Class ^-SiOTj Book ■ Clr-s- Copyright N". COPYRIGHT DEPOSIK TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL A BOOK FOR YOUNG TEACHERS BY JOHN WIRT DINSMORE, A. M. PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY AND DEAN OF THE NORMAL DEPARTMENT, BEREA COLLEGE, BEREA, KENTUCKY WITH A SUPPLEMENT ON PLAYTIME IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND STUDY QUESTIONS NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY ,^- Copyright, 1908 and 1910, by JOHN WIRT DINSMORE Entered at Stationers' Hall, London V!. P, 7 ©CI.A25B^^7 AN INTRODUCTORY WORD TO YOUNG TEACHERS By William Goo dell Frost, Ph. D. President, Berea College To many who study American history it appears that its most heroic figure is that of the Country School-Teacher. Certainly he stands close beside the pioneer preacher. America is superior to other lands in that the common people here have more virtue and intelligence. And this virtue and intelligence is spread among the masses by the minister of the gospel and by the teacher of the public school. Ambition, the resolution of youth to be worthy and use- ful, has three birthplaces — the home, the church and the school. Of these the school is by no means the least im- portant. It comes in where the home has partly failed and where the church has hardly reached. The country schoolmaster is heroic because of the diffi- cult tasks which he undertakes. Thousands who succeed fairly well in city schools, with ideal conditions of building, furniture and books, and the backing of superintendent, truant officer and a great " system," would fail completely in a board schoolhouse in which one is called upon to teach every gfade and to contend single-handed with all the stu- pidity and friskiness of a country district. It cheers my heart to know that this little book is to go forth as a helper to the country school-teachers of our 3 4 AN INTRODUCTORY WORD TO TEACHERS land. Each one will feel his solitude and his need of a friend. In this book Professor Dinsmore comes to your side as the friend you need. You will not read many pages without seeing that he " has been there himself." He has been in a thousand schoolhouses like yours. He knows hundreds of trustees, parents, pupils exactly like those in your district. Of course Professor Dinsmore has been to other places than the country school. He has been to the great uni- versities and the great libraries, and is expert in all the fine- spun theories of education. But I have particularly urged him in this book to keep all these things in the background, and to stick to plain language and practical topics. He has succeeded in a remarkable degree. You will not be troubled by big words and abstract ideas. He does not insist upon giving you a stagecoach when you need a baby-carriage or a wheelbarrow ! Yet it is good to have a friend who understands the stagecoaches and the palace cars of education. This book, while simple, is thoroughly sound. Many a sentence which seems so self-evident as hardly to need stat- ing at all represents long research and patient investiga- tion. He gives you the results both of his studies and his experience, without dragging you through too long a process yourself. He gives you what you need for your school this term and starts you on the road of steady progress. I should not undertake to write a single additional chap- ter or paragraph for the book. It is for me simply to in- troduce it and to advise you, my young friends, to read it and to re-read it many times. Let me add one parting word. Many of you do not ex- pect to follow teaching all your lives (it would be better AN INTRODUCTORY WORD TO TEACHERS 5 if more of our schools were taught by those who expect to make teaching their Hfe work), but while you do teach, try to act and feel as though you were certain to be a teacher all your life. Do not debase yourself by doing any half-hearted work. Have the courage and audacity to un- dertake to improve on even the best teachers you have known. James A. Garfield was once a country school- teacher. The coming president gave his great powers to the work of leading the children toward manhood and womanhood. God and your country call upon you to be as good a teacher as Garheld. EXPLANATORY NOTE In respect to professional information and guidance there is no more needy person than the country school-teacher. He is usually so remote from the greater sources of infor- mation and inspiration that it is not to be wondered at if he is slow in acquiring proficiency. All things considered, the wonder is that he has attained to his present standard of excellency. The writer, himself one of the class in the beginning of his career, has visited hundreds of country schools and is well aware of their deficiencies. Nevertheless, he is glad to testify to the earnestness of country teachers as a whole, and to their eagerness to serve faithfully their patrons in the schoolroom and out of it. They have been, and still are, the greatest single power for good in the nation, and the country owes them a debt of gratitude it can never repay. The teacher of the district school is compelled to rely almost entirely upon his own judgment. Usually there is no one in the neighborhood to whom he can turn for pro- fessional advice or counsel. The visits of the County Superintendent are too far apart and too brief to be of much help. The County Institute and Teachers' Association are valuable, but fall far short of his needs. His salary will scarcely permit him to attend the State or National Asso- ciations ; he may possess a few educational books and jour- nals, but they do not seem to apply to his work. As a 7 8 EXPLANATORY NOTE rule these books and journals are prepared by city super- intendents or college professors and apply, or appear to apply, to city schools. Moreover, it is difficult for any one to study the prob- lems of teaching by himself. Those who teach in the city have the advantage of the weekly teachers' meetings and the leadership of the principal or superintendent. The country teacher has no such advantage. Is it to be won- dered at, then, if his spirit languish ? This little book is designed to meet the many and pecul- iar needs of the country teacher. The author expresses the hope that it will be valuable to all, but particularly to begin- ners. He has kept in mind the sore straits in which he was often placed in the outset of his own career, how he groped for even the common principles of instruction and government, and how slowly those principles dawned upon him. His early experience and later work have made him familiar with every phase of district teaching. In preparing this book he has never in a single sentence lost sight of the one great object he had in mind, namely, to help the district teacher in solving his problems and dis- charging his duties. It seems to him in recalling his early career that such a work as this would have been of inesti- mable value. It would have helped him to avoid many youthful errors. That it may serve such a purpose to all who read it is his earnest hope. J. W. DINSMORE. Berea College, Berea, Kentucky. CONTENTS HAPTER PAGE I. Getting Ready to Teach 1 1 I. Self -Examination — 2. Steps in Preparation — 3. Se- curing a School — 4. Before School Opens — 5. The First Day of School. 11. Things to be kept in Mind 27 I. The School for the Children — 2. The Rights and Duties of Parents — 3. Recognition of Higher Author- ity — 4. The Classification of the School — 5. Rules and Regulations — 6. Opening Exercises — 7. The Daily Program. III. Practical Teaching 46 I. Assigning Lessons — 2. Occupation for Youngest Pupils — 3. Use of Lesson-Period — 4. Explaining and Impressing — 5. Questioning — 6. Reviewing — 7. Increasing Attention and Interest — 8. Good Manners and Good Morals — 9. Good Order — 10. Recesses and Intermissions. IV. The School in Progress 77 I. Those Who Do Not Come — 2. Tardiness — 3. Irreg- ularity of Attendance — 4. The Schoolhouse and Its Surroundings — 5. Good- Will Among Pupils — 6. The Care of the Children's Health — Gymnastics — 7. Rhetorical Exercises. V. Keeping up the Interest . . 108 I. Helpful Props and Spurs — 2. Keeping a Brave Front — 3. Encouraging Those Who Need It — 4. Improving Your Teaching — 5. Reserve Forces — 6. School Visitors. 9 lO CONTENTS VI. Love as a Factor in Teaching 127 I. It Must Be Without Partiality— 2. The Relation of Love to Punishment — 3. Love's Various Manifesta- tions. VII. Making the Work Practical 147 I. Reading — 2. Grammar — 3. Geography — 4, History. VIII. Making THE Work Practical — Contiimed . 172 5. Arithmetic — 6. Physiology — 7. Spelling and Writing. IX. Talks on the Industries 190 I. Farming — 2. Trades — 3. The Professions — 4. Other Employments — 5. Occupations for Women. X. The Government of the School . . . .210 I. The Teacher Himself — 2. Order in School — 3. Rules and Regulations — 4. Punishment — 5. School Man- agement — 6. Training. X'^. Harvesting the Results 230 I. The School Exhibition — 2. The School Exposition — 3. Other Tests of the School's Success — 4. A Final Word to the Teacher. TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL CHAPTER I GETTING READY TO TEACH I. Self-Examination Questions One Should Ask Himself.— It is a serious thing to choose the profession of teaching. The young man or woman who does so should consider very care- fully his or her fitness. The most rigid examination that one should he called upon to pass is self-examination. The questions one should ask himself might be some- what like the following: (i) Is my character such as to justify me in choos- ing the profession of teaching? Are my habits of life fit to be an example for those who would be my pupils ? Do I intend to keep myself free from all vices that contaminate? Do I love righteousness and prefer to associate with righteous people ? (2) What is my motive in desiring to teach? Is it money, or personal preferment, or any other selfish end ? Have I a strong desire to do good and a reason- able belief that I shall be able to excel in the profession ? II 12 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL Am I willing to sacrifice something in the way of money for a work which is infinitely more important ? (3) Am I apt to teach? Have I the quahties of an instructor ? Does it come natural to me to demonstrate, to explain difiiculties, to disseminate knowledge? Do I delight in directing the minds and energies of chil- dren? Am I a born teacher? Shall I be happier in the schoolroom giving instruction than in any other work I could choose? Remembering the saying that every one should be able to find his happiness in his work, shall I be able to do this in teaching ? (4) Do I love children, not theoretically, but actually and practically? Not nice ones only, but children of all sorts ? Do I love them with a desire to make them better, with a love that sees something interesting in every child, good even in the worst and the need of culture and development in the best? Do I see in the child the materials for my life work? Is the pres- ence of children distasteful in anyway? Should I feel relieved when school closes and dread the time of its re-opening as some teachers certainly do? (5) Do I understand that teaching is not a "soft snap," but means toil and self-sacrifice ? Am I willing to devote my life to helping my pupils, to live for them ? Am I willing to unite with other teachers in doing everything possible to raise the standards of the pro- fession and to make the schools better? If any young aspirant can answer to his ovm satis- faction such self-imposed questions as the above, he GETTING READY TO TEACH 1 3 may be justified in choosing the profession of teachings- otherwise, he would better select some other vocation. 2. Steps in Preparation Having decided to teach, the next step is the all important one of preparation. The fatal mistake made by most people is entering the profession before they have sufficient training. If one is to be a lawyer or physician, he must have a fair general education and then several years of special preparation. Yet the training of young minds and the building of character is much more difficult and of far greater importance than the prescribing for our physical ailments, or the adjusting of our business matters; and besides, it is economy on the teacher's part to prepare himself thoroughly for his life work. The steps in preparation may be as follows : General Education. — ^Any one who is to teach gram- mar grade pupils should have at the least a complete course in a high school or academy. If he expects to teach in a high school or academy, he should have a college diploma; if in a college, nothing short of a post-graduate degree should be considered. Special Training. — After this general education, there should be a special training such as is given in the best normal schools. This should consist of professional studies, such as School Management, Methods of Teaching, History of Education, Practice T caching. 14 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL The Reading Habit. — ^A teacher should have a large fund of general knowledge apart from that gained from text-books. This is acquired by reading, travel and by keeping one's eyes open everywhere. He should know something of the best literature, books, papers and magazines; the great movements of the world and who are leaders in them. There is nothing of human in- terest that does not concern the teacher, and he should be ever on the alert to gather knowledge of men and things. As a rule, teachers are woefully lacking in this respect. If a teacher falls into conversation with a traveling man, he is put to shame because of his lack of general knowledge. The traveling man, perforce, reads the newspapers and magazines and is continually discussing current events ; but the country teacher often has not been out of his own county, lives far from rail- roads, seldom sees a daily paper or magazine and frequently has no reading other than some little local paper. // the reading habit has not been formed, it should be before teaching is undertaken. Value of Observation. — In addition to the above, the candidate should in every way possible acquaint himself with the processes of teaching. He should observe carefully those who teach him, should visit schools when possible, should attend teachers' conven- tions and read journals of education, and spend time in reflecting on these things. In this way he will not •only be competent, but be full of enthusiasm and eager for his chosen work. Many will be called to teach be- GETTING READY TO TEACH 15 fore they have all this preparation, but they should never be satisfied until they obtain it. Legal Requirements. — The state requires every teacher of a district school to hold either a county or state certificate. That these may be secured, pe- riodical examinations are held by county superintend- ents. As they are often dreaded by the inexperienced, a few suggestions as to how to take the examination will be welcomed. A great deal is said against exam- inations, that they are an unmitigated evil, do not fairly test the knowledge of the applicant, and are made up of catch problems and puzzles; but after all we could not wisely dispense with them. Examinations are the main bar to inefficiency. They cause aspirants to make a thorough study of the branches they will be required to teach. They necessi- tate considerable preparation, so that no incompetent person can suddenly determine to teach and at once set about it. They tend to keep lazy people out of the profession, and have still other uses. It is not wise for teachers to disparage examinations: they should rather encourage them. In the first place, teachers who are preparing students for this ordeal should give plenty of test examinations. Many applicants fail at the first public effort because it is their first experience. Part of the preparation should consist in taking several complete test examinations with all the care that will characterize the public one that is approaching. Let the teacher grade the papers, 1 6 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL pointing out mistakes and omissions. This will give confidence that can be gained in no other way. Preparation should be made in good time. One school year is probably not too much if it be wisely used. An examination ahead is a powerful stimulus and this year is likely to be as valuable in self-disci- pline as any ever experienced by the student. Having taken plenty of time for preparation, as the ordeal approaches, rest. Take two or three days imme- diately preceding the examination for recuperation and be at your best. Do not worry. You are now as well prepared as you can be and you can afford to look the situation squarely in the face. Be hopeful; the probability is that the questions will surprise you by being '^easy." Await them calmly and confidently. When the examination is on, make an honest effort. Stand or fall upon your own merits. Devote yourself entirely and exclusively to the business in hand. Give the best answer you can to each question. That your papers should be neat and plainly written goes with- out saying. If your appearance is good and your papers neat and orderly, it will count in your favor in case of doubt. A good certificate is a valuable thing to have. When you have secured it and find that the grades are good, the average high, and you have the satisfaction of knowing that it was honestly earned, it is a thing to be proud of and you will not regret the hard work it cost. getting ready to teach 1 7 3. Securing a School You may now with • confidence apply for a school. Do not ask your uncle or your brother-in-law or any other relative to secure you one. Go where the chances are even. As a rule, it is better not to begin with the home school. You will give yourself a fairer chance in a neighborhood where you were not brought up. Personal Application. — Where possible, it is always best to apply in person. Call upon each member of the board, state your qualifications modestly and present your testimonials. Your best recommendation should be yourself. Answer questions frankly and ask such as will elicit the information you desire and will also leave a good impression. It will tell in your favor, if you ap- pear to ^^know your business." Be perfectly natural in speech and manner, remembering that "all affectation but creates disgust." It may be remarked that every one has the right to look well. One's clothing need not be costly, but should be neat, clean and well-fitting. There are people who always look well-dressed, no matter what the quality of their clothes; it is in the grooming rather than in the quality or style. Some have the idea that the ap- proval of farmers may best be won by dressing as they do. It does not follow. One's clothes should be adapted to his work. Everybody likes to see a teacher well-dressed, that is, with good, plain, well-kept cloth- ing. Over-plainness is not commendable and slovenli- Dist. School — 2 1 8 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL ness is inexcusable. Good manners and affability are essential. Application by Letter. — If you' cannot apply in per- son, write a neat business letter asking for the position, stating your fitness, inclosing testimonials and giving references. Do not fail to inclose a stamp for reply. Your own letter will probably count for or against you more chan the testimonials of your friends. A mis- spelled word or an error in grammar will be likely to cost you the position, and it ought to. Things to Avoid. — Never overstep the bounds of professional courtesy by underbidding or disparaging other applicants. Even if you know anything against a competitor, it is not your place to give such informa- tion. It seems too bad to have to caution teachers against bribery, but according to reports from many sources, it is not uncommon. It appears in various forms, such as agreeing to board at a certain place at a certain price, or to turn over a portion of the money drawn, or in some other inducement. One teacher told the writer that he had secured a school by furnishing a quart of whisky to the ^^ right" man. Bribery in any and every form is wholly to he co7i- demned. No school-director who is worthy of his place will accept a bribe, and no man is worthy of the high calling of teacher who will offer one or submit to any dishonest proposal. This practice of bribery is a blot upon the profession. GETTING READY TO TEACH ig Contract with Trustees. — The trustees have taken a solemn oath to the proper discharge of their duties. They are usually as honest and conscientious as other men, but not very deeply impressed with their official responsibilities. When you sign the contract with them, you agree to discharge your duties to the best of your own knowledge and ability. Your responsibility lies in carrying out your end of the contract, and if you are wise enough and brave enough, you can help them to carry out theirs. The law requires the trustees to provide a good, comfortable schoolhouse properly equipped. This to them means frequently that things may go along about as they have gone in the past. In very many cases the schoolhouse is neither comfortable nor well-equipped. It is the privilege and duty of the teacher to point out defects and suggest repairs and furnishings. Before you contract J read the law, 4. Before School Opens As soon as the contract is signed, your work should begin. If the opening of school is a month or two off, so much the better. It will give the trustees time to carry out any suggestions you may make in regard to- repairs and furnishings. Inspecting the Schoolhouse. — Make the acquaintance of the people in the district, creating as favorable an impression as possible. Be enthusiastic about the ap- 20 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL preaching term and hopeful that all of school age will attend. Then visit the schoolhouse and make a thor- ough inspection. Make two lists — one of the things that the trustees should do, the other of things to be done by yourself and pupils. The building needs a new roof; there are no desks, no chairs, no blackboards, no window curtains ; the walls need painting. These things should be attended to by the district and you should hand the list neatly written to the trustee in charge. Perhaps he will object to taxing the district, but if you have made him your friend, he will want to oblige you. Point out to him the necessity of a comfortable room. It is to be the home of the children for the next six months. There is where they will spend most of their waking hours five days in the week. It is his sworn duty to see that a comfortable house is provided. It is necessary not only for comfort but for health. It will not do to have the children exposed to a leaky roof, to draughty walls and broken windows. It is economy to use paint on outside walls. Desks are a necessity for study. Window curtains save the eyes. Cooperation of the People. — ^When you have carried your point with the director, help him to make it plain to others. Win the people by your earnestness and they will be ready to respond to your appeal. Do not scold, nor ridicule nor threaten, but simply say that we are going to have one of the best schools in the county and you want everything as nearly right as possible to begin with. GETTING READY TO TEACH 21 Getting the Children to Help. — This point carried, you next consult your list of things to be done by your- self and pupils. You would better begin with the playground. That will most easily enlist their atten- tion. Make a frolic of it and invite all the children large enough to assist. Clear off all the rubbish, re- move obstructions, repair the fence (if there is one), clean out the well or .spring and make everything shipshape. When lunch time comes, provide a nice place so that all can eat in a group. Direct the con- versation into something pleasant and profitable. After all have eaten, read or tell a story, sing a song, play some pleasant game and then- go on with the work. This should be done only a few days before school opens. The girls can do their part by washing the windows, cleaning the walls and scrubbing the floor. A boy should black the stove. When all is clean, some touch of adornment may be added. Sprigs of spruce, pine, cedar, holly, hung in festoons over the blackboard and about the walls, have a pleasing effect. The advantages of some such plan as this are many. It advertises the opening of school; it enlists the inter- est of both parents and pupils; it affords an opportu- nity of acquaintance between teacher and people; it gives the children a proprietary interest in the school- house and grounds; and last, but by no means least, it furnishes the teacher an opportunity to study his pupils 22 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL and arrange a program for the first day of school, which should be a red letter day. The First Day of School The Morning Program. — Arrange your program ten days ahead if possible. Find out who the speakers of the district are and get their .consent to take the sub- jects you assign them. There are usually a few people who can address an audience creditably, an ex- teacher, a justice of the peace, a physician, and per- haps a minister. Three or four will be sufficient. The children should -have the first place. The program may run something like this: First Day of School 9:00 o'clock — Ringing of the beU. Song by the school — ^America. Bible reading by the teacher. Prayer. Calling the roll. Remarks by teacher. Declamation by pupil. Essay, " Geography," by pupil. Declamation by pupil. Essay, " My First Day at School," by pupil. Reciting memory gems, Mother Goose rhymes, etc., by school. Song by school. Address, "The District School," by justice of the peace. Address, "Value of Steady Attendance," by ex-teacher. Address, " Some Rules of Health," by physician. Closing remarks by teacher. Song by school. Dismissal. GETTING READY TO TEACH 23 Do not jail to carry out some such program as this. If it is carefully arranged beforehand, it is sure to be a success. The patrons must be seen in good time and asked to make a ten-minute speech on the subject you have selected. If one demurs, give a little tactful en- couragement. If he asks, ^^What shall I say?" you may briefly outline his address for him. Be sure to call on every one who is to take part, more than once if possible, and see that each one is really in earnest. The children should meet two or three times for instruction and rehearsal, so that no failure is likely to occur on their part. The schoolroom should be just as neat and pretty as it can be made. The visitors should be provided with seats, and they should be cordially welcomed. Every parent in the district should be mvited and an opportunity given for voluntary re- marks. The most important part of the whole is the address by the teacher. He should indorse what has been said about regularity of attendance, promptness and obedi- ence, and speak of the value of a day in school, the dis- advantages of a day lost, and the difference an educa- tion makes in earning power in after years. Much is gained by such a plan as this. A good im- pression is made upon the pupils, and the parents have committed themselves to the essential things. The first half day has been well spent. It remains to be said that in calling the roll, you should have the name of every pupil in the district. 24 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL If any are not present, inquire about them and express the hope that they may enter at once. Other First Day Duties. — If it is your first term in the district, you will have many things to learn. The school register left by your predecessor is one of your main allies and should be consulted several days be- fore school opens. From it you get the names of the pupils and their classification. Make a list of the classes and names in each. They are probably classed ac- cording to the school readers. The Afternoon Program. — After opening exercises in the afternoon, say something hke this: ^'I find by last term's register that the following pupils are in the second reader.'' Proceed with the names and thus on through the list. All new pupils who have never been in school before are in the chart class until further developments. Any that are more advanced may be called to the front, asked a few questions and placed where they seem to belong. Lessons should now be assigned. The first reader class will begin on page so and so and be ready to recite in ten minutes; the second reader class, on such a page and recite immediately after; and so on through all the readers. This puts everybody to work. You shoidd next hear the chart class. Ask them if they can read, if they have any books at home, if they would hke to be able to read. '^Here is a book. I will read a little for you. Would you like to learn to read? I will teach you." Write a word upon the board, as GETTING READY TO TEACH 25 '^hat" or "man," and tell them what it is. Have a little talk about it. Let them repeat it several times as you point to it, and tell them that they can now read one word. Give them some little slips of paper and show them how to write the word at their seats. // is now time for the first reader class. Call the class in whatever way you have decided upon. Have each one read. Make such comments as you think best and carefully assign the next lesson, telling them when it will be recited. But just now they are to study their number lesson. Put on the board such combinations as you think they can master, and show them how to carry on the work at their seats. Proceed with other classes in like manner until all have been heard. It is now time for recess. Make some pleasant remark about the session that has just passed, tell them how many minutes recess they may have and ask them to come in promptly at the ringing of the bell. Ajter recess J hear the number and arithmetic classes. This closes the work of the first day. Make a two or three minutes' talk commending the school for its good beginning and for its bright outlook, stating what the aims of the school are and what each one's purpose should be. Sing a verse or two of some familiar hymn, asking all to join, bid them a cordial good evening, and the first day is over. A Good Beginning. — The important thing in the above is that you have proved yourself master of the 26 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL situation. All pupils were quickly classified and work was begun without delay or confusion. You may be sure that those who have been in school before, will judge of your efficiency, consciously or unconsciously, from the first moments and keep on judging until the last. They have now made up their minds as to whether or not you understand your business and the kind of teacher you are going to be. '' School" will be the subject of conversation on the playground and in every home: hence the importance of a good begin- ning. A favorable start presages well, but it will not do to rest upon it. We must not lay down our arms or relax our vigilance, nor make a single boast until the battle is won: then our work will speak for itself. It becomes a general, after the first outwork has been won, to look well to his forces, to understand conditions and thus be prepared for the main conflict. So let us take a view of the situation. CHAPTER II THINGS TO BE KEPT IN MIND I. The School for the Children Its Fundamental Purpose. — It must be understood by all concerned that the school is not created for the benefit of the teacher, to insure him an easy position and a comfortable salary; nor for the trustees, to afford them an opportunity to exercise authority; nor for the County Superintendent, valuable though his advice and visits may be. The school is primarily ^ secondarily and -finally for the children. For them it was brought into existence, for them alone has been provided all the paraphernalia of educational government from the United States, represented by the Department of Edu- cation, down to the district school, represented by the Board of Trustees and the teacher. All officials from the highest to the lowest are the servants of the school. Everything belonging or pertaining to the public schools is holy, consecrated, set apart for the most di- vine purpose in the world, that of educating and train- ing the children. Their minds must be developed and trained, their morals cultivated, their health cared for, 28 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL their manners improved. The test of every educational device should be — is it for the good 0} the pupils? The Teacher's Function. — This principle does not neglect the teacher. His time, thought and strength belong to the pupils and for their sake must be con- served. It is of vital importance to the school that the teacher be strong, cheerful and efficient. If he overtax his strength or neglect to prepare his work, the school will suffer. This obligation does not im- pose any cruelty upon the teacher; neither is his sacrifice in vain. The principle laid down by the Saviour, *'He that loseth his life for my sake and the gospel's shall find it/' is eminently true of teaching. 2. The Rights and Duties of Parents The rights and duties of parents should be made a subject of careful study by the teacher. Parental Duties. — It is the duty of parents to send their children to school; to provide them with food, clothes and books; to uphold the teacher in his requirements; to pay all necessary taxes levied by the trustees. It is necessary frequently for the teacher to remind the parents of these duties. This should always be done in a spirit of kindness and of service. Parents are prone to keep children out of school for light reasons, — to run errands, or to take the place of hired help. Explain to them the loss that a day means. A class is like a line of march; it must keep step. If one loses a THINGS TO BE KEPT IN MIND 29 day, he is out of step and out of line. He has missed the lessons and explanations which his fellow students received and which are necessary to further progress. If he loses several days, he cannot go on with his class and is discouraged. If he perseveres, it is with the greatest difficulty and with extra demands upon the teacher's time that are a distinct loss to the school. In respect to books, also, parents must be reminded. They have so many apparently larger duties that they can scarcely be bothered to provide a reader or tablet or pencil. But these things are just as important to the children as the larger matters are to the parents. Books are as necessary to the child as tools to the farmer. In other words, as well send a man out to cultivate the soil without tools, as to send a child to school without books. Moreover, the child's time is as valuable as it will ever be. He is laying the foun- dation of future usefulness and every day in school adds power for many days in the years to come. It is, therefore, most important that no time be wasted for lack of books. In regard to upholding the teacher, there is often misunderstanding. It is plainly the duty of parents to stand by the teacher in everything that is right. If in their opinion his rules are wrong, they may not come to the school and upbraid him publicly, but may speak to him privately, giving their view of the case and ask- ing for consideration. The wise teacher will be grate- ful for such a course and will always consider a matter 30 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL from the parents' point of view and then act according to his own best judgment. If the adjustment is still unsatisfactory, the matter may be laid before the trus- tees. The teacher is responsible to the trustees and they in turn are responsible to the people. Parental Rights. — Having considered the duties of parents, let us now look at their rights. First , they have the right that their children be provided with comfortable quarters; that their health be not en- dangered by sitting in the cold, or in a draughty room, or in an unventilated atmosphere; that their forms be not distorted by backless benches, or by desks that are too high for the arms or otherwise unsuitable: sec- ond, that the children be treated with consideration; that more shall not be required of them than their years and experience will justify; that they be spoken to with kindness and gentleness, such as a dairyman would require for his cow; that they shall not be need- lessly exposed to contaminating influences; that they shall be taught to treat others kindly and shall receive right treatment in return : third, that they shall be well taught in books, in morals, and in behavior; that their instruction shall be suited to their understanding and fitted to their usefulness in hfe; that the example of the teacher shall be worthy for the pupils to follow: fourth, they have a right to be informed of the needs of the children in whatsoever pertains to their effective school work, if they are falling behind in any of their classes, are negligent of their duties, or if they are THINGS TO BE KEPT IN MIND 3 1 habitually tardy or loitering on the way to or from school: fijth, they have a right to cooperate with the teacher in every way possible and to be shown how they may do this to the best advantage. All these rights are inviolable and must be respected. Sometimes parents overstep them, but it is usually from lack of knowledge and because of their solicitude for the children. They should be treated considerately, though the teacher must maintain his own rights and not yield weakly to unreasonable demands. It is not wise to inform parents, no matter how great the provo- cation, that you are running this school and it is none of their business how you do it. Have your own rights and duties clearly definedj keep well within their limits, and firmly, hut with courtesy and dignity, stand your ground, 3. Recognition of Higher Authority Consultation with the Trustees. — The wisest men need counsel. The President has his Cabinet, the Governor his Staff, and the teacher is fortunate in having his Board of Trustees, whose duty it is to ren- der him assistance in time of need. He will often have occasion to use their wisdom. They know the neigh- borhood better than he does. They are more likely to have the outside view point than he. They should be consulted in respect to general regulations before they are put into operation. If they can neither add to 32 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL nor subtract from them, they can indorse them and once having indorsed them, they are bound to stand by them. They should be consulted about individ- ual cases that are difficult of adjustment. Their practical everyday wisdom will be very helpful. Their wide experience in outside matters will often enable them to suggest measures and expedients that would not occur to the teacher. And finally they should be advised of many things, not so much for any assistance they can render, as for their own enlightenment. The more they know about your plans and about the school, the more will they be interested. By revealing to them your methods and the reasons for them, you will your- self see more clearly the strong and weak points of these methods and reasons. Keeping in Touch with the County Superintendent. — There is no one individual who is so deeply inter- ested in all the schools of the county as the County Superintendent. He is keenly alert to the welfare of every school and of every teacher. You may be sure he is ever on the lookout for excellency and quick to discover its signs. He has three ways of judging teachers. First, at the County Institute: There he has a week to watch the interest and activity of each one. If a teacher is always present, is wide-awake, takes part intelligently when called upon and never flags in attention, he makes a mental note of it and determines to keep an eye on him as his school progresses. If, on the other hand, a teacher attends unwillingly, chooses THINGS TO BE KEPT IN MIND 33 a back seat, offers excuses when called upon and is listless in attention, he notes that also and determines something very different. The second way is by reports sent in. If the monthly report is carefully filled out, neatly written and shows a good record of attendance and is mailed promptly, it is much to the teacher's credit. Any negligence will be counted against him. A short letter with each monthly report telling some- thing of plans and the progress the school is making, will be appreciated. The superintendent will be glad also to advise on any difficult matter in connection with the work, to tell what books to read, or what educational journals will be most helpful. The third is by his annual visit. No matter whether the time of this visit is announced or not, the school should be prepared for it. The pupils should realize that the County Superintendent is interested in them and should be instructed to look forward to his coming with pleasant anticipations. Pains should be taken that every one may be seen at his best. Specimens of work in each branch should be laid aside for the superintendent's inspection. Every pupil should have some part in welcoming and entertaining him and should be instructed to that end. When he comes, whether by appointment or by surprise, he should be introduced to the school. All should rise and extend a pleasant greeting by saying "Good morning," or "Good evening, Mr. A." Then Dist. School — 3 34 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL the work should go on for a time just as usual, until two or three classes have been heard. After that an invitation to speak to the school may be extended. At the close, the teacher should make an appropriate remark or two and call for a school song. At recess the superintendent may be shown the work that has been laid aside or put upon the walls, and be told of any special efforts that are being made toward the improvement of the school. If he can stay overnight and give an educational address to the people of the district in the evening, it will be an excellent thing. He should be urged to do this, and if he consents, word should be sent to every family in the district, the school seeing that the house is comfortable and well-lighted. Most county super- intendents know what matters to emphasize in such a meeting and it is certain to result in much good. 4. The Classification of the School Each Pupil in the Right Place. — It is an important condition of success that every pupil should be in the place best suited to his advancement. Every one likes to do the things he can do well, while but few enjoy tasks that are beyond them. Let a pupil remain for a time in an arithmetic class that is too difficult for him, and the chances are he will come to despise the study. It is humiliating to be dull and plodding and lacking in grasp, while others are making headway and en- THINGS TO BE KEPT IN MIND 35 joying it. Time and tact should be spent in convinc- ing such a student that he is outclassed, and that it is more creditable to be first in a lower class than last in a higher. Constant vigilance on the teacher's part is necessary to clean-cut work. The Basis for Classification. — This is usually the reading classes. It is a convenient basis, as the num- ber of readers corresponds to the number of grades in the district schools. The first care should be to see that each pupil is in the reading class where he will get the most good. Readiness in reading is not the only basis on which to classify. If a student has been through one reader two or three times, he ought not to go over it again. If he cannot read well enough for the one next above, he should be given supple- mentary reading until he catches up. He will not learn anything worth while in the old reader; he prob- ably knows it by heart; at least there is nothing new or fresh in it. What he needs is practice in new material. There is nothing more important in school than help- ing up those that are falling behind. Grading the Arithmetic Classes. — These are usually the most difficult to keep graded. Some are quick, others slow; some delight in it, others dishke it; some make rapid strides, others drag behind. In such cases it requires the utmost tact and diligence to keep the class together. Keep the ready ones busy by giving them outside problems; give most of the class time to the slow ones. Tax yourself to make it interesting. 36 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL Think up everyday problems to illustrate principles; take one step at a time, explaining each until it is grasped. Patience, perse verence and kindness will win the battle. By and by the light will dawn, the frowns disappear and the student go on his way rejoicing. This is far better than telling the student that the work is too hard for him and that he must go back into a lower grade. The process of "going back'' is most dis- heartening and seldom results in good. It often causes pupils to leave school and give up their education, when a supreme effort on the part of the teacher would save them. It may be necessary occasionally to put a student back, the occasion being that he missed important parts that cannot be acquired in any other way. Wherever it is possible to help the pupil forward, it is better than going over old ground a second or third time. If any one criticises you for giving too much attention to such cases, you may answer that the good shepherd is chiefly concerned for the weak ones, to keep them from falling by the wayside and from being devoured by the wolves. But this special help must be only temporary. 5. Rules and Regulations No institution can be run without rules. They mean regularity and system. Every family has its rules and regulations. They may not be announced, but they are lived. Getting up in the morning, dress- ing, cooking, eating, sleeping are all done with the THINGS TO BE KEPT IN MIND 37 regularity that makes the rule. The less left to chance and haphazard the better. Wise regulations and rea- sonably strict rules are good everywhere. Promptness and Regularity. — In school particularly very little should be left to guess. The morning session should open at a set time, not a minute earlier nor a minute later, so that the pupils may know just what to depend upon. The same should be true of closing, of intermissions, of recitations and of everything. The mechanism of the school should run like a well-regu- lated machine. The work should be so well organ- ized and its regulations followed so precisely, that the pupils will fall into their places easily and naturally. Many of the regulations do not need to be published ; they need only to be carried out. Some should be an- nounced, so that from the start there may be no incon- venience. Parents have a right to be informed of the hour of opening in the morning and closing in the even- ing, so that they will know when to start the children to school and when to expect them home. Regularity is an excellent training in itself, and if learned and lived in the schoolroom will be a valuable acquirement through life. Changes and Modifications. — ^You cannot wisely for- mulate all your rules and regulations at the begin- ning. A good deal of cutting and fitting will be nec- essary. Previous regulations may modify those you intended to follow. Emergencies that could not be foreseen will arise, and these will necessitate changes. 2>S TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL When a thing happens for the first time, consider it carefully and render a wise decision. It will form a precedent for future occasions. Correct precedents are of great value and often should grow into customs. Even our mistakes are valuable, as they teach us what to avoid, but they must not become precedents for future actions. Rules for Conduct. — Rules for conduct, that is, pub- lished rules, should be few. In fact none need be an- nounced at the beginning. Let it be taken for granted that the pupils are familiar with right rules of conduct and mean to follow them. When it becomes necessary to make a rule, formulate it explicitly and state it clearly, so that there can be no misunderstanding. Then see that it is observed in letter and spirit. When possible, rules should be directive rather than prohibitive. It is better to tell children what they may do than what they may not do. For example, if you tell them when they may get drinks, or leave the room, you are granting a privilege. If you tell them they must not do these things at certain times, you are de- priving them of a privilege. The one usually involves the other, but the granting should precede the de- priving. All rules should be for the good of the greatest number. It may be for the good of the individual to be able to run to the teacher for assistance whenever he needs it, but it is not for the good of the school. A whole class is disturbed while one pupil is waited upon. In par- THINGS TO BE KEPT IN MIND 39 liamentary usage, a speaker's time is his own while he is on the floor and the chairman may not permit any one to interrupt him. It is no less true in a recitation. The time belongs to the class and is short enough, and the class has a right to the undivided attention of the teacher until it is dismissed. The Teacher's Own Standard. — And finally, the most of the rules and the strictest should be for the teacher alone. He should set a high standard for himself and if he is new to the work, he will have the battle of his life in compelling himself to live up to it. There is no one to make him do this or that, and when the monotony of the daily grind of toil settles down upon him, he will need all his resisting power. Then it is that a strict set of rules previously adopted with a determination to follow or die, will stand him in good stead. He should make it a rule never to appear be- fore his school in any but a cheerful frame of mind; always to be neat in person and appearance; to have his schoolroom in the best possible condition every day; to be on time in the morning and all through the day; never to permit his interest to flag nor his patience to be exhausted ; never to do anything that he would not approve in others under like circumstances. If he can control himself in such rules as these, he will have little trouble in controlling his pupils. A good watch- word is Paul's advice to Timothy, II Tim. 2:15: ^^ Study to show thyself approved unto God, a work- man that needeth not to be ashamed." 