GV 835 .C5 1917 Copy 1 BooIcjlCL£ Copyright^ Mn CQE2RIGHT DEPOSITS Practical Motor Boat Handling, Seamanship and Piloting A handbook containing information which every motor boatman should know. Especially prepared for the man who takes pride in handling his own boat and getting the greatest enjoyment out of cruising. Adapted for the yachtsman interested in fitting himself to be of service to his Government in time of war By CHARLES F. CHAPMAN, M.E. Editor of MoToR BoatinG Published by MoToR BoatinG 119 W. 40TH STREET, NEW YORK Copyright, 1917 By International Magazine Co. New York / 'APR -9 1317 ©CI. A 4 6023 9 CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I — Navigation Laws 5-6 II — Meeting and Passing 7-19 III — Lights for all Classes of Boats 20-35 IV — Buoys of the Various Types. ..... 36-42 V — Government Navigation Lights. . . . 43-50 VI — Equipment Required by Law 51-52 VII — The Compass 53-57 VIII — Compass Errors 58-67 IX — The Chart 68-70 X — Publications and Nautical Instruments 71-83 XI — Piloting . . 84-94 XII — Navigating in Fog 95-97 XIII— Flags and Colors 98-104 XIV — Yachting Etiquette 105-106 XV — Signaling 107-114 XVI- — Miscellaneous Signals 115-118 XVII — Boat Handling Under Various Sea Conditions 119-125 XVIII — Steering 126-130 XIX — Boat Equipment, Provisions and Sup- plies 131-134 XX — Suggestions for Meals 135-136 XXI — Navy Signaling . . 137-144 CHAPTER I Navigation Laws NAVIGATION and shipping on the various waters of the globe, whether it be of a 'commercial or recreational char- acter, is governed by certain regulations much in the same way as traffic on land is regulated. Instead of coming under the jurisdiction of the various States, as is the case on land, navigation and traffic on water comes under the jurisdiction of the Federal Government, except on inland waterways which are entirely within the limits of one State. Federal jurisdiction is divided into three principal classes, which may be referred to as the International, the Inland, and the Pilot Rules. International Rules The International Rules govern navigation on waters which do not come within the jurisdiction of any particular country; for example, navigation on the high seas beyond what is technically known as the three-mile limit comes under the jurisdiction of the International Rules. These rules were drawn up at a conference of a number of the maritime nations of the world held about 1890. The various nations which were represented by delegates at this conference agreed to certain uniform and standard regulations, which should govern the ships of their nations on the high seas. They adopted and agreed to abide by the regulations which have been in force since this conference. Inland Rules Navigation on the waterways of the United States, which are tributary to the high seas, or are not within the confines of a particular State, are governed by regulations adopted by the Congress of the United States. These regulations are known as the Inland Rules, of which there are several sets applying to inland waters in particular localities. Pilot Rules Congress has given power to the Board of Supervising Inspectors to enact laws governing the navigation of boats on the inland waters of the United States, which must not be 5 6 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING contrary or opposed to the inland laws. These are known as the Pilot Rules. The Pilot Rules vary somewhat for the different localities, and are published by the Department of Commerce in book form entitled "Pilot Rules for Certain Inland Waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts, and the Gulf of Mexico," as is well known by every motor boatman. Motor Boat Rules Included in the book of Pilot Rules is the Motor Boat Act of 1910, which governs the rules for lights, equipment, etc., to be carried on boats of less than 65 feet in length, which are technically known as motor boats. In other words, a motor boat is any vessel operated by machinery that is less than 65 feet in length, other than tugboats propelled by steam. The Board of Supervising Inspectors, in accordance with the power granted it by Congress, has the right to make cer- tain regulations of a local nature arising from conditions in the particular locality to which they refer, such as speed regu- lations, signals for vessels requiring the assistance of police or fire boats, rules referring to the operation and mooring of dredges, marking of wrecks, etc. War Department The War Department is entrusted to certain regulations related in a certain way to navigation, such as the improvement of waterways and channels, the establishment of pier head lines, certain dredging operations, bridge regulations, etc. Congress has conceded certain rights to be within what is known as the police power of the respective States. Fortunately, the International, Inland, and Pilot Rules are practically identical in their wording and intention, differing only in the minutest details, so that from the standpoint of the motor boatman there is no need to consider that there exists more than one set of rules for his guidance. CHAPTER II Meeting and Passing THE major portion of the navigation laws naturally refer to boats under way. A boat is considered to be under way, according to law, when she is not at anchor, aground, or made fast to the shore. Special Circumstances When Risk of Collision Exists The fundamental basis of the laws governing right of way between two boats on different courses provides that one shall have the right of way and must hold her course and speed, while it shall be the duty of the other to give way or keep clear of the boat having the right of way. However, the law specifically states that in obeying and construing the rules of the road at sea, due regard must be had for all dangers of navigation and collision, and to any special circumstance which may render a departure from the rules necessary in order to avoid immediate danger. The rules also specifically state that when for any reason whatsoever a vessel which has the right of way finds herself in such a position that an accident or collision cannot be avoided alone bv the boat which is supposed to give way, then the boat having the right of way must do everything within her power to prevent a collision. This rule practically means that to a greater or less degree the responsibility for a collision is placed upon both boats. Duty in Case of Accident Should an accident or collision occur, it is the dutv of the person (or persons) in charge of each boat to stand by the other until he has ascertained that she is in no need of further assistance, and it is his duty to render to the other boat, her crew, and her passengers such assistance as may be practical and necessary in order to save them from any danger caused by the collision — so far as he can do so, that is, without danger to his own boat, crew, or passengers. He must also give to the person in charge of the other boat the name of his own craft, and the port to which she belongs. Precautionary Measures Certain whistle signals are provided by law, to be given by one boat in order to indicate to the other her course and 7 8 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING action. Although not required by law, it is essential, that the boats take other action than the mere giving and answering of whistle signals. It is a well-known fact that whistle signals are of little value on a motor boat where the noise from machinery or from other causes is excessive. Very often whistle signals given on the kind of whistle which exists on many motor boats to-day cannot be heard for any appreciable distance. It is far better that the course which one intends to take should be indicated by swinging the boat's bow de- cidedly in that direction. This action can 'be seen by the person in charge of the other boat, and in many cases it is decidedly more convincing than an exchange of whistle sig- nals. It is essential that in passing another boat you give it as wide a berth as possible. Nothing has ever been gained by passing close to, and much has been lost. When to Give Whistle Signals Whistle signals should only be given when boats are ac- tually in sight of one another in the day-time, or when the lights are visible at night, when danger of collision exists. Whistle signals should never be given or exchanged when these conditions do not exist. They must never be used under any circumstances in the fog or when the exact location of a vessel cannot be accurately determined. The Helm In the various navigation rules, as well as in many situa- tions which one meets aboard a motor boat, the helm is often referred to. It must be remembered that the boat's helm is not her wheel or her rudder. When the order is given to port one's helm, action should be taken so that the boat's bow will swing to starboard. When a starboard helm is referred to, the boat's bow must be swung to port. In other words, the helm more nearly applies to the tiller of the old sailing days than to the wheel or the rudder. Wheels as they are rigged to-day may turn in the direction in which the boat's bow is swung, or in the opposite direction. Thus it will be seen that the term helm cannot refer to the wheel. The Three Situations In the case of two boats approaching each other, we find three cases called meeting head-on, overtaking, and crossing, respectively. The first two situations mentioned are clearly defined, and the third must be assumed to exist when the boats are not meeting head-on, or in an overtaking position. MEETING AND PASSING 9 Boats are assumed to be meeting head-on when their masts can be seen in line, or nearly so. (Nearly so, has been ruled to mean one-half a point either side of dead ahead.) They are assumed to be in an overtaking position when one boat is approaching the course of another from more than two points abaft the beam of the leading boat, or when at night the side lights if correctly placed cannot be seen. In all other situations where the courses intersect, either at right MO -HEAP ON SITUATION CROSSING SITUATION OT -OVERTAKING SITUATION Fig. 1A. The three situations — boats meeting head-on, overtaking, and crossing. Relative to the black boat, the boats marked H O are in the head-on situation; those marked O T are overtaking; and the boats marked C are in a crossing position angles or obliquely, they are assumed to be crossing. (See Fig. 1A.) Meaning of Points To get a clearer understanding of the meanings of the various terms used on shipboard as well ,as the meaning of head-on, overtaking and crossing, Fig. 1 may prove of value. It will be noticed that a circle circumscribed around the boat is divided into 32 equal parts, known as points, a particular name being given to each one of these divisions. Any object located on a line extended from the center of the boat and passing through its bow is said to be dead ahead. 10 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING The Bearings on the Port Sii . Are Designate i In the Same "Way On Starboard Beam An object on the line which is drawn on the first 1/32 of the circumference to the right is said to bear one point on the starboard bow. When it is on the second line as shown, it is said to bear two points on the starboard bow. If on the third line an object bears three points on the starboard bow. An object on the next line, which is 45 degrees or \i the way around, is said to bear four points, or broad on the starboard bow. As we continue around to the right, the next bearing will be called three points forward of the starboard beam ; the next two points forward of the starboard beam ; and the next one point forward of the starboard beam. An obiect on the starboard side on a line drawn at right angles to the fore and aft line of the boat is said to be on the star- board beam. In a similar way the points aft of the starboard beam are called one point abaft the starboard beam ; two points abaft the starboard beam, and three points abaft the starboard beam. The next point is called four points or broad on the starboard quarter. The next, three points on the star- board quarter ; two points on the starboard quarter and one point : ^&, 9£am Fig:. 1. Names and location of various points and bearings MEETING AND PASSING 11 on the starboard quarter. An object on the next line, which is a line extended from the bow and passing through the center of the ship is said to be astern. The bearings on the port side are designated in a similar way. From the diagram it will be seen that we have three prin- cipal designations used in referring to different parts of the boat, namely its bozv, which extends from dead ahead through four points to starboard or port; the beam of the boat, which extends through eight points on either side ; and the boat's quarter, which extends four points forward of astern on each side. Right of Way Diagram In determining which of two boats whose courses are ap- proaching each other has the right of way, Fig. 2 will be of aid. If the diagram of the boat is assumed to be your ship, Fig. 2. Boats approaching: your course within the danger zone have the right of way over your boat when danger of collision exists then you would have the right of way over every boat ap- proaching your course, with the exception of those boats which were approaching you in the shaded section marked "Danger Zone." Boats in the danger zone approaching your course would have the right of way over you, and it would be your duty to keep clear of such 'boats. In all other cases where boats were approaching your course in the clear sec- tion, your craft would have the right of way, and the obliga- tion to keep clear would fall upon the other boat. In other words, the danger zone extends from dead ahead, represented by the line OY, around to two points abaft the starboard 12 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 3 - •a ®"5 fl * ©-^ S* OS o £ft ,2© ■s-s ~ 2 9 I x © ft a* •- w a ® c — o5 X +s © ■— •/: * S. -H 3 OB e h o s. 13 © « ,s © S- B © a H -hi *a s (S ti e s 4a e •z P © 00 H © X it s © <£> £ so IB e £ a 00 u -*a © t £, e pq s 4- ■*' x a it - - MEETING AND PASSING 13 beam, which is represented by the line OX. At night, boats approaching your course within the danger zone would show you their red light, another symbol of danger, and an indica- tion that you must give way. At night, boats approaching your course anywhere in the clear section would show you their green light, a signal for you to hold your course and speed. Proper Location for Steering Wheel Fig. 2 should bring home to you why it is preferable to have one's steering wheel located on the starboard side of the boat rather than on the port side, if one of the two locations must be chosen. One will realize that it is essential that the helmsman should have an unobstructed view of the danger zone, as it is boats within this zone which give him the chief concern. To get the clearest view of the danger zone, the steering wheel should naturally be located on the starboard side. One does not have as much concern as to what is hap- pening on the port side, as boats approaching your course on that side must give way to you. Meeting Head-On Of the various meeting and passing situations of two boats, meeting head-on (as shown in Fig. 3) is the simplest one. In such a case it is the duty of each simply to turn to the right exactly as two vehicles on land would do. As an indication that this action is to be taken, one boat should sound one blast on her whistle, swinging her bow at the same moment. When this action is understood by the other boat, she should reply by one blast of the whistle, also swinging ;her bow simultaneously. The boats will then pass port port side to port side. Courses Parallel When two boats are on parallel courses, but each course is so far to the starboard of the other that no change of course is necessary in order to allow the boats to clear, two blasts of the whistle should then be given by one boat, which should be acknowledged by two blasts from the other boat, each iholding her course and speed, and they pass clear of each other starboard side to starboard side. This is the only situation where it is allowable to use two whistles in passing. All other cases where two whistles are used are illegal, and should be avoided. 