recommends a 
 navy. 
 
 Losses, and reverses of fortune — anecdote of 
 the burnt cakes — defeat of the Danes — baptism 
 of Guthrum — Alfred's power increases. 
 
 Peace during the last two years of his reign, 
 dies 901. His character — learning — piety 
 — habits — political institutions — patronage 
 of learned men — division of England into 
 counties, hundreds, tithings, &c. (See Penny 
 Encyclopedia and Goldsmith's History.) 
 
 Canute. 1017—1036. 
 
 A Dane, son of Sweyn, ascends the throne 
 1017 — reigns about twenty years — dispossesses 
 the Anglo-Saxon kings of their power — died at 
 Shaftesbury — buried at Winchester — anecdote 
 of the rebuke to his courtiers. 
 
 Left three sons, of no talents or virtues. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 159 
 
 The Saxons shake off the Danish yoke in 
 1041 — Edward the Confessor. (See Goldsmith.) 
 
 William I. 1066—1087. 
 
 Whose son ? — his title to the English throne 
 
 — his rival — the invasion of England — the 
 number of William's army — where he landed. 
 
 Harold's title to the crown — proposal made 
 by William to Harold — the night before the 
 battle. 
 
 The battle and its circumstances — death of 
 Harold, and consequent victory to William — 
 14th October, 1066. Extinction of Saxon rule 
 
 — submission of the clergy. 
 
 Coronation — oath — return to Normandy — 
 Effects of his absence. 
 
 . Conspiracy of the English — return of Wil- 
 liam and treatment of the rebels and English 
 clergy. 
 
 Destined to vexation and trouble — his chil- 
 dren — anecdote of their quarrels. 
 
 Insurrection in Normandy — conduct of the 
 queen, daughter of Baldwin, Earl of Flanders 
 
 — rebellion quelled by an English army. 
 Death of Queen Matilda — insurrection in 
 
 Maine aided by the King of France. 
 
 Invasion of France by William — accident 
 which caused the death of the king in 1087. 
 (See Goldsmith.) 
 
 Richard I. 1189—1199. 
 
 The third son of Henry II. — succeeded in 
 1189 — his surname — sets outs on the crusade 
 
160 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 — plains of Vevelay — 100,000. Philip — 
 Messina — marries Berengaria, daughter of 
 Sancho V. of Navarre — mutual distrust be- 
 tween Richard and Philip. 
 
 Philip quits Palestine — Ascalon — Saladin 
 — victory — Jerusalem — forces diminished and 
 emaciated — truce — conditions. 
 
 Returning home — shipwrecked at Aquileia — 
 arrested in Germany — imprisoned — Leopold 
 
 — Austria — lost to his English subjects — 
 anecdote of Blondel. 
 
 Ransom agreed upon. 
 
 Joy of the English — behaviour of John in 
 his absence — generosity of Richard. 
 
 Cause of Richard's death — relate anecdote — 
 conduct of Richard in his last hours — reigned 
 ten years — no children. 
 
 Remarks on his character, and the times. (See 
 Goldsmith.) 
 
 John. 1199—1216. 
 
 Arthur, son of Geoffrey, the rightful heir — 
 put to death by command of his uncle — election 
 of archbishops — the king quarrels with the 
 pope (Innocent III.) — interdict — state of the 
 country. 
 
 The situation of the king — fears and jea- 
 lousies — apprehended invasion of France. 
 
 Raises forces — marches to Dover — recon- 
 ciled to the pope — extraordinary oath taken by 
 John. 
 
 Confederacy of the barons — march against 
 the king — their demands — refused — their 
 success. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 161 
 
 John's offer — refused — a conference ap- 
 pointed. 
 
 Runnymede — debates — barons and king — 
 Magna Charta^ 19th June, 1215 — privileges 
 granted by this charter, 
 
 Base conduct of the king — a fresh civil war 
 
 — the barons call in the assistance of France. 
 John's preparations — march — inundations — 
 
 his losses — difficulty of escape — grief — death 
 
 — children. 
 
 Remarks on his character — the English con- 
 stitution. (See Goldsmith.) 
 
 Henry IV. 1399—1413. 
 
 Son of John of Gaunt — banished by Richard 
 II. — the king confiscates his estates on the 
 death of his father — Henry returns to claim 
 his inheritance — deposes his cousin. 
 
 The vexations and troubles he meets with in 
 his government. 
 
 Conspiracy of the Earl of Northumberland 
 
 — relate the particulars — battle of Shrewsbury 
 death of Hotspur — victory of Henry. 
 
 The Earl of Northumberland pressed hard 
 
 — implores the king's mercy — pardoned. 
 
 All troubles appeased — grants privileges to 
 the House of Commons — irregularities of the 
 young Prince of Wales — anecdote of Sir W. 
 Gascoigne. 
 
 Decline and death of Henry. (See Gold- 
 smith.) 
 
 31 
 
162 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 Henry V. 1413—1422. 
 
 First measures of the young king — promotion 
 of Sir "W. Gascoigne. 
 
 Wickliffe — Sir John Oldcastle. 
 
 War with France — Harfleur — obstacles — 
 intercepted in his retreat — battle of Agincourt 
 — commanders on each side. 
 
 Circumstances of the battle — victory of the 
 Eno-lish — orders for massacre countermanded. 
 
 State of the French King — Henry elected 
 heir to the crown of France — marries the 
 Princess Catherine. 
 
 Resides at Paris — his reception. 
 
 Suddenly seized with an illness — dies aged 
 thirty-four. (See Goldsmith.) 
 
 Henry VII. 1485—1509. 
 
 The first prince of the line of Tudor — 
 marriage of Henry from political views — his 
 avarice. 
 
 A general pardon — rebellious spirit of the 
 times. 
 
 Imposture of Simnel — his age and talents — 
 appears first in Ireland. 
 
 Lands in Lancashire — marches to York — 
 not joined by the people — battle of Stoke in 
 Nottingham — rebels headed by Lord Leicester 
 — killed in the battle. 
 
 Simnel taken — pardoned — his degradation. 
 
 Fresh insurrection in Yorkshire — taxes re- 
 sisted — Earl of Surrey quells the insurrection. 
 
 Imposture of Perkin Warbeck — the Duchess 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 163 
 
 of Burgundy — personates the Duke of York 
 murdered in the tower — gains credit. 
 
 Gentlemen and noblemen favouring Perkin's 
 cause. 
 
 Plot continues — Henry's spies and bribes — 
 apprehension of the conspirators — execution of 
 some — pardon of others. 
 
 Perkin appears in Scotland — received by 
 James IV. — marries Lady Catherine Gordon 
 — enters England — not supported by the in- 
 habitants. 
 
 Leaves Scotland — appears in Cornwall — 
 joined by 3000 — deserts his army — his ad- 
 herents pardoned — delivers himself up to the 
 king — signs a confession of his imposture — 
 attempts to escape — re-taken and hanged., 
 1499. 
 
 Henry's character — cold — calculating — 
 avaricious — hatred of Yorkists — troubles — 
 plots — insurrections — dies of the gout, 1509. 
 (See Goldsmith.) 
 
 Henry VIII. 1509—1547. 
 
 First act of Henry. 
 
 War with France — France invaded by the 
 other powers of Europe. 
 
 A truce concluded — Henry's extravagance. 
 
 Wolsey — courtier — origin — education — 
 chaplain to Henry VIII. — dispatched on a 
 commission to Brussels — his arts to natter the 
 prince — indignation of the people — avarice 
 and ambition of Wolsey. 
 M 2 
 
164 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 Wolse y manages an interview between Henry 
 and Francis I. — Field of the cloth of gold. 
 
 Exhaustion of the royal treasury — Wolsey's 
 exactions to procure the king money. 
 
 Reformation — Henry's first wife, Catherine 
 of Arragon — who ? — his scruples — jAnna Bo- 
 leyn — description — applies for a divorce — 
 difficult position of the Pope. 
 
 Wolsey's conduct in this matter — is conse- 
 quently supplanted — Cranmer. 
 
 Wolsey's disgrace — confiscation of effects — 
 furniture — mode of living — arrested for trea- 
 son — taken ill at Leicester Abbey — dies — 
 his last words. 
 
 Henry marries Anna Boleyn — separates 
 himself from the Church of Rome. 
 
 State of the country in respect of religion — 
 inspection of monasteries and convents — con- 
 fiscation of their effects to the crown. 
 
 Caprice and inconstancy of the king — Anna 
 Boleyn accused — condemned, and executed — 
 Henry marries Jane Seymour. 
 
 Persecutions for religious opinions. 
 
 Jane Seymour dies a year after marriage — 
 Henry marries Ann of Cleves — divorces her 
 and is married to Catherine Howard, who is 
 soon after beheaded on Tower-Hill. 
 
 Henry marries Catherine Parr — a virtuous 
 and discreet woman — the king's temper — se- 
 verity — bodily afflictions — cruelty — arrest of 
 the Duke of Norfolk and Earl of Surrey — 
 the earl beheaded. 
 
 Account of the King during his last illness 
 — Henry's character — no one redeeming qua- 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 165 
 
 lity — cruel — capricious — tyrannical — haughty 
 
 — stern — severe. 
 
 Reflections on this reign. (See Goldsmith.) 
 
 Mary. 1553—1558. 
 
 Two candidates for the crown — Mary and 
 Lady Jane Grey — Mary, catholic ; Lady Jane, 
 reformer — disinclined to government — over 
 persuaded — received without applause. 
 
 Mary's pretensions and claims — Lady Jane 
 resigns — Northumberland arrested. 
 
 Mary's claims acknowledged — re-establishes 
 catholicity — marries Philip II. of Spain — dis- 
 contents. 
 
 Execution of Lord Guilford Dudley and 
 Lady Jane Grey — relate the circumstances. 
 
 Persecution of the Reformers — Calais taken 
 by the Duke of Guise — the queen's regret. 
 
 Illness of the queen — dies — after a reign 
 of five years. (See Goldsmith.) 
 
 Elizabeth. 1558—1603. 
 
 Joy of the people — the queen favours the 
 reformed religion. 
 
 Mary Stuart — from whom descended — mar- 
 ried to Francis the dauphin — a widow at 
 nineteen — returns to Scotland — her unpopu- 
 larity. 
 
 Married to Darnley — character of Darnley 
 
 — Rizzio — Darnley 's jealousy — murder of 
 Rizzio — relate the circumstances. 
 
 Suspicious death of Darnley — relate the 
 account. 
 
 M 3 
 
166 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 Mary's marriage with. Bothwell — taken pri- 
 soner — confined in Lochlevin castle. 
 
 Escapes — battle of Langside — flees to En- 
 gland — confined by order of Elizabeth. 
 
 Designs of the Duke of Norfolk — revealed 
 
 — his condemnation and execution. 
 Conspiracy of Babington in Mary's favour — 
 
 discovery — trial and death of the conspirators. 
 
 A commission apppointed to try Mary — 
 severe treatment on her trial — hesitation of 
 Elizabeth to sign the warrant for her execu- 
 tion. 
 
 Execution of Mary — relate the circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Reflections — Mary's character — Elizabeth's 
 motives. 
 
 The invincible armada- — terror of the En- 
 glish — the commanders of the English fleet. 
 
 Disasters of the Armada — engagement in 
 the channel — total destruction of the Spanish 
 fleet. 
 
 Reprisals made by the English on Spain. 
 The Earl of Essex — his popularity — ambition 
 
 — uncourteous treatment of the queen — sent 
 to Ireland. 
 
 Returns without orders — the queen's resent- 
 ment. 
 
 Pardoned — project of Essex — treason — 
 plot discovered — taken. 
 
 Tried and found guilty — anecdote of the 
 ring given to Essex by Elizabeth — signs the 
 warrant for his execution. 
 
 Elizabeth's distress — illness and death at 
 the as:e of 70. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 167 
 
 Her character — arbitrary — (that of all the 
 Tudors) — wisdom — strong sense — gradual im- 
 provement of the people — trade — commerce 
 
 — Sir Walter Raleigh — Hooker — Spenser 
 
 — Shakspeare — Bacon, &c. &c. (See Gold- 
 smith.) 
 
 Charles L 1625—1649. 
 
 The king's prospects on ascending the throne. 
 
 His debts — applies to the House of Com- 
 mons — supply voted. 
 
 Extortion — benevolence — unjust taxation. 
 
 Another attempt to raise supplies — inef- 
 fectual — ship-money — what ? 
 
 War against France — Buckingham — Ro- 
 chelle — ill-success of the expedition — dis- 
 grace to England. 
 
 Contest between the king and parliament — 
 violence of the king. 
 
 Assassination of the Duke of Buckingham — 
 circumstances — trial and execution of the as- 
 sassin. 
 
 Peace with France and Spain — two new 
 ministers — Wentworth and Laud. 
 
 Tonnage and poundage. 
 
 John Hampden resists the payment of ship- 
 money. 
 
 The liturgy ordered in Scotland — its re- 
 ception — obstinacy of the king — war with the 
 Scots. 
 
 Impeachment of the Earl of Strafford — 
 found guilty — beheaded on Tower-Hill. 
 
 High Commission Court and Star Chamber 
 abolished. 
 
 M 4 
 
168 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 Rebellion in Ireland — disagreeable situation 
 of the king. 
 
 The spirit of republicanism — episcopacy at- 
 tacked — the bishops accused of treason. 
 
 Members of the commons impeached by the 
 king — his want of firmness. 
 
 Gradual encroachment of the parliament on 
 the king's prerogative — parties distinguished 
 by the names of Cavaliers and Roundheads. 
 
 Civil war — 1642. —Battle of Edgehill— 
 Holland sends assistance to the king. 
 
 First campaign favourable to the royalists — 
 death of John Hampden and Lord Falkland — 
 their character. 
 
 Parliament convoked by the king at Oxford. 
 
 Ordinances of the Westminster parliament — 
 Battle of Marston-moor — victory of Crom- 
 well 
 
 Trial and execution of Laud — change in the 
 ceremonies of the church. 
 
 Battle of Naseby — total defeat of Charles 
 
 — the whole country in possession of the Parlia- 
 mentarians. 
 
 The king surrenders to the Scots, who basely 
 deliver him up to his enemies. 
 
 Oliver Cromwell — who ? — life — education 
 
 — character. 
 
 A military parliament formed from the officers 
 of Cromwell's army. 
 
 The king a prisoner — falls into the power of 
 the army. 
 
 Proposals of Charles to arrange all differences 
 
 — in vain. 
 
 Charles treated with great indignity — ■ 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 169 
 
 brought to trial — his behaviour — his last hours 
 
 — execution, January 30, 1649. (See Gold- 
 smith.) 
 
 James II. 1685—1688. 
 
 Brother to Charles II,, favours the religion 
 of Rome. 
 
 Conspiracy of the Duke of Monmouth. His 
 pretensions. 
 
 Favoured by the Duke of Argyle — Argyle's 
 fate — Monmouth lands in Dorsetshire — suc- 
 cess. 
 
 Preparations of the king — Churchill (af- 
 terwards Marlborough) and Feversham lead the 
 king's troops — battle of Sedgeraoor, victory 
 of the royalists — adventures and fate of Mon- 
 mouth. 
 
 Severities civil and military, after the victory 
 
 — Kirk and Jefferies. 
 
 Injudicious conduct of the king in matters of 
 religion — ambassadors sent to Rome — the 
 Jesuits encouraged. 
 
 The king at variance with the universities. 
 
 Address of the clergy to the throne — prose- 
 cution of the bishops — their acquittal. 
 
 Aims of William prince of Orange — his 
 character and politics — sails from Holland — 
 lands in Torbay — want of success at first — 
 joined by persons of distinction. 
 
 The king's family desert him — attempts to 
 escape — discovered and brought back by the 
 mob — his flight connived at by William — es- 
 capes with his natural son the Duke of Ber- 
 wick, December 23, 1688. (See Goldsmith.) 
 
170 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 William III. and Mary. 1689—1701. 
 
 The new king's religious opinions, and their 
 consequences. 
 
 James lands in Ireland — enters Dublin — 
 lays siege to Londonderry — Battle of the 
 Boyne — won by William. 
 
 The battle of Aughrim — James retires from 
 Ireland, and lives a pensioner of Louis XIV. 
 the remainder of his life. 
 
 William a warrior by nature — careless of 
 civil government — money granted for the pro- 
 secution of the war. 
 
 War with France continued — treaty of Bys- 
 wick — William's title acknowledged by Louis 
 XIY. 
 
 Bad constitution of the king — accident and 
 consequences — his death, 1701. (See Gold- 
 smith.^) 
 
 Anne. 1701—1714. 
 
 Married to Prince George of Denmark — 
 second daughter to James II. by Anne Hyde. 
 
 War declared against France — the duke of 
 Marlborough commander-in-chief — his talents. 
 
 Battles fought against France — Blenheim — 
 Ramilies — Oudenarde — Malplaquet. 
 
 The taking of Gibraltar — Sir George Kooke 
 — circumstances 
 
 War of the Spanish succession — Earl of Pe- 
 terborough in Spain. 
 
 The English opposed in Spain by the Duke 
 of Berwick — the English defeated at the battle 
 of Ahnanza. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 171 
 
 The union with Scotland — the arguments 
 on both sides, for and against the measure. 
 
 The Duchess of Marlborough supplanted by 
 Mrs. Masham — the whigs lose the queen's confi- 
 dence. 
 
 A new parliament — the tones in power — 
 Harley prime minister. 
 
 Success of the British arms in Flanders — the 
 French king sues for peace. 
 
 Marlborough falls into disgrace — his ava- 
 rice — fraud — extortion — charges against 
 him. 
 
 Treaty of Utrecht — stipulations, &c. 1712. 
 
 Illness of the queen — letter to the Elector of 
 Hanover — death of Anne — circumstances, 
 July 31, 1714. (See Goldsmith.) 
 
 Shakspeare. 1564 — 1616. 
 
 Born at Stratford-upon-Avon, 26th April, 
 1564 — little known of the origin or rank of 
 his parents — his father, John Shakspeare, be- 
 lieved to have been a wool-comber, and his 
 mother supposed to have been a daughter of a 
 gentleman named Arden. 
 
 Probably educated at the grammar-school of 
 Stratford — little known of the history of his 
 youth — marries, in 1582, Ann Hathaway — 
 the cause which led him to leave his native place 
 — comes to London — gains a livelihood by 
 holding horses at the doors of the play-houses. 
 
 In 1593, dedicates a poem to Lord South- 
 ampton — the next year another — writes plays. 
 
 In 1596, loses his only son — an actor and 
 
172 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 sharer in the Blackfriars' and Globe Theatres — 
 patronised by Lord Southampton. 
 
 Retires to Stratford about 1603 — employs 
 his time in writing dramas — dies April 1616. 
 (See Penny Cyclopaedia, art. " Shakspeare.") 
 
 Milton. 1608—1674. 
 
 Born in Bread Street, Cheapside, December 
 9th, 1608 — his father's anxiety about his edu- 
 cation — placed with a Mr. Thomas Young — 
 afterwards at St. Paul's — and thence to Christ 
 College, Cambridge. 
 
 His studies at College — the first Englishman 
 who wrote elegant Latin verses after the re- 
 vival of learning. 
 
 Intended for the church — changes his mind 
 
 — writes " Comus " in 1634, and " Lycidas " in 
 1637. 
 
 Travels in 1638 — visits Grotius at Paris — 
 Italy — Florence — Rome — his reception from 
 the learned in Italy. 
 
 Naples — recalled by the tumults at home — 
 Lucca — Venice — Geneva — acquaintance 
 with Diodati and Spanheim — returns home 
 through France — resides in Aldersgate Street 
 
 — receives pupils — mode of education. 
 Various controversial works — marries — his 
 
 wife separates from him — a reconciliation. 
 
 His first wife dies — his literary projects — 
 " Paradise .lost." 
 
 The return of Charles II. — the act of ob- 
 livion — his blindness — retires to Chalfont 
 (Bucks) during the plague. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 173 
 
 " Paradise Lost" published — price paid for 
 the copyright of the poem. 
 
 Three years after, published a " History of 
 England to the Norman invasion " — and in the 
 same year " Paradise Regained " and " Samson 
 Agonistes." 
 
 Dies of the gout, in 1674, in Bunhill Fields 
 — his personal appearance — domestic habits — 
 learning — his religious and political opinions. 
 (See Johnson's Lives of the Poets,) 
 
 Dry den. 1631—1701. 
 
 Born at Aldwinkle, in Northamptonshire — 
 sent to Westminster, and thence to Cambridge. 
 
 His verses on Cromwell in 1658 — changes 
 his political opinions — a poem on King 
 Charles II. 
 
 Commences dramatic writing in 1663 — 
 " Annus Mirabilis" — made poet laureat — 
 Salary 100/. a year and a tierce of wine. 
 
 Essay on dramatic poetry — his great lite- 
 rary fame. 
 
 " Absalom and Achitophel " — satire — per- 
 sonalities — immense sale. 
 
 A convert to the Catholic doctrines — sus- 
 pected sincerity of his conversion — i( The 
 Hind and the Panther " — translation of Ju- 
 venal and Persius. 
 
 1694, begins his translation of Virgil — pub- 
 lishes Fables in 1697 — " Ode on St. Cecilia's 
 Day." 
 
 Dies, in 1701, of a mortification in the leg — 
 buried in Westminster Abbey. 
 
174 exglish; ok, 
 
 His character — diffidence — learning — com- 
 prehensive mind — Pope's opinion of his works 
 
 — the language much indebted to him. (See 
 Johnson's Lives.) 
 
 Otway. 1651—1685. 
 
 Few materials for his life — born at Trottin, 
 in Sussex — educated at Winchester — after- 
 wards at Oxford. 
 
 Leaves college and comes to London — com- 
 mences actor — unsuccessful — his dramatic 
 writings. 
 
 His immoral associates — and merited poverty 
 
 — goes in a military capacity to Flanders — 
 quits the army, and returns to England. 
 
 His other dramatic works, " Don Carlos " — 
 " The Orphan " — « Caius Marius " — " The 
 Soldier's Fortune ; " and his greatest work, 
 " Venice Preserved." 
 
 Account of his death and circumstances. 
 
 Addison. 1672—1719. 
 
 Born at Milston in Wilts — his early im- 
 pressions of piety — received from his father. 
 
 Went to school at Lichfield at twelve years 
 of age — afterwards to the Charter-House — 
 intimacy with Steele. 
 
 In 1637 at Queen's College, Oxford — his 
 studies — translation of Virgil's fourth Georgic. 
 
 1695, a poem on King William — patronage 
 he received from ministers — obtains a pension 
 of 300/. a year to travel — Blois — Italy. 
 
 Works during his travels — "A Dialogue 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 175 
 
 on Medals," and four acts of " Cato " — pub- 
 lishes his travels on his return. 
 
 Verses on the victory of Blenheim — an 
 opera " Rosamond." 
 
 Made Secretary to the Marquis of Wharton, 
 in Ireland. 
 
 Steele commences the " Tatler," 1709 — 
 Addison discovers the author — how ? 
 
 The " Spectator " — its political tenets — 
 its object — books written with the same in- 
 tention — Casa — Castiglione — La Bruyere. 
 
 The tragedy of " Cato " appears in 1713 — 
 the last act written in a hurry — its great suc- 
 cess — Dennis's criticisms. 
 
 The " Guardian " assisted by Addison — The 
 " Spectator " recommenced — three times a week. 
 
 The Hanoverian succession — anecdote of 
 Addison's fastidiousness of expression. 
 
 1716, marries the Countess of Warwick — 
 not a great addition to his happiness — 1717, 
 appointed Secretary of State — unequal to his 
 duties. 
 
 Retires — his last compositions — gradual 
 decline — dropsy — approaching death — sends 
 for Lord Warwick — anecdote. 
 
 His merit generally acknowledged — natu- 
 rally bashful and awkward — criticisms on 
 Milton — " Pleasures of the Imagination" — his 
 style. (See Johnson.} 
 
 Pope. 1688—1744. 
 
 Born in London — of a delicate constitution 
 — his early attachment to books — to school 
 at Twyford — fondness for composition. 
 
176 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 His determination to be a poet — takes 
 Dryden as a model of versification — his " Ode 
 on Solitude." 
 
 Version of Chaucer — translation from Ovid 
 — his " Pastorals " written at the age of six- 
 teen. 
 
 1709, "Essay on Criticism" — "The Messiah" 
 in the Spectator — " Eloisa to Abelard." 
 
 1713, "Windsor Forest" — proposes a 
 translation of the Iliad with notes, by subscrip- 
 tion — five years employed in the translation. 
 
 Purchases annuities with the money thus 
 gained — villa at Twickenham. 
 
 1721, publishes an edition of Shakspeare — 
 merits of this edition — translates the Odyssey. 
 
 His acquaintance with Spence — accident to 
 Pope. 
 
 The " Dunciad " — attacks and replies — 
 " Essay on Man," Part I. the other parts soon 
 after — avows the authorship in 1734 — Imi- 
 tations of Horace. 
 
 Afflicted with the asthma — dies May 30th, 
 1744 — His personal appearance — domestic 
 character — social virtues — intellectual cha- 
 racter — memory, &c. (See Johnson's Lives.) 
 
 Thomson. 1700—1748. 
 
 Born at Ednam, in Roxburghshire — his 
 father, a minister — sent to a school at Jedburgh 
 — not considered precocious. 
 
 Removed to Edinburgh — intended for the 
 church — the style of his eloquence — too 
 poetical — reproved. 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. 177 
 
 Gives up thoughts of the church — comes to 
 London — his feelings on his arrival. 
 
 Difficulty of disposing of his poems — "Win- 
 ter" — its gradual success. 
 
 Makes friends and gains credit — in 1727, 
 publishes " Summer" — the next year, " Spring " 
 — writes " Autumn" in 1733, and publishes a 
 collection of his works. 
 
 Travels with the son of the Chancellor 
 Talbot — lives at his ease — death of the chan- 
 cellor — Thomson obliged to recommence poet. 
 
 1730, " Agamemnon " — 1745, " Tancred 
 and Sigismunda " — " Castle of Indolence." 
 
 Catches a cold on the Thames at Kew — 
 a consequent fever — dies 1748 — monument in 
 Westminster Abbey. 
 
 His benevolent disposition — style — de- 
 scription — diction. (See Johnson's Lives.) 
 
 Goldsmith. 1728—1774. 
 
 Born Nov. 10. 1728, at Pallas, in Longford, 
 Ireland — - his father was the Rev. Charles 
 Goldsmith — considered dull in his youth — en- 
 tered at Trinity College, June 1744 — his 
 conduct at college. 
 
 His father now dead — consents to enter the 
 church — rejected by the bishop — determines 
 to prepare for the legal profession — his folly — 
 sent by his uncle to Dublin to study medicine 
 — goes to Leyden to complete his medical 
 studies. 
 
 Sets out on foot to make the tour of Europe 
 
 H 
 
178 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 — Flanders — France — Germany — Italy — 
 returns to England. 
 
 Usher in a school — apothecary's assistant — 
 engages with Mr. Griffiths — " Monthly Re- 
 view " — gives up the engagement after seven 
 months — writes the " Vicar of Wakefield " — 
 the " Traveller" — the « Hermit." 
 
 His comedy of " The Goodnatured Man," 1 768 
 
 — unsuccessful — the " Deserted Tillage " — 
 Histories of "Greece," " Rome," and « England" 
 — appointed professor of Ancient History to the 
 Royal Academy of Painting — " She stoops to 
 conquer " — great success — his last produc- 
 tion, a " History of Animated Nature" — taken 
 ill with a fever, 1774 — dies, aged 45. 
 
 His character — amiable and benevolent — 
 want of strength of mind — the character and 
 style of his writings. (See Penny Cyclopcedia, 
 article " Goldsmith.") 
 
 Johnson. 1709—1784. 
 
 Son of Michael Johnson, a bookseller at Lich- 
 field — of a sickly constitution — education 
 begun at Lichfield, continued at Stourbridge 
 
 — placed afterwards at Pembroke college, 
 Oxford. 
 
 His distress — obliged to leave college — his 
 father dies in great poverty — Johnson com- 
 pelled to become usher in a school — leaves this 
 employment — occupies himself in translating. 
 
 Marries Mrs. Porter — establishes a school — 
 Garrick his pupil — his poem " London " — 
 writes for the magazines — his talents become 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 179 
 
 known — in 1747, commences his " English 
 Dictionary " — the magnitude and importance 
 of this task. 
 
 Obtains a pension of 300/. from George III. 
 
 — his companions, Burke, Goldsmith, Rey- 
 nolds, &c. — Boswell. 
 
 The diploma creating him a Doctor of Laws, 
 sent him from Oxford. 
 
 His constitution begins to decline in 1766 — 
 lives at Streatham — tour to the Hebrides — 
 " Lives of the Poets " — dies of dropsy and 
 asthma in 1784. 
 
 The characteristic of his intellect — his pre- 
 judices — his poetry — his "Essays " — "Lives" 
 
 — criticisms, &c. 
 
 Hume. 1711—1776. 
 
 David Hume, born at Edinburgh, April 26. 
 1711 — destined for the law — his passion for 
 literature. 
 
 In 1734, goes to Bristol with a view of en- 
 tering into mercantile speculations — gives up 
 all idea of every pursuit but the improvement 
 of his literary talents. 
 
 In 1742, publishes his " Essays" — favourably 
 received — in 1745, goes to live with the Mar- 
 quis of Annandale — appointed secretary to 
 general St. Clair in his embassies to Vienna and 
 Turin. 
 
 On his return to England writes his " Po- 
 litical Discourses " — forms the plan of his 
 "History of England" — the reception of the first 
 volume — the others — accompanies Lord Hert- 
 N 2 
 
180 ENGLISH; OE, 
 
 ford to Paris in 1763 — his reception there — 
 Under Secretary of State in 1766. 
 
 Falls into ill health in 1775 — goes to Bath 
 — the waters of no avail — dies 25th August 
 1//6 — aged 66. 
 
 His character as a private individual — as an 
 historian and a philosopher. (See Penny Cyclo., 
 article " Hume.") 
 
 Smollett. 1721—1771. 
 
 Tobias Smollett born at Cardross, 1721 — 
 of good family — sent to school at Dumbarton 
 
 — his tendency to satire. 
 
 Goes to Glasgow to study medicine — 
 neglect of his professional studies for other and 
 more attractive pursuits. 
 
 Appointed, in 1741, surgeon's mate in a king's 
 ship — quits the service in the West Indies — 
 resides in Jamaica. 
 
 Writes for the theatres — his temper and 
 manners — quarrels with the managers — marries 
 Miss Lascelles — "Roderic Random." 
 
 Goes to Paris in 1750 — " Peregrine Pickle " 
 
 — the applause bestowed on it — resumes the 
 medical profession — unsuccessful. 
 
 In 1751, translates Don Quixote — the 
 merits of this translation — visits his Scotch 
 relations — undertakes the management of the 
 " Critical Review " — his qualities as an editor. 
 
 Imprisoned for a libel — " History of Eng- 
 land " — writes " Sir Launcelot Greaves," while 
 in prison. 
 
 Ill health — travels, 1770 — "Humphrey 
 Clinker" — dies at Leghorn, 1771, aged 51 — 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 181 
 
 his appearance — his manners — temper — talents 
 as a writer — objections to his writings. (See 
 Penny Cyclopcedia, article " Smollett.") 
 
 Robertson. 1721—1793. 
 
