H Class LA *3 3JZ Book. 189S 1905 1910 Elementary Algebra 1920 75 -s^\ y\. SO V^ r ^^ -s^^rsz T ""^^^^^ ?S 1895 1905 1910 Physics 1915 1920 100 1895 1900 1905 1910 American History 1915 1920 100 1895 1900 1905 1910 1920 Diagram 3. — Showing the percent of those Regents examination papers written which were claimed by schools (solid line) and the percent which were accepted by the Regents (dash line) for four academic subjects, by years "5 ogy, elementary algebra, physics, and American history the percent- age of pupils writing the examinations in these subjects who achieved a passing grade according to the school ratings (solid line) and the percentage according to Regents ratings (dash line). Or, as it is commonly stated, the percentage of papers "claimed" by the schools and the percentage "accepted" by the Regents. The entries are by years, from 1906 to 1920 for biology, and from 1896 to 1920 for the other subjects. The scale is too small to permit exact readings. Ordinarily, only approximations are used in what follows. When exact percentages are used, they are taken from the tables from which the curves of this figure were drawn. The figure shows, for example, that in biology, in 1907 approximately 85 percent of the papers written were accepted, while in 1920 only slightly more than 50 percent were accepted. (See dash line. The exact figures are 88 and 52.) In elementary algebra the range is from below 50 percent in 1897 to above 75 percent in 1907. The curves for physics and American history show even greater varia- tion: approximately from 35 percent in 1897 to 80 percent in 1902 for physics, and from 25 percent in 1898 to 90 percent in 1919 for American history. The curves show that the percent accepted one year may be much larger than that accepted the next year. For example, in physics 36 percent were accepted in 1897, while the next year 63 percent were accepted. In American history the corresponding figures for 1898 and 1899 were 23 percent and 61 percent. (b) The curves of this figure show further that while in general the percentage of papers claimed by the teachers (solid line) is greater than the percentage accepted by the Regents (dash line), there is great variation in the amount of this difference. This may be seen by the lack of parallelism between the solid and the dash lines in each subject. The greatest deviations from parallelism are to be noted in the curves for biology and American history. Further, there is great variation in the average amount of this difference between the percent claimed and the percent allowed among the different subjects. For example, this difference is very much greater in American history than in algebra. (c) The percentage of pupils writing examinations who achieve a n6 passing grade by Regents ratings varies greatly among the different subjects for a given year. Diagram 4 presents the situation for 1920. It shows that 63 percent of the pupils writing elementary algebra achieved a passing grade, while for biology the percentage is 53, for Caesar 67, and so on. Space permits showing only one year. While other years show different percentages for various eg a* S3 Ec5 (5 O C 1) S2 o C ctf yi foot slate board with tray 25.00 11. Bulletin board Pine covered with burlap 2.00 12a. Desks — pupils' Repairs 10.00 12b. Desk— teachers' New 25.00 13. Seating arrangements. . . .Rearranging seats 3.00 14. Closet None 15. Clock Desk clock 3.00 16. Fuel room Repairs 25.00 17. Cloak room Rooms connected with sanitary toilets 20. Library None 24. Heating and ventilation. .Room heater with intake and outlet 125.00 Thermometer .50 26. Cleaning system Oiling floor 2.00 27. Water supply Bubbling fountain 14.00 Two small mirrors 1.00 Paper towels (per year) 10.00 Liquid soap and container 2.50 28. Artificial lighting Two Coleman gas lamps (300 candle- power each) 20.00 29. Toilets Sanitary with cloak rooms attached 350.00 32. First-aid outfit 3.50 33. Mailbox 2.00 34. Flag and pole None 37. Foundation Repairing 8.00 38. Roof Slight repairing 5.00 39. Condition of repair Repainting inside and out 55.00 Siding replaced 5.00 40. Position on grounds None 41. Orientation None 43. Size of grounds 92 square yards more land 75.00 44. Shape and drainage None 45. Shape of grounds None 46. Condition None 47. Fencing Woven-wire field fence 127.00 48. Walks Gravel 10.00 49. Playground apparatus ... Swing 15.00 Teeter board 10.00 Sand pile 5.00 Horizontal bar 10.00 Volley ball and bat 30.00 50. Environment None 51. Accessibility None .. Total $1211.00 140 In order to give an idea of such costs there are shown on page 140 the improvements, together with the necessary expenditures, as esti- mated by a prominent superintendent, that need to be made in order to give a typical school (an actual case with a score of 606 -f- 32) 1000 points of essential credit. There will, of course, be some variation in costs from one community to another. Having made a study of the school, and having discovered wherein it needs improving, the interested citizen can set about stimulating his neighbors. They are unusual folks, indeed, if they will refuse anything necessary for the children's welfare, pro- viding it is within their ability to furnish it. If a few improvements are made each year, it will not be long before the children will have those conditions of housing that will contribute to, rather than hinder, their physical, moral, and intellectual development. Two-teacher Schools The children of those who live in a district maintaining a two- teacher building attend school in a building that is better in prac- tically every respect than if they were in a one-teacher school. The average score here is 755 + 29, an improvement of 151 + 15 points over the one-teacher building. The glass area is 1:6 as compared with 1:7. Twenty-three percent are lighted from one side; 51 percent from two sides; 26 percent from three sides. In this matter and in those that follow you may find it interesting to compare the conditions with those given in the preceding pages regarding one-teacher schools. Out of each 100, 70 have shades that shut out too much light Fifty-six percent have a furnace; 15 percent, a jacketed stove. The percentage having an unjacketed stove is reduced to 26; 69 out of each 100 have a thermometer; 57, a well on the grounds; none use a brook or spring. About 20 percent do not properly protect the source of their water supply. Only 13 percent have the open pail, while 24 percent have fountains. Fifteen percent do not have either paper cups or individual cups, and 64 percent do not have either paper or individual towels. Seventy-eight percent have an oiled floor; 11 percent use sweeping compound; 55 percent dust with a dry cloth. Twelve percent have a first-aid outfit. As to toilets, 12 percent 141 are flush; 55 percent are sanitary; 33 percent are outdoor. The relative condition of the sanitary and the outdoor types is practi- cally the same as in the one-teacher schools. Six percent have either the adjustable desk or the movable chair-desk; 71 percent have non-adjustable types. Only 9 percent have one-half or more of seats that are not properly adjusted, and 11 percent have one- half or more of desks that are not satisfactorily adjusted. In 25 percent of the schools the desks are not placed together according to size; 59 out of each 100 have either slate or composition boards, but the minimum height is still too high — 34 inches. The grounds contain 125 square rods on the average, and 68 percent have no play apparatus of any sort. People who live in two-teacher dis- tricts may still do much to improve conditions. Three Teachers and Over The children of those who live in a hamlet or village where there is a school with three or more teachers have, in general, a still better building in which to attend school. The average rating given a three- or four-teacher building on the score card was 548. The score card used was quite different from the one employed in the smaller schools, so that no comparison can be made between the two groups on the basis of the score received. The average score for a five- to nine-teacher building was 628; for a building of 10 or more, 665. Thus it is clear that the larger the number of teachers employed, the greater are the chances that the building will be somewhat better. In the better buildings only slight improvements need to be made, but in many the community should give serious consideration either to making extensive modifications or to erecting a new building. In presenting some facts regarding these larger buildings the five- to nine-teacher group is chosen as illustrative in order to save space. In general, conditions in the three- to four-teacher group will be slightly poorer than these; in the 10 + group, somewhat better. Of the 70 five- to nine-teacher schools studied, the average have a ratio of glass area to floor area of 1 : 6 in all class, recitation, and study rooms; 52 percent still have opaque shades, and 72 percent 142 + u jm ■■■-- :: r-- _-■ t- r - B ^'-(B ~~«3BJ f - ** if"? if " ''tsjiS'" 0" *»j f *^"fir »^'™*featf A ->*»j| >-"- ^"lE lr ^S 1 fc^* u u w have top-roller shades. In these class, recitation, and study rooms light comes from one side in 28 percent of the cases, from two sides in 57 percent, from three sides in 13 percent. Forty-six percent of the schools have a hot-air furnace; 39 percent, a steam boiler; 3 percent a hot-water boiler. Stoves have nearly disappeared, existing in only 4 percent. Forty-nine percent have some form of fire-extinguishing apparatus; 24 percent have some fire-retarding features, such as a fire-proof basement ceiling or an enclosed heat- ing apparatus. All but 14 percent have some kind of fire-alarm system. Unfortunately, 23 percent have combustible or inflam- mable material stored in the building; 6 percent have outside doors that open inward; and 70 percent of these outside doors are not equipped with anti-panic bolts. Of these schools, 76 percent have oiled floors; 91 percent of all class, recitation, and study halls have either slate or composition blackboards. Thirty-six percent have no play apparatus of any kind, and very few of the others have a sufficient amount. Probably the greatest deficiency is in the laboratories. Very frequently these are laboratories largely by courtesy, since they lack so many essentials. The following description of a five- teacher school with 12 grades is not far from typical of the kind of deficiencies found. "Science laboratory too small and crowded. Lacks space for keeping apparatus. Lacks water, gas, etc. Lacks modern individual experiment table." On the other hand, many of the newer schools, especially those of ten or more teachers, have splendidly equipped laboratories, libraries, study halls, gymnasiums, auditoriums, and even, in some, special rooms for such activities as drawing, music, and swimming. It will be noticed, however, that even though the larger buildings have deficiencies, they are in nearly all respects better than the smaller buildings, whether they are compared in regard to such health essentials as good heating and lighting or in regard to the op- portunities offered the children in the way of play-rooms, work- rooms, etc. What May be Done to Secure Improvements Where Needed ? Many people have argued that local communities have shown themselves unable to handle their educational problems without at 143 least a great deal of direction by the state. As evidence they point to just such conditions as those that have been pointed out in regard to buildings. But others have contended that this conclusion does not follow; that the reason conditions are as they are is because citizens have not known about them or have not realized their sig- nificance. People who hold this latter view claim that when the facts are known, the progressive citizens of most communities will press the question tactfully, yet so persistently, that the majority will in reasonable time come to demand something better. The fol- lowing recommendations are based upon the second point of view: 1. The first step after learning the situation in the state is to dis- cuss the matter in the community. The school should be visited to see how it compares with the standards that modern buildings may reasonably be expected to meet. The problem may be considered in grange, farm bureau, home bureau, and similar meetings. Lit- erature on the subject should be secured from the State Depart- ment of Education. The district superintendent should be called in for advice. Then, when community sentiment is ripe, the people should be called together for further discussion and whatever action seems wise. 2. Action ought not, however, to stop with this. Some communi- ties may be apathetic and do nothing, even while the majority are alert. It is generally recognized that the state has the primary re- sponsibility regarding education, and it ought not permit a few com- munities, because of their backwardness, to send their children year after year to a schoolhouse that is unhygienic. The state should set up standards that will provide everything necessary in a good building, and should see to it that those standards are enforced. This enforcement should not be difficult, because the minimum standards should represent what a working majority of the people think to be desirable. The state has at present certain minimum requirements for schoolhouses, but the law on this matter is not so clear as would be desirable; neither are the standards so inclusive as they ought to be, because only new buildings and those that are remodeled to the extent of $500 come under the law. It is obvious that, given a rea- sonable time, all school buildings ought to meet those standards 144 Built about 1870; remodeled about 1905; stairway inadequate in case of fire; no provision for fire protection; no artificial lighting sys- tem; outdoor toilets in bad condition; laboratory quite inadequate; fairly good study hall but no other special rooms; large playground area but no play apparatus. Score: 438. What a visit to the basement revealed ^^^^^^RHofen^ 2* Evidence of community apathy An illustration of a poor building in a small village because all children ought to have at least those minimum facilities that the people, acting through the state, demand. When one realizes that the present law requiring state approval of plans for new and remodeled buildings was passed in 1904, and that only about 8 percent of the one-teacher buildings have been erected since that date, one can readily understand why schoolhouses are so gen- erally deficient. It is significant, in this connection, also to know that 75 percent of these schools are thirty-six or more years old, and that 50 percent have been built for fifty-one or more years. 3. Many communities now have so little wealth that, unaided, it is practically impossible for them to make all the changes in building desired. Where this is true the state should give financial assistance. This is only a matter of fairness. Of course, it is to be expected that the state will not aid communities that do not tax themselves as heavily as they may, or that insist on maintaining weak schools with few pupils when there is another school within reasonable distance. If the state were also to give a bonus to those communities that do more than the minimum standards re- quire, there would be a real incentive to continued progress. Summary of Recommendations On the basis of the facts secured, the committee recommends: 1. That each community study earnestly its school-building situ- ation, to the end that, wherever necessary, better provision may be made because the community believes improvement necessary. 2. In order that children may not suffer because of the neglect of apathetic communities, that the present law dealing with minimum standards be made more clear, that the standards be raised to com- ply more nearly with modern hygienic requirements, and that the standards be made applicable, after a specified period, to all school- houses in the state. 3. That the state give financial assistance to those communities that cannot meet the minimum standards without undue effort and that it grant a bonus to those that exceed these standards. i4S CHAPTER IX THE EDUCATIONAL PRODUCT 1 A GOOD school is one in which children learn the things which children ought to know, and in which they form use- " ful habits. It is schools of this type for which the people of New York state are willing to pay large sums of money in public taxes and to make large personal sacrifices in time and money. A proper evaluation of the rural school system of the state, therefore, implies an inquiry into the achievements of the pupils in these schools. In how far are these pupils learning the things they are expected to learn? In how far do they master the fundamental sub- jects of the school curriculum? To secure a basis for proper judg- ment on these questions the Committee of Twenty-One provided for testing the achievements of pupils in the rural schools of repre- sentative supervisory districts of the state. The districts were chosen with a view to including all kinds of rural schools, and thus giving a fair and accurate picture of prevail- ing conditions throughout the state. These districts lie in the fol- lowing counties: Cayuga, Clinton, Columbia, Erie, Herkimer, St. Lawrence, Tompkins, Wayne, Westchester, Otsego, and Oswego. In the districts thus selected the tests were given in every school, from the largest and most easily accessible to the smallest and most remote. In addition to tests in these districts, examinations were also given in the consolidated school at Greigsville, Livingston County; and in the junior high schools in Rochester and Buffalo and in the senior high school at Syracuse. In each school every elementary pupil was examined with one or more tests. Tests in silent reading were given in every grade from the first to the twelfth; tests in spelling were given in grades 3 to 1 This chapter is published as prepared by Dr. Haggerty. 146 8; and tests in American history were given in grades 7 and 8. In the high schools the pupils who were studying algebra and Latin took tests in these subjects, as well as tests in silent reading. In all about 16,000 pupils in 441 schools were examined. While the tests were made thus widely, only a portion of the re- sults will be here reported. The general trend of all the results will be evident from selected data bearing upon crucial problems in the work of the rural schools. Complete data will be given in the full report. For the purpose of the present discussion it may be as- sumed that grades 2, 5, and 8 represent the elementary schools; that the work of the high schools is fairly represented by the work of the ninth grade, and that reading ability is the basic achievement of public education. Major space will, therefore, be given to these matters. The Problem of Illiteracy If the entire population of New York who are ten years old and over were placed in a single file, the line would reach nearly 5000 miles. If one were to pass down this line, every twentieth person he would meet would be unable to write his own name. 1 If these half- million illiterates were segregated into a similar line, it would stretch across the state from Buffalo to Utica, or a distance of about 240 miles. Among the native-born whites the proportion of illiterates is one-half of 1 percent, while it is 14 percent among the foreign born who were living in the state in 1920. 2 It is clear, however, that the ability to write one's own name, 1 im- portant as it is, is no very adequate educational achievement. If a person is to participate in the social life of American democratic society in any real way, it is necessary for him to read the English language. Nor is a mere elementary reading knowledge, such as is attained by primary children, sufficient. The problems of eco- nomics, of politics, and of religion are discussed in periodicals and books which primary children cannot read. The ability to read in- 1 The definition of illiteracy used by the United States Census is ability to write one's own name. 2 Figures are from the Fourteenth Census (1920). The Appendix contains detailed information regarding illiteracy that was furnished by C. W. Smith, State Department of Education. 147 telligently the daily papers, simply written as they are, is con- siderably in excess of the achievement of primary children. In view of these considerations it would appear that census figures for illit- eracy are somewhat illusory. They suggest a better condition than actually exists. If the census definition may be accepted as a cri- terion for illiteracy, then there should be recognized a condition of near-illiteracy which, because of its great extent, is of more concern than is illiteracy itself. Near-illiteracy and the Army Examinations No better evidence of the amount of near-illiteracy which exists throughout the country can be obtained than that revealed by the army intelligence examinations. The bearing of these examinations on the problems of public education in the state of New York is of sufficient importance to justify a word of detail. Group examination Alpha was designed for men who could read the English language; the other, group examination Beta, was intended for illiterates or non-English-reading soldiers. The Alpha examination was suffi- ciently simple that it could be given to pupils in the fourth and fifth grades of the public schools. Yet, despite the general simplicity of the Alpha test, it was found necessary to examine 24.9 percent of the one and three-quarter millions of recruits with the Beta test. In general it may, therefore, be said that one-fourth of America's young men between the ages of twenty-one and thirty-one cannot read the English language as well as a fourth or fifth grade child in the public schools. These figures, taken from the Memoir of the National Academy of Science on "Psychological Examining in the United States Army," are for the country as a whole. For the state of New York the Memoir shows that 16.6 percent of the men were unable to read the Alpha examinations. Of the recruits from New York city, 31 percent were required to take the Beta examination. Less than 2 percent of these were rated as feeble-minded, leaving 29 percent who were illiterates or near-illiterates, and who might have learned to read under adequate educational conditions. Of these, 2 percent were unable to speak English, 9 percent were able to speak English but could not read and write it, and 20 percent were able to read and 148 write somewhat, but not sufficiently well to read sentences such as the following: "Get the answers to these examples as quickly as you can." "It is wise to put some money aside and not spend it all so that you may prepare for old age and sickness" To put the matter succinctly, it may be said that only 69 percent out of every 100 men whom New York city sent to the army were able to read English with sufficient facility to enable them to read the newspapers, or to understand army orders printed in the language of the country. It seems pertinent to present these facts concerning near-illiteracy because the people of the state of New York may legitimately expect their system of public education to remedy the situation. No single obligation rests so heavily upon the public schools as that of teach- ing the young people of the state to read the English language — the language of American politics and government, the language of American commerce and industry, the language of American litera- ture and of American social ideals. No achievement in other fields will compensate for failure here, and no mere knowledge of the simple words and sentences of the primary school readers will suffice. Young people should master the words and the language structure involved in English sentences and paragraphs which are necessary to mature thought. For such an achievement on the part of its citi- zens the state can afford to pay any necessary sum of money. To be satisfied with less is perilous to its democratic institutions. Reading English Prose With a view to throwing light upon the efficiency of the rural schools in meeting this problem of near-illiteracy, and in developing reading ability on the part of the pupils in these schools, a series of tests in silent reading was given. In all the upper grades and high schools of the selected supervisory districts the pupils were examined as to their knowledge of printed words, their ability to understand printed sentences and to understand printed paragraphs. The test material was selected almost wholly from school readers designed for 149 the upper elementary school grades, was arranged in three tests, and was presented to the pupils in the following forms: Test 1. — Vocabulary Draw a line under the best definition for each word. 1. labor (look sad, to work, liquor, to read) 1 2. victory (fight, to win a battle, sign, to exclaim) 2 3. captain (wears cap, person who commands, tall man, master) ... 3 Continue to 50 words. Test 2. — Sentence Reading Draw a line under the right answer to each question. 1. Are shingles used on houses ? Yes No 2. Are all fabrics made of wool ? Yes No 3. Would you trust a dishonest character? Yes No Continue to 40 sentences. Test 3. — Paragraph Reading Read the directions and do what they say to do. I They went across the hall to a door at the back of the house. It opened before them and disclosed a long, bare, melancholy room, made barer still by lines of desks. At one of these a lonely boy was reading near a feeble fire; and Scrooge sat down upon a form and wept to see his poor forgotten self as he had used to be. 1. Underline the words telling where the door was: in the front at the side in the rear by the porch 2. Underline the false statements: The room was cheery. The room had desks in it. The room was filled with beautiful pictures and flowers. 3. Check the one of the following statements which is true: a. There were many boys getting their lessons. b. One lonely lad was reading by the fire. c. Only one person crossed the hall. 4. Underline the statements which are true : Scrooge cried. Scrooge was sorry for himself. Scrooge laughed aloud. Continue to 7 paragraphs and 28 questions. ISO These three tests were combined into a single examination requir- ing about forty minutes' time in all. Together they measure well an individual's ability to read English prose as it occurs in school text- books, in periodicals, in newspapers, and in ordinary books. The maximum combined score possible in the three tests is 146 points. The average score for 1100 eighth-grade pupils in all types of New York rural schools is 72 points. The best score achieved by any eighth-grade pupil in any school is 135. Eight of the 1100 pupils scored 120 or better, and almost 10 percent of eighth-grade pupils scored above 100. Persons who reach this mark can read with fair intelligence current newspapers, periodicals, and ordinary books. The lowest 12 percent of eighth-grade pupils scored less than 50 points on the combined tests. The meaning of these low scores may be clarified by concrete examples. A detailed study of the pupils' responses shows that one pupil in every seven did not know that "manuscripts convey information." Either he was ignorant of the meaning of one of these three words, or he was unable to see the relation of the words when combined in the sen- tence. About one-fourth of all eighth-grade pupils asserted that "All laws are enacted with facility." Either the words were un- known or the pupils were ignorant of the processes of legislation. One in every three pupils did not know that "a knave" is "a rascal," and a larger number did not know that "to beguile" means "to deceive." In every 100, 28 denied that "Embezzlers practise fraudulent activities," and 27 believed that "Imbeciles have high intelligence." Similar details could be multiplied at length, but these are suffi- cient to show the character of the errors which are responsible for the low scores. The number of pupils who are able to interpret properly the straightforward English prose of Dickens, Eliot, Howells, Scott, and Washington is astonishingly small. Fifty-seven percent of the eighth-grade pupils failed to give correct answers to questions based on Washington's Farewell Address, about one-half of all declaring Washington to have asserted that "The people have no right to change the constitution of their government." These facts for the eighth grade are peculiarly significant because 151 these pupils were practically at the end of the elementary school program. There is little likelihood that they will at all improve in reading ability unless they go to high school the following year. For all other pupils, the scores made in this reading test represent the maximum they will achieve in school. Except in rare cases, there is a fair certainty that these abilities will deteriorate when the children are no longer in school and in daily contact with books. The foregoing figures are primarily for the larger rural schools, i. e., elementary schools having four or more teachers. In general these schools are superior in reading achievement to the smaller schools, as maybe seen by referring to Table 18. The eighth-grade pupils in the one-room schools, of which the state of New York has such a large number, read less well than do the seventh-grade pupils in the larger schools; and the seventh grades in the smaller schools are correspondingly behind. This difference is constant throughout the grades, as may be seen in Diagram 12, page 153. Table 18. — Reading Examination, Sigma 3. One- and Four-teacher Ele- mentary Schools. "Four-teacher Schools" Include all Schools with Four and More Teachers. Median Scores and Median Ages for Grades 5 to 8 Grades Schools 5 6 7 8 Score Age Score Age Score Age Score Age One-teacher Four-teacher 31.5 41.6 11.9 11.7 41.7 55.0 12.3 12.6 55.3 70.5 13.4 13.5 65.8 80.7 14.4 14.3 This disadvantage of the smaller schools is aggravated by the fact of greater elimination of pupils in these schools. In the districts studied the number of eighth-grade pupils in one-teacher schools is less than one-half the number of first-grade pupils. Apparently these schools hold their pupils fairly well up until the end of grade 6. They lose approximately one-third of the sixth-grade group at 152 the end of the year, and an additional 7 percent, or 40 percent in all, before the end of the eighth grade. Diagram 12. — Reading examination, Sigma 3. Scores made by pupils of grades 5 to 8 in one-teacher schools and in four-teacher schools. Data from Table 18 The larger schools, on the other hand, have only 18 percent fewer pupils in the seventh and only 24 percent fewer in the eighth than in the sixth grades. A part of this apparent superiority of the larger schools is illusory, since some upper grade pupils leave the one- teacher schools and go to the larger schools, thus increasing the elimination figure for the smaller schools and lowering it for the larger schools. Notwithstanding this fact, however, there is fair certainty that the larger schools have distinctly greater holding power than have the one-teacher schools. It should, therefore, be kept in mind that the low seventh- and eighth-grade scores in the smaller schools would probably be lower still if all the pupils who should have been in school had been there on the day the tests were given. There is some reason to believe i53 that the absent pupils were in general inferior in achievement to those present. Those who were no longer in school would, if present, have lowered the already low rank of these upper-grade classes. Reading in the High School Even among high school pupils the results of the tests leave much to be desired. Of all high school pupils, 27 percent failed to read accurately the prose paragraphs from standard English writers, and on individual words and sentences the errors, although not so great in number, were of a kind with those made by eighth-grade pupils. Half of all the high school pupils did not know accurately the meaning of "patriarch," "dexterity," "intrigue," "implac- able," or "animosity." One-fourth did not know the meaning of "conflagration," "obstacles," "harbinger," "sublime," "noctur- nal," or "spherical." An equal proportion asserted that "grim determination invariably brings about reconciliation," and that "despots invest subordinates with great authority"; while one in every ten believed that "petty larceny is conducive to good re- pute"; that " citron is found in craters," and that "good citizens are insensible to progress." The median scores for the high schools may be found in Table 19. The results show that in all types of high schools there are many pupils whose reading ability is so deficient that they must have very great difficulty in reading and understanding their text-books in high school science, in high school history, or in high school mathematics. In fact, the test results indicate that many of the pupils can do the reading of these necessary texts less well than can a majority of eighth-grade and many seventh-grade pupils. The distinction already noted between the larger and smaller elementary schools is also apparent in the high school grades. The data in Table 19 do not show the same consistency of superiority for the larger high schools as was true of the elementary schools, but the only exception occurs in grade 10. Diagram 13 shows a rather unexpected leap upward at this grade for the smaller schools. In all other places the figure appears to show the same condition as was shown in Diagram 12 for the elementary grades. iS4 Table 19. — Reading Examination, Sigma 3. Small and Large High Schools. "Large" High Schools Means Having Four or More Teachers. All Others are "Small." Median Scores and Median Ages for Grades 9 to 12 Grades Schools 9 10 11 12 Score Age Score Age Score Age Score Age Small schools .... Large schools .... 