14 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING Overtaking A boat is considered to be overtaking another when she is approaching the course of the leading boat from more than two points abaft the beam of the leading boat. In such a situation the rights all rest with the leading boat, the over- taking vessel having no rights whatsoever. In a situation of this kind if the overtaking boat desires to pass on the star- board side of the leading boat, she may ask permission to do so by giving one blast on her whistle. If the leading boat be- lieves it is safe and practicable to allow the overtaking boat to pass on her starboard side, she will answer by one blast of her whistle, in which case the overtaking boat will pass to starboard, being careful not to interfere with the course or rights of the leading boat. However, should the leading boat, for any good reason, believe that it is undesirable to allow the overtaking boat to pass her on her starboard side, she may refuse permission by giving the danger signal, four or more short blasts on her whistle, in which case the overtaking boat has no alternative other than to stay astern. In the course of a short time the overtaking boat may again ask permission to pass the leading boat on the starboard side by giving one blast of her whistle, and the leading boat again has the right to exer- cise the prerogative that has just been explained. Should the overtaking boat desire to pass the leading boat to port, her signal would be two blasts on the whistle, which would be answered by two blasts by the leading boat, if she considered that conditions warranted the action requested by the overtaking boat; otherwise she would sound the danger signal, and proceed exactly as before. When doubt exists in the minds of the master of one boat as to whether his craft is an overtaking boat or a crossing boat, he must assume that he is an overtaking boat, and be governed accordingly. Crossing Courses Courses which are crossing, or which may be said to be meeting obliquely, probably form the most common situation. From Fig. 2, which illustrated the danger zone, it will be remembered that the boat, which has the other on her port bow is considered to have the right of way. In such a situation it is the privilege and duty of the boat having the right of way to maintain her course and speed. The boat not having the right of way must give way in every instance. The proper signal for the boat having the right of way MEETING AND PASSING 15 when two courses are meeting obliquely is one blast of the whistle. (See Fig. 4.) This should be answered immediately by one blast from the other boat. The boat not having the right of way must then pass astern of the boat which has the right of way. If necessary, the vessel having to give way must slow down, stop, or change her course in order to allow the other boat to pass ahead of her. Assuming that no whistle signals have been previously given, if for any reason the boat not having the right of way desires to, she may ask permission to pass ahead of the right- of-way boat by giving two blasts on the whistle. If the right- of-way boat is so inclined, she may grant this permission by answering with two short blasts of her whistle. However, in granting this permission by giving two blasts of the whistle, it is understood by the other that she may pass ahead at her own risk. Such a reply does not of itself change or modify the statutory obligation of the giving-way boat to keep out of the way as before, nor does it guarantee the success of the means she has adopted to do so. In other words, should an accident occur, the responsibility will rest entirely with the boat which has not the right of way, even though the fault seems to lie entirely with the other craft. This is a situation which is very common on the waterways of our country. But motor craft should always be careful to avoid it as it is entirely illegal. Should the boat not having the right of way request per- mission to pass ahead of the other boat by giving two blasts of her whistle, and should the right-of-way boat not desire to grant this request or permission, she will sound the danger signal, in which case both vessels must stop, and be absolutely sure of the action of each other before proceeding. Boats Backing In the instance of one or more boats backing, the case is com- paratively simple, as the stern of the backing boat for the time being is considered her bow. Passing signals are ex- changed exactly as though the boats were proceeding ahead, considering for the time being that the boat's stern is her bow. Boats Coming Out of a Slip W.hen boats are backing out of slips, or away from wharfs or piers, the rules of the road do not apply until the boat is entirely clear of the slip. In other words, she has absolutely no rights of way until she is clear. As a boat starts backing out from such a landing she is supposed to give one long blast on her whistle. As soon as she is clear of such obstruc- 16 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING -zr * / I N / l 6 ',! A iz: * i i * B Fig, 5. I, Crossing boats; II, Overtaking: boats; III, Boats on par- allel courses; IV, Meeting: in a winding- channel; Y, Backing:; VI, Boat coming: out of slip tions the regular rules of the road and rights of way apply. However, no craft has the right to run so close to a pier line that entrance or exit from slips and wharves will be blocked. Ferry boats and others must be given a reasonable amount of space for maneuvering purposes at the entrance to their landings. MEETING AND PASSING 17 Boats on Parallel Courses We now come to the situation of two boats on parallel courses where one desires to cross ahead of the other. As the two boats are on parallel courses, neither has the right of way over the other, strictly speaking, but in many instances one boat desires for good reasons to change her course, and pass across ahead of the other boat. For example, A in Fig. 5 III being the faster boat, desires to change her course, as in- dicated by the arrow, and pass across B's bow. The question is whether she should give one whistle to indicate this course, or whether two blasts will be necessary. There is considerable difference of opinion in the minds of motor boatmen as to the proper signal, as many will hold that this is a two-whistle situation — but such is not the case. If A desires to cross B's bow, she should give one blast of her whistle, and this should be answered by one blast from B's whistle, upon which B should pass astern of A. Probably the confusion in a situation of this kind results from the fact that many have learned the old rule that one whistle means "I am directing my course to starboard," and two whistles is an indication that "I am directing my course to port." In the case just cited, this rule does not hold good, and the sooner one can eliminate it from his memory the better. However, there is a rule which is much easier to remember than the old one, and it holds good in every case. As everyone knows, there are two terms used in expressing direction of a boat, namely, port and starboard. The former word has one syllable, and the latter two syllables. We also have a signal of one whistle, and a signal of two whistles. If one keeps in mind that one whistle always refers to the word of one syllable — namely, port — and two whistles always refers to the word of two syllables — namely, starboard — he will have no difficulty in any of the passing situations. Wherefore, one whistle always means "I am going to pass you on my port side," and similarly, two whistles means "I am going to pass you on my starboard side." One whistle, one syllable, port — two whistles, two syllables, starboard. Overtaking and Crossing In the upper left hand part of Fig. 5, the boat B in any of the positions marked Bl, B2 or B3 would have the right of way over A. and it would be the duty of A to keep clear. However, in the upper right hand diagram the boat A would 18 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING have the right of way over the boat B, for the simple reason that in the first case boat B is a crossing boat, and in the second instance an overtaking boat. Meeting in Winding Channel When two boats are approaching each other in a winding channel (See IV, Fig. 5), they must be considered as meeting head-on, and not as meeting obliquely. In such a case neither has the right of way, but it is the duty of each to swing to starboard after one blast of the whistle, and pass port side to port side. Rights of a Sailing Vessel A sailing craft (See Fig. 6) has the . right of way over a motor-driven craft in every instance except one. The one exception is when the sailing craft is in such a position as to be considered an overtaking boat. In such a case the motor boat or leading boat would have the right of way over the sailing vessel. In all other situations the motor craft must give way to the sailing vessel. Auxiliaries Boats of the type known as auxiliaries, capable of being operated under both sail and power, or under either alone, Fig. 6. Sailing 1 craft have the right of way over power vessels, except when the former is overtaking the power vessel from more than two points abaft her beam MEETING AND PASSING 19 are subject to certain rules of the steamboat inspectors. In some cases inspectors have ruled that an auxiliary when pro- ceeding under sail and power would have the rights ot a sailing craft ; in others that she would have only those of a motor craft. However, at night a boat proceeding under both sail and power is required to carry only the lights of a sail- ing vessel. An auxiliary, operating under sail alone, of course, has the rights of a sailing vessel, and when operating under power alone is classed as a power vessel. Cross Signals Whistle signals given by one boat must always be answered by a similar whistle from the other vessel. That is, one whistle must always be answered by one, and two whistles answered by two. If for any reason the signal cannot be answered by a similar whistle, it must 'be answered by the danger signal, which is four or more short blasts of the whistle. It must never be answered by a cross signal; that is, two whistles must never be used to reply to one, nor one to reply to two. When the danger signal is given by either of two boats it is the duty of each to proceed only with the greatest caution, or stop and reverse if necessary. In other words, the danger signal is a signal that the action of one vessel is misunderstood by the other, and neither boat should proceed until the proper signals have 'been given, exchanged, and understood. CHAPTER HI Lights for all Classes of Boats IN discussing the subject of the proper Hghts for the various classes of vessels we should keep in mind the fundamental laws mentioned in the first chapter. Although on first thought it might appear that with three or four sets of laws (the Inter- national, the Inland, and the Pilot Rules) to guide us, confusion would result in many instances, as the laws in themselves might conflict, we find upon analyzing the situation that this is not the case, as in only a few instances are the rules themselves con- flicting, and then in only minor respects. Therefore, for the pur- pose of this general discussion, we can very readily assume that only one set of laws governs the proper lights to carry. There are many types and kinds of vessels, and it is but natural that the laws should provide lights so different in their characteristics that different types of vessels could be readily distinguished. In this respect the laws in most instances are strikingly efficient, yet they have not been made so complex as to become cumbersome. Types of Craft The principal division into which types of floating craft are divided are sea-going vessels, inland vessels, tow boats, sailing craft, ferry boats, barges and canal boats, scows, rafts, etc., and last but not least, motor boats. This subdivision of motor boats is further divided into three classes, depending upon the overall length of the motor boat. Fundamental Rules In familiarizing oneself with the lights one has to remember very little. The only colors used for lights are white, red and green, and these are arranged to show in only four different ways — namely, for 10, 12, 20, or 32 points around the horizon, the last, of course, being the light which may be seen from all directions. (See Fig. 7.) Red and green lights each show for 10 points, irrespective of the type of vessel on which they may be used. White lights showing from ahead are invariably arranged to be visible for 20 or 32 points. Lights arranged to show from astern are invariably visible for 12 or 32 points. There are no other combinations than those just mentioned, so if one gets this fundamental fixed in his mind he will have no trouble in remembering how the various lights are arranged to show. 20 LIGHTS FOR ALL CLASSES OF BOATS 21 Lights for Motor Boats As the lights to be carried on motor boats are of the > greatest interest to us, we shall consider that phase of the subject first. As it is not practicable to photograph boats at night for the purpose of showing their lights, a system has been adopted which will better illustrate the points that are to be brought out. Fig. 8 makes clear the symbols that have been adopted for the two classes of white, the green, and the red lights, respectively. Fig. 7. Diagram showing range of visibility of lights on all types of boats As was mentioned above, motor boats for the purpose of light- ing are divided into three classes, according to their overall length. These are, Class 1, consisting of boats under 26 feet in length; Class 2, boats measuring 26 to 40 feet in length; and Class 3, boats of 40 to 65 feet in length. In only a few respects does the lighting system vary between the different classes, and so it is possible -to consider motor boats as a whole, simply men- 22 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING tioning when the system of lighting varies from one class to another. The boat shown in Fig. 8 probably falls in Class 3 ; that is, she has a length of somewhere between 40 and 65 feet. It will be noticed that on the forward part of her awning is placed a white light showing ahead, and directly under this her green starboard light, which shows from directly ahead to two points abaft the starboards beam, or a total of 10 points. Although this arrangement may be legal, it would be better to have the white light much nearer the bow and on a level with the green starboard light. The symbol used indicates that the white light at the stern of the boat shows completely around the horizon. This light is placed higher than the forward white light, which is proper and necessary. In other words, a white light aft show- rig. 8. Lights carried by a motor boat under way ing completely around the horizon must be higher than the forward light showing directly ahead. The reason for this will be brought out later. Too many motor boat owners make the mistake of hanging this after light below the awning, where it cannot be seen completely around the horizon, and others err in not placing it higher than the forward light. Obviously, there is a red light on the port side showing for 10 points, placed similarly to the green starboard light. Class 2 motor boats are lighted exactly like Class 3, the only difference being in the sizes of the lenses of the lights re- quired by law, and the fore and aft length of the screen used LIGHTS FOR ALL CLASSES OF BOATS 23 to shield the red and green side lights. The law requires that the lenses of all lights shall be of fresnel or fluted glass. Class 1, comprising motor boats of less than 26 feet length, may be lighted in the same way, or, if their owners prefer, they may substitute a combination red and green light in the bow in place of the three forward lights of Class 2 and 3. In such a case the starboard light must be so constructed as to show a green light from directly ahead to two points abaft the beam on the starboard side, and the port lens to show a red light over 10 points on the port side.* Motor Boats Under Sail and Power Motor boats under sail and power carry only the red and green side lights, each properly screened to show over 10 points Fig. J>. A motor boat under sail and power carries only the colored side lights of the horizon. (See Fig. 9.) Motor boats under sail and power never show a white light except upon being overtaken by another vessel, when a white light is temporarily shown over the stern of the auxiliary. Lights for Inland Steamers Inland vessel's of the type shown in Fig. 10 are lighted exactly like boats in Classes 2 and 3 — that is, a white light forward *For sizes of lenses and other details, see chapter on Equipment Required by Law (page 52). 24 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING Fig. 10. Lights carried by an inland steamer showing over 20 points, red and green side lights each showing over 10 points, and a range light aft showing completely around the horizon. The white light, as previously mentioned, should be placed as near the bow as possible; the side lights placed a little farther aft on the same level, and the range light placed higher than the how light. Sea-Going Vessels Sea-going vessels differ only slightly in their lighting par- ticulars. (See Fig. 11.) The forward light, as usual, shows over 20 points, but is generally placed about halfway up on the foremast. The customary red and green lights are carried, but on sea-going vessels they must naturally be placed somewhat lower than the forward light. The only point of difference in the lighting of sea-going and other vessels consists in the arrangement of the after range light, which generally shows ahead for 20 points instead of completely around the horizon. This should bring to mind the situation that viewing a sea-going fig. 11, Lights carried by a sea-going vessel LIGHTS FOR ALL CLASSES OF BOATS 25 Fig. 13. Steam yachts are generally lighted in the same manner as sea-going vessels vessel from astern there would be no light visible. This is perfectly true, but the law provides that, on any type of similar vessel where there is no light visible from astern, an additional light may be carried, generally low down, visible from astern only, or around 12 points of the horizon. It is a fact that most sea-going vessels carry this light on their taff rail. Steam Yachts Yachts which might be termed sea-going are lighted in exactly the same way as sea-going vessels (See Fig. 12) ; that is a white light on the foremast showing ahead for 20 points, a range light on the main- mast showing ahead for 20 points, and placed higher than the light on the foremast, and the usual red and green side lights, each showing 10 Fig. 13. Sailing vessels under way points. carry red and green side lights 26 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING Lights for Sailing Vessels Sailing vessels (See Fig. 13) carry the red and green side lights, each showing for 10 points, and no other lights, except upon the approach of a vessel from astern which is overtaking the sailing vessel from such a position that a side light is not visible, when the flare-UD or other white light is shown over the stern to attract the attention of the approaching vessel. Ferry Boats Ferry boats carry two central range lights showing com- pletely around the horizon, placed at equal altitudes forward and Fig. 14. Ferry boats carry two central range lights at equal altitudes above the water showing all the way around the