 The son of a clergyman, born in Edinburgh, 
 1721 — distinguished himself as a preacher, 
 and an eminent leader in the general assembly 
 of the church of Scotland. 
 
 Applies himself to the study of history — 
 his " History of Scotland " — the success of the 
 work. 
 
 In 1762, appointed principal of the Uni- 
 versity of Edinburgh — made historiographer 
 to the king, with a salary of 200/. per annum. 
 
 In 1769, "History of Charles V."— its re- 
 ception — translated into other languages — 
 the introduction to Charles V. — " History of 
 America " — in 1791, an " Historical Disquisition 
 on India." 
 
 Died near Edinburgh, June 1793 — his style 
 — his language — his opinions — the testimony 
 of Hume and Gibbon. (See Penny Cyclopcedia, 
 article " Robertson.") 
 
 Gibbon. 1737—1794. 
 
 Born at Putney, 27th April 1737— his " Au- 
 tobiography" published by Lord Sheffield — his 
 health delicate in childhood — interruptions to 
 his studies — sent to school at Kingston — 
 afterwards to Westminster. 
 
 In 1752, to Magdalen College, Oxford — 
 his imperfect education — his love of history — 
 n 3 
 
182 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 embraces the Roman Catholic faith — obliged 
 to leave Oxford in consequence — sent to 
 Lausanne — renounces the Romish faith. 
 
 His first work, "Essai sur l'etude de la 
 Litterature" — publishes in 1768 two volumes 
 of a work called "Memoires litteraires de la 
 Grande Bretagne " — returned to parliament for 
 the borough of Liskeard in 1774. 
 
 In 1776, the first volume of the "Decline 
 and Fall " — its reception — a second and third 
 edition. 
 
 Leaves England in 1783 — retires to Lau- 
 sanne — engaged in finishing his great work — 
 the remainder of it appears in 1788 — returns 
 to England in 1793 — death of Lady Sheffield 
 — dies, in 1794, in London. 
 
 The " Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- 
 pire " — the time it comprises — his ridicule 
 of Christianity — his " Ecclesiastical History." 
 
 The principal faults of the work — its 
 immense extent — his reading — the popularity 
 of the work — translated into almost every 
 European language. (See Penny Cyclopadia, 
 article « Gibbon.") 
 
 Coke. 1551—1633. 
 
 Born at Milcham in Norfolk — sent to the 
 grammar school at Norwich, and thence to 
 Trinity College. 
 
 Called to the bar in 1578 — elected Recorder 
 of London 1591 — animosity between Coke and 
 Bacon. 
 
 Marries the daughter and heiress of John 
 Paston, with a fortune of 30,000/. — marries, 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 183 
 
 2dly, the widow of Sir Christopher Hatton — an 
 unhappy connection. 
 
 Attorney-general till the death of Elizabeth 
 
 — received into James I.'s confidence — the 
 Raleigh conspiracy — gunpowder plot. 
 
 Displaced from office, June 1616 — restored 
 to the royal favour, 1617 — takes part against 
 the king in the question of the royal prerogative 
 
 — 1621, committed to the Tower — ordered, 
 when released, to confine himself to his house. 
 
 Appointed sheriff of Buckinghamshire by 
 Charles I. — opposes the king's prerogative 
 
 — denounces Villiers as the cause of all the 
 disasters of the country. 
 
 1629, withdraws from public life — employ- 
 ment in his retirement. 
 
 Dies, 3rd September 1633, aged 82 — his 
 works — Bacon's opinion of them. (See Penny 
 Cyclopedia, article " Coke.") 
 
 Hale. 1609—1676. 
 
 Sir Matthew Hale — born at Alderley in 
 Gloucester, 1st of November 1609 — educated 
 in puritanical principles — at the age of seven- 
 teen goes to Magdalen College, Oxford — dis- 
 sipated — on the point of enlisting for a soldier 
 — persuaded to apply himself to the study of 
 the law — a student of Lincoln's Inn, 1629. 
 
 Called to the bar just before the commence- 
 ment of the civil war — takes no part in politics 
 
 — his success in his profession. 
 
 Takes an oath to be faithful to the common- 
 wealth after the death of Charles I. — and 
 appointed a commissioner for reforming the law. 
 N 4 
 
184 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 Refuses to act under Richard Cromwell — 
 a member of the parliament which recalled 
 Charles II. — in 1671, made Chief Justice of 
 the King's Bench — resigns in 1675 — dies of 
 dropsy, 1676. 
 
 His character as a lawyer — anecdotes — his 
 writings — his wives and family. (See Penny 
 Cyclopedia, article " Hale.") 
 
 Blackstone. 1723—1780. 
 
 Born in London, July 10th 1723 — his father 
 a silk mercer — loses both his parents when 
 young — goes to the Charter-House at the age 
 of seven years — afterwards to Pembroke 
 College, Oxford. 
 
 In 1743, elected feUow of All Soul's College 
 
 — gives a course of lectures upon the English 
 constitution and laws — well received — his 
 popularity — introduced to the king. 
 
 Soon engaged in extensive practice — in 
 parliament in 1761 — marries Sarah, daughter 
 of J. Clitheroe. 
 
 First vol. of " Commentaries " published at 
 Oxford in 1765 — the other three vols, soon after. 
 
 His character as a judge — his political 
 opinions — his qualities in private life — temper 
 
 — his opinion of his own talents — style — and 
 objections to the " Commentaries." (See Penny 
 Cyclopcedia, article " Blackstone.") 
 
 William Pitt, Earl of Chatham. 1708—1778. 
 
 Born at Boconnoc in Cornwall — educated at 
 Eton — whence he went to Trinity College, 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 185 
 
 Oxford — represents the borough of Old Sarum 
 in parliament, in 1735. 
 
 Joins the opposition, then led by Frederic, 
 Prince of Wales — his appearance and elocution 
 imposing — taken into favour by the prince — 
 takes a prominent part in the motions against 
 Sir Eobert Walpole. 
 
 Returned, in the next parliament (1741), for 
 Old Sarum — the king's personal dislike to 
 Pitt — not admitted to office. 
 
 In the year 1746, admitted to office by the 
 influence of the Duke of Newcastle — his con- 
 duct in office. 
 
 The discussion upon the Regency Bill — op- 
 position to Fox — the Duke of Newcastle pre- 
 mier in 1754. 
 
 Pitt returned for Aldborough in the new 
 parliament — his misunderstanding with the 
 prime minister — Fox, secretary of state — the 
 next year (1756) Pitt prime minister — resigns 
 after a few months. 
 
 Elected member for Bath in 1761 — accession 
 of George III. — retires from office with a pen- 
 sion of 3000/. a year — his independent con- 
 duct in his new position — solicited to take 
 office again in 1763 — declines. 
 
 The Rockingham administration supported 
 by Pitt — his opinion on the question of 
 American taxation — called upon, in 1766, to 
 form a new ministry — the heterogeneous ma- 
 terials of this administration — on the 15th 
 October, 1768, resigns office. 
 
 His health improved — again in parliament 
 in 1770 — the affair of Wilkes — his speeches 
 
186 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 on the American question — taken suddenly ill 
 in the House of Lords, the 7th of April 1778 — 
 dies about a month after. 
 
 His character — an orator — a patriot — a 
 minister — his eloquence. (See Penny Cyclo- 
 pcedia, article " Pitt.") 
 
 Burke. 1730—1797. 
 
 Born in Dublin, 1st January 1730 — of a 
 good family — delicate in his childhood — sent 
 to school at Cork. 
 
 Afterwards to Trinity College, Dublin — stu- 
 dies for the English bar — comes to London in 
 1750. 
 
 Relinquishes the law for literature and poli- 
 tics — his first work, " A Vindication of Na- 
 tural Society." 
 
 A few months after, " Essay on the Sublime 
 and Beautiful " — marries a daughter of Dr. 
 Nugent of Bath. 
 
 Determines to attain political distinction — 
 " History of England " — " Annual Register " 
 — literary acquaintances and introductions. 
 
 Goes to Dublin as private secretary to Lord 
 Halifax, the lord-lieutenant, 1763. 
 
 In 1765, private secretary to the prime mi- 
 nister, the Marquis of Rockingham — the prime 
 mover of the administration. 
 
 His political pamphlets — "A short Account of 
 a late Administration " — " Observations on a 
 late State of the Nation," &c. 
 
 Comes again into power with the Rockingham 
 ministry in 1782 — privy counsellor and pay- 
 master-general of the forces. 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 187 
 
 Affairs of India — prosecution of Warren 
 Hastings. 
 
 " Reflections on the French Revolution " — 
 retires from parliamentary life in 1794 — loses 
 his son — his distress of mind. 
 
 Dies at Beaconsfield in Bucks — 1797. (See 
 Penny Cyclopcedia, article " Burke.") 
 
 Fox. 1749—1806. 
 
 Born 24th January 1749 — third son of the 
 Right Honourable H. Fox — sent to a pre- 
 paratory school at Wandsworth — to Eton when 
 nine years of age — rapid progress — in 1764 to 
 Hertford College Oxford — travels two years 
 
 — elected member of parliament in his ab- 
 sence. 
 
 Supports the Duke of Grafton's ministry — 
 his speech on the " Middlesex Election " — a 
 lord of the treasury in 1773 — misunderstanding 
 with Lord North. 
 
 Opposes his former colleagues — forms an 
 intimate friendship with Burke — its effects 
 upon his political position. 
 
 Votes against the American war — leading 
 member of the opposition. 
 
 Secretary for foreign affairs under Lord 
 Rockingham's administration — negotiates for 
 peace with America. 
 
 Resigns upon the death of Lord Rockingham 
 
 — coalition with Lord North. 
 
 The Pitt ministry — dissolution of parliament 
 
 — Fox elected for Westminster — the king's 
 illness — regency — Fox opposes the ministry. 
 
188 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 Discussions on the question of the French 
 Revolution — termination of his friendship for 
 Burke — supports Wilberforce — Slave-trade 
 Abolition Bill. 
 
 1797, retires from public life — literary 
 pursuits — History of the Reign of James II. 
 
 Again returned for Westminster — secretary 
 for foreign affairs in Lord Grenville's ministry 
 
 — dies on the 13th of September, 1806 — of 
 water on the chest. 
 
 Remarks on his political life — eloquence — 
 writings, &c. (See Penny Cyclopcedia, article 
 "Fox.") 
 
 Marlborough. 1650—1722. 
 
 John Churchill — born at Ashe in Devon- 
 shire, 1650 — son of Sir Winston Churchill — 
 appointed page to the Duke of York, afterwards 
 James II. 
 
 Education neglected — for a short time at 
 St. Paul's School — early indications of a mili- 
 tary spirit — distinguishes himself in the defence 
 of Tangier — attracts the notice of Turenne. 
 
 Made a colonel at the peace of Nimeguen — 
 marries Sarah Jennings, the companion of the 
 Princess Anne — created Baron Churchill by 
 James II. on his accession — his services in 
 suppressing the rebellion of Monniouth. 
 
 His treacherous desertion of James II. — 
 created Earl of Marlborough by William III. 
 
 — corresponds with the exiled king — shame- 
 less want of principle. 
 
 William's opinion of Marlborough — recom- 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION". 189 
 
 mends him on his death-bed to his successor 
 Queen Anne — this recommendation strength- 
 ened by her partiality for the duchess. 
 
 Enters on his military career, 1702 — delivers 
 Holland from the French troops — raised to a 
 dukedom. 
 
 Campaign of 1703 — reduction of towns in 
 the Netherlands. 
 
 Battle of Blenheim — total defeat of the 
 French ■ — its effects on the power of Louis 
 XIV. — Marlborough's rewards. 
 
 1706, battle of Ramilies — loss of the 
 enemy, 13,000—1709, battle of Malplaquet 
 
 — 1711, siege of Bouchain — intrigues of his 
 enemies in England — the queen quarrels with 
 the duchess. 
 
 Her antipathy extended to the duke — his 
 humiliations — removed from the command — 
 accused of peculation — withdraws to the Con- 
 tinent — restored to his dignities by George I. 
 
 — dies in full possession of his senses, 1722. 
 Remarks on his abilities — made no improve- 
 ment in the military art — his skill in conduct- 
 ing operations — march into Germany in 1704. 
 
 Private character — his treachery to James 
 II., and base submission to Anne — religious 
 sentiments — courage — temper — domestic re- 
 lations. (See Gleig's British Commanders.) 
 
 Lord Clive. 1725—1776. 
 
 Born at Styche in Shropshire, 25th September, 
 1725 — anecdotes of his youth — obtains an ap- 
 pointment in India — his arrival, and disputes 
 
190 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 with his superiors — bombardment of Madras — 
 a prisoner on parole — escapes in the disguise 
 of a Moor to Fort St. David — a military officer 
 in 1747. 
 
 Investment of Pondicherry — retreat of the 
 besiegers — views of Dupleix — unsettled state 
 of India. 
 
 Obtains the rank of lieutenant in 1550 — takes 
 the field as second in command under Captain 
 Clarke. 
 
 Attack of Arcot — its ' success — siege of 
 Arcot — continued successes — and splendid 
 victories. 
 
 1752, returns to England — appointed deputy 
 governor of St. David's. 
 
 1755, returns to India with reinforcements 
 — expedition against the pirates of Geriah. 
 
 Campaign against Surajah Dowlah — murder 
 of Surajah Dowlah — Meer Jaffier saluted 
 Nabob. 
 
 1760, resigns the government of Calcutta, and 
 returns to England. 
 
 1761, created Lord Clive — Meer Caussim 
 succeeds to the throne abdicated by Meer Jaf- 
 fier. 
 
 Lord Clive appointed governor of Bengal — 
 changes introduced into the civil administration. 
 
 Mutiny among the inferior officers in the 
 army. 
 
 Sir R. Fletcher tried for conceahnent of mu- 
 tiny — found guilty and discharged. 
 
 Lord Clive returns to England. 
 
 His death — remarks upon his life and cha- 
 racter. (See Gleig's British Commanders.) 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 191 
 
 Wolfe. 1726—1760. 
 
 Eldest sc-\ of General Wolfe — born at 
 Westerham in Kent, 1726 — enters the army at 
 the age of fourteen. 
 
 Embarks with his father in 1740 for Flanders 
 
 — serves with the army from 1742 to 1748 — 
 displays great courage at the battle of Laffeldt 
 in 1747. 
 
 Made a lieutenant-colonel at the age of 
 twenty-two — succeeds to the command in Scot- 
 land in 1749 — his feelings on the occasion. 
 
 American war — misfortunes of the English. 
 
 Wolfe serves in the expedition under Major- 
 general Amherst in America — taking of Cape 
 Breton and Prince Edward's Island. 
 
 Returns to England — appointed to command 
 the expedition against Quebec. Description of 
 the position of Quebec. 
 
 Forces of the enemy under the Marquis de 
 Montcalm — operations of both armies. 
 
 Landing of the troops — attacked by the In- 
 dians — barbarous cruelty of the latter to their 
 prisoners. 
 
 Difficulties of Wolfe's position — his deter- 
 mination — ill-success of his first attempts. 
 
 The landing on the heights of Abraham — 
 consternation of the French — coolness of 
 Montcalm — the engagement — heroic valour of 
 Wolfe. 
 
 His death from a musket-ball in the moment 
 of victory — West's picture — aged thirty-four 
 
 — personal appearance — constitution. (See 
 Gleig's British Commanders.) 
 
192 exglish; ok, 
 
 Abercromby. 1733 — 1801. 
 
 Born on the 7th October 1733 — his early 
 education — Rugby — Edinburgh — Gottingen. 
 
 A cornet in 1756 — a lieutenant-colonel in 
 1773 — served chiefly in Ireland. 
 
 Accompanies the Duke of York to Flanders 
 
 — left to conduct the retreat — hardships of the 
 army. 
 
 Appointed to the command of an army des- 
 tined for the West Indies — his successes — 
 attacks Trinidad and Porto Rico. 
 
 Resigns the command, and returns to Europe 
 
 — his reception by the government — 1799, 
 again serves under his former commander, the 
 Duke of York. 
 
 Campaign in Holland 1799 — landing of the 
 troops, and their operations in Holland. 
 
 Reverses of the army — negotiations, and a 
 suspension of hostilities — evacuation of Holland. 
 
 The English army lands in Egypt — en- 
 campment at Aboukir — retreat of the French 
 
 — Abercromby gains a victory — mortally 
 ounded — his character and services. (See 
 leig's British Commanders.} 
 
 Sir John Moore. 1761—1809. 
 
 Son of Dr. Moore, author of " Zeluco " — born 
 in Glasgow — his early education in the grammar- 
 school of Glasgow — sent to Switzerland to 
 finish his education — accompanies his father 
 and the Duke of Hamilton to the Continent. 
 
 His patriotism — promoted — captain — lieu- 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 193 
 
 tenant — paymaster to the regiment — his de- 
 fective knowledge of accounts — represents 
 Lanark in parliament for six years — resigns his 
 seat in the house of commons. 
 
 West India campaign — commands a brigade 
 under the Duke of York in Holland — constitu- 
 tion injured — serves under Sir R. Abercromby 
 in Egypt — under General Fox in Sicily. 
 
 Succeeds Fox in the command in the Medi- 
 terranean — returns to England — commands 
 an expedition to assist Gustavus of Sweden — 
 arrested by the king's order — escapes in disguise. 
 
 Commands the army in Portugal — conducts 
 the retreat of the British army into Galicia — 
 marches to Villa Franca — horrible excesses 
 committed by the army at Benvenebre — 
 dreadful march from Villa Franca to Castro — 
 battle of Corunna — death of Moore — Colonel 
 Anderson's account of his death — his character 
 — review of his actions, &c. (See Gleig's British 
 Commanders?) 
 
 Sir Martin Frobisher. — Died 1594. 
 
 Born at Doncaster in Yorkshire — the year 
 of his birth not known — brought up to the sea 
 — soon displays great talents — was the first 
 who attempted a north west passage to China — ■ 
 unsuccessful — returns to England. 
 
 A second voyage — brings back large quan- 
 tities of ore — a third voyage — unfortunate. 
 
 Employed against the Spanish Armada — sent 
 in 1594 to the assistance of Henry IV. of France, 
 against a body of Spanish who had made a 
 
 
194 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 descent on Brittany — wounded in attacking the 
 fort — dies of the wound November 7th 1594. 
 (See Penny Cyclopcedia, article " Frobisher.") 
 
 Sir John Hawkins. 1520 — 1595. 
 
 Born at Plymouth — his youth spent in 
 trading to Spain and Portugal — engages in the 
 slave trade in 1562 — the first Englishman 
 that engaged in the traffic — other voyages — 
 attacked by the Spanish at St. Juan d' Ulloa — 
 his distresses and hardships — his transactions 
 approved of by Queen Elizabeth — appointed 
 treasurer of the navy in 1573 — serves as rear- 
 admiral against the armada — knighted by the 
 queen for his services — sails with Frobisher to 
 intercept the Spanish fleet — his success in that 
 expedition — appointed jointly with Drake to 
 a command in the West Indies — the enterprise 
 unsuccessful — disunion of the commanders — 
 dies of vexation 1595. (See Penny Cyclo- 
 pcedia, article "Hawkins.") 
 
 Sir Francis Drake. 1546 — 1595. 
 
 Born in Devonshire — his father a poor cot- 
 tager — apprenticed, when very young, to a 
 trader to Zealand and France — his master 
 dies and leaves him his bark — continues the 
 trade — suddenly sells his ship and joins Haw- 
 kins's expedition. 
 
 His revenge for his losses — obtains a com- 
 mission from Queen Elizabeth in 1570 — cruises 
 in the West Indies. 
 
I 
 
 THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 195 
 
 Returns to England loaded with treasure — 
 anchors at Plymouth, 9th August, 1573. 
 
 Departs under the sanction of the Queen in 
 1577 on another expedition — his adventures 
 on the coasts of South America — sails through 
 the Straits of Magalhaens — takes a Spanish 
 galleon, laden with plate. 
 
 Sails across the Indian Ocean to the Cape of 
 Good Hope, thence home — arrival at Ply- 
 mouth, 26th Sept. 1579, after an absence of two 
 years and ten months — his reception. 
 
 His occupations during 1585 and 1586 — 
 visits the colony of Virginia — his attack upon 
 Cadiz. 
 
 Appointed vice-admiral in the fleet fitted out 
 against the armada — his expedition against 
 the Spanish in the West Indies — defeated at 
 Puerto Rico — attacked by a fatal disease 
 — dies 27th December 1595. (See Penny 
 Cyclopcedia, article " Drake.") 
 
 Lord Howard of Effingham. 1536 — 1624. 
 
 Grandson of Thomas second duke of Norfolk — 
 service in his youth — appointed, in 1585, Lord 
 High Admiral — commands the naval defence 
 made against the Spanish Armada. — His pru- 
 dence and bravery in this charge — joined with 
 Essex in the enterprise against Cadiz — jealousy 
 between the two commanders — honours con- 
 ferred upon Lord Howard — his behaviour 
 towards Essex in his misfortunes — his dig- 
 nities and honours under James I. — dies 1624, 
 aged 87 — his character and temper. (See 
 Penny Cyclop., art. " Howard of Effingham.") 
 o 2 
 
196 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 Lord Nelson. 1758 — 1805. 
 
 Born at Burnham Thorpe, in Norfolk, Sept. 
 29th, 1758— his father, the Rev. Edmund 
 Nelson — of a sickly constitution — serves with 
 his uncle Captain Suckling, as midshipman — 
 accompanies Captain Phipps on an expedition 
 to the north pole. 
 
 Appointed in 1793 to the Agamemnon of 
 64 guns — sent with despatches to Naples — 
 his acquaintance with Sir William and Lady 
 Hamilton. 
 
 Co-operates with Paoli in Corsica — loses an 
 eye at the siege of Caloi — the blockade of 
 Genoa — The evacuation of Bastia — action 
 with the Spanish fleet. 
 
 Honours conferred on Nelson — the block- 
 ade of Cadiz — attack of Santa Cruz — loses 
 an arm — pension of 1000/. a-year — sails in 
 pursuit of the French fleet. 
 
 Battle of Aboukir — execution of ■ Prince 
 Carracioli — returns to England — separates 
 from Lady Nelson — battle of Copenhagen — re- 
 turns home — lives for some time in retirement. 
 
 Assumes the command in the Mediterranean 
 — battle of Trafalgar — receives his death 
 wound — expires in three hours and a half. 
 
 His character — talents — disposition. (See 
 Southei/s Life of Nelson, and Penny Cyclo- 
 pcedia.) 
 
 Hogarth. 1697—1764. 
 
 Born in London, 1697 — not much known 
 concerning his education — his father an en- 
 thusiastic scholar. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 197 
 
 The "Taste of the Town," 1724— illus- 
 trations and frontispieces — Hudibras of 1726 
 (illustrates), 17 plates. 
 
 Chiefly known now as an engraver — sketch 
 
 — the examination of Bambridge, &c. — mar- 
 ries (1730) Jane, daughter of Sir James Thorn- 
 hill, against consent — commences portrait- 
 painter. 
 
 Obstacles to his success — could not flatter 
 
 — portraits of Mr. and Mrs. Garrick — natural, 
 but little dignity — Garrick as Richard III. 
 fortunate — portrait of Fielding — only portrait 
 done from recollection after death. 
 
 Portrait of Captain Coram (founder of the 
 Foundling Hospital) — portrait of Wilkes — 
 various other portraits — reconciled to his 
 father-in-law — loses his mother in 1735. 
 
 The "Rake's Progress" — now displays his 
 genius for the burlesque — his works pirated — 
 act of Parliament (1735) for legal copyright 
 
 — advantage of being able to engrave his own 
 works. 
 
 1736, "The Sleeping Congregation" — 
 " The Distressed Poet" — " Southwark Fair " 
 
 — " Modern Midnight Conversation " — " The 
 Enraged Musician " — " The Four Times of the 
 Day; Morning, Noon, Afternoon, Night." 
 
 " The Strolling Actresses " — now forty- 
 eight years old — fame established — sale of 
 his paintings — low price paid for them. 
 
 " Marriage-a-la Mode " — gives rise to a no- 
 vel called " The Marriage Act" — the author 
 of " The Clandestine Marriage " founds his play 
 upon it. 
 
 O 3 
 
198 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 ** Industry and Idleness — twelve scenes — 
 The Apprentices " — « The Roast Beef of Old 
 England " — " The Four Stages of Cruelty " — 
 " March of the Guards to Finchley " — " Beer 
 Street" — u Gin Lane" — " France and Eng- 
 land"— " The Cockpit" — " The Election" 
 (four prints) — " Analysis of Beauty/' published 
 in 1753 — opinions on the work. 
 
 His last work " Credulity, Superstition, and 
 Fanaticsm " — retires to Chiswick — dies, 1764, 
 in Leicester Square — character — manners 
 
 — habits — domestic and friendly relations, 
 &c. (See Allan Cunningham's Lives of the 
 Painters.) 
 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds. 1723—1792. 
 
 Born, 1723, at Plympton in Devon — Wilson 
 and Hogarth contemporaries — stories about 
 his birth — cause of his Christian name. 
 
 Education neglected — originally destined 
 for the medical profession — anecdotes of his 
 early propensity for the arts. 
 
 Sent to London 1741 — placed with Hudson 
 
 — occasion of meeting with Pope. 
 
 Returns home for three years in 1743 — his 
 father dies — his character — acquires patronage 
 
 — Lord Edgecumbe — Captain Keppel. 
 Accepts Captain Keppel's invitation to 
 
 accompany him to the Mediterranean — May, 
 1749 — Lisbon — Gibraltar — Minorca — ac- 
 cident — lands at Leghorn — thence to Rome. 
 His sensations on visiting the Vatican — 
 his opinions on painting — Bologna — Genoa 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION". 199 
 
 — Parma — Florence — Venice ■ — his silence 
 on the Venetian school. 
 
 Three years absence — meets Hudson and 
 Roubilliac on Mont Cenis — Chambers, the ar- 
 chitect, at Paris. 
 
 Arrives in England, Oct. 1752 — established 
 in St. Martin's Lane — opposition from artists — 
 fame increases — Commodore Keppel's portrait 
 
 — new vexations — prosperity. 
 
 Thirty years of age — reputation spreading 
 
 — grace of expression — splendour of colouring 
 
 — acquaintance with Johnson — anecdote — 
 difference in their manner — advantages derived 
 from his acquaintance with Johnson, in his 
 " Discourses on Art." 
 
 His price, five guineas — some years after, 
 twenty guineas — writes some papers for the 
 " Idler"— 1760, the first exhibition. 
 
 Removes to Leicester Square, 1761 — enter- 
 tains Percy, Goldsmith, Burke, Garrick, John- 
 son — Literary club founded by Johnson in 
 1764 — Reynolds, a member. 
 
 Royal Academy founded — 1768, made pre- 
 sident — knighted by the king — attacked by 
 paralysis (aged 58) — letter from Johnson — 
 Johnson's death, 1784 — three requests — be- 
 comes suddenly blind of the left eye, 1789 — 
 relinquishes painting — dies, 1792 — buried in 
 St. Paul's — stature — complexion — manners 
 
 — habits — " Discourses," — style of his por- 
 traits — poetical subjects — portraits of eminent 
 men — Burke's eulogy. (See Allan Cunning- 
 ham?s Lives of the Painters?) 
 
 O 4 
 
200 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 Barry. 1741—1806. 
 
 Born in Cork 1741 — his father a sea-cap- 
 tain — little known of his education — sent to 
 sea — runs away — fondness for painting — 
 employed when a boy to make designs for a 
 volume of tales. 
 
 His first picture — " The conversion and bap- 
 tism of an Irish prince " — its reception — friend- 
 ship of Burke — anecdote. 
 
 Resides in Dublin — patronised by Burke 
 and others — goes, in his twenty third year, to 
 London — introductions — his application — 
 furnished by Burke with money for a journey 
 to Rome. 
 
 His observations on the paintings in the 
 Sistine chapel — the high expectations con- 
 ceived of him by his English friends — his ve- 
 hemence of disputation. 
 
 Visits Naples — anecdotes — his quarrels and 
 temper — with artists and connoisseurs — 
 Burke's letters and advice to him — anecdote 
 of Barry and Nollekens. 
 
 Determines on returning to England — his 
 forebodings — visits Leonardi da Vinci's K Last 
 Supper" — arrival in London — reception by 
 Burke — paintings — " Venus " — "Jupiter and 
 Juno " — " Adam and Eve " — " Death of 
 Wolfe " — want of encouragement — loss of 
 friends — poverty. 
 
 Misunderstandino- between Barrv and Burke 
 — portrait of the latter — gives up portrait- 
 painting — proposes to embellish the interior of 
 St. Paul's with paintings — his indignation at 
 the rejection of his proposal. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION". 201 
 
 His work, " An Inquiry into the real and 
 imaginary Obstruction to the Progress of Art 
 in England." 
 
 Change in the person and temper of Barry 
 
 — offers his talents to the " Society of Arts " 
 
 — they accept his offer — the painting — six 
 years spent on the pictures — conduct of the 
 society — remarks on the paintings — his de- 
 scription of them. 
 
 Appointed professor of painting, 1782. His 
 lectures — engravings of the Adelphi pictures 
 
 — His residence in Castle-Street — domestic 
 habits — poverty. 
 
 Death of Sir Joshua Reynolds — eulogium 
 of Barry — is degraded from the dignity of pro- 
 fessor — the assistance of his friends. 
 
 Sudden illness and death (1806) — conduct 
 of the academy after his decease — his character 
 
 — temper — enthusiasm for art. (See Allan 
 Cunningham s Lives of the Painters.') 
 
 Fuseli. 1741—1825. 
 
 Born at Zurich, 1741 — the second of 
 eighteen children — his father a portrait-painter 
 
 — his literary acquaintances — writes a u His- 
 tory of the Swiss Artists " — loses his mother. 
 
 His secret studies of drawing — sells his 
 drawings to his school -fellows — placed at col- 
 lege at Zurich — his love of literature — political 
 papers — travels to Vienna — advised to visit 
 England — anecdote of Lavater. 
 
 His feelings on ariving in London — letters 
 of introduction — procures the situation of 
 
202 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 tutor — abandons it in disgust — returns to 
 London — employs himself in literature — anec- 
 dote of the part he took in the controversy be- 
 tween Rousseau and Voltaire. 
 
 Introduction to Sir Joshua Reynolds — 
 anecdote — his first picture — " Joseph inter- 
 preting the dreams of his fellow-prisoners." 
 
 Characteristics of his literary compositions— 
 style of his drawings — visits Rome — manner 
 in which he lived there — his account of the 
 style of the three great painters — Michael 
 Angelo, Leonardi da Vinci, and Raphael — 
 mode of study. 
 
 Eight years abroad — pictures sent home — 
 subjects from Shakspeare — Milton — the terrible 
 — majestic — sublime ! 
 
 Commences his career in England, 1779 — 
 contemporary artists — landscape, Wilson, Gains- 
 borough — religious and historical, Barry and 
 West — poetical, Fuseli. 
 
 " The Nightmare " — « The Shaksperian 
 Gallery " — other paintings — Dante's " Fran- 
 cesca and Paolo" — Virgil's " Dido " — Sopho- 
 cles' " (Edipus." 
 
 The Milton gallery — forty-seven paintings 
 
 — his friendship for Cowper — anecdotes — 
 drawings for a Shakspeare — sketches for the 
 Bible — anecdote of Porson — his knowledge 
 of languages. 
 
