Class Book„M_SJL COPYRIGHT DEPOSm s a ^ OUTLINES / OF Ai^CIENT HISTOEY FOR THE USE OF HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES BY WILLIAM C. MOREY, Ph.D., D.C.L. PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER AUTHOR OF "outlines OF ROMAN HISTORY," "OUTLINES OF ROMAN LAW,' "outlines OF GREEK HISTORY," ETC. NEW YORK • : • CINCINNATI • : • CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY LIBRARY of CONGRESS Two CoDles Received JUL 2 1906 pi Copyright Entry (a. KXc. no. COPY B. (^JClass <^' Copyright, 1906, p.v WILLIAM C. MOUEY ANCIENT HISTOI T W. P. 1 PREFACE This book has been prepared to meet the wants of those teachers who have expressed the desire for a text-book of ancient history in a single volume, constructed on the plan of the author's " Outlines of Greek History " and " Outlines of Roman History." Such a text-book, of course, requires some- thing more than the mere bringing together of separate ac- counts of the different countries of the old world. It should be so arranged as to indicate the historical relation of these countries to one another, and the contributions which each has made to the progress of mankind. The significance of each country should be estimated by the permanent elements of its civilization, or those elements which, have survived after the nation has passed away. The purpose of this book is, there- fore, not simply to describe the growth of separate countries, but to indicate in a general way the continuity of ancient his- tory. The subject-matter contained in the author's previous volumes has been used so far as it is available for this purpose. The usual division of ancient history into Oriental, Greek, and Koman, has been followed not only as the most convenient arrangement, but as affording the means to illustrate in a sat- isfactory way the progressive stages in the growth of ancient civilization. The Oriental countries are described to show the beginnings of man's industrial life and the initial stages in the development of government, literature, art, science, and re- ligion. The Greek world is viewed as the historical field espe- cially distinguished for the growth of political liberty and the development of a high intellectual and assthetic culture. In describing the Eoman world, the attempt has been made to keep clearly in view that which has given to Rome its distinct- ive place in the world's history — the genius for organization, 3 4 PEEFACE the growth of an imperial dominion, and the development of a universal system of government and law. It has been especially the desire of the author to reduce his- tory to the simplest terms consistent with the importance of the subject-matter. But it has also been his desire to develop in the pupil's mind a scientific spirit, not only by emphasizing the continuity of history, but by indicating the relation of special facts to general movements, and the relation of these general movements to the growth of the national charac- ter and institutions, as well as the relation of each nation's career to the general progress of mankind. Irrelevant matter has been excluded; and facts have been selected and arranged with reference to their historical significance. The at- tention of the teacher is called to the " Progressive Maps," which are intended to indicate in outline the most important changes in the geographical history of the ancient world. Each chapter is followed by a " Synopsis for Eeview " which presents at a glance the order of the general and special topics treated in the text. This is followed by a list of " Ref- erences for Eeading." The attempt has been made not to collate an extensive bibliography, which can be of little prac- tical value to the ordinary pupil, but rather to direct atten- tion to certain chapters — with their exact titles — in books which are readily accessible. The classified list of books in the Appendix will give to the teacher and advanced student further bibliographical aid. W. C. M. University of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y. CONTENTS CHAPTER . PAGE I. Introduction — General Character of Ancient History . 7 THE ORIENTAL WORLD II. Tlie First Empires — Early Babylonia and Egypt . 19 III. Tlie Syrian States — Phoenicia and Judea ... 41 IV. The New Semitic Empires — Assyria and Later Babylonia 51 V. The Aryan Empires — Media and Persia .... 61 THE GREEK WORLD PERIOD I. The Beginnings of Greece (-776 b. c. ) VI. Greece, its People and Early Legends .... 75 VII. The Earliest Ages of Greece 87 PERIOD II. Development op the Greek City States (776-500 B. c.) VIII. Political Growth and Expansion of Greece . . . 103 IX. The Typical City States— Sparta and Athens . .114 X. The Beginnings of Hellenic Culture .... 129 PERIOD III. The Athenian Ascendency ; its Growth AND Decline (500-359 b. c.) XI, The Persian Wars— Growing Power of Athens . . 143 XII. Tlie Atiienian Empire ; Age of Pericles .... 160 XIII. The Struggles for Supremacy in Greece .... 178 XIV. The Attic Period of Hellenic Culture . . .197 PERIOD IV. The Union op Greece and the Orient (359-146 B. c.) XV. Macedonia and the Empire of Alexander . . . 225 XVI. The New GraecoOriental, or Hellenistic, Culture . . 245 5 6 CONTENTS THE ROMAN WORLD PERIOD I. Beginnings of the Roman State (753-343 B. c.) CHAPTER PAGE XVII. Italy and the Traditional Origin of Rome . . . 259 XVIII. Tlie Early City State— Regal Rome . . . .271 XIX. The Development of the Republican Constitution 286 PERIOD II. The Expansion of the Roman Republic (343-133 B. c.) XX. The Consolidation of Italy 299 XXI. The Struggles with Carthage ; tlie Punic Wars . .315 XXII. The Conquest of the Mediterranean Lands . . . 332 XXIII. Rome as a World Power 344. PERIOD III. Transition from the Republic to the Empirk (133-31 B. c.) XXIV. Tlie Revolution under the Gracchi . . . .354 XXV. The Leadership of Marius and Sulla . . . .364 XXVI. The Growth of Imperialism — Pompey and Ctesar . 375 XXVII. The Last Struggle for the Empire — Antony and Octavius 393 PERIOD IV. The Roman World under the Empire (31 B. C.-395 A. D.) XXVIII. The Empire under Augustus (31 b. C.-14 a. d.) . . 407 XXIX. The Development of the Early Empire . . .419 ^ XXX. The Later Empire of Diocletian and Constantine . 455 yXXXI. Distinctive Features of the Roman Empire . . . 470 PERIOD V. The Dissolution of the Roman Empire (395-800 A. D.) XXXII. The German Occupation of the West . . . .482 XXXIII. The Roman Empire in the East 498 XXXIV. The Growth of the Carolingian Empire . . .508 Appendix — A Classified List of Books on Ancient History . . 525 Index 537 ANCIENT HISTORY CHAPTER I INTKODUCTION— GENERAL CHARACTER OF ANCIENT HISTORY I. Or History in General Meaning of History. — We may perhaps define history in the briefest way by saying that it is the record of human progress. The study of history enables us to see how the world in which we live to-day has come to be what it is. By this study we learn that the ideas, the customs, and the institu- tions which we possess in the present, have grown out of what men already possessed in the past. Hence we study the ages which have gone before us, in order that we may understand the age in which we live. It has been said that "to know what man is we must know what man has been.'' History, therefore, in the broadest sense of the word, deals with the progress of mankind — ^the successive stages of human develop- ment. We must not think that it is chiefly a story of wars and battles; it is rather a record of the steps by which men have advanced from barbarism to civilization — by which they have been raised from a lower to a higher plane of existence. Sources of Historical Knowledg-e. — As we begin our study of history, we may ask the question. How can we know the past — how can we find out anything about the men who lived ages ago? We may perhaps best answer this question by first 8 INTRODUCTION asking a simpler one. How, for example, do we know any- thing about our own ancestors, whom no person now living has ever seen? In the first place, we may have heard stories about them, which have been handed down from generation to generation. In the next place, we may have pictures or heir- looms or other relics which they once possessed and which re- veal something regarding their looks, their tastes, and their character. Finally, we may have in our possession letters or other documents which they themselves have written, or which others have written about them. By such means we are able to learn something about the persons who have lived in the past and whom we have never seen. It is in fact by methods quite similar to these that we get our knowledge of the past ages of mankind. We may in a similar way group the sources of our historical knowledge as follows: ■J|i) Oral traditions, or stories, myths, folklore, and legends which have been handed down from generation to generation. These are valuable as evidences of what people have believed; although we cannot place much reliance upon them as evidence of what has really happened. (2) Material remains, or relics of the past, such as stone and metal weapons and other implements, buildings, sculp- tures, vases, coins, and other works of art which bear the im- press of the character of the peo])le that produced them. (3) Written records, such as inscriptions, manuscripts, and books, written either by those living at the time of the events described, or by those living at a later period but having knowledge of such events. Stages of Human Progress. — From the study of such sources it has been found that mankind has passed through various stages of development — from savagery to barbarism, and from barbarism to civilization. Our knowledge of the earliest stage of human progress is derived somewhat from traditions, but more largely from material relies. These reveal a very prim- itive condition, in which men evidently lived in caves or in the GENERAL CHAHACTER OF ANCIENT HISTORY 9 shelter of rocks and trees; in which they obtained their food by hunting and fishing, and made tlieir implements from rougli or polished stone. This primitive stage has been called the Age of Savagery, or the Age of Stone. The discovery and use of the metals — such as copper, tin, silver, gold, and iron — mark a higher stage of progress. Now men began to show greater mechanical skill, to manufacture many new articles, both for use and for ornament, which added to their comfort and hapj^iness. They began to live in artifi- cial dwellings, such as touts and hovels of wood or clay, and to obtain their living bv the domestication of animals and the Early Stone Implements cultivation of the soil. Tliis stage has been called the Age of Barbarism, or the Age of Metals — including the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. The use of a well-defined written language may be said to mark the dawn of civilization. From this time men have gradually advanced in industry and commerce, in the arts and sciences, in language and literature, in government and laws, and in all those things which belong to the higher physical, intellectual, and social life. Divisions of General History. — In studying the facts and movements of history, it is customary to arrange them in cer- PROa-RESSIVE ISIJ^T* JSTo.l. w 9 o Pi - i - \. N < Oj -IS 5 z 5lS 1 s e z o H o ^:J. s snn n n s GENERAL CHARACTER OF ANCIENT HISTORY 11 tain divisions or periods. This is well enough, if we do not suppose that there is any sharp dividing line which separates one period from another. In spite of revolutions and the rise and fall of nations, the course of history has been continuous. The " periods " of history are not separated by gaps or breaks, but rather are successive phases of development merging grad- ually one into another. Bearing this in mind, we may first arrange the general history of the world into two great divi- sions — ancient and modern. Ancient history begins with the dawn of civilization, and traces the progress of mankind among those nations which have now ceased to exist — or at least have ceased to contribute anything to the world's progress. Modern history, on the other hand, deals with the origin and growth of those nations which still exist and are still working out the problems of a higher world life.^ In making this division between ancient and modern history we must remember that these two great periods of history are closely related to each other. Indeed, the' great interest which we have in ancient history is due to the fact that a large part of our present ideas, customs, and institutions have descended to us from the peoples who flourished in ancient times. II. The Field oe Ancient Histoey Geography and History. — It is a fact familiar to us all that men are influenced to a large extent by their surround- ings — ^that is, by the localities in which they are placed. s/One of_the_cpn^di1dons^ tiie_^^^ proui-c:^^ is a favorable enviromuent. yTTence the study of geography is closely related to the study of history. We know, for example, that men are greatly affected by the climate in which they live. Too much 1 The term "mediaeval history," or the "middle ages," is often applied to the formative period of modern nations, extending from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century, or from the establishment of the Empire of Charlemagne in the eighth century, down to the fifteenth or the sixteenth century. 13 INTRODUCTION heat, or too much cold, tends to weaken or benumb their powers. A temperate climate is most favorable to progress. Moreover, men are most likely to advance in those places where they can obtain the best means of living — where the soil is most fertile, and where the earth furnishes the largest amount of natural resources, and also where peoples can most easily exchange their products with one another by land or by water routes. On the other hand, the progress of man may be obstructed by unfavorable surroundings. A barren soil tends to keep men in poverty and misery. Mountain barriers often hem them in and narrow their lives. And so in the early periods of history, especially, man is largely the creature of his environment. But with the growth of a higher civilization he may rise above nature, and become to a certain extent its master. The Historical Zone of the Ancient World. — It is in the Old World that we find the first traces of civilization; and the field of ancient histiu-y comprises those parts of Af ncaj^ Asia, and Europe tluit have temperate climates and are drained by great rivers or border upon the sea. -jTo bring more clearly before our minds the geographical limits of ancient history, let us mark out on the map that strip of territory which was best fitted for human progress and upon which the old civiliza- tions flourished. This strip we may call " the historical zone of the ancient world " (see colored portions of the map on page 10). Beginning at the Yellow Sea on the coast of China, let us follow along the line of the Iloang River, then westward along the mountain chains of the Hima'layas, the Hindu-Kush, and the Cau'casus, and finally along the banks of the Danulie and the Rhine rivers to the North Sea — and the line thus traced will mark the northern boundary of this historical zone. Its southern boundaries are, in general, the shores of the Indian Ocean and the deserts of Arabia and Africa. The lands within this zone, in respect to climate and soil, present the conditions most favorable for human development; and GENERAL CHARACTER OF ANCIENT HISTORY 13 they became in ancient times the homes of civilized peo- ples. These peoples, liowever, were not equally progressive, and they did not reach the civilized stage at the same time. The Centers of Ancient Civilization. — This strip of terri- tory, stretching from the Pacific to the Atlantic, we may sep- arate into different areas, which formed to a certain extent distinct centers of civilization. Farthest to the east is China, drained by two great rivers, the Hoang and the Yangtze. Its remote situation and the barriers on the west formed by the spurs of the Himalayas, combined to make this land the most isolated of the civilized lands of the Old World. To the west of China lies India, also drained by two great rivers, the Indus and the Ganges, which rise among the slopes of the Himalayas and flow in different directions to the sea. These two coun- tries — China and India — stood nearly alone in ancient times, separated from the peoples of western Asia by the wide, diy plateau of Iran', and hence these countries did not exercise a great influence upon the ancient world. As we leave the Far East and pass to the West we come to two of the most remarkable valleys of the world — that formed by the Tigris and Euphra'tes rivers and that formed by the river Nile — the one pouring its waters into the Persian Gulf and tlie other into the Mediterranean Sea. Both of these val- leys were gifted with a rich alluvial soil, which favored the early development of industry among the inhabitants. These two centers were at first separated from each other by the in- tervening desert of Arabia, but after a time their inhabitants were brought into contact by way of Syria, so that the cur- rents of their history often flowed together. \/ J But the most important center of ancient civil ization was the^ Mediterranean Sea. VThis body of water formed the world's greatest highway. It was taken possession of succes- sively by the Phoeni'cians, the Greeks, and the Romans, and became an important factor in the development of a wider world commerce and a higher world culture. 