horizon, the customary colored side lights, and a special distinguishing light placed above the central range lights aft, and generally on top of the pilot house. (See Fig. 14.) In addition, the usual side lights are carried. A ferry boat may carry an additional light showing completely around the horizon, and usually hoisted on one of the side flag staffs about 15 feet above the white lights. This light is used to distinguish the particular line to which the ferry boat belongs, and different LIGHTS FOR ALL CLASSES OF BOATS ' 27 colored lights are used for the different lines. For example, in New York harbor, this light on the boats on the Pennsylvania Railroad is red, that of the Erie Railroad white, and that of the Lackawanna green. Ferry boats which are not of the double- end variety carry the usual white lights, and colored side lights required by law to be carried by steam vessels navigating those waters. Harbor Tugs In the matter of lights for tow boats, we find two principal classes, which might be called sea-going tow boats, and harbor tugs, although the lights for harbor tugs are restricted to such places as New York Harbor, Long Island Sound, Hudson River, and adjacent waters. Harbor tugs (See Fig. 15), with a tow, on these waters, carry the usual red and green side lights, and in addition either two or three white lights vertically arranged, showing completely around the horizon. Whether they carry two or three of these lights depends upon the length of their Fig. 15. The lights carried by a harbor tug towing one vessel only, or when the length of the tow is less than 600 feet if more than one vessel is towed. The vessel being towed carries the red and green side lights only 28 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING tow, provided more than one vessel is being towed. When the length of the tow of two or more vessels measures less than 600 feet, then two lights are carried. If this length exceeds 600 feet, then three lights vertically arranged are used. A vessel being towed carries only the red and green side lights, without the white lights. It should be noted that the term "Vessel being towed" does not include types of boats which fall into classes usually known as barges, canal boats, scows, rafts, etc. These latter types have particular lightings, which will be explained shortly. When only one vessel is towed, the tow boat shows two white lights, irrespective of the length of the tow. Ocean-Going Tow Boats An ocean-going tow boat (See Fig. 16) displays the two or three white lights, according to the length of the tow, but usually Fig. 16. Lights carried by a sea-going tug the white lights instead of being placed so that they show com- pletely around the horizon, are arranged on the forward part of the foremast, to show ahead for 20 points only, and in a vertical line. The usual red and green side lights are carried, and in addition to this, a white light, showing astern only, may be carried. This latter light is the only one visible from astern, and is used by the boats towed to steer by. It is interesting to note that the difference regarding range lights on inland and sea-going steamers applies in a similar way to harbor and sea- going tugs; in other words, on inland steamers, the range light LIGHTS FOR ALL CLASSES OF BOATS 29 shows completely around the horizon, while on sea-going steam- ers it shows ahead only. Similarly on harbor tugs, the range lights show completely around the horizon, while on sea-going tugs they show ahead only. Barges and Canal Boats Barges and canal boats towed on certain inland waters, as for example, the Hudson River, New York Harbor, Long Island Sound, etc., have special lightings. When they are towed in tandem there is a white light placed on the forward and after ends of each barge, with the exception of the after end of the last boat in the tow, which, instead of showing one white light, Fig-. 17. Lights carried by railroad floats when being: towed displays two white lights horizontally arranged. All of these white lights are placed to show completely around the horizon. Car Floats Fig. 17 is intended to show the lighting of railroad barges or scows towed alongside with a tug between them. It will be observed that a white light showing completely around the horizon is placed on the two outer corners of the two barges. Had there been only one railroad float alongside the tug, then only white lights on the two outer corners would have been used. It will also be noted that the tug is carrying two white lights vertically arranged, showing that the length of tow is less than 600 feet. Furthermore, the tug is carrying the usual red port light. Had the height of the float been sufficient to hide this port light from its proper view, the port light would have been carried on the outer edge of the port barge or float. The same is true, of course, of the green light. Pilot Vessels Pilot vessels (See Fig. 18) on their stations carry in addition to the red and green side lights two other lights on their main 30 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING mast, showing completely around the horizon, the uppermost light of the two being white, and the lower one red. Pilot vessels, while not engaged on their station on pilotage duty, carry similar lights to those of other vessels. When a pilot vessel is engaged on a station on pilotage duty, and is at anchor, she does not carry the red and green side lights, but continues to display the white and red mast headlights. Fishing Boats Fishing vessels of more than 10 tons when under way,_ but not having nets or lines out in the water, show the same lights Fig. 18. Lights carried by a steam pilot vessel on her station as other vessels. However, when such vesseis are engaged in trawling, dredging or fishing, they exhibit from some part of the vessel, where they can best be seen, two lights. One of these lights is red, and the other white, and the red light is above the white. Fig. 19 shows diagrammatically the arrangements for lighting the various classes of boats when towed, including the lights of ocean-going barges when being towed in tandem. These barges carry red and green side lights, and in addition a white light at the stern of each barge, snowing astern only, with the exception of the last barge in the tow, which instead of carry- ing one white light aft snowing astern only, carries two lights, horizontally arranged, showing completely around the horizon. LIGHTS FOR ALL CLASSES OF BOATS 31 Ocean-going barges when towed alongside, if their height is sufficient to obscure the side lights of the towing vessel, carry | -ga w n ra * 1 h V f IJ o f 43' i 1 ' a ^ <3 ■P (#> ti d ' fl _£ <3 3£ Fig. 21. When only the red side light is seen a very dangerous situa- tion might develop. It is the range light which indicates the correct heading directly under them. The relative position, of the forward and after range lights immediately determines the exact positions of B. Doubt no longer exists as to the exact course of B, or what action A should take to properly clear B. When the range lights are directly over each other it is clear that a vessel is approaching you dead head-on, but when her course is changed even in the slightest, the range lights will open out, the lower one drawing away from the upper in the direction in which the boat's bow is changing. Without the range lights the boat's course might change several points before being made evident from the side lights. It is even possible that the course of the approaching vessel is away from the course of one's own boat when the side lights are first sighted, and that she swings around toward your course without this being detected from the side lights as the boats draw closer together. It is a very dangerous position if the range lights are not properly placed, and one which requires great caution. A situation not unlike the last when both side lights were to 34 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING be seen develops when only one of the side lights is visible. In Fig. 21 it will be noted that the red light is to be seen, while the green starboard light is hidden. Without a range light it would be impossible for you to determine from your position on boat A whether boat B was heading as indicated by Bl, B2 or B3. You might plan your action assuming that the approach- ing boat was heading as indicated by Bl, when in reality she might be headed as indicated by B2, or even B3, and yet it would be impossible for you to determine the exact heading. Again the after range light solves the problem. From the upper part of this diagram the boats are arranged to show exactly as they would from your position on A. Looking at B3 it is hard at first to see how the boat in the upper diagram can be heading in the direction as indicated directly below it, but nevertheless it is a fact that she is. It would almost appear that she is heading as indicated by Bl, but by observing more closely, and noticing the position of the range lights on the upper left hand boat, it becomes apparent that it coincides exactly with the diagram of B3 directly below it. If such a situation is complex in a diagram, what must the actual situation appear like when you are aboard vour own boat? When only the green light is visible the situation is not unlike that just mentioned. Here again, if it were not for the range light, you could not tell from your position on A whether the upper boat was heading in a position indicated by Bl, B2, or BS. Side Lights Show Across the Bow Too much dependence should not be placed on the supposition that the colored side lights are not showing across the bow. There are several reasons which, if not taken care of, will cause the side lights to show across the bow. The position of the lamp as a whole must necessarily be several inches at least from the inboard screen, and the width of the flame and the reflection from the after side of the lightbox all tend to make the lights show across the bow to a greater or less degree. Special Lights A word should be said in regard to a few of what might be called special lights. For example, a vessel not under control carries two red lights in a vertical line, one over the other, arranged to show all around the horizon. If the boat is making headway through the water she keeps up her side lights ; otherwise, she does not carry them. Anchor lights are, of course, familiar to everyone. Boats of less than 150 feet in length should carry one anchor light, and boats of a greater LIGHTS FOR ALL CLASSES OF BOATS 35 length two such lights. A vessel aground in or near a fairway carries in addition to the regular anchor light or lights, two red lights in a vertical line, one over the other, showing all around the horizon. However, this rule applies to International Rules only, and in inland waters a vessel aground shows only the prescribed anchor lights. There are special lights for draw- bridges and dredges, but in most cases these are regulated some- what by local authorities. Lights for Wrecks, Etc. A vessel towing a submerged object displays her regular side lights, but instead of the regular white towing lights she displays four lights vertically arranged, the upper and lower lights being white, and the two middle ones red. Fig. 22. Lights carried by boats at anchor. When boats are moored in a club anchorage which is not in a channel or does not inter- fere with traffic, no anchor lights need be carried Steamers and other types of vessels made fast alongside a wreck or moored over a wreck which is on the bottom, partly submerged, or drifting, display a white light from the bow and stern of each outside vessel or lighter, and in addi- tion display two red lights vertically arranged where they may best be seen from all directions. Dredges which are held in a stationary position also display a white light at each corner, and two red lights carried in a vertical line placed where they may best be seen. CHAPTER IV Buoys of the Various Types (By U. S. Lighthouse Dept.) BUOYS are, as a rule, employed to mark shoals or other ob- structions to indicate the approaches to and limits of chan- nels or the fairway passage through a channel, and in some cases to define anchorage grounds. There were some buoys in service at the time of the transfer of the lighthouses to the Federal Government in 1789. Buoys originally were either solid wooden spars or built up in various shapes of wooden staves, like barrels. Wooden spars are still extensively used, particularly in inside waters ; but built-up buoys are now constructed of iron or steel plates. Colors and Numbers In order to give the proper distinctiveness, buoys are given certain characteristic colors and numbers; and, following the uniform practice of maritime nations generally, Congress by the act of September 28, 1850, prescribed that all buoys along the coast or in bays, harbors, sounds, or channels shall be colored and numbered so that passing up the coast or sound or entering the bay, harbor, or channel, red buoys with even numbers shall be passed on the starboard or right hand ; black buoys with odd numbers on the port or left hand; buoys with red and black horizontal stripes without numbers shall be passed on either hand, and indicate rocks, shoals or other obstructions, with channels on either side of them ; and buoys in channel ways shall be colored with black and white perpendicular stripes, without numbers, and may be passed close to, indicating mid- channels. Buoys to mark abrupt turning points in channels or obstructions requiring unusual prominence, are fitted with perches or staves surmounted by balls, cages, or other distinctive marks. Buoys marking lightvessel stations are placed in close proxim- ity to the lightvessel, are colored in a similar manner, and bear the letters LV, with the initials of the stations they mark. Buoys defining anchorage grounds are painted white, except those used for such purposes at a quarantine station, in which case they are painted yellow. To assist further in distinguishing buoys, the ordinary types are made in two principal shapes in the portion showing above the waterline — nun buoys, conical in pattern with pointed tops, 36 BUOYS OF THE VARIOUS TYPES 37 and can buoys, cylinder shaped with flat tops. When placed on the sides of channels, nun buoys, properly colored and num- bered, are placed on the starboard or right-hand side going in from sea, and can buoys on the port or left-hand side. The numbers and letters placed on all buoys are formed by standard stencils, to insure uniformity, and the largest size practicable is used so that these may show as prominently as possible. White characters are painted on black buoys and black characters on red buoys. Anchoring Buoys Buoys are anchored in their positions by various types of moorings, depending on the character of the bottom and the size and importance of the buoy. They are placed in position and are cared for by the lighthouse tenders, which are provided with 'specially designed derricks and lifting gear for handling them. It is customary to relieve all buoys at least once a year for overhauling, repairing, cleaning, and painting, and oftener when circumstances render it necessary. Although among the most useful of aids to navigation, buoys are liable to be carried away, dragged, capsized, or sunk, as a result of ice or storm action, collision, and other accidents, and therefore may not be regarded as absolutely reliable at all times. Great effort is made, however, by the Lighthouse Service to maintain them on station in an efficient condition, which frequently requires strenuous and hazardous exertions from the crews of vessels charged with this duty. It is necessary to keep on hand at all times an ample supply of spare or relief buoys, with the neces- sary appendages, to provide for emergencies and the systematic relief of buoys on station. Classes Buoys may be divided into two general classes, lighted and unlighted, of which the latter are in the great majority. Un- lighted buoys comprise spars, both wooden and iron, can, nun, bell, and whistling buoys, with a few other types for special purposes. Lighted btioys are provided with some form of gas apparatus and a lantern ; frequently a bell or whistle is also attached, in which case they are known as combination buoys. A brief description of each kind follows. Cans and Nuns Cans and nuns, as already noted, are built of iron or steel plates, the former showing a cylindrical and the latter a conical top, and are the most extensively used of metal buoys. The interior of the buoy is divided by bulkheads or diaphragms into 38 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING two or more compartments, to prevent sinking when damaged. Each kind is built in three classes or sizes, and in addition there are two general types in use — the ordinary type and the tall type, or channel buoys. The latter are a modern development of a larger and more prominent buoy for use in deeper water. These buoys weigh from 8,300 to 700 pounds each, according to size, and are generally moored by means of a stone or concrete block, or a especially designed hemispherical cast iron sinker, shackled on a length of chain about two Fig. 23. An acetylene gas buoy ■ Fig. 24. First-class nun buoy witb knife edges or three times the depth of water in which the buoy is placed. The or- dinary type buoys require a cast iron ballast ball attached directly below the buoy, the mooring chain being shackled in turn to the lower end of the ballast ball ; this is necessary to assist the buoy in maintaining an BUOYS OF THE VARIOUS TYPES 39 upright position, regardless of tidal or other currents. The ballast ball is not needed with a tall type buoy, which has more stability, due to its greater draft and to a fixed counterweight of cast iron bolted on its lower end. To prevent kinking or twisting of the chain, a swivel is occasionally placed in the mooring chain