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 WORLD'S PROGRESS: 
 
 ixtioiutrii of ^kUb. 
 
 BEING A 
 
 GHROiNOLOGICAL AND ALPHABETICAL RECORD 
 
 OP 
 
 ALL ESSENTIAL FACTS II THE PROGRESS OF SOCIETY, 
 
 FROM THE CREATION OF THE WORLD TO AUGUST, 1867. 
 
 WITH A CHART, 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 GEO. P. PITTNAM, A.M. 
 
 FIFTEENTB EDITION. 
 
 NEW YOEK: 
 G. P. PUTKAM & SOISrS, 
 
 ASSOCIATION BUILDING, TWENTY-THIRD STREET. 
 
 1871. 
 

 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by 
 
 G. P. PUTNAM & SON, 
 
 Sa the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Soutaert 
 
 District of New York* 
 
 The New York Printing Company, 
 8 1, 83, and 85 Centre Si., 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
NOTE TO THE EEYISED EDITION— (1867). 
 
 In this edition the Synchronistical Tables have been brought 
 down to July, 1867. The Biographical Index has been re-stereo- 
 typed, with large additions, condensed in a single alphabet; and 
 the alphabetical arrangement of Historical and Statistical Facts 
 has been revised and continued to the present day. 
 
 New Tobk, August 10, 186t. 
 
a ^ 
 
PHEFACE. 
 
 While revising a chronological manual, in compiling whicn I liad^ 
 at the age of fifteen,* employed many midnight hours, I have found 
 material assistance in the tables prepared by my late friend, D. A. 
 Talboys, publisher, of Oxford, England, usually called the Oxford 
 Chronological Tables. In the alphabetical part of the volume, the 
 comprehensive and useful Dictionary of Dates, by Haydn, has been 
 incorporated almost entire, with such additions relating to the United 
 States as were necessary to its completeness, and with continuations 
 to the present year. 
 
 The contemporary tables which I had formerly prepared, had 
 cost much diligent application, and I was glad to find on collating 
 them with the more recent works, that some slight additions only 
 were needed to make them as full and complete as was desirable for 
 the purpose in view, viz. : a convenient and portable volume for refer- 
 ence, not over-burdened with details, but indicating to the intelligent 
 reader all the great landmarks of history in their order of succession ; 
 and showing also what was going on at the same time in different 
 countries. To render this glance more comprehensive and clear, 
 many of the details in the former tables are now omitted, as they 
 are given more at large in the alphabetical part of the volume. 
 
 To a reader of history the utility of such a glance at contempo- 
 rary persons and events, is too obvious to need illustration : but while 
 the more elaborate and ponderous works of Blair, Talboys, and 
 
 * ChrrMclogy — An Index to Universal History, &-c. 12mo. Leavitt, New- 
 Fork, 1^33. The volume has been long out of print. 
 
 \^\ 
 
iV PREFACE. 
 
 others, are available to the historian or the merely literary man, they 
 are usually repulsive to the general reader, for the very reason 
 that they contain too much for ordinary purposes ; their very elaborate- 
 ness serves to puzzle and to mystify. 
 
 What is here aimed at is simply to indicate, in brief and sugges- 
 tive terms, the succession of the prominent occurrences and of the 
 governments in the chief nations of the world — enough merely to 
 recall to the reader of history the full pictures of these events, and 
 to enable hJm to classify them correctly in his memory. 
 
 The alphabetical part of the volume gives, in most cases, more 
 full and ample references to the same historical facts ; but still the 
 whole work is but an index to the sources of knowledge — a Diction- 
 ary of Dates. It has been planned so as to facilitate access to the 
 largest amount of useful information in the smallest ponsible 
 compass. 
 
 There are some discrepancies among the authorities, as to names 
 and dates — especially in the Middle Ages — and in some instances 
 the dictionary varies from the tables ; but these instances are not 
 numerous or important. 
 
 The Biographical List at the close of the volume will contribute, 
 it is presumed, to render the contemporary tables far more variously 
 useful than would be at -first supposed. By ascertaining from it 
 the dates of birth and death of any eminent person, the tables will 
 show at a glance what events happened, and what other eminent per- 
 sons lived during the life-time of that individual. 
 
 It would be superfluous to say more by way of explanation. That 
 such a volume can be quite free from imperfections is not to be 
 Bupponed ; but the compiler trusts that it will be found to answer all 
 reasonable expectations, as a compact manual of reference to the 
 World's Progress in Arts, Literature, and Social Life, as well as \n 
 Politics and Government. Gr. P. P. 
 
 0( i^ 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGH 
 
 I. SUPPLEMENT TO THE WOELD'S PROGEESS (1851 to 186T), .... 1 
 
 II. DICTIONARY OF DATES 145 
 
 III. LITERxS^EY CHRONOLOGY .609 
 
 XV. HEATHEN DEITIES, &c 648 
 
 V. TABULAR VIEWS OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY, IN CONTEMPORARY COL- 
 
 UMNS {n&w paging) . 1 
 
 I. ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 Period I.— The Antediluvian (1656 years) . . {new paging) . 2 
 
 Period II. — Dispersion of Mankind (427 years). — The Deluge to Abraham . 4 
 
 Period III. — The Abrahamic or Patriarchal (480 years). — Abraham to Moses . 6. 
 
 Peeiod IV. — The Mosaic or Theocratic (896 years). — Moses to Saul . . 8 
 
 Period V. — The Monarchical (488 years). — Saul to Cyrus . . .14 
 
 Period VI. — The Pereian (322 years). — Cyrus to Alexander ... 21 
 
 Period VII. — The Grecian (184 years). — Alexander to the Fall of Greece . 26 
 
 Period VIII.— The Roman (146 years). — Fall of Greece to the Christian Era . 33 
 
 IL MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Period I. — (806 years.) — From the Christian Era to the reign of Constantino . 48 
 
 Period II. — (170 years.)— Constan tine to Odoacer . . . .58 
 
 Period III.— (146 years.) — Odoacer to Mahomet .... 62 
 
 Period IV.— (ITS years). — Mahomet to Charlemagne . . . .68 
 
 Period V.— (266 years ) — Charlemagne to William the Conqueror . . 72 
 
 Period VI. — (233 years.)— William the Conqueror to Othman I. . . ,86 
 
 Period VII. — (154 years.)— Othman to the EaU of the Eastern Empire . 102 
 
 I'eriod VIII.— (145 years.) — Fall of Eastern Emph-eto the Edict of Nantes . 112 
 Period IX.— <120 years.)— Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII., of Sweden. 122 
 
 Perio» X.— (97 years.)— Charles XII. of Sweden to the Fall of Napoleon . 134 
 
 Period XI.— (52 years.)— Napoleon to the year 1867 . . . . 146 
 
 VI. BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OE INDEX . {new paging) . i 
 
EXPLANATION OF THE CHART OE HISTORY, 
 
 Flcpn'scnting, in a Chronological Series, the Rue, Reivolutions, and FaU of t\t 
 principal Empires of the World. 
 
 ON THE PLAN OF XlB. J. PRIESTLEY. 
 
 It i,? necessary to notice, that the space allotted .0 each country is rather according to its ieuiive 
 political importance, than to its geographical extent. 
 
 The spaces between the feri/caHines which cross the chart, represent time, viz., each a cen- 
 tury or lUO years ; those between the horizontal lines represent countries, the names of which are 
 expressed at the end of the chart. 
 
 By examining the vertical columns, we ascertain the contemporary state of different nations at 
 the period we fix upon. For instance : about 1500 years before Christ, we see states forming iu 
 Greece; the Israelites in Egypt (from whence they depart nine years after); the Egyptian, Assy- 
 rian, Persian, Chinese, and other kingdoms had been founcfed several centuries previous — but their 
 history uncertain and obscure. At the time of Christ, we find the Roman Empire spread over a 
 greater part of the then known world, but the Parthians, Britons, and Germans, as yet unsubdued 
 by them. 700 years alter, this empire exists only in Turkey, and its former territories are under 
 barbarians: the Heptarchy in England; the Lombards in Italy, the Franks in Gaul; the African 
 provinces, and a large part of Asia under the Saracens. In 1500 we find the Eastern or Greek 
 Empire fallen under the Turks; the Tartars powerful in Asia: many of the modern states of 
 Europe founded ; America discovered by the Europeans, disc. &c. 
 
 On the other hand, the revolutions of each country may be seen in continuation by looking 
 Jilong the chart norizontally : the Persian empire is founded in remote antiquity ; united with that 
 of the Medes, about 600 b. c. ; is extended by Cyrus into Assyria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, 536 ; falls 
 in turn, under the Macedonians, Parthians, Saracens, Turks, and Tartars, successively. — The 
 Israelites in Egypt from 1706 to 1491 b. c. ; in Canaan 1451 ; under the .ludges about 1300; under 
 King.s, 1095 ; Ten Tribes separated, 975 ; they are conquered, 721, and Judah, 588, by the Assyrians 
 restored by the Persians, 535 ; under the Macedonians, 330 ; restored to independence by the Mac 
 cafcecs, 150 i conquered by the Pi.omans, 03; by the Saracens, a. d. 622; afterwards by the cru- 
 saders, Mamelukes, and Turks, successively. — England subdued by the Romans in the first cen- 
 tury; relinquished by them, A. D. 410 ; subdued by the Saxons, 5C0; by the Danes, 860; by the 
 Normans (receiving French territories), 1066 ; united with Ire-land, 1170 ; with Wales, 1280; with 
 Sicotland. 1600. — Itali/ in antiquity possessed by several petty tribes ; by the Romans from 300 — ^200 
 B. c. to 480 A. u., then by the Herulii, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Franks, successively ; — in modern 
 (jmos, divided into several small republics and principalities ; joined to the French empire about 
 I iO'). and now divided chiefly between Austria, the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, Modena, &c., the 
 Pope, and the King of Naples. 
 
 " They are rather melancholy reflections which the view of such a chart of history is apt to 
 excite in the minds of persons of feeling and humanity. What a number of revolutions are 
 marked ujion it ! What torrents of human blood has the restless ambition of mortals shed, and ic 
 what complicated distress has the discontent of poweiful individuals involved a great part M 
 ^asx species ! "—Priestley. 
 
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS 
 
 1851 to 1867. 
 
 BSINC AN ALPHABETICAL EECOED ©F IMPORTANT FACTS AND OCCURRENCES nrKIK3 
 THOSE YEARS ; INCLUDING ALSO TOPICS OMITTED IN FORMER EDITIONS. 
 
 ABATTOIRS, slangliter-hotis«s for cattle. In 1810 T^apoleon decreed that five 
 should be erected near Paris; tliey were opened in 1818. An abattoir was 
 erected at Edinburgh In 1851; aad abattoirs form part of the new London 
 metropolitan cattle-market, opened on June 13, 1855. In New York City 
 abattoirs were established under the direction of the Board of Health, 1 866, 
 
 ABB ASIDES. A Mohammedan dynasty ; held the power of the Caliphs for 400 
 years until 1258, The Caliph Haroun al Rashid was of this line, 
 
 ABECEDARIANS, A sect appearing in the sixteenth century ; held that it was 
 better not to know how to read, as the Holy Spirit would convey a direct un- 
 derstanding of the Scriptures, 
 
 ABSTINENCE, Total, from stimulating beverages: First temperance organi- 
 zation in the IJaited States is said to have been effected by Dr. B. J, Clark, of 
 Moveau, N. Y,, 1808 ; " members fined fifty cents for intoxication ; " Ameri- 
 can Temperance Union formed in Boston in 1826 ; total abstinence fiom dis- 
 tilled spirits, except when prescribed as medicine, proposed at a meeting in 
 Philadelphia in 183S, but voted down. See Temperance, Tetotallers in Eng- 
 land organized in Lancashire, 18S4, 
 
 ABYSSIN"IA, A large country in north-east Africa, Its ancient history is very 
 uncertain. The kingdom of Auxumitae (from its chief town Auxumc) flour- 
 ished in the first and second centuries after Christ. About 960 Judith, a 
 Jewish princess, murdered a great part of the royal family, and reigned forty 
 years. The yoimg king escaped ; and the royal house was restored In 1268 
 in the person of his descendant, Icon Amlse. In the middle ages it was said 
 to be ruled by Prester John, or Prete Janni. The Portuguese missions com- 
 menced in the fifteenth century, but they were expelled about 1632 in sonse- 
 quence of the t3"ranuy of Mendez and the Jesuits. The encroachments of 
 Gallas and intestine disorders soon after broke up the empire into petty gov- 
 ernments. The religion of Abyssinia is a corrupt form of Christiauity intro- 
 duced in the fourth century by Trumentius. Missions were sent from Eng- 
 land in 1829 and 1841. Much information respecting Abyssinia has been 
 given by Bruce, (1790,) Salt, (1805-9,) Ruppell, (1838,) and Parkyns, (1858). 
 
 1 
 
E woeld's PEOGRESS. 
 
 ACADIA. N6w called Npva Scotia, settled by the French in 1604, and finally 
 ceded to the EnglisUin 1713. It was three limes conquered by the English, 
 and as often restored by treaty. Expulsion of French settlers (see Longfel- 
 low's Evanfjeline) l'/(55. 
 
 ACTS OF THE AFOSTLES were probably written by Luke, A. D. 62 to 68. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS of the United States.— (p. 162.) On the death of Pres. 
 ident Taylor, July 9, 1850—* 
 
 Mh-LAr:^ FiLiMOEE, of NewTork (Vice-PreeldeEt), became Preeident. He appointed 
 soon after, the followiDg Cabinet, viz. 
 
 \ 
 
 ^-apiel IVebt^ter, 
 
 ttiurles M. Conrud, 
 "VSMliaTD A, Graham, 
 *:&. a. H. SUiart, 
 Nathan K. lisll, 
 ,5ohn J. Crittenden, 
 •William it. King, 
 
 Howell Cobb, 
 Linn Boyd, 
 
 MiiBsachuBetts, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 New York, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 Secretary of Stnte. 
 Stcretary of Treasury. 
 Secretary of War. 
 Secretary of Navy. 
 Secretary of Interior. 
 PoslmaBler-Gencial, 
 Altorney-GenevaL 
 
 Alabama, was elected President of the Senate, 
 
 and became Acting Vice-Pros't of XT. 8. 
 Georgia, {continued in o^ce), f Siieakers of H Reus 
 
 Kentucky, December, 1851. f ^pea^ers oi M. itcps. 
 
 Fkanklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, inangtira ed March 4, 185'i, President. 
 Vice-President — vacant, by death of Hon. Wm. E. King, April 18, 1853 — 
 
 William L. Marcy, 
 James Guthrie, 
 KobertM'Clelland, 
 James C. Dobbin, 
 Jeflexeon iJavie, 
 James Campbell, 
 Caleb Cashing, 
 Jjimee L. Orr, 
 
 THE CABINET. 
 
 New York, 
 Kentucky, 
 Michiiran, 
 North Carolina, 
 Mississippi, 
 Pennsylvai ia, 
 Massac] I nsetts, 
 South Carolina, 
 
 Secretary of State. 
 Secretary of Ireasury. 
 Secretary^ of Interior. 
 Secretnry of Navy. 
 Secretary of War. 
 Post Master-General. 
 x\ttornt y-Gencral. 
 Speal^er oi H. Reps. 
 
 James Buchanan, of Pennpylvania, inaugurated March 4, 1857, President. 
 John C. BRECKiNxtioGE, of Kentucky, Vice-President. 
 
 Lewis Cass, 
 J. S. Black, 
 Isaac Toncey, 
 John B. Floyd, 
 Joseph Holt, 
 Howell Cobb, 
 Philip Thomas, 
 'ohn A. Dix, 
 jlacob Thompson, 
 Joseph Holt, 
 Horatio King, 
 .1 S. Black, 
 E. M. Stanton, 
 Nathl. P. Banks, 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 Pennsylvania, Appointed Dec, 1860, 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 New York, 
 
 Mississippi, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 Maine, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 I'ennsylvania, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Appointed Jan. 1861. 
 
 Appointed Dec. 1860. 
 Ajjpoiuted Jan. 1861.' 
 
 Jan. 1861. 
 
 Dec. 1860. 
 
 1856. 
 1859. 
 
 > Secretary of State. 
 Secretary of Navy. 
 
 > Secretary of War. 
 
 > Secretary of Treasury. 
 
 Secretary of Interior. 
 
 > Postmaster-General. 
 
 i Attorney-General 
 i Speaker of H. Repa, 
 
 Wm. Pennington, New Jersey, 
 
 Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, inaugurated March 4, 1861, President. 
 
 Haxxibal Hamlin, of Maine, Vice-President, 
 
 Wm. H. Seward, New York, Secretary of State. 
 
 *Omisssio>s on page 152 " WorldJs Progress.'''' 
 
 Hugh S. Legare, S. CaroHna, May 9, flifd June 20, 1843, 
 
 S. C.ao'.ina, 
 Kentucky, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 John C. Calhoun, 
 George M. Bibb, 
 William Wilkins, 
 Thomas W. Gilmer, 
 John Y. Mason, 
 
 ■ Sees, of Stat 
 
 Virgi nia, 
 
 M.irch'e, 1841, to March, 1, 1845, \ ' 
 June 15, 1844, to March 3, 1845, Sec. of Tress. 
 Feb. 15, 1844, to March 3. 1845, Sec. of War. 
 Feb. 15, 1 844, died Feb. 28, 1844, ( q„„^ „„ t-t ,„„ 
 March 14, 1844, to Mar. 3, 1845 \ ^^«^- "^ ^^^^y. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 
 
 Salmon P. (JhaFe, 
 AVm. P. Fessenden, 
 Hugh McCulloch, 
 Sinidn Cameron, 
 Eciwin M. Stanton, 
 Gideon Welles, 
 Caleb B. Smith, 
 John P. Usher, 
 Mcntgcmeiy Blair, 
 Wm. Dennison, 
 Edward Bates, 
 James Speed, 
 Gaiueha A. Grow, 
 Salmon P, Chase, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Maine, Appointed July, 1864. 
 
 Indiana, AppointedMaicii, 18».5. 
 
 Penusjlvania, 
 
 Penn^j'lvaniu, Appointed Jan. 1S62. 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 Appointed Jan. IS'3. 
 
 Appointed Sept. 1864. 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 Maiyland, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 Kentucky, Appointed Sept. 18t4. 
 
 Pennsylvania, lS6l-'2. 
 
 Ohio, Appointed Dec. 1864. 
 
 Secretary of Treasury. 
 
 Secretary of "War. 
 Secretary of x\avy. 
 Secretary of Interior. 
 
 Postmaster-General 
 
 Attorney-General. 
 
 S] eaker H. Keps. 
 Chiei'-Justice. 
 
 Abkaham Lincoln, of Illirois, inaugurated March 4, 1865, President. 
 Andrew JonNSON, of Tennessee, "Vice-PieeioenT. 
 
 [President Lincoln was assassinated at Washineton hy Wilkes Booth, 
 
 April 14, 18C5.] 
 Andrew Johnson became President, April 15, 1865. 
 
 Lafayette S. Foster, of Connicticut, elected President of the Senate. 
 [Succeeded by BtN. P. Wade, of Ohio, 1S67.] 
 
 Wm. H. Seward, 
 Pluali McCulioch, 
 E .will M. Stanton, 
 Gideon Welles, 
 John P. L'sher, 
 .lames Harian, 
 
 New York, {toniinued in office), 
 Indiana, do 
 
 Pennsylvania, do 
 
 Coniieciicut, do 
 
 Indiana, do 
 
 Iowa, Appointed March, 1865. 
 
 Orville H. Browning, Illino'S, Appointed June, 1866. 
 
 Secretary of State. 
 Si cretary of Treasury. 
 Secretary of War. 
 Secretary of Navy. 
 
 Secretary of Interior. 
 
 W. Dennison, 
 Alex. W. Randal], 
 James Speed, 
 He) ry Stanbery, 
 Schuvler Colfax, 
 
 Ohio, icu}iii7iued in office'), 
 
 Wiscimsin, Apx^ointed. June, 1866. 
 
 Kentucky, {ttaiiiiiiued in office), 
 
 Oh'o, Appointed June, 1866. 
 
 Indiana, ISeS-'CS-'e?.' Speaker H. of Reps 
 
 Postmaster- GeneraL 
 Attorney-General. 
 
 'J'he salary of each member of the Cabinet was raised ii: 1853 Iroia |6.000 to |8,000. 
 ADMINISTEATIONS of England after 1846. 
 
 Lord John Ei'Ssell's Administra- 
 tion, July 6lii, 1846. 
 
 [He and his colleagues resign Feb. 
 1851, but i-fsume office March ISSb] 
 
 Earl of Derby, Disraeli, Spencer H. 
 Waipole, Duke of Xorthumberlnnd, 
 &c. Feb. 1852. 
 
 Earl 01 Aberdeen, Viscount Palmer- 
 ston, Lord RusseF, &c Dec. 1852. 
 
 [Russell retires, and Lord Abereeen 
 and Minifctrj^ resign Jan. 18c5. Pal- 
 mersto;, leccn.-tiiu'ts cabinet with 
 Lord Cranworth, &c., Fei', 1855, but 
 Gladstone, Herbert and Graham, se- 
 cede from it and Palmerston forms a 
 new ministry with Rr.ssell and Earl 
 of Clarenc'on, &c. Feb. 24t]!, 18i5.] 
 
 On vote of censure they resign. 
 
 Feb: 7th, 1858. 
 
 Earl of Dfeby's Administration — 
 Disraeli, Waipole, Stanley, &c. 
 
 Feb. 26th, 1858. 
 
 [They resign on vote of I'arliami-nt 
 expressing want of confidence in 
 them. June 1859] 
 
 Lords Palmerston and PLUSyELL, &c. 
 June 18th, 1859. 
 
 [Palmerston dies, Oct. 1865.] 
 
 Earl Russell's Mintstet — With 
 Gladstoi e Chancellor of the Ex- 
 chequer ; Lord Cranworth, Lord 
 Chancellor ; Earl Granville, «fcc. 
 Dec. 1865. 
 
 Derby Administration — Earl of 
 Derby, First Lord, &c.; D' Israeli, 
 Chancellor of Exclnquer; Lord 
 Stanley. Sec. for Foreign Aflairs, 
 &c. ' June 19, 1866. 
 
 ADULTERY in England, (p. 155.) By 20 Yictoria, c. 85, (185'7,) the "action 
 for criminal conversation " was abolished, and the " Court for Divorce and 
 Matrimonial Causes " was established, which has power to grant divorces for 
 aduliery and ill usage. See Divorce. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENTS in Newspapers, Eng. (p. 145.) The duty on them was all 
 together abolished in the United Kingdom, August 4, 1S53. Eor a copious 
 article on this subject see Appl€ton''s CyclopcBdia. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENTS iirU. S. The rate of charge of American Dailies is from 5 
 to 20 cents a line ; of weekly papers, up to .$2.00. A few monthly and quar- 
 
4 THE world's progress. 
 
 terly periodicals charge $2.50 per line. The price of one page for advertise- 
 ments in Harper's Magazine is $250. In 1865, the advertising receipts of the 
 N. y. Tribune were about .$359,000. By act of July, 1861, advertisements in 
 American papers are taxed 3 p(>r cent, on gross receipts. Papers of less than 
 2,000 copies circulation are exempt. The duty on advertising in England was 
 abolished in 1853. 
 
 ADVERTISING VANS, in 1853 a great nuisance, were prohibited in England. 
 They have recently appeared in New York and other places in the U. S. 
 
 -^OLIA, in Asia Minor, was colonized by a principal branch of the Hellenic race : 
 beginning about 1124 b. c. The Cohans bu'lt several large cities both on the 
 mainland and the neighbouring islands; Mitylene, in Lesbos, was considered 
 the capital. 
 
 ^OLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed to Kircher, 1653, but it was known 
 before. 
 
 .^QUI, an ancient Italian race, were subdued by the Romans, and their lands 
 
 annexed after a conflict, 4*71-302 B.C. 
 AERATED WATERS. Apparatus for combining gases with water have been 
 
 patented by Thomson in 1807 ; Bakewell in 1832 and 1847; Tylor in 1810, 
 
 and by several other persons. Aerated bread is made by processes patented 
 
 by Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7. 
 .^i^STHETICS (from the Greek aisthesis, perception), the science of the beautiful 
 
 (especially in art) ; a term invented by Baunigarten, a German philosopher, 
 
 whose work '' JEsthetica " was published in 1750. 
 
 AFRICA, (p. 15.) Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-6, and 1849, 
 (by direction of the government,) he left England to explore Central Africa, 
 accompanied by Drs. Barth and Overweg. Richardson died March 4, 1851, 
 and Overweg September 27, 1852. Dr. Vogel was sent out with reinforce- 
 ments to Dr. Birth Feb. 20, 1853. Dr. Barth returned to England, and re 
 ceived the Royal Geographical Society's medal May 16, 1856. His travels 
 were published in five volumes in 1858. Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary 
 traveller, returned to England in December, 1856, after an absence of sixteen 
 years, during which he traversed a large part of the heart of South Africa, 
 and walked about 11,000 miles, principally of country hitherto unexplored. His 
 book was published in November, 1857." In February, 1858, he was appointed 
 British consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, and left shortly after. 
 Accounts of the assassination of Dr. Vogel were received in 1857. Lieut. Bur- 
 ton's Explorations of the Eastern Coast, 185- ; his Journey from Zanzibar to 
 the interior, 1858 ; and his account of it published in London and N. Y., 1860. 
 
 The publication of M. du Chaiilu's 
 travels in Central Africa created 
 miicli controversy and excitement in 
 1861. 
 
 Second expediton of Dr. Livingstone, 
 March, 1S58. 
 
 Captains Speke and Q-rant announce 
 the discovery of the source of the 
 Nile in Lake Nyanza Victoria, Feb. 
 23, 1S63. 
 
 [Capt. Speke was accidentally shot by 
 his own gun while alone near Bath, 
 Sept. 15, 1S64] 
 
 Some Dutch ladies nnsticcessfully ex- 
 plori' ihe "White Nile, and undergo 
 many privations, July, 1863—1564. 
 
 Du Chaillu starts on a fresh expedition 6 Aug. 
 1S63. 
 
 Dr. L'vingstcne returns July 23, 1864. 
 
 Death of Dr. "W. B. Eaikic, at Sierra Leone, 
 Nov. 30, 1864. 
 
 [He was gent as ST-ecial envoy to the Negro 
 tribes near the Niger b^^the Foreign Office 
 about 1854. He opened commercial rela- 
 dons with Central Africa.] 
 
 Mr. Samuel Baker discoveied a lake, sup- 
 posed to be another source of the Nile, 
 which he named Lake Nyanza Albert, 
 March, 1864. 
 
 Dr. Liv'ngstcme appointed British consul for 
 Inner Africa, March 24, 1865. Repoi-ted to 
 be killed by natives, Apr. 1S67. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. In England, Sir Humphry Davy deUvered 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 5 
 
 lectures on this subject (afterwards published) at the instance of the Board of 
 Agriculture, in 1812 ; but it excited but little atteution till the publication of 
 Liebig's work in 1840, which made a powerful impression. Boussingault's 
 ".Eeonouiie Rurale," an equally important work, appeared in 1844. Tlie 
 immoderate expectations from this study having been somewhat disappointed, 
 a partial reaction has taken place, and much coutroveisy ensued. Liebig's 
 "Letters on Agriculture" appeared in 1859. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS. By act of July 2, 1862, Congress made pro- 
 vision for " donating public lands to the several States and Territories which 
 may provide Colleges lor the benefit of agriculture and mechanic arts." Up 
 to Sept. 1863, 15 States had taken advantage of the act, and many colleges in- 
 troduced Agricuture among the branches of their scientific course. Agricultu- 
 ral college at Amherst, Mass., in process of construction (1867). 
 
 AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS or 1851 : 
 
 Great Britain. France. United States. Russia. 
 Acres of Land in Cultivation 22,000,000 72,000,000 115,000,000 243.000,000 
 
 Bushels of AYlieat, av. per annum, 336,000,000 576,000,000 100,000,000 1,400,000,000 
 IS^umber of Horned Cattle, 18,000,000 9,000,000 19,500,000 25,000,000 
 
 ISTumber of Horses, 1,600,000 2.518,000 5,000,000 15,000,000 
 
 iSJumberof Sheep and Goats, 50,000,000 82,000,1)00 22.000,000 50,000,000 
 
 NumbcTof Swine, 19,000 000 5,000,000 30,000,000 12,000,000 
 
 Populatiouof eachcoimtry, 27,000,000 36,000,000 23,000,000 68,000,000 
 
 In 1866, the wheat crop in tlie U. S., was 180,000,000 bushels, (increase of 80 
 per cent, in 15 years.) Cattle, 26,935,000, (increase about 40 per cent.) ; sheep, 
 41,253,652, increase nearly 100 per cent. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. Agriculture is the most important material interest of the 
 United States. It is estimated that seven-eighths of the population are engaged 
 in iigricultural pursuits or in occupations immediately dependent thereon. In 
 1860 the number of acres in cuhivaiion was 163,000,000, valued at 6, COO mil- 
 lion dollars. In the same year the value of agricultural implements was $247,- 
 000,000. 
 
 18G0. 1562. 1565. 
 
 Bushels of Wheat 1.32,000,000 151,000.000 148,000,000 
 
 Bushels of Oats 172,000,000 171,000,000 2-35,000,000 
 
 Bushels of Rye 20,000,000 21,000,000 19.000,000 
 
 Tofis of Ha\ 19.000,000 20,000.000 23,000,000 
 
 Pounds of Wool 60,000,000 Ii4.0' 0.000 
 
 Bales of CottoM 4,000,000 . l^OGO.OOO 
 
 Bushels of Corn 800,000,000 500,000,000 600,000,000 
 
 In the Statistics of 1862 and 1865 the states in rebellion are not included. In 
 1862 the shipment of wheat from the U. S. to Great Britain alone amounted 
 to 29,700,000 bushels. Total exports of grain 1863 were 7*7,300,000 bushels. 
 Tlie cereals of the northem states in 1865 amounted to 1,228 million bush- 
 els. Valued at $1 047,000,000. The soutiiern cotton crop for 1866-7 is esti- 
 mated at 2,000,000 bales. "Depaitmcnt of Agriculture " established May 15, 
 1862, at Washington, D. C. Its object, to diffuse informati'on on subjects con- 
 nected with agriculture among the people of the U. S. 
 AIR OR ATMOSPHERE. In 1858, Dr. Angus Smith made known a chemical 
 method of ascertaining the amount of organic matter in the air. The re- 
 searches of Dr. Schonbein, a German chemist of Basel, led to the discovery 
 of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he calls ozone and antozone. — • 
 See Ozone. 
 
 "ALABAMA. One of the United States; Population in 1850; whites, 426,515; 
 free colored, 2,250. Total free, 428,765 ; slaves, 342,894. In 1855: white, 
 464,456; free colored, 2,466; slaves, 374,784. Population, in 1860: white, 
 
6 THE WOELDS PEOGEESS. 
 
 520,444; slave??, 485,4'73. The slaves nave incrcaped more rapidly tlian the 
 whites, bidinauce passed " sccediiig" from the United States January 7, 1861. 
 During the war the state was untouched by the national army until March, 
 3 865, when Gen. Wilson with 17,000 cavah-y, penetrated its most productive 
 -region. In June, 1865, L. E. Parsons was appointed provisional governor. 
 The state sent 120,000 men to the war, and lost 35,000. Estimated loss in 
 wealth, $500,000,0u0. Present debt (1865) is |3,400,0i,0. 
 
 -ALBANY, N Y. Population in 1850, 50,700; in 1860, 62,367; in 1865, 62,613. 
 It became the capital of the State in 1807. The most important article of 
 commerce is lumber; in 1863, $7,000,000 worth was received there. Its Law 
 Library, the best in the country, contains 70,000 volumes. 
 
 ALDINE PRESS, that of Aldus Manutius, at Venice, where were printed many 
 of the first editions of the Greek, Latin, and Italian classics, commencing in 
 1494 with Musffius. 
 
 ALE AND BEER, U. S. By act of Congress, July 13, 1866, a tax of $1.00 is 
 levied on every barrel of ale and beer manufactured and sold. 
 
 ALEPPO (anciently Beroea), a large town, N. Syria, so named by Seleucus Ki- 
 cator about 299 B. C. Tlie pachalic of Aleppo is one of the five govern- 
 ments of Syria. It was taken by tlie Turks, a. d. 6S8, who restored its ancient 
 name Haleb or Chaleb ; by Salaciin, 1193; and sacked by Timour, 1400. Its 
 depopulation by the plague has been frequent; 60i,C00 persons were computed 
 to have perished by it in 1797. It suffered by the plague in 1827, and the 
 cholera in 1832. Aleppo suffered severely from the terrible earthquakes 
 in 1822-and 1830; and has often been the scene of fanatical massacres. 
 On Oct. 16, 1850, the Mahometans attacked the Christian inhabitants. They 
 burnt everything in their way ; three churches vrere destroyed, five others 
 were plundered, thousands of persons were slain, and the total loss of 
 property amounted to about a million sterling; no interference was attempted 
 by the pacha or the Turkish soldiers. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Philosophy. The first school arose scon after the 
 foundation of Alexandria, 832 b. c. .It flourished under the patronage of tlie 
 Ptolemies till about 100 B. c. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (-^87-21 2), 
 Apollonius (250), Hipparchus (150), and Bevo (150). The second school arose 
 about A. i>. 140, and lasted till about 40Q. Its most eminent members were 
 Ptolemy, the author of Ptolemaic system (150), Diophantus, the arithmetician 
 (200), and Pappus the geometer (350). 
 
 ALGIERS, (p. 162). An insurrection of the Kabyles was subdued by the 
 French in Oct., 1857. In 1858, the government was entrusted (lor a short 
 time) to Prince Napoleon, 
 
 ALHAMBRA. A Moorish palace and fortress near Granada in Spain, founded 
 by Mohammed I. of Granada, about 1253. It surrendered to the Christians, 
 Jan. 6, 1496. The remains have been described in a magnificent work by 
 Owen Jones, and Jules Gowry, published 1842-5. There is a fac-simile of a 
 court of this name in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, near London. 
 
 ALIENS, (p. 162.) The rigor of the Alien laws in England was much mitigated 
 by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 66, 1844. In 1850 there were 2,210,800 in the United States. In 
 1863, 233,408 arrived. Of these 106,000 came fiom Germany ; 68,000 from Ire- 
 laud ; 36,000 from England. Aliens now pay income tax. (Act of Congress, 
 July, 1666.) See Emigration. 
 
 ALIWAL, Battle of, India, between the Sikh army (24,000), and the British 
 under Sir H. Smith (12,000). Sikhs defeated with loss of 6,000, Jan. 28, 1846 
 
SUPPI^EMENT, 1851-67. 
 ALLIANCE, Treaties of, (p, 162) between the liigh European powers: 
 
 Alli-moc of England, France, and. 
 Turkey (signed at Con.-taiitino 
 pie) March 12, 1854 
 
 Alli;ince of England and Fiitnce, 
 ratified. ,, April 3, 1854 
 
 Alliance of Sardinia with the west- 
 ern powers (signed at Turin). 
 
 Jan. 26, 1855 
 
 Alliance of Sweden M'ith the western 
 powers, Dec. 19, 185i 
 
 AllLance of Prussia and Austria against 
 
 Denmark 1864 
 
 Alliance of Pruss:a and Italy against 
 Austria 1866 
 
 ALL SOULS'" DAY (Nov. 2). A festival of the Roman Catholic church to com- 
 memorate the souls that are in purgatory, instituted it is said, at Cluny about 
 993 or 1000. 
 
 ALMA, A river in the Crimea, near which was fought a great battle on Sept. 20, 
 1854. See Russo-Turkish War and Crimea, The English, French, and Turk- 
 ish army (about 57,000) and the Russians under Meuschikoff (46,000). Latter 
 defeated, with loss of 5,000. Allied loss 3,000, killed, wounded, and 
 missing. 
 
 ALMACK'S ASSEMBLY-ROOMS, King street, St, James's, London, at first xevy 
 exclusive, were erected by a Scotchman named Almack, and opened Feb. 12, 
 1!765. 
 
 ALMANACS, American. A comprehensive and valuable "National Almanac," 
 was issued by G. W. Ghilds of Phila., in 1863-4, but was not continued. Sixty 
 eight different almanacs are registered among the list of American publications 
 1861-6. Feench. First French Almanac published in Paris (1442), in a 
 Bibliotheque. "Almanac Royal" of Paris (1679), noticed fairs, markets, 
 genealogy of kings, &c. "Almanac of Napoleon," and "Almanac of Litera- 
 ture and Fine Arts," are widely circulated. The "Conuaissance de Tems" is 
 astronomical. There are many inferior ones devoted to burlesque and wit. 
 German. Almanacs appeared in Germany in 1475. The first one was pub- 
 lished in a series in a periodical, and contained only the eclipses and position 
 of the planets. The author was the German Regiomontanus. His series sold 
 for ten crowns. "Almanac de Gotha" is 104 years old, and of very high 
 reputation. Also the " Astronomisches Jahrbuche " conducted by Bode and 
 then by Encke. 
 
 Franklin's " Poor Richard's Almanac," 
 (Phil. 1732), was the first of ajay note 
 in tho U. S. 
 
 *'The American ]S"autical AJmanac" 
 was established in 1849, and superin- 
 tended by Capt. Davis, U. S. N. It 
 has fewequaia in scientific accurac3^ 
 
 The "American Almanatf' of Boston, 
 ■was discontinued in 1857 (?), after 
 being published 29 years. 
 
 The " Irrational Almanac" (valuable and 
 eompreheusive), published by Childs of 
 Phila., appeared only 1863 and 18C4. 
 
 At the present time (1867), no general alma- 
 nac of any special value is published in the 
 U. S. 
 
 The " Family Christian Almanac"" of tha 
 Tract Society has a wide circulation. 
 
 ALPACA, (or Paco). A species of the S. American quadruped the Llama, the soft 
 hairy wool of which is now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths. It 
 was introduced into England about 1836, by the Earl of Derby. An alpaca 
 factory, &c., (covering 11 acres), was erected at Saltaire, near Shipley, York- 
 shire, by Mr. Titus Salt in 1852. 
 
 AMBASSADORS. The TJ. S. has never sent any person of the rank of ambass- 
 ador in the diplomatic sense, but is represented by ministers plenipotentiary, 
 {Kent.) In 1867 the U. S. had her ministers at the courts of Austria, Brazil, 
 China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, Peru, Prussia, Russia, Spain. To 
 the smaller states, " Ministers resident " are sent, 22 in all. Number of con- 
 suls from U. S to foreign countries in 1862^ 272. Some of these are known 
 
8 ■ THE WOELD's PEOGEESS. 
 
 as agents simply. 10 are stationed in England and 10 in France. The highest 
 salaries are given to the consuls at London and Liverpool, $7,500 each. ]S'um« 
 ber of foreign consuls in U, S. in 1863, 856. 
 
 AMERICA, Ckxtral, including the states of Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, 
 Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, u-hich see, declared their independence Sept. 21, 
 1821, and separated from the Mexican confederation, July 21, 1823. The 
 states made a treaty of union between themselves March 21, 1847. There has 
 bien among them since, much anarchy and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by 
 the irruption of American fihbusters under Kenny and Walker, 1854-5. In 
 Jan. 186S, a war began between Guatemala, (afterwards joined by Nicaragua) 
 and San Salvador, (atteiwards supported by Honduras). The latter were di-- 
 leuted at Santa Rosa, June 16, and San Salvador was taken Oct. 26 ; the 
 president of San Salvador, Barrios, fled; and Carrera, the dictator of Gnate- 
 mala became predominant over the confederacy. Population, 1859, about 
 2,865,000. See Hicaragtia, Darien, and Panama. 
 
 AMERICA, South. See Brazil, Argentine^ Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, &c. 
 
 AMERICAN FLAG. Previous to 1776 the colors used by the American army 
 exhibited a snake with thirteen rattles, on a crimson ground interlaced with 
 white. On the 14th June, 1777, Congress resolved, "that the flag of the 
 thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white ; that the 
 union be thirteen stars, white, on a blue field — representing ' a new con- 
 stellation.' " 
 
 AMERICANISMS. A useful dictionary of Americanisms, compiled by John R. 
 Bartlett ; first pubhshed in Boston, in 1848. 
 
 ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the Holy Scriptures, and in the history cf 
 Herodotus, about 1687 B.C. It is considered as ending with the destruction 
 of the Roman empire in Italy, a.d. 476. Modern history begins with Ma- 
 homet (a.d. 622), or Charlemagne (768). 
 
 ANESTHETICS. Substances to alleviate pain. In 1863 Dr. Colton (dentist) of 
 N. Y. used nitrous oxide. No ill effects followed the 3,000 cases he had up 
 to 1865. (See this subject in Appleton's Cyclopaedia, 1864.) 
 
 ANIMALS, Cruelty to, in England. The late Mr. Martin, M.P,, as a senator, 
 zealously labored to repress this odious offence ; and a society in London, 
 which was established in 1824, efifects mitch good this way. Laws on the 
 subject w^ere passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, and 1854. Dogs were for- 
 bidden to be used for draught by Act of Parliament, 1839. A society, char- 
 tered by the State of N. Y. in 1866, chiefly through the exertions of Mr. 
 Henry Beigh, who became its president in 1866. Its object is to prevent 
 cruel treatment to animals, by bringing offenders to trial. Laws proliibiting 
 cruelty to beasts and also "game fighting," passed April, 1866. The Pennsyl- 
 vania Legislature incorporated a similar society in the Spring of 1867. 
 
 ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the history of each year (beginning with 
 1758, and continued to tlie present time) was commenced in London by R. & 
 J. Dodsley. The somewhat similar but more elaborate work, the Annuaire 
 de Deux Mondes, first appeared in Paris, in 1850. An American Annual 
 Register was published for several years, but was not supported. Appleton's 
 Annual Cyclopedia, 1861-6, is a similar work, and very comiprehensive. 
 
 ANNUALS, the name given to richly-bound volumes, publislied annually, con- 
 taining poetry, tales, and essays, by eminent authors, and illustrated by en- 
 gravings. They first appeared in London, in 1823. They were imitations of 
 
SUPPLEMEJs'T, 1851-67. 9 
 
 similar bocks in Germany. The duration of tlie chief of these publications is 
 here given — 
 
 Torget-me not (Aclrerman'e).... 1823-48 I Amulet 1S27-34 
 
 Friendship's OU'ermg 1824-44 | Keept^akc lH'i8-5^: 
 
 Literary Souvenir (first as The I liood's Comic Aunual ISoO-oS 
 
 G-races) 1824-34 | 
 
 The earliest American " Annuals " were the Talisman^ published by E. Bliss, 
 in New York, about 1830, 3 vols. (Bryant, Sands, and others contributors) ; 
 the IVkeii, S. G. Goodrich (Peter Paripy), i» Boston, 183'7 (?) to (?), about 
 8 vols. ; and the Gif., Carey & Hart, Philadelphia, 1840 (?), about 5 vols. 
 
 ANONYMOUS LETTERS. In England, the sending of threatening or libellous 
 anonymous letters was made felony by several acts, 1722, 1827, 1S47. 
 Punishment — transportation, imprisonment, and whipping. 
 
 ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Winston, the number of 
 people in the ancient world, as it existed previous to the Flood, reached to the 
 enormous amount of 549,755 millions in the year of the world 1482. 
 
 ANTIGUA. A West India island, discovered by Columbus in 1493 ; settled by 
 the English in 1632. 
 
 ANTIETAM CREEK, near Sharpsburg, Maryland, U. S. Here was fought a 
 terrible battle on Sept. 17, 1862, between the Union army under Gen. Mc- 
 Clellan and the rebels under Lee. The latter after his victory at Bull Run or 
 Manassas, Aug. 30, having invaded Maryland, was in)mediately followed by 
 McCiellan. On the 16th Lee was joined by Jackson, and at five o'clock next 
 morning the conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, and the con- 
 flict raged with great fury from daylight to dark. The battle was iridecisive ; 
 but eventually the Rebels retreated and repassed the Potomac on Sept. 18 and 
 19. The Union loss was estimated at 12,469 ; the rebels lost 14,000. 
 
 APPEALS. In the U. S. nearly all courts can bear appeals from tho«e next 
 inferior. The highest courts of the states are courts of appeal only. The 
 Supreme Court of the U. S. sits on appeal from Circuit and Territorial Courts, 
 and also from the highest state courts, whenever the question turns upon the 
 validity of a treaty or law or authority of the U. S. (Statute of 1789.) 
 
 APPENZELL. A Swiss canton, th.rewoflf the feudal supremacy of the abbots of 
 St. Gall early in the 15th century, and became the thirteenth member of the 
 Swiss confederation in 1513. 
 
 APPIAN WAY. An ancient Roman road,made by Appius Claudius Csecus, while 
 censor, 312 B.C. 
 
 APPLES. The Romans knew of 22 varieties of apple?!, according to Pliny. Ray 
 reckons 78 Idnds in bis day, in England (1688). In the U. S. 200 varieties 
 exist. Apple-trees of finest quality last 80 years. Some reach the age of 200 
 years. Throughout the U. S. the lollowing appear to be the favorites: For 
 summer apples, the Early Harvest^ Stoeet Bovgh and Red Astrachaoi ; for au- 
 tumn, the Fall Pippin, Porter and Gravenstein ; for winter, the Baldimt and 
 Rhode Island Greening. The demand for the fruit is greatly in advance of 
 the supply, and in London the American apple commands fabulous prices. In 
 1860, the yield of orchard fruit amounted to $19,000,000, the greater part of 
 whith was derived from the apple product. In 1865, the orchards in the 
 State of New York yielded 16,275,505 bushels of apples. 
 
 APPRENTICES. In the U. S. apprentice.-hip is not so common as in E.i- 
 gland. The American apprentice rarely pays a fee to the master. In son.e 
 eastern states farmers take them to learn husbandry, clothe them, and, whcr, 
 
10 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 they leave present them wiih a sum of money. Whole number ia the TT. 
 S. in 1860 was about 55,000. Tliere is a Library in Mechanics Hall, N. Y. 
 City, containing 16,000 volumes, for youthful apprentices. For laws respect- 
 ing them, see Kent's Commentaries. Number of apprentices in N. Y. State in 
 1865, 1,861. 
 
 AQUARIUM, ou Aquavivarium. A vessel containing water (marine or fresh) 
 in which animals and plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each other; 
 snails being introduced as scavengers. In 1819, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded 
 in growing sea-weeds inartificial sea-water. In 1850, Mr. E. Warington dem- 
 onstrated the conditions necessary for the growth of animals and plants in 
 jars of water ; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's 
 Park, were set up under the direction of Mr. D. Mitchell. In 1850 Mr. 
 Gosse published, " The Aquarium. " Mr. C. E. Hammett, jr., of Newport, R. I., 
 published in 1859 his obse'bvations and experiments with Aquaria, which were 
 very remarkable. Aquaria have been introduced into several public muse^ums 
 in the U. S., and they are also largely cultivated in private houses. 
 
 AQUEDUCT. The greatest of modern or perhaps of any times is the Croton 
 aqueduct, which sui)plies the City of New Yoi-k with water from Croton lake, 
 40 miles distant. It was com.aienced 1837 ; its completion was publicly cele- 
 brated in 1842; its cost was |10,3'75,000. It is carried across the Harlem 
 river on a bridge 100 feet high. Chief engineer J>)hu B. Jei'vis ; contra.jtor 
 for the bridge, Geo. Law. The aqueduct which supplies Boston from lake 
 Cochituate, 23|- miles, was commenced in 1846; its completion celebrated Oct. 
 25, 1848 ; cost $5,3'70,818. That which supplies the city of Brooklyn, L. I., 
 was finished 1858 ; engineer J. P. Kirkwood ; cos^. .$640,828. Jersey City, N. J., is 
 supplied by an aqueduct 8 miles long from the Passaic river at Beheville ; W. S. 
 Wlutwell, chief engineer. It was completed in 1856 and cost |64i),000. 
 Washington, D. C. is furnished with water from the Potomac by an aqueduct 
 15 miles long, commenced in the administration of Pres. Pierce. Tlie water 
 was first admitted into it Dec. 5, 1863, at which time the co^t amounted to 
 ^2,900,000 ; Capt. M. C. Meigs (U. S. A.) chief engineer. This aqueduct dis- 
 charges 67,596,400 gallons in 24 hours, or nearly 3 times as much as the Cro- 
 ton aqueduct. 
 
 ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS (or 1001 Tales) were translated 
 into French by Galland, and published in 1704; but their authenticity was 
 not acknowledged till many years after. The best English translation from 
 the Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, pubhshed in 1839, with valuable notes 
 and beautiful illustrations. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 (p. 173.) 
 
 E[?yptian Pyi-camicls, , 
 
 S'llonion's Temjjle begun .. 
 Temple of Jupiter, Rome, 
 
 Babylon liuilt b, 
 
 Parthenon finished b 
 
 Dates of notable buildings : 
 
 Pantheon at Rome 
 
 ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. 
 
 iions. 
 
 .B.C. 1500 
 
 .B. C.1090 
 
 •B. C. 616 
 
 0. 600 
 
 c. 438 
 
 .A. D. IS 
 
 Coliseum A. d. 70 
 
 Basilicas at Rome a. d. 330-900 
 
 St. Sophia's, Constantinople begun. a. d. 582 
 
 Ca itcrbury Cathedral A. d. 602 
 
 Mosque of Omar a. d. 637 
 
 York Minster begun A. d. 741 
 
 See Nortlt-West Passage^ and Franldhi's Expedi' 
 
 'L\. Hartstein with the Arctic and 
 release leaves Brooklyn, May 31, 
 1S55, and finds Dr. Kai;e at Lieve- 
 ley, G-rcenland, Sept. 13, 1S55 ; 
 ard returns to N. Y. with him 
 
 Oct. 11,^1855 
 
 Steamer Fox, Capt. McClintock, sails 
 from Aberdeen (sent by Lady Franlj; 
 lin) in search of remains of Franlvlin's 
 expedition July 10, 1857 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 
 
 11 
 
 Capt. McClintock returns, bringing 
 relics :xnd remains of I'rankiin'e 
 expedition, and ascertaining liis 
 fate 1859 
 
 Mr. C. F. Hall sailed from JSew 
 London, Conn., in sliip George 
 Henry Mtiy 29, 1860 
 
 Returned Sept. 13, 1862 
 
 He went again wiili strong hopes 
 of tindiiisr some of Franklin's 
 men. Discovered the fate of four 
 who died from cold and starva- 
 tion, June 1864 
 
 Dr. Hayes sailed from Boston in 
 schooner United States, and returned 
 in fifteen m<mths!. Valuable surveys 
 and experiments made by him 
 
 July 10, 1S6C 
 
 Capt. Parker Snow sailed from Eng- 
 land in schooner Intrepid, in search of 
 Frankl in''s compa; ions, June, 1861 
 
 Expedition from Sweden blockaded by 
 ice and unable to accomplish its ob- 
 jecis, May 9, 1S61 
 
 ARGENTINE (or La Plata) CONFEDERATION. Originally fourteen, now 
 thirteen, provinces — Buenos Ajres having seceded in 1853. This country 
 was discovered by the Spaniards in 1517 ; settled by them in 1653, and form- 
 ed part of the great viceroyalty of Peru till 17*78, when it became that of Rio 
 de la Plata. It joined the insurrection in 1811, and became independent in 
 1816. It was at war with Brazil from 1826 to 1828, for the possession of 
 Uruguay, which became independent at Montevideo. It was at war with 
 France from 1838-40. Urquiza was chosen President for six years in 1854, 
 See Buenos Ayres. 
 
 ARIZONA, known as the Gadsden purchase, a territory of 30,000 square miles, 
 purchased from Mexico by the U. S. for $10,000,000, in 1855. It had in 1866 
 about 5,000 inhabitants, chiefly Mexicans. By act of Congress, Feb. 24, 
 1863, the territory was organized and part of New Mexico added to it, the 
 whole containing 131,000 square miles. The capital is Prescott. The first 
 Governor appointed, in 1863, was R. C. McCormick. Population in 1866, 
 white, about 8,000. 
 
 ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase. 
 It was made a separate territory in 1819, and was admitted into the LTnlon in 
 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, including 19,935 slaves. 
 Population in 1860, 435,450, of whom 111,115 were slaves. The state '* se- 
 ceded " from the Union May 6th, 1861. Being unaided during the war by tie 
 Confederate Government, she manufactured her own war material. At the 
 close of the rebeUion I. Murphy was appointed provisional governor (1865.) 
 Many of the plantations have been divided up for sale, and land can be bought 
 at |1 to $5,000 per acre (1866). 
 
 ARMY OF THE U. S. Including Volunteers. The following list is official : 
 
 Date. ReQulars, 
 
 July, 1861 14,108 
 
 Jan. 1,1862 ig.Sn . 
 
 Jan. 1, 1863.... 39,169 
 
 Jan. 1, 1864 17,237 , 
 
 Jan. 1,1865 14,661 
 
 May 1,1865 
 
 From May 1, 1866, to Jan. 20, 1866, 918,722 volunteers were mustered out of 
 service. Entire number of colored troops during the war, 178,975. By act 
 of Congress, July, 1866, the regular army compri>es45 regiments of infantry, 
 10 of cavalry, 5 of artillery ; 2 regiments of cavalry and 4 of infantry are col- 
 ored troops. Total number of regulars in service, Jan. 1867, 64,300. The 
 higher officers are ; 1 General, 1 Lieut.-General, 5 Major-Generals, and 10 
 Brigadier Generals. During 1861-5 the Pay Department disbursed $1,029,- 
 239,000 among the troops. The loss of life in the Northern armies during the 
 war was 280,761, of whom 5,221 officers and 90,886 men were killed or died 
 of wounds, and 2,321 officers and 182,329 men died of disease. See En'M 
 
 VoluntMrs, 
 
 Present for Duty, 
 
 Aggregate. 
 
 169,480 
 
 .... 183,588 ... 
 
 . 286,751 
 
 507,333 
 
 .... 527,204 ... 
 
 . 175.917 
 
 679,633 
 
 .... 698,802 ... 
 
 . 918,191 
 
 694,013 
 
 .... 621.250 .... 
 
 860,737 
 
 606,263 
 
 .... 620,924 ... 
 
 959,460 
 
 
 .... 797,807 ... 
 
 1,034,064 
 
12 THE world's PROGEESS. 
 
 ment. The following is a list of ordnance and ordnance stores furnished the 
 army during 1861-65 : 
 
 Cannon— number 7,892 
 
 Artillery carriages — number 11,787 
 
 Artillery projectiles (shot and blieli)— number 6.335.595 
 
 Grape and canister shot — poui.db 6,589,999 
 
 Field artillery ammunition— rouudt 2.862,177 
 
 Small arms, muskets, rifles, carbines, and p stolf 3,477,655 
 
 iSvvords, sabres, and lance;- 544,475 
 
 Infantry accontrements— complete sets 2,146,175 
 
 Cavalry accoutrements — complete sets . 216,371 
 
 Horse equipment; — set? 539,544 
 
 Two-borse artillery harness — seu 28,164 
 
 Horse blankets— number 732,526 
 
 Cartridges for bmall arms— numbei 1,022,176.474 
 
 Percuseion caps for small arms— nnnil-ei 1,220,555,435 
 
 Cannoii-primers 10.281,305 
 
 Fuses for si. e!] 4/226,377 
 
 Gunpowder— pound; 26,440,054 
 
 Nitre— poui de 6,395,152 
 
 Lead in pigs ai. d bullets— pounds 90,416,295 
 
 This only includes what was consumed in the army, and not what was used by 
 the navy. 
 
 ARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesia, now Artois, in France, where they frequently 
 occur) are formed by boring through the upper soil to strata containing 
 water, which has percolated from a higher level, and which rises through the 
 boring tube to that level. The fountains in Trafalgar Square in London are 
 supplied by two of these wells. The great welldt Paris was completed in 
 1841, after eight years of exertion, by M. Mulot, at an expense of about 
 £12,000. It yielded 8SO,000 gallons of water, at the temperature of 81° Fahr., 
 in twenty-four hours. These wells are now becoming common in various 
 parts of the world. Tens of thousands of them are said to have existed in 
 China from an early age. The U. S. Government have contemplated 
 making them in the vast western plains on the overland route to California. 
 
 ARTISTS' FUND SOCIETY, N. Y. In Nov. 1865, sixty pictures were con- 
 tributed to it by members, which sold for 1*7,500, The object of this society 
 is to assist indigent and disabled artists. Established in 1859. 
 
 ARTS, Fink. The progress in the fine arts has been very marked in the U. S. 
 since 1850. The National Academy of Design founded 1828 ; its new build- 
 ing, the first in the United States wholly, designed for such a purpose, was 
 completed and dedicated 1864. The amount annually expended in the IJ. S. 
 for works of art has increased ten-fold in as many years. In 1864, 30 collec- 
 tions of pictures in N. Y. sold for |500,000. The Academy of Fine Arts in 
 Philadelphia had on exhibition in April, 1865, a collection of over 800 pictures 
 and sculptures, A handsome building lor the Yale School of Fine Arts wag 
 completed at New Haven in 1866, the gift of Mr. Street. The first exhibition 
 was opened with much distinction July, 1867. Over 70 paintings and 13 
 sculptures were sent to the Paris Exposition (1867) by the American Com- 
 mittee ; See Pahithiga ; Tuckermanh Book of the Artists. 
 
 ART UNION. For distributing works of art by lot. The first was in Germany 
 founded at Munich in 1823 ; followed by those of Berlin (1828), Dresden, 
 Leipzic, Bremen, Dusseldorf, Frankfort, Vienna, &c. " Roman Catholic Art- 
 Unions " wxre started in 1861. London Art Union founded 1837; its receipts 
 increased in nineteen years from |;5,000, to $90,000 per annum. The first in 
 the U. S,, the Ameiican Art Union (originally the Apollo Association) was 
 founded at N. Y,, in 1839. It continued thirteen years, purchasing and distr'b- 
 
SUPPLEMEXTj 1851 -C 7. 13 
 
 uting works to the amount of $458,853. It was closed in 1851 as l^eing 
 foibidden by the state laws against lotteries, 
 ASUEN'SIOISI DxiY. This day, also called Holy Thursday, is that on which the 
 Church celebrates the ascension of our Saviour, the fortieth day alter hia 
 resurrection from the dead. May 14, a. d. 33 ; first commemorated, A. d. 68. 
 Some Christian writers affirm that Christ left the print of his feet on that part 
 of Mount Olivet where he last stood ; and St. Jerome says that it was visible 
 in his time. 
 ASSAY OFFICE, U. S. The one established in N. Y. City, in 1854 assayed 
 more than $180,000,000, of gold, in the seven years prior to 1866. TheioUow- 
 ing table, taken from the official returns in the Treasury Department, shows 
 the collections on bullion and the amount of bullion assayed in each state and 
 territory of the United States during the fiscal year ending June 80, 1866 : 
 States and Territories. Collfctinns on Bullion. Bullion Assayed. 
 
 California $294,121 $49,020,250 
 
 Colorado 1,219 219 860 
 
 Idaho 3,210 535,105 
 
 Missouri 4 ,,„^„?1^ 
 
 Nevada 91.635 15,272,246 
 
 jSTewJersey 82 P'^^^ 
 
 New York: 43,774 F^^'^O? 
 
 Oregon 28,711 4,78o,2-.'l 
 
 Pennsylvania 24,265 *'^'^t'^''? 
 
 Khode Island 13 2,21. 
 
 Utah 361 60,278 
 
 Washington 837 ., 139,533 
 
 Total $488,377 '.'.'.'. \'.'.\'.'.\\ $81,389,541 
 
 The foregoing compilation does not include the coinage of the United States 
 Mint at Sau Francisco, which amounted to $20,000,000. 
 
 ASTRONOMY. Astronomy received little attention in the U. S. prior to 1843. 
 At that time, a large comet suddenly appearing, public ititerest in the science 
 was awakened. Profs. Bond and Pierce, of Cambridge, Mass., Capt. Davis, 
 U. S. N., Prof. Hubbard, Naval Academy, Profs. Olmstead and Loomis, of 
 Yale, Prof. 0. M. Mitchel, of Cincinnati, and Mi?s Mitchell, of Nantucket, 
 have' contributed largely to the science. Asteroid No. 66 was first seen from 
 Harvard College, April 10, 1861. Others have since been discovered. The 
 La Lande Astronomical Prize, 500 francs, was awarded by the French Acad- 
 emy of Science to For the planets recently discovered see 
 Planets. The Dudley Observatory at Albany, chiefly the gift of Mrs. B. 
 Dudley, inaugurated Aug. 28, 1856. The progress of this science in theU. S. 
 has been much accelerated by the labors of W. C. Bond at Cambridge, 0. M. 
 Mitchel at Cincinnati, and Miss Mitchell at Nantucket, now of Vassar College, 
 Poughkeepsie. 
 
 ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. See Submarine Telegraph. 
 
 ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY. The first experiments in England at Wormwood 
 Scrubs, 1840. First in Ireland near Dublin, 1843, given up 1855. ^qq Pneu- 
 matic Railway. 
 
 AUGUSTINS. A religious mendicant order, which ascribes its origin to St. 
 Augustine, who died a. d. 480. These monks really first appeared in the 12th 
 century, and the order was constituted by Pope Alexander IV., in 1256. Its 
 rule requires strict poverty, humility and chastity. Martin Luther was an 
 Augustin monk. The Augustins held the doctrine of free grace, and were the 
 rivals of the Dominicans. 
 
 AURICULAR CONFESSION. The confession of sin at the ear (Latin auris) of 
 
14 
 
 THE WORLD S PEOGRESS. 
 
 the priest must have been an early practice, since it is said to have been for- 
 bidtjen in the fourth century by Noctarius, aichbishop of Constantinople. 
 It was tirst enjoined by the Council of Laterau in I'ilo. It was one of Six 
 Articles of Faiih enacted by Henry VIII. in 1539, and by the Council of Trent ; 
 but was abolished in England at the Kelbrniation. Its revival in England 
 was attempted by the church party called Puscyites or Tractarians, but with- 
 out success. 
 AURORA BOREALIS, or Northern Lights. The most remarkable exhibitions 
 of this phenomenon on record are those of 1560 in London, in the foim of 
 burning spears ; 1574 (described by Stow), and the close of the 18th cen- 
 tury ; again in 1835, 1836, and 1837. In ISortliern Europe, this phenomenon, 
 now very common, was very rare previous the 18th century. In 1859-60, 
 the Auroi a was very brilliant at several times, in different parts of the United 
 States, and the telegraph wires were sensibly affected by the electricity. 
 
 AUSTRALIA. The smallest continent or largest island in the world, about one- 
 sixth the size of Noith and South America, and ten times larger than Borneo, 
 its area being about 3,000,0;.0 square miles. Its colonization by convicts was 
 first proposed at the close of the American war of Independence. It is now 
 divided into four provhices : New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria, 
 (or Port Philip), and Western Australia (or Swan Rivei). 
 
 Capt Cook landed at Biitany Bay. 1770 First Ch. of Ei;g. Bishop (Broughton).. 1836 
 
 Sydney founded 1788 Melbourne founaed IS'ov. 1837 
 
 Grov. B iuh for his tyrauny de- Transportation suspended 1SS9 
 
 posed by an insurrection 1808 | Transportation ceased 1853 
 
 AUSTRIA See p. 184. 
 
 Trial by jury abolished 1852 
 
 Marriage of the emperor to Eliza- 
 beth, diiuffhter of Maxim liun, 
 duke of liaviiria Apr. 24, 1§54 
 
 Alliance with England and 
 France on the Eastern Ques- 
 tion Dec. 2, 1854 
 
 Def^rading Concordat with 
 Rome Aug. 18, 1855 
 
 Diplomatic relations with Sar- 
 dinia broken oft" on ace. of at- 
 tacks of Sardinian press March, 1857 
 
 Excitement on the address of 
 Napoleon III. to Austrian 
 minister, Hut-ner Jan. J, 1859 
 
 Preparations for war. Banks of 
 the Ticiuo fortified 
 
 Feb. and March, 1859 
 
 Austria demands that Sardinia 
 disarm. Refused Apr. 26, 1859 
 
 Austrians cross tlie Ticiiio Aj>r. 2(5, 1859 
 
 French troops reach Genoa Apr. 27, 18.59 
 
 Freiich emperor declares war May 3, 1859 
 
 Austrians defeated at Montebello, 
 
 May 20, 1859 
 
 do do Palestro, May 30-1. 1859 
 
 do do Magenta, June 4, 1859 
 
 do do Marignano, June 8, 1869 
 
 Death of Prince Metternich, aet. 86, 
 
 June 11, 1S59 
 Austrians def. at Solferino, June 24, 1859 
 
 Armistice agreed upon July 6, 1859 
 
 Emperors of France aud Austria meet 
 
 July 11, 1859 
 Preliminaries of peace at Villa Fran- 
 ca, Lombardy to belong to 
 
 Sardinia July 12, 1859 
 
 Fruitless conference of cnvoTS at 
 
 Zurich Aug. 8, to Sept. 1859 
 
 For war against Denmark, and against 
 Prussia and Italy, see Prussia. 
 
 B 
 
 BAALBEC, OR HELIOPOLIS, both of which mean "City of the Sun." An 
 ancient city of Syria, of which magnificent ruins remain, described by Wood 
 (in 1757) and others. Its origin (referred to Solomon) is lost in antiquity. 
 Antoninus Pius is stated to have built a magnificent Temple of Jupiter here. 
 The city was sacked by the Moslems, a. d. 748, and by Timour Bey, 1400. 
 
 BADEN, (p. 186.) 1852, Frederic (born September 9, 1826), regent to Sept. 5, 
 1856, when he was declared grand duke, and still remains so (1867). Heir, 
 his son, Frederic William, born July 9, 1857. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 15 
 
 BALAKLAYA (small sea-port in the Crimea), Battle of. Russians aboutl2,000_ 
 commanded by Gen. Liprandi, British by Lord Riiglan. In this battle Lord 
 Cardigan's caA^alry made the famous " charge of the light brigade ;" only 198 
 out of 607 returning from the charge, Oct. 26, 1854. Another engagement 
 here, Russians defeated, losing 2,000, Allies losing 6()0, March 22, ISo'o. EleC' 
 trie telegraph between this place and London completed April, 1855. 
 