14 INTRODUCTION III. Races and Peoples of the Old World Race Characteristics. — The progress of mankind has been influenced not only by geographical conditions; it has also been influenced by the traits and qualities which peoples have inherited from their ancestors. The physical and men- tal peculiarities, the ideas and customs, which are trans- mitted from age to age, have contributed much to human progress. These inherited cjualities we may call " race char- acteristics." There have been many attempts to find a scientific distinc- tion among the ditt'erent races of mankind. They have, for example, been classified according to color, into the white or Caucasian race, the black or Negro race, and the yellow or Mongolian race. They have also been classified according to the shape of the head, the texture of the hair, and other physi- cal features. Science has attempted in this way to discover the pure, or original, races of mankind. But, as a matter of fact, the various peoples of the world have become so intermingled that it is difficult to determine what are the pure, or original, races, and to distinguish them from the mixed, or secondary, races. History deals not simply with the original races, but with the secondary races as well. It looks upon a " race " as any people, whether pure or mixed, having the same inherited characteristics — a common language, common customs and institutions, which are transmitted from generation to gen- eration, and which furnish the basis of a distinct tvpe of civilization. Classification by Color and Language. — The most usual and perhaps convenient way of classifying the various peoples of the world is to group them first by color. Thus we have (1) the black or Negro race, (2) the yellow or Mongolian race, and (3) the white or Caucasian race. The black race, which is found chiefly in Africa, in Australia, and in the neighbor- ing islands, stands lowest in the scale of human beings and GENERAL CHARACTER OF ANCIENT HISTORY 15 has made no real contributions to the civilization of the world. The yellow or Mongolian race, which has occupied the central and eastern parts of Asia, has made some advance in the arts of civilized life. But it early became stationary and its con- tributions to human progress have been few. Of this race the most important in ancient times were the Chinese. The most progressive peoples of the world have belonged to the white or Caucasian race. y These peoples in ancient times occupied the most favore d lands of tlie Old World — the valleys of the EupKrates and the._Isrile, and the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. Ancient history is , for_the most part, the record of the progress .ofJhese^geoplgSjv/ \\lien we attempt to arrange the C*aucasian peoples into distinct groups, we find it difficult, because they came into con- tact with one another and were often intermingled, so as to form mixed or secondary races. It is, therefore, usual to group these peoples, not according to their physical character- istics, but according to their language. The study of lan- guage, or philology, thus becomes an aid to the study of his- tory. Peoples who speak the same language, although they may be " mixed," are closely related to one another in their culture and their historical development. By the study of their different languages, we are able to group the white peo- ples in subdivisions which are not only convenient but also useful for historical purposes. "< The Cauc asian race is thus subdivided into the Hamit'ic, the Semitic, ancPEEe~Ar yan or Indii-lviiiopean peoples — or "races," if we wish so to call them. , The Hamitic Race. — In early times, the Ham'ites probal^ly occupied all the northern coasts of Africa. But it was only in Egypt, on the fertile banks of the ISTile, that they found the conditions most favorable to their development. In this re- stricted habitat they put to the highest use the resources of nature and attained to a high place among the nations of antiquity. 16 INTEODUCTION The Semitic Peoples. — The original home of the Seni'ites was probably in Arabia. This remarkable race furnished some of the most important historical peoples of the ancient world. The Babylonians and the Assyrians settled in the Tigris- Euphrates valley ; and the Hebrews and the Phoenicians found a home on the eastern shores of the ]\Iediterranean.yU£ro in the Ph_cenicians__sprang the Carthaginians, who founded a com- mercial empire on the nortliein coasts of Africa. y' In later times, the Arabians built up a great ]\Iohammedan empire, which covered the western part of Asia and the northern part of Africa and encroached upon tbe southern countries of Europe. The Aryan or Indo-European Peoples.-z£Tlj§--P6ople jthat 1 carried ancient civilization to its highest stage were the i Aryans"" or"Tndo-Europeans. / Where was 'the original home of this people is a matter of doubt — perhaps in central Asia, but quite as likely in southeastern Europe. In ancient times they spread to the eaM and to the west until they extended from the Ganges Biver to the Atlantic Ocean. In their progress they mingled with other peoples whom they con- quered and absorbed. /But wherever they Avent tliey preserved tlie marks of their common language and of their common primitive culturcw'^ro this i)co])l(' Ix'long the Hindus of India, the Medes and Persians of central Asia, and the Greeks and the'Eomans of southern Europe. ,The Indo-European peoples alsolnclude the Slavs, the Germans, and the Celts of northern and western Europe, whose history, however, is not so im- portant in the ancient period.^ / Phases of Ancient Culture. — We have thus pointed out the various lands in the ancient world most favorable to progress, and the chief races and jieoples which occujued these lands. Now, as we look over the development of these various peoples, we may distinguish three great types or phases of civilization, 1 The !?eneral progress of the great historical nations has heen from the East to the West, or from the Orient to the Occiden tTTLAjici£|itjaLy.ilization _ first appeared in Asia, and reached its highest development in BuKge. But tlie student will note exceptions to this rule as we proceed. y(^ GENERAL CHARACTER OF ANCIENT HISTORY 17 namely, the Oriental, the Greek, and the Eoman.^ By study- ing these phases of ancient culture, we shall see the successive steps by which men emerged from barbarism and entered upon a higher physical and intellectual existence. In the Oriental world we shall see the beginnings of civi- lized life — the first successful efforts of man to subdue the earth and to utilize the resources of nature; the beginnings of sci- ence and of a well-defined written language; the first evidences of architectural skill in the construction of great buildings; and the first marked tendency in the direction of great em- pires and of centralized governments. In the GreeJc world we shall see a finer type of humanity: a versatile intellect, expressed in exalted works of philosophy and literature; a refined sesthetic taste, embodied in the most beautiful specimens of architecture and sculpture;, and a strong love of free dom, shown in the de velopment ^ of democratic i nstitut i ons. ) ^ In the Eoman world we shall see a more practical genius and a more vigorous manhood; a great capacity for military and political organization; a broad sense of civil justice, ex- pressed in an enduring system of law; a wide cosmopolitan spirit, capable of appropriating the ideas of other peoples — in short, a civilization which expressed the highest unity and broadest culture of the ancient world. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW I. Of Histoky in General. — Meaning- of History. — Sonrces of Historical Knowledge. — Stages of Human Progress. — Divisions of General History. II. The Field of Ancient History. — Geography and History. — The Historical Zone of the Ancient World. — The Centers of Ancient Civilization. ^ These successive phases of civilization furnish the basis of our divisions of ancient history. Other divisions, however, niisjht be adopted. For example, since the earliest civilization was developed by the Oriental nations, fUid^Jlns__was__tal,ififljiE„ by the c/ass/co? nations of Greece and Ro me, v^'hose cu l, tj rff-aLa^ ^fter.wni-d transmilted to the drniHiii peoples, we mlgnt divide ancient history into' tlir (irii'iital, i lassii al. and Germanic periods. - ■'-*'»'~.»«.-a«„ 18 INTRODUCTION III. Races and Peoples of the Old World. — Race Character- istics. — Classification by Color and Language. — Tlie Hamitic Race. — The Semitic Peoples. — The Aryan or Indo-European Peo- ples. — Phases of Ancient Culture. REFERENCES FOR READING Fisher, pp. 1-16, "Introduction" (1).' Bourne, Ch. 5, "The Value of History" (3). Diesterweg-, Ch. 1, "Meaning- of History"; Ch. 2, "Uses of His- tory"!;:^). Ducoudray, Ancient Civilization, Ch. 1, "The Beginnings of Civ- ilization" (1). Hoernes, Sec. 3, "Characteristics of Human Culture" (2). Tylor, Anthropology, Ch. 1. "Man, Ancient and Modern" (2). Keary, Ch. 5, "The 'Nations of the Old World" (2). Clodd, Primeval Man, Ch. 3, "The Ancient Stone Age" (2). Starr, Ch. 3, "Food-Getting" (2). Joly, Part II., "Primitive Civilization" (2). Encyclopaedia Britannica, Art. "Geography" (for geographical ideas of the ancients). Ravsdinson, Ancient History, pp. 24-35, "The Geography of Asia" (1). iThe figure In parenthesis refers to the number of the topic in the Appendix, where a fuller title of the bools will be found. THE ORIENTAL WORLD CHAPTER II THE FIRST EMPIRES— P:AELY BABYLONIA AND EGYPT I. The Early Babylonian Empire The First Centers of Civilization. — In beginning our study of the Oriental world, we may ask, In what part of the East did men first rise from barbarism to a civilized life — in other words, where did civilization first appear? We cannot answer this question with certainty. We may be quite sure, however, that it was either in Babylonia in the lower Euphrates valley, or in Egypt in the valley of the Nile. It has long been sup- posed that Egypt was the oldest civilized country. But the most recent excavations have brought to light some indications that the people who lived in the Euphrates valley used a writ- ten language and reached a condition which might be called civilized, even before these results were attained by the Eg)^p- tians. However this may be, these two valleys — that of the Eu- phrates and that of the Nile — formed at first two distinct cen- ters of civilization. Separated as they were by an intervening- desert, the Egyptian and Babylonian peoples took the first steps in the direction of a more civilized life, each unaided by the other. For a long period of time they were isolated from each other. It was only when they had each broken through their early boundaries and extended their conquests along the 19 PROGRESSIVE jVLAP ISTo.S. EAELY BABYLONIA AND EGYPT 21 eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea — that is, in Syria — that their civilizations met and were mingled together. The first to extend their conquests to this middle land of Syria were the Babylonians. Whether or not they were the first to emerge from barbarism, the Babylonians, or the peoples of the Tigris- Euphrates valley, were the first to extend their culture to lands beyond their own, and to obtain importance as a civilizing people. The Tigris-Euphrates Valley. — The Tigris and Euphrates rivers, rising in the mountains of Armenia, flow southward and pour their united waters into the Persian Gulf. The val- ley formed by these rivers may be divided into two parts — the southern or the lowlands, and the northern or the high- lands. The southern part, which has received the name of Babylonia, has its chief historical center at Babylon on the Euphrates. Its most marked features are its soft climate and its rich alluvial soil. The northern part of the valley, called Assyria, had its chief center first at Assur on the Tigris, and afterward at Nin'eveh on the same river. Its climate was more rugged than that of the south; and its land, though less fertile, furnished large supplies of minerals and precious stones. It was the people who found their way into tlie southern part, or the lower valley, that first developed a civilized state. It is probable that this lower valley was in very ancient times settled by an earlier, non-Semitic race — usually known as the Acea'dians — who laid the basis of the Babylonian culture. ^JBut ^le te r ritory became a t last the home of a Semitic people^Vho" probably cameT fom Aval)!:!, ^^]lo coikiikm-im] aiid ahsoilicd flic earlier peoples, i:a1aiig u] ) their customs and institutions, and Jjgconi ing the dnrrnT|flTif rnn> \[ is this mixed ])eople that we call the Babylomans.xNir hi' date of tlic earliest occupation of i^ountry bylhe Si^fhites cannot he accurately fixed; but it can hardly be iaterj han odoo n. c. Not many years ago our knowledge of this ancient people was derived chiefly from the Greek historian Herod'otus and MOREY'S ANCIENT HIST. 2 22 THE ORIENTAL WOELD the Chaldffi'an priest Bero'sus. The accounts of these writers, so far as the earliest history was concerned, were based upon traditions, which were of course not very trustworthy. In re- cent years, however, our knowledge has been greatly increased and made more definite by the large number of excavations made among the ruins of ancient cities. The remains of pal- aces and temples have been brought to light, and inscriptions have been deciphered which show the great antiquity of this people, and reveal much regarding their history, their arts, and their institutions. The Early City States : Sargon I.— The first light that falls upon the Eu|)]irat('S valley reveals the existence of many cities of more or less iuiportance, each under its own government and ruled by its own king.^ At a very early day tlic rulers of some of these cities sought to establish something like an impe- rial government, by bringing other cities und(>r their power. So far as we know the first successful attempt to create an empire was made by 8argon I., king of Accad (or Agade), who flour- ished in 3800 B. c. — the first autlientic date, it is said, in the world's bistory. With Accad as his capital Sargon extended his authority to the upper part of thcMesopotamian valley and as far west as the Mediterranean Sea. Other cities, like Ur and Babylon, afterward vied with one another in taking the lead. But the early cities of Babylonia finally (about 2300 b. c.) passed under the foreign dominion of the E'lamites — a people who came from east of the Tigris. Hammurabi and the Old Babylonian Empire.- — Although the earliest empire of Babylonia was really established l3y Sar- 1 A few of these ancient cities were Sippar. Accad, Babylon. Nippnr, Tello (ancient Laiiash), and Ur (see map, p. 20). = The old Babylonian empire is sometimes called the "Chaldsean," becanse it arose in the lower valley, near the home of the Chaldtrans. But it is quite certain that the ("hald.Tans (Kaldl) did not appear in Babylonia until after the fall of the old empire, and durins the time of the Assyrian ascendency. See Coodspeed, History of the Babylonians and Assyrians, pp. 181, 211, 23G, :'.r)l ; also Philip Smith, Ancient History of the East, p. 242. , EAELY BABYLONIA AND EGYPT 23 gon I., the most prosperous period of what is usually called the " Old Babylonian Empire " began with Hammura'bi, one of the greatest of ancient kings. He not only drove out the Elamites, but he again brought the whole territory under a single rule (about 2350 b. c). He made the city of Babylon his capital, and labored for the welfare of his people. He con- structed dikes to prevent the overflow of the Euphrates, and built a network of canals to irrigate the arid lands. The most remarkable monument of this king is the " Code of Ham- murabi," which has been but recently discovered, and is re- garded as the oldest code of laws in the world. During this most prosperous period of its history, the early Babylonian em- pire was not devoted to the arts of war so much as to the arts of peace. The people were more active in subduing nature than in conquering their neighbors; and hence we find that they made great progress in the development of a civilized life. The Kassite Conquest. — In later years (about 1700 b. c.) Babylonia fell under the foreign rule of the Kassites — a bar- barous people from the east of the Tigris, of a race kindred to the Elamites. During the long period in which Babylonia was ruled by foreign kings, it is well to notice that the civiliza- tion already developed was not destroyed. On the contrary, the Kassites adopted the culture which they found in the Eu- phrates valley, and became themselves civilized. They took up the customs of the Babylonians, tlieir laws, their religion, their science and arts, and preserved them for future generations. Babylonian Industry and Art. — The life and progress of the Bal)ylonians were greatly influenced by the country in which they lived. Their civilization was based upon the char- acter of their soil, which was made fertile by the waters of the Euphrates. They were primarily a pastoral and agricultural people, grazing their flocks and herds upon the natural pas- tures of the valley, or raising Ijy artificial means the grains and fruits necessary for food. They dug canals to irrigate the out- 24 THE OEIENTAL WOKLD lying fields. In the absence of stone and timber they built their houses of clay which became hardened in the sun.-^vjhey soon learned Jo manufacture _briclj§3.lirned in the kiln, from which lliry cDiistrueted their morejmixirtaiit l)uildings.\j^Jhe wool shorn from thoir flocks thcv wove into i-lnth> and'rusrs. ■■■■-■- " ■ " " '^ ^ As they extended their territory up the valley they oljtained' ' supplies of wood, metals, and precious stones, and from these tliey wrought new articles for use as well as for ornament. There thus arose a class of traders and merchants, who ex- changed the native products of the lower Eu- Seal phrates with the products of other lands. The Babylonians developed remarkable skill in the working of clay and metals, and also in the carving of precious stones — which acquired the character of a fine art. This is seen in their vases of alabaster, of terra-cotta. and of silver., their statuettes of copper and bronze, and especially in their fine intaglio work cut in on3^x, jasper, and other precious stones. The intaglio work was often cut upon cylinder seals, which revolved upon a metallic axis and were used to authen- ticate legal documents. Babylonian Government and Laws. — The government of Babylonia centered about the king. From the time of the early city kings to the imperial monarchy of Hammuralu we do not find that the people had any share in the government, ^he king was the source of all authority. He was supposed to de- rive his authority from the gods.