40 teaching a district school 6. Opening Exercises It is well worth while to spend some time in plan- ning and preparing interesting exercises for the daily opening of school. The First Five Minutes. — ^At the ringing of the bell, all pupils, quietly and orderly, take their seats. Books and pencils are in the desks and remain undisturbed until called for. The roll is taken by merely noting the absentees. All join in song. A verse or two of Scripture is read and the Lord's Prayer offered in concert with heads bowed. One or two verses of another song or hymn follow. A Regular Set of Exercises. — The next five minutes should be devoted to a specially planned set of exer- cises running regularly through the entire term. The following is a suggested set: Every Monday morning Memory Gems. " Tuesday " Current Events. " Wednesday " Story for Reproduction. " Thursday " Biography. " Friday " Nature Study. One new memory gem may be taught each week and as many others recited by volunteers as are known or as time permits. The list given by the teacher should be diversified, some patriotic, some religious, some didactic and some simple rhymes for the little ones. Current events may be given first by pupils and, when their knowledge is exhausted, by the teacher. All sen- THINGS TO BE KEPT IN MIND 4I sational items such as murders, trials, divorces and accusations should be strictly avoided. Sporting news likewise should be shunned. There are plenty of hap- penings that are safe, instructive and interesting. The great interests of the world may be kept track of from week to week, such as the government at Wash- ington, the Panama Canal, the doings of public men. Maps are useful to show locations. If they are not at hand, the teacher may sketch outlines on the board to answer the purpose. There are weekly papers pub- lished expressly for the purpose of supplying teachers with the leading events as they happen, stated briefly and accompanied with maps. Some one of these the teacher should take. *'The Little Chronicle" is per- haps as good as any. The weekly issue of any lead- ing daily, containing a summary of the week's news, can be obtained for a small sum. This exercise once a week through the term will direct the minds of the pupils in news gathering and will be invaluable. The story for reproduction should be read or told by the teacher; if well told, it is better than read. These stories should teach lessons in obedience, industry, faithfulness or the like. They may be obtained from a variety of sources, from readers not in use by the school, from educa- tional journals, histories and so forth. They should be short, not longer than a page of the third reader, and expressed in plain, easy words. When the story has been told, ask questions about it and let it be dis- 42 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL cussed until it is clearly understood and the main point grasped. Then tell the children you will expect them to repeat it to you next Wednesday morning, after which you will tell them another story. It may not be best for a while to ask for the reproduction in writing, lest it detract from the pleasure of the exercise. After the interest is established, it can be done with profit. The biographical sketches, since in a six-months term there is room for but twenty-four of them, should be chosen with a view to diversity. The list should in- clude the lives of statesmen, poets, inventors and phi- lanthropists; it should be chosen before school begins, in order to give time for gathering necessary material. The nature-study lessons necessarily must be ar- ranged with reference to the months. Crops, trees, flowers, rocks, animals, birds and insects will furnish abundant material for the term. The conditions in country schools are particularly favorable for this kind of work. For example, varieties of trees may be studied at any time of year. Each variety has its several means of identification, as, first, general con- figuration; second, leaves, their shape, size and con- formation; third, bark, its color, form and thickness; fourth, wood, its quality, texture and grain. Also the uses of each variety, as for shade, beauty, fruit, fuel and lumber, may be considered. Such knowl- edge has a practical and marketable value and has the added interest of being gained at first hand from nature herself. THINGS TO BE KEPT IN MIND 43 The value of these morning exercises will depend almost entirely upon the teacher's earnestness and preparation. For his own keeping alive and develop- ment, they are worth many times their cost, but their chief object is the good derived by the school. If conducted with care, this should be the most bene- ficial of any five minutes of the day. Knowledge gained in this way goes to the spot better than that learned from text-books and from routine work. It makes school more attractive and thus promotes regularity and promptness. At the close of these exercises, the signal for taking books and slates may be given and the general work of the day is then launched. 7. The Daily Program A Working Model. — The daily program is more dif- ficult and more important than the items previously considered. To divide properly the time between work and play, between study and recitation, to give each branch and each class its dues and no more, to arrange all in the order that will produce the best re- sults, requires mature wisdom and ripe experience. The new teacher will have to draw heavily from prece- dents established by long usage. The program that follows is offered as a working model. Each teacher, of course, will need to make such changes as his par ticular situation requires. 44 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL DAILY MORNING PROGRAM Closing Time Min- utes ISt Grade 2nd Grade 3rd Grade 4th Grade 5th Grade 8.IO 10 OPENING EXERCISES 8.2S 15 copying reading reading reading ARITH.* 8.35 10 copying reading reading READING arithmetic 8.45 10 busy work reading READING physiology physiology 8.55 10 busy work READING arithmetic physiology physiology 9-15 20 LESSON copying arithmetic physiology physiology 9-30 15 copying numbers arithmetic physiology PHYSIOL. 9-45 15 copying numbers arithmetic PHYSIOL. hist, or geo. lO.OO IS copying numbers ARITH. reading hist, or geo. 10.15 IS RECESS 10.30 IS busy work NUMBERS spelling reading hist, or geo. 10.50 20 LESSON spelling language arithmetic hist, or geo. 11.05 IS numbers spelling language arithmetic HIST, or GEO. 11.20 1 - 1 WRITING 11.35 15 SPELLING language arithmetic arithmetic 11.50 1 « DISMIS SED language ARITH. grammar 12.00 1 ■" LANG. grammar grammar 1. 00 60 1 NOON * The class reciting is printed in capitals. Chief Points of Excellence in Above Daily Program: — (i) It divides the teacher's time equally among the several grades. (2) It provides steady and definite occupation for every student for the whole time. (3) It provides time for the mastery of each lesson. (4) It makes general exercises of such studies as can THINGS TO BE KEPT IN MIND DAILY AFTERNOON PROGRAM 45 Closing Time Min- utes I St Grade 2nd Grade 3rd Grade 4th Grade Stn Grade I -05 S OPENING EXERCISES 1.20 IS LESSON 1 reading reading grammar grammar 1-35 IS copying reading reading grammar GRAM, or CO MP. i-So 15 copying drawing reading GRAMMAR spelling 2.05 IS drawing drawing READING spelling reading 2.20 IS drawing READING drawing drawing drawing 2.3s 15 DRAWING 2.50 IS RECESS 3.0S IS LESSON spelling 1 geography geography reading 3-iS 10 copying spelling geography geography READING 3-30 15 copying SPELLING geography geography arithmetic 3-45 IS DISMISSED GEOGRAPHY arithmetic 3-55 10 SPELLING 4.00 1 5 CLOSING be profitably united, thus conserving the time for other subjects that will not admit of such union. (5) It brings the recitations of the several grades in approximately regular order, dividing the time quite fairly between classes. (6) It provides shorter hours and more play for the first two grades than for the older and more advanced pupils. (7) A few closely related subjects are heard on alternate days, thus permitting pupils to carry all the studies required for the completion of a common school course. CHAPTER III PRACTICAL TEACHING When all preliminaries have been arranged, when every detail looking toward the success of the school has been attended to, then the battle has just begun. There is a chance to fail even here. We may be so taken up with preliminaries and details, as to neglect the daily routine of duties upon which more than any- thing else success depends. It takes all the strength of the strongest teacher to keep himself up day after day to the highest standard of which he is capable. We have named this matter of attending to the everyday duties Practical Teaching, and shall consider it un- der several different heads. I. Assigning Lessons An Important Duty. — The most important and the most difficult duty a teacher is called upon to perform is that of assigning work to the pupils, and seeing that they do the work assigned. This is well illustrated in the business world. Many an enterprise fails because the manager does not know how to keep all hands at work steadily, each one doing the part for which he is 46 PRACTICAL TEACHING 47 best qualified. On the other hand, the manager who knows just what each man is capable of doing and can get him to do it, can command ahnost any salary he chooses to ask. Where the success of an institution de- pends upon the amount of money earned by labor, every minute lost counts toward failure; every man in the wrong place means diminished profits. Now the aim of the school is not to earn money, but to promote the mental and moral growth of all the pupils. Every minute lost and every stroke misapplied count for failure in this great aim. Hence the impor- tance of assigning work. Things the Teacher Must Know. — Before a teacher can assign lessons rightly, there are some things he must, if not absolutely, at least approximately know: first, what the whole work of the school is ; second, what each grade should accomplish in a term; third, how much of this entire work should be assigned each day. Here is where a great deal of wisdom is needed. Chil- dren cannot do as much the first days of the term as they can later. Lessons should be assigned accordingly. The teacher must know also whether his pupils are bright or dull, whether there is any physical or mental deficiency and if so, take it into account. It is not necessary that all these matters be worked out each day, but yesterday's judgment should be revised to suit to-day's knowledge. Assigning a Reading Lesson. — ^Now actually to as- sign the lesson, it is not sufficient to say, ''Take the 48 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL next lesson" or ''Take to the bottom of page so-and-so." Pupils should he told exactly what to do with the lesson assigned. Suppose, for example, you are assigning a reading lesson. Your instructions may be something as follows: ''Take all of lesson twenty. Read it over carefully until you are sure you can tell it readily without the book. If there are any words whose mean- ings you do not know, write them down on your slate or notebook. Be able to spell every word in the lesson. Practice until you are pretty sure that you can read it without stumbling or halting." Assigning a Geography Lesson. — "The lesson for to- morrow begins at page twenty-two and extends to the bottom of page twenty-four. Read the descriptive parts until, with proper questioning, you can recite them; study the picture on page twenty-four until you can tell everything in it, what it means and why it should be placed where it is; write down in a list the most difficult words and bring them to the class with you; there is no map to draw in this lesson." Assigning a Number Lesson. — (i) To a class some- what advanced: "Solve all problems to the 21st, be- ginning with the 15th; bring a written solution of the 15th and 1 8th to the class; be able to tell exactly how these problems are solved. Observe the constant use of principles already learned. In the examples of busi- ness transactions, notice if the prices are about as we usually find them." PRACTICAL TEACHING 49 (2) To a beginning class: Place on the board such combinations as they can master, somewhat Hke the following: 1+1= 3+1= 4+1= 1-1= 3-1= 4-1= 2+1= 3+2= 4+2= 2-1= 3-2= 4-2= 2+2= 3+3= 4+3= 2-2= Z ' 2> = 4-3 = Instruct the class to copy these tables at their seats, completing each equation with the proper number. In the recitations, the children may be taught to make the combinations concrete, as follows: ^'If John has one apple, and his mother gives him one more, he will have two apples, because one plus one are two." ''If Mary has three pennies and spends one for candy, she will have two pennies left, because three minus one are two, etc." When they can do this readily, they may be asked to make similar stories for the com- binations on the board, using familiar objects such as apples, pennies, balls, tops and the like. This will teach them to think and to apply their knowledge as they, acquire it. It is not convenient in a work like this to do more than make a few suggestions of a general nature, such as the above, but the subject is none the less important and should receive the most careful and constant at- tention of the teacher. No lesson should ever be as- signed carelessly. Dist. School — 4 50 teaching a district school 2. Occupation for Youngest Pupils One of the difficult problems is to know how to keep the little ones pleasantly and profitably occupied while the numerous classes above them are being heard. In the daily program suggested in Chapter II, such general terms as ''busy work" and ''copying" are used. Lest young teachers should find them more puzzling than helpful, the following directions are offered: Busy Work. — Let the teacher be supplied with some simple materials, such as grains of corn, wooden tooth- picks, circular bits of paper of different colors, spools, etc. Give each child a few toothpicks and grains of corn. Ask them to build two pens, so many rails high, and put two "pigs" in each; then find how many "pigs" in both pens; build three pens and put three "pigs" in each, driving some from one pen to another. The children by their own ingenuity will very soon find plenty of variations. The circular bits of paper may be strung into fes- toons with a needle and thread, putting so many red, so many white and so many blue ones together. What- ever the colors and whatever the order, it should be done exactly as prescribed, so that in addition to count- ing, accuracy will be learned. The spools in a similar way may be used for counting, adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing; thus, "If you have twelve spools and divide them among four boys, how many will each get ? How many times PRACTICAL TEACHING 5 1 four in twelve? How many times three in twelve?" and so on. Black and white buttons, or melon seeds, will answer for ^^ sheep," while smaller buttons or seeds may be used for ^'chickens." If the teacher will suggest a few things, the children will think of many others. A half minute's instructions will keep them going while a class is being heard. Let it be remem- bered that every great teacher of primary pupils uses such simple material as the above, and keeps thinking constantly of new ways as occasion demands. Copying. — This is a general term meant to include all work taken from the blackboard, chart or readers. The children may write words and sentences, or draw simple forms either from chart or blackboard, or from the objects themselves. The teacher should study to provide work that will be profitable as well as entertaining. 3. Use of Lesson-Period It is feared that many teachers, especially those who are young in experience, do not fully realize the im- portance of the lesson-period, the recitation of the lesson after it is supposed to be learned. Too often it is a mere reciting of what has been committed for the purpose, without any adequate idea of the real mean- ing or of its connection with their lives. // should not he so much a reciting as an analyzing, comparing, weighing, collecting, adapting, stating and assimilating. 52 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL When the lesson is completed, the knowledge it con- tains should be the pupil's knowledge, ready for use at any time, and the sooner he has an opportunity to use it the better. Accumulating Knowledge. — To illustrate the use of the study-period and the recitation, let us imagine a group of children gathering flowers in an open field. They are attracted by the bright and gaudy. They have not the judgment to discriminate betwetn the good and the best. If they come to a beautiful rose and prick their fingers on its thorns, they turn away in disgust. Finally they return, arms laden with the good, the bad and the indifferent, and pile them down in a miscellaneous heap at the teacher's feet. Analysis and Selection. — ^Now comes the time of real value. The instructor first separates the mass; then he selects the different varieties, putting each kind by itself; the worthless ones are thrown aside. The children keep up a running fire of comment and questioning, telling where they got this and asking about that. The teacher replies to their questioning, hears their comments and gives them bits of informa- tion that they could not have discovered alone. An unusually fine specimen appears, and a bright boy cries out, ''I found that one. It was away up on a sharp ledge and there were thorns and briers in the way. The others said they wouldn't climb up there for it, but I did and got it." The teacher commends his efforts and shares in his enthusiasm. The boy feels PRACTICAL TEACHING 53 well repaid and disregards bruises and scratches. Others are silently vowing that they will not hesitate when opportunity offers again. Now the separated bunches are examined more closely. The teacher explains why certain ones were discarded. Some would wither quickly, some were poison, some gave out an unpleasant odor. The good kinds next receive attention. After they have been sufficiently examined and discussed, the teacher tells the pupils they may select specimens from the several varieties and each make a bouquet for himself. They set about it, eagerly questioning and exclaiming. The faculties of attention, discrimination and judgment are all engaged. Memory also comes in to give aid. Pres- ently the bouquets are finished and each one bears away his trophy, pleased in proportion to the amount of care and energy he has put into it. The teacher turns to other duties, but the children will not soon forget their morning's task. They will live over and over again the details of both the gathering and the classify- ing, and particularly will they remember the interesting things the teacher told them. Matter thus learned can never be lost. Every lesson whose aim is knowledge is something like this, and the searching teacher may read in the story the part he should play in the lesson-period. But for those who must have the conventional, a systematic outline of the various things to be accom- plished, is appended. 54 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL Important Features of the Lesson-Period. — (i) It is the time when the minds of pupils and teacher meet upon a common subject; the one to receive, the other to impart knowledge, or, rather, the one to search and the other to direct the searching. (2) It gives the pupils occasion to tell what they have learned, and thus give expression to their new-found knowledge, for we are never sure of knowledge or power until we have in some way given expression to it. (3) The pupils may ask questions upon knotty points and should be not only allowed but encouraged to do so quite freely. Moreover, the kind of questions they ask will show how well or how poorly they have used the study-period and how much their interest has been aroused. (4) It affords an opportunity to correct wrong ideas, which they will be sure to have gathered because of their limited experiences in the fields they are exploring. (5) It gives them a chance to show to the teacher how well they have improved their time and to receive their due reward of commendation. If the children have really put forth effort and accomplished some- thing, they look forward eagerly to the class time. The teacher is the only one who can fully appreciate their efforts and measure for them the amount and value of what they have acquired. If there is no one to do this measuring of results, the zeal of the pupil soon languishes. Even adults cannot get along wholly without it. PRACTICAL TEACHING 55 (6) It is a test of their ability to master the subject. This is one of the most important features of the lesson- period and one that will tax the ingenuity of the teacher to the utmost. The greatest care and skill is needed in probing into the minds of young children without causing them to shrink or to be frightened into silence. Tt requires a kind of painless mental surgery that every teacher should strive to master. (7) The pupils must have the teacher's assistance in determining the important parts and in getting each into its proper relations with the rest. Often it re- quires considerable wisdom to do this. As a rule, the teacher should not tell which of two ideas is the more important, but rather should point out the qualities that measure the value of each and let the pupil judge for himself in the light of these qualities. (8) The lesson-period serves to keep the connection between present knowledge and that which has been previously learned. All new knowledge is gained by means of what we have in store, and as fast as the new is gathered, it must be properly classified, named and placed where it belongs. (9) It permits the teacher to fire the minds of the pupils with new zeal for what is yet to be learned. This is one of the delights of teaching, to keep pointing to larger fields, greater achievements and vaster possi- bilities. This may be done with perfect safety and assurance, because the farther we climb, the broader the view and the more enchanting the vision. 56 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL (lo) It gives time for the assignment of the next lesson and the measure of its amount. This has al- ready been noted and need not be discussed further. These are perhaps the principal items to be observed in the lesson-period, v^here the main object is the ac- quisition of knowledge or of mental culture. If the aim of the lesson should be the gaining of skill, as in a writing or drawing exercise, or in the committing of forms such as tables or declensions, other features may come in, but the above items are general enough to suit all cases and should always be kept in mind. 4. Explaining and Impressing An Essential of Teaching. — ^When in any lesson a difficulty that is beyond the comprehension of the pu- pils arises, it is the duty of the teacher to make it plain to their understanding. In reading there are frequent allusions that the children cannot possibly understand until the thing alluded to is explained. Such expres- sions as ^^he was being used as a cat's paw," ''he threw down the gauntlet," ''he has an ax to grind," all refer to stories or customs that are supposed to be well known to everybody. If the teacher has been properly trained, he will know the origin and be able to give the explanation of all such allusions. They are a part of the wisdom of the race and children should learn them as early as they can grasp their meaning. Geography, arithmetic, history and grammar teem PRACTICAL TEACHING 57 with matter that must be explained before it can be understood, and every good teacher is a good ex- plainer. It is one of the essentials of teaching. Simple Language a Necessity. — The first thing to observe is that the explanation must be within the comprehension of the child. The language should be plain and simple. It should be expressed in short sen- tences, each containing but one statement, and this should be grasped before the next is given. One point at a time is the rule and let it be made so clear that the dullest can understand it. When a difficult matter has been explained until it is supposed to be understood, ask one of the pupils to give it in his own words. If there is any hitch, it will appear and assistance can be rendered at just the right place. As early as possible children should be taught to locate and state the difficult things they encounter. When they can do this readily, explanations become easy. They should be taught also to use every possi- ble means to solve the difficulties themselves. Gradu- ally the teacher will cease to give information directly, but will tell them how or where to find it. The Value of Illustrations. — ^Again, in explaining a difficult point, the teacher should be ready with illustra- tions. He must be able to tell the pupils that it is like this or that with which they are familiar. The greatest teachers in the world have been those who were readiest with illustrations. Thinking of apt illustrations may be an art, but it is one not so very difficult to acquire. 58 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL The things that are "like'* abound everywhere, if we will but learn to see and use them. Clinching the Impression. — ^Not only should we make difficult matters plain to the understanding, but we should impress them upon the mind in such a way that they will not be forgotten. This is true of many of the easy things as well as of the difficult ones. The chil- dren cannot judge of the importance of what they learn. Little things and great things are put in the same kind of type without any emphasis or marking that indicates their relative importance. The teacher must furnish the emphasis. A point may be emphasized by repeating it, by stat- ing why it is important, or by relating some incident in conne.ction with it that shows its importance. What- ever the* way, the one thing needful is the attention of the class. When this is secured and there is some- thing worth while to hold it, then see that the impres- sion is made and clinched. It is like a blacksmith fashioning a horseshoe out of a bar of heated iron. There is much in knowing just when to strike. 5. Questioning The teacher, like the lawyer, should be an expert questioner. A sharp question has the same effect upon the mind that a spur has upon a lagging horse. It stimulates to activity; and the teacher should know how and when to use it. PRACTICAL TEACHING 59 Four Classes of Questions. — For convenience of dis- cussion, we may divide our subject into four classes as follows : (i) Questions that may be answered by yes or no; as, Have you prepared your lesson? Did you see Mr. Smith yesterday? (2) Questions that may be answered by facts or by information that has been set as a task; as, How far does your lesson extend? How many pecks in a bushel ? ii) . Questions that will bring out difficulties or that will involve contradictions; as. Use a personal pronoun in the common gender, third person and singular num- ber. Can you draw a right-angled triangle with the three sides equal ? (4) Questions involving other questions that can be determined only by discovering all the facts underlying the main question. Such are called leading questions. Examples: Why is the verb the most important of all the parts of speech? Why is the robin so great a favorite ? Each of these classes has its proper use, but trouble arises when one class is used for another. There are many questions that can and should be answered by yes or no, but when the teacher asks an information question by furnishing the information (as, How many quarts in a peck? Eight, are there not?), the whole thing is wrong. Questions Should Be Intelligent. — In questioning pupils 6o TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL upon their lessons to test their knowledge, it is best to drive straight to the point, but the question should never indicate the answer. It should go without saying that the teacher who would ask intelligent questions must be familiar with the contents of the lesson and know also the correct answers. There is no incentive to the pupils to learn, when the teacher him- self is obliged to look in the book for the answer. The pupils will very properly conclude that if the teacher does not need to know this, there is no necessity for their learning it. On the other hand, if the teacher is thoroughly familiar with the knowledge of the lesson and knows much besides, it is a great incentive to the pupils. Every teacher should practice the art of questioning until he can bore through a subject and leave nothing more to be asked. Pupils Should Formulate Questions. — Pupils also should be taught to make questions upon their lessons. Let them see how many they can ask upon a given topic, and then let these be criticised kindly by the teacher. In many cases there is no better way to attack a lesson than by formulating as many questions as possible from it, and then proceeding to find the answers. 6. Reviewing Why It Is Necessary. — Since all knowledge in order to be useful must be properly classified, tagged and PRACTICAL TEACHING 6 1 put where it belongs, that is, with other knowledge of like kind, it follows that every lesson must be linked with those that have gone before. The principles and facts previously learned must be brought before the mind so that the new may he seen in its relation to the old. For this, if for no other reason, there should be in every lesson some review of yesterday's work and frequently of the whole subject so far as it has pro- gressed; but there are other reasons for reviewing. Whether the subject be arithmetic, grammar, geog- raphy, history or what not, the assignment of daily lessons tends to chop it up into separate bits. When it is completed, it should he in the mind as one connected whole and this cannot be accomplished unless we attend to the daily reviews. Some member of the class should be called upon to state in a few words the principal features of the last lesson. If the lesson is upon a topic that has been running for some time, as the verh in grammar, or an epoch in history, or a continent in geography, let some one give the principal heads from the beginning up to the present. This will preserve the unity of the subject, which is important. Again, review is necessary in order to ascertain the degree of proficiency attained hy the class. Each member should have his turn for individual testing. If this is done as it should be, there will be no occasion for going again over this particular book or subject. As a rule, it is poor economy to spend days, or as often happens, weeks, in going over a series of lessons a second time. 62 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL All the freshness, which is the main stimulus to effort, is gone. Besides, if the pupils know that they are to have a second trial, they are likely to slight their work, thinking that they will get it in review. Thus they fall into slovenly habits. Often it is wise to study a given subject a second or even a third time, but it should always be a different treatment, introducing new and more difficult features. Advantages of the Written Review. — From the fourth reader class upward, a written test should be given for every ten lessons. By this plan a leading or test ques- tion may be asked on each lesson. The advantages to be gained by this will amply re- pay the time and trouble. It will enable the teacher to measure more accurately than he otherwise could, the distinctness and thoroughness of the pupils' knowledge ; it will cause him to look for the most searching ques- tions and to state them clearly and concisely; knowing that these questions are coming, his instruction will be sharper in seeing that difficult points are made clear; the questions will serve as nails to fasten thoughts and principles in the pupils' minds, and will aid in forming right judgments *as to the chief points in the lessons. On the part of the pupils, the knowledge that an examination is coming will cause them to take a deeper interest in their work, and to make sure of their grasp of every subject; also an examination is a relief from the monotony of the daily routine; it furnishes a key for the pupils to their own standing in the light of the PRACTICAL TEACHING 63 teacher's questions, the things that he considers im- portant; it shows the amount gained in the last ten lessons, whether much or little, and is a spur to greater effort if the amount seems small; almost invariably pupils look up the questions they have failed to answer and thereby make important gains. In addition to all these advantages, the custom oj having written tests gives strength to both teacher and pupils; it puts them on an understanding and furnishes a basis for going over again in the light of their failures the difficult parts of the lessons. Lastly, for the clear, accurate and concise expression of thoughts, there is nothing that will take the place of writing. Too little of it is done in the schools. Unless pupils have suffi- cient practice, they dread written examinations and from fright and nervousness often fail to do themselves justice, but when the tests are given frequently and regularly they are looked forward to with pleasure and eagerness. Such has been the writer's experience. 7. Increasing Attention and Interest The Key to Attention. — Every experienced teacher knows that attention is absolutely necessary to learn- ing. No new thing can be comprehended or remem- bered without it. Not a listless, half-hearted, but an eager, all-absorbing attention must be given, and it should be given voluntarily. When it is secured by the constant calling back of wandering minds, it is of httle 64 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL value. How to secure and hold the attention is one of the greatest problems of the teacher. Now the key to attention is interest. So long as in- terest holds, attention is freely given; but as the one diminishes, the other lags. When the teacher finds it necessary to call for attention, he may hiow that interest is on the wane. Then is the time to change tactics, to reorganize one's forces, to bring up the reserves. Un- less interest is regained, defeat is inevitable. Let us then consider this important matter. Why Children Lose Interest. — ^When a teacher first enters a school, he is not responsible for the interest, or lack of it, that the pupils may have in acquiring | knowledge. But he is responsible for it in the subjects he teaches. It is not a very difficult matter to arouse the interest of children. The difficulty lies in holding it. Knowledge itself, if rightly presented, will awaken and develop interest. Therefore, if the lesson drags, the teacher should take himself vigorously to task to discover the cause. It may he accounted for in one of two ways; either the subject-matter is not adapted to the understanding of the children, or it is not presented to them in a right manner. Our constant care should be that the lessons should not be too deep for their under- standing; that they should be connected with their ex- periences and expressed in language that they can understand. It is equally essential that the teacher should be in- terested and in full sympathy with his pupils. Remem- PRACTICAL TEACHING 65 ber that a live teacher makes a live school. // the in- terest dulls, never blame the children, hut take it all upon yourself. Knowledge Should Be Usable. — The above points should be strictly observed and great care taken to present all lessons in an interesting manner. They must be made to touch the lives of the children in their everyday experiences. Knowledge to be interesting must be usable, and it falls upon the teacher to show his pupils how to use it. Every child is interested in something and is anxious to learn more about that something. The teacher should find out his interests and make his beginnings from them. If horses or dogs attract the pupil, he must tell him new things about them and show him how he can find out much more by learning to read. If, for example, his interest lies in horses, the teacher may read to him the story of Alexan- der the Great at fourteen years of age, riding a fiery young horse that no one else could master. This will arouse his interest in Alexander, so that he will want to know all about him and he will go from interest to in- terest until he is safely on the highway to knowledge. If dogs appeal to him more, he may be told of the dogs of St. Bernard rescuing travelers from the snow in the Alps mountains, and a like result will follow. Reading and spelling lessons made about the objects with which pupils are familiar, such as the chickens, the pigs, the baby, are just as good and often far more interesting than the lessons in the books, even though Dist. School — 5 66 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL the latter treat of the same things. Number and Ian- guage lessons may be prepared in a similar way. Keep the pupils on the search for the things about which they are studying, test and tax their knowledge constantly and encourage them to greater achievements. Stimulus in Variety. — One of the things that kills interest is monotony. The daily routine becomes a grind. It is a good idea to change frequently the method of hearing the class. Children, and grown people, too, for that matter, like to be surprised with new things or at least with variations. New features should be introduced in the reading, the geography and the number lessons. Encourage the children to talk freely about their work, not only in the recitation but at the intermissions, on the way to and from school, anywhere and everywhere, lest they fall into the habit of supposing the knowledge of the school pertains only to the classroom. 8. Good Manners and Good Morals Character-Building of First Importance. — In our zeal in pursuing the various branches of study and in our haste to complete the books or to cover certain amounts, there is danger of neglecting the greater things of life. It will be admitted readily by all that the development of a strong and upright character is of infinitely more importance than efficiency in special knowledge. To illustrate, it is more important that a boy should be PRACTICAL TEACHING 67 trained in strict honesty than that he become an expert in arithmetic; that he be instructed in purity of life rather than accomphshed in grammar; that he be taught pohteness and fihal duty, rather than history and geography. Not that these minor duties should be neglected, but that they should not be followed to the exclusion of the others, lest we be condemned by the Great Teacher's injunction, ^' These things ought ye to have done and not have left the others undone." Moral Lessons in Everyday Text-Books. — Some one may say that if the teaching of morals be of so great importance, why is there not a text-book so that the lessons may be assigned and heard ? It is true that there is no special text-book in morals, but fortunately many of the text-books in the common branches are well supplied with moral lessons. Most of the public school readers abound in healthful examples of conduct, with many opportunities for an alert teacher to make lasting impressions. History is rich in heroism and patriotism and if rightly taught cannot fail to make its imprint upon character. Like Scripture, history is for edification and should be studied more for its wisdom than for abstract knowledge. Even arithmetic has its moral value. Neatness, accuracy and honest work are virtues well worth cultivating. The singing of patriotic songs is a power for righteousness and should have a regular place in the daily program of every school. Common Forms of Politeness. — These likewise should receive as much attention as is necessary to secure their 68 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL ready and constant observance on the part of every pupil. These forms are not inherited; they must be learned and practiced. Every child has as much right to be taught how to act in good society as he has to be taught to read. Little courtesies like '^please" and ^' thank you" should be insisted upon, whether pupils are speaking to the teacher or to each other. In many homes the niceties of life are neither practiced nor taught, and if children do not learn them at school they will grow up uncultured and rude. Nothing pays better than politeness and no opportunity to inculcate it should be overlooked. The Force of Example. — In both manners and morals the best instruction is the example of the teacher. Precept is valuable when it is backed up by example; but precept without example is practically worthless. The teacher stands in the eyes of the pupils as the embodiment of all that is wise and good. His every act will be imitated. Even his mannerisms will be copied. If he permits himself to do wrong or doubt- ful things, the pupils will do them and quote him as their example. In conduct and manners the teacher should never do anything he would disapprove in his pupils. 9. Good Order Quiet in the Schoolroom. — The school is a study room. Quietness is conducive to study. It follows that the schoolroom should have quietness. But it is also a PRACTICAL TEACHING 69 workshop where certain activities are constantly going forward. These necessitate noise. How shall we make the two ideas compatible? In this way: During most of the day the majority of the pupils are in their seats studying; they can and should be quiet. Those who are reciting should be drawn to the front, nearest the teacher's desk, and thus removed from the immediate presence of those who are engaged in study. The noise of the recitation being a regular thing and a part of the school, is but little disturbing. The calling and dismissing of classes should be done as quietly and as expeditiously as possible. Common Sources of Disorder. — Order means every- thing done in the time and in the way it should be or as agreed upon. Any irregularity that is unnecessary or not done for the good of the school is disorder. Any disturbance that is necessary must be endured, such as attending to the fire or adjusting the windows. All unnecessary disturbances must be avoided. That is the rule. The most common sources of disorder are whisper- ing, running to the teacher for information, getting drinks and leaving the room. Scores of other annoy- ances are liable to happen, but the above constitute three fourths of the disorder in the average school. So a few words about each, with some general princi- ples, must suffice for all. Whispering. — Many teachers prefer not to forbid whispering entirely. The trouble of carrying out such 70 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL a rule and the inconvenience it entails upon the pupils seem to be sufficient reasons for this. But it must be curtailed by some means. There is nothing more an- noying than constant whispering. Conversation should be absolutely prohibited, and if two or more pupils engage in any considerable amount of whispering, they should be made to understand, gently but firmly, that it cannot be. Separation may be sufficient, but if it is not, something more drastic should be used. The main thing is that the teacher should be determined, but should not use any harsher means than are neces- sary to keep down the evil. Running to the Teacher. — In years of visiting in coun- try districts, the writer has observed a prevailing habit that almost ruins many otherwise good schools. It is that of running to the teacher to have a word pro- nounced. While he is hearing a class, a string of chil- dren extending from the seats to his elbow keeps up a constant interruption. A child comes up with his finger pointing to a word that he perhaps knows very well, or could easily find out, and while he looks out the window and gazes about, thrusts the book at the teacher, who without a question or a suggestion tells him the word. He goes back to his seat often not knowing what the teacher said. The next child with finger pointed extends his book and so the procession continues. When the last one has had his turn, the first is ready to begin the next round. The pupils reciting must either wait or go on as best they may. PRACTICAL TEACHING 7 1 The remedy for this evil need not be difficult. The shortest way is simply to say it must not be done. The pupils reciting have a right to the undivided attention of the teacher during the short space allowed them. Let the children write down the words they cannot pronounce and bring them to the class. If the parents insist that the children be told the words, as it is said they frequently do, then put every child who comes up through a process of effort. Ask the child to pronounce the word himself; if he cannot, have him spell it. If he still fails, ask some other member of the class to pronounce it for him. Then let him write the word upon the blackboard several times. Such a method persisted in for a few days will practically cure the trouble without forbidding it. His attention having been called to it, no self-respecting teacher will suffer it to go on to the detriment of his school. Other Interruptions. — For such interruptions as going for drinks and leaving the room, no stringent rules need be laid down. They are often caused by restless- ness. Children grow tired sitting on hard benches through long sessions. A recess of five minutes at the end of each hour is better than interruption and gives all an opportunity for exercise. Calisthenic drills, sing- ing and marching, or running around the room (always with windows open) will prove a relief to the tedium of long hours in the forenoon or of dull ones in the after- noon. If one or two pupils persist in having many wants, a little private conversation will usually mend 72 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL the matter. If it does not, some small penalty sufficient to offset the pleasure derived should be resorted to. lo. Recesses and Intermissions Educational Value of Rest-Periods. — It seems not to have occurred to many teachers to consider the rest- periods as having any educational value. They are looked upon as being merely a cessation from the labor of the schoolroom. Yet those who study the lives of children attach great importance to play. It is one of the main features of childhood and youth, and the delight and usefulness of it extend well into age. The well-equipped gymnasiums, extensive athletic fields, high-salaried physical directors, and costly parapher- nalia of the large colleges are proof that much atten- tion is given it in higher education. But if grown boys and girls need all these, how very much more necessary is it that growing children should have some provisions made for them and be given directions in their play and games. No work devised by man can take the place of play for recreation, for physical and mental exercise and for pure enjoyment. A child wholly deprived of play is one of the saddest spectacles in the world, as he not only loses the greatest pleasure of childhood, but his physical and mental development is out of the ques- tion. Those who play but little are usually lacking in strength, agility, courage and in social qualities. PRACTICAL TEACHING 73 Children expand their lungs, train their voices and develop their muscles on the playground. It is truly democratic; every one stands upon his own merits. Each desirable place must be won over all competitors with no favors or poHtical ''pulls." The champion runner, jumper, wrestler, though the poorest boy in the district, is accorded his meed of praise and admiration as honestly and certainly as though he were the rich- est. Here, too, leadership is developed and in the friendly strivings each boy learns pretty accurately the measure of his own powers. Rules Regulating Intermissions. — It will be well to observe the following rules in regard to the intermis- sions: Firsts they should come as regularly and as cer- tainly as the lessons. Children are extremely jealous of their intermissions and it is best to observe them sacredly. Second^ the recesses should not be less than fifteen minutes each and the noon intermission a full hour. Thirds it is the teacher's province and duty to see that the entire intermission is employed to some good purpose by all the pupils. As a rule, in country schools ii is wise to allow boys and girls to play together. However, if this is done, the teacher should always be on the ground and would better join in the games. The little ones should have a space to themselves and their proper share of supervision. So long as the children know what they want to play and all take part with zest, the teacher need offer no suggestions ; but the list of games in country schools 74 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL is often quite limited and they weary of them. In such a case, the pupils will be delighted if the teacher pro- poses some new game or a new way to play an old one. All games should be played earnestly and vigor- ously, the teacher setting the example. If he shows little interest, his mood will be caught quickly by others and all usefulness destroyed. When the interest lags, it is time to stop. Just here a word of caution may be uttered. Boss- ing and scolding on the playground should be strictly avoided. The teacher should take note of any mis- conduct, should see that no one is slighted or imposed upon and that all proper relations are observed; but any unwarranted instruction will be resented. Play to be enjoyed must be free and untrammeled, yet free- dom is not license to wrongdoing. The tactful teacher will know when to interfere and when to refrain. If his motives are right, he is not likely to commit any serious error. The Noon Hour.— This is valuable in that its length gives an opportunity for a variety of exercises. It is delightful when the luncheon is eaten in a group with the teacher. Plenty of time should be taken and con- versation should flow easily and pleasantly. The teacher may quietly take the lead, encouraging others to follow and using tact in bringing out the timid ones. No difficult or embarrassing questions should be pro- posed, nor anything unpleasant allowed to mar the happiness of the occasion. With a little forethought PRACTICAL TEACHING 75 and planning it can be made the most cheerful part of the day. No one should leave the group without ask- ing to be excused. When the teacher rises, the cere- mony is over. Thus conducted, the art of conversation is cultivated, valuable information imparted and social courtesies inculcated. Interesting items of current news, clever stories and friendly discussions will form a sufficient program to make the time pass quickly and pleasantly. A song or short reading at the close will often be fitting. The time occupied need not be more than twenty minutes. Proper Physical Exercise. — A good half-hour is left for play. If croquet, tennis and basket-ball could be provided in country schools, it would be an excellent thing and there seems no good reason why they should not be. The cost would be but slight and far out- weighed by the results. These games cultivate skill and mental alertness, and furnish enough physical exercise without the severity and roughness of baseball and football. If the large boys prefer baseball to all other games, there is no serious objection, provided those who do not care for it have something else as good. The recesses being short may be occupied with sharp physical exercise games such as running, jump- ing, or leapfrog for the boys, and pull-away or drop- the-handkerchief for the girls. Purely mental games such as checkers, chess, inno« cent card games, as Authors or History, should be 76 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL indulged in sparely, not because they are harmful, but because they do not furnish physical exercise. If used at all, they should be reserved for bad weather. Riddles, conundrums and other guessing contests are suitable at any time when the school is gathered in a quiet circle. Games of chance, of marbles for keeps and all that lead to gambling, if they show any signs of appearing, must be kindly but firmly forbidden. When playtime is over, the call to work should be short and sharp. All should stop at the first tap of the bell and no loitering should be permitted. Longer intermissions for the little ones have been provided for in a previous chapter. CHAPTER IV THE SCHOOL IN PROGRESS I. Those Who Do Not Come In almost every country district there are pupils, sometimes few, but too often many, who do not attend. They are of school age, their names are on the census roll, their apportionment is paid by the state, but they do not present themselves, their names are not on the teacher's roll and all the advantages of the school might as well not exist so far as they are concerned. When one visits an average district school and notes the bright faces of the pupils, their eagerness to learn and the progress they are evidently making, and then considers the large percentage who ought to be there, but are not, his heart goes out in pity for the absentees. The Necessity of Investigation. — ^The question arises, what is the teacher's duty in such cases and what should be his method of procedure ? There tnay be a few who are properly exempt. Some may have finished the common-school course and should not attend to take the teacher's time with higher studies. Such should be encouraged to go to a more advanced school. Some may be married and have 77 78 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL home duties that preclude the possibility of further schooling. The remainder ought to be in attendance and each individual case should be thoroughly inves- tigated. Causes of Chronic Absence. — As a rule, the causes for chronic absence may be classed under a few heads. The first and most prevailing is the indifference of parents. None are so blind to the need of education as the ignorant. People who are devoid of learning usually do not appreciate its advantages for either themselves or their children. These should be awak- ened, aroused and interested by any and every reason- able means. They should be shown that they are de- priving their children of their most precious heritage, and of that which rightly belongs to them. Appeals should be made also to the children. If they can be so aroused that they will clamor to come, the parents are not likely to hold out against them. Factional strife is another cause almost as prevalent as the first and more difficult to overcome. Neighbor- hood quarrels arising from jealousy, desire to rule, fancied slights or what not, are often waged bitterly for years, and where they exist, it needs but a slight excuse to keep the children out. '^A" will not send his children, because in his opinion a mistake was made in the selection of the teacher. His daughter, son or nephew would have been much better. ^^B" keeps his children out, because ^'C's" are better dressed and put on airs. ''D" imagines the teacher is partial, and THE SCHOOL IN PROGRESS 79 has a "pick" at his little ones and will not give them a fair chance to learn, and so on. It requires patience, tact and love to adjust these fancied wrongs, for such, they usually are, but with perseverance the wise teacher may hope to succeed. He must be extremely careful not to appear to take either side, nor to show favor to one more than to another. He must not praise ^'A's" children in the presence of ^'B." He must be equally friendly to all with malice toward none. A third cause lies in the children themselves. Sur- rounded by unlearned people, they have no way of knowing the value of an education. The parents would like to have their children taught, but do not know how to inspire them. The atmosphere in cultured homes is a constant inducement to the children to get knowledge, but where ignorance abounds there is no such incentive, and as the stream cannot rise above its source, these children will not have an ambition to rise, unless some outside pressure be brought to bear upon them. Here is the teacher's opportunity. The Best Remedy. — But whatever the causes, let it be borne in mind that the best remedy, the greatest inducement, is an excellent school; one wherein is a live teacher, efficient, eager to grasp every opportunity, and in love with his work; where the pupils delight in their tasks and are happy and contented. Such a school has a positive ring about it that commands re- spect. It has an attraction that will draw like a magnet. 