 Appointed professor of painting — his lec- 
 tures on art — the learning displayed in them 
 
 — pictures from " Gray's poems." 
 
 Illness and death, 1825 — character of Fuseli 
 from Lavater — forehead — nose — mouth, &c. 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. 203 
 
 His stature — frame — forehead — eyes — 
 expression of face — voice — haughty manner 
 
 — violence of temper. 
 
 Character of his writings. (See Allan Cun- 
 ningham's Lives of the Painters.) 
 
 Sir Thomas Lawrence. 1769 — 1830. 
 
 Born in the spring of 1769, at Bristol. His 
 father had studied the law, but never followed 
 the profession. At the birth of his son Thomas, 
 he held the office of supervisor of Excise at 
 Bristol. 
 
 His father leaves Bristol and becomes land- 
 lord of the Black Bear Inn, at Devizes — 
 young Lawrence's early manifestation of talent 
 for painting — anecdotes. 
 
 About the year 1775, sent to school near 
 Bristol — removed from school about a year after. 
 
 In 1782, his father settles at Bath, places 
 his son under the tuition of Mr. Hoare, a crayon 
 painter. 
 
 At the age of thirteen, receives a reward from 
 the Society of Arts, for a copy of the " Trans- 
 figuration " — portraits — historical pictures — 
 original compositions. 
 
 His father brings him to London in 1787 — 
 introduced to Sir Joshua Reynolds — exhibits 
 at Somerset House — his fame increases — in 
 1791, chosen an associate of the Royal Academy 
 
 — in 1792, appointed by George III. to suc- 
 ceed Sir Joshua as principal painter in ordi- 
 nary. 
 
 Commissioned by the Prince Regent to paint 
 
204 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 the portraits of the allied sovereigns — knighted 
 by the Prince in 1815 — in 1818, proceeds to 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, to Vienna, and Rome - — the 
 collection of portraits now in the Waterloo hall 
 at Windsor Castle. 
 
 During his absence on the Continent, elected 
 to the presidency of the academy, vacant by 
 the death of West — the honours and distinc- 
 tion with which he was received on his return 
 — dies in 1830, aged 61. 
 
 His literary information — behaviour to fel- 
 low artists — general character — never mar- 
 ried. (See Penny Cyclopedia, art. "Lawrence.") 
 
 Bacon. 1561. 
 
 Son of Sir Nicholas Bacon — born 22nd Jan. 
 1561 — intelligent as a boy — his reply to 
 Queen Elizabeth — not much known of his 
 early education. 
 
 Goes, at the age of thirteen, to Trinity Col- 
 lege, Cambridge — his studies — his dislike of 
 Aristotle's works. 
 
 Enters as a student of Gray's Inn — goes to 
 Paris in the suite of the British ambassador — 
 writes his work " On the State of Europe " at 
 the age of nineteen. 
 
 Returns to London on the death of his father 
 - — unprovided for — difficulties. 
 
 Called to the bar, 1582 — his honours. 
 
 Slowness of his advancement — his friendship 
 for the Earl of Essex — his conduct on the 
 trial of Essex. 
 
 Elected member of parliament in 1592 — 
 his various works written about this time. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 205 
 
 His prospects on the accession of James I. — 
 his advancement and literary reputation. 
 
 1613, appointed Attorney-general — im- 
 portant causes in which he was engaged. 
 
 1617, becomes Lord Keeper — entangled in 
 political intrigues — rivalry of Coke. 
 
 1618, appointed Chancellor — Bucking- 
 ham's influence to procure him the office — his 
 letter of thanks — publishes his " Novum Or- 
 ganon." 
 
 Its reception — different opinions of the work 
 here and abroad. 
 
 Charges of bribery against Bacon — proved 
 — stripped of his offices and honours — fine — 
 imprisonment. 
 
 Consolation in his disgrace — scientific works 
 — -" History of Henry VII." 
 
 Cause of his death — an experiment — his 
 accomplishments — poet — orator — lawyer — 
 statesman — philosopher. (See Penny Cyclo- 
 pcedia, article " Bacon.") 
 
 Locke. 1632—1704. 
 
 Born at Wrington near Bristol, 29th August, 
 1632 — placed at Westminster School — after- 
 wards at Christ Church, Oxford — his studies 
 at college. 
 
 Visits Berlin, in 1664, as secretary to the 
 envoy of the Elector of Brandenburgh — returns 
 to Oxford — forms an acquaintance with Lord 
 Shaftesbury — becomes his great friend — 
 makes the acquaintance of some of the leading 
 men of his day. 
 
 In 1670, commences his great work " On the 
 
206 ENGLISH: OK, 
 
 Understanding " — appointed secretary of pre- 
 sentations — afterwards, secretary to the board 
 of trade. 
 
 Bachelor of medicine in 1675 — visits France 
 
 — recalled to England by Lord Shaftesbury 
 in 1679 — follows Lord Shaftesbury, on his 
 disgrace, to Holland — obliged to conceal him- 
 self even there from the persecution of his 
 patron's enemies. 
 
 His literary labours during his residence in 
 Holland — returns to England in 1688 — ob- 
 tains a situation under government with a salary 
 of 200/. a year — the reception of his great 
 work, and the various opinions respecting it. 
 
 His ill health compels him to retire from 
 London — resides for the remainder of his life 
 at Oates, in Essex — his miscellaneous writings 
 during this time — died on the 28th October, 
 aged 73. 
 
 His personal character — his talents as a 
 writer — his style — beauties — faults. (See 
 Penny Cyclopadia, article " Locke.") 
 
 Dr. Reid. 1710—1796. 
 
 Born April 26th, 1710, about twenty miles 
 from Aberdeen — sent to the parish school of 
 Kincardine — enters the Mareschal College of 
 Aberdeen at the age of twelve. 
 
 Visits England in 1736 — London — Oxford 
 
 — Cambridge — introduced to distinguished 
 men — returns to Scotland — presented with the 
 living of New Machar, in Aberdeenshire. 
 
 Marries, in 1740, his cousin Elizabeth Reid 
 
 — his studies — " Inquiry into the Human 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 207 
 
 Mind " — his various other works — dies, October 
 7th, 1796, aged eighty-seven. 
 
 His moral and social qualities — his language 
 — style, &c. (See Penny Cyclo., art. "Reid.") 
 
 Dugald Stewart 1753—1828. 
 
 Born in Edinburgh, Nov. 22nd 1753 — edu- 
 cated at the High School of Edinburgh — his 
 progress in classical learning — attends Reid's 
 lectures in 1772 — his "Essay on Dreaming." 
 
 Takes charge of the mathematical classes at 
 the university — appointed mathematical pro- 
 fessor at the age of 21 — appointed professor 
 of moral philosophy during the absence of 
 Dr. Ferguson — appointed to succeed him on 
 his retirement. 
 
 His fame and popularity — the first volume 
 of his "Elements of the Philosophy of the 
 Human Mind" in 1792 — its reception — 
 opinions of its merits. 
 
 The next year, he publishes his " Outlines 
 of Moral Philosophy " — other works — in 1810, 
 resigns his professorship] — works written in his 
 retirement — " Philosophical Essays" — in 1814, 
 the second volume of " Elements of the Phi- 
 losophy of the Human Mind " — not so well 
 received — other works — dies the 11th of June, 
 1828 — buried in the Canongate churchyard, 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 His merits — philosophy — style — pecu- 
 liarities, &c. (See Penny Cyclo., art." Stewart.") 
 
 Sir Isaac Newton. 1642—1727. 
 Born 25th of December, 1642,atWoolsthorpe, 
 
208 ENGLISH; OE, 
 
 Lincolnshire — sent, at the age of twelve, to the 
 grammar-school at Grantham — his early talent 
 for mechanics — taken from school to assist his 
 mother in the management of a farm — his 
 disinclination to this sort of life — sent back to 
 school — goes to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 
 his seventeenth year. 
 
 Little known of the extent of his mathe- 
 matical knowledge, previously to his entering 
 the university — his inventions and discoveries. 
 Compelled to quit Cambridge in 1665 by 
 the raging of the plague — retires to Wools- 
 thorpe — his speculations, &c. in his retirement. 
 Eeturnsto Cambridge in 1666 — his "Prin- 
 cipia " — the theory advanced in this work. 
 
 Delivers a course of lectures on optics — his 
 system — in 1672, elected member of the 
 Royal Society — represents the university in 
 parliament, in 1688. 
 
 Correspondence with Leibnitz — his tem- 
 porary mental aberration — anecdote of the dog 
 " Diamond." 
 
 In 1699, chosen a foreign associate of the 
 Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris — in 1703, 
 elected President of the Royal Society — falls 
 into ill health in 1722 — dies, 1727, aged 
 eighty-seven. 
 
 His person — countenance — conversation — 
 his works — their effect on science, &c. (See 
 Penny Cyclopaedia, art. " Newton.") 
 
 Robert Boyle. 1626—1691. 
 
 The seventh son of Richard Boyle, Earl of 
 Cork, born 22nd March, 1626. His early edu- 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 209 
 
 cation — loses his mother when very young — 
 sent to Eton when eight years old — his fond- 
 ness for study — removed from Eton, and placed 
 with a tutor. 
 
 In 1638, sent to travel with a M. Marcombes 
 
 — the character he gives of this tutor — travels 
 through France — settles at Geneva. 
 
 Leaves Geneva in 1641 — visits Italy — 
 learns the language — studies astronomy — 
 proceeds to Florence, Rome, Geneva, Marseilles 
 
 — returns to London in 1644 — finds his father 
 dead. 
 
 From this time devotes himself to study — 
 settles at Oxford — improves the air pump — 
 chosen one of the council of the Royal Society 
 in 1663. 
 
 Boyle, a director of the East India Company 
 
 — endeavours to promote Christianity in the 
 East — his health declines in 1689 — his sister 
 dies 23d December, 1691, and Boyle himself on 
 the 30th of the same month. 
 
 Was never married — his personal appearance 
 
 — his abstemiousness — benevolence — con- 
 tempt of dignities — religious opinions — his dis- 
 coveries — their merits — his character as a 
 theological writer, &c. (See Penny Cyclopedia, 
 article "Boyle.") 
 
 William Herschel 1738—1822. 
 
 The son of a musician, born at Hanover, No- 
 vember 15th, 1738. Brought up to the musical 
 profession — well educated in other respects 
 
 — placed, at the age of fourteen, in the band of 
 
210 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 the Hanoverian guards — accompanies them to 
 England in 1757. 
 
 Variously employed in England ; at Durham, 
 Halifax, Bath, &c. — no authentic information 
 respecting him — various anecdotes. 
 
 About 1766, organist at Bath — -begins to 
 study astronomy — his knowledge of mathe- 
 matics — makes a telescope for himself. 
 
 The two branches of astronomy — the inves- 
 tigation of the movements of the heavenly 
 bodies, and the science of optics — devotes him- 
 self to both these branches. 
 
 Contributes to the Philosophical Transactions 
 
 — discovers a new planet (Uranus) — the merits 
 of this discovery. 
 
 Honoured by the patronage of George III. — 
 appointed private astronomer to the king, with 
 a salary of 400/. a year. Fixes his residence at 
 Datchet, and then at Slough — assisted in his 
 labours by his sister, Miss Caroline Herschel. 
 
 Married a widow — left one son, the present 
 Sir John Herschel — William Herschel died in 
 1822— wealthy. 
 
 ~No authentic account of his private character 
 
 — generally known to be a man of strict inte- 
 grity, and of a benevolent disposition. (See 
 Penny Cyclopedia, article "Herschel." 
 
 The following are suggested as useful subjects 
 for historical and biographical composition : — 
 
 1. The Trojan war. 
 
 2. The life and death of Socrates. {History of 
 Greece?) 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 211 
 
 3. The life of Alexander the Great. (Plu- 
 tarch.) 
 
 4. The life of Julius Caesar. (Plutarch.) 
 
 5. The invasion of Greece by the Persians. 
 (History of Greece.) 
 
 6. The taking of Rome by the Gauls. (His- 
 tory of Rome.) 
 
 7. Hannibal's campaign in Italy. (History of 
 Rome.) 
 
 8. The life of Cicero. (See Middletoris Life.) 
 
 9. On the ancient state of India. (See Ty tier's 
 Elements of History.) 
 
 10. On the Knights Templars. 
 
 11. On the secret tribunals of the middle 
 ages. 
 
 12. On the feudal system. 
 
 13. On the Crusades. 
 
 14. Notices on the life of Mahomet. 
 
 15. On the wars of York and Lancaster. 
 
 16. The history of the rebellion in England. 
 
 17. On the plague of London. 
 
 18. On the great fire of London. 
 
 19. On the revival of learning in Europe. 
 
 20. The life of Columbus, and the discovery 
 of America. 
 
 21. On the thirty years' war in Germany. 
 
 22. The life of Peter the Great of Russia. (See 
 Lord Dover 's Lives of Eminent Crowned Heads.) 
 
 23. The life of Charles XII. of Sweden. 
 (See Lord Dover's Lives.) 
 
 24. The life of Gustavus Adolphus. (See 
 Lord Dover's Lives.) 
 
 25. The life of Frederic of Prusiia. (See 
 Lord Dover's Lives.) 
 
 p 2 
 
212. ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 26. On the times of Louis XIV. 
 
 27. On the times of Charles V. of Spain. 
 
 28. On the times of Philip II. of Spain. 
 
 29. On the war of the Spanish succession. 
 
 30. The seven years' war in Germany. 
 
 31. The invasion of Spain by the Moors. 
 
 32. The trial and execution of the Earl of 
 Strafford. (See Hurried) 
 
 33. The trial and execution of Mary Queen of 
 Scots. (See Robertson.} 
 
 34. The trial and execution of Charles I. 
 (See Hume.} 
 
 35. The character of Alfred the Great. (See 
 Hume.} 
 
 36. The trial and execution of Louis XVI. 
 
 37. The life of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 38. The life of Henry IV of France. 
 
 39. On the massacre of the Huguenots. 
 
 40. The life of John Sobieski. (See Lord 
 Dover 's Lives.) 
 
 41. The conquest of Mexico. (See Robert- 
 son's History of America.) 
 
 42. The conquest of Peru. (See Robertson.) 
 
 43. On the British constitution. (See 
 Tyiler's Elements.) 
 
 44. Lord Anson's voyages. 
 
 45. The life of Captain Cook. 
 
THE ABT OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 OH FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 The term figure, in it? original sense, signifies 
 the form or shape of any tiring which, is an 
 object of sight. From this proper sense oi the 
 1 is deduced its secondary signification. A 
 man who is said to make a figure in the world, 
 is one whose actions are so great, or so remark- 
 able, that they present a distinct form to the 
 mind's eye. and stand out in relief, as it were, 
 from the ordinary actions of mankind. On the 
 same principle, the word has been applie I 
 certain forms of expression used in language. 
 These forms or figures of speech are expressions 
 which depart from the common modes of dis- 
 course, and are generally used to embellish lan- 
 guage, and give dignity and elegance to style 
 Thus, in common phraseology we say. " restrain 
 your language : " but in using the words. •'•' put 
 a bridle on your tongue," the same idea is con- 
 veyed in a figure. 
 
 Figurative language is neither the invention 
 oi philosophers, nor the result of modern refine- 
 ment, for it is found to have been especially 
 prevalent in the early ages of the world, and in 
 all countries where man appears in a rude, un- 
 civilised s:. :o 
 
 p 3 
 
212. ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 26. On the times of Louis XIV. 
 
 27. On the times of Charles V. of Spain. 
 
 28. On the times of Philip II. of Spain. 
 
 29. On the war of the Spanish succession. 
 
 30. The seven years' war in Germany. 
 
 31. The invasion of Spain by the Moors. 
 
 32. The trial and execution of the Earl of 
 Strafford. (See Hume.) 
 
 33. The trial and execution of Mary Queen of 
 Scots. (See Robertson?) 
 
 34. The trial and execution of Charles I. 
 (See Hume.) 
 
 35. The character of Alfred the Great. (See 
 Hume.) 
 
 36. The trial and execution of Louis XYI. 
 
 37. The life of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 38. The life of Henry IV of France. 
 
 39. On the massacre of the Huguenots. 
 
 40. The life of John Sobieski. (See Lord 
 Dover's Lives.) 
 
 41. The conquest of Mexico. (See Robert- 
 sorts History of America.) 
 
 42. The conquest of Peru. (See Robertson.) 
 
 43. On the British constitution. (See 
 Ty tier's Elements.) 
 
 44. Lord Anson's voyages. 
 
 45. The life of Captain Cook. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 213 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ON FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 The term figure^ in its original sense, signifies 
 the form or shape of any thing which is an 
 object of sight. From this proper sense of the 
 word is deduced its secondary signification. A 
 man who is said to make a figure in the world, 
 is one whose actions are so great, or so remark- 
 able, that they present a distinct form to the 
 mind's eye, and stand out in relief, as it were, 
 from the ordinary actions of mankind. On the 
 same principle, the word has been applied to 
 certain forms of expression used in language. 
 These forms or figures of speech are expressions 
 which depart from the common modes of dis- 
 course, and are generally used to embellish lan- 
 guage, and give dignity and elegance to style. 
 Thus, in common phraseology we say, " restrain 
 your language ; " but in using the words, u put 
 a bridle on your tongue," the same idea is con- 
 veyed in a figure. 
 
 Figurative language is neither the invention 
 of philosophers, nor the result of modern refine- 
 ment, for it is found to have been especially 
 prevalent in the early ages of the world, and in 
 all countries where man appears in a rude, un- 
 civilised state. 
 
 p 3 
 
214 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 It is used as frequently by the illiterate as by 
 the learned, and, indeed, often more correctly 
 by the former than by the latter, since with the 
 vulgar, it is the natural expression of thought, 
 whereas among the learned it is not unfre- 
 quently the offspring of affectation, or an over- 
 strained study after ornament. 
 
 Analogy, the meaning of which has been 
 already explained in a foregoing chapter of this 
 work, is the foundation of all figurative lan- 
 guage. Comparison, metaphor, and allegory, 
 which are the figures chiefly used, all have their 
 origin in analogy, and are essentially connected 
 with it. When we compare anger to a tempest, 
 we find a resemblance between them as to cir- 
 cumstances or effects, but not in any outward 
 appearance. No one will seriously attempt to 
 maintain that the appearance of an angry man 
 resembles in any respect the natural phenomena 
 presented to the eye during a storm, and yet no 
 simile is more obvious, or has been more fre- 
 quently used. The likeness is perceptible in 
 effects, or in circumstances, not in external ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 In the metaphor, which is the most frequently 
 employed of all the figures of speech, words are 
 used in their proper signification, but the ideas 
 which they convey are transferred from one 
 class of objects to another. In this figure a 
 comparison is not expressed between anger and 
 a tempest, but the latter word is introduced in 
 its stead, and placed in all the circumstances in 
 which we are accustomed to regard the former. 
 In like manner, a minister of state is called a 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 215 
 
 pillar; restraint, a bridle; impetuosity, a tor- 
 rent, &c. In all these cases, it is sufficiently 
 obvious that the figure owes its origin to the 
 principle of analogy. 
 
 An allegory is a story conveying a moral 
 lesson by the narration of circumstances analo- 
 gous to the instruction it intends to impart ; so 
 that this figure may be considered as a series of 
 metaphors, and, consequently, its origin may be 
 referred to the same principle as that of the 
 metaphor. 
 
 Simile or Comparison. 
 
 Let the pupil discover the points of resem- 
 blance which exist between the given subjects, 
 and express the comparison in a form some- 
 what similar to the following : 
 
 Old age . . . sunset. 
 
 Old age has been called the sunset of life ; it 
 is then that the mind, escaped from the agi- 
 tation and tumult of the passions, is calm and 
 tranquil, like the still serenity of the evening, 
 when the busy sound of labour is hushed, and 
 the glare of the meridian sun has passed away. 
 The soul of the just man, conscious of his own 
 integrity, like the glorious orb enveloped in 
 those mellow tints which are then reflected 
 from it in a thousand hues, sinks into a peace- 
 ful slumber, again to rise in brighter splendour, 
 and renew in another world the course destined 
 for it by the Almighty Ruler of the universe. 
 p 4 
 
216 
 
 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 SUBJECTS FOR COMPARISON. 
 
 Morning 
 
 Night 
 
 Life 
 
 Light and shade 
 
 Life 
 
 Knowledge 
 
 Science 
 
 Charity 
 
 An evil conscience 
 
 Good intentions 
 
 Good principles 
 
 Pity 
 
 Firmness 
 
 Envy 
 
 Nature 
 
 Earth 
 
 Man 
 
 The moon 
 
 A warrior 
 
 An unpolished diamond 
 
 A flower in the desert 
 
 An army 
 
 The wind over a corn-field 
 
 A youth slain in battle 
 
 youth 
 old age 
 the ocean 
 joy and sorrow 
 a journey 
 a hill 
 a tree 
 the sun 
 
 the stormy ocean 
 a clear stream 
 a rock 
 dew 
 an oak 
 rust 
 a nurse 
 a mother 
 a tree 
 a shield 
 
 a raging torrent 
 uncultivated genius 
 modest and neglected talent 
 a swarm of bees 
 the plumes and crests of war- 
 riors 
 a flower cut down by a plough. 
 
 Let the learner find subjects drawn from 
 sensible nature which may be compared, se- 
 verally, with the following abstract qualities, 
 each to be expressed in a separate sentence : — 
 
 Perseverance 
 
 Ambition 
 
 Ignorance 
 
 Calumny 
 
 Death 
 
 The mind 
 
 Memory 
 
 Happiness 
 
 Moderation 
 
 War 
 
 Justice 
 
 Difficulties 
 
 Anger 
 
 Avarice 
 
 Prodigality 
 
 Melancholy 
 
 Union 
 
 Affliction 
 
 Prosperity 
 
 Imagination 
 
 Sin 
 
 Peace 
 
 Adversity 
 
 Virtues. 
 
THE AST OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 217 
 
 The pupil is here to express a comparison 
 between the following natural objects, and those 
 moral qualities which they may be said to re- 
 semble : — 
 
 The green turf 
 Rain 
 
 The snow 
 A river 
 A mountain 
 Vapour 
 Blossoms 
 Frost 
 
 Fragrant herhs 
 A valley- 
 Clouds 
 Afield 
 
 A garden 
 
 Dust 
 
 A volcano 
 
 A harbour 
 
 A spring 
 
 A tower 
 
 Sand 
 
 Straw 
 
 Gulf 
 
 Glass 
 
 Wax 
 
 A water-pipe. 
 
 COMPOUND SUBJECTS. 
 
 The sea in a calm 
 A puddle in a storm 
 
 Green shoots round a trunk 
 
 A devouring boar, laying 
 
 waste the fields 
 The heavens spangled with 
 
 stars 
 The sun breaking through 
 
 the clouds 
 
 tranquillity of mind 
 
 the vain boastings of the in- 
 significant 
 
 children supported by an aged 
 parent 
 
 an oppressive and tyrannical 
 prince 
 
 the plumage of a peacock 
 
 honour appearing through a 
 mean habit. 
 
 On Metaphor. 
 
 A metaphor differs from a simile only in form 
 of expression, for comparison is the foundation 
 of both these figures of speech. In a simile, 
 two ideas are placed distinctly before our eyes, 
 and compared together, whereas in a metaphor 
 one idea only is expressed, performing the 
 
218 
 
 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 office, or placed in the circumstances of another ; 
 by which means two ideas are compared in 
 thought, though not in expression. On this 
 principle, the word head is often used to ex- 
 press eminence or superior talents. In speak- 
 ing of a man of distinguished abilities, he may 
 be called, metaphorically, the head of his pro- 
 fession. The metaphor here consists in the 
 implied analogy between the head, which is the 
 highest part of the human body, and the po- 
 sition which the person alluded to occupies 
 with respect to the other members of his pro- 
 fession. 
 
 METAPHORS (NOUNs). 
 
 The following nouns are to be employed me- 
 taphorically in short sentences ; the words in 
 the first column being used in the sense ex- 
 pressed by those which stand opposite to them 
 in the second, thus: 
 
 Notwithstanding all the temptations held out 
 to him, he resolutely pursued the path of inte- 
 grity, untouched alike by the follies and licen- 
 tiousness of a corrupt court. 
 
 Head 
 
 eminence 
 
 Fruit 
 
 results 
 
 Crown 
 
 glory 
 
 Step 
 
 impression 
 
 The sea 
 
 trouble 
 
 Chain 
 
 restraint 
 
 Dregs 
 
 vice 
 
 Fetters 
 
 slavery 
 
 Scum 
 
 refuse 
 
 Smile 
 
 fine weather 
 
 Cloak 
 
 a covering 
 
 Voice 
 
 noise 
 
 Ocean 
 
 eternity 
 
 Rose 
 
 health 
 
 Clue 
 
 a guide 
 
 Sink 
 
 vice 
 
 Blow 
 
 heavy affliction 
 
 Abyss 
 
 ruin 
 
 Stream 
 
 time 
 
 Star 
 
 a genius 
 
 Path 
 
 conduct 
 
 A cup 
 
 sorrow 
 
 Spring 
 
 source or cause 
 
 Rod 
 
 power 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 219 
 
 METAPHORS (VERBS). 
 
 The verbs in the first column are to be used 
 with the nouns in the second, so as to form to- 
 gether a metaphorical expression, thus : 
 
 London is the very sink of vice; but the 
 spires of her charitable institutions pierce the 
 skies, and avert the wrath of Heaven. 
 
 tread 
 
 path 
 
 tremble 
 
 mountain 
 
 roar 
 
 thunder 
 
 creep 
 
 "wind 
 
 sit 
 
 cloud 
 
 pierce 
 
 prayer 
 
 nod 
 
 forests 
 
 breathe 
 
 cannon 
 
 step 
 
 sun 
 
 murmur 
 
 brook 
 
 play 
 
 sun 
 
 strike 
 
 death 
 
 pass 
 
 ■wind 
 
 sweep 
 
 destruction 
 
 veil 
 
 cloud 
 
 drain 
 
 sorrow- 
 
 flee 
 
 flower 
 
 steal 
 
 time 
 
 paint 
 
 fancy 
 
 pierce 
 
 pinnacle 
 
 lift 
 
 mountain 
 
 seal 
 
 eye 
 
 fly 
 
 fortune 
 
 -wrap 
 
 tomb 
 
 reap 
 
 fruits 
 
 drink 
 
 earth 
 
 sign 
 
 ■wind 
 
 blush 
 
 sky 
 
 dance 
 
 leaves 
 
 -waft 
 
 sigh. 
 
 METAPHORS (ADJECTIVES). 
 
 The adjectives in the section (A) are to be 
 employed in sentences metaphorically, with the 
 substantives in the section (B), the pupil selecting 
 the words which correspond with each other 
 severally, in each section, thus : 
 
 The thirsty earth absorbed the falling shower. 
 
 (A). Thirsty — silent — furious — tearful 
 — growling — angry — deceitful — pale — 
 lofty — gentle — nipped — rich — lingering — 
 
220 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 proud — fierce • — yawning — departing — cold 
 
 — frowning — winding — haughty — erring — 
 living — wandering, &c. 
 
 (B). Ocean — winter — earth — disease — 
 hills — palaces — dart — shore — spirit — winds 
 
 — mind — beam — spring — hopes — tempest 
 
 — judgment — light — grave — crag — path 
 ■ — dome — arrow — stream — thoughts, &c. 
 
 On Personification. 
 
 Personification, or prosopopeia, is the figure 
 which attributes life and animation to inani- 
 mate objects. The following extract from the 
 third canto of Lord Byron's Corsair affords a 
 striking example of the beauty and force of this 
 figure : — 
 
 " Slow sinks, more lovely ere his race be run 
 Along Morea's hills, the setting sun ; 
 Not, as in Northern climes, obscurely bright, 
 But one unclouded blaze of living light ! 
 O'er the hushed deep the yellow beam he throws, 
 Gilds the green wave, that trembles as it glows. 
 On old JEgina's rock, and Idra's isle, 
 The god of gladness sheds his parting smile ; 
 O'er his own regions lingering, loves to shine, 
 Though there his altars are no more divine. 
 Descending fast, the mountain shadows kiss 
 Thy glorious gulf, unconquered Salamis! 
 Their azure arches, through the long expanse 
 More deeply purpled, meet his mellowing glance ; 
 And tenderest tints along their summits driven 
 Mark his gay course, and own the hues of heaven ; 
 Till, darkly shaded from the land and deep, 
 Behind his Delphian cliff he sinks to sleep." 
 
 The following expressions (illustrating this 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 221 
 
 figure) are to be introduced in sentences of the 
 learner's composition : — 
 
 Sleep embraces — The laws require — Justice 
 demands — Nature speaks — The evening in- 
 vites — Night stretches — The moon gilds — 
 Nature nurses — The thunder roars — Blushes 
 paint — The morning smiles — The sun climbs 
 the hill — Care keeps watch — Night spreads 
 her curtain - — Vengeance bares his arm — Time 
 has tamed — Years had ploughed — Britain 
 saw — Death prepared his dart — Memory wept 
 — Freedom shrieked — Rapine prowls — Mur- 
 der stalks — The vessel cleaves — Time had 
 ploughed — Wisdom strays — Hope fled — 
 Love watches, &c. 
 
 . On Allegory. 
 
 An allegory is a descriptive figure, which not 
 only conveys a general moral, but in which 
 the circumstances mentioned in the narration, 
 though possessing a meaning different from that 
 which is actually expressed, correspond, seve- 
 rally, with some point in the instruction which 
 the allegory contains. Thus Horace (Book I. 
 Ode 14.), describing the dangers of the Roman 
 state, represents it under the image of a ship, 
 and expresses his fears for its safety in tech- 
 nical allusions to the various parts of the vessel, 
 and to the perils to which it is exposed from the 
 winds and waves. 
 
 Almost all the moral philosophy of the an- 
 cients was imparted by allegory ; for what are 
 
222 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 usually called fables and parables are nothing 
 but various forms of this figure, in which feel- 
 ings or qualities attributed to animals or ma- 
 terial objects represent the sentiments and 
 dispositions of men. 
 
