Class -X^i 
 
 Book ■ - 
 
 Copyright N° 
 
 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 
 
SlEBEL'S 
 
 Manual and Record Book 
 
 FOR 
 
 BAKERS AND MILLERS 
 
 Comprising a Concise Yet Comprehensive Treatise on Modern Baking, 
 
 as Also Scientific Information Important to the Baker and 
 
 Miller, Together With a Collection in Convenient 
 
 Form of Bread and Cake Formulae and Forms 
 
 for Maintaining Bakeshop Records. 
 
 FIRST EDITION 
 
 CHICAGO 
 1917 
 
 edited and published 
 
 • BY THE 
 
 Siebel Institute of Technology 
 
\o 
 
 COPYRIGHT 1917 
 BY 
 
 Siebei, Institute of Technology 
 
 Printed in the United States of America 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
 AUG 10 
 
 13(7 ^O , 
 
 ° 
 
 ©CI.A470608 
 
Foreword. 
 
 Considering that neither efforts nor expense have been 
 spared in time, study, and original investigation so as to make 
 this Manual a credit to the industries which it represents, as 
 indeed also to the Institute itself, we may be permitted to 
 transgress from the usual practice and enlarge somewhat 
 more upon its scope. 
 
 In the compilation of the data presented in the following 
 pages, the fact was not overlooked that this manual as the name 
 correctly indicates, was to serve as a ready and immediate 
 reference book and at the same time we have constantly 
 borne in mind the dire necessity of presenting in a brief, yet 
 concise form the more pertinent elementary principles of the 
 sciences involved. 
 
 More space has been devoted to some subjects than to 
 others, but this is only true in such instances where brevity 
 might entail an incorrect understanding, which we aim to 
 avoid more particularly so "where relating to the application of 
 science to practice. 
 
 Referring again to the compilation of the data it must be 
 added that it has been found more expedient to re-arrange the 
 same on a somewhat different plan than what had originally 
 been anticipated, as was indicated by the sample copy of the 
 table of contents which was issued before the matter had all 
 gone to press. 
 
 We are convinced that a perusal of the Manual will make 
 this readily evident, as also the further fact that only by this 
 change were we able to add other chapters, and at the same 
 time present the matter in a systematic manner. 
 
 in 
 
While the first chapter treats on milling exclusively, it 
 must not be overlooked that the same is also important to the 
 baker in the same measure, as the contents of the following 
 chapters are equally pertinent to the miller. 
 
 This fact will become readily apparent when referring to 
 the subject of Flour under Baking Materials, Chapter II, 
 Flour Analysis, Chapter V, and more particularly so in the 
 chapters relating to Chemistry, Physics, Microscopy, and 
 Mensuration, containing, as they do, what might be termed 
 the meat of these subjects in a concrete and what is especially 
 important definite manner. 
 
 Chapter II of this Manual brings a condensed yet compre- 
 hensive discussion of baking materials, primarily flour and 
 flour blending, but also of the various other materials and 
 their composition including yeast foods and bread improvers, 
 and is followed in Chapter III by a more extensive and com- 
 plete discussion of the technology of baking, including sponge 
 and straight dough processes and fermentation as also the 
 proofing, panning and baking of bread, a few special points of 
 practical importance being discussed in Chapter IV. 
 
 The Manual suggests a systematic and accurate control of 
 all the conditions that enter into consideration, at the same 
 time giving a treatise on methods such as are mentioned in no 
 other volume. 
 
 "Time is Money" is one of the maxims of modern indus- 
 trial life. This Manual will be found a time-saver, owing to its 
 condensed arrangement of subjects. It relieves the man in 
 charge of the necessity of consulting three or four other books, 
 in order to be posted, while giving him at the same time, a 
 complete knowledge and control of all the details of operation. 
 The fundamental principle of modern successful business 
 methods is to reduce the cost of manufacture to a minimum, 
 without impairing the quality of the product or- to produce 
 a better article without increased cost in manufacture. With 
 that in mind we have also added a book of records such that 
 if properly adhered to forms an accurate and concise outline 
 of the details of the entire operation of the Bake-shop, and from 
 a careful perusal and analysis of such a completed report, the 
 Baker is able to determine the optimum conditions for nianu- 
 
 IV 
 
facture. From the reports, lie may readily see the influence 
 of different ingredients that enter into his formula, of the 
 effect of temperature, humidity and pressure and time, etc., 
 on fermentation and that upon the quality of the loaf. From 
 these observations he is enabled to have a complete and accu- 
 rate control and knowledge of his product both as to proper 
 conditions for manufacture and as to the cost of the product. 
 
 AVe wish to point out and emphasize the convenient form 
 in which the formulas for different cakes and bread are intro- 
 duced and contained. The charts are so arranged that the 
 Baker has ready access to the many formulas, each of which 
 has proven to be an excellent one. Some of the formulas are 
 standard ones, but many are new and are included inas- 
 much as after a thorough trial they have given excellent 
 products: 
 
 As already stated the writing and compilation of the mate- 
 rial for such a book as this has necessitated arduous effort on 
 our part in an endeavor to reduce the errata to a minimum. 
 In spite of our diligence, however, errors may have crept in, 
 and the Industry will confer a favor upon the Institute by 
 bringing them to our attention. Furthermore, any suggestions 
 as to the arrangement or otherwise, will be welcomed so that 
 we may make the necessary changes in subsequent editions. 
 
 We are indebted to the individual members of the Faculty 
 whose arduous devotion has made this Book possible, and we 
 feel that the result of their efforts merits the commendation 
 of the members of the Baking and Milling Industry to whose 
 judgment this Book is confidently submitted. 
 
 Very respectfully, 
 SIEBEL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY. 
 
Table of Contents. 
 
 DISCOURSE ON MODERN MILLING AND BAKING 
 TECHNOLOGY AND BAKING MATERIALS. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Milling Technology. 
 
 Pages 3- 11 
 
 Characteristics and Properties of Wheat — wheat the chief material 
 for the milling of flour — differences in wheat — structure of wheat berry 
 
 varying and average composition of wheat — varieties of wheat — hard 
 
 Spring wheat — hard Winter wheat — soft Winter wheat — white wheat — 
 Durum wheat. 
 
 Treatment of Wheat Preceding Milling — blending of wheat — separ- 
 ating — scouring — conditioning — second scouring. 
 
 Milling of wheat — break rolls — reduction rolls — scalpers and sifters 
 — graders — principle of milling — middlings — reduction of middlings — 
 combining different mill streams. 
 
 Products obtained — different grades of flour — patent flour — clear — 
 straight flour — differences in the same grade of flour — gluten, ash, color — 
 bleaching of flour — use of offals — cattle, horse and chicken feed — special 
 feeds. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Baking Materials. 
 
 Pages 12—46 
 
 Flour — kinds of flour on market — hard Spring wheat flour — hard 
 Winter wheat flour — soft Winter wheat flour — Durum wheat flour — effect 
 of climatic conditions on composition — Seasonal variations — comparison 
 of three patent flours — Grades of flour (Patent, straight, etc.) — Standards 
 suggested by U. S. Department of Agriculture — First patent 70% — 
 second patent — analysis and comparison of different grades — discussion 
 of analysis — detection of poorer grades — storage of flour — effect of aging 
 — blending of flour — principal reasons — kinds of flour for blending — 
 knowledge of flour necessary for scientific blending — bleaching of flour — 
 demand for white flour and bread — methods of bleaching — Nitrogen- 
 
 VII 
 
Peroxide method — effect on hard and soft wheat flour — bleaching corres- 
 ponding to quick aging — bleaching of new flour — objections to bleaching 
 - — bleached flour not necessarily inferior. 
 
 Water — Importance of water in baking recently recognized — good 
 drinking water for bread-making — hard and soft water — temporary and 
 permanent hardness — effect of hardness on gluten and fermentation — ef- 
 fect of soft water — alkaline water — composition of different waters. 
 
 Sugar — carbohydrates — Sucrose or cane sugar — beet sugar — purity — 
 raw sugar — granulated — brown sugar — effect of each in fermentation — 
 maple sugar — syrups — molasses — dextrose or corn sugar — glucose — com- 
 position of commercial corn sugars — fermentability — maltose or malt 
 sugar — activates fermentation — effect on loaf — milk sugar — relation of 
 sugars to fermentation. 
 
 Salt — kinds of salt — use for flavor — use as a governor in fermentation 
 — salt and lactic acid fermentation — effect of salt in dough — analysis of 
 different samples of salt. 
 
 Yeast — functions of yeast — development of enzymes — Invertase — 
 Maltase — Diastase — Protease — their effect — proper food for development 
 — various kinds of yeast — barm or stock yeast — dry yeast — pure culture 
 yeast — compressed yeast — manufacture — propagation — average composi- 
 tion of compressed yeast — analysis of different compressed yeasts — adul- 
 terations. 
 
 Shortening — lard — leaf lard — neutral lard — Oleomargarine — com- 
 pounds — butter — composition of butter — renovated butter — use of fats in 
 baking — oils — rancidity — precautions to be used — methods of incorporat- 
 ing fats into the mix — effect of shortening in baking. 
 
 Bread improvers and Yeast foods — definition — sugar and malt ex- 
 tract as yeast food — manufacture of malt extract — action of malt — en- 
 zymes— diastatic power — analysis of malt extract — activity of diastase at 
 temperature of fermentation, in proof box and in oven — action of peptase 
 on gluten in dough — pliable and elastic gluten — use of malt extract — pre- 
 cautions — advantages through use of malt — malt flour — malt extract an 
 excellent yeast food and improver — milk — whole — skimmed — analysis of 
 fresh whole and skimmed milk — fat and total milk solids — important con- 
 stituents — standards — condensed milk — sweetened and unsweetened — 
 analysis of condensed milk — milk powder — dried milk — adulteration of 
 milk — analysis of various milks — use of milk in baking — quality and 
 flavor of loaf improved — richness of loaf. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Baking Technology. 
 
 Pages 46 — 60 
 
 Making of the Dough — choice of method to accord with individual 
 conditions — sponge dough process, old system — short sponge — long sponge 
 — batter sponge — fermentation and development of gluten — advantages 
 
 VIII 
 
of sponge — flavor of sponge bread — method of treatment — theory of 
 straight dough process — mixing — regulation of fermentation — advantages 
 — flavor of straight dough bread — quality of loaf produced — " Sauer 
 Teig ' ' — antiquated method — foreign infection — disadvantages — inferior- 
 ity. 
 
 Fermentation — importance of control of fermentation — kinds of fer- 
 mentation — alcoholic fermentation — lactic acid fermentation — butyric 
 and acetic acid fermentation — avoidance of foreign fermentation — vis- 
 cous fermentation — "rope" — infection of bakeshop by rope — "first aid" 
 methods in event of rope — necessity of expert services to locate and er- 
 adicate source of infection — humidity — relative humidity — use of hygro- 
 meter — proper humidity for bakery — humidity on sultry summer days — 
 effect of variation in humidity on fermentation — formation of crust — 
 advantage in control of humidity — atmospheric pressure — barometer — 
 effect of pressure on fermentation — change in formula to correspond to 
 humidity and pressure. 
 
 Mechanical Factors that affect Fermentation — slack and stiff doughs 
 — "punching" or "cutting over" — timing "First Cut" — relation to 
 total period of fermentation — first cut three-fifths of total period of fer- 
 mentation — over-ripe dough rather than not — new flour and enzymatic 
 activity — treatment of new flour to effect normal fermentation. 
 
 Panning and Proofing — proofing an important stage — relation of im- 
 proper proofing to quality of loaf — general method of handling doughs — 
 the divider — the Brake roll — necessity and advantage of a Brake — 
 "rounding up" or "balling- up" — "Bleeding" ends of dough — first 
 proof — why necessary — moulding of loaf — machine moulding — proof box 
 — temperature — heated by live steam — exposure of loaves to cold — re- 
 tarding fermentation and proof — time for proper proof — causes — effect — 
 over proofing — quick and slow oven — split loaf — how made. 
 
 Baking— oven — temperature and time for baking — variation in oven 
 temperature — flash heat — oven bottom heat — steam in oven — low and 
 high pressure steam — cooling of bread. 
 
 CHAPTEE IV. 
 General Discussion. 
 
 Pages 61 — 67 
 
 Scoring of bread — method of scoring — score card — general appear- 
 ance — color — texture — grain — flavor — volume of loaf. 
 
 Holes in bread — several causes for holes — over-fermentation — under 
 fermented dough — improper mixing of sponge and dough — poor moulding 
 — holes prevented by proper manipulation. 
 
 Degree of Fineness of flour and its effect upon its Composition and 
 Baking quality — gritty or ' ' sharp ' ' flour — soft flour — uniformity of gran- 
 ulation — recent experiments — five fractions seperated — loaves baked 
 from these five fractions — finest flour not always the best flour. 
 
 IX 
 
Flour substitutes — potato, corn and rice flour — potato, corn and rice 
 starch — cotton seed meal — peanut meal — Soy-bean meal — rice flour for 
 pastry and cakes — corn flakes — increase in absorption — malt extract in 
 connection with corn flakes — saving of sugar and yeast. 
 
 CHAPTEE V. 
 Analysis of Flour. 
 
 Pages 68 — 76 
 
 Value of chemical analysis — Methods of analysis — determination of 
 moisture — ash — color — absorption — dry gluten — protein — acidity — gliadin 
 — expansion — fermenting period — quality of gluten — stability. 
 
 Baking test — method recommended — interpretation of results — rel- 
 ative value of each determination — comparison of sample with standard. 
 
 Laboratory outfit — general apparatus — additional apparatus for 
 bakers — additional apparatus for millers — reagents. 
 
 BREAD AND CAKE FORMULAS. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Pages 
 
 Bread Formulas (Straight Dough). 
 
 Water and Milk Bolls (Straight Dough). 
 
 Counter Mixed Cakes. 
 
 Sponge Goods and Other Cakes. 
 
 Layer Cakes. 
 
 Pound and Fruit Cakes. 
 
 Snaps — Bars. 
 
 Small Fancy Mixed Cakes. 
 
 Sugar Cakes. 
 
 Chart 
 
 I. 
 
 Chart 
 
 II. 
 
 Chart 
 
 III. 
 
 Chart 
 
 IV. 
 
 Chart 
 
 V. 
 
 Chart 
 
 VI. 
 
 Chart 
 
 VII. 
 
 Chart 
 
 VIII. 
 
 Chart 
 
 IX. 
 
 RECORDS FOR THE BAKE SHOP. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Pages 
 
 Eecord I. Sponging-Eoom Eecord. 
 
 Eecord II. Doughing-Eoom Eecord. 
 
 Eecord III. Fermenting-Eoom Eecord. 
 
 Eecord IV. Bench Eecord. 
 
 Eecord V. Store-Eoom Eecord. 
 
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DATA. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Physics. 
 
 Pages 98—103 
 
 Matter and Force — states of aggregation — cohesion — adhesion — molar 
 attraction — weight and specific weight — picnometer — hydrometer — sac- 
 charometer — hydraulic pressure — air pressure — barometer. 
 
 Heat and Temperature — thermometer — Fahrenheit, Centigrade and 
 Reaumur graduation — pyrometer — heat unit, B.T.U. — specific heat — melt- 
 ing and boiling — latent heat of melting and of vaporization — effect of 
 pressure on boiling. 
 
 Hygrometry — humidity of air — saturated air — degree of humidity. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Chemistry. 
 
 Pages 103 — 113 
 
 General Chemistry — chemical and physical change — elements — com- 
 pounds — mixtures — atoms and molecules — chemical symbols — chemical 
 formula — atomic weight — chemical affinity — valence or atomicity — uni- 
 valent — bivalent and trivalent. 
 
 Inorganic Chemistry — metals — metalloids — alkalis and acids — salts — 
 acid salts — sulphates, chlorides, etc. — air — oxydation and combustion — 
 water — chemically pure water — hard and soft water — alkaline water. 
 
 Organic Chemistry — hydrocarbons — alcohols — methyl-, ethyl-, amyl- 
 alcohol — glycerine — organic acids — acetic acid — butyric, palmitic and 
 stearic acid — lactic acid — esters — fats and oils — carbohydrates — cellulose 
 — starch — sugars — sucrose — maltose — lactose — dextrose — levulose — dext- 
 rine — proteins — glutenin — gliadin — proteoses — peptones — amids and 
 amino-acids — enzymes — Cytase — Diastase — Invertase — Maltase — Zymase. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Microscopy and Micro-Organisms. 
 
 Pages 114 — 122 
 
 Use of the Microscope — construction of microscope — objective — ocular 
 other parts — structure of cereals — identification of starches. 
 
 Micro-Organisms — the cell — protoplasm — cell wall — fission, sporula- 
 tion and budding — infection — fermentation — putrefaction — fungi — 
 moulding — yeast — cultured yeast — wild yeast — bacteria — bacilli — cocci. 
 
 XI 
 
Pure Yeast Culture — isolation of cell — tests for purity 1 — culture media 
 — method of culture — moist chamber — Pasteur flask — pure yeast appar- 
 atus. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Refrigeration. 
 
 Pages 122 — 124 
 
 Methods of producing refrigeration — refrigerating liquids — amount 
 of refrigeration obtainable — ton of refrigeration — refrigerating systems 
 — compression system — absorption system — liquid receiver — expansion 
 valve — refrigerator — compressor — condensor — absorber — exchanger — gen- 
 erator — quantity of refrigeration required — piping required. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 Electricity. 
 
 Pages 125—128 
 
 Magnetism — natural magnet — permanent magnet — electro magnet — 
 electric pressure — ways of producing voltage — resistance — current — 
 Ohm's Law — electric power — watt — series connection — parallel or mul- 
 tiple connection — resistance of electric circuits — dynamos — motors — shunt 
 and series dynamos — compound machine — direct current — alternating 
 current — cycle — primary batteries. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Figuring in the Bake Shop. 
 
 Pages 129—131 
 
 Quantity of water required for dough — how many loaves obtained 
 from 1 bbl. of flour — material required for a definite number of loaves — 
 total cost of material — cost of material for 100 loaves — selling price of 
 100 loaves — weight of a loaf at which to be scaled off for a certain selling 
 price — temperature of water for a mix — interest on a loan — discount on 
 a bill — amount payable on a bill allowing discount — compound discount. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 Mensuration. 
 
 Pages 132—136 
 
 Measuring areas — square — rectangle — triangle — polygon — irregular 
 figure — circle — circumference and area — measuring of solids — cube — rect- 
 angular prism — irregular prism — cylinder — pyramid — cone — frustum of 
 cone — sphere — hemisphere. 
 
 XII 
 
APPENDIX. 
 Tables. 
 
 Pages 137 — 142 
 
 Measures and weights, U. S. and Metric system — comparison of U. 
 S. and Metric units — Baume degrees and specific gravity — specific gravity 
 and strength of sugar solutions — comparison of thermometer scales — de- 
 gree of humidity. 
 
 Dictionary and Definitions of Technical Terms. 
 
 Pages 143 — 151 
 
 PLATES. 
 
 Pages 153 — 173 
 
 No. 1. Microscope, coverglasses and Petri dish. 
 
 " 2. Wheat berry and transverse section of wheat berry (magn.). 
 
 " 3. Longitudinal section of wheat berry (magn.). 
 
 " 4. Starches — (wheat, rye, barley, corn, rice and potatoes). 
 
 " 5. Moulds — (aspergillus glaucus — pencillium glaucum — botrytis 
 cinerea — oidium lactis — mucor racemosus — mucor circinelloides. 
 
 " 6. Yeast cells — compressed yeast (magn.). 
 
 " 7. Bacteria — (Sarcina maxima — ped. acidi lactici — viscous ferment 
 — bact. acetici — lactic ferment — bact. lactis — bact. butyricum — 
 bact. subtilis — bact. ulna — bact. leptothrix — spir. tenue — spir. 
 undula). 
 
 " 8. Drop culture slide — Pasteur flask — moist chamber. 
 
 " 9. Pure yeast apparatus (Lindner). 
 
 " 10. Mensuration (square — rectangle — triangle — polygon — irregular 
 figure — circle — cube — rectangular prism — irregular prism — cyl- 
 inder — pyramid — cone — frustum of cone — sphere — hemisphere). 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Pages 175 — 189 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT SECTION. 
 
 Pages I— XXXII 
 
 Preface — Advertisements — Alphabetical index to advertisers — Classi- 
 fied index to advertisers. 
 
 XIII 
 
DISCOURSE ON MODERN MILLING AND BAKING 
 TECHNOLOGY AND BAKING MATERIALS. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 The progress that has been manifested in the Milling and 
 Baking Industry in. the last few years is indicative of the 
 scientific study of the conditions that enter into and effect 
 these industries, and only since science has entered into these 
 fields has any real progress been made. 
 
 Of the two, that of Milling has certainly been the most 
 alert to the advantages to be derived by the application of 
 Science to Practice, as is so well evidenced by the completely 
 equipped laboratories under the guidance of thoroughly com- 
 petent chemists which form an important unit of the great 
 flour mills of this >country. Yet, in spite of this, the number 
 of mills that apply technical control to their operation is 
 exceedingly small as compared to the total number of fairly 
 large sized mills in operation. 
 
 This is probably explained in that the average mill owner 
 or operator, did either not have the opportunity of becoming 
 acquainted, that is understandingly so, with the principles of 
 the sciences upon which his practices are based, or else that he 
 had gathered the impression that the chemistry, physics, etc., 
 required in milling, differed from that required in other in- 
 dustries. 
 
 It is for these reasons that we solicit both the mill owner 
 and operator, that in addition to such study as they may give 
 to Chapter I, which is confined to Milling, they also give equal, 
 if indeed not greater, attention to the thorough treament of 
 flour in Chapter II under baking materials, and again Chap- 
 ter V under analysis of flours and more especially to such 
 chapters which relate in a concise and instructive manner to 
 the subjects of chemistry, physics and microscopy. 
 
Bread making is a craft dating back to earliest history — 
 and our records show that in the year 150 B. C. the city of 
 Rome had municipal inspection of the bakeries which were 
 then producing bread using a "sponge" system and sour 
 dough (Sauerteig). This system had been little changed until 
 within comparative recent years through the advent of com- 
 pressed yeast which was the result of years of careful scientific 
 research. 
 
 Simultaneously came chemistry and physics into the In- 
 dustry and have shown the Baker that temperature and pres- 
 sure have their effect on the dough, that humidity influences 
 the fermentation, that there is an optimum temperature at 
 which dough should be maintained, etc. It has gone farther 
 than demonstrating the existence of these varying factors — it 
 has explained them and has given the Baker methods by which 
 he may control them. The extent to which the various sug- 
 gestions of science have been followed indicates closely and 
 accurately the success of the Baker. The Baker with a tech- 
 nical education immediately recognizes that flour may be pur- 
 chased to advantage through a chemical analysis, that scienti- 
 fic blending of flours produces flour of desired quality, and 
 that different procedures in mixing of doughs produce char- 
 acteristic results in the baked loaf, and so on. 
 
 In the following chapters, these several varying factors 
 and phases of baking will be developed completely, showing 
 the effect of using different kinds of flour, different methods 
 of mixing doughs and results to be looked for in using the 
 several bread improvers and yeast foods. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 Milling Technology.* 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES OF WHEAT. 
 
 Wheat for the Milling of Flour. 
 
 Among the countless varieties of cereals a rather large 
 number are more or less adaptable for the milling of flour; 
 however, the cereal wheat stands out foremost among these 
 for milling purposes, not alone in that it yields a large per- 
 centage of flour, but also that the flour milled therefrom pro- 
 duces at the same time a palatable and highly nutritious loaf 
 of bread which is good in color and fine in texture. 
 
 Flour is also milled from rye and other cereals such as corn 
 and even potato flour can be and indeed is employed in the 
 making of bread and other baked food ; nevertheless neither one 
 of these flours can replace wheat flour fully, so that in this 
 sense they can at the most be considered only as adjuncts to 
 wheat which for centuries has been the most universally used 
 flour yielding cereal of the world. 
 
 Differences in Wheat. 
 
 Wheat like many other plants is cultivated in a great num- 
 ber of recognized varieties which differ morphologically as 
 well as chemically, at least insofar as they contain varying per- 
 centages of the different substances making up the wheat 
 berry, although the same are in general common to all cereals. 
 
 A further difference between these different kinds of wheat 
 is particularly to be found in their cultivation which is largely 
 dependent on the respective climatic conditions, since certain 
 varieties cannot withstand the severe cold prevailing during 
 the winter season in some parts of the country, and therefore 
 must be planted in spring, whereas others are sown in fall. 
 
 These conditions again having an effect upon the consti- 
 tuents of the wheat berry, it becomes at once evident that the 
 different kinds of wheat must produce flours possessing en- 
 tirely different properties, which is enlarged upon in Chap- 
 ter II. 
 
 * See also flour, Chapter II and flour analysis, Chapter V. 
 
 3 
 
Structure and Composition of Wheat Berry. 
 
 If a section of a wheat berry is placed under a magnifying 
 glass, it will be observed that the same does not present a 
 homogeneous appearance, but rather shows to consist of layers 
 of different materials. (See Plates II and III.) 
 
 The first or outer layer is the cuticle or epidermis, followed 
 by two other strata, consisting of long and round cells and 
 termed epicarp and endoearp respectively. 
 
 Next follows a thin layer, the testa, containing the color- 
 ing matter of the skin of the grain, and it is these four layers 
 together which form the entire coating or skin enveloping the 
 endosperm or mealy part of the grain, and which are generally 
 designated as bran. 
 
 The inner and greatest part of the berry is the endosperm, 
 of which the layer immediately beneath the skin or bran con- 
 sists of large and practically cubical cells, called aleurone 
 cells containing chiefly protein (not gluten), a little fat and 
 mineral salts, while the longer and larger cells filling up the 
 central part of the endosperm contain starch granules enclosed 
 in a thin cellular wall and surrounded by gluten. 
 
 At the lower end of the grain the germ or embryo is 
 located, from which the new plant will grow if the berry 
 commences to germinate after being planted or sown in the 
 ground. 
 
 From this it is to be observed that not alone the percentage 
 of the various substances making up the whole wheat berry 
 will be very uneven, but that this is also true of their distribu- 
 tion in the grain. In general it can be said that the bran con- 
 sists almost entirely of cellulose, coloring matter and mineral 
 salts, the endosperm contains chiefly starch and gluten, as also 
 other protein in the aleurone cells, but very little cellulose, 
 while the germ is filled with fat, some protein and mineral mat- 
 ter, but is practically free of starch. Starch and protein pos- 
 sess nutritive value and this is to a certain measure also true 
 of the mineral salts; cellulose, however, being indigestible for 
 the human system, is of no value as a food. 
 
 Therefore to grind the wheat into flour of the highest qual- 
 ity a two-fold object must be attained; aside of reducing the 
 contents of the wheat berry into an impalpable powder, the 
 
particles of germ, bran and endosperm must be separated at 
 the same time as much as possible, and it is chiefly for this sec- 
 ond reason that the modern process of milling has necessarily 
 become a rather elaborate one, making it more and more desir- 
 able, if indeed not imperative, for the miller to support his 
 practical experience with a thorough scientific training. 
 
 As already indicated, the composition of wheat varies con- 
 siderably with the different varieties, at least as far as the 
 percentage of the various constituents is concerned, the fol- 
 lowing table must therefore be understood to give only the 
 typical composition of an average sample of wheat. 
 
 Average Composition of Wheat. 
 
 Water 13.5% 
 
 Starch _ 679'' 
 
 Protein 12 5" 
 
 Cellulose (fibre) 2.6 " 
 
 Fat ' iju 
 
 Mineral salts (ash) 1.8 " 
 
 Varieties of Wheat. 
 
 Although more than 200 different types and varieties of 
 wheat are known and have been named, yet for all practical 
 purposes a classification into four or five general, large groups 
 or classes will suffice to insure an understanding of the essen- 
 tial characteristic differences of these types as are grown in 
 this country, as well as of the flours milled therefrom. 
 
 1. In the northern states, Minnesota, the Dakotas, North- 
 ern Wisconsin, Iowa and Nebraska, where the climate is rather 
 cold in winter, hard Spring wheat is grown. It is of red color 
 and contains in the average the highest percentage of gluten, 
 11 to 16%, making a strong flour. 
 
 2. In the middle states between the Mississippi River and 
 the Rocky Mountains, south of Minnesota and the Dakotas, 
 hard Winter wheat varieties are prevalent. They are like the 
 Spring wheats of red color, but somewhat lower in gluten, 9 
 to 11%, and yield fairly strong flours. 
 
 3. In the central and Atlantic states, varieties known as 
 soft Winter wheat are chiefly grown. They are generally much 
 lighter in color, from amber to only a light red, and character- 
 
 5 
 
ized by the much lower percentage of gluten, which amounts 
 in the average to 6 to 9%, in consequence of which these wheats 
 will yield weak flours, but of good color. 
 
 4. Very light colored wheat, so called white wheat which 
 is also soft and rich in starch is grown on the Pacific coast 
 and on the western slope of the Eocky Mountains. Since 
 these wheats contain the lowest percentage of gluten of all 
 varieties, from 4 to 7%, the flour made from these types is like 
 that from the soft Winter wheats, weak but rich in starch. 
 
 5. A special variety of hard and glassy wheat of yellow 
 color, known as Durum wheat is grown in some southern 
 states, as also in Montana. The same is very high in gluten, 
 14 to 17% ; however, the gluten is very hard and by reason of 
 its highly creamy color, flour made from this wheat is litttle 
 used for bread making ; it is, however, largely employed for the 
 manufacture of maccaronis and noodles. 
 
 TREATMENT OF WHEAT PRECEDING MILLING. 
 
 Blending of Wheat. 
 
 Differences similar to those with reference to gluten are 
 to be observed in the different varieties of wheat also with 
 reference to other properties of the flour made therefrom, most 
 notably in the color, however, they do not necessarily run 
 parallel. 
 
 In consequence thereof the best grades of flour are not 
 obtained by milling only one definite variety or kind of wheat, 
 which is generally also excluded for practical reasons, but 
 rather by employing a mixture of different varieties, blended 
 in such a way, that, for example, the excess of gluten In the 
 one makes up the deficiency of this substance in the other, 
 while possibly the better color of the second wheat will im- 
 prove the somewhat pooreV color of the first. 
 
 Hence, the blending of wheat is a necessity and it is only 
 by a judicious application of this procedure that a product of 
 uniformly high quality can be obtained not alone during one 
 season but for years, if this blending is done rationally, and 
 proper consideration is given to the characteristics of the 
 varieties to be used for this purpose. 
 
Cleaning 1 , Scouring and Tempering" of Wheat. 
 
 Wheat as it arrives at the mill contains considerable for- 
 eign matter, seeds, dirt, etc., which must be fully removed by 
 a thorough cleaning and grading process and the more thor- 
 oughly this is done the greater will be its influence upon the 
 quality of the final product, a fact which should not be under- 
 estimated. 
 
 It is true not all mills do require nor do they use the same 
 machinery or appliances for this purpose ; nevertheless certain 
 machines must be employed in every mill. 
 
 After the preliminary cleaning of the wheat in the ware- 
 house by passing through a separator which is sometimes con- 
 nected with a scouring machine, it undergoes its first treat- 
 ment in the mill by passing through the mill separator of which 
 in some mills two or even three are employed for this purpose. 
 
 This serves to remove such foreign substances as strings, 
 stones, corn cobs, pieces of wood, paper, short straw, but also 
 shrunken and broken wheat grains, barley, oats, beans, larger 
 seeds, dust, chaff and etc. 
 
 From the separator the wheat passes to the scourer, in 
 which by mechanical agitation impurities still clinging to the 
 wheat kernel are loosened, the fine hairs at the end of the 
 berries are broken off as is also a portion of the outer skin and 
 any chaff which had not been removed in the separator. 
 
 The wheat should next undergo a special treatment desig- 
 nated as tempering or conditioning, which is performed in 
 what is known as the tempering bin. 
 
 At this stage the wheat receives an addition of water vary- 
 ing from 1 to 4%, depending upon the dryness and hardness 
 of the wheat; the water which is mixed very thoroughly has 
 the effect not only to loosen any dirt which had been clinging 
 to the kernels so persistently as to resist previous scouring, 
 but also toughens the bran, so that in grinding it will come off 
 in large flakes, instead of in fine powdery form as would 
 otherwise be true by reason of its natural brittleness. 
 
 The proper tempering of wheat is attained by allowing it 
 to remain in the bin for quite some time, generally from 4 to 
 7 hours, depending as stated upon the condition of the wheat. 
 
The wheat is then subjected to a second scouring' which re- 
 moves whatever has been loosened in the conditioning stage 
 and which, as it were, puts the final touches on the wheat be- 
 fore it is ready for the milling process proper. 
 
 MILLING OF WHEAT. 
 
 The wheat having been thoroughly cleaned by the separat- 
 ing, cleaning and scouring process then passes to the mills. 
 
 Here it is reduced to flour, but at the same time all those 
 parts of the berry which are undesirable in the flour, bran and 
 germ, are removed. Since this, however, can never be accom- 
 plished by grinding the wheat directly into flour but only by a 
 rather gradual reduction, so a series of mills and scalpers and 
 graders or sifters must be employed for this purpose, tne num- 
 ber of which depends on both the capacity of the mill as also 
 the different grades of flour that are to be made. 
 
 The rolls used for this purpose in sets of two, are of two 
 different types : the one corrugated, called break rolls, the 
 others smooth and called reduction rolls. 
 
 Even small mills should have at least three sets of break 
 rolls and five sets of reduction rolls, while large mills and any 
 mill making a number of different grades of flour must have 
 more, say five or six breaks and from nine to thirteen sets of 
 reduction rolls and a corresponding number of sifters and 
 purifiers. 
 
 A high grade flour and a good yield at the same time can 
 only be obtained if the bran and germ is separated as fully as 
 possibly from the mealy part of the endosperm ; hence, the 
 principle to be strictly observed in milling, is to break up the 
 wheat berry by the first break only into very large particles, 
 making at this stage as little flour as possible, but producing 
 rather a large percentage of coarse and mealy middlings. 
 
 It is then the gradual reduction by means of the reduction 
 rolls of these middlings, after they had been scalped and 
 graded by properly selected sifters which will result in flours 
 of the highest quality, generally designated as "patent 
 flours." 
 
In this grade of flour are to be combined only those mill 
 streams which are obtained from the best middlings, while the 
 balance of the streams are included in the "clear" grades. 
 
 For "straight" flours no such selections of the different 
 mill streams is required, but they are all combined, under- 
 standing, of course, that the bran and the very last flour that 
 can be obtained from the same, the "low grade," are always 
 separated. 
 
 PRODUCTS OBTAINED. 
 
 Different Grades of Flour.* 
 
 From the foregoing, it appears that the different grades of 
 flour must show notable differences in their composition, as 
 particularly manifested in their respective percentage of 
 gluten and ash, as also in their color. 
 
 The "patent" flours, chiefly made from the more central 
 parts of the endosperm are low in gluten and ash, but they 
 will possess the best color. 
 
 The "clear" flours on the other side are highest in gluten 
 and ash, and since they contain also more particles of bran 
 their color will be darkest, if we do not include in here the 
 "low grade" flours, which indeed do not come into considera- 
 tion for bread making. 
 
 The "straight" flours stand, as it were, between the 
 "patents" and the "clears," that is, they are higher in gluten 
 and ash than the patents, but lower than the clears, and the 
 same is true of their color. 
 
 This is shown more in detail in the comparative analysis of 
 these flours, given in Chapter II, under the heading of flour. 
 
 But even between different flours representing the same 
 grade, for example between a number of "patent" flours, 
 again characteristic differences are to be observed, although 
 these flours might have been milled from the same wheat, 
 insofar the percentage of endosperm particles or middlings, 
 included in the respective flour as compared with the total 
 
 See also grades of flour, Chapter II. 
 
amount of flour obtainable, will influence percentage of gluten 
 and ash as well as color. 
 
 In the case of patent flours the lower the percentage of the 
 flour, the lower will be the gluten and ash and the lighter 
 will be the color, as evidenced by the so-called "short" or 
 "first" patents, while the "long" or "second" patents con- 
 sisting of a higher percentage of the endosperm, will be corre- 
 spondingly higher in gluten and ash and somewhat poorer in 
 color. This is also true of 'straight" flours, while in the case 
 of clear flour, the conditions are just opposite.- In "clears" 
 gluten and ash will be lowest and the color lighter with a 
 higher percentage of flour and reversedly. 
 
 Bleaching of Flour. 
 
 One of the most apparent and therefore most desirable 
 properties of flour is its white color, which, if representing the 
 natural color of the starchy contents of the endosperm, is in- 
 deed an indication of high quality. 
 
 However, for lower grades of flour a better color is also 
 desirable, therefore to obtain this result from that part of the 
 endosperm containing more branny material, bleaching of the 
 flour is frequently resorted to, the more readily so because it 
 has been observed, that particularly new flour is improved 
 thereby also in other directions. 
 
 A more detailed discussion of the processes used for this 
 purpose will be found in Chapter II on flour, to which refer- 
 ence is made herewith. 
 
 Use of Offals. 
 
 The various by-products and offals obtained in the making 
 of flour, bran and shorts, screenings, shrunken wheat, buck 
 wheat, oats and barley, are generally used for making up 
 various feeding mixtures for cattle, horses, hogs and chickens. 
 
 In mixing these feeds and particularly if the same should 
 serve any special purpose the composition of the various ingre- 
 dients entering into the feed, especially with reference to their 
 relative percentages of starch or other carbohydrates, protein, 
 fat and crude fiber must be taken into due consideration as is 
 demonstrated in the following analysis and opinion on same. 
 
Analysis of Commercial Feeds. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 Water 7.03 % 
 
 Ash 8.69 * ' 
 
 Protein (N. x 6.25) 20.31" 
 
 Crude Fibre 8.69 ' ' 
 
 Ether Extract 8.29 ' < 
 
 Nitrogen Free Extract 46.99 " 
 
 No. 2 No. 3 
 
 10.55% 11.00 % 
 
 2.65" 3.14" 
 
 9.98" 14.13" 
 
 3.10" 3.43" 
 
 6.11 " 3.04" 
 
 67.61" 65.26" 
 
 No. 4 
 
 . 6.44% 
 . 6.51 " 
 .12.50" 
 .21.09" 
 . 1.21" 
 .52.25" 
 
 Sample labeled "No. 1" represents an Oil Cake Feed, and 
 is not a pure linseed meal, as is indicated by its high ash and 
 nitrogen free extract, as also by its low protein content. 
 
 Sample labeled "No. 2" Red Dog Flour, does not come up 
 to the requirements in that its protein content is below one- 
 half that required by standard, while its fat is somewhat 
 higher, as also by reason of the fact that the same in reality 
 represents a hominy feed. 
 
 Sample labeled "No. 3" (Rye Middlings) comes up fully 
 to the required standard, with the possible exception that the 
 fat content is about 0.87% below. 
 
 Sample labeled "No. 4" represents Malt Sprouts, and does 
 not come up to the standard in protein content by some 12%, 
 while its fibre content exceeds by 77c the required amount. 
 These conditions, that is low protein and high fibre content, are 
 attributable to an excessive amount of barley hulls contained 
 in this feed. 
 
 Not infrequently, the addition of special other materials, 
 such as oil cake or cotton seed meal, brewers dried grains, 
 molasses and even mineral matter in form of ground bones, is 
 desirable in some instances. 
 
 n 
 
CHAPTER II 
 Baking Materials. 
 
 FLOUR. 
 
 Different Kinds of Flour. 
 
 There are four different and distinct kinds of flour on the 
 market, namely, hard Spring wheat flour, hard "Winter wheat 
 flour, soft Winter wheat flour and Durum wheat flour. Each 
 kind possesses widely different qualities and qualifications in 
 regard to bread making, and cake and pastry baking. 
 
 Hard Spring Wheat Flour. 
 
 The principal kind to be considered is hard Spring wheat 
 flour, which is milled from hard Spring wheat grown in Min- 
 nesota and North Dakota and the area immediately adjacent. 
 This flour has a rich creamy color and possesses a high con- 
 tent of gluten which is of the best quality. The flour is 
 "sharp" or granular to the "feel," and because of its gluten 
 quality and content, produces a well risen loaf of bread. A 
 vigorous fermentation is required for the proper development 
 of the gluten, which becomes elastic, tenacious and pliable. 
 
 Hard Winter Wheat Flour. 
 
 Hard "Winter wheat flour, as indicated, is milled from hard 
 "Winter wheat and has as a synonym the name Kansas Flour 
 because Kansas produces most of the hard "Winter wheat flour. 
 Nebraska also produces a large amount of hard "Winter wheat 
 flour. It is of good color, well defined flavor and rather 
 strong gluten, although not so strong as the Spring wheat 
 flours. In the bread-making industry only the Spring wheat 
 flour and the hard "Whiter wheat flour are to be considered, 
 inasmuch as soft W 7 inter wheat flour is seldom used. Gen- 
 erally a blend of the first two mentioned is used — and are so 
 blended as to combine the desirable features of the strong 
 gluten in Spring wheat flour with the superior flavor and 
 color of Kansas flour.* 
 
 *See Blending of Flour. 
 
Soft Winter Wheat Flour. 
 
 The third kind of flour is the soft wheat flour or soft Win- 
 ter wheat flour, grown throughout the Central States and on 
 the Western Coast. It has a low gluten content, the gluten 
 is poor in quality, and produces a loaf of bread very poor in 
 quality as compared to Spring wheat flour. The flour itself 
 is very white, has a soft and "fluffy" texture and possesses 
 an excellent flavor, but on account of the low gluten content 
 and its poor quality, it is seldom used in bread making. The 
 soft Winter wheat flour is used to advantage as a pastry 
 flour, on account of its color and of the fact that less short- 
 ening is required, and further because there is no demand 
 made upon the gluten of the flour such as is necessary in pro- 
 ducing a loaf of bread. 
 
 Durum Wheat Flour. 
 
 Durum wheat flour is a yellowish, creamy product, milled 
 from Durum wheat which is an extremely hard wheat grown 
 in Western North Dakota and Montana. The flour is very 
 granular, has a high content of gluten which is very strong 
 and hard, and consequently develops somewhat slowly in fer- 
 mentation. 
 
 Because of its high creamy color which is retained to quite 
 some extent in the baked product, it is seldom used alone for 
 bread-making; a mixture however of soft Winter wheat flour 
 with Durum wheat flour produces a blend very suitable for 
 bread. It is chiefly employed in the manufacture of maccaroni, 
 noodles, etc. 
 
 Composition of Flour. 
 
 The composition of the several kinds of flour varies with 
 climatic conditions, so that a Spring wheat flour in one part 
 of Minnesota may not be exactly the same as one grown in 
 another part of Minnesota, and the same may be said of Kan- 
 sas flours. The soft wheats grown in Ohio and Michigan for 
 instance produce a flour of higher gluten content than the 
 flour milled from the wheats grown in Illinois, while the flour 
 produced from the wheats grown in the mountains of Ten- 
 nessee produces a gluten content still higher than the average 
 soft wheat flours. 
 
 13 
 
The seasonal changes have a decided effect upon wheat 
 and upon the flour milled from it. For instance a dry hot 
 season fosters the development of a higher gluten content, 
 while a wet and cold season produces a wheat lower in gluten 
 and higher in carbohydrates. Thus, the flour produced by 
 any one mill will vary from season to season, and, unless the 
 miller exercises a scientific and rigid control over the plant, 
 it is impossible to find the same brand of flour of uniform- 
 quality, year after year. 
 
 Composition of the Patent Grade of Hard Spring, Hard Winter, 
 and Soft Winter Wheat Flour. 
 
 Spring Hard Soft 
 
 Standard Winter Winter 
 
 Moisture 11.40 % 12.52 % 12.36 % 
 
 Color 100.00 101.00 103.00 
 
 Ash 0.420% 0.406% 0.372 % 
 
 Absorption 61.00 " 57.50 " 54.00 " 
 
 Gluten 10.95 " 9.86 " 8.32 " 
 
 Protein (Nx6.25) .... 11.16 " 10.06 " 8.52 " 
 
 Loaves per barrel 100.00 97.60 94.20 
 
 Volume of loaf 100.00 98.60 96.30 
 
 Quality of loaf 100.00 97.00 97.00 
 
 From the foregoing analysis it is very evident that the 
 differences in the three flours, hard Spring wheat flour, hard 
 Winter wheat flour and soft Winter wheat flour, are manifested 
 in many ways. The ash content is high in the Spring wheat 
 flour and low in the soft Winter wheat flour, while the absorp- 
 tion, gluten, loaves per barrel and quality of the loaf, decrease 
 in the same order. 
 
 Grades of Flour. 
 
 In milling it is found convenient to divide the product 
 into several grades, such as first patent, second patent, straight, 
 clear, low grade, and the quality of the flour under each grade 
 varies according to the individual miller. For instance a 
 patent flour from one mill may comprise 65-70% of the total 
 available flour, while another so-called patent comprises 85 
 to 90% of the total flour, and although they are both "pat- 
 ents" the quality of one is much better than that of the 
 other. With the idea of standardization of flour the U. S. 
 
 14 
 
Dept. of Agriculture has suggested — but has not as yet adopted 
 — the following definitions of standards. 
 
 Straight Flour, made from hard Spring, soft Spring, hard 
 Winter, Durum or soft Winter wheats, is the fine, clean, 
 sound, unbleached product made from such wheat meals by 
 bolting or by a process accomplishing the same result, from 
 which none of the purified middlings flour shall have been 
 removed, and which does not exceed 97% of the total nour 
 produced, and contains not less than a specified percentage 
 of nitrogen (1.50 for hard Spring and hard Winter, 1.75 for 
 Durum, 1.15 for soft Winter), not more than 0.50% of fibre, 
 and not more than a specified percentage of ash, (0.52 for 
 hard Spring, 0.50 for hard Winter, 0.65 for Durum, 0.44 for 
 soft Winter), when these determinations are calculated to 
 a moisture content of 11%. 
 
 Patent Flour, made from hard Spring, soft Spring, hard 
 Winter, soft Winter or Durum wheats, is the fine, clean, 
 sound, unbleached product made from such wheat meals by 
 bolting or by a process accomplishing the same results, pro- 
 duced by the reduction of the best of the purified middlings, 
 and containing not more than a specified percentage of ash 
 (0.42 for hard Spring, 0.40 for hard Winter, 0.37 for soft Win- 
 ter, 0.55 for Durum), when calculated to a moisture content 
 of 11%. 
 
 First Clear Flour, made from hard Spring, soft Spring, 
 hard Winter, soft Winter or Durum wheats, is a straight flour 
 made from such wheats from which the patent flour or a por- 
 tion of the purified middlings has been removed, and which 
 shall not contain more than a specified percentage of ash 
 (0.80 for hard Spring, 0.70 for hard Winter, 0.60 for soft Win- 
 ter, 1.0 for Durum), when calculated to a moisture content 
 of 11%. 
 
 Whole Wheat Meal (Flour) is the fine, clean, sound product 
 made by grinding wheat without the removal of more than 
 1% of the wheat in the form of bran. 
 
 Bolted Wheat Meal (Fine Wheat Meal) is the fine, clean, 
 sound product made by grinding wheat without the removal 
 of more than 10% of the wheat in the form of bran. 
 
Graham Flour (Graham Meal) is the unbolted wheat meal 
 made from clean, sound wheat. 
 
 Rye Flour is the fine, clean, sound product made by bolt- 
 ing rye meal, and contains not less than 1.36% of nitrogen, 
 and not more than 1.25% of ash, when these determinations 
 are calculated to a moisture content of 11%. 
 
 First patent includes generally about 70% of the best 
 portion of the flour and second patent comprises about 85%. 
 of the total flour, while "straight" is the total flour from 
 which has been excluded only 3-5% of "low grade." Clear 
 flour is that portion amounting to 15-30% that remains after 
 drawing off the patent flour. 
 
 Average Analysis of Different Grades of Flour, Milled from 
 Hard Spring Wheat. 
 
 First Low 
 
 1st Pat. 2d Pat. Straight Clear Grade 
 
 Moisture.. 12.86 % 13.08 % 13.24 % 13.76 % 14.36 % 
 
 Color 100.00 " 95.50 " 91.00" 70.00 " 49.00 " 
 
 Ash 0.421" 0.448/' 0.486" 0.680" 0.890" 
 
 Absorption 62.00 " 63.00 " 64.00 " 65.00 " 68.00 " 
 
 Gluten (dry) 10.84 " 10.98 " 11.46 " 12.36 " 13.54 " 
 
 Loaves per barrel 100.00 101.60 103.20 104.80 109.70 
 
 Volume of loaf 100.00 98.60 95.90 93.70 91.30 
 
 Quality of loaf 100.00 97.50 96.80 95.00 84.00 
 
 AVEVEAGE VALUE. 100.00 98.30 96.73 90.88 83.50 
 
 Fermenting period 100.00 105.40 109.30 116.00 120.40 
 
 Quality of gluten 100.00 96.00 93.20 87.50 80.90 
 
 It is evident from this table of analysis that the quality 
 of the first patent is much better than second patent, while 
 the latter is better than the subsequent grades indicated. 
 The gradations from first patent to low grade are more or less 
 constant, increasing or decreasing as shown. For example : 
 the color of the flour decreases as we pass from patent to 
 low grade, while the ash content increases. The volume of 
 the loaf and the quality of loaf as well as the quality of the 
 gluten, which may be considered as indices of the quality of 
 the bread produced therefrom, decrease most constantly, 
 until it is evident from the analysis that the quality of a 
 loaf of bread produced from the first clear or low grade flour, 
 is so much below that produced from patent, that it is never 
 
 1G 
 
used alone in the baking industry. The poor quality, loaf 
 volume, and the color of the baked loaf of the low grade flour 
 is so low that it is never to any advantage to use it. The 
 flour generally in use for bread making is a long patent — 65 
 to 90% — or straight grade. 
 