8o TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL School Attendance an Obligation. — ^Yet the live teacher will not be content to work simply within the walls of his schoolroom. Before the term begins, he will do all he can to advertise it, to awaken interest, to inspire his patrons' confidence in his own efficiency. He will impress it upon the district that the school is not for a few but for all; that provisions have been made at great pains and expense for the education of every child, and that the county, the state and the nation expect him to make good use of it. It is like a precious legacy left by a loving friend in his last will and testament, which to refuse is to insult the giver. It is the highest loyalty to do what is expected of us. If parents, therefore, would be strictly loyal, they must send their children to school. .The law requires it and it is the nation's greatest safeguard. Ways of Winning Parents and Children. — ^After the school is organized and well under way, the teacher will look over the census roll to see if any have not entered. He will make a list of the absent ones and inquire about them. He will ask the other children to urge them to come. He will visit the families, talk with the parents, make friends of the children and cause them to feel easy in his presence. He will carry brightness into cheerless homes and thus by showing a real interest in their welfare will win both the parents and the children. Lastly, he will have public exercises at not too great intervals. The parents need instruction as well as the THE SCHOOL IN PROGRESS 8 1 children, and they are not too old to learn. The school should be the center of attraction for the whole neigh- borhood and any patron or friend should be wel- come at any time, but lest the privilege should be neglected, these special occasions are made. Sugges- tions as to plan and method are found in another chapter. 2. Tardiness This is a sore spot in many a teacher's life. Pupils come straggling in all the way from nine o'clock till noon. No satisfactory results can be achieved under such conditions. Causes must be discovered and remedies apphed. Causes of Tardiness. — These are laziness, thought- lessness and bad judgment. The first is the worst be- cause the hardest to cure. Fortunately it is not very prevalent, and the writer, at least, believes it is not in- herited, but may be acquired. Like everything else good or bad, it is catching. If parents are afflicted with it, the children will catch it from them. How Laziness Should Be Treated. — When laziness is plainly evident, as occasionally happens, it may be made the subject of a general talk in which the evil results and the sin of it are clearly pointed out. The writer recalls, when a boy, reading a sentence like this: *'A lazy boy makes a lazy man just as surely as a crooked sapling makes a crooked tree." It made a deep impression upon him and he has since used it to Dist. School — 6 82 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL good effect upon school-children. It leaves so little room for doubt that it is really alarming. Still a crooked tree, if taken young enough, can be straight- ened; and likewise the lazy boy, if taken in time, can be cured. The general talk will make public sentiment and form a basis for personal application, kindly made in private, just where it is needed. The children may be told to coax their parents to call them earlier and let them have their breakfast in order to be at school on time. If all such means fail, severer measures may be resorted to. The writer once visited a school of second- grade pupils in the early morning. While the opening exercises were in progress, two children entered and stopped just inside the door. Instantly the whole school broke into a song on the evils of tardiness, directing their words to the two culprits who stood looking very much embarrassed and ashamed. The teacher told us she was compelled to resort to this method and that it was working most effectively. The Evil of Thoughtlessness. — Some parents, although not lazy, are easy and indulgent and give but little attention as to whether or not the children meet their obligations. These are the thoughtless ones. While in a general way believing in an education, they do not appreciate the value of discipline nor realize how fatal to success is the habit of tardiness. Such people need to have their attention called to the fact that the most valuable part oj an education is not the knowl- THE SCHOOL IN PROGRESS 8^ edge derived from books, but the forming of correct habits. Knowledge, although essential, is not sufficient. A man may have all the knowledge that a human being can acquire and yet be a failure. A well-ordered life is as essential as learning. The Consequences of Bad Judgment. — The third class are those who are afflicted with bad judgment, who imagine that an hour more or less off the school day is of trifling importance. They make the children do chores and run errands and keep them going ^^hot foot" until, when they reach school, their energy is spent and the best part of the day lost. They have no conception of the value of a child's time other than for physical labor. They do not stop to reflect that the foundation-laying period is the most precious part of life, because upon it the child's future usefulness de- pends. Herein lies their error. The sad part of it is that the bulk of the loss falls upon the children, who can never recover lost time and lost opportunity, and upon the country, which can never receive the trained service it had provided for. The First Tardiness. — The best time to cure an evil is at its beginning. When the first tardiness occurs, make much of it. It is an important matter and de- serves particular attention. With kindly solicitude in- quire very carefully into the cause. Express deep regret that it should have happened and pass righteous judgment on the cause, if in your opinion it was not sufficient. Make the offender feel that it is not a mat- 84 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL ter of little or no importance, but that it is a serious thing. The schools of the country are of as great im- portance as the army and a greater safeguard to the nation. A soldier must report for duty unless unable to do so. A pupil is under as great obligation to the school. It is his duty to be there regularly and on time. If the first case is thus treated, it will make a deep impression upon the whole school and if followed up persistently for a few weeks the evil will be stamped out. 3. Irregularity of Attendance The causes of tardiness are equally applicable to much of the irregularity of attendance, although at times there are good and sufficient reasons for deten- tion at home. Sickness, bad roads, inclement weather are some of them. No blame attaches to any one when such is the case, but still it must be remembered that the loss is just as great as when the reason is a trivial one. The difference is that the one deserves pity and the other blame. Those Unavoidably Detained. — The treatment of these unfortunates should be very different from that of the others who willfully remain away. All that is possible should be done to enable them to keep up their studies. The teacher should see to it that they have their books so they may study at home. The lessons of each day, with such instructions as are necessary, should be sent them. If he can call in the evening and render per- THE SCHOOL IN PROGRESS 85 sonal aid, he will be doing a righteous act and his sacrifice is almost certain to be repaid with abundant gratitude. The First Absence. — ^This should be dealt with in sim- ilar fashion as the first tardiness. If, upon careful in- vestigation, the teacher 'finds it unavoidable, then he can only express his regret and assist the pupil in every way possible to recover the lost ground. But the school must be made to feel that the mark of his dis- approval is set upon any willful or unnecessary absence or tardiness. The Teacher's Obligation. — There is one further sug- gestion. Teachers sometimes lay all blame for such delinquencies upon the parents and give themselves but little concern in regard to it. This is entirely wrong. The teacher furnishes the only opportun- ity these children can have to correct deficiencies in the home government. If he fails to do his part, they may never have a chance to form right habits. On the other hand, if, without saying anything derog- atory to the parents, he will hold every one to a strict observance of his obligations, he will have a clear conscience and his pupils will " rise up and call him blessed." 4. The Schoolhouse and its Surroundings The Need of Daily Attention. — Part of our "previous preparations," set forth in an early chapter, consisted 86 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL in putting the house and grounds in as good order and making everything look as shipshape as possible. Granting that this has been*done, it must not be sup- posed that such a condition will remain long without attention. Something will need to he done every day to preserve order that has once been brought about. Bits of paper strewn about the grounds should be picked up; pupils will soon learn to do this if the teacher sets the example. All litter of every sort should be kept out of the way so that the playground may always be clean and neat. The Matter of Repairs. — If there is a broken window- pane, a door working badly, or a crippled desk, it ought to receive attention at once. If such a thing is allowed to go unnoticed, it teaches a powerful lesson in care- lessness that will be hard to eradicate. If, on the other hand, all repairs are attended to promptly, it will be an equally great lesson in the right direction. If a thing is needed that is beyond the teacher and pupils, the proper member of the board should be notified and urged to give it his immediate attention. Making Improvements. — In some cases the teacher may find it necessary to buy window curtains and perhaps even sash and glass, for there are districts so negligent that such articles can be obtained in no other way. If he must do this, it should be after he has asked the board to furnish them and been refused, and with the distinct understanding that the furnish- ings so purchased are his property and may be re- THE SCHOOL IN PROGRESS 87 moved at the end of the term. Then, unless the dis- trict pay for them, they should be removed. They would be neither appreciated nor protected if be- stowed outright. An object lesson like this will do much toward bringing the people of the district to a sense of their duty. Some schoolhouses have no place except the floor for the dinner pails. Teacher and pupils should con- struct neat shelves for their accommodation. Hooks also should be provided for the hats and cloaks. Every such thing directed by the teacher and done by the pupils will furnish a better lesson and make a more lasting impression than almost any that can be found in the books. Every part of the room, walls as well as floor, should be kept clean. Decorations should be taken down as they grow old and dingy or as soon as they have served their purpose, and other designs put in their places. Bright touches of flowers and leaves from time to time add to the cheer of the school. Sanitary Conditions. — The surroundings of the school- house must be looked after. The well may need clean- ing. Impure water is a common source of sickness. Does surface water get into the well? If so, it must be prevented. The wall must be built up about the mouth of the well and all surface water drained away. The casing should be tight so that no frog or rat or rabbit can get in. It should be kept covered to prevent leaves or other floating matter from dropping in. Are there any stagnant pools near? If so, they are 88 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL a menace to health. They should be drained or filled up. Is there any decaying vegetation about? It is probably more dangerous than the stagnant pools; every bit of it should be gathered up and burned. The closets should be as far from the well as possi- ble, should have deep vaults and should be disinfected with ashes every day if convenient, but certainly once a week. Lime is the ideal disinfectant, but it is not always obtainable. Chloride of lime may be bought cheaply at drug stores. 5. Good-Will Among Pupils The successful disciplinarian is not content with obe- dience unless it is cheerfully and willingly rendered. A sullen and forced obedience is better than none, but it is far from satisfactory. Not only must good order be maintained, but the pupils must be kept in good humor. A happy frame of mind is essential to the best results. Pupils must be in good mind toward each other as well as toward the teacher. Strife, envy, jealousy, bitterness will almost if not quite ruin a school. Such feelings are not uncommon in country schools and always work to the detriment of all concerned. Equality of Treatment. — The best remedy is to treat all with the same unfailing respect and courtesy. The poor and the ill-clad may be as sensitive to kind- ness and to courtesy as any, but whether they are or THE SCHOOL IN PROGRESS 89 not, they should receive only the best possible treat- ment. Exercises in Unison. — The next best way to produce harmony is to have all pupils engage in the same ex- ercise. At least twice a day they should join in a song. A few verses of Scripture may be read responsively with the teacher, followed by the Lord's Prayer in concert. Some of the regular exercises of the school are better done in unison. Writing and drawing are examples. A story read or told by the teacher, one that appeals to all alike, of patriotism, brotherly kindness or sacrifice for others will do much toward uniting the school in good fellowship. A free and open discussion is often conducive to the general good feeling, but the teacher must guard against personal or acrimonious remarks. Adjusting Ill-feeling. — If there is any deep-seated ani- mosity that cannot be reached by such means as the above, then the teacher must take hold of it with the persons concerned and try to effect a reconciliation. Point out the folly of holding enmity and spite, and urge them to forget all past differences and be friends. It will not do for the teacher to form the habit of listening to tales of mistreatment told by either side; if he must listen, let it be without comment, and par- ticularly let him not be led into committing himself as to whether the alleged actions of any one were good or bad. He must stick to the point that no matter how disagreeable matters were in the past, they should now be forgotten and a new start made. Emphasize the 90 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL fact that it is noble to forgive and that he who forgives most acts the noblest. If any teacher finds a feud or quarrel too deep and bitter for present reconciliation, that there are two such families or sets of famihes in his district and that the enmity of the parents has been handed down to the children on either side, then his best plan will be to ignore it so long as peace reigns. If strife shows signs of breaking out, he will have to take the matter firmly in hand. He should determine who are the leaders and without in the least taking sides, tell them that peace must be maintained. If they cannot be friends, they must treat each other with the respect due eneniies in a place where fighting is out of the question. Let each side give half the road and let there be no communication nor cause of offense. In this way strife may be avoided until the flame of hatred has a chance to die down. The extremes of happiness and misery are bound in this one matter of good or ill will. Where harmony reigns, there is delight; where discord prevails, there can be no pleasure. A happy, cheerful, forgiving dis- position on the part of the teacher will almost insure a pleasant school. His spirit of good will will be caught by all and its enjoyment once realized will be easily retained. If clouds appear, a funny story or a few jokes may dispel them. When the barometer of one's feelings is low, there is nothing like laughter to shake it up. the school in progress 9 1 6. The Care of the Children's Health — Gym- nastics The Teacher»s Responsibility. — So important a matter as the health of the children must not be overlooked. A teacher is not expected to know as much, or to have as much skill as a physician, but he should know a few simple things about the care of the body and have skill enough to bind up a cut or treat a burn. Coughs and colds are common, but should not be neglected. They are usually caused by foul air, wet feet, or sitting in an exposed place after vigorous exercise. Children have but little judgment in avoiding colds. The teacher must shoulder the responsibility and use his wits and his authority for their protection. A wise teacher is as careful of his school as a mother hen of her brood. He must see that they are not unduly exposed to wet and cold on the playground, not al- lowed to sit in draughts or with wet stockings in the schoolroom, that they are well wrapped and have coats buttoned and shawls pinned before leaving the school- house when the weather is inclement. Contagious Diseases. — These also are to be guarded against. If a child shows signs of any of the common diseases, such as measles, whooping cough or mumps, he should be kept at home. If it is a false alarm, he may return as soon as it is so discovered. If it is a real case, all care should be taken to keep it from spreading and he should not return until a physician 92 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL has passed upon it and has seen that needful precau- tions in the way of fumigating have been attended to. Of all the diseases in this climate, typhoid fever is perhaps the most to be dreaded. Physicians are practically agreed that it comes from infected wells, or pools, or streams, and unless care is exercised, one person may take it from another. The teacher, be- cause of his position as instructor, may warn the pupils and through them the parents, to exercise the greatest care in regard to the drinking water. They should be instructed to keep surface water out of their wells, to see that cisterns are filtered and kept clean and not to use any stagnant water for drinking or cooking. If any one takes the disease, the best physician available should be employed and the persons in charge should know that the main thing in a typhoid fever case is careful nursing under the direction of the physician. How to Keep Well. — The best safeguard against mal- adies of every sort is to be in a good state of health continually. We can keep ourselves well and strong if we will only obey the laws of health. Here is where the teacher's duty comes in. Health is of the first importance and whatever can be done to promote the health of the children in particular, and the neighbor- hood in general, is clearly his work. Whatever power the teacher has to better the conditions for healthful- ness, just to that extent is he responsible for the neigh- borhood. That this duty may be discharged, he should THE SCHOOL IN PROGRESS 93 among other things drill the pupils thoroughly in the following simple rules of health: The First Rule of Health.— The first rule is Keep Clean. This means far more than keeping the body clean, though it certainly includes that. It means clean surroundings J and that means clean rooms, clean beds, clean food, clean utensils of every sort, clean drinking water, clean yards and clean fields. It means that no vegetable or animal matter must be left to decay in heaps to poison the air. Piles of weeds rotting, old boards decaying, old shoes or old clothes thrown out, all these and similar things are filth and should be burned. Dirt is '^matter out of place," and according to that definition everything that has not use or beauty, or that is not growing into use or beauty, is dirt. Clean- liness means that all vermin must be kept away. Rats, mice and every other kind of vermin create filth and carry contagion and are a menace to health. If we would be clean, we must be free from them. Manure heaps must not be allowed to gather near the house nor be left unprotected anywhere. Boards of health com- pel city-dwellers to keep their premises clean, but people living in the country are often careless and disease and death result. Filthy cellars are a common source of disease. Potatoes and other vegetables are allowed to rot in heaps, mold grows riotously in dark, damp corners and the air is polluted. Such places are the natural breeding grounds of disease germs. The only safe thing 94 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL Is to keep out every vestige of dirt, to see that the cel- lar is thoroughly aired and as dry as any other part of the house. Unless it can be so, it is better not to have any cellar. Personal cleanliness is an art that is acquired by in- struction and practice, until it becomes a habit of life as necessary to comfort and happiness as food and air. It is not inherited. Children must be taught to keep clean hands and faces, to bathe regularly, to keep foreign substances from the finger nails, to remove particles of food from between the teeth, lest by de- caying there they rot the teeth, cause bad breath and endanger the health. The wise and tactful teacher will find plenty to do in inculcating this rule of cleanli- ness and seeing that it is observed by himself and pupils. The Second Rule of Health. — The second rule is, Eat Good Food at Regular Intervals. Everybody knows the importance of this, that it is absolutely es- sential to life, but in respect to kinds and value of foods, and right and wrong ways of eating, few people give the subject the attention it deserves. Some of the ad- vanced schools of our country are devoting much time and thought to it, but the district teacher cannot and need not undertake anything very difficult. He can and should, however, call attention to some of the com- mon faults and give useful instruction in regard to eating. Firsts the teacher may have some discussion on the THE SCHOOL IN PROGRESS 95 kinds of food. Let the main divisions be brought out. It will be seen that there are four: grains, meats, fruits and vegetables. Each one of these main divisions may be discussed separately. The principal grains are wheat, corn, rye, oats, barley and rice. Much inter- esting information may be brought out concerning these, as to where they grow most abundantly, where each is the chief food, their desirability, cost and so on. The form in which these grains should be eaten may furnish a topic for a lesson. This will lead to the ways of cooking, such as boiling, baking and frying. At the close of the discussion, sum up and emphasize the principal thoughts that have been brought out something as follows: (i) All the grains above named are excellent food because they contain in large quantities the properties required for the nourishment of the body. (2) Some grow best in certain parts of the world, others in other parts. Where any one grows in great abundance, it forms the chief grain food of the people in that section. The liking for one or another depends upon one's bringing up, that is, upon usage. (3) Before any of these grains are eaten, they should be properly prepared and cooked, so as to retain their nourishing qualities. (4) They should not form one's sole diet, because they do not contain all the kinds of food that the body requires. Meats, fruits and vegetables may each be treated 96 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL in the same manner. To these four principal kinds of food there may be added the condiments, such as salt, pepper and spices; also drinks, such as coffee and tea. Second^ having given useful instruction in regard to the kinds of food, it will now he in order to consider its preparation and the manner of serving it. It will be wisest to have this instruction take the form of dis- cussion, and by encouragement and skillful questioning have the important things said by the pupils rather than by the teacher. Then, if some things touch the home life, it will not be resented to the injury of the teacher's influence. Thirds we may take up the times and ways of eating and the amount required for different people at different times. As to times of eating. Nature says eat when you are hungry, but here we cannot always obey Nature. Civilization demands that meals be served at regular times and our appetites must accommodate themselves to the custom. Still some consideration must be given to Nature, especially in the case of growing children. They may need food oftener than grown people and so may eat some light lunch at proper intervals between meals. As to the ways of eating, we must conform to the customs of society. If we do not, we shall be ac- counted queer or perhaps worse. If the custom of society is to eat with a fork, and drink from a spoon or from a cup rather than from a saucer, it is better to yield to these demands than to be the occasion of THE SCHOOL IN PROGRESS 97 notice and remark and the embarrassment of our friends. Real politeness, however, does not depend upon forms of etiquette. Politeness is of the heart and mind and may have the true ring and yet be ignorant of outward forms. Real politeness is to be considerate of others. Hence we must avoid giving offense by eating noisily with our lips, or reaching across the table or talking more than our share. Careful observation of polite people will soon teach us the proper forms. The Third Rule of Health.— Let the third rule be, Breathe Pure Air. Almost enough was said on this subject under the topic of cleanliness, where instruc- tion was given concerning the wisdom of keeping our surroundings free from impure and noxious gases that arise from stagnant pools or decaying matter. There remain two things worthy of notice, namely, school- rooms, churches, etc., and sleeping rooms. Teachers should see to it that their schoolrooms are well ventilated. The air in a schoolroom is never pure enough, unless it is as pure as the air outdoors. That is the last measure of purity and is the only one we should accept. Sleeping rooms are often poorly ventilated and from this cause arise coughs, colds, catarrh, weak lungs, impure blood, pale faces, consumption and death. Here again the only test is the outdoor air. If, upon going out of a sleeping room in the morning and re- entering it, there is a stifling sensation or unpleasant odor, it is the signal of danger. Dist. School — 7 98 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL Some of our large cities now have consumption hospitals where the patients are made to live in the open air day and night, whether hot or cold. By this treatment victims who are well along with the disease recover. It is known as the fresh air cure, medicines having nothing to do with it. Physicians say it is im- possible to take consumption in pure air. It is agreed also that tuberculosis (consumption) is not inherited, but is catching. A weak body, and low vitality may be inherited. Weak and sickly parents produce weak and sickly children. Such have feeble powers of resistance and so contract the first disease to which they are exposed. This happens to be con- sumption as often as any other, and thus it was sup- posed that the disease was inherited. A vigorous, out- door life with an abundance of good food and sunshine is the only safeguard. One consumptive patient poorly cared for may inject a whole janiily or even a whole neighborhood. The person afflicted perhaps expectorates anywhere, the ex- pectoration dries up and leaves the germs of the disease to float in the air or to be washed into the streams to pollute wells and cisterns. The expectoration of a sick person should be upon cloths or other matter that may be burned up as fast as it accumulates. All ex- cretions that come from the body of a diseased person should be either burned or buried. By so doing the air is kept pure and life is protected. Churches that are kept tightly closed from week to THE SCHOOL IN PROGRESS 99 week are dangerous. Darkness and foul air afford the best breeding places for diseases. Sunshine and pure air are the joes oj disease A church should be opened and thoroughly ventilated immediately after each serv- ice. It should have some means of ventilation during service. Spitting on church or schoolhouse floors is an abomi- nable practice and ought to be vigorously condemned at every opportunity. Many courthouses also are hideous examples of this vicious practice. Matting is put upon the floor and allowed to remain there for years without being cleaned. It is spit upon and trampled upon until it becomes one mass of filth, an insult to decency and a menace to health. It may not be wise for the teacher to take a leading part outside of his own domain even In a matter so vital to the community, but he can bring it to the attention of some leading person who will make it a business to see that something is done. The Fourth Rule of Health.— The fourth rule is Take Plenty oe Exercise. This leads to the second part of our general topic — gymnastics. There is a prevail- ing belief that country boys do not need calisthenic drills, for the reason that they get plenty of exercise in doing chores and farm work and in walking to and from school. It is true that they are likely to get plenty of that kind of exercise, perhaps too much. Nevertheless they need the calisthenics. Farmers' boys are often stiff and ungainly from too much toil and not lOO TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL enough play. They are stoop-shouldered and rheu- matic and have the form of age rather than the spring and sprightliness of youth. They need a series of exercises that will bring unused muscles into play, that will straighten their shoulders, round out their bodies and make them free and easy in their movements. Teachers in city schools have their calisthenic ex- ercises as regularly as they have their classes in read- ing and numbers, but country teachers, from lack of knowledge or training, or because they consider it un- necessary, usually neglect such exercises. There is no doubt but that they are just as valuable in country as in city schools. If country boys and girls get too much work, their city cousins get too much play. The gymnastics come in as an evener in either case. It is work to city children and play to country children. General Directions for Calisthenic Drills. — Extended directions cannot be given in a work like this. Only a few simple exercises are suggested as a beginning. Any teacher who is interested may for a few cents buy a book of calisthenics giving explicit directions for a great number and variety of exercises. Instructions are frequently found also in teacher's journals. After pupils have been studying for an hour or more, give the signal for attention. Books in order; every- body in position, sitting straight, heads erect, shoulders back. The teacher counts one, all turn into the aisles; two, they stand; three, they face the front, arm's length apart, heels together, toes apart, shoulders THE SCHOOL IN PROGRESS lOI back, chest extended, chin slightly drawn in, eyes to the front, hands resting lightly on hips. This is the general position for all exercises. Firstj the arm movements: At count one, thrust arms forward full length, palms downward, fingers and thumb extended; at count two, return hands to hips; count three, extend arms again and so on till the word halt. Thus: one, arms extended; two, hands on hips; three, arms extended; four, hands on hips; five, arms extended; six, hands on hips; seven, arms extended; halt, hands on hips. After two or three seconds' rest, give new directions as follows: For the next eight counts extend the arms straight upward, palms for- ward, fingers extended, stopping at the word halt. Then arms outward, palms downward for eight counts. Lastly, arms downward, palms backward, eight counts. This completes the round for the arms. Second, movements for the lower limbs: With hands on hips as before, at count one, raise heels, standing well on tiptoes; at count two, return heels to floor; repeat to eight counts. Raise toes in eight counts in the same manner. Again, at count one, extend right foot well forward, placing toe on floor, heel as high as possible; at count two, return to position. Next extend right foot backward, placing toe on floor for eight counts. The same movements for the left foot. Each foot may also be extended to the right and left in like manner. The body is held rigid during these foot movements. At count one, lower body to heels, bending knees I02 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL forward and outward; at count two, return to position and so on for eight counts. Third, body movements: At count one, with legs rigid, bend body forward as nearly parallel with floor as possible; at count two, straighten, etc. At count one, bend body backward as far as possible; at count two, straighten, etc. The same to the left, giving each movement eight counts. Fourth, head movements: Bend head forward, back- ward, side right and side left, each in eight counts, and end by rolling head in rotary motion clear around eight times. These movements make a complete set of directions that need take but a very short time. They give the whole body exercise and if taken vigorously, as they al- ways should be, and with doors and windows open, will put the body in condition for another hour of hard work. Many variations of the above will suggest themselves, such as touching the fingers to the floor without bend- ing the knees, touching the fingers to the top of the head, on the shoulders, under the arms, and so on. Variations make the exercises more pleasing, but the main thing is perseverance. It requires will power to keep them up after they have grown to be an old story, but it pays. Marching around the room to singing is a pleasing exercise and a valuable one, if the teacher will see to it that the pupils walk straight and keep time, with shoulders back, chest extended, head erect and eyes to the front. THE SCHOOL IN PROGRESS 103 Breathing Exercises. — These should always accompany the calisthenic drills. At the beginning, when all are in position, give the signal to inhale, raising the arms outward slowly until on a level with the shoulders ; take just as much air as possible into the lungs; then, exhaling, lower the arms slowly until the lungs are as empty as possible. Repeat the process several times. There is no danger of any child hurting himself by inhaling or exhaling to his full capacity. The Use of Apparatus. — Many schools are provided with costly apparatus, such as Indian clubs, dumb- bells, wands and the like. These things are desirable because they add interest, but they are not at all nec- essary. About as good results can be obtained without as with them. It all depends upon the enthusiasm and determination of the teacher. 7. Rhetorical Exercises Reader, does the idea of rhetoricals dampen your ardor? Does it present to your mental vision the picture of a teacher with a scowling and determined face and pupils in various stages of distress from tears to open rebellion? In many cases where rhetoricals are undertaken, such a picture would not be over- drawn. A large percentage of teachers make no effort to have such exercises, considering the trouble greater than the value received. Others relieve their con- sciences by having little pieces recited on Friday after- I04 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL noons and calling them rhetoricals. A few there are who take the plan up with enthusiasm and carry it through to the pleasure and profit of all concerned. What is the trouble on the one hand and the secret of success on the other? How to Begin. — The trouble lies frequently in a wrong beginning. Pupils without a particle of preparation or training are told to write a composition. The very word is like a thunderstroke to them. They have no idea what is wanted and are helplessly at sea. They cannot think of anything to write about and can see no sense in it anyway. The fact is, the teacher who starts in such a way is making a bad beginning. He is trying to drive the wedge from the wrong end. Children will take great delight in writing compositions if they are started prop- erly. They must begin at the beginning, as they would with arithmetic or grammar, and make progress by easy stages. Little ones should be taught to make single sentences about familiar objects and then to write these sentences. This is composition work. It should be a daily exercise through the first years of school life, until enough skill has been acquired so that the child can express his thoughts as easily in writing as in speaking. When this stage has been reached, he may have it less frequently though not less regularly nor less certainly. Teaching More Advanced Pupils How to Write. — If children well along in other matters have not been THE SCHOOL IN PROGRESS I05 taught to express their thoughts in writing, no time should be lost until they have learned it. No part of their education will be more valuable. Like the little ones they must begin at the beginning. Suppose a boy ten or twelve years old is bright enough in read- ing, spelling and arithmetic, but knows nothing about writing his own thoughts. His first lesson may be something hke this: You say to him, ''Jack, what do you know about pocket-knives?" Jack replies, "O, I know they are a mighty good thing to have. If you have a pocket-knife, you can peel a turnip or cut a watermelon or make things." ^'Now write it out, please." Perhaps, with some demurring, Jack writes it out. You read it over and say, "That is a very good composition." Jack says, ''Why, teacher, that's no composition, that's nothing!" You say, "Well, write some more to it." "But I do not know any more to write." "Are all knives alike?" you ask. "No, some are large and some are small. Some have only one blade while others have three or four. Some are cheap and of poor quality, while others cost considerable and are better." "Well, Jack, you appear to be well posted about knives. Please add that to what you have written." With less reluctance than before, he proceeds to write it out. When it is done, you again approve it and tell him if he will practice a little while every day, he will by and by be able to write anything he wishes. Io6 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL Jack feels proud to think he has done something new that meets the approval of his teacher, and will be glad to exercise his newly-discovered powers again. Henceforth all he needs is intelligent direction with the occasional stimulus of praise or blame for good or bad efforts. Beginners must always be told what to write about with enough directions to keep them from being discouraged. The older pupils, from the fourth reader up, may have rhetoricals once a fortnight, reading their com- positions before the school. Each production should be read by the teacher, the mistakes marked and the whole copied neatly, with the mistakes corrected, before it is allowed to be read in public. The efforts of be- ginners should not be criticised at all. A child may stagger all he pleases while he is learning to walk. Selection of Subjects. — The teacher should be ready to suggest subjects, avoiding such abstract themes as ''Honesty is the Best Policy," ''The Importance of Habit," and "Virtue is its Own Reward." The object is not to bring forth mature wisdom on deep subjects, but to teach children to think about the things around them and to express their thoughts in writing. They should be allowed to write about the things that are interesting to them, that touch their everyday life, such as, "How Mother Gets Dinner," or, "How Father Shears the Sheep," and similar topics, includ- ing all the common occupations about the house and THE SCHOOL IN PROGRESS 107 farm. They may write about their own doings and the things that interest them. At an early stage they may write imaginary com- positions about animals, travels, or what they will do when they are grown. They must be made to under- stand clearly the difference between imagination and reality. Such work as the above they will thoroughly enjoy and it will result greatly to their advantage. CHAPTER V KEEPING UP THE INTEREST I. Helpful Props and Spurs The Main Prop. — It ought to be engraved somewhere, above his desk, over his door, on the ceihng over his bed, anywhere, everywhere, so he could not fail to see it, As THE Teacher Is, so Will the School Be. So long as the zeal of the teacher does not flag, the pupils are not likely to lose interest. But let the spirit of the teacher droop for an instant, and the whole school catches it. If he stretches, the school yawns. It is not so much how to keep the school interested, as how to keep one's own interest from waning. We all need spurring up occasionally. No matter how mettlesome our steed is, if we keep him going at a good strong gait for many days, he will finally be- gin to lag and will have to be touched up. Who shall spur the district teacher when he begins to lag ? There is no principal to keep an eye on him, as in the case of the city teacher. The County Superintendent with his one visit a year is too remote ; we can take many a nap without his catching us. The school directors pay little if any attention, and would hardly dare prod us if they 1 08 KEEPING UP THE INTEREST IO9 knew we needed it. Our patrons will not spur us. Evi- dently we must urge ourselves on. Whatever spurring we get must be self-inflicted. The attention is called to a list of spurs. Spur One. — Count the days. The Psalmist said, "So teach us to number our days that we may apply our hearts unto wisdom." At the beginning of the term, we make our plans as large as possible and as the days go by we shall find the time all too short to accom- plish what we desire. Also, as we become acquainted with our pupils, we discover their needs and add to our original plans. We need now every single day, used to the utmost, in order to do the work that is pressing to be done. If our term is six months, we have one hundred and twenty days. As one after another slips away, we should count jealously those that remain and part with each one as reluctantly as a miser parts from his dollars. Spur Two. — Measure what remains by what has been done. In reviewing the past, we can see how many difficulties were encountered that had not been foreseen. Various unexpected hindrances impeded our progress. We may count upon it that such will be the case to the end. A certain man was adjudged insane because he supposed he could build a house for what the contrac- tors told him it would cost. So we must measure the future, not by what we can see, but by the experiences of the past. Doing this, we shall readily conclude that we have no time to waste. no TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL Spur Three. — For the sake 0} my pupils I must not relax my vigilance. They must take me as their pat- tern. I am their example. I cannot expect them to do more than they see me doing. If I urge them to be dihgent, I must be dihgent. If I would have them in- crease their interest, I must not lose mine. This should be a very keen and effective spur. Spur Four. — Duty to others. I owe it to my parents who love me, to my teachers who instructed me, to those who recommended me, to the directors who em- ployed me, to my patrons who have intrusted their children to my care, to my country and to my Maker to put forth my best efforts, to discharge my duties faith- fully from the first day to the last. Nothing less than whole-hearted service will relieve me of my obligations to all these. Spur Five. — Duty to self. Lastly, / cannot afford to fall into loose ways for the sake of ease, or relief from daily burdens. If I allow myself to become careless, I will greatly injure my chances of success. Work slighted one day will be more easily slighted the next, and soon the habit will be formed and my usefulness will be practically ruined. Neither is it suflficient that I should keep from slipping back, or that I should merely hold my own. I must provide opportunities for self growth and not fail to use them. By such spurs as these, the teacher must keep himself up to his best efforts; without them, he will never reach the goal of his ambitions. keeping up the interest iii 2. Keeping a Brave Front It is never wise to reveal discouragement or disap- pointment. Many a general has saved himself from a crushing defeat by a good showing in front. Disap- pointments and discouragements are certain to come, but we need not brood over them nor talk about them. Some teachers lie awake nights worrying over their difficulties. It does no good whatever, but much harm, because it robs us of greatly needed rest and so unfits us for the next day's duties. Reviewing the Day's Work. — A better plan than wor- rying, is, after the work of the day is over, to review it carefully, passing honest judgment upon every act and taking the full share of blame where things went wrong. We should not hesitate to acknowledge to our- selves our mistakes and shoulder whatever blame at- taches to them. If we do not thus reflect upon our experiences and deal honestly with ourselves, we shall not profit by them. If there are any difficult matters pending, we should think them over carefully and de- cide upon a course of action. Having done this, we may dismiss the whole matter and sleep soundly. This will give us new courage and new strength to go for- ward next day. Avoid Complaint and Gossip. — Ordinarily, when some one asks us how we are getting on, he does not expect us to pour a tale of woe into his ears. His question was a mere common-place greeting, like "How-do-you-do ? " 112 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL and requires only such an answer as "Very well," or "So-so." People are always ready to listen to some- thing bright and cheering, but they do not care to hear wails and complaints. As the old saying is, they have troubles enough of their own. Particularly must we not complain of any of our patrons to some gossipy lis- tener, even though we may think the former have treated us badly. If there is any such difference, we should go to the offenders themselves and if possible straighten it out. If we should not reveal our troubles to the world, it is equally important that we should not reveal them to the school. Instead of arousing sympathy, as for one in distress, it is likely to bring contempt for sup- posed weakness. Clear grit is much more effective than tears. Extreme Cases of Discipline. — Neither will it pay, if we have rebellious or unruly pupils, to discuss them with the neighbors. If we need advice, we should not hesi- tate to ask it of some wise person who has had more experience than we, and who will not take advantage of our confidence to do us hurt. Or if matters are un- endurable, we may go to the directors and lay our trou- bles before them. It is their duty to take such action as may be necessary for the protection of the teacher and of the school. While extreme cases of discipline that require the assistance of the Board are not common, they do some- times happen and are most likely to occur to young KEEPING UP THE INTEREST II3 teachers. To them the above advice will be valu- able. Let Your Work Speak. — Finally, a teacher's own esti- mate of his work will be taken largely by others. If he counts himself a failure, he will be so considered. If he looks upon his work as a success, most people are willing to let it go at that. Two things he should avoid, boasting of his achievements or deprecating his feeble ef- forts. Do your best, keep a brave heart and let your work speak for itself. 