for all types. Spar Buoys Wooden spar buoys are usually cedar, juniper, or spruce logs, trimmed, shaped, and provided with an iron strap and band at the lower end for attaching the mooring, which is as a rule a heavy stone, or concrete block, or an iron sinker, sometimes shackled directly to the buoy, or to a short piece of chain, as required by the depth. (See Fig. 25). Such buoys are among the most economical and generally used of all aids, and are particularly employed in rivers and harbors. They are, how- ever, easily damaged by ice or collision, and in some waters suffer greatly from the attacks of the teredo and other marine borers, although this danger may be reduced by special paints or other protective treatment when not unduly expensive. Four sizes or classes are in use, varying in length from 50 to 20 feet over all, to conform properly to the depth of water at the position of the buoy. The weights of such buoys vary from 1,500 to 350 pounds each. Iron spar buoys are built up of iron or steel plates in the form of wooden spars, and are particularly valuable where severe ice conditions exist, or where the teredo is unusually active. They are naturally more expensive and heavier to handle, thus re- stricting their use to special localities. They are made in three classes, in lengths of from 50 to 30 feet over all, weighing from 4,000 to 2,000 pounds, respectively. Bell Buoys Bell buoys have a hemispherical-shaped hull, built of steel plates, with flat deck, and carry a steel superstructure which supports a bronze bell and usually four iron clappers. The motion of the buoy in the sea causes these clappers to strike the bell, so that the action is entirely automatic. Although the buoy is quite sensitive, and responds to even a very slight motion of the waves, the sound may be faint or absent in unusual calms. This type of buoy is especially efficient in harbors or inside waters for marking points where a sound signal is desired. Bell buoys weigh about 6,900 pounds each, complete, and are moored by means of a bridle or chain attached to lugs on the opposite sides of the hull near the waterline, the same mooring 40 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING BUOYS OF THE VARIOUS TYPES 41 being shackled to the middle and lowermost part of the bridle and extending in the customary scope of chain with a swivel to a heavy cast-iron sinker on the bottom. A large-sized ballast ball is shackled to a mooring eye at the bottom of the buoy, and the whole effect of this arrangement is to assist in the pendular motion necessary for ringing the bell. Whistling Buoys Whistling buoys are built of steel plates, and consist of a pear-shaped body with the smaller end uppermost, with a long open tube on the lower end. This tube extends throughout the length of the buoy, and is closed at the upper end by a head- plate on which is mounted a check valve and a whistle on the superstructure of the buoy. The sound is produced by the air in the upper portion of the tube being compressed by the falling of the buoys in the waves, its means of escape being through the whistle. A fresh supply of air is drawn through the check valve as the buoy rises again. Like the bell buoy, the sound is auto- matic, depending solely on the motion of the waves, and there- fore the whistle may be silent when the sea is very smooth. The whistling buoy is most efficient in rough outside waters, where a ground swell exists, and is employed for important points where a sound signal is considered desirable. It is generally moored with a single chain of the proper scope and a heavy iron sinker. The weight of the buoy is about • 6,500 pounds. For great depths, where the necessary quantity of chain impedes the flotation of the ordinary size of this buoy, a special and larger size is in use. This is similar to the regular size in design and operation but weighs about 11,000 pounds. Lighted Buoys Lighted buoys are a modern invention, having come into gen- eral use within the last twenty years, and are considered by mariners generally as among the most valuable of recent devel- opments in coast lighting (See Figs. 23, 26 and 27). The first buoy of this kind was a gas buoy established experimentally by its manufacturers in 1881 near Scotland Lightship, entrance to New York Bay;, it was officially taken over by the Lighthouse Service in April, 1884. Electric buoys, operated by a cable from shore, were established in Gedney Channel, New York Bay, in November, 1888, and were discontinued in 1903, after many mis- haps, due chiefly to breaking of the cable. The operating expense was high, and in the final year of service these buoys were ex- tinguished through accident on 120 nights. 42 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING Types of Gas Buoys All of the lighted buoys now in service use compressed gas — either oil gas or acteylene. Various types of self-generating acetylene buoys have been in use, operating on the carbide-to- water and water-to-carbide principles, but have been abandoned on account of uncertainty of length of run, difficulty of clean- ing, and danger of explosion. In the types now in use the gas, at a pressure of about twelve atmospheres, is contained either directly in the body of the buoy or in tanks fitted into compartments of the body, and is piped to the lantern at the top of the superstructure. If the light is flashing, as is commonly the case, a small pilot light burns con- tinuously and ignites the main burner as gas is admitted from the flashing chamber, which is a regulating compartment in the base of the lantern provided with a flexible diaphragm and valves for cutting off and opening the flow of gas at intervals, the operation being due to the pressure of the gas in the reservoirs. The length of the light and dark periods may be adjusted to produce the desired characteristic, such as five seconds light, five seconds dark, etc. Some types burn the gas as an ordinary flat flame, while others make use of an incan- descent mantle, which is, however, not wholly satisfactory in rough water on account of the liability of breakage. Reliability of Gas Buoys Gas buoys are made in a number of different sizes, weighing from 2,800 to 34,500 pounds each, depending on the importance of the location, and burn continuously by night and day for intervals of a month to a year without recharging. The ap- paratus is patented by the various makers and has been brought by them to a considerable degree of perfection, so that con- sidering the rough usage to which such buoys are subjected by the elements, gas buoys are generally satisfactory within the limits of reliability to be expected from such aids. They should not, however, be relied upon implicitly, as they may become extinguished or dragged from their proper positions, or the apparatus may be thrown out of water, some time elapsing before the buoy can be reached to repair or relight it. Gas buoys furnish valuable marks for approaching entrances, de- fining channels, and marking dangers, and at times may obviate the necessity for lightvessels or lighthouses on submerged sites, either of which would be many times more expensive. There is a constant demand among mariners for more gas buoys and for buoys with more brilliant lights. CHAPTER V Government Navigation Lights LET us now turn our attention to what might be called Gov- ernment Navigation lights, which are one branch of the aids to navigation. The United States Lighthouse Service, under whose jurisdiction the Government lights fall, is* charged with the establishment and maintenance of all aids to navigation, and with all equipment and work incidental thereto on the coasts of the United States. The term "Aids to Navigation" comprises all land and sea marks established for the purpose of aiding the navigation of vessels, and includes light stations, lightvessels, fog signals, buoys of all kinds, minor lights, and day beacons. Lighthouse Districts The service outside of Washington is divided into nineteen lighthouse districts ; each of which is under the charge of a lighthouse inspector. In each district there is a central office at a location selected either because of its maritime importance or its geographical location. Each district is provided with one or more lighthouse tenders for the purpose of distributing supplies and materials, and for the placing and care of the buoys, etc. The jurisdiction of the lighthouse service extends over the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific Coasts, the Great Lakes, the principal interior rivers, Alaska, Porto Rico and Hawaii, and all other territory under the jurisdiction of the United States, with the exception of the Philippine Islands and Panama. Only one light outside of this territory is maintained wholly or in part by our Government. This light is at Cape Spartel, Morocco, and is maintained in accordance with an agreement between Morocco, the United States, Austria, Belgium, Spain, France, Great Britain, Italy, The Netherlands, Portugal, and Sweden. The United States coast line, including the Philippines, Pan- ama, the Great Lakes and the rivers under the jurisdiction of the. Lighthouse Service has a length of 48.881 miles. Omitting the coast line of the Philippines and Panama, we have a net mileage under the jurisdiction of the service of 37,381. Number of Aids to Navigation Fig. 29 shows a summary of the aids to navigation under each principal class in commission on June 30, 1915. It will be noted that there was a total of 14,544 aids on that date. 43 44 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING Fig. 28. Method of lighting a portion of the Atlantic Coast by means of major lights — their range of visibility The term "minor lights" includes post lights and small lights which are generally not attended by resident keepers. These lights are usually cared for by persons living in the vicinity who are not obliged to devote their entire time to the work. Lightvessels are used to mark offshore dangers, or the ap- proaches to harbors or channels where lighthouses would not be feasible or economical. Gas buoys are used to mark harbor channels or shoals. Float lights are usually small lights borne on a float or raft; they are employed for less important places where more convenient or economical than lighted buoys. Fog GOVERNMENT NAVIGATION LIGHTS 45 signals include the various types of aerial sound-producing ap- paratus for use in foggy or thick weather. They embrace various types of whistles, sirens or horns, actuated by steam or compressed air, and bells operated by machinery or hand. Lighted Aids Lights (other than minor lights) 1,662 Minor lights 2,837 Lightvessel stations 53 Gas buoys 479 Float lights 124 Total 5,155 Unliffhted Aids Fog signals .' 527 Submarine signals _. 50 Whistling buoys, unlighted 86 Bell buoys, unlightecl 237 Other buoys 6,488 Day beacons 2,001 Total 9,380 Grand Total 14.544 Tig. 29. Total number of aids to navigation Early History The history of lighthouses in the United States dates back to 1715, when the first lighthouse on this continent was built at the entrance "of Boston Harbor by the Province of Massachusetts. The light was supported by light dues on all incoming and out- going vessels except coasters. Several other lighthouses were built by the Colonies before 1789, when Congress authorized that the lighthouses and other aids to navigation be maintained at the expense of the United States. The lighthouse service of the United States is now supported entirely by appropriations out of the general revenues of the Government, and the United States lighthouses have been free to vessels of all nations from 1789 to the present time. There is no system of light dues, as is the case in a number of foreign maritime countries. Lighthouse keepers receive a yearly salary of from $600 to $1,000, depending upon the importance of the light, etc. At- tendants of post lights receive on the average $10 per month 46 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING, per light. Each large lighthouse tender costs the service about $40,500 annually, a lightvessel $15,300, and an important light station, with fog signal, $4,200. The average mainten- ance on a gas buoy is $100 to $300. Lighting Apparatus The earliest type of lighting apparatus consisted of an open coal or wood fire, with other inflammable materials such as pitch burned on top of a tower. When Boston Light was established in 1716 the common oil burner of that period was used, enclosed in a lantern consisting of a cylinder- of heavy wooden frames, holding small thick panes of glass. The illuminant was fish or whale oil. Sperm oil was in general use about 1812, and was burned in a lamp with a rough re- flector, and a so-called lens or magnifier. Improvements were gradually made in this apparatus, and by the year 1840 the useless bull's-eye magnifiers had been entirely removed, and the reflectors were made on correct optical principles. To provide illumination all around the horizon, sets of from eight to twenty lamps were used, placed side by side around the circumference of a circle. The first lens in the United States was installed at Navesink Light, N. J., in 1841, and is still preserved by ,the service. During the transition period of lighthouse apoaratus from reflectors to lenses, sperm oil remained as the leading illum- inator, until its price made its use prohibitive. Colza oil was used in small quantities about 1862, but during the period from 1864 to 1867 lard oil was adopted as a standard illum- inant, and was generally employed until 1878, when kerosene came into use. Its use gradually increased, and about 1884 kerosene had become the principal illuminant, and so remains at the present time. The lamps used were also improved, passing through various styles to a special form of concentric wick, using five wicks for the larger sizes. The incandescent oil-vapor lamp, which is now generally employed for impor- tant lights, burns vaporized kerosene under an incandescent mantle, giving a much more powerful light, with little or no increase in consumption. Various other illuminants are now in use. Oil gas is ex- tensively used, particularly for lighted buoys, and acetylene gas is employed for light buoys and unattended light beacons. Electric arc and incandescent lights are used in special in- stances. Electric lights with distant control are employed in a number of cases where a reliable source of current can be obtained. GOVERNMENT NAVIGATION LIGHTS 47 Classification of Lights Lights have heretofore been classed according to their order; that is, first order, second order, third order, etc., down to the sixth order, inclusive. The order of the lens depends upon the inside radius or focal distance of the lens, that is, the distance from the center of the light to the inner surface of the lens. In a first order light this distance is 36.2 inches, in the second order 27.6 inches, and in the sixth order light the focal distance is 5.9 inches. The power of light does not vary directly with the order. The designation of lights by orders has, therefore, been discon- tinued in the light lists, and instead the candlepower is given. From the stated candle- powers the mariner may judge relative brilliancy and power of the various lights. Candle- powers are stated approximate- ly in English candles, but the intensity of the lights as seen from a boat may be greatly lessened, or a light made in- visible by unfavorable con- ditions, due to haze, fog, rain, or smoke. Range of Visibility Under normal atmospheric conditions, the visibility of the light depends upon its height and intensity, the distance due to the former being known as a geographic range, and to the latter as a luminous range. As a rule* for the principal lights, the luminous range is greater than the geographic range — that is, the distance from which the principal lights are visible Tig. 30. First order lens used by is i in ? ited by the h °7 z0 ? only, the Lighthouse Department and in some atmospheric con- 48 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING ditions the glare of the light, ,and occasionally the light itself, may be visible beyond the computed geographic range. The distances of visibility are given in nautical miles. Characteristics of Lights In order to avoid the likelihood of confusion between lights, endeavor is made to give them distinctive character- istics. Since much of the coast was lighted before the intro- duction of modern lighthouse apparatus, the original lights were as a rule fixed, but at the more important of these sta- tions apparatus has now been installed to make the lights flashing or occulting. This effect is produced in the case of flashing lights by revolving all or part of the lens, and in the case of occulting lights by some form of traveling screen or shutter, which obscures the light at intervals. In either case the regulation is by clockwork. Fig. 31. The old and new lighthouses at Cape Charles GOVERNMENT NAVIGATION LIGHTS 49 The usual phases are as follows: Fixed : Showing a continuous steady light. Flashing : Showing a single flash at regular intervals. Fixed and Flashing : Showing a fixed light varied at regu- lar intervals by a single flash of greater brilliancy. Group Flashing : Showing at regular intervals groups of flashes. Occulting : Showing a steady light, suddenly and totally eclipsed at regular intervals. Group Occulting : Showing a steady light suddenly and totally eclipsed by a group of two or more eclipses at regular intervals. The above refers only to lights which do not change color, commonly white, but further diversification is obtained by Fig. 32. Showing the characteristic day mark used on the lighthouse at Cape Hatteras the use of red screens, changing the color from white to red in various combinations. Such lights are known as alter- nating. In the case of gas or electric lights the supply of gas or current is cut off at intervals. The