 The detection of poorer grades of flour by analysis is both 
 simple and desirable, especially since a lower grade may be 
 treated — for instance, bleached — so it may pass as far as 
 external appearances are concerned as a higher grade flour. 
 However, in such instances a chemical analysis, as previously 
 indicated, becomes the only method whereby the fraud may be 
 definitely detected.* 
 
 Storage of Flours. 
 
 The question of storing of flour is quite as important as 
 the buying, although usually it gets much less consideration. 
 Flour should not contain more than 13% of moisture, because 
 above that amount, there is danger of its spoiling — becoming 
 musty or rancid. A high moisture content promotes the 
 activity of the enzymes present in the flour, causing the small 
 amount of fat contained in it to rancidify, producing a sharp 
 taste and an unpleasant odor. 
 
 Flour should be stored in a cool, dry, light place — never 
 in a cold, dark basement nor upon the floor. All extremes of 
 temperature and moisture are to be avoided. The optimum 
 temperature for the store room is about 65-75 °F. with a rela- 
 tive humidity near 70%. Flour very readily absorbs odors 
 and should be carefully protected against them. Ventilation 
 and proper circulation of air are necessary and flours in 
 "jute" should be piled with a "two-by-four" between each 
 tier. "When flour is stored in bags, it should be changed more 
 or less frequently to allow the particles to come in contact with 
 air, and to prevent it from packing. 
 
 Storing of flour has a decidedly beneficial effect upon its 
 quality. New flours generally become sticky upon being fer- 
 mented in the dough, but proper aging is conducive to nor- 
 mal fermentation. The effect is due to the decrease in quan- 
 tity of gliadin, which is converted upon storing into glutenin. 
 
 See Chapter V. 
 
The large percentage of gliadiii which gives to the gluten the 
 sticky adhesive qualities is decreased until the gliadin ratio, 
 that is the relative amount of gliadin in the gluten, is reduced 
 to the optimum amount. 
 
 Aging has a bleaching effect upon flour, and also tends to 
 increase its power of absorption. Newly milled flour when 
 properly stored, may lose 2 to 3% of moisture, but the ability 
 to absorb water when made into the dough, increases at the 
 same time often as much as 6 to 7%, so that the flour requires^ 
 a larger amount of water to make the dough of the proper 
 consistency. 
 
 Flour Blending. 
 
 Experience among bakers who have given consideration 
 to the many variables that enter into a loaf of bread has 
 shown that different flours exhibit quite different character- 
 istics and qualities ; that wheats grown and best adapted to 
 the several localities of the world, having as they do different 
 climatic and soil conditions, produce flours that have inherent 
 qualities and properties peculiarly distinct and individual. 
 
 It is quite generally known that from the hard Spring 
 wheats of Minnesota and Manitoba there is milled a flour of 
 a rich creamy color, and whose gluten is very strong and 
 elastic, its water absorbing power high, etc. It is also of 
 record that the flour produced from the wheats in the south- 
 west United States has a good color and flavor. Each different 
 kind of flour, as a Northwest hard Spring and a Kansas South- 
 west, shows a character decidedly of its own. Unfortunately no 
 one wheat produces a flour that combines all the good quali- 
 ties that the industry desires. Wheat seems to develop cer- 
 tain qualities at the expense and neglect of others. This per- 
 haps is the first and best reason that initiated blending of 
 flours. 
 
 The blending process may seem from this to be quite sim- 
 ple. All that may seem necessary to do is to dump a sack 
 of Kansas flour in a bin with another sack of Minnesota ; 
 thereby obtaining a blend combining all the qualities that 
 had been hoped for. However this is not true, because we 
 realize that flour may be blended to accord with other con- 
 ditions. At this point it should be said that a haphazard 
 
 18 
 
method in blending different flours may not only be of no 
 advantage whatever, but may serve to impair the value of 
 the flour. Blending must be controlled by a method of pro- 
 cedure which is regulated by careful analysis and scientific 
 reasoning if the optimum results are to be obtained. 
 
 Reason for Blending. 
 
 The principal reason for blending is due to characteristic 
 differences in quality exhibited by the different kinds of flour. 
 A hard Spring wheat flour with high content of strong gluten 
 and high absorptive power could well be blended with a 
 Kansas hard Winter wheat flour, because the latter improves 
 the color and flavor of the loaf baked from the blend and at 
 the same time does not decrease the gluten content nor impair 
 its quality to any great extent. The blend generally yields 
 to fermentation so that the gluten is properly and more readily 
 developed. 
 
 Flours should never be blended necessarily to reduce cost 
 because in doing so it has the effect of adulterating a good 
 grade of flour with a poorer one. This does not mean how- 
 ever that one should never blend a high or short patent with 
 a straight grade, because quite often it is advantageous to 
 buy for blending purposes the strongest and best flour, so 
 that in the end a cheaper blend may be produced. Some 
 flours during the fermentation tighten up. This type of 
 flour could well be blended with another that has a tendency 
 to become soft and sticky. Other flours produce gluten 
 bound dough and should be blended with a softer flour. 
 Flours are blended differently according as the bread is made 
 by hand or by machinery. 
 
 To blend successfully, one should have an accurate and inti- 
 mate knowledge of each flour, its character and properties, 
 and understand the effect that each individual flour may 
 have on each of the others and on the blend. If he blends to 
 improve the quality of gluten, lie should know that that flour 
 must have a stronger gluten. If for color and flavor, the 
 added flour should be one that will give the better color and 
 flavor in a loaf made from the blend. It would be folly to 
 blend a hard Spring wheat flour and a soft Winter wheat 
 flour for a sponge, and then more of the same blend to make 
 
the dough. In the mechanical manipulation, it should be seen 
 that the flours are perfectly mixed so that the blend is uni- 
 form in composition, and the apparatus should be tested by- 
 analysis to show whether or not the blend is an intimate mix- 
 ture of the several flours. 
 
 Flour Bleaching. 
 
 The process of bleaching flour has developed into one of 
 enormous proportions, largely because of the constant demand- 
 of the baker and of the housewife for whiter bread. The 
 ambition of the miller has been to produce a flour whiter than 
 his competitor and to assemble the various streams from his 
 mill which would give the whitest product. The bleaching 
 industry is' due to the observation that certain flours of same 
 quality and character exhibited a darker or lighter color. 
 The white flour, however, commands a higher price. It was 
 recognized that the storing of flour had the effect of bleach- 
 ing it and it was supposed that a bleaching agent could be 
 applied to flour which would effect the same condition. This 
 occasioned much experimentation before the process became 
 mechanically perfected. 
 
 The color of flour is that of the endosperm of the wheat, 
 from which it is produced, and is a natural one. Color is 
 peculiarly characteristic of the different kinds of wheat and 
 is inherent to each particular kind of wheat flour. Crease 
 dirt and bran particles find their way into flour and affect 
 to no small degree the color of the flour. Color of this kind 
 may be considered due to foreign matter. 
 
 Methods for Bleaching. 
 
 The first general method for bleaching flour was in an 
 atmosphere of oxides of nitrogen, into which flour was con- 
 ducted and agitated. A spark between two electric terminals 
 effects a chemical union of the nitrogen and oxygen of the 
 air, forming nitrogen peroxide gas, which, when mixed with 
 flour, has a bleaching action. In the method of operation, the 
 flour is passed through a chamber or agitator into which is 
 conducted the nitrogen peroxide gas from the generator. 
 Meanwhile a process in which chlorine gas is used as the 
 bleaching agent has been developed. The effect by both 
 
 20 
 
processes is the same. The mechanical detail has been so 
 perfected that the operation is almost automatically con- 
 tinuous. The claims made at first by the bleaching advo- 
 cates have been tempered by facts supported by numerous 
 experiments, so that now we admit that the process with 
 its limitations has quite some merit. 
 
 Bleaching has the least effect upon the gluten of soft 
 flours, while in hard and especially harsh flours which have 
 been bleached, the dough works more easily and makes a 
 bold, well risen loaf. Bleaching does not destroy the enzymes, 
 although the fat in the flour does not seem to rancidify as 
 easily as in an unbleached flour — that is, the keeping quali- 
 ties of a bleached flour, as far as rancidity is concerned, is 
 enhanced. Bleaching has the effect of a quick aging process 
 without a long storing. New flours are prone in fermenta- 
 tion to become sticky and soft, while the same flour, properly 
 aged, works up better and has a higher absorption value. 
 A bleaching apparatus has been used in many bakeries to 
 treat new flour, which of itself can with difficulty produce 
 a good loaf of bread. 
 
 Objections to Bleaching 1 . 
 
 The most serious objection to bleaching of flour is that a 
 low grade flour, which is evidenced by its color, may be 
 bleached and made to compare favorably with a higher grade 
 flour. This may be considered a serious objection inasmuch 
 as the baker or the consumer, who ordinarily buys his flour 
 from the appearance, can readily be misled by a bleached 
 low grade flour. 
 
 Furthermore, flour which serves as the basis of food prod- 
 ucts, should not be treated by chemical processes unknown 
 to the public. Flour is a natural product and as such can 
 be used without chemical treatment. Bleaching is not an 
 improved milling process, because bleaching does not remove 
 any impurities. In bleached flour there remains a small 
 quantity of a chemical agent which is physiologically active, 
 although the quantity may not be sufficient as to be deleterious 
 to health. Nevertheless, when large quantities of flour or 
 bread are consumed, there may be a sufficient amount of 
 active constituents to deter digestion. 
 
 21 
 
The exact nature of the bleaching process is not fully 
 agreed upon as yet and while we know that bleaching pro- 
 duces certain effects upon flour, giving from one standpoint 
 a better product and from another a poorer one, the chemical 
 effect upon the flour is as yet unknown. Chemical analysis 
 however may readily detect bleaching, and the extent to which 
 flour has been bleached. Bleached flour is not necessarily an 
 inferior product and if offered for sale, strictly upon its own 
 merits, it would meet competition of unbleached flour very 
 favorably. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 Importance of Water. 
 
 The great importance of the character, general composi- 
 tion and bacteriological purity of the water employed in 
 baking, has only been recognized within the last few years. 
 Natural water, while its biological purity may be satisfac- 
 tory, is never found to be chemically pure, owing to the fact 
 that it is a ready solvent for many substances, mineral or 
 organic, with which it comes in contact during its course. 
 The dissolved substances have been found to influence the 
 fermentation that bread has to undergo in its dough stages 
 and this affects certain essential properties of the finished 
 product such as flavor, color, loaf, volume, texture and 
 stability. 
 
 It has been frequently said that water fit for drinking 
 purposes is also fit for bread making; but while this is true 
 in general, it is not so under all conditions. In fact a certain 
 type of water, the so-called alkaline waters, may be very 
 desirable drinking water yet it is very undesirable, if indeed 
 not unfit for baking. In other cases the composition of the 
 water may at least necessitate certain modifications in the 
 formulas employed in the manufacture of bread as well as of 
 various cakes. 
 
 Turbid Water. 
 
 Turbidity, which is icaused by suspended particles of insol- 
 uble substances, such as fine clay, hydrate of iron, organic 
 
 22 
 
matter, etc., does not necessarily exclude such water from 
 being used for baking. If the turbidity can be fully removed 
 by filtration, resulting in a clear water of good quality other- 
 wise, the water may well be used. In cases wherein the tur- 
 bidity is caused by organic refuse, it is difficult through fil- 
 tration alone to render water fit for baking purposes. On the 
 other hand, even a clear and sparkling water may be con- 
 taminated by organic matter and infected with bacteria to 
 such an extent as to affect fermentation by the development of 
 foreign organisms. 
 
 Hard and Soft Water; Alkaline Water. 
 
 If a water contains in solution appreciable quantities of 
 calcium and magnesium salts in form of bicarbonates or sul- 
 phates, it is termed hard water, otherwise it is soft. 
 Since the bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium which are 
 found practically in all natural waters can be precipitated 
 by boiling, and the hardness thereby removed, this hardness 
 is termed temporary hardness. Hardness due to the dis- 
 solved sulphates of the same two elements and which cannot 
 be removed by boiling, is called permanent. Waters con- 
 taining sodium carbonate (soda) in solution, are termed 
 alkaline, and have an alkaline reaction when being boiled. 
 Other substances occurring in natural water are sodium 
 chloride (common salt) silicates, occasionally iron salts, and 
 organic matter of various composition. 
 
 Effect of Different Waters in Baking. 
 
 Important in the baking industry inasmuch as they have 
 a decided effect upon the dough and its fermentation or upon 
 the finished product, are the substances or salts causing hard- 
 ness, particularly calcium sulphate, sodium carbonate and 
 sodium chloride. 
 
 It has been demonstrated by extended experiments in the 
 laboratories of the Institute and by practical observations, that 
 waters possessing a fair degree of permanent hardness (cal- 
 cium sulphate) strengthen or toughen the gluten, so that hi 
 doughs made with such waters the carbondioxide is retained 
 and enmeshed better, producing a finely grained texture. Ex- 
 cessive hardness, however, retards the fermentation so that 
 
 23 
 
higher temperatures or an increased quantity of yeast will be 
 necessary to properly develop the dough. 
 
 Soft water, particularly if used in connection with a 
 weaker flour, permits softening- of the dough during fer- 
 mentation, which makes the dough sticky and the resulting 
 bread "soggy." Alkaline waters by virtue of the soda caus- 
 ing their alkalinity, will not only reduce the acidity developed 
 during fermentation, and thereby decrease the activity of the 
 enzymes present in the flour as well as in the yeast used in 
 the dough, but have directly a solvent effect upon the gluten, 
 weakening it and reducing its gas retaining capacity. Hence, 
 neither very soft nor alkaline waters should be used without 
 being improved by proper treatment. 
 
 Analysis of Typical Waters. 
 
 (Parts per million.) 
 
 Lake 
 Soft Hard Alkaline Michigan 
 
 Calcium carbonate 30 parts 353 parts... 64 parts... 75 parts 
 
 Magnesium carbonate ....19 " 56 " ... 36 " ...15 " 
 
 Calcium sulphate 7 " 275 " ...none 9 " 
 
 Magnesium sulphate none 130 " 23 parts... 12 " 
 
 Sodium carbonate none none 105 " ... none 
 
 Sodium chloride 54 parts 63 parts... 29 " ...11 " 
 
 Ammonia trace none trace none 
 
 Silicates 3 parts. ... 10 parts. . . 15 parts. . . 5 " 
 
 Organic matter 31 " 12 " ... 14 " ...10 " 
 
 The waters designated as "soft" and "Lake Michigan" 
 are quite similar and in general of the same type, the slight 
 differences in the quantities of the various salts contained in 
 these two waters being of no significance. 
 
 The "hard" w r ater shows a high amount of both car- 
 bonates as also the sulphates of calcium and magnesium ; yet 
 these quantities do not exceed the maximum permissible for a 
 water used for baking, and hence this water must be con- 
 sidered as well adaptable for this purpose. 
 
 The sample of "alkaline" water is of moderate hardness, 
 but contains a fairly high amount of sodium carbonate suf- 
 ficient to have a detrimental effect upon the dough ; hence, 
 its use is not to be recommended. 
 
SUGARS. 
 
 Sugars as Sweetening and Improving Agents. 
 
 Sugars play an important part in the baking industry a3 
 sweetening agents and improving agents. There are a great 
 variety of sugars of different quality and composition and 
 according to their most characteristic properties, one or the 
 other should be used for specific purposes. In order to obtain 
 a pronounced sweetness, sucrose is the most advisable, since 
 the same has a greater sweetness than any other commercial 
 sugar. The sugars belong to the class of bodies which are 
 known as carbo-hydrates. Chemically, they consist of the 
 elements of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. A characteristic 
 of the majority of sugars is their sweet taste and solubility 
 in water. Other carbohydrates, such as cellulose and starch, 
 do not possess these properties or only to a very slight degree. 
 By reason of their great solubility, sugars may be regarded 
 as having a higher nutritive value than other carbohydrates, 
 since insoluble carbohydrates must be converted into sugars 
 before being fermented. Sugars are of vegetable as well as of 
 animal origin. 
 
 /Sugar is the substance from which during fermentation, 
 the carbondioxide gas and alcohol is formed as indicated by 
 the chemical formula C^EUO^ + H 2 = 4C0 2 -f 4C 2 H 6 0. 
 
 The carbondioxide gas generated is held enmeshed in the 
 small gluten cells and causes the dough to rise. Sugar is a 
 factor in the moisture retaining quality of a loaf and gives the 
 loaf in baking a nut brown color. In the growth of the yeast 
 cells, no sugar is absorbed or assimilated by the yeast. The in- 
 version as well as the fermentation of the sugar is effected not 
 by the yeast cell itself, but by the enzymes that are generated 
 by the healthy and vigorously growing yeast cells. 
 
 Sucrose, Cane or Eeet Sugar. 
 
 Sucrose is derived from the sugar cane, sugar beet, maple 
 tree and the sorghum plant. The two first named are com- 
 mercially of greater importance and the granulated sugar of 
 commerce is obtained from these sources. From a chemical 
 standpoint, cane and beet sugar in the refined state, due to 
 their great purity, are therefore identical and there is also no 
 
 25 
 
marked difference in the physical properties, such as sweet- 
 ness, solubility, fermentability, etc. It is an erroneous opinion 
 that cane sugar is sweeter than beet sugar or vice versa, 
 because the sweetness depends solely on the degree of refine- 
 ment. The fineness of crystal does not indicate the source of 
 the sugar since each one of these sugars may be obtained 
 coarse, fine, or powdered. On the other hand, there is a 
 marked difference in the chemical and physical character of 
 these sugars in the raw or partly refined state, on account 
 of the variation of the amount of invert sugar, ash and nitrog- 
 enous bodies which they contain. 
 
 Cane sugar is unfermentable with yeast, but by the enzy- 
 matic action of the invertase contained in the yeast, it is 
 slowly converted into the fermentable invert sugar, which 
 is a mixture of glucose and fructose. For this reason cane 
 sugar must be regarded as being very slowly acted upon and 
 when time is to be gained in fermentation, other sugars which 
 may be directly fermented with yeast are preferable. For 
 cake making, cane sugar (sucrose) cannot, at least not en- 
 tirely, be substituted for by other sugars, on account of its 
 great sweetening power. Cane sugar forms invert sugar not 
 only through the action of certain enzymes as mentioned 
 above, but also by heating with dilute acids and, though very 
 slowly, by continuous boiling of an aqueous solution. 
 
 The granulated, sugar of commerce is a very pure food 
 product. The United States standard for white sugar is 
 99.5% sucrose, the sucrose content of granulated sugar as a 
 rule varies between 99.5% and 99.8%. Aside of a little mois- 
 ture and invert sugar it usually contains minute amounts of 
 ultramarine blue, which is added to the sugar to counteract 
 the natural yellow tint. Granulated sugar is hardly ever 
 adulterated, while powdered sugar sometimes contains starch 
 and other adulterations which may be easily detected. 
 
 Brown Sugar is a lesser refined sugar containing often a 
 large percentage of impurities. Its sucrose content varies 
 between 83 and 92%. It contains 3 to 6% invert sugar, 
 3 to 6%> moisture and 1 to 3% mineral matter. As a sweeten- 
 ing agent brown sugar is inferior to granulated sugar, but it 
 promotes a more rapid fermentation. 
 
 26 
 
Maple Sugar is never as pure and sweet as refined cane 
 or beet sugar, but possesses a good flavor, for which it is 
 highly estimated. It is often subjected to adulteration with 
 brown sugar. It contains between 72 to 88% sucrose and 
 1 to 8% invert sugar. 
 
 Syrups are liquids separated from the granulated sugars 
 by centrifuging. There is a great variation in the composi- 
 tion of syrups and therefore a wide range in price of the 
 various grades. Aside of the sucrose, they contain a large 
 amount of invert and other reducing sugars, water and min- 
 eral matters. Syrup for table use contains about 40% sucrose, 
 20% water, 10% organic matter and 5% mineral matter. 
 Maple syrup is quite frequently adulterated with the latter. 
 The molasses represents the best mother-liquid from which 
 sugar is crystallized and from which no more sugar can be 
 obtained profitably. Molasses contains between 25 and 43% 
 sucrose, 15 to 40% invert sugar, 10 to 20% organic non-sugars, 
 20 to 307c water and 4 to 8% ash. 
 
 Dextrose or Corn Sugar. 
 
 Corn sugar is known as starch or grape sugar, dextrose, 
 glucose or anhydrous sugar, etc., and occurs together with levu- 
 lose in honey and with levulose and cane sugar in fruits. It is 
 manufactured in this country exclusively from corn starch by 
 the action of dilute acids. In this process a number of inter- 
 mediate products are formed of which the dextrines are of the 
 greatest importance. The more thorough the conversion of the 
 starch, the smaller will be the percentage of dextrine and the 
 larger glucose. Time, temperature and concentration of acid 
 are mostly responsible for the difference in composition. Since 
 corn sugar is used by the baker mostly on account of the easy 
 fermentation, it will be of the greatest advantage for his pur- 
 poses to use the starch sugar in as pure a condition as possible, 
 since the dextrine is not fermentable and remains as an indif- 
 ferent admixture. 
 
 Corn sugar shows great variations in its appearance, and 
 it is well to call attention to the fact that from the appearance 
 no conclusion can be drawn as to the purity of the product. 
 Corn sugar may be either a syrup or solid, in form of powder, 
 lumps, or granulated. The color varies from white to dark 
 
 27 
 
brown, the brown color being caused by a little caramelized 
 sugar. 
 
 Corn sugar is only two-thirds as sweet as cane sugar and 
 therefore as a sweetening agent is of less importance than the 
 latter. It is readily soluble in water and is directly fermentable 
 by the action of the yeast without any further conversion. For 
 this reason corn sugar in its various forms may be applied with 
 great advantage in bread making; however, it must be used 
 in larger quantities than cane sugar, due to its water con- 
 tent. Aside of shortening the fermenting period, corn sugar 
 means a considerable saving for the baker on account of its 
 lower price. 
 
 Commercial glucose varies in composition according to 
 methods of manufacture. A high dextrine content is to be 
 avoided because dextrine is not fermentable. 
 
 Composition of Oorn (Sugars. 
 
 Moisture 1 to 18 % 
 
 Dextrose 80 " 97" 
 
 Maltose trace " 2" 
 
 Dextrine 1 " 10 " 
 
 Mineral Matter trace " 0.8 " 
 
 Levulose or Fructose, together with dextrose, is formed 
 in the inversion of cane sugar. It is sweeter than dextrose, 
 but not quite as sweet as cane sugar. Pure levulose is now 
 manufactured commercially. 
 
 Maltose or Malt Sugar is obtained from gelatinized starch 
 by the action of the enzyme diastase, which occurs in malt. 
 Malt itself contains a certain percentage of maltose, but the 
 greatest part is formed in treating starch with malt. Maltose 
 is slighly sweeter than corn sugar, but not as sweet as cane 
 sugar. Like the latter it is not directly fermentable, but must 
 be transformed into dextrose. This is accomplished by the 
 action of the maltase, an enzyme contained in yeast. Malt 
 extract contains beside the soluble proteid matter and diastase, 
 a large percentage of maltose. Maltose, like corn sugar, though 
 to a lesser degree, hastens fermentation but it must be used 
 carefully and with restrictions. An excess will have the ten- 
 dency to over-ripen the gluten. 
 
 28 
 
Milk Sugar, also known as Lactose, is the principal carbo- 
 hydrate in milk in which it is normally present in amounts 
 varying from 3 to 5%. This sugar has only a very slight 
 sweetening power and its use as a baking material is still some- 
 what questionable. The same is prepared from skim milk, and 
 is frequently adulterated with grape and corn sugars in conse- 
 quence of which its purity should always be established by 
 chemical analysis. Like cane sugar it is readily inverted with 
 dilute acids into fermentable sugar, dextrose and galactose, 
 but unlike cane sugar by its very nature it favors lactic acid 
 fermentation when used in the dough. The principal use of 
 this sugar is for the preparation of infant foods; its cost 
 makes its employment in baking rather prohibitive except in 
 special instances where certain effects are desired. 
 
 SALT. 
 
 Purity of Salt. 
 
 Salt is produced from three different sources and may be 
 named according to their source ; bag or sea salt, rock or mine 
 salt, natural or pit salt. It is not found in nature sufficently 
 pure for bread making, its chief impurities are calcium and 
 magnesium salts. There are obtainable on the market several 
 brands of refined salt for use in baking, which are almost 
 chemically pure sodium chloride. It is preferable to use the 
 best grade of salt because of its purity which gives a pure 
 salt flavor unmixed with a "biting" or burning taste imparted 
 by impure salt. 
 
 Effect of Salt. 
 
 Salt is used for two purposes each of which is very import- 
 ant in bread making. It imparts a pleasant flavor to bread 
 and without it bread would be insipid. A small quantity of 
 salt has a sensitizing action upon the palate which accentuates 
 the more delicate and less pronounced flavors of other sub- 
 stances. For example, the sense of taste can detect a small 
 amount of sugar in the presence of salt, when without salt, 
 it would not be tasted. 
 
 Upon fermentation salt has the greatest influence. It is 
 used as a "governor" to control the fermentation of the dough, 
 
and has a powerful action upon lactic acid and other foreign 
 ferments in that it checks their activity and growth and yet 
 is conducive to the proper yeast fermentation. Salt is used 
 to the extent of 1.75% based on the flour (3^ pounds to the 
 barrel) although somewhat less effects a retarding action 
 upon alcoholic fermentation. The retarding action due to salt 
 is often taken advantage of on hot sultry summer days when 
 the dough "comes fast" by adding an extra supply of s-ilt.^ 
 However, decreasing the quantities of yeast and sugar are to be 
 recommended instead, inasmuch as too much salt makes 
 the bread bitter and impairs its quality in general. Salt 
 checks the diastasis and controls the hydrolysis of the starch 
 particles and can well be used in larger amounts with new 
 flour on account of its content of very active enzymes. In 
 average amounts, salt produces a bleaching action upon the 
 bread although the nature of this action is not agreed upon. 
 
 Analysis of Three Different Samples of Salt. 
 
 No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 
 
 Moisture 0.027 % 0.390 % 3.60 % 
 
 Matter insoluble in water 0.010 " 0.045 " 0.084 ' ' 
 
 Calcium sulphate 0.040 " 1.894 " 2.100 ' « 
 
 Calcium chloride none none none 
 
 Magnesium sulphate 0.012" 0.340" 0.542" 
 
 Magnesium chloride 0.007 " 0.0S0 " 0.10G ' ' 
 
 Pure salt (sodium chloride) ' 99.534 " 97.251 " 93.568 " 
 
 According to the foregoing analysis, sample "No. 1" rep- 
 resents a good grade of salt, having as it does a low moisture 
 content, low content of calcium and magnesium salts. Sample 
 "No. 2" and "No. 3" are both lower in grade on account of 
 the total impurities and moisture content. 
 
 YEAST. 
 
 Introduction of Pure Yeast. 
 
 One of the greatest evolutions in the baking industry has 
 probably been effected by no other one material to any greater 
 extent than the introduction of compressed pure culture yeast. 
 In fact this has been of such great importance that without 
 compressed yeast, it would be impossible to manufacture bread 
 
 30 
 
by the straight dough process. Yeast itself, is a microscopic 
 form of plant life belonging to the Fungus group, as is more 
 fully described in Chapter VIII, to which reference should be 
 made in this connection.* 
 
 Functions of the Yeast. 
 
 Healthy and vigorously growing yeast excretes a series of 
 soluble bodies or substances which are of the utmost import- 
 ance to the fermentation of dough and baking of bread. 
 These active principles are known as enzymes and are pro- 
 duced by living organisms. The most remarkable character- 
 istic of enzymes is that a very small amount is able to change 
 or convert an enormously large quantity of substance and at 
 the same time remain unaffected. Chiefly of interest among 
 enzymes are zymase, invertase, maltase, diastase and protease. 
 Zymase is the enzyme which is directly responsible for break- 
 ing up of sugars into alcohol and carbon-dioxide gas. It acts 
 only upon the simpler sugars of the dextrose type. The ris- 
 ing of the dough is due then to the activity of the zymase. 
 Invertase "inverts" or converts cane sugar, which cannot be 
 fermented directly, into dextrose and levulose which are 
 readily fermentable. Maltase converts maltose or malt sugar 
 into dextrose so that consequently maltose may be used in 
 bread making, but is converted into simpler sugars before 
 being in a condition that they are of use in fermentation. 
 Diastase is an enzyme that effects a transformation of starch 
 into maltose. Yeast excretes diastase but malt extract 
 furnishes a large supply of diastase and is used quite exten- 
 sively (see Malt Extract). Protease is a proteolytic enzyme 
 that acts upon proteins. It has a solvent action and renders 
 the nitrogenous material soluble so that it may be readily used 
 and assimilated by the growing yeast. Protease also has a 
 softening effect upon the gluten in the dough and aids in its 
 proper development. 
 
 Growth of Yeast. 
 
 For the proper growth and development of yeast, certain 
 soluble substances are necessary, including mineral salts and 
 soluble proteid material. The mineral salts are furnished in 
 part by the flour which contains, -among other substances, 
 
 * See also Plate VI. 
 
potassium, calcium, and magnesium phosphates. Potassium 
 phosphate is absolutely indispensable to the growth and devel- 
 opment of yeast while magnesium salts are of great value if 
 not necessary. Sodium and calcium phosphates cannot effec- 
 tively replace the potassium salt. Oxygen is another consti- 
 tuent that is necessary for yeast growth. It promotes activity 
 and a rapid and vigorous growth of yeast cells. In fermenta- 
 tion of dough, the oxygen incorporated in the dough is used 
 up by the yeast before the fermentation of the sugar is begun. 
 Peculiar also is the action of yeast upon the dextrose and 
 levulose, the former is fermented first and not until all the 
 dextrose has disappeared is the levulose attacked. For a 
 good, strong healthy and vigorous fermentation, a supply of 
 food that may be readily assimilated is necessary and may be 
 supplied through the use of malt extract, special sugars, and 
 other yeast foods and improvers. 
 
 Various Kinds of Yeast. 
 
 While the various kinds of yeast employed hereto- 
 fore for baking purposes are of no more than pass- 
 ing interest to the baker at this time, still for the 
 purpose of completeness a short reference should be made 
 thereto. Among these probably the principal one is the Barm- 
 Yeast or Ferment, sometimes called Stock Yeast, prepared in 
 different ways. The next step was the Dry Yeast and then the 
 Compressed Yeast. The Barm or Stock Yeast is obtained from 
 spontaneous fermentation, a variety of formulae having been 
 pursued with greater or lesser success. These consisted chiefly 
 of boiling some dried hops in water and after being brought 
 down to a moderate temperature of about 114° F., flour, sugar 
 and ground malt were added and the same kept at this tem- 
 perature for a few hours and allowed to settle, when the liquid 
 was separated from the insoluble matter which had settled, and 
 cooled to ordinary temperature. It was subjected to ordinary 
 air and spontaneous fermentation which was completed after 
 about 24 to 48 hours. 
 
 Dry yeast was a subsequent product which in many in- 
 stances was prepared from the stock obtained from spon- 
 taneous fermentation in the manner indicated. In order to 
 press and dry it, and overcome the difficulties of bacterial 
 infections, the same was mixed with corn meal and corn starch. 
 
 32 
 
In this way, of course, the yeast was frequently in a highly 
 weakened condition and would produce results only after 
 somewhat more extended time. The dry yeast is still being 
 used quite extensively by the housewife, but very little by 
 the practical baker. These yeasts are not to be recommended 
 nor are they adaptable since by reason of the way in which they 
 are obtained, spontaneous fermentation, it is evident that for- 
 eign infection is difficult to avoid, while it is absolutely certain 
 that there can be no question of uniformity either with 
 regards to appearance and flavor of the product, through their 
 use. 
 
 Pure Culture Yeast is derived by isolating one single cell 
 of a certain yeast, the characteristics of which have been 
 definitely ascertained and which is then propagated under the 
 most sterile conditions, until larger quantities have been ob- 
 tained, which are then used to innoculate Pure Yeast Appara- 
 tus, in which the amount is increased by further propagation.* 
 
 Compressed Yeast. 
 
 In the manufacture of compressed yeast a quantity of corn 
 ground to a meal is cooked under pressure to effect gelatiniza- 
 tion of the starch. This is known as the corn mash. It is 
 then run into the malt mash, which is prepared in a tub pro- 
 vided with a false bottom and in which the cleaned and ground 
 or crushed malt is mixed with water at a temperature of 
 about 40 to 45° C. The temperature is then raised to 50° C, 
 whereupon the raw grain or gelatinized corn mash is led in 
 and digestion continued between 50 and 60° C. until all the 
 starch is converted into sugar. By means of the false bottoms 
 the liquid is then separated from the grains and contains be- 
 side the sugar that has formed, also soluble mineral matter 
 as well as soluble nitrogenus substances. This liquid or wort 
 is then mixed or ''pitched" with the yeast and fermentation 
 allowed to proceed until all of the sugar has been converted 
 into carbonic acid and alcohol. During this time, the yeast, 
 as already indicated, multiplies very rapidly. The yeast is 
 then removed from the completely fermented liquid by cen- 
 trifuging. It is conveyed through cooling apparatus to receiv- 
 
 * See Chapter VIII. 
 
 33 
 
ing tanks, and then passes through a series of filters, where 
 the superfluous liquid is pressed out. The compressed yeast 
 remaining in the filter presses is mixed and by means of pack- 
 ing machinery is put up in convenient and suitable sized por- 
 tions which are then kept in cold storage until they are 
 brought to the market for use. 
 
 Pure compressed yeast should contain about 73.5% of 
 moisture ; it should be free from starch and somewhat crumbly 
 but not slimy. It should be of pale yellowish brown color. The 
 composition of yeast varies considerably. 
 
 Varying Chemical Composition of Compressed Yeast. 
 
 Moisture from 60 to 75 % 
 
 Protein from 10 to 25 " 
 
 Ash from 2.5 to 10.5 < ' 
 
 Fat from 1 to 5 " 
 
 Starch from to 35 " 
 
 Fermenting power (CO o ) from 85 to 100 ' ' 
 
 Dead cells from to 10 " 
 
 Bacteria from to 15 " 
 
 The chief adulterant in compressed yeast is starch which 
 is easily detected. The use of starch may be considered 
 objectionable when the purpose is to give added weight, but 
 at the same time an added 5 to 10% may greatly facilitate its 
 keeping qualities. Starch absorbs and retains moisture and 
 keeps the yeast cells in a drier condition. Starch was formerly 
 added because the bacterial content of the yeast produced a 
 slimy product which could only with difficulty be filtered. 
 Adding the starch overcame this difficulty. Inasmuch as 
 through the improved methods of manufacture, yeast is prac- 
 tically free from bacteria and since pure yeast has keeping 
 qualities that adequately meet the demands of commercial 
 conditions, the addition of starch is not farored. 
 
 Analysis of Three Different Compressed Yeast Samples. 
 
 No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. 
 
 Weight of cake 10.00 oz 15.95 oz 16.27 oz. 
 
 Moisture 74.92% 68.86 % 63.69 % 
 
 Starch none 3.2 " 14.1 ' ' 
 
 Gas producing strength 92.9% S3.5 " 64.3 " 
 
 Dead cells occasional 1—2 " 6—7 ' ' 
 
 Bacteria none 1—2 " 2—3 " 
 
 34 
 
Sample No. 1 represents a high grade yeast. This is indi- 
 cated by its purity, high gas producing strength and perfect 
 soundness. While No. 2 is not as good as the previous one, it is 
 decidedly better than sample No. 3, which is the poorest kind 
 of yeast that a baker could buy, by reason of its high starch 
 content, dead cells, bacteria, as well as low gas producing 
 strength. 
 
 SHORTENING MATERIAL. 
 
 Animal and Vegetable Fats and Oils. 
 
 Lard, oil, etc., are substances that are chemically known as 
 fats and are found and obtained from animal sources (lard, 
 oleo oil) and vegetable sources (cottonseed oil, corn oil, soy 
 bean oil, cocoanut oil). They have a certain definite function 
 to perform in bread making and the baking industry, certain 
 of which afford advantages of merit and convenience over the 
 others. 
 
 Pure lard is made from the fat of the hog, and is white, 
 granular in texture and possesses an agreeable and character- 
 istic odor and flavor. It is made by rendering in a steam 
 kettle either open or closed the entire fat of the hog. This 
 is known as kettle-rendered lard. Leaf lard is expressed 
 from the fat which surrounds the kidneys and is the choicest 
 and highest grade portion of the lard. Lard is graded in 
 quality according to its source, and next to leaf-lard in the 
 following order is lard from the fat from the hog's back, the 
 region of the breast, and that portion cut from small intes- 
 tines. Neutral lard is produced by treating "leaf lard" 
 by chilling and pressing and subsequent washing with very 
 dilute acid. This represents the very best hog fat and is used 
 almost exclusively in the manufacture of oleomargarine. 
 Oleomargarine is made by churning refined oleo oil — the oil 
 remaining after chilling the stearin from fat — with neutral 
 lard, milk and some pure butter. Cottonseed oil is extensively 
 used in oleomargarine. There is no objection to the use of 
 oleomargarine ; it is, as now manufactured, a pure and whole- 
 some product. The flavor, however, is hardly so good as that 
 of butter, but as a shortening agent, or as a food in general, 
 no objection can be made to oleomargarine. 
 
 Butter is the fat obtained from cow's milk and is used in 
 cake baking because of its flavor. Butter is not pure fat but 
 
 35 
 
< "Ml. mi:: Water, riiNcin (curd) sail jiikI ;i sdijiII quantity <i!" 
 
 Miiii^ ? . 1 1 ,- ■ ; 1 1 • . etd tti flavor li due <<> Hs content <>f volatile 
 Cutty acids which give ii the peculiar "buttery" flavor! 
 
 OhfJttiOfJ OompOlitiOO of Normal BuM.or. 
 
 Molitura ll.OB 1 
 
 I'm 87.00 " 
 
 < ':i i II .id ■ ' 
 
 \ li (I. Ill •' 
 
 i m klo A> "i 0.70 " 
 
 The United States Dcpartmonl of /Vgrioulture maintain! the 
 follow in," stands i<l i or 'nil i cr : 
 
 Moiituro ii B0 ( . 
 
 Pat 32 10" 
 
 I Is -hi !.■■.■■ 
 
 MlIK .11. M! 0.80 " 
 
 Ufa (Mil ■' 
 
 I I. li. \. I.I (I., > " 
 
 All butter thai enters interstate shipmenl thai Palls below 
 this standard Is considered Inferior and adulterated. Water 
 Is iii' 1 tnoil oommon adulterant, although sail and other fats 
 .i i c oil en used 
 
 EUnovatad butttr Is made by washing and steaming butter 
 thai lias beoome panoid, and subsequenl ohurning with Fresh 
 mill* The flavor of the finished produol is peouliar and is due 
 i«> subs! aiiocs thai oannol i><- removed by Hk v prooess of manu 
 faoturCi ii is w^^i bu1 little in the baking industry, 
 
 Pats or compounds are used to produce a "riohness" in the 
 produoti Butter is employed mostly in oakes, although oleo 
 margarine, lard and lard compounds replaoe butter in pari 
 lu bread making, lard, cottonseed oil and oompounds arc used 
 to " shorten ' ' t he produot. 
 
 ah of i ii<' foregoing inenl ioned fats have various melting 
 
 point-; ;ui(l broadly speaking tllOSC wlmli ;nv solid al ordinary 
 
 temperatures arc railed "fats" while those whioh under this 
 condition are liquid reoeive the name of "oils." Many fats 
 
 and oils pOSSeSS a di-.luiii odor ;ind l!:i\or, agreeable or other 
 
 wise, and Indicative of their origin, such characteristics arc 
 due, however, to 1111111111- traoes of associated substances, rather 
 than to the pure fa1 or od itself, 
 
Fats and oils are practically insoluble in water but are 
 soluble in alcohol. If protected from air and sunlight, they 
 remain unchanged Tor a considerable time, but on exposure 
 are liable to develop rancidity. This is hastened by the pres- 
 ence of bacteria] infection. Once rancid it is useless to try to 
 improve them as no restorative or preservative will help to 
 bring the oil or Eat back to natural soundness and when used 
 in bread or cake the pungent odor will remain even after 
 baking. 
 
 In the manufacture of cakes, pure butler should always be 
 
 given preference for its flavor cannot be replaced no matter 
 what the compound is. Butter should always be used spar- 
 ingly not alone on account of its high price, but for the reason 
 
 that butter is rich, and unless employed in the righl propor- 
 tions it will not only cause the cake to Tall in the stage of 
 baking but will also produce a heavy cake that is uol easily 
 
 digestible. 
 
 Method for Mixing the Shortening. 
 
 Fats in bread making serve differenl purposes. Either 
 lard or a good cottonseed oil can be employed. The shorten 
 ing should be accurately weighed and melted down and special 
 attention given to distribute it evenly in the dough. The object, 
 is to combine the shortening partly with the gluten to make it 
 more elastic. It, will not only lend to give the dough what is 
 termed "spring" in the oven, but will also SOften and shorten 
 both crust and crumb, and help the loaf to retain the moisture 
 longer. Shortening should be incorporated in the mix after 
 all the other materials have been mixed for a short time. Lard, 
 etc., has a stimulating effect upon the gluten and the softer the 
 Hour the more shortening should be used. 
 
 YEAST FOODS AND BREAD IMPROVERS. 
 What is Yeast Food? 
 
 "Yeast Pood" is a term that has been incorrectly applied 
 to designate a material or substance that has a stimulating 
 
 effect upon fermentation. For instance, sugar has I n called 
 
 an yeast food; mall extract is known as an yeast food. A 
 substance to be a food must be capable of assimilation by the 
 organism fed. Some substances are essential and necessary 
 to the growth of yeast and may or may not be yeast foods. IV 
 
 37 
 
tassium phosphate is necessary for yeast growth, but it is not 
 a food. Ammonium salts are converted into proteid material 
 and hence are foods. Sugar is not yeast food because it is not 
 assimilated by the yeast. True, the kind and amount of sugar 
 influences fermentation, but sugar is acted upon by zymase 
 secreted by the yeast, and furnishes the energy by which 
 the yeast cells are enabled to perform their functions. Malt 
 extract is partly a yeast food because it supplies a quantity 
 of soluble proteid matter readily assimilated "oy the yeast, 
 but the content of maltose and diastase does not necessarily 
 characterize it as a yeast food. 
 
 What Is a Bread Improver? 
 
 Bread Improver is the term applied to a material added in 
 bread making to improve the quality of the product or to sup- 
 plant part of the materials and hence reduce the cost of pro- 
 duction. Such substances as milk, milk powder, malt flour, 
 special sugars as maltose, corn sugar, also special mineral or 
 chemical salts act as improvers. 
 
 Malt or Malt Extract. 
 
 Malt extract is manufactured through concentration of an 
 aqueous extract of germinated barley. In the process of pre- 
 paring the malt, the barley after being thoroughly cleaned 
 is steeped in water, and transferred to the malting floor where 
 it is allowed to sprout under careful control. Sufficient mois- 
 ture, proper temperature and suitable ventilation or aeration 
 of the germinating barley is provided. The proper conditions 
 insure a uniform growth and development of the enzymes that 
 are desired. After the germination has proceeded to the 
 proper point, it is carefully kiln-dried. The kilning operation 
 arrests the growth of the germ, but does not destroy the 
 action of the enzymes which have developed during germina- 
 tion. The dried germinated barley grain, now known as malt, 
 is ground, macerated and digested with water and the aqueous 
 extract containing the soluble constituents in the malted bar- 
 ley is concentrated by evaporation in vacuum apparatus. The 
 concentrated extract is more convenient to handle. 
 
 In the germination of the barley, three distinct enzymes 
 are active, namely: cytase, diastase and peptase. Cytase dis- 
 solves the walls of the starch cell so that the diastase may 
 react upon the starch contained within. At the same time the 
 
 38 
 
proteid material is attacked by the proteolytic enzyme peptase 
 and is rendered soluble and available for food for the growing 
 germ. In the extract these three enzymes, along with soluble 
 nitrogenous bodies, and maltose, which is obtained through the 
 action of the diastase upon the starch, are the active sub- 
 stances. However, malt extract by its nature favors adultera- 
 tion and in few other products are the opportunities for 
 buying a product so devoid of the constituents desired as in 
 the case of malt extract. To guard against any possible de- 
 ception and to detect any inferiority, a chemical analysis 
 becomes necessary. 
 
 Parallel Analyses of Two Samples of Malt Extract. 
 
 Water 27.69 % 19.47 % 
 
 Extract 72.31 " 80.53 ' < 
 
 Consisting of 
 
 Maltose 62.27 " 64.39 " 
 
 Dextrine 5.24 < ' 8.99 ' ' 
 
 Albuminoids 3.33 << 553 < < 
 
 Acid (as lactic acid) 0.26 " 0.22 " 
 
 Ash 1.21 " 1.40 ' ' 
 
 Diastatie power (degrees Lintner) 21° 87° 
 
 While these two samples show a great variation in their 
 respective diastatie power, these variations may oftimes be 
 considerably greater, so that in some instances the extract 
 contains practically no diastatie power, while in others this 
 may be as high as 100 to even 120°. Therefore, the necessity 
 of a correct analysis with regards to diastatie power becomes 
 apparent. 
 
 While from the foregoing results, sample No. 1 indicates 
 a lower percentage of unfermentable sugar (dextrin) as also 
 ash, nevertheless sample labeled No. 2 must be considered 
 as being superior by virtue of the fact that the moisture con- 
 tained therein is lower, the extract as well as albuminoids, 
 and maltose is correspondingly greater and particularly that 
 the diastatie value in the latter is considerably higher. 
 
 Aside from the mineral salts (ash) and the maltose found 
 in the malt extract (and which have been discussed in pre- 
 ceding chapters) the two enzymes diastase and protease or 
 peptase are the desirable substances, and of the two, there 
 is some question as to their relative advantages and merits. 
 
 39 
 
Action of Diastase. 
 
 In bread making, the diastase acts upon the starch in the 
 flour converting it into maltose and this through maltase and 
 zymase, enzymes secreted by yeast, is readily fermented. How- 
 ever, this diastatic action is very slow at the temperature of 
 fermentation, but in the proof box and for the first ten or 
 fifteen minutes in the oven, the action is very vigorous and 
 at 150° F. diastase converts 2,000 times its own weight of 
 starch in ten minutes. The maltose produced is little fer- 
 mented, on account of the elevated temperature, but its pres- 
 ence in the baked loaf improves the quality and increases its 
 moisture retaining power. 
 
 Action of Peptase. 
 
 Protease or peptase has a solvent action upon the proteid 
 material or gluten in the dough. Part of the gluten is digested 
 and rendered soluble and as such is readily absorbed by the 
 yeast. This soluble proteid material is an excellent yeast 
 food and promotes a vigorous fermentation. The gluten 
 throughout the dough is softened and rendered more pliable 
 and elastic. Protease then favors the development of the 
 gluten in the dough and especially so with the "harsh" or 
 strong flours. The peptic power and the diastatic power of 
 malt extract generally run in parallel so that an extract of 
 high degree of diastatic power in most cases has a high degree 
 of peptic power. 
 
 How to Use Malt Extract. 
 
 Therefore malt extract should be used cautiously in bread 
 making the amount depending upon the strength and stability 
 of the flour. In spring wheat flour one to one and a quarter 
 pounds is used with every hundred pounds of flour, while more 
 than this generally darkens the color of the loaf and favors 
 over-fermentation. With weaker flours, smaller quantities and 
 extracts of lower diastatic power should be used. Malt flour 
 or malt extract if used in excess will promote the tendency 
 of the dough to become "sticky" and soften too much. Malt 
 extract offers several advantages, however, in that it imparts 
 a palatable flavor to the loaf. It furnishes a supply of readily 
 assimilable food for the yeast and this food supply, together 
 with the maltose, is conducive to vigorous fermentation. The 
 
 40 
 
quantity of sugar and of yeast, principally the former, must be 
 reduced correspondingly. Malt extract imparts a rich brown 
 color to the crust of the loaf and increases the quality in 
 general. It also keeps the bread moist longer, that is with its 
 use the water retaining power is increased. Malt, through 
 the action of its diastase on the starch in the dough, produces 
 a large quantity of sugar, reducing at the same time the large 
 preponderance of starch. This improves the bread as a food 
 product inasmuch as the sugars are very easily absorbed by 
 the human system. Malt flour, which is milled from the germi- 
 nated barley grain has the same property as the extract, and 
 both the malt extract and the flour are the best yeast foods 
 and bread improvers from all standpoints. 
 
 Milk. 
 
 Another improver added to bread formulas to improve both 
 the flavor and general appearance of the loaf is milk. Often- 
 times whole milk or skimmed milk is added direct to the mix, 
 but the practice for the most part now is to add milk powder 
 or condensed milk. From the variety of milk products on 
 the market, one is able to select that kind which adapts itself 
 most conveniently to his purpose. 
 
 Analysis of Fresh, Unskimmed Milk. 
 