^^'He was the one to determine wliat was necessary for the welfare of the^jgeople.vlt was under his direction that the wars were carried on, the public works were constructed, the lands were irrigated, the palaces and tem- ples were built, and the laws were administered. The character of the Babylonian laws is seen not only in the recently discovered code of Hammurabi, which we have referred to, but also in the legal documents inscribed on In-ick tablets. These show the rules relating to marriage and divorce, property EARLY BABYLOXIA AND EGYPT 25 and inheritance, partnership and loans, and also the pen- alties for theft, assault, housebreaking, and other crimes. The advanced character of these laws is evident from the fact that nearly all business transac- tions required the use of written con- tracts. Babylonian Writing and Litera- ture. — The ^\Titing employed by the Babylonians was peculiar to this part of the Orient. It is what is called " cune'iform." because expressed in wedge-shaped characters (from cuneus, a wedge). The writing took this shape because the only writing material of the lower valley was the clay tablet, and because the instrument used in writing was a three-cornered stylus, a sort of gouge, which made a wedge-shaped mark on the surface of the moistened clay. The cuneiform characters were probably first used by the Accadi- ans; but they were employed by all the peoples of the middle Orient: not only I^y the Babylonians, but afterward by the Assyrians, and by the Medes and the Persians. The clay tablets, thus inscribed with cuneiform characters, were baked in a peculiar way, making them almost indestructible. Thousands of the tal)lets have been unearthed, revealing the thought and spirit of this ancient people. They con- tain writings on religion and science, history and law, also hymns, penitential psalms, and epic poems. They show the beliefs of tlie people in the form of myths and Ax IXSCKIPTIOX IN Cuneiform Babylonian Cylinder (Supposed to represent "The Fall.") 26 THE ORIENTAL WORLD legends. Some of these stories bear a striking likeness to the stories preserved in the Hebrew Scriptures — such as the ac- counts of the Garden of E d e n, the Deluge, the Tower of Babel, and the con- fusion of tongues. Babylonian Relig^ion and Science. — The Babylonians wore deeply imbued with a religious spirit, tainted with -• — .^ a large amount of supersti- Babylonian Goddess, Ishtar tion. Their religion was a (Prom an Assyrian cyHnder) t i i n p , com])iicated form ot nature worship. Their supreme deities were the gods of the heaven, the earth, and the sea {Ann, Bel, and Ea). Other olijects of worship were the sun, the moon, and the several planets. Ishtar, wlio corresponded to the planet Venus, was the favorite goddess, and was sometimes called " the Queen of Babylon." The people believed that every ol^ject has its spirit, good or evil, and that these spirits can be appeased only by the priests and sorcerers through charms and magic rites.V- JTlie future jife^^ accoi-ding to their belief, is in a dark and gloomy abode, .witliout happiness or hope. N^J^ As the greater gods were sup- posed to dwell in tlie heavens, the temples (which were con- structed of brick) were built in the form of towers, with a num- ber of receding stories, reaching toward the sky. Upon the sum- mit of the temi)le tower was an image of the god to whom the temjilo was dedicated. The temples were presided over by the priests, who, on account of their su]iposed nearness to the gods, were able to exercise a great influence over the people. Form of the Temple Tower EARLY BABYLONIA AND EGYPT 27 The science of the Babylonians was closely connected with their religion. As the gods were supposed to preside over the movement of the heavenly bodies, the position and motion of these bodies were matters of deep concern. From their obser- vations the priests developed a system of astrology, by which it was thought that the will of the gods could be determined and human events could be predicted. As they discovered the reg- ular movement of the heavenly bodies, they acquired some knowledge of astronomical science. They marked out the con- stellations and the signs of the zodiac. They di- vided the year into months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, and seconds. They measured the hours of the dayJ iy the sundial, and the hours of the night by the water clock . In their mathematics they adopteTl the decimal notation; but they als o introduced the '" soxnL;isiin:il "" sy>t(Mii. tliat is. tln^ system based on tlir niiinlicr >ixiy. wliicli we liavi' imTei'ltecTTrom lliciii in our division of tlir linui' and the minute into sixty parts.sjTlie accompany- ing diagram shows the Babylonicin numerals from one to ten, expressed in cuneiform characters. Be- sides acquiring considerable knowledge of mathe- matics, this people were the first to devise a reg- ular system of weights and measures. The progress made by the early Babylonians in architecture, science, and the mechanic arts ex- ercised a great influence upon later nations. In- deed, it would 1)0 difficult to overestimate the importance of these early steps in the world's civilization. II. AxciE.xT Egypt The Valley of the Nile. — The second great people of the Oriental world were the Egyptians. Although far removed from the Babylonians, and for a long time unacquainted with 1 I 2 rr 3 ITT 4 m 5 W G '^ 7 T 8 YY 9 YTY 10 < CrxEiFORii: Numerals 38 THE OEIENTAL WORLD them, the ancient Egyptians were not behind their distant rivals in developing the arts of civilized life. The early prog- ress of Egypt was due to the favoi'able conditions furnished by the river Nile. What the Euphrates was to Babylonia, the Nile was to Egypt. The N^ile is one of the longest rivers of the world; rising in the distant lakes of central Africa, it pursues a course of about •iOOO miles on its way to the sea. But the part of the valley occupied by the Egyptian people extended only about six hun- dred miles from the mouth of the river — to the rapids called the " first cataract," on the borders of Ethiopia. The valley is inclosed on either side by low ranges of mountains, which furnish stone suitable for building; and it is well to notice that this abundant supply of stone gave to the Egyptians a great advantage over the Babylonians, who were obliged to use the less durable materials, clay and brick, for building. The valley of the Nile is only about seven or eight miles in width — except at the Delta, where it spreads out into an open plain.'/ Not only has this valley hem cut l)y the Nile, but its fertilitj is due to the annual overflow of the river, for the cli- mate is dry and rain rarely falls. ■)4'his river is also the great highway of Egypt, affording a ready means of communication from one part of the country to another. The fertile soil of Egypt was especially suitable for the raising of vegetables and grain. Kice, oats, barley, and wheat grew there in great abundance, so that the country became the granary of the ancient world. Egypt may be divided into two principal parts. (1) The lower, or northern, part includes the extended plain about the Delta, where the soil is most fertile, and where the earliest civilization was developed. It was here that the first empire was established, with its center at Memphis. (2) The upper, or southern, part includes the rest of the valley as far as the " first cataract." This formed a second area of civilization, with its center at Thebes. In either direction from these two EAELY BABYLONIA AND EGYPT 29 centers the banks of the Nile became dotted with a multitude of towns and villages, each one of which was a seat of industry and art. The People of the Nile. — As to the origin of the Egyptian people we have very little definite knowledge, except that they belonged for the most part to the Hamitic race. It is supposed that in the earliest times — during the Stone Age — the land was inhabited by an uncivilized black people^v ho wer e con- quered by t he Hamites co mi ng from the lands ^Iong the souH? ern co asts of the Ked iJea, eith er from eastern'~\"f rica "or from souihwestern ArabiatVl^t ^^qalso siij)pnse(1 liy some writers that the early Hamites, bei bre com ing into I'-gypt, were ;ic(|u;iiiitri] with the primitiv e cultureof llu' jicopic li\iiig in the Tigris- Euphrates_ v alley. But whatcNcr may ])v said I'cgnrdingthe" origin of th e l\g\ptiaii ])c(iplc is very largt'l\- a matter of jCfinjeeiurg^ Periods of Egyptian History. — Formerly the chief sources of our knowledge of Egypt were, first, the Greek historians, especially Herodotus, who visited Egypt in the fifth century B. c. ; and, second, the Egyptian priest Man'etho. who lived in the third century b. c, and who wrote a history containing a list of the various dynasties and kings, but whose work has reached us only in fragments. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, however, a vast amount of additional in- formation regarding Egypt has been derived from the inscrip- tions which have been deciphered and the monuments which have been brought to light. With these sources many attempts have been made to reconstruct the chronological history of Egypt. But scholars do not yet agree in regard to the dates of the early Egyptian history. The general divisions of Egyp- tian history and the most important dynasties may be briefly indicated as follows: (1) The Old Empire (about 4000-3700 b. c.) extended from the first dynasty to the tenth inclusive, with the capital at Memphis. The founder of the first dynasty was Me'nes, who 30 THE ORlEiXTAL WORLD is supposed to be the first monarch to bring the whole coimtry under a single government. --^uring tlie time of the old empire the most important dynasty was the fourth, when the great pyramids and the sphinx were built at Gizeh, and the vast Sphinx and Pyramid at Gizeii necropolis, or rock cemetery, was laid out at Sakka'rah^ near Memphis; /The kings of the fourth dynasty are known as the "pA'ramid l)uiklers," the most noted of whom was Khufu (or Cheops). (2) The Middle Empire (about 2700-1670 b. c.) extended from the eleventh to the seventeenth dynasty, with the capital first at Thebes and afterward at Tanis. The most important dynasty was the twelfth, when Egypt reached a high degree of prosperity and many important pul)lic works were constructed, like reservoirs and canals for irrigating the lands not reached by the overflow of the Nile. This dynasty was followed l\y the conquest of Egypt by foreign l)arbarian kings, called the " Hyksos " or Shepherd Kings, who prol)al)ly came from Asia. The rule of the Shepherd Kings extended from the thirteenth EARLY BABYLONIA AND EGYPT 31 to the seventeenth dynasty, and this was the darkest period of Egyptian history. (3) Tlie New Empire (1070-525 b. c.) extended from the eighteenth to the twenty-sixth dynasty (to the time of the Per- sian conquest), the capital being again at Thebes and afterward at Tanis and Sais. During the eighteenth dynasty Egypt recov- ered her independence by driving out the Shepherd Kings. Under Thothmes III. she extended her power over Ethiopia and over Syria as far as the Euphrates and the borders of Asia Minor. This period marks the greatest extent of the Egyptian empire (map, p. 20). By these conquests Egyi^t was brought into contact with tlie culture of the Euphrates valley, and de- rived from the Babylonians a taste for the finer mechanical arts, for Oriental luxury, and for a more palatial architecturevv During the nini'tccntli dyrinsiy, under the ivimw ncd kind's Sofi T. and liis sou Rninc'scs II.. I'lgypt reaped tlie gl(U'ious I'esidts of her j)re\ ions conquests and reached ilie hi-hesi stage of her civiliza-.. tion. «^rom tliis time Kgypt l)egan to decline. In the twenty-fifth dynasty she was conquered by the Ethiopians and afterward by the Assyr- ians. In the tAvent^^-sixth dynasty she reeov- pamfses II ered her independence under the king Psam- met'ichus L, but after a century she was finally reduced to the condition of a Persian ]U'ovince. Egyptian Society and Government. — Egypt, at the dawn of history, had already become a united empire. There is evidence that this first empire, under Menes, had grown ^ The great influence of Babylonia upon Egypt during the eighteenth dynasty is shown in the now famous Tel-el-Amarna Tablets discovered near the Nile in 1887 — about three hundred in all, written in Babylonian char- acters — containing correspondence between the Egyptian king (Amen- ho'tep IV., the "heretic king") and the kings of Assyria and Babylonia; also letters between Egyptian officials, showing that the Babylonian was the official diplomatic language in Egypt at the time. See Goodspeed, Babylonians and Assyrians, p. 134. 32 THE OEIENTAL WORLD u|) from a union of towns and villages which were pre- viously independent, each under its oM'n ruler and priests. These towns became grouped into districts, or " nomes," under local governors; and these in turn were gradually brought under the common authority of a king who ruled over the whole country. The people were not ecjual, but were divided into classes. The upper classes included the priests, whose of- fice was hereditary, and the warriors, who were devoted exclu- sively to military pursuits. The lower classes comprised the common people, including the artisans, the farmers, and the herdsmen. The land was generally owned by the upper classes, and let out to the peasants, who paid their rent in the products of the soil. Above all these classes was the king, or Pha'raoh, who was looked upon as a divine person. He was the fountain of all authority; and the labor, the property, and the lives of the people were at his disposal. The king was assisted in his gov- ernment by a body of councilors, who carried out his will. The highest offices of the state were held by the priests, who were exempted from all taxes and held the best parts of the land. The government was supported by the army, or warrior class, which was also exempt Egyptians Sowing ^^^^^^ ^^^gg ^^^^1 held large landed estates. The great body of government officials preyed upon the common people, who were obliged to furnish their tribute and labor. The government of such a body of taxgatherers and taskmasters necessarily Ix'came corrupt and oppressive. We read of workmen, goaded by tyrannical mas- ters, rising in revolt in the manner of a modern " strike " and refusing to continue their work. Sometimes their tasks were lightened, but quite as often they were made more heavy — as in the case of the Israelites in the time of Moses. E^ptian Industry and Industrial Arts. — The Egyptians, like the Babylonians, were first of all an agricultural people. EARLY BABYLONIA AND EGYPT 33 Egyptian Shoemaker's Shop For regulating and distributing the water supply of the Nile they built canals and reservoirs. The most remarkable of these artificial reservoirs was Lake Moeris, by which a large outlying district was transformed from a desert waste into fertile fields. After their con- tact with the Babylo- nians, the Egyptians acquired great skill in the industrial arts, working in clay, stone, and glass; in wood, ivory, leather, and the textile fabrics; in the coarser metals bronze, lead, and iron; and in the precious metals gold and silver. They exchanged these products with one another, by boats plying the waters of the Nile, which became an artery of commerce. Their com- merce with foreign countries, however, was small. Egryptian Religion and Science. — The religion of Egypt was a strange mixture of various kinds of worship. The lowest form of religion was animal worship, such as was prevalent among the primitive tribes of Africa. The crocodile, the serpent, the hawk, the cow, the cat, and many other animals were held as sacred. For many centuries the bull Apis was worshiped as an important god at Memphis. This Ioav form of worship survived in Egypt even after the development of higher religious ideas. Besides this animal worship we find a complex form of nature worship. The forces of nature were worshiped as gods, and represented in human forms. The mix- ture of these two forms of religion — animal worship and nature worship — is seen in the representation of the gods with human bodies and the heads of animals. The animal features came afterward to be regarded as simply symbolical of spiritual qualities. In the higher Serapis 34 THE OKIENTAL WOELD gods, however, human heads were joined to human bodies. The chief object of nature worship was the sun, the source of light and life, whose journe}^ through the heavens was the cause of day and night and an emblem of life and death. The sun god was worshiped under different names at different places — as Ptah at Memphis, as Amun-Ea at Thebes, as Osi'ris at certain other cities. The gods were often joined in " triads " — the most noted of which was that of Osiris the father, Isis the mother, and ITorus the son. With the recognition of a supreme god, the most learned men of Egypt attained an idea which ap- proached that of monotheism. We sometimes find in the old records such statements as this : " Before all things which Am UN Ptah Judgment of the Soul before Osiris actually exist, and before all beginnings, there is one God, un- moved in the singleness of his own Unity." The Egyptians believed in the continued existence of the soul after death. This belief led to the practice of 'embalming the body of the deceased, that the mummy might be preserved EAKLY BABYLONIA AND EGYPT 35 for the return of the spirit. The Egyptians also believed in a system of future rewards and punishments, and that every soul must be judged before Osiris for the deeds done in the body. The priests of Egypt, who had charge of the religion, were also the learned class. They cultivated philosophy and the various sciences — astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, and medicine — whicli here attained a considerable degree of development. An Egyptian Temple Egyptian Architecture and Monuments. — The religious spirit of the Egyptians was strongly impressed upon their archi- tecture, which consisted mainly of tombs and temples. The buildings for the dead are seen in the rock-sepulchers cut in the sides of the hills which flanked the Nile — for example, the extensive necropolis at Sakkarah (near Memphis). )Q^he^olo.ssal spliinx is perhaps the most ancient example of independent sculpture existing Colossal yTAj'i:K.s of Ramesks 11. jnjlifi-jaiiarldj,^ But a less pretentious form of statuary grew up in the form of portrait statues, which were placed in the tombs to preserve the image of the deceased. Many of these portrait statues show a considerable degree of artistic skill. But Egyp- tian scul])ture came to lose its independent character and to be used for the decoration of buildings. It appears in imnionse figures affixed to tomljs and temples, and also in the multitude EARLY BABYLONIA AND EGYPT Z7 of bas-reliefs which adorned the walls of buildings. These sculptured designs were almost always colored ; and this addi- tion of color to carving was probably the earliest step in the growth of painting. The subjects of these paintings are almost infinite in variety, from the representation of the gods to scenes of domestic life. , The I^]wv|^)tians^also attained some skill in music; they possessed such instruments as the guitar, t"Ke hai-p^and the pipe, and the drum and the trumpet inspired llTe Egyptian sofdieFon hiS^arch'.