90.0 94.6 15.4 15.1 104.5 103.0 15.9 16.3 107.1 111.5 17.1 17.2 111.7 118.0 17.9 17.8 Score 120 80 60 40 ,---** - ...Large schools — — Small schools 9 Grades Diagram 13. — Reading examination, Sigma 3. Scores made by pupils of grades 9 to 12 in small and large high schools. Data from Table 19 Reading in the Primary Grades The differences between the larger and smaller schools which appear in the reading achievements of the upper grades and in the high schools are evident in the lower grades. The pupils in these grades were examined with a simple reading examination, the first line of which was 1. Put a tail on this pig. The successive lines increased in difficulty up to paragraphs like the following: (Read this paragraph and then do what it says to do. Read it again if you need to.) "But we are anxious to see the inside of this wonderful craft; so, after a few minutes in the turret, we go down the narrow hatch- way into the boat itself. Here we are immediately struck by the amount of machinery everywhere and the neatness and compact- ness of everything. Behind the living room is the engine room. Here are two heavy oil engines for driving the boat on the surface, and a powerful motor for use when the boat is submerged. In another compartment there are storage batteries for supplying the electric current for the motors, lights, and cooking apparatus." 24. Draw a line under the one of these three words that shows sailboat what is described in this paragraph. aeroplane submarine 25. Draw a line under the one of these three words that best little shows the amount of machinery to be seen. much none This examination has been used widely throughout the country, both in city and in rural schools. The "norms" of Table 20 are based on the results of the test in good city schools where reading is well taught. An examination of this table shows that, in com- parison with these standard norms, the New York rural schools, grade for grade, make inferior scores. In the case of the larger rural schools the inferiority is in most cases about one-half year below the standard. In the case of the one-teacher schools the deficiency amounts to almost a year. Thus, in grade 2 the norm calls for a median score of 20, while second-grade pupils in these smaller schools score but 9.5, which is but little more than the first- grade norm. In other words, the pupils who have been in these 156 schools almost two full years, and who are about eight and a half years old, read but little better than do seven and one-half year olds who have attended good city schools. A similar comparison may be noted in the case of third-grade pupils, who score just above the second-grade norm. The larger rural schools do distinctly better, their advantage being almost a half-year over the one- teacher schools. Several facts of significance should be stated in connection with these figures. First, the medians of Table 20 are based on tests of over 5000 pupils in these lower grades, and hence they should be accepted as having great weight as accurate measures of existing conditions. Second, the teaching of reading constitutes the main, and in many cases almost the sole, instructional activity of the school in these lower grades. These reading scores are, therefore, to a large degree a complete measure of the educational product of these schools up to the end of the third grade. It may also be noted that a half-year of deficiency in grade 2 means a loss of one- fourth of the school life of the child up to that point. A deficiency of one year in grade 3 means a loss of one-third of the child's school life up to the end of that grade. The ratio of deficiency is, therefore, very much greater than would similar gross amounts be in grades 7 or 8. Table 20.— Reading Examination, Sigma 1. One- and Four-teacher Schools. Four-teacher Schools Include all Larger Schools. Me- dian Scores and Median Ages for Grades 1 to 4 Grades New York 1 2 3 4 Score Age Score Age Score Age Score Age One-teacher Four-teacher 2.07 2.40 7.3 7.1 9.5 12.7 8.5 8.4 22.6 26.7 9.6 9.4 29.2 34.3 10.6 10.6 Norms 6 20 30 38 157 As an evidence that these results are not accidental, attention may be called to the fact that the deficiencies are constant from grade 1 to grade 4. Uniformly the larger schools score below the norm, and uniformly the one-teacher schools are below the larger schools. Whatever the conditions which make for the inferior achievement of these smallest schools may be, it is obvious that they operate generally throughout the schools of this type, and this despite the fact that the minimum length of the school term for all New York rural schools is one hundred and eighty days. Score 40, — 30 Norms 4 'teacher I" teacher s< hools sc hools 20 10 /7 / y. ^ ** /> Grades Diagram 14. — Reading examination, Sigma 1. Upper curve, standard norms; middle curve shows median scores for four-teacher schools, grades 1 to 4; lowest curve shows median scores in one-teacher schools, grades 1 to 4. Data from Table 20 The discussion of reading achievement began with emphasis upon the social value of literate or English-reading men and 158 women. It would be easy to elaborate this view. But it is equally pertinent to inquire about justice to individual boys and girls born and reared in the country. Some of these young people will desire to remain in the country; others will go to cities to live. But whether their future environment is to be rural or urban, is not adequate English literacy a rightful heritage of every American child? The state demands this condition for its own security and prog- ress, but the individual requires it for his own freedom, efficiency, and personal success in life. Viewed from this angle, the test results show that in New York state the rural child, the boy and girl growing up in the open country, where the one-teacher schools prevail, is placed at a disadvantage with urban children by the inferior type of education which is offered to him. Spelling Conclusions similar to those derived from the reading tests may be drawn from the examinations in spelling. A list of 20 words was given to all the pupils from grades 3 to 8 in all the schools ex- amined. The same words were given to all pupils. The list, which is the same as that used in the Virginia survey, is as follows: come, was, foot, happy, could, once, pretty, always, uncle, beautiful, surprise, vessel, century, invitation, necessary, experience, athletic, convenient, decision, recommend. All these words are found in the Ayres Spelling Scale, where their difficulty is evaluated. All the words are in frequent use by pupils of elementary grades. Each grade was scored for the words best adapted to test the spelling ability of that grade. The median score for each grade should be 66 percent of correct spellings. The test shows that pupils in one-teacher schools achieve correct spellings as follows: sixth grade, 60 percent; eighth grade, 74 percent. For the larger schools the results were sixth grade, 70 percent, and the eighth grade, 84 percent. These results compare favorably with the Ayres standards. On the other hand, there is the same discrepancy between the scores for the larger and for the smaller schools — additional evidence of the inferior schooling to be found in the one-teacher schools. 1 59 American History Recent events of world-wide interest have emphasized the im- portance attached to a knowledge of American history on the part of all active citizens. By general assent the basic facts of our history are proper subject matter for the elementary schools. The syllabus of the New York State Department of Education provides for teaching the essential facts about important personages connected with American history in the fifth grade, and the rural schools are advised "to begin this work about October first and continue it to completion with two lessons a week." For the seventh and eighth grades the syllabus plans " 200 lessons " in history, and makes pro- vision for correlating such material with geography and literature. In trying to evaluate the efficiency of the rural schools, there- fore, it seemed pertinent to inquire as to the amount of historic knowledge which is possessed by the pupils. Accordingly, two American history tests 1 were given to 2000 pupils in grades 7 and 8. Two types of questions were used — information questions and thought questions. The information questions were designed to show how many of the basic facts of American history were known by the pupils. The questions ranged from easy to difficult — from naming any battle of the Revolutionary War to arranging a group of states in the order of their admission to the Union. The thought questions provided a given set of facts and asked the pupil to record an intelligent inference based on these facts. They, too, were arranged with the easiest problems first. Both of these tests had been given earlier in the schools of New York city and in many other places. Comparison of results is, therefore, easy. From Table 21 it may be seen that invariably the rural schools in the state score below the standards derived from city schools, eighth- grade children in the larger rural schools standing about midway between New York city seventh and eighth grades. In smaller schools the eighth-grade achievement is below that of city seventh grades, and is about a year short of the ability shown by the larger rural schools. A graphic representation of these facts is given in Diagrams 15 and 16. 1 Selected items from the Van Wagenen American History Scales. 160 Table 21. — History Information and Thought Questions, Grade 8. Median Scores for One- and Four-teacher Schools, also Standard Norms for Grades 7 and 8 Information Thought One-teacher schools 30.6 29.4 Four-teacher schools 38.5 36.8 Standards for Grade 7 32.0 32.0 Standards for Grade 8 42.0 42.0 Schools Median Achievement New York rural one- teacher 31 Grade 8 New York city 32 [" Grade 7 ■" New York rural four-teacher Grade 8 New York city 42 i I Grade 8 U, , I Diagram 15. — History — information. Showing median achievement in grade 8, one- and four-teacher schools, of New York rural schools, and median achievement of grades 7 and 8 in New York city schools Schools Median Achievement New York rural one- teacher 29 Grade 8 New York city Grade 7 New York rural four-teacher Grade 8 New York city 42 I I Grade 8 ' ' Diagram 16. — History — thought. Showing median achievement in grade 8, one- and four-teacher schools, of New York rural schools, and median achieve- ment of grades 7 and 8 in New York city schools ii 161 This result is in keeping with the results of the reading tests, and is doubtless closely connected with the deficiency of reading achievement on the part of rural pupils. Children who cannot read have not the tools necessary to master American history. The lives of American leaders, the steady march of progress across the American continent, the industrial revolution, the writing of the American constitution, the social, economic, and political evolution of the American nation, are to them a closed book, closed as effec- tively as if it were written in a foreign language or were sealed under a combination lock. Events connected with the World War made us think much about our problems of Americanizing the foreigners who come to our shores. This is an important matter. It is equally important that our public schools shall lay the basis for Americanizing our native born. The foundation of a genuine Americanization is a knowledge of American history, and the basis of acquiring this knowledge is an adequate mastery of the language in which that history is recorded. Judged by the degree to which their pupils have this knowledge and mastery, the rural schools of New York are distinctly deficient. Arithmetic The smaller schools make their best relative showing in the tests in the fundamentals of arithmetic, a field which is hardly less im- portant than that of reading. To measure the achievements of the schools in addition and in multiplication two tests 1 were given, ten minutes being allotted to each. The problems in each test ranged from easy to difficult. The following are representative examples: Addition 22 26 3 + 1 = .75 1.25 .44 Multiplication 2^ 3# 3X7 = 1036 2.87 8 .05 6.25 3.2 1 Woody, Clifford S.: Arithmetical Scales, Series B. 162 The score in each of these tests is the number of problems cor- rectly solved. For eighth-grade pupils the median standard score in addition is 18.5, and in multiplication it is 18. These standards are based on September tests. The New York tests were given in April and May. The scores should, therefore, be at least equal to the standard scores, since the pupils have had almost a year more of schooling. Without exception, however (see Table 22), the New York scores fall below the standards. They are also be- low the scores for good city schools throughout the country. Table 22. — Arithmetic: Addition and Multiplication. Median Scores for Rural Schools and Standard Comparative Scores Addition Multiplication Grade 5 Grade 8 Grade 5 Grade 8 One- teacher Four- teacher One- teacher Four- teacher One- teacher Four- teacher One- teacher Four- teacher New York 13.4 14.1 16.2 16.6 12.5 13.6 16.9 16.8 Webster City, Iowa Denver, Colo. Seattle, Wash.... Pittsburgh, Pa 18.1 15.7 17.4 15.5 17.9 15.8 17.8 15.2 Woody Standards, Septem- ber scores 1 1 IS .5 1 1 18 .0 In a general examination, the results of which will be reported in full in a later volume of this report, there occurred a test in the solution of arithmetical problems. The first problem was: "How many are 30 men and 7 men?" 163 The successive problems, 20 in all, increased in difficulty. These problems called for the ability both to think out a method of solu- tion and to make accurate computations. The results of the test are shown in Table 23, where the median scores are given for the one- and the four-teacher schools. The norms for the test are also given. These results tend to the same conclusion already derived from the reading, spelling, and history tests, namely, that the small rural schools do work inferior to that of the larger rural schools, and the latter seldom reach the standard norm. The smaller schools lag behind about a full year in most grades. Table 23. — Arithmetical Reasoning: Exercise 2 of Intelligence Exami- nation, DelTa 2. One- and Four-room Schools, Grades 3 to 8. Median Scores by Grades. Standard Scores by Grades Grades 3 4 5 6 7 8 Standards 5.0 3.9 4.9 7.0 5.5 5.6 9.0 6.6 7.7 10.5 9.0 9.8 11.5 10.4 12.1 13.0 One-room schools 11.3 Four-room schools 12.3 Algebra In selecting schools for testing, all the schools of a supervisory district were included. In this way tests were given to all high school pupils of a district, whether these pupils were found in large, well-organized high schools or in small classes connected with upper elementary grades. The achievements of these high school pupils in reading have already been noted. Algebra tests were given to all pupils who had studied the subject three months or more, and who, at the time of the test, were studying it. The algebra tests 1 used were those devised by Dr. H. G. Hotz. Two tests, — addition and subtraction and equation and formula, — each requiring twenty minutes of the pupil's time, were given to about 1000 high school students. Careful record was made of the l Hotz, H. G.: Algebra Scales. Teachers College, Bureau of Publications. 164 time each pupil had studied algebra and the results were tabulated in terms of this time. Most of the students are included in the group which had studied algebra one year, or about eight school months, at the time of the test. The Hotz tests, which are based on the type of algebra prescribed in the New York syllabus, have had wide general use. The stan- dards given in Table 24 are based on the achievements of pupils in good city schools. It will be observed in the table that the larger New York rural schools exceed by a slight margin the Hotz stan- dards. The records which are given separately for schools having not more than three high school teachers show that these smaller schools are achieving results very much inferior to the Hotz stan- dard, and very much below the larger high schools tested in the survey. Table 24. — Algebra, Hotz: Addition and Subtraction Tests and Equation and Formula Tests. Median Scores for Pupils Studying Eight Months Addition and Equation Subtraction and Formula Hotz standards 7.5 7.6 New York — less than four-teacher 5.8 6.0 New York — four- and more teacher 7.6 8.0 Rochester 6.1 8.2 Buffalo 6.1 5.3 Greigsville 7.1 7.7 The table shows separately the scores for a junior high school in the city of Rochester, for one in the city of Buffalo, and for the con- solidated school at Greigsville. In these schools the tests were given for the purpose of securing comparative scores. The results show that the larger rural schools are doing as good work in the teaching of algebra as is being done in any one of these three schools. In only one case, however, do these comparative scores fall as low as the median result for the smaller rural schools. That single case is the Buffalo junior high school, which makes a low score in the equation and formula test. Every other possible comparison from Table 24 is to the disadvantage of the high schools having fewer than four teachers. There is much difference of opinion as to the advisability of teach- ing algebra to all high school students. There is practically no 165 dissension regarding the importance of teaching it well if it is taught at all. Inasmuch as the schools examined do essay to teach the subject, they are subject to the charge of inefficient work on the basis of the relatively poor showing which their pupils make. Latin Latin is an optional subject in New York high schools. It is, however, required for entrance to most eastern colleges, and the State Department requires Latin in its college entrance exami- nations. In the State Department syllabus covering Latin the vocabulary is arranged by half-years, with the injunction that " the pupil should have at command 90 percent or more of the 1000 words laid down for the first two years." The Latin vocabulary tests 1 used in the survey consisted of 50 words, 41, or 82 percent, of which are contained in the New York syllabus for the first year. Basing the score on these 41 words, the New York criterion of 90 percent accuracy would require 74 percent score on the test. A Latin sentence test was also given. This test used words almost all of which are in the New York syllabus lists for the first two half-years. The syllabus gives no standard for this type of achievement, but such standards have been derived from a wide use of the tests in representative high schools throughout the country. The achievements of the New York rural schools in these two Latin tests, as may be seen from Table 25, is not up to the expec- tancy of the State Department syllabus, nor is it up to the standards set by the extensive use of the tests in other cities. In the vo- cabulary test New York expects 74 percent and gets 50 percent from the smaller schools and 55 percent for the larger schools. The Henmon standard requires 66 percent, which is considerably above the achievement of the New York schools tested. This deficiency is also apparent in the sentence tests, which show an achievement of 20 percent where the standard requires 25 percent. The smaller schools, however, do as well as the larger schools. 1 Henmon Latin Tests, World Book Company, Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y., 1921. 166 For comparative purposes the Latin tests were given in one of the junior high schools in the city of Rochester and in the high school at Greigsville. In general, these schools show better achieve- ment than do the rural schools, particularly when the age of the pupils is considered. Rochester pupils, with a median age of 14.8 years, score better than the larger rural schools, with a median age of 15.1 years. The Greigsville scores in vocabulary are equal to the best rural schools and the sentence scores are superior. Table 25. — Henmon Latin Test. First Year High School Pupils Who Have Studied Latin One School Year. Median Scores for Vocabulary and Sentence Tests; also Standard Scores Vocabulary Sentence Henmon Standards 66 25 New York Expectancy 74 Less than four-teacher schools 50 20 Four- and more teacher schools 55 20 Rochester 56 30 Greigsville 55 28 Larger School Units In recent years the consolidated school has been widely recom- mended as an effective means for improving rural education, and in New York state as well as elsewhere considerable consolidation has taken place. The test results in the survey apparently justify such larger school units. Almost without exception the median test scores are higher in these larger schools than they are in the smaller one-teacher schools. Although these differences have already been stressed in this chapter, it is so important a matter that a further word may be justified. In Table 26 the scores in the upper-grade reading test are given in terms of the ages of the pupils. Ten-year- old pupils in one-room schools are here shown with a median score of 38, and in the four-teacher schools with a score of 56. This difference of 18 points is more than a year's improvement. The difference for some other ages is not so great, but the data show a constant superiority of the larger school units in developing read- ing ability on the part of the pupils. 1 The figures of Table 26 1 The figures for the upper ages are complicated by the inclusion of all high school pupils examined, smaller high schools being included with one-room elementary schools. 167 Table 26. — Reading Examination, Sigma 3. Median Scores by Ages for All Pupils Tested in One-teacher Schools and in the Larger Schools. In the Latter are Included the Pupils of These Ages Found in High Schools in the Districts Examined Ages 10 11 12 13 14 15 62 82 16 67 93 17 59 110 18 66 105 19 One-teacher schools Four-teacher schools 38 56 42 57 45 63 67 71 68 79 111 Score 120 100 80 60 20 / / / s> S • • f La rge sc lOOlS „ f X y Smal L schot )1S 's ,' / *' 10 Age 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 Diagram 17. — Reading examination, Sigma 3. Median scores by ages for all pupils tested in one-teacher schools and in the larger schools. In the latter are included pupils of these ages found in the high schools in the districts ex- amined 168 are shown graphically in Diagram 17. The upper curve represents by ages the achievements of pupils in the larger schools. The lower curve shows the results for the one-teacher elementary schools. The superiority of the larger school unit thus apparent in the re- sults of the New York tests is supported by results found elsewhere. The same difference appeared in the Virginia, North Carolina, and Kentucky surveys, and, in fact, wherever the two types of schools have been measured by the same tests. This constancy of the dif- ference is such as to identify these smaller schools with inferior achievement, and to raise in the mind of every patron of the one-room schools the desire for an improvement of school condi- tions. Mere size of the school is hardly to be credited with this difference in scores. It is the superior advantages that go along with the larger school unit that are important. Better buildings, better equipment, better teachers, better classification of pupils, better school instruction are all made possible by the union of interests, the increase of school revenue, and the better school administra- tion and supervision consequent upon increase in the size of the school. Let us consider, for example, one factor which all will admit is important in determining the product of any school, namely, the training of the teacher. A careful record was made in the case of every school tested of the amount and kind of training of every teacher whose pupils were examined. A study of these records shows that in the larger schools the median training of elementary teachers is two years beyond a four-year high school course, and that 44 per- cent of these teachers are graduates of a two-year normal course. On the other hand, only 9 percent of the teachers in one-room schools have two years' normal training, and the median training of these teachers is four years of high school work plus summer courses of six weeks or more in normal schools. Whatever the detailed cause may be, however, the fact remains that the one-teacher school is a less productive educational institu- tion than is the larger school unit, and the pupils who attend the smaller schools are being handicapped for life by this fact. If the state of New York is to secure to the pupils of these more isolated 169 regions a fair educational opportunity, it must change and improve these schools. It is probable that the most effective means for such improvements is consolidation of school districts wherever that is possible. Where such enlarging of the school district is not feasible, heroic efforts should be made to bring to these smaller schools the necessary conditions for improved work at whatever cost. 170 CHAPTER X FURTHER EVIDENCE ON THE WORK OF THE SCHOOLS A SUBJECT of frequent discussion is the efficiency of the country school when contrasted with the schools found in " cities and villages. Chapter IX, which treats of the Educa- tional Product of New York state's rural schools, furnishes the most nearly complete and definite answer that we have to this ques- tion. There is, however, evidence available from other sources that will help in drawing conclusions on this important problem. In connection with its study of the schools, the committee secured information regarding the progress of pupils through the elementary schools. This was done because one measure of the efficiency of a system of schools is the extent to which pupils finish the work of each grade on schedule time. Data were obtained by sending blanks to 917 schools in 22 supervisory districts. These districts were in various sections of the state. On these blanks information was ob- tained regarding the age and grade of each child in the schools as of April 15, 1921. Returns that were usable were obtained from 801 one-teacher schools and from 46 larger schools, none of which had academic departments. The data that were obtained made it pos- sible to compute the median age of the beginners. It was found to be 6.9 years. On this basis it was decided that if a pupil was in the first grade at either six or seven years of age, to consider him of normal age. This statement was used in determining the rate of progress in the upper grades. Fortunately, there were in the State Department of Education reports showing the ages and grades for pupils in the elementary schools of union free school districts for the year 1918-19 for the territory covered by this phase of the survey. This material was 171 used for comparison with that obtained from the common school districts. In making these comparisons the same basis was used for determining whether pupils were making the normal progress as was used in the elementary schools without academic departments. It is out of question to present in this report all the data that were obtained, but portions are of such vital interest that every rural school patron should know them. In other instances only gen- eral conclusions can be given. It was found that throughout the grades the percentage of pupils making the normal rate of progress was less in the one-teacher schools than in the grades in the union free schools. The total per- centage of boys that made the normal rate of progress was 52.1 in the one-teacher schools, while in the elementary schools with academic departments it was 57.3. The corresponding figures for girls were 56.8 percent and 58.4 percent respectively. The differences are even more pronounced for those who failed to make normal progress. The following table gives a general idea of the situation: Table 27. — Showing Percentage of Pupils Making Normal Progress, Failing to make Normal Progress, and Making Progress More Rapidly than Normal Total Percentage That Type of School Sex Were Making Normal Progress One-teacher school Boys 52.1 Girls 56.8 Grades of union free school Boys 57.3 Girls 58.4 Total Percentage Failing to Make Normal Progress One-teacher school Boys 39.3 Girls 31.2 Grades of union free school Boys 27.9 Girls 22.1 Total Percentage Making Progress More Rapidly than Normal One-teacher school Boys 8.5 Girls 11.9 Grades of union free school Boys 14.8 Girls 19.5 It is not only desirable to know what percentage is delayed, but it is very important to know to what extent the pupils are delayed. It is very evident that it is unfortunate from the standpoint of effective 172 teaching to have pupils in the same class who differ greatly in their ages. A considerable number of cases were found of pupils fourteen, fifteen, and sixteen years old in grades 1, 2, and 3. In extreme in- stances fifteen-year-old pupils were found in the first grade. Such a situation works decidedly to the disadvantage of both younger and older pupils, and makes it impossible for the teacher to do satis- factory work. The extent to which this is a problem in the one- teacher schools as contrasted with the grades in union free school districts is shown by the following table: Table 28. — Showing Percentage of Pupils Delayed One or More Years in Their Progress Through the Elementary School Grades in One-teacher Union Free Number of Years Pupils were Delayed Schools Schools Four or more years 2.5 percent 1.5 percent Three years 3.9 " 2.9 Two years 9.4 " 6.6 " One year 20.4 " 13.6 " It is clear that the retardation of pupils is much more pronounced in the country schools than it is in the grades of the union free schools. In addition to these general statements, for which data are given, evidence was obtained in these same schools that justified the fol- lowing conclusions: 1. The average age of boys in the second grade in the one-teacher schools is 1.52 years more than that of the average age in the first grade. During the second, third, and fourth grades more time is lost, so that they enter the fifth grade practically one year behind. From this time on they begin to drop out of school. The same ten- dencies are found in the village schools, but they are not nearly so pronounced. 2. The elimination of pupils from the one-teacher schools begins at thirteen years, and is in full progress at fourteen, while it is one year later in the union free school districts. Evidence that cor- roborates this point was found in the study made by the Military Training Commission. It will be given later. 3. Nearly one-fifth of all children in one-teacher schools are in the i73 first grade, one-third in the first and second grades, and three-fifths are in the first four grades. The statistics on which these statements are based cover thou- sands of children in all parts of the state. They are to be regarded as much more conclusive evidence regarding the efficiency of the one-teacher schools than are opinions based on the observation of a few cases that may not be in accord with these findings. Recently a report was issued by the Military Training Commis- sion 1 that contains facts that assist still further in making com- parisons of the relative efficiency of country schools as contrasted with those of cities and villages of the states. In this study certain facts were obtained regarding the education of the sixteen-, seven- teen-, and eighteen-year-old boys of the state. It was found that only one in seven of the boys of these ages was in school. Of the 147,925 employed boys, — those no longer attending school, — 14,529 were farm boys. The median age at which these boys had left school varied little with the size of the place in which they lived. In New York city it was 15.5 years, while the farm boys left at the median age of 15.8 years. When this is borne in mind, the figures in the following table, showing the percentage completing the eighth grade, are of interest: Table 29. — Showing Percentage of Employed Boys that had Completed the Eighth Grade Before Leaving School Cities under 25,000 49.8 percent Cities over 25,000.. 55.6 Greater New York. 61.5 " Farm boys 41.5 percent Places under 5000. 47.9 " Villages over 5000. 