 BALLOON, (p. IS*?.) An Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, in Den- 
 mark, Sept. 14, 1851 ; his corppe was subsequently found on the sca-sliore in a 
 contiguous island, dashed to pieces. .On June 23, 1859, Mr. Wise and threg 
 others ascended from St .Louis in a balloon. Ailer travelling 1,150 miles they 
 descended in Jefierson county, New York, very narrowly escaping witir 
 their lives. A monster balloon, constructed by Mr. Lowe for the professed 
 intention of an air-voyage to Europe, was inflated and exhibited at New York, 
 May 1860, and again in Pennsylvania, but the weather or accident defeated 
 the project. Equestrian ascents were made by Green in London in 1850, and 
 stopped by law, 1852. In France ascents on horses in balloons have been fre- 
 quently made since 1850. Balloons were used for reconnoitering, during 
 the battle of Solferino, June 24, 1859; and by the Army of the Potomac 
 1861-5. Ascents lor scientific observations made in England by Jas. Glai- 
 sher, one ascent reaching 7 miles, 1862-5 
 
 BALLOT. Secret voting was practised by the ancient Greeks. A tract entitled 
 '■ The Benefit of the Ballot," said to have been written by Andrew Marveil, 
 was publi.'^hed in England in the "State Tracts," 1693. The ballot-box Avas 
 used in a political club which met in 1669 at Miles's coffee-house, Westminster. 
 The ballot has been an open question in Biitish Whig governments since 1835. 
 On June 30, 1857, the House of Commons i-ejected the ballot, 257 being 
 against, and 189 for it. It became part of the electoral law of Victoria, Aus- 
 tralia, in 1856. Seci'et voting existed in the chamber of de])uties in France 
 from 1840 to 1845, and was employed also after the coup d'etat in 1851. In 
 the United States the ballot is used in all public elections. 
 
 BALL'S BLUFF, on the banks of the Potomac, on the Virginia side. 
 On October 21, 1861, by direction of Gen. C. P. Stone the heroic Col E 
 I). Baker crossed the river to reconnoitre. He attacked the rebrl 
 camp at Leesburg, and was defeated with great loss, the force of the lebe's 
 having been misrepresented. Treachery was evident somewhere, and Gen. 
 Stone himself was arrested, but released without trial. 
 
 BALTIMORE, (p. 187.) Population in 1860, 214,037, including 2,213 shves, 
 On the 19th of April, 1861, U. S, troops passing through the city to the de 
 fence of Washington were fired upon and two men killed. Military oceup;i. • 
 tion of the place by Gen. Butler, Ma}', 1861. President Lincoln, who pas.-cd 
 through Baltimore (1861) in disguise, to his first inauguration, was nomina- 
 ted with great enthusiasm for his second term by convention there assem- 
 bled (1864). 
 
 BANKING SY^STEM, U. S. Before the outbreak of the rebellion, paper currency 
 issued from incorporated independent banks. In 1860, there were in the U 
 S. 1,562 banks, having an aggregate capital of $421,880,000, and a circulation 
 of |2(j7, 104,400. In 1861, the banks generally were compelled to suspend 
 specie payments. The govtr.mjent established by act of Congress Feb. 25, 
 1863, a uniform national barking system. An additional act was passed June 
 3, 18fi4. In Jan. 1866, theie were 1,579 National Banks. Capital, $403,350, 
 000. Circulation, |213,0C0,000. These banks deposit bonds with the U. S. 
 Treasurv to the extent of one-third of their ca'oital. There ar3 14 citieo co-i- 
 
16 THE WOBLD's PEOGEESS. 
 
 tainiug 218 banks, which are selected as points of redemption. Jan. ISC'/, the 
 national bank-note chculatiou was §'291,093,294 ; total currency of the United 
 States (circulation and deposits), |1, 496,67 2,065. 
 
 BA.NKRUPTS in England, (p. 189.) The number in 1850, was 1,298; in ISST, 
 it was 1,488 ; in 1858, there were 1,346 ; in 1S59, there wei^e 959 ; and in 1800, 
 no k'ss than 8,470. In Scotland, there were 453 in 1857, and 445 in 1860. In 
 Ireland, 73 in 1857, and 113 in I860. 
 
 BANKRUPT LAWS in the U. S. A general bankrupt law was passed by Con- 
 gress, April 4, 1800, and repealed 180S. Another was passed Aug. 19, 1841, 
 and repealed 1843. An act " establishing a uniform system of bankruptcy in 
 the U. 8.," pas.^ed Congress, March, 1867, and is now in operation (July, 1867), 
 the "Registers in Bankruptcy" throughout the Union having been aytpointed 
 by Chief Justice Chase, as prescribed in the law^ In England, a Court of 
 bankruptcy was first established 1831. An important act relatiug to the sub- 
 ject was pissed 1849, amended 1854, and further discussed for amendment 
 1869. See Commercial Failures. 
 
 BANNATYNE CLUB, named after George Bannatyne (the publisher), was estab- 
 lished in 1823, by Sir Walter Scott and others, for px-inting works illustrative 
 of the history, antiquities, and literature of Scotland, of which about 113 vol- 
 umes were issued. 
 
 BANNERS were common to all nations. The Jewish tribes had standards or 
 banners — Num ii. (1491 B. c.) The standard of Constantine bore the inscrip- 
 tion, in hoc signo vinces — " By this sign thou shalt conquer," under the figure 
 of the cross. See Cross. The magical banner of the Danes, (said to be a 
 black raven on a red ground), was taken by Alfred when he defeated Hubba, 
 878. i: t. Martin's cap, and afterwards the celebrated auriflamma, or oritlani- 
 me, were the standards of France about 1100. See Auriflamma^ Standards^ 
 &c. 
 
 BAPTISTS, U. S. A. (p. 190). Li 1858, they had 12,000 churches with about 
 1,000,000 members. lu 1762, they had 56 churches only; 1792, 1,000; 1812, 
 2,432; in 1832,5,322; 1852, 9,500: 1866 (Baptist Almanac), they hud o9 >, 
 associations, 12,702 churches, 7,867 ordained ministers, and 1,040^300 
 members. 
 
 BATTLES, (p. 192.) 
 
 In the British and French {allies) vjar loith Russia : 
 
 Tcliernaya Aug. 16, 1855 
 
 Malakoft' taken by the French, 
 
 S( pt. P, 1855 
 
 Ireour, (Russ. and Turks) Nov. 6, 1S55 
 
 Baidar, (Euss. and Freiich). . .. . . Dec. 8, 1855 
 
 Silislria- June 13-15, 1S54 
 
 A.ma Sept. 20, 1854 
 
 Balaklava Oct. 25, 1S54 
 
 Inkerniiin... Nov. 5, 1854 
 
 Eupntoria. (Turks wnd R.) Feb. 17, 1855 
 Sebiisl opol.' March 22-4, 1855 
 
 In British war against mutineers in India : 
 
 Conflicts before Delhi, Mfiy 30 I Cawnpore, victory of Campbell, 
 
 to July 23, 1857 1 Dpc. 6, 1857 
 
 Hnvolock's victories before Ciiwn- | Lucknow tnken March 14-19, 1858 
 
 pore. &c July 12 to Aug. 16, 1857 | G-wailor (Ro:<e victorious) June 1 , 1858 
 
 Assault and capture of Delhi, Begum of Oude defeated Feb. 10, 1859 
 
 September 16-20, 1857 | 
 
 Allied (French and Sardinians) against Austrians in Italy : 
 
 Austrians cross the Ticino. I Masenta, (Allies vict.) June 4, 1859 
 
 April 27. 1859 | MaV gnano, do June 8, 1859 
 
 Montebello (Allies vict.) May 20, 1859 I Solfcrino, do June 24, 1859 
 
 JP&lestro do May SO, 1859 ) See Sardinia, Naples, &c. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 
 
 11 
 
 Naval confAct in China : 
 
 Mouth of the Peiho June 25, 18.59 
 
 BATTLES, Austrians against Prussians 
 
 Battle of Custozza, between Ital- 
 ians and Austrians, [Italiars 
 defeated] June 24, 1866 
 
 Battle of 8kulitz in Bohema, 
 between Austrinns and Prus- 
 sians, [Austrians retreat]. 
 
 July 27, 1866 
 
 Great battle of Sadowa, between 
 Austrians and Prussians. 
 
 BATTLES, U. S. In the War for the Union, 
 
 Fort Sumter, Charleston, S. C, 
 bombarded by the Rebels. 
 
 April 12. 1861 
 "Wilson's Creek, Missouri, (Na- 
 tionals retreat and Gen. Ljon 
 
 killed.) Aug. 10, 1861 
 
 Carthage, Mo. (Nat. vie: cry) 
 
 July 10, 1861 
 Rich Mountain, Va., (Nal. vic- 
 tory) July 11, 1861 
 
 Bull Run, Va., (Nat. defeated) 
 
 July 21, 1861 
 Lexington, Mo. (Nat. surren- 
 der) Sept. 20, 1861 
 
 Balls Bluff, Va., (Nat. defeated. 
 
 Gen. Baker killed) Oct 21, 1861 
 
 M 11 Spring, Kj'. (ISat. victo- 
 rious) Jan. 19, 1862 
 
 Roanoke Island, N. C (Nat. 
 capture 46 guns, 2,500 prison- 
 ers) Feb. 7-8, 1862 
 
 Fort Donelsou, Tenn., (Nat. cap- 
 ture 13,300 prisoners, 55 guns.) 
 
 Feb. 16, 1862 
 Pea Ridge, Ark., (Nat. victo- 
 rious) March 6, 7, 8, 1862 
 
 Shiloh, Tenn., (Rebels retreat 
 after desperate lighting). 
 
 April 6-7, 1862 
 Island No. 10, Miss. River, sur- 
 renders to U. S. forces, Avith 125 
 guns, 6,000 prisoners. April 7, 1862 
 Williamsburg, Va.,(Rebs. retreat) 
 
 May 5, 1862 
 Winchester, Va., (Nat. retreat) 
 
 May 25, 1862 
 Fair Oaks, Va., (Nat. defeated) 
 
 May 31, 1862 
 Seven Pines, Va., (Nat. victo- 
 rious) June 1, 1862 
 
 Seven D lys' Battles near Rich- 
 mond (Nat. repulsed). 
 
 June 2fi-July 1, 1862 
 Bull Run, Va., (^at. defeated). 
 
 Aug. 80, 1862 
 Antietam, Md. (Rebs. defeated) 
 
 Sept. 17, 1862 
 Fredericksburg, Va., (Nat. de- 
 feated) Dec. 13, 1862 
 
 Murfreesboro', Tenn., " Stone 
 River " (indecisive ; Rebs. re- 
 treat. Nat. loss very heavy). 
 
 Dec. 31, 1862 to Jan. 3, 1863 
 
 2 
 
 French and English attack on 
 Pekin Oct. 6, 1860 
 
 and Italians, war of 1866. 
 
 [Nearly 500,000 men engaged. 
 Prussians completely victo- 
 rious] July 3, 1S6G 
 
 Austriai.e defeated at Oinuitz, 
 
 July 15, 1866 
 
 Naval fight oiT Lissa, between 
 Italians and Austrians, [Ital- 
 ians lose iwo war ships]. J uly 20, 1S66 
 
 1861-5. 
 
 Grierson's raid through Missis- 
 sippi April 17 to May 2, 1863 
 
 Chancellors\ille, Va. (Nat. re- 
 pulsed) May 2-4, 1863 
 
 Champion liills, M^sdsijippi, 
 (Nat. victorious. Sieare of 
 Vicksburg begins) May 16, 1863 
 
 Gettysburtr, Peun., (Rebs. de- 
 feated). T July 1-4, 1863 
 
 Chickamauga, Ga., (Rebs. de- 
 feated; Sept. 19-20, 1863 
 
 Vicksburg, Miss. (oO,0()0 prison- 
 ers and 220 guns surrendered 
 to U. S. forces under Gen. 
 Grant) July 4, 1863 
 
 Port Hudson, La., (7,000 prison- 
 ers surrender to U. S. forces). 
 
 July 8, 1863 
 
 Chattanooga, Ga., (Nat. victo- 
 rious) Nov. 23-26, 1863 
 
 National " Red R,ver Expedi- 
 tion" under Gen. Banks, (de- 
 feated) April 8, 1864 
 
 Wilderness, Va. (mdecisiver, 
 loss heavy on both sides). 
 
 May 5-6, 1864 
 
 Si)ottsylvania,Va., (Heavy tght- 
 ing, but Rebe's retire). 
 
 May 10-12, 1864 
 
 Resaca, Georgia, (Rebs. reti-eat) 
 
 May 15, 1864 
 
 Cold Harbor, Va., (Nat. i-e- 
 pulsed) Tune 1-3, 1864 
 
 Battles about Petersburg, Va., 
 (indecisive) June 15-19, 1864 
 
 Sherman fnils in an attack on 
 KenesaAV Mountain, Ga. , 
 
 June 27, 1864 
 
 Petersburg Mine, Va., (Nat. de- 
 feated) July 30, 1864 
 
 Terrible fighting ahoiit Atlanta, 
 
 Ga., (Rebs. defeat.) July 20-22, 1864 
 
 Atlanta, Ga., taken by Sherman. 
 
 Sept. 2, 1864 
 
 Opequan, Va., (Gen. Sheridan 
 defeats Early, Rebel).. Sept. 19, 1864 
 
 Fisher's Hill, Va., (Early again 
 defeated) .Sept. 22, 1864 
 
 Cedar Creek, Va., (Early totally 
 defeated after gainii g some 
 success) Oct. 19, 1864 
 
 Sherman Ftarts on his march 
 across Georgia Nov. 1-1, 1864 
 
18 THE world's PEOGEESS. 
 
 Fr:inL-lin, Teiin., (Relip. de- ] Grant defeats Lee at Five 
 
 fcntod) Nov. 30, 1864 
 
 Niishvillt', Teiin., (Ueb6. com- 
 pletely routed, losiui; 60 guns>. 
 
 Dec. 15-19, 1864 
 
 Sherman enters SavaEnah, Ga. 
 
 Dec. 21, 1864 
 
 Fort Fif^lier, N. C, taken l-y ap- 
 sult of U. S, forces Jan. 15, 1865 
 
 Kinafalon, N. C, (Ilet;s. re- 
 pulsed) March 10, 1865 
 
 Forks, and contmucs fighting 
 until the latter surrendered at 
 Appomalox Court House, Va. 
 
 April 1-9, 1865 
 
 Gen. Johnston (Eehel) surren- 
 ders to Sliermiin near Raleigh, 
 N. C April 26, 1865 
 
 The last rehel army under Kir- 
 by Smith surrenders Avest of 
 the Mississippi May 26, 1865 
 
 For complete list of battles and skirmishes, see Appleton's Annual Cyclopeedia, 
 1866. bee Naval Battles, Atlanta, Antietam, Gettysburg, Vicksburg^ Nashville, 
 Corinth. 
 
 BAVARIA. Louis IT. (b. 1845), became king on death of his father Maximilian, 
 March 10, 1864. Population of Bavaria 1861, 4,689,83'7. 
 
 BEDOUINS. Wandering tribes of Arabs, living on the plunder of travellers, &c. 
 They profess a foim of Mahomniedanism, and are governed by sheikhs. They 
 are said to be descendants of Ishmael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respect- 
 ing him, B. c. 1911, Gen. xvi. 12. They are the scourge of Arabia and 
 Egypt. 
 
 BEIsEYOLEXCE, British. During 1859, there were contributed to about thirty 
 of the principal religious societies of Great Britaiu,^ $4,262,436, an average of 
 $82,rOO a week, over $11,000 a day, and neai-ly $500 an hour. And yet this 
 is but a portion of the amount given in that country for evangelical and be- 
 nevolent purposes. The income of the British and Foreign Bible Society was 
 $'774,530; of the Wesleyan Missionary Society, $646,380; of the Church Mis- 
 sionary Society, $610,440; of the Religious Tract Society, $489,490; of the 
 London Missionary Society $366,440. 
 
 BENEVOLENT Societies, (p. 1^9). The receipts of some of the principal be- 
 iievolent societies of Ne'.v Yorl: for the year ending April 30 were : 
 
 1857 
 
 Amer. Tract Society 
 
 " Bible 441.805 
 
 " B. C. Foreisn Missons, 388,952 
 
 " Home Missionory Sec 17S,0C0 
 
 *' Sunday School Union 
 
 Charities, Missions, etc. In New York city, in 1866, there were about 300 re- 
 ligious and benevolent societies, hospitals, dispensaries, asylums, &c. Total 
 receipts of 28 leading societies in 18H6, |4,'766,698,81. These are national 
 organizations, and the proportion contributed by New York city is from 10 to 
 15 per cent. 
 
 BIBLE DICTIONARIES. The most remarkable are Calmet's "Dictionary of 
 the Bible," 1722-8; Kittos "Cyclopedia of Bil)lical Literature," (3 vols.) 
 1843 and 1866; and Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible," (3 vols.) 1860. See 
 Concoi'dances. 
 
 BIBLIA PAUPERUM (the Bible for the poor), consisting of engravings illus- 
 trating Scripture history, \vith texts, carved in wood, a "block book," printed 
 early in the fifteenth century, was compiled by Bonaventuia, general of the 
 Francisciins, about 1260. Afac-siniile was published by J. Russell Smith, in 
 1859. 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. The fii\st that ever existed was established by some Ro- 
 man Catholic prelates, in France, in 1774. Chambers''s Ed. CI. The British 
 and Foreign Bible Society distributed, during the forty-five years ending Jan. 
 
 >S58 
 
 1859 
 
 1860 
 $348,049 
 
 1866 
 
 S90,759 
 
 415,011 
 
 4':9.799 
 
 642,625 
 
 3t4.000 
 
 350,815 
 
 435,956 
 
 
 175,970 
 
 188,189 
 
 185216 
 
 
 (sales), 
 
 202,426 
 
 234,436 
 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 18.51-67. 19 
 
 1, 1851, more than twenty-three miUiovs of copies in one hundred and forty 
 different languages. The American Bible Society, in fifty years ending 1866_. 
 expended $10,434,953. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY, the science op books. The following works on this subject 
 «re highly esteemed: Peignot, J/anwe?, 1823 ; Home, Introduction to the 
 Study of Bibliography, 1814; Scriptural — Orrae, Bibliotheca Biblica, 1821:; 
 Darhng, Cyclopaedia Bihliographica, 1854-8; Classical — the works of Fabri- 
 cius, Clarke, and Dibdin; English — Watts' Bibliotheca Britannica, 1824; 
 Lowndes' Manual, 1834 (new edition by Bohn, 1857-61); French — Querard, 
 1828 et seq. Asa general work of reference, Brunet's J/ara^ie/ c?z« Xz'ftraire, 
 1842, is exceedingly valuable. Tlie most important work on English and 
 American bibliograpliy is Alhbone's Dictionary of Authors, 2 vols. R. 8vo., 
 1859-61. In 1866, Mr. John R. Eartlett published the bibliography of the 
 American Civil War, containing 6,073 titles of books and pamphlets relating 
 to that struggle, and issued between 1860-6. 
 
 BIRDS, Divided by Linnaeus into six orders (1735) ; by Blumenbach into eight 
 (1805); and by Cuvier into six (1817). The most remarkable works ever 
 published on birds are those by our American Audubon, and those by John 
 Gould in England ; the latter will consist of thirty-one folio volum'es of color- 
 ed jlates, &;c. Each set, bound, will cost about £500. Audubon's great vrork 
 Qi\\ Birds of America was engraved and published by him in Edinburgh, in 
 four huge folios, about 1835 ; the subscription price was $800. It was repro- 
 duced in seven smaller volumes in 1840, and in the original form in 1859-60, 
 at New York. 
 
 BISHOPS, U. S. A. In 1866, there were forty-one Episcopal Bishops in the 
 United States. Methodist Episcopal Bishops in 1865 numbered twenty-two. 
 Lieut.-Gen. Polk (Confederate), Protestant Episcopal Bishop, was killed near 
 Keiiesaw Mountain, Georgia, June 14, 1864. In 1859 the Catholic Bishops 
 numbered forty-five. 
 
 BLACK LETTER. Employed in the first printed books in the middle of the 
 fifteenth century. The first printing types were Gothic, but they were modi- 
 fied into the present Roman type about 1469, Pliny's Katural History being 
 then printed in the new characters. 
 
 BLACK-MAIL. A compulsory payment made in parts of Scotland by the Low- 
 landers to the Highlanders, for the protection of their cattle ; existed till within 
 a few months of the outbreak of the rebellion, 1745. It rendered agricultural 
 improvement almost impossible. 
 
 BLIND. The first public school for the blind was established by Valentine 
 Haiiy, at Paris, in 1784. The first in England was at Liverpool, in 1791 ; in 
 Scotland, in Edinburgh, in 1792 ; and the first in London in 1799. Printing 
 in raised or embossed characters for the use of the blind was begun nt Paris 
 by Haiiy in 1786. The whole Bible was pi'inted at Glasgow in raised Roman 
 characters about 1848. There is hardly any department of human knowledge 
 ih which blind persons have not obtained distinction. Laura Bridgman, born 
 in 1829, became dumb and blind two years after : she was so well taught by 
 Dr. Howe, of Boston, U, S., as to become an able instructor of blind and dumb 
 persons. By the census of 1851, there were in Great Britain, 21,487 blind 
 persons, 11,273 males; 10,214 females: about one blind in 975. Asylums for 
 THE BLIND. The numbcr in the IJ. S. in 1860 was 20. The first one was the "Per- 
 kins Institution and New England Asylum," founded at Boston in 1832, bv 
 Dr. Howe and Col. Perkins. New York Institute for the Blind, 1832. Phil- 
 
20 THE WOKLD S PROGRESS, 
 
 adelplna Institute, 1833. Institute at Columbus, Ohio, 1837. At Raleigb, F. 
 C, 1848. Number of blind persons in the U. S. in ISt'O, 11,125, Estimated 
 at about the same number in 1866. 
 BOLIVIA. A republic in South America, formerly of Peru ; was declared indepen- 
 dent, Aug. 6, and took the name of Bolivia, in honor of General Bolivar, Aug. 
 11, 1825. The insurrection of the ill-u<ed Indians, under Tupac Amaru Andres, 
 took place in 1*780-2. Slavery was aboli.'-hed in 1836. General Sucre govern- 
 ed ably from 1826-8; Santa Cruz ruled from 1828 to 1834; after which 
 many disorders occurred. In 1853 free trade was proclaimed. General Cor- 
 dova president, 1855-7, was succeeded by Jose Maria Lenares, 1859, Gen. 
 Cordova, 1860 and Jose M. de Acha, 1861. Population in 1855, 2,326,126. 
 
 BOLOGNA, (p. 208.) During the Italian war of 1859, the Romagna threw off the 
 temporal sovereignty of the Pope, and voted for annexation to Sardinia. On 
 Oct. 2, the provisional government at Bologna decreed that all public acts 
 should be headed " under the reign of Victor Emmanuel." 
 
 BOOK-TRADE, United Statks. (p. 211.) The number of new books recorded as 
 published dui'ing one year ending June 30, 1851, was 1,261. No accurate 
 statistics have been compiled in recent years. In 1855 the number of new 
 works and new editions recorded as then first published in the U. S. was about 
 2,400. There were in the U. S. (1860) about''3,00() booksellers and 400 pub- 
 lishers. In 1864 there were 2,028 separate publications ; in 1865, 1,802, of 
 which about 80 were histories and stories of the late war. The mcreased cost of 
 paper and labor has raised the price of books about 60 to 80 per cent, since 
 the rebellion began. 
 
 BOOK-TRADE of Great Britain, (p. 210.) Number of new publications in 
 1850, 4,400. In 1859 there were 5,5u7 different works entered for copyright, 
 and 4,066 volumes and pieces of music. This is an increase of 700 per cent, 
 on the returns of 1828: about 400 percent, on those of 1836, and about 50 
 per cent, on those of 1854. In 1864 the number of pubhcations was 3,553. 
 
 BOOK-TRADE, France, (p. 210.) The value of books imported in 1855, was 
 1,829,470 francs. Value of exports, 12,344,855 francs; increased of exports 
 since 1851, 30 per cent. 
 
 BORNEO, an island of the Indian Ocean, the largest in the world except Ai s- 
 tralia, was discovered by the Portuguese' in 1526. The Dutch traded here in 
 1604, estabhshed factories in 1776, and still remain on the island. The Brit-i 
 ish chastised Bornean pirates in 1813, and again 1843, and in 1846 they took 
 possession of a part of the island, Sir James Brooke being appointed "Rajah 
 of Sarawak." An English bishop for the island consecrated at Calcutta, Oct. 18, 
 1855. Insurrection of Chinese in Sarawak, Feb. 18, 1857 ; subdued by Brool e, 
 and 2,000 insurgents killed. British government urged to purchase Sarawi.k, 
 Nov. 1858, but declined. 
 
 BOSTON, U. S. A. (p. 212.) The population in 1850 was 136,881 ; in 1855, 160,5r8 
 in 1860, 177,902. Free PubUe Library, a noble institution, first opened ISCS. 
 Population in 1867, estimated at 200,000. In 1867, an act was passed by 
 the legislature uniting Roxbury with Boston ; this was vetoed by the governor. 
 During the last twelve years, she has spent for teachers, -fo, 668, 000 ; for school- 
 houses, $1,600,000 ; incidentals, $1,357,000— a total of $6, 629,358, which ig 
 claimed to be a larger proportionate expenditure than that of any other city 
 in the world for educational purposes. The salary of the Principals in the sev- 
 eral high schools is .|;4,000. 
 
 BOUNDARY QUESTIONS between the U. S. and England. The " North- Easi 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 21 
 
 Boundary *' between Maine and the British possessions adjusted by the 
 Webster-Ashburton Treaty at Washington, 1842. The Oregon Boundary, 
 adjusted by treaty at London, June IS, 1856. 
 
 BRAZIL, (p. 216.) First steamship line to Europe, 1850 ; Slave trade sup- 
 pressed, 1852 ; Railways commenced, 1852 ; Rio Janeiro lighted with gas, 
 1854. War with Uruguay. Brazilhans march on Montevideo, Feb. 2, 1865. 
 Alliance with Argentine Republic ; the emperor joins the army against Lopez, 
 pres't of Paraguay, Aug. 1865. First steamship line from New York to 
 Brazil, established through the agency of Rev. J. C. Fk-tcher, 186-. Kidder 
 and Fletcher's work on Brazil (the most comprehensive) published in succes- 
 sive editions ISSO-lSe*?. Prof. Agassiz, scientific explorations in Brazil, 
 1866. Preliminary steps taken to abolish slavery in the empire, April, 186*7. 
 The plan is the gradual emancipation of the slaves in 20 years. 
 
 BREWERIES, U. S. The number of them in the Northern States in 1860, was 
 969. In that year 3,235,345 barrels of ale and beer were manufactured. 
 Number in New York State in 1865, 201. Philadelphia has a greater num- 
 ber of breweries than any other city. 
 
 BRIBERY IN THE U. S. An attempt to bribe, though unsuccessful, has been 
 held a criminal offence in Virginia. Indictments for bribery have been rare 
 in this country. 
 
 BRIBERY AT KLECTiONS IN ENGLAND, (p. 217.) Borough of St. Albans disfran- 
 chised for bribery, 1852. Elections at Derby and other places declared void 
 by bribery in 1853, and at other places 185*7-9. 
 
 BRICKS. In the U. S. very fine bricks come from Baltimore, Philadelphia, and 
 Milwaukee, Wis. Is umber of brickmakers in 1860, 13,700. The time for 
 burning bricks is 3 or 4 days ; 16 cords of wood are necessary to 100,000 
 bricks (Prof. Mather). A patent for pressing brick was granted in 1847 to Mr. 
 Sawyer, of Baliimore. A brick-machine patented by Mr. Gard, of Chicago, 
 1866, turns out by steam-power 25,000 bricks per day. Number of manufac- 
 tories in the U. S. in 1860, 1,595. Annual value of 'products, $10,253,734. 
 
 BRIDGES, IT. S. The famous natural bridge in Virginia, Rockbridge co., is 
 100 feet long over a chasm 215 feet deep. Another in Walker co., Alabama, 
 120 feet long and 70 high. There are also two in California, Calaveras co., 
 remarkable for their immense arches. The finest stone bridge in the U. S. is 
 High Bridge across Harlem river, N. Y. ; it is 1,450 feet long, 114 feet high, 
 and is supported on 14 arches. The Schuylkill R. R. bridge at Philadelphia, 
 has a single span of 340 feet. The first suspension bridge in the U. S. was 
 built by Mr. Finley about 1800. The Wheeling bridge over the Ohio, with a 
 span of 1,000 feet, was put up in 1848 and blown down in 1854. The R. R. 
 suspension bridge over the Niagara was built by Mr. Roebling; completed in 
 1858. The span is 821 feet ; height 245 feet ; 14,500 wires are used in the 
 cables. The Covington and Cincinnati suspension bridge is 2,252 feet long. 
 Height of pier, 80 feet ; width, 45 feet ; size of cable, 12 inches ; cost 
 $1,750,000. The R. R. bridge across the Susquehanna at Havre de Grace is 
 3,273 feet long ; completed in 1865, after 4 years work of about 1,000 men. 
 It is a trestle-work with arches, and rests on solid piers sunk in the river. 
 Cost, $1,500,000. 
 
 BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The Rev. Francis, Earl of Bridgewater, died 
 in April, 1829, leaving by will, £8,000 to be given to eight persons, appointed 
 by the president of the Royal Society, who should write each an essay on the 
 power, wisdom, and goodness of God as manifested in the Creation. The 
 
22 THE world's progress. 
 
 essays (by Sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. Chalmers, John Kidd, William Buckia.id, 
 AVillium Prout, J. M. Roget, and the Revs. William Wheweli and Williaiu 
 Kirby) v/ere published in 1834-3'7. 
 
 BRITISH ASSOCIATION for the Advancement of Science. It holds annua: 
 meetings, the first of whicli was held at York in 1S31. One of its main ob 
 jccts is to promote the intercourse of those \vl)o cultivate science. A volume 
 containirg reports of the proceedings is published annually. 
 
 BRITISH AMERICA, United by act of Parliament under the name of Domin- 
 ion of Canad;i, 1867. 
 
 BRITISH MUSEUM, (p. 220). In 18i6 the Right Hon. Thos. Grenville 
 bequeathed to the Museum his library, consisting of 20,240 vols. The Assy- 
 rian sculptures and other treasures were collected by Mr. Layard between 
 1847-50. Great additions to, and improvements in the building have lately 
 been made by the munificence of Parliament, independently of a large annual 
 grant for scientific purposes. The present magnificent reading-room was 
 opened to the public. May 11, IBS'?. Tne room contains about 80,000 vols., 
 and will accommodate 300 reader?. The library contains about 562,0: )0 vols., 
 exclusive of tracts, MSS., &c. The alphabetical catalogue was completed 
 from A to H in May, 1853 in above 1,000 folio vols. 
 
 BROOKLYN, on Long Island, but really a suburb of the city of New York, in 
 1800 had but 3,298 inhabitants; in 1830 it had 15,292; in 1855 (then con- 
 solidated witii Wiiliamsburg) it had 205,250. In 1860, it had 273,425 ; in 
 1865, 296,378. See Additions. 
 
 rUDDHISM. The religion formerly of India, and now of a large part of Asia 
 beyond the Gauges and Japan, from which Brahmiuism is derived. Buddha, 
 or "the Wise, flourished about l,O00 or l,10o b, c. The Buddhists beheve 
 that the soul is an emanation from God, and that, if it continues virtuous, it 
 will undergo various changes of abode. Buddhism was expelled from India 
 about A. D. 596. 
 
 BUENOS-AYRES, S. Ameri-a. (p. 222.) The independence of the province 
 was declared July 19,1816, and it was recognized in February, 1822, as form- 
 ing part of the Argentine Confederation ; but for some years the country was 
 a prey to civil war under various leaders, among whom were Oribe, Urquiza, 
 and Rosas. The last was defeated in battle, Feb. 3, 1852, by Urquiza, to 
 whom Buenos-Ayres capitulated, and Rosas fleeing to England, arrived at 
 Plymouth, April 25, 1852. General Urquiza having been deposed Sept. 10, 
 
 1852, invested the city, Dec. 23. He defeated his opponent's squadron, 
 April 18, 1853, but withdrew his forces, July 13, and the civil war ended. In 
 
 1853, Buenos-Ayres seceded from the Argentine Confederation, and has been 
 generally recognized as an independent state. Dr. D. Pastor Obligado was 
 elected governor, Oct. 12, 1853. Dr. Valentin Alsina was elected governor 
 for three years. May, 1857. Population in 1854 about 350,000. 
 
 BUILDING SOCIETIES, for mutual benefit of persons of limited means who 
 would build or buy their houses economically, are said to have originated at 
 Kirkcudbright, Scotland. A large number were organized in New York jn 
 1843—49, but they do not appear to have been generally sustained. 
 
 BURMESE OR BiRMAN Empire. For the events of war with England, and of 
 the Burmese war commenced in 1851, see India. The province of Pegu 
 annexed to British empire, Dec. 20, 1852. War declared at an end, June 20, 
 1853. 
 
surrLEMEKT, 1851-67. 22 
 
 C 
 
 CABINET, U. S., See Administrations. 
 
 CABKIOLET. One-horsed cabriolets (v^<?^9'o, cabs) were introduced in London 
 as public convej'ances in 1823, when the number in use was 12. In 183G 
 they had increased to 165. lu 1859 there were in London 5,500 cabs, of 
 which about 1,500 ply on Sunday. Hackney-coaches there are now almost 
 extinct. In 1853 the legal fare was made 6d. per mile. In New York and 
 other Amer. cities, a clumsy style of cab was introduced in 1844-5, but not 
 being a desirable shape they were not popular, and soon disappeared. An 
 improved pattern — the coiope^ was again introduced, 1865-6, and is used to some 
 extent. 
 
 CALENDS were the first days of the Roman months. The Nones of March, 
 May, July, and October, fell on the 'Zth ; and ihevc Ides on the 15th. The 
 other mouths had the Nones on the 5th and the Ides on the 18th. As the 
 Greeks hud no Calends, ad Grcecas Calendas, " on the Greek Calends," meant 
 neve^'. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, (p. 230.) In 1831 the population (Mexican) was estimated at 
 23,000. By the census of 1850 the number was 92,597 ; by that of 1852 it 
 was 264,435, of whom only 22,193 were white females. In 1856 the popula- 
 tion was 518,380, of whom 336,380 were Americans; 15,000 Mexicans; 
 10,000 Irish; 10,000 Germans; 2,000 Enghsh; and 15,000 various (white) 
 nationahties ; 50,000 Chinese ; 65,000 Indians. From 1849 to 1857 inclusive, 
 75,301 Chinese arrived at San Francisco, of whom 17,524 returned during the 
 same time. Population in 1860, 380,000 ; in 1866, nearly 500,000. In 1865 
 there were 947 schools in the State, and over 100 newspapers and periodicals. 
 From 1848 to 1864, her mines produced $816,500,000. Of this $541,600,000 
 has been coined at the mints. In 1866, the export of gold was $44,360,000. 
 Over 18,000,000 bushels of cereals were produced in 1863; 17,000,000 vines 
 were growing in 1866, giving 1,252,000 gallons of superior wine. 
 
 CALORIC ENGINE. First reduced to practice by John Ericsson in London in 
 1833, and then considered a success, but not made practically available till 
 1852. In that year it was introduced in a ship of 2,000 tons which it pi'opelled 
 from New York to Alexandria in the Potomac and back in very rough 
 weather, February, 1853. This achievement created great excitement in the 
 scientific world, but the speed attained was not commercially sufficient. 
 Subsequently Ericsson devised an engine that for all piu^poses requiring a 
 moderate power, has proved entirely successful, and is now extensively used 
 in the United States, Cuba, Canada, and in many South American and Euro- 
 pean States. It is inexplosive, entirely free from danger, consumes but little 
 fuel and requires no water. Innumerable motors have been planned and 
 patented by men of science during the last hundred years, but the only one 
 (other than steam-engines) that has become an article of use and commerce 
 is Ericsson's Caloric Engine, patented in the United States, Dec. 14, 1858. 
 It establishes an epoch in the history of motive power. 
 
 CANADA. Ottawa, formerly Bytown, was appointed the capital in 1858. A 
 regiment of the line (the 100th) spontaneously raised in 1858. The upper and 
 lower provinces united and designated Canada East and Canada West. Sir 
 Edmund Head gov. gen. 1854, Grand Trunk Riulway 850 miles long, from 
 Quebec to Toronto, with branch to Portland, Maine, opened Nov. 12, 1856. 
 Victoria Bridge at Montreal completed 1860, and opened with great ceremony 
 by the Prince of Wales, 1860. Population in 1852: Upper Canada, 952,004' 
 
24 THE world's TEOGKESS. 
 
 Lower Canada, 890,261. In 1857 it was estimated thus: I ppcr Canada, 
 1,305,923; Lower, 1,220,514. The value of exports in 1857 was £0,751,656. 
 Lord Monck gov. gen. Nov. 28, 1861. Population in 1861, 2,506,755. Products 
 of the U. S. imported into Canada under the " Reciprocity Treaty," in 1862, 
 $14,430,626. Imports in 1864, $50,619,217. Exports, $33,317,873. Total 
 militia force, (1863) 305,140. Length of Railways, 2,000 miles. In Oct. 186-i, 
 a raid from the Canada side into St. Albans, Vermont, by some confcdeiates, 
 created gieat excitement in both countries. Gen. Dix, IT. S. A., ordered that 
 U. S. troops should cross the lines and capture such raiders, if not surrender- 
 ed. The goverument revoked the order promptly. The "Dominion of Can- 
 ada," consisting of the United Provinces of the Canadas, Nova Scotia, New 
 Brunswick, &c., established by the Queen's consent, 1867. 
 
 CANALS, (p. 223.) The Chesapeake and Ohio canal (Md.), cost $10,000,000 ; 
 completed ; the Lachine canal, in Canada, 31 miles, cost $235,934 per 
 
 mile; the Erie canal cost $19,679 per mile. Number of miles completed in 
 1858, 388 ; cost $90,000,000. Tolls received from U. S. canals in 1866, $4,- 
 436,639. Number of boats, 485. By the Erie canal 2,235,700 tons of pro- 
 duce from the west were brought to tide-water. 
 
 CANCER. A hospital to receive persons suffering from this fearful disease was 
 founded by Miss Burdett Coutts, at Brompton, near London, on May 30, 1859. 
 Experiments to cure it by acetic acid in progress in New Haven and New York 
 
 (1866-7). 
 
 CANNON, (p. 234.) In 1820 the maximum size of guns in American forts was 
 a 24-pounder; in 1850 the largest was 10-inch bore, carrying balls of 124 lbs. 
 A vol. of reports of experiments in gunmaking was published by the U. S. 
 Ordnance Department in 1856. Just before the rebellion Captain Parrott in- 
 vented, at West Point, a lifled gun of great efficiency. The 10-pounder has 
 a range of 6,000 yards. The 300-pounder can throw a shot of 250 lbs. 5;^ 
 miles. The guns invented by Major Rodman during the war have a smooth 
 chamber ; calibre, from 8 to 20 inches. The first 20-inch gun was cast at Pitts- 
 burg in 1864; weight, 116,000 lbs.; weight of shot, 1,000 lbs.; charge, 100 
 lbs. of powder. The guns generally in use in the navy were invented by Capt. 
 Dahlgren, U. S. N. The 9 and ll-inch bores are unequalled for powerful ct- 
 i'ect in close action. An enormous Columbiad is mounted at Fortress Monroe, 
 carrying shot of 625 lbs. weight. From 1861 to 1866 the Ordnance Depart- 
 ment (IJ. S.) provided 7,892 cannon for the army and navy. Steel cannon 
 were first manufactured in the U. S, by Mr. N. Wiard of New York, June, 
 1861. In England, since 1850, great improvements in cannon have been 
 made by Whitworth, Mallett, Armstrong and others. Dahlgren of the IT. S. 
 navy (now Admiral) and others have also invented new constructions. An 
 American cannon weighing 35 tons was cast in 1860. 
 
 CANTON, (p. 236.) In consequence of an outrage on a British vessel the forts 
 guarding the city were captured, and Canton was bombaided, Oct. 29, 1856, 
 by order of Sir J, Bowring, who was aiterwards censured by a vote of the 
 House of Commons. Canton taken by the British and French, Dec. 29, 1857, 
 and Yeh, the governor, was sent to Calcutta a prisoner. 
 
 CAPITOL OF THE United States. The corner-stone of the original edifice was 
 laid by Washington, Sept. 18, 1793. It was burnt by the British 1814; re- 
 . stoi'ed 1818. Corner-stone of the new wings laid by Pres. Fillmore, July, 
 1851. The present structure is 751 feet long, and covers 3^ acres. The co- 
 lossal statue of Freedou', by Crawford, was raised to the top of the dome Dec, 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67- 26 
 
 2, 1863, The iron dome cost $900,000. Up to Nov., 1862, the cost of the mar- 
 bie and the setting of the same was |2,4o2,000. 
 
 CARICATURES. The modern caricatures of Gilray Rowlandson (IL B.), (John 
 Doyle Jg = HB), R. Doyle and J. Leech are justly celebrated- The well-known 
 *' Punch" was first published in 1841. The most eminent writers of fiction 
 (Douivlas Jerrold, Thaekerfty, A'Becket, Professor E. Forbes, &c.) have con- 
 tributed to this amusing periodical. ^'Vanity Fair," commenced in New 
 York, 1860, enlisted some of the best American talent in this department, but 
 was short-lived. See Satire. 
 
 CARNIVAL. (Camimfe, Italian, 8 e., Flesh, farewell!) A well-known festival time 
 ill the Roman Catholic Church, observed in Italy, particularly at Venice, about 
 Shrove-tide or beginning of Lent. This is a season of mirth and mdulgence, 
 and ntmibers visit Italy during its continuance. 
 
 CAROLINA,— See K and S. Carolina. 
 
 CARPET MANUFACTURE- — The value of carpets manufactured in Mass. in 
 1855 was $1,362,000- Carpets imported into the U. S. in 1857^ valued at $i- 
 181,200. In 1866 there were 200 carpet manufactories in the country, but ot 
 these only six were capable of producing the fine class of carpeting required, 
 in the best houses- 
 
 CARTES DE VISITE- The small photographic portraits thus termed, are ^aid 
 to have been first taken at Nice, by M. Ferrier, in 185*7. The Duke of Parma 
 had his portrait placed upon his visiting cards, and his example was soon fol- 
 lowed in Paris, London, and in the United States. 
 
 CASUALTIES for 1865, During the year 1865, there were S54 fires in the 
 United States where the amount of loss was .f 20,000 or upwards, at which 
 property was destroyed amounting, as estimated, to $43,139,000. The losses 
 by fire from 1855 to 1865, inclusive, were |214,688,O00. During the year 
 Uiere were 183 railroad accidents, by which S36 persons were killed and 1,427 
 wounded; and 32 steamboat accidents, by which 1,788 were killed, and 265 
 ^vounded. During the last twelve years there were 1,413 railroad accidents, 
 by which 2,204 were killed, and 8,356 wounded; and 324 steamboat accidents, 
 by which 5,372 were killed, and 1,579 wounded. 
 
 CAUCASUS. ( p. 241.) The subjugation of the Caucasian tribes has long been 
 the object of the Russians, and seems now almost achieved by the capture of 
 Schamyl (Sept. 7, 1859), who was honorably received by ihe czar. 
 
 CAWNPORE. A town in India; during the mutiny in 1857, was garrisoned by 
 native troops under Sir Hugh Wheeler. They revolted and were joined by 
 Nana Sahib, who captured the place, June 26, and massacred great numbers 
 of the British, without regard to age or sex. Cawnpore was retaken by Have- 
 lock, July 17, 1857. 
 
 CAYENNE- (p- 242.) Many political prisoners have been sent here by the 
 French emperor since 1852. 
 
 CEMETERIES, National- For soldiers of the U. S- who fell in battle or died 
 in the service. In June, 1866, there were 41 National Cemeteries, with 104,- 
 528 graves. Ten more were to be added, containing a total of 249,397 graves. 
 The " Antietam National Cemetery," has 8,000 graves, half of them ninrked 
 " unknown." Provision made by Congress in 1867 for substantial headstonea 
 and iniproveraents. Oration delivered by President Lincoln at the dedication 
 of the Gettysburg Cemetery, July 4, 1864. In the suburbs of New York, sev- 
 eral new rural cemeteries have been opened (1840-67), viz., Woodlawn, 
 Calvary, The Evergreens, &c. 
 
26 THE world's pkogbess. 
 
 CENSUS OP THE United States, has been taken at eight different periods, vh; 
 1790, 1800, 1810, 1820, 1830, 1840, 1850, and 1860. See Population. The 
 Census is taken by the general government every ten years; that of New 
 York, lUinois, Wisconsin, and Florida is by those states taken decennially ;it 
 intermediate periods, thus giving returns every five years. Other states have 
 different periods for a cetisus. In 18(J5, it was taken in the slates of Illinois, 
 Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Alabama, Rhode Island, and Iowa. 
 The number of persons employed ui taking the U. S. census of 1860 was 4,481 ; 
 expense to the Government, $1,043,206. 
 
 CENSUS REPORTS, U. S. In 1*700, the entire population of the Anglo -Ameri- 
 can colonies was 262,000; in 1750, it was 1,000,000 ; in 1775, 2,389,300. In 
 1790, the popuhition of tlie United States alone was 3,929.827 ; and in. 186(i, 
 81,443,c,21. Anticipated population in 1900,107,000,000.' The unimproved 
 lands of the Utiiied Sta'es, in 1860, amounted to 244,101,818 acres ; improved 
 lands, 163, ±10,720 acres; cash value of the whole estimated at |6,645,045,007. 
 Estimated product of our manufactures in 1860, $4,000,0'00,0(>0. Com- 
 mercial railroads in the United States, 35,935 miles, costing |1,432,649, 
 000. City railroads, 402 miles, costing $14,862,840. Slack-water canals 
 and branches, 118, of which 68 cost $147,393,997. Real and personal property 
 estimated at $19,089,156,289, Educational institutions reported, 113,006'; 
 teachers, 148,742; students, 5,417,880. Collegiate institutions, 445; students, 
 64,969. Churches, 54,000. Newspapers, 4,051 ; circulation, 928,00u,000 
 copies, Revolutionary army, from 1775 to '1783, 231,791; vessels, 4. Iti 
 1812, regulars, 32,360; volunteers, 6,000; mihtia, 30,000; navy, 8 frigates, 
 and 170 gun-boats. In 1815, 276 vessels, with 1,636 guns. In March, 1865, 
 we had 684 vessels of war, with 4,477 guns, many of them of large calibre; 
 and the aggregate number of men raised for the Union armies was 2,688,000. 
 If the Confederate forces be added, the grand total would be reached of 
 4,000,000 of men at arms — the largest force ever yet raised in any country 
 or age of the world. — Christian Ahnanac. 
 
 CHALDEA. The ancient name of Babylonia, but afterwards restricted to the S. 
 W. portion of it. The Chaldeans were devoted to astronomy and astrology. 
 See Boyn. 2, &c. 
 
 CHANCELLORS, LORD, England, (p. 245) 
 
 Sir Thomas "Wilde, created Lord 
 
 Truro 1850' 
 
 Sir Edw. Sueden, created Lord 
 
 •St. Leo ards 1852 
 
 Robert Mousey Roife, created 
 Lord Cranwortli 1852 
 
 Sir Fred. Thesiger, created Lord 
 
 Chelmsford. 1S53 
 
 John, Lord Canipbel] 1859 
 
 Bichard Bethel, Lord Westbury, 
 
 June 26, 1861 
 Thomas, Lord Cranworth, ngfdii 
 
 July 6, 1865 
 
 CHANCELLORSYILLE, Virginia, U. S., named from a hotel, once kept by a Mr. 
 Chancellor, was the site of severe sanguinary conflicts, on May 2, 3, and 4, 
 1863, between the Army of the Potomac under General Hooker, and the rebels 
 under General Lee. On Apr, 28, the Union army ciossed the Rappahannock ; 
 o>n May 2, General "Stonewall" Jackson furiously attacked and routed the 
 right wing, but was mortally wounded by his own party firing on him by mis- 
 take. Gen. Stuart took his command, and after a severe conflict on May 3 
 and 4, with great loss to both parties, Hooker was compelled to retreat across 
 the Rappahannock. The struggle has been compared to that at Hougomont 
 during the battle of Waterloo. Jackson died May 9. 
 
 CHANCERY. In the U. S. federal courts equity and law are both administered, 
 and this system was adopted by the state of N, Y. in her Constitution of 1846 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. '•'•? 
 
 CHARITIES OF THE WAR in the U. S. A carefnl statement made oi' the 
 amount contributed by the people of the loytil states for philanthropic pur- 
 poses connected with the war, not including the donations for relijrious or 
 educational objects, gives the following noble record : The total coutii!)utions 
 from states, counties, and towns for the aid and relief of soldiers, amounted 
 to $187,209,608.62; the contributions of associations and individuals for the 
 care and comfort of soldiers were $24,044,865.96 ; for sufferers ab^-oad, $380,^ 
 040.74; for sufferers by the riots of July, ibr freedmen and white refug.i'cs, 
 $639,633.13: making a grand total, exclusive of expenditures of the govern- 
 ment, of $212,274,248.45. See Sanitary Commission, &c. 
 
 CHARLESTON, S. C. Population in 1860,40,578. A severe fire dest.-oyec. 
 the business portion of the city, December 11, 1861 ; 17 old hulks were sunk 
 by U. S. forces to blockade the chiinnel, December 21, 1861. The city surreu 
 dered to National troops, Februai^v 18, 1865. 
 
 CHASTITY. The Roman laws justified homicide in defence of one's self or 
 relatives; and British laws justiiy a woman for killing a man in defence of her 
 cbiistity; and a husband or father in taking the lii'e of him who attempts tr 
 violate his wife or daughter. In 1,000 years from the time of Numa, 710 b. c, 
 to the leign of Theodosius the Great, A. i>. 894, only eighteen Roman vestals 
 had been condemned ibr incontinence. 
 
 CHATTANOOGA, Battle of, U. S. Fought on Nov 23, 1863, between the 
 Union armies under Gen. Grant and the Confederates under Gen. Bragg. The 
 Confederates were driven from every position. On the right, Hooker stormed 
 Lookout Mountain ; Thomas in the centre carried the rifle-pits ; Sherman forced 
 the left after hard fighting. On the 25th th? vvhole of Missionary Ringe was 
 in the hands of the Union army, and the enen.y completrly routed. This has 
 been regarded as one of the most briUi;int achievements of the war. Union 
 loss about 4,000 ; 6,000 Confederate prisoners and 42 guns were captured. 
 
 CHICAGO, Illinois. Population in 1860, 109,260 .; in 1865, estimated at 180,- 
 000. This city is the largest pork-packing depot in the country; 1,000,000 
 hogs are annually killed and packed here. Loss by fires in Chicago in 
 1866, $2,457,673. 
 
 CHICK AM AUGA, Battle of, U. S. A creek by this name was the scene of a 
 severe battle between the Union and Confederate forces, Sept. 19, 20, 1863. 
 The Union right was completely broken and retreated. The left under Gen. 
 Thomas withstood the fierce nssiiults of the enemy, and saved the army from 
 a total defeat. Gen. Bragg (Confed.) had been reintbrced by Longstroet from 
 Va. Gen. Rosecrans (Union), withdrew to Chattanooga, and acred entirely on 
 the defensive for some time after. The entire rebel loss, as stated in their 
 papers, 18,000. Union loss, 16,350, and 36 guns. 
 
 CHILI, S. America, (p. 248.) The present president (1859), Don Manuel Moutt, 
 was elected Oct. 18, 1856. Population in 1855, 1,439,120. Civil war was 
 going on in 1859. Population in 1857, was 1,568,458. Exports in 1857 
 amounted to $20,126,461. Jose Perez elected pres. 1861. Rupture between 
 Chili and Bolivia respecting the Guano isles, March, 1864. Pop. in 1857, 
 1,558,319. 
 
 CHINA, (p. 249.) 
 
 Death of TaonKwang... Feb. 25, 1850 Rebels take ISTankin, Mnrch 19, 
 
 Rebellion breaks out in Quana-si, Amoy, May 19, Bliangl.ae, 
 
 Aug. 1S50 Sept. 7, lS5a 
 
 Rebel emperor or pretender Rebels b( siege Canton iiniir- 
 
 Tienteli appears Mtirch, 1851 cessfully jS'ov. 1854 
 
2.^ 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 janton forts taken by the Brit- 
 ish (see Can/on) Oi-t. 8, 1S53 
 
 Americans capture 3 l';)rts, Nov. 21, 1856 
 
 Chinese burn EurDpeari fac- 
 tories, ami murder Engli>h 
 sailors , D;c. 1856 
 
 Lord Elgin sent out as British 
 envoy. March, 1857 
 
 Britibh debtroy the Chinese fleet, 
 
 June 1, 1857 
 
 British blocI<ade Canton Aug. 1S57 
 
 Canton taken by E.iglish and 
 French Dec. 28-9, 1857 
 
 Teh, gov. of Canton, who is s:iid 
 to have beheaded 100,000 
 rebels, sent to Calcaita Jan. 1858 
 
 Forts at mouih of Peiho captured 
 by the English and French. 
 
 May 20, 1858 
 
 Treaty of peace signed by Key- 
 ing, Lord Elgin, and Bar. G-ros, 
 
 June 28, 1858 
 
 ^Principal articles: Ambassa- 
 dors to be at both courts ;. free- 
 dom of trade ; Christianity to 
 be tolerated : expenses of war 
 paid by Chii;a ; tariff to be 
 
 revised ; Chinese epithet of 
 " liaibarian" no longer to be 
 applied to foreigners.] 
 
 Mr. Bruce, British envoy, stop- 
 ped at the mouth of the Peilio. 
 Admiral Hope attempting to 
 force tiic passage defeated, 
 losing 81 killed, 300 wounded. 
 
 June 25, 1859 
 
 Pekin taken by the French and 
 Englisli forces, and tlie em- 
 peror's palace sacked 1860 
 
 Pekii given up by allies. . .Nov. 5, I860 
 
 En'rii^h a. d French embassies 
 established there 1 8^1 
 
 Mr. Buriin^ame appointed U. S. 
 
 Minister to China 1831 
 
 Emi^eror Hien-fung d.es, andis 
 succeeded by Ki-tsiang. Aug. 24, l&GL 
 
 Canton restoi ed to Chinese. 
 
 Oct. 21, 180 1 
 
 English and French aid the gov- 
 ernment against the rebels 1862 
 
 English Capt. Gordon defeats 
 rebels and tak^'s Nankin, and 
 rebel emperor Tienw;ing kills 
 himself July 18, 186 i 
 
 CHINA TRADE. A large trade is developed with China through the city of San 
 Francisco. "Flour, wheat, lumber, bacon, butter, cheese, lard, wine, and 
 vegetables are exported from that city in increasing quantities." The value 
 of exports from the U. S. to 'China in 1862, was $4,32 j,503. In 1866, 2,530,- 
 000 lbs. of tea were received through San Francisco ; in the same year one 
 shipment reached New York, via California and Panama, in 60 days. In 1867, 
 a regular line of steamers was estabhshed between China, .Japan, and Califor- 
 nia, owned by the Pacific Mail Steamship Co. of New York. Anson Burlia- 
 game appointed U. S. Minister to China, 1861. 
 
 CHLOROFORM. See Anmsthetm. 
 
 CHOLERA. The Cholera visited America again in 1865-6, and was most 
 severe at the v/est, especially at Clucago, St. Louis, and Nashville. From 
 July to Sept., 1866. there were 573 deaths from this disease in Brooklyn, and 
 583 in N. Y. city. 
 
 CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, London, founded by Edward VL, 1552. 
 
 CHRO MO-LITHOGRAPHY. See Printing in colors. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY, (p. 253.) The following works are much esteemed : Play- 
 fair's Chronology, 1784 ; Blair's Chronologv, 1753 (new editions by Sir H. 
 Ellis in 1844, and by Mr Rosse in 1856). The Oxford Chronological Tables, 
 1838. Sir Harris Nicolas's Chronology of History is very useful. 
 
 CHURCH OF ENGLAND, (p. 253.) The number of churches in England for 
 Protestant worship, in 1851, was 14,077. Pubhcatiou of " Essays and Re- 
 views," and numerous Rephes, 1861-2. The Church divided into High, Low, 
 (orEvangehcal) and Broad church — the latter including those who hold the 
 opinions of Dr. Arnold, F. D. Maurice, and others. Pubhcatiou of a work on 
 the Pentateuch by Dr. Colenso, Bishop of Natal, causes great agitation, 
 1863-6. The bishop deposed by Bishop of Capetown, April, 1864. This pro- 
 ceeding declared by the Privy Council to be null and void, Oct. 21, 1865. 
 " Oxford declaration" on eternal punishment signed by about 3,000 clergymen, 
 and sent to the Archbishop of Canterbury, May 12, 1864. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 2V 
 
 CHURCH RATES in England in 1854 amounted to £318,2(>0. Bill to al.olish 
 tbeni passed by the House of Conmions but defeated by tlie H. of f.-ords, 1858. 
 
 CJDER. In the State of New York (1865), 591,37? barrels of cider were manu- 
 factured. 
 
 CINCINNATI, Ohio, the most populous city west of the AUeghanies in the 
 United States, was founded in 1189, by emigi-ants from New England and 
 N^w Jersey. Population in 1*795,500; in 1800,750; in 1810,2,540; in 
 1820,9,642; in 1830,24,831; in 1840, 46,338 ; in 1850,115,486; in 1860, 
 161,044. 
 
 CLNQLTE PORTS, England, (S. E. coast.) They were originally five: Dover, 
 Hastings, Hy the, Romniey, and Sandwich ; Winchelsea and Rye were after- 
 wards added. They are governed by a particular policy and are under a 
 lord warden. The Duke of Wellington filled that office from 1828 to his 
 death, 1852. 
 
 CIRCASSIA. (p. 255.) By the treaty of Adrianople, in 1830, Circassia was 
 surrendered to Russia by Turkey. But the Circassians, particularly under a 
 native chief named Schaniyl, have ever since carried on a war of indepen- 
 dence with varying success ;i gainst the whole power of Russia. In June, 
 November, and December, 18j7, the Circassians were defeated by the Rus- 
 siau governor, Prince Orbelliani, who also in April, 1858, conquered a large 
 tract t.'f country, and expelled the inhabitants. On Sept. 7, 1859, Schaniyl 
 was captured by the Russians, and treated with great respect. The Circas- 
 sians became Mahometans in the 18th century. 
 
 CIRCLE. The quadrature, or ratio of the diameter of the circle to its circum- 
 ference, has exercised the ingenuity of mathematicians of all ages. Archi- 
 medes, about B. c. 221, gave it as 7 to 22. Abraham Sharp (1717), as 1 (and 
 72 decimals) to 3; and Layny (1719), as 1 (and 122 decimals) to 3. 
 
 CIRCULATING LIBRARY. The largest circulating library in the U. S. is the 
 Mercaiitile of N. Y. city. It contains 86,000 volumes, and has 10,000 mem- 
 bers ; 12,000 volumes were added in 1866, costing $15,000; 200 copies of 
 the " Court of Joseph II." were bought to supply the demand, and liberal 
 numbers of all new books of general interest. 
 
 CLERMONT (France), Council of. The celebrated council in which the crusade 
 against the infidels was determined upon, and Godfrey of Bouillon appointed 
 t'.' command it, in the pontificate of Urban II., 1095. In this council the 
 i.anie of pope was first given to the head of the Roman Catholic church, 
 exclusively of the bishops, who used until this time to assume that title. 
 t hilip I. of France was (a second time) excommunicated by this assembly. 
 Henaidt 
 
 CLOACA MAXIMA. The chief of the celebrated sewers in Rome, the construc- 
 tion of which is attributed to King Tarquinius Priscus (b. c. 588), and his 
 successors. 
 
 CLOCK (p. 258). The great Westminster (London) clock set up. May 30, 1859. 
 The London v atchmakers established the Horological Institulfe in 1858, which 
 publishes a j ur lal. In 1857, 266,750 clocks and 88,621 watches were im- 
 ported into the L'uited Kingdom. Clockmaking of a cheap kind, on a large 
 scale, was commenced in Connecticut in 18 — . The American watch compa- 
 nies, founded I860, at Waltham, Roxbury, &c., make large qi^antities of supe- 
 rior watches. Num.ber of clock manufactories in the U. S. in 1860, 23 ; value 
 of products annually, $1,181,500. 
 
 CLUBS IN THE UNITED STATES. In New York: The most important areth* 
 
«0 THE world's PEOGEESS. 
 
 Aihenmim^ founded 1859, in 5th avenue, afterwards in Union square, now 
 (ISii'Z) iu Madison square; Century, founded in Broadway in 1 48, now 'n 
 15ih street; JtJdevtic, founded 186- ; Jockey, founded 186- ; New York. 18-; 
 Travellers', 186-; Union, 5th avenue nnd 21st street; Union League, founded 
 Feb. 6, 1863, incoiporated Feb. 16, 1865; University, founded 186- The 
 Century and the Athenceum were originated as "associations for the advanci- 
 ..':'■ it of liteiature and art." The Union League was started on the basis of 
 'unconditional loyalty" to the government, and to aid in the suppression of 
 treason and rebellion. It was said to have made loyalty " lasliionable in the 
 best circles." It raised three regiments of colored troops for the U. S. volun- 
 teer forces, and otherwise rendered important services. In Philadelphia, 
 the Union League Club, ibunded Dec. 2*7, 1862, was the foremost of its kind 
 in the U. S. It raised ten regiments for the government. It numbers 2,000 
 members, and has a magnificent club-house. One of the oldest clubs in Phila- 
 delphia was the IVistar. In Boston, the Union League Club was founded in 
 1868. Clubs originally consisted of a small number of persons of kindred 
 tastes and pursuits, who met together at slated times for social intercourse. 
 The club at the Mermaid tavern, established about the end of the sixteenth 
 century, consisted of Raleigh, Shakespeare, and others. Ben Jonson set up a 
 club at the Devil tavern, Addison, Steele, and others, freq-jently met at But- 
 ton's coflee-house, as described in the Spectator. The present London clubs, 
 some comprising 300, others about 1,500 mennbers, possess luxuriously fui'- 
 nished edifices, several of great architectural pretensions, in or near Fall Mall. 
 The members obtain the choicest viands and wines at very moderate charges. 
 Many of the clubs possess excellent libraiies, particularly the Athenaram 
 {which see). The annual payni< nt varies from £1) to £11 lis,; the entrance 
 fee fiom £9 9s. to £31 lis. The following are the pi-incipal clubs : 
 
 Kit Cat 1703 
 
 Becf-SieMk 1735 
 
 "White's {Tory) established.. .1736 
 
 Boodle 's 1762 
 
 Literary C ub (iv/iich see), 
 teni:ed also "The Club," 
 
 and Job 1, son's Club 1763 
 
 United Service 1815 
 
 Travellers' 1 R19 
 
 Oxford and Caiubridue i 829 
 
 Carltcin (Conservative) 1832 
 
 Ref . .r in ( Liberal) 1 836 
 
 Army and Nav> 1837 
 
 Whittii'gton (foundc d by Douglas 
 Jerrold and others) 18i6 
 
 Feench. The first of these arose about 1*782. They were essentially politi- 
 cal, and were greatly concerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became 
 the celebrated Club des Jacobins, and the Club des Cordeliers comprised aniung 
 its members Dai.ton and Caniille Desmoulins. From these two clubs ^anie 
 the Mountain party which overtlirew the Girondists, 1793, and fell in its turn 
 in 1794. The clubs disappeared with the Directory in 1799. They were re- 
 vived in 1848 in considerable numbers, but did not attain to their former 
 eminence. 
 
 COAL IN THE U. S. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania, first mined 
 ai d used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in Pennsylvania, 
 Ohio, &c., extend 700 miles.' The "Statistics of Coal," by R. C. Taylor, pub- 
 lished in Philadelphia in 1854, give a full and reliable account of coal j)ro- 
 ducts in all parts of the world. The anthracite coal of Pennsylvania w^as first 
 used by a blacksmith in the Wyoming Valley in 1775. Bituminous coal first 
 mined in the U. S. in 1845. Total amount produced in I860, 6,218,080 tons. 
 Amount of all coals in 1860, 14,333,992 tons. Coal is worked in fifteen of the 
 states. The upper seam of the Pittsburg coal fields is estimated to contain 
 53,516 tons. A single lump of coal, weighing 4 tons, was sent to the 
 Paris Exposition of 1867. The area of coal in the U. S. is 206,939 square 
 
RUPPLEMEl^T, 1851-67. ?■< 
 
 ► miles; 4V0 miles is anthracite in Pennsylvania. The product in 1865 was 
 22,000,000 tons, of which 10,000,000 was anthracite. The consumption of coal 
 ill France, in 17S0 only 40(),000 tons, rises to 6,000,000 tons in 18-A5. The 
 UniteCi States produced between 8 and 9 millions of tons ; Belgium, 5,000.- 
 000; and France, 4,500,000, in 1855 
 COCHINEAL. The properties of this insect, which derives its color from feed- 
 ing on the cactusi^ became known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of 
 Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was brought to Europe about 1523. It was not 
 known in Italy, in 1548, although the art of dyeing then flourished there. See 
 Dyeing. In 1858, it was cultivated successfully in the Teneriffe, the vines 
 having failed through disease. The import into England in 1850, 2,360,01)0 
 lbs. In the United States the importation in 1858 amounted to $221,332, 
 
 CODE NAPOLEON. The Civil Code of France, promulgated from 1803 to 1810. 
 This was considered by the emperor as his most enduring monument. It was 
 prepared under his supervision by the most eminent jurists, from the 400 
 systems previously existing. 
 
 COFFEE AND TEA. The consumption in the United States at difibrent periods 
 is reported by the Secretary of the Treasury thus ; 
 
 1821 Tea. 4,586,223 lbs Cofft-e, 11,386,063 lbs. 
 
 1880 «' 6.87-3,091 lbs. .. " 38.363,687 lbs. 
 
 1835 "12.331,638 11)6 '< 91 753,002 lbs, 
 
 1842 " 13,482.645 Ib.s '• 107,387 567 lbs. 
 
 1846.... " 16,891,020 lbs " 124 336,054 1 bs. 
 
 1856 " 240,676,227 lbs. 
 
 In 1867 a company was being organized to introduce the cultivation of 
 coffee in South Floi'ida. The duty on imports of coffee, by tariff of July, 
 1862, is five cents per pound. 
 
 ODD-LIVER OIL was recommended as a remedy for chronic rheumatism by 
 Dr. Percival in 1*782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1838. De Jongh's 
 treatise on cod-liver oil was published in Latin in 1844 ; in English in 1849. 
 
 COIN OF THE U. S. The U. S. Mint was established in 1792. The gold coin- 
 age consists of double eagles $20, eagles, half-eagles, quarter eagles, and dol- 
 lars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. The first deposit of Cahforniagold 
 for coining was made by Mr. David Carter, 1,804 ounces, Dec. 8, .1848. 
 