term flashing or occulting refers to the relative dura- 50 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING ticn of light and darkness, the flash being an interval shorter than the duration of an eclipse, and occultation being shorter than or equal to the duration of light. Red sectors are pro- duced by screens of colored glass. They are often employed to mark outlying dangers near the light or the limits of channels, and are usually arranged so that the light shows white while a passing vessel is clear of such dangers, chang- ing to red as a shoal or other obstruction is approached. Day Marks To assist identification in daylight, towers are frequently distinguished by characteristic painting, in addition to pecu- liarities of form or outline. The effect of certain colors when combined in bold patterns of spirals, bands or blocks is quite striking in a number of important lighthouses. Fig. 32 shows the characteristic markings of a lighthouse at Cape Hatteras, N. C. This tower is the tallest in this country, being 200 feet high. The light is visible from the deck of a vessel twenty nautical miles distant. Its characteristic is a flashing light for ten seconds. Day Marks for Vessels A vessel towing a submerged ibject in the daytime shows two shapes, one above the other in the form of a double frustum or cone, base to base, the upper cone being painted with alternating horizontal stripes of black and white, and the lower shape being painted bright red. Steamers, lighters and other vessels made fast alongside a wreck, or moored over a wreck, display two shapes similar to the foregoing, except that both shapes are painted bright red. Dredges held in a stationary position show two balls in the daytime, vertically arranged, and placed in a position where they can best be seen. Self-propelled suction dredges under way, with their suc- tion on the bottom, display the same signals as used to designate a steamer not under control, that is, two black balls placed where they may best be seen from all direc- tions. Vessels which are moored or anchored and engaged in laying pipe or operating on submarine construction, display in the daytime two balls in a vertical line, the upper ball being painted with alternating black and white vertical stripes, and the lower ball being bright red. CHAPTER VI Equipment Required by Law Class I— Boats Under 26 Feet, L. O. A. Lights — Combination red and green lantern (or bow and colored side lights) and stern light. Sound Apparatus — Whistle capable of producing blast pro- longed for at least 2 seconds. Class II— Boats 26-40 Feet, L. O. A. Lights — White forward light (lens at least 19 sq. in.) ; white stern light; green starboard light; red port (lenses at least 16 sq. in.); screens at least 18 in. long; lenses, fresnel or fluted glass. Sound Apparatus—Same as Class I plus fog-horn and bell. I Class Ill—Boats 40-65 Feet, L. O. A. Lights — White forward light with with lens at least 31 sq. in. ; white stern light; green starboard light; red port light (lenses at least 25 sq. in.) ; screens at least 24 in. long; lenses, fresnel or fluted glass. Sound Apparatus — Same as Class II, except bell must be at least 8 in. across mouth. All Classes One life preserver for each person on board. [Life pre- servers, life belts, buoyant cushions, ring buoys, or similar de- vices in sufficient number for every person on board, and placed so as to be readily accessible. Life presesvers or buoyant cushions must be capable of keeping afloat for 24 hours a weight exerting a direct downward pull of 20 pounds, on boats not carry- ing passengers for hire. No pneumatic life-saving appliances, or appliances filled with granulated cork will be permitted. Planks, gratings, etc., or small boats in tow cannot be substituted for required life-saving appliances. Floats of seasoned wood, not exceeding white pine in weight and measuring at least 4 feet by 14 inches by 2 inches, may be used.] A fire extinguisher capable of extinguishing gasoline fires. At anchor, a white light only, less than 20 feet above hull, visible around horizon for at least one mile. Two copies of the Pilot Rules must be carried on, board. 51 52 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING What the Law Requires. Fig. 33. Some of the equipment required by law which has been approved by the Government CHAPTER VII The Compass THE discovery and early history of the mariner's compass is extremely doubtful, the Chinese, Arabs, Greeks, Finns and Italians all having been declared its originators. There is now little doubt that the claim formerly advanced in favor of the Chinese is ill founded. There is no genuine record of a Chinese marine compass before A. D. 1297. No sea-going ships were built in China before 139 B. C. What the Compass Is The compass is nothing more than a magnet suspended so as to be allowed to swing freely in a horizontal plane. In theory, an ordinary knitting needle magnetized by drawing a toy magnet along its length a few times, and suspended from the center by means of a thread so that it can swing in a horizontal plane, is as much of a compass as the ones we use on our boats to-day. If such a needle is magnetized and suspended it will immediately assume a north and south position. But the compass consists of a number of magnetized needles bound together, and suspended or pivoted from beneath. On this bundle of magnetized needles we have a card mounted to give us a better sense of direction, and allow us to determine directions other than north and south, which would be the only two indicated by the magnetized needles if we had no card mounted thereon. There has been little or no change in the mariner's compass for centuries. In theory and construction it is practically the same as it was more than one hundred years ago. The only changes which have been made are refinement in its con- struction, and the markings on the compass card. v The Dry Compass The older compasses were known as dry compasses; that is, simply magnetic needles and a card pivoted at the center. Naturally such an arrangement was very sensitive and re- sponded to the motion of the ship very freely. With the coming of the steam engine, and later, the internal combus- 53 54 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING tion motor, it was found that the vibrations set up by the machinery were such as to keep the compass card in constant motion, which naturally made it unreliable as a navigating instrument. The development of the liquid compass followed, and this type overcomes to a large extent the difficulty and trouble experienced with the dry compass. The Liquid Compass The liquid, or wet compass, is practically no different from the dry compass, with the exception that a liquid generally consisting of a mixture of 55 per cent, water, and 45 per cent, alcohol is introduced into the bowl of the compass, and then the latter is sealed up. The liquid not only prevents the compass needle and card from responding to small vibrations due to power plants and the sea, but also tends to buoy up or float the needle and card, and thus make it rest more lightly on its pivot. This allows the card to turn more freely as the ship is turned, or rather ito hold its position more steadily as the ship's bow is turned away from the compass. The smaller and less expensive compasses use kerosene as the filling liquid, and some of the newer makes use oil instead of alcohol and water. On account of the nature of the various kinds of fluids used, the compass as we know it is practically non-freezable in ordinary latitudes. The Lubberline Compasses are fitted with a gimbal ring to keep the bowl and card level under every circumstance of a ship's motion in a seaway, the ring being connected with a binnacle or com- pass box by .means of journals or knife edges. On the inside of every compass bowl is drawn a vertical black line called the lubberline, and it is imperative that the compass be placed in the binnacle or on the boat so that a line joining the pivot and the lubberline shall be parallel to the keel of the boat. Thus, the lubberline always indicates the compass direction on which the boat is heading. The Old Card Generally speaking, there are two methods in use for mark- ing or dividing the compass card, which we may designate for want of better names as the old card, and the new card. On the old card shown in Fig. 34 it will be noticed that the card is divided into 32 major divisions known as points, and that those major divisions are further subdivided into four parts. It will also be observed that the card is divided on THE COMPASS 55 its periphery into degrees. It is in the method of putting the degrees on the compass card that the new card differs from the old one. Degrees On the old card North and South are both marked zero, and East and West are each marked 90, the divisions run- ning from North and from South towards East and West from zero degrees to 90 degrees. In lother words, we have 45 marked opposite Northeast, as well as Southeast, South- west and Northwest. To steer a course by this method of dividing the card it is necessary to add either the designa- tion North or South to the degrees ; that is, if we wished to steer Northeast we should call our course North 45 degrees East, and if we wished to steer Southeast this course would be called South 45 degrees East. Similarly, Southwest is Fig:. 34. The compass card South 45 degrees West, and Northwest North 45 degrees West. One advantage of this method of designating the compass is the ease with which reverse courses may be re- membered. For example, if a certain course were North 60 56 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING degrees East, then when returning over the same course the compass would indicate South 60 degrees West. Points Division of the compass card according to points, is a most interesting one, and as it is the method which is generally used by motor boatmen it is the one which will require our greatest attention. As mentioned above, the card is divided into 32 major divisions known as points, each one of these points having a particular name. The four principal, or card- inal points are known as North, South, East and West. The inter-cardinal points are the ones midway between the card- inals, and these are given a name which is a combination of the points which they bisect; that is, the point midway between North and East is known as Northeast, etc. This gives us eight divisions. We now subdivide these eight divisions in half, and once again we give these eight new points names which are combinations of the two points which they are mid- way between. For example, the point midway between North and Northeast is North Northeast. That point midway be- tween South and Southwest is South Southwest. To get the additional 16 points it is simply necessary to divide points which we have already determined in a similar way as before. Here again the new points will have names corresponding to the points to which they are adjacent. The word "by" will be used in all of these 16 new points. For instance, the point between North and North Northeast is known as North by East, because it is adjacent to North, and in an easterly direction from North. The point between Southeast and South Southeast is known as Southeast by South, because it is adjacent to the inter-cardinal point Southeast, and in a southerly direction from it. Quarter Points For the purpose of steering more accurate courses than would be possible by following only 32 points, we must sub- divide the points into halves and quarters. The naming of these quarter points is most interesting, and must be thor- oughly mastered by the motor boatman at the beginning. Naturally it will be seen that every quarter point might have two names; that is, it might refer to the point either to the right or to the left of it. For example, the quarter point just to the right of North could logically be called North Va East, or it might be called North by East Va North. Either of these designations would probably convey to the man at the wheel THE COMPASS 57 the course which it was desired that he should follow. How- ever, and perhaps unfortunately, there is a certain method of calling these quarter points, and again we are confronted with two methods instead of one. The older method appears to many to be the most logical one, although the Navy Department has seen fit to adopt one of its own. It makes little difference which of these methods is adopted by the motor boatman. Both are correct. Fig. 35 shows the two methods of naming the quarter points, and in it Fig. I shows the older method. This system is to name the quarter points from each cardinal or inter- I a Fig. 35. The two methods used in naming the quarter points of the compass cardinal point toward a 22^2-degree point; that is, toward North Northeast, East Northeast, East Southeast, South Southeast, South Southwest, West Southwest, West North- west, and North Northwest. The United States Navy method is to name the quarter points from North and from South towards East and West, excepting that the division adjacent to a cardinal or inter-cardinal point is always connected with that point. This method is shown in II of Fig. 41. CHAPTER VIII Compass Errors EVERYONE knows that the compass points North, or at least, should point North. Unfortunately, we have two Norths. One of these is the upper extremity of the earth's axis, and is known as the geographic or true North. The com- pass does not point to this North, but always points towards what is known as the magnetic North. Magnetic North is located at some distance from the true North, roughly in- dicated by Fig. 36. Variation If you were on your boat at the position marked A, and your boat was heading as indicated by the dotted line, she would be heading true North, but the compass would be pointing in a decidedly different direction, indicated by the dotted line from A with a point marked MN. In other words, your boat would be headed true North, but the magnetic heading would be quite different. This angular difference between the true North and the magnetic North is known as the variation of the compass, shown in Fig. 36 by the angle between TN, A, and MN. One will immediately see from Fig. 36 that this variation of the compass is not constant; that is, it is different with every change in geographical location. If your position is at B, your boat is still heading true North, and your compass towards MN. Observe that the angle between true North and the magnetic North at position B is decidedly different and smaller than when at A. In other words, the variation of the compass at B is much less than at A. In both cases the magnetic North has been to the West, or to the left of the true North, which makes the variation what is known as x westerly. Now consider for a moment your position at C. In this case you will notice that your boat is heading towards the true North, and also towards the magnetic North. In other words, there is no angle between the two poles. Therefore, at position C, or anywhere along the dotted line leading from C towards the poles, the variation is zero. At' D we again have a variation, but in this case the magnetic North is to the East, or to the right of the true North, and we, therefore, have an easterly variation. At E, the 58 COMPASS ERRORS 59 boat is heading towards the true North, but going away from the magnetic North. In such a case, while the boat is heading North, the compass is pointing South, and we have 180 de- grees variation. Change in Situation As has just been mentioned, the variation of the compass is different for every geographical location. In the vicinity •■ «of New York Citv the variation is about 9 degrees westerly; around Portland, Me., it is about 15 de- grees westerly. As we go West the variation becomes less and less until in the vicinity of Lake Superior we have zero varia- tion. Farther West than this the va- riation becomes easterly, and in- creases in magni- tude. fs- Figr. 36. Showing: variation of the compass and how it differs in "amount at different locations on the earth Determining Va- riation One may now ask how to de- termine what this variation is. This is a relatively simple matter, as on every one of our Gov- ernment charts this information is given. Fig. 37 gives what is known as the compass rose on the chart, several of which are printed on every one. The note in the center of this rose, "Variation 13 degrees 40 minutes West in 1915," gives the information in regard to variation at the particular location where this rose is printed. From the statement directly >below, "Annual increase 6 minutes," it will be recog- nized that variation is not a constant quantity, but is in- creasing or diminishing all the time". To calculate what the 60 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING variation is to-day, that is, in 1917, we simply must add 12 minutes to the variation as noted above. On this compass rose there are an inner and an outer set of divisions, the inner one being in points and quarter points, and the outer in degrees. The two do not correspond— that is the North magnetic div- ision is not pointing to zero degrees but to a division about 14 degrees West of zero. The explan- ation of this is that the outer divisions in degrees refer to the true North, and are known as true courses, while the inner divisions refer to the magnetic North. It is al- most invariablv true that when courses are given in degrees they are true courses, and that when they are given in points they are magnetic courses. The magnetic ones are far the more simpler for our use, as we need to take no account of variation whatsoever in dealing with magnetic courses. Variation comes in only when we refer to true courses. Deviation But there is one error entering into our compasses both wheniwe talk about magnetic, as well as when referring to true courses, and this error is caused by magnetic substances such as iron and steel on our boats. The error caused by the effect which this magnetic substance has on our compass, moving the needle one way or the other, is called deviation. It exists to a greater or less degree on every motor boat. Moreover, deviation on any boat is not constant ; that is, it is different in amount for every different heading of a boat. Fig. 38 shows why this difference in the amount of devia- tion occurs. Here we have three boats. In the first case, the boat is heading approximately North. The black dot- is used to represent the center of magnetic attraction on the Fig. 37. The compass rose showing: the amount of variation. Several of these roses are to be found on every chart COMPASS ERRORS Cl boat. When the boat is heading approximately North, as shown, the pull of this center of magnetic attraction will be exerted most strongly on the South point of the compass, and in the direction which is approximately Southeast. As the boat swings around to the easterly direction, it is ap- parent that the attraction is on altogether different points of the compass. Naturally, this will cause the compass to have a deviation decidedly different from that of the first case. Fig-. 