49.7 " Boys from Percent Farms 41.5 Places under 5000 47.9 Villages over 5000 49.7 Cities under 25,000 49.8 Cities over 25,000 55.6 Greater New York 61.5 Diagram 18. — Showing percentage of employed boys sixteen, seventeen, and eighteen years of age, on farms and in the various urban centers, who had com- pleted the eighth grade before leaving school 1 Burdge: A Study of Employed Boys. 174 The table which follows shows the number of grades completed by the median of the employed boys before he left school: Table 30. — Showing Median Grade Completed by Boys from Communities of Varying Size Farm boys 7.7 grades Places under 5000 7.9 Villages over 5000 8.0 Cities under 25,000 8.0 Cities over 25,000 8.2 Greater New York 8.3 These figures are even more striking when consideration is given to the fact that only 3 percent of the farm boys were foreign born, while in all other communities outside of Greater New York 10 per- cent were foreign born and in Greater New York 20 percent were foreign born. This study showed that in places over 25,000 the median foreign-born boy completed only 7.3 grades, whereas the American-born boy with American parents completed 8.4 grades, and the median American-born boy with foreign-born parents com- pleted 7.9 grades. The fact that these farm boys did not complete as many grades before leaving school as those of other communities, although they left school somewhat older, might be attributed to the fact that they entered school later. That this is not the complete explanation is shown by the following data, giving the rate of progress per year through the grades: Table 31. — Showing Varying Lengths of Time Required for Employed Boys to Complete a Grade in School Farm boys 82.8 percent of a grade per year Boys in places under 5000 84.9 " "" " " " Boys in villages over 5000 85.1 " "" " " " Cities under 25,000 86.9 " "" " " " Greater New York 92.2 " "" " " " Further information regarding the extent to which these boys persisted in school in the various communities is furnished by Table 32. i75 Table 32. — Sixteen-, Seventeen-, and Eighteen- Year- Old Employed Boys, Last Grade Completed. Percent of Boys Reporting Each Grade as the Last One Completed. Summary for New York State Grades Total Groups Fourth or under Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth First H. S. Second H. S. Third H. S. Fourth H. S. Per- cent Greater New York 5.7 2.5 7.4 22.9 43.5 8.8 5.9 2.3 1.0 100.0 Cities over 25,000... 3.4 4.0 15.2 21.8 31.4 13.0 7.2 2.7 1.3 100.0 Cities under 25,000. .. 4.9 5.9 17.5 21.9 26.1 13.4 6.9 2.2 1.2 100.0 Villages over 5000 5.2 6.2 16.7 22.2 27.5 12.2 6.4 2.4 1.2 100.0 Places un- der 5000. 4.2 6.4 17.6 23.9 26.9 10.9 6.2 1.9 2.0 100.0 Employed farm boys 3.2 7.5 18.3 29.5 29.1 6.8 3.7 1.2 0.7 100.0 No attempt will be made to account for these facts. They are offered as one basis for more definite discussion of the relative effi- ciency of the country school than one can possibly obtain by his own observations. They should answer the questions of whether or not the country school is holding its pupils as effectively as the schools in the larger centers, and whether they come as near keeping the pupils moving at the normal rate of progress. 176 T CHAPTER XI COMMUNITY RELATIONS Statement of Purpose and Principles HE function of the school is to educate children of certain specified ages and abilities. With certain limited exceptions, everything the school does should contribute directly or indirectly to this major purpose. In no case is the school justified in undertaking anything that would interfere with its initial re- sponsibility. The teacher cannot accomplish this purpose by confining his work to the materials and opportunities found within the school- room. The old formal text-book work is not sufficient. He must use every available means, both inside and outside of school, to accomplish his end. Community resources and opportunities of every sort, extra-curricular activities, and other social agencies must be made to contribute to the children's education. Moreover, the teacher cannot do it alone. A successful school of to-day can be realized only through a hearty and constant co- operation between teacher and patrons. The mere paying of taxes is not enough. Visiting the school, attending its entertainments, seeking its improvement, providing home life for the teacher, con- sidering with her many school problems, giving her encouragement and moral support, are some of the community's responsibilities. To make a good school the teacher, then, must oftentimes work not only with the children, but with the parents, to develop in them this understanding and appreciation of school work and to foster an interest in its support. This better type of school will be much more closely related to community life. Every phase of school work will be thus related more or less. The course of study must be suited to the needs of the children, available resources should be utilized, subject matter should be taught in terms of the child's experience. This implies 12 177 that the effective class-room teacher must have a more intimate knowledge both of the home and of the community conditions and the experiences of the children. This question of the course of study is treated elsewhere in this report, and will not be considered specifically here. In this section we are primarily concerned with those phases of school work which involve a larger degree of school and community relation. Just what relations should obtain between those who are in charge of the schools and the life of the community? In answer to this question, and as a basis for this study, the following activities are suggested, which, we hold, should be carried on by each teacher, principal, or district superintendent. They will vary somewhat with the different agencies for education. The relation of the teacher in the open-country school to her community will often- times be more neighborly and intimate. The rural high school, because of the nature of its work, would be in a position to establish many community contacts. Those high schools offering instruc- tion in agriculture and home making would have many unique opportunities for cooperation with the farm and home. The dis- trict superintendent, as general director of his district, would be especially responsible for enlisting the community's interest in the support and improvement of the school and in cooperating with other agencies and forces. In principle, however, these demands are the same for all rural educators. They are briefly stated as follows: A. Activities for which rural educators are responsible. 1. To promote and provide extra-curricular activities which are an outgrowth of school work or a fundamental part of it, such as the work of the school nurse, school exhibits and fairs, entertainments, and social activities. 2. To assist in educating the community into an adequate appreciation and support of education through every avail- able means. This should include, wherever feasible, the formation of some organization or committee giving spe- cial attention to school improvement and also hearty co- operation with those organizations or agencies somewhat concerned in school improvement. 178 B. Activities in which educators should cooperate. 1. School people should cooperate with other agencies or organizations in order both to improve educational oppor- tunities for the children and, in so far as it is consistent with an effective education for children, to assist these organiza- tions in their own work. 2. When these other agencies are not in existence or fail to function, educators are justified in seeking to create such conditions in the community as are quite essential to their own effective service. 3. Educators and local school officials should cooperate in furthering the use of the school plant as a general center for community meetings and activities whenever that is de- sired. C. Activities of educators as citizens. 1. Educators should, as citizens, be vitally interested in every question of public concern and every effort for community improvement, such as Americanization of the immigrants, enriching the spiritual life of the community, stimulating cooperation, developing the social life, exercising community leadership, or any other question of rural life or general social progress. D. Corresponding responsibilities of the community and other organizations. 1. The community, in addition to formal responsibility ex- pressed through the paying of taxes and electing trustees, should give the teacher the most loyal support and en- couragement, constructive criticism and suggestions, and provide a satisfactory home and social environment. 2. Other agencies should cooperate with the school both to further their own ends and to assist the school. But they should not attempt to use the school as a means of pro- moting their own ends if this interferes in any way with the school's primary function. 3. Other agencies or organizations should not usurp or under- take to carry on the legitimate activities of the school or educational forces. 179 Findings of the Survey on the Community Relations of New York Rural Schools For Rural Teachers and One- and Two-Teacher Country Schools. — Information for the present study on the community relations of New York rural schools was secured from a questionnaire filled out by 1480 rural teachers and from personal visits made by field workers to 173 widely scattered rural schools. The general purpose throughout these inquiries was to see how fully the average rural school of New York discharges the com- munity obligations set up as proper standards for such work in the preceding pages of this discussion. With this end in view, five questions on the blank in a total of ten attempted to learn what activities and opportunities rural teachers created for educating their communities into an adequate appreciation and support of schools. From these inquiries it developed that only 26 rural schools, or 1.7 percent of the 1480 reporting, had a definite organ- ization for adults giving special attention to school affairs. These 26 organizations were parent-teacher associations. Twenty-seven schools report farm and home bureaus or granges as assisting in the advancement of school needs, however, and 21 schools report the same assistance from general community clubs, making a total of 3.2 percent for assistance from cooperating organizations, as against 1.7 percent for assistance from specialized organizations devoting full attention to school needs. From this it is apparent that when the rural school forces of New York try at all to reach the public for school purposes, they do so through the channels of regular farm organizations. The vitality and influence of these organizations are to be determined in part by their frequency of meeting. From this point of view it is significant that 44 met monthly, 18 oftener than once a month, and 12 less often. Realizing that many districts lacking definite organization would still hold community meetings for the discussion of school issues, a second question on the blank related to gatherings of this type. Here the results are more encouraging: 714, or 48 percent, reported meetings of this kind. Most of these, — 525, or 73 percent, — -on the other hand, were mere school entertainments, and it is doubtful whether they assisted greatly in enlightening the community to- 180 ward a larger support and appreciation of education. That the people of the state are generally interested in the type of gathering held is indicated by the report of good attendance for 31 percent of these meetings, and of poor attendance for but 3 percent. The influence of the typical school building of the state upon the community activities of teachers and school agents is apparent from the fact that 49 percent of the schools reporting claim no conveniences whatever for community gatherings, not even such common necessities as coat-rooms, good lights, or movable seats. From this and the general study of school buildings, given else- where in this report, it is easy to understand why but few rural school plants are used as "community centers" or general meeting-places for other agencies and activities of the com- munity. But the rural teacher should find additional opportunities, other than through community meetings or definite school organizations, for educating the public into an adequate appreciation of school. One of these lies in persuading school patrons to visit schools and thus become acquainted with the purposes and needs of education. Another arises from the personal contacts secured through mem- bership in general community organizations. In both these respects New York rural teachers rank high. Only 139 of the total number replying report no visitors at school during the year, while 813, or 55 percent, record the visits of from 5 to 40 school patrons. Of all teachers reporting, 957, or 64 percent, testify to membership in one or more community organizations in the communities where they teach. Most of this (691 mentions) is church membership or Sunday-school participation (539). Now in order comes the Red Cross, with 320 reports, the Grange, with 289, and the Farm and Home Bureau, with 146. The general practice in providing extra-curricular or outside so- cialized activities for children was investigated. As was noted in the preceding section, 525 teachers reported having school enter- tainments in which the patrons were generally interested. From the teacher's reports it was found that health clubs and Crusaders are organized in 1056, or 71 percent, of the schools reporting. Home projects or junior extension work is organized in 312 (21 per- 181 cent). This indicates that rural schools are limited both in scope and in number of extra-curricular activities. That teachers are cooperating somewhat with other organiza- tions established for children is shown by the following facts. The Junior Red Cross is organized in 226, or 15 percent, of the districts reporting, Boy Scouts in 146, or 9 percent, Girl Scouts in 38, or 2 percent, and Camp Fire Girls in 24, or 1.6 percent. In the above activities — both those for which the teacher is responsible and those with whose activities he should cooperate — teachers report them- selves as leaders in 792, or 53 percent, of the cases given, and as but partially responsible in 6 percent. They are, however, far more often leaders in health clubs and junior extension work than in the other activities. This is as it should be, since these are primarily the school's responsibility. Few facts are at hand to indicate to what extent the rural teachers cooperate with other rural organizations in the many passing rela- tions that arise. From reports of the field workers it appears that New York rural teachers are not prepared for a large degree of co- operation. Almost 80 percent show no qualifications whatever in this direction, while two-thirds are reported as comprehending the social and economic problems of rural life "very little" or "not at all." The underlying cause for all this is revealed later, when it is reported that only 6 percent of the teachers seen had ever had any course of training for this purpose, and these but "slight preparation" as gained from institutes and occasional lectures and books. The degree to which the teacher, as citizen, is a forceful influence in the rural community may be gathered partly from the following: Twenty-eight percent of all rural teachers report themselves as holding offices in one or more community organizations. These offices, however, are largely assistantships, including chiefly Sun- day-school positions and secretarial responsibilities for granges and lodges. This whole question of leadership was gauged also in the reports of field visitors. Here the evidence is less compli- mentary. Among 158 teachers observed, only 54, or 34 percent, are reported as possessing "the necessary qualifications for effective leadership to any appreciable degree." 182 In determining their knowledge of home conditions as a basis for teaching a good school, teachers were asked as to the number of families they had visited in person during the year. Here a highly creditable record is shown. Of those reporting, 207, or 14 percent, had called upon all the families in the district from which children were enrolled, while 934, or 63 percent, had visited over half the families represented in their schools. Of the teachers considered, 84 percent claim, further, that they are making specific attempts, through regular school work, to develop a good community attitude on the part of their pupils in matters of health, good government, fair business dealing, and accepted social standards. For High School Principals and Rural and Village High Schools. — The data from high schools and community relations have proved so scant and unsatisfactory that further studies are necessary. These are now under way, and will be completed soon and included in the final report of this division. Through the kindness of Pro- fessor Emery N. Ferriss, of Cornell University, enough facts are available, however, to indicate tendencies. Among 392 high schools, 158, or 40 percent, report some commu- nity organization actively cooperating with the school. Chief among these are 74 parent-teacher associations and 55 granges. In this connection it is significant that 19 percent of the high schools report parent-teacher associations, while only 1.7 percent of the country schools report such organizations. In extra-curricular activities high schools outstrip rural schools also, 402, or almost 100 percent, reporting affirmatively here, while the proportion for rural schools on the same point was only 71 percent. Another significant community activity of village high schools for the purposes of this study is to be found in the work of princi- pals for interesting rural pupils in high school work. Of the 385 schools tabulated on this inquiry by Professor Ferriss, 174, or 22 percent, made some form of appeal to country children. This is good, so far as it goes, but when it is recalled that the village high school presents practically the only opportunity of the rural child for secondary education, the inadequacy of this effort becomes apparent. 183 The Community Activities of District Superintendents. — The com- munity activities of district superintendents were studied chiefly from returns on a questionnaire filled out by 180 of the 207 officers of this type in the state. First-hand impressions were gathered from a number of field visitors also, and much has been learned as a by-product from the study of rural schools. The chief community responsibility of the district superinten- dent, as for the teacher, aside from his fundamental function of assisting in providing good instruction, is undoubtedly that of educating the community into an adequate appreciation and sup- port of schools. In this he carries more responsibility than any other school agent. For this reason most of the direct inquiries put to superintendents related to this point. Of the superintendents reporting, 145, or 80 percent, had ad- dressed one or more school and community meetings during the year. But 29, or 16 percent, report addressing no meetings of any kind, and 125, or 69 percent, addressed fewer than 10 or less, an average of one per month, while only 5 percent reached more than 18 a year, or an average of two per month. The average number of meetings addressed per superintendent for the year was only five. Speakers were procured for meetings by 61 percent of the superin- tendents replying, the average number of meetings thus assisted per superintendent being three. Among the other means of school and community development employed by superintendents, circular letters and newspapers rank first, being used in each case by 80 percent of those reporting. Field meets (70 percent) and general community conferences (41 percent) come next, with children's clubs and projects (32 percent) and regular class work (34 percent) following. With this it is note- worthy that only 6 percent of all superintendents considered are publishing a monthly paper for teachers and patrons, and that but very few issue printed annual reports for the public. In connec- tion with this last statement about monthly publications and yearly reports, one should take into account the fact that the district superintendents have no clerical help, and that any expense for printing or reports must come out of their expense budget of upon which there are many demands. 184 The chief aims of district superintendents in the community work they undertake are declared to be, first, cooperation (men- tioned 76 times in 180 replies); second, better schools (44 men- tions), and third, neighborliness (25). To these are added the development of citizenship (20) and the desire to attack general community problems (11). Upon the whole, these will be recog- nized as commendable purposes. The handicaps most frequently met in attaining these ends are reported as community indifference (mentioned 139 times in a total of 180 replies); bad roads, and lack of cooperation and ability among teachers (99 mentions each); friction and jealousy between organizations (62) ; and lack of time for such work on the part of superintendents (19). Cooperation between district super- intendents and other county or social agents is affirmatively re- ported by 143 of the 180 individuals replying. In this cooperation the agencies figuring most prominently are farm and home bureaus (mentioned 86 times); the Red Cross (71 mentions); the grange (60); the church (45); and health organizations (31). General Conclusions From the data of this study it is evident that, when measured in terms of realizable ideals, the community relations of New York rural schools are far from satisfactory. With whole counties in New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, and several other states showing from 60 to 85 percent of their rural communities organ- ized for school support through parent-teacher associations, civic leagues, or school improvement associations, a 1.7 percent show- ing of New York rural districts as revealed here is lamentably low. So, too, is the educational and community leadership of the average district superintendent as compared with the activity of the most efficient and outstanding county superintendents of the country. For all this, in the opinion of the committee, there are three funda- mental causes: First, the overburdening of the office of the district superintendent, which, without provision for either clerical help or a differentiation of administrative and supervisory duties, is hope- lessly handicapped; second, the general neglect of this phase of educational administration by the State Department of Education, 185 with the accompanying lack of assistance in these matters to dis- trict superintendents; and third, the fact that the district superin- tendent has but little local responsibility and is not responsible to a natural social unit which thinks as a unit. The best that can be said on the community relations of rural schools in New York is that there has been but little tendency here toward exploiting the rural elementary school for adult and vocational ends. This in itself is highly commendable. But an alternate danger, almost equally serious, lies in developing a general inertia on the part of school forces which keeps them not only from infringing upon the territory of other agencies, but from fulfilling their own obligations. This fault New York seems to possess to a high degree. The rural school forces of the state, in other words, are conducting only a tithe of the legitimate community activities which they should foster and must undertake if the commonwealth is ever to come into its own educationally. Recommendations In the light of the findings given above the following provisional proposals on the community relations of rural schools are ten- tatively submitted: 1. That, because school work in the main is limited to routine class-room activity, greater attention should be given to providing, as a part of school work, additional extra-curricular activities, such as entertainments, school fairs and exhibits, plays. 2. That in every rural district of the state there be developed a live interest of adults for the advancement of education. This interest may either take the form of a separate organization for school betterment, as parent-teacher associations and school im- provement leagues, or be focused in the work of a special education committee under some organization not exclusively educational, as the grange or farm and home bureau. 3. That rural and village high schools be especially urged to develop and emphasize the many possible forms of community relation and service consistent with their functions, including provision for adult education. 4. That a reasonable amount of properly directed community 186 effort, in harmony with the principles of this study, be expected of every rural teacher, principal, or district superintendent in the state. 5. That the curricula for the preparation of rural teachers, prin- cipals, and district superintendents provide suitable preparation for this phase of school work. The nature of this work is such that preparation for it cannot be accomplished by a few additions to a formal training course. To be efficient here, attention must be given to the problem throughout the course. 6. In view of the larger responsibility of the district superin- tendent for the leadership of rural folk, it is advised that personal qualifications for such service, other than professional preparation, be taken into consideration in his selection. 7. In order that the above activities may be more fully realized, provision should be made for this work — (a) In providing school buildings and equipment. (b) In the type of service rendered by the State Department of Education to the school forces of the state. 8. Finally, the people of the state, being jointly responsible with the school people of the state, should take a greater interest in school conditions and be more vitally concerned in every form of school improvement. i87 PREFATORY NOTE TO CHAPTERS XII AND XIII In the preceding chapters an effort has been made to put before the rural school patrons some idea of the conditions that obtain in their schools. It seemed to the committee that the facts that have been gathered show that in many respects a handicap is placed upon the child who, by the force of circumstances, is compelled to attend school in the open country. So marked is the disparity between his opportunity and that of the child who attends school in a city or village that it is well within the bounds of truth to say that the most important educational problem that New York faces is that of equalization of educational opportunity as between country and city. In connection with the data presented, some recommendations have been made that, in the judgment of the committee, will im- prove conditions. There remain, however, the two most impor- tant problems to be considered, viz., administration and super- vision of the schools and school support. These two aspects have been reserved for consideration until the reader had a general view of school conditions in the state, because they involve the main changes that are necessary if country school conditions are to be made right. CHAPTER XII ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION EFFORTS looking toward the improvement of the system of rural education in New York state should be conducted with full recognition of the importance of an intelligent and en- thusiastic public opinion back of all attempts at legislation. New York had, in the enactment and speedy repeal of the township law four years ago, an impressive lesson on the futility of legislation, 188 unsupported by popular understanding and sympathy. From the day of its organization this committee has recognized the importance of this fact. It has also realized that it would not render the great- est measure of usefulness to the state merely by endeavoring to secure legislation, even though the measures proposed met with the ap- proval of rural people. The report must go further. It must command approval for certain broad principles of school adminis- tration and supervision. Furthermore, it must make clear the fact that these principles are worthy of general acceptance. To secure a consideration of the situation in the light of princi- ples is very difficult because of the conditions surrounding the passage and repeal of the township law. This whole transaction seems to have arrayed people for or against certain theories of organization, for and against the State Department of Education, for and against one another. So intense is the partizan antago- nism on the matter of township organization of schools that it is quite impossible to consider rural school conditions in the state without being drawn into the earlier controversy. Responsibility of the State for Education However, if progress is to be made in remedying the conditions that have been presented in the earlier pages of this report, those who are interested in rural education must be willing to lay aside old antagonisms and consider the situation in the light of certain fundamental principles. Society has come to the recognition of the fact that certain minimum standards of schooling must be established for its future citizens. Experience has shown that there are homes to which it is unwise to leave for final decision the question of whether or not children shall attend school. Nor can it be left to each community to decide below certain minimum standards what school facilities will be furnished. The state must, for its own protection and for the protection of its future citizens, recognize the absolute necessity of a good popular education. It can take no risk in insuring that every boy and girl is adequately prepared for future citizenship. The state, in the discharge of this responsibility, is sure to clash sooner or later with some one who does not care for schools. For example, there is a 189 family which is shiftless and neglects its children. The state steps in and even goes so far as to assume charge of the children. A community tolerates a tumble-down school building and the state steps in with its authority and condemns the building. Again, in the exercise of its powers the state must often give the community which it coerces the means necessary to support schools. Furthermore, the state, with its wider range of operations and greater resources, must often undertake to perform functions which are necessary to the maintenance of good schools, but which the local community cannot perform. For example, the district evidently cannot train teachers to supply its schools. So the state establishes normal schools and trains teachers for many schools. Again, the small community very often cannot afford to support a high school, so until some better plan can be set up, the state pays the tuition of the community's children in the high school of some neighboring community. Such examples ought to convince every one that the state as a whole must be recognized as a factor in the conduct of schools. Schools are not local institutions, especially in a democratic coun- try, where the safety of all public institutions depends on the intelligence of citizens. Not only is the state always concerned with the schools, but it is a general fact that the state is likely in most cases to have higher standards for schools than does the individual district. The state, taken as a whole, is less likely than is the small community to be tolerant of the parent who keeps his child out of school to help with the farm work. One hesitates to coerce one's neighbor. Compulsory education laws are, therefore, much better enforced by the state or county authorities than by local authorities. In like fashion the state can better maintain high standards with regard to the qualifications of teachers than can the small com- munity. There was a time, in the early days of American schools, when the local districts decided whom they would employ to teach in their schools, but that turned out to be a matter that could not be left to local judgment if the rights of the children and of the teachers were to be protected. The local authorities were in- fluenced by their own immediate relations to some candidate or 190 by the cheapness of a candidate. The state faces the matter in a less personal and therefore a less biased way, and the state appro- priates large sums to carry out its insistence that teachers shall have training and special qualifications for their positions. The state, with its insistence on higher standards, with its ap- propriations of money, with its broader views, can influence local districts in one of two ways: It can compel action or it can lead the local community to see the wisdom of adopting higher stan- dards. The method of state action in New York state has been in several notable instances that of compulsion. While compulsion has brought quick results, it has not always brought a favorable attitude on the part of the people of the state toward progress in school affairs. For example, there are now 208 district superin- tendents in the state, and every rural school district is in some supervisory territory. The people of the state, however, are not by any means universally favorable to the system. The state pays these superintendents; it issues its orders through them. They have the right by statute to condemn buildings and order repairs; they have also the right to