 The following is an example of a happily 
 executed allegory, taken from No. 55. of the 
 Spectator : — 
 
 <c There were two very powerful tyrants en- 
 gaged in a perpetual war against each other : 
 the name of the first was Luxury, and of the 
 second, Avarice. The aim of each of them was 
 no less than universal monarchy over the hearts 
 of mankind. Luxury had many generals under 
 him, who did him great service, as Pleasure, 
 Mirth, Pomp, and Fashion. Avarice was like- 
 wise very strong in his officers, being -faithfully 
 served by Hunger, Industry, Care, and Watch- 
 fulness : he had likewise a privy-counsellor, who 
 was always at his elbow, and whispering some- 
 thing or other in his ear. The name of this 
 privy-counsellor was Poverty. As Avarice con- 
 ducted himself by the counsels of Poverty, his 
 antagonist was entirely guided by the dictates 
 and advice of Plenty, who was his first coun- 
 sellor and minister of state, who concerted all 
 his measures for him, and never departed out 
 of his sight. While these two great rivals were 
 thus contending for empire, their conquests 
 were very various. Luxury got possession of 
 one heart, and Avarice of another. The father 
 of a family would often range himself under 
 the banners of Avarice, and the son under those 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 223 
 
 of Luxury. The wife and husband would often 
 declare themselves on the two different parties ; 
 nay, the same person would very often side 
 with one in his youth, and revolt to the 
 other in his old age. Indeed, the wise men of 
 the world stood neuter ; but, alas ! their num- 
 bers were not considerable. At length, when 
 these two potentates had wearied themselves 
 with waging war upon one another, they agreed 
 upon an interview, at which neither of their 
 counsellors was to be present. It is said that 
 Luxury began the parley, and after having 
 represented the endless state of war in which 
 they were engaged, told his enemy, with a 
 frankness of heart which is natural to him, that 
 he believed they should be very good friends, 
 were it not for the instigations of Poverty, that 
 pernicious counsellor, who made an ill use of 
 his ear, L and filled him with groundless appre- 
 hensions and prejudices. To this Avarice re- 
 plied, that he looked upon Plenty (the first 
 minister of his antagonist) to be a much more 
 destructive counsellor than Poverty, for that 
 he was perpetually suggesting pleasures, ba- 
 nishing all the necessary cautions against want, 
 and consequently undermining those principles 
 on which the government of A varice was founded. 
 At last, in order to come to an accommodation, 
 they agreed upon this preliminary, that each of 
 them should immediately dismiss his privy- 
 counsellor. When things were thus far ad- 
 justed towards a peace, all other differences 
 were soon accommodated, insomuch that, for the 
 future, they resolved to live as good friends 
 
224 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 and confederates, and to share between them 
 whatever conquests were made on either side. 
 For this reason, we now find Luxury and 
 Avarice taking possession of the same heart, 
 and dividing the same person between them. 
 To which I shall only add, that since the dis- 
 carding of the counsellors above mentioned, 
 Avarice supplies Luxury in the room of Plenty, 
 as Luxury prompts Avarice in the place of 
 Poverty." 
 
 For a further study and imitation of this 
 figure, the student is referred to the Visions of 
 Mirza, and the Paradise of Fools, Nos. 159. 
 and 460 of the Spectator ; Truth, Falsehood, 
 and Fiction, No. 96. of the Rambler; Thomson's 
 Castle of Indolence, &c. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 225 
 
 CHAPTER VIL 
 
 ON THEMES. 
 
 When the pupil has been sufficiently practised 
 in writing the foregoing sketches, he may pro- 
 ceed to the consideration of the theme, which is 
 a form of exercise frequently given to young 
 persons at a very early period of their ad- 
 vancement, and long before they can have pos- 
 sibly acquired the command of expression and 
 strength of intellect requisite for such a task. 
 The lessons in the earlier portion of this work 
 will prepare the mind for the exercise of its rea- 
 soning powers ; and it may be presumed that the 
 faculties of those who have diligently pursued 
 the course of instruction here laid down, are by 
 this time sufficiently developed to enable them 
 to trace the connection between cause and effect, 
 and to support their own opinions by a regular 
 chain of argument. But, however well the mind 
 may be prepared for this exercise, the subject 
 proposed for the theme should be always dis- 
 cussed between the teacher and scholar pre- 
 viously to any attempt made on the part of the 
 latter, in order that he may fully understand the 
 nature of the various heads under which the 
 subject is arranged, as well as the connection 
 by which they are all held together. 
 Q 
 
226 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 Subjects proposed for themes are of two sorts; 
 either some abstract idea, concerning which it is 
 required to deliver an opinion, and prove its 
 correctness according to established rules; or 
 some received maxim, the truth of which is to 
 be proved by a similar process of reasoning. 
 One objection to this mode of treating subjects 
 is, that there are very few questions which will 
 admit of the same form of argument, or which 
 can be divided in the same manner, and that the 
 endeavour to discuss them all according to the 
 same model produces an awkward stiffness in 
 the style, and a disjointed effect in the composi- 
 tion. 
 
 The practice of theme-writing is, however, 
 so salutary, and has so direct a tendency to 
 strengthen the reasoning faculty, that this may 
 be considered a secondary objection; and in order 
 to obviate its effect as much as possible, each 
 subject may be treated according as its nature 
 and the suggestion of the teacher may direct ; 
 that is, some of the given heads may be omitted, 
 and others substituted, as may be found expe- 
 dient. 
 
 The various heads under which subjects for 
 themes are generally treated, are as follows : 
 1. The definition or proposition. 2. The judg- 
 ment or opinion. 3. The cause or reason. 4. 
 The confirmation. 5. The simile or comparison. 
 6. The example. 7. The quotation; and 8. 
 The conclusion. It will be proper here to offer 
 some explanation of these terms, and of the 
 manner in which they are to be used. 
 
 The definition is an explanation in simple 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 227 
 
 terms of the nature or quality of the subject 
 proposed for composition. In giving this ex- 
 planation, two things must be remembered; first, 
 that no word can be defined by a single term ; 
 and secondly, that neither the word itself, nor 
 any of its derivatives, can be allowed to be used 
 in its own definition.* 
 
 Dr. Watts, in his well-known treatise on 
 Logic, has laid down an excellent rule for the 
 definition of terms, and one which will generally 
 be found useful to beginners. He says, that in 
 order to arrive at the exact definition of a word, 
 it will be necessary to examine its two states 
 or natures ; its general, and its particular nature. 
 By its general nature he signifies those properties 
 which it possesses in common with many other 
 things of the same sort ; and by its particular 
 nature he means those qualities which dis- 
 tinguish it from those of its own sort. Thus, 
 suppose wine to be the proposed word. Wine 
 has two natures : 1. Itisajwzce: this property 
 it has in common with many other liquids, and 
 it is therefore considered its general nature. 2. 
 Wine is the juice of a certain fruit — of the 
 grape : these words, " of the grape," then, show 
 the particular nature of the juice in question ; 
 and the two natures, being put together, make 
 up the required definition, " wine is the juice of 
 the grape" It is true that this definition might 
 
 * I have made these remarks in consequence of frequently- 
 finding young persons fall into the errors to -which I here 
 allude. For instance, when requiring a definition of envy, I 
 have been told that it was malice, or that it was an envious 
 feeling. 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 be niuch enlarged and improved ; but still it is 
 sufficiently correct to answer our present purpose ; 
 and the rule, it is hoped, will serve in some 
 degree to remove the difficulty which presents 
 itself to the unpractised writer at the com- 
 mencement of the composition. 
 
 To assist in defining, a knowledge of Etymo- 
 logy will often be of much service ; and hence 
 the great advantage of even a slight acquaintance 
 with ancient languages. To this it has been 
 objected, that many English words which are 
 derived from Latin or Greek no longer retain 
 the signification in which they were originally 
 used: and that etymology has given rise to many 
 fanciful theories, most of which are calculated 
 rather to puzzle than to enlighten the young 
 mind. Be this as it may, it cannot be denied 
 that this branch of study, when conducted with 
 moderation, and according to received principles, 
 must have a beneficial tendency. By making 
 ourselves acquainted with the original meaning 
 of a word, and by tracing the various modifica- 
 tions the same word has undergone through the 
 lapse of ages up to our own times, we are led into 
 many reflections on the nature of the human 
 mind, and on changes in the habits of men, and 
 the customs of society, which are no less in- 
 teresting than instructive, and which raise the 
 mind from silly and frivolous pursuits to objects 
 far more worthy its attention. 
 
 If, then, we attend to the derivation of those 
 words we are required to define, we shall, in 
 most cases, furnish ourselves with a key to their 
 explanation. Few words, if any, are found to 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 229 
 
 have become so changed as not to retain some 
 portion of their original signification ; and we 
 shall generally find, that though time and cir- 
 cumstances may have contributed materially to 
 alter their particular nature, that their general 
 nature remains unchanged. Thus, in the case 
 of the word diversion. This word signifies 
 literally the act of turning from ; di being the 
 particle conveying the idea of separation, and 
 version the abstract idea of the act of turning, 
 from the Latin verb verto, I turn. There can 
 be no doubt that this word, like all other abs- 
 tract words, was originally used to represent 
 the bodily act of turning away, and that it was 
 afterwards employed to signify the turning of 
 the mind from the consideration of grave and 
 serious subjects, to things requiring a less labo- 
 rious exertion. Similar remarks will apply to 
 almost all the words expressive of moral qualities 
 or intellectual faculties. 
 
 After laying down the definition, amplified 
 to whatever extent may be found expedient, 
 the pupil is required to offer his opinion or 
 judgment respecting the subject proposed for 
 discussion. And here it is necessary that he 
 be very cautious, and reflect carefully before 
 committing his judgment to paper ; since upon 
 that judgment must depend the whole manage- 
 ment of all the remaining parts of his theme. 
 Supposing, then, that the subject laid down be 
 some moral quality, the pupil must give his 
 opinion in general terms of its fitness or unfit- 
 ness for society; whether it be productive of 
 benefit or of evil to mankind in general ; whether 
 Q 3 
 
230 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 to be recommended to all persons, or to some 
 only, and to whom in particular. These ques- 
 tions must, of course, depend on the nature of 
 the subject proposed for consideration. 
 
 In considering the third division of the 
 theme, the cause or reason, it is advisable to 
 refer the pupil to his judgment, which must 
 always precede it ; and direct his mind to those 
 reflections which gave rise to the opinion he has 
 already expressed concerning the question under 
 consideration. Those who have acquired the 
 habit of judging for themselves, have but little 
 difficulty in assigning a reason for arriving at a 
 conclusion upon any proposed question; but 
 young persons are so little in the habit of re- 
 flecting and are so unaccustomed to consider 
 the causes which give rise to their opinions, 
 that this portion of the conrposition may offer 
 them almost insurmountable difficulties. 
 
 It is obvious that no judgment which is the 
 result of conviction can be laid down without 
 some previous reflection ; and it is, therefore, 
 to those thoughts which immediately precede and 
 lead to our judgment that we must look for its 
 cause. Cause and effect, indeed, seem so closely 
 connected, and are so wholly dependent upon 
 each other, that it is, in many cases, difficult to 
 consider them apart; and the mind, when di- 
 rected to the one, almost unconsciously reverts 
 to the other. We cannot reasonably assert the 
 goodness or badness of any quality or substance 
 without being prepared to give a reason for our 
 judgment thus pronounced ; and it is surely the 
 first duty , of a rational being not to be de- 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 231 
 
 pendent on the opinions of others, but to decide 
 for himself, on those subjects which are within 
 the reach of his understanding. 
 
 Anions; those causes of truths which are 
 universally admitted, may be enumerated, — 1. 
 The evidence of the senses. 2. The universal 
 consent of mankind. 3. The testimony of cre- 
 dible witnesses, &c. 
 
 Next follows the confirmation. By this 
 term is meant nothing more than an additional 
 cause, tending to show the accuracy of the judg- 
 ment, or an argument corroborating the truth of 
 the reason already laid down. In the same way 
 as when, in a case of litigation, the concurring 
 testimony of several persons becomes an evi- 
 dence conveying conviction of its truth to the 
 minds of the hearers ; so does the strengthening 
 aid of the confirmation serve to establish the 
 correctness of the opinion which the writer has 
 already expressed in his judgment. Here, the 
 student need not confine himself to one argu- 
 ment only, but may adduce as many as he may 
 think proper, always, however, bearing in mind 
 that his object is to prove the truth of the 
 opinion he has already expressed, and taking 
 care that all his remarks, in this and the remain- 
 ing parts of his composition, may have that 
 tendency. 
 
 The division of the subject to be next consi- 
 dered, is the simile or comparison. A simile 
 is a likeness which is found to exist between 
 some object in external nature, and a moral or 
 intellectual quality. This similarity it is for 
 the pupil to discover and express. It may be, 
 Q 4 
 
232 ENGLISH ; OK, 
 
 perhaps, of some service to remind him that a 
 close resemblance may generally be discovered 
 between the warmer and more vehement pas- 
 sions of the heart, and objects denoting or pro- 
 ducing heat ; as also between the calmer feelings 
 of the mind, and the external serenity or cold- 
 ness of nature. Thus, the effects of benevolence 
 may be compared to the vivifying influence of 
 the sun ; those of anger, to a raging fire devour- 
 ing every thing which lies in its way ; envy, to 
 the gnawing worm, or to rust, which corrodes 
 the hardest substances ; gloominess of temper, 
 to a cloudy sky ; and so forth. 
 
 Colours, again, afford us a fertile source of 
 comparison. The brighter hues may be com- 
 pared to the more cheerful states of the mind ; 
 whilst the graver and more serious feelings of 
 our moral nature may be said to resemble those 
 of a deeper cast. Thus, youth and cheerfulness 
 may be compared to green ; mirth and joy, to 
 red; majesty, to purple; jealousy, to pale yellow; 
 grief, to black, &c. 
 
 Another source of comparison may be found 
 in motion. The rapid torrent, or boiling whirl- 
 pool, naturally suggests the idea of furious rage ; 
 the gliding stream, gentleness of disposition; 
 indecision of character may be compared to a 
 swinging lateral motion, as that of the boughs 
 of a tree, blown to and fro at every gust of the 
 wind; and constancy or firmness of mind, to 
 those rocks or trees which resist the most violent 
 shocks of the tempest. 
 
 In the next division of the theme, the pupil 
 is required to quote an example from history, 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 233 
 
 illustrative of the truth of his opinion already 
 delivered. Here, it may be advisable to caution 
 him against a very common practice with young 
 writers ; that of adducing an instance, instead 
 of an example, of the virtue or vice under dis- 
 cussion. A distinction, however, exists. An 
 instance of generosity is the relation of some 
 particular case in which that quality is shown 
 forth ; but an example of generosity is the per- 
 son in whom it is known to have existed in an 
 eminent degree. Thus, Julius Csesar is an ex- 
 ample, not an instance, of clemency. The story, 
 again, of the murder of Clitus by Alexander 
 the Great, is an instance of ungovernable passion, 
 of which Alexander himself may be properly 
 cited as an example. In fine, an example is a 
 person whose conduct is held up either for our 
 imitation or avoidance ; whereas an instance is 
 nothing more than an anecdote or story illus- 
 trative of certain good or bad qualities. 
 
 To those who are conversant with history, 
 no difficulty will arise in finding examples for 
 any moral quality concerning which they may 
 have to write ; but as many young persons are 
 but imperfectly acquainted with this branch of 
 knowledge, it is recommended that the teacher 
 should not furnish the pupil with an example, 
 but, after discussing this part of the subject 
 with him, should refer him to a certain reign 
 or division in history, in which he will be likely 
 to find one suited to his purpose. By adopting 
 this plan, the pupil will not only have his cu- 
 riosity awakened, but will also insensibly ac- 
 quire the useful habit of referring for any 
 
234 ENGLISH ; OK, 
 
 information he may require upon subjects in 
 general. 
 
 It has hitherto been a practice with those 
 who have written upon the subject of Themes, 
 to introduce, in addition to the parts already 
 explained, a proverb, or a quotation from 
 some author of acknowledged merit, whose au- 
 thority is considered as tending to strengthen 
 the opinions held by the writer. How far this 
 practice is to be recommended, may be ques- 
 tionable. It certainly requires a considerable 
 extent of reading to enable any one to cite a 
 quotation which will aptly illustrate every va- 
 riety of subject upon which he may be required 
 to write ; and it can hardly be expected that 
 pupils can possess that extent of reading which 
 such a power would demand. This question, 
 again, must be left to the teacher's determi- 
 nation. It may, however, be recommended, 
 that, in a course of general reading, the pupil's 
 attention be specially directed to those passages 
 which are usually quoted, and some of which 
 he may be required to copy out, and commit to 
 memory. By this means he will soon acquire 
 sufficient materials to be used as authority, when- 
 ever occasion may require. 
 
 In concluding his composition, all the ar- 
 guments used throughout the discussion may 
 be briefly alluded to, and brought to bear upon 
 the truth of the judgment already expressed. 
 Thus, the evidence which has been gradually 
 accumulating in the course of the composition, 
 will at length produce a conviction in the 
 reader's mind, that the opinion arrived at in 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 235 
 
 the commencement of the theme, is just and 
 accurate. 
 
 A theme, then, appears to be nothing more than 
 a definition, and a judgment delivered upon that 
 definition, accompanied by arguments to prove 
 its truth. The definition explains the nature of 
 the subject ; the judgment expresses the writer's 
 opinion concerning it ; and the arguments go to 
 show that this opinion is correct. According 
 to this statement, the terms cause, confirmation, 
 simile, example, quotation, &c. are all argu- 
 ments in favour of that view of the subject 
 which the writer has adopted. Beside those 
 above mentioned, many other sources of 
 argument may be used effectively, with which 
 it will be proper here to make the pupil 
 acquainted. 
 
 Universality. — Under this head, the writer 
 should consider the view which is universally 
 taken of the subject in question ; i. e. in Avhat 
 way it has been regarded by all nations, and at 
 all times. If he can show that this view 
 accords with his opinion, it will afford him a 
 powerful argument in favour of his position, 
 and may be used effectively in its support. 
 
 The Locality considers the opinions held on 
 the subject in one particular place ; and if in 
 favour of the writer's opinion, an argument 
 drawn from this source may be still stronger 
 than those adduced under the head "univer- 
 sality." For whatever credit we may give to 
 universal opinions, we are apt to attach a 
 greater importance to those held by persons 
 more immediately within the sphere of our 
 
236 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 own observation ; and every one must know, 
 from experience, that what we see makes a 
 deeper impression upon our minds than what 
 We hear. 
 
 Another mode of proving the truth of what 
 we have advanced, is to show the absurdity of 
 the contrary ; or to exhibit the result, if the 
 contrary proposition were admitted. This 
 mode of argument is more frequently applied 
 to mathematical reasoning, but may be often 
 introduced with great effect in moral questions. 
 
 The opinions held by the philosophers of 
 Greece and Rome have in all succeeding ages 
 been looked upon with veneration, and may be 
 quoted as a concurring proof that the writer's 
 conclusions are just. 
 
 The Novelty is an exposition of the view 
 taken of the subject by the moderns. If this 
 be found to coincide with the opinions of the 
 ancients, it may be assumed as a corroborative 
 proof of the correctness of the judgment laid 
 down. 
 
 Effects and Experience are two other sources 
 whence arguments may be derived in sup- 
 port of opinions. These two heads are de- 
 pendent upon observation. The moral effects 
 of education are perceived in the conduct of 
 life, either nationally or individually. The 
 physical effects of disease are shown in the 
 external appearance of the body. The effects 
 of a cultivated intellect may be observed in the 
 remarks of the well-educated, &c. In many 
 cases, individual experience will lead us to just 
 conclusions ; and the accumulated experience of 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 237 
 
 ages may, indeed, be employed as one of the 
 strongest arguments in favour of an advanced 
 opinion. 
 
 These are the principal sources of the argu- 
 ments generally used in support of the truth of 
 assertions. Others will frequently arise from 
 the nature of the subject in discussion, or will 
 suggest themselves to the mind of the writer. 
 For these, no remarks are necessary. 
 
 The following sketches have been drawn up 
 with a view to facilitate the task of the pupil 
 in the composition of the theme. It is not, 
 however, necessary that all the questions con- 
 tained in each sketch be made use of in the 
 composition. Those especially which have 
 reference to figurative language, or contain 
 allusions to classical literature, may be omitted 
 if it be found expedient. 
 
 SKETCHES FOR THEMES. 
 On Education. 
 
 What do you understand by the word Edu- 
 cation ? — Its derivation ? — Amplify — Is it an 
 object of importance ? — Why ? — What was the 
 opinion of the ancients on this subject? — Does 
 the subject occupy much attention at the pre- 
 sent time ? — Is it universally considered of con- 
 sequence ? — How ? — In this country ? — What 
 do our daily observation and experience teach 
 
238 ENGLISH; OE, 
 
 us on this head ? — What are the effects, both on 
 mind and body, of education? — Draw a con- 
 trast between an educated and an uneducated 
 person. — Show the advantages — and disad- 
 vantages — bodily — mental — Conclude. 
 
 On Anger. 
 
 What is meant by the term Anger ? — Does 
 this passion produce any visible effect on the 
 person ? — What ? — What opinion have you 
 to deliver respecting this passion ? — What are 
 its usual effects ? — Find, in some natural ob- 
 ject, a resemblance to the effects of unrestrained 
 rage — Give an example from history — Men- 
 tion some of the best modes of regulating this 
 passion, or of avoiding its occasions — Its effects 
 on society — Draw a contrast between a man of 
 a calm, placid temper, and one of a hasty, irri- 
 table disposition — Show the advantage, under 
 as many heads as possible, of regulating the 
 angry feelings of our nature. 
 
 On Temperance. 
 
 What is signified by the word Temperance ? 
 — What judgment have you to lay down re- 
 specting it ? — How are the actions and con- 
 duct of a temperate man distinguished? — 
 Mention the results of intemperance, and the 
 good effect of abstemious habits — The opinions 
 of the ancient poets — What is the general 
 opinion on the subject of temperance in the 
 present day ? — May the word be taken in more 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 239 
 
 senses than one — How ? — Explain — Tem- 
 perance in food — language — pleasure — ex- 
 ercise, &c. — Mention the general advan- 
 tages — Draw a conclusion. 
 
 On Society. 
 
 What is Society ? — Has it always existed ? 
 
 — Under what forms, at first ? — What are its 
 benefits ? — Has it any disadvantages ? — Does 
 society improve the human mind ? — In what 
 way ? — Arts ? — Sciences ? — Show the dif- 
 ference between a state of barbarism and that 
 of civilisation? — Mention some of the vices 
 engendered by an over-refined state of society 
 
 — and the pernicions effects resulting to the 
 community from them — Give historical ex- 
 amples of these effects. 
 
 On Perseverance. 
 
 How do you define Perseverance ? — Is it a 
 commendable quality ? — In what does it differ 
 from obstinacy ? — What are the certain results 
 of this virtue ? — Mention the bad effects of a 
 contrary quality — Can you find any compari- 
 son in the works of nature ? — What examples 
 may be cited from history, to prove what may 
 be done by perseverance? — Is it a quality 
 necessary to all persons ? — Conclude. 
 
 On Procrastination. 
 
 Define the word Procrastination — Explain 
 the derivation of the term — What are the 
 
240 ENGLISH ; OR, 
 
 effects of a habit of procrastination? — What 
 excuses are generally made by those who delay 
 the performance of their duty ? — What are the 
 results of a contrary habit ? — What is to be 
 gained, and what lost, by procrastination ? — 
 What motives have we for active exertion ? — 
 Concluding remarks. 
 
 On Flattery. 
 
 What do you understand by the word Flat- 
 tery ? — Degrees of flattery — With what feel- 
 ings should we regard the flatterer ? — and the 
 flattered ? — What are generally the motives of 
 the flatterer ? — What are the effects of flattery 
 on those who are deceived by it ? — What age 
 is most likely to suffer from its influence ? — 
 What conclusion may be drawn from the above 
 remarks ? 
 
 On Industry. 
 
 Explain the meaning, and show the derivation 
 of the word Industry — How does the possession 
 of this quality increase our enjoyment of life? 
 — What are its effects on the body as well as 
 on the mind ? — Show the results of idleness — 
 Is industry a virtue necessary for all ranks ? — 
 To what may idleness be compared ? — In what 
 light should we regard pleasures ? — What mo- 
 tives have we for the acquirement of industrious 
 habits ? — Conclude. 
 
 On Time. 
 What is Time ? — How is it measured ? — 
 What remarks have you to make on the variety 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 241 
 
 of seasons, changes of day and night, &c. ? — 
 What lesson should we learn from this ? — What 
 use should we make of time ? — The shortness 
 of life — Improvement in virtue, necessity of 
 not delaying — opinions of poets and philoso- 
 phers — Concluding remarks. 
 
 On Resentment. 
 
 What is resentment, and in what does it 
 differ from anger ? — What are its effects, both 
 upon ourselves, and the objects of our resent- 
 ment ? — What reflections should induce us to 
 overcome angry feelings ? — Motives — justice 
 
 — generosity — Allowances to be made for 
 others — passion — prejudice — natural impe- 
 tuosity. 
 
 Other reflections — Self-humiliation — in- 
 convenience — disadvantage — internal unhap- 
 piness. 
 
 Habits to be acquired in order to overcome 
 this feeling. 
 
 On Piety. 
 
 Who is the proper object of piety ? — How 
 do you explain the term ? — to what does it serve 
 as a foundation ? — What does its absence argue ? 
 
 — Why should the Supreme Being be the par- 
 ticular object of our veneration ? — Give several 
 reasons — Maker — Creator — gratitude — Re- 
 verence due to sacred things and persons — The 
 odiousness of levity with respect to religious 
 matters — Caution against spiritual pride — 
 True religion, social — kind — cheerful — pro- 
 
242 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 fess when necessary, bnt make no ostentation of 
 piety. 
 
 On Providence. 
 "What attribute of the Divine Being is ex- 
 pressed in the word Providence ? — Draw a 
 picture of the condition and wants of man if 
 unaided by Providence — food — clothing — 
 shelter — animals — reason of man superior to 
 physical strength of animals - — What do these 
 remarks prove ? — Conclude. 
 
 On Envy. 
 
 What is envy ? — Who are the objects of this 
 passion ? — Is it of frequent occurrence ? — Is 
 it a difficult passion to conquer ? — why ? — 
 What considerations should induce us to root it 
 from our nature ? — What are its effects upon 
 ourselves ? — What is the difference between a 
 robber and a slanderer? — What circumstance 
 aggravates the injuries caused by envy ? — What 
 considerations should induce us to avoid such 
 depravity ? 
 
 On Courage. 
 
 How may courage be denned ? — What are 
 its results to the possessor ? — Why ? — Is it a 
 natural quality, or one to be acquired ? — What 
 reflections does this lead to ? — May courage be 
 perverted ? — What conclusions may we arrive 
 at from the preceding considerations ? 
 
 On Hope. 
 
 What are the effects of hope on the human 
 mind ? — Under what circumstances are its ef- 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. 243 
 
 fects particularly felt ? — Does hope confine 
 itself to the things of this world ? — Why does 
 the pleasure of anticipation so often surpass that 
 of possession ? — How does it act in the affairs 
 of life ? — and on our death-bed ? — What re- 
 flections suggest themselves ? 
 
 On Death. 
 
 What necessity is imposed upon us by the re- 
 flection that we must all die ? — What difference 
 is perceived between the death of the good and 
 that of the wicked ? — Draw a picture — When 
 viewed as the beginning of a new state ? — What 
 is the best preparation for a happy death ? — 
 To what resolutions should these reflections 
 lead us ? — How should life be considered ? — 
 What should be our constant aim ? 
 
 On Night 
 
 Define the subject — Describe the circum- 
 stances of night — flowers — birds — bees — sleep — 
 tranquillity — voices of men — noise of occupation 
 — Reflections t watchful care of Providence — 
 simile — "the curtains of darkness " — Thoughts 
 for the ensuing day, &c. 
 
 On Poetry. 
 
 What is poetry ? — its origin ? — its date ? — 
 metre ? — rhyme ? — obj ect of poetry ? — original 
 use of poetry ? — various sorts of poetry ? — 
 heroic — lyric — didactic — epic, &c. — The 
 difference between poetical and prose kn- 
 it 2 
 
244 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 guage ? — Mention the most celebrated English 
 poets and their works — Conclude. 
 
 On Sloth. 
 In what way may this vice be defined? — 
 What are its general, and what its particular 
 effects ? — Show the different effect produced 
 by the contrary virtue — Are men intended to 
 be actively employed ? — What is understood 
 by " activity of mind ? " — In what state would 
 society be, if all men were slothful? — study — 
 habits of thinking — Comparison — Cultivation 
 of the earth, &c. — Conclude. 
 
 On Charity. 
 What does the word charity signify ? — Be- 
 nevolence — aid to the poor — kindness to the 
 failings of others — What are the motives for 
 the exercise of this virtue ? — Self-examination 
 
 — weakness of human nature — The necessity 
 of cultivating a benevolent disposition — a 
 Christian spirit — show examples from the 
 Scriptures — Concluding remarks. 
 
 On Contentment. 
 What are the peculiar characteristics of a 
 contented mind? — What are the temptations 
 to discontent ? — Show the contrast between 
 a contented, and a discontented state of mind 
 — What is the end of our being ? — therefore 
 
 — motives for contentment — comparison with 
 the condition of others — The wisdom of Pro- 
 vidence — The daily blessings of life — life 
 itself — The power of action both of mind and 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 245 
 
 body — The evil results of harbouring a dis- 
 contented spirit — Deduction. 
 
 On Good Humour. 
 Definition of good humour — amplify — Is 
 it a quality easy of acquirement ? — Show the 
 difference between mirth and good humour — 
 The effects of good humour on ourselves — and 
 on others — False notions entertained by many 
 on this subject — The advantages of acquiring 
 this habit — Is it attainable by all persons ? — 
 what conclusion ? 
 
 On Justice. 
 
 What is understood by the word justice ? — 
 Is it required of all ? — How is that ? — Are 
 there several ways of being unjust ? — thought 
 
 — word — deed — injustice by cheating — in- 
 justice by slander — injustice by forming a false 
 estimate of our neighbour's character — The 
 necessity of forming a correct judgment of 
 persons as well as of things — the main business 
 of life — mind to be strengthened — prejudices 
 to be overcome — the queen of virtues — 
 Examples — Conclusion. 
 
 On Adversity. 
 
 Adversity what ? — Its advantages ■ — general 
 and particular — Truth — humility — fortitude 
 
 — resignation — how should we consider it ? 
 a lesson — examples — quotation from Shaks- 
 peare — trial of friendship ■ — comparison — all 
 subject to adversity — Historical examples — 
 Concluding remarks. 
 
 R 3 
 
246 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 On Falsehood. 
 
 What is falsehood ? — Its baseness and 
 meanness — What are the usual motives for 
 lying ? — its effects upon society in general — 
 upon the deceiver and the deceived — What 
 does the liar gain by his falsehood ? — How 
 may falsehoods be distinguished ? — The lie of 
 vanity — The lie of commerce — The lie of 
 mahce — describe and amplify upon these three 
 heads — Evils of a habit of exaggeration — Con- 
 cluding remarks. 
 
 On Avarice. 
 
 Why so detestable ? — How does society 
 suffer from this vice ? — The misery of the 
 avaricious deadens sympathy — The covetous 
 shunned by mankind — The real use of money 
 — Avarice its own punishment — The necessity 
 of restraint — Motives and considerations on 
 the subject — Conclusion. 
 
 On Friendship. 
 
 How defined — its uses and advantages — 
 proper foundation of friendship — The friend- 
 ship of the wicked — what ? — Examples of 
 friendship drawn from the Scriptures or from 
 ancient history — favourite subject of discussion 
 among the ancients — Cicero's treatise on 
 friendship — false friends — the infrequency of 
 firm friendship — the causes for this — sym- 
 pathies — artificial mode of life — Concluding 
 remarks, &c. 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 247 
 
 On Pride. 
 
 What is pride? — What are its effects? — 
 What is the difference between pride and 
 vanity ? — Pride the origin of many vices — 
 which ? — disturber of human happiness — The 
 miseries to which pride gives rise in the heart 
 
 — The happy consequences of banishing this 
 evil from our nature — The necessity of hu- 
 mility, &c. 
 
 On Benevolence. 
 
 The source of benevolence — The necessity 
 of cherishing kindly sympathies — and sacri- 
 ficing selfishness — maternal sympathy — The 
 state of a human being devoid of all sympathy 
 — The necessity of this feeling for the existence 
 of a social state — The motives for benevolence 
 
 — Concluding remarks, &c. 
 