38. Deviation of the compass and why it differs on the various headings As the boat swings around to a westerly direction, the pull of the magnetic substances on the boat is again different, and causes an entirely different effect on the compass. In other words, the deviation is different on every different heading. It cannot be assumed that because we have one point west- erly deviation when heading North we will have the same amount when heading "East or South. Determining Deviation The question now arises not only how to determine the devia- tion of one's compass, but how to correct the compass so that no deviation will exist. The former is simple, the latter, very 62 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING complex and difficult. It is much simpler to determine the deviation, know how much it is, and let it exist, than to attempt to correct and compensate for this error. To determine the amount of deviation, it is simply neces- sary to choose a number of courses whose direction can be determined from one's chart, and then put one's boat over these courses, and note the direction shown by the compass. For example, choose two points on the chart which are directly North and South of each other; that is, two light- houses, buoys, headlands, or other points which can be readily distinguished. Put the boat over this course, and note the course which the compass shows. Perhaps it will be North by East. Make a note of this. Now turn the boat directly about, and she will be heading in a southerly direction. Again note what the compass shows, and set it down on paper. In this way pick out as many courses as possible, and put your boat over them, noting in each case what the compass shows, which will give you a deviation card. Easterly and Westerly Deviation When the north pole of your compass is swung to the right, or toward the East by the magnetic substance on the boat, the deviation is said to be easterly. When the north pole is swung to the left or to the West, we have a westerly deviation. Deviation refers to the north point of the com- pass, and to no other point — which fact should be remembered by everyone. Applying Deviation The process of applying deviation to determine compass courses is one which the navigator must do for himself, and make himself a thorough master of. No course can be set or bearing plotted without the application of this problem, and a mistake in its solution may produce serious conse- quences. Rules as to the application of deviation are of little service. The motor boatman must practise and work thein out for himself. Compass courses and magnetic courses should not be con- fused. The former is that shown by the compass on your boat, and the magnetic or correct course is the one shown by the chart. To find a compass course when the deviation of your compass is westerly, the compass course which you should steer will be to the right of the magnetic or correct course. In other words, apply a westerly error to the right to find the compass course which should be steered. When COMPASS ERRORS. 63 the error of your compass is easterly, the compass course which should be steered to allow for this easterly error, is to the left. To find the magnetic, or true course from your compass just the reverse of the above must be done; apply an easterly error to the right, and a westerly error to the left. Fig. 39 shows three boats heading in exactly the same direction. In Fig. I of this diagram, there is zero deviation. In this case the magnetic course is N N W, the true course N N W, and the compass course N N W. In Fig. II, we ( Fig. 40. Determining- deviation by means of the sun compass have a variation of two points westerly, but with zero devia- tion. In this case the true course is N N W, the magnetic course is N, and the compass course N. In Fig. Ill we have two points westerly deviation, and one point easterly devia- tion. Here we have a true course of N N W, a compass course of N by W, and a magnetic course of N. 64 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 5Jt P u r- — C2 N « a 9 a. a = a C V e — X — X a •+w a a 5 a c a e +- "0 a c £ a v -a « MM -»- ~ = u a a „ * a i- H I if COMPASS ERRORS 65 The Sun Compass H one does not look with favor upon the scheme of deter- mining the deviation of his compass on various headings, then probably the next best method is that which employs a sun compass or shadow pelorus, as it is sometimes called. Any amateur without previous experience can determine the devia- Fig. 41. Determining deviation by means of a bearing 1 on, a distant object, a brass screw and a piece of wire. The outside semi- circle is included in the diagram merely as an indication that the lighthouse (shown with a strip of shore line immediately below the hand) bears N % E magnetic from the boat's position. The inner (elliptical) circle represents the boat's compass card with the lighthouse bearing N by E when the boat is heading NW, thereby revealing a deviation of % point westerly. The correct course is, therefore, NW % N (shown by the dotted line to this point on the semicircle) tion of his compass within a quarter point with the sun com- pass. As will be seen from Fig. 40, the sun compass is noth- ing more nor less than a reversed compass card, so mounted in a box that it can be turned around its center at will. At its center a hole is drilled, and a straight wire some three or 66 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING four inches in length projects vertically upward. On the box at A a line corresponding to the lu'bberline of the magnetic compass is cut, and the sun compass is always so placed on the boat that the mark A will represent the bow of the boat either by being in line with the bow if the sun compass is in line with the keel of the boat, or else so that an imaginary line Fig. 42. A deviation card drawn through A and the center of the compass will be parallel to the keel of the boat. After the sun compass has been placed as noted above, it is an easy matter to determine the 'heading of the boat. By comparing this heading with that 'heading as indicated by the COMPASS ERRORS 67 boat's compass, the deviation can be read off directly. There is a small table which accompanies the sun compass that must be used with it in determining the deviation. This table tells one at what figure on the sun compass the line at A. must be set for any time of the day. The sun shining on the sun compass causes a shadow to fall from the upright wire, and this shadow cuts a point indicating the heading of the vessel. For example, on May 1 at 10.20 A. M. at New York City the table will tell one to set the movable dial at 115. If the shadow from the wire then falls for example at S E ^ E, this will be the true direction in which the iboat is head- ing. Now, if the compass shows S by E at the same moment, and we .have a variation of one point as shown by the chart, we know at once that our compass has an error due to devia- tion of y% of one point. The Deviation Card Fig. 42 shows another form of deviation card which is very convenient. The inner compass is magnetic, and the outer one represents the compass on your craft. Put your boat over a number of courses whose magnetic direction, can be determined from the chart, and note the headings as indicated by the compass. Draw a line in each case on the above card from the point on the inner (magnetic) compass, representing the chart course, to the outer point which is indicated by your compass. Going over eight courses and the reverse of them will give you the deviation of your compass on sixteen dif- ferent headings. You will then have a deviation card which will show the compass course which should be steered for any magnetic course. CHAPTER IX The Chart THE nautical chart is a miniature representation of a por- tion of the navigable waters of the globe. It generally in- cludes an outline of adjacent lands, aids to navigation, depth of waters, character of the bottom, etc., with considerable information in tables. The chart should be carefully studied, and among other things all of its notes (See Fig. 43) should be read, as valuable information may be given in the margin which it is not practicable to place upon the chart abreast of the locality affected. The motor boatman should be especially careful that the chart is of recent issue, or bears corrections of recent date, which facts should always be clearly shown upon its face. It is well to proceed with caution when the chart of any locality is based upon an old survey. Even if the original sur- SOUNDINGS The soundings are in fathoms except o'rv the tinted surfaces, where they are in feet, and show the depth at mean low water. SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS •*• L\S. S. life saving station. (T) connected with general telegraphic system, ■f Stations of Mass. Humane Society j C. can, N. nun, S. spar. * Hock awash at any f Red. buoy,- to be left to starboard in entering \ stage of the tide. f Black buoy,- to be left to port in entering. + Sunken rock. *** Wreck. f Black and red horizontal stripes; danger buoy. \ Black and white perpendicular stripes; channel buoy. M. mud,S. sand, G. gravel, Sh. sliells, P. pebbles, Sp. specks, bk.black.wJi. white, rd. red.yl.yeVxm', gy.gray, bxi. blue, dk. dark, It: light, hrd. hard, sft. soft, fhe. fine, crs. coarse, rky. rocJty, stk. sticky, brk. broken, Fig. 43. A note from a Government chart showing: some of the information given on charts 68 THE CHART 69 tlOHTS F signifies Flved.- Fig. Hashing, Fl. Mash.- T\». Flashes.- Rev. Revolving, W. White, R. Jied.w. varied, by- Sec . Sector. -JM. ■*4« "rem Gr*»*iM»i/ \*» \ BOAT =6 KNOTS 1 t ' I» ,::.! 1* T If CoJ* FU* ]» v .T. IV 1 1 4 II ■".& .:.* « * t JIT' .:.M •:.| .1.(1 Nanrtal fit* .T.ft Q 1 < t ft .:.fr .T.ft ...ft ,* making austral •"■!* ,:.fc ■-v.fr- Fig. 72. The distance signals ginning with the word in which the error occurred. If, in the course of a signal addressed to a single boat, the receiver does not understand a word, character, or display, he should "break in" with the characters corresponding to "repeat last word"; or, to have a whole message repeated he should make the dis- plays which signify "repeat last message." In the case of a message addressed to several boats, an individual boat failing to understand a word shall not break in, but shall continue to 114 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING read as much of the message as possible, and after the whole message has been sent shall request the next boat, or the div- ision commander, or the commander in chief to repeat the missing portion. Distance Signals When in consequence of distance or atmospheric conditions it is impossible to distinguish the color or flags of the International Code, there is provided an alternative method of signaling, known as distance signals. (See Fig. 72.) There are three methods of making distance signals, as follows : 1. By cones, balls and drums. 2. By balls, square flags, pennants, and wafts. 3. By the Fixed Coast Semaphore. In calm weather, or when the wind is blowing from and towards the observer, it is very difficult to distinguish with certainty any signal which depends on color or flags. The flags when used with shapes are also apt in calm weather to hide one of the balls or other shapes which would prevent the signal from being understood. Therefore, the system of cones, balls and drums is preferable to that of flags, pennants and wafts. CHAPTER XVI Miscellaneous Signals THESE signals (Fig. 73) indicate the weather forecasts for twenty-four hours commencing at 8 A. M. When displayed on poles the signal should be arranged to read downward; when displayed from horizontal supports, a small streamer should be attached to indicate the point from which the signals are to be read. The morning forecasts (i. e., those issued from the A. M. reports) only, are utilized for the display of weather signals, NO 1. NO- 2 A/O.3 1 CL£AKOIlFAiRW£ATHEIi H' RAW OR $NOM ' 'LOCAL RAWS} wo. 4. M?. r ► T£MPe/tATUR£ FLACr COLP WAV£ "Fig. 73. Weather signals and the flags displayed represent only the forecast applicable to the twenty-four hours beginning at 8 P. M. of the day the flags are hoisted. If more than one kind of weather is predicted for the period from 8 P. M. to 8 P. M., the conditions first named in the fore- cast are represented by the uppermost weather flag in a vertical hoist, or by the weather flag nearest to the small streamer in- dicating the point, in a horizontal hoist, from which the signals are to be read. If two temperature forecasts are made for this period, the first-named only is represented by the temperature flag in its proper position. When the regular forecast contains warnings of a cold wave, the cold-wave signal is displayed alone. 115 116. PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING and flags representing the weather element are never displayed on the same staff with the cold-wave signal. If the forecasts contain a prediction, "moderate cold wave," "decidedly lower temperature," "much colder," etc., the cold- wave flag is not displayed, but the temperature flag is hoisted below the proper weather flag. Flags are invariably lowered at sunset of the day the hoist is made, and no flags are displayed on the following day until the receipt of the next succeeding morning forecast. The weather signal flags used are as follows (See Fig. 73) : Flag No. 1. Square white flag. Flag No. 2. Square blue flag. Flag No. 3. Square flag, white on upper half, and blue on lower half. Flag No. 4. Triangular black flag. Flag No. 5. Square white flag with black square in center. Number 1 indicates clear or fair weather. Number 2 indicates rain or snow. Number 3 indicates that local rains or showers will occur, and that the rainfall will not be general. Number 4 always refers to temperature; when placed above numbers 1, 2 or 3, it indicates warmer weather ; when placed below numbers 1, 2 or 3, it indicates colder weather ; when not dis- played, the indications are that the temperature will remain stationary, or that the change in temperature will not vary more than four degrees from the temperature of; the same hour of the preceding day from March to October, inclusive, and not more than six degrees for the remaining months of the year. Number 5 indicates the approach of a sudden and de- cided fall in temperature. When number 5 is displayed, number 4 is always omitted. Examples : Nos. 1 and 4, "Fair weather. Colder." Nos. 4 and 2, "Warmer, Rain or Snow." Nos. 4, 1, and 2, "Warmer, fair weather, followed by rain or snow." Nos. 1 and 5, "Fair weather. Cold wave." Distress Signals — In the Daytime 1. A gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about a minute. 2. The international code signal of distress, NC. 3. The distance signal consisting of a square flag, having either above or below it a ball, or something resembling a ball. 4. The continuous sounding of any fog-signaling apparatus. 5. The national ensign, hoisted upside down. MISCELLANEOUS SIGNALS 11? Distress Signals — At Night 1. A gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about a minute. 2. Flames on the vessel (as from a burning tar barrel, oil barrel, etc.). 3. Rockets or shells, throwing stars of any color, etc., fired one at a time at short intervals. 4. The continuous sounding of any fog-signaling apparatus. Signals for a Pilot A pilot may be obtained by displaying any of the following signals : 1. The International Code pilot signal indicated bv PT. 2. The International Code flag S, with or without the code pennant over it. 3. The distance signal consisting of a cone, point upward having above it two balls or shapes resembling balls. 4. The Jack, hoisted at the fore. At night — 1. A blue pyrotechnic light burned every fifteen minutes. 