reconstruct district boundaries. Evidence secured in the survey shows that many people are for these very reasons unfavorable to the superintendent and suspicious of him. Some people, in their desire for local autonomy, lose sight of the fact that experience has shown that it is desirable for the state to control such school responsibilities as have been discussed. Some of these functions have been so controlled because the state can do them more economically or more efficiently. Others have been given to state authorities because the people of the state found it necessary to do so in order that the state may provide for its future safety in an intelligent citizency. Measures designed to ac- complish these ends have been written into the statutes from time to time because the state has found, through experience, that the collective interests of the whole state and the collective judgments of the larger community are in general broader and safer than the interests and judgments of small local groups of citizens. The State Department of Education was set up by representatives of the local districts. There can be no evasion of the fact that whatever 191 is enacted in state legislation is done under the sanction of a repre- sentative government. Consolidation or Schools To be sure there are occasions when, through lack of information or through bias, those who represent the people or those who enforce state laws are for a time oppressive in their interpretations and unwise in their action. There are some cases where central author- ity has been unwisely used. The only step which can be safely recommended in such cases is a reversal of action previously taken. This should be accompanied by change of viewpoint on the part of those who have administrative responsibility. When this is done, all parties are certain to be relieved and the situation will improve. An instance of where such action appears desirable exists in the matter of redefining district boundaries. The law provides that the people of various districts may, under certain conditions, re- construct the district lines. The law also provides that the dis- trict superintendent may redefine districts without the consent of the people. In general, where such action has been taken, the motive has been to compel some weak district which had only a few children to consolidate with a neighboring strong district which had a larger group of children, so that in the end there should be a larger school of the type known as a consolidated school. The rural people of New York state are in a great many cases — one might say in the majority of cases — opposed to consolidation of schools and even to the redefining of district lines. To be sure, the farmer knows that the little school cannot carry his child very far on the road to knowledge; it certainly cannot give the child a high school education. He knows that a little school with small attendance is very expensive per pupil. He knows that the equip- ment is meager and the teacher usually less well qualified for his or her work than the teachers in the schools of the neighboring towns. But the farmer will resist to the bitter end any movement on the part of the district superintendent or of the state to set up a well-equipped, graded school through compulsory consolidation. The replies in the questionnaires sent to rural school patrons showed that they were in the majority of cases very much afraid of "forced 192 consolidation of schools." In most communities people are not in an attitude of mind to consider the question as applied to their com- munity on its merits. In view of this condition and the fact that this is a function over which the laymen should retain control it would appear wise to repeal that portion of the act which gives to district superintendents of schools the power to redefine district boundaries. Defects of the District System While it seems desirable to place a larger emphasis on local initia- tive in a considerable range of school problems, and especially in the matter of consolidation, it must be acknowledged that one of the greatest evils of the New York state rural school system is the small school district. The smallness of the districts leads to the most striking inequalities in taxation and to inefficiencies of ad- ministration so glaring that people who are willing to consider the question on its merits can be led to see the necessity of a change through a straightforward statement of the case. Before reviewing the criticisms of the present small district it is important that the minds of readers be freed from one possible source of misunderstanding. An increase in the size of a school district is not to be confused at all with the consolidation of schools. A large school district may have several schools. This is the case in every city in the state. The city is a unit of taxation and a unit of administration, but it does not limit its school operations to a single building. What the rural people of New York state object to ordinarily is having the pupils from several school build- ings sent to one building. Consolidation of schools has been dis- posed of, so far as this report is concerned, by the recommendation made in an earlier paragraph. Let consolidations come only at the option of the people, not under compulsion from the district superintendents or the State Department. When, on the other hand, this report states, as it must, that the small district is the bane of New York state education, and when it advocates, as it must, a reform in this matter, the argument is not for consolidation of schools but about a correction of difficulties in taxation and con- trol which grow out of the small size and consequent inefficiency of the governing unit. 13 193 The most striking evidence that the small unit is a source of gross injustice appears in the fact that again and again common school districts can be found which lie next to each other and have about the same number of pupils, but are widely different in the value of their assessable property. For example, a district having a railroad or a factory will have a high valuation, a neighboring district made up entirely of farming land will have a very low valuation. These conditions will always continue as long as districts are as small as they are now. There ought to be a large enough unit drawn on in each case so that the advantages of the tax derived from the factory or the railroad will be distributed to all the people who contribute even indirectly to the life of the community. The evils of the small district as now organized are not alone in matters of taxation. The present district has no adequate ma- chinery for the consideration of policies and for the adoption of progressive plans. The present district is governed by the school meeting and by the trustee. The survey secured as many reports as possible from school meetings held last May, and it has can- vassed, by means of question blanks and by observation, the activities of trustees. The school meeting is commonly attended by only a very small fraction of the tax-payers of the district. The only occasion when attendance is likely to be large is when there is a controversy on. In general, the meeting is not supplied with any report of what was accomplished the year before nor with any well-worked-out plans for the future. As for the trustee, he very often received the election because it was understood that he would keep the taxes down. Not infrequently he is a man who was not at the meeting. He does not desire the office; has often had no experience in such an office; and is now very sure that he will never accept it again. Example after example was found which goes to show that the school meeting and the school trustee are very often unsatisfactory agencies for the promotion of good schools. There are, of course, good trustees conducting good schools. Criticism is here made because, under the present system, it is possible and frequently happens that the organization is inefficient. It should be remem- bered that both the school meeting and the trustee are granted by 194 statute powers that are very far reaching. When these significant powers are used, as they sometimes are for the purpose of keeping down taxes, they constitute a serious danger which menaces the future of the boys and girls of New York state. Finally, the small district cannot cope with the growing demands for a better education of higher grade. The small district cannot have a high school. The farmers of New York state are going to demand for the children free access to education higher than that given in the grades. They have made their demands felt to the point where the state legislature has enacted laws paying the tuition of pupils out of the state treasury. There can be no doubt that the farmers will carry this insistence further. They will de- mand a voice in the conduct of these schools, and they will demand transportation which will make it easy for their children to go to the schools. All this means that the farmer will have to be part of a district large enough to support a high school. It cannot be too often or too emphatically asserted that all this does not mean that the farmer will have to give up the primary school near his home in order to secure high school privileges for his older children. A larger district containing a high school may contain primary schools. The larger district will provide larger facilities. How these facilities shall be distributed should be left to the people in that larger district. Reference of all matters of consolidation to the people we favor as a first step. The second step is the enlargement of the district. Reasons for a Larger Unit In advocating the erection of a new type of district which shall correct the evils arising from the small size of the present common school district, the committee realizes that it will have to meet a deep-seated devotion on the part of the people of the state to the existing districts. In the formation of the new unit it believes the boundaries of these should be left as they are except as they may be changed by a vote of the people. Earnest consideration has been given to all phases of the problem before proposing the new unit for local administration. In the discussion which follows sight should not be lost of the fact that in 19s an important sense the small local district is now a part of the larger school unit of the state. In the training of teachers, com- pulsory attendance, state grants of money for maintenance, and other matters prescribed by law the unit of control is the state. The friction which now arises as a result of authority exercised by the state is in part due to the fact that there is a difference between localities in their needs. The state as the larger unit often does not deal wisely with local variations. State regulations tend to become mechanical and uniform. When a state rule is mechanical and applied without discrimination, it seldom improves the school. Indeed, it not infrequently inflicts a serious harm because it robs the local school authorities of that initiative which should keep them on the alert for improvements that shall make education con- tinually an improving process. This lack of flexibility is largely the result of the fact that there are many respects in which the small school district is not able to cope with the demands made by modern educational needs. To prevent neglect of the educational interests of the young people in rural communities it has been necessary for the State Department to assume functions that might better be handled by local authorities if an effective local organiza- tion were provided. Another cause that has contributed to the development of fric- tion is the fact that in many instances there has been a failure to make provision in legislation for a clear and wise distribution of responsibilities for the school. In the selection of teachers, text- books, teaching equipment, and in determining course of study the laymen are undertaking responsibilities which they must in gen- eral recognize that they cannot discharge properly. On the other hand, the professional people are primarily responsible for duties that they should be carrying out only on a mandate from laymen. Further occasion for friction exists in the fact that in instances there is not a clear definition of responsibility as between local and state school authorities. In making the foregoing criticisms of the situation sight has not been lost of the fact that they would be harmful rather than helpful if they were not accompanied by constructive recommendations. A very large part of the work of the experts employed by the com- 196 mittee in connection with this section of the survey has been, there- fore, to gather from every possible source suggestions with regard to possible improvements in the present scheme of local admin- istration. The experience of the State Department has been put freely at the disposal of the committee. It has been possible, through the committee's representatives, to secure conferences with a large majority of the district superintendents and with many trustees. The committee has canvassed the matters here under discussion very fully. Finally, the experience of other states has been drawn on for suggestions. In this general canvass consideration has been given to a number of proposals. Thus the county unit plan has been urged as de- sirable. The county is a political unit, and would be well suited in size and because of its existing political machinery; to take care of school taxes. It would equalize taxes more fully than could the township or any other small unit. On the other hand, it must be recognized that a county is too large in most cases for the administration and supervision of so intimate an institution as a school. The county is in no sense of the word a community. Its boundaries cut indifferently across hills and valleys. Its lines often run through a village or divide a district which is in local interests a closely united community. The county serves very well for political administration when interests are under consideration which are purely material and impersonal. Thus a county is a suitable unit for certain policing functions and for the distribution of state taxation, but county boundaries are in no way related to the growth of church centers and grange centers and lines of travel to the store or railroad sta- tion. The life of a community is determined in all these personal interests by the possibilities of easy transportation and communi- cation. After careful consideration the suggestion that the township be adopted as the unit of administration was also rejected. The township is no less arbitrary and impersonal in its boundaries than is the county. Its geometric lines show that it was laid out by rule of the surveyor, not by any demands of community organi- zation. 197 The Community Unit The school is so essentially a matter of community interest and support that it ought not to be forced to adopt for its government any artificial relations. The school district of the United States has been, throughout its history, the clearest expression of the community type of organization. Holding fast to this fact an effort has been made to develop a series of formulas which will give to New York a natural system growing directly out of its present common school district, but overcoming the defects which arise from the small size and inefficient organization of that district. The concrete details of such an organization which does not follow county lines nor township lines are as follows: It is recommended that the common school districts of the state and the district school meetings be retained. It is further recom- mended that the trustee elected by each district be the repre- sentative of that district on a community board of education. This community board is to be made up of a number of trustees who come together periodically to pass on school matters, including budget and tax-rates. The determination of the districts which shall be part of the territory of the community board of education thus constituted should be made along the following lines: All those districts shall be represented on the community board of education which are related by lines of transportation, trade, and social relations. School districts are always grouped around some town or railroad center. The roads lead into this center. Thither the people go because of their social and industrial relations. There are the store and the post-office. In this center of population is the natural location of the high school. At present the majority of school districts have no true connection with high schools, and many farm children in New York state are unable to get high school training under existing conditions. The effect of this situation is harmful not only to pupils but to the state itself. One of the most powerful influences which has operated in recent years to liberalize the high school is the influx of pupils from all kinds of homes. The attendance on high schools two decades ago was from a small group of select families which 198 enjoyed superior social and economic advantages. For these highly selected children a classic and artificially restricted curriculum was not seriously objectionable. In recent years the student body has increased rapidly — not so rapidly as it would have had country children been provided with transportation, but fast enough to make an impression on the schools. With new pupils of new types came the demand for courses in vocational and technical subjects. With these pupils came also a demand for more liberal content in English and science courses. A good influence will be imported into New York state rural high schools when all pupils can enter who have the interest and capacity for a higher education. The development of schools along the broad lines of an enriched curriculum has vitally affected both the elementary schools and high schools of the country. It has been found to be natural and advantageous to organize a division of the school intermediate between the elementary school and the high school. This inter- mediate school is commonly known as the junior high school. It is a thoroughly appropriate type of school for many small com- munities which cannot afford a four-year high school of the ordinary type. A junior high school in some centers would be the best possible institution in which to concentrate the older pupils from a number of common school districts. In such cases the younger pupils might remain in the schools nearer their homes. But all this desirable organization is lacking, first, because the officers of the State Department seem to have overlooked the need for any new intermediate schools, and, second, because New York state communities are not so organized that they can consider freely the best organization of their schools. Hard and fast boundaries encircling small districts keep pupils isolated and communities behind progressive communities in other states. An overdose of local isolation is thus proving to be a handicap to the best exercise of a genuine local initiative. A further argument for adoption of the community unit lies in the fact that the center of population contains the largest taxable values of the region. If there is a railroad or a telephone franchise or a mill, the center of population has it and derives support from it for the schools. The remoter local districts do not share in the 199 income from these property values, though the farmer in the remoter districts is all the time contributing to the support of the mill, provided the road runs from his house to the mill. In short, the center of trade and social life is the natural and proper center of community organization and of community support of such an institution as a school system. The children of the remoter coun- try districts have a right to schools supported by all the taxable property of the general community to which they belong, including high schools. An objection which instantly suggests itself to this plan is that the community board of education will in most cases be very large. The committee considered at length the question as to whether it would not be better to recommend a small community board elected at large. Such a board would be less likely to fall into bickerings about petty matters and would be more in accord with the best experience of city systems. The committee would recom- mend a board elected at large if it were dealing with the situation in the abstract. There is, however, so much feeling on the part of the farmers that any reduction of local control is unacceptable that the recommendation is advanced that a large community board be organized, with power to reduce its own number. Another serious problem which arises is that of the balance of power in such a board as between the village and the outlying rural districts. There is every evidence that the smaller outlying districts are, as a general rule, conducting at the present time poorer schools than are the villages. There is to some extent mutual fear. The farmers are afraid of the towns because they are afraid that joining with the towns may result in the disadvantage of a higher tax-rate as the price which they will have to pay for the advantage of better schools. The town people are afraid that a big community board of education on which representatives of remoter districts are in the majority will scrap their good school system in favor of a cheaper and inferior pattern of school. It has been suggested that this objection be met by giving to villages and the outlying districts an equal number of votes. To be concrete, it has been suggested that the board be limited to six votes — three to represent the village, three to represent the rural sections. Nothing could thus be done without the consent of both groups to some extent. These suggestions represent ends toward which the plan proposed will move rather than the safe beginnings. It seems safer to depart only a little at first from the present district system. The most obvious defects of the present districts are their isolation and their unequal tax-rates. Let these defects be remedied. Let people learn the advantages of joint action through actual association. Let new powers and new plans of representation grow as experience dictates. A practical consideration is the means by which the boundaries of the community units may be determined. The committee believes this will be most satisfactorily accomplished by local people. It recommends for this purpose the appointment by the County Board of Supervisors in each county of a temporary commission of five persons living under the rural school law. These county commissions should do their work under the general over- sight of a state commission of three persons, to consist of the State Commissioner of Education and two persons living under the rural education law, to be appointed by the Governor. An Intermediate Unit For purposes of carrying out effectively supervision and certain administrative functions it is necessary to have a district larger than the community unit. At present this need for an inter- mediate unit — one that stands between the state and the local district — is met by the supervisory district. Any consideration of the activities of the intermediate unit must begin with a clear recognition of the wholly inadequate character of the present supervisory district. Historically, this unit has always been backward. The people know that school organization must include a teacher and a local school trustee at one end and a State Depart- ment at the other. Why there should be supervision, why there should be an intermediate unit, is not so evident, and there has often been deep-seated objection to adding this, which seems to be an expensive and to many minds unnecessary element of school ma- chinery. The supervisory district of New York has hobbled lamely along and is to-day so pitifully weak and so much despised that the surveyors found a prevalent opinion in the state that the inter- mediate unit should be one of the chief centers, if not the chief item, of its reforming recommendations. Such recommendations as are to be made rest on the assumption that an intermediate unit is necessary, and that it should be made strong enough and independent enough to be administratively effective. This basal assumption is derived from such considera- tions as the following: The State Department is too remote from local communities to supervise their activities. New York has a very highly cen- tralized state department. It has accumulated, during its history, vast powers through statutes and more through influence, which is not explicitly provided for in the statutes. For example, in de- termining the courses of study which shall be taught throughout the state, especially in the high schools, the State Department wields an influence that is preponderant. The result is that the rural high schools in New York are generally holding to require- ments which are antiquated and absurd. Sometimes the influence is not only unprogressive, but arbitrary and disastrous to spirit of wholesome local initiative in developing particular line of teaching. For the last year and a half high schools have been terrorized by a handling of the requirements in biology which are utterly inde- fensible. The State Department ought not to dictate the curriculum for the whole state — it cannot undertake to do so without arriving at exactly the point which has been reached in the Regents examina- tion system, where the machinery has become so cumbersome that it is breaking down of its own weight and must either be simplified or enormously expanded. A strong, properly organized intermediate unit, with its roots in community life and its relations so adjusted that it can secure, whenever needed, the sympathetic cooperation of a central state department, on the one hand, and the enthusiastic acceptance of local boards, on the other, could and should deal with the problems of the curriculum with the broad view and the direct view of a regional supervision. It is absurd to leave the making of a cur- riculum, as does the present law, to laymen. It is equally absurd to allow a state department to take up, as it has, all powers in such a matter. Attaching to the curriculum and necessary to its proper ad- ministration are certain supervisory activities which will always require the cooperation of larger areas that can be covered by community boards of education. If a group of community boards can employ jointly a special supervisor of agriculture, for example, they can carry on work that no one board could by itself afford to initiate. The same kind of a statement applies to the employment of a school nurse. Such examples illustrate a whole series of func- tions which are below the state level in regional scope, but broader than the possibilities of a single community. Constructive leadership, such as should come from the State Department of Education, should be met by the organization of the people in a way which will make it possible for them to understand and use effectively what the State Department has to contribute to the improvement of the schools. This means that the people of the state must have a better intermediate unit of supervision and administration than that which now exists in the districts over which the district superintendents have charge. One of the greatest defects in the present organization of the supervisory districts is that the people are not included in them except through the board of directors, who elect the superintendent once in five years and then cease to act. This lack of popular sup- port of the superintendent is coupled with other unfortunate features. The superintendent has a few very unsavory duties, such as condemning buildings and redefining district boundaries, but he has otherwise very meager powers. He cannot remove an incompetent teacher, he cannot select text-books, he cannot de- termine the course of study. All he can do is to offer advice. The supervisory district is a weak organization. The superintendents of the state are doing in many districts very valuable service for the state. They are helping the teachers and are providing educational leadership. As in all professional groups, there are among the superintendents some who are in- effective and indifferent. Some of them lack preparation for school leadership and give no signs of professional study. Their com- 203 plaint is that they are overloaded with clerical work, that the State Department makes a great many calls for special reports and provides no clerical assistance. Distribution of Functions In addition to the principles of local initiative and central guid- ance which have been pointed out, there is one other principle which the committee wishes to call to the attention of rural school patrons. This is the principle that there must be a clear and equitable allocation of powers and duties. There are some powers which the local district has a right to retain and others which it should give up for the common good. There are some duties that a layman can perform and others that a professional officer alone has the knowledge and insight to perform. Our American history explains why the differentiation and allotment of functions have gone on slowly and with frequent blunders. Our schools were at first local institutions, conducted almost as intimately by the people as were their own families. The traditions of the American school are the traditions of a small, closely compacted community. It is hard for people to realize how rapidly the school has expanded. Few who are not trained in the details of modern education know how intricate and delicate are the problems of conducting classes and providing materials suitable for instruction. It is little wonder that the ordinary school trustee does not know what the superin- tendent does or why, or that the ordinary citizen does not under- stand why the school has passed beyond the possibilities of the simplest kind of informal control. The cure for the present situation is to unite lay and professional officers in constructive activities. Out of this association there will come a final adjustment. The trained school officer must not be asked to condemn schools and to redefine districts without the consent of the people. It is far better that matters be adjusted at the inception than at the moment of acute failure where con- demnation and coercion are the only possible methods. Lay boards and professional officers should sit down together. The professional officer should have the right and duty of recommenda- tion. The lay board should have the power to accept or reject. 