 On Moderation. 
 
 The necessity of avoiding extremes — Show 
 the pernicious results arising from a want of 
 this quality — Show the opposite vices into 
 which virtues themselves may fall — Liber- 
 ality, Extravagance; Economy, Avarice; and 
 others — The difficulty of preserving a just 
 medium — The necessity of keeping even 
 virtues within proper bounds — Opinions of the 
 ancients — Conclusion. 
 
 On Affectation. 
 
 The folly of assuming a character not our 
 own — Who is deceived by such an assumption ? 
 R 4 
 
248 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 — What gives rise to this quality ? — What 
 feelings does it create in others ? — To what 
 quality is it opposed ? — What is gained by 
 affectation ? — Motives for avoiding affectation 
 — What age is most liable to it, and should 
 therefore most carefully guard against it ? — 
 Concluding remarks. 
 
 On Filial Affection. 
 
 What is understood by filial affection ? — 
 Duty — Gratitude — natural — Odiousness of 
 fifial ingratitude — Sentiments of the ancients 
 upon this subject — The ordination of Providence 
 — Mutual affection between parent and child — 
 Happiness of both interested — Strong bond of 
 society — All affected by it — Conclusion. 
 
 On Biography. 
 
 Define the word biography — What is its 
 use ? — Of what description of persons are the 
 lives generally written ? — In what does it 
 differ from history ? — How does it afford a 
 better example ? — Is greater interest excited 
 by biography than by history ? — How is this ? 
 — What is meant by autobiography ? — What 
 specimens of biography have we in the English 
 language ? — Describe them. 
 
 On History. 
 
 What is history ? — What are its uses ? — 
 How is it divided ? — Sacred and profane — 
 ancient and modern — What lesson may be 
 drawn from a proper study of history ? — Quote 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 249 
 
 from Pope — " The proper study," &c. — How 
 may this be done by history ? — Mention the 
 names of the principal Greek and Roman 
 historians and their works — Can England boast 
 of many great names in this department of 
 literature? — Mention them and the subjects of 
 their writings. 
 
 On Curiosity. 
 
 Is curiosity an inherent principle in the 
 human mind ? — What does it signify ? — May 
 this principle be abused ? — How ? — What are 
 its effects when well directed ? — The effects of 
 an idle curiosity — For what improvements in 
 the mechanical arts are we indebted to this 
 principle ? — On what occasions should curiosity 
 be gratified, and when restrained? — Give 
 instances — Conclude. 
 
 On Government. 
 
 What is signified by the word government? 
 
 — Whence does it derive its origin ? — How is 
 it necessary ? — Show the effects of anarchy — 
 Which was the earliest mode of government ? 
 
 — Whence is this deduced ? — What qualities 
 naturally give one man a power over others? — 
 Which are or have been the prevailing modes 
 of government ? — Mention the names, deriva- 
 tions, advantages, and disadvantages, belonging 
 to them each respectively — What government 
 do we enjoy in this country ? — Show the ad- 
 vantages of the English constitution — Con- 
 clude. 
 
250 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 On Generosity. 
 
 The meaning of the word — The limited 
 sense in which it is frequently taken — No real 
 generosity without a sacrifice — The effects of 
 this quality upon its possessor — In what points 
 do justice and generosity differ ? — Is generosity 
 conformable to a Christian character ? — Is it 
 always requited ? — Historical instances of this 
 virtue — Concluding remarks. 
 
 On Learning. 
 
 What is understood by the word learn- 
 ing ? — What difference exists between learn- 
 ing and wisdom ? — May a man be learned 
 without being wise ? or the reverse ? — which 
 is preferable? and why? — ought learning to 
 produce or increase wisdom ? — how can it 
 effect this? — What is pedantry ? — What ought 
 to be the effect of learning on the human mind ? 
 
 — Has it always this effect ? — Conclude. 
 
 On Music. 
 
 What does music express ? — Is it an art or 
 a science ? — Mention the different styles of 
 music — dramatic — religious — martial, &c. — 
 What are their respective effects? — The ge- 
 neral influence of music — instrumental — vocal 
 
 — melody — harmony — The music of the 
 ancients — Modern music — The Italian — Ger- 
 man, &c. — Schools of music — Names of great 
 artists — What should be the object proposed 
 in cultivating this art ? — Draw a conclusion. 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. 251 
 
 On Painting. 
 
 What is painting ? — In what does it differ 
 from drawing ? — Where must we look for the 
 origin of this art ? — Historical painting — 
 landscape painting — portrait painting — De- 
 scribe each sort, and its object — cultivation of 
 the eye — perspective — light and shade — 
 brilliancy of colour — What are the names of 
 the celebrated ancient painters ? — The modern 
 Italian school — The Flemish school — Of what 
 names can England boast in this art ? — The 
 object and effects of painting— Conclude. 
 
 On Order. 
 
 " Heaven's first law " — The use and effect of 
 order — Order in the works of nature — Day 
 and night — seasons — revolutions of planets, 
 &c. — What lesson should we learn from this ? — 
 What are the effects of disorder? — To what 
 more serious results does it tend ? — Order 
 necessary in small things — An orderly mind 
 perceived from externals — Sum up the advan- 
 tages — Conclude. 
 
 On Obedience. 
 
 The necessity of submitting to authority — 
 a law of our nature — none exempt from this 
 law — What gained by obedience ? — Some- 
 thing must always be given up in exchange 
 for an advantage — Father, Son — Wife, Hus- 
 band — Master, Scholar — King, Subject — 
 Soldier, Commander, &c. — Cases in which 
 obedience is no longer due — Reflections, &c. 
 
252 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 On Principle. 
 
 What is a principle ? — At what period of 
 life should good principles be instilled ? — Re- 
 ligious principles — Moral principles — What 
 may be said of those who are guided by no 
 principle ? — The results of acting upon impulse 
 
 — reason — reflection — The advantage of ac- 
 quiring habits which result from principle — 
 Simile — The difficulty of eradicating bad 
 principles — The duty of examining the real 
 motives of our most insignificant actions — Con- 
 cluding remarks. 
 
 On Punctuality. 
 
 The derivation and signification of the term 
 punctuality — What are its advantages ? and 
 what the disadvantages resulting from a want 
 of it ? — What do we lose by being unpunctual ? 
 
 — and what is the loss to those to whom we 
 fail in fulfilling our engagements ? — Reflections 
 and motives which should induce us to practise 
 punctuality. 
 
 On Nobility. 
 
 Whence is the word noble derived ? — Who 
 were the first nobles ? — What qualities are 
 required in particular of those of high rank ? — 
 What then constitutes true nobility ? — What 
 name was given to the nobles of Rome ? — Does 
 this name in any way designate their office ? — 
 Who were the nobles of the middle ages ? — 
 What part does the nobility of England take in 
 the constitution ? — Remarks. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 253 
 
 On Self-government. 
 
 What is understood by this subject ? — Is it 
 necessary that we should be able to control our 
 passions ? — Why ? — Should we endeavour to 
 entirely extinguish them ? — Why not ? — 
 What are the consequences of unrestrained pas- 
 sions, both to their possessors and others ? — 
 What is the first duty of every man ? — Who 
 are most fit to govern others ? — Opinions of 
 the ancients — Reflections. 
 
 On Vanity. 
 
 What is vanity ? — In what does it differ from 
 pride ? — What feelings does our vanity raise in 
 others ? — Why is it so contemptible ? — Men- 
 tion some of the incentives to vanity — In what 
 sort of minds is it found chiefly to exist ? — 
 What are its effects upon the general character ? 
 How is it opposed to truth and justice ? — What 
 reflections should induce us to avoid this weak- 
 ness ? — Draw a conclusion. 
 
 On Writing. 
 
 What is writing? — What were the first 
 materials used for writing ? — WTiat are the ob- 
 jects and advantages of writing ? — What ad- 
 vantage has written over spoken language ? — 
 Hieroglyphics — picture writing — metals — 
 bark — papyrus — books — Paper an invention 
 of the middle ages — Writing from right to left 
 
 — Boustrophedon — Writing from left to right 
 
 — Origin of the word verse — General uses of 
 writing. 
 
254 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 On Wealth. 
 
 General acceptation of the term wealth — 
 What is required of the wealthy ? — In what 
 light should they consider themselves ? — The 
 disadvantages of misapplied wealth — The in- 
 justice of extravagant expenditure — The tempt- 
 ations of the opulent — The opportunities of 
 doing good — Mistaken notion that wealth 
 produces happiness — The reverse more fre- 
 quently the case — A competency preferable. 
 
 On Truth. 
 
 What are the advantages of truth and sin- 
 cerity ? — Which is preferable, appearance or 
 reality? — The best way of appearing to be 
 virtuous ? — The character of a dissembler, 
 and the difficulty of dissembling for a long time 
 
 — Practical truth in the common affairs of life 
 
 — Honesty the best policy — Contrast between 
 the weakness of deceit, and the strength of in- 
 tegrity — The consistency of truth, and the 
 trouble in which falsehood involves us — Con- 
 clusion. 
 
 On Taste. 
 
 What is taste? — What advantages result 
 from a cultivation of our tastes ? — a taste for 
 music, reading, painting, &c. — Beauty — 
 form — colour — combination — sublimity — 
 Of what sort are the pleasures arising from the 
 cultivation of taste ? — The importance of cul- 
 tivating the taste in young j^ersons — enlarge- 
 ment of their circle of innocent amusements — 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 255 
 
 necessity of a resource in hours of relaxation — ■ 
 Concluding remarks. 
 
 On Rashness. 
 
 The folly of judging or acting precipitately 
 
 — Nothing done well that is done in a hurry — 
 The necessity of arriving at just conclusions — 
 The humiliation of continually repenting of our 
 actions — The abuse of our reason — Action 
 should never precede reflection — The certainty 
 of erring when we act from impulse — The 
 opinions of the ancients — Conclude. 
 
 On Knowledge. 
 
 How are we to consider knowledge? — What 
 influence does it give as over others ? — Is it 
 possible to be well-informed upon all subjects ? 
 
 — On what subjects should we make it our 
 duty to inform ourselves ? — Against what evils 
 should we guard in acquiring knowledge ? — 
 Saying of Socrates — What should be the 
 final object of all knowledge ? — Concluding 
 remarks. 
 
 On Association. 
 
 How do you explain this faculty ? — Is it 
 connected with the memory ? — How ? — 
 Causes of association — Music — sound of 
 voices — tastes — association from contrast — 
 colours, &c. — an assistance to the memory — 
 False associations — ideas arising from associ- 
 ations — pleasurable sensations — Conclusion. 
 
256 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 On Virtue. 
 
 What is virtue ? — What are its inward 
 effects ? — Give the cause — Can any virtue 
 exist without a sacrifice ? — What is the reward 
 of virtue in this life ? — What are the motives 
 to a virtuous life ? — Draw a contrast between 
 the virtuous and the wicked — Which is of 
 greater consequence, talent, or virtue? — Does 
 virtue embellish talent ? — How ? — Saying of 
 Plato in praise of virtue — respect paid to the 
 virtuous even by the profligate — Conclusion. 
 
 On Commerce. 
 
 What is commerce ? and whence does it de- 
 rive its origin ? — Mutual interest of nations — 
 Commodities of the northern — and southern 
 climates of Europe — The antiquity of com- 
 merce — What people in the early ages of the 
 world were famous for commercial enterprise ? 
 
 — Is it as extensive now as formerly ? — In 
 what countries does it especially flourish ? — 
 What are the general advantages of commerce ? 
 
 — Is it ever attended with evil results? — 
 What? 
 
 On Prudence. 
 
 The necessity of acting with caution — Many 
 misfortunes may be obviated by prudence and 
 foresight — The fallacy of trusting to appear- 
 ances — An universal maxim — the results of 
 imprudence, a continual and bitter repentance 
 
 — Let not however prudence engender sus- 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION - . 257 
 
 picion — The general advantages of prudence 
 — Conclude. 
 
 On Familiarity. 
 
 Be not precipitate in becoming familiar — 
 Esteem often falls in proportion to our inti- 
 macy — Difficulty of judging of character — 
 tendency to over-rate — Fable of the frogs — a 
 fault to which the young are very subject — 
 Observations — Concluding reflections. 
 
 On Reason. 
 
 Define the word reason — What is the use of 
 this faculty ? — How are human beings dis- 
 tinguished from the brute creation ? — What is 
 the special object of this faculty ? — What does 
 a man become when deprived of this power — 
 What is to be said of those who do not obey 
 reason ? — The reasonableness of religion — 
 moral conduct, &c. 
 
 On Discretion. 
 
 Discretion, what ? — Not so shining as use- 
 ful — The effects of discretion on other good 
 qualities — The particular advantages of a dis- 
 creet conduct — Shining qualities of no avail 
 without discretion — Distinction between discre- 
 tion and cunning- — Their respective aims, views, 
 effects on their possessors, &c. — Conclude. 
 
 On Habits. 
 
 Define the word — give an opinion — The 
 difficulty of overcoming bad habits, and the 
 necessity of forming good habits — The possi- 
 
 s 
 
258 ENGLISH: OR, 
 
 bility of conquering habit — The facility of ac- 
 quiring bad habits — Habits of thought — daily 
 actions — manners — person — The foundation 
 of all good or evil through life — Conclusion. 
 
 On Attention. 
 
 The necessity of frequently exercising this 
 faculty — The result of a want of attention — 
 Xo knowledge to be acquired without it — The 
 power of attention dependent upon will — The 
 ignorance resulting from a want of habits of 
 observation — Common objects — daily affairs 
 of life, &c. — Conclude. 
 
 On Early Improvement. 
 
 Rational pleasures necessary to fill up vacant 
 hours — Great object to supply these in youth 
 
 — A taste for reading — The listless state of 
 those who know not how to pass their time — 
 AYe all want employment as well as amusement 
 
 — Pleasures never the main business of life — 
 Knowledge always useful — Reflections — Con- 
 clusion. 
 
 On Philosophy. 
 
 Derivation and meaning of the word phi- 
 losophy — Mention the two grand divisions of 
 philosophy — "Which is the more studied ? — 
 Branches of natural philosophy — The philo- 
 sophy of antiquity — What countries were 
 famous for their philosophers ? — Difference be- 
 tween sophist and philosopher — Advantages 
 of philosophy — Errors of the ancient philo- 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 259 
 
 sophers — devoid of the light of Christianity — 
 General remarks — Conclusion. 
 
 On Good Manners. 
 
 What are good manners ? — What qualities 
 in the mind produce them ? — From what 
 qualities do ill manners arise ? — How are we 
 to learn good manners ? — Can a person be 
 upright and ill-mannered? — Which are more 
 frequently called into action, abilities or good 
 manners ? 
 
 On Cheerfulness. 
 
 Define cheerfulness — What habit will pro- 
 duce it ? — What quality is opposed to a cheer- 
 ful disposition ? — On what does our happiness 
 frequently depend? — Do all men take the 
 same view of the same accidents ? — What ad- 
 vantages has the cheerful over the melancholy 
 man ? — Motives to cheerfulness — Reflections 
 — Conclude. 
 
 On Solitude. 
 
 Much desired by those unacquainted with it 
 — not often approved by those who have expe- 
 rienced it — How is this proved? — How is this 
 to be accounted for? — The difficulty of changing 
 habits — The necessity for mental occupation — 
 How does solitude affect occupation ? — The 
 ennui of the unoccupied — The proper way to 
 enjoy solitude — Occasional retirement — agree- 
 able, why ? — Concluding remarks. 
 s 2 
 
260 ENGLISH; OB, 
 
 On Travelling. 
 
 The object of travelling — The pleasure of 
 visiting foreign countries — By what principle 
 is this accounted for ? — Learned men amono 1 
 
 o 
 
 the ancients were all travellers — Mention 
 names — The only means of acquiring knowledge 
 — Travelling among the moderns — navigation 
 — rail-roads — English mania for travelling — 
 The proper disposition for acquiring information, 
 and forming the mind — The general advan- 
 tages of travelling — Increase of knowledge — 
 Removal of prejudices — Conclusion. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 261 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ON THE PARAGRAPH. 
 
 Before requiring any attempt from the pupil 
 in the construction of the essay, it would be 
 expedient to test his powers by proposing for 
 his imitation short paragraphs, which may be 
 considered parts or divisions of the essay. As 
 an exercise to facilitate the manner of treating 
 a question or subject, take a paragraph from 
 the works of some writer of acknowledged 
 eminence, and after diligently perusing it, (ob- 
 serving especially the order in which the propo- 
 sitions follow each other, and the connection 
 which exists between them,) let the pupil write 
 upon any given subject in the same way ; that 
 is, without choosing the same or similar expres- 
 sions, or indeed even the same construction of 
 sentence ; but let the paragraph form a model for 
 his imitation rather in reasoning than in expres- 
 sion, and let the sentences, in the paragraph to 
 be written, perform, as it were, the same office 
 as those which correspond with them in the 
 model proposed. This exercise will be useful 
 in two ways ; for it will have the effect not only 
 of producing an increased power of expression, 
 but will also give practice in arguing cor- 
 rectly, and lead to just conclusions upon ques- 
 S 3 
 
262 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 tions in general. It is not necessary that the 
 subject of this exercise be always abstract ; any 
 simple or common act may be made the subject 
 of a paragraph, and worked out according to 
 any form of argument which may be previously 
 determined upon. It is, however, to be recom- 
 mended that the parts and divisions of the pa- 
 ragraph, and the mode of reasoning which it 
 contains, be explained, before the pupil attempts 
 the exercise. The head, or leading idea con- 
 tained in the model, being laid down, he should 
 be shown by what means the assertion thus 
 expressed is proved ; whether by amplification, 
 illustration, or argument from generals to par- 
 ticulars, and from particulars to individual cases, 
 &c. As all this, however, may be better ex- 
 plained by example, the following paragraphs, 
 extracted from some of our most eminent es- 
 sayists, and analysed according to the mode 
 above mentioned, will perhaps convey a clearer 
 idea of the author's intention. 
 
 FIRST MODEL. 
 
 ( General assertion.) "Music, among those who 
 were styled the chosen people, was a religious 
 art. (Particular assertion.) The songs of Sion, 
 which we have reason to believe were in high 
 repute among the courts of the Eastern monarchs, 
 were nothing else but psalms, and pieces of 
 poetry, that adored or celebrated the Supreme 
 Being. (Individual assertion.) The greatest 
 conqueror in this holy nation, after the manner 
 of the old Grecian lyrics, did not only com- 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 263 
 
 pose the words of his divine odes, but generally 
 set them to music himself; after which, his 
 works, though they were consecrated to the 
 tabernacle, became the national entertainment, 
 as well as the devotion of his people." — Spec- 
 tator, No. 405. 
 
 In the above paragraph, the first sentence, 
 " Music, among those who were styled the 
 chosen people, was a religious art," is the 
 general assertion, and the subject of the para- 
 graph, to which all the subsequent sentences 
 have reference. The next sentence, com- 
 mencing " The songs of Sion," &c, and ending 
 with "the Supreme Being," contains the particu- 
 lar assertion, and tends to show in a stronger 
 light the truth of the introductory sentence. 
 The writer then proceeds to strengthen his po- 
 sition by adducing an individual case — " The 
 greatest conqueror," &c. The whole passage 
 is made up of three assertions — a general, a 
 particular, and an individual assertion. This 
 paragraph may be imitated in the following 
 manner. 
 
 Imitation. 
 
 (General assertion.) Music, in this country, 
 is every where rapidly extending itself. {Parti- 
 cular assertion.) In all parts of England, singing- 
 classes have been lately formed for all grades of 
 society, which promise to effect much for the 
 promotion and diffusion of this delightful art. 
 (Individual assertion.) In fact, it is now scarcely 
 possible to enter a house in which we do not 
 find some of its inmates proficients in music. 
 s 4 
 
264 exglish; or, 
 
 And such is the fondness for the art, that 
 many are not satisfied with the practice only, 
 but devote themselves to the study of the prin- 
 ciples of harmony, and the rules for musical 
 composition. 
 
 Here, again, the object is to prove the truth 
 of the position taken up in the first sentence. 
 This is done, firstly, by the assertion that 
 "singing-classes are formed ;" and secondly, that 
 in every single house we may have proofs of the 
 estimation in which the art is held. 
 
 Let the pupil now write imitations of the 
 following paragraphs, in all of which he must 
 preserve the form above shown, by employiug 
 the same mode of argument, i. <?., the general, 
 the particular, and the individual assertion. 
 
 I. 
 
 (1.) " Notwithstanding these follies are pretty 
 well worn out of the minds of the wise and 
 learned in the present age, multitudes of weak 
 and ignorant persons are still slaves to them. 
 (2.) There are numberless arts of prediction 
 among the vulgar, which are too trifling to 
 enumerate; and infinite observations of days, 
 numbers, voices, and figures, which are re- 
 garded by them as prophecies. (3.) In short, 
 every thing prophesies to the superstitious man; 
 there is scarce a straw or a rusty piece of iron 
 that lies in his way by accident." — Spectator, 
 No 505. 
 
 Subject for imitation — The frequency of 
 the vice of lying. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 265 
 
 II. 
 
 (1.) " Among too many other instances of the 
 great corruption and degeneracy of the age in 
 which we live, the great and general want of 
 sincerity in conversation is none of the least. 
 (2.) The world is grown so full of dissimulation 
 and compliment, that men's words are hardly any 
 signification of their thoughts ; (3.) and if any 
 man measure his words by his heart, and speaks 
 as he thinks, and do not express more kindness 
 to every man than men usually have for any 
 man, he can hardly escape the censure of want 
 of breeding." 
 
 Subject for imitation — "Delays are dan- 
 gerous." 
 
 Let the following subjects be worked out in 
 paragraphs according to the plan adopted in the 
 above models : — 
 
 1. Of all the affections which attend human 
 life, the love of glory is the most ardent. 
 
 2. Irresolution and procrastination, in all 
 our affairs, are the natural effects of being 
 addicted to pleasure. 
 
 3. Inquiries after happiness, and rules for 
 attaining it, are not so necessary and useful 
 to mankind as the arts of consolation, and sup- 
 porting one's self under affliction. 
 
 4. Chivalry was indebted to religion for much 
 of the ardour with which its votaries were ani- 
 mated. 
 
 5. The treatment of women in Greece and 
 Rome was rigid and degrading. 
 
 6. In the reign of Elizabeth, an accurate 
 
266 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 acquaintance with the phrases and peculiarities 
 of the ancient poets and historians was made an 
 indispensable and almost the principal object 
 in the education, not only of a gentleman, but 
 even of a lady. 
 
 7. The formation of the modern languages 
 of Europe is intimately connected with the 
 history of the dark ages. 
 
 8. A language which has been so much in- 
 debted to others, both ancient and modern, 
 must of course, be very copious and expressive. 
 
 9.* The decay of taste, which extended its 
 influence to the production of the fine arts, pre- 
 vailed likewise in works of literature. 
 
 10 The Athenians were celebrated for the 
 greatest delicacy of taste. 
 
 11. Every country possesses, not only a pe- 
 culiar language, but a peculiar style, suited to 
 the temper and genius of its inhabitants. 
 
 12. Curiosity is one of the strongest and 
 most active j>rinciples of human nature. 
 
 13. History contributes to divest us of 
 many unreasonable prejudices, by enlarging our 
 acquaintance with the world. 
 
 14. It is the duty of fair criticism to estimate 
 the merit of writers at its just value. 
 
 15. The sculptors of ancient Greece called 
 forth, by the most lively images, the great events 
 and characters of history. 
 
 16. No vices are so incurable as those of 
 which men are apt to boast. 
 
 17. Singularity is vicious only when it 
 
 * The decline of the Latin language. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 267 
 
 makes men act contrary to reason, or when it 
 puts them upon distinguishing themselves by 
 trifles. 
 
 18. Every station of life has its proper 
 duties. 
 
 19. Were all the vexations of life put to- 
 gether, we should find that a great part of 
 them proceed from those calumnies and re- 
 proaches which we spread abroad concerning 
 one another. 
 
 20. Fear is a very powerful passion, since it 
 is esteemed one of the greatest of virtues to 
 subdue it. 
 
 21. As novelty is of a very powerful, so it is 
 of a most extensive influence. 
 
 22. The most vicious actions lose their horror 
 by being made familiar to us. 
 
 23. Method is of advantage to a work, both 
 in respect to the writer and the reader. 
 
 24. How are we tortured with the absence 
 of what we covet to possess, when it appears to 
 be lost to us ? 
 
 25. There is nothing which we receive with 
 so much reluctance as advice. 
 
 26. There is a sensible pleasure in contem- 
 plating beautiful instances of domestic hap- 
 piness. 
 
 27. The more extended our reason is, and 
 the more able to grapple with immense objects, 
 the greater still are those discoveries which it 
 makes of wisdom and providence in the works 
 of the creation. 
 
 28. Every one who is provided with any 
 competency of fortune more than sufficient for 
 
268 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 the necessaries of life, should lay aside a certain 
 proportion of his income for the use of the poor. 
 
 29. It is of unspeakable advantage to pos- 
 sess our minds with an habitual good intention, 
 and to aim all our thoughts, words, and actions 
 at some laudable end. 
 
 30. Among all the diseases of the mind, there 
 is not one more epidemical or more pernicious 
 than the love of flattery. 
 
 The next form of the paragraph is the ex- 
 planatory. It commences, as in the former 
 model, with an assertion, which is to be ex- 
 plained or elucidated by the propositions imme- 
 diately following. It is not necessary that 
 these explanations be confined to two or three 
 sentences ; but care should be taken that they 
 all bear reference to the first proposition, and 
 that the connection between the various parts 
 of the whole passage be as clear as possible. 
 
 SECOND MODEL. 
 
 (Leading assertion.) " A man of a polite ima- 
 gination is let into a great many pleasures that 
 the vulgar are not capable of receiving. (First 
 explanation.) He can converse with a picture, 
 and find an agreeable companion in a statue. 
 (Second explanation.) He meets Avith a secret 
 refreshment in a description, and often feels 
 a greater satisfaction in the prospect of fields 
 and meadows than another does in the posses- 
 sion. (Third explanation.) It gives him, in- 
 deed, a kind of property in every thing he sees, 
 and makes the most rude, uncultivated parts of 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 269 
 
 nature administer to his pleasures. (Fourth ex- 
 planation.) So that he looks upon the world, as 
 it were, in another light, and discovers in it a 
 multitude of charms that conceal themselves 
 from the generality of mankind." — Addison. 
 
 Imitation. 
 
 (1.) A person endowed with a natural taste 
 for music, possesses the means of many enjoy- 
 ments from which others are wholly debarred. 
 (2.) The warbling melody of birds and the mur- 
 mur of waters have for him a charm which cannot 
 be felt by those who have no relish for this ex- 
 quisite art. (3.) The very tone of voice of his 
 fellow-creatures ministers a delight to his soul, 
 and affords him a constant and continual source 
 of pleasurable feeling. (4.) In fine, wherever he 
 turns, all nature seems to open for him fresh 
 sources of happiness, and his life glides on, one 
 endless stream of delightful sensations. 
 
 The second model, extracted from Addison's 
 papers " On the Pleasures of the Imagination," 
 illustrates the explanatory mode of composing 
 the paragraph. In the leading proposition, the 
 author states his opinion concerning the advan- 
 tages enjoyed by a man of cultivated taste 
 over the minds of the vulgar and illiterate, and 
 he explains his meaning by instancing several 
 cases and various ways in which this takes 
 place. 
 
 I. 
 
 (Leading assertion.) " The origin of building 
 was but little posterior to the origin of mankind. 
 
270 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 (First elucidation.} "Man, naked and defenceless, 
 as he came from the hand of nature, soon found 
 it necessary to shelter himself from the attacks 
 of wild beasts, and from the invasion of his 
 savage neighbours. He could not He down to 
 sleep with security, till he had formed a hut, 
 which, however rude and inartificial, might serve 
 the purposes of shelter and defence. (Second 
 elucidation.) If his own wants and natural 
 ingenuity were not sufficient to instruct him 
 how to build, he might learn from the irrational 
 creation. (Third elucidation.) The swallow's nest 
 and the bee's hive suggested hints which he 
 might adopt and improve: but this original 
 species of building, directed by no rules, and 
 destitute of elegance and proportion, cannot 
 properly be said to be the work of art, or to 
 merit the appellation of architecture. (Fourth 
 elucidation.) It was, however, the embryo of 
 those noble edifices which have since adorned all 
 civilised countries." — Knox. 
 
 Subject for imitation — " More misery is pro- 
 duced among us by the irregularities of our 
 tempers, than by real misfortunes." 
 
 II. 
 
 (Leading assertion.) " The nursery has often 
 alleviated the fatigues of the bar and the senate- 
 house. (First elucidation.) Nothing contributes 
 more to raise the gently -pleasing emotions, than 
 the view of infant innocence, enjoying the rap- 
 tures of a game at play. (Second elucidation.) 
 All the sentiments of uncontrolled nature dis- 
 play themselves to the view, and furnish matter 
 for agreeable reflection to the mind of the philo- 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 271 
 
 sophical observer. (Third elucidation.) To partake 
 with children in their little pleasures is by no 
 means unmanly. It is one of the purest sources 
 of mirth. It has an influence in amending the 
 heart, which necessarily takes a tincture from 
 the company that surrounds us. Innocence as 
 well as guilt is communicated and increased by 
 the contagion of example. (Fourth elucidation, by 
 example.) And the great Author of evangelical 
 philosophy has taught us to emulate the simpli- 
 city of the [infantine age. He seems, indeed, 
 himself to have been delighted with young 
 children, and found in them what he in vain 
 sought among those who judged themselves their 
 superiors, unpolluted purity of heart." 
 
 Subject for imitation — " One of the first af- 
 fections which the heart perceives is filial piety." 
 
 The following subjects are to be treated 
 according to the mode of reasoning exhibited in 
 the second model : — 
 
 1. Distress and difficulty are known to ope- 
 rate in private life as the spurs of diligence. 
 
 2. The evils arising from the poverty of the 
 lower ranks are trifling, when compared with 
 those occasioned by their depravity. 
 
 3. It is certain that much of the profligacy of 
 the plebeian order arises from their extreme ig- 
 norance. 
 
 4. Complaints and murmurs are often loudest 
 and most frequent among those who possess all 
 the external means of temporal enjoyment. 
 
 5. The want of employment is one of the 
 frequent causes of vice. 
 
 6. By a just dispensation of Providence, it 
 
272 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 happens that they who are unreasonably selfish 
 seldom enjoy so much happiness as the generous 
 and contented. 
 
 7. The mind of man is never satisfied with 
 the objects immediately before it ; but is always 
 breaking away from the present moment, and 
 losing itself in schemes of future felicity. 
 
 8. There is something inexpressibly pleasing 
 in the annual revolution of the world, and the 
 new display of the treasures of nature. 
 
 9. It may be laid down as a position which 
 will seldom deceive, that when a man cannot 
 bear his own company, there is something wrong. 
 
 10. The love of retirement has, in all ages, 
 adhered closely to those minds which have 
 been most enlarged by knowledge or elevated 
 by genius. 
 
 11. Anger is the great disturber of human 
 life, the chief enemy both of public happiness 
 and private tranquillity. 
 
 12. The vanity of being known to be trusted 
 with a secret, is generally one of the chief mo- 
 tives to disclose it. 
 
 13. Every man should regulate his actions 
 by his own conscience, without any regard to 
 the opinions of the rest of the world. 
 