 COINAGE of the U. S. Mint from 1793 to 1866^ inclusive. 
 
 G':hi. Total. 
 
 1793 to 1850, 57* veare 117.569,825 196,054,027 
 
 1851 to 1860, Qi jCnvs 470,888,1 80 520,175,556 
 
 1861 to 1866, 6 years 257,128.586 271,194,433 
 
 Total, ,...., ..... $845,536,590 $987,424,026 
 
 COLONIES. The population of the British colonies in all parts of the world 
 was estimated, in 1852, at 182,983,672, of which 176,028,672 belong to the 
 East Indies. 
 
 COLORADO, U. S. A territory of the U. S. organized March, 1861. Area, 
 104,000 square miles. Capital, Denver City. In 1862, $12,000,000 in gold was 
 produced from its mines. Population in 1R60, 34,230, and about 6,000 
 Indians. A bill to admit the territory as a state passed Congress, but was 
 vetoed. May, 1866. 
 
 COLUMBIA, DiSTEiCT of. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by 
 Virginia and Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming the 
 seat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetown, and 
 Alexandria ; but in 1843 the latter was receded to Virgina. Population in 
 
'Vi . THE WOELd's progress 
 
 1800, 14,093; in 1840, 43,'712, inciuding 8,361 free colored persons, and 
 4,G94 slaves. In 1850, o\\QS1, including 3,687 slaves ; in 1860, 61,403 ; 
 in 1864, 75,000, including 31,500 blacks. In 1866, 74 colored schools wore 
 in operation in the district. Its area is 60 square miles. Population in 1867^ 
 118,800, of whom there were several thousand more women than men. Im- 
 partial suffrage bill passed by Congress, admitting colored voters in the dis- 
 trict, 1867 ; put in force at the muiiicipal election of 1867, when colored votes 
 were cast for city officers. 
 
 COMBAT, SINGLE, in EiNGland. It commenced with the Lombards, a. d. 659. 
 Introduced into England, and allowed in accusations of treason, when no other 
 evidence was produced, 1096. The last combat proposed was prevented by 
 the king in 1631. 
 
 COMETS. (P.264.) Donati's comet, so called from its having been first ob- 
 served by Dr. Donati, of Florence, June 2, 1858, being then calcn'ated to be 
 228 millions of miles from our earth. It was very brilliant in England in the 
 end of September and October following, when the tail was said to be 40 
 millions of miles long. On the 10th of October it was nearest to the earth ; 
 on the 18th it was near coming into collision with Venus. Two new comet? 
 were discovered in 1862 ; one at Athens, Greece, July 2d, another at Cam- 
 bridge, Mass., July 18th. Besidei: these, the regular return of Encke's comet 
 took place in the beginning of the year. In 1863, five new comets were 
 found, none of them in the U. S. ; only one was visible to the naked eye with 
 any certainty. 
 
 COMMANDEES-in-Chief, U. S. army. 
 
 Jacob Brown 1821 Geo. B. McClellan 1861 
 
 Alcsauder Alacomb 18S5 Henry W. Hallock 1C62 
 
 Wiiifield Scott..; 1841 Ulyeees £. Grant 1S64 
 
 British Army. 
 
 Duke of M< nmoulh 1674 Hon. Georse Conway 1782 
 
 Dnke of Marlboroui'h ....Ifi90 Duke of York 17!5 
 
 Duke of Schi.rabertf ,...1691 Sir David Dundas ISuy 
 
 Duke of Ojmond..'^ I'll Duke of York ngai 1811 
 
 Earl of Stair 1744 Duke of Wellinstoii 18C7 
 
 Fieldmnrs- eI W;ide 1745 Lord Hill 1828 
 
 Lord Ligonicr „ 1757 Duke of Wellington again 1842 
 
 Marquess of Gianby 17G6 , Lord Hai-clinge ....1852 
 
 Lord Ami erst ,...= 1778 Dukf of Cnmbridge 1856 
 
 COMMERCE- See Exports and Imports, Navigation and Shipping, &c. 
 
 COMMERCIiiL FAILURES The circular of Dun, Boyd, & Co., of N. York 
 gi.¥es the following statistics of failures in the IT. States; 
 
 1857 1858 1859 I860 
 
 Failures 4.937 4.225 3,913 3,676 
 
 Amount $291,750,000 f 95,750,000 $64,294,000 $79,807,000 
 
 Of the 3,676 failures in 1860, 695 are set down as swindlers ; their debts 
 amounting to $10,664,000. In the Northern States in 1862, the number of 
 failures was 1,652 ; liabilities $23,049,300. In 1865, 530; $17,625,000. 
 CONCEPTION, Immaculate, of the Virgin. On the 8th of September, 1854, 
 the pope promulgated a bull with great solemnity and pathos, declaring this 
 dogma to be an article of faith, and charging with heresy those who should 
 doubt or speak against it. The Conceptionists were an order of nuns in Italy, 
 established in ]488. 
 
 CONCORDANCE. (P. 268.) Mrs. Cowden Clarke's Concordance to Shakespeare, 
 ? remarkable monument of a woman's intelligent and patient industry, was 
 comi)leted in 1844, after ten years' labor. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 33 
 
 »♦ CONFEDEEATE STATES of AMERICA." The efforts of the Southern 
 States lor the extension of slavery , and the zeal of the Northern States for 
 its abolition, with the consequent political dissensions, led to the great seces* 
 sion of 1860-1. See United States^ also Chronological tables. On Nov. 4, 
 
 1860, Abraham Lincoln, the Eepublican or Abolitionist candidate, was elected 
 president of the United States. Hitheito, a president in the interest ol' the 
 South had been elected. On Dec. 20, South Carolina seceded from the 
 Union ; and Alabama, Florida, Mississijpi, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia 
 (except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina also sectdfd 
 early in 1861. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated pre.^ident of the Southern 
 Confederacy at Montgomery in Alabama, Feb. 18, 1861. 
 
 CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, or Creeds. See Apostles', Athanasian, and Mcene 
 creeds. Augshurgh Confession. Confession of Divines at Westminster agreed, 
 to, 1643. Congregational confession of Faith adopted in England, 1838. 
 
 CONGRESS, U. S. A. The apportionment made by Congress, March 4, 1862, 
 under the census of 1860, increased the number of Representatives to 242. 
 There were also 9 Delegates from the Territories, who delibei^ate but have no 
 vote. The Senators in 1862 were 62 in number. Each Senator and Repre- 
 sentative is allowed |10,00() compensation for each Congress (two years) de- 
 ducting for absence (1866). In the 39th Congress there were 52 Senators 
 and 192 Representatives, the Southern States not yet being represented. In 
 the 40th Congress, (186V), the same number, with the addition of Senators 
 and Representatives from Tennessee. 
 
 Ci>NGRESS, " Confederate." Delegates from seven Southern states met at 
 Montgoirery, Georgia, Feb. 4, 1861, to organize a congress ; Howell Cobb, 
 chainnan. On the 8th, a constitution was adopted siniilarto that of the U. S. 
 On the 9th, a President and Vice-Pres. were elected for the "Confederacy;" 
 Jeff. Davis and Alexander H. Stephens. Virginia was admitted into it May ^, 
 
 1861. May 22, it adjourned to meet at Richmond, Va., on July 20, 1861. 
 The Confederate Government was compelled to leave the city in haste, by the 
 approach of the National army, April 3, 1865. Its Congress never assembled 
 again. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. Population in 1850, 3'70,'792 ; 1860, 460,670. This state 
 sent 54,882 men to the National armies, 1861-5. 
 
 CONSCRIPTION. A mode (derived from the Romans) adopted for recruiting the 
 French and other armies. On Sept. 5, 1^98, a military conscription was or- 
 dained in France, comprehending all the young men from 20 to 25 years of 
 age: from these selections were made. The present law of 1818 (modified 
 in 1824 and 1832) requires a certain annual contingent from each department, 
 — for all the country, 80,000 men — which may be increased. The duration 
 of service is seven years. Substitutes and exemptions are peimitted. A con- 
 scription for 350,(100 men took place in Jan. 1813, after the disastrous Russian 
 campaign, and in Dec. of same year another for 300,(00, after the battle of 
 Leipsic. In the U. S., during the war for the Union, 1861-5, " drafts" were 
 ordered and enforced at two different times. The first draft was the (nominal) 
 cause of riots in New York, July, 1863. 
 
 CONSERVATIVE, U. S. A term used in American pohtics, to denote the 
 opposite of extreme and sectional views. In the Presidential campaign of 
 1860, Mr. Fillmore was known as the candidate of the " Conservative party," 
 in distinction from the anti-slavery party of the north and the pro-slavery 
 party of the south. 
 3 
 
34 THE world's progress. 
 
 CONSOLIDATED FUND in England, (hence the term " Consols,") was formed 
 of the otlier funds in ITSB. On Jan. 5, 1816, exchequers of Great Britain 
 and Ireland, previously separate, were amalgamated. 
 
 CONSTITUTION" of the U. S. The great amendment to the constitution, 
 abohshiiig slavery in the U. S., passed Congress, Jan. 1865. Three-fourths of 
 tlie states, 2*7 in number, ratified it and it became the law of the land, Dec. 
 18, 1865. Another amendment passed Congress, June 13, 1866, declaring 
 all men to be equal before the law ; that representatives shall be apportioned 
 according to the whole number of persons in each state; that no person who 
 shall have engaged in the insurrection shall hold any office under the U. S. 
 government; and that the validity of the national debt shall not be ques- 
 tioned nor the rebel debt recognized. This amendment has not yet (1867) 
 "been ratified by three-fourths of the states. 
 
 CONSULS. See Ambassadors. 
 
 CONTRABAND of war. A term said to have been first employed in the treaty 
 of Southampton, between England and Spain in 1625. During the struggle 
 between Spain and Holland both powers acted with much rigor towards ships 
 of neutrals conveying goods to the belligerents. This provoked the resistance 
 of England. A milder policy was adopted by the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650; 
 and by the declaration of Paris, April 26, 1856. 
 
 CONTRABANDS. U. S. In May, 1861, some slaves coming into the lines of 
 Gen. Butler at Fortress Monroe, Va., he refused to surrender them to their 
 owners on the ground that they were " contraband of war." Since then the 
 term has been used for " blacks or slaves." 
 
 CONTRACTORS with Government, disqualified from sitting in the British 
 Parliament, 1'782. 
 
 CONTRIBUTIONS, m aid of the Goyernment of the U. S., (1861-65.) See 
 Charities. The contributions from states counties and towns for the aid 
 and rehef of Union soldiers, amounted to |18Y,209,608. The contributions of 
 associations and individuals for the' care and comfort of soldiers were 
 $2 i, 044,865 ; for sufferers abroad, $380,040 ; for sufferers by the riots of 
 July, for freedraen and white refugees, $639,633. Total voluntary contribu- 
 tions of the people of the loyal states, $212,274,248, The famous Sanitary 
 and Christian Commissions, in which hundreds volunteered their services for 
 the relief of soldiers, were of invaluable assistance to the government during 
 the vvar. See Sanitary, &c. 
 
 CONVENTION, m the U. S. In Feb. 1861, a Convention of distinguished 
 men from the states met at Washington, D, C, as a Peace Conference, to pro- 
 pose compromise measures between the north and south. Their propositions 
 were referred to Congress, which rejected them. " Phila. Convention " of 
 delegates, north and south, supposed to favor the policy of Pres. Johnson in 
 regard to reconstruction, Aug. 14, 1866. Southern Unionists' Convention, 
 Sep. 1, 1866, (opposing the policy of the preceding.) 
 
 COPPERHEADS. A name given about 1863 to such members of the Demo- 
 cratic party in the United States as were in favour of peace with the South on 
 any terms. 
 
 COPYRIGHT OF DESIGNS, for manufactures in England, first granted 1787, 
 for 2 months, extended in 1794. Copyright on sculpture conferred for 14 
 years, 1814. Copyriglit on other designs extended to 12 months, 1839. Or- 
 namental designs of all kinds fully protected, from 9 mos. to 3 years, by act 
 of 1842, and still further in 1850." 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 35 
 
 COPYRIGHT IN THE U. S. The law modified so that the copy of the book ia 
 to be sent to the library of Congress, instead of Smithsonian Inst. 1865. (?) 
 The law of 1831 gives an author exclusive right to his works for 28 years, 
 and a right of renewal to himself, his wife and children for 14 years more, mak 
 lug 42 years in all. No foreigner can secure a copyright unless residing in 
 the U. S. So far (1867), the American government has refused or failed to re- 
 spond to the British offer of reciprocity in literary copyright. A treaty for 
 this purpose was framed by Mr. Everett in 1854, but never acted upon. 
 
 COPYRIGHT OF BOOKS, Produce of. The most profitable copyrights in 
 the U. S. have been those on school text-books, many of which have yielded 
 large sums to the authors. Of literary and historical works the most profita- 
 ble have been the works of Prescott, Bancroft, Irving, Longfellow, Kane, Mrs. 
 Stowe, and the several histories of the recent war (1865-7). 
 
 COPTS. In Egypt, the supposed descendants of the ancient Egyptians, mingled 
 with Greeks and Persians. Their i-eligion is a form of Christianity, derived 
 from the Eutychians, a sect of the fifth century. 
 
 CORINTH, U. S. A town in northern Mississippi ; important during the w&r as 
 a military position. After the battle of Pittsburg Landing, Gen. Beauregard, 
 (Confed.) entrenched himself there, and was partially besieged by U. S. forces 
 under Gen. Halleck. Heavy fighting there May 27, 1862. The place was 
 evacuated by the rebels. May 29, 1862. 
 
 CORN, Indian, U. S. See Agriculture. The monthly report of Agriculture 
 for December, contains a final estimate of the corn crop of 1866. The total 
 result is 88C,O00,0CO bushels. Corn used for fuel in Iowa in 1865. It is said 
 to give as much heat per bushel as coal. Exports of corn in 1866 amounted 
 to $12,299,879. 
 
 COSTA RICA, A republic in Central America established in 1848. It has been 
 much disturbed by filibusters fi-om the U. S. See Nicaragua and Cevtral 
 America. On Aug. 14, 1859, the President, Juan Mora was suddenly deposed, 
 and Dr. Josh Montealegre made president. 
 
 COSTUME. An attempt to introduce a semi-masculine female costume, known 
 as Bloomers (from Mrs. Bloomer of Seneca, N. Y., was made in 184-, but with 
 very hmited success. It was overshadowed by the other extreme, the crinoline, 
 ascribed to the empress Eugenie, originating a few months before the birth of 
 the heir to the French throne (about 1854). The latter was the prevaiUng 
 fashion until 1866-7 when it was superseded by a walking dress with a very 
 small expansion. 
 
 COTTON, U. S. (p. 278.) The exports of cotton since 1821, have thus advanced 
 ^stated in millions of pounds weight): 
 
 1821 124 mills., average price 16 cts. ' 1859 1386 mills., average price 11 cts. 
 
 1S30 298 
 
 1840 743 
 
 1849 1026 
 
 1850 635 
 
 1855 1098 
 
 1856 1351 
 
 1857 1048 
 
 1858 1118 
 
 16 cts. 
 
 1859 
 
 13861 
 
 9 " 
 
 1860 
 
 1767 
 
 14 " 
 
 1861 
 
 307 
 
 6 " 
 
 1862 
 
 5 
 
 11 " 
 
 1863 
 
 11 
 
 8 " 
 
 1864 
 
 lOf 
 
 9 " 
 
 1865 
 
 6| 
 
 12 " 
 
 1866 
 
 650 
 
 11 ^ 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 lu" 
 
 23|" 
 66 " 
 83 " 
 88 « 
 43 « 
 
 Total value of cotton exported in 89 years, 2,383 millions of dollars. Value 
 in 1859, 161 millions. The ratios of cotton imported by Great Britain in the 
 
 6 years 1844-9, were as follows ; U. S. 78^ per cent. ; India, 10^ ; Brazil, 
 
 7 : Egypt, S^ ; West Indies, Ac, ^ per cent. In England a cotton supply 
 association to obtain from Africa, India, &c., wasfornjed at Manchester about 
 
516 THE world's PROGRESS. 
 
 -SdY. Lieut. Burton, who explored the interior of Africa in 1859, states -hat 
 cotton grows there in great profut^ion, and a decent kind of cotton cloth is 
 manufactured by the natives. In the U. S. the estimates show a total product 
 of 1, '750,000 bales of 4( pounds each in 1866. The estimates are made up 
 as follows : North Carolina, 91, (GO bales ; South Carohna, 152,000 ; Georgia, 
 *205,0u0 ; Florida, 36,0(0 ; Alabama, 2iiO,000 ; Mississippi, 2*70,000; Loui- 
 siana, 100,000 ; Texas, 300,000 ; Arkansas, 182,0i,0 ; Tennessee, 148,000 ; 
 other States, 87,000 bales. In 1860 the product of the TJ. S. was 5,198,07*7 
 bales. Revenue to the government from the production of cotton in 1866, 
 •§18,409,655. Exports of cotton in 1866 amounted to $281,385,223. Imports 
 of cotton manufactures in 1866, $30,166,300. 
 
 COTTCN GIN. This invention, in 1793, by Eli Whitney of New Haven, gave 
 an extraordinary impetus to the culture of cotton in the U. S. It cleans and 
 prepares 300 lbs. per day ; by the old mode only a single pound a day could 
 be cleansed. 
 
 COTTON GOODS Exported from Great Britain. 
 
 Offlcial Value, i Offivial Value. 
 
 1697 . . . ". £5,915 1860. .... ;e52,012,430 
 
 1701 23,253 1S61 . . . . , 4<i,872,4S9 
 
 1780 .... 355,000 1862 .... 36,750,971 
 
 1790 l,(.6-2,369 11863 47,587.188 
 
 1800 .... 5,406,501 ' 1864 .... 54,856,289 
 
 1820 20,509,926 ! ' 
 
 In 1860, 12,419,096 cwt. of raw cotton w;is imported of which 9,963,309 cwt. 
 came from the United States, and 1,822,698 cwt from India. 
 
 COTTON RAW Imported into Great Britain. 
 
 lb.9. I lbs. 
 
 1697 .... 1,976,259 i 1830 .... 264.0(i0,00» 
 
 1730 .... 1,545,472 I 1840 .... 5'.^2,5( 0,000 
 
 1764 .... 3,870,392 j 1860 .... 1,390,938,752 
 
 1790 .... 31.500,000 I 1861 .... 1,256,984,736 
 
 1800 .... 56,0a0,000 I 1862 . . . . 523,973,296 
 
 1810 . . . . 132,500.000 | 1863 . . . . 669,583,264 
 
 1820 . . . . 151,500,000 ! 1864 .... 893,304,720 
 
 COTTON SPINDLES in operation in Europe and America, 1851. The following 
 was the estimated, number of spindles in actual operation : Great Britain, 
 17,000,500; France, 4,300,000 ; Zollverein States, 815,000; Russia, 700,000, 
 Switzerland, 650,000; Belgium, 420,000; Spain, ;300,C00 ; Italy, £00,000 : 
 Total, 27,485,000. In the U. S. in I860, the number ot spindles employed in 
 the five NeAV England states was 2,751,078; in 11 other states, 236,480. 
 Number of spindles in the whole country in 1860, 5,335,727. The prices of 
 cotton fabrics in the U. S. increased 172 per cent., or 81 per cent, in gold be- 
 tween 1860 and 1866. 
 
 COURT, SUPREME, of thk U. S. By Act of Congress. July 23, 1866, no vacancy 
 in this Court is to be tilled, until the number is reduced to one Chief-Justice, 
 and six Associate Justices. Before this there were eight Associate Justices. 
 The U. S. is divided into nine districts for Circuit Courts. 
 
 COURTS-MARTIAL, U. S. By act of Congress, May 29, 1830, officers comand- 
 ing distinct posts, and all general officers, can convene courts-martial. There 
 are several limitations to the act. The number forming a court is from five to 
 13. Great numbers of these courts were in s^sion during the late war. In 
 1866, 8,188 records of courts-martial and military commissions were received 
 and reviewed at the Bureau of Military Justice, Washington, D. C. 
 
 CREDIT MOBILIER. A joint-stock company with this name was established at 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851—67. 37 
 
 Parisj Nov. 18, 1852, by Isaac and Eraile Pereire, and others. It takes up or 
 originates trading enterprises of all kinds, applying to them the principle oi 
 commandite, or limited liabilities, and is authorized to supersede or buy in any 
 other companies (replacing their shares or bonds in its own scrip), and also to 
 carry on the ordinary business of banking. The funds wei-e to be obtained by 
 a paid-up capital of 2| millions sterling, the issue of obligatioiis at not less 
 than 45 days' date or sight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current ac- 
 count. The society has apparently prospered, but is nevertheless con-sideied 
 by experienced persons as a near approach to Law's bank of 1716, and likely 
 to end disastrously. In Sept. 1857, several of the directors failed; and in May, 
 1858, no dividend was paid. 
 
 CRIME, New York City. Who Furnish our Criminals and Paupers. A recent 
 publication states that of the criminals in New York city for twenty-one 
 mouths, 31,088 were natives of this country, while 89,589 were foreigners ; of 
 whom 60,442 were Irish, 9,488 German, and 4,000 English. Of 28,821 persons 
 admitted to the alms-house in ten years, 22,468 were foreigners; 15,948 were 
 Irish, 1,240 Germans, and 1,297 English. During the same time, of 50,015 
 admitted to Bellevue hospital, 41,851 were foreigners. Of 4,335 inmates of 
 the lunatic asylum, 3,360 were foreigners. Of 251,344 committed to the city 
 prison, only 59,385 were natives, while 86,431 professed to be members ofthe 
 church cf Rome. Number of arrests in New York city, in 1865, 39,616. 
 11,222 were convicted in the court of Special Sessions, During the war, 
 there was a marked diminution of punished crime throughout the country. See 
 Prisons. In England. The number of convictions by trial in England and 
 "W "ilss was, in 
 
 Persons. Capital Ofences, 
 
 1849.-,...,, ...„ 21,001 66 
 
 1855 19,971 50 
 
 1858 13.246 -.o, 
 
 1864..,. 14,726 32 
 
 Since 1848 there had been no commitments for political oft'encos, such as treason 
 or sedition, until the Fenian outbreaks and trials, in Ireland, 1867. In 1856 
 there were 2,666 persons liberated on "tickets of leave." Expenses of crimi- 
 nal prosecutions in 1856 were £194,912. 
 
 CRIMEA, OR Crim Tartars'. War having been declared by England and 
 France against Russia, March 28, 1854, large masses of troops were sent to 
 the East, which after remaining some time at Gallipoli, &c., sailed for Varna, 
 where they disembarked May 29. The expedition against the Crimea having 
 been determined on, the allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting 
 to 58,000 men (25,000 British), commanded by Lord Raglan and Marshal St. 
 Arnaud, sailed from Varna, Sept. 3, and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th, 
 without opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 miles from Sebas- 
 topol. On the 20ch they attacked the Russians, between 40 and 50,000 strong 
 (under Prince Menschikofif), intrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed to 
 be unassailable. After a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. See 
 Alma and Russo-Turkish War. Peace was proclaimed in April, 1856, and the 
 allies quitted the Crimea in July following. 
 
 CRINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff made of crin^ hair) is the modern 
 name of the "fardingale " of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like petticoats 
 made of whalebone, &c., revived in France, England and the United States, 
 since 1855. They have frequently occasioned loss of life, by coming in con- 
 tact with fire and machinery. In No. 116 of the Tatter., published Jan. 5, 
 1710, is an amusing trial of the hoop-petticoat then in fashion. See Costume. 
 
38 THE 
 
 CROSS. . That on which the Redeemer suffered on Mount Calvary, was said to 
 have been found at Jerusalem, deep in the ground, with two others, by St. 
 Helena, May 3, 328 ; Christ's being distinguished from those of the thieves by 
 a sick woman being cured by touching it. It was carried away by Chosroes, 
 king of Persia, on the plundering of JerusalexB ; but was recovered by the 
 emperor Heraclius (who defeated hiin in battle) Sept. 14, 615, and that day has 
 since been commemorated as " the festival of the Exaltation of the Cross," es- 
 tabUshed in 642. It is asserted by church writers that a shining cross, two 
 miles in length, was seen in the heavens by Constantine, and that it led him 
 to adopt it on his standards, with the inscription " In hoc signo vinces,''^ " in 
 this sign thou shalt conquer." With these he advanced to Rome, where he 
 vanquished Maxentius, Oct. 27,31 2. Lenglet. 
 
 Signing with the cross was first 
 praciised by Christians to dis- 
 tinguish .themselves from the 
 Pagans, about 110 ; and in the 
 time of Tertulian, 260, it was 
 deeni«^-d efScacious against 
 
 Crosses in churches and chambers 
 were introduced about 431 ; and 
 set up on Bteples about 568 
 
 Crosses and idolatrous pictures 
 were removed from churches, 
 and crosses in the streets demol- 
 
 poisori, witcncraft, &c. I ished by order of parliament. 1641 
 
 CRYSTAL PALACE in iS^Evr York, built chiefly of iron and glass, in form of a 
 cross, with a dome, was commenced Oct. 1852. Exhibition opened to the 
 public (Pres. Pierce being present), August, 1852. The building destroyed by 
 lire, with its contents, as exhibited by Amer. liistitute, Sep. 1859. 
 
 CRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Park, London, built for the Exhibition of the 
 World's Industry in 1851. Its length was 1,851 feet, width, 408 feet, with ad- 
 ditional projection. Entire area, 772, 784 square feet, or about 19 acres. 
 Building commenced Sept. 26, 1850, and finished and opened May 1, 1851. 
 Closed to the public Oct. 11, same year. It cost £176,030. 
 
 CRYSTAL Palace at Sydenham, near London, built chiefly of the materials 
 used in the foregoing, was commenced August 5, 1852. Capital of the com- 
 pany £1,0 00,000, in shares of £5. each. Area of grounds 300 acres. In its 
 erection 6,400 men were engaged at one time. It was opened by the Queen, 
 June 10, 1854. Great Handel festival held there June 20-4, 1859. In 1S57 
 the receipts were £115,627 ; expenditures, £87,872. 
 
 CUBA. Second expedition of Lopez, 'in connection with Col. Crittenden, of 
 Kentucky, Aug, 1851, defeated ; Lopez taken and garroted at Havana, 
 Sept. 1. Crittenden and 50 companions shot, August 16. Other prisoners 
 sent to Spain, and were pardoned by the Queen, Dec. 1851. See Ostend Con- 
 ference. A proposition to place $30,000,000 in the hands of the Pres. of the 
 U. S., with reference to the purchase of Cuba, was introduced by Mr. Slidell, 
 in Q, S, Senate, 1859. See Sub?narine Telegraph. 
 
 CUSTOM DUTIES m the U. S. The amounts collected were in 1850, $39,000- 
 000; 1855, $53,000,000; 1863, $69,0'Mi,(>00; 1866, $179,046,630; from 1789 to 
 1861, $1,575,152,579.92, Expenses of collecting Customs and duties in 1863, 
 
 $3,238,936 00. 
 
 CYMRI, OR KiMRi (from which comes Cambria). The name of the ancient British 
 who belonged to the great Celtic family, which, coming from Asia, occupied 
 the greater part of Europe, about 1500 b, c. About a. d. 640,Dyvnwal Moel- 
 mud reigned " King of the Cymri." See Wales. 
 
 CYXICS, a set of philosophers founded by Antisthenes (about 396 b. c, Diog., 
 Laert.^ Clinton), who professed to contemn all worldly things, even all sciences. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 39 
 
 except morality ; were very free in reprehendiog vice ; lived in public, and 
 practised great obscenities without blushing. Diogenes was one (died 
 323 B. c) 
 
 DACIA. A Roman province, now part of Hungary. After many contests it was 
 subdued by Trajan, a. d. 1(j6, when Decebalus, the Dacian leader, was slain in 
 battle. 
 
 DAGUERREOTYPES. In 1855, not less than 15,000 persons were engaged in 
 this business in the F. S. In 1867, the number must be nearer 30,000. The 
 art of photography on paper, however, has wholly superseded the former use 
 of metal plates. See Fhoiogroyphy. 
 
 DALMATIA. An Austrian province, N. E. of the Adriatic Sea, was finally con- 
 quered by the Romans, 34 b. c. The emperor Diocletian erected his palace at 
 Spahitro, and retired there a. i). 305. Dalmatia was held in turn by the Goths, 
 Hungarians, and TurlsS, till its session to Venice in 1699. By the treaty of 
 Campo Formio, in 1*797, it was given to Austria, In 1805, it was int-orpoi-ated 
 into the kingdom of Italy, and ga^3 the title of duke to Marshal Soult. In 
 1814, it reverted to Austria. 
 
 DAMASCUS, (p. 287). Horrible massacres of the Christians there July 9, 1860. 
 
 DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. W;i]]achia and Moldavia ; capitals, Bucharest 
 and Jassy. These provinces formed part of the ancient Daciii, which was con- 
 quered by Trnjan about a. d. 106, and abandoned by Aurelian about 270. 
 For some time after they were alternately in possession of the barbarians 
 and Greek emperors; and afterwards of the Hungarians, The provinces 
 having participated in the Greek insurrection in 1821, were afterwards severely 
 treated by the Turks, but by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829, they were 
 phiced under the protection of Russia. The Russians quitted these provinces in 
 Sept., 1854, and an Austrian army eiitered (by virtue of a convention between 
 the Sultan and Austria), and remained there till March, 1857, The govern- 
 ment of the principalities settled at the Paris confierence, Aug. 19, 1858. 
 
 DA.RDANELLES, Passage OF THE. (p. 287.) The allied EngJish and French 
 fleets passed the Dardanelles at the Sultan's request, Oct. 1853. 
 
 DAUPHIN. It is a vulgar error to suppose that, by the treaty of 1343, which 
 gave the full sovereignty of Dauphiny to the kings of France, it was stipulated 
 that the eldest son of the king should bear the title of dauphin. So far from 
 it the first dauphin named in that treaty, was Philip, second son of Philip of 
 Valois, Ilenaidt. The late duke of Orleans, eldest son of Louis Philippe, was 
 not called the dauphin. 
 
 DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, AND INSANE PERSONS, in the United States. In 
 1840, there were 6,616 blind persons, or 1 in 2,467 of the population ; 7,659 
 deaf and dumb, or 1 in 2,228 ; 17,434 insane or idiotic, or 1 in 979. There 
 were in the United States 23 asylums lor the insane, with about 2,840 patients. 
 In the United States in 1860, there were 14,269 deaf and dumb persons. The 
 institution for such persons situated at N. Y. city, is the largest for the "in- 
 struction of deaf-nmtes only, in its accommodations and number of pupils, in 
 the world" {National Ahnanac). Number of teachers in Dec, 1863, 16, of 
 whom 8 were deaf-mutes. Number of pupils 332. The asylum was founded 
 in 1817. Whole number of graduates 1,300. In 1862, there were 22 institu- 
 tions in the country for the deaf and dumb, with 130 teachers and 2,000 pupils. 
 Their annual support requires about $350,000, of which $300,000 is appropriated 
 
40 THE world's peogress* 
 
 by the legislatures of 29 states. Among the most prominent and successful 
 of the philanthropists who have promoted the education and good treatment 
 of the above persons in the United States, are Dr. Amariah Briguam, Dr. But- 
 ler, and Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, of Hartford ; Dr. S. G. Howe of Boston. 
 
 DEATH, Punishment of, U. S. Is inflicted for the crimes of murder, treason, and 
 arson, in the first degree. Capital punishment aboLshed in the state of Wis- 
 consin, 1865. In England by the criminal law consoUdation acts of 1861. the 
 death penalty was confined to treason and wilful murder. A parliamentary 
 commission respecting capital punishment was appointed early in Ihi-i. Capital 
 punishment was restricted in Italy in April, 1865. 
 
 DECIMAL SYSTEM of Coinage, Weights, &c., was established in France in 1*790, 
 and shortly after in other countries. The subject was brought before the 
 English Parliament in 1824, 1838, 1843, 1853, 1854, 1855. Tlie decimal cur- 
 rency was adopted in Canada, 1858. International Decimal xissociation 
 formed at London, 1855. Congress of the U. S. passed laws legalizing the use 
 of the Metric system in the country, in 1866, without at once substituting it for 
 our present system. It is already used in some arts and trades. By act of 
 Congress, July 27, 1866, the Secretary of the Treasury is to furnish each state 
 with one set of the standard weights and measures of the Metric system. 
 
 DECL.ARA.TION' OF INDEPENDENCE. The Mecklenburg Declaration of In- 
 dependence (North Carolina), was passed in May, 1*775, two months before 
 that drawn up by Jefferson at Philadelphia, 
 
 DEDICATION. The dedication of books was introduced in the time of Maece- 
 nas, 17 B. c, and the custom has been practised ever since by authors, to 
 solicit patronage or to testify respect. Maecenas was the friend and counsel- 
 lor of Augustus C^sar, and was so famous a patron of men of genius and 
 learning, that it has been customary to style any one imitating his example, 
 the Maecenas of his age or country. The Scriptures speak of the dedication of 
 the Tabernacle, b. c. 1490, and of the Temple, b. c. 10U4. The Christians 
 under Constantine built new churches, and dedicated them with great solem- 
 nity, in A. D. 331 et seq. 
 
 DEGREES, U. S. Academical degrees are marks of distinction conferred on 
 students, in testimony of their proficiency in arts and sciences. They are of 
 pontifical origin. Bouvier. Graduates of American colleges are Bachelors of 
 Arts, A. B. By a further course of study for three years, they become Master 
 of Arts, A. M. The title of Doctor of Medicine (M. D.), is conl'erred on students 
 on their graduatibu from medical schools. But Doctor of Divinity (D. D.), and 
 of Law (LL. D.), is an honorary degree conferred by faculties on distinguished 
 persons. 
 
 DELAWARE. The smallest of the U. S. except Rhode Island. First settled 
 in 1680, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus, 
 and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by 
 the Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English 
 in 1664, and then named Delaware. The Duke of York granted it to Wm. 
 Penn in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1775. 
 This State bore an honorable part in the revolution, and suff'ered much in the 
 struggle. She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. by a unanimous vote la 
 Convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population— 1790, 59,094 ; 1840, 78,085, includ- 
 
 ' ing 2,605 slaves. Population in 1850, 89,242, and 2,290 slaves ; in 1860, 
 110,548, and 1,805 slaves. The Delaware Breakwater two-thirds of a mile 
 long cost the Government $2,000,000. 
 
 DELPHIN CLASSICS. A collection of the Latin authors, originally made for 
 
SFPPLEMEJST, 1851-67. 41 
 
 the use of the Dauphin {in usicm Delphini), son of Louis XIV., edited :v 
 Huet, bishop of Avranches, Madame Dacier, and others. Each auLhoi- u' 
 illustrated by valuable notes, with an index containing every word in the 
 work. The number of volumes pubuslied was sixty, printed between 164*? 
 and 1691, except Ansonius, in 1'750. A new edition with additional notes, 
 published by Mr. Yalpy of London early in the present century. 
 
 DEMOCRATS. Advocates for government by the people themselves {demon, peo' 
 ple^ and kratein, to govern)^ a term adopted by the French republicans in 179C 
 (who termed their opponents aristocrats, from aHstos, bravest or best). The 
 name Democrats was adopted by the pro-slavery pariy in N. America (the 
 southern states), and the abolitionists were called Republicans. Into these 
 two great parties a number of smaller ones were absorbed at the presidential 
 election in 1856. In 1860, the Republicans formed "Wide-awake" clubs for 
 electioneering purposes, and succeeded in getting their candidate, Abraham 
 Lincoln, elected president, Nov. 4. Haydn. See Urnted States, 1860. 
 
 DEMOCRACY of England, France, and the United States, compared (^1850): 
 
 Votes 
 No. to 
 
 Countrv. Pop. Votes. Pcip. 
 
 England ....17,000,000 630,721* 1 in 26 
 
 Wales 850,000 o7,9-24 1 in 23 
 
 Scotland 8,^00,000 72,720 lin38 
 
 Ireland 8.000,000 98,006 linSl 
 
 Votes 
 No. to 
 
 Country Pop. Votes. Pop. 
 
 ^and Sehmd \ 2^,650,000 839,371 1 in 42 
 Prance 34,000X00 250,000 1 in 137 
 
 United States., 2C,000,(J00 2,760,000 1 in 7 
 
 DENMARK. Frederick VII., son of Christian VIIL, succeeded to the throne 
 1849. Danes defeat the Holsteiners at Idstedt, July 25, 1850. Friedrichstadt 
 bombarded by Holsteiners, Sept. 29-Oct. 9, 1850. Treaty of European 
 powers for settlement of succession to Danish crown, May 8, 1852. New 
 constitution offered by the King, adopted Oct, ], 1855. Sound dues abolished 
 for a compensation, March 14, 1857. Death of Frederick VII. and accession 
 of Christian IX., Nov. 15, 1863. Danes retire from Holstein, Dec. 24, 1863, 
 German troops enter Holstein, Jan. 21, 1864. Prussians talf-s Schlet-wig, 
 Feb. 6, 1864. Danes defeat the Allies in a naval battle ofl Heligoland, May 9, 
 1864. 
 
 DENOMINATIONS, The Three (presbyterians, congregationalists cr inde- 
 pendents, and baptists), were organized in 1727 as an association, with the 
 privilege of direct appeal to the reigning sovereign of Great Britain. — Haydn. 
 
 DEODAND (Latin, " to be given to God''''). Formerly in England, anything 
 (such as a horse, carriage, &c.), which had caused the death of a human 
 being became forfeit to the sovereign or lord of the manor, and was to bo 
 sold for the benefit of the poor. The forfeiture was abohshed (1846)., 
 
 D'EON, Chevalier, who had acted in a diplomatic capacity in several coun- 
 tries, and been minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was affirmed 
 to be di female, at atrial at the King's Bench in 1771, in an action to recover 
 wages as to his sex. He subsequently wore female attire : but at his death H 
 was fully manifested that he was of the male sex. 
 
 DEPUTIES, Chamber of. The title given to the French legislative assembly, 
 from the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814 till 1852, when it took ihe 
 name of Corps Legislatif. 
 
 DESIGN, ACADEMY OF, op N. Y. Founded in 1826. A beautiful building, in 
 the Gothic style, was erected in 1863. Architect, P. B. Wight ; cost, $150,- 
 
 * The Reform Bill of 1867, largely increased this number. 
 
42 THE WOELD's PKOGKESS. 
 
 000. There is an annual exibition of paintings, lasting from April to July, 
 
 See Arts, Paintings. 
 
 DETROIT, MiCHiCxAN, U. S. Established as a military post by the French, 16*70. 
 Cnme into the possession of the British, 1760. In 1183 surrendertd to the 
 United States, lu 1812, captured by the British, but evacuated in the same 
 year. In 1805, the town w.\s completely destroyed by fire. It was the capital 
 of tlie State until 1850. Population in 1865, 'about 60,000. 
 
 DIAMONDS. The Eoliinoor, or "Mountain of Liglit, " found at Golconda in 
 1650, belonged to Nadir Shah and other Afghan rulers, brought to England 
 and presented to the Queen, 1850. Its original weight 800 carats, reduced 
 by cutting to 279 carats ; in shape and size like the pointed half of a small 
 hen's egg; value about two millions sterling. 
 
 DICE. The invention of dice is asciibcd to Palamedes, of Greece, 1244 b. C, 
 The game of Tali and Tersera among the Romans was played with dice. 
 
 DICTIONARY, U. S. Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English 
 liiiiguage, in two quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven, in 1828. 
 It was reprinted in London, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. The 
 revised edition of Webster's Dictionary, in one volume quarto, was issued by 
 its present proprietors (Messrs. Merrian.i), in 1844-5. A new and enlarged 
 edition appeared in 1864 ; it contains 1 14,000 words, and 3,000 illustrations. 
 V/orcester's edition, in quarto, was published in 1860. It is also illustrated, 
 and contains 104,000 words. Th^ former is edited at Yale College, the latter 
 at Cambridge, Mass. 
 
 DILETTANTI, Society of. Established in 1734 by several noblemen, desirous 
 of encouraging a taste for art in Great Britain. It aided in publishing 
 Stuart's Athens (1762-1816), Chandler's Travels (1775-6), and other works. 
 
 DIFIITHERIA (from the Greek diphihera, a membrane). A disease developing a 
 false membrane on the mucous membrane of the throat. So named by Bro- 
 tonneau ot Touis, in 1820. It has been fatally prevalent in many parts of 
 the U. S , particularly among children, 1859-60. The number of deaths by 
 this disease in New York State from Dec. 1864, to June 1*865, was 2,942. 
 
 DTPLOMACY of the Unitkd States. List of ministers plenipotentiary to Great 
 
 Britain and France. (See p. ) 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 1852 James Buchanan, Pa. min. plen. 
 
 1853 James K. IngirsoU do. do. 
 1856 George M. Dallas, do do. 
 1801 Chs. Francis Adams, Mass. do. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 1853 James Y. Mason, Va. min. plen. 
 1857 Cbaiies J. Fiiulkner, Va. do. 
 1S61 Wm. L. Da\ ton, N. J. do. 
 
 1865 John Bigalow, N. Y. do. 
 
 1866 Jolm A. Dix, do. do. 
 
 By Act of Congress 1856, the salary of ministers plenipotentiary was raised 
 as follows: Min. Plen. to England, |17,5(0; to France, $17,500"; to Russia, 
 Spain, Prussia, Mexico, Brazif, Chili and Peru, each $12,000. The " outfits" 
 were abolished at the same time. Ministei'S resident to 19 other countrie'; 
 are paid ^7,500. 
 DTRECTORY, New York City. The earliest published was in 1786: a small 
 volume of eighty two pages, printed by Shepherd Kolloch, Wall street. The 
 names of the individuals and firms include about 900, and occupy thirty-three 
 pages, the remainder being filled with general statistics of the city. United 
 States Government, Post Office regulations, &c. In his address, the editor 
 states it was the " first directory ever attempted in this country." The New 
 York Historical Society possesses a complete set from its first pubhca- 
 tion. The Directory of 1866-7 contains 176,511 names; increase of 10,867 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 43 
 
 over 1865-6. The volume for ISeY-S contains 177,31 Y names — a further in- 
 crease of 806 only. 
 DISPENSATIONS, Ecclesiastical, were first granted by pope Innocent III, 
 in 1200. These exemptions from the discipline of the church, with indulgen- 
 ces, absolutions, &c., led eventually to the Reformation in Germany in 1517, 
 and in England in 1534, et seq. 
 
 DISPENSARIES, to supply the poor with medical advice and medicines, began 
 in London with the Royal General Dispensary, established in St. Bartholo- 
 mew's Close, in 1770. It relieved about 20,000 persons in 1861. Louo's 
 Charities. 
 
 DISPENSARIES, U. S. There are eleven in New York city. The oldest was 
 founded in 1795. The poor receive treatment and medicine in them free of 
 charge. 
 
 DISTILLATION, U. S. The number of distilleries in the U. S. in 1860 was 
 1,138, employing a capital of |24,253,000. Number in New York state in 
 1865, 67. The consumption of distilled spirits in TJ. S. in 1865 was about 
 40,000,000 gallons. It appeared in that year that for every three gallons 
 that paid the revenue tax, five evaded the payment. The revenue amounted 
 to $29,198,000. 
 
 DOLLAR, the German thaler (the h not sounded). Stamped Spanish dollars 
 were issued from the mint in March, 1797, but called in Oct. following. The 
 dollar is the principal silver coin in the United States. 
 
 DON QUIXOTE, by Saavedra Miguel de Cervantes (born 1547; died 1616). 
 The first part of this work appeared in 1605, and the second part in 1608. It 
 is said that upwards of 12,000 copies of the first part were circulated before 
 the second could be made ready for the press. Watts. 
 
 DRAGOONS. The name is supposed to have been derived from dragon, 
 " because, mounted on horseback, with lighted match, he seemeth like a fiery 
 dragon," Meyrick. The draconarii were horse-soldiers, who bore dragons 
 for ensigns. The first regiment of dragoons was raised in England, it is be- 
 lieved, in 1681. 
 
 DRUSES. A warlike people dwelling among the mountains of Lebanon ; derive 
 their origin from a fanatical Mahometan sect which arose in Egypt about 996, 
 and fled to Palestine, to avoid persecution. They now retain hardly any of 
 the religion of their ancestors; they do not practise circumcision, pray or fast, 
 but eat pork and drink wine. In the middle of 1860, in consequence of dis- 
 putes (in which doubtless both parties were to blarae), the Druses attacked 
 their neighbors the Maronites {wh cli .see), whom they massacred, it was said, 
 without regard to age or sex. 
 
 DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS. The absolute and uwqualified claim of sovereigns 
 to tae obedience of their subjects, was defended in England by many persons 
 of otherwise opposite opinions, e.g. by Hobbes, the free-thinker, in 1642, and 
 by Sir Robert Eilmer, in his Patriarcha^ in 1860, and by the High Church 
 generally. 
 
 DIVORCE. In this country adultery is a ground of divorce in all the States. 
 In Massacliusetts, Maine, and New Jersey, wilful desertion for five years, and 
 in some other States, desertion for two and three years, and some other causes, 
 are ground for divorce. Divorce has been granted most frequently in 
 Vermont, Connecticut, and Indiana. In Connecticut, cruel treatment is a 
 ground of absolute divorce. The Ministers of the Gospel in that State have 
 called the attention of the Legislature to the laxity of its Divorce laws. 
 
44 THE world's peogress. 
 
 DOGS, Laws about, U. S. In New York dogs are required to be muzzled 
 during June, J'uly, and August. A reward of fifty cents is given for every 
 dog brought to the pound unmuzzled. Unless redeemed in 24 hours they are 
 drowned. In 1866, 4,819 dogs were drowned in New York City, at an expense 
 of $3,000. 
 
 DUBLIN" INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. Opened by the lord Ueut. May 12, 
 185;^ ; closed Nov. 1, same year. 
 
 DUELLING, (p. 300.) Duel between the duke of Wellington and the earl of 
 Wiiichelsea, March 21, 1829 ; fifteen noted duels have since occurred in Eng- 
 land. The most noted American affairs of the kind were these : two during the 
 revolution, viz., Gen. Chas. Lee and Col. Jno. Laurens ; and Gen, Cadwallader 
 and Conway (1'7'78) ; Gen. Greene was challenged by a Capt. Gunn, of Ga., but 
 refused to tight, and his refusal was approved by Washington. Gen. Hamil- 
 ton killed by Aaron B'urr, July 11, 1804. Com. Decatur killed by Com. Barron, 
 Mar. 22, 1820. Henry Clay encountered John Randolph, April 8, 1826. Gen. 
 Jackson killed Mr. Dickinson, and had other duels. Col. Benton killed a Mr. 
 Lucas, and had other duels. Cilley, of Maine, killed by Graves, of Kentucky 
 (iioth mem. of Cong.), 1838. Dewitt Clinton exchanged five shots with John 
 Swartwout, 1802. See Millingen's Hist, of Due'ling^ and Sabine's Notes on 
 Duels, 1855. 
 
 E 
 
 EAGLE, (p. 301.) An ancient coin of Ireland, made of a base metal, and cur- 
 rent in the first years of Edward I., about a. d, 12Y2. The American gold 
 coinage of eagles, half-eagles and quarter-eagles began Dec. 6, 1792 ; an 
 eagle is of the value of ten dollars. 
 
 EAST INDIA COMPANY. (Brit.) Chartered originally by queen Elizabeth, in 
 1660, with a capital of £30,000, whs rcchartered and extended its operations 
 until in 1856 it maintained a military force at an annual expense of more 
 than £10,000,000. By the act of Parliament, *' for the better government of 
 India," Aug. 2, 1858, the Company's jurisdiction of India was surrendered to 
 the queen. S-ee India. 
 
 EARTHQUAKES, (p. 303.) An elaborate catalogue of earthquakes, with com- 
 mentaries on the phenomena, by R. 'P. W. Mallet, was published by Brit. 
 
 Association, 1858-9 
 
 Earthqxiake at Cape Haytien, St. Do- ' April 16,1854. 
 
 miugo, 5,000 lives lost, May 7, 1842. 
 At Rhodes, and Maci', mountains 
 
 crusliini? a village, 600 lives lost, 
 
 March, lS51. 
 At Valparaiso, 400 houses destroyed, 
 
 April 2, 1851. 
 In Soutli Italy, Melfi destroyed, 14,000 
 
 lives lost, AvL%. 14, 1851 
 At Philippine isles, Manilla nearly de- 
 stroyed, Sept.— Oct.. 1852. 
 N. W. of Eng-iand, slight., Nov. 9, 185?. 
 Thebes in Greece, nearly dest. Sept. 
 
 1853. 
 St. Salvador, S. America, destroyed, 
 
 Onasaca, in Japan ; Simoda, in ITiphon, 
 
 nearly destoyed, Dec. 23, 1854. 
 Jcddo nearly destroyed, Nov. 11, 18-55. 
 Island of San aer (Moluccas), 3,000 lives lost, 
 
 March 12, 1856. 
 In Calabria, several towns destroyed, 
 
 22,000 lives lost, Dec. 16, 1856. 
 Corinth, nearly destroyed, Feb. 21, 1858. 
 Quito; much injured, and 5.000 lives lost, 
 
 Mai-eh 29, 1859. 
 Mendoza, S. America, 7,000 lives lost. March 
 
 ; 0,1861. 
 Manilla, Philippine Isles, 10,000 persona 
 
 perish, June 3, 1863. 
 
 EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE, off the port of Plymouth, first built, 1696; 
 destroyed by tempest, 1703 ; rebuilt 1706 ; burnt, 1755 ; rebuilt by Smea.'^on 
 and finished, Oct. 9, 1759, and his structure still stands, 1861. 
 
 EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. Founded by James VL (I. of Eng.), 1582. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 45 
 
 New buildings erected 1*789. Lord Brougham's discourse as Chancellor ol 
 the Univ., 1860. 
 
 EGYPT. Malta and Alexandria tc4egraph opened Nov. 1, 1861. Said, Viceroy, 
 July U, 1854, dies Jan, 18, 1863. Ishmael, Viceroy, Jan. 18, 1863 ; visits 
 France and England, July, 1867. 
 
 EL DOKADO (the " Gilded Man"). When the Spaniards had conquered Mexico 
 and Peru, they began to look for new sources of wealth, and having heard of 
 a golden city ruled by a king or priest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold dupt, 
 (which report was founded on a merely annual custom of the Indians), they 
 organized various expeditions into the interior of South America, which were 
 accompanied with disasters and crimes, about 1560. Raleigh's expeditions in 
 search of gold in 1596 and 1617, led to his fall. 
 
 EDUCATION. Some of the most noted educational theorists were Fenelon and 
 Rousseau, in France, 18th century; Basedon, Walke, and Pestalozzi (Swiss), 
 Fellenburg, Jacotot, and others, in Germany; Joseph Lancaster (d. 1839), in 
 England. In Prussia, all children from 7 to 14 are compelled by law, and un- 
 der penalty, to attend school ; but this governmental system does not appear 
 greatly to advance practical civilization and progress among the people. In 
 France, a national system was adopted by Guizot, in 1833, from reports of the 
 Prussian sv stem by Cousin. In England (p. 306). See Oxford^ Cambridge^ and 
 F'on. In the reign of Queen Anne numerous " Charity" schools were founded, 
 and many others by "Society" effort, in 1641 etseq. Jos. Lancaster started his 
 "Monitorial" system, 1186, and originated the Brit, and For. School Soc, 1808. 
 The Gov. grant of £20,000, in 1834, for pubhc education, was increased to 
 £15r\,000 in 1852, and £450,000 in 1856. In 1851, there were 2,466,481 day 
 scholars. Educational Conference, June 22, 1857, Prince Albert presiding. 
 Industrial School Act passed 1857. In the U. S. Has been largely promoted 
 and systematized since 1835, by the efforts and publications of Horace Mann, 
 Henry Barnard, D. P. Page, Alonzo Potter, Barnas Sears, and others. Am. 
 Inst, of Instiniction, organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830, and has held annual 
 meetings since. During the last two years of the war, 1864-5, the very Inrge 
 sum of 1848,000 vvas donated to New England colleges. The New England 
 seminaries for young ladies meanwhile received less than a fiftieth part of the 
 noble subsidy. The munificent donation of George Peabody ($2,000,000), to 
 promote education in the Southern States was confided to a Board of Trustees, 
 Robert C. Winthrop of Boston, President, 1867 ; and Barnas Sears, President 
 of Brown University, accepted the general agency of this Trust. See Colleges 
 and Schools. 
 
 ELECTRIC CLOCK and Ball. Alexander Bain, of London, is said to have first 
 conceived the idea of working clocks by electricity in 1837; his clocks, as well 
 as those of Mr. Shepherd, appeared in the exhibition of 1851. An electric 
 clock with four dials, illuminated at night, was set up in front of the office of 
 the Electric Telegraph Company, in the Strand, London, July, 1852. A time 
 ball was set up by Mr. French, in Cornhill, in 1856. A time ball connected 
 with the observatory at Albany, placed on the Custom House, New York, 
 1860. 
 
 ELECTRICITY, (p. 308.) Oersted's discovery of electro-magnetism, 1820. Far- 
 raday (Lond.) discovered magnetic-electricity in 1831, and published " Re- 
 searches," in 3 vols., 1833-55. Sir Wm. Snow Harris received £5,000 for his 
 invention of lightning conductors for ships. Important contributions to the 
 knowledge of electricity and its uses, have been made by Prof. Jos. Henry, 
 and Prof. Page, of Washington, Prof. Draper, of New York, &c. 
 
46 THE woeld's progress. 
 
 ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. The electro-magnetic force was applied by M. Bre- 
 guet of Paris, in the nianufacture of tlieodolites and the finer kind of mathe- 
 matical instruments, in 1855. 
 
 ELECTRO-PLATING. Carried to gi-eat perfection by Elkington & Mason, of 
 Birmingliani, England, and the process has been introduced successfully into 
 New York, 1858-9. 
 
 ELECTPJC TELEGRAPH, (p. 308.) Prof. Morse's services to the world as the 
 originator of the practical application of electro-magnetism to telegraphing, 
 were acknowledged by the French government in 1859, by the voluntary pre- 
 sentaiion to him of $S(»,000 (?) ; and by pu-blic honors and rewards from other 
 governments of Europe in 1860. House's printing telegraph, 1846 ; Bain's 
 electio-chemical telegraph, 1846; Hughes's system, 1855; the American com- 
 bination system (of the preceding), which can convey 2,000 words an hour, 
 adopted by the Araeiican Telegraph Company, Jan., 1859. Wheatstone's 
 automatic printing telegraph patented, 1860. 
 
 ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH LINES. In 1860, in America, 45,000 miles; in Eng- 
 land, 10,000; in France, 8,000 ; in Germany and Austria 10,000; in Pi^ussia, 
 4,000; in Russia, 5,000; in the rest of Europe, 7,650; in Ladia, 5,0n0; in 
 Australia, 12,000; elsewhere, 500. Total iul858, 96,350. Over all the lines 
 in the United States the number of messages per year is estimated at 4,000,- 
 000. It is supposed that a telegraph could be laid around the globe for less 
 than half the cost of the Erie railroad. See^ Siibtnarine Telegraph. In the 
 United States the overland line from Missouri to California was completed 
 Oct. 22, 1861. A cable was laid across Cl.esapeake Bay from Fortress Mon- 
 roe in 1861. Ninety-five lines of telegraph are laid under American rivers. 
 
 ELECTRO-TINT. Mr. Palmer of Newgate street, London, has patented an in- 
 vention by which engravings may not only be copied from other engraved 
 plates, but the engraving itself actually produced by electrical agency. There 
 are several processes by which this is accomplished, one of which, also pro- 
 tected by a patent, Mr. Palmer called Glyphography (about 1842). 
 
 ELZEVIRS. A celebrated family of printers, in Holland, whose reputation is based 
 on fine pocket editions of the classics. Their first book is dated 1683. 
 
 EMIGRATION from Great Britain, (p. 809.) increased from 129,851, in 1846, 
 to 335,000 in 1851, and 368,000 in l'852 ; and then fell off as follows:— in 1853, 
 829,000; in 1855, 176,000; in 1857, 212,000. About three-fifths of this 
 emigration is to the United States; one-eighth to Brit. America; remainder 
 to Australia. To the United States. The total number of alien emigrants 
 vho arrived in the U. S. from 1819 to 1856, was 4,212,621. From 1784 to 
 1819, the number did not probably exceed 150,000; in all, say 5,000,000 ar- 
 rived from 1784 up to January, 1859. Of this number about 2,600,00:) came 
 from Great Britain and Ireland; 1,600,000 fi'om Germany; 200,000 from 
 France ; 50,000 from Sweden and Norway ; 40,000 from Switze,rland, and 
 18,000 from Holland. (Appleton's Cyclo.) The commission for receiving emi- 
 grants at Castle Garden, N. Y. city, was established in 1847. From that time 
 to 1867, 3,658,800 emigrants have landed there. The number in 1865 was 
 237,397. See Aliens. 
 
 ENCYCLOPAEDIA. ITi.e IconograpMc CyclopcBdia, 6 vols., based on a German 
 work, published at New York, 1853-4. The En^;lish Cyelopcedia (Charles 
 Knigiit), based on the Penny Cyclopaedia, 1855-60. The 8th edition o^ Ency-^ 
 clop. Britannica completed 1860. Appleton's Cyclopedia 1857-62, 16 vols. 
 (N, York). Appleton's " Annual Cyclopaedia," begins with the year 1861, and 
 
supp;lemext, 1851-67. 47 
 
 is a complete review of the great events in the worla, of each yeai. The 
 vohiiiies, 1861-5, contain a valuable history of the war 
 ENGLAND. For succession of events, see Chrortolo ical Tab^.es^ p. 160 to 190. 
 ENLISTMENT, U. S. The following is a list of the various " calls" for troops 
 by the Govei-nment during the war: — 
 Date of Call. Nam'icr of M.n. 
 
 April 15, iS62 76.000 
 
 May to .June 25, 1862 u JO„JOO 
 
 July 2, 1862 yvn.COO 
 
 Atig-.4, 1SU2 -i;o,UUO 
 
 Oct. 17, 1S63 :jOO,i;00 
 
 Peb. 1,1864 200,000 
 
 March 4, 1864 k.U. ,GCl) 
 
 July IS, 1S6J 50U,000 
 
 Dec. 19, 1864 i300,OCU 
 
 Tkere were other calls for 30 and 100 days' men. The whole number called 
 for was 2,759,049 ; totwl obtained, 2,656,553. By Act of March 3, 1863, called 
 the " Conscriptiou Act," the President was authorized to draft troops. The 
 act provided lor an enrollment, a draft, the reception of substitutes, and arrest 
 ofdeserteis. About 3,000,000 men between the ages of 20 and 45 were en- 
 rolled. The calls from Oct. 17, 1863, were orders for drafts. But probably 
 not more than 50,000 drafted men performed personal service. Substitutes 
 were obtained. "The Substitute Fund" of the Government, consisting of 
 money paid in as a release from service, and which was used as a ''Bounty 
 Fund" for volunteers, amounted to $25,902,029. See Army of U. S. 
 
 EPIC POEMS (from Greek epos, a song). Narratives in verse. Some of thu most 
 famous are : 
 
 Term of Service. 
 
 Number obtained 
 
 3 months 
 
 93,326 
 
 3 years 
 
 714,213 
 
 3 years 
 
 431,9.58 
 
 9 months 
 
 .... 87,00(? 
 
 3 years '( 
 
 3 years ) ' 
 
 374,807 
 
 3 years 
 
 284,021 
 
 ..... 1-2-3 years 
 
 384,882 
 
 1-2-3 years 
 
 204,568 
 
 Homer's " Iliad " and " Odys- 
 spy" (G-rek), between 8th and 
 9th ceiuury, before Christ. 
 
 Yirgil's "^aeid ' (Latin), about 
 
 3. c. 19 
 
 Ovid's, " Metamorphoses " (La- 
 tin) about A. D. 1 
 
 Dante, (died 1321) " Divina Corn- 
 media " (Italian) a. D. 1472 
 
 Ariosto, " Orlando Furioso" 
 (Ita!.) A.D. 156 
 
 Camoeus, " Lusiad" (Portuguese) 1569 
 T;if^so, " JeriLsalem Delivered" 
 
 (Ital.) 1.581 
 
 Miiton, " P.-^radise Lost" ...1667 
 
 Voltaire " Heiiriade " (French). . .1728 
 "VYa!t( r Scott, " Lay of the Liist 
 
 Minstre! " 1805 
 
 The chief American epic which has hitherto been recognized as at all worthy 
 of a national fame is Barlow's "Columbiad." 
 
 EPIPHANY. The feast of Epiphnny (Jan. 6), called Twelfth Day, celebrates the 
 arrival of the wise men of the East, and the manifestation to the world of the 
 Savior, by the appearance of a blazing star, which conducted the Magi to the 
 place Avliere he was to be found. Instituted a. d. 813. Wheat'e>/. Pardon 
 says, " The heathens used this word to signify the appearance of their gods 
 upon the eurtli, and from the heathens the Christians borrowed it." 
 
 EPISCOPAL ClIUECH in the United States. Episcopacy estabhshed 
 in New York by Jaw, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first 
 bishops of the Protestnnt Episcopal Church in America were bishop White 
 of Pennsylvania and Provost of New York, consecrated in London, 1787. 
 First Episcopal convention, 1 789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky 
 and Ohio consecrated at New York, Nov. 2, 1832. 
 
 EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, Greeks, Romans, and others. 
 Mr. T. J. Pettigrew published, in England, a collection called Chronicles 
 of the Tombs, in 185-7. 
 
 EQUATOR (or Ecuador). A South American republic, founded in 1831, when the 
 Colombian republic was divided into three ; the other two being Venezuela, 
 and New Granada. The populat on of Equator is about 1,040,400, of which 
 
48 THE world's PR0(?RESS. 
 
 76 000 are in Quito, the capital. General Franco, president, Aug. 21, 1859; 
 defeated in battle by General Flores, Ang. 1869. President (elected in 1861), 
 G. G. Moreno. 
 
 :iiQUlTY COURTS of U. S. In New England, New York, and several other 
 States, the same Jirlge niav try cases of Equity as well as of Law. There are 
 no Chancellurs in these States. In New York the distinction between sic- 
 jions at law and suits in Equity, was abolished in 1849. In New Jersey, 
 Delaware, and other States, the English iorm of Chancery Courts and practice 
 is still preserved (186'7). 
 
 ERASTIANISM. A term applied to the opinions of Thomas Lieber (Latinized 
 Erastus), a German ph\siijiai' (1528-84) who taught that the Church had no 
 right to exclude any person from the ordinances of the Gospel, or to inflict ex- 
 communication. 
 
 ERASURES. In England, by order of Sir John Romilly, Master of the Rolls in 
 1855, no document corrected by erasure with the knife is to be henceforth 
 received in the Court of Chancery. The errors must be corrected with the pen. 
 
 ESQUIRE, TITLE OF, U. S. A title applied by courtesy to officers of alm.ost 
 every description, to members of the bar, and others. No one is entitled to 
 it by law, and, therefore, it confers no distinction in law. — Bouvier. 
 
 ETHIOPIA. Tlie name was applied anciently lather vaguely to countries the 
 inhabitants of which had sun-burnt compleX|ions, in Asia and Africa ; but ia 
 now considered to apply properly to the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and North- 
 ern Abyssinia. Many pyramids exist at Napata, the capital of Meroe, the 
 civihzed part of ancient Ethiopia. 
 
 Zerah, the Ethiopian, defeated \<j 
 Aza B.C. 941 
 
 A dynasty ol t-thinpiiii Kings 
 reignid over EgyiJi from b. c. 765-715 
 
 Terhakah, King of Ethiopia, 
 inarches against Seui.acheiib 
 
 B. c. 710 
 
 Ethiopia invaded by the Cam- 
 byees without success between 
 
 B. c. 322-328 
 
 Caiidnce, Queen of Miroe, ad- 
 vaucii'g against the R(;man 
 settlements at Elei)liantini.', de- 
 feated and subdued by Petro- 
 rlus A.D. 22-23 
 
 ETHNOLOGY. The study of the relations of the different divisions of mankind 
 to each other. It is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic Atlas was pub- 
 lished in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's great work, Researches on the Phydcal His- 
 tory of Mankind^ 1841-7. The London Ethnological Society, established in* 
 1843, pubhshes its transactions. Dr. R. S. Latham's works, on the Ethnol- 
 ogy of the Biiiish Empire appeared in 1851-2. The American Ethnological 
 Society was founded in New York in 184-. Albert Gallatin was its first pre^i- 
 dent. ' It has published 3 or 4 vols, of " Transactions." The works of School- 
 craft on the history of American Indians are copious and valuable. The belief 
 in the original unity of ihehuman race has been opposed in the works of Nott 
 and Gliddon {Ethnological Besearches), Agassiz and others, 1854-9, Mr. 
 George Peabody, in 1866, donated to Yale College $150,000 to maintain a 
 museum and Professorship of Archaeology and Ethnology, also a hke amount 
 for the same purpose to Harvard College. 
 
 ETNA, Mount (Sicily). Here were the iabled forges of the Cyclops. Eruptions 
 are recorded by Thucydides as occurring in 1'734, 411, 425, b. C. Eruptions 
 also A. D. 40, 254, 420, 1669, 1830, 1832, and 1852. 
 
 ETRURIA, or Tuscia, hence the modern name Tuscany. An ancient province of 
 Italy, wlience the Romans in a great measure derived their laws, customs, and 
 superstitions. Herodotus asserls that the country was conquered by a coionv 
 of Lydians. It was most powerful under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 
 
 49 
 
 to reinstate the Tarquins, 506. b, c. The vases and other works of the Etrus- 
 cans still remaining show the degree of cidlization to which thoy had attained. 
 See Tuscaiiy, Etruria, tlie site of Mr. Wedgewood's porcelain works, was found- 
 ed 177L 
 EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, England, founded by Sir Culling Eardley Smith 
 and others iu 1815, \\ii\\ the view of promoting unity among all denominations 
 of Christians. It holds annual meetings. It met Sept. 1857 at Berlin; in 1858 
 at Liverpool; 1S59 at Beitast. 
 
 EXAMINATIONS of persons preliminary to their employment ia the civil 
 service in England, has been enforced since 1855. [Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said 
 that the present might be termed the *' age of examinations."] A bill for a 
 similar system in the U, S. was introduced in the senate by Mr. Sumaer, 1865. 
 