 Albu- Total Milk 
 Water Fat Casein men proteids Sugar Ash 
 90.32% 6.47% 6.29% 1.44% 6.40% 6.10% 1.21% 
 80.32" 1.67" 1.79" .25" 2.07" 2.11" .35" 
 87.27" 3.64" 3.02" .53" 3.55" 4.88" .71" 
 
 The specific gravity is of great importance for determining 
 whether or not the milk has been adulterated with water. 
 When the specific gravity falls below the minimum in above 
 table, it is almost certain that water has been added. A 
 specific gravity which is below the average may indicate that 
 water or skimmed milk has been added, though a very high fat 
 content will also tend to lower the specific gravity. In this 
 case the fat determination will decide whether the low specific 
 gravity is due to adulteration or high fat content. The milk 
 fat is undoubtedly the most valuable part of the milk. It 
 gives richness to the loaf and cake. The proteins confer moist- 
 ness and mellowness. The casein though insoluble in water 
 
 
 Specific 
 
 
 Gravity 
 
 Maximum 
 
 ..1.0370 
 
 Minimum 
 
 ..1.0264 
 
 Average . 
 
 ..1.0315 
 
can not be separated from fresh milk by filtering. It can be 
 separated only by acidifying the milk, which may be done 
 either by addition of acids or by the formation of lactic acid, 
 due to the development of bacteria which convert the milk 
 sugar into free lactic acid. As soon as the acidity reaches a 
 certain percentage, the casein coagulates and may easily be 
 separated from the milk. Rennin precipitates casein from 
 milk. Milk freed from casein is practically transparent. For 
 the evaluation of milk two points come into consideration, 
 namely, the fat content and the amount of total solids, which 
 remain after evaporation of the water in the milk. The total 
 solids consist of fat, casein, albumen, milk sugar, and min- 
 eral matter. The higher the water and the lower the fat 
 content, the more inferior will be the quality of the milk. It 
 is for this reason that creameries purchase their milk on the 
 fat content basis. In order to protect the small purchaser, 
 every state in the Union has fixed the milk standards by law. 
 Standard milk should contain not less than 3.25% of milk fat, 
 and not less than 8.50% of milk solids not fat. 
 
 Skimmed Milk is milk from which a part or practically all 
 milk fat has been removed. Centrifugally skimmed milk runs, 
 as a rule, lower in fat than milk skimmed in the usual manner. 
 The specific gravity of milk after skimming is higher than 
 before skimming, and the total solids, not fat, are higher in 
 skimmed milk. The standard for skimmed milk is not less 
 than 9.25% of milk solids. 
 
 Analysis of Fresh Milk. 
 
 Whole-Milk Skimmed Milk 
 
 Water 87.00 % 89.50 % 
 
 Fat 3.78 " 0.65 ' ' 
 
 Protein (N x 6.38) 4.26" 4.40" 
 
 Milk-Sugar 4.28 " 4.71 ' ' 
 
 Ash 0.68 " 0.74 ' ' 
 
 Condensed Milk is obtained by evaporating a part of the 
 water of milk in vacuum apparatus, and is either unsweetened 
 or sweetened by addition of cane sugar. As much as 50% 
 sugar is sometimes added to condensed milk. The condensed 
 milk may be derived either from unskimmed or skimmed and 
 according to its source as well as to the amount of water which 
 
 42 
 
has been evaporated, the composition will show great varia- 
 tions. The United States Department of Agriculture has 
 adopted the following standards for condensed milk : 
 
 Sweetened condensed or evaporated or concentrated milk, 
 is the product resulting from the evaporation of a consider- 
 able portion of the water from the whole, fresh, clean, lacteal 
 secretion obtained by the complete milking of one or more 
 healthy cows, properly fed and kept, excluding that obtained 
 within fifteen days before and ten days after calving to which 
 sugar (sucrose) has been added. It contains, all tolerances be- 
 ing allowed for, not less than twenty-eight per cent (28.0%) of 
 total milk solids, and not less than eight per cent (8.0%) of 
 milk fat. 
 
 Condensed, or evaporated, or concentrated skimmed milk, 
 is the product resulting from the evaporation of a considerable 
 portion of the water from skimmed milk, and contains, all 
 tolerances being allowed for, not less than twenty per cent 
 (20.07c) of milk solids. 
 
 Sweetened condensed, or evaporated, or concentrated skim- 
 med milk, is the product resulting from the evaporation of a 
 considerable portion of the water from skimmed milk to which 
 sugar (sucrose) has been added. It contains, all tolerances be- 
 ing allowed for, not less than twenty-eight per cent (28.0%) of 
 milk solids. 
 
 No admixture of butter fat, butter oil, or any other fat 
 than milk-fat is permitted. The fat contents of condensed 
 milk derived from unskimmed milk varies from mere traces 
 to 10%. Just as in ordinanry milk so in condensed milk the 
 value depends on the fat content and total solids. 
 
 Analysis of Condensed Milk. 
 
 Sweetened Condensed Unsweetened Condensed 
 Milk Milk 
 
 No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 
 
 Water 20.83 % 30.69 % 64.60 % 71.86 % 
 
 Milk solids 31.32 " 29.10 " 25.17 " 28.14 " 
 
 Cane sugar 47.85 " 40.15 " 10.23 " none 
 
 Starch none none plain traces . . none 
 
 Milk sugar 9.57" 11.89" 8.65" 9.84" 
 
 Total protein (Nx6.38). 8.05" 12.26" 6.10" 8.75" 
 
 Fat 12.00" 3.07" 9.13" 8.11" 
 
 Ash 1.80" 2.05" 1.37" 1.53" 
 
 43 
 
Milk Powders of various kinds are at present on the 
 market, derived by nearly complete evaporation of the 
 water from whole, half skimmed and skimmed milk. Accord- 
 ing to the cpiality of the original milk from which these pow- 
 ders are manufactured, the price and the quality of the latter 
 will vary. There are on the market whole milk or full cream 
 powders containing on an average 30% fat, half-skim milk 
 or half cream powders with an average of 15% of fat and 
 skim milk or separated milk powder with from 1 to 5% of fat. 
 The United States Department of Agriculture has formulated 
 the following standards for milk powder: 
 
 Analysis of Milk Powders. 
 
 Whole-Milk Skimmed Milk 
 
 Moisture 3.62 % 8.16 % 
 
 Fat 26.75 " 1.78 ' ' 
 
 Protein (Nx6.38) 32.65" 34.55% 
 
 Milk sugar 31.90" 49.35" 
 
 Ash 5.67 " 6.87 ' « 
 
 Dried milk is the product resulting from the removal 
 of water from milk, and contains, all tolerances being allowed 
 for, not less than twenty-six per cent (26.0%) of milk fat, 
 and not more than five per cent (5.0%) of moisture. 
 
 Dried skimmed milk is the product resulting from the 
 removal of water from skimmed milk and contains, all toler- 
 ances being allowed for, not more than five per cent (5.0%) of 
 moisture. 
 
 Adulteration of Milk. 
 
 The most common form of adulteration is the watering of 
 the milk and skimming to such an extent, that the fat con- 
 tent sinks below the standard. Ingredients which are some- 
 times added to milk are chalk, starch, glycerin, cane sugar, 
 coloring matter, preservatives, etc. The coloring matters 
 which are mostly used are annatto, caramel and certain aniline 
 colors. The preservatives most commonly used, are formal- 
 dehyde, boric acid, borax, sodium bicarbonate, salicylic and 
 benzoic acids. 
 
 Ascertaining the nutritive value, the following determina- 
 tions will ordinarily suffice : fat, protein, ash, milk-sugar, 
 water, total solids. Occasionally it is desirable to make a 
 distinction in the case of protein between its casein and the 
 total albumens present. 
 
 44 
 
Chemical Analysis of Various Milks. 
 
 Sweetened 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Moisture 87.30 % 
 
 Total solids 12.70 ' ' 
 
 Ash 67" 
 
 Milk sugar 4.53 ' ' 
 
 Protein 3.50 " 
 
 Milk-fat 4.00" 
 
 Cane sugar none 
 
 Undeterniined matter none 
 
 Condensed 
 .22.07% 
 .77.93" 
 . 1.47" 
 .11.97" 
 . 9.20" 
 . 5.50" 
 .42.63" 
 .none 
 
 Evaporated Dry 
 
 .69.57% 
 
 ... 3.63% 
 
 .30.34" 
 
 ...96.38" 
 
 . 1.49" 
 
 ... 5.67" 
 
 .10.18" 
 
 ...31.90" 
 
 . 8.86" 
 
 ...32.00" 
 
 . 3.50" 
 
 ...12.00" 
 
 
 
 . 2.76" 
 
 ...14.81" 
 
 From the foregoing analysis the actual value of these 
 products, pound for pound, may be readily ascertained. To this 
 end we can take into consideration only the actual amount of 
 milk fat, milk-sugar and protein present. The moisture, that 
 is, the water, in fresh milk should not exceed 89%. In con- 
 densed milk as well as in evaporated milks, this amount will 
 vary from 25 to 75%, depending on the amount of total solids. 
 Therefore, the more total solids found, the lower must be its 
 moisture content, and vice versa. The total solids represent 
 the fat, protein, ash, milk sugar and sometimes also, as an 
 adulterant, cane sugar. 
 
 Milk fat in fresh milk should not fall below 3.25%, while 
 the fats in other varieties of milk will vary from 1 to 15%, 
 depending upon their concentration. jStarch is not found in 
 fresh milk, but frequently is found as an adulterant in con- 
 densed milks and particularly in the dry milk powders. This 
 amount may vary from 1 to 15%. Cane sugar while serving 
 the purpose of a sweetener, is often added to milk powder, 
 its chief function being to increase weight and bulk. 
 
 Milk fat is a valuable adjunct in bread and cake making. 
 Each 100 pounds of milk when used in the bread dough will 
 contain from 3.5 to 4 pounds of milk fat, a quantity sufficient 
 to produce the finest quality of bread. 
 
 When milk is used principally to improve the quality of 
 bread, at least 1.5% of malt sugar should be added so that 
 an adequate amount of gas for leavening the dough will be 
 readily produced. It is true that a very small amount of fer- 
 mentable sugar is contained in the flour itself, but not suf- 
 ficient to effect the desired or necessary fermentation to 
 produce a good loaf of bread. For this same reason a certain 
 
amount of cane sugar should be added to the dough so that 
 the bread after baking, has the desired keeping qualities and 
 likewise the desired effects upon the flavor. As a whole, the 
 use of milk and its products have a beneficial influence upon 
 color, both interior and exterior, and further they improve 
 the texture and flavor, and produce a thin and crisp crust. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Baking Technology. 
 
 THE MAKING OF THE DOUGH. 
 
 Different Methods. 
 
 Modern baking involves, in addition to a thorough under- 
 standing of the art of producing a good and uniform loaf of 
 bread, a study of the commercial reasons for the adoption of 
 certain methods and conditions. It involves also what is most 
 important and that is the ability to devise and develop meth- 
 ods of manufacture, manipulation, and treatment that afford 
 products of the best quality and highest purity. 
 
 Perhaps the very first decision is as to the method of mak- 
 ing the doughs, and of tlie accepted systems, there are but the 
 sponge and straight dough methods to choose between. But the 
 selection or choice of a method embodies some difficulty be- 
 cause the advantages that are to be had in one instance may 
 be more than counter-balanced by the disadvantages which 
 that system entails. 'Therefore in the selection of a method of 
 dough making, a full knowledge of the results to be obtained 
 through the use of each is necessary in order to determine 
 which combines the points of favor that are most desirable in 
 the light of conditions peculiar to different localities. 
 
 Sponge Doughs. 
 
 The sponge dough dates back to the period when Rome 
 was in the height of its glory, and at that time inspectors 
 were in charge of the public bakeries, wherein sponge or 
 
leaven bread was manufactured. This system, somewhat 
 antiquated, has survived, although it has been changed con- 
 siderably, largely because conditions have been changed by 
 the modern methods of compressed yeast manufacture, flour 
 milling, etc. 
 
 The sponge method consists in mixing a portion of the 
 flour to be used with water, sugar, and yeast. This mixture 
 is called a sponge. It is allowed to ferment a certahi 
 length of time according to the kind of sponge, after which 
 more water, flour, and sometimes yeast and malt, are added 
 and a dough made. A so-called short sponge is allowed 
 to ferment from three to six hours, while a long sponge may 
 ferment as long as six to ten hours, in each case, however, the 
 quantity of yeast and water will be varied. If to a sponge 
 all the water that is necessary for making up the dough is 
 added at one time, it is called a batter-sponge. 
 
 In setting a sponge experience has shown that a strong 
 flour should be used on account of its content of strong gluten, 
 which, through the vigorous fermentation, is readily devel- 
 oped. However, when doughing up, a weaker or softer flour 
 should be used, because the dough is allowed to ferment gen- 
 erally about two hours, during which time the gluten in a 
 strong flour would not develop properly. 
 
 The flour used in a sponge method is apt to be overfer- 
 mented in part while the flour used in doughing up would 
 be under-fermented, thus producing somewhat of a colora- 
 tion in the baking process. 
 
 A custom among bakers for a long time was to make a 
 long sponge and use the same sponge for making up several 
 varieties of bread, thus saving time, but this practice in the 
 light of commercial competition, has not proven satisfactory 
 because it necessitated a sponge standing a long time before 
 being worked up. That is, the first bread made therefrom 
 will be made from underfermented sponge, while the last por- 
 tion would be much over ripe. A short sponge should break 
 not more than once, while a long sponge, which should be 
 set stiffer because it slackens considerably during fermenta- 
 tion, can be allowed to break twice. 
 
 A sponge requires less sugar, yeast, and shortening, and 
 the bread keeps moist longer than bread made from a straight 
 
dough. The increased acidity of a sponge dough imparts a 
 flavor to the bread which is distinctly peculiar although not un- 
 pleasant. Sponge produces a larger loaf on account of good 
 strong fermentation and the added fresh supply of yeast 
 food in doughing up. Sponge can be held longer when ripe, 
 while a straight dough has to be worked up when ready. 
 In doughing up in the sponge method, lower grade of differ- 
 ent flours may be used, which lends itself to a selection of a 
 variety of flours both as to quality and kind. Sponge doughs 
 should go through the brake or rolls as this produces a loaf 
 of better texture and color. 
 
 Straight Doughs. 
 
 A dough in which all of the ingredients necessary for the 
 entire batch are added to the mixture and mixed in one 
 operation, is called a straight dough. This system is based 
 upon the theory that a strong fermentation may be obtained 
 by an added supply of yeast, sugar, and yeast foods, such 
 as malt extract, which promote a vigorous fermentation and 
 rapidly develop the gluten. Straight doughs are more eco- 
 nomical in one way, because the mixing is done in one opera- 
 tion, thus saving time. 
 
 With the straight dough process, the fermentation may be 
 very accurately controlled, although it is necessary to work 
 up the doughs immediately upon their becoming ready. An 
 interval of a half hour in the fermentation of a straight 
 dough produces a much more manifest change in the quality 
 of the resulting bread than would the same interval in a 
 sponge dough. 
 
 The straight dough requires more mixing, which is con- 
 ducive to a rapid development of the gluten, while a sponge 
 dough should not be mixed too strenuously because the 
 gluten is properly developed by the vigorous fermentation of 
 the sponge. The conditions of fermentation in a short straight 
 dough may be regulated more conveniently because atmos- 
 pherical conditions of temperature, pressure, and humidity 
 are not prone to change as much in a few hours as they 
 might in a longer period such as is given to a sponge. 
 
 The flavor due to a sponge dough is a natural one; in the 
 straight dough, however, since yeast foods and improvers are 
 
 48 
 
added, the flavor is influenced by the nature of these added im- 
 provers and, although it may be considered somewhat artificial, 
 the result is a more palatable loaf. By the straight dough 
 method a much sweeter flavored and richer product may be 
 obtained, and since quality and flavor are the predominating 
 factors which promote sales, it is considered advisable, if 
 the proper facilities in a bakery are to be had, to adhere to 
 a straight dough system. 
 
 "Sauerteig." 
 
 The "sour dough" or "sauerteig" system hardly merits 
 consideration, since it is so little used in this country 
 at the present time. The method consists in making a soft 
 sponge, using a pound of dough from the previous day's 
 batch, mixed with 2 or 3 quarts of water, without the addition 
 of salt, sugar, etc. This soft sponge is allowed to ferment 
 two and a half to three hours at 85° to 90°F. — and often as 
 long as six or seven hours — and used as the sponge in the 
 mix. After doughing up the dough is allowed to rise only 
 about one hour. It is then scaled, moulded, and proofed, and 
 baked on the oven bottom. It is seldom panned. 
 
 This system gives a coarse dark product, with a distinct 
 and pronounced flavor that cannot be called mild and sweet. 
 The only advantage that this method affords is that no mate- 
 rials other than flour, water and salt are used. The baker 
 who uses sour dough generally maintains that his bread is 
 made without yeast, whereas under the microscope the "sauer 
 teig" is shown to be teeming with bacteria, cultured and wild 
 yeasts. The inferiority of the product is largely due to the 
 foreign infection that is carried in the innumerable wild 
 yeasts and bacteria that are present in the sour dough and 
 over which the baker can exercise so little control. As a 
 system, it is to be condemned because of the inferiority of 
 the product and the antiquated method of procedure. 
 
 FERMENTATION. 
 
 Fermentation of dough is a question that demands more 
 consideration than has been given it. In fact, its importance 
 has not been realized and largely because there has been no 
 effective means of determining the proper degree of fermenta- 
 
tion, the result has been a difficulty to maintain a uniformity 
 of product. Fermentation may be defined in a general way 
 as being the chemical changes associated with and effected by 
 the development of micro-organisms. 
 
 Alcoholic Fermentation. 
 
 Of the kinds or types of fermentation that are met in the 
 fermentation of bread dough, only one is to be desired, and 
 that is called alcoholic fermentation, and which produces alco- 
 hol and carbon dioxide from the sugar. The production of car- 
 bon dioxide has already been discussed under the subjects of 
 Sugars and Enzymes and little will be said of the me- 
 chanical action in fermentation. Fermentation produced by 
 pure yeast is desirable, but other kinds of organisms may de- 
 velop products that are not only undesirable but may be 
 ruinous. 
 
 Lactic Acid Fermentation. 
 
 Lactic acid fermentation is often a source of annoyance to 
 the baker in that it produces a high acidity in the bread. It is 
 quite generally found in doughs that have been fermented at 
 too high a temperature or in old doughs. Yeast fermentation 
 is best carried on at a temperature of 78 to 82° F., and any 
 temperature above this promotes the activity of lactic acid 
 bacteria. Lactic acid in small amounts aids in developing 
 the gluten by partially dissolving it and softening it. Glucose, 
 cane sugar, and maltose all are readily decomposed into lactic 
 acid under favorable conditions. Milk sugar or lactose is very 
 susceptible to lactic acid fermentation. Lactose is converted 
 by the enzyme lactase occurring in yeast into d-galactose and 
 d-glucose (dextrose), the former being readity fermented by 
 lactic acid bacteria with the formation of lactic acid. Lactic 
 acid fermentation occurs simultaneously with alcoholic fer- 
 mentation, but proceeds slowly at the relatively low tem- 
 perature (78-82° F.) where the activity of the yeast is at its 
 maximum. A small quantity of lactic acid beside favor- 
 ing the development of the gluten in the dough, imparts 
 a "nutty" flavor to the bread which, if not too pronounced, 
 is very desirable. Larger quantities of lactic acid developed 
 through fermentation decrease the palatableness of the loaf, 
 impair its quality and indicate improper fermentation of 
 the dough. 
 
 50 
 
Butyric and Acetic Fermentation. 
 
 The formation of butyric acid through development of 
 butyric acid organisms is favored by the same conditions 
 that promote lactic acid fermentation, although the butyric 
 fermentation generally follows the lactic acid fermentation. 
 Butyric acid imparts a disagreeable flavor and odor to bread 
 and its presence is extremely objectionable. Acetic fermenta- 
 tion is always subsequent to alcoholic fermentation and effects 
 the conversion of alcohol into acetic acid after prolonged 
 fermentation or after the supply of yeast food is so diminished 
 that the yeast is no longer in a vigorous and healthy condi- 
 tion. Abnormal fermentation may be avoided through the use 
 of strong and vigorous yeast, proper control of fermenting 
 conditions and a good supply of available yeast food. 
 
 Viscous Fermentation. 
 
 The most objectionable and most to be feared infection 
 that may enter into a bake shop is known as viscous fer- 
 mentation and which produces ropy bread. Hot weather 
 during the summer is particularly favorable for rope 
 development and once an infection is found, it is difficult to 
 eradicate it. Hope manifests itself in from twenty-four to 
 forty-eight hours after baking and is due to a spore-forming 
 organism that is very resistant to high temperatures. The 
 spore withstands the temperature of the loaf in baking and 
 develops and grows after the bread is cooled. The bread 
 develops a peculiar odor, the interior becomes brownish in 
 spots and becomes moist and sticky. The gummy interior 
 may be drawn out into long silky threads which gives the 
 name of "rope" to this condition. Rope organisms are 
 generally introduced through the flour, and there is more 
 danger in the use of low grade flour than with the better 
 grades. Quite frequently the spores are found in cracks and 
 crevices and in the troughs only awaiting favorable condi- 
 tions for development. 
 
 When ropiness is found to be present in the bakery, steps 
 should be taken immediately to ascertain the source of infec- 
 tion, but while this is being investigated a series of ''first- 
 aid" measures should be adopted to grant temporary relief 
 from its development. All doughs should be acidulated with 
 
acetic or lactic acid, and acetic acid is to be recommended 
 only because it is cheaper. Steps should be taken to procure 
 flour known to be sound. The content of salt should be in- 
 creased as also the yeast and yeast foods, the object being 
 not only to shorten but to insure a more vigorous fermenta- 
 tion. The bread should be baked longer and drier as a mois^ 
 and sodden interior is conducive to development of rope. After 
 baking, the bread should be cooled quickly and if stored for 
 any length of time should be kept cool. Wrapping is to be 
 avoided if possible as the retention of excess moisture favors 
 after-fermentation. The execution of the above recommen- 
 dations will control and inhibit the growth of rope, but a com- 
 plete disinfection of the shop is absolutely essential. The 
 services of an expert, acquainted with "rope" are to be pre- 
 ferred so that the source of infection may be definitely located 
 and proper measures inaugurated to stamp out the disease. 
 
 Humidity. 
 
 Principally among the many varying factors which enter 
 into bread making, each of which has its influence upon the 
 quality of the loaf, are temperature and humidity. The 
 need and advantages of temperature control have been 
 exploited sufficiently so that every baker now appreciates 
 that there is an optimum temperature for fermentation of his 
 dough. Just as important and advantageous to the baker is 
 the accurate control of the humidity or moisture content of 
 the air in his bake shop, and experiments have conclusively 
 shown that without proper humidity, the baker is only ' ' trust- 
 ing to luck" that his product will be uniform from day to 
 day. 
 
 The term relative humidity is used to express the per- 
 centage amount of moisture or water vapor that air at any 
 definite temperature contains. For instance, air containing 
 no moisture has 0% humidity while if saturated the humidity 
 is 100%. Furthermore, air at any temperature is able to con- 
 tain in actual amounts more moisture than air at any lower 
 temperature. Air saturated at 80° F. with water vapor when 
 cooled to a lower temperature would immediately precipitate 
 out moisture in the form of rain or dew. No air is absolutely 
 free from moisture. Even the air of the deserts has a relative 
 humidity of about 20%. But if air on a cold winter day is 
 
 52 
 
led into a bake shop wherein the temperature is 80° F., the 
 humidity falls below that of the air of the driest desert. The 
 apparatus for determining the relative humidity is very sim- 
 ple and consists quite generally of a "dry" and a "wet" 
 bulb thermometer, and from the difference in their tempera- 
 ture readings, the per cent humidity is easily calculated.* 
 There are also direct reading hygrometers found on the market. 
 
 Experiments have shown that the proper relative humidity 
 to maintain in a bakery is not less than 70% nor more than 
 80%. A difference of ten per cent affects the period of fer- 
 mentation on a five-hour dough about 8 minutes, so that on a 
 day in Avhich the humidity is as low as 30%, the time of fer- 
 mentation has to be lengthened by approximately 40 minutes. 
 If the humidity runs high the period of fermentation should 
 be shortened correspondingly. This same effect has been 
 observed upon hot sultry summer afternoons preceeding a 
 storm when the doughs come fast. 
 
 Perhaps the greatest source of annoyance to the baker 
 has been due to the encrusting of the dough while fermenting 
 in the troughs and this upon consideration is more serious 
 than the baker suspects. The hardened crust is due to the 
 evaporation of water from the surface of the dough and the 
 lower the humidity of the fermenting room, the more rapid 
 the evaporation and the heavier the crust formed. The crust 
 cannot be eradicated once formed and appears as hard lumps 
 in the baked loaf which are especially objectionable and ob- 
 noxious to the consumer. Proper control of the humidity pre- 
 vents evaporation from the surface of the dough and elimi- 
 nates any possibility of encrusting. Furthermore, the evapo- 
 ration is a source of actual loss to the baker. Often in a one- 
 barrel batch of dough the evaporation of the water from its 
 surface amounts to as much as 6 pounds during the period of 
 fermentation so that the baker is losing that amount that 
 might be made into bread. The heavy crust formed retards 
 fermentation because the dough is prevented from rising to 
 the fullest extent. The gluten is not properly stretched and 
 developed, and hence the volume of the loaf is sure to be lower. 
 To counteract the hindrance due to the crust, more power 
 
 See Appendix, table of humidity. 
 
 53 
 
has to be furnished in the form of increased supply of yeast, 
 foods so that another source of loss results. 
 
 The consuming public have a right to demand bread of 
 good quality, and uniformity of good quality is the best 
 asset that any baker can possibly have. There is no longer 
 any question of the effect of humidity upon bread making nor 
 of the advantages which proper regulation afford, and the 
 progressive baker will readily see the merits of humidity 
 control. 
 
 Mechanical Factors Affecting Fermentation. 
 
 Other than influences of atmospherical conditions of tem- 
 perature, pressure, humidity, etc., there are numerous other 
 mechanical factors that affect fermentation. Certain manipu- 
 lations favor while other conditions of operation are adverse 
 to fermentation. For instance, a slack dough ferments more 
 rapidly than a stiff dough largely because there is a larger 
 supply of yeast food, sugar, etc., in solution and this furnishes 
 readily available material for the yeast, Again, doughs that 
 are coming up too fast are given more space in the trough 
 while crowding the dough hastens the fermentation. 
 
 Another instance wherein the method of handling the 
 doughs effects fermentation is in the time of punching or 
 "cutting over." The dough is worked — "punched "or "cut- 
 over" — when it becomes light in order that the subsequent 
 rising may properly stretch and develop the gluten. Working- 
 down effects an equal distribution of the gas cells beside giv- 
 ing an impetus to fermentation. In "cutting over," the 
 dough is so distributed that all portions are fermented evenly. 
 The temperature of the dough is evened up and the fermenta- 
 tion proceeds more uniformly throughout. The "cut" is made 
 by pulling the dough over the sides of the trough, first from 
 one side and then the other and has the effect of folding the 
 dough over upon itself. 
 
 Sometimes, in order to be sure that the dough is fermented 
 evenly, portions are cut from it and spread out in another 
 trough, successive portions being spread out on the preceding 
 ones until all the dough has been transferred. This perhaps 
 is the better method but takes more time and is not so con- 
 venient. 
 
 54 
 
The first punch should be carefully timed and used as an 
 index of the total period for fermentation. The interval of 
 time between setting the dough and the first cut should con- 
 stitute three-fifths of the total fermenting period so that on a 
 five-hour dough, the first cut should be made three hours after 
 setting. On a four-hour dough, the first cut should come two 
 hours and twenty-five minutes after mixing. The custom has 
 been generally to allow only half the fermenting period before 
 the first cut, but it is better to have the dough slightly over- 
 ripe because it puts more "life" into it. "A "young" dough 
 or one punched too soon, never "catches up with itself" and 
 behaves unseemly during its course in the bakeshop. 
 
 New flour not adequately aged has a tendency to slacken 
 and to work young. This is due to the activity of the enzymes 
 present in the flour. If it becomes absolutely necessary to use 
 freshly milled flour, best results are to be obtained through 
 the use of more salt, more shortening and giving the dough 
 less fermentation but punching the dough more often. The 
 increased salt reduces the activity of the enzymes in the flour 
 while the shortening acts as a stimulant to the gluten. Less 
 fermentation should be given the dough because of the danger 
 of over-developing the gluten which in new flour is not ma- 
 tured. In punching the dough more often, it is not allowed 
 to rise to its maximum which would over-develop the gluten, 
 while the numerous punches improve the grain and texture. 
 
 PANNING AND PROOFING. 
 
 Importance of Proofing. 
 
 Improper proofing is the most common error made whereby 
 all the effort spent in properly mixing and fermenting the 
 dough may go for nothing. The best materials prepared under 
 the most exacting control cannot be made into a loaf of good 
 bread unless attention is given to the proofing of the dough 
 in the pans. Proofing is just as important as fermenting, and 
 the quality of bread in many bakeries is impaired because due 
 regard is not given the dough in the proof box. 
 
 Method of Panning. 
 
 The accepted procedure in panning consists in dividing 
 the dough into portions of such size desired to make one loaf, 
 
 55 
 
rounding 1 up that portion so that there is formed on the 
 exterior a thin skin. This ball of dough is given a first 
 proof of ten to twenty minutes at the temperature of the room 
 and then moulded, placed in pans, and put into the proof- 
 box or steam-closet for final proofing. When sufficiently 
 proofed or light, it is baked. 
 
 In many bakeries, the manipulation of the dough is done 
 in part if not entirely by machinery. A mechanical divider 
 automatically cuts off portions of the desired weight and once 
 adjusted accurately divides the mass of dough into pieces that 
 later become loaves. Quite generally, the dough, before going 
 to the divider, is run through a brake and worked several 
 times. This is necessary for all sponge dough and is of ad- 
 vantage when straight dough method is used. This brake 
 effects an even distribution of gas cells, produces uniform 
 texture and improves the color of the loaf. 
 
 Moulding of Loaf. 
 
 The dividing process produces two "raw" ends so that 
 in order to stop the bleeding it is necessary to round up 
 the portion of dough and to put a skin over the exterior so 
 that the carbondioxide gas does not break through but is 
 retained by this enveloping skin. The first proofing permits 
 of the dough recovering from the shock of the divider and 
 allows for the formation of a small quantity of gas so that it 
 may be easily moulded. The "rounding up" or "balling up" 
 is generally done by hand although larger outputs necessitate 
 machines. The balls of dough are put into a chest of drawers 
 or in trays so that they are kept covered, during the first 
 proofing of ten to twenty minutes. Quite generally in the 
 larger bakeries, the preliminary proof is given by conveying 
 the balls of dough direct from the rounder and carried in 
 individual canvas pockets back and forth through an over- 
 head case or long cabinet until sufficiently proofed. After 
 the doughs recover sufficiently and possess some "life," they 
 are moulded, and put in pans. The gas in the dough permits 
 of tight or loose moulding depending upon the kind of bread 
 being made. Moulding is quite generally done by machine. 
 
 Proofing. 
 
 After moulding, the loaves are placed in a closet heated with 
 live steam at a temperature of 95 to 105° F. for the final 
 
 56 
 
proofing, which requires from, thirty minutes /to an hour 
 according to conditions and kind of bread. 
 
 Quite often, however, the dough must stand in the proof 
 box for longer time than would be necessary to obtain proper 
 proof, and the baker at the same time is distressed because his 
 bread comes from the oven poor in quality. One of two condi- 
 tions is generally at fault. In colder seasons of the year when 
 the temperature of the shop is comparatively low, the baker 
 makes a practice of setting his doughs somewhat warmer in 
 order to correct in a way for the low temperature of the shop. 
 A large mass of dough is to some extent heated by the activity 
 of the yeast during fermentation that by the time the mix 
 goes to the bench, the dough is not so much cooled as to show 
 any effect of the low temperature of the room. However, 
 when the dough is divided, each small piece is exposed to the 
 chill of the room and of the machines, and the "shock" is so 
 great that the yeast does not recover very easily. 
 
 Yeast and doughs should never be subjected to sudden 
 changes in temperature, either high or low, because the activ- 
 ity is so retarded that even though it is again brought to the 
 optimum temperature, the action is very slow. Sudden 
 changes in temperature effect in a measure a paralysis of the 
 yeast and heroic treatment can little help the situation. The 
 result of the sudden cooling is that the bread does not proof 
 properly, even when left for a long time in the proof box, and 
 the quality of the loaf is thus affected. The slow proofing is 
 conducive to foreign fermentation inasmuch as the activity of 
 the yeast is depressed, and as the high temperature in the 
 proof-box favors the development of lactic and butyric acid 
 bacteria, the dough is apt to become sour. Thus, the import- 
 ance of proper attention to the proofing is very evident. 
 
 Improper proof may be had in a dough in which the supply 
 of readily available yeast food has been so depleted that the 
 yeast is no longer vigorous, and foreign fermentation crowds 
 out the alcoholic fermentation. This has the same effect as 
 shown above and produces a loaf of poor quality and flavor. 
 
 Relation of Proofing to Baking. 
 
 In proofing of bread, proper regard for oven tempera- 
 ture must be had. Over-proofed dough should be baked in a 
 quick oven, or if the oven is not quite ready by not being 
 
hot enough, the loaves should have less proof. In other words, 
 slow ovens for underproofed dough and short proof for 
 "slow" ovens. This is readily apparent when we stop to con- 
 sider that an over-proofed dough has risen near its maximum 
 and is in danger of falling". A "quick" or hot oven forms 
 a crust over the surface of the dough which allows for the 
 "spring" and at the same time lends support to the loaf. In 
 a "slow" oven the reverse is true. The formation of the crust 
 is delayed until the proper expansion of the loaf. Over- 
 proofed loaves have a coarser texture but a larger volume 
 while under-proofing produces a denser texture and lower 
 volume. 
 
 In the manufacture of the split loaf, only half-proofed or 
 two-thirds proof is given it. This with plenty of steam effects 
 a good "break." The split effect may be imparted by placing 
 two thin loaves side by side in the pan or by pressing down 
 the middle of the loaf from end to end with a scraper or 
 similar instrument. The most effective method is to slash 
 quickly and deeply the loaf from end to end with a sharp 
 knife held not perpendicularly, but slightly inclined. Proper 
 proof, experience in cutting, and plenty of steam are necessary 
 in the production of a good split loaf. 
 
 BAKING. 
 
 Proper Temperature for Bread-Baking. 
 
 The temperature necessary to bake bread is dependent 
 upon the kind of bread, the formula used in making the 
 dough, the size of the loaf and the personal preference and 
 prejudice of the bakery foreman or superintendent. The 
 greatest source of difference of opinion is due to the inac- 
 curacy of the ordinary oven pyrometer in that a correct read- 
 ing of the exact baking temperature cannot be obtained. 
 
 Pyrometer. 
 
 The ordinary pyrometer is not a thermometer but only an 
 indicator. Quite generally the pyrometer is inexpensively con- 
 structed and is so placed that the actual average temperature 
 of the OA'en cannot be obtained. As an indicator, however, it is 
 indispensable because when once the proper baking heat is 
 reached, that same oven heat is attained when again the pyro- 
 
 58 
 
meter indicates the same point. Again, one oven may be quite 
 right when the pyrometer registers 450° F., whereas another 
 oven bakes properly when the pyrometer registers 525° F. and 
 yet both may be at the same heat. It is not necessary to know 
 the exact temperature but to know that the oven is or is not 
 ready when a certain temperature is indicated. 
 
 Time for Baking. 
 
 Experience has shown that the actual temperature neces- 
 sary to bake one-pound loaves in tin is 450° F. for 30 minutes. 
 This pre-supposes an oven loaded to capacity and if the oven 
 is not full, slightly lower temperature should be used. A 
 single loaf or only a few loaves would burn badly if placed 
 in a large oven at 450° F. Larger loaves should be baked 
 correspondingly longer and at lower temperature. Three- 
 pound tinned bread should be baked at 325 to 350° for about 
 an hour and a quarter to an hour and a half. For hearth 
 bread, slightly higher temperature is required than for panned 
 bread. 
 
 Loss of Weight in Baking. 
 
 Pan bread, in baking, loses about one-eighth of its weight 
 due to the water evaporated. A loaf scaled at 16 ounces 
 should weigh very close to 14 ounces when baked, two ounces 
 of water having been baked out. Bread baked quickly at a 
 higher temperature loses less water than when baked at a 
 longer period at a lower temperature. This must be taken 
 into consideration when the tolerance in the net weight of 
 bread allowed by regulations is very low. The loss in baking 
 of hearth bread is much greater, while the loss is much less 
 when twin loaves are made in one pan. If bread is to be used 
 on the day that it is baked, it should be baked more thoroughly 
 than when for use the following day. 
 
 Use of Steam in Oven. 
 
 The practice of using steam in the oven has been adopted 
 almost universally. Steam produces a thin crust, permits of 
 full spring of the loaf in the oven, prevents cracking and 
 improves the appearance of the loaf in general. In baking the 
 split-loaf, steam is quite as essential as the heat of the oven, 
 while with hearth bread, steam is quite necessary. 
 
 59 
 
Steam under a gauge pressure of 15 to 20 pounds should 
 be used. The action of the steam depends upon the condensa- 
 tion of a small amount of moisture upon the surface of the 
 loaves. From high pressure steam, which has a correspond- 
 ingly high temperature, the condensation is not sufficient to 
 precipitate the necessary quantity of moisture, and as a result 
 no effect of the steam is to be had. In fact, steam at 50 pounds 
 gauge pressure, and which has a temperature of 298° F., is of 
 little better service than no steam. 
 
 The film of moisture formed upon the surface of the loaves 
 delays the formation of the crust so that the loaf attains its 
 full volume. It also keeps the surface crust from drying out 
 and produces an elegant bloom. In the split-loaf type of 
 bread, a large quantity of low pressure steam is necessary in 
 order to produce effectively the crack or break in the top 
 crust. 
 
 Too much steam, however, softens the top of the loaf, caus- 
 ing it to flatten out and producing a dense ring next to the 
 crust. Often too much steam accounts for the large blisters 
 that appear in the crust of the bread. In baking hearth 
 bread, steam should be admitted to the oven before loading, 
 during, and for about five minutes after. The steam should be 
 turned off and the damper opened, and allowed to be open for 
 five minutes, after which it is closed during the remaining 
 period of baking. Too much steam causes the loaves to run 
 together or crack along the sides in attempting to "kiss." 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 General Discussion. 
 
 SCORING OF BREAD. 
 
 Method of Scoring. 
 
 The method that has been used in scoring bread depends 
 largely upon personal ideas and the standpoint from which 
 the bread is to be judged. By some bakers, quality may be 
 given the most weight while other bakers strive to produce 
 a loaf of large volume and naturally their bread score card 
 would differ. Again, commercially made bread cannot be 
 scored as the housewife's bread because we don't expect the 
 latter to be in a position to control conditions as in the bake 
 shop, no matter how small. Bread offered for sale to the public 
 is carefully scrutinized and all the points whereby the choice 
 of the public is affected must be taken into consideration in 
 preparing a score card according to which "baker's bread" 
 may be scored. 
 
 Score Card. 
 
 Following is a score card in which quality bread rather 
 than quantity bread is given a decided preference. It corre- 
 sponds very closely with the average of a series of score cards 
 submitted by many bakers, and for that reason may be called 
 representative of commercial conditions inasmuch as the baker 
 has used the same card in scoring his own and his competitors 
 as well. On a 100 points or 100 per cent basis the factors are 
 given the following values or scores : 
 
 General appearance 15 
 
 Color of Crumb 10 
 
 Texture 15 
 
 Grain 10 
 
 Flavor (taste 20, odor 15) 35 
 
 Loaf Volume 15 
 
 100 
 
 The general appearance includes the general shape, sym- 
 metry of form, crown, color and bloom of crust ; and it is these 
 factors that should be given first consideration in a contest 
 concerning a large series of loaves. 
 
 61 
 
Color of crumb of the cut loaf is very important inasmuch 
 as the grade of the flour and the general conditions of fermen- 
 tation influence the color, but the color of a loaf without a 
 standard for comparison would not be duly appreciated. The 
 color also is affected by the grain, a close and even grain caus- 
 ing the color to appear whiter. 
 
 Texture is often taken to include "grain" or to be even 
 "grain" itself. Grain indicates the distribution of gas cav- 
 ities, their size and number, and might be called porosity. Tex- 
 ture includes the elasticity and is determined by pressing the 
 cut edges of a loaf together or by pressing with the tips of the 
 fingers, and noting the spring in resuming its original shape. 
 Under texture is grouped the "lightness" although the 
 "grain" also indicates to some degree the lightness of the loaf. 
 The "feel" as the back of the index finger — that part between 
 the last joint and the nail — is rubbed over the cut surface, as 
 well as the "sheen" when observed from an obtuse angle, 
 may suggest velvet to the operator and a soft "velvety" sur- 
 face indicates good quality. The crust, whether brittle, crisp, 
 tough or leathery, should be scored as texture. 
 
 The flavor, after a definite standard has once been formed, 
 is of prime importance and induces the consumer to favor one 
 product as against another. Under flavor, the odor of the 
 bread is scored. The personal element is stronger here than 
 with any other factor in scoring because often a decided flavor 
 is liked as compared to a mild and mellow flavor such as is 
 obtained from a short straight dough method. 
 
 Loaf volume, except in communities wherein the size of the 
 loaf, and not quality necessarily, appeals to the purchaser, has 
 little importance except that it indicates proper development 
 of the gluten in the fermentation and proofing, as well as 
 proper moulding. 
 
 HOLES IN BREAD. 
 
 There are many factors that are associated with the manu- 
 facture of bread that cannot be sufficiently standardized by 
 definite laws and rules so that one is enabled to assure him- 
 self of uniform results in bread quality. Of constant annoy- 
 ance to the baker is the prevalence of holes in bread. The 
 
causes of these are several and are due to the improper fer- 
 mentation or to the actual physical handling of the dough 
 itself. Holes may be produced in bread through over fermen- 
 tation and to this is due the greatest majority of cases, if the 
 gluten in the dough has been fermented too long or too strenu- 
 ously it becomes weakened, loses its elasticity and tenacity, and 
 the thin walls of the gluten "cells" or pockets, being fragile, 
 become disrupted so that several gas cells unite to form a hole. 
 The condition usually manifests itself in the proof box and 
 often results in a complete breaking down of the gluten with 
 the formation of holes two to three inches in diameter. 
 
 .Sometimes cases are found in which under-fermented dough 
 contains holes. This is little different as far as the cause is 
 concerned from a case of over-fermented dough. In this case 
 the gluten has not been sufficiently fermented so as to develop 
 its elasticity and tenacity, and therefore cannot enmesh and 
 retain the carbon dioxide gas. This can best be demonstrated 
 by taking a series of portions from one large dough at 
 regular half hour intervals, moulding, proofing and baking. 
 The first loaves will show very poor texture and contain many 
 larger or smaller holes. 
 
 Holes in bread may be caused by the inadequate breaking 
 down of the sponge when doughing up and especially is this 
 true when using a weaker flour in doughing. The imperfect 
 mixing leaves portions of the sponge intact in the dough, and 
 the gluten in these portions becomes over-developed, losing its 
 elasticity which permits of the formation of holes in the 
 loaf. 
 
 Often the method of moulding, combined with the proofing 
 process, produces poor texture. Too much pressure or uneven 
 distribution of pressure by the fingers have a retarding action 
 upon the proofing and the uneven proof gives rise to holes. 
 The amount of pressure and working of the dough in mould- 
 ing should be regulated according to the dough, the amount 
 of fermentation it has had, and the strength and elasticity of 
 the gluten in the dough. Often in pounding the gas from the 
 dough in moulding, the loaves are blistered so that the holes 
 occur slightly beneath the crust. 
 
 The causes that produce holes are generally due to care- 
 lessness, inexperience or improper moulding, combined with 
 
over-fermentation, and all flours, and all bread formulas are 
 subject to their development. Using proper manipulation, any 
 sound flour, however weak or strong, can be made to produce 
 a loaf of even grain and free from holes. 
 
 DEGREE OF FINENESS OF FLOUR AND ITS EFFECTS 
 UPON ITS COMPOSITION AND BAKING QUALITY. 
 
 Bakers and millets as well as chemists have for a long time 
 held that the granular feel of flour served as a good index 
 of its quality and character. The flours that were granular or 
 gritty or sharp when rubbed between the fingers were sup- 
 posed to be good quality and declared to be so, whereas flours 
 of softer texture were declared to be inferior. 
 
 Uniform Granulation. 
 
 In the analysis of flour, use had been made of a nest of 
 eight flour sieves numbering consecutively from 9 to 1G, 
 through which a weighed quantity of flour was bolted. If on 
 three adjacent sieves 75% of the sample remained, the flour 
 was considered uniformly granulated and the inference was 
 that uniform granulation permitted of an even fermentation of 
 the flour when made into dough. 
 
 At one time this test may have been sufficient to char- 
 acterize a flour, but with modern milling methods, which per- 
 mit of the most elastic system as far as the method of mani- 
 pulation is concerned, the infallibility of the test has been so 
 frequently refuted by facts that it is gradually being relegated 
 to the position it merits. 
 
 Recent Experiments. 
 
 Recent experiments have shown, however, that the quality 
 and grade of flour does not depend upon the degree of fine- 
 ness necessarily, but that a fraction of the same degree in fine- 
 ness differs in quality and composition as compared to another 
 fraction of finer or coarser particles even when both are de- 
 rived from the same wheat or separated from the same flour. 
 
 In the experiments, a series of commercial brands of flour 
 as well as several flours of known history, having been milled 
 from known varieties of wheat in an experimental mill, were 
 bolted through a nest of four sieves numbered respectively 
 
 64 
 
15, 18, 20 and 21 standard silk. This produced from the orig- 
 inal flour five fractions of flour, since part remained on each 
 sieve and a portion passed through No. 21. 
 
 The several fractions, together with the original flour used 
 as a standard, were carefully analyzed, baking tests made, and 
 the results compared. 
 
 Results. 
 
 The average results of all the experiments indicated that 
 one-third of the sample bolted through the No. 21 sieve, while 
 85% passed through the No. 16 sieve which is much more 
 finely meshed than the finest flour silk ordinarily used in any 
 mill, viz : No. 10 to No. 12, and that on the three intermediate 
 sieves, No. 18, No. 20 and No. 21, there remained approxi- 
 mately 7, 12 and 30 per cent respectively. The four coarser 
 separates show quite similar qualities and characteristics while 
 the finest fraction stands apart strikingly. The four coarse 
 separates produce bread of better quality than the original 
 flour. The volume, texture, grain and color of the loaves are 
 better than the original, while the protein, absorptive capacity, 
 and expansion are higher and the ash content and acidity 
 much lower than the original flour. The protein of flour 
 passing the No. 21 shows peculiar properties in that the 
 quality of the loaf is much inferior to that of the original. 
 The loaf volume, color, texture, grain are woefully low while 
 the gluten is more than 2 per cent lower than the original 
 flour and the expansion and absorption much lower, and the 
 ash content and acidity much higher. 
 
 The results of these experiments indicate that the flour 
 is much finer than might be inferred through the use of No. 
 10 to No. 12 bolting cloth by the miller. The granulation 
 test as formerly used is not applicable to modern milled flour. 
 The extent and character of the finest fraction indicates that 
 the finest flour is not always the best in quality as is generally 
 held. Furthermore, the miller has been given a method where- 
 by he may measure the extent of attrition flour and be able 
 to find out when he has reduced this to a minimum. The 
 experiments have suggested that proper manipulation may 
 result in the separation of a lower grade of flour from a patent 
 grade thereby obtaining an excellent patent portion. 
 
FLOUR SUBSTITUTES. 
 
 On account of the high price of wheat as compared to other 
 cereals, and also in an effort to find a commercial source for 
 the disposal of a series of products, there have been tried 
 numerous experiments to find suitable substitutes for wheat 
 flour. 
 
 Since no other cereal, except rye and that only to a slight 
 extent, possesses gluten, which is the constituent that renders 
 wheat flour valuable as a bread-making material, it can be said 
 that any other materials, however closely resembling wheat 
 flour superficially and which might be classed as a substitute, 
 should really be considered as an adulterant. The present 
 existing "Mixed Flour Law" has proven ample protection 
 against the frauds which without it might easily be perpe- 
 trated against the consuming public. 
 
 Numerous products have been made into flour and sub- 
 stituted in part for wheat flour, among which are potato- 
 flour, potato-starch, corn-starch, corn-flour, rice-flour, cotton- 
 seed meal, peanut meal, soybean meal, etc. Of these, only the 
 products made from corn, potato or rice, as far as color is 
 concerned may well be used. Peanut meal with wheat flour 
 makes a very palatable loaf, as does cottonseed meal, but 
 the color mitigates against them so that neither can hardly 
 become popular. Rice flour has been found of use in pastry 
 and cake baking, and although it reduces the nutritive value 
 of the product, nevertheless, it improves its appearance 
 quality. 
 
 Corn starch and potato starch have no place in a loaf of 
 bread. Addition of either to wheat flour is a plain and evident 
 case of adulteration of wheat flour with a substance (starch 
 itself) of which the flour has already a large excess. In in- 
 creasing the quantity of starch, the content of the other 
 valuable constituents such as gluten, mineral substances, is 
 correspondingly reduced and hence the nutritive value low- 
 ered. If corn starch or potato starch were any other color 
 than white, their use as a substitute would hardly have been 
 suggested. Under certain conditions wheat flour has been 
 mixed with other materials without seriously impairing the 
 quality, but no substance when used in as small amount as 10 
 
per cent fails to have a deleterious effect upon the quality of 
 the finished product. 
 
 The Use of Corn Flakes with Malt Extract in Bread-Making. 
 
 Corn flakes are manufactured by passing corn, after the 
 removal of the hull and the germ, between hot rolls. The 
 corn before going to the rolls is cooked so that the starch 
 is gelatinized. The pressure of the rolls is sufficient to flatten 
 out the corn in the shape of flakes and the heat of the rolls 
 drys them. Flakes are used in bread making for two distinct 
 purposes : to increase the absorptive capacity of the flour as 
 well as the moisture retaining power of the bread. 
 