3. Encouraging Those Who Need It The Word That Inspires. — It is well to keep an eye out for any depression of spirits among the pupils. Every one has his trials and difficulties. Some are much niore easily discouraged than others. They should have just the word that they need, whether it be praise or blame or sympathy. Some have to struggle very hard to keep pace with their classmates. A smile, a nod, or a word now and then will keep their courage to the sticking point. Notice every good effort and reward it with some kind of recognition. The best teachers are those who inspire their pupils to heroic efforts. Since they cannot measure their own success, the teacher must point it out to them. Show them some of the difficult things they have mastered, knotty problems in arith- metic, knowledge acquired in geography, encouraging lessons in reading. The troubles ahead are no more Dist. School— 8 £14 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL formidable than those that have been met and con- quered. Let the motto be: Do one thing at a time and do it well. Individual Attention. — There are students who have a dread of certain branches, as grammar, arithmetic or spelling. These are often bright in most of their studies, keeping well to the head of the class, and it frets and chafes them to be worsted in some one branch. For such, the greatest care is necessary. They must have special attention in the difficult study. The de- fection is due either to a bad start or to a lack of men- tal development in this one particular. In either case a special effort is needed to overcome the difficulty. It is not wise to leave any part uncultivated. Again, there are gentle, timid souls who quail before their more rough-and-ready classmates. They would almost die of fright were it not for the sympathy and support of the teacher. A brusque or scolding remark does no good, but tends to put them back. They need to be encouraged to speak, and commended for every effort until they gain confidence in themselves. If they can be made to feel that they are really succeeding," they will gain in assurance and strength and be much happier. For each class and for every individual the teacher should appoint himself a lookout committee. He should study the minds and dispositions of all. There is al- ways some one requiring special attention. Like a skillful physician, he should know how to diagnose each case and be able to render such aid as is needed. keeping up the interest ii5 4. Improving Your Teaching Keep Out of Ruts. — It is a large part of every teach- er's duty to look to his own growth. This is particu- larly true of beginners. It is very easy to get into ruts and go on about the same day after day, but the habit is a deadly one and must he jought with vigor. Without discouragement or self-abasement, the young teacher should sharply criticise his every act. He should keep constantly in mind that his teaching could be and ought to be improved. He should study new ways of pre- senting knowledge so as to make it more attractive, new ways of arousing interest and keeping the pupils in good heart. A new way is better than the old if it takes the teacher out of a rut. It is well to try new methods occasion- ally for the sake of being able to do so. Many teachers have followed so long the paths their fathers trod, that it is almost impossible for them to venture upon un- tried ways. Every one should blaze some new path, should venture into fields that, so far as he knows, have never been explored. He should feel the exhila- ration of discovery, the satisfaction of having done something that his predecessors never did. It will add strength to his character and interest to his work. Caution and Enthusiasm. — This does not mean that we should be running after every new fad that comes along. There are many enthusiasts, who, for the sake of notoriety or gain, are urging upon others their latest Il6 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL device or method. It is not wise to bite too quickly at these baits. If a new thing commends itself and is indorsed by trustworthy people, and is not too costly, we need not hesitate to give it a trial. But too many so called time-savers are merely money-making devices of little real value, and it is usually better to wait and let time determine their true standing. A rule long ago laid down by a famous rhetorician will apply in such cases: " Be not the first by which the new is tried, Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." Necessity of Daily Study. — In striving to improve our teaching, we must not forget that daily study is a ne- cessity to growth. No brilliancy of mind, nor device, nor even experience can take the place of it. Knowl- edge to be interesting, must be fresh. No matter how often we have taught a subject, unless we study it anew each time, we shall fail of the best results. The mind, like the body, cannot feed upon itself and grow. It must have new material daily. Realizing this, we should set apart some hours every day to the study of our lessons, both as to the matter of them and the way in which they should be presented. The young teacher who does this conscientiously, will find it the most delightful period of the day. It is the time for adding to and enriching his stores of learning, and he will have more to give and will give it better, if he will keep this study period sacred. Acquiring Pedagogical Helps, — It will not be sufficient KEEPING UP THE INTEREST I17 to Study the text-books and ways of presenting the lessons. The teacher must be provided with the best literature the profession affords. On his study table should be the latest numbers of two or three of the leading educational journals, and these should be care- fully read and digested as soon as possible after they arrive. He should also have a few good works on pedagogy. To acquire these, he may write to school- book publishing companies, asking them for their best work on teaching. Nearly every publishing company has at least one excellent work of this class. Such helps should be carefully read, with special attention given to the parts that seem particularly applicable. In this way will be gleaned many ideas that will make the work of teaching more interesting and far more helpful to the pupils, and will keep the teacher growing. Visiting Other Schools. — After teaching a month or six weeks, it is a good plan to take a day off and visit some other school. In doing this, select the best teacher of your acquaintance within reach. Spend the entire day in the schoolroom, taking note of everything that hap- pens. Observe very carefully ways or methods that differ from your own and their results. At inter- missions, talk frankly with the teacher concerning his methods, being careful to commend the best things and to offer no unfavorable criticism of anything. If asked, give your own methods without any show of pride or boasting. A general plan for visiting would be greatly produc- Il8 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL tive of good. If every teacher were allowed two or three days in the school year for that purpose, it would stimulate to greater effort, unify the work and afford each one a means for measuring his success with his coworkers. But until such provision is made by the state legislature, it will pay every teacher to take the time at his own expense. Attending Teachers* Associations. — In many places pro- vision has been made for attending teachers' associa- tions. The progressive teacher will lay much store by this and not permit anything to keep him away. Here he comes in contact with his fellows, and hears the best thoughts of the foremost teachers on vital topics. If he goes in the right spirit, he cannot fail to gain mxuch that will be helpful. To obtain the best re- sults, he should give as well as receive. By enter- ing into the discussions, he will add his part to the in- terest of the meeting and discover the strength or weakness of his ideas. Not only should a teacher at- tend every association in his county, but he should by all means attend the state association. Here he sees and hears the ablest educators of the state, and may enrich his mind with the best and freshest thoughts of the times. Keeping a Scrapbook. — Finally, the teacher should keep a scrapbook, one for each year. Here, under proper headings, should be gathered clippings from the educational journals on reading, drawing, history, etc.. items of interest from newspapers and magazines, dec- KEEPING UP THE INTEREST II 9 lamations, gems of poetry, stories and the like. It may contain also pen-notes of schools visited, associations attended or lectures heard. Such a scrapbook becomes a rich storehouse for Friday afternoons and for special days and occasions. A Final Word on Self-Improvement. — The above are the common and ordinary means for self-improvement. If used diligently, they are certain to produce satisfac- tory results. If omitted, the opposite is just as certain, — professional stagnation, decay and death. Some teach- ers will say that they cannot afford all these things, — journals, magazines, books and teachers' associations. The truth is, no one can afford to go without them. Money invested in self-improvement will be returned many fold. The teacher who will not invest in any of these things, will grow rusty and careless, be looked upon as a back number and instead of being sought for and promoted, will be seeking for the poorest positions and will finally lose out altogether. Self-improvement is necessary for self-protection. 5. Reserve Forces The wise general does not keep all his forces actively engaged. He has some in reserve against the time of need. In some desperate situation, this strong re- serve force, which the enemy knows nothing about,' will save him from defeat. Likewise, the teacher who is looking out against the day of trouble has his reserve I20 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL forces. When the school has been going on for some weeks and the dull grind of monotony begins to settle down, when the little faces grow long and sighs of dis- couragement appear, a part of the extra forces may be brought into play. The following list is offered as hav- ing done valiant duty on many a hard fought field. A New Song. — On a dull afternoon, when the energy is at a low ebb, have a new song ready, a school song; if possible, one with action in it. Write the verses on the blackboard one at a time until all are learned. See that it is sung with vim and good will. If it is a march- ing song, all the better. Get some boy who is skillful with the mouth organ to play an accompaniment, and have all the school march around the room. Five or six minutes of this will take away the dullness, and work may be resumed to much greater profit. New Ways of Hearing the Lessons. — There are a dozen ways of hearing a spelling class recite. Hold back your latest invention until the interest lags, then spring it. Drawing offers a fine field for interesting novelties. A new object to draw, with interesting details of shading and measurements, cannot fail to charm away lethargy. The geography is a storehouse of good things. Make a map, showing the various products of the United States with pictures or objects. In grazing countries cut out small pictures of cattle, horses and sheep and pin on to the map. To show the corn belt, grains of corn may be pasted on, white in the south, yellow in the north; wheat grains to show the wheat states, bits of KEEPING UP THE INTEREST 121 cotton to show where that is raised, wood for timber and so on. This plan is an excellent thing in itself, but may well be kept until it is needed to revive interest. A Ciphering Match. — This has often helped to revive flagging energies. The pupils choose sides as in a spell- ing match. The one last chosen goes to the board and selects an opponent from the opposite side. The latter chooses the kind of work, as adding, subtracting or multiplying. When both are ready, the teacher gives a problem and they go at it with might and main. The figures fairly fly. The first one through reads his an- swer. If it is right, he has won. The loser goes to his seat ; the winner selects his successor, who again chooses the kind of work, and so the game goes on until one side or the other is vanquished. There is plenty of excite- ment in it and it stimulates to rapidity and accuracy. Bird Day. — In some parts of the country, a day has been set apart for the study of birds and is called ''Bird Day." It is rather the culmination of a series of studies on birds. Country children have a fine opportunity for this study and ought to know much more about it than they ordinarily do. They may first roughly clas- sify all as song birds, useful birds and harmful birds. These branches may be studied separately, comparing different kinds of one class, as the robin and the wren. ''Bird Day" gathers together the knowledge acquired in several weeks or months and makes as great a show- ing as possible. The children have learned to draw pictures of the various kinds of birds they have studied, 122 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL to describe their appearance and habits, to imitate or describe their note or song, to tell where and how they build their nests, number of eggs, appearance of young ones and so on. A collection of nests may be made, being careful to take only those that have been aban- doned. The literary part of the program may con- sist of songs, poems, stories and written descriptions of birds. Bird games may be played and the small chil- dren may be taught to act birds in such ways as hop- ping and flying. Both the preparation and the day it- self will bring out much that is interesting and useful. History Day. — This is another equally profitable and perhaps more entertaining occasion. It has an advan- tage over "Bird Day" in that all the people of the dis- trict may take part. Like the other, it requires con- siderable preparation on the part of teacher and pupils. It need not be confined to the history class — all may have some part. The children should be made familiar with a considerable number of historical events, so that they can tell about them readily in their own words. They should collect pictures of important people, places and things. They should make drawings of such objects as Lincoln's birthplace, the cabin where Betsy Ross made the flag, the Bunker Hill Monument, the Liberty Bell, etc. All the relics of the neighborhood may be borrowed for the occasion and be so placed as to make the best display. New Gaines — Field Day. — The playground must not be despised nor neglected. It may be made a power- KEEPING UP THE INTEREST 1 23 ful factor in keeping up the interest in the school. High schools and colleges all over the land make a great deal of athletics, keeping in school by means of their in- terest in games, hundreds of young men who could not otherwise be induced to remain. Some condemn the match games of football, baseball and rowing, because of the loss of time and other attendant evils, but all are in favor of good, healthy, clean athletics. All children and most grown people like to play, and it is right that they should indulge their liking. It is a part of their de- velopment. If properly directed, it may be an impor- tant factor in their education. When the interest in play is on the wane and the old games become tiresome, have a new one ready to pro- pose. Enter into it with zest yourself, and see if it will not bring new life into the school. Outdoor games are the best, but there should be a few indoor ones for bad weather. Conundrums, riddles, charades are all good if rightly conducted. Much depends upon the way the teacher does his part. He should never play in a half-hearted manner. All look to the teacher as the leading spirit, and any signs of being bored will be catching and the game will be spoiled. Some of the larger district schools might well have a ''Field Day." This would give every boy a chance to take part and to choose the particular sport in which he excels. Each class should have its events, such as running, jumping, throwing the hammer and putting the shot. Running may consist of sixty and one hun- 124 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL dred yard dashes. Young boys should not attempt long runs. Jumping may consist of several varieties, as running hop-step-and-jump, standing hop-step-and- jump, running broad jump, standing broad jump, and running and standing high jump. The only prizes that need be given are ribbons that indicate first and second place; a record should be kept from year to year. Where this could be worked successfully, it would be a powerful incentive to keep the larger boys in school, and it is a perfectly justifiable method to use. Mental Exercise. — It must not be forgotten that men- tal exercise when rightly adapted to the pupils, is as fascinating as physical. When mind and body are in good condition, there is nothing more exhilarating than study, provided it is fresh and suited to the pupils' development and needs. They should be constantly moving into new work, using the old in acquiring it. If it is done vigorously and thoroughly, but little re- view, that is, going over the same ground again, will be needed. When, in pursuit of the new, it is discovered that certain points have not been thoroughly learned, take up those particular parts and dwell upon them until they are understood. It does not pay to go over old straw so long as there is more wheat in front of you than you can ever get threshed, but it does pay to do it thoroughly as you go. Study hard until the mind is weary, then play or rest. keeping up the interest 1 25 6. School Visitors Give Special Invitations. — There is no doubt but that the presence of a visitor, who is a friend of the school, is a stimulus to good work. It is not necessary to wait until some one happens to come ; neither will it answer to extend a general invitation, such as, "Come and see us some time." Think over your patrons and friends and make a list of those who would be an advantage to the school. Call on number one and ask him or her to come at an appointed time. The date having been agreed to, send a reminder the day before. It is proper to suggest to the visitor the particular points you would like to have noticed in which the pupils need encouragement, and to ask for private suggestions to yourself. Profit by Experience. — When the visit is over, reflect upon its success or failure. If it was not what you hoped, discover the cause and try again. Decide what course to follow with number two and have him call a week or so later, and thus continue through the list. You will find it will materially benefit the school. All patrons should be cordially invited to drop in at any time and should be made welcome and receive attention when they come. Those who cannot do the school any good, will receive benefit to themselves. They will be more in touch and in sympathy with the teacher and pupils, and have a greater interest in what is being done for their children. 126 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL Summarizing, we observe that in this chapter six things have been suggested for keeping up the interest, each going sufficiently into details to be a guide to the teacher. Upon him or her everything depends. A lazy or indifferent teacher may read it over and decide that these things are too difficult, or require too much ex- ertion and drift along as before. But one who is alive to his own growth and to the advancement of his school, will welcome suggestions from whatever source and will seek to put into execution every plan that com- mends itself to his judgment. CHAPTER VI LOVE AS A FACTOR IN TEACHING Love, according to the New Testament, is the ful- filling of the law. The ^'law" has reference to the commandments of the Old Testament, but considered from a modern standpoint it means everything that can rightfully be required of us. If it were possible to perform every act that pertains to successful teaching without love in our hearts, we should still be indebted to the law. On the other hand, if we have love in full measure, we shall fulfill the law, because love will stimulate us to perform all necessary outward acts. Love is within, but is manifested from without. We can judge of a person's love only by his words, his deeds, his manner toward us. We cannot see the heart. Love manifests itself by respect, by thoughtfulness and by consideration for our welfare. It is not mercenary, asks for no reward except to be loved in return, and this is certain to follow as ''love begets love." The best description of it is that of Paul in his First Letter to the Corinthians, the thirteenth chapter. There it is trans- lated ''charity." It is the same feeling expressed in the song of the Angels at the Savior's birth, "Peace on earth, good will to men." 123 128 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL I. It Must be Without Partiality The Unlovable Children. — Many teachers find it diffi- cult to love all their pupils. Some children are so happy in disposition that it is as easy to love them as to love beautiful flowers. A wealth of affection is show- ered upon them and they flourish in its atmosphere. But with an unlovely child, the case is different; there is nothing, or very little, that inspires affection. Yet it is possible to love the worst specimens of mankind, otherwise we should not have been commanded to love everybody, even our enemies. Love should be most bountifully bestowed where it is most needed, and obviously the disagreeable, "hate- ful" child stands first in this respect. His ugly dispo- sition is due to the lack of proper affection. Neglected children are unloved children. Love never neglects. Such need the affection of the teacher and can be reached and benefited by no other power. The boy who is rude and rough may have no conception of what love is, but he will none the less be susceptible to its influences. Interest and Pity Akin to Love. — If the teacher finds it J difficult to love certain ones, he may at least take an " interest in them. Every child is interesting. If one seems especially disagreeable, make a study of him. Find out the circumstances and conditions of his bring- ing up. A revelation of the truth is, almost certain to arouse pity, and pity is akin to love. An impulse will LOVE AS A FACTOR IN TEACHING 1 29 at once arise to show kindness, where nothing but neg- lect and perhaps cruelty has been shown. Follow up the impulse and persevere until the heart has been reached. There is in every boy's heart a soft spot that love will sooner or later find, and once having gained an entrance, the way is easy. Many of the most in- corrigible are unconsciously heart hungry for affection, but cruelty and deceit have made them suspicious of advances. The confidence of such must be won com- pletely, before they will make known their real thoughts. An " Incorrigible " Boy. — A story is told of a teacher in one of the Chicago schools who tried faithfully to reach the heart of an incorrigible boy, but without success. Despairing at length, she decided he must be reported to the principal and expelled. Wishing to make one more effort before resorting to this extremity, she asked the boy to stay after the others were dis- missed at noon. He remained in his seat with a coun- tenance hard and sullen. The teacher sat down beside him and spoke pleasantly, telling him she would be glad to do something for him and asking why he had re- pulsed all her efforts at kindness. The boy looked up with tears in his eyes and said, ''Teacher, it's 'cause I'm so durned hungry." It was a revelation. The teacher would never have thought of attributing his hardness to such a cause. He was provided with a good dinner that day and every day thereafter, and gave no further trouble. Love was the fulfilling of the law in his case. Dist. School — 9 130 teaching a district school 2. The Relation of Love to Punishment Natural Consequences. — In bestowing love, the teacher does not surrender the reins of government, nor the right to punish when necessary. Love must be neither weak nor cowardly. But it never punishes for the sake 0} seeking an outlet to angry jeelings, nor to avenge misdeeds. In fact, love seldom resorts to arbi- trary punishment, that is, punishment that has no re- lation to the wrong committed. It seeks to let wrong- doing meet with its natural consequence. Thus, if a pupil wastes his study period, he cannot recite; he is humiliated before the teacher and the class ; he receives a low mark, and loses a certain amount of his standing in scholarship. All this is the natural consequence of wasting time and to avoid a repetition, he need only to be reminded kindly of it. Likewise, if a pupil indulges in falsehood, the pun- ishment is not a whipping, nor standing in a corner, nor getting a double lesson. The natural restdt of lying is loss of character and reputation. It is to have one's word doubted when he wants to have it trusted. It is to be under suspicion in other ways, because if one will stoop to lie, he will not hesitate to commit other sins. These natural results are a thousand times more serious than some little bodily discomfort. Love points out all these, and if corporal punishment is ever resorted to, it is only for the sake of bringing some heedless one to his senses. love as a factor in teaching 13i 3. Love's Various Manifestations The Needs of the Little Ones. — Again, the manifesta- tions of love must differ in the various grades. It may be shown to the six-year-olds in a hundred ways that will not apply to the older pupils. When children first enter school, they must be shown many little atten- tions to make them feel at home. The teacher must be all in all to them in this strange new place. He may be just as strict as he hkes, providing he administers his requirements with gentleness and love. The wants of the little ones are numerous and should have attention. Judgment must be exercised as to which of these desires shall be granted, and which re- fused. At playtime, they should have watchful care. Their feelings will be hurt, and must be soothed by a kind word and a pat on the head. Physical bumps and bruises occur frequently, and the teacher's sympathy is craved and should be extended. In short, their utter dependence should make a strong appeal to the teach- er's heart, calling for all that is kind and helpful in his nature. The greatest demand upon the teacher'' s love, however, will come in the giving of instruction to these little people. It is a great thing to start a child on the way to learn- ing. No bungler should be trusted with so important a task. Much of the child's success in life, possibly his destiny, depends upon the impetus given to his mind and heart in the first months of his school life. A 132 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL warm-hearted, loving teacher will make every lesson a delight, and cause learning to appear, as it is, the one thing in the world most to be desired ; while a cold and indifferent teacher will afford no inspiration, will make study seem a profitless task and knowledge a dead and unattractive thing. There can be but little growth in such an atmosphere. Children expect love and thrive in it. Their hearts open to it as naturally as the flower opens to the rays of the sun. The Second and Third Grades. — These children are not so dependent upon the teacher's care. They have be- come accustomed to the routine of the school, know how to get their lessons and in a large measure how to look out for themselves both in the schoolroom and on the playground. But still they have their rights and demands upon the teacher's affection. They have learned to trust in him, to bask in his smiles, to look for his approval. If he were to withdraw his attention, life would be cheerless indeed. His every act is no- ticed, his moods watched, his words quoted. He is their authority on all school matters. That everybody recognizes this disposition is shown in the oft-repeated question, ^'How do you like the teacher?" If the children *'like" the teacher and are enthusiastic in their praise, it is all the evidence most people need. They are willing to take the pupils' judgment. This shows that so far as his standing in the community goes, it is wise for the teacher to be on good terms with the pupils. LOVE AS A FACTOR IN TEACHING 1 33 By the time children have reached the second and third grades, their individual dispositions are somewhat developed and traits of character begin to be more pro- nounced. Some will yield readily to the teacher's wishes, others will ^^try his patience." The greatest care is needed that no partiality be shown. It is not necessary to treat all alike, — their dispositions require different treatment, but it is necessary to extend to all the same courtesy and the same degree of good will. No matter what unlovely traits develop, they must not be permitted to bias the mind of the teacher. Don't "lay up" against a child a great mistake, or even a great misdeed. Expect him to repent of it and outgrow it, and help him to do so. Cultivate all that is noble, and eradicate if possible all that is evil. Love is the most potent factor in the world for this. The Backward Pupils. — In nearly every country school there are some pupils who are woefully behind in their education, boys and. girls nearly grown, who have scarcely learned to read. Circumstances over which they perhaps have had no control have kept them out of school, while class after class has gone on until now they are years behind. At the beginning of each term, their unquenched longing for knowledge lures them into the schoolroom to find their former classmates far in advance, making rapid and cheerful progress, and themselves classed with children whom they knew as babies. What shall be done with these belated ones ? The common way is to class them with Httle ones and 134 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL let them sink or swim. They usually flounder a while and sink. They are self-conscious and ashamed, can- not share in the enthusiasm of their classmates and feel strange and out of place. They are likely to be re- garded with pity or contempt, either of which is hard to bear, and so they grow discouraged and give it up, hoping to find some more favorable opportunity. There is no doubt but that, for a time at least, an ex- tra amount of attention should be shown them. Spare no pains to have them learn something each day and point out their progress to them. Give some special word of encouragement every evening and predict still greater success for the future. Watch for the slightest sign of discouragement and drive it away with assur- ances that they are doing excellently and if only they will persevere, they will win. If time will possibly permit, it is better not to put these grown-ups in classes with the little ones. They will be more comfortable and advance more rapidly by themselves. Much of the work given the smaller ones, they do not need and are embarrassed by it. The teacher's manner to the children is not suited to them; they need to be addressed according to their age rather than to their advancement in learning. Besides, it is ab- surd to have them going over little sentences about dogs and cats, tops and dolls, and the hundred other trifles that are perfectly suited to the children. Paul's state- ment expresses it admirably, ''When I was a child, I thought as a child, I spake as a child ; but when I be- LOVE AS A FACTOR IN TEACHING 135 came a man, I put away childish things." Give them something suited to their age and manner of thinking, and let them work it out, extending such help as they need. By all means let them recite by themselves. Also, they should be constantly reminded that they are ''catching up." In fact, the whole process of their learning is "catching up" knowledge that should have been acquired long ago. If a belated one is strong in some one branch, let him devote as much time as he likes to it for a while. It will be a great day when it can be said, "John is as good in arithmetic, or in reading, as any one of his age." This gives him a sure footing, and all that is necessary now is to tell him he must bring up other studies. A little reflection will show that this is not only good common sense, but that it is sound pedagogy. A little knowledge of what has been done by some of these cases of arrested education should be a great stimulus to any teacher, and he ought to be glad of an opportunity to extend a helping hand to any within his reach. A Helpful Story. — One of the best county superintend- ents the writer has ever known, is fond of encouraging backward ones by telling his own experience. His schooling began when he was sixteen years of age, as a result of an accident that left him a cripple for several months. The father was not in favor of education; he would teach his boy to work. But when work was out of the 136 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL question and the boy begged to go to school, his wish was granted. What a revelation it was! He looked with wonder and envy at boys of his own age who could read like a ''house afire," could work hard ''sums," and v/ho "rattled off big words, such as 'can- cellation,' 'longitude and time,' 'allegation medial' and 'duodecimals.' " How ashamed he was of his ig- norance! Could he ever acquire such knowledge? However, he applied himself with all his might and made such strides, that when he was recovered of his injury there was no keeping him out of school. He was willing to work hard in vacation, but when school opened, his father was practically compelled to yield. The result was that in four years he took the county examination and came out triumphant with a third class certificate. Could it be possible that he was now equipped to teach a district school? He could scarcely believe it, yet there was the proof, signed by the county superintendent and the other examiners. He secured a school, taught it to the satisfaction of the district, and with the money earned went away to school. This he did repeatedly until he was the leading teacher in the county. His specialty was encouraging boys and girls who had never had a "chance." While still under thirty, he was elected to the county superintendency, and by all accounts did the most efficient work ever known in that community. Had he been put with the little ones to keep pace with them, no such record could have been made. LOVE AS A FACTOR IN TEACHING 1 37 Other Cases in Point. — Two other county superintend- ents, known to the writer, learned to read after they were eighteen and earned certificates before they were twenty- two. One of the brightest young lawyers of to- day went to ^'College" when he was seventeen and was put in a primary grade. Four years served to com- plete the ^'common branches" and three more, inter- spersed with teaching, to graduate from a higher course. Many other like cases could be given, but these are sufficient to show what can be done and to point the way toward its accomplishment. All will not do equally well, but every one should be given a chance to make the most of his time and talents. The Very Poor. — Another class needing a large amount of sympathy consists of those who are very poor and who in consequence lack the necessities of school life, namely, books and clothing. The only thing such children can have in abundance is love, and they ought not to be deprived of that, though it is often denied them. T'he district school is and should he the most demo- cratic institution in our country. Here the rich and the poor meet on equal terms. They sit side by side, study the same lessons and receive the same instruction. Each one stands upon his own merits without regard to the kind of clothes he wears, or the wealth or social standing of his parents. The talent of the poor boy, whether in the class or on the playground, is respected equally with that of the rich. Real success has no fa- 138 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL vors to bestow upon either poverty or wealth. It de- pends upon industry, perseverance and nobility of character. These cannot be bought with money, nor can the poor be deprived of them because of their poverty. If certain very poor children lack books, it is the teacher's duty to see that they are supplied. This re- quires tact. The poor are often extremely sensitive, and will quickly repel any proposition that appears to reflect upon their poverty. The children may be told to ask their parents to supply them with certain books. If, after a reasonable time, the books are not forth- coming, it will be best to call upon the parents and kindly request that the children should have them. If the parents frankly admit that they are too poor to buy them and if their surroundings bear out the statement, some offer of assistance may be made. It may not be necessary or wise to use the district funds for the whole amount. It is better for people to help them- selves as far as possible. There are not many in the country so reduced that they cannot afford the small sum necessary for schoolbooks. If the children are kept at home for want of cloth- ing, it is a still more delicate matter. If the teacher is friendly and appears to take a real interest in the little ones, the mother will admit that they lack suitable clothing. The matter may then be fully discussed and the wisest course chosen. The one great point should be adhered to, the children must he in school. LOVE AS A FACTOR IN TEACHING 1 39 The Bright Pupils. — While we are caring for the little ones and for those who have advanced to the second and third grades, for the ones who are behind and the pupils who lack books and clothing, we must not for- get the bright and fortunate pupils. Some one may say they can take care of themselves. But that would not be right. They are entitled to their share of attention and affection no less than the others. It is sometimes urged that they will keep up anyway, whether they have the teacher's assistance or not. Very likely they would, but the fact that they do keep up does not re- lieve the teacher from the discharge of his duty to them. If they do well without assistance, they will do much better with it. What farmer would neglect his best stock to give all his time and care to that which is less promising ? On the other hand, some teachers give too much to the bright ones, because they are companionable and respond readily to instruction. This also is wrong. Every child should have his full share of the teacher's heart and mind and no more. His love must be be- stowed impartially. It is not possible for a teacher to love his pupils too much, provided his affection is dis- tributed properly. If certain ones learn more readily than others, they should be given more work; otherwise they are liable to fall into loose habits. They will learn their task and waste the remainder of the period, and this happening continually will result in a greater disadvantage than I40 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL being slow to learn. One of the best habits any child can learn is that of industry. No amount of bright- ness can make up for the lack of it. Bright children often end in disappointment to parents and teachers, and people wonder why they have not fulfilled their early promise. If by their brightness they have learned to avoid the drudgery of toil, no further explanation need be sought. The old saying, ''There is no excel- lence without great labor," needs to be drilled into the minds of the bright students no less than into the minds of the slower ones. From the above it is readily seen that bright pupils must be kept at work. This is one of the duties that severely taxes the teacher. He is often at his wits' end to know how to provide work that is suitable. It is out of the question to have separate recitations for all, permitting each one to go as fast as he can. They must be kept in classes. Though it is difficult, the ingenious teacher will find some way of keeping the ready ones at work. He may ''make up" problems in arithmetic, set them to draw- ing a special map in geography, to hunting up events in history, or he may supply them with extra reading matter, requiring a brief account of all that is done. In this way each one has an opportunity to cultivate his talents to the extent of his ability, and no pupil should be debarred from that privilege. The Most Advanced Pupils. — Lastly, we have to con- sider the pupils that are most advanced, those that LOVE AS A FACTOR IN TEACHING I4I are within a year or two of completing the common school course. They need wise and loving counsel in their plans for the future. Usually they do not know just what occupation or profession they wish to follow, and it is not necessary that they should. Their minds are not sufficiently developed to make certain any par- ticular bent. What they need is a general education that will develop all the faculties and give them a broader outlook. They should be encouraged to talk about the future in connection with their own lives. It is the teacher's opportunity to tell them of the possibilities in store for them. Country children living far from the centers of industry, if left to themselves, have but few ideals from which to choose. They must form their ideals from the life they see about them, and this consists of farmers and a few each of teachers, doctors, lawyers, preachers and country merchants. Some of these are not the best representatives of their class, and if none of them appeal to a youth, he is left to drift. The teacher should tell his pupils of the great indus- tries and enterprises of the world, of the opportunities to do good and to make a name among men. He should point out clearly the qualifications necessary to suc- cess — faithfulness, honesty, industry. He should dwell upon the advantages that a good education and thor- ough preparation give. He should lead his pupils to think carefully about the advisability of going on with their education. In their lessons, he should be sug- 142 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL gesting continually things they will learn when they come to the study of algebra, geometry and Latin. Their ambitions will thus be aroused and their minds turned into proper channels of thought. Many a suc- cessful man bears grateful testimony to the fact that some wise teacher of his youth first placed before his mind the ideals that led to his usefulness, first aroused in his heart an ambition to do something that would make the world better. The Bad Boy. — It would not do to close this chapter without a word concerning the ''bad boy" and the ''dull boy." They are not mentioned together here be- cause they are usually found in the same class. More often than otherwise the worst boy has a bright mind. Frequently he is the best material in the school. The reason he is "bad" is because his restless energies have not been directed into right channels. Not having any- thing good as an outlet to his energy, he has taken up with whatever came to hand, frequently falling into mis- chief. He has acquired the name of being a bad boy and has accepted it, thinking this course the only way to have a good time. The best chance for such a boy is a loving teacher who can see his good points, who will not scold and who will see that his energies are directed to things worth doing. It is well worth while to expend a large amount of heart power on the "bad boy." If you suc- ceed, you will "save one soul from death and hide a multitude of sins." If he is hardened in his ways, LOVE AS A FACTOR IN TEACHING 1 43 there is all the more demand upon the power of the heart. It is the only force that can reach him. It must be the kind of love that shows no weakness, no flinch- ing, sticks to him through thick and thin and calls him firmly to task when guilty of willful wrong. The experience of the writer has led him to believe that the difference between a good hoy and a had one fre- quently lies in the teacher. A boy soon learns whether or not a teacher has the power to enforce his own re- quirements. If he has that power, his authority will be respected ; if he lacks it, his wishes will be disregarded and the boy will take his own course. It often happens in graded schools that boys who are bad under a teacher weak in government, reform at once when promoted to a grade taught by one who is a master of discipline. Boys have a great respect for one who is master of the situation. The Dull Child.— The dull child presents, perhaps, the most difhcult problem of all. To succeed with him, three qualities are necessary in almost infinite amount, love, patience and perseverance. No one need despair of a dull child, for no one can tell his possibilities. John Wesley as a man was an intellectual giant, tower- ing above the common world like a colossus; but as a child, he was considered a blockhead by his own father. The story is told of his mother's trying to teach him. With infinite patience and love she repeated the lesson over and over again. The father, vexed with this ap- parently endless and fruitless effort, exclaimed, "Why 144 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL do you tell that boy the same thing twenty times over?" *' Because," rephed the mother, ^'if I stop at nineteen John will not understand it." In after life Mr. Wes- ley attributed his attainments to the love and faithful- ness of his mother. The great Dr. Chalmers of Scotland was so dull as a boy that he was actually expelled from the school of St. Andrews because of his stupidity. As a man, he attained to great distinction as a scholar, preacher and reformer, and was elected to a professorship in the very school from which he was expelled. What a comment on the wisdom of his teachers, yet they were doubtless as wise as their fellows, or as teachers are now. Scores of such examples could be given. What often passes for dullness is not a lack of men- tal endowment, but comes rather from a slow develop- ment of the faculties. Minds do not always develop alike. Many of the master minds of the world were long in maturing, as, for example, Sir Walter Scott, who was called a dunce at school; Lord Byron, who was seldom anywhere but at the foot of his class, and Lord Robert Clive, who excelled all his classmates in the time he spent wearing the dunce-cap, but who at thirty- two was the most brilliant general in the British army. Physical Deficiencies. — Again, apparent mental stupid- ity is frequently caused by partial deafness or some de- ficiency of eyesight. Children seldom know how well others can see or hear and hence are not aware of any weakness in themselves. Such children miss much of LOVE AS A FACTOR IN TEACHING 145 the instruction given the class and are likely to be inat- tentive. They are consequently considered stupid or lacking in interest, and little intelligent effort is made to arouse them. If a child appears dull, the teacher should go to some pains to ascertain the cause. Some very simple tests for eyes and ears may be given. Questions asked in low tones will show whether the hearing is acute. Test- ing different ones as to how far they can hear the tick- ing of a watch is an excellent way to discover any lack of hearing in any of the pupils. For the eyesight, ob- serve how far letters an inch high can be seen distinctly. If they cannot be read at ten or twelve feet, there is something wrong. When any lack in these senses is discovered, the par- ents should be informed and the skill of a physician recommended. In the meantime the teacher should do his utmost by kindness, sympathy and attention to make up for the deficiency. The dull of hearing should have a seat near the front, and the instruction of the class should be given in his direction so that he may not miss it. The child whose eyesight is poor should be allowed to sit in the best lighted spot and to approach the black- board at any time he desires to read from it. In these and other ways love conquers all difficulties. This is but a brief outline of what love demands and of what it can accomplish. The teacher who is really great in heart will strive to learn the disposition and character and all that pertains to the growth and cul- Dist. Schooi — 10 146 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL ture of each pupil, and he will find it the most interest- ing study in the world. His increasing knowledge of their good and bad traits, their frailties and follies as well as their sterling qualities, will appeal more strongly to his heart and cause him to strive earnestly to meet every requirement. If he does this, he cannot fail. CHAPTER VII MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL Frequently parents complain that the work of the school is not practical. Business men also make the same criticism. They claim that when they employ a student from the public schools, they find him lacking in the knowledge of the common things of life. He may be well enough versed in text-book matters, rules and definitions and theoretical ideas, but his knowl- edge is not practical. He has not grasped his subjects in such a way as to make use of them in his work. Such criticism is frequently unfair. Young people cannot be expected to have a complete stock of practi- cal wisdom until they have had an opportunity to ac- quire it by experience. Yet there is no doubt reason for the complaint. We, as teachers, are not always as careful as we should be to keep our instruction in line with everyday duties. It is wise to consider all well- meant criticisms and profit by them. Removed as we are, with our professional duties, from the great busi- ness world, there is doubtless danger of our becoming too theoretical. The purpose of this chapter is to show how to make the work of the school of practical use to the pupils in 147 148 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL their present and future daily life. We will consider the branches separately. I. Reading We learn to read in order that we may read. If we learn to read and make no use of our accomplishment, it will profit us httle. We live in a reading age. By means of the newspapers we keep in touch with the principal happenings of the world, and learn something of the people who are in the public eye. By means of magazines and books we get the best thoughts of the leading thinkers and writers. Without these means we should be extremely limited in knowledge of events and ideas. Those who cannot or do not read, lose a very great part of what is essential to a happy and useful hfe. A School Library. — It is important that the reading habit be acquired early. The longer it is put off after school age is reached, the more difficult it will be. As soon as children have learned to read readily, they should be supplied with reading matter suitable to their understanding. To this end there should be in every district school a small library of juvenile books. These should be chosen with a view to their charm, as well as to their knowledge and moral teaching, otherwise the end sought will be frustrated in the beginning. If the thought is heavy or the matter dull, the children will give it up in disgust. The safest course is to seek the MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL I49 advice of an experienced librarian or teacher. When the books are obtained, the teacher should see that they are distributed wisely and a record kept of the name of each student and of the book he has drawn. Discussion and Application. — The teacher should keep track of the reading by asking questions each day or at appointed times. It will be much better if the teacher has read the books before they are given out, as he will be able to discuss them with so much greater intelli- gence. Discussion of books or articles adds very much to the delight as well as to the profit of the reader, and others hearing it and seeing the interest taken, will want to read also in order to join in the discussion. It is an excellent thing for the teacher to read aloud some good and appropriate book, using ten minutes or so each day for the purpose. In some districts certain of the patrons may object to this, but if the purpose is kindly explained and the value shown, such objection is not likely to prove serious. Before the reading let some pupil give a brief account of what was read the previous day, the teacher making such additional ob- servations as he may think best. Many a pupil has been helped on the road to usefulness by this means. The school readers are always well supplied with good literature which should have attention. No lesson should be read without discussion and without having the practical parts applied to the lives of the pupils, — with this one caution, that they should as far as possible make the application themselves. To get the most out 150 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL of this work, it is essential that the school be supplied with new reading matter frequently, as often as once a year if possible. Here is where supplementary readers are of great value. Owning Books. — The children should be encouraged to own a few books. Some of the world's best read- ing matter may be bought in books that cost from five to ten cents. Almost any child can raise that much. If the teacher has one or