 14. A man guilty of poverty easily believes 
 himself suspected. 
 
 15. It is a maxim commonly received, that a 
 wise man is never surprised. 
 
 16. The men who can be charged with fewest 
 failings, either with regard to abilities or virtue, 
 are generally the most ready to allow them. 
 
 17. Patience and submission are very care- 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 273 
 
 fully to be distinguished from cowardice and 
 indolence. 
 
 18. All the performances of human art at 
 which we look with praise or wonder, are in- 
 stances of the resistless force of perseverance. 
 
 19. Of the passions with which the mind of 
 man is agitated, it may be observed that they 
 naturally hasten towards their own extinction, 
 by inciting and quickening the attainment of 
 their objects. 
 
 20. Reflection is the fittest employment, 
 and the sweetest satisfaction, in a rational old 
 age. 
 
 21. In the lower ranks of mankind, we must 
 not expect refinement. 
 
 22. Morality and religion forbid war, in its 
 motives, conduct, and consequences. 
 
 23. The idea which Christianity has suggested 
 of the relation in which all men stand to each 
 other, is wonderfully adapted to promote uni- 
 versal hospitality. 
 
 24. By laying in a store of useful knowledge, 
 adorning your mind with elegant literature, and 
 improving and establishing your conduct by 
 virtuous principles, you cannot fail of being a 
 comfort to those friends who have supported you, 
 of being happy within yourself, and of being 
 well received by mankind. 
 
 25. To be affected in any way, is, at all times, 
 in all places, and in all degrees, to be disagree- 
 able. 
 
 26. To those who are to make their way 
 either to wealth or honours, a good character 
 
 T 
 
274 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 is usually uo less necessary than address and 
 abilities. 
 
 27. To do good in an effectual and extensive 
 manner, within the limits of professional influence, 
 is in the power, as it is the duty, of every indi- 
 vidual who possesses the use of his faculties. 
 
 28. Among the various follies by which we 
 increase the natural and unavoidable miseries of 
 life, is the dread of old age. 
 
 29. The middle ranks of mankind are the 
 most virtuous, the best accomplished, and the 
 most capable of enjoying the pleasures and ad- 
 vantages which fall to the lot of human nature. 
 
 30. They who are exempted by their elevated 
 condition from the confinement of commercial 
 or professional life, involve themselves in volun- 
 tarv slaverv, bv en^as-ins; in the service of the 
 tyrant Fashion. 
 
 31. It is the folly and misfortune of human 
 nature to prefer the present to the future, the 
 agreeable to the useful, the shining to the solid. 
 
 The next model proposed for imitation consists 
 of four parts, and is constructed as follows : 1st, 
 a subject is proposed in the first assertion ; 2dly, 
 the truth of this assertion is shown by the 
 results of the contrary proposition : 3dly, an 
 inference is drawn from the last assertion ; and 
 4thly, a second inference, in the form of a ques- 
 tion or exclamation, closes the whole paragraph. 
 
 THIKD MODEL. 
 
 (1. Proposed subject) " I am fully persuaded 
 that one of the best springs of generous and 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 275 
 
 worthy actions, is the having generous and 
 worthy thoughts of ourselves. (2. Contrary 
 proposition.) Whoever has a mean opinion of the 
 dignity of his nature, will act in no higher a 
 rank than he has allotted himself in his own es- 
 timation. (3. First inference.) If he considers his 
 beinor as circumscribed by the uncertain term of 
 a few years, his designs will be contracted into 
 the same narrow span he imagines is to bound his 
 existence. (4. Second inference.) How can he 
 exalt his thoughts to any thing great and noble, 
 who only believes that, after a short turn on 
 the stage of this world, he is to sink into obli- 
 vion, and to lose his consciousness for ever ? " 
 
 The introductory proposition here lays down 
 the subject, viz., the author's opinion, that ele- 
 vated thoughts on the dignity of our nature form 
 a strong motive for meritorious actions. The 
 writer then shows the justness of this opinion, 
 by exhibiting the result of a contrary habit of 
 thinking ; and he finishes the passage with two 
 deductions dependent upon, and drawn from the 
 second proposition. 
 
 The following paragraph may be suggestive 
 of the manner in which this model may be imi- 
 tated. 
 
 Imitation. 
 
 (1.) Nothing can be more inexcusable than 
 the state of those who never bestow a thought 
 on their moral and intellectual improvement. 
 (2.) The habit of considering the nature of his 
 being, and the perfectibility of the human mind, 
 will be a powerful inducement in determining 
 T 2 
 
276 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 every sensible man to make a progress in virtue. 
 (3.) When he reflects upon the dignity of hu- 
 man nature, and his own immortal destiny, he 
 must surely be prompted by every motive to 
 strive to attain that height of moral excellence 
 which is permitted to his mortal condition. 
 (4.) How is it possible for one whose mind is 
 habitually elevated by such noble thoughts, to 
 remain long grovelling in ignorance, or sub- 
 jected to the base influence of immorality ? 
 
 (1.) " That the desire of knowledge for its 
 own sake is an adventitious passion, unknown 
 to nature, and to be classed among the refine- 
 ments of civilisation, is an opinion unsupported 
 by experience, and derogatory from the native 
 dignity of a rational creature. (2.) Fancy and 
 sentiment, the powers of the intellect, and the 
 feelings of the heart, are, perhaps, by nature 
 equally strong and susceptible in the rude 
 Indian and in the polished member of an es- 
 tablished community. (3.) Perhaps these similar 
 powers would be equally fit for exertion, and 
 their propensities equally importunate for gra- 
 tification, if the savage were not constantly 
 engaged in providing for that necessary sus- 
 tenance which, without his own interposition, 
 is commonly secured to the philosopher." 
 
 Subject for imitation — " Travellers have 
 been often censured for enumerating what are 
 called trifling occurrences." 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 277 
 
 II. 
 
 (1.) " It is certainly true, that when a govern- 
 ment bestows particular honour on men who 
 have written against the religion of the country, 
 and who have impiously fought against the King 
 of kings, it must lose the respect and attachment 
 of all good men. (2.) The religion of a country 
 is unquestionably worthy of more solicitude in 
 its preservation than the political constitution, 
 however excellent and admirable. (3.) Kings, 
 with all their minions and prerogatives, law- 
 givers and laws, are trifles compared to that 
 system of religion on which depends the tem- 
 poral and eternal welfare of every individual 
 throughout the empire. (4.) What avails it that, 
 under a successful administration, the French 
 are beaten, and the Americans scourged for the 
 sin of rebellion, if the same administration ruins 
 our best, our sweetest hopes — those which rely 
 on the protection of a kind Providence, and 
 those which cheer us in this vale of misery, by 
 the bright gleams of a sun which shall rise to 
 set no more?" 
 
 Subject for imitation — " Levity, which is 
 indeed intimately allied to luxury, is fatal to 
 liberty." 
 
 The following subjects are to be treated in 
 the manner shown in the third model : — 
 
 1. Paternal authority, and the order of do- 
 mestic life, supplied the foundation of civil 
 government. 
 
 2. The boasted liberty of a state of nature 
 exists only in a state of solitude. 
 
 T 3 
 
278 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 3. Popular elections procure to the common 
 people courtesy from their superiors. 
 
 4. As aversion to labour is the cause from 
 which half of the vices of low life deduce their 
 origin and continuance, punishments ought to 
 be contrived with a view to the conquering of 
 this disposition. 
 
 5. It should be an indispensable rule in life 
 to contract our desires to our present condition ; 
 and, whatever may be our expectations, to live 
 within the compass of what we actually possess. 
 
 6. By forbearing to do what may innocently 
 be done, we may hourly add new vigour to 
 resolution ; and secure the power of resistance, 
 when pleasure or interest shall lend their charms 
 to guilt. 
 
 7. The obedience of children to their parents 
 is the basis of all government ; and set forth as 
 the measure of that obedience which we owe 
 to those whom Providence has placed over us. 
 
 8. To hear complaints with patience, even 
 when complaints are vain, is one of the duties 
 of friendship. 
 
 9. He that is conceited of his own wisdom, 
 strength of parts, and improvement in know- 
 ledge, cannot submit his mind to notions which 
 he cannot easily comprehend and penetrate. 
 
 10. In your pursuits of pleasure and amuse- 
 ment, it will be happy for you to select those only 
 which are innocent and allowable, and which 
 leave behind them no sorrowful reflections. 
 
 11. Without your own best exertions, the 
 concern of others for your welfare will be of 
 little avail. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION". 279 
 
 12. The main secret of being sublime, is to 
 say great things in few and plain words. 
 
 13. Curiosity is one of the strongest and 
 most active principles of human nature. 
 
 14. I take it to be the highest instance of a 
 noble mind, to bear great qualities without dis- 
 covering in a man's behaviour any consciousness 
 that he is superior to the rest of the world. 
 
 15. We can derive but little improvement 
 from the teacher we contemn. 
 
 16. To the wicked, and indeed to all who are 
 warmly engaged in the vulgar pursuits of the 
 world, the contemplation of rural scenes, and of 
 the manners and natures of animals is perfectly 
 insipid. 
 
 17. There are many who spend much of their 
 time in reading, but who read, as they play at 
 cards, with no other intention but to pass the 
 time without labouring under the intolerable 
 burthen of a total inactivity. 
 
 18. The government of the temper, on which 
 the happiness of the human race so greatly 
 depends, can never be too frequently or too 
 forcibly recommended. 
 
 19. The best school for the improvement of 
 reason, after a competent education, is the living 
 world. 
 
 20. The want of employment is one of the 
 frequent causes of vice; but he who loves a 
 book will never want employment. 
 
 21. The most attractive beauty of the person 
 results from the graces of the mind. 
 
 22. The mind of man, when free from natural 
 defects and acquired corruption, feels no less a 
 
 T 4 
 
280 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 tendency to the indulgence of devotion than to 
 love, or to any other of the more refined and 
 elevated affections. 
 
 23. There is perhaps no method of improving 
 the mind more efficacious, and certainly none 
 more agreeable, than a mutual interchange of 
 sentiments in an elegant and animated conver- 
 sation with the serious, the judicious, the learned, 
 and the communicative. 
 
 24. Men act wrong scarcely less often from 
 the defect of courage, than of knowledge and of 
 prudence. 
 
 25. The first object of a youth who possesses 
 affluence acquired by his forefathers, should be 
 the improvement of his mind. 
 
 26. There are few conditions less desirable 
 than that of the man who has no resources in 
 himself, and who is totally dependent on others 
 for his daily amusement. 
 
 27. Religion, indeed, is able of it self the most 
 effectually to dissipate the clouds, and to diffuse 
 a sunshine on the evening of life. 
 
 28. One of the most useful effects of action 
 is, that it renders repose agreeable. 
 
 29. To say much in a few words is certainly 
 a great excellence, and at the same time a great 
 difficulty in composition. 
 
 30. The great evil of solitude is, that reason 
 becomes weak for want of exercise, while the 
 powers of the imagination are invigorated by 
 indulgence. 
 
 The fourth model proposed for imitation con- 
 sists of four parts, and is constructed on the 
 following plan: 1st, an assertion; 2dly, an am- 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 281 
 
 plification of the assertion ; 3dly, a consequence ; 
 and 4thly, a conclusion. 
 
 rOURTH MODEL. 
 
 (1. Leading assertion.) " There are, indeed, 
 but very few who know how to be idle and 
 innocent, or have a relish of any pleasures that 
 are not criminal. (2. Amplification.) Every 
 diversion they take is at the expense of some 
 one virtue or another, and their first step out 
 of business is into vice or folly. (3. Conse- 
 quence.) A man should endeavour, therefore, 
 to make the sphere of his innocent pleasures as 
 wide as possible, that he may retire into them 
 with safety, and find in them such a satisfaction 
 as a wise man would not blush to take. (4. 
 Conclusion.) Of this nature are those of the 
 imagination, which do not require such a bent 
 of thought as is necessary to our more serious 
 employments, nor, at the same time, suffer the 
 mind to sink into that negligence and remiss- 
 ness which are apt to accompany our more 
 sensual delights ; but, like a gentle exercise to 
 the faculties, awaken them from sloth and idle- 
 ness, without putting them upon any labour or 
 difficulty." — Addison. 
 
 In the above passage, the author's intention 
 is to show the advantages of cultivating our 
 tastes ; and with a view to this end, he sets out 
 by affirming that it is difficult for a man to 
 remain in a state of total inaction without in- 
 curring the danger of indulging in criminal 
 pleasures. This is done in the assertion and 
 
282 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 amplification (Nos. 1. and 2.) of the paragraph. 
 Assuming the truth of this assertion, the 
 writer then draws a consequence from it, viz., 
 the expediency of enlarging our circle of in- 
 nocent pleasures ; and concludes by strongly 
 recommending those of the imagination, as being 
 strictly of that description. 
 
 The following paragraph is composed in imi- 
 tation of the fourth model. 
 
 Imitation. 
 (1.) Of all the vices to which human nature 
 is subject, there is perhaps none which argues 
 such confirmed depravity of heart as an inch- 
 nation to slander the good name of others ; (2.) 
 and to procure gratification to ourselves by 
 detracting from the merit of the great or the 
 good. (3.) Every man should therefore en- 
 deavour to divest himself of all those passions 
 or prejudices which may in any way tend to 
 pervert his judgment ; and before he passes sen- 
 tence on the works or character of his neigh- 
 bour, he should consider seriously, whether his 
 opinion be founded on pure motives. (4.) Con- 
 siderations of this nature will not only have 
 the effect of strengthening his mind, and leading 
 him to just conclusions, but will also make him 
 more lenient to the failings of others, and pre- 
 pare his heart for the exertion of those kindly 
 feelings for which it appears naturally formed. 
 
 I. 
 
 (1.) "It avails little to point out evils with- 
 out recommending a remedy. (2.) One of the 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 283 
 
 first rules which suggests itself is, that families 
 should endeavour, by often and seriously re- 
 flecting on the subject, to convince themselves, 
 that not only the enjoyment, but the virtue of 
 every individual greatly depends on union. 
 (3.) When they are convinced of this, they 
 will endeavour to promote it ; and it fortunately 
 happens that the very wish and attempt of 
 every individual in the family must infallibly 
 secure success. (4.) It may, indeed, be difficult 
 to restrain the occasional sallies of temper ; but 
 where there is, in the more dispassionate 
 moments, a settled desire to preserve union, 
 the transient violence of passion will not often 
 produce a lasting rupture." 
 
 Subject for imitation — " From whatever 
 motive it arises, an anxious curiosity to know 
 the reports concerning ourselves, is an infallible 
 cause of misery." 
 
 II. 
 
 (1.) " The passion for novelty and singularity 
 is, however, often found to prefer the new and 
 uncommon, even to allowed and established 
 excellence : (2.) and for the gratification of this 
 inborn avidity of human nature, absurdities, 
 long exploded and relinquished, are often re- 
 vived, and fanciful and monstrous innovations 
 introduced. (3.) It is not therefore surprising, 
 however culpable, that, in opposition to the 
 general taste of mankind, many still admire and 
 labour to restore the Gothic architecture ; or 
 that, tired of Grecian beauty, they endeavour to 
 
284 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 import into northern climates, a style which 
 they call oriental, but which is often mixed 
 and modified with their own grotesque or 
 puerile inventions. (4.) Ingenuity of design, 
 skill in execution, and rarity of appearance, 
 may cause even buildings of this fantastic form 
 to excite a transient pleasure among the curious 
 or the uninformed ; but it is to be hoped that 
 the general depravity of taste which can 
 render them objects of general approbation 
 will not soon take place." 
 
 Subject for imitation — "To those who are 
 to make their own way, either to wealth or 
 honours, a good character is usually no less 
 necessary than address and abilities." 
 
 The following subjects are to form the heads 
 of paragraphs to be composed according to the 
 mode of reasoning explained in the fourth 
 model : — 
 
 1. The most attractive beauty of the person 
 results from the graces of the mind. 
 
 2. Whoever considers the natural effect of 
 excessive indulgence, in relaxing and weakening 
 the tone of the mind, will immediately perceive 
 how pernicious it must be to human nature in 
 general, and to each particular society. 
 
 3. There will always be many, in a rich and 
 civilised country, who, as they are born to the 
 enjoyment of competent estates, engage not in 
 business, civil or professional. 
 
 4. It is of the utmost importance to man- 
 kind, that positions of an immoral tendency 
 should be laid open and confuted. 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 285 
 
 5. The serious and impartial retrospect of 
 our conduct is indisputably necessary to the 
 confirmation or recovery of virtue. 
 
 6. Nothing is more unjust, however common, 
 than to charge with hypocrisy him that ex- 
 presses zeal for those virtues which he neglects 
 to practise. 
 
 7. That eminence in learning is not to be 
 gained without labour, at least equal to that 
 which any other kind of greatness can require, 
 will be allowed by those who wish to elevate 
 the character of a scholar. 
 
 8. To lay open all the sources from which 
 error flows in upon him who contemplates his 
 own character, would require more exact know- 
 ledge of the human heart than perhaps the 
 most acute and laborious observers have ac- 
 quired. 
 
 9. There are men who always confound the 
 praise of goodness with the practice, and who 
 believe themselves mild and moderate, cha- 
 ritable and faithful, because they have exerted 
 their eloquence in commendation of mildness, 
 fidelity, and other virtues. 
 
 10. The misfortunes which arise from the 
 concurrence of unhappy accidents should never 
 be suffered to disturb us before they happen. 
 
 11. The maxim of Cleobulus the Lindian, 
 Mediocrity is the best, has been long considered 
 a universal principle, extended through the 
 whole compass of life and nature. 
 
 12. There is one reason seldom remarked, 
 which makes riches less desirable. Too much 
 wealth is very frequently the occasion of po- 
 verty. 
 
286 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 13. The fondest and firmest friendships are 
 dissolved by such openness and sincerity as 
 interrupt our enjoyment of our own appro- 
 bation. 
 
 14. It is the faculty of remembrance which 
 may be said to place us in the class of moral 
 agents. 
 
 15. The true enjoyments of a reasonable 
 being do not consist in unbounded indulgence, 
 or luxurious ease ; in the tumult of passions, the 
 languor of indolence, or the flutter of light 
 amusements. 
 
 16. Society is the true sphere of human 
 virtue. 
 
 17. There is not a common saying which 
 has a better turn of sense in it, than what we 
 often hear in the mouths of the vulgar, that 
 custom is a second nature. 
 
 18. The first steps towards evil are very care- 
 fully to be avoided. 
 
 19. There is not a more pleasing exercise of 
 the mind than gratitude. 
 
 20. The middle condition seems to be the 
 most advantageously situated for the gaining of 
 wisdom. 
 
 21. To an honest mind, the best perquisites 
 of a place are the advantages it gives a man of 
 doing good. 
 
 22. It is the work of a philosopher to be 
 every day subduing his passions, and laying 
 aside his prejudices. 
 
 23. The vice of drunkenness has very fatal 
 effects on the mind, the body, and fortune of 
 the person who is devoted to it. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION". 287 
 
 24. There is scarce a man living who is not 
 actuated by ambition. 
 
 25. Every station of life has duties which 
 are proper to it. 
 
 26. Were all the vexations of life put toge- 
 ther, we should find that a great part of them 
 proceed from those calumnies and reproaches 
 which we spread abroad concerning one an- 
 other. 
 
 27. If ordinary authors would condescend to 
 write as they think, they would at least be al- 
 lowed the praise of being intelligible. 
 
 28. It is not unworthy observation, that su- 
 perstitious inquiries into future events prevail 
 more or less in proportion to the improvement 
 of liberal arts and useful knowledge in the se- 
 veral parts of the world. 
 
 29. We find from experience, that through 
 the prevalence of custom, the most vicious ac- 
 tions lose their horror, by being made familiar 
 to us. 
 
 30. The design of learning is, as I take it, 
 either to render a man an agreeable companion 
 to himself, and teach him to support solitude 
 with pleasure, or if he is not born to an estate, 
 to supply that defect, and furnish him with the 
 means of acquiring one. 
 
 31. A cheerful mind is not only disposed to 
 be affable and obliging, but raises the same 
 good -humour in those who come within its in- 
 fluence. 
 
 In writing an essay, it is a frequent practice 
 to lay down the general assertion in a distinct 
 
288 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 and separate paragraph, and to continue the ar- 
 gument in another paragraph containing a more 
 detailed account of the question mentioned in 
 the first. This may be styled, the introductory 
 paragraph, which may be seen in the following 
 
 TIFTH MODEL. 
 
 {Introductory paragraph.) "Few institutions 
 can contribute more to preserve civilisation, and 
 promote moral and intellectual improvement 
 among all ranks of people, than the establish- 
 ment of public lectures in every part of the 
 kingdom, periodically repeated after a short in- 
 terval. 
 
 {Detail.) " Such is the light in which are to 
 be considered the discourses appointed by the 
 wisdom of the Church to be everywhere held 
 on the recurrence of the seventh day. By these, 
 the meanest and most illiterate are enabled to 
 hear moral and philosophical treatises on every 
 thing which concerns their several duties, with- 
 out expense, and without solicitation." 
 
 The introductory paragraph here contains 
 the author's opinion of the advantages derived 
 from public lectures generally ; and the follow- 
 ing division enters into a more detailed account 
 of his views on the subject. Sometimes, an in- 
 troductory paragraph contains the various heads 
 under which the subject may be considered, 
 each of which is afterwards discussed respec- 
 tively in separate paragraphs. For our present 
 purpose, however, two will be sufficient. 
 
 The above model may be imitated as follows : 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION". 289 
 
 Imitation. 
 
 {Introductory paragraph.) Riches, which 
 are so ardently desired, and which among 
 the generality of mankind, produce so much 
 envy towards their possessors, do not in reality 
 confer those advantages which so many believe 
 them to possess. Indeed, it would not be dif- 
 ficult to show, that in most cases, the evils they 
 engender far outweigh any benefits they may 
 bestow, and that in this, as in many other in- 
 stances, men are deceived by appearances. 
 
 {Detail.) Most, if not all the train of 
 calamities resulting from ill-regulated passions, 
 or depravity of heart, may be traced to this 
 source. The rich man has opportunities and 
 temptations of gratifying his passions and pam- 
 pering his appetites, from which his less opulent 
 neighbour is preserved ; an exemption which 
 every rational man should regard as one of the 
 most fortunate privileges of his condition. 
 
 I. 
 
 (1.) " Eloquence is numbered among those 
 arts which, instead of making a progressive im- 
 provement in the course of revolving ages, have 
 greatly receded from their original excellence. 
 
 (2.) " The funeral orations and panegyrics of a 
 few Frenchmen, are the only pieces among the 
 moderns which make pretensions to rhetorical 
 composition. These, however, may appear very 
 elaborate and unnatural ; whether from the 
 barrenness of the subjects, or from the weakness 
 u 
 
290 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 of the orators, is foreign to the purpose. From 
 whatever cause it proceeds, it appears that an- 
 cient eloquence is not restored by those efforts 
 which are allowed to have been most success- 
 ful." 
 
 II. 
 
 (1.) " Let the enlargement of your know- 
 lodge be one constant view and design in life ; 
 since there is no time or place, no transaction, 
 occurrence, or engagement, which excludes us 
 from this method of improving the mind. 
 
 (2.) " When we are in the house or city, where- 
 ever we turn our eyes, we see the works of men ; 
 when we are in the country, we behold more of 
 the works of God. The skies, the ground, above 
 and beneath us, and the animal and vegetable 
 world round about us, may entertain our observ- 
 ation with ten thousand varieties." 
 
 Two paragraphs are to be written on the 
 following subjects, according to the construction 
 explained in the fifth model: — 
 
 1. It is a general observation, that the cha- 
 racter and disposition of every man may, in 
 some degree, be guessed at, from the formation 
 and turn of his features ; or, in other words, 
 that the face is the index of the mind. 
 
 2. I cannot think it extravagant to imagine 
 that mankind are no less in proportion ac- 
 countable for the ill use of their dominion over 
 creatures of the lower rank of beings, than for 
 the exercise of tyranny over then own species. 
 
 3. There is a restless endeavour in the mind 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 291 
 
 of man after happiness. This appetite is 
 wrought into the original frame of onr nature, 
 and exerts itself in all parts of the creation 
 that are endued with any degree of thought 
 or sense. 
 
 4. The same faculty of reason and under- 
 standing which places us above the brute part 
 of the creation, also subjects our minds to 
 greater and more manifold disquietudes than 
 creatures of an inferior rank are susceptible of. 
 
 5. There is no maxim in politics more indis- 
 putable than that a nation should have many 
 honours in reserve for those who do national 
 services. This raises emulation, cherishes public 
 merit, and inspires every one with an ambition 
 which promotes the good of his country. 
 
 6. Undeserved praise can please only those 
 who want merit, and undeserved reproach 
 frighten only those who want sincerity. 
 
 7. There are several persons who have many 
 pleasures and entertainments in their possession 
 which they do not enjoy. It is, therefore, a 
 kind and good office to acquaint them with 
 their own happiness, and turn their attention 
 to such instances of their good fortune as they 
 are apt to overlook. 
 
 8. It is a peculiar happiness to a people, 
 when the men of superior genius and character 
 are so justly disposed in the high places of 
 honour, that each of them moves in a sphere 
 which is proper to him, and requires those par- 
 ticular qualities in which he excels. 
 
 9. Learning, as it polishes the mind, enlarges 
 our ideas, and gives an ingenious turn to our 
 
 u 2 
 
292 English; ok, 
 
 whole conversation and behaviour, has ever 
 been esteemed a liberal accomplishment; and 
 is, indeed, the principal characteristic that dis- 
 tinguishes the gentleman from the mechanic. 
 
 10. That there is a vanity inherent in every 
 author, must be confessed, whatever pains 
 he may take to conceal it from the rest of 
 mankind. 
 
 11. When we consider that our language is 
 preferable to most, if not all others now in being, 
 it seems something extraordinary that any atten- 
 tion should be paid to a foreign tongue, that is 
 refused to our own, when we are likely to get so 
 little by the exchange. 
 
 12. Among the many inconsistencies which 
 folly produces, or infirmity suffers in the human 
 mind, there has been often observed a manifest 
 and striking contrariety between the life of an 
 author and his writings. 
 
 13. It is recorded of some eastern monarch, 
 that he kept an officer in his house, whose 
 employment it was to remind him of his mor- 
 tality, by calling out every morning, at a stated 
 hour, Remember, prince, that thou shalt die. 
 
 14. Among the numerous stratagems by 
 which pride endeavours to recommend folly to 
 regard, there is scarcely one that meets with 
 less success than affectation, or a perpetual 
 disguise of the real character by fictitious ap- 
 pearances. 
 
 15. There are few tasks more ungrateful 
 than for persons of modesty to speak their own 
 praises. In some cases, however, this must be 
 done for the general good, and a generous spirit 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION". 293 
 
 will on such occasions assert its merit, and vin- 
 dicate itself with becoming warmth. 
 
 16. I would propose the following methods 
 to the consideration of such as would find out 
 their secret faults, and make a true estimate of 
 themselves. 
 
 17. Nature does nothing in vain : the Creator 
 of the universe has appointed every thing to a 
 certain use and purpose, and determined it to a 
 settled course and sphere of action, from which, 
 if it in the least deviates, it becomes unfit to 
 answer those ends for which it was designed. 
 
 18. There is hardly any thing gives me a 
 more sensible delight than the enjoyment of a 
 cool still evening, after the uneasiness of a hot, 
 sultry day. 
 
 19. Man, considered in himself, is a very 
 helpless and a very wretched being. He is sub- 
 ject every moment to the greatest calamities and 
 misfortunes. He is beset with dangers on all 
 sides, and may become unhappy by numberless 
 casualties, which he could not foresee, nor have 
 prevented had he foreseen them. 
 
 20. There is no one passion which all mankind 
 so naturally give into as pride, nor any other 
 passion which appears in such different dis- 
 guises. Is it not a question whether it does 
 more harm than good in the world ? — and if 
 there be not such a thing as what we may call 
 a virtuous and laudable pride ? 
 
 21. If we regard poverty or wealth as they 
 are apt to produce virtues or vices in the mind 
 of man, one may observe that there is a set of 
 
 u 3 
 
294 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 each of these growing out of poverty, quite 
 diiferent from that which rises out of wealth. 
 
 22. The time present seldom affords sufficient 
 employment to the mind of man. Objects of 
 pain or pleasure, love or admiration, do not lie 
 thick enough together in life to keep the soul 
 in constant action, and supply an immediate 
 exercise to its faculties. 
 
 23. " There is nothing," says Plato, " so 
 delightful as the hearing or the speaking of 
 truth." For this reason, there is no conversa- 
 tion so agreeable as that of the man of integrity, 
 who hears without any intention to betray, and 
 speaks without any intention to deceive. 
 
 24. A contented mind is the greatest blessing 
 a man can enjoy in this world ; and if, in the 
 present life, his happiness arises from the sub- 
 cluing of his desires, it will arise in the next 
 from the gratification of them. 
 
 25. There is nothing which betrays a man 
 into so many errors and inconveniences as the 
 desire of not appearing singular; for which 
 reason it is very necessary to form a right idea 
 of singularity, that we may know when it is 
 laudable, and when it is vicious. 
 
 26. It was a good piece of advice which 
 Pythagoras gave to his scholars, that every 
 night, before they slept, they should examine 
 what they had been doing that day, and 
 discover what actions were worthy of pursuit 
 to-morrow, and what little vices were to be 
 prevented from slipping unawares into a habit. 
 
 27. Man may be considered in two views, as 
 a reasonable and as a sociable being, capable 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 295 
 
 of becoming himself either happy or miserable, 
 and of contributing to the happiness or misery 
 of his fellow-creatures. 
 
 28. There is scarce a man living who is 
 not in some, degree guilty of calumny. It 
 generally takes its rise either from an ill will to 
 mankind, a private inclination to make ourselves 
 esteemed, an ostentation of wit, a vanity of 
 being thought in the secrets of the world, or 
 from a desire of gratifying any of these dis- 
 positions of mind in those persons with whom 
 we converse. 
 
 29. Mankind may be divided into the merry 
 and the serious, who, both of them, make a 
 very good figure in the species, so long as they 
 keep their respective humours from degene- 
 rating into the neighbouring extreme; there 
 being a natural tendency in the one to a 
 melancholy moroseness, and in the other to 
 a fantastic levity. 
 
 30. The desire of knowing future events is 
 one of the strongest inclinations in the mind of 
 man. Indeed, an ability of foreseeing probable 
 accidents is what, in the language of men, is 
 called wisdom and prudence : but, not satisfied 
 with the light that reason holds out, mankind 
 hath endeavoured to penetrate more compen- 
 diously into futurity. 
 
 31. The proper way to make an estimate of 
 ourselves, is to consider seriously what it is we 
 value or despise in others. 
 
 The next model for imitation is formed of 
 the following parts : — 
 
 u 4 
 
296 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 1. A supposition or concession ; 2. a de- 
 pendent assertion ; and 3. a cause, or a result 
 of this assertion. The following paragraph will 
 illustrate this form. 
 
 SIXTH MODEL. 
 