 Corn flakes have the power to absorb and retain often as 
 much as 200 per cent of water, so that 3 pounds added to a 
 barrel of flour (not more than 3 pounds per barrel is the most 
 advisable quantity to use) may increase the amount of water 
 necessary for making the dough by 6 pounds, whereas the 
 absorption of 3 pounds of flour is only about 2 pounds. The 
 best results are obtained by adding the required amount of 
 corn flakes in the proportion of 3 pounds per barrel directly 
 to the mixer with the flour with no other change in the for- 
 mula except the increased amount of water. 
 
 Corn flakes are used also with malt extract to effect a vig- 
 orous fermentation and to cut down the quantities of sugar 
 and yeast necessary. 
 
 The theory in this method is that at 150° F. the conversion 
 of the gelatinized starch of the corn flakes is effected by the 
 diastase contained in the malt extract, producing maltose, 
 principally. When the yeast is added at 90 to 95° there is 
 begun a vigorous fermentation and it will be noted that when 
 added to the mixer it shows of being vigorous. By this method, 
 the yeast is strengthened and upon making up the dough, the 
 added ferment causes fermentation to proceed very rapidly. 
 
 In using this method, the quantity of sugar may be reduced 
 3 pounds per barrel while the yeast should be reduced to 2 or 
 2*4 pounds per barrel, making a great saving in both. The 
 loaf produced has an excellent bloom, and has a very thin and 
 crisp crust. Not more than 3 pounds of corn flakes per barrel 
 should be used and the diastatic power of the malt extract 
 should be sufficiently high so as to insure complete conversion 
 of the corn flakes. 
 
 67 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 The Analysis of Flour.* 
 
 VALUE OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 The value of chemical analysis of flour and baking and mill- 
 ing materials should be apparent to all enterprising and ener- 
 getic millers and bakers. To the miller it affords an opportunity 
 whereby he may know the quality of each grade of wheat ; he 
 may know the relative merits of each stream in his mill and 
 with this knowledge may blend the streams in a manner to 
 conform to the needs or specifications of his customers ; he may 
 find that he has been cutting off his reduction streams permit- 
 ting a large quantity of flour to go to the "clear" when per- 
 haps it should go to the "patent" flour bin, or he may find 
 that a low grade middlings flour may be the cause of his 
 patent being low in quality. On analysis of the several streams 
 a slight discrepancy will show that the bolter may be working 
 improperly or that the silks need changing. In having an 
 accurate knowledge of his own flour, the miller can readily 
 compare his competitor's products and determine their rela- 
 tive qualities, as is best established by following analysis and 
 opinion thereon. 
 
 Technical Analysis of Flour. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 Color 98.0 
 
 Ash 0.592. 
 
 Absorption 61.0 
 
 Gluten 11.45 . 
 
 Protein (N x 6.25) 11.53 . 
 
 Loaves per Barrel 100.0 
 
 Volume of Loaf 97.6 
 
 Quality of Loaf 98. . 
 
 AVEEAGE VALUE 98.4 . 
 
 Fermenting Period 107.3 
 
 Quality of Gluten 91.4 . 
 
 Moisture 10.84 . 
 
 Sample No. 1 is a straight grade flour of poor quality. This 
 opinion is based on the following facts : the color is rather dark 
 
 No. 2 
 
 No. 3 
 
 No. 4 
 
 ..100.00 . 
 
 ...102.00 . 
 
 . .. 99.50 
 
 . . 0.558. 
 
 .. 0.440. 
 
 . . 0.501 
 
 . . 61.0 . 
 
 .. 63.0 . 
 
 . . 61.0 
 
 . . 10.95 . 
 
 . . 10.74 . 
 
 . . 10.62 
 
 . . 11.15 . 
 
 . . 10.98 . 
 
 . . 10.83 
 
 ..100.0 . 
 
 ..103.4 . 
 
 ..100.0 
 
 ..100.0 . 
 
 . . 99.0 . 
 
 ..103.2 
 
 ..100.0 . 
 
 ..102.0 . 
 
 ..101.0 
 
 ..100.0 . 
 
 ..101.6 . 
 
 ..100.7 
 
 ..100.0 . 
 
 .. 98.9 . 
 
 .. 94.9 
 
 ..100.0 .. 
 
 ..100.4 .. 
 
 ..107.8 
 
 . . 11.58 .. 
 
 .. 11.05 .. 
 
 .. 11.37 
 
 See also flour, Chapter II. 
 
and the ash contents very high, and while the gluten is high, 
 it is very poor in quality and dark of color. 
 
 From these conditions it is evident that the volume and 
 quality of the loaf is poor, as indicated in the above. Odor and 
 flavor of the flour however was normal. 
 
 Sample No. 2 is a very good straight grade flour, having 
 good gluten content of a creamy color. This flour produces a 
 loaf of good volume and quality, and since it is furthermore 
 of normal flavor and odor, it possesses all the qualities which 
 would commend it as a "standard" for straight grade flours. 
 
 Sample No. 3 is a good patent flour, having a very good 
 color and low ash content. The gluten is of average amount 
 and good quality and has a light creamy color. 
 
 The yield as indicated by the absorption is very high and 
 since the flour was also normal in odor and flavor it must be 
 designated as of very good grade. 
 
 Sample No. 4 represents a long patent grade, as indicated 
 by the ash content. It is slightly dark in color, possesses nor- 
 mal absorption and gluten, which is however, of very good 
 quality. 
 
 This flour produces a loaf of very good volume and qual- 
 ity and we particularly call your attention to the fermentation 
 period which is rather short. 
 
 In view of all these facts this sample must be considered 
 as representing a good article of its kind. 
 
 To the baker, an analysis is almost indispensable because 
 of the wide variance in the quality of flour. If the moisture 
 content of a flour is very high, he is not only buying too 
 much water but also a flour that is in danger of spoiling upon 
 storage. The absorptive power should be known because it is 
 an index into the yield, the more water is absorbed by the 
 flour the larger will be the quantity of dough made. The ash 
 content indicates the grade of the flour, and since so-called 
 patents vary from 75 to 100% of the total available flour and 
 since a "patent" from one mill need not correspond to but 
 may be much superior or inferior to a "patent" from another 
 mill, it is evident that analysis is of great importance. 
 The acidity, the gluten, the expansion and stability, etc., are- 
 
 69 
 
all indicative of the quality of flour and the more that is 
 known concerning any sample of flour, the more likely will 
 the baker be able to control uniformity of his product. 
 
 METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 
 Moisture. 
 
 For the determination of moisture, 5 grams of flour are 
 weighed off in a small aluminum dish or cup and dried at 
 100° C. (the boiling point of water) until it ceases to lose 
 weight which recpiires three to five hours. From the loss in 
 weight, the percent of moisture is easily calculated. A mois- 
 ture content higher than 13 per cent is conducive to spoilage 
 and also indicates to the baker that he is buying too much 
 water and to the miller that he is improperly tempering his 
 wheat. 
 
 A very rapid and accurate method of determining moisture 
 in flour and especially in grains and food stuffs, etc., consists 
 in heating a weighed quantity of the material to be tested 
 (100 grams) in a flask with oil. The water distills over into 
 a graduated cylinder and the volume is read. The apparatus 
 is known as the Brown-Duvel moisture tester. It is simple in 
 construction and very easy of operation and has been adopted 
 as official in establishing corn grades. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 The ash is determined by igniting over a flame or in an 
 electric muffle furnace a weighed portion (5 or 10 grams) of 
 material contained in a weighed crucible until a white or grey- 
 ish residue of ash remains. From the weight of the ash the 
 percentage is then calculated. The ash content indicates the 
 grades of the flour and gives a valuable index as to its quality. 
 
 Color. 
 
 The color of flour is determined by comparing the sample 
 with a standard. The sample and the standard are "slicked 
 up" alongside each other on a glass slide or narrow board 
 in the shape of a wedge. The line joining the two is made 
 sharp and distinct so that the color difference is readily seen. 
 The slide with the flour is dipped into water for 10 to 15 sec- 
 onds, and the surface dried by placing in an oven. The wet- 
 
 70 
 
ting and subsequent drying accentuate the difference in color. 
 The color of the patent standard is 100 per cent while that 
 of the clear standard is 70 per cent, so that using mixtures of 
 the two with known varying percentages the color of the 
 sample under examination may be accurately determined. 
 
 Absorption and Loaves Per Barrel. 
 
 Absorption is the percentage amount of water that flour 
 absorbs in making a dough of standard consistency. It is de- 
 termined by adding sufficient water from a burette to 50 grams 
 of flour contained in a cup, and working with a spatula or 
 knife until the mass has the consistency of the standard which 
 is run in parallel. Absorption value is an index of the quan- 
 tity of water that may be used in doughing up. Some flours 
 "tighten up" while others ferment soft and sticky, so that 
 the absorption test is not an infallible one. Loaves per barrel 
 is the ratio of the absorption value of the sample to the 
 standard and is quite generally expressed in percents. 
 
 Dry Gluten. 
 
 Dry gluten is determined by weighing the dry mass ob- 
 tained after separating the starch by washing in water. Twen- 
 ty-five grams of flour are doughed up with water, allowed to 
 stand under water for at least an hour and washed through 
 three changes of water or in a fine stream of water until the 
 wash water is perfectly clear and free from starch. The mass 
 of gluten is washed over a fine wire gauze or bolting cloth to 
 collect the small fragments of gluten which break away from 
 the main portion. The mass is baked, dried, and weighed, and 
 the percentage calculated. The mass of wet gluten gives to 
 the experienced operator a knowledge of quality and char- 
 acter of the gluten which is quite generally of more import- 
 ance than the actual amount contained in the flour. 
 
 Protein. 
 
 The total protein is determined chemically by digesting 1 
 gram of flour in 20 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid in a 
 Kjeldahl flask, subsequently liberating the ammonia formed 
 from the protein by means of concentrated caustic soda solu- 
 tion and distilling the same into a measured quantity of stand- 
 ard acid solution. 
 
 7! 
 
Titrating the excess of standard acid with standard alkali 
 gives the amount of nitrogen which when multiplied by 6.25 
 will give the amount of protein present in the original 1 gram 
 of flour. 
 
 "While this chemical method gives accurately the actual 
 amount of protein, it does not enable the operator to form 
 any idea as to the quality and character of the gluten con- 
 tained in the flour. 
 
 Acidity. 
 
 Acidity of flour is determined by titrating an aqueous ex- 
 tract with standard alkali. Eighteen grams of flour are di- 
 gested at 40° C. with 200 cubic centimeters of water for 10 
 minutes, and allowed to stand at room temperature for an 
 hour with occasional shaking. The extract is filtered and 100 
 cubic centimeters of the clear filtrate titrated with tenth nor- 
 mal (N'10) alkali using phenolphthalein as an indicator. 
 
 1.0 cc. of tenth normal alkali corresponds to an acidity of 
 0.10 per cent, calculated as lactic acid. A high acidity value 
 indicates usually improper storage and unsoundness, although 
 ash content has to be taken into consideration. Acidity and 
 ash content of sound flours run in parallel, high acidity asso- 
 ciated with high ash content. 
 
 Gliadin and Gliadin Number. 
 
 Gliadin is one of the two important proteid bodies that con- 
 stitute gluten and is that adhesive part of gluten which serves 
 to bind the mass of flour into dough. The ratio of gliadin to 
 the total protein of the flour when expressed in percentage is 
 called Gliadin number. Gliadin is soluble in 70% alcohol 
 and is determined analytically by digesting 2 to 8 grams of 
 flour with 200 cubic centimeters of 70 per cent alcohol, filter- 
 ing, taking an aliquot sample with subsequent treatment as 
 under the method for determining protein. 
 
 Expansion or Fermentation Value. 
 
 Fermentation value is determined by fermenting 100 grams 
 of flour made into a dough with 3 grams of sugar and 5 grams 
 of yeast, and under standard conditions. The dough is placed 
 in a graduated glass cylinder and its volume read at 15 min- 
 ute intervals until its maximum expansion or volume is 
 
 72 
 
reached. The ratio of this volume to that of the standard 
 fermented under the same conditions is called the expansion 
 or fermentation value. The maximum expansion is the volume 
 of the dough as read on the cylinder when an interval of 15 
 minutes shows no increase in volume. 
 
 Fermentation Period. 
 
 The time required for the dough to rise to its maximum 
 volume under the expansion determination is called the "fer- 
 mentation period." It is generally expressed in per cent of the 
 standard. 
 
 Quality of Gluten. 
 
 The quality of gluten is the ratio of the expansion per gram 
 or per cent of gluten in the sample to that of the standard 
 and expressed in per cent. The expansion per gram or per 
 cent is obtained by dividing the maximum expansion by the 
 percentage of gluten. 
 
 Stability. 
 
 The stability of flour may be defined as the ability to with- 
 stand fermentation when made into dough. The stronger the 
 flour the more fermentation is required and the more the flour 
 will withstand. Weak flours break down under strong fermen- 
 tation so the stability test is a measure of the strength of the 
 flour. 
 
 The stability test is the average of three successive risings 
 using the expansion method. After the dough has come to the 
 maximum volume in the expansion test, punch down well with 
 a spatula or knife and allow to come to maximum. Punch a 
 second time and allow to rise. The average ratio of the maxi- 
 mum expansion for the three rises as compared to the standard 
 is termed the stability. 
 
 BAKING TEST. 
 
 The baking test is the one test which of itself has real 
 merit. The chemical analysis gives a valuable index as to 
 quality, when more than one determination is considered. For 
 instance, the ash determination indicates the grade of a flour, 
 but like any other single determination it does not sharply 
 
 73 
 
differentiate between good and poor flours. But the ash test, 
 along with the acidity, color, expansion and gluten, etc., suf- 
 ficiently characterize it. The baking test combines in a meas- 
 ure a series of tests. The color, absorption, quality of the 
 gluten, expansion, etc., have their influence upon the loaf so 
 that a baking test quite generally substantiates the results of 
 chemical analysis. In fact an analysis of a sample of flour 
 should include not only the purely chemical determinations, 
 but also a baking test. 
 
 Of the several accepted methods of making comparative 
 baking tests, the one outlined below is considered to be best 
 because it approaches more closely the methods employed in 
 the bake shop. The dough is made up and manipulated accord- 
 ing to the "straight dough" methods, whereas the other 
 methods provide for a ferment of yeast and sugar to stand for 
 30 minutes to an hour before using to make up the dough. 
 Again, the doughs are "punched" according to a time 
 schedule, and in a manner which is similar to the bake-shop 
 methods. 
 
 The size of the loaf is generally a matter of convenience. 
 A larger loaf baked in a standard pan is to be preferred. 
 The formula is varied somewhat in quantity of flour used — 
 340 grams for hard Spring and hard Winter wheat flour, and 
 380 for soft Winter wheat flour, but the quantities of other 
 ingredients is constant, i. e., sugar 10 grams, yeast 10 grams, 
 salt 5 grams, shortening 8 grams and water in sufficient quan- 
 tity to make a dough of standard consistency and determined 
 from the absorption value. 
 
 'The flour, sugar and salt are weighed out into a shallow 
 stone jar, or crock, and placed into a warming cabinet at 80 to 
 85° F. until same reaches this temperature. The yeast is 
 smoothed in a portion of the water and the dough made up us- 
 ing the remaining portion of water, the total amount corre- 
 sponding to the absorption of the flour, and adding the yeast 
 liquid last. The shortening is added after the batch has been 
 mixed for some time, and thoroughly incorporated in the mix. 
 The proper temperature of the water to be used in this test is 
 determined by subtracting the sum of the temperature of the 
 flour and room from 246°. The mixing is best done with a 
 
 74 
 
large spatula or palette knife that has been cut off or a dulled 
 ordinary "butcher's" knife or a putty knife. 
 
 After 10 minutes the crock, containing the dough, is re- 
 moved from the closet and the dough worked again with a 
 spatula or knife and replaced in the closet. The first, second, 
 third and fourth "cuts" are made at intervals of 90 minutes, 
 45 minutes, 23 minutes and 12 minutes, respectively, following 
 mixing and is done by removing the dough from the crock, 
 working on the bench to remove the gas and in a manner 
 similar to "rounding up." The dough in a neat round ball is 
 replaced in the crock, put back in the closet to be "cut" at 
 intervals as indicated. Ten minutes after the fourth working, 
 the dough is moulded and panned. The interval of time be- 
 tween mixing and panning is three hours so that a test loaf is a 
 three-hour straight dough loaf. The loaf is placed in a steam 
 closet heated to 100 to 105 °F. with live steam and when 
 proofed to three times its original volume is baked at 425° to 
 475°F. A one-pound loaf should be baked 30 to 35 minutes 
 and other sizes accordingly. 
 
 LABORATORY OUTFIT. 
 
 1 Balance, Baker's scale. 
 
 1 Analyt. Balance, cap. 100 grs. 
 
 1 Set of weights, analyt. 100 grs. 
 
 2 Eetor stands with 3 rings. 
 1 Tripod, 6 inch. 
 
 1 Drying oven, for gas or electric. 
 1 Waterbath, 6 inch. 
 
 1 Test tube support 
 
 3 Sets of beakers, No. 00 to 3. 
 
 4 Erlmeyer flasks, 250 and 500 cc. 
 
 2 Flasks, fl. b. 250 ce. 
 
 1 Washing bottle, 500 cc. 
 
 3 Kjeldahl flasks, 500 cc, 
 
 2 Funnels, 4 inch. 
 
 2 Funnels, 2 1 / £ inch. 
 
 4 Crucibles, pore. No. 1. 
 
 1 Evaporating dish, pore. 3% in. 
 
 3 Moisture cups, alum. 2 inch. 
 
 2 Doz. test tubes, 6 x % inch. 
 1 Cylinder, graduated 50 cc. 
 1 Cylinder, graduated 250 cc. 
 1 Pipette, vol. 5 cc. 
 
 1 Pipette, vol. 10 cc. 
 1 Pipette, vol. 23 cc. 
 1 Pipette, vol. 50 cc. 
 1 Burette, Mohrs, 50 cc. 1/10. 
 
 1 Burette clamp holder. 
 
 1 Burette pinch cock. 
 
 6 Glass slides, 2x5 inch. 
 
 4 Glass rods, 4 to 8 inches long. 
 
 3 Watch glasses, 5 inch. 
 
 1 Thermometer, 220° F. 
 
 1 Thermometer, 400° F. 
 
 3 Triangles, pipe cov. st, 2 inch. 
 
 (i Wire gauze, iron, 5x5 inch. 
 
 1 Wire gauze, brass or copper, 40 
 
 mesh, 12 x 12 inch. 
 6 Porcelain cups. 
 
 1 Porcelain gluten bowl, pint size 
 3 Jars, stoneware, */% gal. 
 
 2 Jars, Chidlow expansion, cap. 
 1,000 cc. 
 
 1 Spatula, 4 inch. 
 
 1 Table knife, 6 inch. 
 
 1 Table spoon. 
 
 1 Teaspoon. 
 
 1 Flour slick. 
 
 1 Triangular file. 
 
 1 Forceps, brass. 
 
 1 Tong, brass double bent. 
 
 1 Test tube brush. 
 
 1 Camel hair brush. 
 
 75 
 
Dessicator, Scheibler's, with 
 plate 8 inch. 
 
 Extraction apparatus, Soxh- 
 let's compl. 
 Condensors, Liebigs. 
 Condensor bulbs, Kjeldahl's. 
 Clamps, Universal condensor. 
 Clamp holders. 
 
 2 Doz. reagent bottles, glass stop- 
 per, 8 oz. 
 
 200 Filters, white, 5 inch. 
 
 100 Filters, white, 10 inch. 
 
 Glass tubing, assorted sizes, 1 lb. 
 
 Eed and blue litmus paper, 2 
 books each. 
 
 Eubber hose of different size. 
 
 Additional Apparatus for the Baker. 
 
 1 Microscope, double nose piece, 
 
 magn. power 550. 
 12 Slides, microscopic, 1x3 inch. 
 1 Box cover glasses, % inch rd. 
 
 1 Dropping bottle. 
 1 Babcock milk and cream tester 
 compl. 
 
 Additional Apparatus for the Miller, 
 l 
 
 1 Microscope, double nose piece, 
 
 magn. power 300. 
 12 Slides, microscopic, lx 3 inch. 
 1 Box cover glasses, % inch rd. 
 1 Bushel weight grain tester. 
 
 Brown-Duvel 
 
 Moisture tester; 
 
 complete. 
 2 Gooch crucibles. 
 1 Filter pump. 
 1 Erlmeyer filter flask, side neck. 
 
 Reagents, Solutions. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid, dil. 
 
 Sulphuric acid, dil. and n/10 sol. 
 
 Nitric acid, dil. 
 
 Acetic acid, cone. 
 
 Ammonium hydroxide, dil. 
 
 Ammonium chloride. 
 
 Ammonium carbonate. 
 
 Barium chloride. 
 
 Caustic soda, cone, and n/10 sol. 
 
 Sodium carbonate. 
 
 washed for 
 
 Asbestos, 
 
 crucible. 
 Calcium chloride for Dessicator 
 Permanganate of Pot. cryst. 
 
 Eeagent, 
 
 Gooch 
 
 Potassium ferrocyanide. 
 Silver nitrate, n/10 sol. 
 Methyl orange. 
 Phenolphthalein. 
 Alcohol, ethyl 95%. 
 Sulphanilic acid. 
 Alpha Naphtylamine. 
 Ether, sulphuric. 
 Iodine sol. 
 Mercury. 
 
 Solids. 
 
 Sodium hydroxide, sticks. 
 Sodium hydroxide, Greenbanks. 
 Zinc, granular. 
 
BREAD AND CAKE FORMULAS. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 In the formula charts for different kinds of bread, it will 
 be noticed that all are based upon a half barrel unit, using 
 straight dough method. It is perhaps needless to say that 
 in mixing the dough it is best to add the salt and milk with 
 most of the water to the mixer, at the proper temperature, and 
 effecting solution by a few turns of the mixer arms. The yeast 
 and sugar are added to the remaining water at 80 to 85° F. 
 containing the malt extract and smoothed down and allowed 
 to stand while the other ingredients are being weighed out 
 and dissolved. Milk powder and malt sugar should be stirred 
 in with the flour before mixing. Approximately four-fifths of 
 the flour is added to the mixer and mixed several minutes be- 
 fore adding the remainder of the flour and the yeast-malt 
 solution. After the mixing is practically complete, add the 
 shortening and complete the mixing. In making a larger or 
 smaller dough, the ratio of yeast will of necessity be changed 
 slightly as a larger dough requires correspondingly less yeast 
 and a smaller one somewhat more. 
 
 In using the cake formulas, it must be remembered that 
 they are not intended for household or amateur use. It is pre- 
 sumed that the baker understands the proper order in the 
 addition of the several ingredients as also the proper manipula- 
 tion of the mix. 
 
 As an illustration of the use of the cake formulas, let us 
 take Sponge No. 2 under Chart IV. In that case the procedure 
 would probably be to first weigh off all the materials, sifting 
 the one-half ounce of baking powder with the flour. Weigh 
 out the sugar, add the whole eggs and whip until light. Add 
 the butter which should be rather soft and free from salt and 
 excess water and beat until light, adding the vanilla before 
 finishing, and finally the flour. When a machine is used, mix 
 
 77 
 
the flour on low speed. In adding the vanilla with the butter, 
 the flavor of the product is not baked out as is the case when 
 added during the last stage of the mixing. The flavor is due 
 to substances that are quite soluble in the shortening, and 
 consequently is retained more completely in the case by this 
 method. The results to be obtained do not necessarily coincide 
 with the amount of effort expended in whipping a mix, espe- 
 cially so when made by hand, inasmuch as it requires experi- 
 ence and a "knack" to incorporate the maximum amount of 
 air. 
 
 Taking another example, for instance, wine cake mixes, as 
 indicated in Chart III, the method of procedure should prob- 
 ably consist of creaming the lard and butter together with the 
 sugar, adding the quantity of eggs slowly and in about six por- 
 tions. Cream thoroughly after the addition of each portion. 
 The vanilla is beat in, and the flour, with which has been 
 sifted the baking powder, and all the milk, are added at one 
 time, and mixed on low speed. Oftentimes, especially in rich 
 mixes, the flour is mixed in by hand as this produces a lighter 
 mix. 
 
 In this connection it might not be amiss to add that a 
 process is adopted which appears quite practical and consists 
 in working a small quantity of the flour containing no baking 
 powder into the shortening at low speed, finishing after a few 
 minutes on high speed. The remainder of the flour into which 
 the baking powder has been sifted, together with the milk in 
 which the flavoring and the sugar has been dissolved, are added 
 and mixed at high speed for a few minutes, finishing on low 
 speed until the batter is smooth. This method insures a close 
 and even texture to the cakes and permits of incorporating 
 a larger quantity of sugar and milk or water. 
 
 In the foregoing, we have selected as the most practical, to 
 indicate first the quantity of the flour, — which may be a soft 
 Winter wheat variety or a blend of rice or tapioca flour with 
 the soft Winter wheat flour — as giving an index to the size of 
 the mix, and not the butter and sugar which in ordinary prac- 
 tice would be weighed off first. The formulas are supposed 
 to suggest to the foreman and superintendent new cake mixes 
 copies of which might appear individually as were chosen to 
 be introduced in the bake shop. 
 
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 87 
 
RECORDS FOR THE BAKESHOP. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 The maintenance of an accurate record of operations, for- 
 mulas, etc., in a bakery should be a source of profit to the 
 management, as well as convenience to the superintendent. A 
 completed record abounds in ready and valuable information, 
 showing the exact output, and records of the different kinds 
 of bread, together with the quantities baked of each. Changes 
 in the formulas can be referred to in a moment's notice and 
 their influence upon the quality of the product noted. Daily 
 record is on file of the course of the dough through the sponge 
 room, the doughing and fermenting room, whereby the cause 
 of any differences in the quality of the loaf can be traced 
 Record of all temperatures concerned, as well as the time for 
 the several operations and combined with records of humidity 
 and atmospheric pressure should be maintained as data on the 
 variable factors that affect bread making. Through an exami- 
 nation of a series of such records, one is enabled to see the dif- 
 ferences that are effected by each factor. For instance, it may 
 be noted that the doughs get "sloppy" when the pressure is 
 low and the humidity very high. The logical and proper pro- 
 cedure would be to regard the indication of the barometer and 
 hygrometer before setting a sponge or dough, and to vary the 
 yeast, sugar, malt, etc., accordingly. It may be that the doughs 
 are not being properly timed and punched or are being set 
 too warm or that the yield is too low. A little calculation 
 would indicate whether the divider is accurately scaling to 
 the fraction of an ounce, while a study of the dough sheet 
 might indicate that the flour being used has not a profitable 
 absorption and so on. 
 
 The more opportunity one has of becoming acquainted with 
 the variable factors in bread-making, the better chance there 
 is of controlling the same. 
 
The Store Room Records are self explanatory. Entries are 
 made of amounts of materials received as well as delivered to 
 bake shop under respective date. The total of materials used, 
 deducted from the sum of the monthly receipts plus material 
 on hand on the first of the month, gives material on hand on the 
 closing of the last day of the month, which figure is forwarded 
 to sheet for next month as material on hand on the first of 
 the month. As the kind of materials used in the bake shop 
 vary considerable, except flour, sugar, shortening, etc., it was 
 deemed advisable to leave open headings to be filled in with 
 the respective name of ingredients as employed in the respec- 
 tive bake shop. 
 
 89 
 

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 97 
 
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DATA 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 The following chapters are intended to present to the baker 
 and miller in a readily comprehensible form a general review 
 of the various branches of science and technics co-related to 
 the baking industry such as Physics, Chemistry, Microscopy 
 and Pure Yeast Culture, Refrigerating and Electrical En- 
 gineering, Arithmetics and Mensuration. 
 
 Although in order to remain within the scope of this 
 manual these subjects could be treated only in a somewhat 
 brief manner, yet the information contained therein will prove 
 of sufficient value to warrant a careful perusal and study, at 
 the same time impressing upon the reader the importance and 
 indeed necessity of acquiring at least a general knowledge of 
 such scientific facts and data as are most essential for anyone 
 whose aim it is to be a master in his vocation. 
 
 The progressive baker, however, who from reading these 
 chapters should become desirous of developing his knowledge 
 even more by further elucidation and more thorough instruc- 
 tion on these subjects, will by the careful study of this part 
 be enabled to understand intelligently and with no difficulty, 
 more elaborate and special works in these various branches to 
 which he might feel inclined to refer for more detailed infor- 
 mation. 
 
 98 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Physics. 
 
 Physics is that branch of science which treats of the prop- 
 erties and relations of matter and force (or energy). 
 
 Properties of Matter and Force. 
 
 Everything- that occupies space and possesses weight is 
 called matter. A limited portion of matter is called a body. 
 
 All matter is divisible and is made ivp of molecules. 
 
 A molecule is the smallest conceivable part of a substance 
 and it cannot be divided without destroying the identity of the 
 substance. 
 
 Three different states of aggregation are known insofar all 
 substances appear either in a solid, or liquid or gaseous form. 
 
 The state of aggregation of many substances can be 
 changed by either adding or withdrawing heat, or changing 
 the pressure acting upon the same. 
 
 Force does not occupy space, nor does it possess weight; 
 it is, however, the cause of motion or of any change of motion. 
 
 Attractive forces are : 
 
 Cohesion or the attraction which unites molecules of the 
 same kind. 
 
 Adhesion or the force which attracts molecules of different 
 kind. 
 
 Molar Attraction is a force which acts between different 
 bodies. A special case of molar attraction is gravitation or the 
 attraction of the earth upon all bodies. 
 
 Weight and Specific Weight. 
 
 The effect of the gravitation upon matter is called weight; 
 the same is measured by comparison with certain standards, 
 called standard weights. 
 
 The specific weight or specific gravity (sp. gr.) of a body 
 is its weight in comparison with the weight of an equal volume 
 of water. 
 
 It is obtained by dividing the weight of the respective body 
 by the weight of an equal volume of water. 
 
 The specific gravity of liquids can be determined by means 
 of the picnometer or with the hydrometer. 
 
 99 
 
Percentage hydrometers are used for the ready determina- 
 tion of the percentage of any substance contained in a solu- 
 tion ; some of the best known percentage hydrometers are sac- 
 charometer and alcoholometer. 
 
 Hydraulics. 
 
 A liquid contained in open vessels or pipes, which are con- 
 nected with each other, will have the same level in all of them. 
 
 The hydraulic pressure exerted upon a given surface, by a 
 water column is equal to the product of the surface times the 
 height of the column ; it is independent from the size or shape 
 of the vessel. 
 
 The pressure of a water column 1 foot high equals 0.433 
 pound upon every square inch, or it takes a water column 
 closely 27% inches high to exert a pressure of 1 pound per 
 square inch. 
 
 The pressure exerted by liquids lighter or heavier than 
 water is in proportion to their specific gravity. 
 
 Air Pressure. 
 
 The pressure of the atmosphere is sufficient to support a 
 mercury column about 30 inches high, or a water column 34 
 feet high. It amounts at sea-level to 14.7 pounds per square 
 inch in the average, but varies with weather conditions and 
 with the elevation above sea-level. 
 
 Air pressure is measured by the barometer; for measuring 
 the pressure of other gases and vapors, f. i. the vapor of 
 water or steam manometers or pressure gauges are used. 
 
 Heat and Temperature. 
 
 Heat is a form of energy, it is molecular motion. It can 
 be generated by mechanical or muscular motion, by chemical 
 processes, by means of electricity, etc. 
 
 Temperature means the state or intensity of heat, generally 
 designated as cold and hot or warm. 
 
 If bodies having different temperatures are in direct or in- 
 direct contact heat will pass from the warmer body to the 
 colder one, until both have acquired the same temperature. 
 
 Addition of heat generally raises the temperature of a body 
 and expands the same ; abstraction or withdrawal of heat gen- 
 erally lowers the temperature and causes contraction. 
 
 100 
 
Thermometers. 
 
 Thermometers are instruments for measuring temperatures. 
 The various thermometers are different either in graduation or 
 in general construction. 
 
 The different graduations in use are the Fahrenheit, the 
 Celsius or Centigrade and the Reaumur scale of graduation. 
 
 Their essential differences are as follows : On the Fahren- 
 heit scale the temperature of melting ice is designated as 32°, 
 that of water boiling in an open vessel at 14.7 pounds pres- 
 sure as 212°. 
 
 On the Centigrade scale these two temperatures are desig- 
 nated as 0° and 100°, respectively, while on the Reaumur 
 thermometers, the boiling point is indicated by 80°, the melt- 
 ing point being the same as on the Centigrade scale, that is 0°.* 
 
 The chief difference as far as construction is concerned is 
 in the thermometrical medium employed, which in general is 
 mercury. However, alcohol and pentane is also used 
 for filling thermometer tubes, and in the so-called metallic 
 thermometers no liquid but a strip made of two different 
 metal serves the same purpose. 
 
 For high temperatures, such as in baking ovens, pyrome- 
 ters are used; the same are either metallic or electric pyro- 
 meters, in the latter a thermo-electric current being generated 
 by the heat of the oven. 
 
 Heat Unit and Specific Heat. 
 
 The unit used for measuring quantities of heat is called 
 British thermal unit (B. T. IT.), and it represents the heat 
 required to heat 1 pound of water 1° F. 
 
 The specific heat of a substance other than water is the 
 quantity of heat required to heat 1 pound of the respective 
 substance 1° F. This heat differs greatly with different sub- 
 stances; with most substances it is less than 1 B. T. U. 
 
 To calculate the heat required to heat up a given quantity 
 of a substance for any difference in temperature, multiply the 
 weight of the substance by the difference in temperature and 
 by the specific heat of the substance 
 
 *See Thermometer Table in appendix for formula for the conver- 
 sion of thermometer degrees. 
 
 101 
 
Melting and Latent Heat of Melting. 
 
 Many solid substances can be melted by the application of 
 heat. This melting takes place at a constant and definite tem- 
 perature, called melting point, which, however, is different for 
 different substances. 
 
 This melting temperature is at the same time the tempera- 
 ture at which a liquid becomes solid (freezes or solidifies), 
 when the liquid is cooled sufficiently. 
 
 Hence 32° F. which is the melting point of ice, is also called 
 freezing point of water. 
 
 When a solid, for example ice, melts, it absorbs heat, hence 
 the cooling effect of ice. This absorbed heat, however, has no 
 effect upon the temperature of the ice or ice-water, and it is 
 therefore called latent heat. 
 
 The latent heat of ice is closely 144 B. T. IT. per pound. 
 
 Boiling and Latent Heat of Vaporization. 
 
 If a liquid is heated continuously a temperature is finally 
 attained at which the liquid boils, that is at which it is trans- 
 formed into vapors (in the case of water called steam). 
 
 This boiling takes place at a definite temperature, called 
 boiling point, which for water is 212° F. while it differs for 
 other liquids. 
 
 When a liquid is boiling it absorbs heat which has no 
 effect upon the temperature; hence, it is called latent heat of 
 vaporization, which in the case of water amounts to 966 B. 
 T. U. per pound of water. 
 
 Vapors, formed from a liquid by boiling, will, when cooled, 
 condense or liquify at the same temperature at which they had 
 been formed; hence, boiling and liquifying points are identical. 
 
 Effect of Pressure on Boiling. 
 
 If a liquid is boiling in a closed vessel (boiler), in which 
 a higher or lower pressure may be maintained, the boiling tem- 
 perature of the liquid will rise as the pressure increases, and 
 decrease under a lower pressure (respectively vacuum). 
 
 Hygrometry. 
 
 Water evaporates also at temperatures lower than its boil- 
 ing point, in consequence of which the atmosphere always con- 
 
tains more or less water vapor iu form of humidity, the amount 
 of such humidity depending upon temperature and general 
 weather conditions. 
 
 If air contains all the humidity it can retain at a certain 
 temperature, it is called saturated, and any cooling of such air 
 will cause the water vapor to condense and become liquid. 
 
 The degree or percentage of humidity of the air can be 
 determined by means of the Hygrometer, of which several dif- 
 ferent kinds are in use. 
 
 Humidity being an item of importance in a bakery, a good 
 hygrometer is of equal importance as is true of a good ther- 
 mometer. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Chemistry. 
 
 Chemical Changes. 
 
 Chemistry is the science that treats of chemical changes, 
 that is changes that take place in the constitution of all sub- 
 stances and may be explained as follows : If vinegar is poured 
 on a piece of chalk there is at once a change. The vinegar 
 seems to boil; a gas is given off called carbonic acid or carbon- 
 dioxide. The chalk is dissolved and a liquid is left, which, if 
 heated, becomes a solid totally different from the chalk. 
 
 This is what is known as a chemical change or reaction, in 
 which both the chalk and the vinegar are changed. 
 
 This differs from a physical change wherein the composi- 
 tion of a substance is not changed by outside influences. 
 
 If water is exposed to a temperature below 32° F. it becomes 
 a solid, ice. It has undergone a physical change insofar ice is 
 the solid form of water, as is proven if the temperature is 
 raised and the ice melts. If the temperature is raised to 212° F. 
 the water becomes steam, another physical change ; but steam 
 has the same chemical composition as water since no chemical 
 change has taken place in it. 
 
Elements. 
 
 All substances are made up of what are known as elements. 
 There are some seventy-five elements, for instance : gold, sil- 
 ver, iron, zinc, tin, copper, sulphur, oxygen, hydrogen, nitro- 
 gen, etc. 
 
 They form the bases of all substances in one form or an- 
 other, and are like the bricks with which a mason builds a 
 house. Certain of these elements have a great attraction for 
 certain others. Oxygen has a great attraction for iron; if a 
 piece of iron is exposed to air in a short time it will be found 
 to be rusted. This rust is what is known as iron oxide, and 
 it is the product of the chemical union of oxygen with iron, 
 and is not oxygen or iron, but a new or different substance 
 composed of both. It is a powder and not hard like iron or a 
 gas like oxygen. 
 
 Some elements are called metallic, others non-metallic. Such 
 elements as gold, silver, copper, potassium, sodium, etc., are 
 metallic. Sulphur, carbon, phosphorus are non-metallic. 
 Oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, and nitrogen are gaseous elements. 
 
 Compounds and Mixtures. 
 
 "When as in the illustration of the rust or iron, any two 
 or more elements unite to form a new substance, this new 
 substance is known as a compound.. The chalk referred to in 
 a former illustration is a compound of lime and carbonic acid, 
 although it appears like one substance. So we could show by 
 analysis that the iron rust is a compound of iron and oxygen. 
 
 Mixtures are very different from compounds insofar as com- 
 pounds are chemical unions as shown, while mixtures are not. 
 In other words, if we put sugar and sand together, we form 
 a mixture, but not a compound as there is no chemical union. 
 If we dissolve salt in water' we have a liquid mixture or solu- 
 tion, but no compound. It is true the salt disappears and 
 it would seem that a compound is formed, but if we heat this 
 solution the water is evaporated and the salt is left chemically 
 unchanged. 
 
 Atoms and Molecules. 
 
 Atoms are defined as the smallest particles into which an 
 element may be divided, and consequently they cannot be 
 divided any further. 
 
It has, however, been found in nature that atoms do not 
 exist isolated or alone, but when free they unite with one an- 
 other if they do not unite with atoms of some other element, 
 and this union is called a molecule, and this is the smallest 
 particle of a substance that will exist by itself, and possess all 
 the characteristics of the respective substance. Thus a mole- 
 cule of hydrogen is the union of two atoms of hydrogen; a 
 molecule of common salt is the union of an atom of chlorine 
 and an atom of sodium. 
 
 Chemical Symbols and Formula. 
 
 Each of the elements in chemistry has a name derived from 
 the Latin or Greek language, and a common name by which 
 it is generally known ; for instance, the chemical name for that 
 substance commonly known as iron, is Ferrum, the Latin name. 
 The chemical name for copper is Cuprum, also a Latin name. 
 Chemists to avoid writing out the full name of an element 
 each time use a symbol, which is one or more letters of the 
 chemical name. Thus, Au is the symbol for "Aurum," gold, 
 while the symbol for iron is Fe, the first letters of the chemical 
 name ' ' Ferrum, " H is the symbol for Hydrogen, for Oxygen, 
 C for Carbon, etc. 
 
 To express in a clear and distinct way a chemical fact the 
 chemist uses what is called a formula. We know, for example, 
 by experiment that a molecule of water is composed of 2 atoms 
 of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen chemically combined, and 
 to express this fact the chemist uses the formula "H 2 0". In 
 the same way the chemist uses for sulphuric acid the formula 
 "H,S0 4 ". Each distinct substance has a chemical formula. 
 
 Chemical Affinity or Attraction. 
 
 "We are all familiar with the fact that iron has an attraction 
 for a magnet ; in like manner all substances have an affinity for 
 some other substance to a greater or lesser degree. 
 
 When we put the vinegar on the chalk we found an effer- 
 vescence resulting. This was because we had in the chalk an 
 attraction of lime with carbonic acid, but this affinity is weak, 
 and when Ave added the vinegar, the affinity of the lime for 
 the vinegar was stronger than for the carbonic acid, and it 
 went to the vinegar, and the carbonic acid was set free, and 
 a new compound was formed. 
 
Valence or Atomicity. 
 
 The atom of each element has a certain amount of power 
 to unite with other atoms to form molecules, and this is known 
 as the valence of an element. For instance, an atom of oxygen 
 has the power to unite with two atoms of hydrogen, form- 
 ing H 2 0, hence it is called bivalent. 
 
 It requires then two atoms of a univalent element (like 
 Hydrogen H) to unite with one atom of a bivalent element 
 (like Oxygen 0) to form a molecule of the compound. Nitro- 
 gen is a trivalent atom and that requires three atoms of hydro- 
 gen to form a molecule. In the case of oxygen one atom may 
 unite with one atom of sodium "Na," leaving free one valence 
 of oxygen, which may unite with one atom of hydrogen making 
 the compound "NaOH" showing that the two values of oxygen 
 have been satisfied by one atom of sodium and one atom of 
 hydrogen. 
 
 Atomic Weights. 
 
 All substances, even air, have weight and as all elements 
 may be divided into their smallest particles or atoms, these 
 atoms must have weight, and this is known as the atomic 
 weight. 
 
 All substances have different relative weights; some are 
 called heavy, others light. Hydrogen which is the lightest 
 element known, is taken as the standard of comparison, and 
 the atomic weight of an element is the relative weight of its 
 atoms as compared with the weight of an atom of hydrogen. 
 Thus the atomic weight of iron is 56, of copper 63, hydrogen 
 1, oxygen 16, carbon 12, sulphur 32, etc. 
 
 Inorganic Chemistry. 
 
 That part of chemistry treating on minerals or anything 
 made from or related to minerals is generally called inorganic 
 chemistry in distinction to organic chemistry which treats sub- 
 stances derived from or related to either the animal or vege- 
 table organism. 
 
 Metals and Metalloids. 
 
 Those elementary bodies that possess metallic qualities, 
 such as metallic lustre, conductivity for heat and electricity 
 are called metals. They are malleable, may be hammered out ; 
 
are ductile, may be drawn out. They are iron, gold, silver, 
 lead, tin, copper, etc. They unite with oxygen, forming oxides, 
 and with both oxygen and hydrogen, forming hydroxides, or 
 bases. 
 
 Metalloids are unlike metals, they do not possess metallic 
 lustre, they are not good conductors of heat or electricity; 
 some of them are gases. They will unite with hydrogen, or 
 oxygen and hydrogen, to form acids. Non-metals are hydro- 
 gen, chlorine, iodine, carbon, sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus, 
 oxygen, silica. Some compounds of non-metallic elements or 
 metalloids, Avith hydrogen, or with oxygen and hydrogen, are 
 Hydrochloric acid "HC1", Sulphuric acid "H 2 S0 4 ", Nitric 
 acid "HN0 3 ". 
 
 Alkalis, Acids; Salts. 
 
 Alkalis is the term applied to those oxides or hydroxides 
 which are soluble in water, such as caustic soda and caustic 
 potash. They have a soapy taste, and have a caustic effect 
 upon organic substances such as fats and oils, with which 
 they form soaps. They will dissolve or soften paint, varnish, 
 cellulose, albumen and the like. The presence of free alkali 
 may be known by turning red litmus paper blue. 
 
 Acids, as a rule, have a sour taste, like vinegar or lemon 
 juice. If they come in contact with metals or alkalis they 
 will dissolve them and form new compounds, called salts. 
 
 Acids contain hydrogen, "H", in combination that can 
 be exchanged or replaced by a metal. The test for free acid 
 is the turning of blue litmus paper red. 
 
 When an acid and an alkali are brought together in the 
 proper proportions, the properties of each are destroyed and 
 they are said to neutralize each other. This may be known 
 when litmus paper will turn neither red or blue, and the sour 
 and soapy taste are gone. To illustrate by a formula this 
 reaction which is called neutralization, we take caustic soda 
 "NaOH", an alkali, and add to it hydrochloric acid "HCT". 
 Then we find the metal of the alkali, sodium, to change place 
 with the hydrogen of the acid and to combine with the chlorine 
 forming sodium chloride, "NaCl" Common salt, while the 
 hydrogen of the acid unites with the oxygen and hydrogen of 
 the alkali, forming water, H 2 0. 
 
 107 
 
A salt is the union or combination of an acid and a base, 
 that is an alkali or a metal. Salts take the name of the acid 
 entering into the compound, so that salts formed from sul- 
 phuric acid H 2 S0 4 are called "Sulphates," those from hydro- 
 chloric acid "HC1" chlorides, etc. If in an acid that has 
 more than one atom of hydrogen in a molecule, only part of 
 the hydrogen is replaced by a metal, the resulting salt is 
 known as an acid salt. 
 
 Air, Oxidation and Combustion. 
 
 Air is the atmosphere surrounding the earth and is a mix- 
 ture of a variety of gases, but chiefly one-fifth of oxygen, 
 and four-fifths nitrogen, with small quantities of water vapor, 
 ammonia, carbonic acid, and other gases. Air is absolutely 
 necessary to all life as it contains oxygen. 
 
 Oxygen has the quality of combining with many other 
 elements and the change they undergo hereby is called oxida- 
 tion. If in the case of wood and fuels the oxidation takes 
 place rapidly in the form of fire, it is called combustion. 
 When a match is lighted the heat of the burning head of 
 the match is sufficient to heat the wood enough to set free 
 the hydrogen in the wood, which unites with oxygen to form 
 water, and make the carbon red hot. This latter unites with 
 oxygen and forms carbonic acid. 
 
 Water.* 
 
 One of the most widely distributed natural substances is 
 water. Chemically pure water is a compound of hydrogen and 
 oxygen, having the formula "H 2 0". It will dissolve most sub- 
 stances and is obtained pure by boiling and condensing the 
 vapor, known as distillation. This is exhibited in nature by 
 rain water; but even this is not absolutely pure as it contains 
 ammonia and other gases. 
 
 Water that has dissolved in it Calcium (lime) or Magne- 
 sium salts, is termed a hard water, otherwise it is soft. 
 
 Water that contains carbonate of soda or potash is termed 
 alkaline. Hard water is rendered soft by adding soda or 
 ammonia. Water for baking should be to a certain extent 
 possessed of permanent hardness, to assist in the develop- 
 
 *See Water, Chapter II. 
 
 108 
 
ment of lactic acid, but if too hard, it will retard fermenta- 
 tion. Water that contains too much sodium chloride (salt) 
 will likewise arrest fermentation. Alkaline water is not adapt- 
 able for baking, as it softens and breaks up the gluten. 
 
 Organic Chemistry. 
 
 The branch of chemistry that treats of chemical com- 
 pounds present in plants and animals is called organic chem- 
 istry. These compounds which all contain carbon in some 
 form, can be gases or liquids or solids, as benzine, oil, fats, 
 starch, sugar, protein and the like. 
 
 Hydrocarbons. 
 
 These .substances are compounds of carbon and hy- 
 drogen, the simplest (CH 4 ), is a colorless gas, called 
 Methane or marsh gas. In this one or more atoms of hydro- 
 gen may be replaced by other elements or groups of atoms 
 forming a large number of different compounds. The lower 
 members of this series are gases, but as the number of carbon 
 atoms increases, they become liquids or solids. 
 
 Alcohols. 
 
 Common alcohol is a volatile colorless liquid, derived by fer- 
 mentation from sugar and is obtained by distillation. It has the 
 formula C 2 H 5 (OH) and is known as ethyl- or grain-alcohol 
 or spirit of wine and is present in wine, beer, brandy and 
 whiskey in quantities from 2% to 70%. Good technical alco- 
 hol contains 94 to 95% of alcohol. 
 
 One hundred parts of sugar will give 51 parts of alcohol 
 and 49 parts of carbonic acid, and therefore alcohol is also 
 formed in the fermentation of dough. It is inflammable and 
 has a pleasant taste, but little odor. 
 
 Ethyl-alcohol is lighter than water, it has a specific gravity 
 of 0.79, and boils at 78° C. or 173° F. If exposed under cer- 
 tain circumtances to air, the oxygen of the air converts it into 
 acetic acid or vinegar as in sour beer, wine, cider, and to a 
 certain extent in bread baking in the oven. 
 
 From methane (CTI 4 ) by substituting OH for one atom of 
 hydrogen we have Methyl- or wood alcohol CH 3 (OH). This 
 is a poison and is used to dissolve resins in the manufacture 
 of varnishes. 
 
Fusel-alcohol or Amyl-alcohol C 5 H n (OH) sometimes 
 called Fusel oil is formed in small quantities in fermentation. 
 