2. A bright white light flashed at frequent intervals just a little above the deck. To signal for a towboat set the ensign in the main rigging above the bulwarks for about a minute at a time. Storm Signals The warnings adopted by the United States Weather Bureau for announcing the approach of wind storms are as follows: (See Fig. 74.) The storm warning (a red flag, eight feet square, with black center, three feet square), indicates that a storm of marked violence is expected. This flag is never used alone. A red pennant (eight feet hoist and fifteen feet fly), dis- played with the flags, indicates easterly winds, that is, from the northeast to south, inclusive, and that the storm center is approaching. A white pennant (eight feet hoist and fifteen feet fly), dis- played with the flags, indicates westerly winds, that is, from north to southwest, inclusive, and that the center has passed. If the red pennant is hoisted above the storm warning, winds are expected from the northeast quadrant; when below, from the southeast quadrant. If the white pennant is hoisted above the storm warning, winds 118 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING are expected from the northwest quadrant; when below, from the southwest quadrant. Night storm warnings — By night a red light will indicate easterly winds; a white above red light will indicate westerly winds. The hurricane warning (two storm warning flags, red with black centers, displayed one above the other) indicates the expected approach of a tropical hurricane or of an extremely severe and dangerous storm. No hurricane warnings are displayed at night. A yellow flag with white center is a precautionary signal. Signals should be read from the top of the staff downward. £ASTfKLY WWDS STORM SlCrNAL CAVTioNAgY S/O/val W£ST£KLY W/NDS Fig. 74. The storm and wind signals CHAPTER XVII Boat Handling Under Various Sea Conditions (By E. K. Roden) WITH the advent of the motor boat as an important acquisition to our national defense, motor boating can no longer be looked upon merely as an exhilarative pastime. Its affiliation with military and naval forces guard- ing our extensive coast lines has placed motor boating upon a basis where responsibility and serious work go first, with sport and pleasure as a secondary consideration. This being the case, it becomes the duty of owners and operators of motor craft enrolled for defense service to acquire and culti- vate not only a thorough understanding of the handling of the boat and engine, but also a knowledge of various wrinkles which in time of actual service may prove of value. The following suggestions apply in particular to a motor unit assigned to scout duty which through unforeseen exigencies may find itself in strange waters and, therefore, will have to rely upon the skill and resourcefulness of its commander to carry out his scout work and at the same time avoid the pitfalls likely to be encountered in navigating unknown sections of the coast Indications of Shallow Water Upon approaching a shoal spot in the water, the attention of an observer will be attracted either by a rise in the height of the waves, with a tendency to curve over and break, or by their taking on a troubled, agitated appearance, in marked contrast to the waves in deeper water. The extent of the irregular water will, in most cases, clearly define the limits of the shoal, and, when traversing shoal places, the deepest water will always 3 £ > Fig. 75. Suggestions for motor boat log book sheet CHAPTER XVIII Steering Propeller Working Ahead (Right Hand Propeller) THE water which is drawn into the propeller from forward of it in a line parallel to the keel has no appreciable effect upon steering. However, water is thrown out from the after side of the propeller, more or less radially from the blades. This rotary current set up strikes against the rudder to a greater or less extent (depending upon the position of the rudder and amount of helm given it) and tends to throw the stern sideways. The upper blades, which are moving from port to starboard, throw their water against the upper portion of the rudder, and the lower blades drive their cur- rent against the lower starboard side of the rudder. If the lower part of the rudder is greater in area (relative to the center of motion of the water thrown radially away from the after side of the propeller) the resultant effect will be to throw the stern to port. If the upper area is greater, then the stern will be thrown to starboard. Thus it will be seen that the position and size of the rudder relative to that of the propeller will have a certain influence upon steering. Propeller Working Astern Water is drawn in from astern and forced out forward. The water forced out is thrown against the boat's underbody — that from the Upper blades against the starboard side, and that from the lower against the port side. As the upper blades are working more effectively in this case, it follows that in backing, a boat's stern will be thrown to port. Sidewise Force of Propellers There is a certain sidewise force exerted by a propeller. The upper blades moving from port to starboard tend to force the stern to port, and the lower blades working from starboard to port have a tendency to throw the stern to starboard. As the lower blades are working in water of greater density, their action will have the greatest effect, with the result that the boat's stern will be thrown to starboard. In backing, the stern will be thrown to port. This resultant action of the sidewise force of the propeller is quite pronounced in motor craft, especially when the upper blades are near the surface. Most motor boats have a 126 STEERING 127 tendency to work off their course to port for this reason. The effect is greatest when the boat is starting from rest, as then the tendency to "churn" the water is, maximum when the boat's speed is minimum. For this reason it is essential and desirable to turn to port when starting up if it is desired to change the boat's course quickly. Many motor boats wjll not turn to starboard until they have con- siderable way on, while they will turn very readily to port. Wake Current The wake current, or that drawn along by the boat, is greatest at the stern of the boat at or near the surface of the water. It rapidly diminishes below the surface. The wake current is maximum at maximum speed of the boat, being zero when the boat is at rest. The influence of wake current, which has the greatest effect upon the upper blades, is to neutralize the greater sidewise effect of the lower blades when the boat speed is maximum. Effect of the Propeller Upon Steering 1 1. Boat and Propeller Going Ahead Here the rudder is the controlling factor for reasons ex- plained, although the average motor boat tends to turn better to port. If the helm is put hard over when the boat is going full speed ahead, the first effect will be to throw the whole boat to the side opposite to which it is desired to go, the stern going off the most and not returning to the line of the original path of the boat until the bow has turned several points. The boat turns with increasing rapidity until she reaches a point from which she turns on a path which is practically a circle. As the boat swings around this circle, her bow is pointed inward, and her stern outward. The exact point on her keel which moves around on a true circle depends largely on the boat's speed— the faster the boat is, the nearer the bow will this point be. The speed at which a boat is moving at the time her helm is put over has little effect upon her turning space, although the time of turning will be less with the faster boats. If the helm is put over to clear a stationary object, the speed will not be a factor in determining whether the object will be cleared or hit. However, speed will be a factor in the force with which the object is hit. Generally speaking, a boat may be turned through eight points with a fore and aft "advance" of four boat lengths. It is generally considered more safe to avoid a stationary ob- 128 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING ject close ahead by means of reversing than by attempting to clear it by putting the helm hard over. The safest method is to put the helm hard to port, and, as soon as the bow bgeins to swing, to reverse, immediately putting the helm hard to star- board. 2. Boat and Propeller Going Astern A. Boat Just Beginning to Back: I. Helm amidship. Result: Stern moves to port. II. Helm a-starboard. Result: Stern moves strongly to port. III. Helm a-port. Result: Stern moves slowly to port. B. Boat Gathers Speed Astern: I. Helm amidship. Result: Stern moves to port. II. Helm a-starboard. Result: Stern moves rapidly to port. III. Helm a-port. Result: Stern moves slightly to starboard. 3. Boat Going Ahead, Propeller Astern I. Helm amidships. Result: Bow swings to starboard. II. Helm hard to starboard. Result: Bow swings to starboard. III. Helm hard to port. Result: Uncertain. If the boat has begun to swing from a hard over helm before the propeller is reversed, she will generally continue to swing when the propeller is reversed. If the propeller is reversed before the helm is put over, the above results will follow. One may be sure of results by first putting the helm hard over, then reversing the propeller, then reversing the helm ; for example: When going ahead, if it is desired to throw the bow to Port Starboard Stop propeller Stop propeller Starboard helm Port helm Reverse propeller Reverse propeller Port helm Starboard helm 4. Boat Going Astern, Propeller Ahead I. Helm amidships. Result: Uncertain. II. Helm to port. Result: Stern swings decidedly to port. III. Helm to starboard. Rseult: Stern will probably swing to starboard. Note: To steer a straight course when backing have helm to port. STEERING 129 a •P3 " o rH •4-> - j? 03 03 03 _ j_> o d 03 j. 6JCO a k o o CO >o r 4J a C O • rH 5 « .2 03 Cd d d ^^ 0) 05 $ m Xi +■» T3 03 fd j3 03 rH cd O o cd cd 4-J> u -t-> 03 03 03 C O 4J O •4-> be 03 03 •rH .9 a .3 03 -M Cd Cv £-c cd CO "C j i 3 4 +J 03 J-l OS o CO 3 O c a X 1 3 a t o-Q 13 < ! < I M » — pq o> J-l >; i • fcn Ctf •4J r-H bd d > O ft o . a o cd o u o «2 '! +j a -4-> 03 0> T3 m a> t> o 03 ! t>* Of So p d ^ o is cd -8-» CO o « <-t-i T- a 4- V. < r a -4- a <; ■ rH 05 X/l So 4-) a 02 a d o +j o o c 'cd 4-1 o rH '. ■cd . 4J o a 02 o s-i 03 & 03 „ ft ,d -*-> d O I o 4J o 03 o ■4-J . •4J < fcx 03 ' 03 03 d • d cd o M 03 -a cd 0) .d -a cd a> ,d ■4-1 o ^1 o 4^ r3 6, a £t3 03 r4 cd gr= 1 03 cd o O d CO d • o • d • o ; pq cc PQ 03 03 ft 03 cd H ■4-1 • o • 4-j • o : 03 p-4 d a : 03 -4- cd o rQ cd 03 cd 03 03 o • • 2 5 .2 2 t3 s 3 O p cd 03 * ■{rJpq ■MQ. £ o o a 0> a 03 "'a r— 1 Q Q w w w 130 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING Recapitulation From the foregoing it will be seen that it is practically im- possible to make a boat's bow swing to port when backing. Therefore, in maneuvering from a position at rest it is best to plan to turn to starboard as follows: 1. Helm hard a-port. 2. Go ahead with ftropeller. 3. Go ahead as far as safe, swinging sharply to starboard, gaining as much headway as possible. 4. Reverse propeller full speed. 5. Immediately shift helm to hard a-starboard. 6. Back as far as possible at speed. 7. Propeller full speed ahead. 8. Put helm hard a-port at once. If it is necessary to turn to port, proceed as follows: 1. Helm hard a-starboard. 2. Go ahead full speed until boat gathers good speed. 3. Stop propeller and let boat run. 4. Reverse propeller full speed. 5. Port helm immediately. 6. Run astern as far as possible. 7. Go ahead full speed and — 8. Put helm a-starboard immediately. On boats of light draft, the whole conditions described above may be reversed, especially when the propeller is poorly or incompletely submerged. CHAPTER XIX Boat Equipment, Provisions and Supplies Boat Extra heavy anchor Small anchor Sea anchor Anchor chain Emergency sail, mast and tackle Emergency hand tiller Supply of different sizes of small line, marline and other cordage 200 feet one-inch (diameter) line Bow and stern lines Line for halyards Supply of canvas or tarpaulin Bow, stern and running lights Riding light Lanterns Gear Fog bell Whistle Fog-horn Bow and stern staffs Life preservers Ring buoys Fenders Fire extinguisher Bilge pump Extra oars and oarlocks for dinghy Broom, mop and bucket Boat hook Cushions Provisions Matches Flour Sugar Pancake flour (self-raising) Baking powder . Coffee Tea Cocoa Dried peas, beans and prunes Rice Macaroni Cereals -and breakfast foods Cornstarch, tapioca and jello Beef cubes Bread Cheese Salt Pepper Soda Cinnamon Sage Mustard Curry Paprika Fresh milk in jars Ham and bacon Salt pork Butter Eggs Lard Catsup Worcestershire sauce Horse radish Pickles and olives Olive oil Vinegar Preserved fruits and jellies Several boxes of soda, graham and oyster crackers Bottle of syrup Canned soups, beans, corn, toma- toes and peas 131 132 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING Provisions (Continued) Canned roast beef, corned beef, Oranges, lemons, veal loaf and tongue, potted ham Canned sardines, tuna fish, sal- mon, crab-flakes and lobster Canned milk and cream Jars of sliced bacon, smoked beef and codfish Potatoes, onions, carrots and such other fresh vegetables Miscellaneous Supplies Ammonia other fruits Fresh water (in tanks) Liquors Soft beverages Alcohol Kerosene bananas and stone jugs or Blankets Oil skins Bathing suits Fishing tackle Fire arms Water-proof bag Camera and photographic plies Smoking material Sewing and mending kit Medicine kit Tooth-brushes and powder Graphaphone and records Playing cards Writing paper Cook book Pocket flash-light Ball of twine Candles Soap Scouring and soap powders Eight dinner plates Eight lunch plates Eight soup plates Eight bread and butter plates Eight cups and saucers Two platters Four open bowls, various sizes Two covered dishes One cream pitcher One sugar bowl Brass polish Dish cloths, towels and mop Face and bath towels Wash-cloths Table-cloths or oil-cloth sup- Napkins Table Chairs Table silver Dust pan Clothes brush Hatchet Supply of assorted nails and screws Hydrometer for storage battery Supply of extra electric light bulbs Caulking iron Marline spike Palm China and Glassware Several small flat dishes Large pitcher Twelve water glasses Twelve high-ball glasses Twelve wine glasses Three decanters One thermos carafe Set of salt and pepper shakers Syrup jar BOAT EQUIPMENT 133 Galley Utensils Stove and fuel Fireless cooker Broiler or toaster Can opener Coffee pot Tea pot Coffee strainer Two cooking spoons Cooking fork Cooking knife Potato knife Bread knife Carving set Ice pick Small dish pan Small hand basin Pancake turner Egg beater Lemon squeezer Good sized tea-kettle Two galvanized water pails One large and one small pre- serving kettle One large and one small stew- ing or sauce pan Two large and one small skillet or frying pan One double boiler Pancake griddle Three baking or bread pans Six pie plates Bottle opener Cork-screw Sieve Potato masher Measuring cup Meat chopper Cocktail shaker Tools and Engine Accesories Ten-inch mill file Eight-inch half round file Rat-tail file File handle Cotter pin extractor Cold chisel, %-inch Cape chisel Round-nose chisel Small hand vise Pair gas pliers Half-dozen spark plugs, each in separate) container — generally a round, screw top box Vibrator complete for coil in separate container Spare union, R. & L., for gas pipe line Large solid metal screwdriver Small screwdriver Six-inch combination pliers (with cutting edge) S wrenches % to % opening (three in all) Small monkey wrench Small Stilson wrench Socket wrench to fit spark plugs Eight-oz. machinist's hammer Eight-inch Stilson wrench Eight-inch monkey wrench Six-inch Stilson pipe wrench Fourteen-inch Stilson pipe wrench Pair 10-inch gas pliers One-inch patent combination pliers Ten-inch flat file Seven-inch three-corner-file Two screwdrivers, one 6-inch and one 10-inch or 12-inch Nail hammer, and few assorted nails Six-inch monkey wrench 134 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING Tools and Engine Ac Cold chisel, ^-ineh wide and about 6 inches long Twelve-inch monkey wrench Spool of fine copper wire Three to four feet of spring brass wire, about No. 12 gauge Piece of emery cloth Piece wire-inserted packing, big enough for cylinder head Ball candle wicking Small can Smooth-on for cracked water jackets Small tin shellac, for gas pipe line One can each of assorted cotter pins, assorted hex nuts, as- sorted washers. (These are standard goods and may be had at any supply house) One valve complete (in separate container) Two spare valve springs Emery paste for grinding in valves cessories (Continued) Hack saw and twelve blades Solder, copper and bundle of flux solder (solder with resin core) No. 2 roll friction tape Revolution counter Oil gun White lead Graphite Volt ammeter Spare pipe fittings Extra batteries Extra parts Gasoline Hard grease Lubricating oil Rubber hose Spark plugs Tool kit Waste Asbestos packing Insulated wire Tint measure Funnel Tire tape Navy Department's Suggestion for Medical Kit Antiseptic tablets (bichloride mercury) 1 bottle Bandages 6 Beef, extract 1 bottle Calomel, tablets 1 bottle Cathartic tablets 1 bottle Chlorodyne tablets 1 bottle < iaiiz-e 2 yards Lead and opium tablets .1 bottle Mustard plasters 1 box Packages, first-aid 6 Plaster, rubber 1 roll Quinine pills (3-grain) 1 bottle Soda, bicarbonate 1 can Tourniquets, rubber, instant 4 Vaseline, carbolized 1 jar Whisky ■ 1 bottle Directions for giving medicines. CHAPTER XX Suggestions for Meals Breakfasts 1 2 Stewed fruit Bacon and eggs Cereal with butter and Fried potatoes sugar Coffee Corn fritters Coffee ( 3 4 Cereal fried with bacon Scrambled eggs Lazy biscuits Coffee Canned corn and bacon Eggs Corn bread Coffee 5 Hominy grits browned with bacon Stewed Fruit Coffee Dinners 1 2 Beef pilau Salmon chowder Crackers Hot pilot bread Blackberry dumplings Stewed loganberries Coffee Coffee Bean puree Spinach with eggs Coffee Crackers Candy A COMPANY DINNER Mock turtle soup CoM fish with mayonnaise Lazy biscuits Okra sliced with tomatoes Deep blueberry pie Coffee Suppers 1 2 Baked beans with Corn soup tomato sauce Biscuits Tea Crackers Tea Fresh fruit Apricots 135 136 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING 3 Lamb stew with peas Crackers Tea 4 5 Hulled corn and fresh Mock turtle and tomato milk soup Ginger cookies Pilot bread Tea Tea 6 Fish hash of salt cod and smoked salmon with potatoes Prunes Tea Recipes Following are the recipes of a few dishes which the most masculine amateur cook can successfully prepare: Lamb and Peas One can lamb. One can peas. Two boiled, potatoes. One onion. Stock. Disc lamb and potatoes and cook all together with enough stock or water to moisten thoroughly. Season and serve. Beef Pilau One can beef. One can tomatoes. One tablespoon butter. One onion. One-half cup rice. Brown onion lightly in butter; add the beef, sliced; season with salt and pepper. Cook the washed rice for five minutes, then add to meat with the tomato and one cup of water. Simmer until rice is tender. Fricasseed Beef One can beef. One can soup stock or a bouillon cube in water. Brown an onion minced in butter, add the souo stock, season highly and thicken with flour and butter. Cook the meat slices in this until hot and well seasoned. CHAPTER XXI Navy Signaling (From Navy Deck and Boat Book) THE flags and pennants used in transmitting the United States Navy Flag Code are as follows : Alphabet Fags — Negative flag (alphabet flag K). Pre- paratory flag (alphabet flag L). Annulling flag (alphabet flag N). Interrogatory flag (alphabet flag O). Affirmative flag (alphabet flag P). The following special flags are used: Num- eral flag, Repeaters, Danger and designating flag, Answering and divisional point pennant, Cornet, Call flags, Ship call pen- nants, Indicators. The alphabet flags are the same as those of the International Code. The letters E and T are not used singly because of their display by the Ardois system as night speed indicators, and because with the whistle they indicate a change of course. The letter I is used singly as the dispatch and breakdown flag. To prevent confusion and mistakes due to the similarity in the sounds of different letters when calling out flags or recording signals, the words given in the following table are used as the names of the letters on board of all vessels and at all times : A. Able N Nan B Boy O Oboe C Cast P Pup D Dog Q Quack E Easy R Rush • F Fox S Sail G George T Tare H Have U Unit I Item V Vice J Jig W Watch K Kink X X Ray L Love Y Yoke M Mike Z Zed Negative Flag K The negative flag (alphabet flag K) when hoisted in answer to a signal means "Not granted" or "No." The call of the boat t:o which it is addressed as an answer shall be displayed over it in order to avoid any chance of a misunderstanding. Hoisted over a signal it puts the message in a negative sense. 