^T" 'TEgyptlaii Writing and Literature. — The great number of inscriptions cut upon the buildings and monuments indicate the peculiar character of the Egyptian writing, and one of the ways in which records were kept. On account of these inscrip- tions and designs the buildings are veritable books in stone. But they remained practically sealed books until a key was found by which the inscriptions could be deciphered. The " Eoset'ta stone," discovered near one of the mouths of the Nile (1T99), contained a royal decree written in three kinds of characters, the hieroglyphic, the demotic, and the Greek. With this key the French scholar Champollion deciphered the lan- guage (1821), and may be said to have unlocked the treasure- house of Egyptian learning. This line gives an example of the hieroglyphic characters : ^ The written language of Egypt had its origin in picture writing. The most ancient form is the hieroglyphic^ made up of pictures of things and symbols of ideas. The next form is the hieratic, which was used by the priests for executing long records, and hence is a more cursive, or running, form. The final form is called the demotic because it was used by the 1 The line is read from right to left, and is translated thus : "Raising | statue I of king of Egypt | Ptolemy eternal beloved of Ptah." MOREY'S ANCIENT HIST. 3 38 THE OEIENTAL WORLD people. The Egyptian writing contains not only ideographic but also phonetic elements, — that is, the symbols represent not only ideas but sounds, containing the germs of a phonetic alphabet by which words could l)e represented. The Egyptians did not confine their writing to stone; they also used a kind of paper prepared from the papyrus plant. Their literature contained many books upon science and religion; the most re- MUMMY AND -MUilMY CASE markable of these is the so-called "Book of the Dead," which contains descriptions of the future life. The Influence of Egypt. — Egypt held a place in the valley of the Nile somewhat similar to that held by Babylonia in the Tigris-Euphrates valley. Tliey 1)oth represent the early stages in the world's civilization, and contributed much to the progress of later nations. r>ut the culture of Egypt was not at first so widely diffused as was that of Babylonia. Egypt, however, formed one of the great sources of Oriental culture, from which Europe and modern countries have received valu- able materials. Egypt taught the world the principles of a durable architecture. Vlt is true tliat the Babylonians built elabo rate structures of l)i'ick. l)iit ilicsc have Avell-nigh per- ished, while the stone buildings of Egypt have withstood in a wonderful manner the destructive influences of time.>^ In- deed, we nnght say tliat one great difference between the mate- rial civilization of Babylonia and that of Egypt was the fact that one was wrought in clay and the other in stone.si'X^. EAELY BABYLONIA AND EGYPT 39 Greeks, no doubt, derived much of their early knowledge of ar^^ chitecture from the Egyptians. /The Egyptians have also exer- cised a strong intellectual influence upon the world. The progress made by them in some of the sciences — especially in geometry and astronomy — was appreciated by later nations, and formed a basis for further scientific achievements. Their higher religious ideas — for example, their idea of a Supreme Being and of a future life — may have had some influence upon the religion of the Hebrews and even upon that of Chris- tian nations. We may, therefore, look upon Egypt as one of the sources of modern thought and culture. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW I. The Eatily Babylonian Empire. — The First Centers of Civilization. — The Tigris-Euphrates Valley. — The Early City States: Sargon I. — Hammurabi and the Old Babylonian Em- pire. — The Kassite Conquest. — Babylonian Industry and Art. — Babylonian Government and I^aws. — Babylonian Writing- and Literature. — Babylonian Religion and Science. II. Ancient Egypt. — The Valley of the Nile. — The People of the Nile. — Periods of Eg-yjjtian History. — Eg-yptian Society and Government. — Eg-yptian Industry and Industrial Arts. — Egyptian Religion and Scieiice. — Egyptian Architecture and Monuments. — Egyptian Sculpture. Painting, and Music. — Egyptian Writing and Literature. — The Influence of Egypt. REFERENCES FOR READING Murison, Babylonia, Ch. 1, "Ancient Babylonia"; Ch. 2, "United Babylonia" (5).' Egypt, Ch. 1, "Introductory"; Ch. 2, "The Ancient King- dom"; Ch. 3, "The Middle Kingdom"; Ch. 4, "Eighteenth Dynasty"; Ch. 12, "The Book of the Dead" (6). Goodspeed, Introduction, Ch. 2. "Excavations in Babylonia and Assyria"; p. 64 (Ur of the "Chaldees") ; also Index, "Ur" CA. Encycloptedia Britannica, Tenth Ed., Vol. 29, "Irrigation" (an- cient and modern). Rawlinson, Vol. T., pp. 67-69, 70-7.1, 82, 86, 279, 340, 384 (uses of clay and brick in the Tigris-Euphrates valley) (4). Ragozin, Chaldea, Ch. 5, "Babylonian Relisrion" V.")). Ducoudray, Ch. 5, "The Monuments and Arts of Egypt" (1). 'The figure in nni-pritlTPSis refers to the number of the topic in the Ap- oendix, where a fuller title of the book will be found. PROGRKSSIVE MAF No. 3. PHCENICIA AND JUDEA 41 Lenormant, Vol. I., Bk. III., Ch. 5, "Civilization, Manners, and Monuments of Egypt" (4). Broughton, pp. 211-250, "The New Empire— XVIIIth and XlXth Dynasties"; pp. -128-450, "The Mesopotainians" (4). Rawlinson, Story of Egypt, Ch. 4, "The Pyramid Builders" (G). Sayce, Ancient Empires, Part I., "Egypt" (4). Maspero, Egyptian Archaeology, Ch. 5, "The Industrial Arts" (6). Smith, P., Ch. 1, ss. ;>, 8 (sources and inundations of the Nile); Ch. 2 (authorities for the history of Egypt); Ch. 3, s. U (the sphinx) ; Ch. U, "Industry, Keligion, and Arts of Egypt" (4). Newberry and Garstang, Ch. 2, "The Archaic Period [of Egypt]" (6). Breasted, Ch. 3, "Earliest Egypt"; see also Index, "Obelisk" (6). Herodotus, Bk. II., Chs. 35-99 (manners and customs of the Egyptians) ; Bk. III., Chs. 147-152 (accession of Psam- metichus) (17). CHAPTER III THE SYRIAN STATES— PHCENICIA AND JUDEA I. PHCENICIA AND AnCIENT COMMERCE Phoenicia and its People. — On the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea was a land which, as we have seen, was the meeting ground of the Babylonians and the Egyptians. For the want of any other common name we call this land Syria. The most important peoples living here were the Phoenicians and the Hebrews, both of whom belonged to the Semitic race. Of these the first to reach an important position in the Oriental world were the Phoenicians. Their home was a narrow strip of territory bordering on the shores of the sea, about one hundred and fifty miles long and from ten to fifteen miles in width, and shut off from the inte- rior of the country by the range of the Leb'anon Mountains. This country, having been conquered in succession by Baby- lonia and Jigjpt, became the common heir of the two older civ- 42 THE ORIENTAL WORLD ilizations. For example, the religion of the Phcenicians was a form of nature worship quite similar to that of the Babylo- nians. Their architecture was, in its main features, modeled upon that of the Egyptians. In their mechanic arts they also showed the same refined skill as their older neighbors. The Phoenicians were distinguished for their glass and metal work, their pottery, their textile fabrics, and especially for their purple dyes, which they obtained from a sea snail that was found along the Mediterranean coasts. Besides obtaining manv scientific ideas from Babylonia and Egypt, they are said to have discovered the relation between the tides of the sea and the motions of the moon. In their limited territory they had no passion for mili- tary glory or political dominion; they pre- ferred to pay tribute to others, and pursue their industry. Their govern- ment was mainly a Shells of the Sea Snail from which II? ' . the Purple Dve avas made government ot separate cities, but sometimes these were grouped into loose confeder- acies. (/Their greatest__cities_were Sidon and Tyre, which were in succession the chief seats of Phoenician civilization, v Plicenician Commercel^^Tire great distinction of this people was their genius for trade and commerce. Upon the sea the Phoenicians established an empire perhaps equal in importance to that which any other Oriental people had established upon the land. The cedars of Lebanon furnished timber for their ships; and with these they became the first masters of the Medi- terranean, and the greatest commercial nation of ancient times. Their fleets established the first commercial intercourse be- tween Europe, Asia, and Africa. They not only exported their own products to other countries, but they became the common PHCENICIA AND JUDEA 43 carriers for the known world. From India they hrought ivory, jewels, spices, and scented wood. From Arahia they brought gold, precious stones, incense, and myrrh. From the coasts of Ethiopia they added to their cargoes of gold and ivory supplies of ebony and ostrich feathers. They brought from the shores of the Baltic yellow amber; from Spain, silver, iron, lead, and copper; from Africa the precious metals; and from Britain tin. Thus the different parts of the world were brought into relation with one another by the Phoenician mariners and merchants. Phoenician Colonies. — To aid in extending their commerce the Phoenicians established trading posts, or colonies, in all the countries visited by their ships and merchants. Not only were these established in the civilized countries of the East for the pur- chase and exchange of wares; they were also established among the uncivilized peoples of the West for ^-7-,_,w_.-- fhe development of the resources ®^^ of new lands. The coasts of ^ Ph(enician Bireme the Mediterranean became dotted with Phoenician colonies. The most famous of these colonies was Carthage (founded about 850 b. c), which itself established a commercial empire on the northern coast of Africa, and which in later times came into a bitter conflict with Rome. The colonies on the Medi- terranean were largely mining stations, where the metals were extracted from the earth for the use of eastern factories. By thus coming into contact with the barbarous people on the European coasts, the Phoenicians diffused among them a taste for the arts of civilized life. They carried not only commodi- ties but culture. They have on this account been called the first "missionaries of civilization." The Phoenician Alphabet. — Perhaps the greatest gift of the Phoenicians to the world was a true phonetic alphabet. It is said that the Phoenicians invented their alphabetical writing as 44 THE ORIENTAL WORLD a common language of commerce. Wher- ever they sailed and carried their cargoes, they also carried their alphabet, which Eenan aptly calls one of their " exports." The alphabet was, however, the result of a long process of growth. The earliest writing was .in the form of pictures to represent material objects, and then in the form of symbols to represent abstract ideas. The Egyptians made great prog- ress by using signs to represent syllables, and afterward to represent elementar}^ sounds {]). ;>S). This was the beginning of alphabetic writing; but the signs used by the Egyptians were very indefinite and largely pictorial ; for example, the sound of .1 was represented l)y the picture of a feather or by that of an ?agle. - C D D D ^ .^ E E -< C F F C G e,H CH H H i 1 1 1 J ^ Jc K l< 1 U l^L L W\ Al M M ^ r/ N M o o P PP P 9 9 9Q Q q PR R R sA/ ^8 ^S S r T T T (;j{OWTII OF TUK Al.PIIAliET II. JUDEA AND THE HEBREWS Tli3 Hebrew Nation. — Not far from Ph(enicia in Palestine there grew up another Semitic nation, which was in many re- PHCENICIA AND JUDEA 45 spects different from every other Oriental people (see map, p. 40). This was the Hebrew nation. Having no great river like that of the Egyptians and that of the Babylonians, and not tak- ing to the sea like the Phoenicians, they did not attain distinc- tion in the industrial or commercial arts. Their greatness did not depend upon art or science, or upon their capacity for po- litical organization. Yet they have perhaps done for civiliza- tion as much as any other people of the East, for they became the moral and religious teachers of the world. Periods of Jewish History.- — No other ancient nation pos- sessed so complete a record as did the Hebrews of the way in which a people has passed from the primitive to the civilized stage. From these records, we learn that their ancestor, Abram, was a Babylonian, tliat he came '(about 3000 b. c.) from Ur, a " city of the Chaldees," that he visited Egypt, and finally settled in Jude'a. His descendants, in the time of a famine, took refuge in Egypt, and became subject to the Shep- herd Kings, who assigned to them a home in lower Egypt (Goshen). Being oppressed by a king of a subsequent dynasty, they were delivered from their bondage by their great leader and lawgiver, Moses, a man skilled in all the learning of Egypt. From this time tlic history of the Jews may be divided into the following periods: (1) From the Exodus to the Establish ment of the Monarchy (1300-1095 B. c). — During this time the people were welded into a nation, with a national law and a national religion, under the statesmanship of Moses. They crossed the Jordan- under their leader Joshua, captured Jer'icho, conquered the surrounding country in Palestine (or Canaan, as they called it), and established a theocratic commonwealth under the rule of officers called " judges." (2) From the EstahUshment of the Monarcliy to the Divi- sion of the Kingdom (1095-975 B. c). — During this period the nation was ruled liy three distinguished kings. The first of these was Saul, who carried on war with the neighboring tribes, 46 THE ORIENTAL WORLD the Am'monites, the Philis'tines, and others. The second king was David, who captured Jerusalem and made it the capital of the kingdom, building a royal palace, with the aid of Phoeni- cian architects. By his conquests he established an empire extending from the Euphrates on the north to the Eed Sea on the south. The third and last king of the united monarchy was Solomon, who gave to the kingdom an air of Oriental mag- nificence. He built a splendid temple at Jerusalem, and ,i ^ ^-*^ ^^fjl [ fll"f ir fmwwwmw w Temple at Jerusalem (Restoration) adorned the city with sumptuous palaces. He formed an alliance with the kings of Tyre, and carried on an extensive commerce with Egypt and tlio East. He amassed enormous wealth and surrounded his throne with pomp and splendor. He married an Egyptian princess, and established a luxurious court like that of the eastern kings. But his glory was pur- chased at the expense of justice and his nation's honor. He laid heavy burdens upon his subjects and impoverished them. He disregarded the laws of Moses, and the Hebrew kingdom became practically an Oriental monarchy like that of Babylon. PHCENICIA AND JUDEA 47 (3) From the Division of the Kingdom to the Babylonish Captivity (975-586 b. c.).— During this time the Hebrew na- tion formed two distinct kingdoms. Ten tribes revolted and formed tlie kingdom of Israel, with its capital at Sama'ria; the remaining two tribes formed the kingdom of Judah, with its ' capital at Jerusalem. The kingdom of Israel was finally con- quered by the Assyrian king Sargon II. (722 b. c), and the people were removed to Nineveh, where they were " lost " as a separate people (see p. 53). The kingdom of Judah was de- stroyed by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar (58G b. c), and the inhabitants were carried away as captives to Baby- lon (see p. 58) ; but they were afterward allowed to return to Jerusalem (537 b. c.) as subjects of Cyrus, the Persian king. The Hebrew Commonwealth. — Before the Hebrew nation passed under a monarchical form of government, their society is of special interest to us, because it was patterned upon a pure democratic type. The Hebrew commonwealth presents the best, and perhaps the only, example of a true democracy among ancient civilized nations before the time of the Greeks. The society was based upon the patriarchal family. The father was head of the family group and priest of the family worship. Parental, marital, and filial duties were the sacred ties of social life. The families were grouped into tribes, each under a patriarchal chief, a council of elders, and a general assembly. The tribes were united into a larger federal com- monwealth, with its judge, who was a patriarchal and military chieftain; its san'hedrim, which was a national senate, or fed- eral council; and its "congregation," which was a popular as- sembly of the tri1)es.