204 New York state is suffering to-day from a lack of clear understand- ing of the proper relations between its professional and lay officers and between its different units. It is a matter of great importance that the right relations be established between the superintendents and the lay board. One aspect that should receive serious consideration is the method of his choice. The committee found, in the questionnaires that were returned by school patrons, a preponderance of opinion in favor of the election of the superintendent of this unit by a popular vote. The committee believes that it is much wiser to leave the selection of such a professional officer to the board of education of the inter- mediate unit. An investigation revealed the fact that this is the trend in other states. It further shows that in states where they are chosen by such boards rather than by a popular vote higher profes- sional standards obtain. It is very desirable that the rural people of the state put the position of administrative and supervisory officer of the intermediate unit on the highest possible professional plane. The lay board that controls policies will then represent the people. It should be noted that the plan here proposed cannot be carried out by the superposition on the community boards of a county plan. Such a neglect of the principles of community organization in favor of a return to the wholly artificial political organization would be disastrous to the spirit of the whole reorganization. The intermediate unit should be made up of a group of community districts. An Attitude of Leadership on the Part of the State From the intermediate unit of supervision we turn to a brief con- sideration of certain aspects of state organization. It is not the duty of this survey to deal with the organization of the State Department of Education except in so far as it touches the rural schools in its operation. Any one who has studied the conditions in the state is driven to the conclusion that the contacts of the State Department of Educa- tion with the rural schools have not been sufficiently intimate to be as productive as they should be. Evidence at hand seems to indicate that there are some mechanical and undesirable elements 205 in the Department of Education which prevent it from dealing in the most effective fashion with some of the rural school problems of the state. The offices of the assistant commissioners are now arranged in such a way as to draw artificial and harmful lines be- tween the high school and the elementary school and between high schools and higher institutions. Specialization which separates sharply between elementary and secondary schools reduces itself to an absurdity when applied to districts of fewer than 4500 inhabitants. Other examples of remoteness and inadequacy of administration are not wanting. The examination system is becoming very cumbersome because it is too detailed in its dictations regarding the course of study. The absence of effective methods of training district superinten- dents for their work, which training should be provided by the State Department, results in many cases in weak supervision and administration in the field. This reacts unfavorably on the in- fluence of the State Department. There should be, we believe, a revision of the method of operation in the State Department. Vigorous constructive contributions to the work of school officers should become the policy instead of dictation and mere inspection. To this end it is suggested that reorganization of the State Department should go far enough at least to emphasize as a major duty and a distinct problem the constructive administration and supervision of rural schools. In pointing out thus frankly some defects in the present state organization there is danger that this survey will create in the minds of some readers the impression that the committee, like many a citizen, is disposed to load on the shoulders of the State Depart- ment of Education all the sins of a school generation. The fact is that no one can have a keener appreciation than has the com- mittee of the courage and forward-looking attitude of the depart- ment. In all matters of aggressive reform the leader in education in New York state has been the State Department. It embodies the best ideas of the school system. It has been bold to push these ideas and set in motion policies which have made them effective. Where there has been failure, the fault has been, in the vast ma- jority of cases, due to the system and to the inevitable limitations 206 of personal judgment. The State Department is at the center of the picture, and as such will have to accept the conspicuousness which naturally results from its position. It would appear that the relations of the State Department to the situation can be greatly improved by the adoption, throughout, of a spirit of leadership rather than dictation. There are numerous examples of sympathetic leadership which justify this judgment. For example, in the Division of Vocational Education, at the present time, the plan of dealing with courses of study is admirable and highly successful. The officers of the department call on localities to outline the type of work which seems to fit the needs of the locality. When local plans have thus been formulated, they are subjected to the Division for searching and sympathetic criticism and returned with suggestion for revision. A series of conferences follows which work out the plan finally adopted. Here is an example which illustrates admirably the way in which local autonomy can be preserved and central authority utilized to contribute improvement. Another illustration is to be found in the recent conferences organized by the department for the better training in supervisory technic of the district superintendents. Most of these superin- tendents are deficient in technic. No one recognized this more fully than they themselves. The State Department can do a great service in giving a good deal of attention to the training of superin- tendents who are in office. It has at its hand the cooperation of several state institutions and institutions within the state which can be utilized to great advantage for this purpose. In fact, the move had already been made at the State College of Agriculture before it was taken up by the department to provide, in a short series of conferences, for an introduction of the district superin- tendents to the modern methods of educational measurements. The State Department has recently organized a division of tests and measurements. Too much cannot be said in favor of such an innovation. Too much cannot be said in favor of an exercise of state authority as well as state training to raise the standards of the teaching force. There might very properly be a rapid elevation of the requirements imposed on district superintendents of con- 207 tinued study if they are to be reelected, and there might properly be an elimination of some of the teaching certificates which have been necessary perhaps during the period of scarcity of teachers through which New York and the country as a whole have passed in recent years. The recommendations which have been made throughout this report are aimed at the establishment of the principle of local initiative, guided by the broader leadership on the part of the intermediate and state units and a better distribution of responsi- bilities for the schools between the different units and the lay and professional interests. The people must be trained to be intelli- gently interested in their schools. They must be brought along or there will be no genuine improvement in the schools. Recommendations 1. The committee recommends that the community be made the unit of local administration. In the formation of this new unit the present district boundaries should remain as they are unless changed by a vote of the districts. 2. The board of education of community unit should be consti- tuted as follows: (a) Each common school district and each union free school district without an academic department to have one mem- ber. (b) A union free school district (or districts) with an academic department may determine the number of its representatives, not to exceed the number from the outlying districts in the unit. (c) In case of consolidation of districts after the community units are formed, the consolidated districts may retain the same number of members as there were in the districts previ- ous to consolidation if the districts desire. (d) This large board may delegate certain functions (see pro- posed distribution of functions) to a smaller group. (e) The community unit may adopt (by a majority vote, both of districts and of the people) one of the following organizations in lieu of the above: 208 I. A small board with equal number from country and union free school district or districts with academic departments. II. Small board elected at large. III. Actual traveling expenses may be allowed for atten- dance at meetings; to be determined by community board. Such expenses shall be allowed when a mem- ber goes to any meeting as the authorized representa- tive of the board. 3. The district superintendent should be the means of connecting community and intermediate boards and have the supervision, and such other duties as are delegated to him by the community board, of the common school districts. After 1926 the superintendent should be the professional head of all the schools under the juris- diction of the community board. 4. The compulsory consolidation law should be repealed. 5. Each community unit should make provision for four years of high school instruction, either within or without its bounds, and for transportation or a suitable substitute wherever necessary except when exempted by the intermediate board because of impractica- bility. (a) The community board may pay tuition for pupils who must attend some high school outside the community unit in order to secure special courses not available in the community, and they should pay it in the unit with which arrangements have been made for regular academic instruction when a complete academic department is not maintained in the unit. 6. Community boundaries should be determined by a commission appointed by the County Board of Supervisors from among those living under the rural education law. 7. There should be a state commission, consisting of the Commis- sioner of Education and two members living under the rural educa- tion law, appointed by the Governor, to act as a board of appeal on boundary questions and to adjust problems of representation as between union free school districts and common school districts. 8. Qualifications for voting at school elections should be same as at general elections in rural districts. 14 209 9. There should be a board of education for each intermediate unit composed of one member from each community district elected by the community board from its membership. When this gives a membership of less than three, the number should be determined by the State Commission on Boundaries. (a) Term of office, two years, half being elected each year. 10. The district superintendent should be the professional officer of this board. (a) In general he is to recommend policies to the board (such as are within the province of the intermediate unit) and is to execute its decisions. (b) Qualifications. I. Old superintendents: Four years' experience as dis- trict superintendents and one-half year of professional training for rural school leadership. II. New superintendents: College graduate with three years of experience and one year of professional train- ing for rural school leadership. (c) Term of office, three years. 11. The State Commission on Community Boundaries should determine the groupings of the community units into intermediate units, making provision for 208 intermediate units until 1926. After that date they should determine the number of intermediate units for the state. In order to develop the most effective schools, each unit should contribute something in the way of school control. The general principle is that no higher unit should do what a lesser unit can or will do satisfactorily. The committee is not prepared to recom- mend the exact division of functions in regard to any problem. However, a general division may be made in terms of the principle stated and this has been done. The details can be settled only after some experience with the new organization has given enough facts as a basis for conclusion. Where the letter "f" is given after a function of the community board, that function is to be performed by the full board, not by its delegated representatives. Proposed Distribution of Functions Present District Elect trustee (un- less small board is adopted) Pass upon aboli- tion of district Community Board Budget and tax (f) Selection and location of teachers (on nomination of superinten- dent or principal) (f) Power to close school for one year (f) Curriculum (contributions and adap- tations largely through teaching force) Selection and adoption of text- books (not in conflict with rules of intermediate board) Buildings, care of new (f) Purchase supplies Library (not in conflict with rules of intermediate board) Intermediate Board Select district super- intendent Levy taxes for ad- ministrative and supervisory activi- ties Redefine boundaries of community units Approve consolida- tion plans Select and adopt text-books. Curriculum (not in conflict with state) Library (not in con- flict with state) The community board is to perform most of the functions in school control. Only where the welfare of the schools demands that larger groups act together is this power curtailed. The inter- mediate board serves the general function of keeping school control nearer the people by enabling them to solve many problems that now must, because of our organization, go to the state. The dis- trict superintendent becomes primarily the representative of the communities, not of the state. However, there are many functions that should be left to the state: raising funds for equalization and stimulation; training and certificating teachers; establishing mini- mum standards; collecting facts as the basis for school improve- ment, etc. The intermediate board and the district superintendent will naturally be utilized by the state in carrying on its function. 12. The committee believes that the magnitude of rural education problems in the state makes it very important that the State De- partment of Education be provided with as effective an organization as possible for handling them. To this end it suggests that some arrangement be made within the State Department of Education by which original jurisdiction over elementary and secondary education and the training of rural school teachers be placed in the hands of some person directly responsible to the Commissioner of Education. The committee is of the opinion that this end would be best attained by an Assistant Commissioner of Rural Education, but if the Board of Regents can devise a more effective method, it would be regarded as acceptable. CHAPTER XIII SCHOOL SUPPORT Costs HOW much do the common schools of the state cost? There are a number of ways in which the question may be an- swered, each of which has some advantage over the other. First, take the cost per school, meaning by this a group of children in charge of a teacher, and see how with this unit of measure the costs of common school districts in one section of the state com- pare with costs of schools in other portions of the state. The first thing that strikes our attention is the great differences in the amounts expended among schools in different counties. Examples of this are furnished by the studies that were made of costs, for the year 1920, in the common school districts in the first supervisory district in each of Delaware, Monroe, and Tompkins Counties. The median cost in Delaware was $723; in Tompkins, $785, and in Monroe, $991. A second fact of interest that was brought out in these studies is the great difference in costs within each supervisory district, whether its general trend of costs was high, low, or average. The extremes in cost for each county were as follows: Delaware — one school had a cost somewhere between $675-$699; while in another common school district the cost was between $1425-$1449; the extremes for Tompkins were one school with costs between $600-$624, and another with costs between $1100-$1124. Monroe's cheapest school was maintained at a cost between $775-$779, while there were three with costs of over $1500 each. Throughout the entire state, neighboring districts differ greatly among themselves in the cost of schools. Even when no account is taken of the cost for repairs which brings up the costs of certain districts, it is frequently found that one school will cost from one and a half to two times as much as a neighboring school. When the costs are segregated for such items as instruction, sup- plies, janitor service, and other items, it is found that for each of these items there are pronounced differences in extent to which districts are spending their funds. Cost Based on Attendance. — Another way of studying costs of schools is to compare cost per pupil in attendance. The dif- ference between this method and the cost per school unit as repre- sented by the cost per teacher can be illustrated as follows: If a farmer who has cultivated a field of corn during the past year studies his costs, he may compare his cost per acre cultivated with the cost of the previous year. He would include his own labor, that of his hired men, the cost of his seed, of repairs to his ma- chinery, etc. Supposing that he found his cost per acre compared very favorably with the cost of his neighbors', should he then be satisfied with his study? It is readily seen that from a good busi- ness standpoint it is more important to find the cost per bushel of corn that came off his field compared with the cost of his neighbors' for each bushel off their fields, because his success in making money by farming depends more on the cost of each unit of product raised than upon each unit of land cultivated. So it is in every occupa- tion — the cost per unit of product is far more significant than the cost of the unit of space or department utilized. The nearest approach to a unit of product of the school which is practicable for our present purpose is the average daily attendance for the year. It gives us the cost of educating one pupil every day throughout the entire year, or, briefly, the cost of one year's school- ing for one pupil. Some day we may be able to express our product in terms of units of arithmetic, reading, character, etc., developed during a year, but we cannot do it now. The cost per pupil in average daily attendance for each district was determined for the three supervisory districts previously mentioned. As in the case of costs per school, very wide differences were found within each county. In Delaware County it cost 11 times as much in one district to get the same amount of product as in a neighboring district. Even greater differences than this are not unusual; in the second super- 213 visory district of Delaware County it cost 33 times as much in one district as in another. The difference in the general trend of prod- uct costs in the three counties is also apparent. The striking fact in this connection is that the counties are in the reverse order to what they were in cost per school. The median cost per pupil in average daily attendance for each county was: Delaware, $77; Tompkins, $74; and Monroe, $49. Delaware County put the least money into its enterprise and had the highest costs, while Monroe put in the most and had the lowest cost per unit of product. Such a situation as this would seem improbable to one not ac- quainted with rural schools. It plainly indicates that there is waste; the reasons for it and the remedies proposed will be dis- cussed in a later section. Cost of Schools in the Common School District Compared With Costs in the Union Free School Districts and Villages and Cities. — That the costs per teacher in each of these classes of districts are higher than those of the rural schools is known to everybody. The minimum salary law requires higher salaries. In the common school district the minimum salary is $20; in the union free, $20; cities and villages, $27.50-$37.50. These dif- ferences are alone sufficient to establish the point, since teachers' salaries make at least 60 percent of the total cost in cities and 80 percent in rural communities. We should bear in mind then that from the standpoint of the cost per school unit — a group of pupils under a teacher — the rural schools as a group have the lowest costs. Let us now turn to the cost of the unit of product as represented in the cost per pupil in daily attendance. Table 33 gives us the material that will enable us to canvass the situation. The data for the common school districts involve all of such districts in 24 supervisory districts; the data for the union free school district involve all such districts in 24 districts, scattered in both cases over the entire state, while in the last two columns all the villages and cities are included. The most striking fact in the table is the wide spread in the costs of the rural schools. The next fact in importance is the small num- ber of rural districts in which the costs are less than those of the lowest cost villages and cities — only about four out of every 100 214 Table 33. — Total Amount Expended per Pupil in Common and Union Free School Districts and Cities and Villa ges Under Superintendents Year Ending July 31 , 1920 Total Amount Expended per Pupil Common School Districts Union Free School Districts Villages and Cities under Superinten- dent Total $0-4.99 5-9.99 10-14.99 15-19.99 20-24.99 *6 6 25-29.99 8 8 30-34.99 29 29 35-39.99 50 1 i 52 40-44.99 69 4 1 74 45-49.99 91 8 5 104 50-54.99 90 8 21 119 55-59.99 79 13 15 107 60-64.99 84 11 27 122 65-69.99 61 9 9 79 70-74.99 60 6 11 77 75-79.99 45 9 5 59 80-84.99 38 3 3 44 85-89.99 42 2 1 45 90-94.99 33 2 37 95-99.99 31 3 2 36 100-104.99 25 1 26 105-109.99 20 1 21 110-114.99 16 i 17 115-119.99 15 15 120-124.99 14 14 125-129.99 11. 11 130-134.99 10 1 11 135-139.99 8 8 140-144.99 6 6 145-149.99 10 10 150-154.99 6 6 155-159.99 10 10 160-164.99 3 3 165-169.99 5 5 170-174.99 1 1 175-179.99 5 5 180-184.99 3 3 185 and over 22 1 23 Total 1008 81 104 1193 Medians 64.9 62.9 61.6 63.9 2IS such districts. On the other hand, one out of every 100 rural schools costs more than the schools in the highest cost city. Using the medians as a single measure to represent these columns of figures, we find that the costs of the common school districts as a whole are $1.79 per pupil higher than in union free school districts, $2.24 higher than in villages, and $3.76 higher than in cities. And we should remember that in these other districts the terms of school are longer and that costs of high schools are included. If figures were available for elementary schools alone in these districts, the differences would be much greater — at least $6.00 more in each case. The cost of schools per child in the median rural school is $10 more than in the median city school, with all its superior advantages. Is this what the rural people want? Do they realize that in every fifth rural school the cost is over $100 per child? Again, may we ask, should the state continue to support schools with such high costs unless it can be shown that there is no other feasible way of providing education for the children attending them? A more detailed statement of costs is given in Table 34: Table 34. — Medians for Costs per Pupil in Dollars in Cities, Villages, Union Free Schools, and Common School Districts, Year Ending July 31, 1920 Other School Total Teachers' Expenses of In- struc- Wages of Janitors Cost of Cost of Main- tenance Auxiliary District Expenses Salaries Fuel Agencies tion Cities 61.00 38.42 2.81 3.66 3.28 2.16 1.69 Villages . . . 62.50 40.71 2.37 3.38 3.41 1.82 1.43 Union Free 62.95 46.73 1.60 3.31 4.20 1.72 0.92 Common . 64.76 50.94 1.49 1.56 3.52 0.85 0.85 The significant point in this table is the relatively high costs for teachers' salaries and the low costs for everything else. When one recalls the smaller enrolment in the rural schools, it is evident that such schools spend very little for teaching supplies, for repairs and replacement of furniture and equipment, for libraries, for health, and for transportation. The material elements that go to make up a school are much more limited than in the city schools. 216 Table 35. — Relationship of Cost per Pupil, Cost per Teacher, Average Daily Attendance. Delaware No. 1. Year Ending July 31, 1920 District Total Cost per Teacher Cost per Pupil Average Daily Attendance Hancock No. 8 $671 648 1044 936 693 937 543 955 917 839 891 622 1004 566 696 553 703 1088 780 748 615 844 1091 1092 924 599 798 711 743 655 669 1469 1112 725 1224 1262 601 607 629 506 654 549 774 1157 666 520 746 641 762 $22.70 34.25 37.13 39.55 43.51 44.62 45.30 45.47 45.85 46.61 48.16 51.83 51.96 56.60 58.00 61.44 61.56 64.00 65.00 68.00 68.53 70.33 74.39 84.00 84.00 85.57 88.66 88.77 91.87 93.57 95.57 97.93 101.13 103.64 112.74 114.72 120.20 121.40 125.80 128.50 130.80 137.25 154.80 165.28 166.50 173.33 248.66 641.00 762.00 30 Colchester No. 15 Hancock No. 18 Colchester No. 2 16 28 23 No. 19 No. 17 No. 11 No. 23 No. 5 Hancock No. 5 No. 12 No. 21 " No. 16 16 21 10 21 20 18 18 12 19 Colchester No. 19 No. 26 10 12 Hancock No. 22 9 Colchester No. 14 Hancock No. 3 No. 24 Colchester No. 24 No. 8 11 17 12 11 9 Hancock No. 15 12 No. 9 " No. 23 12 13 No. 26 11 Colchester No. 7 7 Hancock No. 17 9 Colchester No. 27 8 No. 28 8 " No. 1 7 No. 20 7 Hancock No. 19 15 No. 1 11 Colchester No. 4 7 Hancock No. 14 11 No. 11 5 Colchester No. 18 5 No. 6 5 No. 30 5 Hancock No. 7 4 " No. 12 5 Colchester No. 13 4 Hancock No. 10 5 No. 6 7 Colchester No. 16 No. 22 4 3 Hancock No. 25 3 No. 2 1 " No. 27 1 217 Economies That Can be Introduced. — In considering this question remember that, while in the study of the three supervisory districts in the counties mentioned, the costs per teacher averaged highest in Delaware, lowest in Monroe, with Tompkins between, when the comparison was based on the cost per unit of product (average daily attendance), Delaware and Monroe Counties were reversed. The most important influence in making Delaware County have high costs per unit of product, notwithstanding the low cost per teacher, is the small number of pupils in certain of its schools. Table 35 gives the facts which warrant this conclusion. A similar study, made by Dr. Wiley, of the State Department, of four towns in Washington County, reveals the same situation and reaches the same conclusions. The importance of this factor in high costs of schools throughout the entire state is established by the fact that of the 8600 one-room rural schools, 3611, or 42 percent, have in attendance 10 pupils or less. The number of schools having a daily attendance of 10 or less are shown in the following table (Dr. Wiley's Study) : Table 36. — Showing Number of Schools with Average Daily of 1 to 10 Pupils Average Daily Attendance Number of Schools 1 pupil 15 2 pupils 52 3 " 167 4 " 259 5 " 392 6 " 430 7 " 556 8 " 535 9 " 612 10 " 593 It is evident that, from the standpoint of cost, some rural schools are much better off than others. While cost is not the only factor to be considered in the running of a school, it must be said that it is something almost every tax-payer thinks about. The difficulty is that most tax-payers look at the question from the wrong end — how much the community puts in rather than how much it gets out for what it does put in. Surely twice as many educated boys and girls for the same amount of money expended is a very desirable end to secure. If a farmer had to pay tuition for 218 the education of his children and had an opportunity to send them to two schools equally good, one of which charged $75 per pupil and the other $37.50, he would take them to the latter school, even if it were two or three times as far from his home. It is just as logical that two small public schools situated not far apart should be combined and conducted for the cost of one, even if it does cause inconvenience through longer travel. Such a plan secures the highest justice to all. Quite a number of cases in which such com- binations should occur were found by the survey. But this still leaves us the one-room rural school. Other sections of the survey have shown the advantages of the combined school, in which each teacher has not more than two grades and in which there is opportunity for a more enriched curriculum. This type of school often requires transportation of pupils, the cost of which is sometimes, although not usually, as great as the salary of a teacher. Under such circumstances it is then a question of whether more shall not be secured for the same expenditure of money. Every good manager is interested in making his dollar purchase the most goods. Why not in the schools? The cost of such reorganized schools, including costs of transportation, will be pre- sented in a later section. While an insufficiently pupiled school is the chief reason for the high cost of education in the rural schools, poor business manage- ment has also had its influence. How Carefully Does the Common School District Spend Its Money? — While many rural school districts make the keeping down of the tax-rate the chief object of their administration, the measures taken to make an economical expenditure of the money spent are faulty. This is proved by the replies made to certain questions by 128 district superintendents and 944 school directors scattered throughout the entire state. Budgets are not prepared in 50 percent of the districts and in only one-half of these cases is the advice of the district superintendent obtained. Supplies are purchased as needed from local stores in 90 percent of the districts, and at regular retail prices in practically all districts, instead of purchases being made at one time and in quantities which would secure wholesale prices. As a result, supplies cost 20 percent more 219 than they should. Again, taxes are not collected promptly in three- fourths of the districts, and the moneys so received are, in but few cases, placed on deposit in banks at interest, — thus losing 2 or more percent on the amounts in deposit. It would seem as though the district school has been managed as a large family affair, and with all the looseness that usually accompanies such management. While arising from this form of management, there may at times be certain advantages and certain satisfactions to parents and land-owners, nevertheless it is inefficient, and the minor benefits, usually selfish and spurious in character, should be surrendered for the larger good which would be secured from expert participation, business-like pur- chases, and careful care of funds. These would be most certainly secured in the adoption of a larger administrative territorial unit. Summary. — 1. Costs per school unit (per teacher) in common school districts vary greatly in the same supervisory districts. 2. The general trend of costs for school units in the various supervisory districts, as represented by the median, varies greatly in different portions of the state. 3. Costs of schools in common school districts per unit of product (per pupil in average attendance) are frequently highest in those districts for which costs per school unit are lowest, and vice versa. 4. Costs (per pupil) for elementary education alone are higher in common schools than costs in union free school districts, in the villages, and in the cities for elementary and high schools and voca- tional schools combined. 5. The small enrolment in the common school districts is the most important factor in bringing about these results, while another factor is poor business management. The Tax Burden The amount of the tax-rate for schools depends upon two factors — the amount of money that the district desires or must spend in addition to that which comes from the state, and the value of its property taxable for school purposes. If two districts spend equal amounts obtained from local taxes for schools, and the one has but one-half the amount of taxable property that the other has, the tax- rate of the first district will be twice that of the second. In our 220 study of tax-rates we shall follow a method similar to that observed in the study of costs. At the outset we are met with a peculiar difficulty which must be circumvented, namely, the inequalities in the assessment of prop- erty. We do not need to concern ourselves in this connection with the inequalities in value among individual holders of property in the same districts, but rather the differences in the general trend of assessment rates as they are found among the various tax districts. It is important for us to know that, on the whole, in one town property in general is assessed at 50 percent of its true value, and that in another town it is assessed at approximately 75 percent of its true value. In each case, no doubt, the assessor has assessed several pieces of property below 75 and 50 percent respectively, and other pieces of property at higher percentages. It would be unusual to find a district in which there would not be extremes in both directions, depending upon the judgment of the assessors and the influences that have been brought to bear upon them. Nevertheless we can ascertain, by careful comparisons of the sale prices of property and of the assessed valuations of the same property, the average rate of assessments in the various towns of the state. This is the work that the Tax Commission of the state is constantly engaged in. It is an impartial body and follows a scientific method. Their results are available and can be readily utilized. We have made use of them in this study. The equalization rates for the various cities, villages, and towns in the state furnish the means by which the true valuation of the taxable property can be ascertained, that is, the value of the property, if it were assessed at 100 percent of its value, rather than at 75 or 50 percent. In New York state this is commonly called the equalized valuation, because these are the figures used by the State Tax Commission in equalizing the state tax among the dif- ferent counties so that each county shall bear its fair share. The equalization rates determined for the various towns have been worked up by the Tax Commission in order to assist in the deter- mination of the equalization rates in the counties. In this study these true valuations will be called the equalized valuations, in order to conform with popular usage. Table 37. — Equalized Tax-Rate for the First Supervisory Districts of Delaware, Monroe, and Tompkins Counties. Common Schools, Year Ending July 31, 1920 Equalized Tax-Rate, Mills Delaware No. 1 No. Monroe No. 1 No. Tompkins No. 1 No. Total No. 0- 0.99 2 2 1-1.99 2 3 5 2- 2.99 11 "i 12 3- 3.99 "l 13 3 18 4- 4.99 6 3 4 13 5- 5.99 9 5 5 19 6- 6.99 3 2 6 11 7- 7.99 5 5 10 8- 8.99 2 4 6 9- 9.99 6 2 8 10-10.99 5 5 11-11.99 4 "l 6 12-12.99 2 2 13-13.99 1 "i 2 14-14.99 1 1 15-15.99 16-16.99 i i 17-17.99 1 3 4 18-18.99 19-19.99 i i 20-20.99 1 i 21-21.99 22-22.99 23-23.99 24-24.99 1 i 25-25.99 26-26.99 27-27.99 28-28.99 29-29.99 30-30.99 i i 31-31.99 32-32.99 i i 33-33.99 l l Total 54 39 38 131 Medians. . 