 Glycerine, C 3 H 5 (OH) 3 , is a triple alcohol; it is a thick liquid 
 with a sweet taste. With the fatty acids it forms the animal 
 and vegetable fats and oils. 
 
 Organic Acids. 
 
 When an alcohol is oxydized, it becomes an acid. Ethyl 
 alcohol by oxidation becomes acetic acid, CH 3 COOH. Vine- 
 gar contains from 5 to 6% of acetic acid, and a little is 
 formed in the baking of bread in the oven from the alcohol 
 formed in the fermentation of the dough and gives the pecu- 
 liar odor in the baking. 
 
 Butyric acid, C 3 H 7 COOH, forms in butter when it becomes 
 rancid. 
 
 Palmitic acid, C 15 H 31 COOH, and stearic acid, € 17 H 35 OOOH, 
 are found in vegetable and animal fats and oils combined with 
 glycerine. Boiled with soda or potash, the fats and oils form 
 soaps. 
 
 Lactic acid, C 3 H 6 3 , is present in small quantities in grain, 
 hence in flour, also in milk. It increases during fermentation 
 by lactic acid bacteria, which decompose carbohydrates 
 and form this acid. It is present in bread from 0.12 to 0.20%, 
 in beer about 0.1%. It occurs in larger quantities in rye 
 bread, weiss beer, ale, sour milk and sour-kraut. It has a 
 favorable effect on certain enzymes, such as peptase, hence its 
 presence in dough is desirable. It assists in the keeping 
 qualities of bread, hence rye bread keeps better than wheat 
 bread. 
 
 Tartaric acid, C 4 H 6 6 , is found in the juice of grapes and 
 fruit and is deposited during fermentation in the form of a 
 salt called potassium tartrate or cream of tartar. This salt 
 or the tartaric acid itself is used in baking powders. 
 
 Esters. 
 
 Compounds formed by the combination of an alcohol and an 
 acid with the elimination of water are called Esters. They 
 may also be considered as derived from an alcohol in which 
 the hydroxylic hydrogen has been replaced by an acid radical. 
 
 Esters may be prepared by heating for some hours on a 
 water-bath a mixture of an acid and an alcohol with small 
 
quantities of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. They have gen- 
 erally an aromatic odor, are neutral in reaction, and insoluble 
 in water, but dissolve in alcohol and ether and are used as 
 fruit-essences. 
 
 Fats and Oils. 
 
 Belonging to the group of esters is a number of substances, 
 comprising the various fats and oils of animal or vegetable 
 origin. 
 
 All such fats and oils are glyceryl-esters, composed of the 
 triple-alcohol glycerine with the higher organic acids, such as 
 lauric, palmitic, stearic, oleic acid, etc. 
 
 Carbohydrates. 
 
 Organic compounds in which carbon is united with water in 
 certain proportions are called carbohydrates; they are such as 
 the sugars C 12 H 22 O n , dextrine C 12 H 20 O 10 , starch, cellulose, etc. 
 They differ from hydrocarbons which contain no oxygen. 
 
 Cellulose (C 6 H 10 5 )n is found in the wall of the barley 
 grain, wheat, etc., in cotton fiber, filter paper and filtermass. 
 
 Starch (C 6 H 10 O 5 )m is a granular organic substance found 
 in wheat, rye, barley, corn, rice, potatoes and other plants. 
 It is enclosed in a cell wall, and is not soluble in water. 
 
 If the cell wall is broken by boiling it forms a viscid 
 substance or paste. This is called gelatinizing- of starch and 
 takes place at 165° to 185° F. Gelatinized starch gives with 
 iodine solution a bluish-black color. In baking some of the 
 moist starch will gelatinize. 
 
 The action of certain enzymes as ptyalin in saliva, and 
 amylopsin in pancreatic juice converts it into maltose and 
 dextrine. In brewing starch is converted into maltose by the 
 diastase of malt. 
 
 Starch heated dry to about 300° F. is converted into dex- 
 trine ; this is found in the crust of bread exposed to the high 
 heat of the oven. AYhen boiled with a little acid starch is 
 transformed into a sugar called dextrose. 
 
 Sugars.* 
 
 Saccharose or sucrose, C^H^On , is a sweet substance 
 found in sugarcane, beets and the sap of the maple and birch 
 
 *See Chapter II. 
 
trees, as also other plants. It crystallizes when the sap or 
 juice is evaporated, but if heated to about 365° F. it loses its 
 crystalline form and turns into caramel. It is the sweetest of 
 all sugars, freely soluble in water, but it is not fermentable. 
 If boiled with acids, however, or acted upon by invertase, 
 an enzyme of the yeast, it will become fermentable. Confec- 
 tioners' sugar is powdered cane sugar. 
 
 Maltose or malt sugar is the product of the mashing of 
 malt. It is formed from the starch of malt by the action of 
 diastase. Malt-extract contains about 60 to 65% of maltose 
 with 20% of moisture and other substances. 
 
 Lactose or milk-sugar is present in milk from 2 to 5%, 
 it does not ferment directly. 
 
 Dextrose, C 6 H I2 6 , is contained in grapes and other fruits ; 
 it is also known as grape sugar. It is less sweet than cane 
 sugar and readily fermentable. 
 
 Dextrine, C 12 H 20 O 10 , is an amorphous compound found in 
 the sap of plants and is produced by the action of heat or 
 mineral acids on starch; it is soluble in water, practically 
 tasteless and not fermentable. 
 
 Proteins. 
 
 Complex organic compounds containing carbon, hydro- 
 gen, oxygen and in addition nitrogen and sulphur, are found 
 in all animal and vegetable bodies. The best known type of 
 these substances is the white of the egg, or albumen. Similar 
 substances are found in seeds and grains and are called pro- 
 teins or albuminoids. 
 
 They differ from starch, sugar and cellulose as they may 
 be decomposed by proteolytic enzymes, by putrefactive bac- 
 teria, acids and alkali. They are divided into proteins insolu- 
 ble in water and proteins soluble in water, and may be still 
 further classified as to their solubility or insolubility in salt 
 solution, or alcohol or whether they will coagulate or not. 
 
 The protein glutenin is found in wheat flour, together 
 with gliadin, with which it forms the "gluten" of the flour. 
 The insoluble vegetable proteins are globulins, prolamins and 
 glutelins. Some soluble vegetable proteins are coagulable, as 
 albumin and leucosin of wheat, which will coagulate if a 
 
 112 
 
solution is heated to 212° F. or treated with acids. Other 
 proteins that do not coagulate are proteoses, peptones, amides 
 and amino-acids. Peptones are the result of the action upon 
 the higher proteins of certain enzymes, as pepsin in the gas- 
 tric juice, and peptase in malt. Peptones and amides are 
 the chief elements of nutrition of any organism including 
 yeast. 
 
 Enzymes. 
 
 In the animal and vegetable organisms are found a number 
 of unorganized ferments which are called enzymes; they split 
 up or destroy higher organic compounds, and decompose them 
 into simpler ones, while they are themselves unchanged. 
 
 They are designated as hydrolytic, diastatic, proteolytic, 
 etc., and they decompose or break up carbohydrates, pro- 
 teins, fats, and other complex organic compounds. 
 
 Cytase which occurs in barley and malt, dissolves the 
 cellulose of the starch cells. 
 
 Diastase in malt converts starch into maltose and dex- 
 trine, while peptase, also contained in malt, breaks up the 
 higher proteins, an effect which is also characteristic for 
 pepsin contained in the gastric juice of animals. 
 
 Enzymes splitting sugars are the invertase, the maltase 
 and the zymase to be found in yeast, of which the first inverts 
 cane sugar into invert sugar, that is a mixture of dextrose 
 and levulose, while the second changes malt-sugar to dex- 
 trose. The last one, zymase, ferments dextrose and levulose 
 and forms thereby alcohol and carbonic acid. 
 
 113 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 Microscopy, Micro-Organisms, and PureYeast Culture. 
 
 USE OF THE MICROSCOPE. 
 
 Construction of the Microscope.* 
 
 The microscope may be considered as a magnifying glass 
 composed of one or more lenses, the former is known as 
 a simple and the latter as a compound miscroscope, the chief 
 parts of which are the ocular and the objectives. 
 
 Important parts of a compound microscope ; 
 
 Ocular Axes 
 
 Objective iStage 
 
 Draw Tube Stagepin 
 
 Tube Mirror 
 
 Pillar Mirror pin 
 
 Coarse adjustment screw INose piece 
 
 Fine adjustment screw Pillar 
 
 Arm Foot or Base 
 
 The principle upon which the microscope is operated, con- 
 sists in directing a ray of light by the use of the mirror, below 
 the stage, through the object to be examined, and subsequently 
 through the objective and ocular to the eye. The substance 
 to be examined known as the object should be in a sufficiently 
 fine state to allow for the transmission of light. For all 
 microscopical purposes north light or light reflected from a 
 white cloud or white wall is most desirable. 
 
 The Examination of Cereals. 
 
 Chief among the cereals employed in the mill or bakery, 
 we must consider wheat, and what applies to wheat, in a gen- 
 eral way also applies to rye. For further consideration of the 
 structure of a wheat kernel we refer to Plates II and III as 
 also to Chapter I. 
 
 Accordingly the following parts can be distinguished : 
 Epidermis, with the wheat hair, 
 Epicarp on body, 
 
 * See Plate I. 
 
Cross-cells, 
 
 Tube cells, 
 
 Outer layer of spermoderm, 
 
 Inner layer of spermoderm, 
 
 Aleurone cells, 
 
 Endosperm or Starch cells. 
 
 Identification of Starches. 
 
 Starches, either before cooking or disintegration, are iden- 
 tified and their origin determined by the use of the micro- 
 scope. A solution of iodine in water is the chemical means 
 of detecting starch, and this is employed when the starch has 
 been disintegrated and its mere presence is desired to be 
 indicated. 
 
 Chief among the starches are wheat, rye, icorn, rice, potato, 
 bean and peas-starch. 
 
 There are an endless number of other starches; however, 
 those mentioned are the most important and suffice fully for 
 illustration. 
 
 All these starches are readily distinguishable from one an- 
 other by the shape, size, and surface configuration of their un- 
 divided cells, and sometime by their variation in size in the 
 same starch as is indicated by the microscopical illustrations 
 on Plate IV. 
 
 At times, in the examination of starches, the polariscope is 
 used on account of the refraction of the light, produced by the 
 starches; this method is resorted to only where a question of 
 doubt arises. 
 
 MICRO-ORGANISMS. 
 The Cell. 
 
 In considering substances microscopically, the first subject 
 that enters into question is the cell, which may be described 
 as consisting of a mass of protoplasma, surrounded by a cell 
 wall and containing a nucleus. The latter is the life of the 
 cell, and therefore when destroyed, the cell is no longer able 
 to exist. 
 
 Protoplasm is a complex albuminous substance, resembling 
 somewhat in complexity egg albumen, and furnishes to the 
 cell the nourishment, as also the energy for reproduction. 
 
The cell wall is composed of a cellulose membrane, through 
 which it receives its nourishment and performs the further 
 function of keeping the cell contents in tact. A single cell is 
 able to carry on all the functions of life, such as : respiration, 
 assimilation and reproduction, the latter usually taking place 
 in one of several ways, either direct, known as fission, or indi- 
 rect by sporulation or budding. 
 
 Infection. 
 
 Contamination of any substance by a foreign organism 
 is called infection. For example, the presence of any 
 bacteria such as lactic acid bacteria, in pure culture yeast 
 (from a pure yeast apparatus) would be considered as an 
 infection, whereas the presence of the same bacteria in milk, 
 is considered as normal. 
 
 Fermentation. 
 
 The decomposition of any organic substance by the action 
 of ferments, such as yeast, bacteria, mould, and enzymes is 
 called fermentation. Enzymes belong to the class known as 
 unorganized ferments, and may be illustrated by such examples 
 as invertase and peptase. 
 
 The fermentation which takes place in bread, and is brought 
 about by the action of yeast of the cultured variety on sugar 
 contained in the dough is known as alcoholic fermentation, 
 whereas vinous fermentation is brought about by the action 
 of wild yeast, and acid fermentation by the action of bacteria, 
 as is exemplified in vinegar. 
 
 Putrefaction. 
 
 "When fermentation is accompanied by the production of 
 offensive gases, which in most cases consist of hydrogen sul- 
 phide (H 2 S), we speak of it as a putrefaction, and in all cases 
 with isolated exceptions, is brought about by bacteria. 
 
 In this connection reference should be made of viscous fer- 
 mentation as a form of putrefaction not uncommon in the bake- 
 shop in the form of ropiness. 
 
 Moulds (Hyphomycetes). 
 Moulds, like bacteria and yeast, are plants belonging to the 
 lowest form of plant-life, being devoid of chlorophyll (green 
 
coloring substance) and consequently grow best in dark damp 
 places. They consist of a mass of interlacing fibres" known as 
 mycellium, upon which are superimposed large interlacing 
 threads, known as Hyphae, from which are produced the fruit 
 heads and spores of the various forms of moulds. The moulds 
 most commonly found in and about the mill or bakery, are the 
 following: Mucor, Pencillum, Aspergillus and Oidium. 
 
 These moulds are separate and distinct from those which 
 affect the grain on the field, such as rust mould. All of these 
 moulds can best be explained by referring to the illustra- 
 tions on Plate V. The moulds are reproduced by spores, which 
 are produced in large numbers and distributed by the air on 
 other objects; they have the property of reproducing plants 
 identical with those from which they originated. 
 
 Yeast (Blastomycetes).* 
 
 Yeast, which as already stated, belongs to the lowest form 
 of plant-life, is unicellular and reproduces itself either by 
 indirect fission (budding) or else sporulation (spores). 
 
 The former is the manner in which reproduction is effected 
 when the yeast is innoculated into a properly constructed 
 medium which is sufficiently defusible to allow for proper as- 
 similation and sufficient oxygen to admit of proper oxidation. 
 "When, however, the yeast propagates under adverse condi- 
 tion, it does so by the development of spores and not buds. 
 These spores are formed by a sort of an agglutination of the 
 protoplasm into three or four spherical objects within the 
 cell wall, which will withstand many conditions, which would 
 otherwise destroy the yeast. Such yeast spores when again 
 placed under normal conditions will reproduce yeast cells such 
 as those from which they were derived. 
 
 There are many forms of yeast cells, varying considerable 
 in size and shape, from five to ten microns in diameter (micron 
 is the measurement used in microscopical work, and is indi- 
 cated by and represents one thousandth part of a millimeter). 
 
 To admit of a more convenient study, yeast is divided into 
 two classes, the pure culture yeasts, such as is and should be 
 used in the bakery, described technically as Saccharomycetes 
 
 * Yeast as baking material, see Chapter II. 
 
 117 
 
Cerevisiae, and the wild yeasts which should he foreign to the 
 bakery, with the exception of such bakeshops wherein sour 
 doughs and barms are employed, in which case the baker if not 
 pursuing modern practices employs not only a variety of wild 
 yeast but also a large number of bacteria. 
 
 Bacteria (Schizomycetes). 
 
 Like yeast and mould so bacteria belong also to the lowest 
 form of plant-life and grow practically in any substances 
 which contain organic matter, in a sufficiently diffusible state, 
 and are not antiseptic in action. They are universally found 
 in the air, the amount depending upon the cleanliness of the 
 location. 
 
 These organisms occur generally in two shapes known as 
 bacilli (rod shaped) and cocci (dot shaped). They may be 
 single or in chains, and the cocci also at times occur in masses. 
 They range in size from one micron in width and length 
 as in the cocci to one micron wide and from one and one-half 
 micron to ten microns in length as in the bacilli. Some of 
 these bacteria are motile, some are spore-bearing, which points 
 are all used in the recognition of the organisms. The bacteria 
 generally found in the bakery grow best in alkaline media, 
 therefore differing from the yeast, which grow best in an acid 
 medium. 
 
 Some of these organisms, as is true with the yeast, are 
 beneficial, while most of them are detrimental to the industry. 
 
 Resume. 
 
 In considering the foregoing collective treatment as it were 
 of the moulds, yeast and bacteria the fact must not be over- 
 looked that in order to remain within the very limited confine 
 of the scope of this work, the same is of necessity very brief, 
 therefore the reader is referred to works which treat exclu- 
 sively on this subject for more detailed information. 
 
 However, the illustrations on Plates V, VI and VII show ex- 
 actly what is meant in the descriptive matter on moulds, yeast 
 and bacteria. These organisms can all be grown for observa- 
 tion purposes on artificial culture media, prepared from the 
 desired food substances and combined with some gelatinizing 
 substance, such as gelatine or agar-agar. 
 
 118 
 
Microscopical Examination of Yeast. 
 
 In a general way the examination of microscopical objects 
 is pursued in approximately the same manner, and consider- 
 ing the fact that the yeast is the most important organism con- 
 cerning the baker we submit the following outline to be 
 adopted in such examinations: 
 
 1. Appearance of individual cells 
 
 (a) As to the consistency of the Protoplasm, whether 
 Granular, Homogenous (liquid) or Vacuoled 
 
 (b) As to the appearance of the cell walls : thick, thin, 
 or irregular. 
 
 2. Shape of cells (a) oval, (b) round or (c) irregular. 
 
 3. Size of cells from 5 to 9 microns; (a) large, (b) med- 
 
 ium, (c) small. 
 
 4. Per cent of dead cells 
 
 5. Per cent of weakened cells 
 
 6. Foreign substances 
 
 7. Per cent of Bacteria 
 
 (a) As to shape 
 
 1. Rod or bacilli 
 
 2. Dot or cocci 
 
 (b) As to Occurrence 
 
 1. In chains 
 
 2. In masses 
 
 3. In pairs 
 
 4. In packages 
 
 8. Wild yeast of which the micoderma is probably the 
 most common. 
 
 9. Inorganic substances, Calcium Oxalate. 
 
 10. General opinion based on the above results. 
 
 PURE YEAST CULTURE. 
 
 Pure yeast culture is the selection of a single cell, which is 
 propagated in sterilized culture media made for that purpose. 
 The cell and subsequent growth is thoroughly examined as to 
 its adaptability for the particular needs, consequently the same 
 is selected entirely upon its character to which end the follow- 
 ing tests are made : 
 
 119 
 
1. Whether it is a true or wild yeast. 
 
 2. Fermentation test is made, by which test we arrive at 
 the following information : 
 
 (a) The energy of fermentation 
 
 (b) The reproductive power 
 
 (c) The amount of alcohol produced 
 
 (d) The amount of carbonic acid produced 
 
 (e) The attenuating properties 
 
 (f) The flavor produced in the finished product. 
 
 3. Finally determine whether the same is free from any 
 bacterial infection. 
 
 After all the above tests are made and the yeast is found 
 to be possessed of those characteristics that are deemed desir- 
 able for the intended purposes, large cultures are made of the 
 same, in pure yeast apparatuses, which are especially con- 
 structed for this purpose. The objects of pure culture yeast 
 are the absence of infection from bacteria, or wild yeast, and 
 to maintain a uniform flavor of the product, as also assuring 
 an exact and definite quantity of yeast required to ferment 
 a known quantity of dough. 
 
 Culture Media. 
 
 Any substance of organic nature, which is employed for 
 the purpose of growing or propagating all micro-organisms 
 is known as culture medium. For the growth of yeast, a solu- 
 tion called wort is employed which is prepared by digesting 
 ground malt in water at suitable temperatures. The liquid 
 or wort drained from this) digestion or mash is clarified 
 and sterilized in properly constructed vessels. If it is desired 
 to grow the yeast on a solid medium, a certain percentage of 
 agar agar or gelatine is added sufficiently to maintain in a solid 
 condition at ordinary room temperature. 
 
 For the development of bacteria for the purpose of identi- 
 fication, the same culture medias may be employed. 
 
 Method of Pure Culture. 
 
 A desirable yeast is selected and sufficiently diluted with 
 sterile water, so as to have approximately one yeast cell per 
 microscope-field under low power. When this dilution has 
 been attained, close watch having been kept on the manner of 
 
 120 
 
 
dilution and the amounts required, sterilized wort gelatine is 
 substituted for the sterile water, and in a proportion so that 
 the same dilution in liquified wort gelatine is maintained as is 
 true with sterilized water. 
 
 This is then transferred in an aseptic manner, to sterilized 
 moist chambers,* which are prepared by sealing a ring of glass 
 to the surface of a slide and placing on top of that a cover 
 glass which has a hanging drop of the liquified wort gelatine, 
 containing the yeast cells. The slide so prepared is placed on a 
 level surface until the liquified wort gelatine solidifies, when it 
 is then brought under the low power of the microscope, and 
 examined. 
 
 When a suitable cell is found, it is brought to the center of 
 the field, and isolated from all other yeast cells in that field, 
 when it is marked with a marking apparatus, especially de- 
 signed for that purpose. 
 
 After this is completed and several other cells have been 
 marked in the same manner on the same cover glass, it is placed 
 in an incubator, and allowed to grow for 72 hours, and ex- 
 amined from time to time to see that the cells are properly 
 growing. 
 
 When they are sufficiently grown, so that the cultures can 
 be seen with the naked eye, they are transferred into a flask 
 containing sterilized wort, and allowed to grow until the wort 
 is fermented. From there they are transferred to a large 
 pasteur-flask, of 250 cubic centimeter capacity, and from this 
 flask tests as to purity are made, and if the same is found to be 
 a desirable yeast it is transferred to the pure yeast apparatus. 
 
 Pure Yeast Apparatus.** 
 
 A pure yeast apparatus is composed of two or more tanks 
 especially adapted for this purpose and in a general way might 
 be described as follows : 
 
 Each tank which is of a size in proportion to the amount 
 of yeast desired, has arrangements on it so that the 
 yeast can be transferred without contaminating it with in- 
 fected air, and to allow the same to ferment freely without 
 
 * See Plate VIII. 
 ** For illustration of pure yeast apparatus see Plate IX. 
 
 121 
 
keeping it under pressure and so that sufficient yeast can be 
 retained for subsequent fermentation, without the renewal of 
 the cultures. All air used for aeration and pressure is filtered 
 through a sterilized cotton filter. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Refrigeration. 
 
 In accordance with the scope of this book, in the following 
 chapter only the most essential points on refrigeration are 
 considered, although this subject is indeed a very important 
 one for the baker as well as for the miller.* 
 
 Mechanical Refrigeration. 
 
 Mechanical refrigeration is the art of either establishing or 
 maintaining by mechanical means, a temperature lower than 
 the prevailing atmospheric temperature. 
 
 Methods of Producing Refrigeration. 
 
 While refrigeration can be obtained by the use of cooling 
 water circulated through pipes or by the use of ice, which, 
 when melting, absorbs heat whereby the temperature of the 
 refrigerator is lowered, the most common and most efficient 
 method employed at the present time and whereby in fact very 
 large amounts of refrigeration can be obtained conveniently, 
 is by the evaporation of liquids possessing a low boiling point, 
 chiefly liquified gases. 
 
 Refrigerating Liquids. 
 
 The most commonly used refrigerating media are liquid or 
 anhydrous ammonia, liquid carbonic acid and liquid sulphur- 
 dioxyd which are all sold by the manufacturer in heavy iron 
 or steel cylinders or drums, containing the liquid under a 
 rather high pressure. 
 
 Of these three refrigerating medias, ammonia is the one 
 mostly employed. 
 
 *For detailed information reference should be made to the "Com- 
 pend of Mechanical Eef rigeration, " by Dr. J. E. Siebel, Director of the 
 Siebel Institute of Technology. 
 
 122 
 
Refrigeration Obtainable. 
 
 The amount of refrigeration obtainable by the evaporation 
 of one pound of liquid ammonia is approximately equal to the 
 withdrawal of 475 B. T. XL, the same varying somewhat with 
 different conditions. 
 
 Hence, in order to obtain one ton of refrigeration, that is 
 the same amount of refrigeration which would be produced by 
 melting a ton of ice and which is equal to the withdrawal of 
 288,000 B. T. U. about 600 pounds of liquid ammonia must 
 circulate and evaporate in the refrigerator coils. 
 
 Refrigerating Systems. 
 
 Referring here only to the refrigeration by means of am- 
 monia, two different systems are widely in use, the compression 
 and the absorption system. The same do, however, practically 
 not differ in the method of producing the refrigeration, or, in 
 other words, in the refrigerating part of the system, but rather 
 in the method of regaining and re-condensing the ammonia 
 vapors produced in the refrigerator. 
 
 Essential Parts of Refrigerating Systems. 
 
 An ammonia compression system consists essentially of the 
 following parts : A vessel containing the liquid ammonia, the 
 so-called liquid receiver ; the refrigerator part connected to the 
 liquid receiver by means of the expansion or reduction valve. 
 This refrigerator consists of a number of iron pipes or coils 
 located in the room to be refrigerated. 
 
 A third essential part in the compressor, frequently but 
 wrongly called ice-machine and finally the condensor, which 
 is again a series of pipes cooled either by the atmosphere or 
 more generally by cooling water. 
 
 In an absorption system, liquid receiver, refrigerator and 
 condensor are practically the same as in a compression sys- 
 tem, in place of the compressor, however, there is the absorber, 
 exchanger and generator. 
 
 Quantity of Refrigeration Required. 
 
 The quantity of refrigeration required is naturally depend- 
 ent upon a number of conditions which are variable in the dif- 
 ferent cases. 
 
 123 
 
In refrigerating rooms the factors determining the quantity 
 of refrigeration required are the dimensions of the room, the 
 heat-leakage through the walls which depends upon their con- 
 struction, the temperature to be established or maintained in 
 the room, the maximal outside temperature as also the amount 
 of heat introduced into the room by the materials handled, 
 the operation of machines, burning lights and soforth. 
 
 Not considering these last items, that is the heat due to 
 materials, machines, lights and soforth, the refrigeration re- 
 quired will be arrived at very closely by the following cal- 
 culation. 
 
 Let "A" indicate the total area of the walls, including 
 windows and doors, ceiling and floor of the room calculated 
 from its dimensions, 
 
 "c" the factor of heat leakage per square foot, which is 
 usually given for 1° F. difference in temperature for 24 
 hours, and which varies with the construction of the building 
 or room from 2.5 for well insulated walls to about 8 for com- 
 mon brick walls, 
 
 "t" the temperature to be maintained in the room, 
 
 "T" the maximal outside temperature and 
 
 "R" the amount of refrigeration in tons required per day 
 then RnAXicX (T — t) -f- 288,000. 
 
 Piping Required. 
 
 The pipes employed in refrigerating systems are usually 
 iron pipes 1 to 2 inches diameter. They are generally fastened 
 to the ceiling or the upper parts of the walls, in order to 
 insure good circulation of the cooled air. 
 
 Like the quantity of refrigeration required, so the total pip- 
 ing necessary for distributing this refrigeration is not a definite 
 one, but varies with conditions. 
 
 Determining in this regard are aside of the quantity of 
 refrigeration to. be distributed, the temperature of the rooms 
 to be cooled, the method of operating the machine and others. 
 
 However, in general it can be assumed, that for the dis- 
 tribution of one ton of refrigeration from 100 to 125 feet of 
 1*4 inch pipes are required in rooms to be kept at a tempera- 
 ture not lower than 50° F., and from 150 to 180 feet if this tem- 
 perature is around 32° F. 
 
 124 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 Electricity. 
 
 Magnetism. 
 
 Magnetism is an invisible force which occurs in different 
 ways and has what is known as a North and South Pole. It 
 was known to the ancient Greeks who observed that a lode- 
 stone or natural magnet would attract and hold small pieces 
 of iron. 
 
 If a piece of hardened steel is once magnetized, it will 
 retain considerable of this magnetism indefinitely, and is there- 
 fore considered as a permanent magnet. A magnet many 
 times stronger than a permanent magnet is formed if an 
 electric current is sent through a wire wound on a piece of 
 iron. This is then known as an electro-magnet. 
 
 Magnetic force can be represented by lines of magnetism 
 going through the magnet. These magnetic lines tend to 
 shorten as stretched rubber would ; but they also exert a lateral 
 crowding effect on one another, tending to push one another 
 sideways. This is the explanation why like poles repel and 
 unlike poles attract each other. Soft iron is the best magnetic 
 conductor known. 
 
 Electric Pressure or Voltage. 
 
 Electricity generated or accummulated in a body exerts a 
 certain pressure or tension, called voltage. 
 
 The most common ways of producing voltage are : 
 
 1. By separation, as in belts running over pulleys or when 
 rubbing a cat's back. 
 
 2. By a thermo couple, that is a joint made from two dis- 
 similar metals, and heating this joint. This method is largely 
 used for determining temperatures. 
 
 3. By chemical process as in a battery in which zinc and 
 acid are used as the active materials. 
 
 4. By cutting magnetic lines with a conductor. Extensive 
 use of this method is made in the modern electric generator 
 which is essentially a number of wires cutting magnetic lines. 
 
 A flow of electricity or electric current is effected if bodies 
 having different voltage are connected with each other by 
 means of a conducting material or conductor. 
 
A good conductor is one that has a low resistance to cur- 
 rents passing through it, whereas a poor conductor has a high 
 resistance. Substances possessing an exceedingly high resist- 
 ance are spoken of as non-conductors. 
 
 Ohm's Law. 
 
 The unit of electric current is called "ampere" and the 
 amount of current or the amperes that will flow through a 
 conductor depends upon the electric pressure or voltage as 
 well as upon the resistance of the conductor, which is meas- 
 ured by units designated as "ohm." 
 
 This is known as Ohm's Law and its general expression is: 
 
 volts 
 
 amperes=-; 
 
 ohms 
 
 For finding the resistance, that is the ohms, the formula 
 will be : 
 
 volts 
 
 ohms = 
 
 amperes 
 
 Like with water or steam, electric power depends upon 
 and is the product of pressure and current. The unit of elec- 
 tric power being termed a "watt" so : watts = volts X amperes. 
 
 Since 1 watt per minute equals 44 1 / 4 pounds, so 1 H.P. or 
 33,000 foot pounds are equal to 746 watts for 1 minute. 
 
 Series Connection. 
 
 If a number of conductors are connected in one circuity 
 they can be arranged either in series or in parallell con- 
 nection. 
 
 Assuming three devices or conductors having the resist- 
 ance a, b and c respectively, are connected in a circuit in 
 such a way that one terminal of "a" is connected to one of 
 the terminals of "b" which again by its second terminal is 
 connected to one terminal of "c" while the second terminals 
 of both "a" and "c" are connected with the line, then this is 
 termed "series connection." 
 
 The total resistance of such a series circuit "r" equals the 
 sum of the three resistances, that is : r — a + b + c. 
 
 126 
 
Parallel or Multiple Connection. 
 
 Parallel or multiple, also called shunt connection is effected 
 by connecting one terminal of each conductor to one side of 
 the line, while the other terminals of all conductors are con- 
 nected to the other side of the line, so that each one gets the 
 full voltage of the line. 
 
 The combined or total resistance of such multiple circuit 
 can be ascertained by the formula 
 
 -=— 4- — + -etc. 
 r a b c 
 
 Dynamos, Motors. 
 
 Generators or dynamos and motors have a field and an 
 armature. 
 
 The field is that part of the machine which has a constant 
 magnetism, whereas the armature is that part in which the 
 magnetic force or magnetism is changing continually. 
 
 A shunt dynamo is one where the field has enough resist- 
 ance to stand the full line voltage and where field and arma- 
 ture are placed in parallel on the line. In such a shunt 
 generator, the voltage will drop as the load is put on, hence 
 it should be started with the load off to let the field build up. 
 
 In a shunt motor the speed is nearly constant at all loads, 
 for which reason they are used wherever this is required. 
 
 A series machine is one where the field is in a series with 
 the armature, the same current going through both, the field 
 having low resistance. 
 
 A series generator must have the load on to start as the 
 field must have current to build up this magnetism. 
 
 A series motor is used where a variable speed is wanted 
 and a heavy pull at start ; hence street cars use series motors. 
 
 Most generators are built by combining the series and 
 shunt in which case they are termed "compound machines." 
 The shunt field will build up the magnetism at start and when 
 the load comes on the series coil will build up the magnetism 
 and make up for the drop in voltage which would occur if the 
 machine were only a shunt. 
 
 If a generator has enough turns in the series coil so that 
 when the load comes on the voltage goes up, the machine 
 is said to be over-compounded. 
 
Direct Current ; Alternating Current. 
 
 The term direct current is applied where the current is 
 only in one direction as is true with all batteries and D. C. 
 generators. 
 
 Alternating current is one where the voltage is constantly 
 changing from positive to negative and negative to posi- 
 tive, etc. 
 
 The voltage of an A. C. generator generally follows a sine 
 curve. 
 
 A complete change of direction of an alternating current 
 is called a cycle, and a 60 cycle line means a line where the 
 voltage makes 60 complete changes per second. 
 
 Ohm's law cannot be used with alternating current circuits 
 where there is resistance. 
 
 Primary Batteries. 
 
 To obtain high voltage, connect the carbon of a battery 
 to the zinc of the next and so forth while to obtain high cur- 
 rent, connect all the carbons together in a series and all the 
 zincs in another series. 
 
 128 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 Figuring in the Bakeshop. 
 
 1. How much water is required for a dough made from 1 
 bbl. (196 lbs.) of flour if the absorption of the respective flour 
 is 63% ? 
 
 Sixty-three per cent is equal to 0.63 for 1 ; hence for 196 
 lbs. we need 196 X 0.63 = 123.48 lbs. or figuring 8y 3 lbs. of 
 water as being 1 gal., this equals 123.48 -^ 8% = 14.8 gal. 
 
 2. How many loaves can be made out of 1 bbl. of flour, 
 using 14!/o gal. = 120 lbs. of water, 5 lbs. of sugar, 3 lbs. of 
 yeast, 5 lbs. of lard and 4 lbs. of salt, allowing 3% loss during 
 fermentation and scaling the loaf at 18 oz. ? 
 
 Total material 196 -f 120 + 5 + 3 -4- 5 + 4 = 333 lbs. Loss 
 during fermentation is 333 X 0.03 = 9.99 lb. Since 1 loaf 
 requires 18 oz. = 1% lb., so of the 323 lbs. of dough left after 
 fermentation, we obtain 323 ■—- 1% = 287 loaves. 
 
 3. How much material is required for making 2,000 
 loaves, scaled off at 18 ounces and using the materials as 
 indicated in example No. 2? 
 
 Since, according to example No. 2, 287 loaves are obtained 
 out of 1 bbl. of flour, so for making 2,000 loaves we need 
 2000 -r- 287 = 6.97 or in a round number 7 bbls. of flour. 
 
 Water 120 X 7 = 840 lbs. or 840 ~ 8% = 100.8 gal. 
 
 Sugar 5 X 7 = 35 lbs. Yeast 3 X 7 = 21 lbs. 
 
 Lard 5 X 7 = 35 lbs. and Salt 4 X 7 = 28 lbs. 
 
 4. What is the cost of material for the dough in example 
 No. 2, the prices of the respective materials being: flour $7.35 
 per barrel, sugar 6 cents, yeast 20 cents, lard 18 cents and 
 salt 2 1 /2 cents a pound and allowing 5 pounds of flour for 
 dusting. 
 
 Cost of material = 7.35 + 5 X 0.06 + 3 X 0.20 + 5 X0.18 
 
 7 35 X 5 
 
 + 4 X 0.025 + — = 7.35 -f 0.30 + 0.60 + 0.90 + 0.10 4- 
 
 196 
 
 0.19 = 9.44. Ans. $9.44. 
 
 5. What is the cost of material for 100 loaves in example 
 No. 4? 
 
 129 
 
The number of loaves obtainable being 287 (ex. No. 2) and 
 
 the total cost of material $9.4-4, so the cost for 100 loaves is 
 
 9 44 
 100 X — = $3,289. 
 
 287 
 
 6. What must be the selling price of these 100 loaves, 
 assuming that cost of materials should be 60%, cost of manu- 
 facture, overhead and profit 40% of the selling price? 
 
 From the proportion X : 3.289 : : 100 : 60 we find the selling 
 
 price X = 3.289 X — = $5,482. 
 60 
 
 7. How heavy must a loaf be scaled off, if it is to be sold 
 by the baker at 8 cents and if the dough is made from 1 bbl. 
 of flour, 120 lbs. of water, 4 lbs. of sugar, 2^ lbs. of yeast, 
 4:Y 2 lbs. of lard and 3 lbs. of salt, allowing 6 lbs. of flour for 
 dusting. Price of flour $8.50 per barrel, sugar 7 cents, yeast 
 22 cents, lard 20 cents and salt 2 cents a pound, and assum- 
 ing the cost of material to be 55%, labor, overhead and profit 
 45% of the selling price? 
 
 The total weight of the mix is 196 + 120 + 4 + 2% + 4y 2 
 + 3 =330 lbs. 
 
 The total cost of material is 8.50 + 4 X 0.07 + 24/ 2 X 0.22 
 
 + 4U. X 0.20 -f 3 X 0.02 -f 8 ' 50 X 6 = 8.50 + 0.28 + 0.55 + 
 
 196 
 
 0.90 -f 0.06 + 0.26 = 10.55. 
 
 Since this $10.55 is to be 55% of the selling price, so the 
 
 total selling price of all the loaves made from the entire mix 
 
 must be 10.55 X — = $19.18. 
 55 
 
 At 8 cents per loaf this would necessitate the making of 
 1918 -=- 8 = 240 loaves out of the mix. 
 
 From the weight of the total mix, 330 lbs., about 2%% are 
 lost during fermentation, leaving 321% lbs. or 5,148 ounces 
 for scaling off; so every loaf must be scaled off at 5148-4-240 
 = 21.5 ounces. 
 
 8. What must be the temperature of the waier for a mix 
 
 of 1 bbl. of flour and 120 lbs. of water, if the temperature of 
 the dough should be 82° F. assuming the temperature of the 
 flour to be 60° F. the temperature of the other ingredients, 
 
sugar, lard, yeast and salt, the same as that of the bake- 
 shop, 80° F.? 
 
 Let T indicate the desired temperature of the dough (82°) 
 and t x the temperature of the flour (60° F.), then the tempera- 
 ture of the water, t 2 , is to be calculated by the formula : 
 
 t 2 == T + 0.66 X (T — tj or closely 5 X T ~ 2 X tx that 
 
 is : t s = 82 + 0.66 X (82 — 60) = 82 + 0.66 X 22 = 96.5° or 
 
 5 X 82 — 2 X 60 410 — 120 290 
 
 — = = = 96.6°. 
 
 3 3 3 
 
 9. How much is the interest on a loan of $1,800 at 
 5V2% per annum for 2 years 3 months? 
 
 iSince 2 years 3 months is 2 1 / 4 years, so the interest is 
 214 X 1800 X 0.055 = $222.75. 
 
 10. How much does a discount of 15% amount on a bill 
 of $86.40? 
 
 86.40 X 0.15 = $12.96. 
 
 11. How much is to be paid on a bill of $103.60 allowing 
 20% discount? 
 
 If the discount is 20%, then the amount payable is 80% or 
 0.80 ; hence on a bill of $103.60 there is to be paid 103.60 X 
 
 0.80 = $82.88. 
 
 12. What amount must be paid on a bill of $219.20 allow- 
 ing a compound discount of 25%, 12% and 5%? 
 
 The amount payable after allowing the first discount, 25%, 
 would be 75% or 0.75 of the bill. 
 
 This, however, will be reduced by the second discount, 
 12%, to 0.88% of the amount calculated after the first dis- 
 count, that is to 0.75 X 0.88. 
 
 And the third discount, 5% reduces this amount again to 
 0.95 or to a total of 0.75 X 0.88 X 0.95 of the original amount. 
 Hence the amount to be paid is 219.20 X 0.75 X 0.88 X 0.95 = 
 $137.38. 
 
 131 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Mensuration. 
 
 Mensuration is that branch of mathematics or general 
 geometry which pertains to the measuring or calculating of 
 lines, areas and solids or volumes. 
 
 Measuring of Areas or Surfaces. 
 
 Since it is in general impractical if indeed not impossible 
 to measure areas directly, their size has to be caluculated from 
 certain dimensions referring to the respective surface. 
 
 Square (Fig. 1).* 
 
 A square is a quadrangle in which all sides as well as all 
 angles are equal, the latter being right angles (90°). 
 
 To find the area of a square, multiply its side by itself ; in 
 other words, if the side is designated as "a" then the area 
 of a square equals aXa^a 2 , 
 
 For example : A square whose side is 15 inches, has an 
 area of 15 X 15 — 225 sq. in. 
 
 Or : The area of a square of 8 ft. 6 in. equals 8y 2 X 8V2 = 
 72V4 sq. ft. 
 
 Rectangle (Fig. 2). 
 
 A rectangle is a quadrilateral having 4 equal angles (90°), 
 but in which only the opposite sides are equal, while the adja- 
 cent sides are of different length. 
 
 The area of a rectangle is obtained by multiplying its two 
 adjacent sides; or, if these sides are designated as "a" and 
 "b," respectively, this area is a X b. 
 
 Ex. What is the floor space of a room 18 ft. 9 in. long 
 and 16 feet wide? Since 18 ft. 9 in. equals 18^4 ft. so the 
 area is 1834 x 16 = 300 sq. ft. 
 
 Triangle (Fig. 3). 
 
 For calculating the area of a triangle one of its three sides 
 is selected as the base, "b," while the vertical distance of the 
 opposite point from the base is called height, "h." 
 
 * See Plate X. 
 
 132 
 
Then the area of the triangle is equal to y% of the product 
 of the base multiplied by the height; that is: area of triangle 
 equals y 2 X b X h. 
 
 Ex. A triangular piece of land is 245 feet long, while its 
 opposite corner is at a distance of 180 ft. from the base. The 
 area of this piece of land is y 2 X 245 X 180 = 22,050 sq. ft. 
 
 Polygonal Figures (Fig. 4 and 5). 
 
 Any other figure bounded by straight lines can be calcu- 
 lated by dividing the same either into a number of equal 
 triangles as in the case of a regular polygon (Fig. 4), or into 
 unequal triangles and eventually rectangles in figures of irreg- 
 ular shape (Fig. 5), which are then calculated individually and 
 the sum of which represents the total area of the respective 
 figure. 
 
 Circle (Fig. 6). 
 
 A circle is a closed curved line, all points of which are 
 equidistant from a point within the circle, called the centre. 
 The distance from the centre to any point of the circumference 
 of the circle is the radius, generally designated as "r, " while 
 a straight line drawn from any point of the circumference 
 through the centre to the opposite side of the circumference is 
 called diameter "d." 
 
 The diameter is double the radius, or the radius is one-half 
 of the diameter : d = 2 X r and r = y 2 X d. 
 
 The circumference of the circle is found by multiplying the 
 diameter by 3.14159. . . . 
 
 The factor 3.14159 . . . which is generally designated by 
 "at" is infinite; but sufficiently accurate results are obtained 
 
 22 
 by using the abbreviated value 3.14 or — hence the circum- 
 ference of a circle equals d X "rn-" = d X 3.14. 
 
 The area of the circle, however, is the square of the radius 
 multiplied by 3.14, in other words : area of circle equals 
 r X r X 3.14 = r 2 X 3.14. 
 
 Ex. What is the circumference and area of a round table 
 6 ft. in diameter? 
 
 Circumference 6 X 3.14 = 18.84 feet. 
 
 Area 3 X 3 X 3.14 =28.26 sq. ft. 
 
 133 
 
Measuring of Solids. 
 
 As with areas, so in the case of solids, their size is generally 
 not measured directly but calculated; hollow spaces, however, 
 form an exception insofar they can be measured by filling 
 them with a liquid, f. i., water, the quantity of which is then 
 determined directly. 
 
 Cube (Fig. 7). 
 
 A cube is a solid or volume having equal length, width and 
 height ; its sides are 6 equal squares. 
 
 The volume of a cube, having the side "a," is a X a X a 
 = a 3 . 
 
 Ex. A cubical box has a side of 3 ft. 4 in., what is its 
 volume ? 
 
 Volume = 3ys X 3% X 3y 3 = — X ^-X -^-= -^- = 
 
 37 T V cu. ft. 
 
 Rectangular Prism (Fig. 8). 
 
 If a solid or a space is bounded and enclosed by 6 rectan- 
 gles, which are all joined at right angles, and which may be 
 designated as top and bottom, front and rear, right and left 
 side, and of which each opposite pair is equal, it is termed a 
 rectangular prism. 
 
 The volume of such a body is found by multiplying the 
 length by the width by the height ; or if these dimensions are 
 designated by "a," "b" and "h," respectively, this volume is 
 a X b X h. 
 
 .Since a X b equals the rectangle forming the base of the 
 prism, "B," this volume can also be looked upon as being the 
 product of base times height, or B X h. 
 
 Ex. A room is 24 ft. long 18 ft. wide and 12 ft. high ; then 
 the volume of air in this room is 24 X 18 X 12 = 5,184 cu. ft. 
 
 Irregular Prism (Fig. 9). 
 
 If a prismatic space is bounded and enclosed by a number 
 of unequal rectangles of the same length, set at right angles 
 with reference to top and bottom, which are equal but which 
 may be either regular polygons or else may have any shape, 
 such a body or volume is an irregular prism. 
 
The volume of the same is calculated according to the same 
 formula as is the rectangular prism, that is : base times height, 
 or B X h- 
 
 Cylinder (Fig. 10). 
 
 A body or space whose top and bottom are two circles of 
 the same size and whose side is a continuous curved surface 
 extending along the circumference of top and bottom is called 
 a cylinder. 
 
 Since for such cylinder the formula of a prism is equally 
 valid, its volume is base X height ; the base being, however, a 
 circle, while by height "h" is meant the vertical distance be- 
 tween the centers of top and bottom, so if the radius of the 
 bottom is designated as "r," the volume is r X r X 3.14 X h. 
 
 Ex. A cylindrical tank is 8 ft. wide and 10 ft. high. How 
 many gallons of water will it hold ? 
 
 The volume is 4 X 4 X 3.14 XlO = 502.4 cu. ft. or since 1 
 cu. ft. is very closely equal to 7% gal. this tank holds 7*4 X 
 502.2 = 3,768 gal. 
 
 Pyramid (Fig. 11). 
 
 A pyramid is a body terminating at the top in a point, its 
 sides being triangles while the bottom may be any figure 
 bounded by straight lines. 
 
 The volume of a pyramid is one-third of the volume of a 
 prism having the same base and the same height as the pyra- 
 mid; hence the formula is y 3 X B X h, where "B" indicates the 
 base and "h" the height of the pyramid, that is the vertical 
 distance of the top point from the base. 
 
 Cone (Fig. 12). 
 
 A body which like the pyramid ends at the top in a point, 
 but whose base is a circle, is called a cone, and its volume is 
 one-third of the volume of a cylinder having the same base 
 and the same height as the cone, hence the volume of cone 
 =Vs X r >< r X 3.14 x h. 
 
 Frustum of Cone (Fig. 13). 
 
 Cutting off the upper part from a cone by a plane parallel 
 to its base, a tub-shaped body is left, which is called a "frus- 
 
 135 
 
turn." Its top and bottom are circles of different diameter, 
 while its height is to be taken as the vertical distance between 
 top and bottom. 
 
 The volume of such a "tub" can be calculated approx- 
 imately from its mean radius or diameter, that is, the width 
 in the center and its height, "h." 
 
 The mean radius equals one-half of the sum of top and 
 bottom radius, or if the same is designated by "m," m = y 2 X 
 (r-f-R), where "r" is the radius at the top and "R" that at 
 the bottom or m = % X (d + D) if "d" and "D" are the re- 
 spective diameters. 
 
 Then the volume of the frustum equals mX^X 3.14 X h- 
 
 Ex. A tub is 5 ft. 6 in. wide at the top and 6 ft. 6 in. at 
 the bottom, height being 5 ft., what is its volume? 
 
 Since its top diameter is 5 ft. 6 in. ; so the top radius is 2 
 ft. 9 in. and that at the bottom is 3 ft. 3 in. ; hence the mean 
 radius m = y 2 X (2% -4- 314) = 3 ft., and the same value is 
 obtained from top and bottom diameter as *4 X (o 1 /^ + G 1 /^). 
 
 Hence the volume is 3 X 3 X 3.14 Xo = 141.3 cu. ft. 
 
 Sphere (Fig. 14 and 15). 
 
 The volume of a sphere having the diameter "d" = 1/6 X 
 d X d X d X 3.14 = 1/6 X d 3 X3.14, while that of a hemis- 
 phere is one-half of this amount or T V X d X d X d X 3.14. 
 
Appendix 
 
 MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. 
 
 U. S. SYSTEM. 
 
 mile 
 mile 
 
 yard 
 
 foot 
 
 nautical 
 mile 
 
 5280 feet 
 
 1760 yards 
 
 3 feet 
 
 12 inches 
 
 statute 
 miles 
 
 \=™\ 
 
 METRIC OR DECIMAL SYSTEM. 
 
 Length Measure: 
 
 1 kilometer = 1000 meters 
 
 1 meter — 10 decimeters 
 
 1 decimeter = 10 centimeters 
 
 1 centimeter — 10 millimeters 
 
 1 meter — 100 centimeters 
 
 1 micron — 0.001 millimeters 
 
 Area or Square Measure: 
 
 1 square mile = 640 acres 1 hektare 
 
 1 acre = 4840 square yards 1 are 
 
 1 square yard = 9 square feet 1 square meter 
 
 1 square foot = 144 square inches 1 sq. decimeter 
 
 10000 sq. meters 
 100 sq. meters 
 100 sq. decimeters 
 100 sq. centimeters 
 1 sq. centimeter = 100 sq. millimeters 
 
 Volume or Cubic Measure: 
 
 1 cubic yard = 27 cubic feet 1 cubic meter = 1000 cub. decimeters 
 
 1 cubic foot = 1728 cubic inches 1 cub. decimeter = 1000 cub. centimeters 
 1 cord = 128 cubic feet 1 cub. centimeter = 1000 cub. millimeters 
 
 a. Liquid Measure. 
 1 gal. = 4 quarts 
 1 quart = 2 pints 
 1 pint = 4 gills 
 1 gal. = 128 fluid ounces 
 
 1 gal. = 231 cubic inches 
 1 cub. ft. — 7.48 gal. 
 