% >Each tribe retained the right of l ocal sejf-government, and all its people were equal before the law — except the slaves, who were, however, generally well treated>^ / The decay of the Hebrew commonwealth was due to the influx^ of Oriental ideas, and to the breaking down of the primitive customs of the Hebrew nation. 48 THE ORIENTAL WOKLI) The Hebrew Religion; Monotheism. — In spite of the fact that the people and tlie rulers were often led astray by the influence of foreign religious ideas, still the highest and most distinctive feature of the Jewish civilization was the growth of monotheism. We must judge of the real character of the Jewish religion, not by tlie practices of those who departed from it, but by the teachings of those who were its highest ex- pounders — Moses and the prophets. In these great teachers we find the true idea of monotheism. This is not simply the idea of the Egyptians, that there is one god higher than other ^-.„ gods; it is the idea that there is TJ^^ only one Supreme God. Another " ' '- feature of the Jewish religion was the fact that it was closely linked to morality. Religious worship and moral duty were regarded as two sides of a complete life. The his- tory of the nation was a constant struggle against false ideas of re- ligion and false ideas of morality. When the priests were carried away with the idea that religion con- sisted simply in rites and ceremo- nies, and the kings were seeking the pomp and luxury of the East, and the people were falling into wickedness and idolatry, it was left to the later prophets to become the true expounders of religion and the moral law. The Hebrew Literature; the Bible. — The idea of monothe- ism was the ins] tiring idea of the Heltrew literature, as it was of the Hebrew religion. This literature is contained in what we call the Old Testament, and comprises (1) the Pentateuch, or the legal books; (2) the historical books; ('^) the poetical books; and (4) the books of the prophets. In their literary genius the Hebrews surpassed all other Oriental nations. In the writings of their poets and prophets we find the highest High Priest PHCENICIA AND JUDEA 4^ examples of religious fervor and imaginative description. The Psalms of David, the Book of Job, and the Prophecy uf Isaiah, considered merely as literary compositions, are unsur- passed in the literature of any people. When we consider the writings of the Hebrews and their religious influence upon the civilized world, we must assign to this nation a high place among the historical peoples of ancient times. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW I. Phcentcia and Ancient Commerce. — PhcBnieia and its Peo- ple. — Phoenician Commerce. — Phoenician Colonies. — The Phoeni- cian Alphabet. II. JuDEA AND THE Hekrews. — The Hebrew Nation. — Periods of Jewish History. — The Hebrew Commonwealth. — The Hebrew Religion; Monotheism. — The Hebrew Literature; the Bible. REFERENCES FOR READING Encyelopsedia Britannica, Art. "Phoenicia." Rawlinson, History of Phoenicia, Ch. 18, "Phoenician Manufac- tures" (7).' Lenormant, Vol. II.. Bk. VI., Ch. 4, "Civilization and Influence of the Phoenicians" (4). Sayce, Ancient Empires, Part II., "Phoenicia" (4). Ducoudray, Ch. 4, "Religion and Social State of the Jews"; Ch. 5, "Phoenician Commerce" (1). Broughton, pp. 291-344, "The Phoenicians"; pp. 393-406, "Israel- itish Institutions" (4). Souttar, pp. 191-276, "The Hebrews"; pp. 277-306, "Phoenicia" (1). Milman, History of the Jews, Bk. III., "The Desert" (en passant, idolatry among the Jews) ; Bk. VII., "The Monarchy" (with its Oriental features) (7). Edersheim, Ch. 12, "Sickness and Death" (sanitary features of the Mosaic law) (7). Josephus, Wars, Bk. VI. (siege of Jerusalem by Titus) (9). The Bible, Numbers, Ch. 4 (the Levites and their duties) ; Ezekiel, Chs. 26-28 (exaltation of Tyre). 'The figure in parenthesis refers to the number of the topic in the Ap- pendix, where a fuller title of the book will be found. •PROOrtESSTA^E MAF No. 4. CHAPTER IV THK NEW SEMITIC EMPIRES— ASSYRIA AND LATER BABYLONIA I. Assyria, the First World Empire The Rise of Assyria. — We are now brought to a new period in Oriental history, in which all the previous nations of the East — not only the Phoenicians and the Hebrews, but also the Babylonians and the Egyptians — lose their independence, and become parts of one great world empire. The people who es- tablished this emjjire were the Assyrians. They belonged to the Semitic race, like the Babylonians, and dwelt in the npper part of the Tigris-Euphrates, or Mesopotamian, valley. In the rugged climate of the north they developed a hardy and war- like character. The Assyrians have been compared to the Ro- mans as a military and conquering people. They cultivated the arts of war, having well organized bodies of infantry, cav- alry, and war chariots. The center of Assyrian power was at first the city of As- sur; this was a colony of Babylonia situated on the upper Tigris River and the seat of the worship of the god Assur. The city obtained its independence from Babylonia, and gave the name " Assyria " to the whole surrounding country. After a time, the Assyrian capital was transferred from Assur to Nine- veh (l)y Shalmane'ser I., 1320 b. c); and this new capital be- came the permanent seat of the empire. The external history of Assyria is a history of almost dontinual wars, resulting in the partial success of the Assyrian arms under the first empire, and the final triumph of the Assyrian power under the second empire. 51 THE ORIENTAL WORLD Assyrian War Chariot The First Assyrian Empire (1120-745 b. c). — The founder of the first Assyrian empire was tlie great warrior king of Nineveh, Tiglath-Pile'ser I. (1120 b. c), who suhdiiecT the sur- rounding cities, and carried his arms to the west until after many wars he finally reached the coasts of the Mediterranean. That he looked with satisfaction upon his own acliievements is evident from his in- scription (now pre- served in the British Museum), in which he calls himself " the king of kings, the lord of lords, the ever victorious hero." The merciless character of Assyrian war- fare is seen in the career of another noted king, Assur-nazir-pal (885 b. c), whom, in spite of his fame, we may re- gard as one of the most cruel of con- querors. The lands which he con- quered, he desolated, ravaging the fields and killing the people. In his own words, which have come down to us, we may read his boasting of the pyramids he has built of human heads, of tlie ca])tives flayed alive, and of the children burned to death. The con- quests of these early kings were contin- ued by Shalmaneser II. (8(j0 b. c), whose deeds are recorded on the famous " black obelisk," which he built. On one side of this obelisk we may see a procession of subjects bringing their gifts and trib- ute to the king. The many wars of the period were intended ASSUR-NAZIR-PAL ReHef in British Museum ASSYKTA AND LATER BABYLONIA 53 to bring into subjection the neighboring countries^especially Babylonia to the south, and Syria to the west But these conquests were not permanent, and the first empire fell into a state of decline. The Second Assyrian Empire (745- 606 B. c). — The failure of the first em- pire was due to the lack of an efficient mode of governing the subjects. When a people were once conquered and made tributary, they were left to themselves; and consequently they were tempted to rise in rebellion against the king when he demanded further tribute. This pol- icy was changed by a distinguished king who is regarded as the founder of the second Assyrian empire^ — Tiglath-Pileser III. (745 B. c). This king adopted the policy of organizing the conquered cities into districts, or provinces, each subject to a governor of his own appointment. He also adopted the practice of " depor- Black Obelisk tation "—that is, of scattering rebellious ^^ Shalmaneser IL peoples into different parts of the empire, thus preventing any united efforts at revoltrsiLjnjaccordance with this practice, the next Vin'j:. Sai'uou IT. {]'!'! it. r.), Avhon he liad conquered Samaria, carried away the " Ten Trilies " of T>i'aol into cajjtiviiy and scat- tered them auiong the towns of ]\redia, where they were forever "lost" a? a ►! >T ^^ T ^T ^<'^ chadnez'zar (605 - 561 The Name Nebuchadnezzar in ^; ^■) restored her fallen Cuneiform cities, and made her for a short time the center of Eastern civilization. His dominions extended over the val- ley of the Euphrates and the countries of Syria to the borders of Egypt (see map, p. 50). The Jews who refused to respect his auiliority were treated with severity. Jerusalem was taken and sacked ; and the tribes of Judah were carried away into captivity. The great king rebuilt the city of Babylon, sur- ASSYRIA AND LATER BABYLONIA 59 rounded it with massive walls, and adorned it with sumptuous palaces. TLXo _i'ival the beauties of n ature andtoplease his queen, a Median princess, he built the tamous "han ging £a£- de ns," which were artifi cial hills built in the form of iminense terraces and covered witli luxuriant shrubs and fldwci's. l)ur- ing this brief period of bci- latrr su|)r('inacv i>nl)vliiii attained, in the highest degree, all the luxury and ^Jonip peculiar to Oriental civilization. But Babylon the Great finally fell before the rising power of Persia (538 b. c), which absorbed all the countries of western Asia. The Assyrio-Babylonian Civilization. — We have seen that the Tigris-Euphrates valley was the seat of three successive em- pires; but in their culture these empires may be looked upon as presenting three successive phases of one and the same civ- ilization. The early Babylonians had developed a form of re- ligion, science, and art which shoM^ed the evidence of intellec- tual growth and a certain degree of refinement. The Assyrians took up the culture of the Babylonians, and impressed upon it a political and imperial stamp, such as was naturally de- rived from a great and conquering people. And this imperial character was transferred back to Babylon with the establish- ment of the later empire. So the culture which was finally developed in the Mesopotamian valley was a mingling of Baby- lonian and Assyrian elements. From this brief review we can see that the Tigris-Euphrates valley was one of the great centers of ancient civilization. By its commercial and political relations its culture was extended to the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The religious ideas of its people became the common property of the East; and their notions regarding the origin of the world and the early condition of mankind became entwined with the Hebrew ac- count of creation. Their progress in certain branches of sci- ence, especially in astronomy, formed a contribution to the in- tellectual development of the ancient world. Their skill in some of the industrial arts, such as weaving and the cutting of 60 THE ORIENTAL WORLD intaglios, has scarcely been equaled by modern nations. Their political organization formed the basis of the later imperial systems of the East, which were afterward transferred to Eu- rope under the later Roman empire. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW I. Assyria, the First World P^mpire. — The Rise of Assyria. — The First Assyrian Empire. — The Second Assyrian Empire. — Assyria the Heir of Babylon. — The Assyrian Government. — • Assyrian Architecture; Royal Palaces. — Assyrian Sculjiture and Painting. II. The Later Babylonian Empire. — Recovery of the Empire by Babylon. — Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar. — The Assyrio- Babylonian Civilization. REFERENCES FOR READING Murison, Babylonia and Assyria, Ch. 5, "Consolidation of the Assyrian Empire"; Ch. 14, "Writing- and Literature"; Ch. 15, "Civilization"; pp. 18-20, "The Tel-el-Amarna Tablets" (5).^ Ducoudray, Ch. .3, "The Babylonians and Asf-yrians" (1). Sayce, Ancient Empires, Ch. 2, "Babylonia and Assyria" (4). Goodspeed, Part IT.. Ch. 5, "Early Conflicts of Babylonia and Assyria"; Part III., Ch. 5, "The Assyrian Empire at its Height"; Part IV., Ch. 2, "Nebuchadrezzar and his Suc- cessors" (5). Lenormant. Vol. II., pp. 417-467, "Civilization, Manners and Monu- ments of Assyria" (4). Broughton, pp. 493-508, "Mesopotamian Institutions and Progress" (4). Smith, P., Ch. 17, "The Cuneiform Writing- and Literature" (4). Maspero, Life, Ch. 16, "Assiirbanipal's Library" (4). Rawlinson, Monarchies, Vol. II., 7ip. 516-520, 553 (the hanging gardens and walls of Babylon) (4). Josephus, Antiquities, Bk. X., Ch. 8 (capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar) ; Bk. XL, Ch. 1 (return of the Hebrews from captivity) (9). Herodotus, Bk. I., Chs. l.;i-140 (Persian manners and customs); Chs. 178-1S3 (description of Babylon); Chs. 190, 191 (capture of Babylon by Cyrus) (17). The Bible, IT Kings, Chs. 18, 19 (Sennacherib and Hezekiah); Daniel, Chs. 1-4 (Nebuchadnezzar and Daniel); Ch. 5 (Feast of Belshazzar). 'The figure in parentlipsis refers to the nnmher of the topic in the Ap- pendix, where a fuller title of the book will be found. CHAPTER V THE ARYAN EMPIRES— MEDIA AND PERSIA I. The Akyans and the Median Empiee Beg^inning^ of Aryan Civilization. — We have thus far seen the beginnings and growth of civilization among the Hamitic people in Egypt, and also among the Semitic people who lived in the Tigris-Eu- phrates valley and on the eastern shores of the Medi- terranean Sea. We have noticed the rise and fall of the great empires estab- tablished by these peoples — the early Babylonian, the Egyptian, the Assyrian, and the later Babylonian. lie time has now come ,^.,-. «t!ifllB^||s5>«»y«'Si» **i Statue of the Hindu Buddha tlic masters of the civi- ^^iTlie when t he dominion of 1 1 h ■ Orient passes _ Jjom^ tjie Hamites and the Semites into the Hands o^ Aryan peoples, wild ;ir(.' ll('llccr()l't]l t( lized world. ^- It is true that a part of the Aryan people had already en- tered India, had settled upon the banks of the Indus and the Ganges, and had made some progress in civilization. Cjhese Aryans in .Ipdja were_calle d Hindus. VThey had developed the simple nature worship of their ancestors into a highlv philo- sophical religion called Brahmanism. This was followed by 61 62 THE ORIENTAL WORLD another and simpler form of religion called Buddhism, founded by the great religious reformer Buddha. The iVr- yan Hindus had also produced a literature in the so-called " Vedas " and in certain epic poems which show strong feel- ing and imagination. Finally, they had obtained some scien- tific ideas in astronomy and mathematics, which indicate a cer- tain degree of intellectual progress. But the Aryan Hindus, in spite of their progress in certain directions, were still a con- templative people, lacking the activity and vigor necessary for great political achievements; and hence they exercised little in- fluence upon the general progress of the East. The Medes and the Persians. — The first Aryan peoples who became a real factor in the progress of the ancient world were the Medes and the Persians. They were inspired with the im- perial spirit of the East, and changed the face of the Oriental world. These two peoples were closely related to each other, although they found homes in different regions. They both settled upon the western part of the great plateau of Iran, which lies between the Indus and Tigris rivers; but the home of the Medes was among the higher lands toward the north and west, while that of the Persians was farther south near the shores of the Persian Gulf. In the early periods of their his- tory they had both struggled against the aboriginal peoples of the plain and succeeded in establishing their dominion. Of these two peoples, the Medes were the first to obtain promi- nence by throwing off the yoke of the Assyrians, to whom they had been subject. Fighting for existence against the continual encroachments of Assyria on the west and of the barbarous Scythians on the north, they not only maintained their na- tional life, but developed the military strength which enabled them to conquer their neighbors and to establish an empire. The Median Empire; Cyaxares. — The founder, and in fact tlie only great ruler, of the Median empire was Cyax'ares (625- 585 B. c). He organized the scattered tribes of the country and completed the work begun by previous princes. His mill- MEDIA AND PERSIA 63 tary ability is shown by the fact that he formed his army into regular divisions, each made up of those who were armed with the same kind of weapons. He first drove back the barbarians who were pressing upon his kingdom from the north, and de- livered western Asia from these invaders. He then formed an alliance with the king of Babylonia, as the result of which Nineveh was destroyed and the empire of Assyria was over- thrown (see p. 58). While Nebuchadnezzar was ruling in splendor at Babylon, Cyaxares was extending his dominions. He invaded Asia Minor and pushed his arms to the river Halys, which became the dividing line between his empire and that of Lydia (see map, p. 50). The Median empire, though extensive in its territory, was the shortest-lived of all the great Oriental monarchies. Its chief significance lies in the fact that it prepared the way for the greater empire of the Persians. II. Persia, the Second Woelu Empire The East before the Persian Conquests. — At the death of Cyaxares in the beginning of the sixth century (585 b. c), there were four principal nations of the Oriental world, which wo should keep in mind if we would understand the growth of tlie Persian empire (maps, pp. 50, 66). These were: (1) the Median empire, which had been built up by the prince Cyax- ares, and which extended to the Halys River on the west, to the Caspian Sea on the north, to the Persian Gulf on the south, and to an indefinite boundary line on the east toward the Indus River; (2) the Later Babylonian empire, which, with the aid of the ]\Iedes, had been formed from the dissolution of the empire of Assyria, and which extended from the Tigris River to the shores of the Mediterranean; (3) the Lydian empire, which covered the western part of Asia Minor from the Halys River almost to the ^gean Sea, on the coasts of which had grown up a number of Greek cities; and (4) Egypt, which had recovered its independence under Psammetichus and occu- 64 THE OEIENTAL WORLD pied its original territory in the valley of the Nile. We are now to see how these different countries became absorbed into the one great world empire of Persia. Rise of Persia under Cyrus (558-529 b. c). — Persia had been a small province of the ]\Iedian empire situated on the Persian Gulf. About the middle of the sixth century b. c. a prince, whom we know as Cyrus the Great, revolted from Media and succeeded in redu- cing that state to his own au- thority. Many stories are told about the birth and early life of this great man; but they are largely mytliical, and need not be rehearsed. His chief significance for us is in the fact tliat he created the most pow- erful empire that the world had yet seen, and estaljlished a policy which was destined to bring Asia into conflict with Europe. The growth of this empire resulted from the con- quests made by three Icings — Cyrus, its founder, and his suc- cessors, Camby'ses and Dari'us. Conquest of Lydia.