two copies to show what they are like and a catalogue to select from, it ought not to be a difficult thing to induce a few of the pupils to in- vest their pennies in this way. Those that purchase may, after reading, exchange with each other, thus get- ting the use of several books for the price of one. This process will spread until all will have some good litera- ture. All this is some trouble, but is it not worth a great deal to be able to direct the minds of the children of a district into right channels; to introduce them to the best works of the great writers that their minds may be molded better than they could otherwise be ? Let no teacher think he has discharged his duty when he has taught the children how to read. They must he taught also the habit of reading. . It is important that trashy literature should not get into their hands to poison their minds and create a taste that will prove harmful. It is one of the roads to ruin and should be guarded against the same as any other vice. The teacher should keep a sharp lookout MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 151 for it and if it appears destroy it, but he should always put something good in its place. Reading at Home. — Reading should be encouraged also in the homes. The teacher may frequently give himself the pleasure of sending a paper by one of the pupils, with a marked article for the father to read, at the same time requesting his opinion concerning it. If this is done tactfully a few times, it may be the means of get- ting the paper permanently into the home. If the father is not a reader, ask the son or daughter to read the article aloud to the parents and find out what they think about it. If they are pleased, repeat the experi- ment until a taste is formed. They will come to look upon it as a pleasure and by and by as a necessity, and it will prove a great blessing to both parents and chil- dren. 2. Grammar The Value of Correct English. — This branch is so thor- oughly practical, so necessary in the daily life of every person, that it needs no other excuse for occupying a large space in the curriculum. We study grammar that we may speak and write the English language correctly. Every grown American ought to be able to do that. Everybody must talk, hence everybody must use the English tongue, since it is the language of our country. It is a blessed thing to be brought up by educated people and to be associated with them, but even then one cannot understand a language without 152 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL making a study of it, therefore it is taught in all schools. To speak correctly is the first mark 0} an educated per- son. He may know little of mathematics and the world be none the wiser. He may be ignorant of any one or of many of the so-called higher branches and still be a cultured person. But let him open his mouth to speak and commit a single blunder, and his doom is sealed, he is classed with the uneducated. The world cannot take the time to look into every man's record to dis- cover what he has studied and what he has not. The one great test is ever at hand, — does he speak correct English? We have only to ask a question or wait for a passing remark, and very often the matter is set- tled. A private, seeking promotion, was brought before an army officer for examination. The officer asked the private if he knew where a certain man was. The latter answered, "I seen him yesterday, but I haven't saw him to-day." He was dismissed at once, the offi- cer remarking that a man who murdered the '^King's English" like that was not fit to give orders. Another illustration is that of a young lady who for several years had been teaching in the country, but who, wishing a position in the city schools, applied to the superintendent. He at once inquired pleasantly if she had seen any of the members of the Board. She re- plied, "No, I haven't saw any of them." Her exami- nation went no farther and her excellent "testimonials" MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 1 53 availed nothing. She had failed to recommend her- self by avoiding common errors of speech. Let it be understood that grammar is no test of the character of an individual. A man may be a good citi- zen, thoroughly honest and upright and worthy of re- spect, and know nothing of the rules of grammar. It is only a test of education and culture. The private may have been and no doubt was a brave and faithful soldier, and the young lady teacher was doubtless kind to the children and above reproach in conduct, but both lacked one of the first essentials for the positions sought, namely, the ability to speak correct English. The Difficulties of the Study. — It is often asserted that grammar is the most poorly taught of all the branches in the district schools. Pupils come out fairly profi- cient in geography and arithmetic, but extremely lame in the essentials of grammar. There are two reasons for this: first, the teachers themselves were poorly taught; and second, grammar is a difficult study, par- ticularly in its applications. This is accounted for by the many peculiarities of our language, such as the dif- ferent ways of forming the singular and plural number, the use of regular and irregular verbs, and of the nom- inative and objective cases in pronouns. Pupils are plunged into grammar and confronted with a mass of definitions, rules and statements which to them has no connection with everyday speech, and which so con- fuses them that they are helplessly lost, like the boy who declared "I can't see no sense in grammar," 154 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL Correcting Simple Errors. — Much can be done by be- ginning early and keeping the work simple enough for the understanding of the children. First reader pupils may learn the correct use of ^'is" and ''are," "has" and "have," "was" and "were," and the like, holding to a few until they are learned. The second reader class may learn the forms of a few irregular verbs, such as "see" and "do." One of the commonest errors is that of using the perfect participle for the past tense, as "I seen" and "I done," for "I saw" and "I did." These should be corrected continually and the forms for the dif- ferent persons and numbers of the past tense repeated until they are firmly fixed in the minds of all, and until they have learned to use them without stopping to think. For example, when a pupil says he, or she, or we, "done" this or that, the teacher should call attention to the wrong form and have it corrected. Let some one inflect the past tense as follows: / did, you did, he did, we did, you did, they did. In ordinary speech there is never any change in the past tense of a verb for person and number, except in the verb "to be." Let it be ob- served that the perfect participle of a verb is never used except in a perfect tense with "have" or "has," or in the passive voice with some form of the verb "to be." Constant attention to these common errors for a few months will work wonders. Pronunciation and Meaning of Words. — Pronunciation likewise is a part of grammar and must not be neg- lected. It is perhaps more difficult to change one's MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 1 55 habit of pronouncing some common word than it is to correct grammatical errors. If one has always said /'crap" for "crop," or "thar" for "there," it is no easy matter to make the change. However, it is easiest in early life and for that reason it is best to be diligent in drilling correct pronunciation into the minds of the younger pupils. All from the fourth reader up should be taught the use of the dictionary. Every school in the land should be provided with an unabridged dictionary, but if one is not obtainable, an academic can be made to answer. Encourage the children to look up the meaning and pro- nunciation of words. This will aid them materially in learning the diacritical markings. It will assist them also in the study of words, their derivation, relation, etc. 3. Geography A Practical Beginning. — Many teachers find it most practical in teaching geography to begin with the im- mediate surroundings. The first thing to observe is the configuration of the land, — plains, hills, mountains, valleys, slopes. The next thing is to learn directions. After the points of the compass are understood, the various directions may be acquired more readily if the children are asked to point them out, or to walk a few steps toward a certain point as north, northeast, south, southeast, southwest. Objects also may be pointed out and their direction from the school house determined. 156 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL When direction is sufficiently understood^ distance should he taught. The units for short measurements of land should be shown accurately. The ''foot" and ''yard" are easily obtained by lines on the blackboard and by sticks. Many measurements of nearby objects should be made by the children. For the "rod" a light pole, of exact length, may be used. With this, many distances from one to twenty rods should be ascertained, allowing the children to guess and writing down each guess before measuring. In the United States the ordinary unit for geographi- cal measurements is the mile. It will pay to take some time and pains to have the pupils acquire a pretty ac- curate idea of this unit. If there is no known mile within reach, let them measure one along the best road available from the schoolhouse, setting up a mark at the end. Thus the foundation will be laid for further study and comparison. The children will be very much interested in the length of time it will take to go a mile, — walking, running, riding horseback, on a bicycle,- in an automobile and on the train. This cultivates the judg- ment both in respect to time and distance. We may next proceed to study the surface of the land, beginning with its irregularities of hills, valleys and plains. This will lead naturally to the action of water upon the slopes and in the valleys. The work of ero- sion can be seen everywhere, even in the schoolyard. Its progress can be watched during a shower, when tiny rills make their way into larger streams, uniting MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 1 57 as they go and carrying with them particles of soil oyer which they pass. This will lead to the fact that all streams, large and small, are made in this way, and to many other interesting discoveries. The World as a Whole. — When once the children are thoroughly started, it will not be possible to confine them to their own neighborhood. They will want to know about mountains and plains, rivers, lakes and oceans, and we shall need to take the whole world as a basis, proceeding carefully and tactfully. Imagine the surprise it must be to a child to learn that the earth is a great round ball and that by far the greater part of its surface is covered with water, that the earth turns on its axis every twenty-four hours and goes around the sun once a year. It requires not only a great stretch of the imagination to see it, but a violent strain upon his credulity to believe it. Is it to be wondered at if he hesitates and doubts ? It took wise men thousands of years to learn these facts, and generations to convince the people generally of their truth. There are even yet uneducated men of fair intelligence who are not convinced. It is well to keep children some weeks, or even months, studying local geography before bringing them to the difficult task of considering the earth as a whole. Let them wonder where the end of the earth is, what is beyond and what it rests upon, until their own in- vestigations bring them to the necessity of an explana- tion. Permit them to exhaust their own ingenuity in 158 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL accounting for things, before telling them the facts. It will teach them to think. The Use of the Globe. — When the time comes to teach them the shape of the earth, it is better not to use a globe at the first. Let them use their imagina- tions. It will require time and stretch upon stretch to take it in, with constant changes and additions to the picture. The questions they will ask, while groping for an understanding, will be many and varied and will require patience and knowledge to answer. To guide their young minds through these searchings for truth is a privilege any teacher may well covet. When their minds are satisfied with the main facts concerning the shape of the earth, its position and movements, it will be time to use the globe. By it they will get the forms, the relative sizes and positions of the principal bodies of land and water. The names of the oceans, of the hemispheres and the grand divisions may be pointed out, though it is not necessary to spend time in committing them to memory, as in gaining other knowledge they will gradually learn their names by referring constantly to them. That three fourths of the surface of the earth is covered with water is always a matter for surprise to children and appears to them a waste. The way the water gets back to land in the form of mist and rain, how it moistens the earth and returns again to the sea, will make a number of most interesting lessons. How the ocean has become a safe and easy highway for MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 1 59 commerce and travel between nations, bearing upon its bosom the stately ships that can now by means of wire- less telegraphy keep in touch through entire voyages, with each other and with the land, is also a fascinating topic. With the little ones, these great subjects should only be touched upon, giving the main facts and re- serving the details for more advanced work. The globe is necessary likewise in teaching the *' circles" of the earth. We may begin with zones, being careful not to overtax young minds by burdening them with matters too deep for their comprehension. There will be plenty of time to learn the more difficult parts when their minds are further developed, and when they have acquired more information. The equatorial line, the lines that bound the zones, with statements of the heat and cold of these belts, will be sufficient for beginners, particularly if the questions that occur to them are answered to their satisfaction. When to Use a Text-Book. — We are now ready to study the earth as the home of man and of the other animals that contribute to his comfort or pain. Up to this point, a book in the hands of the children would be a hindrance rather than a help. They have been a long time gathering the information outlined in the foregoing paragraphs, by means of talks with the teacher. But now they are far enough along to gather knowledge by reading. The modern geography with its pictures of people, places, industries and animals is a most delightful book. It should not be put into the l6o TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL hands of the children without a number of talks, or rather hints, concerning the delightful things it con- tains, so that they will look forward to it with eager- ness. When a child comes into possession of a new book, it should be an important event in his life and the teacher should not fail to take notice of it and comment upon it. He may tell of the first book he ever had, how proud he was of it, what he learned from it and how carefully he preserved it. A little forethought of this nature may save reproofs and punishments later and be fruitful of good besides. A text-book in geography, even if it is the most ad- mirable of its kind, is not sufiicient in itself. Its knowl- edge must be adapted to these particular children in this particular place, and supplemented by much that the teacher can supply or develop by class discussion. Every paragraph, every picture and map should be subjected to careful study and questioning, to see that the meaning is grasped and that the knowledge therein contained is added to what they have previously ac- quired. Everything in the book in some way touches their lives and the connection should be made clear. It takes a live teacher to do this, but it pays and any- thing less is not real teaching. Application of Knowledge Acquired. — This idea of mak- ing the work of the schoolroom practical by con- necting it with everyday life, should continue through all the classes and for this purpose there is no better MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL l6l Study than geography. Ask the more advanced pupils what state they would choose, if they wished to engage in the occupation of wheat raising, of corn, of cotton, of sugar cane, and so on with the various products of fruit raising, grazing and mining. Where are the prin- cipal sources of lumber, and since the supply of tim- ber is being exhausted much more rapidly than new crops can be grown, how is the future demand to be met? Call attention to the difference in value between raw material and the same when it is manufactured into necessary articles. The cost of enough wood and iron in the raw state to make a wagon would be but a few dollars. When manufactured, that is, when skill has been added, it is worth ten or twenty times as much. Let us suppose the owner of the timber and of the iron ore lives in the Appalachian mountains. He hauls the raw materials to market and sells them for a small sum. It is shipped to a distant city in some other state and in a few months he may buy it again in the manufac- tured form at a large price, paying in addition to the skill, the freight both ways. In actual labor, it cost more to get out the raw material than to manufacture it into the finished article. What makes the difference and what is the remedy? Geography is a fine study to induce thought. Why are the great cities located where they are ? Why does one town rapidly grow into a city and another, with apparently as good surroundings, remain neglected? Dist. School — II 1 62 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL Why should some sections develop their resources more rapidly than others? What effect does a productive soil have upon the civilization of a section? Why should ''The Star of Empire" take its course toward the west? These and a thousand other questions al- most suggest themselves, making the study intensely practical and extremely useful in developing the reason- ing powers. Combining Geography and History. — In teaching the geography of a country, it is a great help to connect with it some of its principal historical events, and also its present doings with its rulers and leading charac- ters. Every civilized country teems with interest both in its past and present, if only we know the one and through the columns of some leading paper keep in touch with the other. Germany, Russia, Italy, China and Japan and all the others are before the world. The problems of one are the problems of all, — each can learn from the others and be helpful to the others. The whole world is closely akin and acquaintance makes more real the brotherhood of man. 4. History The Way to Begin. — The study of history, like that of other studies, should not begin in a book. History is not made in books, though much of it is recorded there. It is written so that it may not be left to the uncertain memory of man; that future generations may have a MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 1 63 truthful account of the lives of their ancestors, and that all the world may have the story of the rise, growth and life of a nation. The civilization of the world is built upon the doings of the past, and each individual character is moulded almost as much by what has been as by what is now. For ages very little of the history of the world was written. It was handed down from generation to gen- eration by tradition. It was told around the fireside by parents, visitors and travelers, listened to and talked over by the children, who in turn gave it to others. This was a delightful way to learn and we can imagine with what breathless interest the young people lis- tened, when some bright traveler visited the home and regaled them with choice tales of the long ago. There was a great temptation on the part of the narrator to color up the stories, to make the listeners' eyes widen with wonder and to inspire them with awe of one who knew of such marvelous happenings. The truth of these tales could not be trusted and even when history began to be written, so much of it was tradition that it has taken a long time to sift the true from the false and in many cases the real truth can never be known. But whether true or false, the tales are valuable because they are themselves a part of his- tory, showing how our ancestors lived and learned. But modern history can be relied upon, since its first essential is accuracy and no pains are spared to get at the truth. 1 64 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL But we are not ready yet, and never shall be, to dis- card the old way of teaching by word oj month. No one knows so well as the teacher how matter should be pre- sented to children. Frequently the words of the book are not adapted to their understanding, and there is not enough of detail to give it life and meaning. Then the kindly voice, with its proper emphasis and inflection, and the loving smile add to the charm of the narrative. The teacher gets his information from books, but he is not confined to them for his words or his manner of telling. If he is describing the discoveries and early settlements of America, he may add a hundred details not given in the books that will make the mental pic- tures more vivid and lasting. He must be careful not to give any wrong impressions or false colorings. The actual happenings are sufficient, if told in an interesting manner and with the proper amount of real coloring. History thus taught may begin with the youngest pu- pils and be kept up for several years before a text-book is put into their hands. Their little minds should not be crammed with history, but they may have a story for their especial benefit once a week. This will give them time to talk about it, think about it, digest it and be ready for the next. Each story should have one main point and only one, so that the mind will not be overtaxed in grasping and remembering it. Every item told should contribute to this main point, so that even if the details are forgotten, the principal thought will remain. MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 1 65 The First Story, — Suppose, for example, we wish to begin with Columbus and the discovery of America, — it may run something like this: *^ To-day I will tell you a story of ' A Very Active Boy.' His parents named him Christopher. He was born in a city by the sea, where there were many ships and boats. When just a little fellow, he played on the beach watching the waves come and go and gathering shells as they were washed up. He loved to watch the great ships come to the landing, like graceful birds with white wings, and see the passengers land and greet their friends. But better he liked to hear the shouts of the sailors and watch them at the work of lading and unlading the big vessels. He thought it was a jolly life and when he was a man he would be a sailor. " He enjoyed seeing the fishing boats come in, their sides well down in the water with the weight of shining fish. Sometimes huge war vessels came and went. He would see the officers with their glittering swords, and the soldiers in their bright uniforms drilling and march- ing to the strains of music, and then he would want to be a soldier. Or he would see a merchant ship unload- ing its cargo of teas and spices and fabrics from other lands. He loved to listen to the sailors spinning yarns of adventure by sea and land, and telling strange tales of other peoples and other countries. All these things made him love the sea and filled him with a desire to be a great man and do wonderful things. " He early learned to swim, to row and to sail a boat. 1 66 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL His active life made him strong and healthy and fear- less. Sometimes he would teach younger boys how to swim, and if one ventured too far and was in danger of drowning, he would plunge into the waves and bring him to the shore. From all that he did and heard and saw, he learned many valuable lessons that proved of great help to him in after years. '' His schooling was not neglected. He learned to read and write and solve hard problems in arithmetic. But best he liked geography and history. The geogra- phy told of other lands and seas, and the history de- scribed the deeds of great men. In these ways he grew to be a strong and well-informed young man. Next week I will tell you more about him." The Second Story. — The subject of the next story may be "Christopher as a Sailor." If by this time the chil- dren want to know the name of the city where he was born, it may be given them with a map or picture, showing that it was the ''Gateway to Italy." Proceed- ing with the story, tell how young Columbus (they will have his full name by this time), at the age of fourteen became a sailor, and kept up his studies of astronomy, geometry and philosophy, everything that could im- prove his mind and help in his chosen profession; how between voyages he made maps and charts and sold them to help defray his expenses, for he was poor. Tell them how his studies led him to believe he could go to Asia by sailing to the westward, more quickly and easily than by the caravan route that was so long MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 1 67 and wearisome; how people laughed at him for his pe- culiar notions in believing the world was round and that he could find Asia by sailing to the westward and how the Atlantic ocean was considered a boiling flood dangerous to navigate. The Third Story, — The third subject may be "Co- lumbus tells his Story to the King and Queen of Portu- gal." Dwell upon his struggles and perseverance and picture the scene when the Queen pledged her jewels to pay the expenses of the voyages, and the difficulties of getting men and ships for so perilous an undertak- ing. Let this lesson close with all preparation com- plete, the crowds on the shore, the farewells, and the partings. The above is sufficient to indicate the method of starting the little ones in the great subject of History. If it is followed faithfully, it will be a delight to both teacher and pupils and will never lose its fascination. The reason the study is disliked by so many is because they are given nothing but the dry bones of history, memorizing facts, names and dates until they are men- tally choked. No wonder they rebel. Let it be put in appetizing form and given in proper portions, and it is certain to be relished. Use of a Primary History. — ^When children are ready for the fourth reader, they may be supplied with a primary history. From this they should both read and recite in the class. Questioning may precede the reading, in order to ascertain how well the lesson has lOS TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL been studied and whether difficult parts are understood. As each paragraph is read, the main thought should be called for and emphasized. 'Pictures and maps should never be overlooked, each contains something helpful to the understanding of the narrative. Side lights from books and pictures should be brought to class by both teacher and pupils. In these ways the danger of flagging interest will be avoided. Influence of the Study Upon Character. — The most prac- tical thing about history is its influence upon the char- acters and lives of those who study it. By becoming familiar with the lives of the men who have been chiefly instrumental in making our country what it is, we learn to emulate their virtues and avoid their mis- takes. Much depends upon the teacher as to how the children will look upon men and deeds. If he lauds military heroes above others, they will look upon them as the really great ones, while the achievements of the peaceful will be less regarded. It is easy to fire the imaginations of children, especially of boys, with tales of war and to lead them to overestimate its importance. Fortunately, most of our wars have been for princi- ple and not for conquest; consequently there is less danger in their recital. Our military heroes, likewise, have been for the most part not soldiers by profession, but, chosen from the ranks of peace, they became war- riors by necessity. Washington was a lover of peace, greater as a citizen than as a soldier, more zealous foi his country's welfare than for his own aggrandizement. MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 1 69 Grant, though educated at a mihtary academy, was a peaceful citizen at Galena, Illinois, when called to take part in the great conflict of the Civil war. He became the greatest general in that war, but when it was over and he was elected to the presidency, his motto was ''Let us have peace." Until recently too much space was given in the text- books to wars and battles, and they received undue at- tention in the schools. The present tendency to give them less prominence is to be commended. Results to Be Accomplished. — The study of history through the course should accomplish practical results in at least four important particulars. (i) Pupils should learn that the really great men of a nation are those who sacrifice personal interest for the good of the country; that those who secure office for gain or for self-aggrandizement are not great, but the reverse; that a patriot is one who seeks to pro- mote righteousness, peace and prosperity; that the of- fice-seeker, the grafter and the demagogue are not to be trusted nor honored; that many of our greatest benefactors never sought preferment nor held office; that every peaceful, law-abiding, industrious citizen is an honor and a blessing to his country. (2) They should acquire a knowledge of our institu- tions, how they came into being, their cost and means of support and the benefits they render. All the ma- chinery of government from the presidency down to the smallest country post office is for the comfort and con- 170 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL venience of the people, to promote the onward march of civilization. All our public institutions, the army and navy, penitentiaries, asylums, hospitals, schools, highways and parks, are for the physical, mental and moral well-being of the entire population. These institutions did not come by chance and are not to be taken for granted. They represent the wis- dom and labor and sacrifice of many generations. Those who established them did it not for their own nor for our good alone, but for all future generations, and it is our duty to hand them down to our succes- sors in better condition than we found them. To this end it is the duty of every citizen to uphold, support and defend them. It has been well said that public office is a public trust; that those whom we elect to of- fice are our servants, and of them we have a right to ex- pect faithfulness, industry and economy. (3) Students of history should be thoroughly im- pressed with the idea that it is the patriotic duty of every man to make the best possible use of the means provided by the government for the upbuilding of the national character. To this end schools have been provided that every child may have an education that will fit him for citizenship. It is the nation's choicest safeguard, and to neglect this sacred duty is unpatri- otic and wrong. Education is the country's gift to the child and to deprive him of it is to sin against the na- tion and against the child. They should be taught fur- ther that it is the duty of every citizen to be obedient to MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 171 the laws, to contribute to the roads and other public improvements, to pay his rightful proportion of the public taxes, and to render cheerfully every service his country may require. (4) It should be shown that true patriotism consists in being as well as in doing. If one truly loves his country, he will try to be the kind of person the nation delights in. The silent influence of a righteous life is infinitely greater than any amount of empty boasting. Character is as essential to the nation as service, and each individual must contribute his share. CHAPTER VIII MAKING THE WORK FRACTICAL— Continued 5. Arithmetic From the days of our fathers till the present, arith- metic has been the great study of the district school. More time, thought and attention has been given to it than to any other branch. It has been considered the most practical and the most important branch, be- cause business cannot be carried on without it. It is necessary to all computations. Why It Is a " Bugbear." — Yet despite the attention it has received, it is responsible for the majority of fail- ures in examinations and is the bugbear of a multi- tude of young people who aspire to teach, and who wouldn't mind the examination if it were not for arith- metic. So many have been the heart-breakings, that a great question has arisen for the consideration of teach- ers' associations and institutes, viz., ''What is the mat- ter with arithmetic?" It is not difficult to find enough that is the matter, but the remedy is not so easily dis- covered. The trouble originated, in part, from the love of the old-time schoolmaster for solving difficult problems and thus proving the superiority of his at- 172 MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 173 tainments; from the early text-books that were made for mature minds and were filled with hard problems and puzzles to show the ingenuity of the authors; from putting these books into the hands of children whose minds were not sufficiently developed to grasp their intricacies, thus subjecting them to discouragement in the beginning; from cramming their minds with a mass of rules and definitions before inducting them into the processes that would make principles, rules and defi- nitions plain and easy; from expecting ripe scholars in arithmetic, when other branches just as important have scarcely been touched. What to Teach and How to Teach It. — It is not the in- tention of this work to argue against arithmetic. It is agreed that it is important and deserves its full meed of time and attention. It is rather a question of what to teach and how to teach it, — ^whether to confine our efforts to the practical, for the sake of business later in life, or to use such exercises as will cultivate the mental powers without much reference to their prac- ticability. Will not a mind that is trained to proceed from the known to the unknown, to reason from cause to effect, to go from step to step in logical order be able to grasp the details of the practical problems of life, even if it has not met them all in its training? No reasonable person can doubt it. Moreover, the great majority of problems in the busi- ness world are not arithmetical. They are not such as are found in books with the answers set down. The 174 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL practical problems in arithmetic will not teach the farmer anything about rotation of crops, or when to plant corn, or what breed of sheep will yield the most profit. They will not show the merchant where to buy his goods, how to be polite to his customers, nor inform him as to the best selling articles. These are samples of thv^ ^'practical problems" met with in life and which require a trained mind for their solution. Is it not evident, then, that practical arithmetic should have for its object the cultivation of the mental powers rather than skill in computing the cost of so many bushels, yards or pounds at so much per item? If the problems in computation are as good as any for training the mind^ by all means use them — but let that he the test. Two Objects to Be Obtained. — Among the objects to be attained in the study of arithmetic are two that need attention. The first in point of time is skill in handling numbers and in setting down figures. For the sake of economizing time all through life, every child should be taught to compute rapidly and accu- rately. This, together with neatness, should be taught in the early years of school life, the secret of success being intelligent and enthusiastic practice. Hard prob- lems are not only not necessary, they are a positive detriment to progress. When rapidity, accuracy and neatness are the objects sought, no other stimulus is necessary. To make good progress is success, and success is a sufficient reward for hard labor. MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 1 75 But it must be remembered that skill, while first in point of time, is not the main object. The second and main object is the cidtivation of the mental powers. Skill is only a means to this end and to the economy of time and effort through life. The Faculty of Observation. — One of the most valu- able powers of the mind is that of observation, and this faculty should receive attention from the outset. Much of the work in arithmetic does not require rea- soning, but observation. Addition, subtraction, multi- plication, division, tables and computations are evi- dence of this. That two and two make four is not the result of thought nor reason, but is merely to be observed. You observe that if you have three apples and eat one, you have two left; if you divide ten pears among five boys, each one gets two, etc. The Reasoning Process. — A considerable amount of work should call for thought, but not too complicated for young minds. Abundance and variety of material, rather than mental strain, should be the watchword. Show pupils how to go from the known to the un- known. For example, — One pound of nails costs three cents; that is the known. What will three pounds cost ? That is the unknown. Starting with the known, we say, if one pound costs three cents, three pounds will cost three times as much, which is nine cents. The reasoning in this consists in seeing that the relation that exists between the price and the amount in the known must be the same in the unknown, and of fol- 176 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL lowing this relationship through the arithmetical proc- ess to the conclusion. A great number of such simple problems should be given beginners, until the process of reasoning is fixed; then make the work more complicated by adding some new factor as, — if three cakes of soap cost fifteen cents, what will five cakes cost ? Here we go from the known to the unknown, but we cannot go directly to the con- clusion; we must make an intermediate step. From knowing what three cakes cost, we first find what one costs, — then we may proceed along the well-known path of reasoning from one to any number. If the first is well understood before undertaking the second and each one thereafter thoroughly learned, there will never be any trouble. A student can readily learn to go through the most difficult mazes of reasoning if he is required to learn only one new step at a time, and is given a sufficient number of problems for illustration and practice. Impractical Problems. — ^A considerable number of the subjects in the old arithmetics are neither practical nor cultural. Such topics as Duodecimals, Alligation Medial, True and Bank Discount, Cube Root, and miscellaneous problems that are too difficult for most mature minds are, to say the least, of doubtful use in the district school. If they have a place, it is in the higher schools. Pupils would much better employ their time in literature, rhetoric, composition, letter writing and business forms, all of which will be useful MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 1 77 every day of their lives. Many teachers know this, but are afraid to adopt it in their teaching. When one is satisfied that a certain course is right, he should stand for it and follow it, but be tactful in so doing. The city schools all over the land have done much in the past few years toward abolishing the errors of teaching arithmetic by omitting such subjects as those indicated above, or by relegating them to the high school. The wrong and frequently cruel practice of subjecting young minds to problems far beyond their years is no longer tolerated. If the country teacher cannot abolish the evils that are obvious, he can at least advocate reform wherever opportunity offers and be ready to join forces with any movement whose object is for the betterment of the schools. 6. Physiology As a Study of Ourselves. — ^There is a great fund of useful information in this subject that is suitable for children. They should begin with the body as a whole. It may be studied as the home of the mind and soul. My body is not myself, it is my home and my servant. By it I live in this world and through it I carry out the wishes of my mind. If I care for it properly, it will give me comfort and happiness and long life. If I neglect or abuse it, sickness, pain and death will re- sult. The body is a most complicated and delicate Dist. School — 12 178 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL structure that requires knowledge, wisdom and skill for its proper care. Many, if not most, of the acci- dents, diseases and deaths are the results of ignorance and carelessness. A study of ourselves is therefore the most essential of all studies. The Structure of the Body. — ^We may next notice that the body, though one connected whole, consists of parts, as head, trunk and limbs. Each part is com- posed somewhat differently from the others and has its particular uses. In general, the body is made of flesh and bones. It is covered with skin, hair and nails, which are for protection, comfort and beauty. The bony structure is called the skeleton. It has many parts joined together so that we may move easily in many different ways. All of the bones have names, a fe\Y of which may be given. Afterward the names may be supplied as they are needed. The flesh is composed of muscle and many other kinds of material, all of which are called tissue. Each kind has its use and a name to distinguish it from the rest. How the Body Is Kept Alive. — The body is kept alive by the food we eat, the water we drink and the air we breathe. Just as a tree, in addition to soil, requires air, rain and sunshine to cause it to grow and to keep it alive, so do we and so do all other animals and plants. In this respect we are closely related to all living things. We differ from the plants in many ways; one is, we can move about from place to place and need much exercise to keep us healthy. The plant cannot move MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 1 79 from place to place, but gets its exercise from the winds which make it strong. Not everything that can be eaten is good for food. Some things are poisonous and would kill us if we ate them. Others are injurious and when taken into the stomach make us sick. By this means, we learn to avoid injurious and dangerous things. Neither is one kind of food sufficient for our use. Different parts of the body need different kinds of food. Nature sup- plies us bountifully with a great variety, so that we need never lack, provided we will do our part in as- sisting nature to produce it. Digestion and Circulation. — We are now face to face with the subject of digestion and the organs concerned therein. This will lead us to the blood and its circula- tion. While studying the circulation of the blood, we shall observe its use of oxygen and this will bring us to the lungs, and the process of breathing. We shall in the most natural way be called upon to consider the necessity of pure air, pure water and pure food ; of care, of exercise and of temperance in all things. Advantages of this Method. — By this method of pro- cedure, there is no overtaxing the memory, no cram- ming the mind with meaningless names and defini- tions. Every item of information is furnished with its immediate need. The whole subject is so full of interest, so closely connected with the lives of the children, that each new bit of knowledge calls for more. Learning under such conditions is not a task, but a l8o TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL pleasure. The mind once started so happily will take added delight with each increase of knowledge, and will of itself seek and discover new fields for pleasure and profit. Comparative Physiology. — The children should be en- couraged in the study of comparative physiology. They, as well as the teacher, will find it a fascinating subject. Let them bring in specimens of plants and animals and observe their structure. How admirably each is adapted to its mode of life ! Animals that climb, have clavicles; those that use their front limbs for walk- ing or running only, as the horse or cow, have no clavi- cles; birds, because of the constant use of their wings, have a double clavicle and strong breast muscles; the rabbit's eyes are so situated that it can see on every side and upward, without moving, and thus escape men and owls, for the slightest movement might discover its whereabouts. These are single examples out of hun- dreds that might be mentioned. Teachers should not be afraid to go outside the leaves of the text-book and meet their subject in its natural state. Nature is a greater book than any that has yet been printed. It can be read by any one that is willing to commence at the beginning and inquire patiently and lovingly into its meaning. That it is interesting and profit-yielding is beyond question. The essential thing is not to undertake tasks that are too difficult. There is plenty that is within our grasp, if we will but look for it. MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL l8l Notice, for example, how much like ourselves are the animals about us. They must eat and drink and breathe; they have their sleeping and waking time; they are sensitive to heat and cold, to comfort and dis- comfort; they are subject to disease and pain and accidents ; they have their family ties, affections, friend- ships, acquaintances; they have joys and fears, friends and enemies; they must suffer, endure and sacrifice; they seem to know that death awaits them and seek to avoid it as long as possible. When we observe these and many other resemblances, we are forced to admit that man is '' brother to the ox." This knowledge cannot fail to awaken kindly feel- ing toward all living creatures. Instead of torturing them, the children will become the protectors of birds and animals. They will find that they can derive more pleasure from studying a bird or beast than by taking its life. Moreover, when they have formed the ac- quaintance of the real things, the descriptions and pictures in books will have a charm never before dreamed of. They will have a basis for comparing the information in the book with their own observa- tions and experiences, and will gradually learn that what they see and know is as valuable as what others see and know, even though the others may be the writers of books. Bad Habits, Causes of Disease. — When interest has thus been aroused, it will be an easy matter at any time to turn the attention of the pupils upon them- l82 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL selves. Let them study the causes of diseases and how to avoid them; how to care for their bodies in health and in sickness; the importance of cleanliness of person and of surroundings. They should find out by their own investigations that the use oj tobacco is in- jurious to the body; that it is a filthy habit and a profit- less expense. That tobacco is particularly injurious to boys can be proven from the records of the United States Army. These show that from fifty to ninety per cent of the applicants who are victims of the cigar- ette habit, fail to pass the physical examination. They have been robbed of their vigor. Weak hearts, low vitality, shattered nerves is the pronouncement of their country as reasons for rejecting their services. What a comment upon the young manhood of our land ! What may we expect if these physical wrecks are to be the fathers of the next generation? Many of the large schools of the cities have kept tab on the progress made by the users and non-users of tobacco, with the results always in favor of the latter. With a little pains these records can be ob- tained and placed in the hands of the students. This information should come before the tobacco habit is acquired, as it is much easier to refrain than to break off. In a similar manner pupils should be led to consider the physical, mental and moral effects of the drinking habit. There is an abundance of material on every hand. The only thing necessary is to induce the MAKING THE WO:^K PRACTICAL 1 83 pupils to give it a fair and impartial study. Teachers too often approach the subject with raiHngs and con- demnations that are more likely than not to arouse opposition. It is better to place the evidence before them and allow them to draw their own conclusions. If they wish to know the teacher's opinion, it should be given without prejudice or rancor. It is always better to have a person arrive at a right conclusion by his own thinking, than to have it thrust upon him by another. One of the greatest influences in favor of temper- ance to-day is the attitude of the business world. Hundreds of firms, and the number is constantly in- creasing, will not employ a man who drinks. It has been demonstrated over and over again that a person who drinks is not as reliable as one who does not. The railroads are growing more and more strict as to the habits of their employees. A conductor who is bloated and blear-eyed and whose breath suggests the dram shop, will not be endured by the traveling public. The engineer or brakeman whose brains are befuddled with whisky cannot be intrusted with the lives of pas- sengers. Even freight train crews must be sober to avoid the danger of wrecks with loss of life and property and damage suits. The Men that Succeed. — There is a great and in- creasing demand everywhere for sober and industrious young men who are trained for service. It is true that employers when greatly in need of help do sometimes 1 84 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL engage persons of doubtful character, but such are seldom promoted or placed in positions of trust and are the first to be dropped when the rush is over. The steady, upright, honest men occupy the best paying and most desirable positions, while the drinking, smok- ing, gambling fellows go from place to place, doing odd jobs in rush times when employers must take what they can get. It is well known that the teachers of the land are the trainers of the young. The business w^orld has its eye upon the schools. Choice young men and young women are spoken for before they are through with their education. It has been discovered that the school is the best place in the world not only for training the mind, but for acquiring habits of industry and ideas of right. These matters should be placed before the pupils and form a large part of their entire training, so that they will see the necessity of industry and right living. 