 Capacity: 
 
 1 hektoliter = 100 liters 
 
 1 liter = 10 deciliters 
 
 1 deciliter — 10 centiliters 
 
 1 centiliter = 10 milliliters 
 
 1 liter = 1 cubic decimeter 
 
 1 liter = 1000 cubic centimeters 
 
 b. Dry Measure. 
 1 bushel = 4 pecks 
 
 1 peck = 8 quarts 
 
 1 quart = 2 pints 
 
 1 bushel = 2150.4 cub. in. 
 
 1 bbl. of flour = 3% cub. feet. 
 
 Avoirdupois (commercial). 
 1 ton = 2000 pounds 
 
 1 long ton = 2240 pounds 
 
 1 hundred weight = 100 pounds 
 1 pound = 16 ounces 
 
 1 ounce — 437.5 grains 
 
 1 pound = 7000 grains 
 
 1 cubic meter = 1000 cubic decimeters 
 1 cubic meter = 1000 liters 
 1 cubic meter = 10 hektoliters 
 1 hektoliter = 100 liters 
 
 Weight: 
 
 1 ton = 1000 kilograms 
 
 1 kilogram — 1000 grams 
 1 gram = 10 decigrams 
 
 1 decigram = 10 centigrams 
 1 centigram = 10 milligrams 
 1 gram = 1000 milligrams 
 
 1 gram is the weight of 1 cub. centi- 
 meter of distilled water at 39° F. 
 
 137 
 
Comparison of U. S. and Metric Units. 
 
 Length Measure: 
 
 1 mile = 1.6094 kilometers 
 1 yard = 0.9144 meters 
 1 foot = 0.3048 meters 
 1 foot = 30.48 centimeters 
 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters 
 1 inch = 25.4 millimeters 
 
 1 
 
 kilometer 
 
 ^= 
 
 0.6214 miles 
 
 1 
 
 kilometer 
 
 = 
 
 1093.6 yards 
 
 1 
 
 meter 
 
 = 
 
 1.0936 yards 
 
 1 
 
 meter 
 
 = 
 
 3.2808 feet 
 
 1 
 
 meter 
 
 = 
 
 39.37 inches 
 
 1 
 
 decimeter 
 
 — 
 
 3.937 inches 
 
 1 
 
 centimeter 
 
 = 
 
 0.3937 inches 
 
 Area or Square Measure: 
 
 = 0.4047 hektares 1 square kilometer 
 
 1 acre 
 
 1 acre = 4047 square meters 
 
 1 square yard = 0.8361 square meters 
 1 square foot = 9.29 square decimeters 
 
 247.1 acres 
 1 hektare = 2.471 acres 
 
 1 are = 1076.4 sq. ft. 
 
 1 square meter = 1.196 sq. yds. 
 
 square luot = y.^y square uecimeiers jl square meter — j..j.yo sq. yas. 
 
 square foot = 929 square centimeters 1 sq. decimeter = 15.5 sq. inches 
 
 1 square inch = 6.45 square centimeters 1 sq. centimeter = 0.155 sq. inches 
 
 Volume and Capacity: 
 
 1 cubic 
 
 foot 
 
 = 28.32 cub. de 
 
 scimeters 
 
 1 cubic meter 
 
 = 35.314 cubic feet 
 
 1 cubic 
 
 inch 
 
 = 16.39 cub. centimeters 
 
 1 cub. decimeter 
 
 = 61.0 cubic inches 
 
 1 gallon 
 
 
 = 3.7854 liters 
 
 
 1 cub. centimeter 
 
 = 0.061 cubic inches 
 
 1 quart 
 
 
 = 0.9464 liters 
 
 
 1 hektoliter 
 
 = 26.42 gallons 
 
 1 pint 
 
 
 = 0.4732 liters 
 
 
 1 liter 
 
 = 1.0568 quarts 
 
 1 bushel 
 
 
 = 35.239 liters 
 
 
 1 hektoliter 
 
 — 2.838 bushels 
 
 1 peck 
 
 
 = 8.810 liters 
 
 
 1 liter 
 
 = 0.9081 dry quarts 
 
 1 quart, 
 
 dry 
 
 := 1.101 liters 
 
 
 
 
 1 pound = 453.6 grams 
 
 1 ounce = 28.35 
 
 1 grain = 64.8 milligrams 
 
 Weight: 
 
 1 kilogram 
 1 gram 
 1 gram 
 
 2.205 pounds 
 0.0353 ounces 
 15.432 grains 
 
BAUME DEGREES (AMERICAN STANDARD) AND 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 60° F. 
 
 a. Liquids Heavier Than Water. 
 
 Degrees 
 Baume 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 Degrees 
 Baume 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 Degrees 
 Baume 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 
 
 1.000 
 
 18 
 
 1.142 
 
 36 
 
 1.330 
 
 1 
 
 1.007 
 
 19 
 
 1.151 
 
 38 
 
 1.355 
 
 2 
 
 1.014 
 
 20 
 
 1.160 
 
 40 
 
 1.381 
 
 3 
 
 1.021 
 
 21 
 
 1.169 
 
 42 
 
 1.408 
 
 4 
 
 1.028 
 
 22 
 
 1.179 
 
 44 
 
 1.436 
 
 5 
 
 1.036 
 
 23 
 
 1.189 
 
 46 
 
 1.465 
 
 6 
 
 1.043 
 
 24 
 
 1.198 
 
 48 
 
 1.495 
 
 7 
 
 1.051 
 
 25 
 
 1.208 
 
 50 
 
 1.526 
 
 8 
 
 1.058 
 
 26 
 
 1.219 
 
 52 
 
 1.559 
 
 9 
 
 1.066 
 
 27 
 
 1.229 
 
 54 
 
 1.593 
 
 10 
 
 1.074 
 
 28 
 
 1.239 
 
 56 
 
 1.629 
 
 11 
 
 1.082 
 
 29 
 
 1.250 
 
 58 
 
 1.667 
 
 12 
 
 1.090 
 
 30 
 
 1.261 
 
 60 
 
 1.706 
 
 13 
 
 1.099 
 
 31 
 
 1.272 
 
 62 
 
 1.747 
 
 14 
 
 1.107 
 
 32 
 
 1.283 
 
 64 
 
 1.790 
 
 15 
 
 1.115 
 
 33 
 
 1.295 
 
 66 
 
 1.S35 
 
 16 
 
 1.124 
 
 34 
 
 1.306 
 
 68 
 
 1.883 
 
 17 
 
 1.133 
 
 35 
 
 1.318 
 
 70 
 
 1.933 
 
 b. Liquids Lighter Than Water. 
 
 Degrees 
 Baume 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 Degrees 
 Baume 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 Degrees 
 Baume 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 10 
 
 1.000 
 
 28 
 
 0.8S6 
 
 46 
 
 0.796 
 
 11 
 
 0.993 
 
 29 
 
 0.881 
 
 48 
 
 0.787 
 
 12 
 
 0.986 
 
 30 
 
 0.875 
 
 50 
 
 0.778 
 
 13 
 
 0.979 
 
 31 
 
 0.870 
 
 52 
 
 0.769 
 
 14 
 
 0.972 
 
 32 
 
 0.864 
 
 54 
 
 0.761 
 
 15 
 
 0.966 
 
 33 
 
 0.859 
 
 56 
 
 0.753 
 
 16 
 
 0.959 
 
 34 
 
 0.854 
 
 58 
 
 0.745 
 
 17 
 
 0.952 
 
 35 
 
 0.849 
 
 60 
 
 0.737 
 
 18 
 
 0.946 
 
 36 
 
 0.843 
 
 62 
 
 0.729 
 
 19 
 
 0.940 
 
 37 
 
 0.838 
 
 64 
 
 0.722 
 
 20 
 
 0.933 
 
 38 
 
 0.833 
 
 66 
 
 0.714 
 
 21 
 
 0.927 
 
 39 
 
 0.828 
 
 6S 
 
 0.707 
 
 22 
 
 0.921 
 
 40 
 
 0.824 
 
 70 
 
 0.700 
 
 23 
 
 0.915 
 
 41 
 
 0.819 
 
 72 
 
 0.693 
 
 24 
 
 0.909 
 
 42 
 
 0.814 
 
 74 
 
 0.6S6 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 0.903 
 0.897 
 
 43 
 44 
 
 0.809 
 0.805 
 
 76 
 
 78 
 
 0.680 
 0.673 
 
 27 
 
 0.892 
 
 45 
 
 0.800 
 
 80 
 
 0.667 
 
 139 
 
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND STRENGTH OF SUGAR 
 SOLUTION IN PERCENTS (BALLING). 
 
 Percents 
 Balling 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 Weight of 
 
 1 gallon 
 
 in pounds 
 
 Pounds of 
 sugar in 
 1 gallon 
 
 Percents 
 Balling 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 
 Weight of 
 
 1 gallon 
 
 in pounds 
 
 Pounds of 
 sugar in 
 1 gallon 
 
 _2 
 
 1.0007 
 
 8.345 
 
 0.017 
 
 12.2 
 
 1.0493 
 
 8.750 
 
 1.067 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0015 
 
 8.352 
 
 0.033 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0502 
 
 8.758 
 
 1.086 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0023 
 
 8.359 
 
 0.050 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0510 
 
 8.765 
 
 1.104 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0031 
 
 8.365 
 
 0.067 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0519 
 
 8.772 
 
 1.122 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.0038 
 
 8.371 
 
 0.084 
 
 13.0 
 
 1.0527 
 
 8.779 
 
 1.141 
 
 ,2 
 
 1.0046 
 
 8.377 
 
 0.100 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0536 
 
 8.786 
 
 1.160 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0054 
 
 8.384 
 
 0.117 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0544 
 
 8.793 
 
 1.178 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0062 
 
 8.391 
 
 0.134 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0553 
 
 8.801 
 
 1.197 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0070 
 
 8.397 
 
 0.151 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0561 
 
 8.808 
 
 1.215 
 
 2.0 
 
 1.0077 
 
 8.403 
 
 0.168 
 
 14.0 
 
 1.0570 
 
 8.815 
 
 1.234 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0085 
 
 8.410 
 
 0.185 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0578 
 
 8.822 
 
 1.253 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0093 
 
 8.417 
 
 0.202 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0587 
 
 8.829 
 
 1.272 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0101 
 
 8.423 
 
 0.219 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0596 
 
 8.836 
 
 1.291 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0109 
 
 8.430 
 
 0.236 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0604 
 
 8.843 
 
 1.309 
 
 3.0 
 
 1.0117 
 
 8.437 
 
 0.253 
 
 15.0 
 
 1.0613 
 
 8.850 
 
 1.328 
 
 _2 
 
 1.0125 
 
 8.443 
 
 0.270 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0621 
 
 8.857 
 
 1.346 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0133 
 
 8.450 
 
 0.287 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0630 
 
 8.864 
 
 1.365 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0141 
 
 8.457 
 
 0.304 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0639 
 
 8.872 
 
 1.384 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0149 
 
 8.463 
 
 0.322 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0647 
 
 8.879 
 
 1.402 
 
 4.0 
 
 1.0157 
 
 8.470 
 
 0.339 
 
 16.0 
 
 1.0656 
 
 8.886 
 
 1.421 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0165 
 
 8.477 
 
 0.356 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0665 
 
 8.894 
 
 1.440 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0173 
 
 8.484 
 
 0.373 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0674 
 
 8.902 
 
 1.458 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0181 
 
 8.490 
 
 0.390 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0682 
 
 8.909 
 
 1.479 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0189 
 
 8.497 
 
 0.408 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0691 
 
 8.916 
 
 1.498 
 
 5.0 
 
 1.0197 
 
 8.504 
 
 0.425 
 
 17.0 
 
 1.0700 
 
 8.923 
 
 1.517 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0205 
 
 8.511 
 
 0.442 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0709 
 
 8.930 
 
 1.536 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0213 
 
 8.517 
 
 0.459 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0717 
 
 8.937 
 
 1.555 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0221 
 
 8.523 
 
 0.477 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0726 
 
 8.944 
 
 1.574 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0229 
 
 8.530 
 
 0.495 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0735 
 
 8.952 
 
 1.594 
 
 6.0 
 
 1.0237 
 
 8.537 
 
 0.512 
 
 18.0 
 
 1.0744 
 
 8.960 
 
 1.613 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0245 
 
 8.543 
 
 0.529 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0753 
 
 8.967 
 
 1.632 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0253 
 
 8.550 
 
 0.546 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0761 
 
 8.974 
 
 1.651 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0261 
 
 8.557 
 
 0.564 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0770 
 
 8.981 
 
 1.670 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0269 
 
 8.564 
 
 0.582 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0779 
 
 8.989 
 
 1.690 
 
 7.0 
 
 1.0277 
 
 8.570 
 
 0.600 
 
 19.0 
 
 1.0788 
 
 8.997 
 
 1.709 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0286 
 
 8.578 
 
 0.618 
 
 2 
 
 1.0797 
 
 9.004 
 
 1.729 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0294 
 
 8.585 
 
 0.635 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0806 
 
 9.012 
 
 1.748 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0302 
 
 8.591 
 
 0.652 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0815 
 
 9.020 
 
 1.768 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0310 
 
 8.598 
 
 0.670 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0824 
 
 9.027 
 
 1.787 
 
 8.0 
 
 1.0318 
 
 8.605 
 
 0.688 
 
 20.0 
 
 1.0832 
 
 9.034 
 
 1.807 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0327 
 
 8.612 
 
 0.706 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0841 
 
 9.041 
 
 1,826 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0335 
 
 8.619 
 
 0.724 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0850 
 
 9.048 
 
 1.846 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0343 
 
 8.625 
 
 0.742 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0859 
 
 9.055 
 
 1.865 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0351 
 
 8.632 
 
 0.760 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0868 
 
 9.063 
 
 1.885 
 
 9.0 
 
 1.0359 
 
 8.639 
 
 0.777 
 
 21.0 
 
 1.0877 
 
 9.070 
 
 1.905 
 
 2 
 
 1.0368 
 
 8.646 
 
 0.795 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0886 
 
 9.078 
 
 1.925 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0376 
 
 8.653 
 
 0.813 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0895 
 
 9.086 
 
 1.944 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0384 
 
 8.660 
 
 0.831 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0904 
 
 9.094 
 
 1.964 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0393 
 
 8.667 
 
 0.849 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0914 
 
 9.102 
 
 1.984 
 
 10.0 
 
 1.0401 
 
 ' 8.673 
 
 0.867 
 
 22.0 
 
 1.0923 
 
 9.110 
 
 2.004 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0409 
 
 8.680 
 
 0.885 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0932 
 
 9.117 
 
 2.024 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0418 
 
 8.687 
 
 0.903 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0941 
 
 9.124 
 
 2.044 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0426 
 
 8.695 
 
 0.922 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0950 
 
 9.131 
 
 2.064 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0434 
 
 8.701 
 
 0.940 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0959 
 
 9.139 
 
 2.084 
 
 11.0 
 
 1.0443 
 
 8.708 
 
 0.958 
 
 23.0 
 
 1.0968 
 
 9.147 
 
 2.104 
 
 .2 
 
 1.0451 
 
 8.715 
 
 0.976 
 
 2 
 
 1.0977 
 
 9.154 
 
 2.124 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0459 
 
 8.721 
 
 0.994 
 
 .4 
 
 1.0986 
 
 9.162 
 
 2.144 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0468 
 
 8.730 
 
 1.013 
 
 .6 
 
 1.0996 
 
 9.170 
 
 2.164 
 
 .8 
 
 1.0476 
 
 8.736 
 
 1.031 
 
 .8 
 
 1.1005 
 
 9.177 
 
 2.184 
 
 12.0 
 
 1.0485 
 
 8.743 
 
 1.049 
 
 24.0 
 
 1.1014 
 
 9.185 
 
 2.204 
 
 140 
 
COMPARISON OF THERMOMETER SCALES. 
 
 c. 
 
 F. 
 
 R. 
 
 C. 
 
 F. 
 
 R. 
 
 C. 
 
 F. 
 
 R. 
 
 260 
 
 500 
 
 208 
 
 79 
 
 174.2 
 
 63.2 
 
 26 
 
 78.8 
 
 20.8 
 
 255 
 
 491 
 
 204 
 
 78 
 
 172.4 
 
 62.4 
 
 25 
 
 77.0 
 
 20.0 
 
 250 
 
 482 
 
 200 
 
 77 
 
 170.6 
 
 61.6 
 
 24 
 
 75.2 
 
 19.2 
 
 245 
 
 473 
 
 196 
 
 76 
 
 168.8 
 
 60.8 
 
 23 
 
 73.4 
 
 18.4 
 
 240' 
 
 464 
 
 192 
 
 75 
 
 167.0 
 
 60.0 
 
 22 
 
 71.6 
 
 17.6 
 
 235 
 
 455 
 
 188 
 
 74 
 
 165.2 
 
 59.2 
 
 21 
 
 69.8 
 
 16.8 
 
 230 
 
 446 
 
 184 
 
 73 
 
 163.4 
 
 58.4 
 
 20 
 
 68.0 
 
 16.0 
 
 225 
 
 437 
 
 180 
 
 72 
 
 161.6 
 
 57.6 
 
 19 
 
 66.2 
 
 15.2 
 
 220 
 
 428 
 
 176 
 
 71 
 
 159.8 
 
 56.8 
 
 18 
 
 64.4 
 
 14.4 
 
 215 
 
 419 
 
 172 
 
 70 
 
 158.0 
 
 56.0 
 
 17 
 
 62.6 
 
 13.6 
 
 210 
 
 410 
 
 168 
 
 69 
 
 156.2 
 
 55.2 
 
 16 
 
 60.8 
 
 12.8 
 
 205 
 
 401 
 
 164 
 
 68 
 
 154.4 
 
 54.4 
 
 15 
 
 59.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 200 
 
 392 
 
 160 
 
 67 
 
 152.6 
 
 53.6 
 
 14 
 
 57.2 
 
 11.2 
 
 195 
 
 383 
 
 156 
 
 66 
 
 150.8 
 
 52.8 
 
 13 
 
 55.4 
 
 10.4 
 
 190 
 
 374 
 
 152 
 
 65 
 
 149.0 
 
 52.0 
 
 12 
 
 53.6 
 
 9.6 
 
 185 
 
 365 
 
 148 
 
 64 
 
 147.2 
 
 51.2 
 
 11 
 
 51.8 
 
 8.8 
 
 180 
 
 356 
 
 144 
 
 63 
 
 145.4 
 
 50.4 
 
 10 
 
 50.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 17.5 
 
 347 
 
 140 
 
 62 
 
 143.6 
 
 49.6 
 
 9 
 
 48.2 
 
 7.2 
 
 170 
 
 338 
 
 136 
 
 61 
 
 141.8 
 
 48.8 
 
 8 
 
 46.4 
 
 6.4 
 
 165 
 
 329 
 
 132 
 
 60 
 
 140.0 
 
 48.0 
 
 7 
 
 44.6 
 
 5.6 
 
 160 
 
 320 
 
 128 
 
 59 
 
 138.2 
 
 47.2 
 
 6 
 
 42.8 
 
 4.8 
 
 155 
 
 311 
 
 124 
 
 58 
 
 136.4 
 
 46.4 
 
 5 
 
 41.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 150 
 
 302 
 
 120 
 
 57 
 
 134.6 
 
 45.6 
 
 4 
 
 39.2 
 
 3.2 
 
 145 
 
 293 
 
 116 
 
 56 
 
 132.8 
 
 44.8 
 
 3 
 
 37.4 
 
 2.4 
 
 140 
 
 284 
 
 112 
 
 55 
 
 131.0 
 
 44.0 
 
 2 
 
 35.6 
 
 1.6 
 
 135 
 
 275 
 
 108 
 
 54 
 
 129.2 
 
 43.2 
 
 1 
 
 33.8 
 
 0.8 
 
 130 
 
 266 
 
 104 
 
 53 
 
 127.4 
 
 42.4 
 
 
 
 32.0 
 
 
 
 125 
 
 257 
 
 100 
 
 52 
 
 125.6 
 
 41.6 
 
 — 1 
 
 30.2 
 
 — 0.8 
 
 120 
 
 248 
 
 90 
 
 51 
 
 123.8 
 
 40.8 
 
 2 
 
 28.4 
 
 — 1.6 
 
 115 
 
 239 
 
 92 
 
 50 
 
 122.0 
 
 40.0 
 
 — 3 
 
 26.6 
 
 — 2.4 
 
 110 
 
 230 
 
 88 
 
 49 
 
 120.2 
 
 39.2 
 
 — 4 
 
 24.8 
 
 — 3.2 
 
 105 
 
 221 
 
 84 
 
 48 
 
 118.4 
 
 38.4 
 
 — 5 
 
 23.0 
 
 — 4.0 
 
 100 
 
 212 
 
 80 
 
 47 
 
 116.6 
 
 37.6 
 
 — 6 
 
 21.2 
 
 — 4.8 
 
 99 
 
 210.2 
 
 79.2 
 
 46 
 
 114.8 
 
 36.8 
 
 — 7 
 
 19.4 
 
 — 5.6 
 
 98 
 
 208.4 
 
 78.4 
 
 45 
 
 113.0 
 
 36.0 
 
 — 8 
 
 17.6 
 
 — 6.4 
 
 97 
 
 206.6 
 
 77.6 
 
 44 
 
 111.2 
 
 35.2 
 
 — 9 
 
 15.8 
 
 — 7.2 
 
 96 
 
 204.8 
 
 76.8 
 
 43 
 
 109.4 
 
 34.4 
 
 — 10 
 
 14.0 
 
 — 8.0 
 
 95 
 
 203.0 
 
 76.0 
 
 42 
 
 107.6 
 
 33.6 
 
 — 11 
 
 12.2 
 
 — 8.8 
 
 94 
 
 201.2 
 
 75.2 
 
 41 
 
 105.8 
 
 32.8 
 
 — 12 
 
 10.4 
 
 — 9.6 
 
 93 
 
 199.4 
 
 74.4 
 
 40 
 
 104.0 
 
 32.0 
 
 — 13 
 
 8.6 
 
 — 10.4 
 
 92 
 
 197.6 
 
 73.6 
 
 39 
 
 102.2 
 
 31.2 
 
 — 14 
 
 6.8 
 
 — 11.2 
 
 91 
 
 195.8 
 
 72.8 
 
 38 
 
 100.4 
 
 30.4 
 
 — 15 
 
 5.0 
 
 — 12.0 
 
 90 
 
 194.0 
 
 72.0 
 
 37 
 
 98.6 
 
 29.6 
 
 — 16 
 
 3.2 
 
 — 12.8 
 
 89 
 
 192.2 
 
 71.2 
 
 36 
 
 96.8 
 
 28.8 
 
 — 17 
 
 1.4 
 
 — 13.6 
 
 88 
 
 190.4 
 
 70.4 
 
 35 
 
 95.0 
 
 28.0 
 
 — 18 
 
 — 0.4 
 
 — 14.4 
 
 87 
 
 188.6 
 
 69.6 
 
 34 
 
 93.2 
 
 27.2 
 
 — 19 
 
 — 2.2 
 
 — 15.2 
 
 86 
 
 186.8 
 
 68.8 
 
 33 
 
 91.4 
 
 26.4 
 
 — 20 
 
 — 4.0 
 
 — 16.0 
 
 85 
 
 185.0 
 
 68.0 
 
 32 
 
 89.6 
 
 25.6 
 
 — 21 
 
 — 5.8 
 
 — 16.8 
 
 84 
 
 183.2 
 
 67.2 
 
 31 
 
 87.8 
 
 24.8 
 
 22 
 
 — 7.6 
 
 — 17.6 
 
 83 
 
 181.4 
 
 66.4 
 
 30 
 
 86.0 
 
 24.0 
 
 — 23 
 
 — 9.4 
 
 — 18.4 
 
 82 
 
 179.6 
 
 65.6 
 
 29 
 
 84.2 
 
 23.2 
 
 — 24 
 
 — 11.2 
 
 — 19.2 
 
 81 
 
 177.8 
 
 64.8 
 
 28 
 
 82.4 
 
 22.4 
 
 —25 
 
 — 13.0 
 
 — 20.0 
 
 80 
 
 176.0 
 
 64.0 
 
 27 
 
 80.6 
 
 21.6 
 
 
 
 
 Formula for the Conversion of Thermometer Degrees. 
 
 °C. to °F. multiply by 9, divide by 5, then add 32. 
 
 °C. to °R. multiply by 4 and divide by 5. 
 
 'F. to °C. subtract 32, then multiply by 5 and divide by 9. 
 
 'F. to °R. subtract 32, then multiply by 4 and divide by 9. 
 
 °R. to °C. multiply by 5 and divide by 4. 
 
 "R. to °F. multiply by 9, divide by 4, then add 32. 
 
 141 
 
DEGREE OF HUMIDITY. 
 
 (In Percents of Saturated Condition, as Determined by Wet and Dry 
 Bulb Hygrometer.) 
 
 Difference 
 between 
 
 
 
 DEY BULB 
 
 (AIR TEMPERATURE "I 
 
 •) 
 
 
 dry and wet 
 bulb. 
 
 55° 
 
 60° 
 
 65° 
 
 70° 
 
 75° 
 
 80° 
 
 85° 
 
 90° 
 
 95° 
 
 100° 
 
 20° 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 39 
 
 41 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 22 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 39 
 
 42 
 
 44 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 31 
 
 35 
 
 38 
 
 41 
 
 44 
 
 46 
 
 17 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 23 
 
 29 
 
 34 
 
 38 
 
 41 
 
 44 
 
 47 
 
 49 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 27 
 
 33 
 
 37 
 
 41 
 
 44 
 
 47 
 
 49 
 
 51 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 47 
 
 49 
 
 51 
 
 54 
 
 14 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 43 
 
 47 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 54 
 
 56 
 
 13 
 
 30 
 
 34 
 
 39 
 
 44 
 
 47 
 
 50 
 
 53 
 
 55 
 
 57 
 
 59 
 
 12 
 
 35 
 
 39 
 
 43 
 
 48 
 
 51 
 
 54 
 
 56 
 
 58 
 
 60 
 
 62 
 
 11 
 
 40 
 
 43 
 
 47 
 
 51 
 
 54 
 
 57 
 
 59 
 
 61 
 
 63 
 
 65 
 
 10 
 
 45 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 55 
 
 58 
 
 61 
 
 63 
 
 65 
 
 66 
 
 68 
 
 9 
 
 50 
 
 53 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 62 
 
 64 
 
 66 
 
 68 
 
 69 
 
 71 
 
 8 
 
 55 
 
 58 
 
 61 
 
 64 
 
 66 
 
 68 
 
 70 
 
 71 
 
 72 
 
 74 
 
 7 
 
 60 
 
 63 
 
 65 
 
 68 
 
 70 
 
 71 
 
 73 
 
 74 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 6 
 
 65 
 
 68 
 
 70 
 
 72 
 
 74 
 
 75 
 
 76 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 5 
 
 70 
 
 73 
 
 75 
 
 77 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 81 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 4 
 
 76 
 
 78 
 
 80 
 
 81 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 84 
 
 85 
 
 86 
 
 86 
 
 3 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 84 
 
 85 
 
 6 
 
 87 
 
 88 
 
 88 
 
 89 
 
 89 
 
 2 
 
 88 
 
 89 
 
 89 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 91 
 
 92 
 
 92 
 
 93 
 
 93 
 
 1 
 
 94 
 
 94 
 
 94 
 
 95 
 
 95 
 
 96 
 
 96 
 
 96 
 
 98 
 
 96 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
Dictionary and Definitions of Technical Terms. 
 
 With reference to this dictionary, it must be stated that the same ia 
 confined chiefly to such terms as are only touched upon briefly in the text 
 of this Manual, and therefore in its compilation no attempts towards 
 completeness have been made. Nevertheless the same repeats explanation 
 of some of the most important subjects even though they are already in- 
 cluded in the text of this Manual. 
 
 Absorption 
 
 Acid 
 
 Acidity- 
 Aeration 
 Albumen 
 
 Albuminoids 
 
 A characteristic property of flour to absorb and 
 retain water. It is measured by the quantity of water 
 obsorbed by the flour in order to produce a dough of 
 normal consistency, and it is expressed in percents. 
 
 Compounds of various elements, containing hydro- 
 gen which is replaceable by a metal. Acids have a 
 sharp, acrid taste and possess the property of turning 
 blue litmus paper red (see Litmus Paper). 
 
 Indicates the extent to which any one or a mixture 
 of acids are present in a substance. (See acid.) 
 
 The supplying or the charging of a body with air. 
 
 Nitrogenous constituents of the animal and vege- 
 table organisms, such as the white of an egg or the 
 protoplasm of a cell. (See proteins.) 
 
 A term formerly applied to certain nitrogenous 
 compounds similar to albumen, occuring in the vege- 
 table organism. Albuminoids are now generally termed 
 protein. (See protein.) 
 
 A layer of the wheat berry, next to the starch 
 cells, consisting of a row of practically cubical cells 
 containing protein. 
 
 Substance capable of neutralizing an acid. Among 
 alkalies caustic soda, potash and lime water (slacked 
 lime) are the most common. 
 
 Amino-Compounds Organic substances containing nitrogen and hydro- 
 gen in combination. Amino-compounds are frequently 
 products of the decomposition of proteins. 
 
 Ampere The unit of electric current. 
 
 Analysis 
 
 Aleurone cells 
 
 Alkali 
 
 Ash 
 
 The process whereby the composition of a material 
 is determined. 
 
 The mineral residue left after complete burning of 
 a substance and composed mainly of potash, soda, lime, 
 magnesia, sulphuric and phosphoric acid and silica. 
 
Atom 
 
 Average value 
 
 Bacteria 
 
 Bicarbonate of 
 soda 
 
 Bran 
 
 Break rolls 
 
 British 
 Unit 
 
 Thermal 
 
 By-Products 
 
 Calorie 
 
 Carbohydrates 
 
 Carbon Dioxide 
 
 Carbonic Acid 
 Gas 
 
 Casein 
 
 Finest division or smallest particle of elementary 
 matter. 
 
 When applied to flour depends upon the amount 
 and quality of bread produced, and is composed of four 
 factors: the color of the flour, loaves to barrel, size of 
 loaf and quality of loaf. The sum of these four factors 
 divided by four gives the average value. 
 
 Lowest form of plant life, microscopic in size, con- 
 sisting of a single cell of protoplasm and to be found 
 in the soil, in water and in many materials throughout 
 nature. 
 
 The acid sodium salt of carbonic acid, commonly 
 known as baking soda. With acids or acid substances 
 it gives off carbonic acid gas. 
 
 The skin of the wheat berry, removed in milling. 
 Consists essentially of epidermis, epicarp, endocarp and 
 the spermoderm or testa. 
 
 The corrugated rolls employed in milling for break- 
 ing up the wheat berry into middlings. 
 
 Amount of heat required to raise the temperature 
 of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit; gen- 
 erally indicated as B. T. U. 
 
 Secondary products of an industry; so is cotton 
 seed-meal a by-product of the cotton oil industry; 
 skimmed and buttermilk are by-products of butter- 
 making. 
 
 The amount of heat required to raise the tempera- 
 ture of one kilogram of water one degree Centigrade. 
 
 Substances composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxy- 
 gen, the latter two in the proportion in which they 
 exist in water. Hence their name: carbo (carbon), 
 hydrate (water). 
 
 (See carbonic acid gas). 
 
 Carbonic acid gas is one of the products of fer- 
 mentation. It is also a common constituent of the air, 
 used by plant life in building up starch and other sub- 
 stances. 
 
 A principal nitrogenous component part of milk 
 and the essential constituent of cheese. 
 
 Cell 
 
 The smallest living unit of the animal or plant 
 body; such as a yeast cell or blood corpuscle. 
 
Cellulose 
 
 Clear Flour 
 
 Cold water 
 extract 
 
 Compound 
 
 Conditioning 
 
 Congealing point 
 Corn Flakes 
 
 Cover Glass 
 
 Cream of Tartar 
 
 Crude Fibre 
 
 Cuticle 
 Decinormal 
 
 Dextrine 
 
 Dextrose 
 
 Diastase 
 
 Diastatic power 
 
 Element 
 
 Embyro 
 Endocarp 
 
 The substance which makes up the cell-wall and 
 the fibrous matter of plants. Cotton fibre is almost 
 pure cellulose. 
 
 The flour made from that part of the middlings 
 which is left after the patent flour has been extracted. 
 
 The total of the substances that can be extracted 
 from a material by cold water. 
 
 In chemistry any substance composed of two or 
 more elements. 
 
 Technically or commercially certain mixtures of 
 fats and oils are termed compounds. 
 
 The process of treating wheat by the addition of a 
 small percentage of water for the purpose of making it 
 adaptable for milling. 
 
 (See Solidifying point). 
 
 A flaky product made from corn by steaming and 
 pressing it by means of rollers. 
 
 A small flat, circular or square, piece of very thin 
 glass used for covering microscopic objects. 
 
 Potassium bitartrate; frequently used in baking 
 powders. 
 
 The woody frame-work of all vegetable organisms. 
 (See cellulose.) 
 
 (See Epidermis). 
 
 Solutions of acids or alkalis of 1/10 of the strength 
 of normal solutions. (See normal solutions.) 
 
 A gum-like substance produced from starch by 
 certain chemical processes; also known as British gum. 
 
 A fermentable sugar naturally occuring in various 
 fruits; can also be made from starch. (See glucose.) 
 
 An enzym of malt which has the property of con- 
 verting starch into dextrine and maltose. (See enzyme.) 
 
 The numerical indication of the capability of malt 
 or malt products to convert starch into sugar; usually 
 expressed as degrees Lintner. (See Diastase.) 
 
 In chemistry any substance which cannot be 
 decomposed. 
 
 (See 'Germ.) 
 
 The inner layer of the skin of the wheat berry, be- 
 tween epicarp and testa. 
 
Endosperm 
 
 Enzyme 
 
 Epicarp 
 
 Epidermis 
 
 Ferment 
 
 Fermentation 
 
 The inner part of the wheat berry, containing 
 starch cells and gluten. 
 
 An unorganized ferment of animal or vegetable 
 origin, e. g. pepsin (from the animal stomach) diastase 
 of malt, etc. Enzymes have, even in small quantities, 
 the power to convert or transform large quantities of 
 complex substances into simpler ones. 
 
 The middle layer of the skin of the wheat berry, 
 immediately underneath the epidermis. 
 
 The outer layer of the skin of the wheat berry; 
 also called cuticle. 
 
 A substance, organized or unorganized, which is 
 capable of producing fermentation. (See yeast.) 
 
 A chemical decomposition of an organic compound, 
 due to living organisms, or rather to their secretions 
 (enzymes). 
 
 Fermenting period The time of fermentation in which a flour will 
 
 of flour give the best results. Since this is dependent upon 
 
 various conditions, among which is the actual character 
 
 of the flour, so different flours require different periods 
 
 of fermentation. 
 
 Flakes (See Corn Flakes). 
 
 Flavor A characteristic property of bread comprising 
 
 taste and odor. 
 
 Fuel Value When used as a measure of food value, it means 
 
 the heat that can be generated by the digestible part 
 of the respective food. It is expressed either in British 
 Thermal units or Calories. 
 
 Gelatinizing of The formation of a jelly-like mass or paste from 
 
 starch moistened starch by the effect of heat. 
 
 Germ Or embryo; that part of a seed from which the 
 
 new plant develops. 
 
 Gliadin That portion of the gluten which is the cause of 
 
 its elasticity. 
 
 Glucose A sugar made from starch by certain technical 
 
 methods; is identical with dextrose. 
 
 Gluten In wheat or flour it is that portion of the protein 
 
 which gives elasticity to the dough in bread making. 
 
 Gluten, Dry The dry substance obtained by drying the wet 
 
 gluten. (See wet gluten.) 
 
 146 
 
Gluten, Wet 
 
 Glutenia 
 
 Grading 
 
 Graham Flour 
 
 The residue obtained by washing a weighed quant- 
 ity of flour made into a dough under a stream of water, 
 until all starch is removed. 
 
 That part of the gluten which causes its strength. 
 
 The process of separating the middlings obtained 
 from wheat into different fractions according to their 
 sizes which is accomplished by means of sifters or 
 reels. 
 
 An unbolted grade of flour containing all the bran, 
 (similar to whole wheat flour) or a regular flour to 
 which bran has been added. 
 
 Gypsum 
 
 Calcium sulphate or, if calcined, Plaster of Paris; 
 formerly sometimes used as adulterant in flour. Very 
 valuable for improving the quality of the water used 
 for doughing. 
 
 Hardness of water A term indicating the fact that water contains 
 calcium and magnesium salts. (Lime and Magnesia.) 
 Permanent hardness is caused by the sulphates, tem- 
 porary hardness by the carbonates of these two sub- 
 stances. 
 
 Humidity 
 
 The water vapor or moisture contained in air. 
 
 Humidity, relative The amount of moisture in air as compared with 
 the amount of vapor that air at the same temperature, 
 would contain if saturated. 
 
 Hydrometer An instrument for the determination either of the 
 
 specific gravity of liquids, or, if a percentage hydrom- 
 eter, of the percentage strength of solutions. 
 
 Hygrometer An instrument for determining the humidity of air 
 
 (also called psychrometer). 
 
 Indicator In chemistry substances which by a change in 
 
 color indicate the presence of certain substances (acids, 
 alkalis) or the end-point of a chemical process. The 
 more common indicators are litmus (see litmus), 
 methyl-orange, phenolphtalein, etc. 
 
 Infection The presence in a material of micro-organisms 
 
 which are foreign to the respective material. 
 
 Invertase An enzyme associated with yeast and capable of 
 
 inverting cane sugar into invert sugar. 
 
 Invert Sugar Is a mixture of dextrose and levulose. 
 
 Kilowatt A measure of electric power; it is equal to one 
 
 thousand watts. (See watts.) 
 
Kilowatt hour One thousand watts per hour. 
 
 Lactometer A hydrometer for determining the specific gravity 
 
 of milk. 
 
 Lactose Principal sugar contained in milk. 
 
 Levulose A sugar occuring naturally in many fruits. 
 
 Litmus The coloring matter obtained from various species 
 
 of lichens. In acid solutions litmus has a red color, in 
 alkaline solutions it turns to blue. Used to detect acid 
 or alkali in solutions. 
 
 Litmus paper Either blue or red, prepared by treating paper 
 
 with either a blue or red extract of litmus. 
 
 Malt Germinated and dried barley. 
 
 Maltase Maltase is an enzyme of the yeast that is able to 
 
 convert maltose into dextrose. (See enzyme.) 
 
 Malt extract A thick syrup-like liquid representing the concen- 
 
 trated extract obtained from malt by mashing the 
 same in a ground condition with water at certain tem- 
 peratures, straining off the resulting liquid (wort) and 
 evaporating the greater part of the water. 
 
 Maltose A sugar obtained from starch by the action of 
 
 diastase. 
 
 Melting Point That temperature at which a solid substance 
 
 changes into a liquid. It is identical with solidifying 
 point. 
 
 Middlings The coarse particles of the endosperm of wheat 
 
 obtained by the wheat passing through the break rolls 
 of the mill. 
 
 Milk Solids Total solid matter contained in milk. 
 
 Milk Sugar (See Lactose). 
 
 Moisture Water contained in or held by an apparently dry 
 
 substance. (See also Humidity.) 
 
 Molecule A combination or group of atoms which is char- 
 
 acteristic for any substance. 
 
 Nitrogenous Organic substances containing nitrogen in combi- 
 
 matter nation, such as the proteins, etc. 
 
 Normal acid A solution of acid, containing in 1000 cc. the 
 equivalent weight of the acid in grams (Normal sul- 
 phuric acid contains 49 grs. of chemically pure sul- 
 phuric acid in 1 liter). 
 
 148 
 
Normal alkali 
 
 Objective 
 Ocular 
 
 Ohm 
 
 Ohm's Law 
 
 Organic 
 substances 
 
 Patent Flour 
 
 Patent Flour, 
 long 
 
 Patent Flour, 
 short 
 
 Pepsin 
 
 Peptase 
 
 Permanent 
 hardness 
 
 Phosphates, acid 
 
 Potash, caustic 
 
 Protein 
 
 A solution of alkali (generally caustic potash or 
 caustic soda) containing in 1000 cc. the equivalent 
 weight of the alkali in grams. (Normal caustic soda 
 contains 40 grs. of pure sodium hydroxide in 1 liter.) 
 
 A combination of lenses; in the compound micros- 
 cope at the end nearest to the object, respectively to 
 the slide. 
 
 (Also called eye-piece). A combination of lenses; 
 in the compound microscope at the end nearest to the 
 eye. 
 
 The unit of electric resistance. 
 
 The expression of the fact that an electric current 
 in a circuit is in direct proportion to the electric pres- 
 sure (voltage) and in inverse proportion to the resist- 
 ance of the circuit. 
 
 All compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxy- 
 gen ,etc. Frequently derived from or related to or- 
 ganisms. 
 
 The flour made from the best fraction of the mid- 
 dlings selected and separated from the total of the 
 middlings by means of sieves, sifters or reels. 
 
 A patent flour comprising a relatively high per- 
 centage of the middling (80% and more). 
 
 A patent flour comprising the smallest percentage 
 of the middlings (less than 80 and as low as 65%). 
 
 An enzyme of animal origin which has the power 
 of converting insoluble albuminoids into simpler and 
 readily soluble ones. (See proteolytic enzyme and pep- 
 tase.) 
 
 An enzyme of vegetable origin contained chiefly 
 in malt or malted cereals, which has in general an ef- 
 fect similar to that of pepsin. 
 
 (See Hardness). 
 
 Acid potassium phosphate as well as acid calcium 
 phosphate are some of the ingredients of some baking 
 powders. 
 
 A compound of the elements of potassium and oxy- 
 gen; in form of its salts important as plant food. 
 
 Important nitrogenous, animal and vegetable com- 
 pounds of great chemical complexity. 
 
 149 
 
Proteolytic 
 Enzymes 
 
 Protoplasm 
 Pyrometer 
 Red Dog 
 
 Reduction rolls 
 
 Rope or ropiness 
 Saccharometer 
 
 Salt 
 
 Salt, common 
 Scalping 
 
 Scourer 
 
 Separator 
 
 Slide 
 
 Soda, baking 
 Soda, caustic 
 
 Soda, common or 
 washing 
 
 Solidifying point 
 Straight flour 
 
 Enzymes which have the power of converting 
 complex proteins into simpler ones. 
 
 The slimy, homogenous or granular semi-fluid por- 
 tion of the contents of an animal or vegetable cell. 
 
 An instrument employed for measuring a high tem- 
 perature such as that of a baking oven or a furnace. 
 
 Is essentially the bran removed in fairly small 
 particles together with a very small percentage of en- 
 dosperm particles in form of dust. 
 
 The smooth rolls in a mill by means of which the 
 middlings are gradually reduced to flour. 
 
 An infection in bread caused by certain bacteria. 
 
 A percentage hydrometer indicating the percents 
 of sugar in a sugar solution. 
 
 In chemistry any compound of a metal and an 
 acid. 
 
 A more or less pure grade of sodium chloride. 
 
 The process of removing the particles of epidermis 
 and epicarp, endocarp and spermoderm (bran) loosened 
 by the effect of the rollers in the mill. 
 
 A machine employed in milling for the purpose of 
 removing particles of dirt and dust clinging or adher- 
 ing rather persistently to the wheat berry. 
 
 A machine used for removing from wheat foreign 
 loosened particles, such as oats, barley, cockle grains, 
 also strings, straws, etc. 
 
 A flat thin, generally rectangular strip of glass, 
 about 1x3 in., upon which the object is placed for mi- 
 croscopic examination. 
 
 Sodium bicarbonate. (See bicarbonate.) 
 
 A compound also known as Sodium hydroxide, and 
 composed of sodium, oxygen and hydrogen. 
 
 Sodium carbonate of technical purity. Differs 
 from baking soda by its lower percentage of carbonic 
 acid contained therein. 
 
 The temperature at which by abstraction of heat, 
 a substance changes from the liquid to solid state. 
 Also called congealing point or freezing point. 
 
 A flour milled from the entire contents of the en- 
 dosperm available for milling, excluding only the bran 
 (about 3 to 5%). 
 
Sugars Sweet compounds chiefly of vegetable origin, be- 
 
 longing to the group of carbohydrates. 
 
 (See Conditioning). 
 
 (See hardness of water). 
 
 A layer in the wheat berry below the epidermis 
 and pericarp, consisting of two separate strata and en- 
 veloping the endosperm proper. It contains the color- 
 ing matter of the wheat. 
 
 Texture of bread The sponge-like appearance of the surface of cut 
 
 bread with reference to the larger or smaller cavities. 
 The unit of electric pressure or potential. 
 
 Tempering 
 
 Temporary 
 Hardness 
 
 Testa 
 
 Volt 
 Watt 
 
 Whole wheat 
 flour 
 
 Yeast 
 
 The electric unit for work, equals the product of 
 ampere X volt. 
 
 A flour milled from wheat without removing the 
 bran. (See Graham Flour.) 
 
 A microscopic plant belonging to the class of 
 fungi, that possesses the property of causing fermen- 
 tation. 
 
 Yeast, compressed Culture yeast of which a great part of the water 
 has been removed by pressure, hence of semi-dry 
 condition. 
 
 Yeast, pure 
 culture 
 
 Yeast food 
 
 Zymase 
 
 Yeast propagated under steril conditions from 
 selected single cells. 
 
 Any material which is absorbed and partly or fully 
 assimilated by yeast during the life and propagation. 
 
 An enzyme of yeast which has the property of 
 splitting up certain sugars into carbonic acid and al- 
 cohol. (See enzyme and fermentation.) 
 
Plates 
 
 For further explanation of the illustrations shown on the 
 following plates, reference should be made to the respective 
 subjects in the text of the book. 
 
 153 
 
Siebel's Manual and Record Book. 
 
 PLATE I. 
 
 MICROSCOPE AND ACCESSORIES. 
 
 Compound Microscope. 
 
 Hound Cover Glass. Square Cover Glass 
 
 155 
 
 Petri Dish. 
 
Sicbel's Manual and Record Bcok. 
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Wheat Berry. 
 (Magn.) 
 
 d 
 
 Transverse Section of Wheat (Magn. 200 x) 
 
 a, Epidermis; b, Epicarp; c, Cross cells; d, Tube cells; e, Outer layer of 
 spermoderm; f, Inner layer of spermoderm; g, Aleurone cells; h, Endosperm with 
 starch cells. 
 
 157 
 
Siebel's Manual and Record Beck. 
 
 plate III. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 Longitudinal Section of Wheat Berry. 
 a — b, Epidermis and Epicarp ; c, Cross cells; d, Tube cells; e — f, Spermoderm 
 (testa); g, Aleurone cells; h, Endosperm, starch cells; 1, Endosperm, empty cells; 
 p, Plumula; r. Radicle, sc, Scutellum ; z, Absorptive epithelium; B, beard or hair; 
 G, Germ or Embryo. 
 
 159 
 
Biebel'a Manual and Record Bool 
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 STARCHES. 
 
 L Q^J 
 
 Q> 
 
 
 \$ @ 
 
 9 
 
 8b \ 
 
 Wheat Starch. 
 
 ■Si^O * 
 
 & 0-/B 
 
 
 Rye Starch. 
 
 (WO 
 
 & 
 
 (# 
 
 <Q 
 
 Ccrn Starch. 
 
 Barley Starch. 
 
 *<3 $ © 
 
 Rice Starch. 
 
 Potato Starch. 
 
 161 
 
Siebel's Manual and Record Book. 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 MOULDS. 
 
 Eotrytis Cinerea. 
 
 Cidium Lactis. 
 
 Mucor Racemosus. 
 
 
 m 
 
 2 /J- 
 
 / 
 
 Mucor Circinelloides. 
 
 1G3 
 
Siebel's Manual and Record Book. 
 
 PLATE VI. 
 
 YEAST. 
 
 Compressed Yeast (Magn. 1000 X). 
 
 Yeast Cells (Magn. 2500 X). 
 
Siebel's Manual and Record Book. 
 
 Sorcma Maximo '+r° 
 {offer Lmdnor) 
 
 ! i 
 
 
 Bacterium Aceti 4 ^r 
 (after Pasteur) 
 
 PLATE VII. 
 BACTERIA. 
 
 Ped Acid/ Lactic/ ("> "f-") 
 (after Lindner) 
 
 Lactic Ferment 4J r 
 (after Pasteur) 
 
 ' "f^^f 
 
 <s * 
 
 .pr 
 
 J k. 
 
 1 ^***° ■ * 
 
 
 tT- '. 
 
 >s 
 
 
 Viscous ferment *-— 
 (utter Pasteur) 
 
 
 _ / , / 
 
 
 Bod. Locus W 
 
 Bacterium Butyncum -*£° Boc SubtdiS '-f 7 
 
 Bac Ulna *? 
 
 B Leptothrix 4 -f-° 
 
 Spirillum Tenue "*/' 
 167 
 
 *s 
 
 /"N 
 
 V 
 
 |i 
 
 i, ) 
 
 vA 
 
 Spirillum Undula iSP 
 
Siebel's Manual and Record Book. 
 
 PLATE VIII. 
 PURE YEAST CULTURE ACCESSORIES. 
 