— With the overthrow of the Median em- pire, Cyrus proceeded to extend his kingdom to the Avest. This required the conquest of Babylonia west of the Tigris, and of Lydia west of the Halys Eiver. Lydia was especially alive to the dangers of Persian aggression. Her energetic king. Croesus, who had now under his control all of Asia Minor west of the Halys, assumed the part of defender of western Asia. He is said to have consulted the oracle of Apollo at Delphi (p. 130), and to have received the response that " if he crossed the Halys, Bas-rei.ief of Cyrus MEDIA AND PEESIA 65 he would destroy a great empire." Not thinking that this might apply to his own empire, as well as to that of Cyrus, he crossed the river, and after an indecisive battle retreated into his own territory. Without delay Cyrus invaded Lydia and captured Sardis. Asia Minor now became a part of the Per- sian em.pire. Conquest of Babylonia and Eg-ypt. — After the conquest of Lydia Cyrus turned his attention to his next great rival, Baby- lonia. With the fall of Babylon (538 b. c), this empire also became a part of his dominions, ^t is to the credit of Cyrus t hat he perm itted the Jews^ who had been held 'TnTaptivity since the days-ot-Nebuthadne^zar (see page 4i-). to return to tlicii' lioiiic in .li'nisalciii. .After the death of C*yrus, his son Canibyses {o2\)-'j'i'i li. c.) extended the Persian authority over Phoenicia, Cyprus, and Egypt. But an army sent into Ethi- opia perished in the sands of the desert; and an expedition planned against Carthage failed, because the Phoenician sailors refused to serve against their kinsfolk. The rule of Cambyses was oppressive and often cruel, and was marked by frequent revolts in different ])arts of the empire. Conquests in Europe under Darius. — The insurrections which attended the death of Cambyses were quelled by Darius (521-484 B. c), who was, next to Cyrus, the greatest king of Persia. He has a special interest for us, because he was the first to extend the Persian authority into Europe — which fact paved the way for the subsequent invasion of Greece. The pur- pose of Darius in entering Europe was, according to Herodo- tus, to send an expedition against the barbarous Scythians. So far as the Scythians were concerned, this expedition proved a failure. But on his return to Asia, Darius left in Europe an army which subdued Thrace and the Greek cities to the north of the ^Egean Sea, and even compelled IMacedonia to acknowledge the supremacy of the great king. The Persian empire was thus extended into Europe to the boundary of Greece itself. PROGRESSI"V"E M:A.P» ISTo. O. MEDIA AND PEKSIA 67 The subsequent history of Persia was closely related to that of Greece, which had by this time developed a distinct civiliza- tion of its own and had become the center of a new world cul- ture. >^Ve__shanhereafterseeh£wPem cninc into conflict with the -Gr eek states.^- .and how it was finally overthrown by Alexander the Great (331 B. c). 111. The Government and Civilization of Persia Political Org^anization of the Empire. — In its geographical extent Persia surpassed all the previous empires of the East. It not only covered all the lands hitherto occupied by Assyria, Babylonia, Media, Lydia, and Egypt, but added to them other territory not included in these older empires. It extended from the Indus River to the ..^Egean Sea, a distance of about three thousand miles. It comprised, in fact, the whole civilized world except India and China in the Far East, and Greece and Carthage in the West. The form of government established over this vast domain was patterned after that of the Assyrians, but strengthened and perfected by the genius of Darius. For the purposes of administration the territory was divided into a number of provinces, or " satrapies," each under a provincial governor, or satrap, appointed by the king. The provinces were divided into districts, each under a deputy of the satrap. The prov- inces were subject to the satraps, and the satraps were subject to the kiup-. VThe duties of the provincial sub jects were to fur- nish men for the_ royal army, ships for theroya i navy, and money for the roy al treasu ry. >/r he prnvinffis w re"]oineg!^ lire cani tal. tjusa. by military roads, the mos t importaai! jaidis. which was the great royal roadfromSjjgai,,^ l-tie 'person of the king was exalted above h undred miies"feBf^ tha'i; of other menT I^e sat upon a throne made of gold, silver, and ivory. His garments were of richest silk. To serve him was the highest mark of nobility. To minister to his comfort, 68 THE ORIENTAL VVOELD one dignitary was chosen to carry the royal parasol, another the royal fan, while otlier officers were appointed to perform other equally honorable duties. Persian Army and Navy. — The chief support of the royal authority was the army drawn from the different provinces. When called together, it was marshaled by nations, each with its own costume and subject to royal officers. The footmen were armed with the sword, the spear, and their favorite weapon, the l;()w, in the use of which they were expert. The cavalry was fC_A' /I If ' 1 '^^^ important branch of the Vywi^ '\K \ m army, and was very effective wlicn llgliting upon an open ])l;iiii. The choicest part of the Persian army was the " Ten. Thousand Immortals," so caUa^ because their numbers were per- petually maintained. /'^'On the sea the Persians were able to gather from their subjects a large num- ber of ships, mostly triremes (shi])s with three banks of oars) armed with iron prows. With such an army and navy the Per- sians had already conrpierod Asia, and hoped to conquer Greece and Europe. Persian Art and Literature. — As the Persians were chiefly a conquering and ruling people, they were not distinguished for their intellectual achievements. AVhatever art they pos- sessed was mosth'^ a mere reproduction of that of Assyria and Babylon. Their architecture and sculpture, as seen in the ruins at Persep'olis and other places, show no evidences of The Persian King (with attendants) MEDIA AND PEESIA 69 marked originality. While using an Aryan speech, the Persians adopted for writing the wedge-shaped characters of their pred- ecessors. They made no contributions to science; and for many generations they possessed no literature worthy of notice except the "Aves'ta." which was the Persian Bible. Persian Religion and Morality. — The most distinctive fea- ture of the Persian civilization was its religion. The religion of Persia was doubtless an outgrowth of a lower polytheistic nature worship; but it seems to have reached its highest de- KUINS OF Persepolis velopment under the influence of Zoroas'ter. This religious reformer is supposed to have lived in Bactria about the middle of the seventh century b. c. Some scholars are inclined to believe that his name stands merely for a mythical person; while others strongly assert that " we must accept the histori- cal reality of Zoroaster " (Sayce). He considered the powers of nature as separated into the powers of light and the powers of darkness — the one under the control of the great god of light (Ormuzd), who is the creator of all that is good; and the other under the control of the god of darkness (Ah'riman), who is the father of all that is evil. This is a system of religion which we call Dualism. The whole universe is looked upon as 70 THE ORIENTAL WORLD a struggle between light and darkness, between the good and the evil, in other words, between Ormiizd ^ and Ahriman. Human life in the same way is regarded as a perpetual strug- gle between good and evil; and the duty of man is to cleave to that which is good and to shun that which is evil. Morality was closely related to religion. The Persians believed in truth- fulness as a high moral virtue, and despised lying and deceit. The higher elements of the Persian religion were corrupted under the influence of a priestly class, the Magi, who were in- clined to worship the symbol of fire in place of the god of light, and to regard the performance of religious rites and ceremonies as the chief duty of life. Historical Significance of Persia. — The Persian empire rep- resents the highest unity attained l\y the ancient Oriental world before the time of Alexander the Great. Of all the great mon- archies hitherto established — the early Babylonian, the Egyp- tian, the Assyrian, the Median, and the later Bab3^1onian — no one except Assyria can be regarded as properly a " world em- pire." Persia carried to a still higher stage of development the military and political system of Assyria. Although she made no contributions to the finer arts of life, she surpassed all her predecessors as a conquering and ruling power. She is, on this account, the prototype in Asia of Eome in Europe. She with- stood the rude barbarians of the north — the Scythians — in their inroads into the civilized south. She developed a more permanent system of provincial government than had before existed — which furnished the model of that of the later Roman empire. Her religion was perhaps the nearest approach to Jewish monotheism of all the religions of western Asia. But with all her achievements she represented an old and decaying civilization, which appears in its true light when we see it brought into contact, and placed in contrast with the new and growing civilization of Greece. ' The upper part of the picture on pajje 68 shows the symbol of Ormuzd, copied from the Assyrian god Assur. MEDIA AND PEESIA 71 IV. Eeview of Oriental Nations The Beginnings of Civilization. — In reviewing the history of the Oriental world there are certain general facts which should be impressed upon our minds. In the first place, we see that it is from the Orient that the world received the rudi- ments of its civilization. It is here that men first passed out of the tribal state and developed a higher form of government, by the erection of cities, kingdoms, and great empires. It is here, also, that we see the early development of religion, which passed from crude forms of animal or ancestral worship to a polytheistic nature worship and finally to a monotheistic re- ligion, like that of the Hebrews. We also find here a great advancement in man's economic life, which began with hunting and fishing or the tending of flocks and herds, and passed to the cultivation of the soil, the growth of manufactures, and the development of commerce. IMoreover, the people of the Orient gave to the world the rudiments of some of the important sci- ences, especially astronomy and mathematics. Still further, we see a remarkable progress made in the art of ^\Titing, which began with the expression of ideas in the form of j)ictures, then advancing to the use of symbolic signs, and at last to the use of a phonetic alphabet such as we use to-day. vl^inally these_ancient jDCoples acquired great ability, if not taste, in the art of building, beginning with huts made of sticks or clay, and passing to the use of brick among the Babylonians, and stone among the Egyptians. So thoroughly were they ac- quainted with the principles of architecture that many of their buildings have remained to the present time as monuments of their skill and as permanent evidences of that early civilization which we have inherited from the East. ■ The Course of Oriental History. — Our review of the Orien- tal world will enable us to distinguish certain periods, or suc- cessive stages, which mark the course of its historical develop- ment. We may briefly characterize these periods as follows: 72 THE OKIENTAL WORLD (1) During the first period the rudiments of civilization ap- peared in two separate and independent centers, — Babylonia and Egypt, — each having a peculiar culture of its own, and each being unaffected, so far as we know, by any influences de- rived from the other (about 5000-3800 b. c.).^ (3) The second period is the time of the Babylonian ascend- ency, when Babylonia extended its authority to the Mediterra- nean coast, and its culture to the lands of Syria (about 3800- IGOO B. c). (3) Then followed the period of the Egyptian ascendency, when the authority of Egypt superseded that of Babylonia in the Syrian lands and the Egyptian culture became extended to this territory (about lGOO-1100 b. c). (4) With the decline of the Egyptian power, we come to the period of Syrian independence, which continued for two cen- turies, during which time the influence of Phoenicia became predominant over the Mediterranean coasts, and the Hebrew kingdom reached its height under David and Solomon (about 1100-900 B. c). (5) This was followed by the ascendency of Assyria as the first world empire, bringing under its control all the previously mentioned countries of the East, — Babylonia, Egypt, Phoenicia, and Judea, — the period of the A-^syrian ascendency closing with the independence of Egypt and the division of the remaining territory between the short-lived empires of later Babylonia and Media (about 900-550 b. c). (G) Lastly appeared the second great world empire of Persia, which consolidated under one supreme autliority all the coun- tries of the Orient west of the Indus, comprising not only the nations already noticed, but also the country of the Hittites and Lydia in Asia ]\[inor (about 550-331 b. c). The Blending of Culture by Conquest and Commerce. — In connection with the rise and fall of the different Oriental na- 'These dates are only a[iproximnte, and are substantially those adopted by Professor Goodspeed. EEVIEW OF OEIENTAL NATIONS 73 tions it is important to notice the fact that the culture of dif- ferent countries became blended by means of conquests. For example, the successive conquests of Syria by Babylonia and Egypt led to that composite form of culture which marked the Phoenicians, preserving both Babylonian and Egyptian fea- tures, as seen in the Syrian religion and industrial arts. So the conquest of Egypt by Assyria did not destroy the existing civ- ilization of Egypt, but rather brought the civilization of the Tigris-Euphrates valley into relation with that of the valley of the Nile. And by the extensive conquests of Persia the various centers of culture throughout the Orient were brought into communication with one another. Again, the civilizations of different peoples became mingled by means of commercial in- tercourse. Commerce tended to bring about the exchange not only of the products, but of the ideas of various peoples. This we have seen in the case of the Phamicians, who became the common carriers not only of commodities but also of culture. Hence, by means of conquests and commerce, the different peo- ples of the Orient were brought together; and their civilizations became blended into a composite culture, which we may char- acterize in general as Oriental. Transmission of Oriental Culture to the West. — The cul- ture of the Eastern world was destiiied to overflow the bound- aries of the Orient and to find its way into the Occident. There were two principal means of communication between the East and the West: the one was by the sea traffic of the Phoeni- cians, the other was by the land traffic of the peoples of Asia Minor. We can readily see how the Phoenicians, through their commerce and colonies, brought the culture of Asia to the ports of Europe. The peoples of Asia IMinor vdio furnished some means of communication between the East and the West, were the Hittites and the Lydians (map, p. 50). Concern- ing the Hittites little is definitely known : but that they at one time formed a powerful and influential nation, seems quite certain. They are said to have done much for civilization by 74 THE ORIENTAL WOELD taking up the arts and culture of Assyria, Egypt, and Phoeni- cia, and passing them on to their western neighbors. The Lydians lived on the western frontiers of the Orient and joined hands with the Greeks on the zEgean Sea. It is believed that they received much of the culture of the East, not only through the Phoenicians, but also through their neighbors the Hittites. If this is so, we may conclude that the peoples of Asia Minor, as well as the Phoenicians, furnished a means for the trans- mission of the ancient culture of the East to the West. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW I. The Aryans and the Median Empire. — Beg-innings of Aryan Civilization. — The Medes and the Persians. — The Median Empire; Cyaxares. II. Persia, the Second World Empire. — The East before the Persian Conquests. — Eise of Persia under Cyrus. — Conquest of Lydia. — Conquest of Babylonia and Eg-ypt. — Conquests in Europe under Darius. III. The Government and Civilization of Persia. — Political Organization of the Empire. — Persian Army and Xavy. — Persian Art and Literature.— Persian Eeligion and Morality. — Historical SigTiificanee of Persia. IV. Eeview of Oriental Nations. — The Beginnings of Civi- lization. — The Course of Oriental History. — The Blending- of Cul- ture bv Conquest and Commerce. — Transmission of Oriental Culture to the West. REFERENCES FOR READING Ducoudray, Ch. 6, "Civilization of the Aryans, Hindoos and Persians" (1).