 (1. Concession.) " If we have selected for 
 the subject of our present memoir an ances- 
 tor whose memory is held in just veneration 
 by his descendants, (2. A dependent assertion.) 
 our preference is fully borne out by the dis- 
 tinguished place which his writings still main- 
 tain in the estimation of the public. (3. Cause.) 
 A life devoted to the advancements of the 
 interests of the Church, which he defended with 
 eminent zeal and ability, against the host of 
 enemies by which it was assailed, deserves to 
 be recorded among the worthies of this nation." 
 
 Here the author commences by admitting 
 that he has selected the life of Stillino;neet as a 
 subject for a memoir, and proceeds, secondly, to 
 give his reasons for so doing ; thirdly, the cause 
 of the reputation which the bishop's works still 
 maintain, and reasons for his deserving a place 
 anions; the distinguished characters of the 
 nation, complete the whole paragraph. This 
 model may be imitated thus : — 
 
 Imitation. 
 
 (1.) Were it possible to contemplate a social 
 state in which all human passions should be 
 extinguished, where all men shoidd be equal in 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 297 
 
 rank, and where neither hope nor fear should 
 exist, (2.) the ordinary springs of action, the 
 usual motives to great and generous deeds, 
 would of necessity, in such a state, cease to 
 influence the human heart. (3.) There could 
 be no kindly impulses, if there were no longer 
 a necessity for their action. Society would 
 then sink into an inactive, listless state, in 
 which, as there would be nothing either to 
 hope or fear, there could be no longer any 
 merit or demerit in actions, since such a state 
 of things would naturally destroy the very 
 existence of good and evil. 
 
 (1.) "Were the sun which enlightens this 
 part of the creation, with all the host of 
 planetary worlds that move about him, utterly 
 extinguished and annihilated, (2.) they would 
 not be missed more than a grain of sand upon 
 the sea-shore. (3.) The space they possess is 
 so exceedingly little in comparison of the whole, 
 that it would scarce make a blank in the 
 creation. The chasm would be imperceptible 
 to an eye that could take in the whole compass 
 of nature and pass from one end of the creation 
 to the other ; as it is possible there may be 
 such a sense in ourselves hereafter, or in crea- 
 tures which are at present ore exalted than 
 ourselves." 
 
 II. 
 
 (1.) " Though the fallibility of man's reason, 
 and the narrowness of his knowledge, are very 
 
298 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 liberally confessed, (2.) yet the conduct of those 
 who so willingly admit the weakness of human 
 nature, seems to discover that this acknowledg- 
 ment is not altogether sincere ; (3.) at least, 
 that most make it with a tacit reserve in favour 
 of themselves; and that with whatever ease 
 they give up the claim of their neighbours, 
 they are desirous of being thought exempt from 
 faults in their own conduct, and from error in 
 their opinions." 
 
 The following concessive members of para- 
 graphs are to be expressed differently by the 
 learner, and the other parts to be added in a 
 paragraph of his own composing : — 
 
 1. If the most active and industrious of 
 mankind was able, at the close of life, to 
 recollect distinctly his past moments, and dis- 
 tribute them, in a regular account, according 
 to the manner in which they have been spent, 
 
 2. If any passion has so much usurped our 
 understanding as not to suffer us to enjoy 
 advantages with the moderation prescribed by 
 reason, 
 
 3. As no one can be said to enjoy health, 
 who is only not sick, unless he feel within 
 himself a lightsome and invigorating principle, 
 which will not suffer him to remain idle, but 
 still spurs him on to action, so, ... . 
 
 4. As in the works of nature no man can 
 call a river deep, or a mountain high, without 
 the knowledge of many mountains and many 
 rivers, so, ... . 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 299 
 
 5. If we hope for things of which we have 
 not thoroughly considered the value, .... 
 
 6. Whether it be that life has more vexations 
 than comforts, or, what is in event just the same, 
 that evil makes deeper impressions than good, 
 it is certain .... 
 
 7. Suppose a deed of grace were offered to 
 the outlaws of an offended government, and 
 they were to turn their backs on the gracious 
 offer .... 
 
 8. If any of you are conscious that you have, 
 not forgiven a neighbour when he has trespassed 
 against you ; if any of you are conscious that 
 you have taken a malicious pleasure in making 
 a brother's offences known, and injuring his 
 credit; .... 
 
 9. If a wish could transport me back to 
 those days of youth when a draught from the 
 next clear spring could slake any heats which 
 summer suns and youthful exercise had power 
 to stir up in the blood, .... 
 
 10. If the heat of temper would suffer a man 
 to attend to those whose age and long acquaint- 
 ance with business give them an indisputable 
 right to deference and superiority, .... 
 
 11. Whatever advantages of fortune, birth, 
 or any other good, people possess, above the rest 
 of the world, .... 
 
 12. If we look into the manners of the most 
 remote ages of the world, and read the accounts 
 of men and women as they are given us by the 
 most ancient writers, both sacred and profane, 
 
 1 3 . Notwithstanding the plausible reason with 
 
300 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 which men of all sects would excuse their re- 
 spective superstitions, .... 
 
 14. If we look abroad upon the great mul- 
 titude of mankind, and endeavour to trace out 
 the principles of action in every individual, it 
 will, I think, seem highly probable that .... 
 
 15. Though the pure consciousness of worthy 
 actions, abstracted from the views of popular 
 applause, be to a generous mind an ample reward, 
 yet 
 
 16. When we see men of inflamed passions, 
 or of wicked designs, tearing one another to 
 pieces by open violence, or undermining each 
 other by secret treachery, .... 
 
 17. If the talent of ridicule were employed 
 to laugh men out of vice and folly, .... 
 
 18. Since, then, it is certain that our own 
 hearts deceive us in the love of the world, and 
 that we cannot command ourselves enough to 
 resign it, though we every day wish ourselves 
 disengaged from its allurements ; . . . . 
 
 1 9. As this passion for admiration, which is so 
 vehement in the fair sex, improves the beautiful 
 part of our species in every thing that is laudable, 
 so ... . 
 
 20. When we consider how many dark and 
 intricate motives there are to detraction and de- 
 famation, and how many malicious spies are 
 searching into the actions of a great man, who is 
 not always the best prepared for so narrow an 
 inspection, .... 
 
 21. If a concern for pleasing others arises 
 from an innate benevolence, .... 
 
 22. If those persons who believe in a future 
 
THE AET OF COMFOSITION. 301 
 
 state of rewards and punishments, form their 
 opinions of a man's merit from his successes, . . 
 
 23. There is no doubt but the proper use of 
 riches implies that a man should exert all the 
 good qualities imaginable ; and if we mean by 
 a man of condition or quality, one who, according 
 to the wealth he is master of, shows himself just, 
 beneficent, and charitable, .... 
 
 24. If the observation is true, that a man im- 
 proves more by reading the story of a person 
 eminent for prudence and virtues, than by the 
 finest rules and precepts of morality, .... 
 
 25. Though the proper education we should 
 give ourselves is, to be prepared for the ill events 
 and accidents we are to meet with in a life sen- 
 tenced to be a scene of sorrow, .... 
 
 26. If we compare the value of the praise 
 obtained by fictitious excellence, even while the 
 cheat is yet undiscovered, with that kindness 
 which every man may merit by his virtue, and 
 that esteem to which most men may rise by 
 common understanding steadily and honestly 
 applied, .... 
 
 27. So few of the hours of life are filled up 
 with objects adequate to the mind of man, and 
 so frequently are we in want of present pleasure 
 or employment, that .... 
 
 28. However popular those writers may be- 
 become who have displayed any of that uniform 
 peculiarity in their style which renders it easily 
 imitable, .... 
 
 2 9. So powerful are the instigations of avarice, 
 and so easy is it to deceive the young, the simple, 
 the innocent, and the unsuspecting, that .... 
 
302 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 30. Whatever may be the political advantages 
 of a very populous capital, .... 
 
 31. In whatever light the art of printing may 
 be viewed, .... 
 
 In addition to the practice afforded by the 
 above models, it will be of great service to the 
 learner, occasionally to examine the constructive 
 parts or paragraphs of a composition, and give, 
 either in writing or by word of mouth, an ex- 
 planation of the mode of reasoning pursued in 
 them. By thus frequently directing his atten- 
 tion to the philosophy of construction, he will 
 soon gain the power not only of using similar 
 forms of argument in his own compositions, but 
 of creating new models for himself. 
 
 Being thus well exercised in investigating 
 the reasoning, and imitating the construction of 
 the Paragraph, it may be fairly presumed that 
 he is ready to enter upon the study of the Essay, 
 of which, indeed, the Paragraph is to be con- 
 sidered but as a component part. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 303 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ON THE ESSAY. 
 
 The Essay, though no longer so common a 
 form of writing, nor so generally popular as for- 
 merly, may yet be used with great advantage as 
 a means of drawing out the reasoning facidties 
 of the young, and giving them a practice of com- 
 posing upon abstract subjects. 
 
 This form of composition differs from the nar- 
 rative, in as much as, since it generally treats of 
 moral qualities, it cannot be similarly con- 
 structed ; and it also differs from the theme, as 
 its divisions are arranged more according to the 
 will of the writer, than in the latter composition, 
 where a stricter regard to close reasoning is re- 
 quired. Indeed, so great a latitude of construc- 
 tion is allowed to the essayist, that it may be 
 reasonably doubted whether any two essays 
 would, upon investigation, be found constructed 
 on an exactly similar plan. 
 
 If, however, we examine the form of the essay, 
 we shall find that, notwithstanding the licence 
 allowed as to its arrangement and reasoning, a 
 certain intention in the whole composition will 
 be always perceived, and will seldom fail to be 
 discovered by an attentive reader. It will be 
 the teacher's duty to direct the attention of the 
 
304 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 learner, not only to the modes of argument used 
 in each consecutive division of the essay, but 
 also to the chain of reasoning by which the 
 whole composition is held together. 
 
 In order to facilitate this process, we shall 
 proceed to analyse one of Addison's essays in 
 the manner above explained, and shall select for 
 that purpose his first paper on the Pleasures of 
 the Imagination, No. 411. Spectator. 
 
 ] . " Our sight is the most perfect and most delightful of 
 all our senses. It fills the mind with the largest variety of 
 ideas, converses with its ohjects at the greatest distance, and 
 continues the longest in action without heing tired or satiated 
 with its proper enjoyments. The sense of feeling can, indeed, 
 give us a notion of extension, shape, and all other ideas that 
 enter at the eye, except colours ; but at the same time it is 
 very much straitened and confined in its operations to the 
 number, bulk, and distance of its particular objects. Our 
 sight seems designed to supply all these defects ; and may be 
 considered as a more delicate and diffusive kind of touch, 
 that spreads itself over an infinite multitude of bodies, com- 
 prehends the largest figures, and brings into our reach some 
 of the most remote parts of the universe." 
 
 The author, having here proposed to himself 
 as a subject " the Pleasures of the Imagination," 
 commences by stating his opinion in favour of 
 the sense of sight ; that sense from which the 
 pleasures in question take their rise. This is 
 followed by three reasons for that opinion. He 
 then compares the sense of seeing with that of 
 feeling, showing in what they differ, and in 
 what respect the one is superior to the other. 
 This may be termed the preliminary paragraph. 
 
 2. " It is this sense which furnishes the imagination with 
 its ideas ; so that by the pleasures of the imagination or 
 fancy (which I shall use promiscuously), I here mean such 
 as arise from visible objects, either when we have them 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION". 305 
 
 actually in our view, or when we call up their ideas by 
 paintings, statues, descriptions, or any the like occasion. 
 We cannot, indeed, have a single image in the fancy, that 
 did not make its first entrance through the sight ; but we 
 have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding 
 those images which we have once received, into all the 
 varieties of picture and vision that are most agreeable to the 
 imagination : for by this faculty, a man in a dungeon is 
 capable of entertaining himself with scenes and landscapes, 
 more beautiful than any that can be found in the whole 
 compass of nature." 
 
 The writer here proceeds to affirm that it is 
 from the sense of sight that the pleasures of 
 which he treats take their origin, and mentions 
 some of the various occasions which call them 
 forth. 
 
 3. " There are few words in the English language which 
 are employed in a more loose and uncircumscribed sense 
 than those of the Fancy and the Imagination. I therefore 
 thought it necessary to fix and determine the notion of these 
 two words, as I intend to make use of them in the thread of 
 my following speculations, that the reader may conceive 
 rightly what is the subject which I proceed upon. I must, 
 therefore, desire him to remember, that, by the pleasures of 
 the imagination, I mean only such pleasures as arise ori- 
 ginally from sight, and that I divide these pleasures into two 
 kinds : my design being first of all, to discourse of those 
 primary pleasures of the imagination which entirely proceed 
 from such objects as are before our eyes ; and in the next 
 place, to speak of those secondary pleasures of tbe imagination 
 which flow from the ideas of visible objects, when the objects 
 are not actually before the eye, but are called up into our 
 memories, or formed into agreeable visions of things that 
 are either abstract or fictitious." 
 
 Here, in order that the reader may clearly 
 understand the question before him, the author 
 goes on to point out the signification in which 
 he intends the terms fancy and imagination to 
 be understood ; and secondly, notifies his in- 
 tention of considering the subject under two 
 x 
 
306 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 heads; those of primary and secondary plea- 
 sures. 
 
 4. " The pleasures of the imagination, taken in the full 
 extent, are not so gross as those of sense, nor so refined as 
 those of the understanding. The last are indeed preferable, 
 because they are founded on some new knowledge or im- 
 provement in the mind of man ; ret it must be confessed 
 that those of the imagination are as great and transporting 
 as the other. A beautiful prospect delights the soul as much 
 as a demonstration ; and a description in Homer has charmed 
 more readers than a chapter in Aristotle. Besides, the 
 pleasures of the imagination have this advantage above those 
 of the understanding, that they are more obvious, and more 
 easy to be acquired. It is but opening the eye and the scene 
 enters : the colours paint themselves on the fancy, with very 
 little attention of thought or application of mind in the be- 
 holder. We are struck, we know not how, with the symmetry 
 of any thing we see ; and immediately assent to the beauty 
 of an object, without enquiring into the particular causes and 
 occasions of it." 
 
 In this paragraph, the pleasures of taste are 
 compared with those of sense and intellect, and 
 though the author admits, that intellectual 
 pleasures are more pure and refined than those 
 of taste, he afhrrns that the latter afford quite 
 as much enjoyment, which opinion is supported 
 in the two following sentences. He then pro- 
 ceeds further to recommend the cultivation of 
 these pleasures on the score of the facility with 
 which they may be obtained, and concludes the 
 passage with a few remarks illustrative of this 
 latter assertion. 
 
 5. " A man of a polite imagination is let into a great many 
 pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving. He 
 can converse with a picture, and find an agreeable companion 
 in a statue. He meets with a secret refreshment in a de- 
 scription, and often feels a greater satisfaction in the prospect 
 of fields and meadows, than another does in the possession. 
 It gives him, indeed, a kind of property in every thing he 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 307 
 
 sees, and makes the most rude, uncultivated parts of nature 
 administer to his pleasures : so that he looks upon the whole 
 ■world, as it were, in another light ; and discovers in it a 
 multitude of charms, that conceal themselves from the gene- 
 rality of mankind." 
 
 This paragraph contains another argument in 
 favor of the cultivation of the imaginative fa- 
 culty, on the principle that it increases onr 
 power of being happy, and almost infinitely 
 multiplies our opportunities of mental gratifica- 
 tion. For a further explanation of this passage, 
 see the 2nd Model, p. 268. 
 
 6. " There are, indeed, but very few who know how to 
 be idle and innocent, or have a relish of any pleasures that 
 are not criminal : every diversion they take is at the expense 
 of some one virtue or another ; and their very first step out 
 of business is into vice or folly. A man should endeavour, 
 therefore, to make the sphere of his innocent pleasures as 
 wide as possible, that he may retire into them with safety ; 
 and find in them such a satisfaction, as a wise man would 
 not blush to take. Of this nature are those of the imagination, 
 which do not require such a bent of thought as is necessary 
 to our more serious employments ; nor, at the same time, 
 suffer the mind to sink into that negligence and remissness, 
 which are apt to accompany our more sensual delights ; but, 
 like a gentle exercise to the faculties, awaken them from 
 sloth and idleness, without putting them upon any labour or 
 industry." 
 
 A powerful argument is here used in support 
 of the writer's recommendation, i. e. the expe- 
 diency of multiplying those pleasures which 
 may be indulged in without risk. He sets out 
 with the assertion, that few men, in their inter- 
 vals of relaxation from business, know how to 
 escape the snares of vice ; and then shows the 
 necessity of filling up our leisure hours with 
 such pleasures as shall not affect our innocence. 
 Lastly, he concludes by asserting that the 
 x 2 
 
308 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 pleasures he recommends are precisely of this 
 nature, showing also the advantage they pos- 
 sess in requiring a moderate exercise of the 
 faculties, without too laborious an exertion of 
 the intellect. 
 
 7. " We might here add, that the pleasures of the fancy- 
 are more conducive to health than those of the understanding, 
 •which are worked out by dint of thinking, and attended with 
 too violent a labour of the brain. Delightful scenes, whether 
 in nature, painting, or poetry, have a kindly influence on the 
 body as well as the mind ; and not only serve to clear and 
 brighten the imagination, but are able to disperse grief and 
 melancholy, and to set the animal spirits in pleasing and 
 agreeable motion. For this reason, Sir Francis Bacon, in 
 his ' Essay upon Health', has not thought it improper to 
 prescribe to his reader a poem or a prospect, where he par- 
 ticularly dissuades him from knotty and subtle disquisitions ; 
 and advises him to pursue studies that fill the mind with 
 splendid and illustrious objects, as histories, fables, and con- 
 templations of nature." 
 
 The concluding division of the essay contains 
 three parts: 1. Another assertion in support of 
 the question. 2. An illustration; and 3. The 
 authority of an eminent writer, adduced to 
 prove the justness of the opinion delivered in 
 the first assertion. 
 
 If we now retrace our steps, and once more 
 consider the construction of this essay, we shall 
 find it to consist of seven paragraphs or divi- 
 sions. 
 
 1. The superiority of the sight over the 
 
 other senses. 
 
 2. The pleasures of the imagination, derived 
 
 from the sight. 
 
 3. The definition of the author's meaning 
 
 in the expression, " pleasures of the 
 imagination." 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 309 
 
 4. A comparison with other pleasures. 
 
 5. The extent of these pleasures. 
 
 6. The advantages of these pleasures. 
 
 7. Hoav they are preferable to purely intel- 
 
 lectual pleasures. 
 
 A subject being now proposed to the pupil, 
 he should be first required to divide it into as 
 many parts as may be convenient, and to lay 
 down, in the manner above shown, the heads 
 under which the subject is to be considered 
 in the various divisions of his composition. 
 Let him then write, under each other, sentences 
 which are to form the leading general assertions 
 of the paragraphs he has determined upon, and 
 work out each paragraph according to whatever 
 model may best suit the mode of argument he 
 intends to pursue in each division respectively. 
 Thus, the reasoning upon the subject, and the 
 modes of expressing the arguments to be used, 
 being predetermined, the learner, after the 
 practice he has already had in writing upon the 
 models, will have but little difficulty in putting 
 together the whole composition. But in this, 
 as in all exercises to be attempted by the 
 learner, the teacher should carefully ascertain 
 before hand what ideas the learner entertains 
 upon the proposed subject, and should, as far 
 as lies in his power, correct any false reasoning 
 the latter may be likely to adopt, before he allows 
 him to put together one sentence of his composi- 
 tion. 
 
 The following essay, in which the mode of 
 treatment adopted follows step by step that 
 x 3 
 
310 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 employed by Addison in the essay above 
 quoted, may perhaps give a clearer idea of the 
 manner in which this exercise is intended to be 
 performed. 
 
 On the advantages of an Intellectual Education. 
 
 1. The superiority of the mind over the 
 
 body. 
 
 2. The advantages of education result from 
 
 the culture of the mental faculties. 
 
 3. An explanation of these advantages. 
 
 4. A comparison with other advantages. 
 
 5. The extent of these advantages. 
 
 6. The effects of these advantages. 
 
 7. In what they are preferable to other ad- 
 
 vantages. 
 
 1. Of the two constituent parts of which 
 man is formed, every one must acknowledge the 
 superiority of the mind over the body. It is 
 the mind which prompts every single act that 
 the body performs, which has the power of 
 predetermining future actions, and which often 
 retains its vigour long after the body has begun 
 to languish and grow feeble with disease or age. 
 Strength of body is indeed a high privilege, and 
 by no means to be despised, but when unac- 
 companied with vigour of intellect, it places 
 man no higher than the brutes in the scale of 
 creation, and is never capable alone of pro- 
 ducing important results. The mind, then, may 
 be considered the director and ruler of the body, 
 and is to be regarded as the origin of all the 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITIOX. 311 
 
 great and admirable works which have ever 
 been performed by man, works which mere 
 physical force could never have accomplished. 
 
 2. The superiority which education gives one 
 man over another, results from the culture of 
 his mental powers ; so that by the advantages 
 of intellectual education is here meant whatever 
 power or influence a man of strong judgment 
 and cultivated intellect possesses over Iris fel- 
 low-creatures, whether in bending them to his 
 will, in advising them for their advantage, or 
 in the obedience which men of inferior minds 
 naturally pay to the superior and well-informed. 
 Though some men certainly are born with a 
 mental capacity far superior to that of others, 
 and though many of the uneducated have dis- 
 covered great natural powers, still these facul- 
 ties, in order to produce important benefits to 
 society, must be properly trained and brought to 
 perfection, as otherwise they are comparatively 
 of little use either to their possessors or to 
 mankind. 
 
 3. There are few expressions more frequently 
 used, and yet less understood than the word 
 Education. The conning over a few rules 
 of grammar, or the acquirement of a good hand- 
 writing and the knowledge of the first princi- 
 ples of calculation, are imagined by some to 
 embrace the whole definition of the term. It 
 may therefore be necessary to explain more 
 fully the signification of the word, in order that 
 the reader may more clearly understand the 
 subject of the present essay. He must then be 
 informed, that, by the word education, is here 
 
 x 4 
 
312 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 meant that process by which all the faculties of 
 the intellect are gradually trained, strength- 
 ened, and brought to perfection ; by which the 
 mind is stored with various and extensive know- 
 ledge, and is made to approach nearer, though 
 still at an infinite distance, to the nature of 
 that Divine Being who is the author of all 
 wisdom. 
 
 4. Birth, riches, and talents are objects 
 which, in the estimation of the world, are ge- 
 nerally looked upon as great advantages. Now, 
 though it cannot be denied that a noble birth 
 or great riches confer privileges which may be 
 rationally desired, yet it must be allowed, that 
 the possession of a vigorous mind and cultivated 
 understanding is an advantage at least equal, if 
 not preferable, to those of family or fortune. 
 This is one of those blessings of which no 
 change of fortune can deprive us ; which, in the 
 language of the Roman orator, is the ornament 
 of our youth, the delight of our old age, and 
 the greatest consolation in adversity. It opens 
 to us a constant spring of pleasures which 
 neither time nor circumstances can affect ; and 
 since, in addition to this, it is frequently the 
 source both of wealth and honours, it may be 
 even said to contain within itself their ad- 
 vantages. 
 
 5. A man of cultivated intellect possesses 
 the power of innumerable enjoyments of which 
 the rude and illiterate are wholly deprived. He 
 is never tormented with that listless weariness 
 which is a continual misery to the uneducated 
 when not engaged in business. He is never at 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 313 
 
 a loss for materials with which to occupy him- 
 self with advantage and pleasure in his hours 
 of vacuity. In whatever situation of place or 
 circumstances he may be thrown, his mind will 
 be engaged in some interesting research, and 
 the most insignificant object in nature will fur- 
 nish him with a subject for reflexion. The 
 cultivated mind will find a spring of delight in 
 the wildest desert, whilst the ignorant man will 
 feel listless and miserable amidst the bustle and 
 noise of the most populous city. 
 
 6. If it were only in the light of a preventive 
 against evil, the cultivation of our intellectual 
 powers should be viewed as a desirable object : 
 and though it cannot be maintained that this 
 furnishes us with a sufficient incentive to virtue, 
 or that the weakness of human nature does not 
 require much stronger motives for the regu- 
 lation of the passions, yet it must certainly be 
 admitted, that it has a tendency to correct our 
 natural defects, and to raise the mind to the 
 contemplation of those objects by which it be- 
 comes refined and ennobled. Thus, though 
 intellectual education does not of itself produce 
 virtue, yet it furnishes us with that sort of 
 knowledge which promotes its practice, since 
 its object is not only to enlarge and strengthen 
 the faculties of the mind, but also to show us 
 how those faculties are to be put to a good use, 
 and employed for the benefit of mankind. 
 
 7. To these considerations may be added, 
 that knowledge, however it may have been 
 sometimes perverted, has been of more real and 
 permanent utility to man than any other object 
 
314 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 of his desire. Other advantages, whether real 
 or imaginary, are fluctuating and temporary ; 
 knowledge alone is firm and lasting. The 
 empire of Rome was crumbled into ruins, her 
 enormous wealth was dispersed over the deserts 
 of the north to glut the wild desires of savage 
 barbarians ; her dignities and honours were 
 swept away from the face of the earth, — but 
 the lays of her poets still remain, the eloquence 
 of her orators still animates the breasts of 
 thousands, and the wisdom of her philosophers 
 yet lives in the hearts of all those who have 
 any love of what is great and ennobling in 
 human nature. 
 
 The following subjects, and the heads under 
 which they may be arranged, will furnish ma- 
 terials for the pupil's exercises. 
 
 1. On the Importance of governing the Temper. 
 
 1. A bad temper, a source of constant un- 
 hapiness ; the necessity of keeping it in sub- 
 jection. 
 
 2. A bad temper arising from a flattered 
 vanity, and the neglect of the cultivation of the 
 mind when young. 
 
 3. The culture of the understanding one of 
 the best methods of subduing the evil passions 
 of our nature. 
 
 4. The effects of an ungoverned temper in 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION". 315 
 
 families — virtues to be instilled into young 
 persons, proper for preventing these eifects. 
 
 2. On Buffoonery in Conversation. 
 
 1. The delights of occasionally laying aside 
 gravity, and indulging in cheerful conversation. 
 
 2. A caution against suffering our conver- 
 sation to degenerate into low, noisy mirth. 
 
 3. A particular instance of this folly. 
 
 4. The tendency of indulging in low mirth 
 — weakens the faculties — the necessity of re- 
 straint. 
 
 5. Moderation to be observed — wit and ele- 
 gance allowable in conversation — mirth and 
 buffoonery to be banished. 
 
 3. On the Manners of the Metropolis. 
 
 1. The moral and physical evils of a metro- 
 polis, numerous and destructive. 
 
 2. The effects of a connection between the 
 court and the city. 
 
 3. A love of pleasure always induces selfish- 
 ness. 
 
 4. The inhospitality of those who dwell in 
 large towns — a contrast between the Londoner 
 and the inhabitant of the country. 
 
 5. The secrecy with which crimes may be 
 committed in London. 
 
 6. Weakness of body produces weakness of 
 understanding in the inhabitants of a capital. 
 
 7. The irreligion of a metropolis. 
 
316 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 4. On Parental Indulgence. 
 
 1. The love of offspring strong in every 
 species — implanted by providence for a good 
 purpose — this purpose sometimes abused. 
 
 2. Vicious indulgences of parents enumerated 
 — caprices — appetite — mind and body both 
 ruined. 
 
 3. Contempt for superiors — a most per- 
 nicious indulgence. 
 
 4. A strong propensity to indulge, common 
 to all parents — the pernicious effects of a bad 
 example. 
 
 5. The practice of an allowance of money to 
 boys at school. 
 
 6. The difference between a father's and a 
 mother's treatment of children. 
 
 5. On the Profligacy and Misery of the Lower- 
 Classes. 
 
 1. The degraded state of the lower orders. 
 
 2. Their depravity — drunkenness — fraud 
 
 — necessity of the intervention of the legislature 
 
 — education of the poor. 
 
 3. Much profligacy arises from ignorance — 
 good principles, and habits of virtue to be in- 
 stilled. 
 
 4. One of the first duties of the affluent is to 
 alleviate the misery of the lower classes. 
 
 5. A moral education preferable to pecuniary 
 relief — no good to be effected without the 
 co-operation of the wealthy with the govern- 
 ment. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 317 
 
 6. A Remedy for Discontent. 
 
 1. Those often complain most who have 
 least cause. 
 
 2. A remedy — consider the state of those 
 below us in rank. 
 
 3. " One half the world knows not how the 
 other half lives " — explain. 
 
 4. One of the chief duties of Christianity — 
 to inquire into the evils of those who are below 
 us in rank. 
 
 5. The scenes witnessed by the clergy and 
 medical practitioners. 
 
 6. The good done by medical relief — con- 
 cluding observations. 
 
 7. On the Advantages of a Literary Life. 
 
 1. The literary man withdrawn from turbu- 
 lent scenes and pursuits. 
 
 2. The necessity of distinguishing between 
 the real and the pretended student. 
 
 3. A literary life, where prudence and virtue 
 are not absent, is perhaps the most pleasant and 
 the safest. 
 
 4. The general character of the literary man, 
 contrasted with that of the world in general. 
 
 5. Idleness a frequent cause of vice — the 
 literary man never idle. 
 
 6.* The utility of the literary man — his 
 benefits to society. 
 
 8. On Reading merely for Amusement. 
 
 1. Some read merely with a view to pass the 
 time — character of books — pamphlets — me- 
 moirs — novels, &c. 
 
318 ENGLISH; OR, 
 
 2. This kind of reading may be innocent — 
 but has bad effects — vitiates the taste — his- 
 tory, poetry, &c. preferable. 
 
 3. Our information depends not on the 
 quantity, but the quality of the books we read. 
 
 4. Light reading more allowable to those 
 who are advanced in age. 
 
 5. The young should never be allowed to in- 
 dulge in this sort of reading. 
 
 9. On Affectation of Extreme Sensibility. 
 
 1. Extreme sensibility unknown among the 
 ancients. 
 
 2. Causes — the Stoic philosophy — its 
 effects. 
 
 3. Those dispositions which tend to soften, 
 without weakening the mind, must be cherished. 
 
 4. The inconveniences of an excess of sensi- 
 bility. 
 
 5. A medium to be observed between apathy 
 and extreme sensibility. 
 
 6. The frequency of this affectation — its 
 effects, &c. 
 
 10. On True Patience as distinguished from 
 Apathy. 
 
 1. All not equally affected by the same mis- 
 fortunes — causes, either apathy, or patience. 
 
 2. A contrast between the insensible and the 
 patient man — the different merits of each. 
 
 3. Sensibility, with all its inconveniences, is 
 to be cherished. 
 
THE ART OP COMPOSITION. 319 
 
 4. The utility of feeling forcibly our own 
 affections. 
 
 5. The necessity of opposing our sufferings — 
 reason and religion. 
 
 11. On the Choice of Books. 
 
 1. Formerly, books were too few; now, too 
 many. 
 
 2. Impossible to read all books — the ne- 
 cessity of a judicious choice. 
 
 3. For those intended for the legal profession 
 
 — Grotius, Puffendorf, Burn, Blackstone, &c. 
 
 4. In grammar — Latin and Greek elements 
 
 — Harris' Hermes — Tooke's Diversions of 
 Purley — Lowth's Introduction — Campbell's 
 Rhetoric, &c. 
 
 5. In classics — Virgil — Ovid — Horace. 
 
 6. Modern literature — Spectator — Plu- 
 tarch's Lives — Shakspeare — Milton — Pope 
 
 — Dry den — the British Essayists. 
 