 Drop Culture Slide. 
 
 Pasteur Flask. 
 
 Slide with Moist Chamber. 
 
 109 
 
Siebel's Manual and Record Book. 
 
 PLATE IX. 
 
 PURE YEAST APPARATUS. 
 
 171 
 
Siebel's Manual and Record Book. 
 
 PLATE X. 
 
 MENSURATION. 
 
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General Index. 
 
 A. Page 
 
 A r 123 
 
 Ali. ion of flour 70 
 
 i. cased by (lakes 07 
 
 in' lease. | by storing is 
 
 Absorjil inn system 123 
 
 Accessories, m i c rosmpical 155 
 
 pure yeast culture 169 
 
 Acel ie acid no 
 
 .acid bacteria (pi.) 167 
 
 fermental ion S>1 
 
 fermentation, flavor of 51 
 
 Acid 107 
 
 acetic 110 
 
 amino- L13 
 
 butyric 110 
 
 carbonic 103, 109 
 
 fermental ion L16 
 
 hydrochloric 107 
 
 Acidity of flour 72 
 
 Acid, lactic 110 
 
 in beer L10 
 
 in bread 50 
 
 in rye bread 110 
 
 in sour milk 110 
 
 liquid carbonic 122 
 
 nitric 107 
 
 palmitic 110 
 
 salt L08 
 
 stearic 110 
 
 sulphuric 107 
 
 tartaric 110 
 
 Acids, organic 110 
 
 Action of diastase in bread mak- 
 ing 40 
 
 Action of peptase on strong flours 40 
 
 A 'I in -ion 99 
 
 Adulteration of compressed yeast 34 
 
 of milk 44 
 
 of milk sugar 29 
 
 Adulterations in flour 66 
 
 Affinity 105 
 
 Agar-agar 118 
 
 gal ion, state of 99 
 
 Air 108 
 
 dry 52 
 
 sure 100 
 
 saturated 52, L03 
 
 Albumen H2 
 
 Albuminoids 112 
 
 Alcohol 109 
 
 amyl- L10 
 
 ethyl- 109 
 
 fusel- L09 
 
 grain- L09 
 
 Page 
 
 methyl- 109 
 
 wood- 109 
 
 formed from sugar... 25, 50, 109 
 
 Alcoholic fermentation 50, 116 
 
 Alcoholometer 100 
 
 Aleurone cells ■), L15 
 
 Alkali 107 
 
 Alkaline water 23, 24, 108 
 
 Alternating current L28 
 
 Amide 113 
 
 Amino-acids 113 
 
 A m mon ia, anhydrous L23 
 
 liquid 122 
 
 Ammonium salts a yea I food . . . 38 
 
 Amount of flakes to be used 67 
 
 Amount of refrigeration 123 
 
 Of Salt to be used 30 
 
 Ampere 126 
 
 Amyl-alcohol 110 
 
 Analysis, average — of different 
 grades of hard Spring wheat 
 
 Hour 16 
 
 of commercial feeds 11 
 
 compressed yeast 34 
 
 condensed milk 43 
 
 flour (iS 
 
 methods for 70 
 
 report on 69 
 
 technical 68 
 
 value of 68 
 
 fresh milk 41 
 
 malt exi ract 39 
 
 milk powder 44 
 
 salt 30 
 
 typical wai ers 24 
 
 various milks 45 
 
 waters 24 
 
 Anhydrous ammonia 122 
 
 sugar 27 
 
 ferment ability of 27 
 
 manufael are of 27 
 
 Animal fats and oils 35, 111 
 
 Apparatus, pure yeast.. 120, 121, 171 
 
 Appearance of loaf 62 
 
 Appendix 137 
 
 A rea of circle 1 33 
 
 A rmature 127 
 
 Ash, determinat ion of 70 
 
 Ash in first clear flour 15 
 
 in patent flour 15 
 
 in rye flour 15 
 
 in straight flour L5 
 
 relation; to percentage of Hour 10 
 
 Aspergillus 117, L63 
 
 175 
 
Assimilation of yeast food 37 
 
 Atmosphere 100 
 
 Atmospheric pressure 100 
 
 Atom 104 
 
 Atomicity 106 
 
 Atomic weight 106 
 
 Attraction, chemical 105 
 
 molar 99 
 
 Average analysis of different 
 grades of hard Spring 
 
 wheat flour 16 
 
 composition of wheat 5 
 
 B. 
 
 Bacilli 118 
 
 Bacteria 118, 167 
 
 aeetiei 167 
 
 butyricum 167 
 
 lactic acid 110 
 
 lactis 167 
 
 subtilis 167 
 
 Bakes made from different frac- 
 tions of flour 65 
 
 Bakeshop calculations 129 
 
 records 88 
 
 Baking 58 
 
 loss of water in 59 
 
 materials 12 
 
 powder 110 
 
 proper humidity for 53 
 
 temperature for 59 
 
 time for 59 
 
 Baking technology 46 
 
 test 73 
 
 method of 74 
 
 standard pans for 74 
 
 water for 108 
 
 Barley 11 
 
 germinating of 38 
 
 kiln-drying of 38 
 
 starch 161 
 
 steeping of 38 
 
 Barm yeast 32 
 
 infection of 33 
 
 preparation of 32 
 
 Barometer 100 
 
 Bars 85 
 
 Bases 107 
 
 Batteries, electric 128 
 
 Batter sponge 47 
 
 Baume degrees and spec, gravity 139 
 
 Bench record 93 
 
 Beneficial effect of storing of flour, 17 
 
 Beet sugar 25 
 
 Bicarbonates in water 23 
 
 Biological purity of water 22 
 
 Bivalent 106 
 
 Blastomycetes 117 
 
 Bleaching effect of salt 30 
 
 of storing 17 
 
 Bleaching of flour 10, 20 
 
 by chlorine 20 
 
 Page 
 
 by nitrogen-oxide 20 
 
 detection of 22 
 
 effect on gluten 21 
 
 effect on keeping qualities. . 21 
 
 effect on new flour 21 
 
 general method for 20 
 
 objection to 21 
 
 Blending, improving of color by. 19 
 
 kinds of flour used for 19 
 
 mechanical manipulation of. 20 
 
 of flour 19 
 
 of good and poor flour 19 
 
 of hard Winter and hard 
 
 Spring wheat flour 12 
 
 reasons for 19 
 
 regulated by analysis 19 
 
 of wheat 6 
 
 insuring uniform quality 6 
 
 Boiler pressure 102 
 
 Boiling 102 
 
 point 102 
 
 insuring uniform quality 6 
 
 temperature of water 101 
 
 effect of pressure on 102 
 
 latent heat of 102 
 
 Bolted wheat meal 15 
 
 Bones, ground, for feed 11 
 
 Bran 4, 10 
 
 affected by tempering 7 
 
 particles affecting color of 
 
 flour 20 
 
 Bread formula 79 
 
 example for using 77 
 
 flavor of 62 
 
 holes in 62 
 
 causes of holes in 63 
 
 improvers 37 
 
 lactic acid in 50 
 
 making, action of diastase in 40 
 hard Winter and hard 
 Spring wheat flours for. 12 
 
 ropiness of 51, 116 
 
 ropy 51 
 
 scoring of 61 
 
 Break rolls . 8 
 
 Brewers grains 11 
 
 British thermal unit 101 
 
 Brown sugar 26 
 
 Buckwheat 11 
 
 Budding 116 
 
 Butter 35 
 
 composition of 36 
 
 renovated 36 
 
 U. S. Standard for 36 
 
 Butyric acid 110 
 
 acid bacteria 167 
 
 fermentation 51 
 
 C. 
 
 Cake baking, cane sugar for 26 
 
 Cake formulas 79 
 
 how to use 77 
 
 176 
 
Page 
 
 Cakes, counter mixed 81 
 
 fruit S4 
 
 layer 83 
 
 pound 84 
 
 small fancy mixed 86 
 
 sponge 82 
 
 sugar 87 
 
 Calcium salts in water 108 
 
 sulphate in water 23, L08 
 
 Cane sugar 25 
 
 fermentability of 26 
 
 for cake baking 26 
 
 inversion of 26 
 
 raw 26 
 
 Caramel , 112 
 
 Carbohydrates 25, 111 
 
 Carbon dioxide 103 
 
 Carbonic acid 25, 103, 109, 122 
 
 formed from sugar 25, 109 
 
 liquid 122 
 
 Casein in milk 41 
 
 Cattle feed 10 
 
 Causes of holes in bread 63 
 
 Caustic soda 107 
 
 Cell 115 
 
 Cells, aleurone 4, 115 
 
 cross 115 
 
 starch 115 
 
 tube 115 
 
 Cellulose 4, 111 
 
 in wheat 4 
 
 membrane 116 
 
 Cell wall 115, 116 
 
 Celsius thermometer 101 
 
 Centigrade thermometer 101 
 
 Cereals, microscopic examination 
 
 of 114 
 
 Cereals used for milling 3 
 
 Characteristics of wheat 3 
 
 Chemical attraction 105 
 
 change 103 
 
 formula 105 
 
 purity of natural water 22 
 
 symbols A 05 
 
 Chemistry 103 
 
 inorganic 106 
 
 organic 109 
 
 Chicken feed 10 
 
 Chlorides 108 
 
 Chlorine used for bleaching 20 
 
 Circle 133, 173 
 
 area of 133 
 
 circumference of 133 
 
 diameter of 133 
 
 radius of 133 
 
 Circumference of circle 133 
 
 Classification of wheat 5 
 
 Cleaning of wheat . 7 
 
 Clear flour 9, 14, 16 
 
 percentage of 16 
 
 Climatic conditions affecting com- 
 position of flour 13 
 
 Page 
 
 Coagulation of protein 112 
 
 Cocci 118 
 
 Cohesion 99 
 
 Coils, refrigerating 123 
 
 Color and percentage of flour... 10 
 
 Color, effect of sponge on 47 
 
 effect of sour dough on 49 
 
 Coloring matter in milk 44 
 
 in wheat 4 
 
 Color of bread affected by malt 
 
 extract 41 
 
 affected by water 22 
 
 of compressed yeast 34 
 
 ' ' corn sugar 27 
 
 ' ' crumb in scoring 62 
 
 ' ' Durum wheat flour 13 
 
 " flour affected by bran. ... 20 
 " flour affected by crease 
 
 dirt 20 
 
 ' ' flour improved by bleach- 
 ing 19 
 
 ' ' flour, determination of . . . 70 
 
 Combustion 108 
 
 Commercial feeds, analysis of... 11 
 Comparison of Baume degrees 
 
 and sp. gr 139 
 
 of thermometer scales 141 
 
 of U. S. and metric units... 138 
 
 Composition of butter 36 
 
 of compressed yeast 34 
 
 of corn sugar 28 
 
 of flour 13 
 
 affected by climatic con- 
 ditions 13 
 
 affected by seasonal 
 
 changes 14 
 
 of patent flours from hard 
 Spring, hard Winter and 
 
 soft Winter wheat 14 
 
 of syrup 27 
 
 of wheat 4, 5 
 
 Compound, chemical 104 
 
 fat 36 
 
 discount 131 
 
 machines 128 
 
 microscope 114, 155 
 
 Compressed yeast 32, 33, 165 
 
 adulterations in 34 
 
 analysis of 34 
 
 color of 34 
 
 composition of 34 
 
 consistency of 34 
 
 effect of starch in 34 
 
 manufacture of 33 
 
 moisture in 34 
 
 starch in 34 
 
 Compression system 123 
 
 Compressor 123 
 
 Contaminated water 23 
 
 Concentrated milk 43 
 
 skimmed milk 43 
 
 Condensation of vapors 102 
 
 177 
 
Page 
 
 Condensed milk 42 
 
 skimmed milk 43 
 
 sweetened milk 43 
 
 sweetened skimmed milk ... 43 
 
 milk, analysis of 43 
 
 Condensor 123 
 
 Conditioning of wheat 7 
 
 Conductor, electric . 125 
 
 Cone 135, 173 
 
 Confectioners sugar 112 
 
 Connection, multiple 126 
 
 parallel 127 
 
 series 126 
 
 shunt 127 
 
 resistance of parallel 127 
 
 of series 126 
 
 of shunt 127 
 
 Consistency of compressed yeast 34 
 
 Construction of microscope 114 
 
 Contraction of bodies 100 
 
 Control of fermentation 48 
 
 of humidity 54 
 
 Cooling, effect of — on dough .... 57 
 
 Corn flakes . , 67 
 
 flour 66 
 
 mash 33 
 
 starch 66, 161 
 
 sugar . 27 
 
 color of 27 
 
 composition of 28 
 
 granulated 27 
 
 in lumps 27 
 
 powdered 27 
 
 sweetness of 28 
 
 Cost of materials 129 
 
 Cotton filter 122 
 
 Cotton seed meal 11, 66 
 
 oil in oleomargarine 35 
 
 Counter mixed cakes 81 
 
 Coverglass 121, 155 
 
 Cream of tartar 110 
 
 Crease dirt affecting color of flour 20 
 
 Cross-cells 115 
 
 Crude fibre in feed 10 
 
 Cube 134, 173 
 
 Culture, accessories for pure 
 
 yeast 167 
 
 media 118, 120 
 
 pure 120 
 
 pure yeast 120 
 
 yeast 117 
 
 Current, alternating 128 
 
 direct 128 
 
 electric 125 
 
 Crust, effect of milk on 46 
 
 Cuticle 4 
 
 Cutting over of dough 55 
 
 Cycle 128 
 
 Cylinder 135, 173 
 
 Cytase 113 
 
 in malt 38 
 
 effect of 38 
 
 D. Page 
 
 Definitions of technical terms ..143 
 
 Degree Baume and spec, gr 139 
 
 of fineness of flour 64 
 
 affecting composition and 
 
 quality 64 
 
 of humidity 103, 142 
 
 Detection of bleaching of flour . . 22 
 of poorer grades of flour ... 17 
 
 Determination of ash V0 
 
 of color 70 
 
 of moisture 70 
 
 Development of gluten by peptase 40 
 
 Dextrine 27, 111, 112 
 
 unfermentable 27 
 
 Dextrose 27, 112 
 
 fermentability of 112 
 
 Diameter of circle 133 
 
 Diastase 40, 112, 113 
 
 action of 40, 67 
 
 in yeast 31 
 
 Diastatic enzyme 113 
 
 Diastatic power of malt ex- 
 tract 39, 67 
 
 Dictionary of technical terms... 143 
 
 Differences in wheat 3 
 
 Different fractions separated 
 
 from flour . 65 
 
 bakes made from 65 
 
 grades of hard Spring wheat 
 
 flour, analysis of 16 
 
 layers in wheatberry 3 
 
 sources of salt 29 
 
 Direct current 128 
 
 Dirt affecting color of flour 20 
 
 Discount, calculating of 131 
 
 compound 131 
 
 Distillation 108 
 
 Dividing 55 
 
 machines 55 
 
 Dough, control of fermentation of 48 
 
 cutting over of 55 
 
 effect of sour — on color and 
 
 flavor 49 
 
 effect of sponge — on flavor. . 48 
 effect of straight — on flavor 48 
 
 encrusting of 53 
 
 infection in sour 49 
 
 making of 46 
 
 punching of 55 
 
 sour 49 
 
 sponge 46, 47 
 
 straight 46, 48 
 
 water required for 129 
 
 Doughing methods 46 
 
 room record 91 
 
 Dried milk 44 
 
 skimmed milk 44 
 
 Drinking water for baking 22 
 
 Drop culture slide 169 
 
 Dry and wet bulb hygrometer . . 52 
 
 gluten 71 
 
 Drying of barley 38 
 
 178 
 
Page 
 
 Dry yeast 32 
 
 infection in 33 
 
 preparation of 33 
 
 Durum wheat 6 
 
 gluten in 6 
 
 flour 12, 13 
 
 color of 13 
 
 for macearoni 13 
 
 gluten of 13 
 
 mixed with soft Winter 
 
 wheat flour 13 
 
 quality of gluten in ... . 13 
 
 Dynamo 127 
 
 shunt 127 
 
 Effect, beneficial — of storing flour 17 
 
 bleaching — of salt 30 
 
 of storing of flour .... 18 
 
 of bleaching on gluten 21 
 
 on keeping qualities of 
 
 bread 21 
 
 on new flour 21 
 
 of bran on color of flour... 20 
 
 cooling on dough 57 
 
 crease dirt on color of flour 20 
 
 cytase in malt 38 
 
 degree of fineness of flour 64 
 
 invertase in yeast 31 
 
 lactic acid in bread.. 50, 110 
 on keeping qualities, of 
 
 bread 110 
 
 low humidity 53 
 
 maltase in yeast 31 
 
 malt extract 41 
 
 mechanical factors in fer- 
 mentation 55 
 
 milk on crust of bread.. 46 
 milk on flavor of bread. . 45 
 oxygen on growth of yeast 32 
 peptase on strong flour. . . 40 
 
 pressure on boiling 102 
 
 salt 29 
 
 sour dough on color and 
 
 flavor 49 
 
 sponge on color 47 
 
 on flavor 48 
 
 starch in compressed yeast 34 
 
 steam in oven 60 
 
 storing on gliadin ratio.. 18 
 
 on gluten 17 
 
 straight dough on flavor. 48 
 
 sugar on loaf 25 
 
 tempering on bran 7 
 
 various salts in water. 23, 24 
 water on color, flavor, etc. 22 
 
 zymase in yeast 31 
 
 Electric batteries 128 
 
 conductors 125 
 
 current 125 
 
 generator 127 
 
 power 126 
 
 Page 
 
 pressure 125 
 
 Electricity 125 
 
 Electro-magnet 125 
 
 Element 104 
 
 Embryo 4 
 
 Encrusting of dough 53 
 
 Endocarp 4 
 
 Endosperm 4, 115 
 
 Energy 9 
 
 Enzymes 113, 116 
 
 diastatic 113 
 
 in malt 38 
 
 in yeast 31 
 
 proteolytic 113 
 
 Epiearp 4, 114 
 
 Epidermis 4, 114 
 
 Eradication of rope 52 
 
 Esters 110 
 
 Ethyl-alcohol '. 109 
 
 Evaporated milk 43 
 
 skimmed milk 43 
 
 Evaporation of liquids 122 
 
 Examination of cereals, micros- 
 copic 114 
 
 of yeast, microscopic 119 
 
 Example for using bread and cake 
 
 formula 77 
 
 Excess of steam in oven 60 
 
 Exchanger 123 
 
 Expansion of bodies 100 
 
 value 72 
 
 valve 123 
 
 F. 
 
 Fahrenheit thermometer 101 
 
 Fat 36, 110, 111 
 
 animal 35 
 
 compounds 36 
 
 flavor of 36 
 
 in feed 10 
 
 in milk 42 
 
 in wheat . 4 
 
 melting point of 36 
 
 rancidity of 36 
 
 vegetable 35 
 
 Feed 10 
 
 analysis of commercial 11 
 
 cattle, hog and horse 10 
 
 chicken 10 
 
 crude fibre in 10 
 
 fat in 10 
 
 ground bones in il 
 
 oil cake 11 
 
 protein in 10 
 
 starch in 10 
 
 Ferment 32, 113 
 
 lactic 165 
 
 viscous 165 
 
 yeast 32 
 
 Fermentability of anhydrous 
 
 sugar 27 
 
 cane sugar 26 
 
dextrine 27 
 
 malt sugar 28 
 
 Fermentation 49, 109, 116 
 
 acetic 51 
 
 acid 116 
 
 alcoholic 50 
 
 alcohol and carbonic acid 
 
 produced by ...50, 109 
 
 butyric 51 
 
 flavor of acetic 51 
 
 lactic acid 50 
 
 new flour in 55 
 
 period 73 
 
 temperature for lactic acid.. 50 
 
 test . 120 
 
 vinous 116 
 
 viscous 51, 116 
 
 Fermenting power of yeast 120 
 
 room records 92 
 
 Fibre, crude — in feed 10 
 
 Field 127 
 
 Figuring in the bakeshop 129 
 
 Filter, cotton 122 
 
 presses 34 
 
 Filtration of water 23 
 
 Fineness of flour affecting com- 
 position and quality 64 
 
 First clear flour, ash in 15 
 
 U. S. Standard for 15 
 
 First patent flour 10, 14 
 
 percentage of 16 
 
 Fission 116, 117 
 
 Flakes 67 
 
 absorption increased by .... 67 
 
 amount of — to be used 67 
 
 and malt extract 67 
 
 corn 67 
 
 diastatic power of malt ex- 
 tract and 67 
 
 Flavor of acetic fermentation . . 51 
 of bread affected by milk . . 45 
 
 in scoring 62 
 
 of fats and oils 36 
 
 of sour dough bread 49 
 
 of sponge dough bread 4S 
 
 of straight dough bread .... 43 
 
 Flour 12 
 
 action of peptase on strong. 40 
 
 adulterations in 66 
 
 analysis of 68 
 
 methods for 70 
 
 report on 69 
 
 technical 68 
 
 value of 68 
 
 ash in first clear 12 
 
 in rye 16 
 
 in patent 15 
 
 in straight 15 
 
 bleaching of 10, 20 
 
 by chlorine 20 
 
 by nitrogen-oxide 20 
 
 general method for .... 20 
 
 Page 
 
 blending of 19 
 
 good and poor 19 
 
 reasons for 19 
 
 regulated by analysis . . 19 
 
 clear 9, 14 
 
 percentage of 16 
 
 composition of 13 
 
 of patent flour 14 
 
 corn 66 
 
 detection of poorer grades of 17 
 
 determination of color 70 
 
 different fractions separated 
 
 from 65 
 
 different grades of 9, 14 
 
 different kinds of 12 
 
 Durum wheat 9, 12 
 
 and soft Winter wheat 
 
 flour mixed 13 
 
 color of 13 
 
 for maccaroni 13 
 
 gluten in 13 
 
 quality of gluten in ... 13 
 
 effect of bleaching on new . . 21 
 
 of bran on color of 20 
 
 of crease dirl} on color of 20 
 
 first patent 10, 14 
 
 granular 12 
 
 hard Spring wheat 12 
 
 gluten in 12 
 
 quality of gluten in .... 12 
 
 hard Winter wheat 12 
 
 gluten in 12 
 
 hard Winter wheat and hard 
 
 Spring wheat, blended 12 
 
 Kansas 12 
 
 gluten in 12 
 
 quality of gluten in ... . 12 
 
 kinds of — to be blended.... 19 
 
 low grade 9, 14 
 
 percentage of 16 
 
 malt 41 
 
 nitrogen in patent 15 
 
 in rye 16 
 
 in straight 15 
 
 patent 8 
 
 potato 66 
 
 red dog 11 
 
 second patent 10, i4 
 
 percentage of 14 
 
 sharp 12 
 
 short and long patent 10 
 
 soft Winter wheat 12, 13 
 
 for pastry 13 
 
 gluten in 13 
 
 quality of gluten in ... 13 
 
 Standard XL S., first clear . . 15 
 
 Graham 16 
 
 patent 15 
 
 rye 16 
 
 straight 15 
 
 whole wheat 15 
 
 storing of 17 
 
 180 
 
in bags 17 
 
 proper temperature of.. 17 
 
 straight 9 
 
 substitute 66 
 
 uniform granulation of .... 64 
 
 used in sponge 47 
 
 yield of 1 bbl. of 129 
 
 Force " y 
 
 Foreign substances in wheat ... 7 
 Formation of alcohol and car- 
 bonic acid 25 
 
 Formula, bread and cake 79 
 
 chemical 105 
 
 example for using bread and 
 
 cake 77 
 
 for bars 85 
 
 " bread ™ 
 
 " counter mixed cakes.... 81 
 
 ' ' fruit cakes 84 
 
 ' ' layer cakes 83 
 
 ' ' milk rolls 80 
 
 " pound cakes 84 
 
 ' ' small fancy cakes 86 
 
 ' ' snaps 85 
 
 ' ' sponge goods 82 
 
 " sugar cakes 87. 
 
 " water rolls 80 
 
 Fractions, different — separated 
 
 from flour 65 
 
 different, bakes made from.. 65 
 
 Freezing point of water 101 
 
 Fresh milk 41 
 
 analysis of 41 
 
 Fructose "^8 
 
 Fruit cakes 84 
 
 flavors HO 
 
 Frustum of cone 135, 173 
 
 Functions of yeast 31 
 
 Fusel-alcohol 109 
 
 Fusion, latent heat of 102 
 
 G. 
 
 Gaseous state of aggregation ...99 
 Gases, liquefied, for refrigeration 12 
 
 Gelatine n8 
 
 Gelatinizing of starch HI 
 
 Generator 123, 127 
 
 electric "7 
 
 197 
 
 series "■' 
 
 shunt 127 
 
 Germ * 
 
 Germination of barley 38 
 
 Gliadin ......18, 72, 112 
 
 number or ratio 72 
 
 ratio affected by storing ... 18 
 
 Globulines 112 
 
 Glucose 27 
 
 Gluten H2 
 
 affected by bleaching 21 
 
 developed by peptase 40 
 
 dry 71 
 
 in Durum wheat 6 
 
 Page 
 
 in Durum wheat flour 13 
 
 in hard Winter wheat 5 
 
 in hard Winter wheat flour . 12 
 
 in hard Spring wheat 5 
 
 in hard Spring wheat flour . 12 
 
 in Kansas flour 12 
 
 in soft Winter wheat 6 
 
 in soft Winter wheat flour . . 13 
 
 in wheat 4 
 
 in white wheat 4 
 
 quality of 73 
 
 relation of percentage of 
 
 flour to 10 
 
 Glutelins n2 
 
 Glutenin 112 
 
 increased by storing 17 
 
 Glycerine HO 
 
 Good and poor flour blended .... 19 
 Governing fermentation by salt. 29 
 
 Graders 8 
 
 Grades of flour 9, 14 
 
 average analysis of different 16 
 
 detection of poorer 17 
 
 Gradual reduction of wheat .... 8 
 
 Graduation of thermometer 101 
 
 Graham flour ia 
 
 Grain alcohol 1°9 
 
 of loaf 62 
 
 Grains, dried brewers H 
 
 Granular flour 12 
 
 Granulated corn sugar 27 
 
 sugar 26 
 
 U. S. Standard 28 
 
 Granulation of flour, uniform ... 64 
 
 Granules, starch 4 
 
 Grape sugar 27, 112 
 
 Gravitation 99 
 
 Gravity, specific 99 
 
 specific, and Baume degrees. 139 
 
 specific, of milk . 41 
 
 of sugar solutions 140 
 
 Ground bones in feed 11 
 
 Growth of yeast 31 
 
 effect of oxygen on .... 32 
 mineral salts for 31, 32 
 
 H. 
 
 Hardness of water, permanent . . 108 
 
 temporary 101 
 
 Hard Spring wheat 5 
 
 flour lj 
 
 analysis of 16 
 
 gluten in 12 
 
 quality of gluten in ... 12 
 
 Hard water 23, 24, 108 
 
 Hard Winter wheat 5 
 
 Hard Winter wheat flour 12 
 
 gluten in 5 
 
 and hard Spring wheat flour 
 
 blended 12 
 
 Heat 100 
 
 181 
 
Page 
 Heating substances, heat re- 
 quired for 101 
 
 Heat, latent 102 
 
 of fusion 102 
 
 of ice 102 
 
 of melting 102 
 
 of vaporization 102 
 
 leakage j^4 
 
 required for heating sub- 
 stances xOl 
 
 specific 10i 
 
 transmission 124 
 
 „ uuit ..'.'.'.'.'. "l01 
 
 Hemisphere l 36j 173 
 
 Holes in bread 62 
 
 caused by improper 
 
 moulding 63 
 
 caused by over-fermen- 
 tation 63 
 
 caused by under-fermen- 
 
 tation 63 
 
 Horse and hog feed 10 
 
 How to use malt extract 40 
 
 Humidity 52 , 103 
 
 control of ^4 
 
 degree of 103,' 142 
 
 effect of low 53 
 
 in storing flour 17 
 
 proper, for baking 53 
 
 relative 52 
 
 Hydraulic pressure 100 
 
 Hydrocarbons ' 109 
 
 Hydrochloric acid 107 
 
 Hydrometer 99 
 
 percentage 100 
 
 Hydroxides [ ,107 
 
 Hygrometer g^' 103 
 
 wet and dry bulb 52 
 
 Hygrometry 102 
 
 Hyphae ) 116 
 
 Hyphomyeetes 109 
 
 I. 
 
 Ice, latent heat of 102 
 
 melting point of 101 
 
 Identification of starches 115 
 
 Improper moulding cause of holes 
 
 in bread 63 
 
 Improper proof 57 
 
 Improver, sugar as an 26 
 
 Improving of color by blending . 19 
 
 of water 24 
 
 Impurities in salt 29 
 
 Increase in absorption by flakes. 67 
 in absorption by storing ... 18 
 
 in glutenin by storing 17 
 
 Incubator . . 121 
 
 Infection 116 
 
 in Barm yeast 33 
 
 in dry yeast 33 
 
 in sour dough 49 
 
 Inorganic chemistry 106 
 
 182 
 
 Page 
 
 Insulated walls 124 
 
 Interest 131 
 
 Intervals in punching 55 
 
 Inversion of cane sugar 26 
 
 of malt sugar 28 
 
 Invertase 113 
 
 in yeast 31 
 
 action of 31 
 
 Iodine solution m 115 
 
 K. 
 
 Kansas flour 12 
 
 gluten in 12 
 
 quality of gluten in 12 
 
 Keeping quality of bread affect- 
 ed by lactic acid. . .110 
 
 Kettle rendered lard 35 
 
 Kiln-drying of barley. 38 
 
 Kinds of flour 12 
 
 for blending 19 
 
 L. 
 
 Laboratory outfit 75 
 
 Lactic acid 110 
 
 affecting keeping quality of 
 
 bread 110 
 
 bacteria 110, 165 
 
 effect of — in bread 50 
 
 fermentation 50 
 
 in beer and sour milk 110 
 
 in rye bread 110 
 
 Lactose 29, 112 
 
 Lard, kettle rendered 35 
 
 leaf 35 
 
 neutral 35 
 
 pure 35 
 
 Latent heat 102 
 
 of boiling 102 
 
 of fusion or melting 102 
 
 of ice 102 
 
 of vaporization 102 
 
 of water 102 
 
 Layer cakes 83 
 
 Layers, different — in a wheatberry 4 
 
 Leaf lard 35 
 
 Leucosin 112 
 
 Levulose 28 
 
 Lines, magnetic 125 
 
 Liquefaction of gases or vapors. 102 
 Liquefied gases for refrigeration 122 
 
 Liquid ammonia 122 
 
 carbonic acid 122 
 
 receiver 123 
 
 sulphur-dioxide 122 
 
 Liquids 99 
 
 evaporation of 122 
 
 refrigerating 122 
 
 Litmuspaper 107 
 
 Loaf, appearance of 62 
 
 grain of 62 
 
 imperfect moulding of — caus- 
 ing holes o3 
 
Page 
 
 moulding of 56 
 
 split 58 
 
 proof given to 58 
 
 selling price of 130 
 
 texture of 62 
 
 volume of 62 
 
 weight of 130 
 
 Longitudinal section of wheat- 
 berry 159 
 
 Long patent flour 10 
 
 Long sponge 47 
 
 Loss of moisture in baking .... 59 
 
 in storing 18 
 
 Low grade flour 9, 14 
 
 percentage of 16 
 
 Lumps, corn sugar 27 
 
 M. 
 Maccaroni, Durum wheat flour 
 
 for 6, IS 
 
 Machines, compound electric. .. .128 
 
 dividing 55 
 
 Magnesium salts in water 108 
 
 Magnet, electro- 125 
 
 natural 125 
 
 permanent 125 
 
 Magnetic lines 125 
 
 Magnetism 125 
 
 Making the dough 46 
 
 Malt 38, 112 
 
 Maltase in yeast 31 
 
 effect of 31 
 
 Malt, cytase in 38 
 
 enzymes in 38 
 
 extract 38, 112 
 
 analysis of 39 
 
 as yeast food 38 
 
 diastatic power of . . .39, 67 
 effect of — on color of 
 
 bread 41 
 
 how to use 40 
 
 manufacture of 38 
 
 reduction of sugar and 
 
 yeast by 41 
 
 used together with flakes 67 
 
 flour 41 
 
 manufacture of 38 
 
 Maltose 28, 111, 112 
 
 Malt sprouts 11 
 
 Malt sugar 28, 112 
 
 fermentability of 28 
 
 formation of 28 
 
 inversion of 28 
 
 sweetness of 28 
 
 Manometer 100 
 
 Manufacture of anhydrous sugar 27 
 
 of compressed yeast . 33 
 
 of malt . 3S 
 
 of malt extract 38 
 
 Maple sugar 27 
 
 Marsh gas 109 
 
 Mash, corn 33 
 
 Page- 
 Material, cost of 129 
 
 Matter 99 
 
 properties of 99 
 
 Meal, bolted wheat 15 
 
 cotton seed 11, 16 
 
 peanut 66 
 
 soybean 66 
 
 Measures 137 
 
 Mechanical factors affecting fer- 
 mentation 55 
 
 Mechanical manipulation in 
 
 blending flour 20 
 
 Mechanical refrigeration 122 
 
 Media, culture 118 
 
 Melting 102 
 
 ice, temperature of 101 
 
 latent heat of 102 
 
 point 102 
 
 of fats 36 
 
 of ice 102 
 
 Mensuration 132, 173 
 
 Metals 106 
 
 Metalloids 106, 107 
 
 Methane 109 
 
 Method of mixing the shortening 37 
 
 of baking test 74 
 
 of panning 55 
 
 Methods of analysis 70 
 
 of making dough 46 
 
 of mechanical refrigeration. 122 
 
 Methyl-alcohol 109 
 
 Metric units compared with U. S. 
 
 units 138 
 
 system 137 
 
 Micron 117 
 
 Micro-organisms 114 
 
 Microscope, compound 114, 155 
 
 construction of 114 
 
 simple 114r 
 
 use of 114 
 
 Microscopic accessories 155 
 
 examination of cereals ....114 
 
 of yeast 119 
 
 Microscopy .' 114 
 
 Middlings 8, 9, 11 
 
 percentage of — in flour 9 
 
 reduction of 8 
 
 rye 11 
 
 Milk 41 
 
 adulteration of 44 
 
 analysis of condensed 43' 
 
 analysis of fresh 41 
 
 analysis of various 45 
 
 casein in 41 
 
 coloring matter in 44 
 
 concentrated 43 
 
 condensed 42 
 
 condensed sweetened 43 
 
 dried 44 
 
 effect on crust of bread .... 46 
 effect on flavor of bread . . 45 
 evaporated 43' 
 
 183 
 
Page 
 
 fat 42 
 
 powder 44 
 
 powder, analysis of 44 
 
 preservatives in 44 
 
 rolls 80 
 
 skimmed 42 
 
 skimmed, concentrated 43 
 
 skimmed, condensed 43 
 
 skimmed, condensed, sweet- 
 ened 43 
 
 skimmed dried 44 
 
 skimmed evaporated 43 
 
 solids 42 
 
 specific gravity of 41 
 
 sugar 29, 112 
 
 adulteration of 29 
 
 and lactic acid fermen- 
 tation 29 
 
 preparation of 29 
 
 sweetness of 29 
 
 use of 29 
 
 watering of 41 
 
 Mill 8 
 
 Milling, cereals used for 3 
 
 object of 4 
 
 of wheat 8 
 
 technology 3 
 
 Mill separator 7 
 
 streams 9 
 
 Mineral salts for growth of 
 
 yeast 31, 32 
 
 Mixed cakes, counter 81 
 
 small fancy 86 
 
 Mixing shortening 37 
 
 Mixture 104 
 
 of Durum wheat flour and 
 soft Winter, wheat 
 
 flour 13 
 
 Moist chamber 121, 169 
 
 Moisture and storing of flour . . 17 
 
 determination of 70 
 
 in compressed yeast 34 
 
 loss by storing 18 
 
 Molar attraction 99 
 
 Molasses 27 
 
 Molecular motion 100 
 
 Molecule 99, 104 
 
 Motor, electric 127 
 
 series 127 
 
 shunt 127 
 
 Mould 116, 163 
 
 Moulding, improper — cause of 
 
 holes 63 
 
 Moulding of loaf 56 
 
 Mucor 117, 163 
 
 Multiple connection 126 
 
 Mycellium 117 
 
 N. 
 
 Natural magnet 125 
 
 water 22 
 
 biological purity 22 
 
 Page 
 
 chemical purity 22 
 
 filtration of 23 
 
 organic refuse in 23 
 
 turbidity of 23 
 
 Neutralisation 107 
 
 Neutral lard 35 
 
 New flour affected by bleaching. . 21 
 
 in fermentation 55 
 
 Nitric acid 107 
 
 Nitrogen in patent flour 15 
 
 in rye flour 16 
 
 in straight flour 15 . 
 
 -oxide for bleaching 20 
 
 Nucleus 116 
 
 Nutritive value of sugar 25 
 
 O. 
 
 Oats 10 
 
 Object in milling 4 
 
 Objections to bleaching 21 
 
 Objective 114 
 
 Ocular 114 
 
 Odor caused by ropiness 51 
 
 Offals 10 
 
 Ohm 126 
 
 Ohm's law 126 
 
 Oidium 117, 156 
 
 Oil 36, 110, 111 
 
 animal or vegetable Ill 
 
 cake feed 11 
 
 flavor of 36 
 
 Oleomargarine 35 
 
 cotton seed oil in 35 
 
 Organic acids 110 
 
 chemistry 109 
 
 refuse in water 23 
 
 Origin of sugar 25 
 
 Outfit, laboratory 75 
 
 Oven, pressure of steam in 60 
 
 quick 57 
 
 slow 58 
 
 temperature and proofing . . 57 
 
 use of steam in 59 
 
 Overfermentation causing holes.. 63 
 
 Oxidation 108 
 
 Oxides 107 
 
 of nitrogen 20 
 
 Oxygen, effect of — on growth of 
 
 yeast 32 
 
 P. 
 
 Palmitic acid 110 
 
 Pan for baking test, standard . . 74 
 
 Panning 55 
 
 method of 55 
 
 Parallel connection 127 
 
 resistance of 127 
 
 Paste, starch Ill 
 
 Pasteur flask 121, 159 
 
 Pastry, soft Winter wheat flour 
 
 for 13 
 
 184 
 
Page 
 
 Patent flour 8, 10, 14 
 
 ash in 15 
 
 composition of 14 
 
 first 10, 14 
 
 long 10 
 
 nitrogen in 15 
 
 second 10 
 
 short 10 
 
 U. S. standards for .... 15 
 
 Peanut meal 66 
 
 Peneillium 117, 156 
 
 Pepsin 113 
 
 Peptase 40, 113 
 
 action of, on strong flours . . 40 
 development of gluten by . . 40 
 
 Peptones 113 
 
 Percentage of clear flour 16 
 
 first patent flour 16 
 
 flour in relation to ash, color 
 
 and gluten 10 
 
 low grade flour 16 
 
 middlings in flour 9 
 
 second patent flour i4 
 
 straight grade flour 7 14 
 
 Period of fermentation 73 
 
 Permanent hardness of water. 23, 108 
 
 Permanent magnet 125 
 
 Physical change 103 
 
 Physics .' . .. 99 
 
 Picnometer 99 
 
 Piping required for refrigeration 124 
 
 Point, boiling 102 
 
 of water 102 
 
 freezing — of water 101 
 
 melting 102 
 
 Polygon 133, 173 
 
 Potato flour 66 
 
 starch 66, 159 
 
 Pound cakes 84 
 
 Powder, baking 110 
 
 milk 44 
 
 analysis of 44 
 
 Powdered corn sugar 27 
 
 Power, electric 126 
 
 Precautions to be observed in 
 
 ropiness 52 
 
 Preparation of Barm yeast 32 
 
 of dry yeast 33 
 
 of milk sugar 29 
 
 Preservatives in milk 44 
 
 Pressure, boiler 102 
 
 effect of — on boiling 102 
 
 electric 123 
 
 gauge 100 
 
 hydraulic 100 
 
 of air 100 
 
 of atmosphere .100 
 
 of steam in oven 60 
 
 of water column 100 
 
 Price of loaf 130 
 
 Prism 134, 173 
 
 Prolamins 112 
 
 Page 
 
 Proof -box 56 
 
 closet 56 
 
 given to split loaf 58 
 
 Proofing 55 
 
 improper 57 
 
 relation to oven temperature 57 
 
 time of 57 
 
 Propagation of yeast 117 
 
 Proper humidity for baking .... 53 
 Proper temperature for baking . 59 
 
 Proper time for baking 59 
 
 Properties of matter 99 
 
 of wheat 3 
 
 Protease in yeast 31 
 
 Protein 4, 71, 112 
 
 coagulation of 112 
 
 in feed 10 
 
 in wheat 4 
 
 soluble, for growth of yeast 31 
 
 Proteolytic enzyme 113 
 
 Proteoses 113 
 
 Protoplasm 115 
 
 Punching of dough 55 
 
 intervals in 55 
 
 Pure culture 120 
 
 yeast 33 
 
 Pure lard 35 
 
 Pure yeast apparatus. .120, 121, 171 
 
 culture 120 
 
 accessories 167 
 
 Purifiers 8 
 
 Purity of natural water 22 
 
 of salt 29 
 
 Putrefaction 116 
 
 Pyramid 135, 173 
 
 Pyrometer 58, 101 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quality of flour affected by de- 
 gree of fineness.... 64 
 
 of gluten 12, 73 
 
 in Durum wheat flour . . 73 
 in hard Spring wheat 
 
 flour 12 
 
 in Kansas flour 12 
 
 in soft winter wheat 
 
 flour 13 
 
 Quick oven 57 
 
 R. 
 
 Radius of circle 133 
 
 Rain water 108 
 
 Rancidity due to storing of flour 17 
 
 of fats 37 
 
 Raw cane sugar 25 
 
 Reagents 76 
 
 Reaumur thermometer 101 
 
 Reasons for blending of flour ... 19 
 
 Receiver, liquid 123 
 
 Records for bakeshop 88 
 
 Rectangle 132, 173 
 
 Red dog flour 11 
 
Page 
 
 Seduction of middlings 8 
 
 of sugar and yeast by malt 
 
 extract 41 
 
 of wheat, gradual 8 
 
 rolls 8 
 
 Eef rigerating coils 123 
 
 liquids 122 
 
 systems 123 
 
 Eef rigeration 122 
 
 by liquefied gases 122 
 
 methods of 122 
 
 piping required . 124 
 
 required 123 
 
 ton of 123 
 
 Eef rigerator 123 
 
 Eef use in water 23 
 
 Eegulation of blending by 
 
 analysis 19 
 
 Eelation of percentage of flour to 
 
 ash, color and gluten 10 
 of proofing to oven tempera- 
 ture 57 
 
 Eelative humidity 51, 142 
 
 Eenovated butter 36 
 
 Eeport on technical analysis of 
 
 flour . 69 
 
 Eesistanee 126 
 
 of parallel connection 127 
 
 of series connection 126 
 
 of shunt connection 127 
 
 Eice flour 66 
 
 starch 66, 159 
 
 Eight angle 132 
 
 Eolls, break 8 
 
 milk 80 
 
 reduction 8 
 
 water 80 
 
 Eope 51 
 
 spores 51 
 
 Eopiness 51, 116 
 
 eradication of 52 
 
 odor caused by 51 
 
 precautions to be observed. . 52 
 
 Eopy bread 51 
 
 Bounding up 56 
 
 Eust 104 
 
 mould 117 
 
 Eye 114 
 
 bread, lactic acid in 110 
 
 flour, ash in 16 
 
 nitrogen in 16 
 
 U. S. standard 16 
 
 middlings 11 
 
 starch 159 
 
 S. 
 
 Saeeharometer 100 
 
 Saccharomyeetes 117 
 
 Saccharose Ill 
 
 Salt 29, 107 
 
 acid 108 
 
 amount to be used 30 
 
 analysis of 30 
 
 as governor in fermentation 29 
 
 bleaching effect of 30 
 
 different sources of 29 
 
 effect of 29 
 
 impurities in . 29 
 
 in water, effect of.. 23, 24 
 
 purity of 29 
 
 Sarcina 158 
 
 Saturated air 52, 103 
 
 Sauerteig . 49 
 
 Scalpers 8 
 
 Schizomycetes 118 
 
 Scientific data 9S 
 
 Score card 61 
 
 Scoring of bread 61 
 
 Scouring of wheat 7 
 
 second 8 
 
 Screenings 10 
 
 Seasonal changes and composition 
 
 of flour 14 
 
 Second patent flour 10, 14 
 
 percentage of 14 
 
 scouring of wheat 8 
 
 Section of wheat berry, longitud- 
 inal 159 
 
 transverse 157 
 
 Selling price of loaf 130 
 
 Separator, mill 7 
 
 warehouse 7 
 
 Series connection 126 
 
 resistance of 126 
 
 generator 127 
 
 motor 127 
 
 Sharp flour 12 
 
 Shortening 35 
 
 method of mixing 37 
 
 Short patent flour 10 
 
 sponge 47 
 
 Shunt connection 127 
 
 resistance of 127 
 
 dynamo 127 
 
 generator 127 
 
 motor 127 
 
 Sifters 8 
 
 Sifting test for granulation 64 
 
 Simple microscope 114 
 
 Skimmed milk 42 
 
 concentrated 43 
 
 condensed 43 
 
 dried 44 
 
 evaporated 43 
 
 Slide 121 
 
 for drop culture 169 
 
 Slow oven 58 
 
 Small fancy mixed cakes 86 
 
 Snaps 85 
 
 Soap 110 
 
 Soda, caustic 107 
 
 Sodium carbonate in water 23 
 
 chloride 107 
 
 in water 23 
 
Page 
 
 Soft water 23, 24, 108 
 
 Sof t winter wheat 5 
 
 gluten in G 
 
 Soft winter wheat flour 13 
 
 for pastry 13 
 
 gluten in 13 
 
 quality of gluten in. . . . 13 
 
 Solid 99 
 
 Solids in milk 42 
 
 Soluble proteins for growth of 
 
 yeast 31 
 
 Solution 104 
 
 of iodine Ill, 115 
 
 Sour dough 49 
 
 effect of — on color and 
 
 flavor 49 
 
 infection in 49 
 
 Sour milk, lactic acid in 110 
 
 Soybean meal 66 
 
 Specific gravity 99 
 
 compared with Baume 
 
 degrees 139 
 
 of milk 41 
 
 of sugar solutions 140 
 
 heat 101 
 
 weight 99 
 
 Spermoderm 115 
 
 Sphere 136, 161 
 
 Spirillum 158 
 
 Split loaf 58 
 
 proof given to 58 
 
 Sponge 47 
 
 batter 47 
 
 cakes 82 
 
 dough cause of holes 63 
 
 effect of — on color and loaf. 47 
 
 flour used for 47 
 
 long 47 
 
 method 46 
 
 short 47 
 
 Sponging room record 90 
 
 Spores 51, 117 
 
 Sporulation 116, 117 
 
 Square 132, 161 
 
 Stability of flour affected by 
 
 bleaching 21 
 
 Stability test 73 
 
 Starch Ill, 161 
 
 barley 161 
 
 cells 115 
 
 corn .66, 161 
 
 gelatinizing of Ill 
 
 granule 4 
 
 identification of 115 
 
 in compressed yeast . 34 
 
 in feed 10 
 
 paste Ill 
 
 potato 66, 161 
 
 rice 66, 161 
 
 rye 161 
 
 sugar 27, 112 
 
 wheat 161 
 
 Page 
 
 Standard for butter 36 
 
 for flour 15 
 
 pan for baking test 74 
 
 State of aggregation 99 
 
 Steam . . 102 
 
 effect of — in oven 60 
 
 excess of — in oven 60 
 
 pressure in oven 60 
 
 Stearic acid 110 
 
 Steeping of barley 38 
 
 Sterilisation 120 
 
 Stock yeast 32 
 
 Store room records 94 — 97 
 
 Storing of flour 17 
 
 affecting gliadin ratio. . 18 
 
 and moisture 17 
 
 and rancidity 17 
 
 beneficial effect of 17 
 
 bleaching effect of .... 18 
 
 humidity in 17 
 
 in bags 17 
 
 increase in absorption.. 18 
 increase in glutenin ... 17 
 
 loss of moisture in 18 
 
 temperature for 17 
 
 Straight dough 48 
 
 control of fermentation 
 
 of 48 
 
 effect on flavor 48 
 
 Straight flour . 9, 14 
 
 ash in 15 
 
 nitrogen in 15 
 
 percentage of 14 
 
 U. S. standard for 15 
 
 Strength of sugar solutions .... 140 
 Strong flour affected by peptase. 40 
 
 Structure of wheat berry 4, 114 
 
 Substitutes for flour 66 
 
 Sucrose 25, 111 
 
 Sugar 25, 111 
 
 alcohol and carbonic acid 
 
 formed from 25 
 
 anhydrous 27 
 
 fermentability of 27 
 
 as sweetener and improver.. 25 
 
 beet 25 
 
 brown 25 
 
 cakes 87 
 
 cane 25 
 
 fermentability of 26 
 
 for cake baking 26 
 
 inversion of 26 
 
 raw 25 
 
 confectioners 112 
 
 corn 27 
 
 color of 27 
 
 composition 28 
 
 sweetness 28 
 
 effect on loaf 25 
 
 granulated 26 
 
 U. S. standard for 26 
 
 grape 27, 112 
 
 is 1 ; 
 
malt 28, 112 
 
 fermentability 28 
 
 formation 28 
 
 inversion 28 
 
 sweetness 28 
 
 maple 27 
 
 nutritive value of 25 
 
 origin of 25 
 
 solution, spec. gr. and 
 
 strength 140 
 
 starch 27, 112 
 
 Sulphur dioxide, liquid 122 
 
 Sulphates 108 
 
 in water . . 23 
 
 Sulphuric acid 107 
 
 Sweetened condensed milk 43 
 
 skimmed milk 43 
 
 Sweetness of corn sugar 28 
 
 of malt sugar 28 
 
 of milk sugur \ 29 
 
 Symbols, chemical 105 
 
 Syrup 27 
 
 composition of 27 
 
 Systems of refrigeration 123 
 
 absorption 123 
 
 compression 123 
 
 T. 
 