8.00 3.26 7.00 5.81 The equalization rates given by the Tax Commission also enable us to ascertain the true tax-rate in any school district by multi- plying the actual rate by the rate of equalization, that is, if the rate as assessed is 10 mills and the rate of equalization is 80 mills, the true tax-rate is 8 mills. In this study this true tax-rate will be called the equalized tax-rate. In Table 37 are given the equalized tax-rates for the first supervisory districts of Delaware, Monroe, and Tompkins Counties. The same marked variations in tax-rates within each supervisory district are apparent here as were found in the previous section in regard to cost per teacher and also cost per pupil. Monroe County is lowest, Tompkins is in the middle, and Delaware is highest. The variation is greatest in Delaware County and least in Monroe County. These two supervisory districts are typical of two ex- tremes of variation, as will be seen from the following table. In Delaware County No. 1, it is observed that the highest tax-rate is twenty times as much as the lowest; while in Monroe No. 1, the highest tax-rate is six times as much as the lowest. Percent of schools 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 _ l' ' ■ ■ - ' ' ' 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Tax-rate — Mills Diagram 19. — Equalized tax-rate for the first supervisory districts of Dela- ware, Monroe, and Tompkins Counties. Tax-rate equal to or greater than amounts shown 223 1 Delaware Monroe \ \ - — T ompkins \ \ 1 1 1 1 • \ » \ t \ 1 1 1 ^y 1 \ 1 1 % \ X \ % \ \ \ X-. ^^ % \ \ Looking at the general trend of the tax-rates in these three coun- ties, it has been noticed that on the whole tax-rates are lowest in Monroe and highest in Delaware, and that in Tompkins they lie between the two, although tending to correspond more closely with Delaware than with Monroe, and the median tax-rates for these supervisory districts are 3.26 for Monroe, 7.00 for Tompkins, and 8.00 for Delaware. It is seen that the property-owners in Delaware County, Super- visory District No. 1, bear, on the whole, a tax burden two and one-half times as great as the property-holders of Monroe County. It was found in the discussion of costs that this supervisory district in Delaware County spent a less amount of money upon each of its school units than did either Tompkins or Monroe, while Monroe County spent the most of the three. In other words, Delaware County, with the highest tax-rates, spent the least amounts, and Monroe County, with the lowest tax-rate, raised the largest amounts. Counties Delaware Equalized Tax-rate — Mills Monroe 3.26 Tompkins 7.00 Valuation per Teacher Delaware 60,833 Monroe 295,000 Tompkins 68,750 Diagram 20. — Median equalized tax-rate and median equalized valuation per teacher for the first supervisory districts of Delaware, Monroe, and Tomp- kins Counties for the year ending July 31, 1920 It will also be recalled from the previous discussion that the costs per pupil were highest in Delaware County and lowest in Monroe County. In other words, Delaware County, which is compelled to exert itself the most, can with all its exertion raise the least 224 amount, and then, in spending that least amount, is compelled to pay the largest amount for the product it receives as compared with the other two counties. It is a case of the district which has little paying much for what it gets, while the district which has much, pays little for what it gets. Summarizing it all, Dela- ware County, with a tax-rate of 8 mills, spends $725 on each school and pays $77 for the education of each of its pupils, while Monroe County, with a tax-rate of 3J4 mills, spends $987.50 for each of its schools and pays $149 for the education of each of its pupils. The corresponding figures for Tompkins County are $787.50 and $74, respectively. These three supervisory districts are typical of common school districts generally throughout the state. The median equalized tax-rate for 1070 districts and 24 supervisory districts is 5.44 mills for common school districts; the median for 79 union free school districts scattered throughout 24 supervisory districts is 8.94; for 59 cities scattered throughout the state, 8.29 mills; for 45 villages scattered throughout the state the median tax-rate is 7.86 mills. The 59 cities and 45 villages include practically all the villages and cities of the state. When we compare the various classes of school districts with regard to their tax-rates we find that the tax-rates of common school districts, taken as a whole, are lower than the tax-rates of any other class of districts. Aside from these common school dis- tricts, we find that the more dense the population, the lower the tax- rates. However, it is important to note that although the median tax-rates of the common school districts is the lowest of all, the high- est tax-rates of individual districts are found likewise in the common school districts scattered through the state. There are common school districts which bear excessive burdens of taxation. There are probably over 300 common school districts which have higher tax- rates than the highest taxed city; on the other hand, there are over 500 districts which have lower tax-rates than the lowest cities. Thus it is seen that two very common beliefs regarding tax-rates in rural schools are untrue. First, tax-rates in common school districts are neither low nor high as a class. Plenty of examples are found at both extremes. Second, they cost both less and more. is 225 Hence in common school districts the burdens, as well as the costs, are both more and less than in the cities according to the circum- stances in the particular districts. Are these figures to be taken at their face value? Are we to con- clude that, because the farmers in the common school districts have more limited tax-rates imposed upon them as a class than the dwellers in cities as a class they are less heavily burdened? There are certain conditions which indicate the contrary. Practically all the wealth of the farmer is taxed by the taxes on general prop- erty, while much of the wealth of the city dweller, by means of which he earns his livelihood, is not reached by such a tax. It is altogether likely that if we could formulate a method by which to compare the true ability of the citizens in these two classes of com- munities to pay taxes, that would find the farmer at a disadvantage as compared with the city man, which seems to be the case when we consider general property tax alone. Unfortunately, no such method of determining this question has been generally accepted. The receipts from the personal income tax in the state of New York go to indicate, however, that the city dweller makes much more money in proportion to his real estate holdings than does the farmer. These facts are of weight in the consideration of distribution of state school funds. Summary. — It was noted in considering school costs that the common school districts in which the cost for schools was highest per unit of product were those in which there was the smallest average daily attendance. It is equally important to ascertain the relation- ship between the true tax-rates and the average daily attendance. A study of this phase for the counties of Delaware, Tompkins, and Monroe showed plainly that for the year 1920 the districts having the highest rates of taxation have the lowest attendance. The median equalized tax-rates for the schools of varying average daily attendance were as follows: Average Daily Attendance ■ Tax-Rate 1-5 7.0 6-10 5.9 11-15 5.4 16-20 4.2 21-25 3.8 226 30 percent 27 percent 16-20 21-25 Diagram 21. — Percent of schools by average daily attendance for Tompkins, Monroe, and Delaware Counties Property Valuations It was said at the beginning of the last section that the tax burden, as represented in the state, is dependent upon two factors when state aid does not enter into consideration: namely, costs of schools and the valuation of the property taxable for school purposes. We have analyzed in both the tax-rates and the costs — it now remains for us to give some attention to the property valuations. In New York local support of schools comes from a tax upon general property, but the amount of personal property reported to 227 the assessors is so small as to be almost negligible. Practically, therefore, school support comes from tax on real estate alone. In 41 towns situated in 24 supervisory districts the percent that the assessed value of personal property is of the assessed value of real estate in 1919 was 0.01— the range was from 0.0002 to 0.08 percent. In considering valuations we shall, for reasons previously stated, use the equalized valuations so as to remove the differences caused by the varying rate of assessment. But there is still another varying factor which must be eliminated before comparison can properly be made, namely, that of the varying size of school systems. We have many districts in the state that have but a single school unit. Certain cities, on the other hand, have several thousand such units. The number of teachers in the various school districts is taken as the best measure of the size of the system. Since costs of schools vary more closely as to the number of teachers than with any other factor, we have another reason for accepting this unit for this purpose. All valuations given in this represent the equalized valuations of the districts divided by the number of teachers in that district. Thus the varying factor of the size of the districts is eliminated and all are reduced to a basis upon which their relative ability to support schools can freely be judged. The number of common school districts in each of the same supervisory districts that have been used for comparison thus far, having true valuations of varying amounts, is given in Table 38. The same wide spread in each of the supervisory districts, and the same differences in general trend of valuations as were apparent both in our study of costs and of tax-rates, are plainly seen. It will be noted that in Delaware County there is one district that has an equalized valuation per teacher approximately 34 times as great as four others. In Tompkins County there are three dis- tricts whose true valuations are about one-twelfth that of the wealth- iest districts. Even greater differences than these have been found in other supervisory districts. In Erie County there is one district which has a valuation over 60 times as much as any other district. In Clinton County the highest valuation of one district is over 70 times that of the lowest. In the general trend of valuations Dela- 228 Table 38. — Equalized Valuation per Teacher for the First Supervisory Districts of Delaware, Monroe, and Tompkins Counties. Year Ending July 31, 1920 (Common Schools) Equalized Valuation Delaware Monroe Tompkins Total per Teacher No. 1 No . 1 No. 1 $0,000- $9,999 10,000- 19,999 4 4 20,000- 29,999 3 3 30,000- 39,999 8 2 10 40,000- 49,999 9 2 11 50,000- 59,999 4 6 10 60,000- 69,999 6 4 10 70,000- 79,999 4 3 7 80,000- 89,999 1 1 2 90,000- 99,999 1 2 3 100,000-109,999 4 1 2 7 110,000-119,999 1 2 3 120,000-129,999 "l 1 3 130,000-139,999 1 1 140,000-149,999 3 1 4 150,000-159,999 1 1 160,000-169,999 1 1 2 170,000-179,999 1 3 4 180,000-189,999 1 1 2 190,000-199,999 2 2 200,000-209,999 2 2 210,000-219,999 3 3 220,000-229,999 230,000-239,999 240,000-249,999 2 2 250,000-259,999 3 1 4 260,000-269,999 1 1 270,000-279,999 280,000-289,999 i 1 290,000-299,999 l 1 300,000-309,999 310,000-319,999 320,000-329,999 l 1 330,000-339,999 2 2 340,000-349,999 i 1 2 350,000-359,999 360,000-369,999 3 3 370,000-379,999 1 1 380,000-389,999 390,000-399,999 400,000-499,999 3 3 500,000-599,999 3 3 600,000-699,999 2 2 700,000-799,999 800,000-899,999 i 1 Over 899,999 2 2 Total 51 39 33 123 Medians 60,833 295,000 68,750 102,145 229 ware and Monroe Counties are again situated at the extremes, with Tompkins in the middle. The low valuations of Delaware County are, of course, closely associated with the high tax-rates, as are the high valuations of Monroe associated with the low tax- rates. It will be recalled that in Delaware County the costs per teacher were low, and that in Monroe the costs per teacher high. These facts appear to reduce the tax-rates in Delaware and increase the tax-rates in Monroe County. But the difference in the wealth of these counties is so great that the operation of this factor is ob- scured. Monroe County is so rich it can afford to have the very best teachers and still have a lower tax burden than Delaware County. Thus we see in what an advantageous position it is as compared with Delaware, for Monroe County has so many pupils in each of its schools that, notwithstanding its high costs per teacher, it has lower costs per unit of product than has Delaware County with its low costs per teacher. The contrast between the supervisory districts in these two counties is typical of many that may be found among the rural schools of the state of New York. There are certain sections of rural New York that have high valuations, low tax-rates, high teacher costs, and low pupil costs; while there are others, as unfor- tunate as these are fortunate, that have low valuations, high tax- rates, low teacher costs, high pupil costs. It is important that before we leave this subject we again inquire into the relationship between attendance in the various schools and the topic under consideration. In order to do this the school districts have first been classified as to equalized valuations per teacher. The median average daily attendance for each of the medians of equalized valuations was then ascertained. This showed that the districts with the lowest valuation had the lowest ' average daily attendance. The following is a summary of the computation: Median Average Equalized Valuation Daily Attendance $49,400 1- 5 78,700 6-10 112,500 11-15 162,700 16-20 236,000. . 21-25 230 It will be seen from this table that it is the districts with low valuations that have the lowest average daily attendance. Average Median Equalized Valuation per Teacher Daily Thousands of Dollars Attendance 1- 5 6-10 11-15 110 16-20 160 21-25 230 Diagram 22. — Relationship between average daily attendance per teacher and equalized valuations per teacher in common school districts in Delaware, Monroe, and Tompkins, for the year ending July 31, 1920 It remains to make comparison between the equalized valuation per teacher in common school districts and in the other classes of districts — the union free, the villages under superintendents, and the cities. For this comparison 1012 common school dis- tricts in various parts of the state were used. Table 39 gives full information upon this point. This table shows the same relationship of common school districts to the others as was found in similar tables for cost per pupil and equalized tax-rates. On the whole, cities have the highest valua- tions, villages next, union free districts next, and common school districts least. Nevertheless, there are certain common school districts that have higher valuations per teacher than the highest union free school district, and as high as any city or village. Like- wise certain others have lower valuations than any city or union free school district. 1 1 In regard to the reliability of the data for common school districts, it should be said that the equalized valuations of the districts in which were situated the one-teacher schools scored by Dr. Butterworth in his study of school buildings, the median value was $92,000, while the median value of two-teacher schools was $270,000, and of the two-teacher and one-teacher combined, approximately $96,000. It is, therefore, probable that the equalized valuation per teacher of the common school districts is not far from $100,000. 231 Table 39. — Equalized Valuation per Teacher for Common School and Union Free School Districts and Cities and Villages Under Superin- tendents. Year Ending July 31, 1920 Equalized Common Union Free Cities and Villages Under Super- intendents Valuation per Teacher School District School District Total $0,000- $9,999 2 2 10,000- 19,999 9 9 20,000- 29,999 24 24 30,000- 39,999 50 i 51 40,000- 49,999 67 1 68 50,000- 59,999 68 2 70 60,000- 69,999 64 2 66 70,000- 79,999 78 4 82 80,000- 89,999 51 12 63 90,000- 99,999 47 9 1 57 100,000-109,999 57 11 3 71 110,000-119,999 38 3 5 46 120,000-129,999 44 7 5 56 130,000-139,999 34 7 5 46 140,000-149,999 38 1 5 44 150,000-159,999 24 2 13 39 160,000-169,999 29 2 4 35 170,000-179,999 32 1 9 42 180,000-189,999 16 1 7 24 190,000-199,999 11 3 2 16 200,000-209,999 19 1 5 25 210,000-219,999 9 1 10 220,000-229,999 11 i 5 17 230,000-239,999 18 2 3 23 240,000-249,999 16 1 4 21 250,000-259,999 16 4 20 260,000-269,999 10 3 13 270,000-279,999 7 i 2 10 280,000-289,999 9 1 10 290,000-299,999 9 i 2 12 300,000-309,999 5 5 310,000-319,999 5 5 320,000-329,999 8 i 5 14 330,000-339,999 9 1 10 340,000-349,999 8 1 9 350,000-359,999 1 "i 3 360,000-369,999 8 8 370,000-379,999 3 3 380,000-389,999 2 "l 4 390,000-399,999 3 1 4 400,000-499,999 22 2 24 500,000-599,999 10 10 600,000-699,999 9 9 700,000-799,999 3 i 4 800,000-899,999 4 1 5 Over 899,999 5 1 6 Total 1012 79 104 1195 Medians 108,070 107,727 182,857 117,500 232 Percent 10, Common School District III J llllllll llllnalBI ■ T|0< Percent 20 15 10 i"«tlO*ON00^O^fNf / )^ ,, ^Or*.00^O'HNr0Tj'tOONC0aO^tNf*)'<*iO*0r^00aO Union Free School District Jill 1 lllllll ill 1 1 1 1 OO^O^ ©v ©\ ©* ^ ^ ©\ O* ^0^0>Ov^(^0*0\Ov ©*OvO*^©v©»©*©> ©\©*0^©\©*^©*Ov O* ^ ^ Ot 0< Q grtts^fifl'ON(oo'0'<(Nm'*invOMioo>0'"!Nn^ioot»ooovO-N^') , m , o>«ooay Percent 15 Cities and Villages Under Superintendents 10 5 ll l.JJftfaL ■■ !• •3©©© o Valuation ©A©© I I I 1 I I I III I I I I II II II I I I I 1 I I I I I I . _ OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO fc -thousands of dollars Diagram 23. — Percent of schools by equalized valuation per teacher for com- mon school districts and union free school districts and cities and villages under superintendents, for the year ending July 31, 1920 233 The reasons for these differences per teacher in true valuations of property taxable for school purposes, while there are many and they are well known, need still to be mentioned. Take, first, those differences within the same town. The districts located in the valleys, where the soil is rich, have higher valuations than those on the hills, where the soil is of poor quality. Those districts that are farther removed from cities or villages are apt to have lower valua- tions than those that are near such centers. Aside from fertility of soil, geographic location, and size of districts, there is still another feature which is probably more important than these. Those dis- tricts through which railroads, electric railways, telephone and telegraph lines, gas-mains, water mains, and pipe lines have been developed, have a source of taxation that is not strictly connected with agriculture. Districts that are not touched by any of these transportation or public utility conveyances get no support from them whatsoever. We have many examples in which valuation of railway and special franchise property is equal to or greater than valuation of all other property in the district. Such districts have their tax-rates reduced by half or more than what they would if these companies had happened to develop some other route. A Larger Local Tax Unit. — This striking inequality in wealth in school districts in the same community suggests a larger local tax unit for the support of schools in order to equalize to a degree the tax burden. Public money for expenditures made through the towns is now raised by a tax equally distributed over entire towns, and thus the benefit of the tax for railways, etc., is extended beyond the immediate territory through which they happen to pass. Since this larger unit works successfully in civil affairs, there can be no objection raised to its use on the ground of impracticability for the support of the schools. Such a tax unit should be made up of territory which will best promote the efficiency of schools, rather than to accept a unit organized with other considerations in mind. The Effect of a Larger Tax Unit Upon Tax-Rates. — The extent to which the establishment of larger local units, such as the town or the community district, equalizes tax-rates and valuations is a very important consideration, both from the standpoint of the 234 people paying the taxes and from the standpoint of state aid. The property-holders of certain districts would have to pay a higher rate of tax and others would have to pay a lower rate. The town or the community district tax-rate would be an average tax. Generally speaking, the wealthier districts would have to pay a higher tax and the poorer districts a lower tax. Thus there would be equalization of taxes between the districts in the various units. But there would still remain great differences in tax-rates among the various units, as is shown in Table 40. Table 40. — Equalized Tax-Rate and Equalized Valuation per Teacher in the Following Supervisory Districts: Delaware No. 1, Monroe No. 1, Tompkins No. 1. Year Ending July 31, 1920 Deposit. . . Masonville . Sidney. . . . Tompkins. . Brighton. . . Henrietta. . Irondequoit Penfield. .. Webster. . . Enfield .... Newfield . . . Ulysses. . . . Tax- Rate Dela- ware No. 1 8.35 11.50 14.72 12.28 Monroe No. 1 2.22 3.05 4.45 3.92 3.39 Tomp- kins No. 1 6.70 11.34 5.98 Equalization Valuation Dela- ware No. 1 $81,525 52,253 135,030 61,092 Monroe No. 1 $763,898 310,390 375,650 224,099 316,658 Tomp- kins No. 1 $75,985 53,585 177,215 This table gives the equalized tax-rates as they would have been in the year 1919 had the town been the taxing unit, and had each town maintained the same schools at the same expense as the dis- tricts maintained them in the year 1919-20. Tax-rates in Monroe County are low, while those in Tompkins and Delaware Counties are high. These differences would, of course, prevail among all the towns in the state, and what has been said in previous sections regarding the differences in tax burden 235 among school districts applies to the situation as it would exist in the towns, although, to be sure, the extreme differences would be eliminated under a town taxing unit. The effect upon valuations per teacher of the establishment of a larger taxing unit, such as the town, is similar to the effect upon the tax-rates. The equalized valuation per teacher in the town is practically the average of the equalized valuation of the various districts, in which each district is weighted according to the number of teachers, but, as is revealed in Table 40, large differences in the amount of wealth behind each teacher in the various towns still remain in spite of the fact that the extreme differences found in the common school districts have been eliminated. From the stand- point of state aid the data in this table prove that the equalization in school support furnished by the larger local tax unit is not suffi- cient to meet the needs of schools. State Aid Why Have State Aid? — We have found it necessary to create states in order to secure protection, liberty, justice, and to promote individual welfare, but at the same time we have seen to it that a very large measure of control has been given back by these states to the local communities in order that each individual may have the largest practicable control of those governmental affairs with which he comes in immediate contact. Control of the tax- rate and of the expenditure of money raised in local communities is one of the most essential features of our democracy and is highly prized by all American citizens. We must expect, therefore, as a principle of the financial ad- ministration of schools, that local support shall be fundamental in any system that may be established. It does not follow, however, that school support should be entirely local. There are certain reasons why it should not be so. It has been shown repeatedly in this study that there are great differences in the ability of various districts to support schools, and that it is difficult for many of them to maintain schools of even poor quality. It has also been shown that there are great differences among different communities in their conceptions of a proper standard of school for an American 236 community. Some communities seem to realize that the future of our nation depends very largely on the character of education given in the schools, and that the future happiness and success in life of their children are likewise largely dependent upon the kind of schooling they have. While, on the other hand, there are other communities, many of which are well-to-do, that seem to look upon the school not as an opportunity for them to serve their country and to promote the welfare of their children, but rather as a burdensome thing which has been imposed upon them from with- out; or, if they do accept the school as a worthy institution, their standards of what a good school should be are so low that the interests of the state as a whole, the well-being of the particular community in which the school is situated, and the future happi- ness of the children living within it are each and all affected in a harmful manner. Under such circumstances as these, when districts are unable to support schools, or, if able, are not willing to support schools of a quality corresponding to their wealth, the question arises whether the state government representing all the people cannot and should not do something to improve the conditions in such districts. In case of invasion by foreign troops or in case of mob violence which cannot be controlled by the local authorities all would say that state money should be spent in restoring peace and order, not only that the communities in question might be benefited, but also to insure the future well-being of the remainder of the state. While the effects of a poor school upon a particular community and upon the portions of the state lying outside of it are not so apparent or so immediate as those of an invasion or mob, nevertheless the harm is just as certain and expenditure of state funds is as fully war- ranted in this case as in the former. It is also true that if state money can be used to stamp out an epidemic of tuberculosis or hog cholera, it can likewise be used to prevent inferior teaching. Furthermore, the advancement of the general welfare through the expenditure of state money has been just as generally recognized as the maintenance of peace and order and protection from disease. State money is spent to promote state fairs, experiments in agri- culture, and extension courses in a variety of subjects relating to 237 farming. Through such expenditures as these the standards as to what constitutes good farming are constantly rising, and not only the farmers, but all who consume the products of the farm are benefited thereby. It pays the people of all the state to stimulate farmers, by the giving of instruction, to obtain the most and the best from the land they possess. It pays also to grant rewards to those farmers and to those boys and girls of the farm who have done particularly meritorious work. The benefits that come from this sort of reward and the stimulation to all people of the state are much greater than the cost. It is the same in education as in farming. The state should always do something to stimulate every school district to do its best. It also ought to grant rewards to school districts, teachers, and pupils who do a particularly meritorious thing. The benefits that will come to the entire state, not to mention those that will come to the particular districts, are much greater than the costs. Objects of State Aid. — State aid should then be administered in such a way as to make good schools possible in all communities of the state, so that no community would have a reasonable excuse for a poor school. It ought also to stimulate every school district in the state to have better schools, thereby constantly raising the standard of education and promoting the continual progress of the life of all the people in the state. It also ought to reward any school that takes a new step in an efficient manner because of the meritorious performance that such a step indicates. It should do all these things, not only to protect the state from ignorance in the exercise of the ballot and to provide leaders, but also for the further just as important purpose, to promote in every possible way the individual welfare of every person in it, which, applied to schools, means that all these forms of aid should be utilized so as to guar- antee for each child that education which is best to fit him for life, irrespective of the particular community in which he may happen to live. It is upon such grounds as this that the state is justified in taking, through taxation, a citizen's money and expending it in places other than that in which he resides. It is done because the state as a whole and in most cases he himself will benefit from it far more than what it costs. 238 Proportion of Support That Should Come From the State. — Just what proportion of local support should be furnished by the state is dependent upon a number of factors, among which are the equalities of wealth among the various local districts and the differences among the people in their interests in schools. The sources of taxation that are utilized by state and local governments is also a factor. Standards in these particulars have not as yet been worked out and generally accepted. It is clear, however, that in a state such as New York, where local school taxes come almost entirely from the taxation of real estate and large amounts of money come to the state from business, income, and inheritance taxes, and where there are such great inequalities in wealth and differences in interest in schools, the state should properly give large amounts of money to the support of local schools. Methods of Administration of State Aid. — When we turn to the consideration of the methods by which the state money shall be distributed among the schools of the state, we find that there are certain controlling principles, one of which is the preserva- tion and promotion of a democratic form of government. State aid should be distributed in such a way as to promote the efficient participation of citizens in the exercise of citizenship. The converse of this proposition is that it should not be so administered as to promote bureaucracy or autocratic control in either state, county, or local education offices. This can be ac- complished if, on the one hand, the withholding of funds by state officers is exercised only in proportion to the seriousness of the shortcoming; and if, on the other hand, right action unfailingly meets its reward. The facts are that, in a fairly large number of the communities of every state, we need a change in attitude on the part of the citizens toward the schools. These communities can be frequently led to change their vote, to substitute right action for wrong action over a sufficiently long period of years, and to bring about a fundamental change in their attitudes toward the benefits of education. That which a citizen learns through the operation of his own action becomes firmly established, while that which is forced upon him against his will he opposes more firmly. It is, therefore, fundamental in state aid that we leave final deci- 239 sion to the local community, and leave them to choose what is best. In the doing of this we will have a stronger agency in the making of a better government and a better society. Such a plan encourages not only the most advanced districts and so keeps the entire body moving, but also constantly stimulates those districts that are lagging behind to come up to the state- wide standards that have already been adopted through what was learned from the experience of the more progressive districts. Principles Governing State Aid. — In the light of this treat- ment we are able to arrive at certain fundamental principles re- lating to state aid as follows: 1. Local support is fundamental. 2. The local units for the support of schools should contain, in so far as practicable, enough property taxable for school purposes to raise that portion of the expenses of the school which it is be- lieved should be borne by the local districts without an undue burden upon the owners of property. 3. Some portion of the support of local schools should come from the state government, the amount being dependent upon certain factors, exact standards for which have not been scientifically de- termined. 4. The administration of state aid should be such as to increase the efficient participation of citizens in a democratic form of government. 5. The purposes of state aid should be not only to protect the state from ignorance, to provide intelligent workers in every field of activity, and to educate leaders, but also to guarantee to each child, irrespective of where he happens to live, equal opportunity to that of any other child for that education which will best fit him for life. Criteria Applicable to State Aid. — The following points will furnish criteria on which the efficiency of certain forms of state aid may be based. That form which satisfies the largest number of these principles is better than any other which satisfies only portions of them. 1 . A portion or all of the state money should be withheld from any local district whenever it is clearly established that those minimum 240 standards established by the legislature regarding schools are not fully met. The proportion withheld should be dependent upon the extent of the shortcoming and the number of previous de- linquencies. 