^ Lenormant, Vol. II., Bk. V., "The Medes and the Persians" (4). Benjamin, Ch. 7, "Cyrus"; Ch. 8, "From Cyrus to Darius" (8). Vaux, Ch. 1, "Cyrus, Cambyses and Darius"; Ch. 4, "Monuments of Persia" (8). Clarke, Ch. 5, "Zoroaster and the Zend-Vesta" (3). Souttar. pp. 145-190. "Aledes and Persians" (1). Burv, Ch. 6, "Advance of the Persians to the .15g-ean" (10). Coxi History, Bk. II., Chs. 1, 2, "The Persian Empire" (10). Smith. P., Ch. 28, "Decline and Fall of the Persian Empire" (4). Encycloptedia Britannica, Art. "Hittites" (the "Forgotten Em- pire"); Art. "Lydia" (for coinag-e of Lydia). Herodotus, Bk. I., Chs. 131-140 (Persian manners and customs) ; Bk. IV., Chs. 1-8, 28-100 (the Scythians) (17). 'The figure in parenthesis refers to the number of the topic in the Ap- pendix, where a fuller title of the book will be found. THE GREEK WORLD PEEIOD I. THE BEGINNINGS OF GEEEOE (-776 B. 0.) CHAPTER VI GREECE, ITS PEOPLE AND EARLY LEGENDS I. Hellas, the Laxd of the Greeks Greece and the Orient. — As we approach the study of Greece we must first of all notice the close relation of this land to the Oriental countries which we have already consid- ered. Of the three peninsulas of Europe which project into the Mediterranean Sea, Greece lies nearest to the East. Hence it would naturally be the first of European countries to feel the influence of Oriental culture and the first to develop a civ- ilization of its own. The ^gean Sea, which lies between its coasts and those of Asia Minor, can be regarded not as a bar- rier, but rather as a highway uniting the East and the West. The numerous islands scattered over this sea aided the early mariners to find their way across its waters; so that these islands have been aptly called the " stepping stones " of the ^gean. Greece was also open to the early commerce of the Phoenicians, who had obtained a foothold upon some of the ^gean islands. Since the culture of Babylonia and Egypt had been taken up by Phoenicia and the countries of Asia Minor, the drift of Oriental civilization was in the direction of the Grecian peninsula. For these reasons we may see that Greece MOREY'S ANCIENT HIST. 5 75 76 THE GREEK WORLD was in a certain sense the heir of the Orient, receiving in some degree the stimulating influence of Eastern culture. Geo^aphical Features of Greece. — The Grecian peninsula presents a striking contrast to the great countries of the East, with their broad plains and fertile valleys. J^Greece was a very \ if. -$■ ^ 'C""'^ Othasos ^ 't i %> )r^ ^Z •^ J , ^0 W LESBi S ^^_, CHiOb / C '^ L r D A'^ / 1-^ - 3' *^ oc 'a^i^-^^ , ^ C A R I A ^•^ & M E D I T E B SOLE OF MILES "To 40 So 80 100 Hellas: the .H-^gean Lands Routes across the ^gean Sea small country (smaller than the present state of Florida)y Its surface is broken by mountain ranges and small valleys, and drained by innumerable small streams. The outlines of the country are as irregular and diversified as its surface. There is no other country of the world of the same area with such an extensive and irregular coast line. It has been called GREECE, ITS PEOPLE AND EARLY LEGENDS 77 " the most European of European countries." It is said that there is no point in Greece more than forty miles from the coast. The many bays, gulfs, and inlets which indent its shores form the navigable waters of Greece. The climate is generally mild and temperate, but changeable with the seasons and also quite different in different localities. The soil is not very fertile; but under ordinary cultivation, it produced in ancient times wheat, barley, flax, wine, and oil. The trees vary from the pine and oak forests in the north to the lemons, oranges, and date palms in the south. The geographical features of Greece exercised an important influence upon the character of the people and upon their his- tory. The face of nature, with its brilliant skies and l)eau- tiful landscapes, tended to give the people a cheerful temper and a fine aesthetic taste. The broken relief of the country separated the people into distinct communities, and led to the growth of many small states and to the development of a spirit of freedom and local independence. Moreover, the irregular coast line furnished an opportunity for ports and harbors, and thus promoted the commercial spirit of the people. As the bays and gulfs lay mostly upon the eastern coast, Greece may be said to have " faced " toward the Orient, and thus to have been fitted by nature to receive the gifts of her more civilized neighbors. , Divisions of Greece. — To obtain a more definite idea of the peninsula of Greece and of its most noted places, we may glance at its principal divisions. (1) Northern Greece is separated from the main part of Eu- rope by the Cambu'nian Mountains. -^It comprised |wo prov- inces, Epi'rus and Thes'saly, divided by the range bf the Pin- "dus. The most famous spot in Epirus was Dodo'na, where was located an ancient oracle of Zeus. ' .Thessaly, to the east of the Pindus, was a fertile plain, drained by the river Pene'us; this stream flows through the beautiful vale of Tempo into the ^gean Sea. To the north rises Mt. Olym'pus, the highest 78 THE GREEK WOELD peak in Greece (nearly 10,000 feet), upon whose summit the gods were supposed to dwell. (2) Central Gi-eece comprised a number of states of varied historical interest. Toward the west were the two provinces of Acarna'nia and of ^to'lia. In the middle of central Greece were several small provinces separated from one another by- -^m '~^ ^ P , ^C , "^ 7" T TI E S S 1a L A ' "'"^'*(^^^-r^^ - Hymittus -'' -^ ^i- CEOsL/ I 10 20 .'iO ^0 50 Central Greece and the Peloponnesus mountain barriers;y ilie™''Xthenians.*%^he his-" tory of these two peoples forms, in large part, the history of Greece;.'. Greneral Characteristics of the Greek People. — There were certain qualities which, though especially marked in the lo- nians, may be said to characterize the Greek people as a whole, and which distinguished them from the peoples of the Orient, in I he first place, they possessed a strong love of freedom, which would brook no restraint excej)t that which they imposed upon themselves, and which made them, independent, wide- awake, and original. , In the next place, they had a political instinct, which resulted in the development of self-governing communities, and which made the Greek city something far different from the cities of the East.^^ Moreover, they were characterized by simplicity and moderation, which were re- vealed not only in their art, but in their life, and which led them to shun all forms of Oriental ostentation and extrava- gance. Still further, they possessed great intellectual activity, which showed itself in literary productions and philosophical speculations. Finally, they were gifted with a fine esthetic sense, a taste for beauty for its own sake, which made them the creators of a new form of art. These qualities gave to the world a new type of culture. III. The Early Legends of Greece Importance of the Leg-ends. — The character of the Greek people is strikingly set forth in their early legends — the myths and stories by which they sought in a fanciful way to explain the mysteries of nature and the origin of their own institutions. It was principally by means of these legends that the Greeks 84 THE GREEK WORLD attempted to reconstruct their early histor3^^ The importance wliich we attacli to these stories will depend very much upon our point of view. If we look at them as giving an account of actual and well-defined events, they have of course little historical value. But if we look at them as indicating the ideas and beliefs of the people, they have a great deal of significance. The nature of the early Greek mind is revealed in these tradi- tional stories. In them we see the early fancy of a people who afterward l)ecame the masters of imaginative thought. Without a knowledge of these legends much of the literature and art of a later period wouhl be unintelligible to us. Legends of the Founders of Cities. — The Greeks surrounded every locality, every mountain, stream, and vale with a halo of song and story. An important group of legends referred to the founders of cities. The foundation of Athens, for exam- ple, was ascribed to C^ecrops, regarded by some as a native of Egypt; he is said to have introduced into Attica the arts of civilized life, and from him the Acropolis was first called Cecro'pia. cArgos was believed to have ])een founded by an- other Egyptian, named Dan'aus, who fled to Greece with his fifty daughters, and who was elected by the people as their king, and from whom some of the Greeks receiyed the name of I)anai. /Thebes, in Boeotia, looked to Cadmus, a Phoenician, as its founder; he was believed to have brought into Greece the art of writing, and from him the citadel of Thebes received the name of Cadme'a.'^-.l^ Peloponnesus was said to have been settled b}^, and to have received its name from, Pelops, a man from Phrygia in Asia; he becarne the king of Mycenae, and was the fatlier of A'treus, and the grandfatlier of Aga- mem'non and Menela'us, chieftains in the Trojan war. /Such traditions as these show that the early Greeks had some no- tion of their dependence upon the Eastern nations. 'Many of the early myths and legends, as narrated by Homer and pre- served by Ile'siod (in his Theog'ony), were gathered into somewhat system- atic form to explain the genealogy of the Hellenic tribes, their subdivisions, and the origin of Greek cities. See Bury, History of Greece, pp. 79-84. GREECE, ITS PEOPLE AND EARLY LEGENDS 85 Belleropiion and Pegasu.s Legends of Grecian Heroes. — That the early Greeks had an admiration of personal prowess and valiant exploits is evident from the legends which they wove about the names of their great heroes. In these fanciful stories we may see the early materials of Grecian poetry. In them we read of philanthropic deeds, of superhuman courage, and of romantic adventures. We read of Per'seus, the slayer of the horrid Medu'sa, whose locks were coiling serpents, and whose looks turned every object to stone. We read of Beller'ophon, who slew the monster Chimre'ra, and captured the winged steed Peg'asus, on whose back he tried to ascend to heaven. We read of Minos, the king of Crete, who rid the sea of pirates, and gave to his subjects a code of laws received from Zeus. We read of The'seus, who rid the land of robbers, and who delivered Athens from the terrible tribute imposed l)y the king of Crete — a tribute which required the periodical sac- rifice of seven youths and seven maidens to the monster Min'otaur. But the greatest of Grecian heroes was Her'acles (Her'cules) . Strange stories were told of the " twelve labors " of this famous giant, the prodigious tasks imposed upon him by the king of Mycenas with the consent of Zeus. The prototype of the Greek Heracles may be found in Oriental countries — in Egypt, in Phoenicia, Hekacles 86 THE GREEK WORLD and in Asia Minor. In these countries his power was related to that of the sun. But the fancy of the Greeks turned the sun god of the East into a national hero, and conferred upon him a human character. Legends of National Exploits. — The legends are not only grouped about particular places and individual heroes, but have for their subjects national deeds, marked by courage and forti- tude. One of these stories describes the so-called " Argo- nautic expedition " — an adventurous voyage of fifty heroes, who set sail from Bwotia under the leadership of Jason, in the ship Argo, for the purpose of recovering a "golden fleece" which had been carried away to Colchis, a far distant land on the shores of the Euxine (map, p. 111). Another legend — the " Seven against Thebes " — narrates the tragic story of (Ed'i- pus, who unwittingly slew his own father and married his own mother and was banished from Thebes for his crimes, after having been made king; and whose sons quarreled for the va- cant throne, one of them with the aid of other chieftains mak- ing war upon his native city.-J Biit the most famous of._t]ie legendary stories of Greece was that which described the Tro- jan war — the military expedition of the Greeks to Troy,, in order to rescue TTolcn, who was the l)eautiful wife of Menelaus, \mg of Sparta, and who liad been stolen away by Paris, son of the Trojan king. The details of this story — the wrath of Achil'les, the l)attles of the Greeks and the Trojans, the de- struction of Troy, and the return of the Grecian heroes — are the subject of tlie great epic poems ascribed to Homer. > All these legends, whether derived from a foreign source, or pro- duced upon native soil, received the impress of the Greek mind. They form one of the legacies from the prehistoric age, and reveal some of the features of the early Greek character. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW I. Helivas, the Land of the Greeks. — Greece and the Orient. — Geographical Features of Greece. — Divisions of Greece. — Greater Hellas. THE EARLIEST AGES OF GREECE 87 II. The Hellejces, the People of Greece. — The Earliest In- habitants of Greece. — The Coming of the Hellenes. — Divisions of the Hellenic People. — Characteristics of the Greek People. III. The Early Legends of Greece. — Importance of the Legends. — Legends of the Founders of Cities. — Legends of Gre- cian Heroes. — Legends of National Exijloits. REFERENCES FOR READING Smith, Wm., "Introduction, Outlines of Grecian Geography"; Ch. I, "Earliest Inhabitants of Greece"; Ch. 2, "Grecian Heroes" (10).' Oman, Ch. 1, "Geography of Greece" (10). Bury, Introduction, "Greece and the vEgean" (10). Cox, History, Bk. I., Ch. 1, "Physical Geography of Continental Hellas"; Ch. 3, "Mythology and Tribal Legends of the Greeks" (10). Abbott, Vol. L, Ch. 1, "Hellas"; Ch. 2, "The Earliest Inhabitants"; Ch. 3, "Migrations and Legendary History" (10). Curtius, Vol. L, Bk. I., Ch. 1, "Land "and People" (10). (Jrote, Part II., Ch. 16, "Grecian Myths as Understood, Felt and Interpreted bv the Greeks Themselves" (10). Holm, Vol. I., Ch." 1, "The Country"; Ch. 4, "The Earliest Tradi- tional History"; Ch. 10, "Most Important Legends of Greece" (10). Herodotus, Bk. I., Chs. 52-58 (Pelasgians and Hellenes) (17). Thucydides, Bk. I., Chs. 2-12 (early peoples of Greece) (17). CHAPTER VII THE EARLIEST AGES OF GREECE I. The Mycen^an Age Recent Excavations in Hellas. — Not many years ago our knowledge of the early ages of Greece was derived almost en- tirely from the old legends — especially those contained in the Homeric poems. These were at one time accepted as giving real historical facts, bnt were afterward rejected as purely 'The figure in parenthesis refers to the number of the topic in the Appendix, where a fuller title of the book will be found. 88 THE GKEEK WORLD imaginary. But recent excavations have thrown a new light upon these early ages, and opened a new world to the student of Greek history. Tlio story of these diggings among the ruins of the old cities of the ^Egean has an almost romantic interest. The name most closely connected with them is that of Dr. Schliemann, the German archaeologist. It was his childlike faith in Homer and the tale of Troy that led him to seek for the Trojan city and the palace of Agamemnon, king of ]\Iy cense. The excavations made by him (beginning in 1871), together with the work of his successors, have not only given us new ideas regarding the poems of Homer, but have also presented many new and difficult problems regarding the early ages of Greece. We can do no more here than to refer briefly to the most important of these excavations, and the relics they have disclosed. Hissarlik and the City of Troy. — The hill of Hissar'lik, sit- uated in Tro'as, in northern Asia Minor, was believed by Dr. The Hill of Hl>^sarlik Schliemann to be the site of Troy. , ])ut instead of finding here a single city^Jie found tlic ruins of nine cities, lying onejibove another and representing diiferent stages of human progress. The lowest city contained relics of the stone age — stone axes, THE EARLIEST AGES OF GEEECE 89 flint knives, earthen vessels covered with rude decorations. The second city — evidently destroyed by a conflagration and hence called the " burnt city " — was surrounded by walls built of brick and placed upon rough stone foundations. It con- tained a palace surrounding a court. Among the ruins were found battle-axes, spearheads, and daggers made of copper, showing that its inhabitants belonged to what we call the " age of bronze." There were found also articles of fine workman- ship, showing an Eastern influence — cups of silver, diadems, bracelets, earrings made of gold, and also articles of ivory and jade which could have come only from central Asia. This " burnt city " was believed by Dr. Schliemann to have been the Troy of Homer. But the later work of Dr. Dorpfeld, the distinguished colleague of Schliemann, has shown that the sixth city — with its great circuit walls, its stately houses of well-dressed stone, and its finely wrought vases — is more likely to be the city described in the Homeric poems. The Citadel of Tiryns. — But the most important remains of this prehistoric age have been found, not in Asia Minor, but in European Greece, especially in two cities of Argolis — Tiryns and Mycenae. Tiryns is the older of these, and its walls, too, are better preserved. The citadel of Tiryns was surrounded by massive walls. The palace consisted of a com- plicated system of courts, halls, and corridors, suggesting an Oriental palace rather than any building in historic Greece. The most artistic features of the palace were alabaster friezes, carved in rich patterns of rosettes and spirals, such as are described in the Homeric poems (Odyssey, Bk. VII.). The Ruins and Relics of Mycenae, — The prehistoric culture of Greece probably reached its highest development at Mycena\ One of the most conspicuous objects here was the well-known "lion gate" (p. 92). through which the citadel was entered, and which had been an object of interest to the later Greeks. The form of these rampant lions has often been compared to similar designs in the East, especially in Assyria and Phrygia. 