7. Spelling and Writing These branches, while not contributing largely to one's education, are nevertheless important. It is no praise to spell well and write neatly and legibly, but it is a serious condemnation not to be able to do so. The reason is that skill in these branches is essential to further education and to the transaction of business, and it is expected that they will be undertaken early MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 1 85 and persevered in until proficiency is attained. A few words about each will suffice. Avoiding Unnecessary Labor. — ^To spell badly, we fre- quently hear it said, is a disgrace. Yet that many bad spellers come from the schools must be admitted. As a rule, the fault is not that too little time is devoted to it, but that too much is wasted in unnecessary labor. In assigning a lesson, the teacher takes no pains to ascertain how many of the words the pupils can spell and how many they cannot. They are told simply to take the next lesson or to take so many words. It usually happens that some of the pupils can spell every word in the lesson when it is assigned, others can spell all but a few. Now, to con over words that they are already familiar with, is time wasted. Evi- dently they should give attention only to those that they cannot spell. A better way is to pronounce all the doubtful words, letting the class write them. Then glance over the lists and assign to each one the words he has missed. At the next recitation pronounce these words, each pupil writing them in his spelling tablet. Look over them again and mark out any that are wrong. Have these written correctly in a separate place under the title, "Unlearned Words." These constitute a part of each succeeding lesson until they are thoroughly learned, when they may be crossed out. A teacher should know in a few weeks about what words each pupil can spell and excuse him from put- 1 86 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL ting time upon those words. This will be an encour- agement to industry and thoroughness. Sharpness of Vision. — Every person wants to be a good speller, but some find it very difficult to learn. The reason is, they are not quick to detect differences in form. A person who cannot learn to spell would not likely recognize faces readily, nor be able to detect the difference in quality between good and bad cloth. He will scarcely know one shade of color from another and will be liable to many inaccuracies. Such a person should be drilled in noticing minute particulars. A study of flowers and plants, with refer- ence to the shape, size and color of leaves, petals and roots would be exceedingly helpful. When he has attained some proficiency in sharpness of vision, turn his attention to words. Select fifty pairs of words that differ only in a single letter, as rain and rein, seize and siege; or such words as receive and believe, receipt and deceit, etc. Let him take but a single glance at these words and then tell the difference. As soon as his interest is aroused, he will take pleasure in making headway and his new found power will be beneficial in many ways besides spelling. The Meaning and Use of Words should go hand in hand with the spelling. It is of little benefit to know the spelling of a word, if we do not know how to use it. Some argue that children should learn to spell words against the time when they shall have learned! their meaning and need to use them. The idea is of MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 187 doubtful utility. Many people of middle age do not know how to spell words because they learned them in childhood. A few may be remembered because of some special association, but not many. We know how to spell a word because we are familiar with its form, its appearance, just as we know the faces of our friends. Indeed, the best way to learn to spell is by picturing the words in the mind, visualizing them, as it is called. We must be able to do this before we can read easily. We must know a word as a wheelwright knows a wagon, not by its parts, but as a whole. If any part is missing or wrongly placed, we should notice the defect and be able to remedy it. The Card System. — This is a great help in teaching children to recognize words quickly. A large number of pasteboard cards, about four by six inches, is pro- vided. A single word is written in large letters on each one. The teacher, holding a bunch of these in his hand, turns one in view of the class and immediately replaces it. The children call the word, or, faihng to do so, must have another glance. The next card is exposed in a similar way and so on. If one child is slower than the others, he must have particular atten- tion until he learns to recognize the words quickly. This is not only an effective but a very interesting way to the children. Many reading lessons should be made of the words on the cards. Intelligent Practice in Penmanship. — In penmanship 1 88 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL every one should acquire legibility, rapidity and a pleas- ing style. The one necessity is intelligent practice. Every pupil from the third reader class up should be provided with a copybook, pens and ink. There are some schoolhouses not yet supplied with desks, and the teacher is at a loss to know how to teach writing in such a case. A wide board with a smooth surface, placed on trestles, will answer very well. Two or three of these at different heights will accommodate both large and small pupils. It is better to have two lessons a week of forty-five or fifty minutes each, than to have twenty minutes each day; at least, the author has found it so in his own experience. The first twenty minutes may be given to general practice from models on the board. These should consist of circles and easy combinations with flowing lines. This enables the pupils to acquire a free and easy motion. A separate sheet of paper should be used. Before beginning, the teacher should see that all are seated properly, feet on the floor, shoulders straight, right arm on the desk, paper and pen in position. The models should be put on the board one at a time as they are used, and each one erased when the next is written, the class working in unison. The teacher gives direc- tions and keeps constant watch to see that they are followed. At the end of the practice, copy books are taken and i each one proceeds at the proper place in his own book. MAKING THE WORK PRACTICAL 1 89 The teacher keeps watch as before, giving general and individual guidance as needed. When the time is up, let the pens be cleaned and all materials put away carefully, to remain until the next lesson. The Three Essentials. — It will be an encouragement to effort, if the teacher will call attention to the progress made from day to day and from week to week. Re- mind them that progress should consist in the three essentials, accuracy, rapidity and style, that is, neat- ness and beauty. If any are very slow to advance, ascertain the cause, if possible, and remove it, but con- tinue to give encouragement. Scolding or fault-finding is small inducement to effort. If it should happen that laziness or rebellion exists, a little sternness may avail to overcome it, but as a rule a kindly interest is better than severity. If any prizes or rewards are offered, they should go not to the best writers, but to those who have made the greatest progress. This gives every one an oppor- tunity to strive with an equal show of winning. CHAPTER IX TALKS ON THE INDUSTRIES Children in remote country districts have very little idea of the great workaday world. What they see around them is all they really know. What they hear is usually scrappy and one-sided. The information gathered from the geography, from the descriptions and the pictures, is vague and far away. Unless some kind friend like the teacher takes them into confidence \ and explains many things, they will have but little upon which to form ideals. If they could have a fairly accurate idea of a considerable number of the occupa- tions, they would be the richer when it comes to choos- ing for themselves. Even in the towns and cities children have an inadequate idea of the various call- ings and occupations of mankind. A series of carefully prepared talks by the teacher on the chief industries could not fail to be valuable. They could perhaps be arranged most fittingly in the geography lessons, or they could be made general, occupying ten or twenty minutes once a week. Such instructions could be adapted to the understanding of the students and be made eminently practical, more so than much of the knowledge in the books. It is 190 , TALKS ON THE INDUSTRIES I91 the purpose of this chapter to outhne briefly such a series of talks. I. Farming What It Means to Be a Farmer. — Since we are to start with the known and proceed to the unknown, we may ask the children what occupation they would choose to follow. They will name various ones, farming, car- pentry, blacksmithing, teaching, while a few may want to be lawyers, physicians, preachers. The teacher may remark that these are all excellent occupations, worthy of the best talents in the world. Suppose we talk about each one in turn. " John, why do you choose the life of a farmer?" John rcphes, "Because it is an inde- pendent life, is healthful, and keeps a person in the open air." The next question may be, " How would you learn farming? What preparation would you need?" Most boys will say, "Why, you don't need any preparation, you just get some land and go to farm- ing." This is the teacher's opportunity to give instruction. He may explain that the notion that farming requires no preparation is very common , hut that it is wrong. There is no occupation in the world that offers a finer field for scholarly minds. There is something to be learned at every turn, and it is interesting. The farmer deals with life, and life is always interesting. He must have a knowledge not only of plants and domestic animals, but of bugs and worms and weeds. 192 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL Education an Aid to Agriculture. — Some years ago in Kansas there was a small bug, called the '* chinch bug," that destroyed vast fields of growing wheat. The stalks of wheat would be covered with these little dark bugs. They were in such quantities that there was no known way of destroying them. It meant a loss of millions of bushels of wheat to the farmers of Kansas in a single year. A great scholar in the state university undertook to discover a remedy. He w^orked for ten years at it, and finally succeeded. The remedy was a very simple one, though it took a long time to discover it. The bugs could be infected with a disease that spread rapidly and was extremely fatal. When this became known, the farmers sent in boxes of healthy bugs, had them exposed to the disease and returned. They were put back in the field and in a few days all the bugs con- tracted the disease and died. Thus millions of dollars were saved to the farmers and millions of bushels of wheat to the world, because of the patient efforts of a scholar. This is but a single instance of what educa- tion is doing for the farm. State Agricultural Colleges. — Most of the states have established great schools called Agricultural Colleges for the purpose of training young men and young women for farm life, and also to furnish better ad- vantages for the study of farm problems. These colleges require a fair knowledge of the com- mon branches of learning and carry on regular courses TALKS ON THE INDUSTRIES 1 93 of study. They teach stock-raising, fruit-raising, but- ter- and cheese-making, and study soils, grains, vege- tables and many other things pertaining to the cultiva- tion of the ground. School Gardens. — In some states many of the dis- tricts have a plot of ground in connection with the schoolyard, where the children are taught interesting and useful lessons in agriculture. Each pupil has a space to himself where he may raise such grains, roots, berries or melons as he likes. An exhibition is given at the end of the term and the children show what they have produced and what they have learned. All this adds greatly to the interest of the school, the advance- ment of the pupils and to the knowledge of the world. The legislatures of the states are taking up the sub- ject, and we may look for the rapid spread of this kind of work in the schools. Every Farmer Must Be a Student. — A farmer can no longer afford to be ignorant. Ignorance is costly in any line of industry, but particularly so in farming. There are constant improvements in tools and in ways of planting, cultivating and reaping. The intelligent farmer must have his own journals to know what is going on in the world and to keep abreast of the times. He must read the papers to learn of wars and famines, of devastation by fire and flood, of ^'bumper" crops in other parts, so that he may judge ahead of demands and prices. He must know of diseases of cattle, horses, sheep and hogs and the most successful way of treat- Dist. School — 13 194 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL ing or avoiding them; of scourges of grasshoppers, locusts, worms and noxious weeds and the best means of destroying them. He uses the telephone and the telegraph and the mails for buying and selling and for keeping himself informed as to prices. In return for his study and work, the farmer leads a delightful life, full of variety and interest. His extra intelligence gives him a fine bank account for the education of his children and for his own comfort in old age. There is much true science in farming, and the schools are sending out an ever increasing number of trained men and women who know how to make it both pleasant and profitable. // a young man chooses to he a farmer, he cannot afford to miss an education. The cheapest and shortest road to success is through the schools. If he remains ignorant, he will be left far behind in the race. 2. Trades It is a good thing to have a trade, whether we follow it through life or not. A wise man said, ^'He that hath a trade hath a fortune." Many of the greatest men of the world have come from the shop, the bench, or the farm. David was a shepherd, Benjamin Frank- lin was a candle-maker, Ben Johnson was a brick- layer, Elihu Burritt was a shoemaker. Grant was a tanner, Burns was a plow boy, Jesus was a carpenter. The man who has learned a trade has acquired two great essentials to success , industry and skill. TALKS ON THE INDUSTRIES IQJ Preparing to Be a Carpenter. — In choosing occupa- tions, Charles selected carpentry. Why? He wants to be a builder, to construct houses and bridges and business blocks. It is a noble ambition. Solomon's greatest achievement was the building of the Temple; Julius Caesar constructed a bridge across the Rhine that was the wonder of the age ; a young man, nineteen years of age, undertook the completion of the Brooklyn Bridge, and succeeded. What preparation will Charles need before he can be a carpenter? That depends upon how high his am- bition soars. If he cares to be only an ordinary work- man, employed by some one else and earning two or three dollars a day, he will not need so much educa- tion. He may put himself under a carpenter doing the roughest and heaviest work, and gradually increase in skill until at the end of six or seven years he has at- tained to the height of his ambition, — he is a carpenter. But if he wishes to be a master mechanic, to take contracts, to plan, outhne and erect great buildings; to see and to draw so that others may see all the details before a stroke has been made, he will need the educa- tion and discipline that can be most easily and quickly acquired in the schools. Trade Schools. — As there are agricultural colleges, so there are schools where trades are taught. In the olden days, if a boy wanted to be a carpenter or a black- smith, he was entered as an apprentice to some work- man who could profit by his services while teaching him 196 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL the trade. It was a long and tedious process and usually resulted in an imperfect, one-sided training. Law and medicine were studied in the same way, in the office of an attorney or physician. But now there are schools for all these things, law, medicine, car- pentry and even blacksmithing. Some still prefer the old way, but it is very expensive, requiring more time and furnishing less skill. To enter a course in carpentry, about the same preparation is required as for the course in farming. The applicant should be well versed in the common branches, with some extra knowledge in arithmetic. Algebra and geometry also will be very helpful. In fact, the better his education, the more rapidly he will advance and the higher he will be able to climb. The student is taught to sharpen tools, to use them, to draw plans and work them out, and a hundred de- tails that the apprentice never dreamed of. Three years under skilled teachers will furnish a better equip- ment than seven years of the old way. Blacksmithing is much the same. A man may shoe horses, sharpen plows and mend tires without much schooling. But work in iron and steel is becoming more and more important and now fills a large place in mechanical industry. There is but little chance for excellency or promotion for the young man who is ignorant. The trained mind is wanted everywhere, while ignorance goes a begging and takes the poorest jobs. talks on the industries 197 3. The Professions The leading professions are Theology, Law, Medi- cine and Teaching. Theology is the science of God, of religion. It is so great and deep that no man can fathom it, but much may be learned by study. The Bible is the greatest revelation of God to man and is the principal book in the study of theology. But Nature and Humanity both show God's works and his ways of dealing with created things, and must therefore be studied by those who would be our leaders and teachers in heavenly things. Theology. — If any young man desires to be a min- ister of the gospel, he needs the very best education that can be secured. Theology is too profound a sub- ject for an ignorant person to undertake. The funda- mental principles of the gospel are so simple that any one may understand and follow them. They are be- lief in God and obedience to His will. But there are so many things we should like to know, which we have not time nor opportunity to study out, that we want our preachers to be learned men so they can enlighten us. All will concede that a minister ought to know more about religion and the things that pertain to a Christian life than any one else. It is a blessed thing to be a preacher of the gospel; the best talent in the world should be devoted to it. There is no nobler calling that a young man may aspire to, unless it is teaching. It is the mission of 198 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL the preacher to proclaim the gospel of Christ to the world; to save mankind from sin; to be their example in righteous living, and to prepare them for Heaven and the hfe to come. Could any calling be more exalted than that? And should not a person be thor- oughly trained who is to devote his life to so important a work? The Savior of the world spent thirty years of his life in preparation for his three years' ministry. His example should discourage young men from neg- lecting their education in their haste to begin preach- ing. The Legal Profession. — Law has so many attractions that there is seldom any scarcity of talented men in the profession. Still there is always room for an able and righteous lawyer, and young men will go on choos- ing the calling. It is well, therefore, that some instruc- tion be given the young so that they may have a right conception of the lawyer's duty to his country. It is the duty of the lawyer to see that the laws of the land are obeyed; to interpret the law and transgres- sions thereof so that justice may be meted out to crimi- nals. It appears to be the business of some lawyers to assist criminals in avoiding justice, rather than otherwise. There is a great temptation to criminal lawyers to do everything in their power to clear their clients, whether right or wrong, in order to build up a reputation of always winning their cases. This is of course wholly wrong. When an attorney takes the case of an indicted per- TALKS ON THE INDUSTRIES I99 son, it is his business to see that his chent has all the rights allowed by the law and the constitution. These include the right to a speedy trial, to call witnesses in his own defense, to plead guilty or not guilty, to testify in his own behalf or decline to do so if he prefers, to see that an impartial jury is secured. He has no right to browbeat witnesses, to prejudice or bribe jurors, to secure false testimony or to go beyond the bounds of law. In short, it is his duty to see that his client has a fair and impartial trial before a jury of his peers and to give wise counsel in the con- duct of the case, so that the accused may have every chance that is possible and right to prove his inno- cence. Many lawyers have earned world-wide repu- tations by thus deahng honestly with their clients. But defending or prosecuting criminals is not the main part of law practice. There is much more to be done in adjusting claims, making collections and set- tling estates. Business men and firms do not want lawsuits. They employ an attorney to avoid that trouble. It is being discovered more and more that the Savior's advice to his disciples is the soundest and best in the world: ^' Agree with thine adversary quickly, while thou art in the way with him, lest he deliver thee to the officer and thou be cast into prison. Verily thou shalt not come out thence till thou hast paid the utter- most farthing." If a youth has an ambition to become a lawyer, give him high ideals. Set before him examples of men who 200 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL have won distinction at the bar by their strict integrity. A lawyer is never called upon to stultify his conscience by advocating anything that is wrong. The best chance of success lies in the path of honesty. Medicine is likewise an attractive and worthy profes- sion whose ranks are rather crowded. A first-class physician in a neighborhood is a power for good, standing next to the preacher and the teacher. There are many fine examples of physicians who have de- voted their lives to the service of the people, rather than to the amassing of wealth; who care for the sick, console the dying, and scatter health and sunshine everywhere. A wise physician knows that his business is to keep the neighborhood in as healthy a condition as possible ; to give good advice about eating and drinking, sleep- ing and working; to see that there are no stagnant pools, infected wells or moldy cellars. His highest suc- cess is in keeping people well, rather than in curing them when they are sick. The preparation for either law or medicine is ex- tremely important. The teacher should always advise any young aspirant to take a college course before be- ginning to specialize. There is no danger of over preparing. The danger lies wholly in the opposite direction. Young men rush into the professions with little education and find to their cost that they made a dreadful mistake. Such errors are seldom mended. Men struggle on, crippled and hampered in a hundred TALKS ON THE INDUSTRIES 20I ways, and are always haunted by the thought of what might have been. In building for life, the first essen- tial is to lay a firm foundation. The Profession of Teaching. — ^This has been discussed, though not exhaustively, in the beginning of this book. More people are needed in this than in any of the other professions. The ranks are filled by two classes, those who adopt teaching for a life work and those who make it a stepping-stone to something else. It would be much better for the profession if everybody who entered it did so with the idea of permanency. That desirable state of things, however, does not appear to be near at hand. So long as teaching offers an easy and profit- able stepping-stone to more profitable occupations, just so long will it be used as such. But as President Frost says in his introduction, if any one takes it up in this way, he should try to do as good work as though he never expected to do anything else. There is no crowding in the ranks of efficient teachers. Every great school in the country is on the lookout for them. A really fine teacher may take his choice of many schools. There are so many more schools than there are well-qualified teachers, that boards can- not be very particular. The standard of qualifications is being raised as rapidly as the supply will permit. The schools must all be taught by somebody, and when the best teachers are taken, the remaining places must be filled by those who are not so well prepared. As a rule, however, the best teachers secure the most de- 202 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL sirable schools. This is as it should be, and is an in- centive to every one to be thoroughly prepared. Some contend that the lov^ salaries keep the more talented young people from entering the profession. There may be some truth in this, but on the other hand many believe that the salaries are ample, considering the ability of those engaged in the work; that the teachers with their present lack of education and training could not earn any more in other employ- ment. However this may be, it is certainly true that the profession furnishes a good living for those who will properly prepare themselves. Salaries range all the way from $150 to $10,000 per year. The highest-paid teachers usually render better service in proportion to what they receive than the low-salaried ones. All admit that first-class service is inestimable, while a bungler is costly at any price. But aside from any salary consideration, teaching is a great and noble profession, worthy of the highest talents; and while the standard is not as high as it should be, it is nevertheless true that there is no finer body of equal numbers in the world than the great army of teachers that fill the ranks of our country. No ambitious young man or woman of scholarly tastes need hesitate to choose the profession for a life work. All such should be encouraged to go on and fit them- selves as thoroughly as possible with such a training as that suggested in the beginning of this book. talks on the industries 203 4. Other Employments How to Win Promotion in Them. — There are always a large number who will not choose any of the above occupations, who must work for a living and are anx- ious to succeed. Their possibilities should be faithfully pointed out. They may find employment as clerks, bookkeepers, factory hands or as common laborers in public works. There is no dishonor or discredit in any of these. There is opportunity for promotion, useful- ness and happiness in all. Every one should seek that for which he is best fitted, and so prepare himself that he may attain to the highest possible success. The most common fault of young people is that they are in too great a hurry to reach high places. Success is often rendered impossible by overhaste. Every one should he content to begin at the foot and master the details as he climbs. If a boy has an ambition to be a merchant, his first position should be to open the store, to sweep and to dust. There are some things to learn here. He must open exactly on time and have everything spotlessly clean. When faithfulness and thoroughness in these lines have become a fixed habit, when he knows how a store should be kept clean and what it is worth to keep it so, he has learned the first great lesson towards being a merchant. If it has taken six months or a year, it is worth it. He is now ready for the next step. His first promotion may be to that of *^ delivery boy.'* 204 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL This is a responsible position. He must be quick, accurate and polite. The art of being pleasant and agreeable to customers is the next great " lesson. He must make his employer's interests his own and not stop to consider the amount of service he is rendering for his small pay. What he learns is more important than the money he receives. Sometimes he will be called upon to work over hours and must do so cheerfully. He will be a merchant himself in due time, employing other boys to do what he is now doing and must know by experience what it means to deliver goods. His next step is to become clerk, where he may acquire all the knowledge the place affords. He must learn not only to sell goods, but to take care of them and keep them in order; to be affable to purchasers without being officious; to know what is wanted, to keep account of sales, to see that new orders are made out in time, to unbale and mark goods, to put them in their proper places and scores of other details. In this way he takes a complete course in the mer- cantile business, and after several years is far enough advanced to become a partner or to start in business for himself. If he has done his duty at every point, he will have no trouble in securing a position or in find- ing customers if he sets up for himself. If he has shirked his work, neglected his opportunities or been dishonest, he is on the high road to failure. A similar course of procedure will insure success in other lines. In railroad, in shop, in factory, on the TALKS ON THE INDUSTRIES 20$ farm, a young man may win his way if he will start right and persevere. But he must not despise the day of small things. If he has to earn his way, so much the better; it is a glorious privilege. Many rich men require their sons to begin at the bottom and go through a rigid course of training, and no one can deny the wisdom of it. How One Man Made His Way. — ^The son of a rail- road president disregarded his father's wealth and posi- tion and started to work on the section. He learned there how a roadbed is made and kept in order; the best material for ballast and ties, and how to put down rails. He found out something of the expense and labor of maintaining the road, what a gang of men ought to accomplish and many other things he would be expected to know when he himself became presi- dent. Passing from the section into the shops, he learned the art of directing and controlling men. He became a fireman and made himself familiar with the ways of the road. By diligence he mastered the details of the engine and the duties of an engineer, and finally at- tained to that responsible position. Mastering this, in a similar way he passed through the offices, always learning by doing, until at last he succeeded to the presidency. He had acquired a knowledge of the busi- ness in the best way, by experience coupled with in- telligent observation. It took him years to do it, but they were happy years, far more so than if he had 2o6 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL dawdled about, spending money that some one else had earned. Instead of dissipated habits, he had acquired industry, knew the joy of honest labor and the delight of living on his own earnings. Such a course is worth more than miUions left by a rich relative and is open to any young man. Hundreds who have been obliged to make their own way have done the same thing and are now enjoying the rewards of their efforts. Qualifications for a Politician. — It may happen that some member of the school will decide to be a politician. If his motives are right, there is no need to discourage him. It is an honor to serve one's country in any capacity, and office-holding offers many opportunities for usefulness. To attain to eminence as a statesman is to hold an enviable position among men. To reach the highest places insures a record in history. It is, therefore, a laudable ambition. There is no school for the special study of politics or the training of statesmen, except the school of ex- perience. Still there are opportunities to equip one's self with useful knowledge that should not be neg- lected. The colleges and universities furnish courses in political economy, political science, and sociology; and even the district school has or should have a course in civil government. We want educated men to make our laws and to conduct our public affairs. If a young man really desires to serve his country, he should spare no pains in his preparation. Otherwise he will be TALKS ON THE INDUSTRIES 207 limited in the amount he may accomphsh and ham- pered at every turn. The first essential in politics is honesty. Above all things we need in our public men purity of life, right- eousness of conduct. Only men of strong character should think of taking up politics as a life work. There are so many temptations to trickery that it requires strength to resist. 5. Occupations for Women Domestic Duties. — Since only a part of the foregoing will apply directly to girls, a word for their special benefit will not be out of place. They are not expected to choose trades or professions for life. Every normal girl should look forward to home-making and be fitted for domestic duties. This need not interfere with her general education, but should be a part of it. In these days it is very generally admitted that girls have as much right to the possession and enjoyment of an education as have boys; but as their duties are not the same, their training should differ in some particulars. Many schools teach domestic arts, chief of which are cooking and sewing. These are accomplishments any woman may be proud of. They will not hinder her from presiding with grace at the piano, or from being an ornament in society. They will not only be useful, but will add to the happiness of herself and others. Women as Teachers. — The one profession that is by 208 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL general consent open to women is that of teaching. In city schools the grades from kindergarten to high school have practically been given over to them, and they are well represented also in secondary schools and colleges. This furnishes a wide field for women and they are filling it admirably. Faithful and efficient, their influence for good can hardly be overestimated. If a girl desires to become a teacher, her first duty is to prepare herself for the work. A knowledge of the branches she expects to teach is not sufficient. She should by all means attend a training school and study method as well as matter. She should have the culture that comes with education, and a fund of general knowledge that will enrich her teaching. Even if she should teach but a few terms, her preparation should be none the less thorough; the kind and amount has been suggested elsew^here in this book. Other Activities. — But there are some girls who have need to support themselves who are not ''born teachers" and who have no desire to enter the profession; they must be told of the avenues open to them. They may become clerks, bookkeepers, stenographers. But aside from a few glittering attractions, to follow any of these is to lead a hard life. To sit at a desk or typewriter many hours a day and work at high speed ; to do the same thing over and over again in the same way is mo- notonous and tiresome. The only way to enjoy it is to take a pride in doing it well. Skill and efficiency give pleasure in almost any kind of employment. TALKS ON THE INDUSTRIES 209 The outline in this chapter is intended to be sug- gestive rather than exhaustive. In its consideration many other interesting matters will arise to claim attention. It will not do for the teacher to plead lack of time. The school is the only training place for life for a large majority of the pupils, and such work as this will be just as developing and more directly ap- plicable to their wants than much of the knowledge of the books, which is farther away from their lives. The teacher must not only be an instructor in knowledge, but a leader in thought and a molder of character. What can be more interesting or more practical than the consideration of one's life work? It is exceedingly important, and young people need the wisdom of older heads in considering it. The teacher cannot choose for the pupils, but he may lay down certain broad prin- ciples and explain many things that will aid them in avoiding errors. The main points in choosing a life 'work are first usefulness, second happiness and third remuneration. Availability, natural fitness and inclination also must be taken into account. People often take these in the wrong order and consider remuneration before use- fulness and happiness. It is a mistake. True success consists in assisting in the world's work and adding to the world's enjoyment, rather than in the acquiring of wealth. Dist. School — 14 CHAPTER X THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOL If the suggestions of this book up to the present point were followed, there would be little need to dis- cuss government. Teacher and pupils would be kept so busy carrying on the work of the school that there would be no time for mischief. But after all there is some reason for a separate consideration of the subject. In the best laid plans there are breaks and interruptions that cannot be foreseen. Besides, the government of a considerable body of people is an im- portant matter and difficult under any circumstances, at least until the art is learned. By a vast number it is considered the one disagreeable feature of teaching and is particularly dreaded by beginners. I. The Teacher Himself It is safe to say that the most essential part of school management is the self-government of the teacher. Prac- tically, it all depends upon the teacher's ability to live up to his own ideals. If he can do this, if he can make plans and carry them out, with such changes only as are necessary to the good of the school, he will have no 2IO THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOL 211 trouble. But here is where the difficulty lies. It is easier to make plans than to follow them; to think or say we will do a thing, than to do it. The one person in the school hardest to control will be the teacher himself. The Cultivation of Will Power. — First, then, a few words directly to the teacher. It is necessary in the beginning and at all times to cultivate will power. Set yourself some daily task that you have not been accustomed to, and compel yourself to perform it. If it is disagreeable, so much the better, providing it is not injurious. When you have triumphed over it, ap- point yourself another and so keep on until you have gained such mastery over self that you can perform any duty no matter how disagreeable. The first task may be reading the Bible through in course, taking so many chapters or so many minutes a day, and doing it at exactly the time appointed. Or it may be that you will choose the history of England, or Prescott's ^'History of Mexico," or Stanley's ^^ Travels in Africa," or some other work. This ought not to be an unpleasant task, but to do it regularly and unfail- ingly requires the exercise of will power. An additional task may be going through a set of physical exercises at regular times, say upon rising in the morning. This, followed by a sponge bath, will be conducive to health and vigor. A Set of Conduct Rules. — It was suggested in a previ- ous chapter that the teacher should have a set of rules 212' TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL relating to his own conduct, should keep them in a place where he can see them every day, and should make a strenuous effort to live up to them. It may be well just here to formulate such a set. Every one should make his own, but the following are general enough to apply to all: (i) I will arrange a daily program for myself from the time of rising until retiring. (2) I will make a strong effort to live by this pro- gram. (3) I will be neat and clean in my person and in my personal appearance. (4) I will see that my schoolhouse is kept in order and tastefully adorned. (5) I will greet my pupils pleasantly in the morning and be cheerful throughout the day. (6) I will treat all my pupils with unvarying respect and kindness. (7) If some do not now seem worthy, I will think of what they may become under proper training, and respect them accordingly. (8) I will perform every duty with the spirit and energy I would use if I were on trial. (9) In word and deed I will try to be a fit example for my pupils. Every one has his standard of life and makes a greater or less effort to live up to it; why not have it expressed in writing like the above, and placed where it can be seen and used frequently ? In arranging our THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOL 213 daily program we must have a time for self-examina- tion. We must review the work of the day and see if our actions measure up to the standard. 2. Order in School The government of the school may be considered under five heads, as follows: Order ^ Rules ^ Punishment, Management, Training. We will discuss them in the sequence named. What Order Means. — The term "order," as applied to schools, has two meanings; first and best, it means system, proper arrangement of work and plans, every- thing carried on harmoniously at the time appointed. All this depends entirely upon the teacher and has been sufficiently discussed in other places. Second, it means the behavior oj the students, their observance of the regulations, and attention to their several duties. Disorder consists in neglect of duty, doing things at the wrong time and doing wrong things at any time. Everybody likes order in the abstract and would like to be orderly in life, but acquiring the habit is difficult and irksome and children will not do it with- out assistance. True, it seems to come more naturally to some than to others, but all will do things in a more or less haphazard way unless directed and supervised. Orderliness in Person and Surroundings. — Each pupil should be taught to be orderly in person, in desk and surroundings and in work. The matter of personal 214 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL appearance — hands and face clean, hair and clothing in order — should be noticed daily, morning and after- noon. The arrangement of books, papers, pens and pencils must likewise be looked after. His seat is the pupil's home and must be put in order whenever it is in disorder, no matter how it became so. These ap- pear to be little things, but their observance con- tributes much to the good of the school and to the after hfe of the pupils. System in Work. — To learn to work systematically and economically requires years of training, and there is no better place for its acquirement than the school- room. It should begin with the youngest students and continue through the entire course. If the teacher is "himself systematic, it will make the training of the pupils a simple matter. He will see that the pupils are seated to the best advantage, that everything is in order and that conditions are as favorable for work as he can make them. Every pupil should have his own daily program made out, and the teacher would do well to see that this is done. He may take a class at a time for the arrangement. Thus provided, pupils will be much more likely to be on time in the morning and attentive to business throughout the day. Such a program will give them also a better idea of the value of time and the necessity of economizing it. If they fail to do the work of an hour, it will appear in the recitation where the loss may be pointed out, THE GOVERNMENT OE THE SCHOOL 21 5 SO that they may be conscious of it. There will be no time to make it up in school, because every moment is provided for. The making up must be done either at playtime or at home. It must not be expected that children will fall into such a habit at once. Young and older occasionally will lapse into play when they should work. It will take ^'Line upon line, precept upon precept, here a little and there a little" of instruction, patience, kind- ness and will power on the part of the teacher, but progress will be made and gradually the school will- become a busy workshop, everything moving forward quietly and harmoniously with the order and precision of machinery. Such a school presents one of the most beautiful sights in the world and the pupils will be as much delighted with it as the teacher. 3. Rules and Regulations Sufficient instruction on this subject has been given under the same topic in Chapter Two. It should be re-read at this point. 4. Punishment The Law of Natural Penalty. — Every wrong act has a natural penalty that is certain to follow. The penalty is involved in the act itself. A burn or a blow injures the tissue concerned and we suffer pain. We may 2l6 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL alleviate the pain, but we cannot remove the injury. If we eat something injurious, we impair the body. In short, if we disobey the laws of health, we must suffer the consequences. We may be sorry and may be for- given the offense, but we cannot avoid the penalty. The same is true of our moral natures. If we break a moral law, we injure our character and must abide the consequences. If we tell an untruth, we likewise injure our character and impair our reputation. Our reliability has been tested and has failed. We may be forgiven, but our weak spot has been discovered and we shall not be trusted to the same extent soon again. This is the natural penalty. Now a wise and merciful Providence has so ar- ranged it that the results of ordinary infractions of the law are not everlasting. The flesh of a child is soft and delicate and must of necessity meet with a multitude of injuries. Nature kindly heals the bumps and bruises and toughens the flesh so that no harm remains. The pain attendant upon the injury was, however, a warn- ing to be more careful in future, lest greater evils befall. If the child should lose an eye or a limb. Nature cannot restore it. The moral nature of childhood is likewise tender and delicate and subject to many bumps and bruises that bring pain and tears. These are not held against the child to his permanent injury, but are lost sight of and forgotten. Like the bodily injuries, the suffer- ing entailed is a warning against future and greater THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOL 217 offenses that might result in permanent harm, like loss^ of character or reputation. If the conscience be seared or destroyed, there is no recovery. Corporal Punishment. — This is not a natural penalty for a wrong act. It is an artificial means of prevention that may be used when the natural penalty is not ap- parent to the child, or does not act as a deterrent. Disobedience is wrong because it injures the moral character (the unfailing penalty), and may lead to serious consequences, as the loss of life or limb or reputation. But the child is not conscious of the moral loss and cannot understand the danger imminent or remote. For example, a child may be told not to play out- side the yard, the reason being the remote danger of passing teams, or a pond some distance away, — rea- sons which he cannot understand, having no knowl- edge of such dangers. The child, left alone in the yard, wanders outside, has a good time and no harm results. Mother or teacher said, ^'I am afraid you will get hurt," but he did not get hurt, is not afraid and determines to do the same thing again if opportunity offers. The child cannot be made to see the danger nor realize the sin of disobedience, and so must be punished for his own good. The question now arises, what kind of punishment will be most suitable to the offense and most effective in preventing a repetition ? Whipping is a quick and easy kind to administer, and if severe is likely to be 2l8 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL effective. The objection to it is that it carries with it no moral restraint, .If the child obeys hereafter, it will be because he fears another whipping and not because it is wrong. Other Methods of Punishment. — A better way might be to tell him he cannot play in the yard when there is no one to watch him, lest he wander away again and get hurt. He finds in a day or two that his dis- obedience is costing him dearly and promises not to do so again, and the privilege is restored. Let us suppose that for a few days he remembers his promise; then, when no one is looking, he slips out and by and by returns unhurt with no one the wiser. When playtime is up, the mother inquires if he has remained in the yard all the time. Knowing he will be punished if he tells the truth, he denies his disobedience and goes free. He now decides that lying pays and repeats the offense until he is caught. Will she not have to adopt whipping now as a last resort? He has not only disobeyed, but has added two other and worse offenses, breaking his promise and lying about it. Here is indeed a difficult situation. Many mothers will be driven to the rod, perhaps accompanying it with a moral lecture on the triple sin. Let it be said that whipping, righteously administered, is far better than neglect or scolding. A better plan would be to have a serious talk with the child concerning his faults, and explain to him that he must obey and put him on THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOL 219 a longer probation than before. If he repents, he may be forgiven but cannot yet be trusted. Even if he promises, he should be told that he broke his promise once and may do it again. This will show him the real penalty of lying, namely, that his word is not trusted and will not serve him as it did before he broke it. When he fully realizes this and determines hereafter to be faithful, he should be trusted in some small mat- ter and then in something more important and so con- tinued until he has been fully restored to his former position. In every case if the child can he made to feel the natural penalty of wrongdoing, it is much better than artificial punishment. Many of the rules of the school, however, are simply for the comfort and convenience of pupils and teacher and carry with their infraction no moral injury except that which is incurred by dis- obeying. For example, if a child should persist in getting out of step in marching or in doing little things that are annoying, it may not be possible to punish him by depriving him of the exercise, whatever it is, as that might be just to his liking. In such a case he must be told kindly but firmly that he must do his part. If this does not suffice, vigorous treatment must be administered. Let him be deprived of some privi- lege that he will value, or better still just make him do the thing that he is shirking or shghting as he ought to do it. If the teacher is kind and firm in all his re- quirements, he is not likely to meet with serious op- 220 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL position. It is the weak and vacillating teacher that meets with continual annoyance. Punishments to be Avoided. — No punishment that is cruel or torturing should ever be thought of, much less resorted to. It puts the teacher in the light of a tyrant and proves to the pupils that he is out of harmony with them. Harsh treatment may cow the school and produce a sullen obedience, but it will bring unhappi- ness and cultivate bad dispositions. It is wholly to be condemned. Punishments that are excessively humiliating are likewise to be avoided. The dunce cap may convince a boy that he is a dunce, but that is the very thing he ought not to think. Convince him that he is a dunce or that he is the worst boy in school and he is likely to accept the situation and act on it. Better tell him he is not any of these things and you cannot be convinced that he is, and he will not make any further effort in the wrong direction. Let it be borne in mind that all wrong punishments injure the teacher more than the pupils, and render his future government more diffi- cult. Fairness and Justice. — Again, punishments should al- ways be fair, that is, they should be in proportion to the offense. Children have a wonderfully strong sense of fairness. This is their main dependence on the play- ground. If one does not play fair, the others will not play with him. "That is not fair" is their severest condemnation. It is the innate sense of justice that THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOL 221 is one of the strong points in our national character. It will not do to ignore it nor override it. It should be cultivated. In every case requiring punishment, the teacher should ask himself what course will be fair and just, not only from his standpoint but from that of the pupils. If there is a doubt, let the error be on the side of fairness. To go beyond justice is looked upon as an outrage and arouses indignation that is expensive to the teacher. On the other hand, if he establishes a record of fairness, he will have the school on his side, an essential state of affairs in easy government. It is a favorite method with some teachers, when an offense has been committed, to hold court over it and reserve the sentence, leaving the offender in a state of dread and uncertainty. This is not right. It is not in accordance with the Golden Rule, '' Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them." As much time should be taken for delibera- tion as is required for a wise decision and no more. The two greatest essentials to effectiveness are swift- ness and certainty. If punishment were certain to fall immediately, offenses would seldom be committed. The Value of Inspiration. — Lastly, inspiration is in- finitely better than threats or punishments. The teacher who is whole-souled and enthusiastic, who is constantly setting high ideals of attainment before his pupils, will have but little need to resort to punish- ment. There is something seriously the matter with the 222 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL teacher who is always punishing. Such a one, if he cannot bring about a different state of affairs, would better seek some other vocation. He should admit that the trouble is in himself or in his methods, search out the cause and apply a remedy. Teaching is too sacred a matter to trifle with. 5. School Management The Aim of the Public School. — There are two things essential to the success of every workman, namely, a knowledge of the end to be attained, and a plan by which that end can be reached in the time allotted. A teacher should have an accurate conception of the aim of the public school. Speaking in general terms, it consists in three things: First, the acquirement of knowledge; second, the development of the mind, and third, the formation of character. Each of these should be considered separately. The acquirement of knowl- edge should extend to the completion of the branches taught in the district school and to obtaining the diploma offered by the state for such work. The development of mind must be measured largely by the scholarly attainments of the pupils in the branches taught, and by the instruction of the teacher on all related subjects. The studies pursued and the in- struction are supposed to be the best material for mind growth that can be furnished. The foundation for a good moral character can be THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOL 223 laid in these years. It is the character-forming period. The test of its effectiveness will come in the lives of the pupils after their schooling is over. All this cannot be done in one term of school. Some will be beginning, others completing the course. Each class should have a certain definite amount of work laid out for it so that it may look forward to that end, and finally each individual should be judged as to his capacity and planned for accordingly. It is much more satisfactory to all concerned to work to a plan, than to go forward blindly without any special end in view. A Plan for Each Detail. — The government of the school likewise should be well planned. The teacher should determine in what ways he can best handle his school and then proceed in those ways. Some prefer to have their pupils march in and out with order and precision; also, to come to class and return according to pre- scribed order. It is a good thing if well done, but sometimes the teacher becomes careless and permits the pupils to fall into slipshod habits, in which case it were better omitted entirely. The only thing insisted upon here is that there should be some plan for each detail and that it should be followed to the letter. It often happens that plans need to be changed from time to time. Probably no method is so good but that it might be improved upon. To be constantly chang- ing shows weakness, but not to change at all indicates lack of growth. Any rule or regulation should be subject to change, to be modified or dispensed with 224 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL altogether, but there should be a good reason for changing and it should be done with the idea of im- provement. Quick Decisions a Test of Fitness. — In the manage- ment of the school, the teacher is called upon to render a multitude of decisions. Many of them must be given at a moment's notice. These decisions are one of the strongest tests of fitness. If they are wisely rendered, the teacher gains in strength: otherwise he fails to a greater or less extent. Many questions can be foreseen and some provision made in advance. Others will be sprung suddenly and require a prompt decision. At such a time the teacher should keep a cool head and not speak until he is reasonably sure of his ground. He should take into consideration the circumstances surrounding the ques- tion and decide according to his best judgment, not permitting his mind to be biased by pleadings or argu- ments that have no weight. If he makes a mistake, he should not hesitate to acknowledge it and should avoid a like error in the future. In this way, each decision forms a precedent for future action so that in time almost every important matter will have received consideration, and questions may be decided in the light of previous ones whose conse- quences are known. Thus experience gives us wis- dom. Arrangement of the Schoolroom. — Such matters as the arrangement of desks, seating of the pupils, adjust- THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOL ' 225 ment of light and heat are all worthy of careful atten- tion. It is entirely in the teacher's province to decide where each pupil shall sit, but it is not wise to shift any one's seat except for good reason. If a pupil per- sists in whispering or teasing those nearest him, it is a natural penalty for him to forfeit his seat for a less desirable place. But it should be understood, after the school has once been permanently seated accord- ing to the teacher's idea, that each one's seat is his own and so long as he conducts himself as he should, he will not be disturbed. Doors, windows and blinds or shades have been mentioned elsewhere. They should all be in good order and kept so throughout the term, so that the school will not be needlessly annoyed. If the room is pleasant and comfortable, there will be less friction and better progress will result. Do not wait for things to get out of order, but keep them in order. A teamster does not put off oiling his wagon until the screeching of the wheels reminds him of it, but examines ahead and applies the oil in time to avoid trouble, thus saving his wagon, his team and perhaps his temper. This principle applied in the schoolroom will work equally well. Oil the bearings before the machinery begins to screech. When all is in thorough order and the teacher knows just what he wants to do and how he means to do it, he can go about every duty coolly and calmly, as one who is master of the situation. This will win respect, Dist. School — 15 226 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL whereas doubt, hesitation or excitement proclaims weakness and invites contempt. 