137 138 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING Preparatory Flag L The preparatory flag (alphabet flag L) hoisted over a signal means "Prepare to execute the signal now shown as soon as the signal of execution is made. The signal of execution is the starting from its point of hoist the same signal (without the preparatory flag) or some other signal relating to the same movement or maneuver. Thus, if the signals were made to prepare to moor shio, the signal of exe- cution might be the hauling down later of a signal to "anchor in succession in inverted order." Annulling Flag N The annulling flag (alphabet flag N) annuls all signals at that moment displayed on the same mast. In this case only it is to be answered by hauling down all answering pennants which may have been hoisted in reply to the signal or signals. In case ships have the signal or signals- hoisted they shall also display the annulling flag and haul all down with their hauling down on the flagship. Hoisted alone, it annuls the last signal made or the last hoist. Any signal previously made may be annulled by hoisting the signal again with the annulling flag either over it or hoisted at the same time. Interrogatory Flag O The interrogatory flag (alphabet flag O) when hoisted over a signal changes its meaning to the interrogatory form. The single display of the interrogatory in answer to a signal means that the signal cannot be read or is not understood. The interrogatory hoisted alone by a flagship means "You are repeating the signal wrong," or "What movement are you making?" according to the circumstances which will be evident. Affirmative Flag P The affirmative flag (alphabet P) when hoisted in answer to a signal, means assent, consent, permission granted, or "Yes." The call of the boat to which it is addressed as an answer shall be displayed over it in order to avoid any chance of a mis- understanding. Hoisted over a signal, it means that the specific work or service called for by that signal has been completed or the duty has been performed. For example, the signal "Moor," with the affirmative over it, means "I have moored." It is hoisted alone when getting under way with other vessels in formation; when ready to steam ahead after "Man over- NAVY SIGNALING 130 board" or* other contingency involving stopping; in mooring ship; and in other cases to indicate that some duty called for in a previous signal has been completed. Numeral Flag The numeral flag hoisted over certain alphabet flags indicates that those flags are to be interpreted as numerals. The flags whose meanings are thus changed are as follows : Q i V .6 R 2 W 7 S 3 X... 8 T .....4 Y 9 U 5 Z Repeaters The repeaters serve to reproduce, in numeral and vocabulary signals only, the alphabet flags hoisted above them. The first repeater reproduces the first alphabet flag, the second repeater the second, and the third the third. Danger and Designating Flag The danger and designating and Navy-Register-Use flag hoisted alone indicates danger ahead. A compass signal under it indicates the bearing of the danger from the boat making the signal. Used as a designating flag it designates a particular boat, place, person, or thing, when hoisted over or at the same time and if possible, on the same mast as the signal representing the object referred to. For a boat, the signal will be her call or her International Signal letters ; for a place or thing, the signal in the vocabulary ; for an officer on the active list, his signal number in the Navy Register; for an officer on the retired list, or an enlisted man or other person, the signals spelling out his name. In making an officer's number the January Navy Register of each year shall be used on and after July 1 of that year and until and including June 30 of the following year. Answering Pennant The answering pennant is hoisted where it can be best seen — at the truck, gaff, or yardarm — in answering, and kept there until the signal is hauled down. At sea, if displayed at the yardarm it shall be at the side not occupied by the speed cone unless that leads to concealment by smoke. In port it shall be displayed at the starboard yardarm. In order that there shall be no uncertainty as to the signal that is answered by a' boat, the latter shall display the answering 140 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING pennant under the call of the boat making- the signal; except that in answering a signal from the senior flagship the latter's call shall not be displayed. The answering pennant is used as a divisional point to repre- sent the divisions of mixed quantities referred to by a signal made at the same time or just previously. Cornet The cornet hoisted at the fore, or at the highest gaff of signal yard if the foremast head cannot be used for its display, is a peremptory order for all officers and others absent from the boat to repair on board at once. A gun fired denotes urgency. The cornet hoisted half yardarm high is a call for the whole force to receive a semaphore or wigwag message. Union Jack The Union Jack hoisted at the fore is a signal for a pilot. Hoisted at a yardarm it indicates that a general court-martial or court of inquiry is in session on board. In port a gun shall be fired when it is hoisted upon the meeting of the court. Powder Flag The powder flag (alphabet flag B) shall be displayed at the fore on all vessels while taking on board or discharging ex- plosives or loaded projectiles, or fuel oil or gasoline in large quantities, and in the bows of all boats and lighters transporting the same. It is also to be displayed by a ship engaged in target practice with either guns or torpedoes, while the firing is in actual progress. It shall be hauled down halfway when off the firing line if the practice is to continue, and hauled down at "Cease firing" or "Secure." It may also be used when standard- izing propellers, to indicate when the boat is on the course and observations are in progress. Dispatch and Breakdown Flag The dispatch and breakdown flag (alphabet flag I) shall be worn at the main in all dispatch vessels to indicate the nature of their service. No vessel shall hoist the dispatch flag without proper authority, or display it as such until actually under way and out of formation; but when it is hoisted she shall not be interfered with by an officer junior to the one bv whom she is sent on such service, except when the public interests im- peratively demand such action, of the necessity for which the senior officer present must be the responsible judge. A vessel engaged in carrying dispatches or orders through a fleet should hoist below the dispatch flag the call of the boat to which she NAVY SIGNALING 111 is next bound; or she may display in inverse order the calls of all the boats to be communicated with, that of the boat to be next communicated with being the last one in the hoist, and as soon as any boat has been communicated with her call shall be detached from the hoist. In formation under way this flag shall be kept rounded up "in stops" at the fore ready to break in case of accident to machinery or steering gear. When a guide flag is displayed at the foremast head the breakdown flag shall be hoisted "in stops" below the guide flag ready to break below it. In case of accident which is likely to necessitate slowing down or leaving the formation, it shall be instantly broken as an emergency signal, and implies "breakdown" or "not under control," and other boats must keep clear until the boat displaying the breakdown flag shall have gotten well clear of the formation. The breakdown flag does not relieve a boat from responsibility in cases of collision, even though she may have sheered out of formation. It shall be kept flying during daylight until repairs are completed and the ship is headed for the formation to resume her position, or until she is beyond signal distance. In case of man overboard, a ship in formation shall break this flag and at once lower it part way (but not below the level of the smokestacks) as a signal for "man overboard." Guard and Guide Flag The guard and guide flag when used at anchor is a guard flag, and indicates that the boat upon which it is hoisted is charged with the guard duty of the division, squadron, or force then at anchor within signal distance. It shall be hoisted at the fore between sunrise and sunset. From sunset until sunrise a red light shall be displayed at the fore truck, except under such conditions as may cause it to be. confused with navigation lights. The guard flag shall not be hoisted nor the red light shown, by a flagship or vessel of the senior officer present to indicate that she has the guard duty. A boat may be directed to take the guard duty by hoisting the guard flag under the boat's call; this is answered by hoisting the guard flag. A boat is re- lieved from guard duty by hoisting the guard flag: over the boat's call; this is answered by hauling down the guard flag. To call a guard boat alongside, the flagship may hoist the guard flag under the boat's call or under the call of the division to which the boat belongs ; or at night may display a red light after the call, as above. This is answered by dipping the guard flag or pulsating the red light. Boats on guard duty shall display a small guard flag from a staff in their bows during daylight. 142 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING When a ship is under way and in formation the display of this flag at the fore denotes that she is the guide in the formation. The guide flag at the dip (lowered part way) indicates that the guide boat is temporarily out of position. The division guide pennant (position pennant) shall be displayed under the same rules for rear divisions or squadrons. A boat may be directed to take the guide by hoisting the guide flag under the boat's call, or to cease being the guide by hoisting it oyer the boat's call. This is answered by hoisting or hauling down the guide flag or pennant as called for. Miscellaneous Flags The convoy and position and division guide pennant shall be worn at the fore of all ships on escort duty to indicate the nature of their service. No- vessel shall hoist the convoy pennant without proper authority; but when it is hoisted she shall not be interfered with by an officer junior to the one by whom she was sent on such service, except when the public interests imperatively demand such action, of the necessity for which the senior officer present must be the responsible judge. It is also a division (or squadron) guide pennant, and in com- pound formations is worn by the guides of divisions (or squadrons) other than the fleet guide. A boat in formation not on escort duty hoists this pennant to indicate that she has attained an assigned position ; Jout it shall not be used in tactical evolutions except as prescribed under fleet tactics. When a boat in formation has been in position and loses it, she shall hoist the position pennant at half-mast as an indication of the fact, and keep it so until she regains her position, when she shall run it all the way up and immediately haul it down. Under battle conditions it shall not be used for this purpose. The position pennant displayed under a call by the senior officer, means to the boat signaled: "You are out of position," or "You are out of order." The full-speed and meal and flag-officer-leaving pennant is kept hoisted as a single display at the port yardarm during the period when the crew is at meals on board vessels at anchor, whether or not the colors are hoisted. This pennant shall be shown for this purpose without reference to the flagship. Under way in formation it shall be used as a full-speed pennant on the same side as the speed cone. When a flag officer is about to leave his ftaeshin officially during the day. this pennant shall be displaved directly under the flag and hauled down when he shoves off. NAVY SIGNALING 143 The general- and boat-recall flag is a peremptory order for all boats absent from that ship on detathed duty, or otherwise, to return with all speed to their ship. A numeral displayed bejow the general recall is an order that all boats except the one in- dicated shall return to the ship. The general-recall flag under a numeral indicates the recall of the ship's boat having that numeral as a call number. Commanding officers of all ships shall assign numbers to all boats for this and for boat exercise purposes. A recall shall be kept hoisted until the boat is made out as returning in obedience to the signal. If necessary, but only in case of emergency, the ship's call letter may be sounded on the steam whistle or a gun fired to attract the attention of the boat. When a boat recall is hoisted with the annulling flag over it, it indicates that the boat so designated shall not return to the boat at the time previously prescribed, but shall wait for the further display of her recall. At night a boat may be recalled by the display of I, fol- lowed by the number of the boat, and by the boat's call if there can be any uncertainty as to which ship she is signaling; or special night recalls may be assigned for particular occasions, observing due care that the recall used shall not be such as to render it possible to be mistaken by other ships as a signal to them. The quarantine flag (alphabet flag Q) is hoisted at the foremast head or most conspicuous hoist on all infected ships or ships iu quarantine. It shall be kept flying day and night and be carried in the bow of all boats belonging to the ship having this flag hoisted. It should be hoisted by incoming ships as a signal to the health officer of the port that pratique is desired. The battle efficiency pennant shall be worn at the fore when at anchor on such vessels as may have been officially declared entitled to fly it for excellence in battle efficiency. The Red Cross flag is, by international agreement, to be worn at the fore on all hospital vessels. It shall also be displayed over the field hospital of any naval force on shore and on hospital boats of landing parties. The submarine warning flag is hoisted on the tender or parent ship of submarines or on launches accompanying them, to indicate that submarines are operating submerged in that vicinity. The church pennant shall be hoisted at the same place of hoist and over the ensign during the performance of divine service on board vessels of the Navy. 144 PRACTICAL MOTOR BOAT HANDLING T'ie battalion flags for infantry and artillery are provided for naval landing forces. * The Naval Militia distinguishing flag shall be hoisted at the mast-head (fore when there is more than one mast) at 11 times on all vessels loaned by the Navy Department to a State for the use of the Naval Militia or Naval Reserve, and on all vessels "in commission in reserve" and assigned to the States for the instruction of the Naval Militia or Naval Reserve, when such vessels are actually under the command of a Naval Militia or Naval Reserve officer. The Naval Militia commission pennant and commodore's pen- nant shall be worn by the Naval Militia vessels in the same way that is prescribed for the similar pennants on vessels of the Navy. To Signal the Engineer When engine is stopped, 1 bell for Ahead Slow. When running ahead slow, jingle for Full Speed Ahead. When running full speed ahead, 1 bell for Slow Down. When running ahead slow, 1 bell for Stop. When stopped, 2 bells for Astern Slow. When running astern slow, jingle for Full Speed Astern. When running astern slow or at full speed, 1 bell for Stop. When running full speed ahead, . 4 bells for Full Speed Astern. When no jingle bell is provided, use the following signals: When stopped, 1 bell for Ahead. When running ahead, 1 bell for Stop. When stopped, 2 bells for Astern. When running astern, 1 bell for Stop. When running ahead, 4 bells for Astern. TTHE END1