2. The state should encourage by grants the introduction of new features into the schools of the state, especially those which would not ordinarily be undertaken by many communities of their own volition. 3. Local communities should, by the assistance of state aid, be constantly stimulated to raise the standard of their schools as regards the qualifications of teachers employed, courses of study taught, and equipment furnished, and every other feature that goes to make up a good school. The purpose of this principle is to encourage the districts to raise themselves higher and higher above the minimum standards. 4. The state should, in the distribution of money among the various districts, seek to equalize the tax burdens of various dis- tricts in the support of schools in order that the equalization of educational opportunity among all of the children of the state can be the more easily secured. The points in the scale of equalized valuations per teacher to which this equalization should be carried is to be determined, upon the one hand, by the amounts of money available, and, on the other hand, by the compelling necessity of preserving and stimulating democratic control of schools in local communities. Present System of State Aid in New York. — The present system of state aid for the support of schools in the state of New York is divisible into eight parts: (1) District Quotas; (2) Teacher Quotas; (3) Additional Teacher Quotas; (4) Vocational Teacher Quotas; (5) Physical Training Teacher Quotas; (6) Library and Equipment Quotas; (7) High School Tuition Quotas, and (8) Academic Quotas. Each of these forms of state aid need not be judged separately in the light of the "Principles for Criteria" given above. (1) and (2) The first two forms of aid — the district quotas and the teacher quotas — may be taken together, since they constitute the only form of state aid applicable to all districts until the passage 16 241 of the Additional District Quota Law in 1920. The district quotas were as follows: Assessed Valuation State Aid Less than $20,000 $200 $20,001-40,000 175 40,001-60,000 150 Over 60,000 125 To those districts that have more than one teacher $100 was given for each of them; thus it is known as the teacher quota. Table 41. — Correlation Between Amount or State Aid on Basis of As- sessed Valuation and Equalized Millage per Teacher, Delaware No. 1, Monroe No. 1, Tompkins No. 1, Year Ending July 31, 1920 Amount of State Aid Equalized Rate in Mills 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 $200 175 150 125 "l '5 1 11 2 1 15 3 10 1 4 5 9 4 2 5 3 3 1 3 1 3 1 1 2 3 3 4 1 3 2 1 Total 2 5 12 18 13 19 11 10 6 8 5 6 Amount of State 12 13 14 16 17 19 20 24 30 32 33 Totals Medi- Aid $200 1 1 1 1 1 1 20 $10.75 175 2 2 i 4 i 32 9.00 150 18 5.80 125 61 3.83 Total . . 2 2 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 131 $5.81 Applying the four criteria to the scheme of state aid we find that it satisfies only the first criterion, and that but imperfectly, be- cause it doesn't permit of the withholding of a part of the state 242 grants — all must be withheld or none. It does not reward a dis- trict — a district receives its share, no matter what it does with the money, no matter whether or not it spends its money wisely. That it does not stimulate additional effort and that it does not take into account to any great degree the ability of the district to sup- port a good school are shown by the great variation in true tax- rates among the various districts as brought out in Table 41. It would have been better had the amounts been based upon equalized valuations because of the variations in assessment rates, but as it is, it places a premium upon low valuations of taxable property which is generally recognized it is desirable to discourage. The same wide variation in true tax-rates is also evident by a similar table based upon equalized valuations. (3) Since 1920 the districts of the state have received, in addi- tion to the district and teacher quotas given above, the following much larger quotas for each teacher: First-class cities having a population of over 1,000,000 (New York, Buffalo, Rochester) $600 Second-class cities 550 Other cities of 50,000 or more 450 Cities of less than 50,000 and villages under superintendents 350 Other union free school districts 350 Other schools employing more than one teacher 300 Each school district employing one teacher, having assessed valuation ex- ceeding $100,000 200 Other school districts employing one teacher and assessed valuation of $100,000 or less receive $200 plus $3 for each $1000 valuation less than $100,000. We are interested primarily in the effect of this law upon the last three classes of districts. It fails to satisfy the first three of the criteria to the same extent as the previous law, and for the same reasons. It is, however, an improvement, since it partially satisfies the fourth criterion. Since the first distribution under this law did not occur until the present year, we have, in order to com- pare the effects of the two laws, worked out the tax-rates that it would be necessary to raise under each plan in districts of different valuations in order to meet an assumed annual cost of $900. These data are brought together in Table 42. 243 Table 42. — Amounts One-Teacher Districts of Varying Valuations Would Have to Raise by Local Tax, and the Tax-Rates Under State Aid in 1920 and 1921, Assuming Cost To Be $900 per Teacher Valuation State Aid Local Tax Tax-Rate 1920 1921 1920 1921 1920 1921 $10,000 $200 $670 $700 $230 $0.0700 $0.0230 20,000 200 640 700 260 0.0350 0.0130 30,000 175 585 724 315 0.0241 0.0105 40,000 175 555 725 345 0.0181 0.0086 50,000 150 500 730 400 0.0150 0.0080 60,000 150 470 750 430 0.0125 0.0072 70,000 125 415 775 485 0.0110 0.0069 80,000 125 385 775 515 0.0096 0.0064 90,000 125 355 775 545 0.0086 0.0061 100,000 125 325 775 575 0.0077 0.0058 110,000 125 325 775 575 0.0070 0.0052 120,000 125 325 775 575 0.0064 0.0048 130,000 125 325 775 575 0.0059 0.0044 140,000 125 325 775 575 0.0055 0.0041 150,000 125 325 775 575 0.0051 0.0038 160,000 125 325 775 575 0.0048 0.0035 170,000 125 325 775 575 0.0045 0.0033 180,000 125 325 775 575 0.0043 0.0031 190,000 125 325 775 575 0.0040 0.0030 200,000 125 325 775 575 0.0038 0.0028 Table 42 shows that districts of the lowest valuations receive the largest grants from the state and that for districts of less than $100,000 valuation the amount increased regularly and inversely with the wealth of the districts. The shortcomings in the law are as follows: (a) It is still necessary for districts of lower valuation to pay high taxes, while districts of higher valuation can conduct the same schools with the same degree of excellence at much lower tax-rates, although the differences are not so large as they were previously. The principle of equalization of the tax burden — the fourth criterion — is not carried far enough. Equalization of educational opportunities through equaliza- tion of support — the fourth criterion — is not promoted to the degree it should be. 244 (b) The law does not take into account the differences among the various districts in the amount of money that each chooses to put into its schools. In other words, the third criterion is not observed at all. Taking two school districts of the same valuation, the one with the cheap teacher, poorly equipped school gets as much as the school which employs an excellent teacher and has superior equipment. Take, for example, two common school districts each having a valuation of $50,000 and each receiving $400 from the state: assume one of the three employs a teacher at $20 per week and keeps its school costs close to $800, while the other employs a teacher at $25 per week, continues its school for forty weeks, and has costs amounting to $1100 or more. If the number of pupils in these two schools is the same and other conditions influencing education similar, the second school is worthy of greater recognition because it has done more for the state than has the first. The present law, in denying such recognition, creates an unfortunate attitude of mind in the people of the rural dis- tricts that seriously interferes with school progress. Know- ing that nothing they may do except the keeping down of the rate of assessment will influence the amount of money they will receive from the state, provided they maintain the minimum standards they plan to get on with as little as they can and so impair the efficiency of the school. An- other unfortunate effect is that they look upon the state money as something they are rightfully entitled to, irrespec- tive of what they do with the school, and fail to see that the state rightfully expects something of them in return beyond the maintenance of minimum standards. The practical effect of the fixed kind of state aid is to make state support basal, since each board of education knows for certain what is coming from the state and super- imposes its local tax upon it in sufficient amount to raise the funds desired. This violates the first principle relating to support of schools. Local support should be basal and state support should be dependent upon the local tax rather than the local tax upon state aid. 245 (4 and 5) The Physical Training and Vocational Teacher Quotas. — The survey has not studied intensively the operation of these quotas. They satisfy in principle criterion No. 2. Since equaliza- tion of educational burden is largely secured through a revised form of general aid, it is recommended that these quotas be retained in their present form. (6) Library and Equipment Quotas. — The form of state support second in importance to the rural schools is the library and equip- ment quota, in which case the state pays an amount equal to that raised in the districts. The principle back of this form of grant is to be commended in that it stimulates local districts to do their best. Its weakness lies in the fact that it takes no account of the varying capacity of districts to raise money for these purposes. Since the amounts of money required are not large, this objection is not of great force. It should be retained in its present form, but a larger appropriation, amounting to at least $250,000 per year, granted in order to meet the demands upon it. At present full returns cannot be allowed because of limited funds. (7) High School Tuition. — The $50 per year paid by the state for tuition in high school for non-resident students has no place in a rational system of school support, although it is intended to achieve a worthy aim and doubtless has been of great benefit to a large number, although by no means to all the young people of the state residing in rural districts. It is recommended by the com- mittee that every child residing in a district not having a high school who has satisfactorily completed the elementary schools shall be given the right to attend any standard high school in the state that he chooses, within certain reasonable limitations, and to have his tuition paid by his local district, this district including the charge as part of its other expenses, which should be reimbursed by the state for such share as its true valuation per teacher and its tax-rate entitles it under the plan to be outlined hereafter. The amounts of tuition charged by high schools should be as large as the cost per pupil for the previous year, as determined in accordance with the rules of the State Department. (8) Academic Quotas. — The academic quotas granted to high schools have in the past served as a reward for the establishment 246 of new departments or extension of old departments in local schools (criterion No. 2). They might well serve that purpose still in small villages, where people hesitate to establish high schools, but the value of this form of state aid in cities and larger villages has passed. The fact that the grant has been in the same amount, irrespective of the ability of the district to pay it or of the amount of money that they are putting into high schools, has acted as a limitation upon its highest efficiency. The survey recommends that this form of state aid be dropped and that, instead, there be granted to union free school and common school districts aid for high schools in proportion to the number of teachers employed and as supplementary to the more fundamental form of state aid which takes into account true valuation and amount of money spent, as will be outlined below. Unfortunate Omissions in the System of State Aid. — State aid, as it exists at present in New York, has not encouraged as it should in the rural schools the consolidation of districts, the erection of schoolhouses, or high school education among the pupils who have completed the elementary schools. On the contrary, as it now stands it works against the consolidation of districts into larger units. This and other weaknesses in the present system of school support should be avoided in any new system that may be adopted. The plan for state support offered by the committee is proposed for rural and village schools only, although its principles might be extended to all districts. It consists of two main divisions: (A) General Aid; (B) Various Forms of Special Aid. A system of general aid is proposed which operates constantly in such a manner as to satisfy all the principles mentioned above, and the first, third, and fourth criteria. Forms of special aid are offered in addition to those now existing that were recommended above for retention to supplement the general aid and to satisfy the second criterion. Recommendations 1. (A) General Aid. — The system of state aid herein proposed involves two fundamental elements which must be established before the formula for determining aid to be given each district can be worked out. First, the equalized valuation up to the level 247 of which the state is willing to do its part in bringing all districts that are below that level. This may be called the Base for the Equalization of the Tax Burden. Different points can be chosen for this base, but in the judgment of the survey it should be at or near the mean or median equalized valuation of all the school units of the state, assuming each teacher constitutes a school unit. The survey has found this median equalized valuation to be slightly over $290,000. The second fundamental element is the amount it costs to conduct an elementary school unit, such as is represented by one teacher. This may be placed at any point desired. The average cost per teacher of elementary schools in 1920 of towns and villages throughout the entire state was $1054. This amount will undoubtedly be increased as the standards of instruction and of operation and maintenance are increased, and the state might properly recognize either this median or a higher standard as the norm, as, for example, $1200. These two elements can be used to work out what may be called a distribution coefficient, which, when combined with the other three factors, will give such amounts for every school district as will satisfy the three criteria given above. The method of determining this coefficient will be presented in the volume dealing with the complete discussion of school support. The plan of general aid is divisible into two parts: first, for dis- tricts having equalized valuations below the base for the equaliza- tion of the tax burden (this part is particularly applicable to the rural schools of the state) and, second, for districts having valua- tions above this amount. The amount of state support for any district included in the first part of the plan is determined by multi- plying together the four factors: (a) The deficit in equalized valuations (expressed in thousands). (b) Equalized tax-rate of the district (expressed as number of mills). (c) Number of teachers. (d) The distribution coefficient (expressed in terms of money). For the distribution of general state aid for those dis- tricts below the median equalized valuation per teacher, i. e., $290,000, it is recommended that these factors be com- bined in the formula (290,000— V) M X T X .626 be adopted 248 for districts below the median valuation. (In this formula V stands for equalized valuation expressed in thousands of dol- lars, M for the tax-rate' in mills, T for the number of teach- ers in the unit, and .626 for the distribution coefficient.) In the application of this formula every community with a valu- ation under the median shall receive at least $48 per teacher. In the application of this formula the maximum amount of general aid to be granted by the state shall not exceed the amount obtained when the number of mills reaches ten. In districts above the median equalized valuation the fol- lowing grants shall be made: Equalized Valuation per Teacher Less than $300,000 $48 $300,000-399,000 40 400,000-499,000 32 500,000-599,000 24 600,000-699,000 16 700,000-799,000 8 2. No school shall be entitled to the full amount of aid provided for under this plan unless it has an average daily attendance of eight pupils. Any school that falls below this number shall be granted only such proportion of its allotment as its average daily attendance bears to the standard denominator eight. Thus a school with an average daily attendance of five would receive only $/i of the allotment which it would receive had it the full quota of eight. The Board of Education of the intermediate unit should have the authority to waive the application of this rule in those schools which, in its judgment, should, under present circumstances, as regards condition of roads, distance, etc., be retained as separate schools in order to promote the best interests of pupils attending them. This privilege should also apply in cases in which weather conditions, epidemics, etc., interfere with school attendance. All cases of exemption shall be approved by the State Department of Education. 3. While the above plan is basal and covers all types of schools, nevertheless inasmuch as the salaries and other expenses of second- ary schools exceed those of elementary schools, it is desirable that 249 the state should grant districts having teachers of secondary grade an amount for each teacher which would represent this difference in cost. This aid, in the judgment of the committee, should not apply to all districts, but only to those included in the operation of the first part of the plan and such other districts lying just above them in the distribution scale of true valuation as would produce equalization among all districts for the support of the secondary school in the same way as the first part of the plan provides for it in the support of elementary schools. This would include all districts having approximately a valuation of less than $350,000 per teacher in case $400 is taken as the difference between the cost of a secondary school unit and an elementary school unit, which amount is recommended by the committee. This additional aid is to be applicable in cases in which a junior high school is estab- lished. 4. The community unit shall be the unit of local taxation for school purposes. 5. (B) Special Aid. — Aid should be granted for the erection of schoolhouses and teacherages on the following basis: Districts Having a Valuation per Teacher of Less Than — $50,000 30 percent of cost of building and equipment 50,000-$99,000 25 " " " " " " " " 100,000-149,000 20 " " " " 150,000-199,000 15 " " " " 200,000-249,000 10 " " " " 250,000-299,000 5 " " " " 300,000-over " " " " These buildings are to be erected in accordance with plans approved by the State Department of Education. 6. A similar form of aid should be granted to communities for the making of major improvements to buildings, such as would be considered outlays within the rules of the State Department of Education and in amount according to the plan proposed above. 7. In order to assist communities in bearing the expenses of trans- portation it is recommended that, for each $1200 of transportation expense, the number of teachers used in determining the amount of aid should be increased by one. If a school had six teachers and 250 a transportation expense of $1200, it would be considered as having seven teachers in the multiplication of the four factors used in determining amount of aid, but not in determining the equalized valuation per teacher. In case of an expenditure of less than $1200, the expense should be prorated in determining the number of teachers. 8. To induce competent teachers to go into the one-teacher schools, a direct grant of $20 per month should be made to a teacher who teaches in a one-teacher school, and who belongs to either one of the following groups: (a) A normal school graduate or equivalent with three years of teaching experience. (b) A graduate of one of the rural teacher training departments of the normal school as provided for in the section on prepara- tion of teachers. 9. In order to discourage the appointment of teachers of inferior qualifications it is recommended that a graduated series of de- ductions from the state aid be devised so that for each teacher of inferior qualifications that is appointed the apportionment will be reduced by $100, the second time the same teacher is appointed the deduction should be $200, and so on. 10. It is recommended that the supervisory quota be extended to union free school districts. It should be prorated on the basis of the time devoted by the principal to supervision in his school. Under this plan the community would be entitled to an elemen- tary teacher's quota for the principal. In addition there would be the extra high school teacher's quota and a supervisory quota to be based on the proportion of time devoted to supervision. 11. It is recommended that there be state aid to the intermediate unit to the extent of two-thirds the salary of the superintendent, and of his assistants up to certain maximum amounts to be fixed by law and by regulation of the State Department of Education. 12. Bonded Indebtedness. — It is impossible to devise a plan for taking care of the bonded indebtedness that will be perfectly fair to every situation that exists in the state. It seems best, since all the school property within the community unit becomes the property of the community, that the community assume the bonded 351 indebtedness. The committee believes that, as a means of ad- justing the situation, where bonds are outstanding on buildings completed in the last five years, the community unit should receive aid from the state in accordance with the suggested state aid for new buildings. The Effect of the Plan Upon Local Tax-Rates In order to test out the financial effects of any new form of local unit and of state support that might be finally decided upon, four competent rural school experts made intensive studies in the three counties — Delaware, Tompkins, and Monroe — with a view to show- ing how much it would cost to conduct properly organized and equipped schools in each of the various communities, taking into ac- count in each case the peculiar circumstances, as in the case of trans- portation of pupils that were involved. The sources of school support in each district and town were likewise studied. The computations were carefully made and have since been studied with care. As a result, we are able to present in Table 43 a comparison of the local tax-rates for schools in various community districts under varying conditions as to location of schools and forms of state support. Four different situations are included. All assume the establish- ment of the community district. The differences in tax-rates in the community district plan and in the present organization of common schools and union free school districts have been dis- cussed. The first column shows what the tax-rate would have been in each community district this year were such a district in actual operation, with the schools situated as they now are, and with the present law relating to state support still in operation. The second column shows what the tax-rates would have been in each community district this year with the schools as they now are, but with the system of state support proposed above in actual operation in as far as the organization of schools makes it possible. The third and fourth columns, 3a and 3b, assume that community schools with adequate high school building and equipment, proper transportation facilities, and all that goes with a first-class school, should have been established in these community districts, — as many of them in each as circumstances require, — and that the 252 Table 43. — Comparison of Tax-Rates in Community Districts: (1) With Schools as Now Organized and Present Aid; (2) with Schools as Or- ganized and Proposed Revised Am; (3) with Reorganized Community Schools and Proposed Revised State Auj; (a) Current Expenses Only; (b) Current Expense, New Buildings, and Transportation Equipment (1) (2) (3a) (3b) Delaware County Supervisory District No. 1 : Sidney Center 3.81 11.10 8.78 6.50 4.70 9.54 6.58 5.71 4.04 6.16 7.72 7.01 5.70 8.06 5.30 4.01 6.92 5.49 6.05 9.00 4.85 7.62 8.20 6.45 8.35 4.23 6.90 6.70 5.52 5.64 7.32 6.24 5.17 5.36 7.01 6.39 6.06 4.83 6.18 5.05 4.75 5.45 5.80 5.32 4.52 4.64 6.43 5.50 4.50 5.18 4.32 5.51 5.42 5.85 5.21 6.00 6.56 5.56 5.85 5.72 7.40 6.30 6.25 6.21 5.25 5.58 5.71 5.50 4.86 6.40 5.52 5.66 5.86 6.14 5.20 4.78 Masonville Tompkins 7.77 6 63 Supervisory District No. 2 : Colchester Hancock 7.11 6 37 Supervisory District No. 3: Delhi Walton Hamden Supervisory District No. 5 : Franklin 7.96 7.12 6.70 6 16 Davenport 6 32 Meredith 7 77 Supervisory District No. 6: Stamford 6 98 Harpersfield 6 65 Kortright 7.01 Bovina 5 93 Monroe County Supervisory District No. 1 : Henrietta 6 21 Supervisory District No. 2 : Mendon 6 23 Supervisory District No. 3 : Parma 6.25 Supervisory District No. 4: Ogden 5.61 Tompkins County Supervisory District No. 1: Newfield 7.46 Enfield 7.21 Ulysses 6.16 Supervisory District No. 3: Danby 6.71 Caroline Dryden 6.95 5.77 2S3 only one-room schools remaining are those that should not be closed as long as conditions remain as they now are. It also assumes that all the features of the proposed new plan of state support are utilized. Column 3a shows the tax-rate for current expenses only, which, according to the plan proposed, must be estimated separately, while column 3b shows the total tax-rate, including the tax-rate for outlays as well. A study of the table shows the following: 1. That unusually high taxes and also unusually low taxes would still prevail in certain community districts, as is now the case in common and union free school districts with the present system of state aid. 2. That these extremes would be removed with the proposed revised system of state aid. 3. The taxes would be, on the whole, lower than before. This is an advantage, since it would now be possible for such districts to secure better teachers and have more and better equipment without having to pay a tax-rate above the normal. 4. The tax-rate for the current expenses of the community schools would be higher than for the present schools in some districts and lower in others, these differences depending upon the number of pupils per teacher (especially in the high schools), the salaries paid teachers, the length and difficulty of the transportation routes, and the number of old schoolhouses permanently abandoned. 5. The additional tax-rates required for new buildings under the plan of state aid proposed would be small. 6. The average tax for rural schools in the districts presented, picked at random, including the tax for buildings, would be lower than the present tax-rates in the same communities. Under these conditions citizens of rural communities could not object to the establishment of community schools on the ground of cost if such reorganization of school district and school support as is recommended in this survey were adopted. On the other hand, the necessity for furnishing so favorable a situation as this in order to induce citizens of rural communities to establish the most efficient type of schools is sufficient warrant for the state offering such liberal inducements, since so far as edu- 254 cation is concerned, no part of the system can be permitted to lag behind, and since, so far as the interests of democracy are concerned, the right of each local community to act upon such fundamental questions as the tax-rate and the kind of school it shall maintain cannot be taken from it. The removal of insurmountable financial disadvantages and the stimulation of each local community to realize its best through the state government are necessary features of state schools in a democratic form of government. Conclusion The plan of state support outlined above is very similar to the scheme of state aid already granted to towns under the highway law. It is founded on the general principle that the local support of schools is basal and that the function of state support is to complement and supplement the efforts made by local districts, and that the amounts given should be adjusted to the efforts made, as determined by the property valuations, on the one hand, and the cost of schools, on the other, the combined effect of which appears in the tax-rate. Thus in its operation it will work out almost in the opposite direction from the practice which now commonly pre- vails, which is, first, to find out how much the state will furnish, and then bring the local taxes up to the point that is necessary to support a local school. The plan proposed above operates to find out, first, how much a local district can reasonably raise, and then the state steps in and gives it the difference between this amount and that which should be provided in order to have an efficient school. It also encourages each and every district to have the best school. 