 1. In general — exclude every thing coarse 
 
 — avoid sentimental works. 
 
 12. On the Conduct of Early Manhood. 
 
 1. The propriety of addressing moral pre- 
 cepts to the young. 
 
 2. Passions implanted for the accomplishment 
 of Nature's purposes ; these to be regulated. 
 
 3. This may be accomplished by an honest 
 endeavour — the folly of inflaming the passions 
 
 — rules for the regulation of the passions. 
 
 4. The moral and physical effects of such 
 conduct. 
 
320 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 5. Vanity to be carefully guarded against — 
 ridicule to be despised — cultivate truth. 
 
 6. Cherish an humble disposition — make 
 allowances for others — be cheerful and con- 
 tented. 
 
 7. These precepts lead to honour and hap- 
 piness. 
 
 13. On forming a Taste for simple Pleasures. 
 
 1. Pleasure the natural pursuit of all men — 
 but pernicious pleasures to be avoided. 
 
 2. To effect this, substitute simple for per- 
 nicious pleasures. 
 
 3. The simple satisfactions of nature easily 
 acquired. 
 
 4. Filial piety — fraternal affections — do- 
 mestic pleasures. 
 
 5. Worldly pleasures — loss of innocence — 
 no real happiness. 
 
 6. Rural scenery — the perverseness of men 
 in preferring town to country. 
 
 7. Pleasures of cultivating a garden — kind 
 and benevolent feelings towards our fellow- 
 creatures. 
 
 14. On the Efficacy of Moral Instruction. 
 
 1. An objection to books of moral instruc- 
 tion — that they are of little utility in the 
 conduct of life. 
 
 2. A knowledge of the world, uncontrolled 
 by moral principles, a despicable kind of 
 wisdom. 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 321 
 
 3. Books accused of representing things as 
 better than they are — This done purposely — 
 why. 
 
 4. The effect produced on the town by the 
 Spectator. 
 
 5. More attention should be paid to books 
 on morality. 
 
 15. A cultivated Mind necessary to render Re- 
 tirement agreeable. 
 
 1. Few can bear solitude — A spirit of 
 philosophy, and a store of learning, necessary. 
 
 2. The disappointment of those who expect 
 to find happiness in retirement. 
 
 3. A love of rural pleasures assists in enabling 
 us to bear solitude. 
 
 4. The evil effects of solitude. 
 
 5. The pleasures of a country life — habits 
 — circumstances. 
 
 16. On the Necessity of Temperance to the Health 
 of the Mind. 
 
 1. No doubt that the mind is powerfully 
 affected by a disturbed state of bodily health. 
 
 2. The connection between body and mind 
 mysterious, but a fact of which every one must 
 be convinced. 
 
 3. This proved by the mind recovering its 
 vigour simultaneously with the body. 
 
 4. Abstinence generally recommended to 
 students — Early rising. 
 
 5. The reason why the principal meal of the 
 ancients was the supper. 
 
 T 
 
322 ENGLISH; OB, 
 
 17. On the Choice of a Profession. 
 
 1. The difficulty of determining this choice 
 at an early age. 
 
 2. The changes which the mind undergoes 
 in the course of a few years. 
 
 3. What disposition is best suited for the 
 clerical profession — The circumstances and 
 situation of a clerical life. 
 
 4. Laborious study required for the know- 
 ledge of the law — The rewards of legal learn- 
 
 5. The profession of medicine — difficulty of 
 acquiring eminence. 
 
 6. Objections to a military or a naval life. 
 
 7. The tendency of mercantile pursuits to 
 contract the mind. 
 
 8. All professions have then* advantages and 
 disadvantages — and any better than a life of 
 idleness. 
 
 18. On the Influence of Fashion. 
 
 1. The tyranny of fashion, and the incon- 
 venience it causes to its votaries. 
 
 2. The exclusiveness of fashion — Xo real 
 merit in being fashionable. 
 
 3. The folly of desiring to be considered 
 fashionable. 
 
 4. The middle ranks the most worthy? and 
 most capable of enjoying natural pleasures. 
 
 5. The absurdity of submitting to the forms 
 prescribed by fashion. 
 
 6. The evils of fashion — Morality affected 
 by its influence. 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. 323 
 
 7. The fascinating influence of example. 
 
 19. On the Fear of growing Old. 
 
 1. The natural misery of life increased by 
 this fear. 
 
 2. A defective education the cause of this 
 weakness. 
 
 3. The wretchedness of a despicable old 
 age. 
 
 4. A mistake, to suppose old age as of no 
 value. 
 
 20. On the Wisdom of aiming at Perfection. 
 
 1. Arguments often deduced from the in- 
 firmity of human nature. 
 
 2. The weakness of man admitted; reason 
 an antidote. 
 
 3. Vice and misery found in all ranks. 
 
 4. The weakness of nature an incentive to 
 improvement. 
 
 5. Many instances of acquired strength of 
 mind. 
 
 6. The belief that strength of mind may be 
 acquired ought to be more general. 
 
 7. What is done in the material world may 
 be effected in the moral. 
 
 21. On the Fear of appearing Singular. 
 
 1. Men think in parties, or follow a leader 
 in adopting opinions. 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 2. The effect, when the leader is interested 
 or injudicious. 
 
 3. A model for imitation — useful — imita- 
 tion not servile. 
 
 4. Judgment to be used — No principles to 
 be adopted which are inconsistent with our 
 duties. 
 
 5. A moral courage required to act rightly. 
 
 6. The fear of appearing singular leads the 
 young into many follies and vices. 
 
 7. Debts incurred from this want of courage 
 — ruin of health — fortune — peace of mind. 
 
 22. An Idea of a Patriot 
 
 1. Heroic virtue more frequently talked of 
 than found — What is necessary to produce it. 
 
 2. To what sort of character the name of 
 patriot has been improperly aj)plied. 
 
 3. What constitutes a patriot — No bad man 
 a patriot — how ? 
 
 4. Qualities most desirable in a king — 
 Private produce public virtues. 
 
 5. Selfish and designing views of dema- 
 gogues. 
 
 6. Military patriots — Literary patriots — 
 As much real patriotism in private as in public 
 life. 
 
 23. On Simplicity of Style in Prose Composition. 
 
 1. Plain food pleases the longest — The same 
 with mental food. 
 
 2. The effects of immoderate embellishment. 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 325 
 
 3. Examples of the immoderately ornamented 
 style — Gesner's Death of Abel — Hervey's 
 Meditations. 
 
 4. Poetical prose not generally successful — 
 Fenelon an exception. 
 
 5. The style of many modern sermons. 
 
 6. Simplicity of the Bible — Iliad — Shak- 
 speare — never tire the reader. 
 
 7. Character of Xenophon's writings — Ju- 
 lius Cassar. 
 
 8. English writers — Addison — Sterne — 
 The difficulty of writing in a plain style. 
 
 24. Family Unhappiness the frequent Cause of 
 Immorality. 
 
 1. Irregularity 6f temper to be avoided chiefly 
 at home. 
 
 2. Home the place proper for enjoyment — 
 Kindly feelings to be cherished. 
 
 3. Causes of domestic discomfort frequently 
 to be ascribed to our own conduct. 
 
 4. The result of domestic broils — estrange- 
 ment from family. 
 
 5. Debauchery and profligacy of sons — im- 
 prudence of parents. 
 
 6. Remedy for these evils — union — respect 
 — esteem — constantly acting up to our moral 
 and religious principles. 
 
 25. On the Style of History. 
 
 1. The object of History — a style suited to 
 this object. 
 
 Y 3 
 
326 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 2. The style of oratory and poetry — History 
 should be written with simple and majestic 
 dignity. 
 
 3. The veracity of an historian requires not 
 the arts of ornament. 
 
 4. Livy — Tacitus — Hume — Gibbon — 
 Robertson, &c. 
 
 26. On the British Essayists. 
 
 1. In what does true national good consist? 
 
 — Mistaken notions on this subject. 
 
 2. The improvement made in the morals of 
 the town by Addison and Steele — How ? 
 
 3. Moralists best deserve the name of 
 patriot. 
 
 4. The Tatler — Steele — Addison — dif- 
 ference of their styles and subjects. 
 
 5. The state of the town when the Tatler 
 first appeared, as to conversation and literature 
 
 — Its gradual improvement. 
 
 6. Addison — Spectator — Character of the 
 papers — moral — religious — critical — Guar- 
 dian, a continuation of Spectator. 
 
 7. Rambler — style — its effects on the 
 public. 
 
 8. The Adventurer — The World — The 
 Connoisseur, &c. 
 
 27. On Affectation of the Vices and Follies of 
 Men of Eminence. 
 
 1. The frequent imprudence and folly of 
 men of genius. 
 
THE AKT OF COMPOSITION. 327 
 
 2. The silly ambition of imitating these 
 follies. 
 
 3. A mistaken opinion, that vice is the mark 
 of a laudable spirit. 
 
 4. This propensity to deviate, a sign rather 
 of weakness than of a superior strength of 
 mind. 
 
 5. Many men of the highest genius ex- 
 amples of prudence and virtue — Addison — 
 Pope — Gray. 
 
 6. The ill effects of entertaining the idea that 
 vice is the characteristic of spirit. 
 
 SUBJECTS FOR ESSAYS. 
 
 1. On the satisfaction resulting from a con- 
 scientious discharge of our duty. 
 
 2. On the necessity for the existence of con- 
 ventional laws and forms in society. 
 
 3. On the fatal results arising from an early 
 neglect of the cultivation of the mental powers. 
 
 4. On the effects arising from feeding the 
 mind too much with works of fiction. 
 
 5. On the folly of expecting too much from 
 our fellow-creatures. 
 
 6. On the duty of patient resignation to mis- 
 fortunes. 
 
 7. A well-regulated and contented mind is 
 the secret of true happiness. 
 
 8. On the necessity for discovering the secret 
 motives of our actions. 
 
 9. On the advantages to be derived from an 
 acquaintance with modern languages. 
 
 Y 4 
 
328 ENGLISH; OK, 
 
 10. On the results of science, considered na- 
 tionally. 
 
 11. On decision of character. 
 
 12. On the difficulty of conquering bad 
 habits. 
 
 13. On national prejudice. 
 
 14. On the happy results arising from the 
 cultivation of taste. 
 
 15. On firmness as distinguished from obsti- 
 nacy. 
 
 16. On the advantages of a country life. 
 
 17. On the soothing power of music over the 
 feelings. 
 
 18. On the importance of an early cultivation 
 of the affections. 
 
 19. On the blessings attending our ignorance 
 of futurity. 
 
 20. On the advantages to be derived from 
 travelling. 
 
 21. On the beneficial effects of constant in- 
 tercourse with our fellow-creatures. 
 
 22. Charity, an essential part of true religion. 
 
 23. Religious enthusiasm frequently made the 
 mask for the basest purposes. 
 
 24. On the popular idea that true genius is 
 incompatible with industry. 
 
 25. On the danger of forming a hasty judg- 
 ment of others. 
 
 26. On the importance of an early observance 
 of religious duties. 
 
 27. On the folly of devoting too much time 
 to accomplishments. 
 
 28. On the duty of obedience to parents. 
 
 29. On the horrors of civil war. 
 
THE AET OF COMPOSITION. 329 
 
 30. On the feelings with which we should 
 regard death. 
 
 31. On a proper sense of dignity, as contrasted 
 with pride. 
 
 32. On the distinction between vanity and 
 conceit. 
 
 33. On the danger of indulging in a habit of 
 exaggeration. 
 
 34. On the folly of too great a belief in the 
 marvellous. 
 
 35. The habit of idle conversation invariably 
 leads to slander. 
 
 36. The possession of a lively imagination, a 
 great misfortune. 
 
 37. On the passion for dress. 
 
 38. On the advantages of commerce. 
 
 39. On the effect which prejudice has in 
 destroying the judgment. 
 
 40. On the necessity of repressing idle cu- 
 riosity in youth. 
 
 41. On the wisdom of not giving free ex- 
 pression to all our thoughts. 
 
 42. On the folly of blindly following the 
 judgment and opinions of others. 
 
 43. On the advantage of economising every 
 minute of our time. 
 
 44. On the vanity of human grandeur. 
 
 45. On the distinction between courage and 
 rashness. 
 
 46. On the distinction between physical and 
 moral courage. 
 
 47. On a love of neatness and order. 
 
 48. On the influence of religion in civilising 
 the human mind. 
 
330 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 49. On the danger of becoming too much 
 addicted to the pleasures of the world. 
 
 50. On our duties, as citizens and subjects. 
 
 51. On our duties towards our inferiors. 
 
 52. On the^folly of striving to please every- 
 one. 
 
 53. On the necessity of submitting to what 
 cannot be avoided. 
 
331 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 LIST OF PREFIXES. 
 
 a (Saxon), up ; a-rise, rise up ; a-wake, wake up. 
 
 a (Saxon), on ; a-shore, on shore ; a-board, on board. 
 
 a (Latin), from ; a-vert, turn from. 
 
 a (Greek), not; a-pathy, not feeling (want of feeling). 
 
 ab (Latin), from ; ab-rupt, broken from. 
 
 abs (Latin), from; abs-tract, drawn from; abs-truse, 
 
 thrust from (view), 
 ad (Latin), to ; ad-duce, to bring to; ad-apt, to fit to. 
 ac* (for ad), to ; ac-cede, to come to; ac-cord, to join 
 
 to. 
 af (for ad), to ; af-fix, to fix to ; af-firm, to strengthen 
 
 to. 
 ag (for ad), to ; ag-glutinate, to stick to ; ag-grieve, to 
 
 vex to. 
 al (for ad), to ; al-legiance, a binding to ; al-loy, a 
 
 mixture to. 
 an (for ad), to ; an-nounce, to tell to ; an-nex, to bind 
 
 to. 
 ap (for ad), to ; ap-peal, to call to ; ap-plaud, to clap 
 
 to. 
 ar (for ad), to ; ar-rive, to come to. 
 as (for ad), to ; as-sume, to take to ; as-sist, to stand to. 
 
 * When the preposition ad is compounded with verbs or 
 nouns beginning with c, f, g, 1, n, p, r, s, or t, the second 
 letter (d) of the preposition is changed into the first of the 
 noun or verb with which it is compounded ; thus, ac-cede, 
 for ad-cede ; ag-gregate for ad-gregate, &c. 
 
332 APPENDIX. 
 
 at (for ad), to ; at-tain, to teach to ; at-tract, to draw 
 
 to. 
 amphi (Greek), both, or two ; amphi-bious, living in two 
 
 elements, 
 ana (Greek), up; ana-tomy, a cutting up. 
 ante (Latin), before ; ante-date, to date before. 
 anti (Greek), against; anti-pathy, a feeling against. 
 apo (Greek), from; apo-stle, one sent from; apo-stasy, 
 
 a standing from. 
 be * (Saxon), by ; be-cause, by cause ; be-tween, by twain, 
 cata (Greek), down ; cata-strophe, a turning down. 
 circum (Latin), round ; circum-navigate, to sail round. 
 con (Latin), with ; con-fide, to trust ivith ; con-dole, to 
 
 grieve with. 
 co (for con), with ; co-equal, equal with. 
 col (for con), with, or together ; col-lect, to gather to- 
 gether. 
 com (for con), together : com-pose, to put together. 
 contra (Latin), against ; contra- diet, to speak against. 
 counter (for contra), against ; counter-mand, to order 
 
 against. 
 country (for contra), against ; country- dance, a dance 
 
 in which partners stand over against (or opposite to) 
 
 each other, 
 cor (for con), together ; cor-respond, to answer together 
 
 (alternately), 
 de (Latin), from or down ; de-scend, to climb down ; 
 
 de-jected, cast down. 
 dis (Latin), apart or away ; dis-pute, to think apart (from 
 
 another), 
 di (Latin), do. ; di-vert, to turn away (the mind), 
 dif (Latin), do. ; dif-fer, to bear away. 
 dia (Greek), through; dia-meter, the measure through. 
 en (Saxon) gives the force of a verb to a noun or ad- 
 jective ; en-courage, to inspire courage ; em-bitter, to 
 
 make bitter. 
 ex (Latin), out ; ex-ceed, to go out; ex-clude, to shut out. 
 
 * Be, in composition, has various offices ; sometimes it is 
 used for about, as in 6e-stir, 6e-sprinkle ; sometimes for before, 
 as in be- speak ; sometimes it is a privative, as in Z>e-head. 
 
 I 
 
APPENDIX. 333 
 
 e (Latin), out ; e-rase, to scratch out ; e-radicate, to root 
 
 out. 
 ef (for e), out ; ef-face, to rub out. 
 epi (Greek), upon; epi-taph, an inscription upon (a 
 
 tomb), 
 ex (Greek), out ; ex-odus, a journey out. 
 extra (Latin), beyond ; extra-vagant, wandering beyond. 
 for (Saxon) implies negation ; for-bid, to bid not ; for- 
 sake, not to seek, 
 fore (Saxon), before ; fore-tell, to tell before ; fore-warn, 
 
 to warn before. 
 gain (Saxon), against ; gain-say, to say against. 
 hyper (Greek), over; hyper- critical, over critical, 
 hypo (Greek), under; hypo-thesis, a supposition formed 
 
 under some principle not proved, 
 in (Latin), in or not ; in-sert, to sow in ; in-justice, not 
 
 justice, 
 im (for in), in or not ; im-pel, to drive in ; im-possible, 
 
 not possible, 
 ig (for in), not ; ig-norant, not knowing ; ig-noble, not 
 
 noble, 
 il (for in), not; il-legal, not lawful; il-literate, not 
 
 learned, 
 ir (for in), not ; ir-regular, not regular, 
 ob (Latin), against; ob-ject, to cast against; ob-struct, 
 
 to build against. 
 oc (for ob), against ; oc-cur, to run against. 
 of (for ob), against ; of-fer, to bear against. 
 op (for ob), against ; op-pose, to place against. 
 para (Greek), against; para-sol, against the sun; para- 
 dox, an assertion contrary to appearance, 
 per (Latin), through ; per-vade, to go through. 
 pel (for per), through; pel- lucid, shining through. 
 peri (Greek), round ; peri-phery, the measure round. 
 post (Latin), after ; post-pone, to put after ; post-obit, 
 
 after death, 
 pre (Latin), before; pre-fix, to fix before; pre-cede, to 
 
 go before. 
 pro (Latin), forth ; pro-jeet, to cast forth ; pro-pose, to 
 
 place forth. 
 prseter (Latin), beyond ; prseter-natural, beyond natural. 
 
334 APPENDIX. 
 
 re (Latin), back or again; re-pel, to drive back; re- 
 establish, to establish again. 
 
 retro (Latin), backwards ; retro-grade, stepping back- 
 wards. 
 
 se (Latin), apart; se-cede, to walk apart; se-duce, to lead 
 apart. 
 
 sub (Latin), under ; sub-mit, to put under. 
 
 sue (for sub), under ; suc-cour, to run under. 
 
 suf (for sub), under ; suf-fer, to undergo. 
 
 sug (for sub), under; sug-gest, to hint under (or se- 
 cretly). 
 
 sup (for sub), under ; sup-press, to press under. 
 
 sur (French), upon; sur-name, a name upon (or added 
 to) another. 
 
 subter (Latin), under ; subter-fuge, something to take 
 refuge under. 
 
 super (Latin), upon ; super- add, to add upon (or over 
 and above). 
 
 trans (Latin), beyond ; trans-gress, to go beyond. 
 
 ultra (Latin), beyond ; ultra-marine, beyond the sea. 
 
 LIST OF AFFIXES. 
 
 ma, a Greek termination, and found chiefly in Greek 
 words, enigma, stigma, &c. 
 
 ic, Greek, ucoq, and Latin, icus, belonging to ; cubic, 
 asthmatic. 
 
 jic, paci/zc, terrific, a Latin termination, ficus, from 
 facio, 1 make ; paci/?c, making peace ; terrific, making 
 or producing terror. 
 
 d or t at the end of a word, generally gives the idea 
 of an action finished; they are the common termi- 
 nations of passive participles. A large class of sub- 
 stantives is formed from these participles ; for ex- 
 ample, fact, a thing done ; act, a thing acted ; head, 
 the part hea(ve)d; seed the thing sowed (sown) ; deed, 
 the thing doed (done) ; field, a space felled, &c. 
 
 hood, a Saxon termination signifying, in composition, a 
 state or condition — eu\\o\hood, falsehood. 
 
 ward, from the Saxon, wardian, to direct the sight, or 
 look at ; inward, looking in ; outward, looking out, &c. 
 
APPENDIX. 335 
 
 ance, 'elegance, appearance, the Latin termination antia, 
 formed from the present participle of the first conju- 
 gation in ans, elegans, elegantia. 
 
 ence, beneficence, magnificence, in Latin, entia, the ter- 
 mination of abstract nouns derived from Latin parti- 
 ciples in ens — beneficentia, magnificentia. 
 
 ade, serenade, colonnade, &c, sometimes from the Greek, 
 ddoj, I sing ; as in serenade, a song in the calm of the 
 evening; sometimes it is a Saxon termination, ex- 
 pressing ^ a collected quantity or mass, as in colon- 
 nade, a mass of columns. 
 
 cide, suicide, regicide, from the Latin, ccedo, I kill ; 
 suicide, a self-killer ; regicide, a ting- killer, &c. ■ 
 
 tide, eventide, noontide, the Saxon for time ; eventime, 
 noontime. 
 
 tude, similize, vicissitude, a Latin termination tudo ; 
 simAitiido, vicissitudo. 
 
 ee, lessee, trustee, added to verbs, and denoting the 
 person who is the object of the action expressed in the 
 verb ; trustee, the person trusted ; lessee, he to whom 
 some property is let. 
 
 age, damage, foliage, plumage, from the Latin, ago, I 
 drive or bring together ; it expresses collection ; 
 damage, the loss collected ; foliage, the whole mass of 
 leaves ; plumage, all the feathers taken together. 
 
 able, some say from the Latin, habilis ; others, from the 
 Gothic, abal (power) ; probaWe, able to be proved ; 
 comfortaoZe, able to comfort. 
 
 ible, the same meaning as the termination able, found 
 chiefly in words derived from Latin verbs of the third 
 form of conjugation ; nossible, able to be done ; in- 
 vineible, not able to be conquered. 
 
 acle, miracle, oracle, a Latin termination, aculum. 
 
 icle, vehicle, article, Latin, a diminutive : vehiculum* a 
 
 carriage. 
 He, Viuerile, fertile, Latin, His, belonging to, or having the 
 
 qualities of ; xmerile, having the qualities of a boy ; 
 
 fertile, having the quality of producing. 
 some, wholesome, tiresome, the Saxon sam, from sammeln, 
 
 to put together ; it expresses abundance ; toilsome, 
 
 giving much toil ; burthensome, having much weight. 
 
336 APPENDIX. 
 
 ine, intestine, marine, belonging to, or having the nature 
 of ; Latin, inus ; intestine, belonging to the inside ; 
 marine, belonging to the sea. 
 
 sure, censure, pressure, "1 T ,. . . ,. 
 
 ture, feature, creature, j Latm terminations, ura. 
 
 ise, exercise, colonise, French, iser, but originally Greek, 
 izo. 
 
 ose, verbose, jocose, a Latin termination, osus, full of; 
 verbose, full of words; jocose, full of jest. 
 
 ate, vindicate, from the Latin, ago, actum, I act ; vindicate, 
 I act as a justifier. 
 
 ite, opposite, indefinite, termination of Latin participles in 
 itus ; opposite, placed against ; defines, definite. 
 
 ive, offensive, evasive, Latin, ivus, expressing action. 
 
 ize, agonize, idolize, Greek, izo. 
 
 ing, coming, standing, the Saxon termination of the 
 present participle, corresponding with the Latin, ans 
 or ens, and expressing a continuation of the action. 
 
 ish, childish, selfisn (Saxon, ig), having the quality of. 
 
 i, triumviri, literati, the plural termination of many Latin 
 words adopted in English. 
 
 ock, hillock, bullock, Saxon, a diminutive ; hillock, a little 
 hill ; bulloe&, a young bull. 
 
 al, radicaZ, farcical, Latin, alis. 
 
 el, damseZ, citadeZ, French, a diminutive ; deruoiseZte, a 
 young lady ; citadeZte, a small fort. 
 
 ful, graceful, peaceful, the Saxon, voll, and conveying an 
 idea of fulness ; graceful, full of grace ; peaceful, 
 abounding in peace. 
 
 dom, freedom, kingdom, a Saxon termination, expressing 
 a dominion or condition ; freedom, the state of being 
 free ; kingdom, the dominion of a king. 
 
 asm and ism, chasm, spasm, schism, deism, Greek ter- 
 minations. 
 
 um, medium, odium, a neuter Latin termination, signify- 
 ing thing or quality ; medium, the thing in the middle ; 
 odium, the quality, hate. 
 
 an, musician, logician, Latin, anus. 
 
 en, roughen, thicken, the Saxon termination of the in- 
 finitive ; roughen, to make rough : used with a sub- 
 stantive, it has the effect of made of; oaten, made of oats. 
 
APPENDIX. 337 
 
 kin, napfo'w, lambkin, a Saxon diminutive ; napAiw, a ///VA 
 
 cloth ; larnbfo'w, a little iamb, 
 iow, union, mansion, Latin, ?'o. 
 «e?o, barricaoJo, tornado, the Spanish termination of the 
 
 Latin participle atus. 
 ship, friendship, German, schaft. 
 or, vulgar, familiar, Latin, aris, belonging to. 
 er, reader, fencer, Saxon ; it is added to verbs, and ex- 
 presses the agent ; reader, one who reads , fencer, one 
 
 who fences, &c. 
 or, horror, confessor, professor, a Latin termination, 
 
 having the same effect as er. 
 our, humo?w, vapour, French, found in English words 
 
 derived from the French, humeur, vapeur. 
 s, a plural termination ; dogs, pens. 
 is, a termination found in many Greek words; crisis, 
 
 ellipsis. 
 less, childless, friendZess, from the Saxon, lesan, to dismiss ; 
 
 child/ess, without children, &c. 
 ness, sameness, stiffness (Saxon). 
 us, genks, racLins, the masculine termination of a class of 
 
 Latin words adopted in the English language. 
 ous, pompoms, grackws, the English form of the Latin 
 
 ending osus, full off. 
 et, pamphlet, flageolet, French, a diminutive. 
 ent, excellent, prevale??£, Latin, ens, the ending of the 
 
 present participle, excelling-, prevailing-. 
 merit, judgment, ornament, Latin, mentum, omamerrfinu, 
 
 &c. 
 ist, methodise, journalist (Greek), istes. folgian, bor'gian. 
 ow, sorrow, follow, borrow, Saxon, gian, ding in. 
 y, muddy, hill?/, Saxon, ig, full of, aboun 
 cy, lunacy, policy, Latin. 
 fy, signify, netrify, Latin, facio; French termination jier, 
 
 signijier, petri^er, to make a sign, to make stone. 
 logy, phraseology, eulogy, from the Greek, logos, 
 ly, audibly, laudabZy, Saxon, lyk (like), audible -like ; 
 
 laudable-Zi&e. 
 ty, society, anxiety ; in Latin, tas, societas ; in French, te, 
 
 societe; in English, ty, society. 
 
338 APPENDIX. 
 
 LIST OF ENGLISH VERBS AND PARTICIPLES FORMED FROM 
 LATIN ROOTS COMPOUNDED WITH PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 1 . act, ago, actum, I do ; transact. 
 , } f cede, "| cedo, cessum, f accede, access, accession, 
 \ ceed, J I come ; \ proceed exceed, excess, &c. 
 
 3. ceive, capio, cepi, I take ; deceive, receive, perceive. 
 
 4. cern, cerno, I see ; discern, concern. 
 
 o. claim, clamo, I cry ; proclaim, exclaim, acclaim. . 
 
 6. dine, clino, I lean ; incline, decline. 
 
 7. elude, claudo, clausum, I shut ; conclude, preclude, 
 
 clause, &c. 
 
 8. diet, dico, dictum, I say ; predict, edict. 
 
 9. duce, duct, duco, ductum, I lead; induce, conduce, 
 
 conduct, product. 
 10. feet, facio, factum, I make or do; perfect, infect, 
 defect. 
 
 11. fer, fero, I bear ; infer, confer, defer, inference, &c, 
 VI. fide, fido, I trust; confide, confidence. 
 IS.Jirm, firmo, I strengthen; affirm, confirm. 
 
 14. form, formo, I shape; conform, inform, perform. 
 
 15. fix, figo, fixum, I fix ; prefix, affix. 
 
 16. fuse, fundo, fusum, I pour ; infuse, confuse. 
 
 17. here, hsereo, hsesum, I stick; adhere, cohere, adhesion. 
 
 18. ject, jacio, j actum, least; project, conjecture. 
 IQ.jure, juro, I swear ; conjure, adjure, perjure. 
 •20. hide, ludo, I play ; prelude, allude, &c. 
 
 J merge, "1 mergo, mersum, I drown; immerse, sub- 
 \ merse, J merge. 
 
 22. mit, mitto, I send ; commit, permit, remit. 
 
 23. nounce, nuntio, I tell ; announce, pronounce, &c. 
 
 24. pede, pes, pedis, a foot ; impede. 
 
 25. pel, pello, I drive ; compel, impel, repel, &c. 
 •I6.pend, pendo, I hang; depend, impend. 
 
 07 {pose, \ pono, positum, I place ; impose, com- 
 \pound, J pound. 
 
 28. port, porto, I carry ; import, transport, export, &C. 
 
 29. plore, ploro, I wail ; deplore, implore. 
 
 30. press, premo, pressum, I press ; compress, express. 
 Xl.pugn, pugno, I fight ; impugn, repugnant, &c. 
 
 32. quire, quaero, I seek ; require, inquire. 
 
APPENDIX. 339 
 
 33. red, rego, rectum, I rule ; correct, direct. 
 
 34. nipt, rumpo, ruptum, I break , corrupt, abrupt. 
 36. scend, scando, I climb ; ascend, descend. 
 
 36. scribe, scribo, I write ; subscribe, ascribe. 
 
 37. serve, servo, I keep ; preserve, reserve, &c. 
 
 38. sist, sisto, I place ; consist, assist, persist. 
 
 39. sped, specio, spectum, I see ; inspect, prospect. 
 
 40. spire, spiro, I breathe ; expire, inspire, conspire. 
 
 41. sume, sumo, I take; assume, consume, presume. 
 
 42. tend, tendo, I stretch ; attend, intend, pretend. 
 
 43. ted, tego, tectum, I cover ; protect, detect. 
 
 44. tain, teneo, I hold ; obtain, attain, contain. 
 
 45. tind, tingo, tinctum, I dip ; distinct, extinct. 
 
 46. trad, tracto tractum, I draw ; attract, protract. 
 
 47. trude, trudo, I thrust ; obtrude, intrude, &c. 
 
 48. vade, vado ; I go, invade, pervade. 
 
 49. < .' J- venio, ventum, I come ; convene, advent. 
 
 50. volve, volvo, I roll ; involve, devolve. 
 
 51. vert, verto, I turn ; invert, divert, pervert. 
 
 52. voke, voco, I call ; provoke, invoke, convoke. 
 
 THE END. 
 
London : 
 
 Printed by A. SpoTTisn-o&EE 7 
 
 New-Street- Square. 
 

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
 003 233 496 9 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
 003 233 496 9