6. Training Pupils not only admire a well-trained teacher, one who knows his business and attends to it, who is not flustered at little things nor taken by surprise by larger ones, and who is self-possessed under all circumstances, but they are also anxious for such a training themselves and moreover have a right to it. Selj-discipline is the principal part of an education. Knowledge without it is well-nigh useless. If a pupil is trained to think, to plan, to work steadily in spite of difficulties and ob- stacles, there is httle he may not achieve. This, to- gether with right convictions, abiding principles and firmness of character, makes the desirable citizen. Right Habits of Thought and Action. — ^Hence it is plain that the teacher's main duty is thus to train his pupils into right habits of thought and action. All the books, recitations and regulations are but means to this end. Each lesson is thoroughly learned and assimilated not so much for its own intrinsic value, as for the habit of doing well whatever is to be done. If by means of the lessons of the schoolroom, the habit of thoroughness is established for life, the value of those lessons cannot be overestimated. Promptness, regu- larity of attendance and attention to duty are all of great advantage in carrying on the work of the school, THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOL 227 but if they become fixed habits that will remain through life, they are vastly more valuable. The Force of Example. — If a teacher will stop to con- sider what his pupils will think of him and his teach- ing in after years, he will not permit any laxity in his own life. Almost without exception, young people are grateful to those who have helped them to overcome bad or careless habits and have set them on the road to usefulness, and to receive their love and appreciation is one of the chief delights of teaching. On the other hand, they look back with regret, as well they may, upon years spent under some poor instructor, who, either from ignorance or indolence, failed to give them the training they have since needed. They very justly hold such a one responsible for their failures and heap blame, not to use a stronger term, upon his head. Let it be engraved upon his heart that the test of a teacher is his pupils. They will exemplify his teachings. The Savior of the world is the ideal teacher. He had no schoolhouse, no text-books, no board of education and received no salary. His pupils were picked up from the common walks of life and were apparently no better than the thousands of others around them. But after a few short years under his instruction, and man- ifestly because of it, they became men of unusual courage and power and left an impress upon the world that will never be forgotten. Critics may find fault with his methods, but the lives of his disciples and of all who have taken his teaching as their rule of con- 228 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL duct are unanswerable. They are his epistles, teach- ings, or text-books, known and read of all men. Socrates and Plato were the great teachers of ancient Greece. The names of many of their pupils are as household words to every student of history. Through association with their teachers the pupils themselves became great. So it has ever been and will always be. The teacher is more important than the schoolhouse, the desks or the text-books. If he is great-souled, the pupils will catch his spirit and become like him. If he is little and despicable, we may expect to find the same traits in those whom he teaches. The only person who is fit to stand before the school is the one whose instruc- tion is right and whose life measures up to his teach- ings. The teacher's life being correct, he may freely lay down rules of conduct for his pupils. His example is their rule. He is not addicted to tobacco, uses no bad language, does not display rudeness; he may therefore require the same standard for his pupils, making allow- ance, to be sure, for their youthfulness and inexperi- ence, but being satisfied with nothing less than earnest and honest efforts. They are not to act because he does, but as he does, striving to reach his attainments and even to go beyond them because they are right and desirable. The young artist tries to copy his master's works. He makes many blunders, has to erase and begin over THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SCHOOL 229 again and with his best efforts falls far short of the model. The master is patient, points out the causes of failure and offers suggestions for improvement. He never chides for imperfections, unless they are the result of carelessness or lack of effort. The pupil gradually gains in skill and assurance and after years of patient practice, equals or perhaps excels his master. Every true teacher rejoices to see his pupils gain higher ground than he has reached, while they in turn are ever ready to share their honors with him. CHAPTER XI HARVESTING THE RESULTS In every enterprise man labors for results. The success of any undertaking is measured by what it produces. If the results are unsatisfactory, the under- taking is a whole or partial failure. It has been pointed out in the preceding chapter that the schools have an object in view, namely, to produce the highest grade of citizenship. This is done most effectively by affording each individual the opportunity to make the best man or woman he or she is capable of becoming. It was stated further that this is brought about by three things, the acquirement of knowledge, the development of ihe mental powers and the forma- tion of character. The patrons and the public generally have a right to know and ought to know how the school is succeed- ing in its mission. They cannot stand by and watch the process of citizen-making. They must judge by such indications as make themselves apparent from time to time. The object of this chapter is to point out certain ways by which the efficiency of the school may become manifest to the community, to the en- richment of both patrons and pupils. 2.30 HARVESTING THE RESULTS 23 1 I. The School Exhibition What It Is and What It Does.— The School Exhibition shows to the patrons the mental and moral tone of the school, the interest of the pupils, their good be- havior, their ability to comport themselves commend- ably before an audience and the teacher's skill as a leader. It is a public showing of what is being ac- complished in school. As commonly given, it consists of declamations, es- says, orations, debates, dialogues, calisthenic drills, current events, items of local interest, songs, and speeches by teacher and visitors. It has a number of objects in view. It is expected to increase public interest and secure greater co- operation; to be an incentive to effort on the part of the pupils; to quicken a lagging interest at the middle or toward the close of the term; to promote diligence and good fellowship ; to bring to light any latent genius that might otherwise remain undiscovered. How It Should Be Planned. — An exhibition should be planned a considerable time before it is to be given. It may be in the teacher's mind for several weeks before being mentioned to the pupils. He must take account of the material at hand, of the talent to be used. This one principle should be laid down as irrefragable, that every pupil in the school must have some part. If one cannot sing, he can take part in a motion song; if he cannot recite alone, he can in con- 232 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL cert with his class. To plan something for the small- est, the dullest and the timidest requires tact and wis- dom, but it must be done. . When the plan is sufficiently matured to insure its feasibility, it may be made known to the school. It will be more enjoyed if the initiative appears to come from the pupils. It will be strange if they will not have made some inquiries as to whether there is to be an exhibition this term. The teacher has evaded the question, or promised to consider it. In this case, he may say that he has been asked to consider the advisability of giving an exhibition, has done so and sees no objection if the school as a whole desires it. This being ascertained to his satisfaction, he may out- line his plan, laying down such simple conditions as seem best. It will be wise to let the pupils have as much share in the planning as they are capable of. They may elect committees with the understanding that the teacher is by virtue of his responsibility a member of each. These committees may be on pro- gram, advertising, decoration, arrangement of plat- form, cleaning up the grounds, etc. No student should serve on more than one or two committees. Each committee may call on others for assistance. In this way all will be enlisted. Suggestion for a Program. — It will be the duty of the committee on program to see that each pupil is assigned to some suitable part. Requests may be con- sidered, but the decision of the committee is final un- HARVESTING THE RESULTS 233 less it sees fit to reconsider. The program should be instructive, practical and entertaining. Patriotic selections should always form a part. The following is offered as suggestive only: Call to order. School Hymn. Prayer by clergyman or other visitor. School Song. Essay, "A Day in School." Declamation. Memory Gems by First Reader Class. Motion Song by Primary Grades. Essay, "Springtime on the Farm." Declamation, "The Power of Habit" (John B. Gough). Temperance Song. Flag Drill. Declamation, Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. Song, National Anthem. Oration, "What Our Country Needs," by largest boy. History Drill by advanced students. Current Events. School Paper. Declamation, Humorous Selection. Original Story by Fifth Grade pupil. Short Speeches by visitors. Address by Teacher, "What Our School Is and Should Be." Closing Song, National Hymn. The commonest fault of programs is that they are too long. If the exhibition is held in the daytime (as it should be), it may consume the afternoon ses- sion; if at night, not over two hours. Preliminary Preparations. — Having thus arranged the program, the next thing is the preparation. The time for giving it publicly should be set not more than three 234 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL or four weeks in advance. Sufficient time must be pro- vided for each one to prepare his part so that school duties will not be seriously interfered with. When this has elapsed, drills and rehearsals are in order. These should receive the very best effort of the teacher. His enthusiasm will inspire the pupils. Parents and friends will expect something worth while and they must not be disappointed. The advertising committee has its duties. No cost of printing need be incurred. Neat handbills may be made with pen or pencil, utilizing the best talent in the school in the lettering. A bright picture of a boy speaking his piece, or a little girl reading her com- position, will make it more interesting. But the best advertising is by word of mouth. No fear but pupils will give glowing accounts of what is coming, when their enthusiasm has been properly aroused. The decorating committee should do a lot of planning before operations are begun. It is an opportunity to cultivate taste. When the plans are complete, the whole school or a special committee may be appointed to secure supplies. Neatness and taste are prime essentials in decorating. Here is where the teacher's superior skill will be needed in giving directions. At the proper time a meeting of all committees should be called and reports heard. If the appointed work of any is completed, it may be discharged. As the time approaches, every one should be impressed with a feeling of personal responsibility for the success HARVESTING THE RESULTS 235 of the exhibition. Parents also have been enlisted. The teacher has had the forethought to ask Mr. ''A'' to be prepared for a short talk on "The District School When I Was a Boy "; Mr. '^B," on ''The Pressing Need of an Education in These Times "; Mr. ''C," who was formerly a teacher, on "High Ideals Neces- sary to the Greatest Success." This completes the preparations. When planned thus carefully, there is little doubt of the success of such an undertaking or of its value to the community. The measure of the teacher will be taken by the character of the exercises, by the order preserved and by the dispatch with which the pro- gram is carried out. When it is over, let everything that would hinder in the work of the school be re- moved and the house put in order. The next morn- ing, at the opening of school, a brief review of what has been accomplished may be given, praise bestowed upon all who made honest efforts, and suggestions for improvements offered for future occasions. 2. The School Exposition What It Is and What It Shows. — ^An exposition is a pub- lic display of the actual work done in every branch of study. It should consist of samples of the different kinds of work done by each pupil in the school. It should set forth as graphically as possible, reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, geography (including map- 236 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL drawing), physiology, language, composition, drawing, nature study, in short all branches taught and any special work that is being attempted, such as manual training, cooking, sewing, gardening and the like. It shows the skill, advancement and thoroughness of the school. It is the complement of the exhibition, which shows how the pupils can speak, read and sing. The exhibition and the exposition taken together fully represent what the school is accomplishing. It is the right and should be the privilege of every one, when on inspection, to be seen at his best. This does not mean that shoddy work may be the rule in the daily routine with occasional furbishing up to de- ceive the public. It means that in all work there are chips and rubbish; there are earnest attempts and honest failures; there are repeated trials and final triumphs. All work should be the best possible at the time. But there comes a time when the tears of failure are past and the crown of success is won. Then it is ready for the public eye. As a great building is not ready for exhibition until it is completed, and until all the odds and ends, misfits and rubbish and all signs of toil and sweat have been removed, so it is with the work of the school, — the public wants to see the fin- ished product. How to Make It Successful. — There are three elements necessary to a successful exposition, namely, a teacher who can plan and execute^ the cooperation of pupils and patronSy and sufficient time jar preparation. Like the HARVESTING THE RESULTS 237 exhibition, it is for every member of the school. Ordi- narily, the best time for it is at the close of the term. If pupils know in good time that specimens of their work are to be exhibited, it will be a strong incentive for each one to do his best. If specimens of penman- ship, drawing and the like are taken near the close, it will add to the inducement to effort. Specimens should always be taken from time to time, say at the end of each month. A good quality of paper should be used and great pains taken in the matter of neatness and accuracy. In such studies as penmanship, spelling, drawing and numbers, methods of procedure will readily sug- gest themselves; others may be more difficult. Mak- ing reading lessons is an excellent practice and not very difficult when once understood. Familiar objects should be chosen such as Nut Gathering, Sorghum Making, Berrying, Making a Bouquet, etc. Let the pupils tell their experiences or give their ideas on these, writing them out in proper order for a reading lesson. A nice drawing on the margin of the page, suggestive of the subject, as a stalk of cane, a bunch of berries, or a flower, adds an effective touch. Neat little pictures cut from advertisements will serve a like purpose. This, you will say, is not reading, but composition. It is composition truly enough, but why not reading? Pupils will read their own compositions better and enjoy them more than those found in books. 238 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL Physiology is a good subject for written work. Even if the teaching is oral, valuable lessons may be given with simple illustrations, the pupils writing out at their seats the substance of what was developed in the class, accompanying it with the blackboard draw- ing used by the teacher. Nature study also furnishes an inexhaustible supply of interesting material. Each month in the year has its products, and the study of birds, insects, weeds, flowers and crops affords a de- lightful variety for the cultivation of the mind, and the specimens and written descriptions will make an interesting and instructive display. In fact, when the work of preparing for an exposition is once started, there is no trouble in finding material. The greatest danger will be in having too much, so that it will be confusing. Arranging the Display. — Considerable care is neces- sary in arranging the display so that it may be seen readily and understood. As much of it as possible should be put on the walls so that it may be seen with- out handling. A blank wall is much to be preferred. The work of the several grades should be arranged in order, beginning with the first. Each grade should be ticketed and further distinguished by some kind of boundary line. When the available wall-space is exhausted, boards about three feet high may be placed around the sides of the room and the same order of arrangement observed. This will give sufficient space. The Results Accomplished. — A whole afternoon is not HARVESTING THE RESULTS 239 too much to devote to an exposition in a district school. The advanced pupils should be shown how to conduct visitors around the room and explain the work. They and the teacher will find plenty to do. Every parent will want to see the work of his or her children and compare it with that of others. It often happens that a boy who has been absent a considerable portion of the time, will have a poor showing. The parents will ask the reason for this, and the answer should be forth- coming, ^' Eddie was absent so many days or weeks and fell behind his class." No better object lesson can be furnished, and it will be strange if the parents do not determine that Eddie shall not be kept out of school on any frivolous pretext hereafter. Many exclamations also will be made about the ex- cellence of the work, as most of the visitors never saw anything to equal it. No such thing was thought of in their day. Interest and pride in the skill and pro- ficiency of their children will be aroused, and they will carry away a greater realization of the value of a day in school than they ever had before. The children likewise will feel that their efforts have been appre- ciated. Their taste of triumph will cause them to strive for still greater achievements in the future. When all is over, each pupil may carry away with him such of his own work as he desires to preserve. It will serve for future comparisons. The author has given many such expositions and always with the most gratifying results. 240 teaching a district school 3. Other Tests of the School's Success Character Made in SchooL — However much the work just described may please the patrons of the school, they will be still more delighted if they can see marked signs of improvement in the pupils themselves. If their faces are brighter and more animated, if they are more manly and womanly, if their manners are im- proved so that they are becoming real gentlemen and ladies, it will be a proud day for their parents. They may not say much nor be able to express their thoughts, but their faces will show their happiness and satis- faction. If they can see that Willie is more painstaking, Mary is more thoughtful and studious, Richard always says ^Hhank you" and ^'excuse me," John is "getting to be quite a man," it will not matter about words. Their shining eyes and warm handclasp will be suffi- cient. The teacher will go home and give thanks that he has had the privilege of guiding the footsteps of those young people. He will watch their future develop- ment with a fatherly interest and never cease to re- gard them as his pupils. Looking Forward. — Another fair way to judge the efficiency of a school is to observe the signs of purpose in the minds of the pupils, particularly the older ones. Have they some definite, worthy aim in life, or are they merely drifting hither and thither like a leaf on a pond? How many are planning to seek further HARVESTING THE RESULTS 24 1 education than the district school affords? How many have their minds set to improve on the condi- tions about them? Are these young people planning to take high places in the world around them as teach- ers, preachers, farmers, merchants and mechanics? If they cannot now decide what their future vocation shall be, are they nevertheless laying a firm founda- tion for whatever opens up before them? These are pointers that show what is being done. The teacher who fires the minds of his pupils with noble aspirations, is doing much if he does nothing else. But fortunately he must be doing his whole duty in order to do that. We cannot conceive of a lazy and shirking teacher creating enthusiasm in his pupils. It takes fire to kindle fire, and fuel to keep it burning. It is a common saying in these days that every boy or girl that really desires it may have a thorough edu- cation. Schools abound on every side, offering the means of education to the humblest and the poorest. It remains for the teacher to kindle the desire and show the way. If we cannot discover these signs, there is something wrong with the teaching. Habits of Reading and Self-Improvement. — If such work as that which has been outlined in this book has been faithfully performed, even one term of school will show gratifying results. The pupils will be in possession of some good books and will have acquired the taste and habit of reading. They should be en- couraged to keep on adding to their stock of books and Dist. School— 16 242 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL to continue their reading. If they do this, they are certain to go on gathering knowledge and improving their minds. Otherwise, at the end of the term, their education comes to a standstill and their minds begin to grow rusty. The teacher should have the community and the school so organized and cooperating that a reading or literary society will go on through the vacation. When the mental power of the district has been brought into fine working order through six months of effort, it is poor economy to let it lie idle for the next half year. There is not only the loss of what might be accom- plished, but the machinery is certain to rust and get out of order from disuse. Much time and effort will be required to put it in shape again. It cannot but be a source of satisfaction to the teacher to know that his work is going forward after his term of service is over; that his plans for the better- ment of the neighborhood are being carried out. The leaders and workers owe their training to him; and the greater their success, the more joy and credit to him. A course of reading may be laid out for the pupils that will last through the vacation, taking so much a day or week. Each one may write the teacher a letter at the end of a month, telling him what he has ac- complished and receive in return suggestions for further work. This will be something definite and the letters will be a source of pleasure to all concerned. Subjects for discussion for the literary society may HARVESTING THE RESULTS 243 be furnished as they are asked for, which they are likely to be. In this way the teacher, no matter where he may be, may keep in touch with his pupils and patrons until the next term begins. Life Friendships Formed in SchooL — ^A true friend is ever a valuable possession. Friendship forms a large part of the joy of living and should be encouraged in the school, not so much between the sexes, but among the boys and among the girls. Every one should be friendly to all, but if two boys or two girls find them- selves particularly congenial, there is no objection to their being special friends. They should be cautioned not to withdraw themselves from the others to the detriment of games and general sports. Such would be selfish and would prove a hindrance to the general friendliness of the school. There will be many op- portunities to cultivate their liking for each other with- out interfering with the pleasure of their schoolmates. Among the mottoes that adorn the walls, one should be the Biblical proverb, ''He that would have friends must show himself friendly." The story of David and Jonathan may be read, as there is perhaps no finer example of friendship between two men in all litera- ture, a friendship that lasted through two generations. Let the pupils discuss the respective situations of David and Jonathan. How did their friendship ap- pear to originate ? What was it that won the admira- tion of Jonathan? Is admiration a basis for friend- ship ? What did Jonathan sacrifice to David ? Would 244 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL a selfish or little-minded man in his position have shown enmity rather than friendship? Did he do it cheer- fully and willingly? Which one showed the deeper affection? Why? Read David's lament over the death of Saul and Jonathan. By what does he meas- ure the love of Jonathan for him? Another famous example is that of Damon and Pythias, whose story may be found in any encyclo- pedia. Many such friendships have been considered important enough to be recorded in history. They are given to teach us the value of friendship, to show us what a true friend will do for another. If we desire the friendship of worthy people (and that is the kind we should always seek), the first ne- cessity is that we should be true and noble, unselfish and thoughtful of others. Then we shall not lack for esteem, which is the first step toward friendship. When we have made a friend, we should be at pains to retain his liking. It is often easier to make friends than to keep them. Friendship, like any other virtue, must be cultivated. It is not wise to count too much or draw too heavily upon a new-made friend; neither is it well to make capital out of our friends. That is not true friendship. Rather we should strive to add to the happiness and rejoice in the prosperity of those whom we love and whose esteem we covet. And finally we must be just as willing and as anxious to be a true friend to others as to win them for ourselves. This is the real secret of it all. The man who complains of HARVESTING THE RESULTS 245 having no friends is too self-centered to win the affec- tion of others. He himself is not a friend to any one. 4. A Final Word to the Teacher On " Changing Places." — It is not wise nor, in the long run, profitable to be always changing places. A teacher can do more the second term than the first, and still more the third. His main thought should be how much good he can do, rather than how much salary he can draw. Yet neither is it well for a young teacher to remain forever in the place where he begins his work. The author frequently has recommended young teach- ers to remain three years in a place, then, when they have mastered its difficulties and expanded their own powers, they may, for the sake of increasing their own usefulness, seek a larger and more difficult field where they will be obliged to put forth new efforts to meet the requirements. It is every one's duty to look to his own growth, and new conditions and more difficult problems are often the best means for advancement in skill and power. It must not be forgotten that the surest road to ad- vancement is thorough work in whatever situation we are placed, and that one school is about as good as another in which to show strength. Some teachers make the mistake of supposing their pupils the dullest, and their patrons the most indifferent and unappre- ciative in the country. The idea is utterly wrong. 246 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL There are no pupils so stupid and no patrons so apa- thetic that they cannot be reached if the right means are employed, and it is the greater glory to succeed under unfavorable conditions. Merited Advancement. — If a teacher really merits the esteem of his patrons, there is little danger that his light will be hidden, even in the most obscure neigh- borhood. If he goes from strength to strength, as he may, gaining here and building firmer there, it will not be long until his name will be in every mouth, his praises will be sung and his fame will go abroad. People never show any wisdom by keeping quiet, when they have a good thing. They are always boasting of it to others, thereby endangering their own peaceful possession. Presently there is a bid from some other neighbor- hood and the Board are obliged to raise the salary or lose their prize. Finally some larger and more desir- able field appeals so strongly that no inducement can be offered to hold him, and he takes his leave amid the regrets and protests of all. He leaves behind him true friends, faithful hearts and an enviable record and goes to his new work as one who has been sought for and secured as a prize, and not as one who seeks a position with many ex- planations of why his last school was not satisfactory. That every one who reads this book may win the highest possible success, not by chicanery nor schem- ing, but by earnest, honest efforts is the wish of the author. SUPPLEMENT CHAPTER XII PLAYTIME IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS I. The Educational Value of Play The Tendency of All Animals to Play. — In the ani- mal world, play is well-nigh universal. It is especially noticeable in horses, cattle, sheep, and in the dog and cat tribes. In all these it begins very early in life, con- tinues with greater or less zeal through the growing period, and decreases, often disappearing entirely, with advancing years. That play has an educational value in the lower ani- mals is plainly evident, though the training it gives has more reference to wild, than to domestic, life, Colts run, kick, make sudden swift starts and turns, and trot with head up, eyes looking alertly in all direc- tions. No better exercise could be prescribed for ac- tivity, strength, endurance, and alertness. Fortunately these qualities are as serviceable to man as they were to the horse in the wild state. The play of young lambs consists mainly in follow- ing a leader, jumping ditches or other obstructions, and 247 248 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL stopping in close formation. This prepares them for escape from their enemies, the leader only having to look out for obstructions, the others taking their cue from him and following blindly. When flight is impos- sible, keeping together in a close bunch is their best protection. Behavior of Animals of Prey. — The instinct of ani- mals of prey leads them to engage in such exercises as will best prepare them to catch and slay their victims. Who has not been entertained and enlightened by watching a kitten spring for the mother's tail which is kept waving for its especial benefit? See it tense its muscles and get its claws ready for the supreme mo- ment! What better lessons could be given to an aspir- ing mouser ? But the kitten is not entirely dependent upon its mother for material. Any small object that moves, or that it can make move, as a ball of yarn, a dangling string, or even a moving flash of sunshine, will put it into action and will afford means to exercise its cun- ning. In addition to catching their prey, cats must practice the noble art of self-defense, both from their enemies and from hostile members of their own kind, and so their education in this respect is not lacking. They engage in many a playful bout in which every phase of a real fight is imitated. The aspiring warrior works himself into a frenzy, springs upon his foe, pins him to the earth, and attempts to seize him by the throat. PLAYTIME IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 249 The one attacked is in no wise discouraged by being under. He turns upon his back and uses every weapon in his possession, with great vigor. Both are careful not to inflict any injury. The mother cat often takes a hand in this kind of training, but knows well how to stop it when she has had enough. The play of young dogs differs from that of cats, to the same extent that their methods of pursuing and catching their prey differ. Instead of stalking, crouch- ing, and springing, they depend upon speed and en- durance, throwing their victim and cutting its throat, or otherwise inflicting mortal injury. Their play with each other, though invariably harmless, is a perfect imitation of the methods to be employed when later they must secure their own living. Like the cats, they also must learn to do battle with their own kind and so they frequently engage in playful fight, in which every trick and vantage point of the full-grown warrior is exercised. Man a Playing Animal. — The human animal prob- ably exceeds all others in its tendency to play. It is al- most safe to say that man, from the cradle to the grave, likes to engage in some form of amusement. The cares and sorrows of life sometimes weigh so heavily that but little trace of playfulness is manifest, but the exception only proves the rule. The play of young children is as spontaneous as that of other animals, but is vastly more varied, complex, and more general in its forward looking. 250 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL Living Over Again the Early Experiences of the Race. — Certain students of child life advance the idea that each individual must live over again in brief the history of the race, going through each stage of progress in the proper order. Thus children go through the pottery stage, making mud pies and molding clay dishes. Boys at a certain age take naturally to bows and arrows. Their play smacks of savage life. A boy finds pleasure in overcoming a weaker specimen, and in pursuing, throwing down, worrying, and gloating over his victim. His maneuvers on such occasions are not so far removed in quality from a war dance. There is also the cave period, when a number of boys of about the same age will band together and in some isolated spot dig a cave, whither are bestowed articles of food, outlandish wearing apparel, masks, etc. Here are planned raids, which are sometimes carried out in nocturnal visits to neighboring chicken roosts or melon patches. All this is great sport while it lasts, but if left alone, like the tadpole stage in the life of the frog, it soon passes away and leaves no sign. It certainly has its place in the development of the imagination, but before it can lead to harm, the actor is hurried into another stage of his race's progress, and loses his taste for cave life. But whatever may be the significance of these sports, no one can doubt that play is not only beneficial, but absolutely necessary to physical and mental growth. Every healthy child loves play and seeks it of his own PLAYTIME IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 25 1 accord. A childhood devoid of play would be one de- void of happiness. It would mean a stunted growth and a warped and stunted mind. No good could come out of it. Fortunately there is very little tendency on the part of those who have the care of children to de- prive them of play. In this way they amuse themselves and are less burdensome to the grown-ups. Does the Country Child Need Play? — We sometimes hear the idea advanced that country children do not need play, — that they get enough exercise from their work and in walking to and from school. This thought is based upon the wrong assumption that play is only for physical exercise. Were this the case, country children would still need play. The farm boy is pro- verbially awkward and ungainly. The old proverb about all work and no play is true. A child that is kept at work and deprived of play grows dull and listless and old before his time. He needs the mental stim- ulus and exhilaration that comes from competition with his fellows in friendly sports. He should engage in games that bring into play unused muscles and that tax his lungs and endurance. He should satisfy his natural desire to match his powers against others of his age and size. 2. The Moral Value of Play But physical exercise and mental development are only a part of the value of play. The moral feature is of great importance and should not be neglected. 252 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL An Illustration. — The following story, told by Mr. Lee F. Hanmer, Field Secretary of the Playground Association of America, emphasizes this point most convincingly. A boy was arrested for stealing apples. The judge of the juvenile court turned him over to the probation officer who took occasion, as soon as they were alone, to have a heart to heart talk with him. ''Now, Jack," she said, ''I want you to tell me how you came to get into this trouble. Is it true that you like apples so very well, that if you can't get them in any other way, you just have to steal them ? Is it your love for apples that is the cause of all this?" Jack looked somewhat con- fused and surprised. He had never thought of it in that light before. Then, hanging his head in embar- rassment, he said, ''No, ma'am, but it is such fun to have them chase me." Mr. Hanmer remarks: "What that boy wanted was a game, not apples, and the community is not looking out for its own welfare that does not provide him a means of having his game in a good, wholesome way, instead of having it under conditions that are paving the way for greater offenses when he comes to be a man." Play of Children Not Sufficiently Considered. — Children of moral minds do not run into evil because of any love for doing wrong. They have a natural desire for adventure, and because of lack of legitimate outlets they often get into scrapes that may lead to serious offenses. It is the business of parents and teachers to PLAYTIME IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 253 provide this legitimate outlet to their energies with amusements that will develop their powers and be an asset all through life. 3. The Teacher's and Parents' Opportunity This boundless energy and intense desire to be doing something outside of the regular routine is the teacher's — and the parents'— great opportunity and should not be overlooked. To make the most of it, much careful planning should be done and the boy's own taste and choice should have consideration. It is not so much what we think children ought to do and be, as it is what nature prompts them to do and be. Unless we are blessed with a fertile imagination and a good mem- ory of our own childhood, we are likely to see through mature eyes and judge accordingly. Yet, if we have the imagination and the memory, the experience of years will be a great help, as it will furnish the wisdom that is lacking to childhood. Neglect of Play in the Public Schools. — From the standpoint of its educational value, unless it be in the kindergarten period and to some extent in college life, no great body of parents or teachers seems to have given play serious consideration. At any rate it has been sadly neglected in the public schools, particularly in the country. There are various reasons for this. Children find ways of amusing them- selves which are supposed to be good enough. Teachers find no great pleasure in taking part in childish games, 254 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL and consider it no part of their duty to join the chil dren in their intermission sports. If they maintain sufficient guardianship to see that no one is injured, that noise and roughness are kept within bounds, their obligation is discharged. Equal rights and equal privileges are given to all, and if some do not take them, the teacher does not concern himself. If sonie timid little one finds the games too rough and seeks the teacher's side for protection, he or she is kindly told to run away and play, and rather than complain, the child hides or makes a pretense of join- ing the others, but gets no enjoyment, and is glad when the intermission is over. Usually these are the ones that need play the most, but it should be of a na- ture suited to their strength and temperament. Teachers, as a rule, do not stop to consider that some children are adapted to the rougher sort of games, while others should be provided with a milder type. Neither is attention given as to whether the prevailing games are of a physical or mental order, or that there should be a proper balancing of both. In many places there is not sufficient space for play- grounds and the spirit of the school languishes. Or, again, the children grow tired of the games with which they are familiar and they have not the ingenuity to think of new ones. To assist the teacher in overcoming these and other obstacles, to point out some of the different kinds of games in common use, such as physical and mental PLAYTIME IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 255 games, games of skill and games of chance, with such discussion of their educational value as to suggest a variety of useful amusements adapted to season and weather, is the object of this chapter. That the problem has not been taken up in serious fashion by educators everywhere is probably owing to the fact that there are other weighty matters still press- ing for solution. When they are solved, this will doubt- less receive its proper meed of attention. In the meantime it is to be hoped that the country teacher, at least, may be helped by these suggestions. 4. The Playground Selection of a Suitable Site. — Every school should be provided with an ample playground, the whole site occupying at least two acres. The location should be chosen with a view to fitness; that is, it should be land slightly elevated, but level. If the ground is unsuitable at the beginning of the term, it should be among the first duties of the teacher, with the assistance of the pupils, to put it in shape. All shrubbery, bushes, stones, and sticks should be removed and the surface made smooth. There should be trees, flowers, and grass on some portion of the school grounds, but not on the site chosen for play. Arrangement of Space. — If possible, there should be separate spaces for the sexes, though it is entirely proper for them to play together, when they choose to do so, under the supervision of the teacher. 256 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL There should also be a place for the very small children who cannot share in the games of the larger pupils. The boys should have a space large enough for base- ball or ^'scrub-ball," as it is usually played in rural districts. When the several divisions have been made, and the boundaries indicated, no unnecessary tres- passing should be allowed. Apparatus. — While no great amount of apparatus is needed for country schools, some simple arrangements should be provided. There should be swings, teeter boards, sliding boards, a horizontal bar, vaulting bars, a swinging bar, or trapeze, and a single rope swing. The little ones should have also a sand pile for con- structing ** works," and should be supplied with clay for clay modeling and mud pies. The sand and clay, to be enjoyed, should be used in shady places. The boys may provide themselves with materials for quoits, ringtoss, ball games, and hockey, or "shinney," as it is frequently called. In certain favored neighborhoods lawn tennis, basketball, and croquet may be feasible and advisable, but in many districts where such things have never been introduced, they would better be omitted. It is not wise to undertake too many innovations at first. Start with the simple materials suggested above, or even a part of them, and the others will follow in diie time. How to Secure Materials Necessary. — Nearly all of the apparatus advised need cost little save time and PLAYTIME IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 257 labor, and this can be furnished by teacher and pupils. The slight expense for ropes and boards may be secured by taking up a collection, or by a donation from some kind-hearted patron. The pupils will derive most en- joyment from what they have themselves provided. These simple materials will afford an almost endless amount of pleasure and healthful exercise for the chil- dren, as well as entertainment for others. Use of Apparatus. — Space is lacking in a single chap- ter to go into detailed explanations as to the use of the apparatus. There are books upon games that give all necessary information, and any competent librarian will upon application tell how and where the books may be secured. It is as important that the teacher should know something about games, as that he should be proficient in the studies he teaches in the schoolroom. The children will know or find out many things, but the teacher should keep ahead. In the use of the sliding hoards, care should be taken to save the children's clothes. If the sliding board is made very smooth and a small board is provided for the children to sit on, not much damage will result. The swings should not be so high as to be dangerous, and should be inspected daily as to their safety. The sand pile has a never ending charm. In addi- tion to rivers, mountains, and lakes, the children will construct houses, barns, and fields and make them real with people, animals, and implements. The clay will come into use for molding chickens, pigs, cows, horses, Dist. School — 17 258 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL and men. Bits of boards, sticks, and bark will help in constructing buildings, fences, and tools. The invent- ive powers of the children will be exercised to the full, and the teacher will find the whole an excellent source for language lessons. The Teacher on the Playground. — The teacher's prov- ince on the playground has been sufficiently outlined in Chapter III. It need only be added here that the children should never be given reason to feel that the teacher's presence is a hindrance to enjoyment or a wet blanket in any way. He should enter so heartily into the spirit of the occasion that his presence will be de- sirable on the part of the children. This is not difficult to accomplish. Each child should be allowed to think and to plan for himself as far as his capacity will permit. The teacher will need to modify, to offer suggestions, and to place limitations, but he should take his cue largely from what the child wishes to do and enjoys doing. 