 EXCHANGE (Merchants') in New York. The present building, on the site of 
 the one destroyed in the great fire of 1835, was commenced in 1836, and fin- 
 ished in 1840, It is of blue granite, and cost 1 1,800,000. In 1864 it was 
 purchased by the U. S. government for use as the Custom House. That oi 
 Boston, a3so of Quiney granite, finished in 1846. 
 
 EXCHEQUER BILLS. In England the government seeurlties so called, were 
 first issued in 1697, and first circulated by the bank in l^'QG. About £20,000, 
 006 of these are often iu circulation, 
 
 EXCISE Revenue in Great Britain in 1855, £16,389,4SS ; in 1858, £17,902,000; 
 
 1860, £20,361,000; 1864, £19,558,000, 
 EXCISE LAW, U, S. See Intermd Remnue. 
 
 EXHIBITION OF 1851, in London, See Crystal Palace. This exhibition origi- 
 nated with the Society of Arts; Prince Albert, President. It was started by 
 a royal commission, appointed Jan. 3, 1850. The Crystal Palace, designed 
 by Paxton, begun Sept. 1850, and the exhibition was opened by the Queen, 
 May 1, 1851. The No. of exhibitors exceeded 17,000. Number of visitors 
 6,170,000, averaging 43,000 daily. Largest No. in one day, 109,760. Exhi- 
 bition open 144 days. Amount of entrance fees £505, lu7. Net profits 
 £150,000. Of 1862. A proposal in 1858 for another great exhibition, to 
 be held inl861, was withdrawn in consequence of the war in Italy in 1859, 
 &c. The scheme was revived in April 1860, when the prince-consort en- 
 gaged to guarantee £10,000, if £240,000 should be subscribed by other persons. 
 
 The exhibition was opened by 
 the duke uf Cambrdge and a 
 distinguished company on 
 
 May I, 
 
 The Eshibition was elckscd on 
 Nov. 1. when the total number 
 of visitors (exclusive of attend- 
 ants) had been 6, J 17,430. 
 
 1862 
 
 The success of the Exhibition 
 was much impared by the de- 
 cease of the prince consort, 
 Dec. 14, 1861, and the breaking 
 out of the civil war in the 
 United States of America. 
 The foreign exhibitors in 1851, 
 were 6566; in 1862, 16,456, 
 
 EXPLORING EXPEDITION. U. S,, consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of war ; 
 Peacock, ditto; Porpoise, brig ; "Relief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, smaller 
 vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, TJ. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads, Va., Aug. 
 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. Attack on the 
 Fejces for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The Peacock lost on 
 the bar of Columbia river, July, 1841. The Vincennes (flagship) leturned to 
 New York, after an absence of nearly four years, June 11, 1842. Captain 
 Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. imp. 8vo. and quarto, was 
 published in 1845. The scientific reports f^^ the expedition form about 20 
 quarto and foho volumes. 
 4 
 
^0 THE WOBLD'S progress. 
 
 EXPORTS AND IMPORTS of the U. S. (Stated in round millions.) 
 Exports of Produce. of Manufactures. Total. Importn. 
 
 1849 $l31niillioi'S 16 millions 147 millions 147 niilliona, 
 
 1850 134 " ......15 '' K9 " 178 
 
 1860 316 " 48 " 3«4 '^ -02 '• 
 
 1861 204 " 4i " '247 " 286 •* 
 
 1862 182 " o3 " 215 " 275 * 
 
 186} 249 " 50 « 299 " 252 '* 
 
 1S64 217 " i5 " -'62 " a-9 « 
 
 1865 254 " 64 " 318 « 2o4 
 
 1866 466 " 64 " 530 ■■« 437 '* 
 
 EXPORTS OF Great Britain, (p. ai8.) Total exports in 1850, £175,126,106. In 
 1851, £190 897,810. Exports of British and Irish produce, in 1856 £115,826,- 
 948. In 1857, £122,155,257 ; 1861, £125,115,133 ; 1863, £146,489,768 ; 1865, 
 £218,865 
 
 EXTENSION OF TERRITORY of U, S. Since the formation of the government 
 in 1787, the following additional territory has been acquired: 
 Hqaare 3Iiks. Square Miles. 
 
 599,c9y, Louisiana, &c., by 
 I)urchase of 
 Fiance, for $150,- 
 000,000 .180S 
 
 66,900, Florida, hy treaty 
 with Spain cost 
 $6,489,000.... 1820 
 
 318,000, Texas, by auni-xa- 
 tiou.teuden-'d by 
 its peopk' 1845 
 
 308,052, Oregon, settled by 
 Vrb treaty with 
 Great Britain.... 1846 
 
 { California, Dy treaty 
 
 I witli Mexico 1848 
 
 ,,„..- J Meeillia Valley (Ari- 
 
 i of Mexico for $10,- 
 
 l, 000,000 158 
 
 Russian America by 
 
 ' purchase from Rue- 
 
 Bia, negotiated by 
 
 Mr. Seward, Sec. of 
 
 State... 1867 
 
 P 
 
 FAIROAKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, the site of two sanguinary indecli- 
 sive battles between the rebels, under Gen. Joseph Johnston, and the army of 
 the Potomac, under Gen. McClellan, May 31, and June 1, 1862. 
 
 FALKLAND ISLANDS. A group of islands in the South Atlantic, belonging to 
 Great Britain. Seen by Americus Vespucius ; visited by Davis, 1592. Taken 
 possession of by France, 1763 ; French expelled by the Spaniards, and in 1771 
 Spain gave up the sovereignty to England. A colony from Buenos Ayres set- 
 tled at Port Louis, which was destroyed by Americans 1831. In 1833 the 
 British flag was hoisted at Port Louis, and a British officer has since resided 
 there. 
 
 FARTHINGS. One of the earliest of the English coins. Farthings in silver 
 were coined by King John ; the Irish farthing of his reign is of the date of 
 1210. Farthings were coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. First coined 
 in copper by Charles II., 1665 ; and again in 1672, when there was a large 
 coinage of copper money. Half-farthings were first coined in the reign of 
 Victoria, 1843. 
 
 FASTS, (p. 319.) Fast-days are appointed by the Reformed Churches in times 
 of war and pestilence. The British gov. appointed a fast, March 21, 1855, for 
 the Russian war, and Oct. 7. 1857, for the Indian mutiny. Pres. Buchanan 
 appointed a pubUo fast on accotuit of threatened secession of slave states, which 
 was observed Jan, 4, 1861, Natioual Fasts appointed by Pres, Lincoln at dif- 
 ferent times during the war. Fast on account of bis assassination, May 1863. 
 
 FATHERS OF THE CHURCH, "l^^ fvUowing are the princlpul : 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 
 
 M 
 
 Athanaf^iuH, . d. 
 
 
 37 3 
 
 Ephrem tiyrus, d. al>ouL 
 
 m 
 
 . 878 
 
 Basil . . d. . 
 
 
 ai9 
 
 Cyrilof JerusaU'iii, (/. 
 
 • 
 
 . S86 
 
 G\ egory Naziiinztn, d. 
 
 
 389 
 
 Gi-iiioiy iSyeseii, d. alout . 
 
 • 
 
 . ■•■.94 
 
 Etiiphaiiiiis . d. 
 
 
 402 
 
 Clir. siisiom . d. . 
 
 . 
 
 . 4U7 
 
 Cyril of Alexandria, d. 
 
 
 144 
 
 LoJin. 
 
 
 
 ArnoMus . Jl. . . 
 
 , 
 
 . 3w3 
 
 L:ic auiius . (/..about 
 
 , 
 
 3;]0 
 
 Ambrose . d. 
 
 , 
 
 . 897 
 
 Jerome . . d. . . 
 
 , 
 
 . 420 
 
 AugUBtlne . d. 
 
 
 4o0 
 
 SECOND CENTURY. Greek. 
 Justin Martyr, d. about . . 166 
 Ire. aeus . . d. about . . 200 
 Athfcnagoras. 
 
 THIRD CENTUKY. Greek. 
 Clements. . d. alout . , 217 
 Origen . . d. about , , 253 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Tertullian . d. about . . 220 
 
 Minutius Felix,^ about . . 230 
 
 Cyprian . . d. about . . 258 
 
 FOURTH AND FIFTH CENTURIES. Greek. 
 
 Eusebius . . d. about . . 340 
 
 FAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renewed in cheap-booki*, tiourished about the 
 end of the 15th century. Goetlie'iS poem, "laust," appeared in 1790. 
 
 FEEJEE ISLANDS, or Fiji, in the Pacific Ocean. There are 80 inhabited 
 islands, the laigest about 860 miles in circumference, with 1:0,00 inhabitants. 
 
 FENIANS (See p. 297). A society of Iiishmen in the U. S. and in Ireland, 
 pledged to work for the hbevation of Ireland. Organized in 1857. First at- 
 tracted notice in the U. S. in 1863. In that year Nov., a Fenian Congress met 
 in Chicago, composed of 200 delegates. In 1865 the regular members of the 
 order numbered 80,000. " Head Centre " Stephens figured cont^picuously 
 as the leader. In 1866, Fenian meetings were held all over the country. In 
 the Spring considerable numbers assembled at Buffalo, N. Y., and St. Albans, 
 Vermont, apparently with hostile intentions towards Canada. June 1, 1866, a 
 body of them crossed over and engaged in a skirmish with Canadian troops. 
 They were compelled to re-cross with slight loss. The Fenian officers were 
 arrested by the U. S. government, and the men sent to their homes. In 1867, 
 the excitement over this organization had greatly subsided. Attempts to 
 create a revolt in Ireland proved unsuccessful. Several of the leaders were 
 arrested and tried and condemned to death, but the sentences were commuted 
 to imprisonment for life. This movement was unquestionably originated and 
 carried on by men of Irish birth and immediate descent, and wds not an Amer- 
 ican movement as indicated by Haydn, p. 297. 
 
 FILIBUSTERS. A name given to the freebooters who plundered the coasts 
 of America in the 17tli century, ^Qe Buccaneers. It was applied to Walker 
 and other adventurers from the United States, who within the last few years 
 endeavored to obtain possession of Central America and Cuba. 
 
 FINLAND. A Russian principality, was conquered by the Swedes in the middle 
 of the 12th century, who introduced Christianity. It was several times con- 
 quered by the Russians (1714, 1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743); 
 but in 1809 they retained it by treaty. 
 
 FIRE ANNIHILATORS. . An article so called was exhibited in New York, 185-» 
 but its practical usefulness has not been demonstrated. 
 
 FIRE-ARMS, U. S. The Sharpe's Rifle was the first breech-loader used in this 
 country. During the war, great improvements were made in this branch of 
 ordnance. Tlie Spencer Repeating Rifle patented in 1860, carries seven cart- 
 ridges. The Henry Riflocan be fired 15 times before reloading; patented 18G]. 
 120 shots have been fired from itin 5:^ minutes, including the time for reloading. 
 
 ' . The standard musket used in the U, S, Army, is the Springfield Rifle, 
 muzzle-loader. They are being converted into breech-loaders at the arsenal 
 (1866-7). 
 
52 THE world's PEOGEESS. 
 
 FIRE DEPARTMENTS, with steam engines and paid employees. In ISe?, the 
 following cities had introduced the new system as follows: — 
 
 Cost 
 $73,000 
 
 Steamers. 
 
 Men 
 
 Bixltimore, 7 
 
 114 
 
 Eo.-iton, 11 
 
 281 
 
 Biiftalo, 7 
 
 189 
 
 Cleveland, 5 
 
 66 
 
 162,098 
 46,470 
 39,000 
 
 Steamers. Men. Cost. 
 
 Chcago, 13 140 $245,500 
 
 Cincinnati, 12 140 141,000 
 
 XcwYork, 34 564 869,957 
 
 FIRE-ESCAPES. In England the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from 
 Fire was first established in 1836 ; its object w^as not fully attained till 184o, 
 when it was reorganized, beginning with six escape stations in London ; in 
 March, 1859, it possessed 6Y. In 1858, 504 fires had been attended, and 57 
 persons rescued by the Society's officers. In New York city the necessity for 
 effectual means of escape from fires in large buildings was sadly shown by the 
 loss of life by fires in tenement houses, 1859-60. Two or three different fire- 
 escapes were exhibited in the autumn of 1860. 
 
 FIRES IN THE U. S. The losses by fire from 1855 to 1865 inclusive were 
 $214,588,000. In 1865, there were 354 fires, where the loss was upwards oi' 
 $20,000, at which property was destroyed to the amount of $43,419,000. Tlie 
 largest fire of late years was at Portland, Maine, July 4, 1866. 1,600 build- 
 ings were burned ; loss, $9,000,OjO ; insurance, $3,500,000. Fire in Nash- 
 ville, Teun., July 24, 1866, loss, $1,0(:0,000. Colt's Armory, Hartford, burned, 
 Feb. 8, 1864 ; Lo3s, $1,000,000. Academy of M,usic and University Medical 
 College, N. Y., burned, May 21, 1836. Pike's Opera House, Cincinnati, 
 March 23, 1866. The Smithsonian Institute, Washington, partially burned 
 Jan. 24, 1865; the Meteorological department suffered heavily. 
 
 FLAC See American Flag. The flag acquired its present form in the sixth 
 century in Spain ; it was previously small and square. Ashe. The flag is 
 said to have been introduced there by the Saracens, before which time the 
 ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of wood. Pardon The term 
 flag is more particularly used at sea, to denote to what country a ship belongs. 
 The honor-of-the-flag salute at sea was exacted by England at a very early 
 date, but it was formally yielded by the Dutch in a. n. 1673, at which period 
 they had been defeated in many actions. Louis XIV. obliged the Spaniards 
 to lower their flag to the French, 1680. Henault. After an engagement of 
 three hours between Toui'ville and the Spanish Admiral Papachin, the latter 
 yielded by firing a salute of nine guns to the French flag, June 4, 1688. 
 
 FLORIDA, (p. 322.) Passed an ordinance of secession from the U. S., Jan. 
 11, 1861, and seized the U. S. Navy Yard at Pensacola. Population, 1850, 
 87,445. In 1860, 81,885 free, and 63,800 slaves. In 1866, 77,747 white ; 
 62,677 colored ; total 140,424, Mr. Marvin appointed Provisional Governor, 
 July 13, 1865. 
 
 FOREIGN LEGION. Foreigners have frequently been employed as auxiliaries 
 in the pay of the British government. An act for the formation of the 
 Foreign Legion as a contingent to the Russian war (1855) was passed Dec. 23, 
 1854. The endeavor to enhst for the legion, in 1854, in the United States, 
 gave great offence to the American government. Mr. Crampton was dis- 
 missed, and Lord Napier sent out as English representative. 
 
 FRAN'CE. (p. 326.) For the succession of events in France, see Chronological 
 Tables^ page 65 e^ seq. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 
 
 Government. 
 
 NewEepiiTDlic proclaimed ; provi 
 sional governaie'.it et-tablished, 
 Liimaniiie at the head 1848 
 
 Louis Napoleon Boiuiparte declar- 
 ed Fres. by the Nat. Assembly, 
 
 Dec. 19, 1848 
 
 Lonis Napoleon, Emperor of the 
 French. Votes for the empire, 
 7,839,552 ; noes, 254,501 ; null, 
 63,609 N ov. 2 1 , ] 852 
 
 The Emperor proclatmed. .Dec. 2, J 853 
 
 Empress : Marii; Eugenie (a Spa- 
 niard), born Mny 5, 1826, married 
 
 Jan. 29, 1853 
 
 Heir : NAPOLEON-EuGENiE-Louis- 
 JeanJot^eph, born.... March 16, 1856 
 
 Heir i^reswDiptive^ in default of 
 Louis Napoleon's issue : Prince 
 Jerome Napoleon, and his heirs 
 male 
 
 FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN. (p. 327.) The restricted diet of the Germanic 
 Confederation was constituted at Frankfort, Aug. 10, 1850. The plenipoten- 
 tiaries of Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Wurtemberg, Mecklenburg, 
 assembled here, and constituted themselves the Council of the Germanic 
 Diet, Sept. 1, 1850. Prussia refused to recognize it. Frankfort annexed to 
 Prussia after the war with Austria, 1866. 
 
 FRANKING PRIVILEGE, U. S. This privilege was granted to the widows of 
 Presidents Madison and Harrison. An act granting the same privilege to 
 Mrs. Lincoln, passed Feb. 10, 1866. 
 
 FRANKLIN, Sir John. His last Arctic expedition in command of H.M. Ships 
 Erebus and Terror sailed from Greeuhithe, May 24, 1845. His last despatches 
 home were dated July 12, 1845. As no later news came from him, the 
 British gov. in 1850 offered £'i0,000 reward to any who might discover or 
 assist the missing ships. Several expeditions were sent in search of them 
 from England and the U. S., viz. : 
 
 1. H. M. Bhip Plover, Capt. Moore, 
 
 jHn. 1 , 1848 
 
 2. Land Expedition under iSir J. 
 Richardso;i and Dr. Rae, Mch. 25, 1848 
 
 3. Sir Jas. Ross, in the EnterpriH". 
 and Jwoestigator June 12, 1848 
 
 4. C.ipt. CoUinson and Com. Mc- 
 Clure Bailed in same ve-sels 
 
 June 20, 1850 
 
 5. Capt. Austin, in the Ile.>i lute, 
 &o Apr. 25, 1850 
 
 6. Capta. Penny and Steward, in the 
 Lady FntnkUn, &c Apr. 13, 1850 
 
 7. The Grinnell (Amer.) exped - 
 tion, under l)e Haven (Dr. Kane, 
 surgeon), in the Advance and 
 Rescue May 25, 1850 
 
 8. Sir John Ross in the Felix, 
 
 May 22, 1850 
 
 9. Sir Ewd. Belcher's expedition 
 (5 vessels), Assisttince, &c. 
 
 Apr. 15, 1862 
 Lady Franklin fitted out the 
 four next (^jrivate) expeditions, 
 viz. : 
 
 10. The Prince Albert.... Jme 5, 1850 
 
 11. The same vessel June 4, 1851 
 
 12. The Isabel, Com. Inglefield, 
 
 Nov. 1852 
 
 13. The same vessel 1853 
 
 14. H. M. S. Rattlesnake.... Avay. 1853 
 
 15. Second American exptd. (Dr. 
 Kane, in the J.rfca«ce).. .June 1853 
 
 16. The Pkcenix and others under 
 Capt, Inglefield '. . .May, 1854 
 
 17. 3d American exped. (in search 
 of Dr. Kane), Lieut. Hartstene, 
 in the Release and steamer 
 Arrtic May 31, 1S55 
 
 19. The 18th British exp. equipped 
 by Lady Franklin and friends, 
 in the Fox, Capt. McClintock 
 (found remains of the Franklin 
 Expedition), sailed.... . .Juiy 1, 1857 
 
 20. 41 li. American exped. (' n se-irch 
 of Pii'ar sea), under Dr. Hayes 
 (surgeon to Kane exped.), sailed 
 from Boston July, 1 860 
 
 Returned 1863 
 
 FREE TRADE, Principles advocated by Adam Smith in his " Wealth of 
 Nations" (1776), triumphed in England when the corn laws were abolished in 
 1846, and the commercial treaty with France was adopted in 1860. Mr. Richard 
 Cobden, who was very instrumental in passing these measures, has been 
 termed "The Apostle of Free Trade." Since 1880 the British exports have 
 been tripled. In New York the advocates of Free Trade established a 
 " League " in 1866 (V) Wm. Cullen Bryant, President ; and a monthly periodical 
 called the League was first issued May 1867. 
 
 FRESCO PAINTINGS are executed on plaster while fresh. Very ancient onea 
 
6 4 THE world's progress. 
 
 exist in Egypt and Italy, and modern ones in the British houses of parlia 
 nient, at Berlin, and other places. The fresco paintings by Giotto and others 
 at the Campo Santo, a cemetery at Pisa, executed in the 13th century, are 
 justly celebrated. 
 
 FRONDE, Civil waks of the, in France, in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-53), 
 duiing the govei anient of the queen, Anne of Austria, and Cardinal Maza- 
 riu, betwetii the followers of the court and the nobility, and the Parliament 
 and the citizens. The latter were called Frondeurs (slingers), it is said, from 
 an incident in a street quarrel. 
 
 FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL, introduced in the U. S. Senate by Mr. Mason of Va., 
 and passed, Sept., 1850. It imposes a fine of $1,000 and 6 mos. imprisonment 
 on any person harboring fugitive slaves or aiding their escape. It was de- 
 clared by the Sup. Court of Wisconsin to be unconstitutional, Feb. 3, 1855. 
 This law was repealed by Congress, June 23, 1864. 
 
 G 
 
 GALAPAGOS. Islands on the coast of Ecuador (N. Pacific), ceded to the United 
 States by Ecuador, Nov. 3, 1854, the British, French, and other powers pro- 
 testing against it. 
 
 GALATIA. An ancient province of Asia Minor. In the 3d century 
 B. c. the Gauls under Brennus invaded Gr'eece, crossed the Helles- 
 pont, and conquered the Troas 278 ; were checked by Attains in a 
 battle about 239 ; and then settled in what was called afterwards Gallogrse- 
 cia and Galatia. The country was annexed to the Roman empire 
 B. c. 25, on the death of the king Amyntas. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians 
 was probably written a. d. 58. 
 
 GAME LAWS (p. 330), have been enacted in several states for the protection of 
 game during certain seasons, to prevent its entire destruction. 
 
 GAMUT. The invention of the scale of musical intervals (commonly termed 
 do, re, w^^, /a, sol^ la, si), for which the seven first letters of the alphabet are 
 now employed, is ascribed to Guido Aretino, a Tuscan monk, about 1025. 
 
 GAS (p. 332). Introduced in Boston, 1822 (?); New York, 1823 (N. Y. Gas 
 Light Co.); now used in nearly every large town of the United States. Used 
 in 43 towns of N, Y. State, 1860. Price in 1860 ranged from $1 50 per cu- 
 bic foot in Pittsburg, Pa., to $7 in Belfast, Me., and other places. 
 
 GAUL, Gallia. The ancient name of France and Belgium. The natives were 
 termed by the Greeks, Galatae, by the Romans, Galli or Celtse. They came 
 originally from Asia, and invading eastern Europe, were driven westward 
 and settled in Spain (in Gallicia), North Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), France and 
 Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the British Isles (the lands of the Cymrior 
 Gaeli). They gave great trouble to the rising Roman republic by their fre- 
 quent invasions, 528 to 591 B. c. The Gauls under Brennus defeated the 
 Romans and sacked Rome, but were expelled by Camillus, b. c. 390 They 
 overran Northern Greece, b. c. 280. Gaul invaded by Julius Caesar and 
 subdued in eight campaigns, b. c. 68-50. Christianity introduced in Gaul, 
 A. D. 160. Franks and other invaders defeated by Aurelian, a. d. 241. Ju- 
 lian proclaimed emperor at Paris, 360. Invasion and settlement of Burgun- 
 dians, Franks, Vissigoths, &c., 406-450. Huns under Attila defeated near 
 Chalons, 451. Paris taken by Childerick, the Frank, 464. Frank kingdom, 
 estabUshed, 476. History of Gaul by Parke Godwin, pub. New York, 1860. 
 
 GAUNTLET. An iron gloVe, first introduced in the 13th century, perhapi 
 
SUPPLEMEisrr, 1851-67. 55 
 
 about 1225. It was a part of the full suit of armor, being the armor for the 
 hand. It was commonly thrown down as a challenge to an adversary. 
 
 GAUZE. This fabric was much prized by the Roman people, about the begin- 
 ning of the 1st century. " Brocades and damasks, and damasks and gauzes, 
 have been lately brought over" (to Ireland). — JDean Swift, in 1698. The 
 manufacture of gauze and articles of a like fabric, at Paisley, in Scotland, 
 where they maintain great repute, was commenced about 1759. 
 
 GENEALOGY (from the Greek, genea^ birth, descent), Theart of tracing pedi- 
 grees, &c. The earliest pedigrees are those contained in the 5th, lOth, and 
 11th chapters of Genesis. The first book of Chronicles contains many geneal- 
 ogies. The pedigree of Christ is given in Matt, i. and Luke iii. Many 
 books on the subject have been published in ail European countries: one at 
 Magdeburg, Theatrum Genealogicum, by Henuinges, in 1598; Anderson, 
 Royal Genealogies, London, I'ZS'i; Sims's Manual for the Genealogist, &c., 
 1856, will be found a useful guide. The works of Collins (1756 et seq.\ Ed- 
 moodson (1764-84), and Nicolas (1825), on the British peerage universally 
 esteemed. The Genealogical Society, London, was established in 1853, The 
 .N'ew England Hist, and Genealogvcal Soc.^ founded 184-, publishes a quarterly 
 magazine on those subjects, A volume called American, Genealogies, publish- 
 ed in Albany, 1855, and numerous private publications of family genealogies, 
 have been printed in New England, Savage's Genealogical Hist, of N. Eng- 
 land. 4 vols. 8vo., Bost, 1860-1. 
 
 GENOA (N. Italy) (p 833.) April, 1849, the city was seized by insurgents, 
 who, after a murderous struggle, drove out the garrison, and proclaimed a 
 republic, but soon after surrendered to General Marmora. Genoa warmly 
 supported its sovereign, Victor Emanuel, in the struggle with Austria (1859), 
 and furnished nsany volunteers for Garibaldi's demonstration on Naples, 1860. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY, U, S. The Am. Geographical and Statistical Society was incor- 
 porated April 3, 1852, at N. Y. It publishes occasionally a Journal chiefly of 
 original papers. 
 
 GEOLOGY Works on, U. S, "Geology of the Globe" by Prof. E. Hitchcock, 
 
 1 853. Prof. St. John's Elements of Geology, 1856. " Text-book of Geology," 
 Prof, Dana, 1863. Besides these text-books there are many treatises and 
 reports on Geology which are to be found in most of the large libraries in the 
 country, such as Prof Hall's Geology of New York; Owen's, of Indiana; Per- 
 cival's, of Wisconsin; Hitchcock's, of Massachusetts ; each in quarto volumes. 
 
 GEORGIA. Population in 1860 (including 462,198 slaves), 1,057,286. Act of 
 '* secession" passed Jan. 19, 1861. The state was occupied by Sherman's 
 army in his great march, and Savannah surrendered to him Dec , 1864. Debt 
 of the state in Oct., 1S66, $5,706,5( 0. Georgia, the ancient Iberia, now a 
 province of S. Russia, near the Caucasus, submitted to Alexander, 323 b. c, 
 but threw off the yoke of his successors. It was subjugated to Rome by 
 Pompey, 65 b. c, but retained its own sovereigns. Christianity was intro- 
 duced into it in the 3d century. In the 8th century, after a severe struggle, 
 Georgia was subdued by the Arab caliphs ; by the Turkish sultan Alp-Arslan, 
 1068;^ and by the Tartar hordes, 1235. From the 14th to the 18th centuries, 
 Georgia was successively held by the Persian and Turkish monarchs. In 1740 
 Nadir Shah established part of Georgia as a principality, of which the last 
 ruler, Heraclius, surrendered his territories to the czar in 1799; and in 1802 
 Georgia was declared to be a Russian province. 
 
 GERMANY, (p. 335.) 
 
56 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 • Gerinan' National Assembly 
 elected the King of Prussia 
 emncror of G-cimany, (but de- 
 clined) March 28, 1849 
 
 Treaty between Austria and 
 
 Prusf^in Stpt. 30, 1849 
 
 Treaty of Aiuuicii betw. Bavaria, 
 Saxony, and Wnrtembura-. 
 
 Feb 27, 1850 
 German Confederation Assem- 
 bly, at Frankfort Sept. 2, 1850 
 
 Austrian and Bavaiian demon- 
 stration against Hesse-Cassel. 
 
 Nov. 1,1850 
 
 See Austria, Prussia, Hanover, &c. 
 
 Conference at Dresden, for set- 
 tling German aiKiirs. 
 
 Dec. 1850 to May, 18^1 
 
 Great excitement thronghout 
 G. rmany in regard to French 
 Buccessesin Lombardy ; appre- 
 hension of French designs on 
 German territory... May- June, 1859 
 
 Meeting of new Li beral Party at 
 Eisenach, in Saxe-Weimar, 
 proposing a strong • central i 
 
 gov't., (no practical results). 
 
 Aug. 14, 1859 
 
 GETTYSBURG, Battle of, U. S. Fought July, 1, 2, 3, 1863, at Gettysburg, Penn. 
 near the Maryland line. Union forces 60,000 and 200 guns ; Confederate 
 about 80j000. On the first day the 1st and 11th corps, (U. S. forces) were at- 
 tacked and beaten by the superior numbers of the enemy : Maj.-Gen. Beynolds 
 (U. S. A.) killed. On the second day, the 12th 3d and 2d corps came up, apd 
 the whole under command of General Meade formed line on Cemetery Ridge. 
 No fighting until 4 P. M., when a terrible artillery fire was opened by the 
 rebels, and fierce assaults made on the left and then on the right of 
 the Union army. The contest was heavy and doubtful until evening, when 
 the enemy retired. On the third day the same furious charging and stubborn 
 resistance was continued The Union army bravely held its ground, and at 
 night the enemy retreated. Union loss 2,834 killed, ISjTOQ woinided, 6,643 
 missing. In the brief campaign which ended with this battle, the rebels lost 
 3 guns, 41 standards, 13,021 prisoners, besides an enormous number of killed 
 and wounded. Over 6,000 men, loyal and rebel, were buried on the field. 
 The Union victory was of immense importance to the country at that critical 
 period. 
 
 GHOSTS are now produced by optical science. Mr. Dircks described his method 
 at the British Association meeting in 1858. Dr. John Taylor exhibited scien- 
 tific ghosts in March, 1863. Mr. Pepper exhibited the ghost illusion at the 
 Royal Polytechnic institution, July, 1863. See Gock-lane Ghost. 
 
 GIRONDISTS. The name of a party, which played an important part in the 
 French Revolution, and was principally composed of deputies from the depart- 
 ment of the Gironde. At first they were ardent republicans, but after the 
 cruelty of Aug. and Sept., 1792, they labored strenuously to restrain the cru- 
 elties of the Mountain party, to whom they succumbed. Their leaders, Brissot,} 
 Vergmand, and many others were guillotined, Oct. 13, 1793, at the instigation 
 of Robespierre. Lamartine's eloquent " Histoire des Girondins," published in 
 1847, tended to hasten the revolution of 1848. 
 
 GLASGOW, Scotland, (p. 337.) Erected into a burgh, a. d. 1180. Its pros- 
 perity dates from the union of the kingdoms in 1707, and was much increased 
 by American trade. Population in 1707, about 12,000; in 1861, 394,857. 
 
 GLYCERINE, discovered by Scheele, about 1779, and termed by him the 
 " sweet principle of fats," and further studied by Chevreul, termed the " father 
 of the fatty acids." It is obtained pure by saponifying olive oil or animal fat 
 with oxide of lead, or litharge. Glycerine is now much employed in medicine 
 and the arts. 
 
 GNOSTICS (from the Greek, gnosis, knowledge). " Heretics," who appeared 
 from the first rise of Christianity, and who endeavored to combine the simple 
 principles of the Gospel with the PlatOLic and the other philosophies. They 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 5? 
 
 were so called because they pretended to extraordinary illuminations and 
 knowledge. Priscillian, a Spaniard, was burnt at Treves as a heretic, in 384, 
 for endeavoring to revive Gnosticism. 
 
 GOLD MINES, (p 339.) On April 28, 1858, a nugget from Australia, said to 
 weigh 146 pounds, was shown to Queen Yictoria. In 1858, gold was discov- 
 ered in what is now termed New Columbia, British America. Said to have 
 been found in Vermont, 1859. Australia pioduced as follows: 
 1851. 1852. 1S56. 1857. 
 
 £907,000 £9.735,000 £12,740,000 £11,764,000 
 
 GOLD AND SILVER, (p. 339.) Chevalier estnnated the total amount of gold 
 and silver existing in various forms in 1848, at 8,5(iO millions of dollars, of 
 which one-third was supposed to be gold. The annual gold product from 
 1800 to 1850, was 16 millions of dollars. The U. S. Mint received 41 milhons 
 in 1858, all but $400,000 being from California. The exports of gold from 
 the U. S. in recent years were as follows (stated in millions of dollars). 
 
 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 
 7i i;9J. 42|. 27i. 41. 56. 45. 69. 53. 64. 66|. 28. 36. 63. 69. 54. 86. 
 
 GORGET. The ancient breastplate, or gorget, was very large, and extended to 
 the body and limbs of the warrior or knight, as armor ; but its size and weight 
 varied at different periods. The present modern diminutive breastplate was 
 in use at the period of the Restoration, 1660, or shortly after. 
 
 GORILLA. A large ape of West Africa, in anatomical structure the nearest ap- 
 proach to man of any known animal. It is a match for the lion, and attacks 
 the elephant with a club. It is considered to be identical with the hairy peo- 
 ple called GoruUai^ by the navigator Hanno, in his Feriplus, about b. c. 400 or 
 500. Preserved specimens have been recently brought to Europe, and a living 
 one died on its voyage to France. In 1859, Prof. Owen discoursed on Goril- 
 las. The Gorilla was not known to Cuvier. Du Chaillu in his African adven- 
 tures, 1860-1, killed 21 of them, and exhibited some of their skulls in Loudon 
 and the U. S. 
 
 GRANADA. A renowned city of Spain ; was subdued by the Moors in the 10th 
 century, and formed at fiisi part of the kingdom of Cordova. 1236, Mohammed- 
 al-Hamar made it the capital of his new kingdom of Granada, which was highly 
 prosperous till its subjugation by the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova, in 
 I4y2. In 1609-10, the useful and industrious Moors were expelled from 
 Spain by the bigoted Philip III., to the lasting injury of his country. Granada 
 was taken by Marshal Soult in 1810, and held till 1812. 
 
 GREECE, (p. 343.) 
 
 Harbor of Piraeus blockaded by 
 British fleet under Admiral 
 Paiker, to cnfoice gome mer- 
 cantile claim? Jan 18, 1850 
 
 The dispute settled April 19, 1850 
 
 Rupture between Greece and 
 Turkey March 18,1854 
 
 Olympic aames proposed to be 
 revivedT Oct. 1858 
 
 The national assembly elects M. 
 Balbis president, Jan. 29; and 
 declares Prince Alfred of Eng- 
 land elected King of Greece, 
 by 230,016 out of 241,202 votes. 
 
 Feb. 3, 1863 
 
 Militnry revolt of Lieut. Canaris 
 against Bulgaria and otliers, 
 who resign, Peb. 20 ; the as- 
 sembly appoint a new ministry 
 under Balbis Feb. i3, 1863 
 
 The assembly dec des to offer the 
 crown to Prii ce "William of 
 Schieswig-Holsteln, March 18, 
 and proclaim him as King 
 Gerrge 1 March £0, 1863 
 
 Military revull at Athens, sup- 
 pressed Jul e 30, July 9, 1863 
 
 The King arrives at Athens, Oct. 
 30 ; takes the oath to the con- 
 Btiiution Oct. 31, 1863 
 
 " GREENBACKS," U. S. A term given to legal-tender notes issued by the U. 
 S. Treasury, in 1862. So called on account of the green print on their backs. 
 All national bank notes are known by this name. The merit of the green tint 
 
58 THE woeld's progress. ^ 
 
 is that it cannot be photographed or in any way counterfeited. It was first dis- 
 covered by a Canadian, The " American Bank Xote Company" print the notes. 
 
 GREENWICH OBSERVATORY, near London, built in reign of Charles II. 
 The " Astronomers Royal," who have superintended astronomical observations 
 here, were Flamsteed, 1675; Halley, 1719; Bradley, 1742; Maskelyne, 1764; 
 John Pond, 1811 ; Geo. B. Airy (the present A. R.), 1835. 
 
 GUANO, OR HUANO. (The Peruvian term for manure.) The excrement of sea- 
 birds that nestle in prodigious swarms along the Peruvian shores. This sub- 
 stance is found chiefly on certain small islands, called the Lobos, lying oif the 
 coasts of Peru and Bolivia. Humboldt was one of the first by whom it was 
 carried to Europe, on ascertaining its value in agriculture. — McCulloch, It 
 is also found on Jarvis's, Baker's, and Hovvland's islands, on the Pacific coast, 
 from which it is brought by the American Guano Co., of New York, who im- 
 ported in 1858. 15,000 tons, and exported in 1860, no less than 100,000 tons. In 
 1857, the U. S. imported 213,000 tons, and Great Britain, 205,000 tons. 
 In 1864, 4,131,358 tons. 
 
 GUATEMALA. A republic in Central America; declared independent 1821 
 President (1859), General Carrera, elected 1851. It is the most populous of 
 five states of Cent. Amer., having 971,450 in 1851. 
 
 GUIANA (N. E. coast of South America), was visited by the Spaniards in the 16th, 
 century ; explored by Sir Walter Rileigh in 1596 and 1617. The Erench set- 
 tlements here were formed in 1626-43 ; and tiie Dutch, 1627-67. Demerara 
 and Essequibo were ceded to Great Britain in 1814. 
 
 GUN-COTTON, A highly inflammable and explosive substance, discovered by 
 Professor Schonbein, of Basil, and made known by him in 1846. It is, to all ap- 
 pearance, common cotton wool, and is purified cotton steeped in a mixture 
 composed of equal parts of nitric and suphuric acid and afterwards dried. Dr. 
 Boettenger and others also lay claim to the discovery. 
 
 GUNTER'S SCALE. Invented by Edmund Gunter, an English mathematician, 
 who died 1626. 
 
 GUTTA PERCHA, is procured from the sap of the Isonandra Gutta, a Targe 
 forest tree, growing in the Malayan Peninsula, and on the islands near it. 
 Previous to 1844, the very name of gutta percha was unknown to European 
 commerce. In that year two cwt. wfere shipped experimentally from Singa- 
 pore. The exportation of gutta percha from that port rose in 1845 to 169 
 piculs (the picul is 1,330 lbs.); in 1846, to 5,364 ; in 1847, to 9,292 ; and in 
 the first seven months of 1848, to 6,768 piculs. In the first four and ahalf years 
 of the trade, 21,598 piculs of gutta percha, valued at $274, 190, were shipped 
 at Singapore, the whole of which was sent to England, with the exception of 
 15 piculs to Mauritius, 470 to the continent of Europe, and 922 to the United 
 States. The great variety of articles for domestic use, the ornamental arts, 
 &c., to which this material has been apphed, has given employment to thou- 
 sands, not only in the factories of our own and other countries, but also to the 
 gatherers in the Indian Archipelago, with whom it at present constitutes one of 
 their most profitable articles of export. In 1848, S. T. Armstrong, of Brook- 
 lyn, N. Y., first apphed it for coating telegraph wires. J. J. Craven, of 
 Newark, N. J., claims to have applied it thus at the same time or before. 
 Charles Goodyear used it, in connection with caoutchouc, for various articles 
 of common use ; a large boat made of gutta percha was exhibited in New York, 
 1858. 
 
 GYROSCOPE. (From gyrare^ to revolve.) The name of a new, popular, rotatory , 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 59 
 
 apparatus, invented by Fessel, of Cologne (1853), since improved by Professor 
 Wheatstone, and Mr. Foucault, of Paris. It is similiar in appearance to the 
 rotatory apparatus of Bohnenberger, of Tiibingen (born 1'765, died 1831). The 
 gyroscope exhibits the combined effects of the centrifugal and centripetal 
 forces, and the remarkable results of the cessation of either. It thus illustrates 
 the great law of gravitation. 
 
 H. 
 
 HAARLEM. An ancient town, once the residence of the counts of Holland ; was 
 taken by the duke of Alva, in July, 1573, after a siege of seven months. He 
 violated the capitulation by butchering half the inhabitants. The lake was 
 drained in 1849-51. 
 
 HABEAS CORPUS. The constitution of the U. S. provides that this law (adopt- 
 ed from that of England) " shall not be suspended unless when in case of rebel- 
 lion or invasion the public safety may require it," 1787. President Lincoln 
 authorized Gen. Scott to suspend the privilege if it became necessary, April 
 27, 1861. In Sept. 1862, it was not allowed to relieve persons arrested by 
 military authority for disloyal practices. The President (authorized by express 
 Act of Congress) proclaimed a general suspension of the privilege of habeas 
 corpus^ to " continue throughout the duration of the rebellion," Sept. 15, 1863. 
 C. L. Vallandigham, ex-member of Congress, being arrested for disloyal ut- 
 terances, was refused the privilege of the writ, and sent into the rebel lines, 
 May, 1863. Great excitement among his friends and sympathizers in the 
 country. 
 
 HANOVER. Population in 1864, 1,923,492, of whom 1,584,700 belonged to the 
 Lutheran church, and 226,000 to the Catholic. The army numbered 26,900 
 men. 3,618 vessels of all kinds composed the merchant navy. This state 
 was annexed to Prussia, Aug., 1866, against its will. 
 
 HARPER'S FERRY, Va. A village at the junction of the Potomac and Shen- 
 andoah. Population in 1860, about 5,000. The scene of " John Brown's raid," 
 On Oct. l7, 1859, he with 16 wliite and five colored men seized the U. S. 
 arsenal at this point, took 60 citizens prisioners, and gave out as his object 
 "to free the slaves." The insurgents were overcome on the morning of the 
 18th. Those who did not escape or were not killed, were executed. This af- 
 fair created intense excitement througliout the country. At the breaking out 
 of the rebellion, Lieut. Jones evacuated and blew up the arsenal, April 18, 1861. 
 Sept. 16, 1862, Col. Miles and 11,000 U. S. troops surrender to *' Stonewall 
 Jackson," at Harper's Ferry. In 1867 it was decided not to re-establish the 
 arsenal there. 
 
 HARVARD COLLEGE, TJ. S. Established 1638, at Cambridge, Mass. Denom- 
 ination, Unitarian. In 1863, it had 44 instructors; 814 students in all depart- 
 ments; 7,440 alumni, of whom 2,679 were living. Value of its buildings and 
 endowments, over $2,000,000. Annual expenses of the University, $130,000. 
 Its commencement occurs the third Wednesday of July. President : Rev. 
 Thomas Hill, D. D. 
 
 HAYTI. (p. 250.) Faustin I., deposed Dec. 25, 1858, and Gen. Geffrard madr 
 President of the Republic of Hayti. 
 
 HEALTH, Board of, N. Y. Act passed by the Legislature of New York, Feb. 
 26, 1866, establishing a " Board of Health and Sanitary District for the preser- 
 vation of life and health, and to prevent the spread of disease." It was organ- 
 ized March 5, 1866 ; Dr. E. B. Dalton, Superintendent. The district includes 
 the counties of New York, Kings, Westchester, Richmond, and part of Queens. 
 
60 THE world's progress. 
 
 First annual report Nov. 1, 1866. It issued 22,592 orders requiring nuisancea 
 to be removed. Death rate in New York city, 1 in 33.33 ; in London, 1 in 45. 
 HELLENES. The Greek race which supplanted the Pelasgians from the 15th to 
 11th cent. B.C., derived their name from Hellen, king of Phthiotis, about b.c 
 1600. From them came the Dorians, JEolians, lonians, and Achieans. 
 
 HELVETn. A Celto-Germanic people, who inhabited what is now called Swit- 
 zerland. The "Helvetian Republic" was established in Switzerland, in 1798. 
 
 HERCULANEUM. (p. 352.) The Antichita di Ercolano. 8 vols, folio, publish- 
 ed by Neapolitan government, 1757-92. 
 
 HESSIAN FLY. This plague to agriculturists was introduced in this country by 
 the foreign mercenaries on Long Island, 1777, from their baggage or in the 
 forage of their horses. 
 
 HIPPOPOTAMUS (p. 327) (Greek, river horse). A native of Africa, known to, 
 but incorrectly described by ancient writers. Hippopotami were exhibited at 
 Rome by Commodus, and others, about a. d. 138. The first in England, in 
 1850, is now in the Zoological Gardens, London ; another, (a female, four 
 months old), was placed there in 1864. Two young ones, born at Pai-is, in 
 May, 1858, and June, 1859, were killed by their mother. 
 
 HISTORICAL SOCIETIES, U. S. The one in New York City was organized 
 Dec. 10, 1804, and incorporated Feb, 1(>, I899. It now numbers nearly 
 2,000 members. After occupying rooms many years in the New York Uni- 
 versity Buildings, it was removed in 1857 to a new fire-proof building on 2d 
 avenue, corner of 11th street, which was dedicated, Nov. 17, of that year. 
 The society possesses a library of over 30,000 volumes, particularly rich in 
 historical works and manusciipts, a choice gallery of paintings, and a collection 
 of antiquities, coins, medals and charts. Among its collections are a series of 
 large tablets of Assyrian sculpture, the gift of James Lenox, Esq. The 
 Massachusetts Historical Society, founded 1791, is limited to fifty members. 
 This society has a valuable library, including a very choice collection of books 
 in English literature, bequeathed to it by the late Thomas Dowse, of Cam- 
 bridgeport, a leather-dresser, whose library was one of the best of its kind in 
 the country. The Massachusetts Historicnl Society has published about 30 
 vols, of transactions and historical collections. There are historical societies 
 also in nearly every state in the Union, several of which have valuable col- 
 lections, and have published transactions. 
 
 HOMCEOPATHY. This science — the essential characteristic of which consists in 
 the use of such remedies against any disease as, in a healthy person, would 
 produce a similar but not precisely the same disease, its fundamental prin- 
 ciple being similia similibns cm'aiUur — was introduced by Samuel Hahnemann, 
 a native of Meissen, in Saxony (born April 10, 1755, died at Paris, 1843). The 
 first periodical organ of the system was established 1822. Although violently 
 attacked and ridiculed by " allopathic " practitioners the system was practised 
 in 1860 by about 1,200 physicians in Europe, and 2,500 in the United States. 
 It has 3 hospitals, 3 colleges, and 3 journals, and about 30 societies in the U. S., 
 and all these are numerous in England, France, and Germany. (1861.) An 
 attempt to establish a State Homoeopathic Hospital, in Connecticut, was stren- 
 uously opposed (1866). The matter was compromised, the Legislature allow- 
 ing the Homoeopathists certain rights in the hospitals. 
 
 HONDURAS. One of the republics of Central America {which see). Great Britain 
 ceded the Bay Islands to Honduras, Nov. 28, 1859. Its present president, 
 general J. M. Medina, was elected for four years, Feb. 1, 1864. Population, 
 
SUPPIiEMElSIT, 1851-67. 61 
 
 about 350,000 (1860). British Honduras^ Central America, was settled by 
 English from Jamaica soon after a treaty with Spain in 1667. They were 
 often disturbed by the Spaniards and sometimes expelled, till 1783. Balize 
 or Belize, the capital is the great seat of the mahogany trade. In 1861, the 
 population was '25,635, and the revenue £35,757. 
 
 HONG-KONG. An island off the coast of China. The British under Capt. 
 Elliott took possession of it in 1839 ; founded the chief town, Victoria, in 
 1842 ; made it a bishopric in 1849. Sir John Bo wring was governor from 
 1854 to 1859. 
 
 HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY op London. Founded 1804, Publishes annual 
 volumes of transactions ; has had annual exhibitions since 1831. 
 
 HUMAN RACE. Dr. Pickering enumerates eleven different races, of which the 
 names and numbers, supposing the whole human family to be 900,000,000, are 
 as follows : 
 
 AbyesiniaB 3,000,000 
 
 Papuan 3 000,000 
 
 Negrillo 3,000,000 
 
 Australian 500,000 
 
 Hottentot 500,000 
 
 Bern dies at Aleppo, ....Dec. 10, 1850 
 The country remains sn an ui.- 
 
 settled state , many executions 1 853-5 
 Crown of St. Stephen and royal 
 
 ins gnia discovered and sent to 
 
 Vienna Sept. 8, 1853 
 
 Amnesty for polit.cai offenders 
 
 of 1S48-9 .July 12, 1856 
 
 The Emperor of Austria clowned 
 
 king of Hungary, with great 
 
 pomp June, 1867 
 
 Kossuth elected to Hungarian 
 
 Parliament July,1867 
 
 White 350,000,000 
 
 Mongolian 300 000,000 
 
 Malayan 120,000,000 
 
 Telingan 60,000,000 
 
 Negro 55,000,000 
 
 Ethiopian 5,000,000 
 
 HUNGARY. (See p. 359.) 
 
 Kossuth, Bern, &c., escape to the 
 Turkish frontiers, and are 
 
 ? laced under the protection of 
 'urkey, at New Orsova, (See 
 Turkey) Aug. 21, 1849 
 
 Komorn surrenders to the Aus- 
 triane ; close of the war.. Sep 27 1849 
 
 Batthyani tried at Pesth, and 
 shot ; many other insurgent 
 chiefs put to death Oct. 6, 1849 
 
 Amnesty granted to the Hun- 
 garian insurgents, who return 
 home Oct. 16, 1849 
 
 HYDROGEN (from hydor^ water), under the name of combustible air was ob- 
 tained by Paracelsus in the 16th century. In 1766, Cavendish described ifs 
 properties ; and, in 1781, he and Watt tirst showed that in the combinaaon 
 of this gas with oxygen, which takes place when it is burnt, water is produced ; 
 subsequently Lavoisier decomposed water into its elements. One volume of 
 oxygen combines with two volumes of hydrogen, and forms water. Hydrogen 
 is never found in the free state, Gmelin. 
 
 HYDROPATHY. A term applied to a treatment of diseases by water, commonly 
 called the cold water cure. The system was suggested in 1828 by Vincenz 
 Priessnitz, of Grafenberg, in Austrian Silesia; and though he is considered 
 as its founder, the rational part of the doctrine was understood and maintained 
 by the eminent Dr. Sydenham, before 1689. Priessnitz died Nov. 26, 1851. 
 Brande. Hydropathic Societ'y. formed in London, 1842. First Hydro, estab- 
 lishment in U. S., at 63 Barclay St., N. Y., 1844. Those at New Lebanon, 
 N. Y., and Brattleboro, Vt., opened 1845. 
 
 ICE TRADE, THE, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor, of 
 Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to 
 Calcutta, in 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are 
 capable of containing 141,332 tons. In 1854, Boston shipped 156,540 tons. 
 
62 THE world's progress. 
 
 In New York in 1855, 305,000 tons were stored up. The exports of Ice from 
 1861) to 1866, averagtd about 48,0()0 tons. During the four years ending June 
 30, 1861, $712,000 worth was exported from the U. S. In 1856, $8,OUO,(jOO 
 were invested in the ice trade, giving employment to 8,(.'00 or 10,000 men. 
 Ice is not subject to duty in the U. S. 600,000 tons were provided for the 
 consumption of N. Y. city in 1867. 
 
 ICHTHYOLOGY. The science of fish. Eminent writers are Willoughby, Kay, 
 Valenciennes, Cuvier, Owen, Agassiz, &c. Yarrell's "British Fishes" (1836- 
 69), is a classical work. 
 
 ICONOCLASTS (image-breakers). The controversy respecting images (which 
 had been introduced into churches for popular instruction about 300), was 
 begun about 726, and occasioned many insurrections in the Eastern Em- 
 pire. Leo Isauricus published two edicts for demolishing images in churches 
 in that year, and enforced them with great rigor in 736. The defenders of 
 images were again persecuted in 752 and 761, when Constantino forbade his 
 subjects becoming monks. The worship of images was restored by Irene in 
 780. This schism was the occasion of the second council of Nice, 787. The- 
 ophilus banished all the painters and statuaries from the Eastern Empire, 832. 
 The Iconoclasts were finally excommunicated in 869. This controversy led to 
 the separation of the Greek and Latin churches. In the contests between the 
 Iconoclasts and their opponents, thousands perished. Many images in churches 
 were destroyed in England and Scotland during the Reformation and the 
 civil war, 1641-8. 
 
 IDAHO, U. S. Organized as a territory March 3, 1863. Area, 326,373 square 
 miles. Population in 1864 about 24,000. This territory has been settled 
 rapidly by adventurers and gold seekers, within the past few years (1867). 
 Boise City is the capital. Estimated product of gold and silver in 1865, 
 
 $7,000,000. 
 
 IDES. In the Roman calendar, the thirteenth day of each month, except in 
 March, May, July, and October, in which it was the fifteenth day ; in these 
 four, it was six days before the nones, and in the other m.onths, four days. 
 The Ide of March was the day on which Julius Caesar was assassinated in the 
 senate house by Brutus, Cassius, Casca, and other conspirators, 44 b. c. 
 
 IDIOTS, Education of. The first efforts for the education of idiots in America, 
 were in 1839. In that year, the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb in New 
 York received a mute boy, who was instructed for three years, by Professor 
 Morris, with favorable results. The same year, Dr. Howe of Boston treated 
 and greatly improved a blind idiotic child, and afterwards two others. Two 
 or three children were also under instruction at the American Asylum at Hart- 
 ford before 1848. 
 
 ILLINOIS, U. S. Population in 1850, 851,470; in 1860, 1,691,233. Increase 
 1840-50, 80 per cent. ; 1850-60, 99 per cent. Population in 1866, 2,151,007 ; 
 gain since 1860»of 459,774. Assessed valuation of property in 1865, $391, 
 683,284. From April 1861 to Jan. 1863, the State placed in the field 119,400 
 men. Amount expended for school purposes in 1861, $2,007,000. Number 
 of schools 9,811. There are in the State, 1 institution for deaf mutes, 1 for 
 the insane, 1 for the blind. 
 
 IMPORTS, U. S. The value of imports during the war greatly decreased. In 
 1860 they amounted to $362,000,000 ; in 1862 $205,000,000 ; in 1865 $234, 
 000,000 ;" in 1866, $437,000,000. See Exports. Into Great Britain, from all 
 parts of the world : 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 
 
 63 
 
 In 1710 £4,753,777 In 3850 £95,252,084 
 
 1800 30,570.605 1857 187,844,441 
 
 1810 41,1^6,135 1859 179,182,355 
 
 1820 36,514,564 1861 217,485,024 
 
 1840 62,()04,0i.C 186^ 274.863,924 
 
 I 1865 271,i34,%9 
 
 INCOME TAX, British (p 801), wns doubled during the Ciiniean war (1854). 
 It produced in 1855, £13,718.185. In ItSG, £15,71'7,lo5. In 1858, £1 1,396, 
 435; in 1861, £10,923,186; in 18G5, £7,958,000. Unitep States. Levied 
 by act of Congress July 1, 1862. Tax on incomes from $600, to $10,000, 3 
 per cent. ; over $10,(00, 5 per cent. Receipts from this source in 1863, 
 $455^741; in 1864, $14,919,280; in 1865, the rate being 10 per cent, over 
 $5,000, $20,740,451; in 1866. $61,071,932. In 1866 a single merchant of 
 New York paid the sum of $407,125 as a T'ax on his income for 1865, the in- 
 come being stated by himself, as amounting to $4,071,250 ; probably the largest 
 perfjonal tax of the kind ever paid. The law of 1866 taxed all income over 
 $1,000, 5 per cent. 
 
 INDEPENDENTS, (p. 305.) In 1851, they had 3,244 cl.apels in England and 
 Wales, 
 
 INDIA, (p. 366.) Mutiny and war against the British, 1857. 
 
 Haveiock dits of djsentery at 
 
 Begun at Earrackpore..., March, 1857 
 
 Mutiny at Mcerut near Delhi. 
 
 Mav 10, 1857 
 
 Martial law procla'med May, 1857 
 
 Mutiny at Lucknow M.iy 30, 1857 
 
 Cawupore surrenders to Niina 
 Sahib, whi) kills the garrison, 
 &c., June 28 ; he is defeated by 
 General Haveiock, July 16, 
 who recaptures Cawnpore. 
 
 July 17, 1857 
 
 Assault of Delhi begins, Sejjt. 14 ; 
 the city taken, Sept. 20 ; the 
 king captured Sept. 21 ; and his 
 sun and grandson slain by Col- 
 onel Hudson Sept. 22, 1857 
 
 Haveiock marches to Lucknow 
 and relieves the besieged resi- 
 dency ; retires and leaves Out- 
 ram in command ; Neill killed. 
 
 Sept. 25, 26, 1857 
 
 Sir Colin Campbell (since Lord 
 Cl\de), !ippoi.,ted conim m ler- 
 ii'-chief. Julj- 11 ; arrives at 
 Cawnpore Nov. 3, 1857 i 
 
 Alum bag. Nov. 25, 1857 
 
 Trial of king of Delhi; sentenced 
 to trai.sportat on. 
 
 Jan. 27 to March 9, 1858 
 
 Sir C Campbell marches to Luck- 
 now, Fell. 11 ; the siege com- 
 mences March 8, taken by 
 successiv-(" RftSaults ; the enemy 
 retreat; Hudson killed. 
 
 March 14-19, 1858 
 
 The government of the East In- 
 dia Company ceases Sept. 1, 1858 
 
 The ex-kin.; of Delhi sails for the 
 Cape of Good Hope, Dec. 4-1 1 ; 
 the colonists refuse to receive 
 him ; he is sent to Rangoon 1858 
 
 Defeat of the Begum of Oude and 
 Nana Sahib by General Hoiv- 
 ford Fel 1. 10, 1859 
 
 Thanksgiving in England for 
 pacification of India May 1, 1859 
 
 INDIANA, (p. 366.) One of the western United States, first settled at Vincennes 
 by the French ; ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement 
 made by them until 1787. Was part of the N. W. Territory in 1801. Suf- 
 fered much during the war of 1812. Population in 1860, 1,350,428. Number 
 of public schools 6,098 in 1862. Common school fui;d $4,991,202. The State 
 sent 195,147 men to the war. In 1865, the Legislature voted that n<grocs 
 could be competent witnesses in courts. The "fiUibtister" General Morgan 
 invaded the State, July 9, 1863. In 24 hours 60,000 men offered their ser- 
 vices to drive him out. He effected no damage and retreated rapidly. 
 
 INDIANS, IT. S. According to the best data in the possession of the Indian De- 
 partment, at Washington, there are now (1867), between 320,000 and 350,000 
 Indians within the limits of the U. S., comprised in about seventy-five tribes, 
 and occupying about one hundred localities. 
 
 INDIAN WARS, U. S. In the war of the rebellion, the Cboctaws, Chickasaws 
 
64 THE world's progress. 
 
 and Cherokees, took sides with the Confederates. They furnished three 
 regiments. The war upon the plains commenced in April, 1864, in Colorado. 
 It Avas inaugurated by apparently too hasty action of the U. S. troops towards 
 the Cheyenues. An Indian village was soon destroyed and 40 warriors killed. 
 Fearful massacre of Indians near Fort Lyon, Nov. 28., 1864, by forces under 
 command of Col. Chiviugton. After this several Indian tribes formed an alli- 
 ance, and committed murders and depredations on the lines of travel. On 
 Dec. 21, 1865, the Sioux massacred a company of soldiers at Fort Kearny. A 
 general Indian War fairly begun in May, 1867. Gen. Sherman takes the man- 
 agement of it into his hands. Gen. Meagher declares war against the Indians 
 of Montana Territory, April 24, 1867. 
 
 INDIA RUBBER, (p. 366.) See Caoutchouc. 
 
 INFANTICIDE, Female, was very prevalent in barbarous countries. Lord Ma- 
 cartney stated that 20,000 infants were killed annually ; it is now gradually 
 decreasing in India. On Nov. 12, 1851, Mr. Raikes induced the Chohau chiefs 
 to agree to resolutions against it, and a great meeting in the Punjab was held 
 for the same purpose, Nov. 14, 1853. 
 
 INKERMANN, Battle of, Crimean war, Nov. 5, 1854. See Battles. 
 
 INQUISITION, (p. 369.) Restored by Ferdinand YIL, July 21, 1814 ; Finally 
 abolished by the Cortes, 1820. (Llorente states that in 236 years the total 
 number in Spain of persons put to death by the Inquisition, was about 32,000; 
 291,000 were subjected to other punishments. The last person burnt was at 
 Seville, Nov. 7, 1781, being a woman accused of making a contract with the 
 devil.) 
 
 INSOLVENCY in the U. S. In May, 1837, a "commercial crisis" was at its 
 height. The heavy failures in two months, in New York alone, amounted to 
 260, besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans to the amount 
 of $27,000,000 in two days. In Boston 168 failures from Nov. 1, 1836, to May 
 12, 1837. New York city banks all suspended specie payments May 10, 1837. 
 The New England banks generally, immediately after. See Bankruptcy. 
 
 INSTITUTE OF FRANCE. In 1793, the Academies of Inscriptions and Belles 
 Lettres and of the Sciences, were combined in one body under the above 
 title. 
 
 INSURANCE. The marine risks assumed by the Insurance companies of New- 
 York alone, in 1860, amounted to $80,379,892 ; in 1866, thev were $378, 8S0,- 
 003. The fire risks in 1860, were $1,049,551,594; in 1866, $2,753,793,107. 
 The losses paid in 1866, were $15,312,750. 
 
 INSURRECTIONS in the United States. Shays's Insurrection in Massachusetts, 
 (caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786, Insurrection in 
 Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794 See the accounts of Conspi- 
 racies, Massacres, RebelUons, Riots, &c. 
 
 INTEREST OF MONEY in the United States. The rates vary in different States, 
 viz. : In La., five per cent., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. J., Pa., 
 Del., Md., Va., N. C, Tenn., Ky., Ind., 111., Mo., Ark., and the United States gov- 
 ernment claims, the rate is six per cent. In N. Y., S. C, Mich., and Wis., seven 
 per cent. In Geo., Ala., Miss , and Flu., eight per cent. Laws against usury, with 
 penalty of forfeiting the whole debt, in Maine, Conn., N. Y., N. J., Penn., Del. 
 Forfeit of the usury and double, or treble the usury in 14 other States. Usurious 
 contracts void in Md., N. C, Ga., Tenn., Ohio, Ark. 
 
 INUNDATIONS, (p. 371.) Disastrous one in the centre and south-west of 
 France, on the Loire, &c., damage over £4,000,000 sterling, Oct., 1846. In 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 
 
 65 
 
 south of France with immense damage, May and June, 1856. At Ham- 
 burg, the city half flooded, Jan. 1, 1855. 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS (on W. coast of Greece). The Republic of the Seven Island?, 
 Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Ithaca, St. Maura, Cerigo, and Paxo, -which were 
 colonized by the lones, and partook of the fortunes of the Greek people ; 
 were subject to Naples in the IBth century, and in the 14th to Venice, which 
 ceded them to France, in l^yz, by the treaty of Canipo-Formio. They were 
 seized by the Russians and Turks in 1800 ; and formed into a Republic. 
 They were restored to the French in 18o7, but rettrken by the English in 
 1809. A new and very liberal constitution was granted in 1845. They are 
 now among the free states of Europe ; Corfu is the seat of government. 
 Population in 1856, 49,663. 
 
 IOWA. One of the U. S. (territory 1838), admitted into the Union as a state, 
 Dec. 28, 1846. Population in 1840, 42,924; in 1850, 191,881 ; in 1856, 519,- 
 148, and 271 colored ; in 1860, 682,000. In 1863 she had 800 miles of rail- 
 road completed. Value of the exports from her river ports in lb62, $8,200,- 
 000. Population in 1865, 754,732, of whom 3,607 were black. The State 
 furnished 72,300 men for the war. In 1865 the women of Iowa made 14,538,- 
 216 pounds of butter, and 1,000,738 of cheese. There are iustitutions for the 
 insane and blind in the State. 
 
 IRON. The value of the annual product of the U. S. in 1860, was about 
 $7,000,000, or about l,200,OlO tons. The quantity of pig iion produced in 
 the U. S. in 1866, was 939,956 tons. 339,764 tons were manufactured into 
 new and re-rolled rails; 129,858 in nails; 946,613 in castings over 10 pounds 
 weight. The mountains of Missouri, it is computed, would yield 1,000,000 
 tons of wrought iron yearly for 400 vears. 
 
 ITALY (p. 374). 
 
 "Napoleon III. et I'ltalie," published 
 
 Feb., 1859 
 
 The Austrian ultimatum rejected by 
 Sardinia April 26, 1859 
 
 The Austrians cross the I'icino, April 
 27 ; and the Fre. ch enter Genoa, 
 
 Mays, 1859 
 
 Peaceful revoltiiicns at Florence, 
 April 27 ; Pai-ma, May 3 ; Modena, 
 
 June 15, 1859 
 
 The Austrians defeated at Moiitebel- 
 lo, May 20; Palestro, May 30 31 ; 
 Masienta, June 4 ; Mari^nano, June 
 8; Solfer;no ^ Tune 24, 1869 
 
 Provisional govez-nn-ipntB estabrshed 
 at Florerce, April 27 ; Parma, May ; 
 and Modena. (The sovereigns re- 
 tire.) June 15, 1859 
 
 Insurrections in the Papal States : Bo- 
 logna, Ferrara, &c June 13-15, 1859 
 
 Massacre of the insurgents at Peru- 
 gia by the Swiss troups June 20, 3859 
 
 Arraiftice between Austria and 
 France July 6, 1859 
 
 Prelimiiiaiies of peace signed at Vil- 
 lafranca ; Lombardy surrendered to 
 Sardinia July 12, 1859 
 
 Italy dismayed at first at the peace; 
 great agitation at Milan, Florence, 
 Modena, Parma, &c July, 1859 
 
 Grand Duke of Tuscai.y abdicates 
 about Ju ly 28, 1859 
 
 The Pope appeals to Europe against 
 the Kii g of Sardinia. July 12, 1859 
 
 Garibaldi becomes commander of the 
 Italian army, and exhorts the Ital- 
 ians to arm July 19, 1859 
 
 Constitutional assemblies meet at 
 Florence, Aug. 11, and at Modena, 
 
 Aug. t6, 1859 
 
 Ttiscany, Modena, Parma, and the 
 Romagna declare for annexation to 
 Pedinont Sept. 3-7, 1859 
 
 Gaiibaldi appeals to the JSeapolilans ; 
 subscri) tionsia Italy and elsewhere 
 to supply arojs for the Italians.. Oct., 1859 
 
 Garibaldi, with a force of about i ,200 
 men, in two small steamers, em- 
 barks from near Genoa for Sicily, 
 
 May 6, 1860 
 
 Garibaldi lands at Marsala, May 10 ; 
 and after several victories takes 
 possession of Palermo, May 27 ; and 
 establishes a provisional govern- 
 ment for Sicily, which is entirely 
 evacuated by Neapolitan troops, 
 
 June 8, 1860 
 
 Garibaldi victorious at Melazzo, 
 
 July 20-1, 1860 
 
 Garibaldi lands in Calabria, Aug. 8; 
 enters Salerno, Aug. ; enters Na- 
 ples.. ."". Aug., 1860 
 
 Francis II., King of ISIaples, retires 
 to Gaeta, Aug.; siege of Gaeta 
 commenced by Victor Emanuel, 
 
 Oct.. 18C0 
 
 Gaeta capitulates Feb. 14, 1861 
 
66 THE WORLD'S PKOGKESS. 
 
 IRVINGITES, or the followers of the Kev. Edward Irving, in England, who now 
 
 call tlieniselves the "Holy Catholic Apostolic Church." They use a liturgy 
 (framed in 1842, and enlarged in 1853), and have church officeis named apos- 
 tles, angels, prophets, &c. In 1852, lights on the magnificent altar and 
 burning of incfjnse during prayers- were prescribed. Their Gothic church or 
 cathedral iK Gordon square was solemnly opened Jan. 1, 1854. It is said that 
 all who join the church offer a tenth of their income for its support and exten- 
 sion. They had 30 chapels in England in 1851. 
 