255 CHAPTER XIV REACTIONS OF RURAL SCHOOL PATRONS IT IS essential in a democracy that provision be made for par- ticipation in school affairs by the public. In the ordinary conduct of the school this feature is provided through school meetings in which the patrons have an opportunity to make their influence felt directly, or through boards of education that are representative of lay interests. In the organization of the Joint Committee on Rural Schools arrangements were made for repre- sentation of both lay and professional interests. The committee, however, did not consider this adequate. It desired more direct contacts with the rural school patrons of the state. As a means of attaining this end, provision was made for a series of "hearings" in different sections of the state, to which all who were interested in rural schools were invited. In addition, sev- eral thousand booklets were sent to rural school patrons through- out the state. To facilitate their distribution, and to encourage group discussions of the suggested questions, they were distributed largely through local granges and the farm and home bureau organizations. A general invitation was extended, also, to those who were not members of any of these bodies, to secure copies of the booklets and to send in their suggestions. As a result of this method of distribution, some of the booklets contain expres- sions of relatively large groups, but in other instances they give statements of individual opinions only. In most instances the number answering was given in the booklet as requested. The views expressed on some of the questions have been in- corporated in the body of the report. This is true especially in the case of the chapter dealing with the State System of Examina- tions. In spite of the fact that some of the results have been thus 256 used, there seemed to be a place for a separate consideration of the more important problems. This chapter has been prepared for that reason. Choice or District Superintendents In the booklet an expression of opinion was asked regarding the method of selection of district superintendents of schools. In 4467 replies to this question, 65 percent were in favor of popular election, 31 percent desired the retention of the present system, and various methods of choice differing from these two were suggested, by 4 percent. The idea of choice by popular election was brought for- ward at many of the meetings held by the committee. That this idea is rather prevalent is shown by the frequency with which resolutions favoring it are passed by such organizations as the grange. An examination of the recommendations of the committee will show that its suggestion on this point is not in accord with the ma- jority sentiment of the school patrons who expressed themselves. Evidence from the meetings seems to indicate that the demand for choice of district superintendents by popular vote is based chiefly on the desire of the people for a larger voice in the control of school affairs. Especially is this true with reference to certain powers that now reside in the hands of the district superintendents. With the wish for a larger measure of lay responsibilities in the conduct of school affairs the committee found itself in many respects in accord. It believes, however, that it has made provision for a more effective expression of lay opinion than could be secured by popular election of superintendents by associating with these officers a board representative of the people. This board will have the superintendent as its professional officer, and will have the power to pass on policies relating to the conduct of the schools. A further factor led the committee to recommend that the dis- trict superintendent of schools be chosen by a board of education instead of by popular vote. The office of district superintendent should be put on the highest possible professional plane. Men and women should be chosen for this position because of the service '' they are able to render to the schools and to school patrons. It is 17 257 too important an office, and the opportunity for influence of those who hold these positions is too great to be trusted to any except those who are professionally equipped. Experience has shown that in general more capable men and women will be obtained for professional service when choice is made as a result of the delibera- tions of a representative board than by popular vote. Especially is this true when the board has certain administrative responsi- bilities connected with the work of the professional offices, such as the committee has recommended in the case of the board of educa- tion of the intermediate unit. Qualifications of Electors An expression of opinion was asked regarding the question of qualifications for voting at school elections. In 4704 replies to this question, 69 percent favored leaving them as they are, and 31 percent wished to see them made the same as for the general elec- tion. As will be seen by the recommendations of the committee, it did not accept the views of the majority as expressed in the book- lets. Several factors led to this different recommendation. In the replies that were sent in there was practically no expression of reasons for retention of the present system or for a change. At several meetings at which the question arose, after careful con- sideration of the pros and cons, the meetings went on record in favor of the change of qualifications to those which obtain at the general elections. The committee for this reason, and after careful consideration of both aspects of the question, felt that for rural communities of the state it would be desirable to recommend the change that has been made a part of this report. Means of Improving Schools The opportunity that was given to offer suggestions for the im- provement of the schools did not bring nearly as general a response as most of the other questions. There were many good sugges- tions offered, but the variety was so great that space will not permit reporting them in detail. Some of the more common suggestions advanced were: More "practical" courses of study, better trained 258 teachers, and more emphasis on the fundamental subjects. There was, however, a fair proportion who desired to see more attention given to such subjects as music and drawing. The suggestions that are offered in the recommendations regarding courses of study and examinations, the committee believes, will result in greater flexibility in the courses of instruction than generally obtains at present, and make possible the attainment of most of the sugges- tions offered by patrons. Consolidation There was very general interest in the questions relating to con- solidation, as is shown by the fact that 91 percent of the persons answering expressed themselves on this phase. This is the largest percentage of answers that was obtained on any question. Of those reporting, 69 percent were opposed to consolidation and 31 percent favored it for their communities. In some instances the approvals were qualified by certain reservations. It was felt that some of the views expressed on this question were of sufficient interest to justify their inclusion in this report. Argument Against Consolidation. — "The distance from the school center would be too great for children to walk or to wait in the cold for transportation. I do not favor the consolidation of our school anyway." "Consolidation of schools, I believe, would result in many farmers leaving their farms and going to the city. Many parents object to sending their children far away from home to attend school. Why not make our rural schools better schools, but leave them as our district centers? There are, I believe, a few cases where consolidation would be a benefit. For example, schools where there are only one, two, or even three children. In most cases these children can be sent to a nearby district with less expense and better results, as very good teachers will not consent to teach such schools where there are only two or three pupils. I do not think the good rural school having good support and co- operation of the tax-payers should be consolidated." "Distance is too far for the majority of students to attend. No advantage except better equipment to work with. Feel we 259 might better take that extra tax money we would have to pay and improve our own rural school. Find, on conversation with parents, that there is hardly more than one out of ten favoring consolidation. The only advantage gained is that more teachers have charge of the grades and therefore children perhaps receive more attention during school hours." "We don't want consolidation for schools. We can see no ad- vantage." "The one great and apparently insurmountable difficulty with consolidation is the long tramp or ride — one word, transportation — would solve the problem for three-fourths of its opponents. The only advantage is the more thorough instruction possible — except the commercial advantage to the district favored with a fine new school at slight expense. If transportation under mature, trust- worthy drivers could be secured at reasonable cost, consolidation might appeal to more. Those who favor consolidation now are those who have no children to send." "Because it requires the children to be carried so far in cold weather we don't approve of consolidation. The advantage might be that there would be fewer schools, then better teachers could be selected, also more children would be under one uniform system. For the sake of the small children, if there are plenty of teachers, we prefer non-consolidation." "Distance is the main objection with us. If our population were not so scattered, it would have some advantages. We do not favor consolidation at present. We think the advantage in con- solidation is outweighed by the disadvantage of overcoming dis- tance, if country people are in earnest for a good home school. We think consolidation might work well if it could be optional where it seems advisable. We think a law could be elastic enough to do that." "Our children live on many roads, and they would be hard to collect. In fact, we have enough pupils for a teacher, a good place to put one, and men competent to manage a school, if we could have the right kind of teacher. We, of course, would be obliged to help build central schools. One advantage would be the oversight of a 260 professor, which we have noticed does not always mean a good school. We do not favor consolidation." Favorable to Consolidation. — "No objection except great distance in a few cases. There are many advantages to be gained by consolidation of school. The larger school always has a better system of grading, better equipment, usually can and does hire better teachers, has more effective and modern methods of teaching, and has better heating and ventilating systems than the small one- room school building. On the whole, the child is happier, healthier, and receives a better education as a result of consolidation." "I am heart and soul in favor of consolidation. It invariably means a little more school tax to the property-holder whose dis- trict has been consolidated with a larger one, but the advantages to the child are so great that he ought to be glad to pay it." "Not any objection. Some schools are so very small that both teacher and pupils lose interest in the work. It would save money to consolidate, as all tax-payers would have the privilege of helping to educate the children and the taxes are equalized to an extent." Favorable Replies with Reservations. — "The objection to consolidation is the fact that it has been indiscriminately forced upon localities without their consent, many times proving a serious inconvenience to both pupils and parents without results that would warrant it. Causes for this may be physical features of the surrounding country and consequent inconvenience of attendance by pupils. Advantages are, a larger school, better equipped, less number of teachers, but better trained and better paid, a wider list of subjects to choose from. On basis of these facts in some cases, we believe consolidation would be of benefit to some localities of our country, but in many others absolutely impossible. In the latter cases we object to any change in district lines. Should it be feasible to close a certain school for one or more seasons, the right to again open their school should be at the discretion of the voters of each district." "I am opposed to enforced consolidation. Let the people decide for themselves this important question. If enforced consolidation were resorted to, it will have a tendency to make less salable all places remote from the school center, and in time those outlying 261 farms will be abandoned farms. I favor the people's voluntary consolidation, as we could have larger, better graded schools." "No objection to community consolidation. It is hoped better teachers would be secured. Community but not township con- solidation." "No objections if new districts are properly laid out and proper means of transportation are provided. Do not always follow town lines in making the consolidations." "Except in a few cases, I do not favor consolidation. However, to relieve the one-teacher school of a multiplicity of classes, I would have all above the sixth grade sent to a school of more than one teacher, and when the distance is too far to walk, have them con- veyed at public expense." Qualifications of Teachers In general, the replies regarding teachers favored mature and well-trained teachers who make their home in the district in which they teach. In the meetings there was a pronounced sentiment for a more adequately prepared teaching staff for the rural schools. The importance of this cannot be overemphasized, and in its rec- ommendations the committee has offered some suggestions that it believes will in time provide the country schools with a well- prepared teaching force. The work and responsibilities of a teacher in a one-teacher school are heavy. It is a more difficult position than that of teacher in the graded school system. In these schools should be found a fair proportion of the most capable teachers of the state. The difficulty that teachers experience in many districts in securing proper living conditions is proving a serious obstacle to country districts in their efforts to secure strong teachers. There is undoubtedly need in many districts for giving serious considera- tion to providing proper living conditions for the teachers. School Support The replies to questions regarding school support and the in- equalities of taxation under the present system were not so common as for most of the questions. In general, there was agreement to 262 the idea that the present system is unfair, but the number of con- structive suggestions was not large. The general opinion was favorable to a change, but the persons answering felt that they were not in position to make helpful suggestions. A few answers that are fairly representative of the views of those who favored a change are given : "We can see this is unfair, but are not prepared to make sugges- tions on short notice. The tax from public utilities should be equalized, but, of course, it would mean more machinery. We do think weak districts should receive more public support and be allowed the option of consolidation under proper regulation." "Taxes received from railroads and other public utilities should be turned over to the country and distributed proportionately among the various districts in that county." "I believe the law that was repealed a few years ago was better than the present law. That law was not in effect long enough to give it a fair trial. It provided for the taxing of a whole township for the maintenance of the schools in the township, and in that way all taxes on railroads, etc., benefited every school district in the township." "In district No. 2, town of Callicoon, the tax-rate this year is nearly 4 cents, while an adjoining district, that sends all its pupils to the former school, escapes paying a school-tax. This is not fair. Provisions should be made by the department whereby the smaller districts help to defray the school expenses. Perhaps this could be done by consolidation or by forming school units." "This body favors a larger unit of taxation, preferably the town. It also believes that the unit for disbursing the money should be the same as that of taxation." It would not be fair to leave the reader with the impression that all replies were in accord with those quoted. A small minority held different views, and a few of these follow : "Leave taxation as it is." "The ones that are lucky are not to blame for some one else's misfortune." "Think it should remain as it is now, for we have losses near the railroads which we have to stand many times with stock." 263 The sentiment expressed at the meetings that have been held in- dicates that patrons generally feel that the inequalities in taxation that exist at present should be remedied, if possible. School support was one of the most difficult questions the committee had to face. There is no phase of this report to which more serious consideration has been given. The recommendations are made with a feeling that they will, if adopted, put the whole question of support of rural schools upon a very much more equitable basis than now obtains. Letters from School Patrons Since the committee began its work, and especially since portions of its tentative recommendations have been made public, a number of very suggestive letters have been sent to it. Some of these are offered as further evidence of the attitude of farm people regarding the rural school conditions in the state. Permission has been ob- tained to publish these letters, but the names of the writers are withheld. The originals are in possession of the committee, and the writers are known to be farmers and farmers' wives. "A writer in The American Agriculturist announces that you, as chairman of the Committee of Twenty-one, have outlined a ten- tative plan for rural school improvement which includes the re- tention of the district school and the district school trustee, or local self-government. "This is education week. I wish to direct your thoughtful atten- tion to the fact that the unjust contract system now practised in most of the townships in eastern New York is the result of the district system, or local self-government. Rural parents are not so blind to their children's interests that they approve a plan which closes their own school and compels their children's attendance at a school two or three miles away without transportation, where the equipment is as meager and the conditions as unsatisfactory as at home. The contract system doubles the heavy handicap of the district system on farm children, and exempts hundreds of school districts in eastern New York and elsewhere from school taxation. "Rural parents disapprove of a bastard consolidation, or con- solidation without transportation, which is another result of local self-government. What arguments have the hypocrites offered 264 your committee in support of this plan, since they oppose a genuine and practical consolidation because rural children must ride three or four miles daily where they now walk? "Rural parents are not so indifferent to the future of their chil- dren that they condone a system due to the indirect influence of local self-government which licenses rural teachers having the minimum qualifications. "This is education week. We have been invited to give special attention on this occasion to the needs of the public schools. I believe that school improvement is impossible so long as the district system and the district trustee are retained. In the hill districts of eastern New York not more than one trustee in a half-dozen could pass a seventh-grade examination in his own school. Some would lose their citizenship if the literacy test were applicable. "The district trustee is alone responsible for the outrageous sanitary conditions that surround the rural school. In one case that came under my observation, where a district school had ob- tained drinking-water from a farm-house well two or three hundred yards away, and required a more convenient supply, the trustee moved the outhouse and dug a well within three or four yards of the site. "This is education week, Mr. Chairman. Children are in- fluenced by their environment. No teacher, however efficient, can instil in her pupils a love for American institutions in a dilapi- dated, one-room building, lighted by little, old-fashioned, checker- board window-panes and heated by a broken second-hand stove. "The playground is a powerful factor in the physical, mental, moral, and civic development of our youth, but civic pride is not promoted on a playground 20 by 40 feet, bordered with weeds, ash-piles, two or three stunted shade trees, and an outhouse decor- ated with obscene pencil sketches and inscriptions and ancient mural carvings of a similar nature. "Over these playgrounds, so called, over these disadvantages and the hateful injustice of it all, flies the flag, faded, tattered, neglected, often; and these farm boys, perhaps, must some time defend it, and if need be die for it. These conditions are not an inspiration to patriotism. 265 "I have mentioned only a few of the disadvantages of the dis- trict school system. There are many more of them, and each separate one would afford ample material for a longer exhortation. I have pointed out the general inefficiency of the system and its effect on rural citizenship. There remains the remedy. "We recently witnessed the passing of a new school law and its immediate repeal. The repeal experience cannot be repeated because thinking men and women are now solidly behind the move- ment for a permanent revision of the school law that will eliminate local control. "Yours, Mr. Chairman, for a new centralization law and the compulsory consolidation of schools." "It behooves me to write to you in regard to a matter much dis- cussed by the minority in this school district. By minority I mean the people who are educated enough to want a good teacher for the children who attend school here. For the past two years, at least, we have had an illiterate for trustee, and he appointed a man to teach who has had no high school education nor training, and who should be examined to see whether he is even fit to teach young children of the fourth and fifth grades. Said teacher is never at the school-building at 9 o'clock, from 9.15 to 9.30 being the usual time. I am wondering if he keeps his record of tardiness in his record book. He occasionally dismisses school at noon earlier than 12 o'clock — one day recently it was 11.45, and he told the children that he would give them a long time to skate on the pond nearby, also that he would put up the flag when he wanted them to return to the school-building. Some of the neighbors noticed that it was 1.30 p. m. before the teacher put up the flag and the children assembled. During that long noon intermission the teacher had taken a nap on the school benches, and this is one of his bad habits — others I will not speak of here. "The trustees gave him two days off at the beginning of the hunt- ing season, and I suppose the district has paid him the same as if he was on duty. At any rate, he does not have to make up the time at school. "There is no use telling the superintendent about any grievance, as complaints have been sent to her before, and no notice has been 266 paid to them. As far as the trustee is concerned, he does not bother himself about school matters. He could not make out the tax list, but left that matter to the teacher, who made errors, one farmer being overcharged, etc. "Last September an agent came through this section with some reference books, encyclopedia, etc., and he told the trustee that he must take the encyclopedia for the school, and that the superin- tendent wished it. The $40 were paid, and it was the district's money. With the exception of some of the neighbors borrowing a volume or so at a time, and the young children looking at the pictures, the books are not used. They are very useful to pupils in the higher grades and high schools, but for these small children it was quite unnecessary to expend the money. The school needs a new stove, new desks and seats, and many new grade text-books and supplementaries. Some of the children have not the required books for study, but nothing is said or done about them. "One boy of ten years stays at home the greater part of the time, but nothing is done in the matter, and ' the easiest way is the best way,' covers everything in this district. " I could continue at length, but I know you will understand that we do want your support and need it very much. I am wondering why a trustee has everything to say, and does not consult the people in his district as to what is best for the school. " Why cannot a ' Committee of Three ' be appointed to look after our rural schools and their needs, instead of a trustee who, to my thinking, does not know what his duty is to the parents as well as the scholars? It seems to me a ' Committee of Three ' from the town would be of vastly more benefit to the rural communities than a worthless trustee, of which there are so many. Or two men for a committee on rural schools would be so much better than one so- called trustee. "Please give us good teachers, a good committee, and require that the pupils have what is required in their school-rooms that are essential to their needs, and let me say their health, most of all, i. e., a clean school-room, clean school-children, and everything pertaining to a hygienic atmosphere. We pray for all these things, which are very urgent, be assured. Our district isjpoor for the most 267 part, and something has to be done and right quickly to bring the children up to the standard and in line of work in their school, so much time having been wasted. For any advice we will be more than thankful, and we hope to receive help from you, this being the earnest wish of all." "Yours for the cause of education. Part of your plan I do not like; I say, get away from that old district system and do it quickly. I know I have not many with me, but that does not change my opinion of what should be done. Why are the trustees going to be any better collectively than individually? The law compels me to send my children to school, when, if I correctly understand the report, there is about one chance in two hundred and fifty that the school-room will be properly heated, lighted, and ventilated. Is this right? For me, I say make all the changes and make them quickly. You cannot get things much worse than they are now. As for teachers, you may have to train them, but money will get stoves, glass, etc., at any time, and what is more valuable than health or the eye-sight of our children?" 268 APPENDIX ILLITERATES IN NEW YORK STATE (1920 CENSUS). DISTRIBUTION BY COUNTIES UNDER CITY, VILLAGE, AND DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENTS OF SCHOOLS THE Federal census of 1920 shows that thousands of persons sixteen years of age and over who cannot speak or read the English lan- guage live in the smaller communities and in the rural sections of New York state. In nearly all these communities these illiterate and non-English-speaking people are not provided the opportunity to learn English, owing to lack of local interest in their welfare and to unwilling- ness to appropriate money for their instruction. A district superinten- dent, having 50 or 60 different school districts under his supervision, finds it impossible to promote the work among so many school boards. The result is almost complete failure to make even the most elementary provision for these illiterate and non-English-speaking adults, notwith- standing the fact that most of these people are permanent residents of such communities and that in many places they own a fair proportion of the taxable property. Through this utter neglect these foreign-born people are less intelligently productive than would be the case if they had the opportunity to acquire quickly the ability to use the English language; they are less able to cooperate in community activities and in enforcement of law and order; they are less sympathetic with American principles and ideals and more likely to continue their allegiance to foreign governments or to become the easy prey to radical disturbers. This problem of adult immigrant education, which was revealed during the recent world war as closely related to national unity and security, is not being adequately dealt with in the supervisory districts, owing to the same lack of local vision which is found wherever the small school district exists. The size and wide-spread character of the problem in adult immigrant 269 Table 44. -FOREIGN-BORN WHITES IN NEW YORK STATE (By Counties, Census 1920) Foreign-born Name of County Total Population Number Percent New York 2,284.103 922,080 40.4 Bronx 732,016 266,971 36.5 Kings 1 2,018,356 659,287 32.7 Richmond 116,531 31,533 27.1 Queens 469,042 111,676 23.8 Albany 186,106 29,322 15.8 Allegany 36,842 1,465 4.0 Broome 113,610 14,601 12.9 Cattaraugus 71,323 7,196 10.1 Cayuga 65,221 9,488 14.5 Chautauqua 115,348 23,038 20.0 Chemung 65,872 5,915 9.0 Chenango 34,969 1,734 5.0 Clinton 43,898 4,010 9.1 Columbia 38,930 4,307 11.1 Cortland 29,625 2,015 6.8 Delaware 42,774 2,084 4.9 Dutchess 91,747 12,465 13.6 Erie 634,688 147,309 23.2 Essex 31,871 2,571 8.1 Franklin 43,541 4,532 10.4 Fulton 44,927 6,364 14.2 Genesee 37,976 5,313 14.0 Greene 25,796 2,033 7.9 Hamilton 3,970 341 8.6 Herkimer 64,962 11.102 17.1 Jefferson 82,250 11,373 13.8 Lewis 23,704 1,980 8.4 Livingston 36,830 4,259 11.6 Madison 39,535 3,246 8.2 Monroe 352,034 79,491 22.6 Montgomery 57,928 12,357 21.3 Nassau 126,120 25,998 20.6 Niagara 118,705 29,298 24.7 Oneida 182,833 37,185 20.3 Onondaga 241,465 41,517 17.2 Ontario 52,652 6,193 11.8 Orange 119,844 16,422 13.7 Orleans 28,619 4,444 15.5 Oswego 71,045 7,528 10.6 Otsego 46,200 2,366 5.1 Putnam 10,802 1,437 13.3 Rensselaer 113,129 16,002 14.1 Rockland 45,548 6,961 15.3 St. Lawrence 88,121 10,848 12.3 Saratoga 60,029 7,386 12.3 Schenectady 109,363 23,679 21.7 Schoharie 21,303 620 2.9 Schuyler 13,098 662 5.1 Seneca 24,735 2,932 11.9 Steuben 80,627 4,776 5.9 Suffolk 110,246 23,888 21.7 Sullivan 33,163 5,495 16.6 Tioga 24,212 1.212 5.0 Tompkins 35,285 2,660 7.5 Ulster 74,979 8,043 10.7 Warren 31,673 2,431 7.7 Washington 44,888 4,213 9.4 Wayne 48,827 6,634 13.6 Westchester 344,436 80,005 23.2 Wyoming 30,314 2,669 8.8 Yates 16,641 1,150 6.9 Totals 10,385,227 2,786,112 26.8 1 These five counties comprise the city of Greater New York. 270 Table 45. — Illiterate Adults in New York State (By Counties, Census 1920) Illiterate, Twenty-one Years of Age and Over Number in Union Free and Number in Cities Common School Districts Name of County Number in County and Villages, 2500 Population and Over, Under Under District Superintendent 2500 Under Superintendent Population 2500 Total of Schools and Over Population New York 137,537 137,537 Bronx 1 25,822 25.822 Kings 96,022 96,022 Richmond 3,605 3.605 Queens 12,092 12,092 Albany 5,028 4,397 631 631 Allegany 193 17 176 176 Broome 2,379 2,027 352 352 Cattaraugus 1,341 782 129 430 559 Cayuga 1.666 1,369 297 Chautauqua 3.679 2,851 223 605 828 Chemung 1,117 808 162 147 309 Chenango 372 178 194 194 Clinton 2,822 623 65 2,134 2,199 Columbia 1,275 741 19 515 534 Cortland 477 304 173 173 Delaware 481 93 388 481 Dutchess 2,613 1,590 129 894 1,023 Erie 21,147 18.928 67 2,152 2,219 Essex 1,119 1,119 1,119 Franklin 2,717 404 131 2,182 2,313 Fulton 978 653 325 325 Genesee 1,275 930 345 345 Greene 565 144 421 421 Hamilton 98 98 98 Herkimer 2,093 1.510 61 522 583 Jefferson 1.444 742 135 567 702 Lewis 537 33 504 537 Livingston 1,392 "79 659 654 1.313 Madison 749 240 275 234 509 Monroe 11,402 10,750 22 630 652 Montgomery 2,594 1,979 112 503 615 Nassau 4,330 1,013 98 3,219 3,317 Niagara 4,627 4,209 88 330 418 Oneida 8,093 6.568 26 1,499 1,525 Onondaga 6,911 5,730 124 1,057 1,181 Ontario 1.086 652 434 434 Orange 3,675 1,915 87 1,673 1,760 Orleans 732 418 314 314 Oswego 1,458 1,061 397 397 Otsego 381 145 27 209 236 Putnam 298 298 298 Rensselaer 2,355 1,899 456 456 Rockland 1,300 587 100 613 713 St. Lawrence 2,819 1,133 142 1,544 1.686 Saratoga 1,809 769 164 876 1.040 Schenectady 3,858 3,552 306 306 Schoharie 310 310 310 Schuyler 81 "7 74 81 Seneca 666 136 63 467 530 Steuben 1,046 566 80 400 480 Suffolk 3,173 98 383 2,692 3,075 Sullivan 658 658 658 Tioga 210 "57 153 153 Tompkins 343 198 145 145 Ulster 2,284 467 148 1,669 1,817 Warren 642 360 282 282 Washington 1,020 371 220 429 649 Wayne 1,659 547 434 678 1.112 Westchester 12.532 9,966 795 1,771 2,566 Wyoming 267 41 12 214 226 Yates 105 43 62 62 Totals 415,359 369,625 5,313 40.421 45.734 1 These five counties comprise the city of Greater New York. 271 education in each of the 62 counties of New York state are indicated by Table 44, compiled from the Federal census of 1920. Table 44 shows that, in 1920, there were 2,786,112 foreign-born white persons in New York state, this number being 26.8 percent of the total population. In 15 of the 64 counties the foreign-born whites constituted 20 percent or more of the population, the proportion ranging from 20 percent in Chautauqua County to 40.4 percent in New York County (Manhattan). Table 45 shows that in 1920 there were 415,359 illiterate persons twenty-one years of age and over in New York state, and that of this number 45,734, or 11 percent, were in common and union free school districts under district superintendents. While some of these were in the larger communities in the supervisory districts, 40,421 were in com- munities whose population was 2500 or less. "Illiterates," as used in the census reports, means persons who could not write, this including practically all those who could not read. People who were literate in their native language but who could not speak English were not included in these numbers. If we were to include the literate persons who could not speak English, it is probable that it would be no exaggeration to estimate the illiterate and non-English-speaking adults in the common and union free school districts of the state as amounting to 70,000 or 80,000. Many of these illiterate and non-English-speaking adults in the super- visory districts are known to be eager for the opportunity to learn English, but the small sums of money necessary to conduct the classes are difficult to secure. It is reasonable to believe that, with a large taxing unit, classes in elementary English and citizenship would be provided, thus furnishing equal opportunity for children and parents of foreign birth to Americanize themselves through learning English and studying American government in the public school. 272 SURVEY OF NEW YORK STATE RURAL SCHOOLS 1 he survey was organized with the following sections and directors: Administration and Supervision. C. H. Judd. School Support. Harlan Updegraff. Teachers and Courses of Study. W. C. Bagley. School Buildings. J. E. Butterworth. Measuring the Work of the Schools. M. E. Haggerty. Community Relations. Mabel Carney. The results of the studies conducted by these directors and their associates have been embodied in a series of reports. The approximate dates at which these will be available for distribution are: Volume I. Rural School Survey of New York State. (Preliminary Report) May, 1922. Volume II. Administration and Supervision, October, 1922. The District System. Shelby. The Supervisory District. Brooks. The Community Unit. Works. Principles of Administration. Bobbitt. The State System of Examinations. Kruse. Health Education. Peterson. The State Schools of Agriculture. Holton. Junior Extension. Holton. Summary and Recommendations. Judd. Volume III. School Support. Updegraff. August, 1922. Volume IV. Teachers and Teacher Preparation. Bagley. September, 1922. Elementary School Curriculum. Brim. Community Relations. Carney. Volume V. School Buildings. Butterworth. June, 1922. Volume VI. The Educational Product. Haggerty. July, 1922. Volume VII. The Rural High Schools. Ferriss. August, 1922. (The administrative features of the high school were studied in cooperation with Dr. Judd, while teachers and curricula were developed under the general direction of Dr. Bagley.) Volume VIII. Vocational Education. Eaton. July, 1922. (Prepared under the direction of Dr. Bagley.) These volumes may be obtained at seventy-five cents each, post- paid, except Volume II, on Administration and Supervision, which will be one dollar. Only a limited edition will be printed and those wishing to make certain of securing copies may place their orders at any time. Joint Committee on Rural Schools, Ithaca, N. Y. Hi an WBHBI Hi ■ .- * ■■