90 THE GREEK WORLD Within the walls near the gate was found a circle of upright slabs inclosing a number of graves. These contained human bodies and a wealth of art treasures — articles of gold, silver, copper, bronze, terra cotta, gkss, ivory, and precious stones; articles of ornament, such as diadems, pendants, and rings of ar- tistic design; articles of use, such as bowls, pitchers, cups, ladles, spoons, etc. These articles show a high degree of mechanical skill and artistic taste. Some of them may have been brought from the East, and some of them may have been the products of native industry. Below the citadel was fovmd another type The So-called "Treasury of Atreus" of sepulchers, called from their peculiar form " bee-hive tombs," one of which the archfpologists have called the " Treas- ury of Atreus."^ Other Sites of Prehistoric Remains. — Recent excavations have shown that the kind of culture which existed in the pre- historic cities of Tiryns and My cense prevailed in many other parts of Greece, and in many islands of the ^gean. At Or- chomenus, in Boeotia, was discovered an elaborate and beauti- ^ Such structures were at first supposed to be places where the kings kept their treasures. The ancient writer Pausanias mentions at My- cenae "underground structures of Atreus and liis sons where they kept their treasuries." But arch;eologists are now agreed tliat these structures were not treasure-houses but tombs. See Tsountas and Manatt, Mycenaean Age, p. 117. THE EARLIEST AGES OF GREECE 91 The Vaphio Gold Cups fill ceiling said to be of a pure Egyptian pattern. At Vaphi'o (near Sparta) were found two remarkable gold cups covered with finely wrought relief work, and regarded by some as the most artistic work of the prehistoric age. In Crete has been discovered a crude and cu- rious form of hieroglyph- ic writing. But a strange feature of these remarkable discoveries is not the pres- ence of writing in Crete, but the almost total absence of T . . , . Prehistoric Writing from Crete writmg and mscnptions everywhere else among a people who possessed so many of the evidences of civilization. Character of the Mycenaean Culture. — The type of civiliza- tion brought to light by these discoveries has been called by some " Mycenaan," from the city in x\rgolis where its remains are most conspicuous; and by others it has been called "^gean," from the fact that it seems to have extended over a large part of the ^Egean basin. It is supposed to have reached • MORET'S ANCIENT HIST. 6 92 THE GREEK WORLD its culmination perhaps between the years 1500 b. c. and 1200 B. c. But there is reason to believe that in its earlier stages it may have extended back as far as 2000 b. c, or even to an earlier date. Its last and declining stage was evidently closed by the Dorian migration about 1000 b. c, wlien it was swept from Greece, its memory still lingering in the minds of those The "Lion Gate" at Mycen^ tribes that migrated to the coasts of Asia Minor. Eegarding the origin of this ancient culture of Greece we have no right to speak witli confidence, since scholars are by no means agreed upon the question. We may venture the opinion that this cul- ture — with its strange mingling of crude art, of massive walls, of palatial i)uildings, of Oriental designs, and of objects show- ing a high meclianical skill and eastern taste — may have been developed by the early people of Greece who were brought THE EARLIEST AGES OF GREECE 93 into close commercial and intellectual relation with the people of the Orient. Whatever we may think of its character and origin, we know that it exercised but slight influence upon the classic art of Greece, but passed away, leaving scarcely more than monuments and memories. These memories, how- ever, furnished an inspiration to the poets and minstrels of the Homeric age. II. Transition to the Homeric Age The So-called Dorian Migration. — The brilliant period of ancient Greece which we call the Mycenaean age, was evidently brought to a close by a great movement which affected practi- cally a large part of the Greek world. It seems quite certain that about the year 1000 b. c. there was a general disturbance of the population throughout Greece. This was due to the movement of the northern tribes into the south, resulting in the displacement of the old inhabitants and the destruction of the old civilization. This movement is called the " Dorian migration." It is known in the traditional history as the " Eeturn of the Heracli'dse " — being mixed up with stories re- garding the descendants of Heracles. Notwithstanding the myths connected with it, it must be regarded as a real move- mei;t, which affected nearly all the tribes of Greece, and which may have extended over many generations. As a result of this movement, we find the Dorians, who formerly occupied Thes- saly, now the leading race of the Peloponnesus. The Migrations to Asia Minor. — The invasion of the Pelo- ponnesus by the Dorians resulted not only in rearranging the tribes in Greece proper, but also in bringing -about a closer union between Greece and Asia Minor. The people who had been dispossessed of their old homes in Greece, or who were not satisfied with their new ones, sought other settlements across tlie sea. The coasts of Asia Minor, alreadv peopled by an ancient Greek race (p. 81), now received a new population T>ROGR.KSSIVE IVCAT' No. 6. THE Ez\KLIEST AGES OF GEEECE 95 from the European peninsula. There were, in fact, three streams of migration from Greece to Asia Minor. (1) One stream of migration was made up of the /Eolians, — which name came to bo a general term applied to all who were not lonians or Dorians, including even the Achgeans. This mixed people took possession of the northern part of the west- ern coast of Asia Minor. They occupied the island of Lesbos and founded the important city of Mytile'ne. Their settle- ments upon the coast extended nearly as far north as the Hel- lespont, and as far south as the river Hermus. But the settle- ments upon the mainland had less historical importance than those upon the island of Lesbos, where the people became noted for their culture, especially in music and poetry. (2) A second stream of migration comprised tlie lonians, who settled upon the central part of the coast. They took a course across the sea by way of the Cyclades, leaving on these islands colonies of their own peo])le. They took possession of the islands of Chios and Samos. They occupied the coast land from Phoca3'a to Mile'tus, and the latter city became especially noted fo]' its commerce and its colonies. (3) A third stream was that of the Dorians, who took a southern course by way of Crete, where they left their colonies. They also oix-upied Ehodes and Cos, and on the mainland they established ILilicarnas'sus and other less important towns. The New Culture of Asia Minor. — The invasion of the Do- rians an(] the migrations to Asia JMinor mark tlie decline of the old Mycenaean age. But these movements also mark the transition to a new phase of culture in Asia Minor. We shall find that during this transitional period the cities of Asia Minor became the chief centers of intellectual life and activity. But the new culture of Asia ]\Iinor did not consist in reproducing the works of Mycenipan art ; it consisted rather in rehearsing the traditional glories of that golden age. The bards of Ionia recounted the mythical stories of the gods, the legends of ancient heroes, and the traditions of Troy and 96 THE GREEK WORLD Mycenae. They accompanied tlieir words with regular strokes upon the lyre ; and their fanciful stories fell into rhythm and took the form of the hexameter verse. The group of Ionian bards in Asia Minor received the name of the " cyclic poets " ; and the group of narrative poems which they produced is known as the " epic cycle." These lays were descriptive in character and inspired with an heroic spirit; they were full of imagination, reciting the deeds of gods and men and throwing a halo about the past. III. The Homeric Poems and the Homeric Age The Iliad and the Odyssey.— From the cycle of poems that sprang up in Asia Elinor there emerged two great epics, known as the " H'iad " and the " Od'yssey." Being the fittest expres- sions of the popular thought and feeling, they survived. They are, in fact, regarded by many critics as the greatest epic poems in the world's literaturcylThe Iliad is a poem of war, and the Departure of Achilles (From an ancient vase) Odyssey is a poem of peace. .The former describes the closing scenes of the Trojan war, and revolves about the wrath of Achilles, the warlike son of the king of Thessaly. The leader of the Grecian armies was Agamemnon, king of Myce- nae, and hence we find many traditions which reach back to the Mycenaean age. The Odyssey narrates events which were THE EARLIEST AGES OF GREECE 97 supposed to follow the Trojan war, especially the wanderings of Odys'seiis (Ulysses) on his return to his home. The Homeric Question. — These poems stand out promi- nently from an otherwise dark and obscure period. They have naturally been made the subject of the most searching in- quiries. Was there ever such a poet as Homer? Were the Iliad and Odyssey both produced by the same person? Was either poem originally a single production? Was not each one rather a collection of separate ballads, afterward brought to- gether by some skillful liand? These queries comprise the chief points in what is called the " Homeric question." The ancients generally be- lieved that the two epics were produced by the same poet, and that this poet was Ho- mer. Certain critics of Alex- andria, observing the differ- ence between the two poems, declared that they were pro- duced by two different poets. Modern critics have submitted the theory that each poem was a collection of lays, originally distinct, but collected into a coherent form during the historical period. This question will perhaps never be settled to the satisfaction of every one. Historical Value of the Homeric Poems. — Whether the Iliad and Odyssey were the jiroduct of one poet or not, they were evidently produced in the transitional period (probably about 850 B. c.) between the prehistoric age of Tiryns and Mycenae, and the historic age of Sparta and Athens. They are made up largely of legends and traditions, and so far are no more valuable than any other legends and traditions. But traditions lloMEU 98 THE CEEEK WOKLD are not necessarily false. The recently discovered relics of the prehistoric age show how faithfully the memories of " golden Mycena^ " were preserved by the people who migrated to Asia ]\linor and were expressed in the Homeric poems. But the great historical value of these poems does not consist merely in the narrative of traditional events and the pictures of past glories. It consists rather in the great number of allu- sions made to the life and customs of the early Greek people. Homer painted the past in the colors of his own time. From the numerous allusions made to industry and art, to society and government, to religion and morality, we can get a com- prehensive view of that early culture which existed among the prehistoric Greeks of Asia Minor, and which was bequeathed to the Greeks of historical times. It has been forcibly said that " while the pre-Doric art in Europe was not continued in later times, and tlio later genuine (Jreek art followed other paths than those of Mycenre and Orchomenus, the earliest poetry of Asia Minor is still the truest expression of Greek life that exists " (Holm). The Homeric Society and Government. — In the Homeric poems we see tlie picture of a simple and primitive society, such as we find among other early Aryan peoples. Its primary element was the family, comprising the household father, the mother, the children, and the slaves. The families were grouped into clans, and these into tribes. The tribe was governed by a king (bns'ileiis) , who performed the religious rites of the tribe, settled disputes, and commanded the people in time of war. He was assisted b)^ a council (hoti'le), made up of the chiefs of the clans. Matters of great importance, like the declaration of war or the distribution of plunder, might be left to the asseml)ly (ag'ora), which comprised all the ]ieople capable of bearing arms. In times of war several tribes might unite under a common chieftain; for example, in the expedition against Troy, the Greek tribes were united under the leadership of Agamemnon, king of Mycense. THE EARLIEST AGES OF GREECE 99 Homeric Industry and Art. — We may also obtain from the Homeric poems an idea of the degree of progress made by the early Greeks in the art of living. They obtained their food, not only by hunting and fishing, but also by the domestication of animals and by the cultivation of the soil. They had the use of at least six metals, — gold, silver, iron, lead, copper, and tin, — which they obtained mostly from other lands. They worked the metals in a simple way, and did not possess the fine mechanical skill seen in the more ancient works of the Myce- naean and Oriental art. The descriptions, contained in the poems, of ])rincely palaces with their rich decorations and fur- niture, are based upon the traditions of an age which had passed away, l)ut which had not been forgotten. Homerio Religion and Morality. — Tiie religion of the Ho- meric age was evidently derived from tlie nature worship of the early Aryans. The Greeks coupled with their nature wor- ship an elal)orate and beautiful mythology; and they saw in their gods beings like themselves, with human feelings and foibles, with human likes and dis- likes. The gods were supposed to dwell about the top of Mt. Olympus, where they feasted and held their councils. They took part in the battles of the Trojan war, and assisted the Greeks or the Trojans according to their preferences for either party. At the head of the divine circle was Zeus, the god of the heav- ens and the father of gods and men. Around him were gath- ered the other Olympian deities. The. Olympian circle con- sisted of the greater deities, comprising six gods and six god- desses. The six gods were: (1) Zeus (Jupiter), the supreme LOfG. Zeus 100 THE GREEK WORLD god of the heavens, the king and father of mankind; (2) Apollo, g6d of light and of prophecy; (3) Ares (Mars), god of war; (4) Hermes (Mercury), the messenger of the gods, the patron of commerce, and the master of cunning; (5) Posei'- don (j^eptune), god of the sea; and (6) Hepha's'tus (Vulcan), god of fire. The six goddesses were : ( 1 ) Hera ( Juno) , the wife of Zeus and the queen of heaven; (2) Athena (Minerva), goddess of wisdom, who was born from the forehead of Zeus ; (3) Artemis (Dian'a), goddess of the chase; (4) Aphrodi'te (Venus), god- dess of love and beauty; (-■)) Deme'ter (Ceres), goddess of the harvest; and (6) Hestia (Vesta), goddess of the hearth. Be- sides these superior deities there were a large number of inferior gods, as well as mythical l)eings, with which the Greek imagination peo- pled the sky, the earth, and the sea. The Greeks believed that the favor of the gods may be obtained by prayers and sacrifices, and that their will may be discovered by means of signs and oracles. They also believed in a future life, where those who had found favor with the gods would receive a place in Elys'ium, the field of the blest ; and those who had incurred their anger would be condemned to Tar'tarus, the gulf of torment. The people of Homeric Greece were probably no better and no worse than the early people of other countries. They lived a bright and cheerful life. In peace they were hospitable to the stranger; in war Hera THE EAKLIEST AGES OF GREECE 101 they were vindictive and cruel to their fallen foes. Th^y h^ a high respect for women; but they were often deceitful in their commercial dealings and regarded piracy as an honorable calling. Their highest motive of life was to obtain the ap- proval of the gods. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW I. The Mycen^an Age. — Eecent Excavations in Hellas. — His- sarlik and the City of Troy.— The Citadel of Tiryns.— The Ruins and Relics of Mycenae. — Other Sites of Prehistoric Remains. — Character of the Mycenaean Culture. II. Transition to the Homeric Age. — The So-called Dorian Migration. — The Migrations to Asia Minor. — The New Culture of Asia Minor. III. The Homeric Poems and the Homeric Age. — The Iliad and the Odyssey. — The Homeric Question. — Historical Value of the Homeric Poems.^ — Homeric Society and Government. — Homeric Industry and Art. — Homeric Religion and Morality. REFERENCES FOR READING Bury, Ch. 1, "Beginnings of Greece and the Heroic Age" (10).' Oman, Ch. 2. 'M?!gean Civilization"; Ch. 3, "The Homeric Poems and the Greeks of the Heroic Age"; Ch. 5, "The Great Migra- tions" (10). Hall, Ch. 7, "Mycenae's Place in History" (13). Schuchhardt, Ch. 1, "Life of Dr. Sch'liemann"; Ch. 2, "Troy"; Ch. 3, "Tiryns"; Ch. 4, "Mycenae" (13). Smith, Wm., Ch. 3, "State of Society of the Heroic Age"; Ch. 5, "The Poems of Homer" (10). Abbott, Vol. I., Ch. 5, "The Homeric Poems" (10). Grote, Part I., Ch. 21, "Grecian Epic — Homeric Poems" (10). Warr, Ch. 2, "The Homeric Poetry" (14). Mahaffy, Survey, Ch. 2, "The Homeric Age" (10). Fowler, Ch. 3, "The Homeric Question" (15). Freeman, Essay, "Homer and the Homeric Age" (3). Holm, Vol. I., Ch. 13, "Civilization of the Asiatic Greek — Homeric Poetry"; Ch. 14, "Institutions and Mode of Life of the Earl}^ Greeks, Especially as Described bv Homer" (10). Jebb, Homer, Ch. 2, "The Homeric World" (14). Keller, Ch. 3, "Religious Ideas and Usages"; Ch. 5, "Marriage and the Family"; Ch. 6, "Government," etc. (14). Homer, Iliad, Bk. I. (contention of Achilles and Agamemnon) ; ' Odyssey, Bk. VI. (the palace of Alcinoiis) (17). See also Appendix (13) Mycenaean Age and (14) Homer and the Homeric Age. 'The figure in parenthesis refers to the number of the topic in the Appendix, where a fuller title of the booli will be found. PERIOD II. DEVELOPMENT OF THE GEEEK CITY STATES (776-500 B. 0.) CHAPTER VIII POLITICAL GROWTH AND EXPANSION OF GREECE I. The Eakly City State Importance of the Greek Cities. — We have already seen among the early Greeks some evidences of their political life. The cities of the ]\Iycen