 JAPAN. U. S. exped. uifder Com. Perry (Y ships of war), entered the Bay of 
 Yeddo, Feb., 1854, to demand protection for American seamen and ships 
 wrecked on the coast, and to effect a treaty of commerce, which was agreed 
 upon, March 31. A British squadron for the same purpose reached Nagasaki, 
 Sept., 1854, and effected a treaty. The Russians followed; and the Dutch 
 made a new treaty, Nov. 9, 1855. Mr. Townsend Harris, consul-general for 
 the U. S,, made a new treaty, June IT, 1857, by which Nagasaki, Simoda, 
 and Hakodadi were opened to American trade. Harris was received in 
 Yeddo in 1868, and effected another treaty. Lord Elgin's treaty opening sev- 
 eral ports to British trade, Aug. 26, 1858. Death of the Tycoon, August, 
 1858. Japanese embassy to the U. S. (with attendants, "0 persons), reaches 
 San Francisco, March 28, 1860; Washington, May 14; Philadelphia, June 9; 
 New York, where they were received with a great military display, June 16; 
 eml)aiked for home in U. S. frigate Niagara, July 1 ; reached Yeddo, Nov. lo, 
 1860. A tronp of Japanese jugglers arrived in the U. S. in 1866. In the 
 spring of 1867, their peribrmances in N. Y. city excited much sensation. Their 
 proprietor is under bonds to return them to Japan in two years. Commission- 
 ers irom Japan again visited Washington in 1867, and made purchases of 
 large quantities of school books lor public schools in Yeddo, and also bought 
 from the government the iron-clad frigate Stonewall, for the sum of $400,0(.0. 
 Miiiisteis of the U. S., England, France, &c., notified May, 1867, that Yeddo 
 and other ports would be opened to foreign nations in Jan., 1868. 
 
 JEDDO, or Yeddo (p. 376). Severe eaithquakes, Dec. 23, 1854, and Nov. 11, 
 1855; during the latter 57 temples, 1(0,000 houses, and 30,000 persons were 
 said to have been destroyed. 
 
 JESUITS (p. 377). In 1851 this body pubhshed in Italy a " Catechismo Filoso- 
 jico^'' or dialogue on Monarchical Constitutions, containing instructions for 
 kings, how far they may go with a safe conscience in breaking promises 
 made to their people. 
 
 JEWS (p. 378). Alderman Salomons, first Je^-ish Lord Mayor of London, 1855 
 Seizure of Mortara, a Jewish child, by the Cath. Archbp. of Bologna, June 24 
 1858. Baron Rothschild takes his seat as M. P. for London (first Hebrew in 
 Brit. Parliament), July 24, 1858. 
 
 JOCKEY CLUBS, U. S. One was organized in N. Y. City in the summer of 
 1866, by Messrs. Jerome, Belmont, and others. Its object is to improve the 
 breed of horses, and establish a better system of races. A park and course 
 have been laid out at Fordham, near the city, at the expense of Mr Jerome. 
 The races were inaugurated Sept. 25, 1866. The celebrated horse "Kentuc- 
 ky" won the 4 mile heat in 7.25. 
 
 JUGGERNAUT (p. 880). The state allowance to the temple was suspended by 
 the Indian government in June, 1851. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 67 
 
 K 
 
 KAFFRARIA. An extensive country in South Africa extendinf^ from the north 
 of Cipe Colony to the south of Guinea. The Kaffiis or Cafifres first invaded 
 the British colony at the Cape in 1831, and continued a warfare up to Dec. 
 20, 1852, when they were defeated and sued for peace. 
 
 KANSAS. One of the United States (the 34th), organized as a territory, May, 
 1854, and by the same act the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was declared 
 "inoperative and void" in both Kansas and Nebraska. Emigrant companies 
 from Mass. began to arrive in July and founded the town of Lawrence. An 
 association formed in Missouri, July 29, to "remove all emigrants" coming 
 •' under the auspices of northern emigrant aid societies ; " another formed 
 Aug. 12 to introduce slavery. A. H. Reeder of Pa., app. governor, arrived 
 Oct. 6. Election for delegate to Cong., Nov. 29 ; the polls mobbed by armed 
 bands from Missouri; another election March 20, 1855, similarly controlled; 
 Reeder superseded July 26 by Wilson Shannon of Ohio ; Topeka (" free State") 
 Convention promulgates a Constitution Nov. 11; collisions, with bloodshed, 
 between the "free state" and "pro-slavery" people commenced at this time, 
 and continued more or less for many months. Topeka Const, accepted by 
 the people Dec. 15, and under it Charles Robinson chosen governor, Jan. 15, 
 1856. Armed men from Ga., Alabama, &c., arrived in the territory April, 
 1856. Report of H. Repres. of U. S. on Kansas affairs, proving fraud and 
 violence of pro-slavery invaders. Robinson arrested for treason. May 5, and 
 imprisoned four months for taking ofiice under Topeka Constitution. Raid of 
 pro-slavery men on the town of Lawrence, May 21. Fight at Potawatamie May 
 26, and several other collisions for several months. Free State legislature at 
 Topeka dispersed by IT. S. troops under Col. Sumner, July 4. Shannon re- 
 moved, and John W. Geary of Pa. appointed in his stead Aug. A party led 
 by Ex-Seuator Atchison of Mo. repulsed in an attack on Osawatomie Aug. 29. 
 Free state men driven by Missourians from Leavenworth, Sept. 1. Robinson 
 and others released on hail Sept. 8, and Geary promising protection to free 
 state men they gave up their arms. Topeka legislature met Jan. 6, 1857 ; 
 the Speaker and others arrested by U. S. Marshal. Pro-slavery legislature at 
 Lecompton provides for a convention. Geary resigned in consequence of ille- 
 gal acts of Lecorapte, U. S. judge, 1857. Robert J. Walker appointed gov- 
 ernor, ;md F. P. Stanton of Tenn., secretary, June. M. J. Parrott elected del- 
 egate to Cong. Lecompton Constitution prouiulgated, and caused great ex- 
 citement Dec, 1857. Walker denounces it as a fraud, and resigns because 
 the Const, is approved by the President. J. W. Denver of Cal. app. governor 
 Dec, 1857. Lecompton Const, submitted to the people and repudiated by 
 10,226 votes. Convention at Wyandot adopts a Const, prohibiting slavery, 
 July 27, which is ratified by the people (4,000 majority), Oct. 4. Under it 
 Charles Robinson chosen governor Dec. 6. Kansas admitted into the Union 
 under the Wyandot Constitution Jan. 29, 1861. Population in 1859, 69,950; 
 in I860,. 143.645. Act establishing an "Agricultural College" passed Jan., 
 1863. The state furnished 19,500 men to the war. Efforts to advance the 
 internal condition of the state are being made by the legislature every year. 
 Asylums for the deaf, blind, and insane, have been organized. 
 
 EARS, a town in Asiatic Turkey, defended 5 mos. by the Brit, under Gen. Wil- 
 liams against a Russian siege, June 18 to Nov. 28, 1855. 
 
 KENTUCKY. Population in 1850, 771,424 and 210,981 slaves. In 1860, 933,707, 
 and 225,902 slaves. Increase of free persons in 10 years 19 per cent., inc. of 
 
68 THE world's progress. 
 
 slaves V per cent. There was a slight decrease of the population, caused by 
 the war, in 1865. The state sent 63,995 white and 20,400 colored soldiera 
 (Union) to the war. Population in 1865, 1,155,668. 
 KINDER GARTEN (children's garden). A system of education devised by Froo 
 bel, but practically carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Ronge, in Germany, in 1849, 
 and in England in 1851. The system, founded mainly on self-tuition, and en- 
 livened by toys, games, and singing, is set forta in Rouge's " Kinder-Garten," 
 published in 1858. 
 
 KNOW-NOTHINGS, or the " American party." A political organization in the 
 U. S., 1853, to insist that the Americans shall rule America. 
 
 LACE. (p. 388.) This manufacture has been so advanced by improvements, 
 that a piece of lace which about 1809 cost £17, may now be had for ^s. Ure. 
 
 LANGUAGE. Hon. George P. Marsh, in a recent lecture, stated that there 
 were nearly 100,000 English words found in use by good writers, but that no 
 single writer employed more than a very small proportion of the whole. Few 
 scholars used as many as 10,OjO English words, and ordinm-y people not 
 riiore than 3,000. In all Shakespeare there were not 15,000 words, and in 
 all Milton but 8,000. There were but 800 of the Egyptian hieroglyphics. 
 
 LAW. (p. 391.) The numbe.^ of lawyers in the United States, in March, 1851, 
 was 21,979, or about one to Overy fifteen hundred inhabitants. Mouthlii Law 
 Magazine. Estimating their average receipts a $1,000 per annum, tluir ag- 
 gregate income would reach within a fraction of twenty two millions of dollars. 
 In 1851 there were in New York, 4,740 lawyers; in Pennsylvania, 1,848; in 
 Ohio, 2,031; in Massachusetts, 1,132; in Kentucky, 1,066; and in Georgia, 
 908. Livingstones Law Register. 
 
 LEGACY DUTY, InterxNal Revenue, U. S. By the Revenue laws of 1861-62- 
 63, Legacies were included on the taxable list. A tax of 75 cents to $5. is 
 imposed on " every hundred dollars of the clear value of interest in such prop- 
 erty." In 1863, the revenue from legacies to parent, child, &c., was $25,869, 
 to nephew, niece, &c., $11,333, to uncle, &c., $921, to corporations, strangers 
 &c., $18,470. Total Revenue from legacies and successions in 1864, $310, 
 836; in 1865, $546,703 ; in 1866, $1,170,979. 
 
 LIBEL, Lavt of, U. S. Action for libel lies against the proprietor of a 
 newspaper edited by another, though the publication was made without the 
 knowledge of such proprietor. 
 
 LIBERIA. The number of American Africans in 1860, was about 10,000; na- 
 tives under jurisdiction of the repubUc about 250,000. In 1 856 the sugar cane 
 was introduced, and in May, 1860, a cargo of sugar was sent to N. Y. Palm 
 oil reported in 1859, $500,OnO. A college, several schools, 2 newspapers, and 
 several churches have been established (1859). Population in 1863, 422,000, 
 of whom 16,000 were born in the U. S., and 6,000 rescued from slave-ships. 
 The government is republican. Capital Monrovia. Revenue of the Republic 
 in 1861, $149,550 
 
 LIBRARIES. The Astor Library, founded by the late J. J. Astor, who left, by 
 will, $400,000 "for the estabhshment of a public library in New York," 
 " which should be open at all reasonable hours, free of expense, to persons re- 
 sorting thereto." The original building opened to the public Jan, 9, 1854. 
 Another building of similar style and extent was added by W. B. Astor, I860 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 69 
 
 The whole contained in 1860 about 120,000 volumes, including: the most val- 
 iial)le, rare, and costly works purchasable. The free Public Libi'ary in 
 Boston, opened Sept. 17, 1858, is a noble institution of a similar kind found- 
 ed at a similar expense by several munificent citizens. It is wholly free to the 
 public, and about 30,000 volumes are provided, which may be taken from the 
 library by any resident of Boston. It is a remarkable fact that these 30,000 
 volumes had thus been freely loaned to all comers without loss or damage to 
 the amount of $100 in 2 years. In 1864 there were 104 libraries in the U. S. 
 of over 100,000 volumes, distributed among 23 of the states and containing 2,- 
 404,000 books, or about ^ the total number in all the public libraries of the 
 country. The Church and Sunday-School libraries were estimated to contain 
 
 from 5 to 6 million volumes. In the work entitled " Private Libraries of 
 New York " (Dr. Wynne) are found notices of over 40 collections of 4,000 and 
 12 with 10,000 volumes (1864). In 1859 the following statistics were com- 
 piled : Number of Libraries in the U. S. with volumes reported, 1,297, es- 
 timated, 1,593; libraries of common schools, 18,000; Sunday-Schools, 30,000; 
 
 total, 50,890 libraries, number of volumes, 12,720,686. 
 LICENSE TAX, U. S. Levied by act of Congress, July 1, 1862. Total receipts 
 from this source in 1863, $6,824,178; in 1864, $7, 145,389 ; in 1865, $12,618,- 
 478 ; in 1866, $18,038,098. In 1865, the largest amount was received from 
 wholesale dealers, $5,428,345. Ketail dealers in liquors paid $2,807,225. Re- 
 ceipts from bowling alleys were the smallest, $19,749. 
 
 LIGHTHOUSES. In 1859, there were 491 light stations on the coasts of the 
 U. S., including the Pacific and the lakes, the annual cost to govt, being $932,- 
 000. The No. of buoys and beacons was about 5,000. A large number of the 
 lighthouses from Cape Henry to the Eio Grande, were destroyed by the Con- 
 federates in the late war. 
 
 LOANS, U. S. The following are the principal loans of the Government in 
 support of the war against the Rebellion. 
 
 Name of Loan. Length of Loan. Amount Issued^ 
 
 Loanof Feb 8, 1861 20 years $18,415,000 
 
 7.30DOteB 3 " 139,999,750 
 
 Five-Twentiee 5 or 20 years 514,780,000 
 
 Ten-Forties 10 or 40 '• 172,770,100 
 
 Five-Twenticp 5 or 20 " 91,789.000 
 
 Treasury Notes 3 yenrs 178,756,000 
 
 7.30 Notes " " 234,400,000 
 
 "" " " " 437,210,400 
 
 See Appletori's Annual CyclopcBdia^ 1865. Finances- 
 
 LONDON, (p. 402.) The populatioa of London in 1861 was 2,803,034. 
 
 LONGEVITY, in the U. S. In 1860 there were 2,960 persons over 100 years 
 of age. In the State of N. Y. (1865) there were 108. 
 
 LOTTERIES. In N. Y. and Pa. Lotteries have been declared by law to be 
 *' public nuisances," and to be indictable as such. The Am. Art Union was pro- 
 nounced illegal, as a lottery, 1851. About 1820 there was a lottery at Natchez 
 for building a Presbyterian church. At other times colleges, roads, ferries, 
 hospitals, &c. have been aided by lotteries. They were still tolerated in 
 Maryland, Georgia, and perhaps other States (1861). The "Crosby Opera 
 House" Association, in 1866, was a lottery, in which the "opera house" at 
 Chicago, was the principal prize. All who invested received a prize equivalent 
 to their amount immediately on payment. The proprietors made large 
 profits, as subscriptions came in from all parts of the country. 
 
 LOUISIANA, (p. 404.) Population in 1850, 517, 762. In 1855, by state census, 
 
^0 THE world's progress. 
 
 . 581,114:, including 244,000 slaves. In 1860, 666,413, including 312,186 slaves. 
 Ordinance of secession iVom the U. S. passed by Convention, Jan. 26, 1861 
 Motion to submit the question to the people was defeated by a large ma- 
 jority. , The principal portion of tlie state came under the authority of the 
 Government before the close of the war. Number of men furnished to the 
 Union army, mostly blacks, 40,000. Debt of the State in 1867, |13,358,OuO. 
 
 LOUYRE. (p. 404) The magnificent buildings of the New Louvre begun by 
 Napoleon I., and completed by Napoleon III., were inaugurated by the latter 
 in great state, Aug. 14, 1857. 
 
 LYNCH LAW. Punishment inflicted by private individuals, independently of the 
 legal iiuthorities, said to derive its name from John Lynch, a farmer, who ex- 
 ercised it upon the fugitive slaves and criminals dwelling in the *' dismal 
 swamp," North Carolina, when they committed outrages upon persons and 
 property wliich the colonial law could not promptly redress. This mode of ad- 
 ministering justice began about the end of the 17th century, and has prevailed 
 more or less in recent years in the western border of southern states. 
 Lynch Law, "A common phrase used to express the vengeance of a mob, 
 inflicting an injury, and committing an outrage upon a person suspected of 
 some offence. In England this is called Lidford Law." — Bouvier, 
 
 M 
 
 MACADAMIZING. The inventor of this system of repairing roads (Mr. John 
 Macadam), received a grant from Parliament in 1825 as a reward. 
 
 MACCABEES, a family of patriotic Jews, who commenced their Ciireer during 
 the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, b. c. 167, when Mattathias, a priest, 
 resisted the tyranny of the governor. His son Judati Maccabeus defeated the 
 
 . Syrians in three battles, b. c. 166, 165 ; but fell in an ambush, b. c. 161. 
 His brother Jonathan made a league with the Romans and Lacedaemonians, 
 and after an able administration, was treacherously killed at Ptolen)ais by 
 Tryphon, b. c. 143. His brother and successor, Simon, was also murdered, 
 B. c. 135. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, succeeded. His son Judas, called 
 also Aristobulus, took the title of king, b. c. 107- The history of the Macca- 
 bees is contanied in five books of that name, two of which are included in 
 our Apocrypha, and are accounted canonical by the Roman Catholic Church, 
 but not by Protestant communions. 
 
 MADAGASCAR, (p. 411.) The French were defeated in an attack on this 
 island, Oct. 19, 1855. The native Christians have suffered much persecution, 
 altliough the prince, the son of the reigning queen, embraced Christianity in 
 1846. Tlie Rev. W. Ellis in 1858 published an interesting aecoimt of his 
 three visits to the island, on behalf of the London Missionary Society in 
 1854-5-6. 
 
 MADEIRA, (p. 408.) Since 1852, the vintages here have been totally ruined 
 by the vine-disease. 
 
 MAGENTA, a small town in Lombardy, memorable for the victory of the French 
 and Sirdiniau army over the Austrians, June 4, 1859. The emperor Louis 
 Napoleon commanded, and he and the king of Sardinia were in the thickest 
 of the fight. It is said that 55,000 French and Sardinians, and 75,000 Aus- 
 trians were engaged. The former are asserted to have lost 4,000 killed and 
 wounded, and the Austrians 10,000, besides 7,00.) prisoners ; these numbers 
 are still doubtful. The Austrians fought well, but were badly commanded. 
 The emperor and king entered Milan on June 8 following. MacMahon and 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 71 
 
 Regnault d'Augely were created marshals of France for gallantry in the 
 ac^tion. 
 
 MAGNETISM. In 1831 electricity was produced from a magnet by Professoj 
 Faraday, who has since published his researches on the action of the magnet 
 on hght, on the magnetic pro[)erties of tiaine, air, and gases (1845), on dia- 
 magnetism (18*5), on magne-crystanic action (1848), on atmospht-ric magnet- 
 ism (1850), and on the magiieiic force (1851-52). In the present centurv 
 our knowirdge of the phenomena of magnetism has been greatly increased 
 by the labors of Arago, Ampere, Hansteen, Gauss, Weber, Poggendorff, 
 Sabine, Lamont, Tyndall, Du Moncel, &c. 
 
 MAINE, (p. 410.) Population in 1850, 583,169; increase in 10 years, 16 per 
 cent. Population in 1860, 619,958 ; increase in 10 years 6^ per cent. No. 
 men furnished to the army and navy 1861-5, 71,558. 
 
 MALAKHOFE, a hill near Sebastopol on which was situated an old tower, which 
 the Russians strongly fortified during the siege in 1854-5. The allied French 
 and English attacked it on June 17 and 18, 1855, and after a conflict of 48 
 hours were repulsed with severe loss ; that of the English being 175 killed 
 and 1,126 wounded ; that of the French 3,338 killed and wounded. On Sept. 
 8, the French again attacked the Malakhoflf; at 8 o'clock the first mine was 
 sprung, and at noon the French flag floated over the conquered redoubt la 
 the Malakhoff and Redan were found 3,000 pieces of cannon of every calibre, 
 and 120,000 lbs. of gunpowder. 
 
 MANASSAS JUNCTION, Virginia, an important military position, where the 
 Alexandria and Manassas Gap railways meet, near a creek named Bull Run. 
 It was held by the rebels under Beauregard in 1861, when they were attacked 
 by General,McDowell. He began his march from Washington on July 16, and 
 gained some advantage on the 18th at Centreville. On the 21st was fought the 
 first battle of Bull Run. McDowell had the advantage till about three o'clock, 
 p. M., when the rebel Gen. Johnston brought up reinforcements, which at first 
 were taken for Union troops. After a brief resistance, the latter were seized 
 with sudden panic, and in spite of the utmost efforts of their officers, fled in dis- 
 graceful rout, abandoning a large quantity of arms, ammunition, and baggage. 
 The Federalarmy is said to have had 481 killed, 1,011 wounded, 1,216 missing. 
 The loss of the Confederates was stated to be about 1,500. In March, 1862, 
 when the army of the Potomac, under General McClellan, marched into Vir- 
 ginia, they found that the Confederates had quietly retreated from the camp at 
 Manassas. On Aug. 30, 1862, this place was the site of another great battle 
 between the northern and southern armies. In August, General " Stonewall " 
 Jackson, after compelling Gen. Pope to retreat, defeated him at Cedar moun- 
 tain on the 9th, turned his flank on the 22d, and arriving at Manassas, repulsed 
 his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th General R. E. Lee (who had defeated 
 McClellan before Richmond, June 26 to July 1), joined Jackson with his 
 army, and Pope received reinforcements from Washington. A desperate con- 
 flict ensued, which ended in the Confederates gaining a decisive victory, com- 
 pelling the Union army to a hasty retreat to Centreville, where they were 
 once more routed, Sept. 1. The remains of their army took refuge behind the 
 lines of Washington on Sept. 2. Pope was at once superseded, and McClellan 
 resumed the command, to march against the Confederates, who had crossed 
 the Potomac and entered Maryland. See United States. 
 
 MARONITES. A body of Christians in Asiatic Turkey, who recognize the 
 iiuthority of the pope. They live near Mt. Lebanon, and in Aleppo, Damas« 
 
72 THE world's PROGEESSw 
 
 cus. and other places. They suffered severely in the massacre by the Diuses 
 in 1860, and some accounts make the Marouites the original aggressors. 
 MAROONS. A name given in Jamaica to runaway negroes. When the island 
 was conquered from the Spaniards a number of the negroes, abandoned by 
 their former masters, fled to the hills and became very troublesome to the 
 colonists. A war of eight years' duration ensued, when the Maroons capitu- 
 lated on being permitted to retain their free settlements, about 37 30. In 
 1'795 they again took arms, but were speedily put down and transported to 
 Nova Scotia, Brande. They were also sent to Sierra Leone; and many of 
 them are among the Dutch of Surinam. 
 
 MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia), were discovered in 1595 by Mcnd;.na, 
 who named them after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de Mendoca. They 
 were visited by Cook in 1774, and were taken possession of by the French 
 admiral Dupetit Thouars, May 1, 1842. 
 
 MARRIAGE, (p. 414.) The number of marriages in England and Wales in. 
 
 1750 was 40,300 1820 was 96,883 1850 was 152,744 
 
 1800 *' 73,228 1840 " 121,083 1858 " 156,207 
 
 Of these marriages, in 1850, it is stated, in the registrars' returns, that 
 47,570 men and 70,601 women could not write, and that they signed the 
 marriage register with their marks.* See Divorce. It has frequently been 
 attempted to legalize a marriage with a deceased wife's sister^ without success. 
 A bill for this purpose passed the Commons,' July 2, 1858, but was rejected 
 by the Lords, July 23 following. 
 
 MARSEILLAISE HYMN. The words and music of this hymn are ascribed ta 
 Rouget de Lille, a, French engineer officer, who composed it at the request of 
 Marshal Lucknow, in 1791, to cheer the spirits of the conscripts of the army 
 then at Strasburg. The hymn derived its njsme from the circumstance of 
 some troops from Marseilles marching into Paris to the tune at a time when 
 it was little known there, in 1792. Brande. 
 
 MARYLAND, (p, 415.) Populntion in 1850, 583,034, including 74,723 free 
 colored, and 90,368 slaves. Increase in ten years, 24 per cent. In 1860, the 
 population was 646,183, and 85,382 slaves. Increase of free persons in 10 
 years, 11 per cent.; decrease oi slaves, 6 per cent. In 1861 desperate at- 
 tempts were made by the Secessionists of the State to carry it into the " Con- 
 federacy" and to betray the National cause — but they were defeated by the 
 predominant Union sentiment. See Baltimore. In 1865, the Legislature dis- 
 fanchrised all Marylanders who had fought against the Union. Union troops 
 furnished for the war . Disbuisements for Union troops, $4,212,479. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. Population in 1850, 994,514; increase in 10 years, 34 per 
 cent. In 1855 (state census), 1,132,369, increase in 5 years, 16 per cent. 
 These returns placed Mass. the 6th in the Union in population, In 1860 the 
 population was 1,231,494. Increase in 10 years 24 per cent. Total industrial 
 production in 1855, 295 millions of dollars. Exports, 1859, 18 millions. Rail- 
 roads, 1,602 miles, which cost 63 millions. Number of troops sent to the war 
 in 1861-5, 159,165, of whom about 6,500 were blacks. Population in 1865, 
 1,267,329. 
 
 MATCHES, U. S. The tax on matches imposed Aug. 1864, is one cent per hun- 
 dred. The revenue from this source in 1865, was about $1,000,000. 
 
 * In France, the marriages were 208,893 in 1S20 ; 243,f'i74 in 1825 ; and 259,177 in 1830. As 
 respects Paris, the statistics of tliat city, which are very minute and curious, furnish the 
 tc. lowing classes as occurring in 7,754 marriages : — Bachelors and maids, 6,456; bachelors 
 uvxl widows,, 368 ; widowers and maids, 708 ; widowers and widows, 222. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. ^3 
 
 MEDICAL COLLEGES, U. S, There were 54 medical schools and colleges in the 
 L. S, in 186-2. The oldest is the University of Peim. at Phila., 11Q5. 
 
 MEDICI FAMILY. lUustiioiis as the restorers of literature and the fine arts in 
 Italy ^ were chiefs or M'/uori of the lepublic of Floreuce from 1434,, in which 
 year Cosmo de^ Medici^ who had been banished fi'oni the republic, was re- 
 called, aud made its chief, presiding over it for thirty years. Lorenzo de' 
 Medici, styled "the Miiguiticent," and the "Father of Letters," ruled Florence 
 from 1469 to 1492. John de' Aledici (Pope Leo X.), was the son of Lorenzo. 
 Roscoe, From 1669 to 1737, the Medici family were hereditary grand dukes of 
 Tuscany. 
 
 MEMPHIS. An ancient city of Egypfc, (" of which the %'ery ruins are stupendous;") 
 is said to have been bnilt by Meocs, 3890 b, c, ; or by Misraiui, 2188 b. c. It 
 was erected by Alexa,nder, 33'2 b. c. ; and restored by {Septimus Severus, a. d. 
 202, The invasion of Cambyses, 526 b, c, began^ and the founding of Alex- 
 andria, 382, completed the ruin of Memphis. 
 
 MENDICANT FRIARS. Several religious orders commenced alms-begging in 
 the 13th century, in the pontificate of Innocent III, They spread over Europe 
 and embraced many communities • but at length hy a general council, held by 
 Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, were confined to four orders — Dominicans, 
 Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and others branched 
 off, 
 
 MENU, Institutes of. The very ancient code of India, Sir W, Jones, ^ho trans- 
 lated them into English (1794), considers their date should be placed between 
 Homer (about 9d2 b. c.) and the Roman Twelve Tables (about 449 b, c). 
 Haughton's translation appeared in 1825, 
 
 MEROVINGIANS. The first race of French kings, ■418-*752. 
 
 MESMERISM, So called from Frederick Anthony Mesmer, a German physician, 
 of Mersburg, He first made his doctrine known to the world in 1766^ eon- 
 tending, by a thesis on planetary influence, that the heavenly bodies diffused 
 through the universe, a subtle fluid which acts on the nervous system of ani- 
 mated beings. Quitting Vienna for Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous pro- 
 selytes to his system in France, where he received a subscription of 340,000 
 iivres. The government at length . appointed a committee of physicians and 
 members of the Academy of Sciences to investigate his pretensions. Among 
 these were Franklin and Dr. Bailly, and the result of their inquiries appeared 
 ia an admiral)le paper drawn up by the latter, exposing the futility of aninnil 
 magnetism, as the delusion was then termed, and the quackery of Mesmer. 
 Mesmerism excited attention again about 1848, when Miss Harriet Martineau 
 and others announced their belief in it,* 
 
 METEOR. Remarkable instances of the phenomenon are recorded by the Chi- 
 nese as early as 644 B. c. ; by Greeks and Romans (a fa,w only); bv Kepler 
 (1623), H.iUey, Humboldt, Cavallo, Bowditch, and others, 1676, 17i9, 1783, 
 1819. A meteor passed over N. Y., Conn., R. I., Delawa.e, &c., July 20, 1860. 
 Extraordinary meteoric display in Nov- 1833, partially recurring every Nov. till 
 1839, and again in 1841 and 1846. These were described by Prof Olmstead 
 of New Haven. 
 
 METHODISTS, ^p. 422.) The first Methodist organization in the U, S. was at 
 Baltiujore, 1784, Wesley sanctioning it as the "Meth, Episcopal Church of 
 America." Introduced in S. Carolina and Georgia, 3 785. Secession of Anti- 
 
 * In 1859 the Mesmeric Infirmary issued its tenth annual report, Archbisliop Wlrately 
 bfing piesideut, and the Earl of Carlisle and Mr. Moncktun Milnes among the vico 
 piesideuts. 
 
74 THE WOKLD's PEOGRESS. 
 
 Episcopal branch, 1830. Secession (on account of the slavery question) of the 
 "Methodist Episcopal Church South," 1844. The northern branch had in 
 
 1860, 956,555 members, and 13,000 preachers, under 51 "annual eoiifereuLts," 
 24 colleges, 2 biblical insritutfs, and 120 seminaries. Tiic "M. E. Chru-rii 
 South" in 1845, had G bishops, 24 conferences, 330,710 white members, 1l4, 
 811 colored nienibers, 2,978 Indians. In 1859 the total membership was 
 721,023, with 21 colleges for males, 28 colleges and 27 high schools for females ; 
 and a publishing hou?e at Nashville which issued 600 million page.^ in 5 years. 
 The Meth. Prot. Church in 1858, had 90,000 members and 2,(j00 ministers. 
 No. of Meihodists in U. S. in 1868, 1,650,000; number of churches, 11,638; 
 ministers, 10,911. 
 
 MEXICO, (p. 423.) Herrera, president, 1848; succeeded by Gen. Arista, Jan. 15, 
 1851 ; who was compelled by revolution to resign, 1853, and Santa Anna was 
 recalled and made president with unlimited powers. Insurrection of Alvarez, 
 Jan. 1854 ; flight of Santa Anna, Aug. 1855, and elevation of Carrera for 27 
 days. Alvarez made president by a Junta, but after a few weeks resigned in 
 favor of Coujonlort, who confiscated Chui'ch property, March, 1856. New 
 constitu.ion promulgated by Congress, March, 1857, opposed by the army, and 
 a new revolution (Jan. 1858), suppressed Comonfort, and elevated Zuloaga to 
 the presidency. Juarez (chief-justice), claims this post, and retires to Vera 
 Cruz, May 4, 1860, assuming there to be the "Consiitutional president." Zu- 
 loaga deposed, and Gen. Miramon as chief of the Conservatives or Church 
 party leads a war against Juarez, which ends'in the triumph of Juarez, Jan. 
 
 1861. In July, 18()8, an assembly of notables in the City of Mexico, declared 
 Mexico a moderated monarchy, and offered the crown to Maxmilian arch-duke 
 of Austria, who accepted it; entered the city of Mexico June, 1864; defeated 
 the liberals in several engagements. In the spring of 1867, the French troops 
 who had been sent in 1861, to enforce certain claims made by France, and by 
 whose assistance Maximilian had established himself in Mexico, were with- 
 drawn. The liberals after this regained their lost ground, besieged Maximihan 
 in Queretaro, and compelled his surrender. The Juarez government declared 
 him a usurper, and sentenced him to be shot. His execution took place, 
 against the protest of all foieign ministers, June 19, 1867. Miramon and 
 Mejia executed as traitors at the same time. A state of iinarchy has existed 
 in Mexico for years, and Maixmilian's object was to reduce the country to order 
 under a monarchy. The contest was- waged with great bitterness and cruelty. 
 City of Mexico surrendered to the Republicans, June, 1867. 
 
 MICHAELMAS. The feast of St. Michael, the reputed guardian of the Romnn 
 Cathohc Church, under the title of "St. Michael and all Angels." St. Michael 
 is supposed by the Roman Catholics to be the head of the heavenly host. This 
 feast is celebrated on the 29th of September, and the institution of it, accord- 
 ing to Builer, was A. n. 487. 
 
 MICHIGAN, (p. 423.) Population 1850, 399,654; in 1860, 754,291. Increase in 
 1840-50, 87 per cent.; 1850-60, 89 per cent.; in 1864, 803,745. In 1864, 
 600,(iOO,OiiO feet of lumber was sawed in this State. Number of men sent to 
 the army in 1861-5, 90,119. 
 
 MILITIA, (p. 424.) In England a volunteer militia was raised during the Cri- 
 mean war, 1854, and again during the Indian mutiny, 1857. U. S. The mili- 
 tia force of the United States in 1860, as near as can be ascertaiiK^d from 
 official reports, consisted of 53,589 commissioned officers, and 2,036,520 non- 
 commissioned officers, musicians, artificers, and privates ; a total of 2,0.i0,109 
 men. S^ince the late war, most of the states have organized their militia into 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 75 
 
 a more eflficient system than formerly. Volunteers in the war are exempt from 
 duty for a certain period ; in Conn, lor ',1 years. 
 
 MINCIO. A river of Lonibardy. Here the Austrians were defeated by the French 
 under Brune, Dec. 26, 1800; and by Eugene Beauhaincif^, Feb. 8^ 1814. The 
 provhices of Verona and Mantua are watered by the MiDcio. 
 
 ikllNES. (p. 425.) The deepest coal pit in Enghmd was opened nhout 1860, after 
 nearly 12 years' labor. The shaft is (j8t)4- yards deep, and irs sinking cost 
 some |;500,000. The seam oC coal is 4 ft. 8-J in. thici', aud is calculated to 
 yield 500 tons a day for 30 years. The shaft is 12^ fec't in diameter, and near 
 the bottom 19 feet. Here it meets an "incline" nearly half a mile long. U. 
 S. The famous Hayward gold nnne, in Amadon county, California, extends 
 1,200 feet below the surface of the earth. In tliirteen years, §7,000,OoO have 
 been produced from it. The greatest silver mine is known as the " Comstock 
 lode," in Nevada, discovered in 1860. It is owned by about 100 diiferent 
 companies. The length of miinng shafts in the West varies from 500 to l,u00 
 feet. The annual yield of gold and silver mines in the U. S., is nearly 
 $150,000,000. 
 
 MINIE RIFLE. Invented at Vincennes, about 1833, by M. Minie (born about 
 1800). From a common soldier he raised himself to the rank of chef d' 
 escadron. His rifle is considered to surpass all made previous to it, for ac- 
 curacy of direction and extent of range. It is adopted by the French, and 
 with various modifications by the British army in 1852. 
 
 MINNESOTA, U. S. Made a territoi'y, 1849 ; admitted into the Union as a State, 
 1857. Population, 1850, 6,077 ; 1860,176,535; 1865,248,848. A terrible 
 Indian massacre occurred m this State in August, 1862. The Sioux rose in a 
 body, and commenced a series of fiendish outrages. 500 whites were mur- 
 dered in cold blood, and millions worth of property destioyed. Their depre- 
 dations extended over an area of 20,000 square unles in the western part of 
 the State. Gen. Sibley finally checked and defeated them ; 2,000 prisoners 
 were taken, of whom 38 were hung as murderers. In Sept. 1862, over 8,000 
 fugitive whites were receiving aid in Eastern Minnesota. 
 
 MINT. (p. 426.) lu England, first regulated by Athelsian, about a. d. 928. See 
 Coinage. 
 
 MIRRORS, (p. 427.) In 1851 Mr. Pettigrew made known a mode of silvering 
 glass by a solution of silver, thus avoiding the deletei'ious use of mercury. 
 
 MISSIONS, Protestant. The number of Protestant missionaries in the world 
 in 1860, was 1,369, who are distributed as ibllows : North America, 125 ; 
 South America, 11 ; the Antilles and Guiana, 218 ; Northern Africa, 6 ; 
 West Africa, 107 ; South Africa, 152 ; Western Asia, 74 ; India and Ceylon, 
 419 ; Burmah and Siara, 39 ; China, 72 ; Oceanica, 146. To the above 
 must be added 934 assistant missionaries, and 2,7o7 native helpers (1860). 
 Modern missionary effort has given to 20 millions of people the benefits of a 
 written language. 20 dialects of Africa have been thus supplied, and 500,000 
 persons enjoy oral teaching. See Benevolent Societies. Roman Catholic. 
 The receipts of the great Romish missionary society, the Society for the 
 Propagation of the Faith, for 1857, from all parts of th.e globe, amounted to 
 1838,000. Their expenditures in Europe were about $159,000 ; in Asia, 
 .$284,000 ; in Africa, $54,000 ; in America, $177,000 ; in the South seas, 
 $73,000. The whole amount contributed on tins continent was about $82,- 
 000. It is stated that Protestants in the U, S. alone, give more for 
 lorugn missions than the one hundred and fifty nuUions of Catholics in all parta 
 of me world. 
 
76 THE, world's progress. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI, (p. 426.) This State repudiated $5,000,000 of its bonds, in 1839 (?) 
 Population 1850, 606,326 ; 1860, 836,658 ; increase from 1840 to 1850, 61 
 per cent. The literal translation of the aboriginal name \s Great River ; the 
 Indian title is written variously by the early journalists ; Marquette spells it 
 '"'•MissoissippTj ;" Heimepin " McschasipL'''' Sape is river, running water; the 
 prefix means '"'■ great^'''' "" big.''^ '"Ordinance of Secession " from the IT. S. 
 passed Jan. 9, 1861. VVm. D. Sharkey appointed Provisional Governor, 
 June 13, 1865. The delegates of the State Convention petition for tlie 
 pardon of Jefferson Davis, Aug., 1865. 
 
 MISSOURI. Population in 1850, 682,044, including 87,422 slaves. In 1853 
 911,001, including 101,605 slaves. Increase in 10 years, 77 per cent. From 1880 
 to 1840, it was 133 per cent. Pop. 1860, 1 201,214, including 115,619 slaves. 
 Desperate attempts were made by rebels in this State to effect secession^ but 
 they were defeated. This State was the scene of numerous minor conflicfs 
 and some important battles, during the slaveholder's war 1861-5. See United 
 States and Battles. War debt, $7,546,575 ; Common School fund in 1865, 
 $678,660. 
 
 MOHOCKS, ruffians, who went about London at night, wounding and disfiguring 
 the men, and indecently exposing the women. One hundred pounds were 
 offered by royal proclamation, in 1712, lor apprehending any one of them. 
 Northouck. , 
 
 MOLUCCAS, an archipelago (the chief of Amboyna) in the Indian Ocean, dis- 
 covered by the Portuguese about 1511, who held them secretly till the arrival 
 of the Spaniards, who claimed them till 1629, when Charles V. yielded them to 
 John III. for a large sum of money. The Dutch conquered them in 1607, and 
 have held them ever since — except from 1810 till 1814, when they were sub- 
 ject to the English. 
 
 MOXACHISM (from the Greek, monos, alone). Catholic writers refer to the 
 prophet Elijah, and the Nazarenes mentioned in Numbers, ch. vi., as early ex- 
 amples. The first Christian ascetics appear to be derived from the Jewish 
 sect of the Essenes, whose life was very austere, practising celibacy, &c. 
 About the time of Coustantine (a. d. 306-322) nambers of these ascetics 
 withdrew into the deserts, and were called hermits^ monks, and anchorets ; of 
 whom Paul, Anthony, and Pachomir\s were most celebrated. Simeon, the 
 founder of the Stylitse (or pillar saints), died A. D. 456. He is said to have 
 lived on a pillar 30 years. St. Benedict, the great reformer of monachisin, 
 published his rules and established his monastery at Monte Cassino, about a. d. 
 529. The Carthusians, Cistercians, &c., are so many varieties of Bene- 
 dictines. 
 
 MONROE DOCTRINE, a term applied to the determination expressed by James 
 Monroe, president of the United States, 1817-24, not to permit any European 
 power to interfere in restraining the progress of liberty in North or South 
 America. Upon thi=? doctrine the U. S. protested against ihe establishment of 
 French troops in Mexico in 1861-6. They were finally withdrawn in 1867. 
 
 MONTEBELLO, a village in Piedmont, where Lannes defeated the Austrians 
 June 9, 1800, and acquired his title of duke of Montebello ; and where (May 
 20, 1859), after a contest of six hours, the French and Sardinians defeated the 
 Austrians, who lost about 2000 killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners. The 
 French lost about 700, including general Beuret. 
 
 MON'TENEGRO, an independent ])rincipality in European Turkey, was con- 
 quered by Solyman II. in 1526. It i^ebelled in the last century, and establish 
 
SUPPLEMENTj 1851-67. 77 
 
 ed an hereditary hierarchical government in the family of Petrovitsch Njegosch, 
 endured, but not recognized by the Porte. 
 
 MONTEREY (Mexico), was t^ken by general Taylor after a three days' conflict 
 with the Mexicans, Sept 21-3, 1846. 
 
 MONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions for advancing money on pledges, 
 were first estabhshed at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other Italian cities, 
 1462 et seq. The Franciscans, in 1493, first began to receive interest, which 
 was permitted by the pope, in 1615. Monts de Piete were not established in 
 France till 1777. They were suppressed by the Revolution, but restored, 
 1804 ; regulated by law, 1851-2. See Pawnbroker^ p. 464. 
 
 MONUMENT of LONDON, begun in a, d. 1671, and finished in 1677. The 
 pedestal is forty feet high, and the editice altogether 202 feet, that being the 
 distance of its base from the spot where the fire which it commemorates com- 
 menced. It is the loftiest isolated column in the world. Its erection cost 
 about £14,500. 
 
 MORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold of Hungary was completely de- 
 featrd by the Swiss, June 20, 1476. A monument, constructed of the bones 
 of the vanquished, was destroyed by the French in 1798, who erected a stone 
 column in its place. 
 
 MORAVIANS, U. S. In 1863 they numbered 32 ministers, 46 churches, and 
 5,760 members. 
 
 MORMONS. In Utah, their chief settlement, Brigham Young, their leader, was 
 made Governor by Pres. Fillmore in 1850. The U. S. chief justice being repu- 
 diated by Young, and the U. S. laws disowned. Col. Steptoe, U. S. A. was ap- 
 pointed -governor in place of Young, and sent with a battalion to enforce the 
 XJ. S. authority, Aug., 1854. His authority being defied, he resigned. Alfred 
 Cunimings appointed gov. by Pres. Buchanan, and arrived with 2,500 U. S. 
 troops, Oct. 5. His trains vs^ere attacked and open rebclhon proclaimed ; but 
 in March, 1858, the Mormon leaders submitted and order was restored. Army 
 withdrawn May, 1860. In April, 1851, their elders and preachers were gath- 
 ering converts to their principles in Italy and Switzerland, and especially 
 among the Waldenses; also in Paris. Their celebrated " Bible," professed to 
 have been delivered to Joe Smith, was really written by Rev. Sol. Spaulding, 
 about 1812, as a supposed history of some ancient mounds in Ashtabula Co., 
 Ohio. The MS. is said to have been borrowed by one of the Mormons, who 
 copied it, and subsequently printed it. In Europe the number of Mormoi s 
 has been estimated as high as 100,000; arid some are reported in Asia, Africa, 
 and Polynesia. Their number in Utali was estimated at 50,000, in 1862, and 
 composed the greater part of the white population. They denominate them- 
 selves the " Church of Jesus of the Latier Day Saints." Their church organ- 
 ization is composed, of a series of hierarchies, the highest being the First Pres- 
 idency, consisting of their chief prophet Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball, 
 and Daniel H. Wehs; next the Twelve Apostles ; then the quorums of Seven- 
 ties, of which there are said to be 62 organized in the territories, ench having 
 seven presidents and 63 members; then follow quorums of High-Priests, Elders, 
 Priests, Teachers, and Deacons. A some ^^ hat anomalous office is that of pa- 
 ttiarch, which has been conferred on John Smith (son of Hyrum and nephew of 
 their first prophet Joseph Smith) and on a few others. There is also in each 
 settlement a High-Council, composed of 12 members, and a bishop for each 
 ward, the wards containing from 500 to 1,000 persons. {National Almanac] 
 Repoi'ted schism among the Mormons, 1867. 
 
 MORTALITY IN WAR. The Provost-Marshal-General has compiled a com 
 
^S THE world's PKOGEESS. 
 
 pH'te list of all the deaths in battle and from wounds and disease, of every reg- 
 iM.ont Ij'om all the Northorn States du iug the war. This record shows that 
 280,751 Oi!i<-eis and men lost their lives in the service; of whom 5,221 com- 
 missioned onieeis and W0,b'fc'6 enlisted men were killed in action or died of 
 wounds, and 2,321 comn.issioned officers and 182,329 men died of diseuse. 
 
 M( SQUITO COAST (in Central America). The Indinns h)habiting this coast 
 liavf been loii^ under tie pioteetion of the Eriii.'-h, who held Behze and a 
 group of islands in the bay of Honduras. The jealousy of the United States 
 hiiS long existed on this subject. In April, 1850, the two governments cove- 
 nanted not to " occupy or fortify, or colonize, or assume, or exercise any do- 
 minion over any part of Central America." 
 
 MOUjST VERXON. The home of Washington, on the Potomac ; purchased 
 icr the nation for the sum of §^200,000, raised by ladies' associations, origi- 
 nated by Miss Pamela Cunningham of South Caiolina, 1858-60. During the 
 war of secession this place was carefully protected by the government. 
 
 MUNICH, the capital of Bavaria, and one of the most beautiful sites in Geimany, 
 was founded, it is said, a. d. 962. It was taken by Gustavus Adolphus of 
 Sweden, in 1632 ; by the Austrians in 1704, 1741, and 1743 ; and by the 
 iren.ch, under Murenu, July 2, 1>"00. Munich abounds in schools, institu- 
 tions and manufactories. The University was founded bv king Louis in 
 1826. 
 
 MUivFREESBORO, (Tennessee). Near luie feveie conflicts took place between 
 the U. S. troops under Rosencrrins and lie Rebels under Bragg, iJec. 30, 1862, 
 and Jan. 2, 1863. The rebels were defeated. 
 
 MUSIC, U. S. Music seems to have engaged pnblic attention first through the 
 theatre. There was one established at the Capital during Washingion's ad- 
 ministration ; also afterwards at New Orleans. About 1825 an opera troupe 
 appeared in New York, under Signor Garcia, a fine artist. Madame Malibran, 
 his daughter, met with great success as an opera singer. Other Italian tunipes 
 followed. Large Opera Houses are at Boston, Brooklyn, New York, New 
 Orleans, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati. Miss Kellogg, the Amer- 
 ican Prima Donna, first appeared on the stage early in 1861. Her success 
 has been complete. Philharmonic and musical societies are to be found in 
 all laige towns of the U. S., and musical concerts are greatly encouraged. 
 The excellence of American Pianos is acknowledged. Among eminent players 
 are Gottsclialk, Mason, Mills. About |1 5,01,0,(00 worth of Pianos are man- 
 ufactured yearly. See Pianos, 
 
 NAPLES (p. 434). 
 
 A martial annrchy prevails Dec, 1849 | Ilalan refugees, xinder Count Pisac- 
 
 The cliiefs of tl e Liberal Tarty nrrc et- I cai.a land nu in Calabria, are utfeat- 
 
 ed in 1849 I ed, ai-d tLeir leader killed, June 27- 
 
 Seltembrini, Poi rio, Carala, iiud | July 2, 1S57 
 
 others, afier a n;ock tria', pro con- I Death of Feidnand II., afier dreadful 
 
 denmed, ai d coni-ig-ned to Lonii.lc | putier ngs Mny 22. 1859 
 
 dungeons for 1 ie Ju e, 1850 Acce>.-ion of Francis II .' 
 
 After rtmonstrai.ces %\ith tl e king on j Tl e city of Naples suncncless to Gar.- 
 
 his tyrannical govemracn; (May), I haldi without a strnggle, and the 
 
 the English and Frenci iiml)as:i- 1 king ret'res to Gaeto .Sept., 1860 
 
 dors are withdrawn Oct 28, 1856 I Gaeta" surrenders to the ttardiniane, 
 
 Attempted as. assination vt the kii.g | and tie ki:iu- takesrefuge InaFrei.ch 
 by Mdaiis Dec, 1856 I vessel Feb. 13,1861 
 
 The Cagliari se.zed.... Ju,.e, 1857 | See Italy uud tiivUy. 
 
 NASHVILLE, U. S, The capital of Tenn., occuj)ied by the Union forces, Feb. 
 23, 1862. Great battle fought here Dec. 15, 1864, between the forces of 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. V9 
 
 €ivr\, Thomas (Union) and Hood (Confederate). The former bad been be* 
 sieged for several days when he marched out and attacked Hood, taking 16 
 guns. On the 16th he completely routed him, taking 20 guns. This was the 
 last Ciimpaign of the Southern army of the West, 
 
 NASSAU, a German duchy, was niade a county by the Emperor Frederic L, 
 about 1180, for Wolram, a descendant of Conrad I. of Germany; from whom 
 are descended the royal house of Orange now reigning iu Holland and the 
 present DuWe of Nassau. Population of the duchy in 185Y, 434,064. Wies- 
 baden was made the capital in 1839. In 1866, after the war, this duchy was 
 annexed to Prussia, 
 
 NATIONAL ACADEMY OF Design (at New York), founded 1826. The first 
 President was Samuel F. B. Morse, who was succeeded by A. B. Durand in 
 1845, and he by D, Huntington in 1862. Corner stone of new Academy 
 building laid Oct. 21, 1863. Building opened and inaugurated April 17, 1865. 
 See Design, Paintings, 
 
 NATIONAL DEBT of England. The annual interest in 1850 was £23,862,257; 
 and the totai interest, including annuities, amounted to £27,699,740. On 
 Jan. 1, 1851, the total unredeemed debt of Great Britain and Ireland was 
 £769,272,562 ; the charge on which for interest and management was 
 £27,620,449. On Jan. 1, 1852, it was £765,126,582; the charge, £27,601,788. 
 Mr. Gladstone's Estimate: 
 
 England $3,995,060,000, or $125 per head. I Spain |725,0<1O,0O0, or |46pcr head. 
 
 United States 3,000,000,000, or 100 '* Hol'and 425.0(10,0011, or 12L ** 
 
 France 2,400,000,000, or 63 " | Turkey 255,000 000, or 115 ♦* 
 
 Austria 1,580,000,000, or 45 ** j Prussw 215.000,000, or 12 •* 
 
 Hussia l,3!'5,00'i,(i()0, or 43 ** | Portugal..... 175,000,000, or 40 *« 
 
 Italy , 760,0(10,000, or 34 ** j 
 
 Great Britain's revenue has never exceeded £70,000,000 per year; but the 
 United States Goverument are now raising $540,000, OoO per year. United 
 States. At diffeieut times: See Loans, 
 
 In 1791 the debt was $75,463,476 
 
 In 180O " » 82,976,294 
 
 In 1810 " « 53,173,217 
 
 In 1816 ^ « 127,334,fl:M 
 
 In 1820 <* « 9:,015,566 
 
 Jan. 1 , 1865. it was 86,243,721 
 
 Dec. I, 1861 " 267,654,153 
 
 Jan. ], 1863 " 764,635,854 
 
 Dec. 1, 1863 " 1,293,243,544 
 
 Feb. 13, 1865 « ...2,279,582,484 
 
 ■■ In 1830 the debt was.. $18,565,406 
 
 In l.'-^S " " 37,733 
 
 In l!=^^45 " « 16,>01,647 
 
 In lt^48 " « 65;8(M,450 
 
 A.ug. 31, 1S65 it waii 2,757.689,571 
 
 (It reached its highest figure at thi- date.) 
 
 Jan. 1, 1866 it was 2,716,581,536 
 
 Nov. 1, 1866 " 2,551,310,005 
 
 May 1, 1867 " 2,520,786,096 
 
 Sept. 1S67 « 2.500.000,000 
 
 NATURALIZATION Lam^s, U. S, By the Constitution, Congress has power to 
 establish "one uniform rule of naturalization." Over fifteen different acts 
 have been passed since 1787 on the subject. In 1860, the law required a re- 
 sidence of five years in the country to entitle any one to citizenship. In the 
 city of New York between 1850 and 1860, about 60,000 persons were natu- 
 ralized. 
 
 NATURE-PRINTING. This process consists in impressing objects, such as 
 plants, mosses, feathers, &c.. into plates of metal, causing these objects, as it 
 were, to engrave themselves; and afterwards taking casts or copies fit for 
 printing from. In 1847, Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses, and plants; and 
 in the same year Dr. Branson suggested the application of electrotyping to 
 the impressions. In 1849, Professor Leydolt of Vienna obtained impressions 
 of agates a'^d fossils. The first practical application of this process in England 
 wag in "The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland," edited by Dr. Lindley. 
 
80 
 
 THE world's PEOGRESS. 
 
 NAVAL ACADEMY (U. S.) at Annapolis, Md., founded durinor the Presidency 
 of Mr. Polk, chiefly at the instance of Mr, George Bancroft, Secretary of the 
 Navy. During the wra* it was removed to Newport, R. I. It has since been 
 re-established at Annapolis. 
 
 Secession : 
 
 Fort Sumter, S. C, five disabled, 
 the fort receiving no great injury. 
 
 April 7, 1863 
 
 The Confed. ram Albemarle at- 
 tacks U. S. gunboats at Plymouth, 
 N. C, sinks one, and disperses 
 the rest April 19, 1864 
 
 Brilliant engagement off Cher- 
 bourg, France, between U. S. 
 gunboat " Kearsarge," and Con- 
 ifed, privateer " Alal)amu." Tiie 
 latter snuk in two hour.- June 19, 1864 
 
 Admiral Farragnt, with 32 vessels 
 and 231 guns, enters Mobile Bay, 
 silencing the forts, and capturing 
 two heavy ironclads. One TJ. S. 
 Monitor sunk by :i torpedo Aug. 5, 1864 
 
 Gunboat fight near Memphis, 
 Tenn. The Union fleet com- 
 pletrly routed the enemy's, cap- 
 turing ? and disabling 4 of their 
 vessels.... June 6. 1864 
 
 Formidable fleet of ironclads and 
 frigates with 300 guns, under 
 Admiral Porter, attack Fort 
 Fisher, N. C. Under cover of 
 the terrible fire, land forces 
 storm and capture the fort Jan. 15, 1865 
 
 For list of minor engagements, see 
 Greeley's ^'' Amer. Coiijlict^'' Vol. II. 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. in the war of 
 
 The Confederate forts at Hatteraa 
 Inlet, N. C, bombarded by fleet 
 of Com.Stringham, and taken by 
 land forces of Gen. Buth^r.Aug. 28, 29, 1861 
 
 Fort Henry, Tenn., taken by Com. 
 Foot e Feb. 6, 1862 
 
 Gi-eat naval action in Hampton 
 Roads, Va., Mnrch 8, 9, 1^62. The 
 Coi fed. ram Merrimac frnm Nor- 
 folk, attacks the U. S. frigates 
 "Cumberland" and "Congress," 
 and sinks them. OnihefoUow- 
 . ing day the U. S. "ISIonitor" 
 (battery of 2 guns), arrived in 
 time to save the frigate Minneso- 
 ta, and finally forced the Merri- 
 mac to withdraw in a disabled 
 condition. 
 
 Com. Farragnt, with a fleet of 50 
 vessels and "If^-) guns, passes forts 
 Jackson and 1 hilips, destroys ihe 
 enemy's rams, and takes New Or- 
 leans April 18, 26, 1862 
 
 Grand military ai d naval expedi- 
 tion, under Dupont, captures 
 forts at Hilton Head, ti. C Nov. 7, 1861 
 
 Fierceaction at PortHndson,M'S8. 
 Admiral Farraaut, in attempting 
 to pass the batteries, loses his 
 flagship "Mississippi," March 14, 1863 
 
 Combined attack of ironclads upon 
 
 NAVY OF ENGLAND (p. 440). In July, 1856, it consisted of 271 sailing ves- 
 sels, carrying 9,594 guns; and 258 steam vessels, carrying 6,582 guns; also 
 155 gunboat^, and 111 vessels on harbor service. 
 
 NAVY OF FRANCE (p. 440) has been greatly increased by the. present empe- 
 ror. In 1859 it consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 sailing vessels and S^ 
 steamers), and 898 other vessels, in all 449. 
 
 NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES (p. 439). In 18fiO consisted of 10 ships of 
 the line, 10 frigates, 21 sloops of war, 3 brigs, 8 steamers, first class, 6 screw 
 do., second class, 15 do., third class, 9 side-wheel steamers, 3 storeships, 6 re- 
 ceiving ships — total, 91 vessels. At the opening of the war in 1861, there 
 were 58 serviceable vessels, with 1,110 guns. The home squadron consisted 
 of but 12 ships, with 187 guns. In 1862 there were 427 vessels and 3,268 
 guns; in 1863, 588 vessels,"4,443 guns; in 1864, 671 vessels, 4,610 guns. At 
 the close of 1864 there were 62 ironclads completed or on the docks. Total 
 number of seamen in 1861, 7,600; in 1865, 51,500. Since 1861, 208 vessels 
 were commenced, and 418 bought, of which 313 were steamers, costing 
 . 1^18,366,68]. Total expenses of Navy Department from March 4, 1861, to 
 June SO, 1865, $314,170,960. The first ironclad was the Monitor, built by 
 Capt. Ericsson at N. Y. in 100 days, completed March 5, 1862. In 1866, the 
 navy was reduced to 278 vessels, 2,351 guns. In commission, 115 vessels, 1,029 
 guns. Number of seamen in the naval and coast survey service in 1866, 
 13,600. 
 
 NEBRASKA, U. S. Organized as a territory, 1854. Capital, Omaha City. Area 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 
 
 8] 
 
 about 100,000 square miles. Population in 1860, 28,841 ; also 5,000 Indians. 
 Admitted into the Union, March 1st, 186 '7. 
 
 NEVADA, U. S. Organized as a territory, March 2, 1861. Capital, Oarsou 
 City. Area, about 80,000 square miles, Population, I860, 50,568, of wlioui 
 16,260 were Indians on reservations, and '7,550 tribal Indians. Admitted as 
 a State, Oct. 31, 1864. It is one of the richest mineral States in the Union. 
 
 NEW GRENADA (South America), visited by Columbus, and in 1536 conquer- 
 ed and settled by the Spaniards. It formed part of the new republic of Bo- 
 gota, established in 1811 ; and, combined with Caraccas, formed the republic 
 of Colombia in 1819. Afcer several reunions and dissolutions, the republic of 
 New Grenada, in June, 1858, merged into the Grenadine Confederation, which 
 includes Bolivai', Antioguia, Pamima, aud other small States. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE (p. 441). Population in 1850, 317,976; increase in ten 
 years, 11 per cent. In 1860, 326,()Y2; increase, 3 per cent. Number of 
 troops furnished to the army in the war of 1861-5, 33,427. 
 
 NEW JERSEY (p. 442). Population in 1850, 488,552, including 22,269 colored 
 persons. In 1860, 676,084. Increase in 10 years, 35 per cent. Number of 
 troops furnished to the army in the war of 1861-5, 79,348. Population, 
 1865, 773,700. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS (p. 445). Some of the chief dailies : 
 
 N. T. Herald founded 1835 1 Times 1850 | Even-'ns: Post 1801 
 
 Tribune 1841 | Sun 1833 | CommeVcial Arivertiber.1797 
 
 Washington Intelligencer.... 1801 
 
 In 1860 there were 3,364 newspapers published in U. S., of which 613 were 
 in New York ; 419 in Pennsylvania ; 382 in Ohio ; 221 in Illinois ; and 219 
 in Mass. In England and Wales there were 272 ; in France, about 600 ; in 
 Germany, 1,500 ; in Russia, 100. In 1866, the number of newspapers in 
 U. S. about 4,000 ; circulation, 928,000,000 copies. In 1865, number in State 
 of New York, 623; circulation 412,591,900. Great Britain (p. 445). In 
 1855 the stamp duty on newspapers was abolished, except for postal purposes. 
 In 1857, 71,000,000 newspapers passed through the London post-ofi&ce. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PEESENT PRINCIPAL LONDON NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 Daily. 
 
 Pulil'C Ledger 1759 
 
 Morning Chronicie 1770 
 
 Morning Post 1772 
 
 Morniuy; Herald 1781 
 
 Times... 
 Sun 
 
 Moi'niug 
 
 Auveiti.-er, 
 
 .1788 
 .1792 
 
 .1803 
 
 ytandavd 1827 
 
 Daily JSTews ' 18^6 
 
 Daily 'rele:^rapli 1855 
 
 Globe 1803 I Morning Star 1S56 
 
 Weekly. 
 
 "Be'l's Lif" in London. 1820 
 Sunday Times.. ..... .1822 
 
 Observer 1732 
 
 Bell's M.&^senger 1796 
 
 Weekly Dispatch..... 1801 
 
 Examiner 1808 
 
 Jjiterary Gazette 1817 
 
 John Bull 1820 
 
 NEW MEXICO, U.S. Ceded to tlie IT. S. in 
 
 Atlas 1826 
 
 Atl'C' aeum 1828 
 
 Spectator 18-28 
 
 Ilustr'd Londvai iS'ewsl812 
 
 184S. 
 
 Lloyd's Weekly Paper. 1312 
 
 News of the World 1843 
 
 Econom.'8t i;S.o 
 
 Leader 1 850 
 
 Press 1853 
 
 Saturday Review 185- 
 
 Organized as a territory, 
 
 1850. Capital, Santa Fe. Population in 1860," 83,000 ; besides 55,100 tribal 
 Indians. 
 NEW ORLEANS, U. S. (p. 444.) The chief city of Louisiana, called the 
 " Crescent City " on account of the circular bend of the river on which it 
 stands. Founded bv the French in 1718. Ceded to the U. S. in 1803. 
 Population then, 8,000 ; in 1840, 102,000 ; in 1860, 168,800, of whom IS,* 
 800 were slaves. In the war for the Union, New Orleans surrendered to the 
 6 
 
82 THE world's progeess. 
 
 U, S. force?, — the naval commanded by Admiral Farrngut, and tlie land forces 
 commanded by Gen. B. F. Duller, April 26, 1862. The misrepresentations aa 
 to Butler's " brutal tyranny, especially towards females, " as recorded by 
 Haydn (p. 513), and believed it) England, have been long since exploded. 
 Bntler superseded in the command of the city and the Department of the 
 Gulf by Gen. N. P. Banks, 1863. Gen. Canb/ appointed to the post, 1864. 
 Rebel riots against the negroes and their friends, in the "Radical Conven- 
 tion," July, 1866. 
 
 NEWPORT, R. I. One of the principal places of summer resort in the U. S. 
 In 1861 the Naval Academy was removed from Annapolis to this place. In 
 1865 it was re established at Annapolis. 
 
 NEW YORK, State of. Population in 1860, 3,851,568 ; increase in ten years, 
 24 per cent. No. of school distiicts, 11,621. Pupils in public schools, 851,- 
 633. Volumes in school libraries, 1, 360,507 (1860). Population in 1865, 
 3,831,'7'77 ; decrease of 2 per cent. No. of voters in 1865, 823,484, of whom 
 583,611 were natives. The number of widows in the State — principally a re- 
 sult of the war — was 137,980. It sent 473,443 troops to the war. Number 
 of convicts in State Prisons in 1865, 1,873. City of. Population in 185'), 
 514,547 ; in 1860, 805,651 ; in 2865, 726,386. The density of the popula- 
 tion is about 32,000 to the square mile, including 1,100 acres of 
 parks. Debt of the city in 1867, $5l,000,0i)0. Value of real and 
 personal property in 1865, $608,784,355. On the eleven street railroads 
 in the city of New York there were carried, during the year ending Sept. 30, 
 1864, the enormous number of 60,328,795 passengers, exceeding that of the 
 previous year by nearly 20,000,000. The earnings of the roads for the same 
 period were $4,623,583, and the expenses $2,82ll625: 
 
 NICARAGUA, a State in Central America, which see. In 1855 Walker, the fili- 
 buster, became sole dictator of the State. By the united efibi^ts of the con- 
 federated States the filibusters were all expelled in May, 1857. 
 
 NICOLAITANES. This sect (mentioned Rev. ii. 6, 15) is said to have sprung 
 from Nicolas, one of the first seven deacons. Nicolas is said to have made a 
 vow of continence, and in order to convince his followers of his resolve to 
 keep it, he gave his wife (who was remarkable for her beauty) leave to marry 
 any other man she desired. His followers are said afterwards to have main- 
 tained the legality of a community of wives, as well as holding all other things 
 in common, and are accused of denying the divinity of Christ. 
 
 NIGHTINGALE FUND. On Oct. 21, 1854, Miss Florence Nightingale left Eng- 
 land with a staff of thirty-seven nurses, and arrived at Scutari, ]S"ov. 5 ; they 
 rendered invaluable services to the array in the Crimean war: a fund was raised 
 in England to commemorate her services by founding an institution for the 
 ti-aining of nurses. The subscriptions closed, April 24, 1857, amounting to 
 £44,039. The queen gave Miss Nightingale a valuable jewel. 
 
 NINEVEH. The capital of the Assyrian Empire (see Assyria), founded by 
 Ashur, who called it after himself, about 2,245 b. c. Ninus reigned in Assyria, 
 and called this city also after himself, Nineveh, 2069 B. c. Abbe Lenglet. 
 Jonah preached against Nineveh (about 862 b. c), which was taken by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 606 b. c. The discoveries of Mr. Layard and others in the 
 neighborhood of Mosul, the supposed site of this ancient capital, since 1839, 
 have in a manner disinterred and repeopled a city which four centuries ha!5 
 not only ceased to figure on the i)age of history, but whose very locality had 
 long been blotted out of the map of the earth. The forms, features, costume, 
 rehgion, modes of warfare, and ceremonial customs of its inhabitants, stand 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 83 
 
 before us distinct as those of a living people ; the most interesting of the 
 sculptures brought to England and now with Br. Museum is the bas-relief of 
 the eagle-headed human figure, presumed to be a representation o-f the Assy- 
 rian god Nisroch (from JVisi\ an eagle or hmok), whom Sennacherib was in the 
 act of worshipping when he was assassinated by his two sons, about 710 b. c. 
 2 Kings xix. 37. In 1848 Mr, Layard published his " Nineveh and its Remains," 
 and in 1853 an accoimt of his second visit in 1849-50. A collection of bas- 
 reliefs from Nineveh was purchased by Mr, Jas. Lenox, of New York, and 
 presented to the Hist. Soc. 1859 (?) 
 