5. Special Games — Outdoor and Indoor Classification. — Some games require only physical strength, or agility, as "Leapfrog," ''Prisoner's Base," and nearly all games of running and jumping, and may therefore be styled physical exercise games. Then there are games which depend upon skill, such as ''marbles" and "mumble-ty-peg." Some are almost wholly mental games, as "checkers," "chess," and all card games. PLAYTIME IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 259 Again, there are games of chance, as ^' dice-throwing," ^* matching pennies," and many others. Some games combine the qualities of chance and skill, as most card games, where the player must take the cards dealt to him, and make the most out of them by skillful handling. The best games for young people are those that com- bine physical exercise with thought and skill. A large number compose this class, chief of which in school life are jootball, baseball, basketball, lawn tennis, and croquet. The Merits of Baseball.— " The National Game," as it has come to be called, has many qualities that commend it as a form of amusement and exercise for country schoolboys, as well as for those of higher institutions. It requires in almost equal proportions the three great factors in play, physical exertion, men- tal alertness, and skill. Most people probably look upon it merely as a physi- cal exercise game, and suppose that strength and en- durance are the chief requisites. But the experienced captain of a baseball team looks much more to a candi- date's skill and to his power to think quickly and ac- curately, than to his physical powers. Let us consider what is required to make a successful ''player." I. Training in Skill. — In the first place, it takes a long time, years in fact, to master the game thoroughly, and constant practice to keep in ''form," Most men 26o TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL have played ^'ball" all through their boyhood and youthful days, but no matter how skillful one was, let a few years intervene and see how, awkwardly he 'Splays the game." At the bat he ''fans the air," though the pitcher is only a "scrub." In the field he ''muffs" a "liner" and lets a "grounder" go between his legs. He excuses himself by saying that he has not touched a ball for years. Most expert ball players begin when they are infants, play steadily through early boyhood and the "grades," and make the high school and later the "varsity" team. Yet even after playing all through college days, com- paratively few are capable of becoming real "pro- fessionals." So we see a course in baseball is no "snap." To be convinced that the game, as it is played by competing teams, either in high school or college affords some excellent training, watch the "team" practicing for a match game. Every player must be on the ground regularly and promptly. Each has won his "place" by competition with many others, and must now "make good." The captain or the coach takes his position and gives orders, which must be unquestioningly obeyed. A "hot grounder" is struck to the "shortstop." It is his business to get it with one effort, and instantly to throw it straight into the hands of the second or first baseman, as the case may require. If he fails to get the ball with one effort, or lets it get away from him, in PLAYTIME IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 26 1 any way, he has blundered and is liable to censure. If he should fail to "put it" to the right man, or if he should make a wild throw, he is likewise guilty of an error, and must not let it happen. soon again. He guards a certain space between the second and the third baseman, and w^oe to him, if he allows a ball to pass him within the boundaries of that space. 2. The Mental Training of the Game. — The other players must likewise be on the alert, — must always have their eyes on the ball, must get it instantly every time it comes their way, and just as quickly send it where it belongs, the exigency of the game alone de- termining where that is. To succeed, every player must know from moment to moment what the particular phase of the game now is and what is the best move. Often the conditions change so rapidly that only a trained eye can keep pace with them. Eye, hand, and brain must all work together, keeping up with the most lightning-like changes and not getting ''rattled" amidst the most confusing circumstances. All these things require long and arduous practice. 3. The Physical Training of the Game. — IMoreover, the successful ball player must keep himself physically "fit." If he is a member of a college team, he is under the strictest orders of the captain, and must obey rules. He must retire early, avoid tobacco and intoxicants, must eat at the trainer's table on which is good sub- stantial fare, — but no delicacies, even tea and coffee being under the ban, — must bathe regularly, rise early, 262 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL take exercise before breakfasting, and miss no ap- pointed hours of practice. All this and more is required in preparation for a match game. 4. Essential Qualities Demanded by the Game. — Let us observe now how the player is trained to the highest degree attainable in the essential qualities of the game, and see if these qualities are not the same as those re- quired for success in any avocation in life. First, the captain of the team makes his appointments for practice and requires regularity and promptness of every mem- ber. Second, strict and instant obedience must be ren- dered no less than in military training. Third, sharp and constant attention is absolutely required and the player must be "on his nerve" or suffer a sharp rebuke, which by the way he must take cheerfully without answering back. The captain is "boss." Fourth, he must learn to work with his fellow-players, as much depends upon "team work." It is his duty to "back up" those who play next to him and to be ready to lend assistance at any point at any time. Fijth, he dare not shrink from the swiftest balls, and if hurt he must "grin and bear it." At the bat he must face swift balls, watch out keenly for curves, and do his best to "put" the ball in a safe place. Sixth, he knows that a strict and impartial record is being kept and that every error counts against him, w^hilc every good play adds to his renown. Seventh, he must learn to endure defeat with- out losing heart and to bear victory without boasting or putting on airs. Eighth, he must learn self-control PLAYTIME IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 263 to such an extent that in the most trying crises of the game amidst the wildest uproar he can be perfectly calm, clear-headed, and efficient . Ninth, he must sink himself in the game. He is not an individual seeking personal renown, but a part of the team whose success is his glory. Tenth, it goes without saying that he must know the game thoroughly, must play according to the rules, and abide by the decisions of the umpire. The rules governing baseball are as intricate as the rules of arithmetic, and far more changeable, but no boy needs to be given them as a task. He will pore over them until they are mastered and watch their practical work- ing with the keenest zest. These are not all the essentials, but they are sufficient to show the kind of training a boy receives on the base- ball field, and no one can deny that the qualities there acquired will be serviceable in after life. All this, too, is in addition to the physical development, the health- giving exercise, the working together of eye and hand, of mind and muscles. Such training is the necessary supplement of books and recitations. It does what the schoolroom cannot do. The schoolroom boy is a ''sissy;" the playground boy is a "hero." A proper mixture of both makes the ideal ''man." Other Outdoor Games. — It must not be assumed from the foregoing that baseball is the only game. It is used here because it is a typical American game, per- haps the most universal of school sports, and shows well the educational value of play. 264 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL For variety the boys will enjoy " Leapfrog," " Hop- scotch," " Hunt the Sheep," '' Tug of War," '' Hare and Hounds," and all games that require agility, strength or skill. Jumping and running stunts are fa- miliar to all. There are other games that are better for the cultiva- tion of patience, courtesy, grace, and other social quali- ties. In every school there should be a variety of games to suit all conditions, such as age, sex, temperament, mental and physical ability, and weather. A number of singing games should be taught to the children, such as "Jolly is the Miller," "My Father and Mother were Irish," "Skip to my Loo," "Burying Giant Growhglum," "Hunt the Needle's Eye," " London Bridge," and others that are generally known. Indoor Games. — For inclement weather there should be a number of quieter games to relieve the tedium of indoor life. These may include guessing games, songs, making pictures of animals blindfolded, "Ring," "But- ton, button, who's got the button?" counting out games, reciting Mother Goose rhymes, checkers, au- thors, charades, and so on. No attempt is made here to fui-nish an exhaustive list. Enough are suggested to give the teacher a start with the hope that each one will make a thorough study of the subject and secure a usable list that will not only afford fun and frolic, but will be of actual benefit in the development and educa- tion of the pupils. PLAYTIME IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 265 6. Play in Country Schools Advantages of the Country. — The cities throughout the country are taking up with vigor the subject of bet- ter facilities for play and are spending many thousands of dollars for playgrounds, apparatus, and for experi- enced directors. The needs and rights of country chil- dren should have no less attention. In many respects the country has the advantage of the city. In the latter, enormous sums must be expended for space sufficient for playgrounds, while in the country an abundance of space may be had almost for the asking; materials, too, are plentiful and cheap, and as these are the two chief requisites for a successful playground, the country should take the lead rather than lag behind. A Former Suggestion Repeated. — Every country school should set apart a day near the close of the term for field exercises. This suggestion has been made in a previous chapter, but needs to be repeated here. It will add greatly to the interest in the sports and will keep in school pupils that would otherwise drop out. If every college in the land can afford a field day for the older boys and girls, surely the country school need not hesitate for fear it will be a day lost. Let every teacher give it an honest trial and he will be convinced of its value. STUDY QUESTIONS DR. FROST'S INTRODUCTION 1. Why does the country school teacher figure as a hero in American history ? 2. What is ambition in a proper sense? 3. Where are its birthplaces? 4. Why is the country school teacher so necessary in many com- munities ? 5. How do the difficulties of the country school teacher compare with those of the city teacher ? 6. How should every teacher act toward his work ? AUTHOR'S EXPLANATORY NOTE 1. Why is the country school teacher "needy" in respect to informa- tion and guidance? 2, What advantages common to city teachers are lacking to country teachers ? CHAPTER I 1. Why is it a serious thing to choose the profession of teaching? (II)* 2. The points upon which the five self-imposed questions are built are: Character, motive, aptness to teach, love for children, and teaching not a "soft snap." What questions are asked upon each of these points ? 3. What is the great mistake of most young people who enter the pro- fession of teaching? (13) 4. How do the importance and responsibility of the teacher's work compare with those of the physician and the lawyer ? 5. What education should one have who is to teach grammar grades? Academy or High School ? College ? 6. What is meant by the "reading habit"? When should it be formed? (14) * Numbers after questions refer to pages in the text. 267 268 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL 7. How do country teachers compare in general knowledge with travehng men? 8. What are the legal requirements for a country school teacher in your State? (15) 9. What are the arguments for and against county examinations ? 10. What are the advantages of a personal appHcation? (17) 11. What care should one take in his personal appearance? 12. What are the essentials in making application by letter? (18) 13. What are some things an applicant should avoid? 14. In inspecting the schoolhouse with a view to improvements, what two lists should be made ? (20) 15. How shall the proper official be persuaded to furnish necessary improvements and equipment? 16. Explain fully all that may be done before opening day. (20-21) 17. Explain how a morning program for the first day of school may be prepared. (22) 18. How should the school be organized into classes? (24) 19. How may classes be set to work quickly? 20. How would you start the chart class to learning to read ? 21. How would vou hear the first reader class? Other classes? (25) 22. How would you close the school? 23. What are some points that should mark a good beginning? (26) CHAPTER II 1. For what is the school created? For what not created? (27) 2. What are the principal duties of parents ? (28) 3. Why is the matter of a book, a pencil, or a slate important to a child? (29) 4. What are some of the rights of parents ? Name five. (30) 5. How may a teacher show his wisdom and tact in dealing with com- plaining parents ? (31) 6. Do the wisest men need counsel ? Suggest examples. (31) 7. Who are the legal counselors of the teacher? 8. What ways has the County Superintendent of judging the efficiency of his teachers ? (32) STUDY QUESTIONS 269 9. How should the school be prepared for the County Superinten- dent's visit? (^;^) 10. What should take place when he arrives ? (33-34) 11. What is the importance of correct classification? Why is tact necessary on the part of the teacher? 12. What is the ordinary basis for classifying? 13. Is readiness in reading a sure criterion ? What does a poor reader often need ? How may he get it ? 14. Why is it difficult to keep the arithmetic classes evenly graded? Suggest methods. 15. Why is going back a discouraging process? (36) 16. Illustrate the general wisdom of rules and regulations. 17. In what particulars should a school go like "clockwork"? (37) 18. What is meant by ''cutting and fitting" in formulating rules? 19. How are "precedents" established? What is their value? (38) 20. Explain prohibitive and directive rules. Which is better ? Why ? 21. What rules should the teacher make for himself? (39) 22. Name the topics for each morning in the "specially planned" exercises. (40) 2:^. How may memory gems be secured and taught? Of what sort should they be ? 24. What should be the nature of "current events" ? How may they be obtained? (41) 25. Give detailed instruction for the "story for reproduction" ex- ercises. 26. Suggest a list of names for biographical sketches. (42) 27. Is the country school a good place for nature-study work? Why? 28. Suggest material and ways of carrying on this work. 29. What are the chief points of excellence in the daily program out- lined on pages 44 and 45 ? 30. Would you prefer that the Sixth Grade should recite arithmetic in the afternoon rather than the first thing in the morning ? Why ? 31. After the Fourth Grade recites its reading lesson, it has 55 minutes for studying physiology and 15 for reciting it. Is this well proportioned ? 32. Does the Third Grade have too much time for the study of arith- metic after its reading lesson ? 2,2,- Can you suggest a better balancing of study periods? 270 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL CHAPTER III 1. Why is assigning lessons so important a matter? (46) 2. What must the teacher know in order to assign lessons rightly? (47) 3. Give an example of the way in which each of the following lessons should be assigned: (i) A reading lesson. (2) A geography lesson. (3) An arithmetic lesson for an advanced class; (4) for a beginning class. (49) 4. Show how the abstract truth of one of these small examples may be made concrete. 5. Suggest materials for busy work and ways of using these materials. (50-51) 6. Describe in full the illustration of the group of children gathering flowers, and their subsequent experience with their teacher. (52) 7. How does this apply to the "Lesson Period"? (53) 8. Under the topic, "Important Features of the Lesson Period," is a list of ten things the Lesson Period should stand for. Name and dis- cuss them. (54-56) 9. Give examples where the main object of the lesson would be skill; where the main object would be the acquirement of knowledge; of general culture. (56) 10. Give the origin of the allusions, "He was being used as a cat's paw," etc. 11. What is said of the value and art of illustrations? (57) 12. How may important matters be emphasized? (58) 13. Point out the illustrations on page 58. 14. What is the effect of sharp questioning? 15. Name and illustrate the four classes of questions mentioned on page 59. 16. Give several reasons for daily or frequent reviews. (61) 17. Show the advantages of written reviews. (62) 18. Why is attention so necessary to learning? (63) 19. What is the key to attention? (64) STUDY QUESTIONS 27 1 20. When interest is waning, what is to be done ? 21. In what two ways may a lack of interest be accounted for? 22. What is meant by knowledge being usable? (65) 23. How may original lessons be prepared, and what is their value ? 24. Where shall we find our materials for character training? (67) 25. What should be taught in the way of politeness? 26. Why is the teacher's example so important in this work? (68) 27. What is meant by the terms "order" and "disorder" in the school- room ? (69) 28. What are the commonest sources of disorder? 29. How should whispering be dealt with ? 30. What are the evils of running to the teacher to have words pro- nounced? (70) 31. How may the practice be cured? (71) 32. Has play an educational value ? (72) 33. How is it recognized in colleges and universities ? 34. What would be the probable effect of depriving children of play? 35. Give three rules for regulating the intermissions. (73) 36. What should be the teacher's part in games ? (74) 37. Show how luncheon time may be made socially valuable. CHAPTER IV 1. What is the status of attendance in many district schools? (77) 2. State three common causes of chronic absence. (78) 3. What is most effective in inducing a large attendance? (79) 4. How can parents be shown their obligation to send their children to school? (80) 5. Describe ways of winning parents and children to a proper interest in school. 6. What are the three main causes of tardiness? (81) 7. How should laziness be treated ? 8. Suggest arguments that might be presented to thoughtless parents. (82) 9. How do some parents show bad judgment in keeping children out of school? (83) 10. How may the teacher treat the first tardiness that occurs ? 272 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL 11. Suggest treatment for children who are unavoidably detained at home. (84) 12. What attention should be paid toward keeping the house and grounds in proper condition ? (86) 13. What is the moral effect of neglecting repairs when needed? 14. What care should be taken in regard to sanitation? (87) 15. What relation exists between good order and good humor? (88) 16. Suggest exercises for producing harmony of feeling. (89) 17. What should the teacher do in case of bitter factional strife in the neighborhood ? 18. To what extent should the teacher exercise the ofhce of physician ? (91) 19. How should he guard against contagious diseases? 20. What instruction should be given concerning typhoid fever? (92) 21. State the first rule of health. What does it mean ? (93) 22. What does real cleanliness mean? 23. How are cellars often a menace to health? 24. What should children be taught in regard to personal cleanliness ? (94) 25. State the second rule of health. What can the country teacher do to promote the observance of this rule ? 26. What are the four principal kinds of food? (95) 27. Give outline for discussion of each of these kinds. (95-96) 28. What is the third rule of health? (97) 29. What should be the standard of purity of air in schoolhouse, bed- room, church, and everywhere? 30. How may the air of a room be tested 31. How is the spread of consumption often brought about ? (98-99) 32. What is the fourth rule of health? (99) ^^. Why should there be calisthenics in country schools? 34. Suggest exercises for arms, lower limbs, body, and head. (100- 102) 35. Give directions for a breathing exercise. (103) 36. What is the common attitude toward rhetorical exercises in country schools ? 37. What is the effect of beginning wrong? (104) 38. How may small pupils be taught to write compositions? STUDY QUESTIONS 273 CHAPTER V 1. Why does the district school teacher more than others need spurs for his own use? (108) 2. What is spur No. i, and how shall it be applied? (109) 3. What is spur No. 2 ? How shall it be made effective ? 4. Show how spurs Nos. 3, 4, and 5 may be used, (no) 5. What is meant by keeping a brave front? (in) 6. Why should a teacher keep his woes to himself? (111-112) 7. What should be his attitude toward discouraged pupils? (113) 8. What can be done for those who are lacking in some one branch ? (114) 9. What treatment do the timid ones need ? 10. Why should the teacher appoint himself a lookout committee ? 11. What danger lies in getting into ruts ? (115) 12. What special reason is there for trying new methods? 13. When new devices are offered the teacher, what is the safe rule? (116) 14. Why is daily study an absolute necessity ? (116) 15. How may one get the most out of Teachers' Associations ? (117) 16. Give a list of reserve forces, and tell how to use them. (120, 121, 122, 124) 17. How may desirable visitors be secured? (125) CHAPTER VI 1. What is meant by ''love"? How is it manifested? (127) 2. How may love for unlovable children be acquired? (128) 3. Relate the incident of the "Incorrigible Boy." (129) 4. How should punishment follow as the natural result of wrong- doing? Give examples. (130) 5. What special applications of love will the little ones need? (131) 6. What demands have the second and third grades? (132) 7. In what respect should all be treated alike? (133) 8. How should misdeeds be regarded ? 9. How do backward students become discouraged ? (134) 10. Relate the "Helpful Story." (135) Dist. School— 18 2 74 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL 11. What may be done to help those who are very poor? (137) 12. What attention should the bright and attractive children receive? (139) 13. What is the teacher's proper attitude toward the most advanced pupils? (141) 14. Give probable reasons for "badness" in certain pupils. (142) 15. In whom does the difference between the bad and the good fre- quently lie? Show how. (143) 16. Give examples of dull children who have afterwards become noted for their mental powers. (143-144) 17. How may such examples be accounted for? (144-145) CHAPTER VII 1. What criticism is commonly made upon the work of the school? (147) 2. What grounds exist for such criticism? 3. How may the reading habit be acquired? (148) 4. What kind of books should compose the school library and how may they be chosen ? 5. How may the teacher add to the interest of the books read by the pupils? (149) 6. How may the children be encouraged to own books? (150) 7. How may home reading be encouraged? (151) 8. Why should the world judge of one's education by his use of Eng- lish rather than by other branches of study? (152) 9. How may first reader pupils be started on the road to correct English? (154) 10. Why is it well to take pains to instruct children at an early age in the correct pronunciation and meaning of words? (155) 11. Show how the study of geography should begin. 12. Show how distance is measured or estimated by certain units of measurement. (156) 13. How should one teach children a ready understanding of these units? 14. What should be taught next after direction and distance ? 15. How does the school yard represent the whole earth? STUDY QUESTIONS 275 16. How may children be led to understand the world as a whole? (157) 17. At what time should a text-book be placed in the hands of the children, and how should they be prepared for it? (159) 18. How may the study of geography be made practical for the more advanced pupils? (160-161) 19. Illustrate the meaning of "raw material" and "finished product." (161) 20. Why should history be written? (162) 21. How was it taught when it was not written? (163) 22. Why are we not ready to discard teaching by word of mouth? (164) 23. How may history be introduced to young pupils ? 24. Relate the story of "A Very Active Boy," of "Christopher as a Sailor," etc. (165) 25. Describe time and use of a primary history. (167) 26. How may history be applied to character-building? (168) 27. What good point is made concerning our military heroes? 28. Name four results that should accrue from the study of history. (169) CHAPTER VIII 1. Give several answers to the question, "What is the matter with arithmetic?" (172) 2. Which should predominate, the practical or the cultural, in the teaching of arithmetic ? (173) 3. Mention some of the practical problems of life that can not be solved by arithmetic. Are there many such ? (174) 4. What should be the main object in the study of arithmetic ? 5. How much time and effort should be devoted to skill in computing and handling numbers ? 6. In solving thought problems, what should be the watchword? (176) 7. Illustrate how to lead children from the known to the unknown. (175) 8. What are the hopeful signs in regard to the teaching of arithmetic? 9. How is man related to all living things? (178) 276 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL 10. How may the study of one subject, — as, for example, food, — lead us to the study of other subjects? (179) 11. Why is comparative physiology an interesting study ? (180) 12. Does nature furnish plenty of material for such study? 13. State the advantages of studying nature at first hand. (181) 14. How may children be led to see the evil results of bad habits? (182) 15. Show proofs of the injurious effects of tobacco upon students and young men. 16. How may the children's minds be fortified against the use of in- toxicating drinks? (183) 17. What is the attitude of employers toward men who drink? 18. How does it happen that so many schools turn out "bad" spellers? (185) 19. Show an improvement that might be made over the old formula, ''Take the next lesson." 20. Why can not some people learn to spell easily? (186) 21. Suggest a helpful course for such students. 22. What is the importance of knowing the meaning as well as the spelling of words ? 23. How do we finally remember how a word is spelled? (187) 24. Explain how word cards may be useful in teaching the ready recog- nition of words. 25. What are the essential qualifications of a penman? (189) 26. What is the secret of success in learning to write ? 27. At what age or grade should pupils be supplied with pen and ink ? (188) CHAPTER IX 1. What attractions does farm life offer to an educated man? (191) 2. Relate the story of the chinch bugs in Kansas. (192) 3. What special subjects are taught in agricultural colleges? (193) 4. What is the "school garden," and how is it making headway? 5. Why is ignorance of his calling particularly costly to the farmer? 6. How has trade life been honored ? (194) 7. Why should one who is preparing to be a carpenter have an edu- cation? (195) STUDY QUESTIONS 277 8. How are trades learned in these days ? How were they learned in former days ? 9. What general education should a carpenter possess? (196) 10. What is said of blacksmithing? 11. What are the leading professions ? (197) 12. What is theology and how is it studied? 13. Why is it especially needful for a minister of the gospel to be well educated? (198) 14. What seal has been set against hasty preparation ? 15. Why do so many bright young men choose the profession of law? 16. What is a "criminal lawyer"? 17. What great temptation does he meet? 18. How should a lawyer represent his client? (199) 19. What are some things he should not do ? 20. How does the practice of medicine stand among professions? (200) 21. In what should a physician's success He? 22. Why is teaching used as a stepping-stone by so many young people? (201) 23. What incentive is there for thorough preparation for teaching? 24. What is the standing of other callings mentioned ? (203) 25. What is the common fault of young people in regard to occupa- tions ? 26. How is the business of a merchant best learned ? 27. Explain the various steps and what one should learn in each. 28. Describe how the son of a railroad president won his way. (205) 29. How is an ambition to be a politician a laudable one? (206) 30. What means are there for preparing the politician for his work ? 31. What special accomplishments do many schools provide for girls? (207) 32. What profession is fully open to women by general consent? (208) ;^^. What success have they attained? 34. What preparation, general and special, should a girl have for teaching? 35. What other occupations are open to young women? 36. What will insure enjoyment in almost any work ? 278 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL 37. What are the great things to be considered in choosing a Hfe work ? (209) CHAPTER X 1. What are the five heads under which government is considered ? (213) 2. Give the two meanings of the term "order." 3. What points in regard to order should pupils be taught to observe regularly ? 4. What is the value of system in work ? (214) 5. Why should each pupil have a daily program? 6. How do pupils look upon a well-regulated school? (215) 7. How does nature provide penalties for infractions of her laws ? 8. Does the law of natural penalties hold in our moral as well as in our physical being? (216) 9. To what extent are moral wrongs healed when properly treated ? 10. Why may corporal punishment sometimes be resorted to? (217) 11. What are the main objections to whipping? (218) 12. Give an illustration of disobedience and how to treat it. 13. How can a child be shown the evil results of lying? (219) 14. What kind of punishments are to be entirely avoided? (220) 15. How do children look upon fairness? 16. What is the objection to reserving sentence ? (221) 17. What are the two great essentials of proper punishment? 18. What is the aim of the public school? (222) 19. How shall the mental development of the pupils be measured? 20. How can the teacher show wisdom in planning details? (223) 21. How may he show it in the rendering of decisions ? (224) 22. What supervision should the teacher have over the seating of the pupils ? 23. How is self-discipline looked upon, and what is its relation to achievement? (226) 24. Is the value of most lessons intrinsic or cultural ? Why ? 25. What is the test of a teacher? (227) 26. Give examples of teachers whose greatness has been shown in the lives of their pupils. (228) 27. What is a true teacher's greatest cause for rejoicing? (229) STUDY QUESTIONS 279 CHAPTER XI 1. How is the success of an undertaking measured? (230) 2. What is the nature of the school exhibition? (231) 3. What good ends does it serve ? 4. Describe the preHminary preparations, committees, etc. 5. What is the nature of the school exposition? (235) 6. Is it right for the public to see the best only ? Why ? (236) 7. What three elements are necessary to a successful exposition ? 8. What subjects can be used to good advantage, and how? (237) 9. How should the display be arranged ? (238) 10. What are some of the good results that are likely to flow from an exposition ? (239) 11. What work of the school, if it has been properly done, will give parents the greatest pleasure? (240) 12. How may "signs of purpose" be taken as a measure of the school's efficiency ? 13. What are some of the things that may be accomplished in even a six months' term? (241). 14. How may work be planned so that it will go on to some extent through the vacation? (242) 15. Show how life friendships may be formed in school, and how they may be of great value through life. (243) CHAPTER XII 1. In what animals is the tendency to play especially noticeable? (247) 2. Explain the educational value of play as manifested in the lower animals. (248) 3. What significance has the play of the young of the cat and dog tribes ? (249) 4. To what extent is man a playing animal ? (249) 5. How does play in the various stages of child life hark back to the progressive stages of civilization ? (250) 6. What results would be likely to follow if a child were deprived of play? (251) 28o TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL 7. What are the needs of the country child in respect to play? Why? (251) 8. How may play become a power in moral training? (252) 9. How may teachers and parents keep in touch and in sympathy with child life? (253) 10. To what extent has the value of play been overlooked in the public schools? How may this neglect be accounted for? (253) 11. What are the requisites of a good playground? (255) 12. What arrangements are desirable for the accommodation of age and sex? (255) 13. Name some simple apparatus that every school should be pro- vided with and tell how they may be secured, (256) 14. Give instructions for the care and use of sliding boards, swings, sand pile, etc. (257) 15. Describe the teacher's province on the playground. (258) 16. Why is a variety of games desirable? (259, 264) 17. Suggest a list of games that you consider suitable and profitable for school children. 18. Are the merits of baseball overdrawn in this chapter? Give reasons for your answer. (259) 19. How are certain games useful for the cultivation of the social graces ? 20. Suggest indoor games for inclement weather. (264) 21. What advantages have country over city schools in respect to play? (265) 22. In your opinion would it be wise to set apart one day of the term for outdoor sports ? What should be its main features ? (265) INDEX Absence, Chronic, 78, 79; first, 85; Carpentry, 195, 196. investigation of, 77; unavoidable, 84. Advancement, in teaching, 245, 246. Agricultural Colleges, State, 192. Agriculture, 192-194. Air, see Ventilation. Ambition, 126. Analysis and Selection, 52. Apparatus, use of, 103, 257. Application for School, 17, 18. Arithmetic, assigning lessons in, 48, 49; ciphering match, 121; grading classes in, 35; how to teach, 172- 177; mental, 175. Assignment of lessons, see special subjects. Attendance, Irregularity of, 84, 85; Non-, 77-81. Attention, individual, 114; Key to, 63, 64. Backward Pupils, 36, 133-135. "Bad Boy," The, 129, 142, 143. Bad judgment, consequences of, ^T)- Baseball, 259-263. Biographical Sketches, 42. Bird Day, preparation for, 121. Blacksmithing, 196. Body, see Physiology. Books, collecting of, 150, 241; for poor pupils, 138; for school library, 148; necessary to child, 29; on pedagogy, 117. Breathing exercises, 103. Breathing pure air, 97. Bribery, 18. Busy Work, 50. Calisthenic Drills, 100-103. Card system, 187. Certificate, examination for, 15, 16. Character Building, 13, 66, 240. Child, backward, 36, 133-138; dis- cipHne of, 1,^, 38, 39, 67, 240; emulation in, 168; health of, 91- 103; intellectual development of, 139, 140; love for, 127, 146; moral training of, 67, 78, 81-84, 216, 217; necessity of play for country, 251, 265; neglect of, 78; see also Pupils. Ciphering match, 121. Circulation, see Physiology. Civil government, 206. Classification, basis for, 34-36. Cleanliness, 93, 94, 214. College, Agricultural, 192. Composition, writing of, 104-107, 237- Conduct Rules, for pupils, 38, 39; for teacher, 21 1-2 13. Consumption, 97-99. Contagious diseases, 91. Contract, school, 19. Cooking, 207. Cooperation of parents and chil- dren, 20, 21, 236. Copying, 51. Corporal punishment, 130, 217, 218. County Institute, attendance at, 32, County Superintendent, 32. Current events, 14, 40, 41. Deafness, 145. Declamation, 40, 103, 104, 106, Deficiencies, physical, 144. Desks, 213, 214. Dictionary, use of, 155. Digestion, see Physiology. 281 2d>2 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL Discipline, extreme cases of, 112; see Government, Order, Rules for Conduct, etc. Diseases, causes of, 181; contagious, 91. Disorder, sources of, 69. Domestic arts, 207. Drawing, 120. Dress, 17. Drinking habit, 182, 183. Dullness, 143, 144, 220. Education, necessity of, 196; pre- paratory to teaching, 13. Employments, minor, 203-205, 208. Encouragement, value of, 113-114. English, see Grammar. Equality of treatment, 88. Examination, Self-, 11. Examinations, test, for teachers, 15, 16; value of, for pupils, 62, 63. Example, force of, 11, 68, no, 227- 229. Exercise, Mental, 124; Physical, see Physical Exercise, Gymnastics, etc. Exercises, in unison, 89; opening, 40-42; rhetorical, 103-107. Exhibition, School, 231-235. Explanations, in teaching, 56-58. Exposition, School, 235-239. Eyesight, 145. Factions, 78, 79. Failure to recite, 130. Farming, 191-194. Field Day, 122-124, 265. First day of school, preparations for, 22-26. Food, 94-96. Friendships, formed in school, 243- 245- Games, 73, 74, 75, 76, 122, 259-264. Gardens, School, 193. Geography, assigning lesson in, 48; combined with history, 162; how to teach, 155-162; in spelling les- son, 120. Globe, use of, 158, 159. Gossip, avoidance of, in. Government of school, 43-45, 210- 229. Grades, children of lower, 131-133. Grammar, how to teach, 151-155. Gymnastics, 99-103. Habits, bad, 181-183; right, 226, 227. Health, care of, 91-103. History, combined with geography, 162; how to teach, 162-171. History Day, 122. Ill-feeling, adjustment of, 89. Illustrations, value of, 57. Impression, clinching the, 58. Indoor games, 264. Industrial trades, 190-209. Inspiration, value of, 221. Interest, how to keep up, 108-126; why children lose, 64-66. Interruptions, in schoolroom, 70-72. Knov^^ledge, accumulating, 52-55, 179, 180; application of, 160, 161; usable, 65. Language, in teaching, 57. Lawyer, duties of, 198-200. Laziness, 81, 82. Lesson-period, use of, 51-56. Lessons, assignment of, 24, 46-49 {see also special subjects); new ways of hearing, 120. Library, School, 148. "Little Chronicle, The," 41. Love, a factor in teaching, 127-146. Manners, 66-68, 96, 240. Map-drawing, 41, 120. Medicine, 200, 201. Memory gems, 40. Morals, 66-68. Morning exercises, 40-43, Nature-study, 42, 52, 53, 121, 238. Noon Hour, 74, 75. Normal School training, 13. Number work, see Arithmetic INDEX 283 Object Lessons, see special sub- jects. Observation, value of, 14, 175. Order, in schoolroom, 68-72, 213- 215. Parents, duties of, 28-30, 138, 252, 253; gratitude of, 240; respon- sibility of, 82, 83; rights of, 30, 31, 230; ways of winning, 80. Partiality, 88, 89, 128, 231, 232. Pedagogical helps, 116. Penmanship, 187-189. Physical deficiencies, 144, 145. Physical exercise, 75, 99-103; see also Play. Physiology, how to teach, 177-184; in written work, 238. Play, educational value of, 72, 123, 247-251; moral value of, 251, 252; relation of parents to, 252, 253; relation of teachers to, 73, 123, 252-254, 258. Playground, 21, 73-75, 122-124; apparatus for, 256, 257; division of, 73. 255, 256; games for, 73-75, 123, 124, 258-264; location of, 255- Politeness, see Manners. Politician, qualifications for, 206, 207. Poor, the, sympathy for, 137, 138. Preparation for teaching, 13-16, 208. Prizes, 189. Problems, impractical, 176, 177. Professions, 197-202. Program, of First Day, 22; of recita- tion and study, 44, 45; of school- exhibition, 233. Promptness, 37. Pronunciation, 155. Public school, aim of, 222, Pupils, advanced, 139-142; back- ward, 133-135; character of, 240; classification of, 34, 35; coopera- tion of, 20, 21, 236; dull, 143; en- couragement of, 113, 114, 221; future of, 140, 184, 190, 207-209, 240, 241; health of, 91-103; per- sonal appearance of, 94, 213; physical deficiencies of, 144, 145; very poor, 137, 138; young, 131- 133; see also Child. Punishment, 130, 215-222. Quarreling, see Ill-feeling. Questioning, in teaching, 58-60. Reading, assigning lesson in, 47; at home, 151; classification in, 35; discussion and application of, 149; habit, 14, 150, 241; making les- sons in, 65, 237. Reading society, 242. Reasoning process, 175. Recesses and Intermissions, 72-76. Recitations, see Lessons, Program, etc. Regularity, 37. Reproduction, stories for, 41, 42. Rest-periods, 72, 73. Reviews, necessity for, 60-63. Rewards, 189. Rhetorical Exercises, 103-107. Rules and Regulations, 36-39, 215. Sanitation, 87, 93. School, application for, 17, 18; fun- damental purpose of, 27, 28, 230; exhibition, 231-235; exposition, 235-239; gardens, 193; govern- ment, 43-45, 210-229; library, 148; management, 36-39, 68-72, 222-226; opening of, 19-26; play- time in, 247-265; register, 24; se- curing a, 17-19; visitors, 125, 126. Schoolhouse, inspection of, 19-22, 86; repairs and improvements of, 86; sanitation of, 87. Schoolroom, arrangement of, 224- 226; decoration of, 21; order in, 68-72, 213-215; ventilation of, 97. Schools, visiting other, 117, 118. Scrapbook, 118. Self-examination, 11. Sewing, 207, Singing, 40, 71, 89, 120, 264. Speech, see Grammar. Spelling, how to teach, 65, 185-187. Study, daily necessity of, 116. 284 TEACHING A DISTRICT SCHOOL Superintendent, county, 32-34. System, in work, 214, 215, Tardiness, 81-84. Teacher, aims of, 230; as arbiter, 89, 90; attitude toward factions, 78, 79; duty to community, 230, 242; endeavor to create public sentiment, 80, 81, 125, 231; ex- ample of, 60, 68, 108, no, 212, 227-229; function of, 28; health of, 28, 211; his love for children, 128-146; his presence on the playground, 74, 123, 254, 258; incentives to, 109, no; mutual duties with parents, 30, 31, 85; pay of, 202; personal conduct of, 39, 211, 212, 228; progress of, 115- 126, 245, 246; relation to parents, 78, 79, 138, 235; relation to pa- trons, 125, 230; reputation of, 132; responsibility for health of schol- ars, 91-103; running to the, 70; self-government of, 210, 211; spirit of, 31, III, 112, 212, 228. Teachers' Associations, 118. Teaching, fitness of women for, 207, 208; legal requirements for, 15; love a factor in, 127-146; new methods of, 115, 116, 120-124; personal fitness for, 11, 12; practi- cal, 46-76, 147-189; preparation for, 13-16, 208; profession of, 201, 202; works on, 116, 117. Text-books, use of, 159, 160, 167. Theology, 197, 198. Thoughtlessness, evil of, 82. Tobacco, 182. Trade schools, 195. Trades, 194-209. Training, mental and moral, 226- 229. Trustees, consultation with, 31, 32, 112; contract with, 19. Tuberculosis, 97-99. Untruthfulness, 130. Vacation, course of reading for, 242. Variety, in teaching, 66, 1 15-126. Ventilation, 97. Vision, sharpness of, 186. Visiting other schools, 117, 118. Visitors, School, 23, 125, 126. Whipping, 130, 217, 218. Whispering, 69. Will power, cultivation of, 211. Women, as teachers, 207, 208; other occupations for, 207, 208. Words, meaning and use of, 155, iS.6. Writing, see Penmanship. Written Reviews, 62, 63. CLARK'S THE GOVERNMENT WHAT IT IS, WHAT IT DOES ^0.75 THIS text-book furnishes a unique presentation of the subject, treating of the principles of general govern- ment before considering those of local government. Its method of treatment encourages independent thought and personal research. This appears, not only in the supplementary work at the end of each chapter, but also in the problems of government given at intervals. Maps and diagrams are used, besides suggestive illustrations to reinforce the text. •[[ Following an account of the government in general the book treats of the chief functions of government in a definite and logical manner. It then explains the American system of central government and the local government by the people ; it discusses voting. State and national constitutions, and the relation of nation. State, county, township, and city to each other. The principal officials of the various govern- mental systems are taken up, and their duties, qualifications, etc., properly considered. ^ The latter part of the book presents important chapters on certain practical operations of government, such as: Trials, law-making, party nominations, political issues, and political corruption. A short summary of the principles of inter- national law and of the commoner laws pertaining to business and property is also included. ^ The author lays emphasis on the importance of State governments, and enriches the text with illuminating com- parisons with foreign governments. He presents the subject as a science, a complete and sensible system of interdependent parts and defined limits, with a single object — the good of the people. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY I (I8S> SPECIAL TEXT-BOOKS FOR EVENING SCHOOLS By WILLIAM E. CHANCELLOR, Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C. Reading and Language Lessons $°'30 Arithmetic 30 Studies in English . . . ^o. 30 United States History and Government . . .30 THIS series offers, for the first time, a system of instruc- tion which is designed especially for evening schools. Young Men's Christian Association classes, and similar public and private educational institutions. Each volume contains about 1 1 5 pages. ^ The conditions existing in day and in evening schools differ so radically that the use of the same system of instrucdon in both is not only impractical, but also impossible. And much experience has demonstrated that the same text-books can not be used vv^ith equally good results in the tv^ro kinds of schools. ^ The students pursuing studies in evening schools are gen- erally older and far more mature than those who pursue cor- responding studies in day schools, and therefore require in the subject matter andillustradon of their texts material of a different character from that furnished in ordinary day school texts. ^y The time allotted to each study is very limited, and text- books are needed that present in the briefest compass the essential facts and principles. ^ The teachers in evening schools usually have dudes also in day schools, and the text-book should do whatever it can to economize their dme in the preparadon of lessons. ^ The funds available for the purchase of evening school text-books in those communides which furnish free books are usually limited, and therefore the books should be compact and offered at low prices. All of these ends have been provided for in this series. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY (I2li BARNES'S NEW HISTORIES OF THE UNITED STATES Elementary History . . ;^o.6o School History . , . . ^i.oo IN their present form, these standard histories are strictly modern both as to contents and as to dress. They not only have been brought down to the present time, but they also embody the most approved methods of teaching history as recommended by the Committees of Ten and Fifteen. In each volume the illustrations are numerous and appropriate, while the maps are complete and clear. TJ BARNES'S ELEMENTARY HISTORY has been entirely re-written by that charming writer for children. Dr. James Baldwin. It tells in an intensely interesting manner the story of the discovery, settlement, and development of the United States in a series of biographies, but it presents only those necessary to the continuity of the narrative as a whole. ^ The story of no man's life is given merely because of the man, but because it throws light upon the manners of the times, and the general progress of events. Each biography in language and thought is well adapted to the capabilities of young children, and is followed by a brief review with suggestive questions. ^ In BARNES'S SCHOOL HISTORY a consistent effort has been made to retain those features of the older volume (Barnes's Brief History), which gave it its extraordinary popularity: its main division into epochs; its topical arrange- ment; its interesting foot-notes containing collateral facts, minor events, and brief biographies ; and, most important of all, the fascinating Hterary style of its author. Dr. Steele. ^ The treatment of battles has been somewhat curtailed, and greater prominence given to the life of the people, and to the wonderful development of our industries. Carefully selected references for reading have been inserted at intervals. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY PUPILS' OUTLINE STUDIES IN UNITED STATES HISTORY $0.30 By FRANCIS H.WHITE, A.M., Professor of History and Political Science, Kansas State Agricultural College A BLANK book, which is intended for the pupil's use in connection with any good history of the United States. It presents an original combination of devices con- veniently arranged, and affords an unusually clear idea of our country's history in which the chief events are deeply impressed on the learner's mind. The entire development of the United States has been taken up in the most logical manner, and facts of a similar nature have been grouped naturally together. ^ This material is in the form of outline maps, charts, tables, outhnes for essays, book references, etc., with full directions for the pupil, and suggestions to the teacher. Students are required to locate places, trace routes, follow lines of develop- ment, make pictures of objects illustrating civilization, write compositions, etc. ^ The use of this book has demonstrated that the teaching of history need no longer present any difficulties to the teacher. Mere memorizing is discouraged, and the pupil is compelled to observe closely, to select essential facts, to classify his knowledge, to form opinions for himself, and to consult the leading authorities. The interest thus instilled will invariably lead to a sufficient grasp of the subject. ^ The body of the book is divided into the following general headings: The Indians; Discovery and Exploration; Coloniza- tion; The Development of Nationality ; Military History; The Progress of Civilization; Political History; and Our Flag and Its Defenders. While none of these periods is treated exhaustively, each is taken up so comprehensively and suggestively that further work can be made easily possible where more time is available. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY ("7) An 25 10 1!:^: One copy del. to Cat. Div. ^^^ ^4' lUlQ