 Tartaric acid 110 
 
 Technical analysis of flour 68 
 
 report on 69 
 
 data 9S 
 
 terms, dictionary and defini- 
 tions 143 
 
 Technology, baking 46 
 
 milling 3 
 
 Temperature 100 
 
 for baking, proper 59 
 
 for lactic acid fermentation. 50 
 
 for storing flour 17 
 
 of boiling water 101 
 
 of melting ice 101 
 
 of water for mix 130 
 
 Tempering bin 7 
 
 effect on bran 7 
 
 of wheat 7 
 
 Temporary hardness of water. . . 23 
 
 Testa 4 
 
 Texture of loaf 62 
 
 Thermal unit, British 101 
 
 Thermo-couple 101, 125 
 
 Thermometer 101 
 
 Celsius 101 
 
 Centigrade 101 
 
 Fahrenheit 101 
 
 graduation 101 
 
 Reaumur 101 
 
 scales, comparison 141 
 
 Time for baking, proper 59 
 
 of proofing 57 
 
 Ton of refrigeration 123 
 
 Transmission of heat 124 
 
 Page 
 
 Transverse section of wheat 
 
 berry 157 
 
 Triangle 132, 173 
 
 Trivalent 106 
 
 Tube cells 115 
 
 Turbidity of water 23 
 
 U. 
 
 Under-fermentation causing holes 63 
 Uniform granulation of flour. ... 64 
 
 sifting test for 64 
 
 quality obtained by blending & 
 
 Unit of heat 101 
 
 Univalent 106 
 
 Use of malt extract 40 
 
 microscope 114 
 
 milk sugar 29 
 
 steam in oven 59 
 
 V. 
 
 Vacuum 102 
 
 Valence 106 
 
 Value, expansion 72 
 
 of analysis 68 
 
 Valve, expansion 123 
 
 Vaporization, latent heat of ....102 
 
 of water 102 
 
 Vapors 102 
 
 condensation or liquefaction. 102 
 
 Varieties of wheat 5 
 
 Varnish 109 
 
 Vegetable fats and oils. 36, 110, 111 
 
 Vinegar 103, 110 
 
 Vinous fermentation 116 
 
 Viscous ferment 167 
 
 fermentation 51, 116 
 
 Volt 126 
 
 Voltage 125 
 
 Volume of loaf 62 
 
 W. 
 
 Walls, insulated 124 
 
 Warehouse separator 7 
 
 Water 22, 108 
 
 alkaline 23, 24, 108 
 
 analysis of 24 
 
 bicarbonates in 24 
 
 boiling point of 102 
 
 calcium salts in 108 
 
 calcium sulphate in 23 
 
 column, pressure of 100 
 
 contaminated 23 
 
 drinking 22 
 
 effects of salt in 23, 24 
 
 effect on bread 22 
 
 filtration of 23 
 
 for baking 22, 108 
 
 for mix, temperature of . . . 130 
 
 freezing point of 101 
 
 hard 23, 24 
 
 improving of 24 
 
 188 
 
latent heat of vaporization.. 102 
 
 lost in baking 59 
 
 magnesium salts in 108 
 
 natural 22 
 
 organic refuse in 23 
 
 permanent hardness 23 
 
 purity of 22 
 
 rain 108 
 
 required for dough 129 
 
 rolls 80 
 
 sodium carbonate in 23 
 
 sodium chloride in 23 
 
 soft 23, 24, 108 
 
 sulphates in 23 
 
 temporary hardness 23 
 
 turbidity 23 
 
 vapor 103 
 
 Watering of milk 41 
 
 Watt 126 
 
 Weight . 99 
 
 atomic 106 
 
 of loaf 130 
 
 specific 99 
 
 Wet and dry bulb hygrometer ... 52 
 
 Wheat ".3, 4, 114, 157 
 
 berry 157 
 
 different layers in 
 
 A, 114, 157, 159 
 
 longitudinal section ....159 
 
 transverse section 157 
 
 blending of 6 
 
 cellulose in 4 
 
 characteristics of 3 
 
 classification of 5 
 
 cleaning of 7 
 
 coloring matter in 4 
 
 composition of 4, 5 
 
 conditioning of 7 
 
 differences in 3 
 
 Durum 6 
 
 fat in 4 
 
 flour 12, 13 
 
 Durum 13 
 
 hard spring 12 
 
 hard winter 12 
 
 soft winter 12 
 
 foreign substances In 7 
 
 gluten in 4 
 
 gradual reduction of . 8 
 
 hard spring 5 
 
 hard winter 5 
 
 meal, bolted 15 
 
 milling of 8 
 
 properties of 3 
 
 protein in 4 
 
 scouring of 7 
 
 second scouring of . 8 
 
 soft winter 5 
 
 starch 161 
 
 structure of 4, 114 
 
 Page 
 
 tempering of 7 
 
 varieties of 5 
 
 White wheat 6 
 
 gluten in 6 
 
 Wild yeast 118 
 
 Wood-alcohol 109 
 
 Wort 33, 120 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yeast 30, 117, 165 
 
 Barm 32 
 
 compressed 32, 33, 165 
 
 adulteration in 34 
 
 analysis of 34 
 
 color 34 
 
 composition 34 
 
 consistency 34 
 
 manufacture of 33 
 
 moisture in 34 
 
 starch in 34 
 
 culture 117 
 
 diastase in 31 
 
 dry 32 
 
 enzymes in 31 
 
 effect of 31 
 
 effect of oxygen on growth of 31 
 
 ferment 32 
 
 fermenting power 120 
 
 food 37 
 
 ammonium salts in 38 
 
 assimilation of 37 
 
 malt extract as 38 
 
 functions of 31 
 
 growth of 31 
 
 infection in barm 33 
 
 in dry 33 
 
 invertase in 31 
 
 maltase in 31 
 
 microscopic examination ...119 
 mineral salts for growth.. 31, 32 
 
 preparation of barm 32 
 
 of dry 33 
 
 propagation 117 
 
 protease 31 
 
 pure culture 33 
 
 pure — culture . 33, 120 
 
 accessories 169 
 
 apparatus 120, 121, 171 
 
 soluble protein for growth.. 3], 
 
 Yeast, stock 32 
 
 various kinds 32 
 
 wild ..118 
 
 zymase in 31 
 
 Yield in milling 8 
 
 of 1 bbl. of flour 129 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zymase 31, 113 
 
 in yeast 31 
 
 effect of 31 
 
 189 
 
Preface to Advertisements. 
 
 "With the object of making this Manual all that its name 
 implies, a ready reference book, in all matters of prime 
 interest to the baker and miller, it has been deemed desirable 
 and of mutual advantage to devote a limited space to advertise- 
 ments of such selected firms regarding whose responsibility, 
 prominence, and honest dealings we had fully satisfied our- 
 selves. 
 
 In the letting of contracts for buildings, machinery, sup- 
 plies, etc., we respectfully refer you to the double index which 
 has been devised to admit of immediate reference ; and we must 
 not omit to say that only through this co-operation of the firms 
 as represented in this advertising section and who have thereby 
 indicated their interest in the educational and scientific devel- 
 opment of the Baking and Milling Industries, was it made pos- 
 sible in view of the extraordinary high prices of materials, 
 labor, etc., to place this Manual on the market at the low price 
 quoted. 
 
 190 
 
I' 1 "" "' ' """» "" 'iiiiiiiit liiliiiiiiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii inn 
 
 IMIIIII I""" ""in 1 1 1 j 1 1 j 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 m r 1 1 1 1 1 f 1 1 nine 
 
 nimiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiii 
 
 """" ""imiiiiniiiiii imiiiiiuiiii i iiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiimiiiiiiimiiiiiiiim,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 
 
 11111111111111111111111111? 
 
Making Sure of Deliveries 
 
 Wise old Benjamin Franklin said if you wanted a thing 
 done well to do it yourself. 
 
 That's precisely the reason why we handle the delivery cf 
 
 FLEISCHMANN'S YEAST 
 
 through our own organization. We couldn't know exactly 
 how and just when you got your yeast unless we delivered 
 it direct to you. 
 
 So we make sure that our delivery service is well done by 
 "doing it ourselves ". 
 
 THE FLEISCHMANN CO. 
 
miinMlimilllHHIIIBlllllllllinillliraillllllllHlllllllllllllMIIIHIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlUHnllHII»IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHIIMIIIIIIIIIIilllllllinHIIIIIIIIHIIIIiniMIIIIIIIIIIIIIiniJ 
 
 Of Interest 
 To Bakers 
 
 Superla Oils 
 
 Will Lubricate Your 
 Machinery Perfectly 
 
 The various Superla brands of oils re- 
 present the highest development in lubricants 
 for special purposes. 
 
 Their adoption by leading bakers every- 
 where, is proof of their power-saving qualities. 
 
 There is a Superla brand for every 
 need. 
 
 Superla Cylinder Oil 
 
 Superla Machine Oil 
 Superla Dynamo Oil 
 Superla Engine Oil 
 
 ^Okmng For Your Truck 
 
 The product of a half century of experience in the manufact- 
 ure of lubricating oils. Polarine maintains the correct lubricating 
 body at any motor speed or temperature. 
 
 Red CrOWn Gasoline -the efficient motor fuel- 
 gives power when needed, speed when desired. 
 
 USE THEM IN YOUR TRUCK 
 
 I STANDARD OIL COMPANY 
 
 I INDIANA 
 
 I CHICAGO U. S. A. 
 
 niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiuiiii illinium milium in minimum umiiiiiii urn i mini i u n m.i 
 
 III 
 
^'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiimiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiM minium iiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiimimiimiiiHi 
 
 A letter from the Mansfield Bakery of the New England Baking Co. 
 
 MANSFIELD BAKING COMPANY I 
 
 | 64-82 Napier Street 1 
 
 I Dicks, Slosson, Inc., Springfield, Mass. March 8, 1917. 
 
 I 302 Broadway, = 
 
 1 New York, N. Y. | 
 
 1 Attention of J. S. Slosson. 1 
 
 | Gentlemen: — Replying to your letter of March 3rd, we are pleased to give | 
 
 I you a recommendation regarding your Humidifiers. Since the installation of these | 
 
 = two machines in our Dough-Room, we are pleased to state that our Bread has = 
 
 1 been improved. Yours very truly, MANSFIELD BAKERY, I 
 
 | I. T. McGregor, Manager. | 
 
 Further reply to our request to publish the above §.. 
 
 | Dicks, Slosson, Inc., March 10, 1917. 1 
 
 I New York, N. Y. I 
 
 Gentlemen: — Replying to your letter of March 9th, will state that you have | 
 
 | our full permission to use our previous letter for advertising purposes, as we | 
 
 = are very much pleased with your Humidifiers. f 
 
 Very truly yours, MANSFIELD BAKERY, 1 
 
 I B. M. T. per I. T. McGregor, Manager. § 
 
 This is but one of over 95 Bakeries equipped hi the last fetu months. 
 
 Why don'' t YOU improve your bread also and save money as well? = 
 
 NORMALAIR HUMIDIFIERS 
 
 I Catalogue B and prices. 1 
 
 1 Used by Siebel Institute of Technology. § 
 
 I DICKS, SLOSSON CO., Inc., Northern Agents, 302 Broadway NEW YORK, N.Y. \ 
 
 1 Factory — NORMALAIR COMPANY, Winston-Salem, N. C. 
 
 r. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 ■ ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 m 1 1 1 1 m 1 1 1 m 1 j 1 1 1 1 11 1 u 1 1 1 1 1 j 1 1 1 1 1 u 11 f ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 iimi ui iiiiiiiii»iiiiiiiiiiiii.*iiiiiiiriiiiiiijiiiiiii.^ 
 
 :jm mum miiimmi niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiilliiiiiiliiiiiililiiiiiiiiit 
 
 SUPERIORITY 
 
 PRACTICALLY every successful baker agrees that MALT I 
 
 1 EXTRACT used in bread making produces a loaf of superior \ 
 
 1 quality in every way — superior in color, texture, crust, etc. f 
 
 OP. MALT EXTRACT is universally regarded as the best I 
 
 I MALT EXTRACT made. Use it in bread making and get | 
 
 1 maximum results. 1 
 
 1 Our Booklet Will Be Sent Gratis on Request. | 
 
 Malt-Diastase Company 
 
 j 79 WALL STREET NEW YORK, N. Y. | 
 
 i Laboratories, Brooklyn, N. Y. | 
 
 Warehouses: — Chicago; Boston; Philadelphia; Portland, \ 
 
 Oregon ; Louisville, Ky. ; Toronto, Canada. | 
 
 ^l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 > 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 : 1 1 1 < 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ] 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 c 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ i^ 
 
 IV 
 
FUEL ECONOMY 
 
 EASY TO REGULATE 
 
 German- American 
 Ovens 
 
 Need no introduction to the baking industry for they have led the field for 
 twenty-five years. 
 
 They are built from the very best material and every Oven is in- 
 spected and tested before it leaves our factory. Our Slogan, "THE CUS- 
 TOMER TAKES NO CHANCES." The German-American Oven is 
 absolutely steam tight, therefore adapted for all classes of steam goods, 
 such as French Bread, Water Rolls, etc. 
 
 AVrite for our new illustrated catalogue. 
 
 HUBBARD OVEN CO. 
 
 1134 Belden Avenue 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 260 West Broadway 
 New York, N. Y. 
 
 Scarritt Arcade 
 Kansas City, Mo. 
 
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 In the Bayers' Supply business over twenty -five years 
 
 AD. SEIDEL & SONS 
 
 MANUFACTURERS AND JOBBERS IN 
 HIGHEST QUALITY 
 
 Bakery Supplies of All Kinds 
 
 1245-1257 GARFIELD AVE. 
 CHICAGO, ILL. 
 
 The name "SEIDEL" is a symbol of QUALITY, 
 SERVICE and SATISFACTION 
 
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 I A Triumph Sanitary Combination I 
 
 | Dough Mixers 
 
 Cake Mixers 
 Cookie Cutters 
 Sifters and 
 Elevators 
 Flour Hoppers 
 Tempering Tanks 
 Scales 
 Etc. 
 
 Reasonable 
 Prices 
 
 Terms to suit 
 
 Ask our 
 
 Representative 
 
 or 
 
 Write us 
 
 THE TRIUMPH MANUFACTURING CO. 
 
 3400 Spring Grove Avenue 
 
 CINCINNATY, OHIO 
 
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 VII 
 
mm mi 1 1 1 1 < r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i r I [ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , < 1 1 1 , i I r 1 1 ■ ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 [ I ! 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i I [ 1 1 1 ] i 1 1 1 i 1 1 , 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 [ ] 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 ] 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' 
 
 Armleder Baker Wagons 
 
 Are the kind that keep 1 
 
 out of repair shops and | 
 
 make you forget that you 1 
 
 ever had wagon troubles. 1 
 
 They are built to wear and | 
 
 do wear longer than any § 
 
 other wagon made by | 
 
 anyone anywhere. They 1 
 
 | run light and are very attractive in appearance. They pay | 
 
 1 for themselves by the new business they bring. | 
 
 | Write for our catalog — It's free. | 
 
 The O. Armleder Co. 
 
 I CINCINNATI, OHIO ( 
 
 n ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 ■ i r ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 ■ j i ■ ■ 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ i ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 iii ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 > i < ■ 1 1 c 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ j r 1 1 illinium mimm m mini? 
 
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 kk 
 
 ROYAL MAIL" 
 
 Hard Wheat Patent 
 
 "THE MOST SATISFACTORY 
 AND ECONOMICAL FLOUR 
 
 YOU CAN USE." :. :.. .-. .-. 
 
 A Trial Shipment Will Prove It 
 
 Lawrenceburg RollerMills Company 
 
 LAWRENCEBURG, INDIANA 
 
 vliiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiniiiiiniiiinniininiiiininiiniiiii;iiiiiiiiiiinniiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiMniiiiinminiiiiiimim:iiiiiiiii n mimiiiiiiniiimi 
 
 VIII 
 
, " 1 "" illlllllll Illllllll llllllllllll itinmi 'in 1 1 r ■ j r i i r i j i ■ i . : ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ ■ 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 r 1 1 > ■ j i ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ ) i r 1 1 1 • ■ i ■ 1 1 r ■ 1 1 1 r l ■ i ■ un; 
 
 Petersen Ovens | 
 
 "The Double Dutv Oven" 
 Bakes Everything 
 
 The PETERSEN Heating System insures absolutely uni- 
 form baking qualities, combined with highest economy and 
 finest results. The oven we sell you is a SUCCESS. "Ask 
 the man who owns one." 
 
 A good oven is not an expensive luxury. It is a downright 
 necessity in economical production, and your success in the 
 baking business requires a first-class oven. 
 
 Be sure to investigate the Modern Petersen Oven when 
 building. It is the first positive step toward securing the high- 
 est degree of baking efficiency. 
 
 SEND FOR CATALOG AND INFORMATION 
 
 BUILT ONLY BY 
 
 The Petersen Oven Company 
 
 ESTABLISHED 1879 
 
 112 W. Adams Street, Chicago, 111. 
 
 Eastern Offices: 
 
 Tribune Building • 
 
 New York, N*. Y. 
 
 Western Office: 
 
 Pacific Building 
 San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 TmiMiiiiiiiiiiiiinmimimmi iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimimiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiimiiii iiiiuiini iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuii inniiiiiii i i nun 
 
 IX 
 
£llllllllllllllll iiiiiimm ii mi imi 1 1) in in 1 1 i Milium Illlllllllllllllllllllllll iii mini mm in i n in in inn mininiiimiiniiiiiiiiiiiimilim 
 
 Ballantine's 
 
 Malt Extract 
 
 THE f7C\ MEANS 
 
 HIGHEST %£Sm BETTER 
 GRADE T\Jp? BREAD 
 
 | Depots in United States Depots in Canada 
 
 New York Buffalo Montreal 
 
 Philadelphia 
 Chicago San Francisco Toronto Winnipeg s 
 
 1 Send for Sample to 1 
 
 P. BALLANTINE & SONS, Newark, N J. 
 
 .YlllllltlllllllllllllllllllllMllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllillllllllllllllllllMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIItlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllMIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIT 
 ^'Illlllllllllllllllllllllll llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllK 
 
 For Quality and Service 
 
 | WILLIAM JUNKER CO. | 
 
 Bakers 9 Supplies 
 
 365 E. ILLINOIS ST. r«m™™ 
 
 house "C" CHICAGO 
 
 MllllllllllllllltlllllllllllllllllllllllUlllllllllillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll Illlllllllllll Illllllllll II Mil MM! 
 
 X 
 
It's Cheaper To Use 
 H&D 
 
 Corrugated Fibre Shipping Boxes 
 
 than it is to keep paying expressa&e on your return 
 empties, and losses through strayed or broken 
 baskets, boxes and crates. 
 
 Another thing — bakers who are usin& H. & D. 
 Corrugated Fibre Boxes save the expense of wrapping 
 their bread and lining their boxes, because H. & D. 
 Boxes seal up the g,oods and keep them fresh and clean. 
 
 H. &*D. Boxes are shipped flat — easy to pack and 
 seal. No more tracing lost crates, mending, broken 
 boxes, or scrubbing dirty baskets — your troubles 
 are ended when you send out your g,oods in H. & D. 
 Boxes. Our customers know. 
 
 The Hinde & Dauch Paper Company 
 
 227 Water Street, Sandusky, Ohio 
 
 XI 
 
^niiiiiiiiiniiii i 
 
 ii nt n itini'ii i in i ii up ii nun m in mi ii ii ii ii mi ii mi hum 1 imiimiiiim 
 
 Control Your Product 
 
 by scientific methods — the only exact 
 way. You cannot be sure of maintaining 
 standards unless you examine all in- 
 gredients microscopically. With one of 
 the well-known 
 
 HausctTfoin!* 
 
 p^icroscopes 
 
 you can be certain of your findings. | 
 
 Our microscopes are backed by more 1 
 
 than 60 years of optical research and | 
 
 productive experience. They are relied f 
 
 upon in most of the educational and in- | 
 
 dustrial laboratories of America and § 
 
 Microscope FTS8 many f the Old World. § 
 
 Model FFS8 here illustrated, is one of the newer and most popular | 
 
 1 instruments for laboratory work. It has a curved arm, providing ample ' | 
 
 | space for object manipulation, and fine adjustment of our well-known | 
 
 | lever type, with adjustment heads on either side of the arm. Base and | 
 
 I arm have our attractive black crystal finish, which will not mar and is | 
 
 1 more durable than the ordinary lacquer. | 
 
 The optical equipment consists of two eyepieces, 5X and 10X; three | 
 
 1 objectives, 16mm, 4mm and 1.9mm (oil immersion) in dust-proof, revolv- | 
 
 | ing nosepiece, yielding 50, 100, 215, 430, 475 and 950 diameters magniiica- | 
 
 1 tion; and an Abbe condenser, 1.20 N. A., in quick-acting, screw substage. 1 
 
 | Price, in hard wood case with lock and key — $67.50. 1 
 
 We also supply complete accessories and laboratory equipment. | 
 
 | Write for catalog. • | 
 
 I BauscK & \omb Optical (5. 
 
 NEW YORK WASHINGTON CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 london ftocH ESTER,, N.Y. rRANKrott1 " 
 
 1 Leading American Makers of Microscopes, Photomicrographic and Pro- § 
 
 jection Apparatus (Balopticons) , Photographic and Ophthalmic | 
 
 I Lenses, Binoculars and other High-Grade Optical Products. | 
 
 = a 
 
 SimilllNlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll i ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 > 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 n : 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 iiiil i 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 ill iiiiiiii IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIHIIIUIIIIUluS 
 
 XII 
 
II Ill 1111 1 Ill Milium II Illl 11111111 I MIMM MINIMI MM Ill III MM II Mil Ml MM 
 
 Laboratory Apparatus 
 
 No. 3802K ANALYTICAL BALANCE 
 
 | DISTINCTIVE FEATURES: — 
 
 I Short beam of hard-rolled aluminum. 
 
 1 Beam graduated in 50 divisions each side of center. 
 
 | Spirit level in rear of base of column. 
 
 Rear door can be raised or removed for weighing pipettes, etc. 
 
 | Large drawer for weights. 
 
 = Patented rider arrangement. 
 
 | Separate pan arrest, stopper of which can be locked. 
 
 | SPECIFICATIONS: — 
 
 | Dimensions of case . . . . IG^xIOxQ y° inches. 
 
 | Length of beam 6 inches. 
 
 1 Diameter of pans 1V-> inches. 
 
 = Width of bows 4 ^ inches. 
 
 = Capacity 100 grams. 
 
 | Sensibility l/10th milligram. 
 
 | Weight of rider 5 milligrams. 
 
 1 EQUIPMENT FURNISHED: — 
 
 | One pair 3-inch watch glasses. 
 
 1 Two 5-milligram riders. 
 
 = Wood bench for specific gravity work. 
 
 1 NET $54.00 
 
 | CATALOG G of Apparatus for Baking, Milling and Grain Testing Laboratories 
 
 | sent Free to Bakers and Millers on request. 
 
 CENTRAL SCIENTIFIC COMPANY 
 
 I 460 East Ohio Street 
 
 | (Lake Shore Drive. Ohio and Ontario Sts.) 
 
 | CHICAGO, U. S. A. 
 
 TflJIIIIIlllllllll I lllllllllll llllllllll Ill llllllll 1 1 III IJ 1 1 II I Ml MM! MM Ill IMMIMMMIM Illlllll mill Mill I Mill Illlllllllll 
 
 XIII 
 
mi minim I niMllllllll minim III ;;;mi III I imium nil 
 
 lillllllllllllilim 
 
 I WHEN YOU havelearned 
 
 | all about the Maying of Bread — 
 
 1 your next step is to learn How to 
 
 1 SELL Bread to get business — 
 
 I Let "Bill" Evans Put You RIGHT with a 
 
 ISCHULZE 
 
 ADVERTISING PLAN 
 
 He Knows How!— You Only Guess! 
 
 | More big successes are credited to the efficiency 
 
 | of the Schulze Advertising Service, whether 
 
 = it be bread or cake, than can be said of any 
 
 = other service designed for the baker. Whether 
 
 | you bake 500 or 500,000 loaves, there is a 
 
 | Schulze plan designed to enable you to make 
 
 | a material increase in sales at once — 10c. Sales I 
 
 | We have demonstrated the PULLING- POWER 
 
 | of Schulze Advertising Service to HUNDREDS 
 
 | of BAKERS throughout the country — and they 
 
 1 testify it's the BEST INVESTMENT THEY 
 
 | EVER MADE. 
 
 Would you like to bake any of these 
 
 | brands of bread in your bakery? 
 
 | BUTTER-NUT BUTTER-KRUST 
 
 | BIG-DANDY PAN-DANDY 
 
 | LUXURY BRAN-NUTRINE 
 
 I LUXURY CAKE PRINCE HENRY RYE 
 
 (All persons are warned not to imitate names, 
 = labels or designs on above breads as they are 
 | Registered in U. S. Patent Office.) 
 
 -WILLIAM 
 EVANS — to a 
 regiment of 
 Bakers the coun- 
 try over irrever- 
 ently known as ' 'Bill' ' 
 — M a n a g e r Schulze 
 Advertising Service — and every 
 Baker who has watched that 
 Service work must know that 
 the William in question is right 
 there with the goods. — [New 
 South Baker.] 
 
 Hundreds of 
 Bakers Say So! 
 
 When you tie up with a Schulze 
 Advertising plan your advertis- 
 ing worries are over. Our service 
 includes everything necessary 
 to the launching and conduct- 
 ing of a campaign in your city, 
 from the labels on the bread 
 to the largest bill posters and 
 novelties ; also snappy, up-to- 
 date, result-bringing ideas that 
 are distinctively individual. 
 
 Just drop us a line and you will receive the return mail full of par- 
 ticulars of just what the Schulze" Advertising Service is and what it can 
 do for you — in building up your Bread Business. 
 
 WILLIAM EVANS 
 
 MANAGER 
 
 IMlIrU/P 
 
 76 W. MONROE ST. 
 CHICAGO 
 
 . 1 1 ' i; 1 1 ) 1 1 1 [ 1 1 ) 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ( 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 m 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 > 1 1 1 1 1 m i > 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 < iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiin iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiiinii," 
 
 XIV 
 
"""""""""""" I """ 1 " inimiiiii'.iiiiiiiumiii Illlllliiiiiii i iliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin , t 
 
 IS THE 
 
 Look for this Mark on all Bakery 
 
 Machinery and Ovens 
 
 you buy 
 
 T IS the mark of quality and 
 superior workmanship, a 
 guarantee of the highest degree 
 of efficiency and a warrenty of 
 unfailing satisfaction in use 
 and economy. 
 
 Werner & Pfleiderer Co. 
 
 Saginaw, Michigan 
 
 "■ """ m " "" """„,„„„„„„„,„„,„„„„„ „„„,„„„„,„„„„„„„ ,,„ „,,„„ , IIIH1 , , 
 
 xv 
 
;'iiiiiii mi inn nm in i mi i ii m m i minium mi mi 1 1 n mil mm mil mi I n mi i mug 
 
 i 
 
 Walter W.Ahlschlager 
 
 -BAKERY- 
 ARCHITECT 
 
 1740-48 Conway Building 
 
 CHICAGO, ILL. 
 
 SCHULZE BAKING COMPANY, Chicago, Illinois 
 WAGNER BAKING COMPANY, Detroit, Michigan 
 GRANT BAKING COMPANY, Chicago, Illinois 
 KALAMAZOO BREAD COMPANY, Kalamazoo, Michigan I 
 
 LIVINGSTON BAKING COMPANY, Chicago, Illinois 
 
 GRAND RAPIDS BREAD CO., Grand Rapids, Michigan 
 
 i i 
 
 i i 
 
 ■JimilUHmmiiiimmmiiiiiimmii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiuiiluijiiuiiiiujiiiuijiiiil miiiii iiiiiiMlllllllllllllllllllllllimiluillllllllluuiuiimuimmmv 
 
 XYI 
 
XVII 
 
miiiiiuiiiiuiiiiiiiiiitiiiiiniuiiiiim n i m mil i iiui i i urn i m i i n iiiimiiiiiiiiiimiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii'' 
 
 Corby Compressed Yeast Meets 
 Every Requirement of the Baker 
 
 Long since it has established the uniformity of its strength 
 and purity, and is conceded to be the standard leavening force 
 of the world. Made expressly for, and sold exclusively to, 
 the baking trade. 
 
 A trial is all that is needed to convince any baker of its 
 superior quality ; and to place his product upon a changeless 
 standard of -excellence. 
 
 Roloco-TheTrue Bread Improver 
 
 For more than a year we have challenged any baker or 
 miller in the world to produce, with either sugar or malt ex- 
 tract, bread the equal in volume, moisture and texture to that 
 produced with Roloco. 
 
 This challenge has never been accepted — because Eoloco is 
 without parallel as a true dough-batch ingredient. 
 
 AT YOUR SERVICE 
 
 The Corby Company 
 
 1 STATION K 
 
 WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 
 - i in i nun in in i i i in mi mini ill ill mi n mi mill 1 1!, i i n nun minimi in numm mm iimimmmi mum 
 
 XVIII 
 
imiiiiiiiiiMiirliiitiiiiiifiiiiiriiirtiiiiiiiiinpiiiiiiirmmmiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiii 
 
 iiimiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimmiiiiiiitiiiiuimiiiirf 
 
 Send for our Catalogue of 
 this Machine 
 
 Champion Machinery 
 Company 
 
 JOLIET 
 
 ILLINOIS 
 
 r """ M " l " lmm " ""' niiimiiniii urn n iiiiiiiiiiiiimimiiiitmi mn ininiii „ ,„„„„„„„ „„„„,„„,„„„„ j 
 
 XIX 
 
^> ■ 1 1 1 1 ■ > 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ ■ i m i a i ■ ■ i ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Miiriiuiii ruin i iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiimiiiiiiii tllllllll mi inilllllllll I iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii" 
 
 A Real Guide 
 to Better Baking 
 and Better 
 Business 
 
 A Good Friend Who Calls Every Week 
 
 A friend who counsels and advises, who tells you what to 
 do and what not to do, who instructs you in the scientific 
 end of baking, shows you how to increase your business and 
 make greater profits by producing better goods — that 
 
 describes 
 
 BAKERS WEEKLY 
 
 The foremost publication in the baking field. The best 
 known writers in America contribute regularly to its col- 
 umns. Original recipes, Question Box, latest baking news, 
 association news, editorial comments, and highly valuable 
 technical articles regularly appear in BAKERS WEEKLY. 
 
 Send in your subscription at once— 52 copies a year— $2.00 
 Sample copy gladly sent on request. 
 
 BAKERS WEEKLY 
 
 41 PARK ROW 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 HiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiii;iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 
 
 XX 
 
 llllllltllllllllt~ 
 
^iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimTiiiiiiiirniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiitiiiiiitiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiii intiiiiiiiiiiiiiitiv 
 
 Bakers Review 
 
 FIRST CHOICE OF 
 LEADING BAKERS 
 
 A Big Monthly Journal Filled With 
 Helpful Articles for Progressive Bakers 
 
 Subscription, One Dollar a year 
 
 WM. R. GREGORY CO., Publishers 
 
 233 Broadway 
 NEW YORK 
 
 miiimiiiiiiiiii i iiiiiiiii iiiii iiiiii mi in inn uiiiuiuiiiiiiniiiiiiinti mi mini n i iimiiii inn inn i Iliillillllllllllllliliiiiw 
 
 XXI 
 
iiiiiiiillllllllliliinil IIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIU 
 
 I Advance Malt Products Go. ! 
 
 I 305 S. La Salle Street CHICAGO 1 
 
 SOLE MANUFACTURERS 
 OF 
 
 mLJ§ m\ I 
 lYI U|_ ML 
 
 m t ■ * m ■■§ WiUHl'lllii 
 
 PURE MALTFLDUR 
 
 The Only Guaranteed Rye and Graham 
 
 Pure Malt Flour Bread Improver 
 
 'mum mini m Illlliiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiii < u i i imc minium iiiiiiihp 
 
 [i'limiiii mi mini mm mini miiimi iminiii i i n mi i mi mi nun mtiuiir. 
 
 I Telegraphing Us To Come P. D. Q. | 
 
 "If we were back where we were when the Estes Company started § 
 | with us, and knew as much about their work as we know now, we I 
 | would telegraph them to come P. D. Q." 1 
 
 So writes one of our bakery clients who, a few years ago, was not in favor I 
 | to efficiency service. - i 
 
 And he adds: "We feel that the money paid the Estes Company was one of 1 
 | the very best investments we ever made." 1 
 
 1 | 
 
 I Have You a Good Accounting System I 
 
 r" Keeps Your Office Records Accurately and Up-To-Date? | 
 
 | Gives You Your Monthly Profit or Loss? 
 
 P JJ/\ \ \ Furnishes Costs on Your Various Products? 
 
 j Provides You a Reliable Check on Use of Ingredients? 1 
 
 [ Checks Your Bake Shop Employees and Your Salesmen? | 
 
 If not, ESTES SERVICE will be a Highly 
 
 Profitable Investment for you 1 
 
 I L. V. ESTES, Inc., H^SHS? CHICAGO | 
 
 Bookkeeping, Costs and General Efficiency for Bakeries | 
 
 Illinium in iiiiiitiu him mi in t 1 1 ■ i ■ ■ j i ■ j i i nimiiu imimiiimmiii i mini iiiiiiiin mi mill miiin m.f 
 
 XXII 
 
^lllllinilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllltllllllllllllll'IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllllllllllllllR; 
 
 EUREKA 
 
 WHEAT CLEANING MACHINERY 
 
 IS THE WORLD'S FIRST CHOICE 
 
 It is said, "A man is known by the company he keeps." By the 
 same token then, is it not also true that the worth of a product is 
 shown by the kind of people who buy it .' 
 
 ALL THE MORE PROMINENT MILLERS USE EUREKA GRAIN 
 CLEANERS EXCLUSIVELY 
 
 EUREKA DOUBLE WHEAT SCOURER-BRUSHER 
 
 A Combination of Four Machines 
 
 A copy of our new and very complete catalog will be mailed free of 
 cost to all those interested in modern grain handling machinery. 
 
 THE S. HOWES COMPANY 
 
 Eureka Works 
 SILVER CREEK, N. Y. 
 
 -.minium mi mi 1 1 iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiii? 
 
 XXIII 
 
^'Illllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll I IIIIIIMIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIMIIIMIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIimilllllllllllllllllltlllllli: 
 
 I Efficiency or Deficiency— 1 
 
 Which ? 
 
 JUST A FEW FACTS ABOUT 
 PLANT DESIGN 
 
 Your plant is a machine for manufacturing a product to 1 
 
 | market at a profit. | 
 
 Like other machines unless specially designed for this work | 
 
 | your plant or building will not be efficient. 1 
 
 Competition fixes the price of your product — hence every 1 
 
 | dollar lost through plant deficiency is taken out of your profit. I 
 
 | Any increase in selling prices to balance higher labor and \ 
 
 | material costs will not solve the problem. There is only one \ 
 
 1 solution. | 
 
 | Is Your Plant Fully 
 
 Satisfactory? 
 
 As architects and efficiency engineers with special training \ 
 
 1 and experience in the requirements of baking plants, our I 
 
 | service has been selected by many of the most prominent con- I 
 
 | cerns in the country to plan their new development or remodel 1 
 
 1 work. | 
 
 Why not write us about your building problem? 
 
 | C. D. COOLEY COMPANY | 
 
 Architects and Engineers 
 
 | PITTSBURGH, PA. NEW YORK 1 
 
 | Century Building 37 East 28th Street | 
 
 I KANSAS CITY, MO. TORONTO, CAN. I 
 
 I Waldheim Building 23 Jordan Street | 
 
 ^llllllllllliullllllllllllllllllllllllliuilllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllltllltlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllillll i mmilniiiiif .? 
 
 XXIV 
 
£.< < 1 1 1 i 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 ■ ■ i r 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ i 1 1 1 1 1 n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 tit i 1 1 1 1 1 > 1 1 1 1 1 n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n 1 1 1 n 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 j 1 1 1 1 1 1 1^ 
 
 | Bakery Cleaning | 
 
 1 From very early history to the time of McCormack the world 1 
 
 | contentedly reaped its grain with the cradle, and during an | 
 
 | almost equal period of time soap and water were depended § 
 
 | upon for cleanliness. But, as the reaper proved the inadequacy f 
 
 | of the cradle, so the discovery of the germ of uncleanliness 1 
 
 | proved that things may look clean and not be clean. | 
 
 | The inadequacy of soap and water once proved, something 1 
 
 1 better was demanded, and this demand found its answer in the I 
 
 1 modern washing material. | 
 
 This cleaner dissolves readily in water and is unexcelled as 
 a water softener. It washes sanitarily clean with little work 
 and no injury to the thing cleaned, or to the hands. It sweetens 
 sourness and freshens staleness, and is an easy rinser. It does 
 not make a suds so do not expect a suds. It is guaranteed to 
 be and to do all we say or money refunded. 
 
 Indian in Circle Wyandotte Sanitary Cleaner and Clean- 
 
 ser is universally recommended by Dairy and 
 Food Authorities. It numbers its users by 
 the thousands and costs so little that no one 
 can afford to be without it. Ask your regular 
 suppty man, or for further information write 
 In Every Package US. 
 
 The J. B. Ford Co. 
 
 Sole Mnfrs. 
 
 Wyandotte, Mich. 
 
 This Cleaner has been awarded the highest prize wherever 
 exhibited. 
 
 It Cleans Clean 
 
 'lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllltlllllltlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllNIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllllllllllIlllllllllllllllllllllllll 
 
 XXV 
 
= " ■uiiiliiiiilimimillll 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 i ■ j ■ ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 ■ j ii j 1 1 1 ■ i ■ i ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 l i r ■ i r 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ j 1 1 i ■ i ■ i ■ 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 i ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 
 
 DESPATCH 
 
 ELECTRIC 
 
 OVENS 
 
 Built Right Since 190S 
 
 For test baking, dough raising, wheat and flour drying, 1 
 
 | display baking, and cereal sterilizing in mills, laboratories, | 
 
 | and commercial bakeries. A standard line fully tried and = 
 
 | proven. In use by all the largest flour manufacturers in the 1 
 
 1 United States and Canada. Outfits for mills of all capacities. 1 
 
 We design and construct efficient electrical- 1 
 
 ly heated bakery ovens for commercial use. 
 Many of these are in successful operation to- 
 day; and can be built to bake up to 10,000 | 
 loaves per oven on a 24-hour run. We shall be 
 very glad to tell you about them. I 
 
 Whether for commercial or laboratory use, and regardless I 
 
 1 of your requirements, there is a DESPATCH appliance that I 
 
 will fit your needs. Our products are in use today in hundreds f 
 
 | of mill laboratories and bakeries, schools, hospitals, factories, 1 
 
 | government experiment stations and commercial laboratories; 1 
 
 | and consist of almost every conceivable form of electrically I 
 
 1 heated equipment. J . , e 
 
 | SEND FOR OUR CATALOG I 
 
 Despatch Manufacturing Company I 
 
 Electric Heating Exclusively 
 MINNEAPOLIS .... MINNESOTA 
 
 VlllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllIlllllllllllllllHllllllllllllllllll'llllillllllllllllllllllmllllllllllllllllllll I mi Illlllllll mi iiiillllillin 
 
 XXVI 
 
iiiiiiiiiMMimimiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiMii iiiiiiii'iiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiMiiiiiMiiiimiiiiiiniinii iiiiiiiiiiiiiiimmiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiir 
 
 To assist in producing a loaf of 
 bread with 
 
 Food Value 
 
 we suggest and recommend 
 
 DIAMALT 
 
 The American Diamalt Co. 
 
 CINCINNATI, OHIO 
 
 III1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII I I~ 
 
 mil i Illlllllilllllllllll in in mi ii n in in i n i n i n mi inn i in in mi ii l mil ill 1 1 n : i. mi 1 1, 1 1111:1: mi n 1 1 n i ii i in mi in in i ii i in mi iiiiiiiiii in i n iij: 
 
 COLUMBIA PRINTING 
 COMPANY 
 
 PUBLISHERS 
 
 PRINTERS 
 
 CALENDARS 
 BREAD LABELS OUR SPECIALTY 
 
 1634-36 N. Halsted Street 
 Telephone :: Lincoln 238 
 CHICAGO U. S. A. 
 
 ** I III I II 1 1 II I II 1 1 II I III 1 1 -II 1 1 1 . 1 1 ) Ill Ill nil mi I I 1 1 u 11 >. : 1 11 .1 , < 1 1 -1 1 , 1 .1 11 1 m 1 1 n 1 1 ii mi 1 ill :-i 1 > 
 
 XXVII 
 
1 s 
 
 Bakers Pastry g 
 
 Oleomargarine 
 
 For Puff Paste Goods W 
 
 ^ Always ready for use, elimi- H 
 
 W nating the long, tedious process jrj 
 
 ^J of preparation — never soft or T% 
 
 Q smeary — requires no ice either \A 
 
 fl\ summer or winter — never lumpy or ^ 
 
 H rancid — never loses weight. rn 
 
 Bakeall K| 
 
 d Oleomargarine ^ 
 
 j^s For Cakes, Pies, Cookies, Doughnuts E£ 
 
 «^ and all classes of product other than CA 
 
 feJ puff paste. \A 
 
 fe*j It "creams"— is dry— very light salt. V\ 
 
 lJ 12 ounces will do the work of 16 ^ 
 
 ^ ounces of butter or other shortening. \A 
 
 qj Kakebake 
 
 ^ Oleomargarine ^ 
 
 u^ adapted for fine cake work. Prepared P] 
 
 W especially for the baking trade by Vja 
 
 9a • n 
 
 u Swilt & Company g 
 
 XXVII] 
 
='"" "" ' »""""'»""H"»"'"ii"miniiiiMiiimiiiiiimiiiiiiiii i minnimii mini imin 
 
 I I Mil I Illl 
 
 Analytical - Consulting - Research 
 Laboratories and Bureau 
 
 for 
 
 Bakers and Millers 
 
 ANALYSIS OF BAKING AND MILLING 
 MATERIALS 
 
 EXPERT ADVICE ON EFFICIENCY AND 
 IRREGULARITIES 
 
 INSPECTION OF PLANTS AND REPORT 
 
 Arrangements covering the above can be 
 made by annual contracts 
 
 I Siebel Institute of Technology 
 
 960-962 MONTANA STREET 
 I CHICAGO, U. S. A. 
 
 5 "" ' U """"' '"" '" "" » ' ' '" ' vmmmmmmmmmmm „.„■„,„,_,■„„„„■, 
 
 XXIX 
 
ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO ADVERTISERS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Ahlschlager, Walter W XVI 
 
 Advance Malt Products Co XX] I 
 
 American Diamalt Co XXVPI 
 
 American Oven & Machine Co I 
 
 Armleder Co V 1 1 L 
 
 Bakers Eeview XXI 
 
 Bakers ' Weekly XX 
 
 Ballantine, P. & Sons ' X 
 
 Bausch & Lomb Optical Co .- . X 1 L 
 
 ( Vntral Scientific Co XIII 
 
 Champion Machinery Co XIX 
 
 Columbia Printing Co XXVI] 
 
 Cooley Co., C. D XXIV 
 
 Corby Co ■ XVIII 
 
 Dispatch Manufacturing Co XXV 1 
 
 Estes Co., L. V XXII 
 
 Fleischmann Co II 
 
 Ford Co., J. B XXV 
 
 Hinde & Dauch Paper Co XI 
 
 Howes Co., S. XXII] 
 
 Hubbard Oven Co V 
 
 Junker, William X 
 
 Lawrenceburg Poller Mill Co V 1 1 1 
 
 Malt Diastase Co IV 
 
 Normalair Co IV 
 
 Petersen Oven Co IX 
 
 Eed Star Yeast Co VII 
 
 ScV.ulze Advertising Service XIV 
 
 Seidel, Ad. & Sons VI 
 
 Siebel Institute of Technology XVII & XXI X 
 
 Standard Oil Co Ill 
 
 Swift & Company XXV] 1 1 
 
 Triumph Manufacturing Co VI 
 
 Werner & Pf leiderer Co XV 
 
 XXX 
 
CLASSIFIED INDEX OF ADVERTISERS. 
 
 Accountants. 
 Estes, Co., L. V Chicago, 111. 
 
 Advertising. 
 Schulze Advertising Service .Chicago, 111. 
 
 Architects. 
 
 Ahlschlager, Walter, W Chicago, 111. 
 
 Cooley Co., CD Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 Automatic Outfits. 
 
 Champion Machinery Company .Joliet, 111. 
 
 Triumph Manufacturing Co Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Werner & Pfleiderer Company Saginaw, Mich. 
 
 Baking Powder. 
 
 Junker Co., William. The Chicago, 111. 
 
 Seidel, Ad. & Sons Chicago, 111. 
 
 Bakers' Supplies. 
 
 Junker Co., William, The Chicago, 111. 
 
 Seidel, Ad. & Sons Chicago, 111. 
 
 Boxes, Shipping. 
 Hinde & Dauch Paper Co Sandusky, Ohio 
 
 Bread Improvers. 
 Corby Company, The Washington, D. C. 
 
 Cake Machines. 
 
 Champion Machinery Company Joliet, 111. 
 
 Triumph Manufacturing Co Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Cleaners and Cleansers. 
 Ford Co., J. B., The Wyandotte, Mich. 
 
 Dividers, Bread and Rolls. 
 
 Champion Machinery Company . .Joliet, 111. 
 
 Werner & Pfleiderer Company Saginaw, Mich. 
 
 Dust-Collectors. 
 Howes Co., S New York 
 
 Electrical Ovens. 
 Dispatch Manufacturing Co Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Extracts and Colors. 
 
 Junker Co., William, The Chicago, 111. 
 
 Seidel, Ad. & Sons Chicago, 111. 
 
 Flours. 
 Lawrenceburg Roller Mills, The Lawrenceburg, Ind. 
 
 Flour Blending and Sifting Outfits. 
 
 Champion Machinery Co Joliet, 111. 
 
 Triumph Manufacturing Co Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Werner & Pfleiderer Company. Saginaw, Mich. 
 
 Grain Cleaners. 
 Howes Co., S New York 
 
 Humidifiers. 
 Normalair Company Winston-Salem, N. C. 
 
 Instruments. 
 
 Bausch & Lomb Optical Co • • . • Chicago, 111. 
 
 Central Scientific Company. Chicago, 111. 
 
 Labels. 
 
 Columbia Printing Company Chicago, 111. 
 
 XNXI 
 
Laboratories. 
 Siebel Institute of Technology t Chicago III. 
 
 Laboratory Equipments. 
 Central Scientific Company . . . : Chicago 111. 
 
 Malt Extracts and Products. 
 
 Advance Malt Products Co , Chicago, 111. 
 
 American Diamalt Company .' Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Ballantine, P., & Sons . Newark, ' X. J. 
 
 Malt-Diastase Company New York, X. Y. 
 
 Microscopes. 
 Bausch & Lomb Optical Company. Chicago. 111. 
 
 Mixers. 
 
 American Oven & Machine Co ". ■ . . .Chicago, 111. 
 
 Champion Machinery Company Joliet, 111. 
 
 Triumph Manufacturing Co Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Werner & Pfleiderer Company Saginaw, Mich. 
 
 Moulders. 
 Champion Machinery Company. Joliet, 111. 
 
 Oils. 
 
 Standard Oil Company Chicago, 111. 
 
 Oleomargarine. 
 Swift & Co Chicago, 111. 
 
 Ovens. 
 
 American Oven & Machine Co Chicago, 111. 
 
 Dispatch Manufacturing Co Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Hubbard Oven Company Chicago, 111. 
 
 Werner & Pfleiderer Company Saginaw, Mich. 
 
 Proofing Boxes. 
 Champion Machinery Company ..Joliet, 111. 
 
 Pyrometers. 
 Central Scientific Company. . Chicago. 111. 
 
 ■ Racks, etc. 
 
 Champion Machinery Company .Joliet, 111. 
 
 Werner & Pfleiderer Company Saginaw, Mich. 
 
 Rounding Up Machines. 
 
 Champion Machinery Company Joliet, 111. 
 
 Werner & Pfleiderer Company Saginaw, Mich. 
 
 Sack Cleaners. 
 American Oven & Machinery Co Chicago, 111. 
 
 Scales, Water and Flour. 
 
 Champion Machinery Company. Joliet, 111. 
 
 Triumph Manufacturing Company Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Werner & Pfleiderer Company Saginaw, Mich. 
 
 Schools. 
 Siebel Institute of Technology Chicago, 111. 
 
 Trade Journals. 
 
 Bakers Review Xew York 
 
 Bakers Weekly Xew York 
 
 Troughs. 
 
 Champion Machinery Company Joliet, 111. 
 
 Triumph Manufacturing Company Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 Werner & Pfleiderer Company Saginaw, Mich. 
 
 Wagons. 
 Armleder Company, The Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 , Yeast. 
 
 Corby Company, The Washington, D. C. 
 
 Fleischmann Company, The Chicago, 111. 
 
 Red Star Yeast Company, The Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 XXXII 
 

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