 KITROGEN OR Azote (from the Greek a no, and zoo, I live,) an irrespirable ele- 
 mentary gas. Before 1777 Scheele separated the oxygen of the air from the 
 nitrogen, and almost simultaneously with Lavoisier discovered that tlie 
 atmosphere is a mixture of these two gases. Nitrogen combined with hydro- 
 gen forms the volatile alkali ammonia so freely given off by decomposing 
 animal and vegetable bodies. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. One of the United States. Population in 1860, whites, 
 679,965, slaves, 328,377, total 1,008,342. Ordinance of '•'secession" passed 
 May 21, 1861. Loss by the State in the war, |250,O0O,O0O. Gen. Sherman 
 marched across the State in the spring of 1865. May 29, W. W. Holden was 
 appointed provisional governor. Legislature declared the ordinance of seces- 
 sion '' null and void " Oct. 7, 1865. 
 
 NORTHWEST PASSAGE, (p. 448.) The honor of actually effecting the north- 
 west passage was achieved by Capt. McCIure, in the British ship Investigator, 
 which sailed with the Enterprize, Capt. ColUnson, Jan. 20, 1850. Admiralty 
 chart showing the discovery published 1853. 
 
 NO VARA (Sardinia), Battle of, March 23, 1849, when the Austrian marshal 
 Radetzky totally defeated the king Charles Albert and the Sardinian army. 
 The contest began at 10 a, m. and lasted till late in the evening; the Austrians 
 lost 396 killed, and had about 1850 wounded; the Sardinians lost between 
 S,000 and 4,000 men, 27 cannons, and 3,000 prisoners. The king of Sardinia 
 soon alter abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, the present king 
 (1867). 
 
 NUMIDIA (N. Africa), the seat of the war of the Romans with Jugurtha, which 
 began 111 b. c, and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. The last 
 king, Juba, joined Cato and was killed at the battle of Thapsus, 46 b. c, 
 when Numidia became a Roman province. 
 
 NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and medals, an important adjunct to the 
 study of history. In England Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and Pinkei-ton 
 (1789), published works on medals. Rnding's Annals is the great work on 
 British coinage (new edition, 1840). The Numismatic Society in London was 
 founded by Dr. John Lee in 1836. It publishes Numismatic Chronicle. Mr. 
 Yonge Akerman's Numismatic Manual (1840), is a useful introduction to the 
 science. Other foreign works ai-e numerous. Eckfeldt and Dubois, work on 
 the coins of the U. S. pub. 1842, with, later editions. Works by Bushnell, 
 Prime, and others, published at N. York, and by Snowden at Philad. 
 
 O 
 
 OBSERVATORIES, U. S. The first one was established in the country in 1834 
 at Washington, for the Naval Depot of Charts. It was equipped with a three 
 and three-quarter inch transit-instrument. In 1835, a five-inch telescope was 
 placed in a tower at Yale College. In 1838, a small observatory was estab- 
 lished at Hudson, Ohio, through the exertions of Prof. E. Loomis. In 1840, 
 
84 THE world's progress. 
 
 oue at Philadelphia for the "High School." In 1841, one at "West Point, for 
 the U. S. Milkary Academy. Bill to provide for a U. S. Naval Observatory pas- 
 sed Congress, Aug., 1842. In 1844, under the supeiiiitendence of Lieut. Oilliss. 
 U. S. N., a building was completed at Camp Hill, Washington, and furnished 
 with European instruments. Lieut, Maury assigned to its charge, Oct., 1844. 
 Capt. Gilliss appointed in 1861, vice Maury absconded. First volume of astro- 
 nomical observations appeared in 1842, compiled by Lieut. Gilliss. The Dudley 
 Observatory, Albany, N. Y., founded by Mrs. B. Dudley, 1858. The one at 
 Cincinnati founded by Prof Mitchel, 1843. Cambridge Observatory, 1845. 
 Ann Arbor Observatory, 1854. The Chicago Observatory has the largest 
 telescope in the country. The Yale " Scientific school " has a revolving turret 
 for observations. Telescopes have been mounted at various places by private 
 individuals; the principal one at Nantucket, Mass., under the charge of Misa 
 Mitchel. 
 
 OHIO, U. S. In 1850 the wheat crop of Ohio amounted to 30,000,000 bushels. 
 April 1851, completed 62 years since the first band of white settlers entered 
 Ohio. Population in 1860, 2,377,917 ; increase in ten years about 20 per cent. 
 Number of men sent to the War in 1861-5,317,183. In 1866 there were 
 erected in Ohio, at a cost of $4,889,900, 4,850 houses, 1,158 barns, 78 mills, 
 311 factories. 
 
 OIL WELLS, which supply a good burning oil, w,ere discovered at Titusville, 
 Pa., 1859. The first was through 29 feet of earth, and 30 feet of rock. There 
 were in 1861 numerous wells in that vicinity yielding about 15 barrels per 
 day. In August, 1861, the excitement on petroleum increased wonderfully by 
 the discovery of wells which threw up immense quantities of oil in the valley 
 of Oil Creek, Pa.; .30(!0 barrels were obtained from a single well in one day. 
 "Wells were discovered later in Ohio, California, Kentucky, and "West Virginia. 
 From Penn. in 1860, 2,000,000 galls, were sent to market ; in 1861, 20,000,000. 
 In 1862, 160,000,000 worth was exported to foreign countries from the U. S. 
 The daily yield from the wells of the Oil Creek region was stated to be 5,717 
 barrels per day in 1862. From 1861-65, petroleum was the subject of number- 
 less speculations, and fortunes were daily made and lost. In Jan. 1862, the price 
 of refined oil was 40 cents in New York ; in Nov. it rose as high as $1,10; 
 in Dec. it fell to 40 cents again. In 1866-7 the petroleum fever had greatly 
 diminished. 
 
 OLYMPIC GAMES (p. 452). In 1858, M. Zappas, a wealthy Peloponnesian, gave 
 funds to re-establish these games under the auspices of the Queen of Greece. 
 
 OMNIBUSES (p. 452). In New York City, in 1866, there were 8 lines of omni- 
 buses with 204 vehicles. Their average number of trips a day is 10 up and 10 
 down the city. 
 
 OPIUM. The Custom-house returns state that in 1858, 300,000 lbs. of opium 
 were imported in the United States, and it is calculated from reliable data that 
 not more than one-tenth of this used for medicinal purposes. Druggists and 
 ])hysicians say that the habit of taking opiates is very prevalent, and extending 
 every year. The duty on opium is $2.50 per lb. ; on opium prepared for smok- 
 ing, 100 per cent, (acts of Congress 1864-5). 
 
 OREGON (p. 455). Received into the Union as a State, 1859. Population in 
 1860, 52,566. In 1865 about 70,000. 
 
 ORGANS (p. 455). A monster organ erected in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, 
 England, June, 1857, which at times overpowered the 2,400 vocal and instru- 
 niental performers. The largest organ in the U. S. is that in the Music Hall at 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 85 
 
 Boston, Mass., completed 1862. The next largest in H. W. Beecber's cLurcL al 
 Brook/yn, 1866. 
 
 OSTROGOTHS, or Eastern Goths, were distinguished from the Yisigoths (West- 
 ern Goths) iibont a. d, 830. After ravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, &e., their 
 great leader, Theodorie, established a kingdom in Italy, which lasted from 
 493 to 553. 
 
 OUDE, a large and rich province in North India, formerly a vice-royalty held by 
 the vizier of the Great Mogul. On the dismemberment of iiis empire about 
 1760, it was seized by the vizier Shuja-ood-Dowlah, ancestor of the late royal 
 family. 
 
 YES ! A corruption of the French Oyez, hear ye ! The term used by a public 
 crier in law courts, &c., to enjoin silence and attention ; very ancient, and the 
 date not known. 
 
 OYSTER TRADE, U. S. The oyster product of the Chesapeake Bay in 1858 
 was valued at $20,000,000. From Baltimore in 1860, $3,500,000 worth was 
 distributed through the country. The trade of the town of Fair Haven, Conn., 
 is almost exclusively devoted to the cultivation and export of oysters. 
 
 OZONE (from ozein^ to yield an odor), a name given in 1840 by M, Schonbein 
 of Basel to the odor in the atmosphere developed during the electric dis- 
 charge. It is considered to be a modification of the oxygen, and when occur- 
 ring naturally, to have an effect on health. It is also produced by the action 
 of moist air on phosphorus. In 1858 ozonometers had been constructed by 
 Dr. Lankester and others in England. M. Schonbein has since discovered 
 another modification of oxygen, which he terms antozone. 
 
 PAINTING, IN THE U. S. (p. 458.) Allston of S. C. and Boston, Morse of New 
 York, historical painters. More recently. Cole, Doughty, and Durand, in land- 
 scape, and Inman, Sully, Harding, and ElUot in portrait. In landscape paint- 
 ing during the last 20 years great advances have been made; and the 
 works of Church, Bierstadt, Gifibrd, and others have won fame and honor 
 beside the best European works. See List of Painters in Biographical Index, 
 also Tuckerman's Book of the Artists, Spooner's Biog. Hint, of Fme Arts, etc. 
 
 PALAEONTOLOGY (from the Greek palaios, ancient, and onta, beings), treats of 
 the evidences of organic beings in the earth's strata.. It is a branch of Geol- 
 ogy. Cuvicr, Mantell, Agassiz, Owen, Edward Forbes, and Blainville, all of 
 the present century, may be reckoned as the fjithers of this science. The 
 Palaeontographical Society, which publishes elaborate monographs of British 
 organic remains, was founded in 1847. Prof. James Hall of Albany is the 
 author of an elaborate woik on the Palaeontology of New York. A Professor- 
 ship of Palaeontology established at Yale College in 1866. It was endowed by 
 Geo. Peabody, Esq. 
 
 PALESTINE, After being several times conquered by the Saracens, and re- 
 taken, from the seventh to the tenth century, and after being the scene of the 
 wars of the Crusades, and other conflicts, Palestine was united to the Ottoman 
 empire by Selim I, in 1516, 
 
 PANAMA. The isthmus which joins North and South America. A new State, 
 named Panama, was formed out of New Grenada in 1855. The present pres- 
 ident (186'j) is Jose de Osbaldin, The Panama Railroad opened 1855. 
 
 PAPER. The manufacture of printing and writing papers Id the United States 
 
86 THE world's PROGIiESS. 
 
 lias been greatly advanced in the last 20 years. Printing paper is now made, 
 especially in Conu., Mass., Maine, N. J., and Pa., fully equal in quality to the 
 best in Eugliind. The amount of capital employed in this business is estima- 
 ted at 120,000,000. The quantity produced cannot be precisely calculated, 
 but it is now (1867) probably greater than the product of Great Britain. 
 Mass. manufactures more paper than any other State. Number of mills in 
 1865, 77; value of stock $5,881,671 ; Capital $3,875,000. The materials for 
 making paper in the U. S. are various, such ns rugs, flax, worn-out bagging, 
 cable-rope, straw, hay. henijock, corn-husks, mulberry leaves and bark, canes 
 and reeds. In 1855 there were in the U. S. 750 paper mills, 3,000 engines, pro- 
 ducing 280,000,000 lbs., which at 10 cts. per lb. would amount to $28,000,000. 
 The manufacture of printing and stationery papers in 1860 was 153,776,000 
 lbs. An examination of the returns of the incomes paid by persons and firms in- 
 terested in the manufacture of paper, in a single collection district of the United 
 States, for the year 1865-'66 gives the following results: Total income of 
 ninety-nine persons, firms and corporations, $948,988. Of these, one corpora- 
 tion reported an income of .$178,000, and ten individuals an aggregate of 
 $314,000 ; being an average of $31,400 each. The annual value of paper pro- 
 duced in the U. S. is estimated at $17,500,000, nearly as large as in England. 
 
 PAPER CURRENCY. In 1857 the Bank of England had $98,800,000, other 
 banks in England, $89,585,000, total, $188 385,000; Erance, $121,070,000 ; 
 United Slates',' $148,929,000; in 1863 the circulation of the 1466 banks in the 
 U. S. was $238,677,218. 
 
 PATENTS, U. S. The patent Office of the U. S. at Washington, an extensive 
 and imposing edifice, was completed 1858. The number of patents issued has 
 rapidly increased during the last seventeen years, being nearly nine times as 
 great in 1856 as in 1843. The numbers in some of these years are thus stated : 
 (from 1790 to 1850 the whole No. was 16,296): 
 
 Yeaj-s. 
 1843... 
 
 Applied for. 
 81!) 
 
 Granted. 
 531 
 
 Years. 
 
 1857 
 
 1858 
 
 Applied for. 
 
 4771 
 
 5o64 
 
 Granted. 
 2710 
 
 1850... 
 
 , 219o 
 
 995 
 
 2024 
 
 2910 
 
 3710 
 
 1855... 
 
 4435 
 
 4960 
 
 1859 
 
 6225 
 
 4538 
 
 1856... 
 
 
 
 
 The receipts of the office increased from $35,315, in 1843, to $245,942, in 1859. 
 Of the patents granted in 1859, 4,491 were to citizens of the U. S. (1,237 
 being from N. Y.), 23 to British subjects, 16 to French, and 8 to other foreign 
 applicants. No. of patents issued in 1863, 3,887. Receipts of office $179,378. 
 Expenditure $189,803. 
 
 PARKS. The great " Central Park," N. Y. city, originated 1851 by the sug- 
 gestions of late A. J. Downing, and first officially recommended by A. C. Kings- 
 land, then mayor. It was authorized both by the Common Council and by 
 the Legislature, within 100 days after ; the award of the commissioners of as- 
 sessments, made July 2, 1855. The park came into possession of the city, 
 Feb., 1856. It originally extended from 59th to 106th St.: in 1859 it was 
 extended to 110th st., and then included in all 843 acres ; being 2^ miles long, 
 ■J mile wide. The cost before extension was $5,444,369, of which $1,657,590 
 was assessed on adjoining property ; the net cost being greater than was ever 
 before known to be expended on a public park. It is now more than twice 
 the size of Hyde Park in London ; but of its area 142 acres is occupied by the 
 two Croton reservoirs. Preliminary surveys by Mr. Viele (1856) were follow- 
 ed by the adoption of plans by Olmstead and Vaux, April 28, 1858, and the ap- 
 pointment of Mr. F. L. Olmstead as Superintendent and "Architect-in-chief.'' 
 Work on this plan commenced June 1, 1858, since which from 500 to 3600 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 87 
 
 persons have been employed to this time (ISe*?) under the general direction 
 of commissioners appointed by the Le,i;islatm^e. A park of about equal extent 
 to the " Central Park," is ]irojected but not yet (186'7) completed for the City 
 of Brooklyn. Public Park at Baltimore opened 1860. The " Common " at 
 Boston (Mass.,) though small in extent, is one of the most beautiful city en- 
 closures in tbe world. 
 PAPIER MACHE. This manufacture (of paper pulp combined with gum and 
 sometimes China clay) has existed for above a century. Martin, a German 
 snuff-box maker, is said to have learnt the art from one Lefevre about 1740. 
 In 1745 it was taken up by Baskerville, the printer at Birmingham, and soon 
 spread over that district. Papier niache is now largely employed in oinamcnt- 
 ing the interior of buildings, &c. 
 
 PARADISE LOST, the great epic of Milton, appeared first in 10 books in 1667 ; 
 in 1 2 books in 1674. The author received for it the sum of £10, and his 
 widow £8 more as full payment for the copyright. 
 
 PARAGUAY, a province in South America, discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 
 1526 ; and conquered by Alvarez Nuiiez in 1535, and civilized by the Jesuits, 
 who established an exclusive government, which they held till their expulsion 
 in 1768. Paraguay rose against the Spanish yoke in 1811. In 1814 Dr. 
 Prancia was elected dictator, succeeded on Ins death in 1£40 by Vival. From 
 1814 to 1844 the country was ligidly closed' against ibreigners. The present 
 (1859) president, C. A. Lopez, was elected in 1844. Paraguay was recognized 
 as an independent State by the Argentine Confederation in 1852, by Great 
 Britain in 1853, by the U. States in 185- 
 
 PARSEES, the followers ofZerdusht, dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at the battle 
 ot'Kadseali. their army was decimated by the Arabs, and the monarchy anni- 
 hilated at the battle of Naharand in 641. Many submitted to the coriquerois, 
 but. others fled to India, and their descendants still reside at Bombay, where 
 they numbered 114,698 in 1849. Mr. Dadabhai Naoroji, a Parsee merchant;, 
 has been several years professor of Gujerati at Univer^ity college, London. 
 
 PARIS, (p. 461.) Immense improvements at great expense by Louis Napolecm, 
 1853-6. Great Industrial Exhibition opened by him May 15, 1855 ; visited by 
 Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Aug. 24, 1855, the first visit of an English 
 soveieign to Paris since that of the infant Henry VL in 1422. The gieat Ex- 
 position of 1867, opened April 1, attracted tens of thousands from all parts of 
 the world — and was visited by the Emperors of Russia and Austria, King of 
 Prussiii, the Sultan of Turkey, Viceroy of Egypt, &c. 
 
 PARISHES. The boundaries of parishes in England were first fixed by Hono- 
 rius, archbishop of Canterliury, a. n. 636. Tiie parishes of England and Vf ales 
 now amount to 11,077. Parish-registers were commenced a. d. 1538 
 
 PARLIAMENT, (p. 462.) 
 
 The Peers took poFsefsicn of their I "bled in their new house 
 
 house, tlat poi'i'ion of the palace | Nov. -i, 1852 
 
 being ready April 15, 184? Baron L. liotlischild, tl e first 
 
 The nii'mTers of the Commons' Jew admitted July 26, 1858 
 
 House of Parliament asseni- | 
 
 PARMA, (p. 462.) When the war in Italy began in 1859, the Parmeans rose, 
 and established a provisional government. May 3; the duchess-regent retired 
 to Switzerland. On Sept 3, the annexation to Sardinia was voted. 
 
 PASSPORT SYSTEM forbids subjects to quit one country or enter another 
 without the consent of the sovereign thereof: In 1858 the system was some- 
 what changed in England, and the stamp duty on passports was reduced from 
 
88 THE world's pkogeess. 
 
 6s. to Qd. Passports were abolished in Norway in 1859; in Sv\'eden in 1860; 
 and (with regard to British subjects) in France, Dec. 16, 1860 ; in Ital}', June 
 26, 1862; in Portugal, Jan. 23, 1863; and are falling into disuse in other 
 countries. The passport system was temporarily enforced in the United States 
 dnring part of the war of 1861-4. 
 
 PASSAU, Treaty of. A celebrated treaty whereby religious freedom was es- 
 tablished, and which treaty was ratified between the Emperor Charles Y. and 
 the Protestant princes of Germany, Aug. 12, 1552. By this pacification the 
 Lutherans were made at ease in regard to their religion. Henault. In 1662 
 the cathedral and greatest part of the town were consumed by fire. 
 
 PAWNBROKERS, (p. 464.) Three golden balls suspended from the doors of 
 pawnbrokers were the arms of the Lombard merchants, who were the first to 
 publicly lend money on chattel securities, and who gave the name to the pres- 
 ent street of bankers in London. They have been humorously described as 
 meaning that there were two chances to one that the things pledged would 
 never be redeemed. 
 
 PEABODY FUNDS. On March 12, 1862, Mr. George Peabody, the American 
 merchant, gave £150,000 to ameliorate the condition of the London poor. A 
 large pile of buildings, named Peabody dwellings, were erected in Spitalfields, as 
 homes for working classes. In U. S. Mr. Peabody, during a visit to the U. S. 
 donated in 1866-7 the sum of $2,000,000, to be used as an educational fund 
 for the benefit of the Southern States. It was committed to a Board of Trus- 
 tees, who have absolute discretion as to the manner of its distribution. Dr. 
 Sears, of Brown University, appointed General Agent. The promotion of 
 Primary and Normal School education is to be the leading object. Mr. 
 Peabody delivered over bonds, covering the amount of his gilt, March 4, 18o7. 
 
 PEACE SOCIETY, American. The first peace society in the world was found- 
 ed at New York in Aug., 1815. A similar society was founded at Paris in 1821. 
 Peace Society in England was founded in 1816 for the promotion of uni- 
 versal peace. It held its 43rd anniversary on May 17, 1859. A congress of 
 the friends of peace, from all parts of the world, commenced its sittings at 
 Paris, Aug. 22, 1849. And afterwards in England in successive years. Bright, 
 Cobden, Sturge, and others taking an active part. 
 
 PELASGI. The primitive inhabitants of Greece and Italy appear to belong to the 
 Indo-Germanic race. They were in Greece about 19!)0 b. c. and, in Italy 
 about 1600 B. c. They have been termed Tyrrheni, Sicani, or Sicnli, Apuli, 
 &c. From the Pelasgi come the Dorians, JEolians, and lonians ; all three 
 being Hellenes or Greeks. 
 
 PEKIN, the northern capital of China, was rebuilt by Kublai in 1279 ; and by 
 Yong-lo, 1471 ; visited by Lord Macartney in 1793 ; surrendered to the allied 
 English and French armies, Oct. 12, 1860; and evacuated by them Oct. 26 
 follov^ing, after peace had been signed. It was described as being in a very 
 desolate state, with a scattered, indigent population, estimated at 4,000,000. 
 
 PENSIONERS, U. S. The whole number of pensioners of all classes on the rolls 
 in 1860, was 11,585 ; and the aggregate amount required per annum for their 
 payment, $l,18r!>,141. Of revolutionary soldiers, 165 were on the rolls in 1860, 
 In 1866, oidy 5 were on the rolls. Congress granted in 1866, to each of these, 
 $300 annuity, in addition to the $100 pension. The war of the rebellion pro- 
 duced a new list of pensioners. The entire number on the rolls, July 1, 1866, 
 was 126,722. The amount paid to them, including expenses of disbursement, 
 $13,459,996. The Naval Pension Fund amounts to $11,750,000 (1866). 
 
SUPPEMENT, 1851-67. 89 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. Population in 1860, 2,906,115. Number of common schools 
 in the State in 1865, 12,950. The State furnished 362,284 soldiers for the war. 
 It has under its care (1866), about 1,200 soldiers' orphans, appropriation having 
 been made by the legislature to support such. 
 
 PENS, STEEL. Gillott of Birmingham, employs nearly 1,000 hands for the con- 
 version of 2^ tons of steel into 35,000 gross of pens weekly. In 1820-1, the 
 first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for £7 4-S ; now the commonest 
 pens can be sold at twopence the gross. Steel pens of a superior quality are 
 now made to a large extent in the U. S. 
 
 PERIODICAL LITERATURE, U. S. See Reviews and Magazines. 
 
 PERSEPOLIS. The ancient splendid capital of Persia. Alexander has 'been 
 falsely accused of setting fire to it, while intoxicated, 331 b. c. The fire is said 
 to have been accidental and not extensive. Remains of this city still exist. 
 
 PERU. 
 
 Marshal San Ramon president, 
 
 Oct. 24, 1862 
 
 G-eneral J. A. Pezet president, 
 
 April 3, 1853 
 
 'The Spanish, admiral Pizon took 
 possession of the Chincha isles 
 (valuable for guano), belonging 
 to Peru, stating that he "would 
 occupy them till the claim of 
 his government on tli at of Peru 
 "was satisfied April 24, 1864 
 
 Congress at Lima; plenipoten- ' 
 
 tiaries from Chili and other states 
 meet to concert measures for de- 
 fence against European powers.. No v. 1?64- 
 
 Negotiations followed by peace with 
 Spain, Jan. 28 ; Chincha islands re- 
 stored Feb. 3, 1865 
 
 Revolt against president Pezet, Feb. 
 28 ; several provinces soon lost., May 1865 
 
 The insurgonts take Lima ; Pezet 
 flies, and Canseco becomes president 
 
 Nov. 1865 
 
 PERUGIA. A city of the Papal States, anciently one of the Etruscan Confedera- 
 tion. It allied itself with the Samnites, but was ruined by two defeats by the 
 Romans, 309 and 295 B. c. It was taken by Octavius Caesar from the adhe- 
 rents of Antony ; many of whom were immolated on altars by their victor. Leo 
 X. took Perugia from the rival families Oddi and Baglioni, in 1520. An in- 
 surrection here against the pope vvas put down by the Swiss with great cruelty, 
 Jan. 20, 1859. An American family who suffered by the violence of the Papal 
 soldiers was afterwards indemnified. 
 
 PETITIONS. The right of petitioning the crown and parliament for redress of 
 grievances is a fundamental principle of the British constitntion. Petitions 
 are extant of the date of Edward I. In the reign of Henry IV., petitiotis be- 
 gan to be addressed to the house of commons in considerable num!jei\^. In 
 1837, there were presented to parliament 10,831 petitions, signed by 2,905,905 
 persons; in 1859, 24,386, signed by 2,290,579 pei'sons. This right defended 
 by John Quincy Adams, in the House of Representatives, U. S., who presented 
 a petition for dissolution of the Union. 
 
 PETROLEUM, rock oil or mineral oil, similar to paraffin, has been found in many 
 parts of the world, especially at Rangoon. In 1860-1, a number of oil-springa 
 were discovered in the bituminous coal regions of N. W. Pennsylvania, now 
 termed "Petrolia," and others have been since discovered in Ohio and other 
 states, and also in Canada. In consequence, numerous artesian wells have 
 been sunk, manufactories erected, and an almost unlimited supply obtained. 
 In consequence of the importation of large supplies of this oil into this coimtry, 
 and many accidents having taken place through its inflammability at lff<v 
 •temperature, an act for " the safe keeping of petroleum " was passed in July. 
 1862. 
 
 PETROPAULO VSKL A fortified Russian town, on the east coast of Kamtschat- 
 
90 
 
 THE world's progress 
 
 ka, attacked by English and French fleets, which were repulsed, Aug, 30, 1854. 
 Id was afterwards deserted and the fortifications destro3'ed. 
 
 PEWS in churches were not in use in England till long after the Reformation: 
 about the middle of the seventeenth century. The earliest reMding pew with 
 a date, is one at Geddington St. Mary, Northamptonshire, dated 1602. Hook. 
 
 PHARMACY. The knowledge of the chemical and medicinal properties of drugs 
 and all other things employed medicinally. Pharmaceutical Society of Lon- 
 don founded in 1841. It publishes a monthly journal. College Pharmacy in 
 New York founded in 184- 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, City of. Population in 1860, 585,529. During the war for 
 the Union, 1861-5, Philadelphia was distinguished for its enthusiastic patriot 
 ism and benevolence. Northern troops going to the field were most hospitably 
 entertained by her citizens, and a very liberal and efficient provision was made 
 for the sick and wounded in hospitals, &c. See Oluhs. 
 
 PHILOSOPHY, (p. 4'70). 
 
 MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 Ancient Schools. — Pythngo- 
 rean, about b. c. 500 ; Platonic, 
 (the AcHdemy), by Plato, 374; 
 Periptttntic (the Lyceum), h}- 
 Aristotle, 334 ; Sce2)tic, by 
 Pyrrho, 334 ; Cynic, by Diog- 
 enes ooO: Epicurean, by Epi- 
 curus, 306 •, Sloic, by Zeno, 
 290; Middle Academy, by Ar- 
 cesilaus, 278 ; New Academy, 
 by C;«nieades, 160. 
 
 MoDKEN Systems, — Rational. Ba- 
 co !, ab't A. D. 1624 ; Carlesian, 
 Descart'S, about i650; Reflec- 
 tive or Perceptive, Locke, J 690 ; 
 Idealistic, Bt^vkeiey, 1710 ; Elec- 
 tive^ Leibnitz, 1710; Common 
 Sense, Raid, 1750-70; Tran- 
 scendental, Kant, 1770-1860; 
 Scientific, Fichte, 1800-14; Ab- 
 solute Identity, Schelling, 1800- 
 20 ; Absolute Idealism, Hegel, 
 ] 810-30; UliWarian, Bentbam, 
 1790-1830; Positive, Co trite, 
 1830. 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 Greek and Latin. — Thales, about 
 B. c. 600 ; Pythagoras, 590 ; 
 Aristotle and Plato, 350 ; Eu- 
 clid, 300; Archimedes, 287; 
 
 Hipparchus, 150 ; Lucretius, about 
 100 ; Julius CsBsar, 50 ; Ptolemy, 
 A. D. 150. 
 MlddU Ages. — Arabians ; Ben Musa. 
 800; Alhnzen ; &c., 1100. Gerberl, 
 Deciinails, 959 ; lioger Bacon, Opus 
 Majus, 1266. 
 
 INDUCTIVE PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 Copernicns's system published 1543 
 
 Tychi) Brahe 1546-1601 
 
 Kepler's Laws 1609-18 
 
 Bacon's Novum Organum 1620 
 
 Galileo's Dialogues Ifc32 
 
 Royal Society hegmaiwhich see) 1645 
 
 Otto Guericke— Air-pump lfi.54 
 
 Huyghens on Pendulums 165S 
 
 Newton — Flu.xioiis. 1655 ; Analysis of 
 
 Light, 1699; Theory of (Ti-avitation, 
 
 1684 ; Principia published 1687 ; 
 
 Death 1727 
 
 Bradley discovers aberration. 1727 
 
 Euler on Perturbation of the Planets 1748 
 
 Black on Hent 176-2 
 
 Lai)lace on Tides 1775 
 
 Lagrange, Mechanique Analytique 1788 
 
 Galvani's and Volta's researches 1791 
 
 Laplace, Mechanique Celeste 1799 
 
 (See Astronomy, Optics, Chemistry, 
 
 Electricity, dbc. 
 
 PHCENICIA, on the sea coast of Syria. The natives were the most eminent 
 navigators and traders of antiquity ; their cities being Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, 
 Tripoli, Byblos, and Ptolemais of Acre. From the nineteenth to the thir- 
 teenth centuries before Chiist, they estabhshed colonies on the shores or isles 
 of the Mediterranean — Carthage, Hippo, Uticn, Gades, Panormus; nnd are 
 said to have visited the British isles. Phoenicia was conquered by Cyrus, SS'Z 
 B. C, ; by Alexander, 334 ; by the Ron)ans, 47 ; and was added to the Otto- 
 man empire, a. d. 1392. 
 
 PHONOGRAPHY (from the Greek, phone, sound). The English Phonetic So- 
 ciety, whose object is to reform our mode of writing and printing by rendering 
 it more consonant to sound, was established March 1, 1843 ; Isaac Pitman, 
 Fecretary, he being the inventor of the system which was known in 1837 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 91 
 
 Among other works published by the promoters of this system was the ' Pho^ 
 netic News." 
 
 PHOSPHORUS, (p. 470.) The consumption of phosphorus has immensely in- 
 creased since the muuufactun' of lucifer matches. In 1805, Schrotter of 
 Vienna, made the important discovery of what is termed allotropic or amor- 
 phous phosphorus, which is not so unwholesome to work as ordinary phos- 
 phorus. 
 
 PHOTO-GAL VASOGRAPHY. The art of producing engravings by the action 
 of light and electricity. The earliest specimens were produced by Nicephore 
 Niepce, and presented by him, in 1827, to the great botanist, Robert Brown, 
 in Eng. Great advances have since been made in this art by MM. Niepce de 
 St. Victor (who published a treatise on it in 1856), and Vitry, Mr. W. R. Grove, 
 H. Fox Talbot, &c. In 1854, Paul Pretsch patented in England a process which 
 he called *' Photo-galvanography," and a company was formed to apply it to the 
 benefit of the public. 
 
 PHOTOGLYPHIC ENGRAVING (a process by which the light actually etches a 
 picture on a plate that may be and has been printed from), was invented by 
 Mr. Fox Talbot, in Eng. in 1859. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. The action of hght on chloride of silver was known as early 
 as the sixteenth century. Tlie phenomena were studied by Scheele (1777), 
 Senebier (1790j, Ritter and Wollaston (1801). From the results of these in- 
 vestigations, experiments were made by Thos. Wedgwood and Humphry 
 Davy, which were published, 1802. Wedgwood may be regarded as the first 
 photographer. His paper was entitled "An Account of a method of copying 
 paintings upon glass, and of making profilesby the agency of light upon nitrate 
 of silver." Further discoveries were made by Niepce in 1814, and Sir J. 
 Herschel in 1819. Daguerre commenced his experiments in 1824; and in 
 1826 joined Niepce, and worked with him till the death of the latter in 1833. 
 The production of the Daguerreotype plates was announced in Jan., 1839; 
 and the French chamber of deputies granted a pension to Daguerre asid to 
 Isidore Niepce (the son). In 1839, also, Henry Fox Talbot first published his 
 mode of multiplying photographic impressions, by producing a negative pho- 
 tograph (^■. e. with the lights and shades n-versed), from which any number of 
 positive copies may be obtained. His patent for producing the Taihotype or 
 Calotype (on paper), is dated Feb. 1841. From this time improvements have 
 been made with great rapidity. In 1851, Collodion was applied to photography 
 by Mr. F. Archer. Photographic Society of London, established Jan. 1853. 
 It publishes a journal. Celestial Photography began with Professor Bond, the 
 astronomer of Cambridge, U. S., who exhibited a photograph of the moon in 
 1851. In the F. S. M. Gourard, of Paris, first introduced Photog- 
 raphy in the U. S. in 1839, exhibiting some daguerreotype views in (he 
 course of a lecture at the Broadway Tabernacle, early in that year. Pro- 
 fessors Morse, Draper, and Wollcott, simultaneously, before the end of the 
 year, improved Daguerre's process, and during 1840 applied it to portraiture. 
 Ambrotypes were introduced in 1853, and paper photographs in 1851, 
 although very little was done in the business way until 1854. Early in 1855, 
 Mr. C. D. Fredricks made the first successfid life-sized photographs, with an 
 apparatus invented by Mr. H. H. Snelhng. Professor Bond, of Cambridge, 
 Mass., first exhibited a photograph of the moon in 1851. Photographs of 
 rapidly-moving objects are taken in a fractional part of a second. Ingenious 
 counterfeits of bank notes have been effected by photography. 
 
 PHOTO-SCULPTURE has been introduced in New York in 1867, by Messrs 
 
92 THE world's progress. 
 
 McKaye & Co. ; among the earliest specimens are statuettes of Grant, Farrai 
 g;ut, Greeley, and others. 
 
 PIANO-FORTES. Those made by Stein way of New York, and Cbickering of 
 Boston, received the highest award (gold medal), at the Paris Exposition of 
 ISe^, July 1. This manufacture has advanced very largely in the last 13 
 years, and is one of the most important branches of American industry. 
 There are in New York city alone 113 piano-makers (186'7). 
 
 PIEDMONT (Fedemontium, Latin, foot of the mountains). A region in North 
 Italy, seat of government of the modern kingdom of Sardinia, which see. 
 
 PINS. (p. 472.) Pins were first manufactured by machinery in England, in 
 1824, under a patent of Lemuel Wellman Wight, of the U. S. — Haydn. 
 
 PISTOLS, (p. 472.) Of late years they have been made with a revolving cylin- 
 dincal breech, in which are formed several chambers for receiving cartridges, 
 and bringing them in succession into a hne with the barrel for firing. The 
 earliest model for this kind of arm is to be found in the United Service 
 Museum, and is supposed to date from the reign of Charles I, The manufac- 
 ture of pistols by machinery was first introduced into England from the 
 United States, in 1853, by Col. Colt, the inventor of the celebrated Colt pis- 
 tol, at which time nearly the whole of the machinery used was new to Eng- 
 land. The perfection and economy of this system of manufacture induced the 
 British Government to establish the Enfield Ajrmory in the year 1855. — Haydn. 
 In 1835 Colt patented his revolving chambered breech ; and in 1852, founded 
 his manufactory at Hartford, Conn., where the Colt Arms Co. make revolving 
 pistols of several sizes, costing from $10 to $25 each, at the rate of 300 and 
 sometimes even 500 each day. This revolver has 14 parts, besides screws, 
 and these pass through (in all) 460 separate processes before the pistol is 
 completed. Various other revolving pistols have been invented, but none so 
 successful. The Derringer pistol is single-barrelled, throwing a small ball. 
 
 PITTSBURG LANDING (near Corinth, Tennessee). On Sunday April 6, 1862 
 a great battle was fought between the U. S. troops under Grant and Prentiss, 
 and the rebels under Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. The latter 
 began the attack and were victorious, but lost their able general Johnston. 
 Grant was reinforced the next day and renewed the attack ; the rebels main- 
 tained their ground ; but soon after retired in good order to Corinth. 
 
 PLANETS. See Astronomy. Asteroids have been discovered as follows : 
 
 Hygeia, by A. de G-asparis. April 12, 1849 , Massilia, by A. de G-asparis 
 
 Pavihenope, by the same. . . . May 1 1 , 1850 ' "" 
 
 Victoria, by -t. R. Hind Sept. 13, 1850 
 
 Eqeria, VivA. de Gaspaiis. ..Nov. 2, 1850 
 
 Irene, by "j. E. H' nd May 19, lf^51 
 
 Eunomia, by A. de Gaspari^.Julj- 29, 1^51 
 
 Psyche, by the same Ma) ch 17, 1852 
 
 Thetis, by R. Luther April 17, 18.i2 
 
 MeJpomene, by J. R. Hind.. .June 24, 1852 
 Fortuna, by the same Aug. 22, 1852 
 
 PNEUMATIC DESPATCH COMPANY (England) conveys letters and parcels 
 through tubes by means of atmospberic pressure and a vacuum. The con>- 
 pany's act was passed Aug. 13, 1859, and tubes were laid down in Threadueedle 
 street on Sept. 12, 1860 ; and on Aug. 20, 1861, successful experiments were 
 performed at Battersea. In 1862 tubes were laid down from the Euston rail- 
 way station to the N. W. post-oifice in Camden-town, and on Feb. 21, 1868, 
 the conveyance of the mail bags began. In Oct. 1865, tubes had been laid 
 down between Euston railway and Holboni ; and on Nov, 7, several persons 
 travelled in them. Engineer, Mr. Rammell. 
 
 Sept. 19, 1852 
 Lutetia, by H. Groldsmith.Nov. 15, 1852 
 
 CulUope, by J. R. Hind Nov. Ifi, do 
 
 Thalia, by "the same Dec. 15, do. 
 
 4 in 185:^ ; 6 in 1854 , 4 in 1855 ; 5 in 
 1856 ; 9 in 1857 ; 5 in 1858 ; 1 in 1859; 
 5 in 1860 ; 9 in 1861 ; 5 in 1862 ; 2 in 
 1863 ; 3 ill 1864 ; and 3 in 1865. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 93 
 
 PLYMOUTH BRETHREN". A body of Christians calling themselves " the 
 Brethren," which first appeared at Plymouth, England, about 1830. In 1851 
 tbev had 132 places of worship in England and Wales. They object tc 
 national churches as too Uititudinarian, and to dissenters as too sectarian. 
 They receive into communion all who confess Clirist, and own the Holy Ghost 
 as his vicar. Their doctrines agree with those of most evangelical Protestant^ 
 churches, but they recognize no order of ministers. 
 
 POET-LAUREATE— England. Alfred Tennyson, appointed 1850. 
 
 POLICE. The " Metropolitan Police" law for the city of New York and sub- 
 urbs, passed 1857, resisted by the mayor (Wood), and a serious collision re- 
 sults between the old and new police force, June 16, 185'7. The new law 
 pronounced to be constitutional by the Court of Appeals, July 2, and the old 
 force is disbanded next day. The present pohce force of New York (186*7), 
 is unquestionably the most effective and the most perfect that has ever been 
 organized on this continent. In 1866, the police force consisted of 26 cap- 
 tains, 105 sergeants, 42 roundsmen, 60 detailments, 1,250 patrolmen, 56 door- 
 men. There are 26 Police districts. Expense to the city for supporting this 
 force in 1866, $1,836,120. 
 
 POLITICAL ECONOMY, (p. 478.) In the U. States, the most elaborate works on 
 this subject, are those of Mr. Henry C. Carey, of Phila., who has published (as 
 a protectionist), several volumes which are highly esteemed also in Europe. 
 Works favoring free trade, have also been issued here by Opdyke, and others. 
 
 POLYNESIA, A name recently given to the isles in the great Pacific Ocean. 
 
 PONTIFFS (Latin, Pontifices). The highest Roman sacerdotal order, established 
 by Numa. The college first consisted of 4 Patricians ; to these 4 plebeians 
 were afterwards added. Sylla increased the number to 15 (8 majores^ 1 
 minores). The chief was called the Pontifex Maximus. T. Coruncanius, a 
 plebeian, obtained this office, 254 b. c. 
 
 POPULATION OF THE Globe, (p. 481.) Professor C. F. W. Dietrich, of the 
 University of Berlin, has furnished the Academy of Sciences in that city with 
 the most recent and reliable tables on this subject, giving the following results, 
 with his grounds for them. 
 
 Population of Europe 272,000,000 I Population of Australia, etc 2,000,000 
 
 " '-Asia... .755,000,000 I 
 
 " " America 200,000,000 1 Total 1,288,000,000 
 
 " " Africa 59,000,000 | 
 
 or more than twelve hundred millions. Reckoning the average death as 
 about one in every forty inhabitants, 32,000,000 die in a year ; 8'7,6'7l in a 
 day ; 3,653 in an hour ; and 61 in a minute. Thus one human being dies on 
 an average everv second, and more than one is born. Op the U. S. In 1850, 
 23,191,000 ; in '1860, 31,429,000. In 1860, the following cities had over 100,- 
 000 :— New York, 805,651 ; Philadelphia, 585,529 ; Brooklyn, 266,661 ; 
 Baltimore, 212,418 ; Boston, 177,812 ; New Orleans, 168,675 ; Cincinnati, 
 161,044 ; St. Louis, 160,773 ; Chicago, 109,260. By an unofiBcial but reliable 
 estimate taken by an officer of the government in Dec. 1866, the total popula- 
 tion of the U. S. was found to be 34,505,882. 
 
 PORTLAND, Maine. Population in 1860, 26,342. See i^^^e.s. 
 
 PORT ROYALISTS. The name popularly given to the learned members of tht 
 celebrated convent of the Port Royal des Champs (founded about 1204 ; ana 
 refouuded in 1626), who occupied their time therein religious exercises, and in 
 instructing youth, from about 1636 to 1656, when they were expelled by 
 
94 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 Louis XIV., as Jansenists and heretics. Among the distinguished names con* 
 nected with the Port Royal are those of Lancelof, Pascal, Arnauld, Nicole da 
 Sacy, and Tilleinout. The school books which were published for the use of 
 that institution were greatly esteeniLM'. 
 
 PORTUGAL, (p. 485.) 
 
 An American squalron arrivea 
 in the Tauus lo enforce claims 
 against the Portuguese <;overn- 
 mciit...; Jan.- 22, 1850 
 
 Death of ine qiioeu Aiara II. 
 
 Nov. 15, 1853 
 
 Kiiiij-oonsort recocrnized hs re- 
 aeor Dec. 19, 1853 
 
 The young kiug visiis England 
 
 June, 1851 
 
 And Fra ■ ce Miiy , 1855 
 
 All the slavrs on the Royal uo- 
 mfiins declared free.... Deo. :sO, 1854 
 
 InHiiguration of the king.Sex3t. 16, 1855 
 
 Resignation of the Saldanha 
 iniiii.-fcry June 5, 1856 
 
 Pir.<t Portuguese railway (from Lis- 
 bon to Sarituiem) o[:ened Oct. 26, 1856 
 
 The French, eunaratit siii|)for negroes 
 
 Charles-et-Georges, seized J^ov. 29, 1857 
 
 Anger of the French government ; its 
 Uitimatum sent, Oct. 13 ; and sh. ps 
 of war to the Ta'.',us ; the vessel re- 
 stored Oct. 2.'^, 1858 
 
 1853. Peter V. (Do : PeUro), born 
 Sept. 16 1837 ; the present (1^59) king 
 of Poitugiii. Mar.ied to the princess 
 Stopliania, of Ilo'ieuzoilern Sigmar- 
 ingen, May 18, 185S ; who died 
 
 July 17, 1859 
 
 [Heir, Prince Louis-Philip, the king's 
 brother, bom Oct 31, 1838.] 
 
 POST OFFICE, U. S. (p. 484.) For the year ending 'June 30, 1859 : number 
 of post-offices, 28.539 ; increase during the year, 582 ; mail routes, 8,2*73 ; 
 aggregate length, 26(^,052 miles ; annual transportation, 82,308,402 miles, of 
 which by railroad.-^, 2ij.010 miles, total, 27,268,384 mile.^, at 11.9 cents per 
 mile ; by steamboats, 19,209 miles, total, 4,569, 9rt2, at 25.3 cents per mile ; 
 by coaches, 63,041 iiiile.s, total, 23,448,498 miles, at 13.3 cents per mile ; by 
 inferior modes, 151,792 miles ; total, 27,021,658, at Y.l cents per mile. Ex- 
 penditures of the department for 1859, $14,961,493; revenue, $7,968,484 ; 
 deficiency, $6,996,0'. 9. See Tab e in Appendix. Nearly 2,00 ),0;)0 " dead 
 letters " annually lail to reach the persons addressed. The Post Office re- 
 ceipts were in 
 
 1854. 
 1855. 
 1856. 
 1857. 
 1858. 
 1869. 
 1860. 
 
 .7t 
 
 7 millions. 
 ,7i do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 .8 
 .8* 
 
 , .l().ss 1-^ millions. 
 .. " 2| do 
 
 3 
 3i 
 
 5| 
 
 do 
 do 
 do 
 do 
 do 
 
 Number of post-offices in 1863, 29,047 ; mail routes, 139,598 miles ; revenue, 
 $11,163,000; expenditures, $U,3l4,000. In 1865, $12,099,787 worth of 
 postage stamps were sold; $724,135 worth of stamped envelopes; $23,315 
 worth of stamped wrappers. 467, 5i)0,000 letters were conveyed in the mails, 
 of which 2,352,000 were lost or destroyed ; number of dead letters, 4,368,000. 
 There were 74,277 money orders issued, of the value of $1,360,12 *, The 
 revenues of the year 1865, exceeded the liighest annual receipts from all the 
 states previous to the rebellion by $6,033,09;). The most money that can be 
 sent (1867), by one order by mail is $50. Length of postal routes in 1867, 
 180 900 miles. The revenue of the department for the year ending June 30, 
 ]865, was $14,556,158, and its expenditures $13,694,728 ; the rate of increase 
 being 17 per cent., and of expenditure 8 per cent., compared with the pre- 
 vious year. Postage stamps to the value of $l-?,099.787 were sold, also 
 $724,135 worth of stamped envelopes, and $23,315 of stamped wrappers. It 
 is estimated that 467,591,600 letters were conveyed in the mails in 1865, of 
 which 2,352,424 were lost or destroyed ; the number of dead letters was 
 4,368,087. There were 74,277 money orders is.sued, of the value of |1,360,- 
 122. The average annual increase of the revenue fo'r the last four years over 
 the preceding four years was $3,533,845. The Postmaster-General thinks 
 
supplemejS't, 1851-67. 9c 
 
 that in a few years, letter postage may be reduced to the rate adopted by 
 Great Britain. 
 
 POSTAL MONEY ORDERS. On Aug. 2, 1856, 800 new money-order offices 
 
 ■ were added, making 700 sucli post offices. The largest amount that can be 
 
 sent by any one order is now $50. The fees also have been changed — the 
 
 charge now being 10 cents on any order from $1 up to $20 ; and 25 cents on 
 
 any order over $20. 
 
 POST OFEiCE, British. The net revenne was in 1853, £1,104,000 ; in 1857, 
 £l,2'.)3,97i. Rowland Hill's penny postage was broached in 183Y, and 
 adopted in 1839. The numbers of letters in the last year of the old system 
 was, 82,470,596. The number in 1856 was 478 millions ; in 1858, it was 523 
 n)ilhons. In 1855, books and pamphlets were first allowed to be sent by post, 
 at the i-ate of Id. ibr 4 oz. The number of letters annually parsing tiirough 
 the Post offices of Groat Britain, with the uniform one penny postage system, 
 is four tinus as great as in the United States, as by the following table : 
 
 No. of Letters per Postal Postal 
 
 Countries. Population. letters. 1,000 persons. expenses, revenues. 
 
 United S; fit OS 25,000,000 102,139,148 4,084 $12,722,470 $7,486,792 
 
 Great Britain 30,000,000 410,817,489 13,693 . 14,884,80ii 9,24,5,000 
 
 France 40,000,000 150,000,000 3,750 6,023,915 9,321,900 
 
 Span 14.000,000 30,775,686 2,209 ], 095,393 1,281,761 
 
 Belgium 4,600,000 11,521,955 2,603 327,128 355,648 
 
 Ploliaud 3.200.000 13.349,553 4,357 166,785 288,162 
 
 Switzeilaud 2,300,000 19,773,671 8,299 341,028 447,752 
 
 PRiETORlAN GUARDS were instituted by the emperor Augustus (b.c. 13), 
 and their numbers enlarged by Tiberius, Vitellius, and his successors. At first 
 supporters of the imperial tyrants, they eventually became their masters, 
 actually putting up the imperial diadem for sale (as in a.d 193 when it wa.s 
 bought by Didius Julianus). They at times committed many atrocities, and 
 were finally disbanded by Constantine, in 312. 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS, (p. 488.) The Presbyterian church in the United States 
 was divided into the " Old Scchool," and the New School, 1837. In 1850, 
 the aggregate No. of churches was 4,584, accommodating 2,040,000 pei^sons. 
 The Presbyterians of the Southern states formed an independent organization, 
 Dec. 1861. The New School assembly in May, 1863, at Phila., passed resolu- 
 tions "that to support the President and the Goverinneut of the U. S. is relig- 
 iously the duty of all good citizens " in the present crisis. Number of " Old 
 School" Presbyterians May, 1865 who were communicants, 232,450; ministers, 
 2,301 ; churches, 2,629. "New School" communicants, 143,645; ministers, 
 1,694; churches, 1,479. Aggregate in other " schools " in 1862, 200,000. 
 Contributions of " Old School'" in 1865, $2,400,000; "New School," $2,200,000. 
 
 PRESS, FREEDOM OF THE, U. S. Several Papers were mobbed in the North in 1861 
 for expressing Southern sentiments. The N. Y, " Journal of Commerce,'* 
 " News," "Day Book," "Freeman's Journal," were complained of by a Grand 
 Jury of the U. S. District Court at New York, as treasonable in their declara- 
 tions; the Government accordingly, refused them the privilege of the mails, 
 Aug, 1861. Orders from the War Department prohibiting the publication of 
 military movements, Feb, 1862. In June, 1863, Gen. Burnside suppressed the 
 " Cliicago Times." In 1864, about 35 newspapers were mobbed or suppressed 
 for disloyalty in the Northern States. In 1863 the editors of the N. Y. papers 
 pass(.'d resolutions that the restrictions on them were dangerous in their ten- 
 (iency. During the war the Press was free, so long as it did not express trea- 
 son or give information to the enemy; 
 
 PRINTING, (p. 490.) In the United States this important art has made great ad 
 
9G THE world's pkogkess. 
 
 vances during the last 10 years (1861). The best presses of Boston, and Cam- 
 brigc, Mass., of New York, and of Philadelphia, have produced specimens, 
 nearly or perhaps fully equal to the best in England or France. Excellence haa 
 been especially aimed at of hue in this country, while economy and cheapness 
 have been more studied in England. 
 FEINTING TYPES first electrofaced with copper, about 1850. 
 
 PRINTING IN COLORS was first conunenced by the employment of several 
 blocks, to imitate the initial letters in MSS. (for instance, the Meutz Psalter of 
 Faust, A.D 145*7, which has a letter in three colors). Imitations of chiaroscuro 
 soon followed ("Repose in Egypt," engraving on wood, after Louis Cranach, 
 1519, in Germany ; others, by IJgo da C irpi in Italy, 1518). In 1819-22, Mr. 
 William Savage published in England " Hints on Color Printing," illustrated 
 by imitations of chiaroscuro, and of colored drawings, which are still greatly 
 admired, giving details of the processes employed. In 1836, Mr. George Baxter 
 produced beautiful specimens of Picture -Printing, and took out a patent, 
 which expired in 1855. Since then great improvements have been made in 
 the art. It has been appUed to Lithography (hence, Chromolithography). In 
 1849, Mr, G. C. Leigh ton produced imitations of water-color-drawings, by 
 means of modifications and improvements of Savage's processes. In 1851, he 
 commenced color-printing by machinery, and has since used aqua-tinted plates ; 
 and also olectrotyped silver and copper surfaces to obtain purity of color as 
 well as durabilit}'. — Haydn. This art is also pi^actised considerably in the U. 
 S., but has not been prominently recognized. Chromolithography, i. e. print- 
 ing from stone in colors, introduced in N. Y. and Phila., about 1848, has been 
 carried to great perfection. 
 
 PRINTING PRESSES, (p. 488.) The largest presses more recently, constructed by 
 Hoe & Co., of New York, will throw off 25,000 impressions per hour. These 
 are the "ten-cylinder type-revolving printing machines.'' Two of these have 
 been supplied to print the London Times, and a similiar one is used by four 
 daily newspapers in New York. The cost of each press is about $30,000. Of 
 the eight and six-cylinder machines Hoe & Co. have supplied 20 in Great 
 Britain, 4 in Paiis, and 2 in Australia! The Adams printing presses are now 
 manufactured by Hoe k Co. 
 
 PRISONS. U. S. Number of state prisons in 21 Northern States in 1865, 25. 
 No two are alike in their general construction. Average nund.^er of prisoners 
 in them in 1865, 6,650. The Auburn silent system, inaugurated in 1812, is in 
 p'.-aiice in most of the states. The Prison Association at New York chiefly 
 promoted by Isaac T. Hopper about 1850. 
 
 PRISONERS. During the "Rebellion," U. S., at the close of the war, 1^4,223 
 were surrended by the Confederates to the Union Armies. The Government 
 also had in prisons in the North, 98,800. In 1063, there was a general ex- 
 change of prisoners, the U. S. giving up 121,900 in return for 110,8C0 Union 
 sohliers. During 1863 the Confederates held an excess of prisoners. From 
 1861 to 1864-, 225,000 Union soldiers passed the doors of Libby Prison, Rieh- 
 raond. 85,000 were at one time at Andersonville, Ga. Capt. Wirz (Confed- 
 erate) tried at Washington, D. C, for inhuman treatment to U. S. prisoners at 
 the latter place, and executed Nov, 10, 1865. Union officers (prisoners) placed 
 under fire of Federal guns at Charleston, S. C, in retahation for bombarding 
 the city, 1864. 
 
 PRIVATEER. A vessel belonging to one or more private individuals, sailing 
 vv'ith a license from Government in time of war, to seize and plunder the ships 
 of the enemy. The practice first became general during the war betweei; 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 
 
 97 
 
 Spain and the Netherlands, about the end of the seventeenth century, and was 
 very general during the last French war. Privateering was abolished by the 
 great sovereigns of Europe by treaty, March 30, 1856 ; but the U. S. govern- 
 ment declined to join in this treaty. During the war of 1812 there were 250 
 privateers commissioned by the U. S., of which 58 were from Baltimore, 55 from 
 hew York, 40 from Salem, and 31 from Boston. During that war 2,000 British 
 vessels were captured by the Americans, a large portion being by privateers. 
 About 500 American vessels were captured or destroyed by the British. See 
 CoggeshaWs Hist, of Am, Prwateers. The thirty-seventh Congress (1863) 
 passed a Letter of Marque Bill enabling the President to cover every sea with 
 Privateers. None were commissioned, the regular navy bring sufficiently 
 efiective. The Southern Confederacy fitted out about 30 vessels as Privateers. 
 Seven of them proved formidable. They captured 275 vessels of American 
 merchants, 100,000 tons in all, and valued at many millions. The fleetest of 
 these Privateers were of French and British build, and some of them manned 
 by seamen from those nations. 
 
 PRIZE MONEY, U. S. From May 1, 18«1 to the close of the war in 1865, 1149 
 Rebel blockade-runners and privateers were captured. Net proceeds for dis- 
 tribution among seamen 120,501,927. The crew of the Kearsarge, which sunk 
 the Alabama (Rebel) in the English Channel, received $300 a piece. 
 
 PROPERTY IJT THE U. S. In 1856, the real and personal property of the U. S 
 was estimated by Mr. Guthrie, Sec. of the Treasury, at $11,317,611,672 (more 
 than 11,000 millions). By the census of 1860, this had increased to $14,282,- 
 726,088, but this estimate is probably too low. The value of similiur prop- 
 erty of Great Britain at the same time was about $31,000 millions. 
 
 PRUSSIA, (p. 491.) 
 
 The king takes the orith required 
 by the new constitu ioii.Feh, 6, 1850 
 
 Treaty of pear^e betAveen Prus- 
 sia and Denmark....:.. ..July 2, 1850 
 
 Decree, catling out the whole 
 Prussian army, 223,000 infan- 
 try, 38,000 cavalry, and 29,000 
 artillery, with l,0S01ield.-p eees. 
 
 IS'ov, 7, 1850 
 
 The Prussian troops eommence 
 their retreatfroui Hesse-Oassel 
 
 Dec. 5, 1850 
 
 The king celebrates by a grand 
 banquet the ISOth anniversary 
 of the Prussian monarchy, 
 
 Jan. 18, 1851 
 
 The king revives the eoancil of 
 state as it existed before the 
 revo'ution of 1848 Jan 12, 1852 
 
 A Prussian Industrial exhibition 
 
 opened at Berlin May 28, 1852 i 
 
 Prussia repudiates a customs 
 
 union with Austria -June 17, 1852 
 
 But agrees to a commercial 
 treaty.. Feb. 19, 1853 
 
 Continues neutral in the war 
 
 Sept. 21, Oct. 13,1854 
 
 Excluded from the conferences 
 at Vienna Feb. 1855 
 
 Alarming illness of the king, the 
 prince of Prussia appointed 
 regent fur three months Oct. 23, 1857 
 
 Prince Frederick William of 
 Prussia, married to the prin- 
 cess royal of England.. Jan. 25, 1858 
 
 r 
 
 Prince of Pruesia made permarctit 
 regent Oct. 7, 1858 
 
 Prussia declares its heutrality, but 
 arms to protect Germ'y. May & June, 1859 
 
 Death of the kina' and the accession of 
 the Prince of Prussia, as William T. 
 
 Jan. 2, 1861 
 
 War was declared by Prussia and Italy 
 airainst Austria ; Bavar'a, Saxony, 
 and Hanover sided with Austria; 
 The Prussian army occuped Hano- 
 ver and Saxony, (.-^ee Bailies, Austrian 
 aivi Prussian).., June 17, and 18, l-SfiS 
 
 Ifegotiations for an armistice com- 
 menced July 12, 1366. Prussian ad- 
 vance in sight of Vienna, .Inly 22. 
 Treaty of Peace S'gned A us:. SO; 
 Prussia acquired Hanover. Sch'ew- 
 wig-Holstein, Hes.-e-Cassel,'lSra6sau, 
 Frankfort, parts of Bavaria and 
 Hesse-Darmstadt ; by these annexa- 
 tions her population became 23,583,- 
 000 ; the strength of Austria remain- 
 ed united, hut she paid Prussia $28,- 
 000,000 ; Venetian Province ceded 
 to Italy ; a vote on the question of 
 annexation of Yenetia to Italy was 
 held in that province, resulting in 
 641,758 affirmative, 68 negative. 
 
 Oct. 19, 1866 
 
 The King of Italy entered Venice, 
 amid great demonstrations of joy 
 
 •Nov. 7, ISGff 
 
98 T'lE worll's progeejtp. 
 
 PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy of Pelusium, in Egypt (about a. b 
 140), supposed that the earth was fixed in the centre of the universe, and tliat 
 the sun, moon, and stars moved around once iu twenty-four hours. This 
 systeui (siiil the official doctrine of the Chnrch of Eonie), was universally 
 taught till that of Pythagoras (500 b. c.) whs revived by Copernicus (a. d. 
 1530), and demonstrated by Kepler (1619), and Newton (ISS*?). 
 
 PUBLIC LANDS, U. S. From 1838 to 1860, the sales of public lands readied 
 122,038,290 acres, which produced $136,401,302 (1860). In Sept. 1863, the 
 amount of surveyed public lands undisposed of, was 133,487,495 acres; the 
 quantity disposed of in 1863, was 2,966,690 acres, of which 91,354 were sold 
 for cash, the remainder granted for bounties, railroads, &c. 
 
 P tJBLIC WORKS, American. The Croton Aqueduct carries more water than 
 any other in the world, and is but two miles shorter than the Julian Aqueduct 
 at Rome, the longest in the world. The stone arch over Cabin John's Creek, 
 in the Washington Aqueduct, is about 50 feet longer span thnn any stone arch 
 in the world. The Suspension Bridge at Lewiston, and the railroad suspension 
 bridge, both over the Niagara river, have each the largest span of the kind in 
 the world. The United Stales Dry Dock at Brooklyn, is not equalled in di- 
 mensions, nor surpassed iu workmanship, by any of the kind anywhere. 
 
 PUNCTUATION. The ancients do not appear to have had any system ; and 
 doubtless employed arbitrary signs to distinguish the parts of a discourse. Of 
 our points the period (.) is the most ancient. The colon (:) was introduced 
 about l<iS5; the comma (,) was first seen about 1521, and the semicolon (;) 
 about 1750. In Sir Philip Sidney's " Arcadia " (1587), they all appear, as well 
 as the note of interrogation (?), asterisk (*), and parenthesis (). 
 
 QUADRANGLE, or Quadrilateral. Terms applied to the four strong Austrian 
 fortresses in North Italy ; — (1) Peschiera, on an island in the Mincio, near the 
 lake of Garda. It was taken by the French in 1796; by the Austrians and 
 Russians in 1799; by the French again in 1801; but restored in 1814. It 
 was taken by the Sardinians in 1848 ; but retaken by Radetzky in 1849. The 
 Sardinians were about to invest it in 1859, when peace was made: (2) Mantua, 
 on the Mincio ; (3) Verona : and (4) Legnano ; both on the Adige. 
 
 QUAKERS, (p. 497.) In 1682, Wra. Penn, with a company of Friends, colonized 
 Philadelphia, where on Jan. 1, 1788, they emancipated their negro slaves. In 
 England, on Jan. 23, 1833, Edward Pease, a Qiiid^er, was admitted to Parlia- 
 ment on his affirmation. The Quakers had in England, 413 meeting-houses in 
 1800, and 371 in 1851. At a conference held on Nov. 2. 1858, it was agreed 
 to recommend that mixed marriages should be permitted, and that many of the 
 peculiarities of the sect in speech and costume should be abandoned. 
 
 QUARANTINE. The quarantine system has long been enforced at the principal 
 ports of the United States. The buildings used as quarantine hospitals, at 
 Staten Island (near New York city), were burned by an " orderly mob " of 
 citizens, who regarded them as a "nuisance," Sept. 1-2, 1858. 
 
 QUININE OR QuiNiA. An alkaloid (much used in medicine), discovered in 1820 
 by Pelletier and Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all genuine cinchona 
 bajks, especially of the yellow bark. 
 
 R 
 
 RACES, (p. 501.) The most eminent races in England .are those at Newmarket, 
 established by Charles II. in 1667 ; at Epsom., begun about 1711, by Mr. Park' 
 
SUPPLEME^^T, 1851-67. 99 
 
 hurst (they have been annual since 1730) ; at Ascot, begun by the Duke of 
 Cumberland, uncle to George III. ; at Doncnster, in 1776, and at Goodwood, 
 begun by the Duke of Richmond (who died in 180G). The English Jockey 
 Club began in the time of George II. The New York Jockey Club 9nd the 
 r«ce course at Jerome Park, established 1865-6. Flyhig CMlders, bred in 
 3 715 by the Duke of Devonshii'e, was allowed by sportsmen to have been the 
 fleetest horse that ever ran at Newmarket, or that was ever bred in the world ; 
 he ran four miles in six minutes and forty-eight seconds, or at the rate of 35^ 
 miles an hour, carrying nine stone two pounds. He died in 1741, aged 26 
 years. Robt. Bonner of New York, is said to have paid $SO,000 for Dexter, 
 a fast trotter, Aug." 1867. 
 
 RAGGED SCHOOLS. Free schools for outcast, destitute, ragged children set up 
 in large towns. They existed in some parts of London previous to 1844, but 
 did not receive their name till that year, when the "Ragged School Ur.ion" 
 was formed. In 1856, there were 150 Ragged-school institutions, 16 refuges, 
 where 500 inmates are fed, lodged, clothed, and educated. Upwards of 500 
 boys and girls have emigi^ated to the colonies. In New York and other large 
 cities of the U, S., " Ragged Schools" have been established by benevolent in- 
 dividuals, to the great benefit of many thousand destitute children, who would 
 otherwise have received no instruction. " Mission Schools " also have gathered 
 i:i thousands from the cellars and gutters, who have been provided not only 
 with oral teaching, but with lodging, food, and raiment. The "Fourth Ward" 
 and " Five Points " Missions are of this character. 
 
 RAILROADS or the World. 
 
 , Area sq. mile. n , Population ^ 
 
 Miles of To mile To mile 
 
 railroad. of RE,. of RE,. 
 
 N". America 89,414.1 7,600,000 192.8 52,000,000 1,SG9.3 
 
 , West Indies 410.3 100,000 243.7 3,500,000 8,529.8 
 
 S.America 1,041.9 7,100,000 6,f^l4.4 22,500,000- 21,.^95.1 
 
 Tot. Am er.... 40,866.3 14,800,000 362.1 78,000,000 1,908.6 
 
 ■ Europe 50,117.5 3.600,000 71.8 285,000.000 5,686.6 
 
 Asia 3,66(1.3 17,400,000 4,753.7 789,000,000 213,097.3 
 
 j\frica 375.4 11,700,000 31.166.7 200.000,(;00 532,765.1 
 
 Australasia 607.7 3,200,000 5,285.7 1,600,000 2,632.8 
 
 Total of 
 
 world....... 95,727.2 50,700,000 530.2 1,344,600,000 13,903.8 
 
 See table in detail, in Com. 6o Financial Chronicle^ N. Y. 
 
 RAILWAYS, (p. 502.) In England, the capital invested in railway undertakings 
 has reached a most astonishing amount. Up to 1840 is w^as 69 railhous ; the 
 luilway mania and panic year was 1846, when 270 railway acts passed. Up to 
 1858, the sum of £308,824,851 had been invested in railways. In the U. S. 
 In June, 1859, the length of railwavs in operation in the United States was 
 stated to be 27,857 miles; cost $961,047,864. Licrease since 1847, 24,057 
 miles. In 1865, the length of completed railroads was 35,935 miles; cost 
 $l,432,649,0i.,0 ; cost ner mile, $40,000. Pennsylvania had 3,967 miles ; Ohio, 
 3,393; Illinois, 3,206 { New York, 2,956. Railway accidents in 1866, LS3, in 
 which 335 persons were kiUed. In Cities. On the eleven street railroads in 
 the city of New York there were carried, during the year ending Sept. 80, 
 1884, the enormous number of 60,328,795 passengers, exceeding that of the 
 previous vear by nearly 20,000,000. The earnings of the roads for the same 
 period were $4,623,583, and the expense $2,821,625. 
 
100 
 
 THE 
 
 world's 
 
 PKOGEESS. 
 
 RAILWAY TRAYELLERS. The statistics on this subject prove that this moda 
 of travelling is mucli safer than the old modes. Thus in the French post sySf 
 tern ihere were nearly seven times as many deaths as in an equal number of 
 miles by railroad. Yet the number of accidents is inexcusably great, especial- 
 ly in the United States, The summary of several years shows 
 
 Passerigers. 
 In Entylfind killed or wounded I in 311,340 
 In United States, " "■ 1«8,459 
 
 Passengers. 
 In Prussia, killed or wounded 1 in 1,294,075 
 In Belgium, " " " 1,611.237 
 
 In France, " " " 375,092 
 
 The railroad travelling is more than six times as dangerous here as in Prussia, 
 probably because the responsibility here exacted is less in nearly that pro- 
 portion. Disasters. On Great Wesern (Canada) R. R., 42 killed, Oct. 27, 
 1854; Chicago and Rock Island 40 k. and w., Nov. 1, 1854; Camden 
 and Amboy, at Burlington, N. J., 23 k., 60 w., Aug. 29, 1855; Pacific R. R., 
 near St. Louis, 25 k., 50 w., Nov. 1, 1855 ; Panama R. R., 43 k., 60 w., May 6, 
 1858 ; N. Penn. R. R., 60 k., 18 w., July lY, 1856: Grand Trunk R. R., Can- 
 ada, 10 k., March 12, 1857; Central R. R., Utica, 8 k., 30 w., May 11, 1858 ; 
 Michigan Southern, near South Bend, 38 k., 50 w., June 27, 1859 ; 79 acci- 
 dents occurred in the United States during the year 1859, at which 129 per- 
 sons were killed and 411 injured. Total in 1 years, 903 accidents, 1,109 killed, 
 3,611 injured. 
 
 RAPE, Punishment op, U. S. In New York state the extreme penalty is ten 
 years' imprisonment. Military laws impose death on the guilty party. Du- 
 ring the rebellion, death was inflicted in several instances, on soldiei-s convicted 
 of rape. 
 
 REAPING-MACHINES. One was invented in England early in the present 
 century, but it failed from its intricacies. McCormick's American machine 
 was invented about 1831, and perfected in 1816, and received a gold medal 
 from the jurors of the London Exhibition of 1851. Hussey's machine, also 
 American, exhibited at the same time, was highly commended. McCormick's 
 received the highest prize also at Paris Exposition of 1867. 
 
 REBELLIONS m U. S. Shays's Rebellion in Western Massachusetts, I78f). 
 The "Whiskey Rebellion" in Pennsylvania, 1794. Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode 
 Island, 1842. South Carolina troops fire on the steamer Star of the West, 
 having U. S. troops on board, bound for Fort Sumter, Chai'leston Harbor, Jan. 
 9th, 1861. See Secession, Treason. In British History. The most im- 
 portant were : 
 
 Of tlie Barons, April, 1215. Compro- 
 mised by the grant of 3Iagnn Charta, 
 June 15 following. See Magna 
 CItarta. 
 
 Of Wnlter the Tyler, of Deptford, vul- 
 garly celled Wat Tyler, occasioned 
 by the brutal rudeness of a tax-col- 
 lector to his daughter. Having 
 killed the collector in his rage, he 
 raised a party to oppose the tax itself, 
 which was a grievous poll-tax, 1381. 
 
 Of Jack Cade in favor of the duke of 
 York, aicainst Henry VI., 1450. 
 
 Under Perkin Warbeck, 1492, which 
 ended in the execution of Warbeck. 
 
 Under. the duke of Monmouth, 1685 ; 
 it ended in his death. 
 
 Of the Bcots infaviir of the Old Pre- 
 tciider i7!5; quelled in 171G. 
 
 Of the Scots, imder the Young Pre- 
 tender, 1745 ; suppressed in 1746, 
 when lords Lovat, Balmerino, and 
 Kilmarnock were beheaded. 
 
 Of the Americans, on account of tax- 
 ation, 1774. This rebellion led to a 
 disastrous war, to the loss of the 
 chief North American colonie?!, and 
 to the independence of tie Ui.ited 
 States, 1782. 
 
 Canadian Insurrection, iJecember, 
 1837 to Nov. 1838. 
 
 Of Chartists, Nov. 3, 1839. 
 
 Smith O'Brien's Irish rebellion; termi- 
 rated in his defeat, Tipperary, July 
 29, 1848. 
 
 Fenian outbreak in Canada, 1866. Ir. 
 Irehmd 1867. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 
 
 101 
 
 PvECIPROCITY TfiEATY WITH Canada, ratified at Washington, June 5, 1851. It 
 allowed ccrt<dn privileges of trade to both parties, and either could v.'ithdraw 
 from it upon notice of one year. In Dec. 1864, the President was authorized 
 to terminate the treaty. It expired March, 17, 1866. It was argued against 
 the treaty, that under its operation, the balance of trade proved to be iigaiast 
 the U. S. One great advantage of it was, that American fishermen could have 
 the same rights as the English, in the bays and inlets of Canada and the 
 British Provinces. 
 
 VREPUBLICAN party, U. S., first appeared as a distinct organization in 1854. 
 "^ The whig party dissolved when the south united on the passage of the Kansas- 
 
 ^ Nebraska bill, and the repudiation of the Missouri Compromise. All wlio op- 
 posed the bill were called " anti-Nebraska," and afterwards " Republicans." 
 In 1854, they carried most of the free state elections. {Greeley^ & History.) 
 Their first presidential convention v/as held at Philadelphia, 1856. Gen. Fre- 
 mont was nominated for president but was defeated. In 1860, Republican 
 d Convention at Chicago nominated Abraham Lincoln for president, who was 
 elected. The south considered this a cause for seceding from the Union. In 
 I 1864, the vote of the country was overwhelmingly "Republican." 
 
 REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES, (p. 608.) Harper's Monthly Magazine commenced 
 in 1850. Putnam's Monthly (N. Y.), commenced Jan. 1853 ; sold to new pub- 
 lishers, 1855, ceased Sept. 1857, new series 1867. Atlantic Monthly (Boston), 
 commenced 1857 (Dec). Rus^ill's Magazine (Charleston), commenced 1858, 
 ceased 1860. Hours at Home, 1866. The Galaxy (N. Y.), 1866. New Jersey 
 Magazine 1867. British, (p. 507.) 
 
 •^ 
 
 
 Tait'8 Mag., founded 18,33 
 
 Dublin ITiiiTersity 1833 
 
 North British Rev 1 844 
 
 New Qui^rterly Rev... 1852 
 IlGuseliold Words (Dic- 
 kens) 1852 
 
 Lon.Quarterly 1853 
 
 National Rev 1855 
 
 All the Year Round 
 
 (Dickens) 1858 
 
 Ouce a Week 1 859 
 
 MacMilL.n't^ 1859 
 
 Cornhill Mag. (^Thacke- 
 ray) 1860 
 
 Temple Bar Mag. (Sala) 1860 
 
 St. James Mag 1860 
 
 Good Words 186 1 
 
 Popular Science Rev 1861 
 
 Remarkable interest and excitement on religious sub- 
 1858 and 1859, extended in the latter year to 
 
 London Society 1882 
 
 Victoria 1863 
 
 Union Rev 1863 
 
 Fortnightly Hev 1865 
 
 Argopy 1865 
 
 " Beluravia " Mag....l86G 
 
 Broadway 1 867 
 
 Tinsley's 1S67 
 
 REVIVALS OF Religion, 
 jects in the United States in 
 Scotland and Ireland. 
 
 REVENUE OF THE United States, The, up to 1863, was derived chiefly from cus- 
 toms and sales of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in 
 
 1850 $43,000,000 
 
 18f 6 65,000.000 
 
 1859 53,000,000 
 
 1860 $56,054,599 
 
 1861 41,476,299 
 
 1862 51,935,720 
 
 Revenue of the U. S. for years ending July 1, (exclusive of loans) : 
 
 Year. Internal. Customs. Total. Exvfinditut'ps. 
 
 1833 .137,640,787 !:69,059,642 f 112,687,290 $895,796,630 
 
 1834 109,741,134 102 316,152 264,626,771 1,298,144.656 
 
 1855 209,464,215 84,928,'260 333,714,605 1,897,674,224 
 
 1836 309,226,813 179,046,651 ...558,032,620 1,141,072,666 
 
 Internal, U. S. The aggregate revenue from 1789 to 1861, %^as 
 $1,800,0(0,000. Between 1817 and 1861, no internal taxes were imposed on 
 the people of the U. S. by the general government. During the years 1861- 
 '2-3, Congress passed laws for increased revenue to maintain the war. The 
 Excise law of July 1, 1862, levied a heavy tax on about 500 different articles. 
 The revenue from this source in 1862 to" 1866 is stated in above table. 
 
 REVIEW Military, U. S. Grand review of a part of the national army at the 
 
102 THE world's progress. 
 
 close of the war, at Washington, D. C, May, ISC^"). The army of the vfcst 
 vmdcr Shermai>, and of the east under Meade, reviewed by the President, Cab- 
 inet, and Gen. Grant. About 200,000 troops marched by the White House, 
 occupying two days. Great numbers of citizens from all parts of the country 
 ■were present to witness the sight. 
 
 PiEFORM IN Parliament (England), (p. 504.) A new Reform bill, introduced 
 by Lord J. Russell, 1854, but withdrawn. Another by Mr. Disraeli, rejected 
 March 31, 1859. Another by the same passed through the House of Lords 
 July 15 1867. 
 
 REGENT'S PARK, London. It originally formed part of the grounds belonging 
 to the palace of queen Elizabeth. In 1814 improvements were commenced 
 under the direction of Mr. Nash, which have rendered this park the most 
 l)eautiful part of London. It is nearly circular, and consists of about 450 acres, 
 laid out in shrubberies, adorned with a fine piece of water and intersected by ; 
 roads which are much frequented as promenades. In the enclosure are sev- 
 eral villas, and round the park noble ranges of buildings in various styles of 
 architecture. 
 
 RENTS IN England, were first made payable in money, instead of in kind, a. d. 
 1135. Numerous statutes have been enacted in various reigns to define the 
 relations and regulate the dealings between landlord and tenant. In England, 
 the duke of Sutherland received his rents in the value of corn, and in Scotland 
 in tbe value of wool and sheep. The rental' of England, including, land, 
 houses, and mines, was six millions about the year 1600, and twelve years' 
 purchase the value of land. About 1690, the rental amounted to fourteen rail- 
 lions, and the land was worth eighteen years' purchase. Davenant on the Kevc- 
 nnes. The present rental of the United Kingdom has been estimated lately in 
 parliament at 127 millions. See Land, &c. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. One of the United States. Population in 1860, 174,621 ; in 
 1865, 184,695, of whom 112,107 were born in the state. It sent 25,455 sol- 
 diers to the war. War debt, $4,000,000. 
 
 RIOTS IN THE U. S. The largest and most alarming was the riot caused by the 
 enforcement of the draft in N. Y. city, July 13, 1863. It lasted three clays. 
 The rioters destroyed and burnt property to the amount of $2,500,000. 
 They were finally put down by the police and military. Loss of life estimated 
 at 1,000. Similar but smaller riots occurred in Boston, Portsmouth, and Holmes 
 County, Ohio. Threatened disturbances in many other places. Bread riots 
 in Mobile, Ala., Sept., 1868, by women ; also at Salisbury, N. C, March 18, 
 and at Richmond, Va. Riot at New Orleans, July 30, 1866 ; a State Conven- 
 tion broken up by ex-rebels and policemen ; 30 negroes and a few whites 
 killed. Attack ou Judge Kelley at a public meeting in Mobile, May, 1867. 
 Attack on negroes at Memphis, 1866. 
 
 RICHMOND, Va. Founded in 1742. It became the capital of the State in 
 1779. Population in ISOO, 5,7S0 ; in 1830, 16,060; in 1850, 27,570; in 
 1860, 37,910, of whom 11,700 were slaves. It was distinguished for many 
 years for the eminent men it furnished to the councils of the nation. On the 
 sOTession of Virginia, Richmond was made the capital of the "Southern Con- 
 
 • federacy, " June, 1861. During the war it was the main object aimed at 
 by the " Union army of the Potomac." The place was fortified with great 
 skill. It fell April 2, 1865. A severe fire broke out during its evacuation by 
 the Confederates, which consumed the business portion of the city. The 
 notorious "Libby Prison" was situated in Richmond. 
 
 ROADS AND PAVEMENTS. The first general repair of the highways of Eng- 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 10^ 
 
 land was directed in 1288. Macadam's roads were introduced about 1818. 
 Wooden pavements were tried with partial success in the streets of London ; 
 at Whitehall in 1839, and in other streets in 1840. Asphalt pavement soon, 
 after. In New York and some other American cities the best pavements 
 have been those of square blocks of granite on a cement foundation ; particu- 
 larly that known as the Russ pavement. In 1855, an iron pavement was in- 
 troduced which has proved satisfactory, 
 
 ROBBERS, First punished in England with death by Edward I.'s Laws, which 
 directed that the oldest robber should be hanged. The punishment was 
 pecuniary till that time. The most remarkable robbers were Robin Hood, in 
 England, a. d. 1189, and Claud Du Val, " executed at Tyburn," says an his- 
 torian, quaintly, " to the great grief of the women," Jan. 16'70. In later 
 times the accomplished Barrington was transported, Sept. 22, 1790. 
 
 EOCHELLE (W. France). A sea-port on the Atlantic. It belonged to the Eng- 
 lish for some time, but finally surrendered to the French leader, Du Guesclin, 
 in 1372, It became a stronghold of the Calvinist party in France ; and was 
 vainly besieged by the Duke of Anjou, in 1573. It was taken after a re- 
 markable siege of thirteen months by Cardinal Richelieu in 1628. The Duke 
 of Buckingham was sent with a fleet and army to relieve the besieged ; but 
 they, from distrust, declined to admit him. 
 
 EOMAN CATHOLICS m the United Sf ates, iq 1839, 1849, and 1859 ; from 
 the Metropolitan Catholic Almanac for 1859: 
 
 1839 1849 1859 1839 1849 1859 
 
 Provincea 1 3 7 
 
 Dioceses., 16 30 48 
 
 Bishops 18 26 45 
 
 The estimated number of Roman Catholics in the U. S , in 1863, was 3,177,000 
 
 EOME. (p. 511.) 
 
 Priests 478 1000 2108 
 
 Churches 41S 96(5 2334 
 
 The pope issues the ball estab- 
 lishing a Boman C:itholic hier- 
 archy in England (see Papal 
 Aggression) Sept. 24, 1850 
 
 Important concordat with Aus- 
 tria .,, Auar., 1855 
 
 Tne pope visits ditferent parts of 
 his dominions June, 185^ 
 
 Insurrection in the Romagna, at Bo- 
 logna and Ferrara June, 1850 
 
 They declare for adhesion to Pied- 
 mont Sept, 1859 
 
 Accept Buonconipagni as G-overnor- 
 
 General Nov. 1859 
 
 RON"CESYALLE (in the Pyrenees), where, it is said, Charlemagne was surprised 
 and defeated by the Ga,scons, and his renowned paladin, Roland or Orlando, 
 slain, A, D. 778. 
 
 ROSETTA STONE, discovered in 1799, and deposited in the British Museum. 
 In 1841, Mr. Letronne published the text and a translation of the Greek in- 
 scription. It is a piece of black basalt, about three feet long, and 2^ feet 
 wide, with an inscription in three languages, viz. : hieroglyphics, modified 
 hieroglyphics (enchorial), and Greek, setting forth the praises of Ptolemy 
 Epiphanes (about 194 b. c.) It has been subjected to the investigation of Dr. T. 
 Young and ChampolUon. 
 
 ROTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Amschel, or Anselm, was born at ^To. 148, 
 Judengasse (Jew-lane), Farnkfort in 1748. In 1772 he began business as a 
 money-lender and dealer in old coins, in the same house, over which he 
 placed the sign of the Red Shield (in German, Roth Schild). Having had deal- 
 ings with the landgrave of Hesse, that prince entrusted him with his treasure 
 (said to hive been £250,000), in 1806, when the French held his country. 
 With this sum as capital, Anselm traded and made a large fortune, and re- 
 stored the £250,000 to the landnrrave in 1815. At his death his sons con- 
 
104 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 tinued the business as partners. His son, Nathan began at Manchester in 
 l'?98, removed to London in 1803 ; and died imiueiisely rich, July 28, 1836. 
 
 ROTTERDAM. The second city in Holland. Its importance dates from the thir- 
 teenth century. The commerce of Antwerp was transferred to it in 1509. 
 It suffered much from the French revolutionary wars, and from inundations 
 in 1775 and 1825. Desiderius Erasmus was born here in 1467. 
 
 ROUEN, an ancient city of N. France, became the capital of Normandy in 
 the tenth centiu-y. It was held by the English king till 1204 ; and was re- 
 taken by Henry V. Jan. 19, 1419 ; Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans, was 
 burnt here May 30, 1431. With Normandy, it was subdued by the King of 
 France in 1449. 
 
 RUSSIA, (p. 513.) 
 
 Russia demands an expulsion of 
 ihe Hungarian and Polish refu- 
 gees from Turkey (:~ee Turkey) 
 
 Nov. 5, 1849 
 
 They are senttoKouiah, in Asia 
 
 M I nor Jan . 1 850 
 
 Harbor of Sehastopul completed, 
 
 Feb. 1850 
 
 The czar concentrates his forces 
 on the frontiers of Turkey 
 
 Feb. 1853 
 
 Orign of the Russo-TarKish war, 
 {vj/iich see) Marci, 1853 
 
 The czar s.iues a lua .ifcdto to 
 his subjects ; he will only corn- 
 bat for the faith and Christian- 
 ity, April 23, 1854 
 
 Dc-ath of the Czar N.choh.s ; no 
 cliange of policy March 2, 1855 
 
 M- St extensive levy ordered by 
 thecz:ir(at Nicolaieft). .Nov. 3, 1855 
 
 He visits his army at Sebastopol, 
 
 Nov. 10, 1855 
 
 Amnesty granted to the Poks, 
 
 May 27 ; political offenders, &c. 
 
 Sept. 7, 185e 
 
 Alexander II. crowned at Moscow, 
 
 Sept. 2, 1856 
 
 The czar meets the emperor Napoleon 
 at Siutgardt, Sept. 25 ■, a, id the ]^m- 
 peror of Austria at We mar.. ,0.'t 1, 1857 
 
 Emancipation of the serfs decreed, 
 
 July 2, 1856 
 
 A Russian naval station established at 
 Villa Franca, on the Mediterranean, 
 creates some political excitement 
 
 Aug 1858 
 
 New Commercial treaty with. Great 
 Britain Jan. 12, 1859 
 
 Russia reproves the wanike move- 
 ments of the Grerman confederntion 
 during the Italian war May 27, 1859 
 
 Alexander II., so i of Nicholas, born 
 Apr 1 29, 1818 ; succeedel at his 
 father's death, March 2, 1855 ; mar- 
 ried April 28, 1841, Mary, Princess of 
 Hcf^se ; the present emperor of 
 Russia 1860 
 
 Heir : his son Nicholas, bom Sept. 20, 1848 
 
 RUSSO-TURKISH WAR with France and England. The Russian and French 
 governments having each taken a side in the dispute between the Greek and 
 Latin churches as to the exclusive possession of the Holy Places in Palestine, 
 the Porte advised the formation of a mixed commission, which decided in 
 favor of the Greeks, and a firman was promulgited accordingly, March 9, 
 1853 ; to this decision the French acceded, although dissatisfied. The Russians 
 now made further claims. Menschikofifs ultimatum was rejected, and he quitted 
 Constaiitinoph^, May 21. On June 6, the sultan issued a hattischeriff confirm- 
 ing all the rights and privileges of the Greek Christians, and appealed to his 
 allies. On June 13, the English and French fleets anchored in Besikn bay. 
 On June 26, the czar published his manifesto, and his troops crossed the Pruth 
 and entered Moldavia, July 2. The sultan, with the advice and consent of a 
 grand national council, alter demanding the evacuation of the principalities, 
 Oct. 3, declared war against Russia, Oct. 5. The Russian declaration follow- 
 ed, Nov. 1, 1853. France and England declared war against Russia, Marcla 27 
 and 28, 1854. Hostilities ceased, Feb. 29, 1856, and peace was proclaimed in 
 April following. 
 
 Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinope, 
 
 The Sultan declares war against 
 RnesiM Oct 5, 1853 
 
 Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bay- 
 andur, Atskur, and Achaltzik, 
 
 Nov. 14, 18j 26, 1853 
 
 Nov. 30, 1853 
 At the request of the Porte (Dec. 
 5.) the allied fleets enter the 
 BlackSea Jan. 4, 1854 
 
SUPPLEMEJs^T, 1851-67. 
 
 105 
 
 Miss Nightingale and nursrs arrive 
 aL Scutari Nov. 6, 1854 
 
 Saidinia joins England and Pnmce, 
 
 Jar.. 26, 1855 
 
 Death of Emperor Nicholas ani acces- 
 sion of Alex.iiider II. (no cha g \ of 
 Avar policy) March 2, 1855 
 
 Sortie frcini the Malakhotf tower (15,000 
 men) repulsed March 22, 1855 
 
 Resignation of Gen. Canrobert, suc- 
 ceedeJ by Gen. Pelissier May 16, 1855 
 
 Death of Lord Eaglau ; succeeded by 
 Gen. Simpsoi' June 28, 1855 
 
 Russians invest K;ir:« in Armenia, de- 
 fintled by Geii.Wdlian-.s July 15, 1855 
 
 The French take the Malakhofl' {which 
 see) by assault ; the English a.<8ault 
 the Redaii -without success ; the Rus- 
 sians retire from Sebastopol to the 
 North Forts, and the allies enter the 
 city ; the Russians destroy or sink the 
 remainder of their fleet. . .Sept. f, «fec. 1855 
 
 Exp'osion of 100,i'()0 lbs of powder in. the 
 Frt-nch siege-train at Inkerman, with 
 great loss of life Nov. 15, 1855 
 
 Capitulation of Kars to Gen. Moura- 
 vieiy, after a gallant defence bv Gen. 
 Williams Nov. 26, 1855 
 
 Council of war at Par s Jan. 11, 1853 
 
 Destruction of Sebastopol docks com- 
 pleted Feb. 1, 1856 
 
 Peace conlereucos t)pen at I'ar s, an 
 armigtice till March 31, agreed oi 
 
 Feb. 25, 1858 
 
 Proclamation of peace in the Criiiiea, 
 April 2 ; in London Apr. 1 29, 1856 
 
 The Crimea evacuated July 9, 1856 
 
 RUSSIA, American Intercourse with. Commercial relations: In 1861, 
 exports from Russia to U. S. were $1,290,000 ; imports, $800,000. 8,220 tons 
 of shipping from Russia entered U. S. ports; 9,300 tons cleared for Russia. 
 Diplomatic relations between the two countries have been most cordial. July, 
 1861, the Emperor of Russia communicated to the American Government his 
 sincere hope that the Union would not be dissolved. Resolutions passed 
 Congress May, ISBY, congratulating the Emperor on his escape from assassi- 
 nation. 
 
 ROYAL ACADEMY, England, (p. 512.) Presidents. 
 
 Baltic fleet sails, under Sir C. 
 
 Napier March 1 1, 1854 
 
 Treaty between England, France, 
 
 and Turkey March 1 2, 1854 
 
 Franco and England declare war 
 
 agai'ist Russia March 27, 28, 1854 
 
 Gen. Canrobert and French troops 
 
 arrive at Gallipoli, soon aftvr 
 
 followed by the English 
 
 March 31, 1854 
 Russians defeated hy the Tnrks 
 
 at Karakai May 30, 1 854 
 
 Bombardment of Odetsa by abied 
 
 fleet April 22, 1854 
 
 Bombardment and surrei der of 
 
 Bomarsund Aug. 16, 1854 
 
 The Russians uefeated by IScha- 
 
 myl in Georgia.. ab(uit Aug. 28, 1854 
 They begin to evacuate the prin- 
 cipalities Aug. and Sept. 1854 
 
 Battle of the Anna Sept. '~0, 1854 
 
 Russians sink part of tlje;r fleet at 
 
 Sebastopo Sept. 23 1854 
 
 Death of Marshal St. Arnaud, 
 
 Sept. 29, "1854 
 General Canrohert appointed his 
 
 successor Nov, 24, 1854 
 
 ■Siege of Sebastopol commenced — 
 
 grand attack (without success) 
 
 Oct. 17, 1854 
 Battle of Balaklava — gallant 
 
 charge of the light cavalry un- 
 der Lord Cardigan, wiih severe 
 
 lo 8 Oct. 25, 1854 
 
 Battle of Inkerman ; defeat of tlie 
 
 Russians Nov. 5. 1854 
 
 1768. Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
 1792. Benjamin West. 
 IS'JO. Sir Thomas Lawrence. 
 
 ROYAL SOCIETY, (p. 512.) Presidents. 
 
 1660-3. Sir Robert Moray. 
 
 1663-77.- Lord Brounckcr (the first under the 
 
 the charter). 
 1680-2. Sir C. Wren. 
 1634-6. Samuel Pepys. 
 1398-1703. John Lord Somera. 
 1703-27. Sir I. Newton. 
 1727-41. Sir Hans Sloane. 
 1778-1820. Sir Joseph Banks. 
 
 SABBATH SCHOOLS. The first " Sabbiith school" was founded by Ludwig 
 Hacker between the years 1740 and 1*747 at Ephrata, Lancaster county, Pa,, 
 among the German Seven-day Baptists there. The school room was used as 
 an hospital after the battle of Brandy wine, fought in 1777. This event occa- 
 sioned the breaking up of the schools about five years before the first Sunday 
 
 1830. Sir Martin A. Shee. 
 1850. Sir Charles Eastlako. 
 1866. Sir Francis Grant. 
 
 1820. Dr. W. II. Wollastonu 
 
 1820. Sir H.Davy. 
 
 1827. Davies Gilbert. 
 
 1S30. Duke of Sussex. 
 
 18^8. Marquis of Northampioru 
 
 1848. KarlofRosse. 
 
 1854. Lord Wrottesley. 
 
 1858. Sir Benjamin C. Brodie. 
 
106 THE world's progeess. 
 
 school was instituted in England, at Gloucester, by Robert Eaikes, about 
 17S2. 
 
 SANDWICH ISLANDS, (p. 517.) Karaehameha lY. (or Tamehameha) when 
 20 years old, succeeded his uncle, Dec. 15, 1854. 
 
 SANITARY COMMISSION, U. S. Organized under appointment of the Secre- 
 tary of War, dated June 9, 1861, H. W. Bellows, D. D., Prest., Fred. Law 
 Olmstead, Secretary, [The Women's Central Relief Association had been 
 previously organized, April, 1861.] Supplies furnished through the Com'n 
 estimated by Sec. at $15,000,000. Cash receipts at central treasury to May ], 
 1866, $4,962,014.26, of which New York contributed $229,328, and Califoriua, 
 $1,233,97Y. The MetropoL Fair, N. Y., produced $1,184,487; that at Phila- 
 delphia, $1,035,368; 12 others $425,000. See History Sanitary Commission, 
 8vo. Philadelphia, 1866. The Freedmen's Union Commission rec'd and dis- 
 bursed for teachers at the South, in 1865, $318,670; for supplies, $490,755. 
 Total, $809,425. 
 
 SANITARY REFORM, U. S. (p. 517.) The ventilation of buildings has been 
 greatly improved since the publication of Perry's Essay on School Houses, 
 1833, and Barnard's School Architecture, 1838. This reform was specially 
 needed in printing offices, bookbindei'ies, and manufactories generally. 
 
 SANITARY LEGISLATION, England. To Dr. Southwood Smith is mainly 
 attributable the honor of commencing the agitation on the subject of public 
 health, about 1832; his "Philosophy of Health '? having excited much atten- 
 tion. Since 1838 he has published numei'ous sanitary reports, having been 
 much employed by the government. U. S. Resolution authorizing the Secretary 
 of the Treasury to carry out regulations of quarantine to guard against cholera, 
 passed Congress May 26, 1866. States and cities enact local sanitary lawp.. 
 Board of Health of N. Y. city, organized, 1866. See Sanitary CGimnission. 
 
 SANSCRIT. The language of the Brahmins of India, spoken at the time of Sol- 
 omon, has been much studied of late years. Sir Wm. Jones, who pubhshed a 
 translation of the poem, Sakuntala in 1783, discovered that a complete litera- 
 ture had been preserved in India, comprising sacred books (the Vedas), history 
 and philosophy, lyric and dramatic poetry. Texts and translations of many 
 works have been published by the aid of the East India Company, the Oriental 
 Translation Fund, and private liberality. The professorship of Sanscrit at Ox- 
 ford was founded by Colonel Boden. The first professor, H. H. Wilson, ap- 
 pointed in 1832, translated part of the Rig-veda Sanhita, the sacred hymns of 
 the Brahmins, and several poems, &c. The present professor, Monier Williams 
 (elected 1860), published an English and Sanscrit dictionary, 1851. Professor 
 Max Miiller published his history of Sanscrit Literature in 1859, and has edited 
 part of the original text of the Vedas. Philologists have discovered an inti- 
 mate connection between the Sanscrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Teutonic, Sla- 
 vonian, Celtic, and Scandinavian languages. 
 
 SARDINIA, (p. 518.) 8ee Italy. 
 
 Bill for suppression of convents 
 
 passi^d March 2, 1855 
 
 Coi'iveiition w th England and 
 Fj-ance s giied, a co tin gent of 
 15,000 troops to be tupplied 
 
 uirai list Rubsi a A pril 10, 1 855 
 
 lu,0()0 truopj under G.-neial La 
 Marmora arrive in the Crimea, 
 
 May 8, 1855 
 Who di^^tingT.ish themselves in tlie 
 _ battle of the Tchernay^T, Au'j:. 16, 1S55 
 The ki g visits Lou'lon, <tc. Nov. 
 
 30, &c. 1855 
 
 Im-portant note on Italy from Connt 
 Cavour to Eng'and Apnl J.6, 1853 
 
 Count Cavour declares in favor of free- 
 trade June, 1857 
 
 Prelimiiiar.es of peace signed at Villa 
 Franca; Count Cavour resigns, 
 
 July, 1359 
 
 Treaty of peace signed at Zurich, Nov. 1859 
 
 Sardinian troops besiege the King of 
 Naples at Gaeta «ept. 1860 
 
 G-aeta capitulates to Victor Emanue'. 
 
 Feb. 13,' 1861, 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. lOl 
 
 ST. DOMINGO. A city of Hayti. The Kepublic of St. Domingo was established 
 in 1801. It has been frequently assailed by the rulers of Hayti, particularly 
 by Faustin I., dethroned in 1858. 
 
 ST. GEOEGE. This patron saint of England was a tribune in the reign of Dio- 
 cletian, and being a man of great courage, was a favorite with the emperor ; 
 but complaining to the emperor of his severities towards the Christians, and 
 arguing in their defence, he was put in prison, and beheaded, April 23, 290. 
 
 ST. HELENA (an island in the South Alantic Ocean), was discovered by the 
 Portuguese, under Juan de Nova Castilla, on the festival of St. Helena, May 21, 
 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it until 1600, when they 
 were expelled by the English. The British East India Company settled here 
 in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by the English and Dutch, 
 until 1673, when Charles II., on Dec. 12, assigned it to the company once 
 more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's captivity, Oct. 15, 1815 ; 
 and it became the scene of his death, May 5, 1821. 
 
 ST. LUCIA (West Indies). First settled by the French in 1S50. Taken by the 
 British several times in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the 
 French negroes, April, 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent's, Grenada, 
 Dominica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucia, were taken by the British, St. Lucia 
 was restored to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was again seized by England 
 the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 1814, 
 
 ST. MARK'S CHURCH at Venice, erected 829 ; St. Mark's Place, 1692, The 
 old Gothic Cathedral (built about 1086). 
 
 ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL (London). The first stone of the present edifice was 
 laid June 21, 1675. The whole edifice was completed in I'ZIO. The total cost 
 (including 200 tons weight of iron railing) was £1,511,202. The length of St. 
 Paul's from the grand portico to the east end is 510 feet ; the breadth, from 
 the north to the south portico, 282 feet; the exterior diameter of the dome, 
 145 feet ; The height from the ground to the top of the cross, 404 feet. 
 Architect, Sir Christopher Wren. 
 
 ST. PETERSBURG. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began 
 this city in May 27, 1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some 
 wretched wooden hovels. In 1710, the Count Golovkin built the first house 
 ot brick; and the next year, the emperor, with his own hand, laid the founda- 
 tion of a house of the same material. From these small beginnings rose the 
 imperial city of St. Petersburg ; and in less than nine years after the hovels 
 had been erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this 
 place. The winter palace was burned to the ground, Dec, 29, 1837. The rail- 
 way to Moscow was finished in 1851, 
 
 ST. PETER'S CHURCH, Rome. Originally erected by Constantine, a. d. 306, 
 About the middle of the fifteenth century. Pope Nicholas V. commenced a 
 new church. The present magnificent pile was designed by Bramante ; the 
 first stone was laid by Pope Julius IL in 1506. In 1514, Leo X. employed 
 Raphael and two others to superintend the building. Paul III. committed 
 the work to Michael Angelo, who devised the dome, in the construction of 
 which 30,000 lbs. of iron was used. The church was consecrated Nov, 18, 
 1626, the building having occupied i76 years. The front is 400 feet broad, 
 rising to a height of 180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the centre 
 of the church to a height of 324 feet ; the length of the interior is 600 feet, 
 forming one of the most spacious halls ever constructed. The length of the 
 ezt^rior is 669 feet; its greatest breadth within is 442 feet; and the entire 
 
108 THE world's progress. 
 
 height from the ground 432 feet. St. Peter's is the most sumptuous Roman 
 Catholic church in the world. 
 
 SARATOGA, Burgoyke's Surrender at. Here General Burgoyne, commander 
 of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans, in the war 
 of Independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, surrendered to the American 
 General Gates, when 5,791 men laid down their arms, Oct. 17, I'JTV, 
 
 SATIRE, U. S. Among the best American humorous and satirical publications 
 are the Biglow Papers and Fable for Critics, by J. R. Lowell ; the New Gospel 
 of Peace, castigating secessionists and peace democrats during the recent 
 war ; the broadly humorous essays of " Artemus Wm-d, " Petroleum V. Nashy^ 
 and others ; and the very clever pictofial satires of Thos. Nast. 
 
 SAVINGS BANKS, U. S. The number of savings banks in the New England 
 states, New York, and Pennsylvania, was about 300 in 1862. The amount of 
 deposits, $'70,000,0; 0. Massachusetts has more banks than any other state, 
 the number being 93 ; deposits, $44,785,400. There are comparatively few- 
 savings banks in the states not mentioned above. On Nov. 20, 1851, the 
 number of savings banks in Great Britain and Ireland, was 5*74, besides above 
 twenty thousand friendly societies and charitable institutions. The depositors 
 (in the banks) were 1,092,581, while the societies embraced a vast but un- 
 known number of persons : the amount of deposits was £32,893,511. 
 
 SAVOY, (p. 520.) Annexation to France voted for by 130,533 against 235, April 
 22, 1860. The annexation completed 1860. 
 
 SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA (Central Germany), capitals Gotha and Coburg. Pop- 
 ulation, Dec. 1861, 159,431. The reigning family is descended from John, 
 younger son of Ernest, who became elector of Saxony in 1464. 1844. Ernest" 
 II. son, Jan. 29 ; born June 21, 1818, (married Alexandrina, duchess of Baden, 
 May 3, 1842; no issue). Heir (presumptive); Prince Alfred of England, born 
 Aug. 6, 1844, (in whose favor the Prince of Wales resigned his rights, April 
 19, 1863). 
 
 SAXE-WEIMAR. Saxe- Weimar became a grand duchy in 1815. The dukes 
 have greatly favored literature, and their capital, Weimar, has been called the 
 Athens of Germany. Population of the duchy in 1858, 267,112. 
 
 SAXONY, (p. 520.) 1854. John, Aug. 9, (born Dec. 12, 1801), the present 
 (1861) king. Heir : His son, Frederic Augustus Albert, born April 23, 1828. 
 
 SCANDINAVIA. The ancient name of Sweden, Norway, and great part of Den- 
 mark, whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who conquered Nor- 
 mandy (about A. D. 900), and eventually England (1066). They were also 
 called Sea-Kings or Vikings. They settled Iceland and Greenland, and, it is 
 thought, the northern regions of America, about the ninth century. 
 
 SCANDINAVIANS. The Scandinavian population of the United States is esti- 
 mated at 180,000 : namely, 150,000 Norwegians, 25,000 Swedes, and 5,000 
 Danes (1860). 
 
 SCHOOLS, PUBLIC, in England. In 1851, there were 2,310 schools in connect 
 tion with the Education Committee actually inspected in England and Scotland. 
 They included: 1,713 Church of England schools in England and Wales; 282 
 Protestant Dissenting schools in England and Wales ; 98 Roman Catholic 
 schools in Great Britain ; and 217 Presbyterian schools in Scotland, whereof 
 91 were of the Free Church ; the whole affording accommodation for 299,425 
 scholars. In the same year (1851), the estimated sums voted for education 
 were: for Great Britain, £150,000, for Ireland, £134,560. United States. 
 Schools both English and classical were almost instantly established by the 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 109 
 
 ^rst settlers of N'ew England on their arrival ; were soon made oljligatory 
 Dy law, and have since grown with the population, being, however, fewer and 
 worse in the southern states. The present era of public schools commenced 
 about 1800. Its important dates are : Connecticut school fund, established 
 1795 ; first state school sup't.. New York, IS 12 ; first state scliool system, 
 Ky., 1821 ; Colburn's arithmetic, 1821 ; school movement of 1825-40, com- 
 meuced by publications of Carter, Gallaudet, and Johnson ; Cousin's report on 
 Prussian schools, published here 1835 ; Horace Mann, sec'y of Board of Edu- 
 cation in Mass., 1837; Stowe's report on European schools, 18SY ; first noi- 
 iual school, at Lexington, Mass., 1839. From 1840 to 1860, the improved 
 principles and methods thus introduced have been increasingly put into prac- 
 tice. The following totals for the United States are approxin)ate for 1858 : 
 children of school age, 6,933,441 ; public schools, 9'7,«J21 ; school funds, |49,- 
 324,384; expended for public schools in the year, $20,159,268. See Education^ 
 Colleges^ &c. 
 
 SCIENCE IN THE U. S. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752. American 
 Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of Arts and Sci- 
 ences, 1780. First course of Chemical Lectures in the United States, by Dr. 
 S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1802. Botanic garden and Professor of Natural History 
 established at Harvard College, 1805. American Association for the Advance- 
 ment of Science, formed, 1845. National Academy of Sciences, founded by 
 Congress, 1865. Among the important National and State publications are the 
 U. S. Exploring Expedition under Com. Wilkes, with its Scientific Reports, to 
 be in some 30 quarto and folio volumes ; the Reports on the Mexican Bounda- 
 ries, Pacific Railway &c ; the Natural History of the State of New York, in 
 about 20 quartos, the great work of Agassiz on Natural History, pub. by sub- 
 scription, etc, etc. See Adrono^ny^ Observatories d;e.^ 
 
 SCREW-PROPELLER consits of two or more twisted blades, like the vanes of a 
 wind-mill, set on axis, running parallel with the keel of a vessel, and revolving 
 beneath the water at the .stern. It is driven by a steam-engine. The princi- 
 ple is as old as the wind-mill. It was shown by Hooke in 1681, and since by 
 Du Quet, BernouilH, and others. In 1836 patents were obtained by F. P. 
 Smith and Captain John Ericsson, and to them the successful application cf 
 the screw-propeller must be attributed. The first vessels with the screw, the 
 Archimedes and the Rattler, were constructed in the U. S. The latter was 
 tried in England in 1845. Since then the screw-propeller has been largely 
 employed in this country and in Europe. War vessels are now almost entirely 
 propelled by the screw. 
 
 SEBASTOPOL, or Sevastopol. A town and once a naval arsenal, at S. W. point 
 of the Crimea, built in 1784, by Catharine II., memorable for its eleven 
 months'. Siege, by the English and French in 1854 and 1855. Bombardment 
 commenced Oct. 17, 1854, without success. After many sanguinary encounters 
 by day and night, and repeated bombardments, a grand assault was made on 
 Sept. 8, 1855, upon the Malakhofif tower and the Redans, the most important 
 fortifications to the south of the town. The French succeeded in capturing 
 and retaining the Malakhoff. The attacks of the English on the great Redan 
 and of the French upon the little Redan were successful, but the assailants 
 w^ere compelled to retire after a desperate struggle, with great loss of life. 
 
 *' SECESSION," U. States. The election of Lincoln, the " Republican " candidate 
 for president, Nov. 6, 1860 was made the pretext for the secession of several 
 southern states for another Union; the resignation of Federal officers in those 
 states, and of members of the cabinet at Washington, and of several officers of 
 
no 
 
 THE WOELD S PKOGKESS. 
 
 the army and navy; and the seizure of government moneys, forts, and arsenaUsi, 
 The cliief incidents of these treasonable or revolutionary proceedings were the 
 following: 
 
 Kcsignation of S. C. senators of 
 the U. States Nov. 9-11, 1860 
 
 U. S. H. of Rej). Mppo.nts a fom. 
 of S3 on the state of the Union, 
 
 Dec. 6, 1860 
 
 Resignation of HoAvell Cobb, Sec. 
 of I'lvas., U. S Dec. 10, 1860 
 
 U. !^. stoclis (5 per cent) sold for 
 89, Dec. 10, 1860 
 
 ResisJiiation of Mr. (Jass, Sec. of 
 State Dec. 14, 1860 
 
 South Carolina Ordiiance of Se- 
 cession passed Dec. 20, 1860 
 
 Maj. Anderson transfers the U. 
 ytates gairison at Fort Moultrie 
 to Fort Sumter, in Charleston 
 harbor Dec. 26, 1S60 
 
 S. Carolina aiiihorides seize Fort 
 Moultrie and olher U. States 
 proi.erty Dec. 28, 1860 
 
 J. B. Floyd, U. S. Sec of War re- 
 sig s Dec. 29, 1860 
 
 Forts Pulaski and Jackson, in 
 hai'bor of Savannah, seized by 
 Gov. Brown of Geo Jan. 3, 1861 
 
 8. C. commissioners' demands 
 refused by the President 
 
 Jan. 3, 1861 
 
 Fast-day observed in the U. S. 
 
 Jan. 4, 1861 
 
 Fort Morgan, Mobile, seized by 
 the state Jan. 4, 1861 
 
 Steamer Star of the West with U. 
 S. troops for Fort Sumter, 
 fired into by the rebels. .Jan. 9, 1861 
 
 Mississippi secession passed, 
 Jan. 9: and U. ii. forts and 
 
 Alabama secession passed Jan. 11, 1861 
 
 Florida secession passed, and U. S. 
 forts at Pensacola seized Jan. 1-J, 1861 
 
 Gcorgii secession passed Jan. 19, 1861 
 
 Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida 
 senators of the U. States resigned 
 
 Ja.u 21, 18G1 
 
 Louit-iana secession passed Jan. 28, 1861 
 
 Texas tcce^sion pasred Feb. 1, 1861 
 
 "Peace Conference" at "Washington, 
 
 Feb. 4, 1861 
 
 Louisiana delegation excepting Mr. 
 Buuligny withdraws from Congress 
 
 Feb. 5, 1861 
 
 Congress of seceding states at Mont- 
 gomery, Ala., Feb. 6 ; elects Jcfier- 
 son Davis of Miss. Pres., and Alex- 
 H. Stei^hens of Ga. Vice-pre8..Feb. 9, 1861 
 
 Tennessee votes against secession, 
 
 Feb. 9, 1861 
 
 Resolution guaranteeing non-interfer- 
 ence witli slavery in any state passed 
 unanimously in H. of Reps. .Feb. 11, 1861 
 
 Jefl'erson Davis inaugurated Fres. of 
 Southern Confederacy Feb. 18, 1861 
 
 The " Pence Con ereuce " at Washing- 
 ton agrees on proposition for " com- 
 prumse," and adjourns March 1, 1861 
 
 Gea. Twiggs, having s-uriendered the 
 U. States forces and property in Texas 
 is dismissed from the U. S. army as a 
 traitor M;ireb 1, 1861 
 
 Missouri votes against secession, in 
 convention Mnrch 1, 1861 
 
 Lincoln inaugurated Pres. of United 
 
 States , March 4, 1861 
 
 See Battles, O. S., War, <&:. Also 
 Tables, p. 190, &c. 
 
 property seized thei'e... Jan. 10, 1861 
 
 SEPOYS (a corruption of Sipdhi, Hindostanee for a soldier). The term applied 
 to the native troops in India. Under able generals they greatly aided in 
 establishing British rule in India. For their mutinies, see India, 1857. 
 
 SEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS in England commenced me. Parliaments 
 had been triennial from 1688 to that date. 
 
 SERVIA. A principality nominally subject to Turkey, south of Hungary. The 
 Servians are of Slavonic origin. They embraced Christianity about a. d. 640, 
 The Emperor Manuel sul)jugated them in 1150; but they recovered their in- 
 dependence in 1180, and were ruled by princes, generally named Stephen, 
 till their country was finally subdued by the Sultan Mahomet II. in 1459. 
 Population in 1854, 985,000. 
 
 SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA, to the angels (ministers) of which the Apostle 
 John was commanded to write the epistle contained in the 2d and 3d chapters 
 of his Revelation, viz. : Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Phila- 
 delphia, andLaodicea, a. d. 96. 
 
 2. Smyrna. Now an important com- 
 mercial city and seaport of Ionia. 
 Poly carp, its first bishop, sufi'ered 
 martyrdom, A. d. 175. 
 
 3. Pergamos. Capital of the kiogdom 
 of the same name, founded by P; il- 
 etaerus, b. c. 288, and part of Bithy 
 
 1. Ephesus. Paul founded the church 
 here, a. d. 57, ard m a. d. 59, was 
 in great danger from a tumult creat- 
 ed by Demetrius. Ephesus was in 
 ••n-niiious state even in the time of 
 Justinian (a. d. 527), and still re- 
 mains so. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. Ill 
 
 6. Pliiladclphia. "Was built by Attains Phila- 
 delphus, king of Pcrgamos (about b. c. 
 159, 138) ; was taken by Bujazet I. a. d. 
 3390. It 18 now called Allah Bhehr, " The 
 cily of God, " and is a miserable town of 
 SroO 1 oui-es. 
 
 7. LoodAcea. In Phrj^gia near Lydia. has 
 si.ffci-(.d much from earthquakes. It is 
 now a deserted place called Eskehissar. 
 " The old Castle." 
 
 nia. It was renoTvncd for its libra- 
 ry. Aitalus 111., the last king, be- 
 queathed his kii.gdom to the E,oman 
 pcoi'le, B. c. 133. Ic is still an im- 
 ■) o tant i^lace called Bei'sauio. Parch- 
 ment IP said to have been invented here. 
 
 4. Thyativo. Now a mean town of 2C00 
 ho'.ises, called Akhissar, " "White Castle." 
 
 6. Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, 
 the iiingdomof Croesus (b. c. 560), is now 
 a m eerable village, named Bart. 
 
 SEWING-MACHINE. The practical sewing-machine was the invention of EHas 
 Howe, an American mechanic. Theee machines are all of American oiigin. 
 Ilaydn. To America nnquestionably belongs the honor of giving to the 
 world the first piactical sewing-machine. Here also, it has received its i'ullest 
 development. Mr. Howe's patent was granted in 1846. Very little advance 
 Avas made for the next six vears. Since that T^eriod the ealcs of reliable ma- 
 chines have been as follows : 185H, 2,509 ; 1854, 4,469 ; 1855, 3,515 ; 1856, 
 ^7,225; 1857,12,715; 1858, 17,589; 1859,46,245. The machine has been 
 improved, and adapted to all branches of sewing. Indeed it has revolution- 
 ized, and developed every department of needlework ; introduced new 
 branches of industry ; rendered healihful, pleasant, and profitable an employ- 
 ment hitherto proverbially unhealthful, and proved itself the most beneficial 
 invention of the age. In the domestic Avorld it ranks as do railroads and 
 telegraphs in the commercial. The importance of this invention to the 
 manufacturing interests of the IT. States was estimated in 1860 at |3-12,0C0,- 
 000 annually. The following table exhibits the economy of the sewing ma- 
 chine in stitching the vaiious parts of the Ibllowing garments. 
 
 BY MACHINE. BY HAXB. 
 
 Hours. Minutes. Hours. 3Iiimtes. 
 
 Gentlemen's shirts 1 16 14 26 
 
 Frock coats 2 88 16 35 
 
 Satin vests 1 14 7 19 
 
 Slkdres- ] 13 8 27 
 
 Merino dress 1 4 8 27 
 
 SHAKESPEARE'S NATIVE PLACE, Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwick. Shake- 
 speare was born at Stratford, April 23, 1564, and died on his natal day, 1616. 
 Shakespeare festival was held at Stratford, April 23, 1836. In 1847, a number 
 of persons of distinction interested themselves for the preservation of the 
 house in which Shakespeare w^as born, then actually set up for sale. In the 
 end Shakespeare's house was sold at the auction mart in the city of London, 
 where it v\-as " knocked down " to the United Committee of London and 
 Stratford for the large sum of £3,000, Sept. 16, 1847. In 18.56, a learned 
 oriental scholar, John Shakespeare, no relation to the poet, gave £2,r.00 to 
 purchase the adjoining house, that it might be pulled down, in order to ensure 
 the poet's house from the risk of fire, 
 
 SHEEP, U. S. They have generally been reared to supply mutton rather th;in 
 wool. Of late, however, much attention has been paid to breeding them for 
 their value in producing wool. The number of sheep in 1850 in the U. S. wa.s 
 21,723,^'.0(J ; in 1860,22,471,000. Ohio, New York, and Indiana, produced 
 the most. Cahfornia, iu 1860, had 1,075,000 sheep ; in 1867, 3,000,000. The 
 ravages among sheep by dogs is very great. In 1866 about 500,000, worth 
 $2,000,000, were killed by dogs. 12 merino ewes from Westminster, Vei- 
 niont, took the first two premiums at the Agricultural Exhibition at Haniburg, 
 in 1863, against all the best breeds of Eiighmd, France, Saxony, Prussia, and 
 
112 THE world's PKOGRESS. 
 
 Silesia- They were sold for |o,000 to a Count of Silesia. This result, ssnr 
 prising to Americans, gave a new impetus to sheep-raising in the U. S. 
 
 SHIBBOLETH. The word by which the followers of Jephthah tested theii 
 opponents, the Ephrairaites, on passing the Jordan, about 1143 b, c. Judges^ 
 cti. xii. The tei in is now applied to any party watchword or dogma. 
 
 SHIPPING OF TiiK U. S. (p. 524.) Tonnage at different periods. 
 
 Ye.'irs. Tonnage. I Ypars. Tonnage. 
 
 1S61 5,539,813 | 1865 (old) 3,516,787 
 
 ISO:.' 5,112,105 I " (new) l,57yi)04 
 
 1863 5,1-26,081 1 1866 (old) B42,2'J9 
 
 1804 4,986,081 j " (new) 3,368,479 
 
 The above table shows the loss of American shipping, or its transfer to for- 
 eign flags during the rebellion. The total tonnage of the United States, 
 June 30, 1858, was 5,049,808 tons ; of which registered for foreign trade, 
 2,499,741 ; enrolled and Ucensed, 2,502,086 ; steam navigation, 729,390. In- 
 crease for the year, 108,965 tons. In 1860, the tonnage of the U. S. was 
 5,353,868 tons. In the same year there were built 212,892 tons. Amount of 
 licensed tonnage in 1866, 2,256,947 tons. Since the year 1860, American 
 ship-building has greatly declined. In November 1866, there was but one 
 vessel in the course of construction in New York City, and but two in Boston. 
 This is due to the great cost of material and labor in seaboaid cities. Ships 
 which cost $100 per ton in N. Y., cost only $60 in the Sime cuirency in the 
 British Provinces (1867). In 1860, two-tliirds of American imports were 
 carried in American ships ; in 1866 nearly three-fourths in foreign vessels. 
 Number of ship-carpenteis in the U. S. in 1860, 13,392. Before the 
 war the Stars and Stripes led the carrying trade of the world. Not 
 only was there a larger tonnage afloat under our flag than under 
 any other, but American ships had the preference for enterprise, speed, and 
 care of cargo, which gave them the lead in every port and on every ocean. 
 The entire tonnage of Great Britain in 1861 was 4,806,826 tons; and that of 
 the United States, 5,539,813 tons. In the trade of this country we kt-pt the 
 lead without the assistance of discriminating legislation. During the five 
 vears ending with 1861, the carrying trade of New York amounted tc 
 11,644,000,000, of which over $1,000,000,000 was done undf-r the Americar. 
 flag, leaving but little more than half that amount for the flags of all other 
 nations on the globe. With the advent of war there came a disastrous 
 change. The few privateers fitted out in English ports, chiefly through the 
 assistance of British capitalists, turned the scale against us, and almost the 
 entire fleet of American vessels was forced to engage in the government 
 service, lie idle at the dock, or transfer their ownership to a foreign flag. 
 Thus in the- four years which followed, out of |1, 700,000,000 of foreign trade 
 for the city of New York, less than $400,000,000 were done under the Stars 
 and Stripes, while over $1,300,000,000 were carried under foreign flags. In 
 1865 the entire foreign commerce of New York was $429,100,229, of which 
 $H45, 750,622 was in foreign ships, and only $82,349,607 in American ships. 
 This is a humiliating and exasperating record; yet in the recent Fenian 
 movements our government and people refused to retaUate. — Chr. Almanac. 
 
 SIAM, A kingdom in India, bordering on the Burmese empire. Siam w^as re- 
 discovered by the Portuguese in 1511, and a trade established, in which the 
 Dutch joined about 1604. A British ship arrived about 1613. In 1683 a 
 Ci'phalonian Greek, Constantine Phaulcon, became foreign minister of Siam, 
 and opened a communication with France ; Louis XIV. sent an embassy in 
 1865 with a view of converting the king, without effect. Sir John Bowring 
 
SUPPLEMEK^T, 1851-67. 113 
 
 succeeded in obtaining a treaty of friendship and commerce between England 
 and Siam, which was signed April 30, 1855, and one with France in August 
 following. Two ambassadors from Siani arrived in England Oct., 1857, and 
 had an audience with the queen to deliver magnificent presents on Nov. 16. 
 A treaty with the United States negotiated by Townsend Harris, 1859. 
 
 SIAMESE TWINS. The two persons known under this name, are twins, born 
 about 1811, enjoying all the faculties and powers usually possessed by sepa- 
 rate and distinct individuals, although united together by a short cartilagi- 
 nous band at the pit of the stomach. They are named Chang and Eng, and 
 were first discovered on the banks of the Siam river by an American, Mr. 
 Kobert Hunter, by whom they were taken to New York, where they were 
 exhibited. No connexion exists between them but this band, and their prox- 
 imity seems in no way to inconvenience either. They are perfectly straight 
 and well made, and walk with a gait like other people, being perfect in all 
 their parts, and having all their functions distinct. After having been exhib- 
 ited for several years in England and the United States, the Siamese Twins 
 went to Georgia, where they settled on a farm, married sisters, and now 
 (1860) have several children. 
 
 Sicily! See itdy. 
 
 SICYON. An ancient Grecian kingdom in the Peloponnesus, founded it is said 
 about '2080 b. c. In 252 it became a republic and joined the Achaean league 
 formed by Aratus. It was the country of Polycletes (436) and Lysippua 
 (238), the sculptors. 
 
 SIDON (Syria). A city of Phcenicia, to the north of Tyre. It was conquered by 
 Cyrus about oSY ; and surrendered to Alexander, 332. See Phcenicia. The 
 town was taken from the pacha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of 
 his allies, assisted by some ships of the British squadron, under Admiral S*op- 
 ford and Commodore Charles Napier, Sept. 27, 1840. 
 
 SIEGES, (p. 529.) of Eome, 1849; of Sebastopol, 1854-5 ; ofKars, 1855; Delhi, 
 1857 ; Gaeta, Oct. 1860 to Feb. 13, 1861. 
 
 SIKHS. "^QQ Punjab 'dn^ India, 
 
 SILISTRIA. A strong military town in Bulgaria, European Turkey. It was taken 
 by the Russians, Sept. 26, 1829, after nine months' siege, and held some years 
 by them as a pledge for the payment of a large sum by the Porte ; but was 
 eventually returned. In 1854, it was again besieged by the Russians, 30,000 
 strong, under Prince Paskiewich, and many assaults were made. Russians 
 commenced their retreat, as Omar Pacha was drawing near. 
 
 SILVER COIN, U. S. The silver coinage of the U. S. Mint, for one year, end- 
 ing June 30, 1859, was $7,336,609. From 1793 to 1859, inclusive, it amount- 
 ed to $122,694,836. In England, in the first ten years of Victoiia, the 
 amount of silver coined was $2,440,614. It is supposed that the silver coin- 
 age of tlie woi'ld amounts to twelve hundred millions of dollars. The largest 
 amount coined in any one year in the U. S. was $9,077,571 in 1853. In the 
 year ending June 30, 1863, the coinage was $1,564,297, in 3,053,150 piecs. 
 Of this $1,040,638 came from the mint at S:in Francisco, Cal., and the rest 
 from Philadelphia and New York. The coinage in 1866, including two and 
 three-cent pieces, was $1,183,330. A tax of 3 cents per oz. was levied on 
 silver ware in use, by act of Congress, July 1, 1862. Revenue from this 
 
 ' source to the government in 1863, $18,372; in 1866, $128,522. This tax re- 
 moved, 1866. 
 
 SIMPLON. A mountain road leading from Switzerland into Italy, constructed 
 
114 THE WORLD'S PROGEESS. 
 
 by Napoleon in ISOl-T. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and passes by 
 galleries through solid rock. It has eight principal bridges. The number of 
 workmen employed at one time varied from thirty to forty thousand. 
 
 SINKING FUND, in England. First projected by Sir Robert Walpole, whose 
 act was passed in 1'716. The act establishing the sinking fund of Mr. Pitt 
 was passed in March, 1786. A then estimated surplus of £900,000 in the 
 revenue was augmented by new taxes to make up the sum of one million, 
 which was to be in<variably applied to the reduction of the national debt. In 
 July, 1828, the sinking fund was limited to the actual surplus of revenue. 
 
 SINOPE (Sinour). See Husso-Turkish War. 
 
 SKATING. Invented probably by the Scandinavians who used the sharp-edged 
 shank hones of sheep or deer, or strips of fir wood, though Olaus Magnus 
 (d. 1555) mentions the use of iron. At first the skater pushed himself about 
 by an iron-shod pole. Wooden skates with iron blades were invented in 
 Holland. From 1855 to 1861 various means were contrived to improve 
 skates, by attaching a shoe to the wood, making it wholly of steel, jointing 
 the wood, setting it on springs, &c. A skate for floors has been invented, 
 running on small wheels of India rubber. 
 
 SLAVERY, (p. 530.) There were 400,000 slaves in Attica, 3lY b. C. In Rome 
 slaves were often chained to the gate of a great man's house, to give admit- 
 tance to the guests invited to the feast. By 6ne of the laws of the XII. 
 Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, and keep them in their 
 house.«, till by their services or labor they had discharged the sum they owed. 
 C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest offence into his fish 
 ponds, to fatten his lampreys, 42 b. c. Caecilius Isodorus left to his heir 4,116 
 slaves, 12 n. c. The first Janissaries were Christian slaves, 1329. — Serfdom, 
 a modilied form of slavery, was abolished by Frederic I. of Prussia, in 1702; 
 by Christian VII. of Denmark, in 176o, by the Emperor Joseph II. in his 
 hereditary states in 1781 ; and by Nicholas I. of Russia on the imperial do- 
 mains, in 1842 : whose successor, Alexander IT., effected its total abolition 
 throughout his empire, amid much opposition (1860-1). In the United 
 States (p. 532) before the war of independence all the states contained 
 slaves. In 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of Rights, "All 
 men are born free and equal," was declared in the supreme court at 
 Boston to bar slave holding in that state. Before 1790 the further intro- 
 duction of slaves had been prohibited in five other states. On July 13, 
 1787, Congress passes unanimously the celebrated ordinance "for the goveru 
 inent of the territory to the N. W. of the Ohio," which contained an " unalter^ 
 able " article forbidding slavery or involuntary servitude in the said territory. 
 After 1800, several of the states prayed without effect to be relieved of this 
 prohibition. In 1803 Louisiana was purchised, which act was considered by 
 many as fatal to the constitution. In Feb. 1820, the celebrated Missouri Com- 
 promise, drawn up by Mr. Clay, was carried, by which slavery was permitted 
 in that state, but was prohibited in all that part of it to the north of 36° 30' 
 N. Lat. In 1845 a fresh contest arose between the slave-holders and their 
 opponents at the annexation of Texas. The utmost the advocates of freedom 
 could obtain was a similar division to that of Missouri, Dec. 29, 1845. In 1850 
 another compromise was effected: California was admitted as a free state; but 
 the Fugitive Slave Act was passed {ivhich see). In 1854 the Missouri compromise 
 was abrogated with the admission of Nebraska and Kansas as slave-holding 
 states; in the latter of which civil war ensued. 8ee Kansas ; United States. 
 An attempt to create a slave rebelhon took place in Virginia, headed by John 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 
 
 115 
 
 Brown, and failed, in Oct. 1859. Number of slaves in 1850, 3,204,813 ; in 
 1860, 3,999,283. Upon the secession of the southern states, Mr. A. H. Steph- 
 ens, of Georgia, declared that " slavery " was the corner stone of their confeder- 
 acy' (1861). During the vvai^, slaves were held to be "contraband of war" by 
 the U. S. Government. By act of Congress, June 19, 1862, slavery waa 
 forever excluded from the territories. Jan. 1863, the great " Emancipation 
 ; Proclamation" of President Lincoln was issued, declaring all slaves in tho 
 i rebellious states free, on the ground that it was a " fit and necessary war meas- 
 ■• in-e for suppressing such rebellion." Slavery was finally abolished from the 
 United States by act of Congress, January, 1865. See Constitution. 
 
 SLAVE TRADE, U. S. Since 1855 the proposition to reopen the slave trade 
 has been discussed in several conventions and public assemblies in the 
 southern states. This infamous traffic is denounced in the " Republican plat- 
 form" (Chicago, June, 1860), and is repudiated also by the congress of the 
 " Southern Confederacy" (Feb., 1881), but the latter abolished the death 
 penalty affixed to its prohibition by the laws of the U. S. In defiance of these 
 laws a large number of slavers have been fitted out, chiefly in N. Y. and other 
 northern ports, during the years 1858, '59, '60 ; several have been seized be- 
 f'.re saiUng and many others captured with slaves. Treaty with Great Britain 
 for further measures against trade in slaves, 186- 
 
 SNUFF-TAKING. (p. 623.) In England, in 1858, 2,573,925 lbs. of snuff and 
 cigars were imported. See Tobacco. 
 
 SOCIAL SCIENCE. The British National Association for the Promotion of So- 
 cial Science originated in a meeting at lord Brougham's in May, 185*7. Its ob- 
 ject is to promote improvements in the administration of law, in education, in 
 public health, and in social economy. It holds annual meetings, and publishes 
 its proceedings. The first meeting was at Birmingham. 
 
 SOCIETIES AND Institutions, Literary and Scientific, in the United States. See 
 Academies (p. 147). 
 
 American Institute (for Agriculture and 
 
 Useful Arts), N. Y. 
 National Academy of Sciences 1865. 
 
 American Ethnological Society at N. Y. 
 American Oriental Society at New Haven. 
 American G-eographicai and Statistical So- 
 ciety, N. Y. 
 
 In nearly every State of the Union there is an Historical Society, devoted to 
 the collection and preservation of historical records, printed and in MS. ; several 
 of them have published transactions and collections. That of the Mass. Hist. 
 Soc. comprises about 30 vols. The N. Y. Hist. Soc. has published 6 or 7 vols. 
 Great Britain. All in the list below are in London, except othherwise stated. 
 An act was passed Aug. 11, 1854, " to afford facilities for the establishment 
 of Institutions for the promotion of Literature and Science," by grants of laud, 
 &c., and for their regulation. The Royal and London Institutions are exempt- 
 ed from the operation of the act. 
 
 SOCIETIES, INSTITUTIONS, &C. 
 
 Royal Society Charter 1662 
 
 Society of Antiquaries 
 
 (Charier 1751) 1717 
 
 Society of Dilettanti 1734 
 
 Royal Society of Edinliurgh 
 
 (Charter 1783)1739 
 
 Society of Arts (Charter 1847) 175j 
 
 Koyal Irish Academy . . . .Charter 1783 
 Linnean Society. . .(Chatter 1802) 1788 
 Horticultural Society 
 
 (Charter 1809) 1804 
 
 Medico-Chirurgical Society 
 
 (Charter 1834) 1805 
 
 London Institution 1 805 
 
 Geologcal S.)ciecy.. (Charter 1826) 1807 
 Koyal Society of Literature 
 
 (Charter 182C) 1820 
 Eoyal Asiatic Society.. . .Charier 1823 
 Mechanics' Institution, London. .. 1823 
 
 Zoological Society 1826 
 
 British Association 83 1 
 
 Entomologi'jal Society 183S 
 
116 
 
 THE WORLD S PEOGEESS. 
 
 Pharmaceutical Society 1841 
 
 PhilologicMl Society...".... ].«42 
 
 Dublin'PhiloBophical iSociety 1842 
 
 Arcliseological Association 1843 
 
 Archseolodcal Institute 184.3 
 
 Sydinham Society 1843 
 
 Etlmological Society l.'-43 
 
 Syro-Eiryptian Soc '. ety 1 844 
 
 Ray 8 >c ety 1844 
 
 Cavendish Society 1846 
 
 Hakluyt Society 1846 
 
 Institute of Actuaries 1848 
 
 Arui.del Society 184) 
 
 Meteorological Society 1851 
 
 Photographic Society 1S53 
 
 HorolOKical Institute 1853 
 
 Statistical Society 1834 
 
 lioyal Institute of British Archi- 
 tects (Charter 1837) 1835 
 
 BotanicLil Suciety 18o6 
 
 Numismatic Society 1836 
 
 Electrical Society 1837 
 
 Ornithological Society 1837 
 
 Royal Agricultural Socety 1838 
 
 Camden Society 1838 
 
 Royal Botan cal Society 1839 
 
 Microscopical Society 1839 
 
 Ecclesiological So^^'iety 1839 
 
 Parker Soc ety 1840 
 
 Percy Society 1840 
 
 London I library 1840 
 
 Shakespeare Society 1840 
 
 Chemical Society 1841 
 
 SOLFERINO (in Lombardy), celebrated as the site of the chief struggle on the 
 great battle of June 24, 1859, between the allied French and Sardinian army 
 commanded by their respective sovereigns, and the Austrians under General 
 Hess; the emperor being present. The Austrians after their defeat at 
 Magenta, gradually retreated across the Mincio, and took up a position in the 
 celebrated quadrilateral, and was expected there to await the attack. But 
 the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of prince Napoleon and the Tus- 
 cans on the other, induced them to recross the Mincio and take the offensive, 
 which thoy did on June 23. The conflict began early the next morming, and 
 lasted fifteen hours. The French attribute the victory to the skill and bravery 
 ■ of their emperor and the generals M'Mahon and Niel ; the Austrians to the 
 destruction of their reserve by the rifled cannon of their adversaries. The 
 Sardinians maintained a fearful contest of fifteen hours at San Martino, it is 
 said against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 630 officers, and 
 19,311 soldiers ; of the allies, 8 generals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiera 
 killed and wounded. This battle closed the war; preliminaries of peace be- 
 ing signed at Villa Franca, July 12. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA, (p. 535.) Population 1850, whites, 274,463 ; free colored, 
 8,960 ; slaves, 384,984 ; 1860, whites, 303,186 ; slaves, 407,185. Ordinance 
 delaring " Secession " from the United States, passed Dec. 20, I860. The 
 " Star of the West " with U. S. troops for Fort Sumter, fired on and repulsed 
 from the harbor, Jan. 1861. Gen Sherman marched unopposed through the 
 state early in 1865. B. Perry appointed Provisional Governor June 30, 1865. 
 Act of Secession repealed Sept. 15, 1865, by the State Legislature. Debt of 
 the State in Sept. 1866, exclusive of past due coupons and military debt, 
 S4,426,440. South Carolina included in the " Second Military District," by 
 act of Congress 1867, and Gen. Sickles appointed Governor. In Sept. 1867, 
 he was removed by the President, and succeeded by Gen. Cunby. 
 
 SPAIN, (p. 537.) 
 
 ISTarvaez exHed to Vienna — Jan. 1863 
 General O'Donne'l, Coi.cha, and 
 
 others, bai ished Jan. 18, 1854 
 
 Peace restor<'d ; the degraded 
 generals reinstated, &c. ; Espar- 
 tcro forms an administration, 
 
 July 31, 1854 
 The queen mother impeached; 
 
 she quits Spain Aug, 18, 1854 
 
 Don Carlos dies March 10, 1855 
 
 Resignation of Espartero ; new 
 cabinet formed headed by Mar- 
 shal O'Donnell ; insurrection 
 la Madrid, July 14 ; O'Douncll 
 
 and the government troops subdue 
 the insurgents; the national giiaid 
 suppressed July 15, 16, 1856 
 
 O'Donnell compelled to resign ; Nar- 
 vaez b( comes minister. Oct. 12, 1856 
 
 Joint Fi-eiich and Spanish expedition 
 against Cochin China announced 
 
 Dec. 1, 1858 
 
 War with Morocco...... ISTov. and Dec, 1859 
 
 O'Donne.'l commmds the army in Afri- 
 ca ; indecisive conjflicts reported; 
 battle at Castillijos : a Spanish "R-j- 
 laklava" charge; Jan. 1 ; the Sp>a- 
 niardii near Tetuan Jan. 1860 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. Ill 
 
 SPEAKERS, House of Representatives. See Administrations. Of thk 
 House of Commons, British. Peter de Montfort, afterwards killed at the 
 battle of Evesham, was the first Speaker, 45 Hen. III. 1260. 
 
 Rt. Hon. James Abercromby (after - 
 
 wards Baron Dunferml ne). . .Feb. 19, 1835 
 Rt. Hun. Cbarles Shaw Lefevre 
 
 (afterwards Viscount Eversley) 
 
 March 27, 1839 
 Rt. Hon. John Everlyn Denison 
 (PRESENT Speaker, 1867) April 30, 1857 
 
 Rt. Hon. Henry Addii'gton (after- 
 ward Visct. Sidmouth..Jan. 22, 1801 
 
 Sir John Mitford (afterwards Ba- 
 ron Redesdale) Feb. 11, 1801 
 
 , Et. Hon. Charlts Abbot (after- 
 wards Lord Col Chester. Feb. 10, 1802 
 
 Rt. Hon. Charles Manners Sutton 
 (afterwards Viscount Canter- 
 bury) June 2, 1817 
 
 SPECTATOR. The first number of this periodical appeared on March 1, ITII ; 
 the last Aug. 2. 1715. The papers by Addison have one of the letters c l i o 
 at the end. The most of the other papers are by Sir Richard Steele ; a few 
 by Hughes, Budgell, Eusden, Miss Shephard, and others. 
 
 STAGE-COACH. Stage-coaches were quite general in England about 1660, suc- 
 ceeding a kind of wagon, which had been introduced about 1564. They 
 often travelled only 80 miles a day. 
 
 STAMP-DUTIES, England, (p. 540.) In June, 1865, the stamp-duty on news- 
 papers as such was totally abolished ; the stamp on them being thenceforth 
 used for postal purposes only. In July and Aug. 1854, 19,115,000 news- 
 paper stamps were issued ; in the same months, 1855, only 6,870,000. 
 
 STARS, (p. 541.) Maps of the Stars were published in London by the Soc. for 
 the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in 1839 ; and those by the Royal Prussian 
 Academy were completed in 1859. 
 
 STEAM-BOAT EXPLOSIONS. See Wrecks. Steamer Pennsylvania, on the 
 Mississippi, boilers burst, 10 lives lost, June 3, 1858. Steamer Princess for 
 New Orleans, boilers burst, 25 k. 35 w., Feb. 27, 1859. By 21 inlana steam- 
 boat accidents during 1860, 242 hves were lost, and 146 persons injured. To- 
 tal in 7 years, 213 accidents, 2,304 killed, 956 injured. It thus appears that 
 while the accidents and injuries by railroads are about four times as numerous 
 as those by steam-boat, the deaths are but half as many. 
 
 STEAM-BOAT BUILDING. The annual report on commerce and navigation, 
 gives the following aggregate of the number of steam-boats built in the 
 United States since 1824 — thirty years — in periods of five years each : 
 
 From 1824 to 1829 194 
 
 " 1829 to 1834 304 
 
 " 1834 to 1839 504 
 
 " 1839 to 1844 522 
 
 From 1844 to 1849 960 
 
 " 1849 to 1854 1203 
 
 Total 3687 
 
 Since 1860, steamship building has fallen off very materially (except for 
 inland navigation). In 1860, the whole registered "steam tonnage" built in 
 the U. S., was the small amount of 97,296 tons; in 1865 it decreased to 69,500 
 tons. See Shipping. 
 
 STEAM NAVIGATION, (p. 542.) The Collins line of steamers from Ncvy 
 York to Liverpool, commenced running April, 1850. The Pacific of this line 
 crossed the Atlantic in 9 days, 19 hours. May, 1851. The Adriatic, the larg- 
 est of the line, first left N. Y. Nov. 23, 1857. The City of Glasgow, first of 
 a line between Philadelphia and Liverpool, arrived Jan. 1, 1851. In 1865, 
 there were 12 steamship companies employed in the tr^^nsit between Europe 
 and the U. S., none of which were American! The difficnltj is that steam, 
 ships cannot be constructed in America to the same advantage as in England. 
 See Shipping. 
 
 STEEL PENS came into use in England about 1820, when the first gross of 
 
118 THE world's progress. 
 
 throe-split pens was sold wholesale for £7 43. In 1830 the price was 8s., and 
 ill 1863, 6s. A better pen is now sold for 6d. a gross ; the cheapest sort at 
 'Zd. ; Birniiiighain produces a^(Out 1,000 million pens per annum. "Women and 
 children are principMlly employed in the manufacture, I<i the U. S. the 
 maiiufpcture of this aitiele has been successfully introduced since 1850, and 
 brought to considerable degree of perfection. Gold pens are also made here 
 extensively, and fully equal to any imported. 
 
 STEREOCHROMY. A mode of painting in which water-glass (an alkaline solu- 
 tion of fiint, silex) sei'ves as tlie connecting medium between the color and 
 the substratum. Its invention is ascribed to Von Fuchs, who died at Munich 
 on March 5, 185fi. Fine specimens of this art by Kaulbach and Echter exist in 
 the Museum at Berlin, and also at Munich. 
 
 STEREOSCOPE (from stereos, solid, and skopein, to see). An optical instrument, 
 for representing in apparent relief natui'al objects, &c., by uniting into one 
 image two plane representations of these objects as seen by each eye sepa- 
 rately. The fii'St was constructed and exhibited by Prof. Charles Wlieatstone 
 in 1838. Since 1854, stereoscopes have been greatly improved, and are now 
 exceedingly cheap. In the U. S. the production both of stereoscopic pictures 
 and instruments has increased enormously (18o9-6'7), and these articles form 
 an im.portant and popular article of trade. 
 
 STETHOSCOPE. In 1816 Laennec, of Paris, by rolling a quire of paper into a 
 kind of cylinder, and applying one end to the patient's chest and the other to 
 bis own ear, perceived the action of the heart in a much more distinct manners 
 than by the immediate application of tlie ear. This led to his inventing the 
 stethoscope, or " breast-explorer ;" the principle of which, now termed 
 '' auscultation," was known by Hippocrates. 
 
 STORMS. In Gulf of Mexico, 1*73 persons lost on Last Island (a summer re- 
 sort), Aug. 10, 1856. 
 
 STREET RAILWAYS, in England, previously established by G. F. Train in New 
 York, were opened by him at Birkenhead, Cheshire, Aug. 30, 1860, and at 
 Bayswater, London, March 23, 1861. A street railway bill was rejected by the 
 House of Commons in April, 1861. Several of these railways existed for a 
 time in various parts of the metropolis in 1861, but were all taken up in 1862. 
 
 STRIKES. The tailors of London struck for increase of wages in April, 1834. 
 The strike of the amalgamated engineers took place in 1853. A general 
 ptrike among the shoe-makers of New England, continued for several months, 
 1859-60. 
 
 STRYCHNIA. A poisonous vegetable alkaloid, discovered in 1818 by Pelletier 
 and Caventou in the seeds of the strychnus ignatia and nux vomica, and also 
 in the upas poison. It is so virulently poisonous that half a grain blown into 
 the throat of a rabbit occasions death in four minutes ; its operation iS accom- 
 panied by lock-jaw. Much attention was given to sti-ychnia in 1856, during 
 the trial of Palmer for the murder of Cook. 
 
 SUEZ CANAL. A plan for a canal between the head of the Red Sea and the 
 Bay of Pclusium was brought forward by M. De Lesseps in 1857. The 
 Egyptian, Turkish, Russian, French, and Austrian governments are in favor 
 of the scheme, which is at present opposed bv the British. The cost is esti- 
 mated at £8,000,000. 
 
 SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH. Originated with Prof. Morse, who first tested it 
 
SUPPLE3IENT, 1851-67. il9 
 
 in New York harbor, 1842. The first suggestion of Atlantic telegraph is 
 said to have been made by him iu 1843. Professor Charles Wheatstone in 
 1840 drew plans of a projected submarine telegraph between Dover and 
 Calais. In 1847 Mr. J. W. Brett submitted a similar plan to Louis Philippe 
 without success; but in 1850 he obtained permission from Louis Napoleon to 
 make a trial. This took place on Aug. 28, 1850, but failed. New arrange- 
 ments were soon made, and on a scale of greater magnitude ; and the tele- 
 •graph was opened, Nov. 13, 1851. On that day, the opening and closing 
 prices of the funds in Paris were known on the London Stock Exchange with- 
 in business hours. Guns were fired at Dover by means of electric sparks 
 communicated from Calais. In 1860 there were in operation 1,954 miles of 
 submarine telegraph, exclusive of the Atlantic. Atlantic. A plan to unite 
 Europe and America by the electric telegraph was attempted to be carried 
 out Dy a company in 1857 and 1858, chiefly promoted by Cyrus W. Field, of 
 New York ; with the concurrence of the British and American governments. 
 2,500 miles of wire were mnnufactured and tested in March, 1857. The lay- 
 ing it down commenced at Valentia, in Ireland, on Aug. 5. The vessels em- 
 ployed were the Niagara and Susquehanna (American vessels), and the Leop- 
 ard and Agamemnon (British vessels). After sailing a few miles the cable 
 snapped. This was soon repaired ; but on Aug. 11, after 300 miles of wire 
 had been paid out it snapped again, and the vessels returned to Plymouth. In 
 1858 a second attempt to lay the cable failed, through a violent storm on 
 June 20-21 ; but the third voyage was successful. On Aug. 5, the junction 
 between the two continents was completed by the laying down of 2,050 miles 
 of wire from Yalentia in Ireland to Newfoundland. Tlie first two messages, 
 on Aug. 5, were from the Queen of England to the President of the United 
 States, and his reply. The event caused great rejoicing in both countries ; 
 but unfortunately the insulation of the wire became gradually more faulty, 
 and on Sept. 4 the power of transmitting intelligence utterly ceased. The 
 grand celebration in New York of the (supposed) completion of this enter- 
 prise, Sept. 1, 1858. In 1865, another attempt to lay a cable was made. A 
 new one was manufactured 2,300 nautical miles long, and 2-|- times strongei* 
 than the old one. Diameter, a little more than an inch. It was coiled in the 
 mammoth ship Great Eastern. The expedition started July 23, 1865 from 
 Valentia Bay. 1,200 miles were successfully laid when suddenly the cable 
 parted, in water 2^ miles deep. 4 attempts to grapple if were made, but the 
 cable could not be raised to the surface without much stronger wire ropes. 
 The shi[;s returned to England, but the enterprise was not given up. A new 
 company was formed at once, called the " Anglo-American Telegraph Com- 
 pany": cnpitiil, £600,000. A more perfect cable was constructed, and the 
 Gre.it Eastern started again with it, July 13, 1866, On the 27th she reached 
 Heart's Content, Newfoundland, with the cable in perfect order. The news 
 was received with great enthusiasm in both countries, and ovations tendered 
 to Cyrus W. Field, the American, to whose energy the success was in great 
 part due. The Great Eastern returned to the spot where the cable of 1865 
 parted, and after many attempts it was discovered Sept. 2, 1866, and con- 
 tinued to the American side : making two cables across the Atlantic; one of 
 the cables was injured near the Newfoundland shore in May, 1867, but was 
 soon repaired, and both cables have now been in constant use for 13 months. 
 (Aug. 1867.) The cable from Key \Yest to Cuba successfully laid 
 August, 1867, by a New York Company. More than sixty sulbma'^m? 
 cables have been completed to this date. The most important are these; 
 
120 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 Time 
 
 Laying. 
 ]85l 
 1853 
 1854 
 
 Geographical Position. 
 
 1855 
 1856 
 
 1857 
 
 (1 
 
 1853 
 
 1859 
 
 38€0 
 
 1861 
 
 1862 
 1863 
 
 1865 
 3866 
 
 1867 
 SUGAR 
 
 Dover to Calais 
 
 Dover to Ot-tend 
 
 Sweden to Denmark 
 
 . . .Italy to Ciirsica 
 
 . . .Ital}^ to Sicily , 
 
 ...Newfoundland to Cape Breton 
 
 ...Across Norway Fjords 
 
 ...Ceylou to Hii dostan 
 
 ...England to Holland 
 
 ...England to Hanover 
 
 . . . Soutli Australia to King's Island 
 
 .. .Ceylon to Hindo^tar 
 
 ...England to De mark 
 
 . . .Folkstone to Boulogne 
 
 .. .Malta to Sicily 
 
 . . .L verpool to H olyhead 
 
 . . .Across Bnss's Strait 
 
 ...Dacca to Ptgu 
 
 ...Barcelona to Port Mahon 
 
 . . . Cape San Antonio to Iviza , 
 
 .. .Toulon to Corsica , 
 
 . . .Holyhead to Howih (near Dublin) 
 
 ...Malta toAlexandria ],535 
 
 . . . New Haven (England) to Dieppe . . 80 
 
 . . . Foi'tress Monroe to Cape Charles 23 
 
 ...England to Holland ,130 
 
 ...Sardinia to Sicily 211 
 
 ...Pers'an G-ulf to Kurrachee (Hindostan). 1,450 
 
 ...Sweden to Prussia 55 
 
 ...Corsica to Leghorn • 66 
 
 ...Across Puget Sound 32 
 
 ...Valentia to ISewfoundland 1,8' 4 
 
 ...Valentia to Newfoundland (completed 
 
 from 1SC5, about) 1,864 
 
 ...Newfoundland to Cape Breton..... 85 
 
 ...Key West to Havana 191 
 
 Length 
 
 in 
 Miles. 
 
 27 
 
 80i 
 
 12 
 
 110 
 
 5 
 
 85 
 
 49 
 
 SO 
 140 
 280 
 140 
 
 SO 
 368 
 
 24 
 
 60 
 
 26 
 240 
 116? 
 180 
 
 78 
 195 
 
 64 
 
 l^o. of 
 Con- 
 ductors. 
 4 
 6 
 3 
 6 
 3 
 1 
 1 
 I 
 
 4 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 6 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 4 
 1 
 
 4 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 'Ji7r,e in Opera 
 Hon,, to July, 
 
 i86T about.' 
 
 ] 6 years. 
 
 14 " 
 
 14 " 
 
 13 " 
 
 12 " 
 
 11 " 
 
 10 ♦' 
 
 10 " 
 
 9 " 
 
 9 «' 
 
 9 " 
 
 9 " 
 
 7 " 
 
 7 " 
 
 7 '« 
 
 6 " 
 
 6 " 
 
 6 '« 
 
 6 " 
 
 5 " • 
 
 5 « 
 4 " 
 
 6 *• 
 2 " 
 
 18 months. 
 
 14 " 
 
 11 " 
 
 10 " 
 
 10 '« 
 
 The following is the official statement of the amount of sugar im 
 
 ported into this country from 1851 to 1860: 
 
 Value of Sugar. Duty paid. 
 
 1851 f 13,478,700 ?!4.043,600 
 
 1852 13,977,300 4,183,200 
 
 1853 14,168,800 4,250,500 
 
 1854 11,604,600 3,481,300 
 
 1855 13,284,600 3.989,400 
 
 1856 21,255,100 6,'388,500 
 
 Value of Susar, 
 
 1857 $41,596,200 
 
 1853 18.9 6,600 
 
 1859 28.345 300 
 
 1860 28,931,100 
 
 Dutv paid- 
 
 $12,478,800 
 4,557.200 
 6,802,800 
 6,943,400 
 
 Total Ten years.. $205. 657,800 $57,118,700 
 The sugar crop of Louisiana last year was valued at $24,988,000. The 
 average for five years has been $17,000,000 (1861). In New York state in 
 1865, 9,635,200 pounds of maple-sugar were produced. Pennsylvania pro- 
 duces 2,500,000 poimds a year. The sorghum-sugar plant has lately been in- 
 ^ troduced from China, and sugar produced from it in considerable quantities. 
 Sugar from beet-root is also pronounced a success. 10,000 pounds were 
 manufactured in Livingston county, Illinois, in 1867. 
 SUNDAY LAWS. (p. 547.) In the state of New York, the laws against selling 
 liquors, and against certain theatrical performances on Sundays, have caused 
 much discussion, and some resistance, chiefly on the part of the German and 
 Irish population, but are still enforced (1867). 
 
 SUNDAY SCHOOLS. See Education and Sahhath ScJiools. 
 
 SURNAMES. See Sirnames. (p. 548.) 
 
 SUSPENSION BRIDGES, (p. 548.) See Bridges. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 121 
 
 Demonstration in favor of 
 Italian Independence.. Dec. 17 185S 
 
 Charles XV. (born May 3, 1826), 
 the PRESENT (1861) king of 
 Sweden and Norway... July 8, 1859 
 
 Heiress : Princess Louisa, born 
 
 Oct. 31 1851 
 
 SWEDEN, (p. 549.) 
 
 Death of Bernadotte, whose eon 
 
 Oscar, ascends the throne, 
 
 Marcii 8, 1844 
 
 Treaty of alliance with England. 
 
 and Fra.nce ISi ov. 21, 1855 
 
 Banishment decreed agai st 
 
 Catholic converts from Luther- 
 
 anisin Oct. 1857 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Declaration of neutrality in the 1 Naples ; the confederation for- 
 
 coming Italian war. March 14, 1853 bid foreign enlistment. 
 
 Mutiny and punishment of the July and Aug. 1851 
 
 Swiss mercenary troops at | 
 
 TARIFF. A schedule of duties charged by government on goods imported. The 
 British tariff in 1840 comprised 1,042 articles; the number was reduced (by- 
 sir Robert Peel) in 1845 and 1847. It comprised 439 articles in 1857 ; the 
 number was greatly reduced in 1860. See Customs Duties. 
 
 TAXATION. U. S. Before the rebellion the revenue of the U. S. general Govern- 
 ment was raised wholly from customs and sale of lands. Subsequentlyj to 
 support the war, direct taxation was imposed. The direct taxes in 1865, 
 amounted to $211,129,529. See Revenue, Debt, &c. 
 
 TEA, in England, (p. 554.) 
 
 Imported in 1850 50,11 2,384 Ihs. I Imported in 1857 69,116,000 lbs, 
 
 " "1856 86,200,414 " | " "1858 74,222,000" 
 
 The duty derived from the import of tea in 1850, amounted to £5,471,641, 
 and the amount in 1852 was £5,902,483. The duty upon tea had been grad- 
 ually reduced from 2s. 2-^d. to one shilling only per pound, in 1858. In 
 United States. Value imported in the years ending June 30, 
 
 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 
 
 $6,930,986 $6,893 891 $5,757,860 $6,777,295 $7,306,916 
 
 Amount consumed in U . S., 
 
 1S6L 1862. 1863. 1864. 1865. 1866. 
 25,520,000 lbs. 27,468,600 lbs. 26,906,365 Ihs. 23,137,546 lbs. 29,953,433 lbs. 29,643,187 lbs 
 
 TELEORAPH. See Electric Tel. and Submarine Tel. 
 
 TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES, (p. 555.) Legislation against intemperance in the 
 U. S. has been attempted in several States. The " Maine Law " passed chiefly 
 through the influence of Neal Dow, 1851, was adopted essentially by Connec- 
 ticut (1856), New York (1856) and Massachusetts (1856). It was strongly 
 enforced in the latter State, although vigorously opposed by many, 1866-7. 
 It was repealed in Maine, 1856. 
 
 TENNESSEE, (p. 656.) Population in 1850, 763,154, and 239,460 slaves; in 
 1860, 859,528, and 287,112 slaves. Ordinance of "Separation " passed May 
 6, 1861. The eastern part of the State was noted for its loyalty to the Union 
 during the war. State debt in 1865, $1,213,700. At the State election , Aug. 
 1, 1867, Governor Brownlow, of the *' Union " or Radical ticket, was re-elocted 
 by a majority of nearly 50,000, chiefly made up by the negroes, who voted in 
 this State for the first time. 
 
 TEXAS, (p. 557.) Population in 1860, 416,000, and 184,956 slaves. Ordinance 
 of Secession from the United States passed Jan. 1861. Debt in 1865, $8,192- 
 000. After the war. Gen. A. J. Hamilton was appointed Provisional 
 
122 mE world's pkogeess. 
 
 Governor, by Pres. Lincoln : but at the first election after the restoration, 
 (1866) a Secessionist, (Throckmorton), was elected. Texas iu eluded in 5ih 
 Military District under Sheridan, March, 1867. 
 
 THEOLOGY (from the Greek Theos, God). The science which treats of the 
 nature and attributes of God, of his relations to man, and of the manner in 
 which they may be discovered. It is generally divided into two heads. 1, 
 Inspired (including the Holy Scriptures, their interpretation, &c.); 2. Natura' ; 
 which latter Lord Bacon calls the first part of philosophy. Butler's Analogy 
 of Religion (1736), and Paley's Natural Theology (1802), are eminent books 
 on the latter subject. The ''Summa Totius Theologiae" by Thomas Aquinas 
 (born about 1224), a standard Roman Catholic work, was printed with com- 
 mentaries, &c., in 1696. 
 
 THESSALONICA. A city in Macedonia (now Salonica). Here Paul preached a. 
 D. 63 ; and to the church here he addressed two epistles in 54. In consequence 
 of seditions, a frightful massacre of the inhabitants took place in 390, by order 
 of the emperor Theodosius Thessalonica partook of the changes of the 
 Eastern empire. It was sold to the Venetians by the emperor Andronicus in 
 1426; taken by the Turks in 1430; burnt July 11, 1856. 
 
 TIARA. The triple crown of the pope, indicative of his civil rank, as the keys 
 are of his ecclesiastical jurisdiction ; and on the death of a pope, his arms are 
 presented with the tiara alone, without the 'keys. The ancient tiara was a 
 high round cap. Pope Damascus II. first caused himself to be crowned with 
 a tiara, A. d. 1053. John XIX. was the first who encompassed the tiara with 
 a crown, 1276. Boniface VIII. added a second, 1295; and Benedict XII. 
 formed the tiara about 1334. 
 
 TIMBER-BENDING. Apparatus was invented for this purpose by M. T. Blan- 
 chard, of Boston (U. S.), for which a medal was awarded at the Paris Exhi- 
 bition of 1855. A company was formed for its application in England in 
 1856. 
 
 TIMES NEWSPAPER, London. On Jan. 13, 1785, Mr. John Walter published 
 the first number of the Daily Universal Register, price l^d. In 1788, the 
 name of the paper was changed to the Times. Dr. Stodart editor in 1812. Dr. 
 Barnes was the next editor. On Nov. 28, 1814, the Times was first printed 
 by steam power. The powerful articles contributed by Edward Sterling gained 
 the paper the name of the Thunderer. In 1841 the Times was instrumental 
 in detecting and exposing a scheme organized by a company, to defraud by 
 forgery all the influential bankers of Europe. This brought on the proprietors 
 an action for libel. The jury found the charge to be true, giving a verdict of 
 one fartMng damages, but the judge refused costs. Subscriptions were set on 
 foot in all parts of Europe to reimburse the proprietors for their immense out- 
 lay in defending the action. This they firmly declined; and the money was 
 expended in establishing Times Scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge, and at 
 Christ's Hospital, and other schools; marble tablets also, commemorating the 
 event, were set up in the Royal Exchange and in other places. These M'ere the 
 greatest honors ever conceded to a newspaper. In Oct., 1845, the Times ex- 
 press was for the first time conveyed to India overland, by the agency of Lieut. 
 Waghorn. Of the number of the Times for Nov. 19, 1852, containing the life 
 of the Duke of Wellington, 69,000 were sold — the ordinary number being then 
 36,000 ; the present circulation is stated to vary from 47,000 to 56,000. In 
 1854, the proprietors sent Mr. W. H. Russell as their special correspondent to 
 the seat of war in the Crimea, and in 1857 to India, and in 1861 to the United 
 States. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 185 1-6 '7. 1-23 
 
 TITHES«(p. 560). Abolished in England, 1860. 
 
 TOBACCO. In a recent lecture in England, the Dean of Carlisle stated that in 
 1865, 33,000,000 pounds of tobacco were consumed in that country, at an ex- 
 pense of $40,000,000, over $26,000,000 of which went in duties to the govern^ 
 nieut In 1821 the average annual consumption was llf ounces to each 
 person ; in 1858 it had risen to 19 ounces. In France much more is consumed 
 in proportion to the population, the emperor clearing |20,000.,0C0 annually by 
 the government monopoly. In Denmark the annual consumption averages 70 
 ounces to each person, in Belgium, '73 ounces, and in America, the average is 
 vastly higher. It is calculated that 2,000,OuO tons, or 4,480,000,000 pounds 
 of tobacco are annually used in the world, at a cost suflScient to pay for all the 
 bread corn used in Great Britain. It is boasted that 100,000,000 of the human 
 race are smokers. In New York city it was stated that there were in I860, 
 about 200,000 smokers, each using two cigars daily, making, at an average of 
 four cents each, the sum of |16,000 daily, or $5,840,000 a year, wasted in 
 smoking in this city alone. The cost in 1867 would be at least double. There 
 were, in 1860, about 900,000,000 cigars manufactured in N. Y., amounting, at 
 the same price, to $36,000,000. •The total exports of tobacco from the United 
 States in 39 years (1821-59), amounted to $339,274,520. The production of 
 tobacco in the northern states has increased wonderfully since 1850. In 1850, 
 N. Y. State produced 83,000 lbs. ; in 1860, 5,765,000 lbs. ; Conn, produced 
 in 1850, 1,267,000 lbs. ; in 1860, 6,000,000 lbs. The exports of tobacco from 
 the U. S. in 1862, amounted to $12,325,356, being almost entirely from the 
 north. See Treasury Statistics in appendix. 
 
 TRACTARIANISM. This term is applied to certain opinions on church matters 
 propounded in the " Tracts for the Times," of which ninety numbers were pub- 
 lished, in England, 1833-41. The principal writers were the Revs. Dr. E. 
 Pusey, J. H. Newman, J. Keble, J. Froude, and I. Williams. 
 
 TRANSYLVANIA. An Austrian province ; was part of the ancient Dacia. In 
 1526, John Zapoly rendered himself independent of the Emperor Ferdinand I. 
 by the aid of the Turks. His successors ruled with much difficulty till 1699, 
 when the Emperor Leopold I. finally incorporated Transylvania into the Aus- 
 trian dominions. 
 
 TRAVELLING IN England. In 1707, it took in summer one day, in winter 
 nearly two days, to travel from London to Oxford (46 miles). In 1817, the 
 journey was accomplished in six or seven hours. By the Great Western Rail- 
 way express (63 miles) it is done in 1^ hour. 
 
 TREATIES, (p. 565.) 
 
 Constantinople, treaty of May 8, 1854 
 
 "Washington, Reciprocity treaty be- 
 tween Great Britain and the U. B., 
 respecting Newfoundland fishery, 
 commerce, «fec July 2, 1854 
 
 Of the U. S. (p. 566.) 
 
 Treaty with China signed at Tien 
 Tsin June 13, 1858 
 
 Treaty with Japan, negotiated by 
 Com. Perry, signed March 31, 1854 
 
 Another treaty with Japan, by Town- 
 send Harris, signed ...June 17, 1857 
 
 Paris, treaty of (and Eussian war) 
 
 April, 1856 
 
 Paris (settlement of Neufchatel 
 
 affair) May 26, 1857 
 
 Zurich (Austria, Frai.ce, and Sardi- 
 nia) Nov. 10, 1859 
 
 Treaty with Mexico, negotiated by Mr. 
 
 McLane, but rejected by the U. S. 
 
 Senate I860 
 
 Treaty with Russia for purchase of 
 
 Bitka, ratified June 1867 
 
 TRIALS, TJ. S. Noted tibial of Aaron Burr, on the charge of treason against 
 the U. S. in preparing an expedition against Mexico, held at Richmond, May, 
 
124 THE world's progress. 
 
 1807. Burr acquitted. Trial of John Brown for treason against "Virginia, 
 (See Harper's Ferry). The assassins of Lincoln tried at Washington, 1865. 
 Trial of Cupt. Wirz, for cruelty to Union Prisoners at Anderson ville, 1865 : 
 he was convicted and executed shortly after. Jeff Davis, President of the 
 Southern Confederacy, admitted to bail in the sum of $100,000, by U. S. Dis 
 trict Judge Underwood, Richmond Va., May, 1867, to appear before him on 
 the charge of treason at the succeeding term of the Court. Trial of John 
 H. Surratt, for complicity in the murder of Pres. Lincoln, lasting about thirty 
 days, ended Aug., 1867, by the disagreement of the jury. 
 
 TRIESTE. An Austrian port on the Adriatic, declared a free port in 1750. It 
 was held by the French in 1717, 1797, and 1805. Since the establishment of 
 the overland mail to India, it has risen to great commercial importance 
 
 TROWSERS. Distinguished by looseness from " pantaloons," which were orig- 
 inally cut to sit tight to the leg from thigh to ankle. Pantaloons began to 
 supersede small clothes during the French revolution ; the loose trowser began 
 to be worn after 1815 ; and have become as decidedly a normal form of gar- 
 ment, as were the " breeches " of the last^entury. 
 
 TRUCE OF GOD {Treuga Dei). A term given to a cessation of the private feuds 
 and conflicts so general, during the middle ages, all over Europe. The clergy 
 strenuously exerted their influence for the purpose. A synod at Roussilon, a. 
 D. 1027, decreed that none should attack his enemy between Saturday even- 
 ing (at nones) and Monday morning (at the hour of prime). Similar regula- 
 tions were adopted in England, 1042 (sometimes Friday and Wednesday being 
 chosen for the time). The truce of God was confirmed by many councils of 
 the Church, especially the Lateran Council, in 1179. 
 
 TUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia. Tubular Suspension Bridge, then the 
 most wonderful enterprise in engineering in the world, was constructed about 
 a mile southward of the Menai Strait Suspension Bridge in Wales. The Con- 
 way Tubular Bridge (1846-8) is a miniature copy of the Britannia, and there- 
 lore requires no description. The principal engineers were Mr. Robert Ste- 
 phenson and Mr. Fairbairn. The most stupendous tubular bridge in the world 
 is that over the St Lawrence, Canada (see Bridges). 
 
 TUNIS. In July 1856, the Bey agreed to make certain constitutional reforms. 
 The Bey died Sept.^22,.1859 ; and no disturbance ensued on the accession of 
 his successor. 
 
 TURKEY, (p. 571.) 
 
 Christians admitted to office in Tur- 
 key June, 1849 
 
 The Turkish government refuses to 
 piirrender the Hungarian and Po- 
 lish refugees on the joint demand 
 of Russia and Austria Sept. 16, 1849 
 
 Russia suspends intercourse with 
 the Porte Nov. 12, 1849 
 
 Trenty with France respecting the 
 Holy Places (which see) Feb. 13, 1852 
 
 Russian naanilesto against Turliey 
 
 June 26, 1853 
 
 War declared against Russia (see 
 
 Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, many 
 years English ambassador at Con- 
 stantinople, returned to England, 
 Jan.; he is succeeded by Sir. H. 
 Lytton Bulwer ; accredited July 12, 1858 
 
 Massacre of Christians at Jedda 
 
 July 25, 1858 
 
 Turkish financial refonns begun, Aug. 1858 
 
 The first Turkish railway opened 
 (from Aden to Smyrna)... Sept. 19, 1858 
 
 Base coinage called in ; a fictit'ous 
 Turkish coinage begun at Birming- 
 ham, and is suppressed Oct. 1858 
 
 liasso-TurJcish'War) Oct. 5, 1853 I Great agitation for financial reform 
 
 I Oct. 185C 
 
SUPPLEMEJST, 1851-67. 
 
 125 
 
 TUSCANY, (p. 572.) 
 
 The Tuscan army demand alliance 
 with the Sardinians ; the grand- 
 duke refuses, and departs to Bo- 
 logna ; the King of Sardinia is pro- 
 claimed dictator, and a provi- 
 sional government formed, April 
 27 ■, the king assumes the com- 
 mand of the army, but declines 
 the dictatorship April 30, 1859 
 
 Prince Napoleon arrives at Leghorn, 
 addresses the Tuscans, and erects 
 his standard May 23, 1859 
 
 The Tuscan constituent assembly 
 meets , Aug. 11, 1859 
 
 It declares agaii st recalling the 
 house of Lorraine^ and votes for 
 annexation to Sardinia Sept. 1859 
 
 Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan, 
 elected governor-general of Cen- 
 tral Italy ; he declines, but recom- 
 mends Buoncompagni, Nov., who 
 is accepted by the Tuscans, Dec. 8, 1859 
 
 The Grand-Duke Leopold II. abdi- 
 cates in favor of his son Ferdinand 
 
 July 21, 1859 
 
 1776 2,616,300 11810 7,239,903 11851. 
 
 1 800 5,300,000 I 183 1 12,856,1 71 1 1860 . 
 
 TYROL. The eastern part of ancient Rhetia, nowa province, of the Austrian 
 empire (to the noHh of Bavaria). It was ceded to the house of Hapsburg in 
 1359, by Margaret, the heiress of the last Count Tyrol. The province became 
 an appanage of the younger (or Tyrol) branch of the imperial house, which 
 branch came to the throne in the person of Maximihan II. in 1618. The 
 French conquered the Tyrol in 1808 and united it to Bavaria ; but in 1809 an 
 insurre'ction broke out, headed by the courageous Andrew Hofer, an inn-keeper. 
 He drove the Bavarians out of the Tyrol, but laid down his arms at the treaty 
 of Vienna. He was subsequently accused of treason and shot by the French 
 at Mantua, Jan. 28, 1810. His family was ennobled by Austria, and a statue 
 to him was erected at Innspruck in 1884. 
 
 U 
 
 UNITARIANS, U. S. Number of churches in the U. S. in 1863, 339 ; minis- 
 ters, 263 ; members estimated at 30,000, 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, (p. 5'75.) See Avierica ; and the separate 
 states, 3Iai7ie, &c. See also Chronological Tables, p. 156, &c. 
 
 POPULATION. 
 
 .23,347,884 
 .31,649,869 
 
 UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE. One of the six points of the charter in England 
 (see Ohartisis), was adopted by the French in the election of their president 
 in 1851, and of their emperor in 1852. 
 
 UNIVERSITIES in the U. S. See Colleges. Those of Harvard, at Cambridge, 
 Mass. ; Yale, at New Haven ; Brown, at Providence, and Michigan, at Ann 
 Arbor, Mich., and Virginia, at Charlottesville, are the chief institutions called 
 Universities, but they differ little from the other colleges. 
 
 URUGUAY. A republic in South America, declared its independence, Aug. 25, 
 1825, recognized, Oct; 4, 1828. The President, G. A. Pereyra, elected in 
 1856, was succeeded in 1860 by B. P. Berro. A civil war broke out in conse- 
 quence of the invasion of the ex-President, General Flores, June 26, 1863. 
 In Feb. 1865, Flores became provisional president. Population in 1865, about 
 250,000. " • 
 
 V 
 
 VANCOUVER'S ISLAND, in the North Pacific Ocean, near the coast of Ore- 
 gon,, Settlements were made here by the English in 1*781 ; which were seized 
 by the Spaniards in 1'789 ; but restored. By a treaty between the British 
 government and that of the United States in 1846 this island was secured to 
 the former. Victoria, the capital, was founded in 1857. 
 
 VEHMIC TRIBUNAL {VehngericMe). Secret tribunals estabhshed in West- 
 
126 THE WOKLD's PEOGEESS. 
 
 plialia to maintain religion and the public peace. Their proceedings -vrere 
 enveloped in a profound mystery. They had their origin in the time of 
 Charlemagne ; and rose to importance about 1182, when Westphalia became 
 subject to the Archbishop of Cologne. These courts became very troublesome, 
 persons of the most exalted rank being subjected to their decisions. The 
 emperors endeavored to suppress them, but did not succeed till the 16th 
 century. SirW. Scott has described them in "Anne of Geierstein." 
 
 VENEREAL DISEASE. Lues Venerea^ Morbus Gallicus. This disease is said 
 to have broken out in the French army, at the siege of Naples, in 1494, 
 whence the French term it mat de Naples. In the Netherlands and in Eng- 
 land it obtained the appellation of mal de France ; though in the latter coun- 
 try it was known so early as the twelfth century. About the same period, too, 
 at Florence, one of the Medici family died of it. Most writers suppose, that 
 the followers of Columbus brought the disorder with them from the new to 
 tlie old world, 1498 ; others maintain that it prevailed among the Jews, 
 Greeks, and Romans, and their descendants, long before the discovery of 
 America. 
 
 VERMONT, (p. 579.) Population in 1860, 315,827. War expenses, |8,811,600. 
 The state sent 34,650 soldiers to the army in 1861-5. 
 
 VESUVIUS, Mt. (p. 580.) Eruptions in May 1855, May and June 1858, and 
 June 1859, caused great destruction. 
 
 VICKSBURG, Miss., U. S. A town on the Mississippi river, made famous 
 during the war. It completely blockaded the navigation of the river and ita 
 batteries were impregnable from the water side. After various attempts, Gen. 
 Grant moved to the south of it, crossed the river from the west side and 
 marched towards the rear of the town, May 1, 1863. He defeats the enemy 
 at "Port Gibson," " Champion Hills," and*" Big Black River Bridge," and 
 on the 18th reaches the fortifications. Heat once invested the place. After 
 many assaults and constant bombardment, the garrison surrendered July 4, 
 1863. Number of prisoners, 30,000 ; guns, 220 ; small arms, 70,000. Union 
 loss during the siege, 545 killed. 3,682 wounded, and 303 missing. 
 
 VICTORIA, formerly Port Philipp (Australia), situated between New South 
 ¥/ales and South Australia, the most successful British colony in that region. 
 First colony 1804. In 1839, the colony was named Victoria, and its prosperity 
 brought great numbers to it, and indilced much speculation and consequent 
 embarrassment and insolvency in 1841-2. In 1851, the province was declared 
 independent of New South Wales. In the same year a reward of £200 was 
 offered for the discovery of gold in Victoria, which was soon after found near 
 Melbourne. 
 
 VICTORIA RAILWAY BRIDGE, on the tubular principle, over the St. Law- 
 rence, Montreal, erected under the superintendence of Mr. Robert Stephenson, 
 and Mr. A. M. Ross, engineers, was completed and opened Nov. 24, 1859. 
 It is the greatest work of the kind in the world, and forms part of the Grand 
 Trunk Railway, which connects Canada and the seaboard states of North 
 America. The length is about sixty yards less than two English miles, and 
 about 7-^ times longer than Waterloo bridge ; the height sixty feet between 
 the summer level of the river, and the under surface of the central tube. The 
 cost £1,400,()00. On Jan. 5, 1855, the bridge was carried away by floating 
 ice, but the stonewoi'k remained firm. 
 
 VILLA FRANCA (in Lombardy). Here the emperors of France and Austria met 
 on July 11, 1859 (after the great battle of Solferiuo); on the next day they 
 signed the preliminaries of peace, the basis of the treaty of Zurich (which see). 
 
SUPPLEMEIST, 1851-67. 127 
 
 VINE DISEASE. It is a whitisli mildew, and totally destroys the fruit. The 
 spores of this o'idium were found in the vineries, at Versailles in 1847. The 
 disease soon reached the trellised vines, and in 1850, many lost all their 
 produce. In 1852, it spread over France, Italy, Spain, Syria, and in Zante 
 and Cephalonia attacked the currants, reducing the crop to one-twelfth of the 
 usual amount. Through its ravages the wine manufacture in Madeira ceased 
 for several years. Many attempts have been made to arrest the progress of 
 the disease, but without much effect. It has much abated in France, but not 
 in Portugal. 
 
 VIOLIN, (p. 583.) The violin is the most expressive instrument, though sur- 
 passed by many in sweetness, richness, and volume. The best were made at 
 Cremona about a. d. 1600, by Amiti and Straduarius ; those of the former 
 excel in sweetness, of the latter in power. They now command enormous 
 prices. 
 
 VIRGINIA, According to the census returns, the real estate, &c., of Virginia, 
 1850, was $530,000,000, viz :— Real estate, $278,000,000; value of slaves, 
 $147,000,000 ; other personal estate, $105,000,000. The returns further show 
 that nearly 83,000 white persons over the age of 21, can neither read nor 
 write ! The new constitution of this stat«, adopted in 1851, in the 111th arti- 
 cle has the following clause : " And no person shall have a right to vote who 
 is of unsound mind, or a pauper, or a non-commissioned officer in the service of 
 th-e United States.'''' Population of 1850, 1,421,081, including 473,026 slaves. 
 la 1860, 1,598,199, including 495,826 slaves. State " seceded," May, 1861. 
 Soon after the western counties formed a new and loyal State. See West Vir- 
 ginia. Virginia was the theatre of the most active military operations of the 
 war of secession, and the state suffered the most from that fearful struggle. 
 Franchise extended to the colored people 1867, and the state included in the 
 1st military district under Gen. Schofield. Debt of the old state in 1865, $41,- 
 061,300. 
 
 VISGOTHS. Separated from the Ostrogoths about a. d. 330, The Emperor 
 Valens, about 369, admitted them into the Roman territories upon the condi- 
 tion of their serving when wanted in the Roman armies; and Theodosius the 
 Great permitted them to form distinct corps commanded by their own officers ; 
 In 400, under Alaric, they invaded Italy, and in 410 took Rome. They began 
 their kingdom of Toulouse, 414; and conquered the Alains, and extended 
 their rule into Spain, 414, and expelled the Romans in 468 ; and finally were 
 themselves conquered by the Saracens under Muga, in 1711, when their last 
 king, Roderic, was defeated and slain in an obstinate engagement. Their rule 
 in France ended with their defeat by Clovis at Vougle, in 507. 
 
 VIVARIUM. See Aquarium. 
 
 VOLTAIC PILE, OR Battery. An apparatus which was constructed in conse- 
 quence of the discoveries of Galvani (see Galvanism). The principle was 
 discovered by Alessandro Volta, of Como (born 1745), for thirty years pro- 
 fessor of natural philosophy, at Pavia, and announced by him to the Royal 
 Society of London in 1793. The battery was first set up in 1800. Volta 
 was made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon Bonaparte, and was 
 otherwise greatly honored. While youi^ he invented the electrophorus, elec- 
 tric pistol, and hydrogen lamp. He died in 1826, aged 81. The form of the 
 Voltaic battery has been greatly improved by the researches of modern 
 philosophers. The nitric acid battery of Mr. W, R. Grove was devised in 
 1839 ; the carbon battery of Mr. Robert Bunsen in 1842. The former is very 
 
128 THE WORLD'S PEOGRESS. 
 
 much used in England ; that of Bunsen in other parts of Europe. See Eleo 
 iricity. 
 
 VOLUNTEERS, MILITARY, tn England. This species of force was formed in 
 England, in consequence of the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 
 1*794. The English volunteers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 
 on Jan. 1, 1804. In May 1859, in consequence of the prevalence of the fear 
 of a French invasion, the formation of Volunteer Corps of riflemen commenced 
 under the auspices of the government, and by the end of the year many thou- 
 sands w^ere enrolled in all parts of the kingdom. Volunteers, U. S. See Army. 
 
 VULGATE (from Vulgahcs, pubHshed). A term applied to the Latin version of 
 the Scriptures, which is authorized by the Council of Trent, and which is attri- 
 buted to St. Jerome, about a. d. 1834, The older version, called the Italic, is 
 said to have been made in the beginning of the second century. Critical 
 editions of the Vulgate were printed by order of Pope Sixtus V. in 1590, and 
 of Pope Clement V. in 1592 and 1593. (The former was suppressed as imper- 
 fect). The Latin Bible called the Mentz Bible was printed in 1460. 
 
 W. 
 
 WAGER OF BATTEL. The trial by combat anciently allowed by law, whereof 
 the defendant in an appeal might fight with the appellant, and make proof 
 thereby whether he was guilty or innocent of the crime charged against him. 
 Repealed by statute 59 George III,, 1819. 
 
 "WAGES IN England (p. 585). Harvest men, 185Y, 5s. In United States. In 
 1866, laws were enacted in some of the states making eight hours a legal day'g 
 liibor, unless otherwise agreed upon by the parties. Under this law, what a 
 laborer would have received for ten hour's work, he can claim for eight hour's 
 labor. 
 
 WALHALLA (the Hall of Glory). A temple near Ratisbon, erected in 1842, by 
 Louis, King of Bavaria, to receive the statues and memorials of the great men 
 of Germany. The name is derived from the fabled meeting-place of Scandi- 
 navian heroes after death. 
 
 WALKING, &C., Feats in. In England, Capt. Barclay for a wager (on which 
 many thousands of pounds depended), walked 1,000 miles in 1,000 succes- 
 sive hours; in forty-two days and nights (less eight hours). His task was 
 accomplished on July 10, 1809. In May, 1758, a young lady at Newmarket 
 won a wager, having undertaken to ride 1,000 miles in 1,000 hours, which 
 feat she performed in little more than two-thirds of the time. Richard Manks, 
 a native of Warwickshire, undertook (in imitation of Capt. Barclay) to walk 
 1,000 miles in 1,000 hours; the place chosen was the Barrack tavern cricket- 
 ground in Sheffield; he commenced on Monday, June IV, 1850, and com- 
 pleted the 1,C00 miles July 29, following, winning a considerable sum. 
 
 WALTZ. The popular German national dance was introduced into England by 
 Baron Neuman and o'thers in 1813. JRaiJces. 
 
 WAR — Cost of that in the Crimea. The cost to England, for two years, 
 was $200,000,000. The whole cost is estimated at 1,000 miUions of dollars. 
 Wars of Great Britain (p. 588). War with Russia, March 27, 1854. Peace 
 of Paris, March 31, 1856. For the wars with India, China, and Persia, see 
 those countries respectively. War in the United States. The war of the 
 rebellion commenced April 12, 1861, by the firing of South Carolina forces on 
 Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor. The battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21, 
 adverse to the Union army, was decisive of a prolonged conflict. Until the 
 
suppleme:nt, 1851-67. 129 
 
 summer of 1863 the Confederates maintained their ground successfully. But 
 after the fall of Vicksbuig, and the battle of Gettysburg, the National army 
 was almost uniformly victorious until the final surrender of the rebels. See 
 Army, Battles, Voluntetva, <&€. 
 
 WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. The original MS. was sold at auc- 
 tion in Philadelphia, to a citizen of New York for $2,300, Feb. 12, 1850. 
 
 WATER COLOR PAINTING in England has been raised from the hard dry 
 style of the last century to its present brilliancy by the efforts of Nicho!so.n, " 
 Copley, Fielding, Varley, and the great Turner; by Pyne, Caltermole, Prout, 
 &c., within the present century. The exhibition was founded in 1805. 
 
 WATERWORKS. The Roman aqueducts were only artificial streams led at a 
 regular slope from an elevated source, and were enormously expensive. Louis 
 XIV. erected enormous machines merely to supply ornamental fountains at 
 Versailles. London is said to have had water-pipes laid in it as early as a. d. 
 1236, and is now supplied with about 50,000,000 gallons of water a day, by 
 seven companies, one bringing water from a distance of forty miles. Phila- 
 delphia was first supplied by works commenced in 1799, and succeeded- by 
 those at Fairmount in 1819 ; New York by the Croton Aqueduct, finished in 
 1844; Boston, first from Jamaica Pond by a company organized in 1795, and 
 afterwards from Cochituate Pond by works begun in 1846, and opened for 
 use in 1848. See Public Works^ Aqueduct. 
 
 WAVERLEY NOVELS. The publication of the series began with " Waverley; 
 or, 'Tis Sixty Years Since," in 1814, and closed with ''Tales of my Land- 
 lord," four vols., in 1831. The authorship was acknowledged by Sir Walter 
 Scott, at a dinner, Feb. 25, 1827. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA. On Oct. 24, 1861, the western counties of Virginia voted 
 to separate themselves from the old state and form a new state called West 
 Virginia; admitted to the Union, June 20, 1863; capital, Wheeling ; area, 
 23,000 square miles. Population by census of 1860, 393,200. The new state 
 sent 31,880 men to the Union army. 
 
 WHALE FISHERY. In recent years, by the introduction of petroleum and 
 other burning fluids, and of gas, the whaling business has become reduced to 
 much smaller dimensions. Vessels employed in 1858, 500 ships and barks, 
 19 brigs, 45 schooners, total 196,115 tons; 8,033 tons less than last year, 
 owing to the increasing scarcity of whales. Imports, 81,941 barrels sperm 
 oil, 182,223 barrels whale oil, 1^540,600 lbs. bone. Exports, 33,336 barrels 
 sperm, 19,503 barrels whale, 1,049,466 lbs. bone. 
 
 WHIGS. See Tory. In England numerous authors trace the origin of these 
 designations to various occasions and various epochs. Referring to what is 
 stated under the head Tory, it may be here added, that we are told the name 
 Whig was a name of reproach given by the court party to their antagonists 
 for resembling the principles of the whigs, or fanatical conventiclers in Scot- 
 land ; and the other, was given by the country party to that of the court, 
 compaiing them to the Tories, or Popish robbers in Ireland. Baker. This 
 distinction of parties arose out of the discovery of the Meal-Tub plot in 1678. 
 Upon bringing up the Meal-Tub plot before parliament, two parties were 
 formed: the one being those who called the truth of the whole plot in ques- 
 tion, and this party styled those who believed in the plot Whigs. The other 
 party, crediting the truth of the plot, styled their adversaries, Tories. 
 
 WINE, U. S, In 1866, Cahfornia produced 1,252,700 gallons of wine ; Ken 
 tucky, 180,000; Indiana, 88,000; New York, 61,000 ; N. Carolina, 54,00(i; 
 Illinois. 47,000 ; Connecticut, 46,000 ; Virginia, 40,000 ; Pcnusvlvania, 38,0C0. 
 9 
 
130 THE world's progress. 
 
 During the year ending June 30, 1866, 9,476,814 gallons were imported into 
 the U. S. 
 
 WISCONSIN, (p. 597.) Population in 1850, 305,391 ; increase in 10 years 90C 
 per cent. 1860, 768,485, increase in 10 years, 152 per cent. 
 
 WITCHCRAFT, Credulity in witchcraft still abounds in the country districts 
 of England. On Sept. 4, 1863, a poor old paralyzed Frenchman died in con^ 
 sequence of having been ducked as a wizard at Castle Hedingham, Essex. 
 
 WIVES. See Marriage. In England, by the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes 
 Act, passed in 1857, the condition of married women has been much bene- 
 fited. When ill-used they can obtain a divorce or judicial separation; and 
 even while in the latter state any property they may acquire is secured to 
 them personally, as if unmarried. By another act, passed in the same year, 
 they are enabled to dispose of reversionary interests in personal property or 
 estates. 
 
 WONDERS OF THE WORLD, the Sevew. 1. The pyramids of Egypt. 2. The 
 mausoleum or tomb built for Mausolus, king of Caria, by Artemisia, his queen. 
 3. The temple of Diana at Ephesus. 4. The walls and hanging-gardens of 
 the city of Babylon. 5. The vast brazen image of the sun at Rhodes, called 
 the Colossus. 6. The rich statue of Jupiter Olympus. 7. The pharos or 
 watch tower, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt. 
 
 WOOLSACK. The seat of the lord high chancellor of England in the house of 
 lords is so called from its being a large square bag of wool, without back or 
 arms, covered with red cloth. Wool was the staple commodity of England 
 in the reign of Edward III., when the woolsack first came into use. 
 
 WORKINGMEN'S COLLEGES, in England. The first was established in 
 Sheffield, by workingmen. The second in London, by the Rev. Professor 
 Frederic D. Maurice, as principal, in Oct. 1854; a third in Cambridge, and in 
 1855, a fourth in Oxford; all wholly for the working classes, and undertaking 
 to impai't such knowledge as each man feels he is in want of. The colleges 
 engage to find a teacher, wherever 10 or 12 members agree to form a class; 
 and also to have lectures given. They are highly successful, 
 
 WRECKS, (p. 602.) Arctic^ U. S. mail steamer, by collision in a fog with the 
 Ve^ita^ French steamer, off Newfoundland ; above 300 fives lost, Sept. 27, 
 1854. City of Fhiladelphia^ Liverpool to Philadelphia, Sept. 17, 1854. U. S. 
 sloop of war Albany, from Aspinvvall,. Sept. 28, 1854, never heard from. 
 City of Glasgoiv, steamer, with 480 persons on board, disappeared in 1854. 
 Pacific, Collins steamer, from Liverpool to New York, Jan. 23, 1856, dis- 
 appeared and never heard of. Joh^i Rutledge, from Liverpool to New York, 
 ran on an iceberg and was wrecked ; many lives lost, Feb. 20, 1856. Lyon- 
 nais, French steamer, New York to Havre, collision with bark Adriatic, 
 134 lives lost, Nov. 2, 1856. Austria, steamship, Hamburg to New York, 
 burnt in the middle of the Atlantic; of 538 persons on board, only sixty-seven 
 were saved, Sept. 13, 185-. Royal Charter, screw steamer, on the Anglesea 
 coast; 459 lives lost; the vessel contained gold amounting in value to £700,- 
 000, Oct. 26, 1859. Steamer Niagara, burned on lake Michigan ; 60 lives 
 lost, Sept. 24, 1856. Central America, steamer, Lieut. Herndon, Aspinwall 
 to New York, founders, 427 fives lost, and $2,000,000 in gold, Sppt. 8, 1857 
 Russian line of battle ship in tlie Baltic, founders, all on board, (825) lost^ 
 Sept. 1857. The total number of American sea-going vessels reported during 
 1859, as lost or missing was 402, valued at $5,599,000, being an increase over 
 the previous year of 114 vessels, and $1,128,000 in value. Of the whole num 
 ber, 8 were steamers, 84 ships, 48 barks, 64 brigs, and 198 schooners. 
 
SUPPLEMENT, 1851-67. 131 
 
 YACHT. The ancient tkalamegus or navis hisorice was a vessel for pleasure, 
 like the modern yacht. The English are very found of yachting. Their 
 yachts are cominoniy cuttoi'-rigged. and with one mast. Yachting has come 
 into vogue in the United States only since about 1830. The American yachts 
 are sloops or schooners. The yacht America modelled and built by the re- 
 markable genius George Steers, of New York (d. 1856, aged 35), beat all the 
 English yachts in a regatta at Cowes, Aug. 22, 1851. She was a schooner, 
 with her greatest breadth abaft the beam, and with "hollow lines" forward. 
 A yacht race from New York to Cowes, Isle of Wight, Dec, 1865, between 
 three New York yachts, Hetirieita, Festo, and Fleetwing ; Henrietta winner by 
 seven (?) hours. 
 
 YANKEE. The derivation of the word is generally accredited to the Indian 
 pronunciation of the word English, which they render Yengeese. In New York 
 it is applied to the New Englanders ; in the South to all Northerners ; and in 
 Europe to all Anglo-Americans. In a curious book on the Round Towers of 
 Ireland, published some years ago, the origin of the term Yankee Doodle, waa 
 said to have been traced to the Persian phrase Yanki douniah, or " Inhabi- 
 tants of the New World." Layard in his " Nineveh," also mentions Yankhi' 
 dunia as the Persian name of America. 
 
 YORKTOWN. This place was fortified by the rebels, and withstood the siege of 
 Gen. McClellan, from April 4 to May 5, 1862, when it was evacuated ; 71 spiked 
 guns were found in the works. 
 
 YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS. U. S. First one under this 
 name founded in Boston, Jan. 10, 1852 ; in N. Y. city, June 30, 1852. They 
 are now (1867) established in many of the principal cities. At a general con- 
 vention of Young Men's Christian Associations, at Montreal, in June, 1867, 
 215 associations in the United States and Canada were represented. 
 
 Z. 
 
 ZOLLVEREIN. {Customs' Union.) The name given to the German commerci.il 
 union, of which Prussia is the head. It began in 1818, and was gradually 
 joined by nearly all the German states, except Austria. On Feb. 19, 1853, an 
 important treaty of commerce and navigation, between Austria and Prussia to 
 last from Jan. 1854 till Dec. 1865, was signed, to which the other states of the 
 ZoUverein gave in their adhesion on April 5, 1853. 
 
 ZOUAVES AND Foot Chasseurs. When the French established a regency at 
 Algiers, they hoped to find the employment of native troops advantageous, and 
 selected Zooaouas, a congregation of Arab tribes, famous for daring and skilful 
 courage. In time numbers of red republicans, and other enthusiastic French- 
 men, joined the regiments, adopting the costume, &c., and eventually the 
 Africans disappeared from the ranks, and no more were added, they having 
 been frequently guilty of treachery. The French Zouaves formed an important 
 part of the army in the Crimean war, 1854-5. 
 
 ZURICH, (p. 608.) Conference of the representatives of Austria, France and 
 Sardinia, held at Zurich (after the truce of Villa Franca), August 8, 1859, and 
 continued several mouths. 
 
 ZUTPHEN, IN Holland. At a battle here in 1568, between the Spaniards and 
 the Dutch, the amiable Sir Phihp Sidney, author of the " Arcadia." was k-il.ed. 
 He was serving with the English auxiliaries, commanded by the earl of Lei- 
 cester. 
 
BUEEAU OF STATISTICS, U. S. TREASUKY DEPARTMENT. 
 
 [Fctf the following statistics we are indebted to tlie courtesy of Hon. Alexansicb Delxak 
 
 Director of the Bureau,] 
 
 CUSTOMS i)uTiES Received in 1866. 
 
 * During the Quarter ending March 31, 1866 $46,645,597.83 
 
 * » " June 30, " 46,175,132.33 
 
 * " ' " Sept. 30, " 50,843,774.24 
 
 •j- '« " Dec. 31, " 37,803,027.54 
 
 $181,467,531.94 
 * Official. t Commercial and Financial Chropicle, March SO, 1867. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1860, 
 
 1S61, 
 
 1862, 
 
 1863, 
 
 1364, 
 
 1865, $ 
 1865, 1 
 
 1866, \ 
 1866, 1 
 
 EXPORTS OF GOLD AND SILVER from New York during the year ending 
 June 30, 1867: 
 
 Domestic. Foreign. Total. 
 
 In Am. Vessels. In For. Vessels. In Am. Vessels. In For. Vessels. 
 
 G Statistics: 
 
 Tonnage of 
 
 THE United States. 
 
 
 Registered. 
 
 Enrolled and Licensed. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Sail. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Sail. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 Tonnaae. 
 
 2.448,941 
 
 97,296 
 
 2,036,990 
 
 770,641 
 
 5,353,868 
 
 2,540,020 
 
 102,608 
 
 2,122,589 
 
 774,596 
 
 5.539,813 
 
 2,177,253 
 
 113,998 
 
 2,224,449 
 
 596,465 
 
 5,112,165 
 
 1,892,899 
 
 133,215 
 
 2,660,212 
 
 439,755 
 
 5,126,081 
 
 1,475,376 
 
 106,519 
 
 2,650,690 
 
 853.816 
 
 4,986.401 
 
 old, 1,031,465 
 
 60,539 
 
 1,794,372 
 
 630,411 
 
 3,516,787 
 
 new, 482,110 
 
 28,469 
 
 730,695 
 
 b38,720 
 
 1,579,994 
 
 old, 341,619 
 
 42,776 
 
 443,635 
 
 114,269 
 
 942,299 
 
 new, 953,018 
 
 155,513 
 
 1,489,194 
 
 770,754 
 
 3,368,479 
 
 Gold Bullion,... 
 
 Gold Coin, 
 
 Silver Bullion,. 
 Silver Coin,.... 
 
 Total,. 
 
 298,854 
 
 1,500,041 
 
 706,081 
 
 248,978 
 
 2,753,954 
 
 8,425,227 
 
 15,800,152 
 
 8,186,837 
 
 1,581,753 
 
 33,993,969 
 
 none. 
 1,183,580 
 none. 
 307,181 
 
 none. 
 1,418,853 
 18,939 
 1,521,062 
 
 8,724,081 
 
 19,902,62e 
 
 8,911,857 
 
 3,658,974 
 
 1,490,761 
 
 2,958,854 41,197,538 
 
 COFFEE Statistics. Statement exhibiting the constimption of eofee in the 
 United States during the years ending December 31, 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, 
 1865, and 1866 : 
 
 Tear. Pounds. Year. Pounds. 
 
 109,087,000 
 128,146,000 
 159,915.840 
 
 1861, 
 
 187,046,000 
 
 1864, 
 
 1862, 
 
 88,990,000 
 
 1865, 
 
 1863, 
 
 79,720,000 
 
 1866, 
 
UNITED STATES TEEASURY STATISTICS. 
 
 133 
 
 See page 68, Reports of Revenue Commission^ 1865-66. The quaatitie3 given 
 for the first five years are substantially those named in the Annical Report of the 
 New York Chamber of Commerce for 1865-66. 
 
 The quantity for 1866 is taken from the Supplement to H. E. Moriug's Monthly 
 Coffee Circular^ 1867. 
 
 COTTON Statistics 
 
 Tear. 
 
 1860-61, 
 1861-«2, 
 1862-63, 
 1863-64, 
 1864-65, 
 1865-66, 
 1866-67, 
 
 The figures relative to production, except for 1866-67, were derived from 
 Noil Bros. & Co.'s Cotton Circular for October 16, 1866. The receipts at all 
 ports from September 1, 1866, to July 6, 1867, are given as 1,863,000 bales, and 
 the total exports for the same period as 1,463,000 bales. Messrs. Cornwall & 
 Zerega in their Circular give the receipts from September 1, 1866, to July 12, 
 1867, as 1,809,500 bales. 
 
 The number of pounds exported are taken from Table 19, page 849, Finance 
 Report^ 1866. The same table gives the exports for 1860-61, as only 307,528,- 
 489 pounds, or say 720,000 bales. The Rev. Com. (see Report, p. 74), gives the 
 exports for 1860-61, including stock on hand, as 2,812,346 bales. 
 
 IS. 
 
 Production. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 
 J oerage Price 
 
 
 Bales. 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Bales. 
 
 per pound. 
 
 
 3,656,086 
 
 
 8,126,622 
 
 17.42 cents. 
 
 est. 
 
 4,800,000 
 
 5,064,564 = say 
 
 12,000 
 
 42.15 " 
 
 est. 
 
 1.500,000 
 
 11,384,986 = say 
 
 26,000 
 
 71.08 '« 
 
 est. 
 
 '500,000 
 
 10,830,534 = say 
 
 25,000 
 
 $111.14 " 
 
 est. 
 
 300,000 
 
 6,607.186 = say 
 
 15,000 
 
 75.75 " 
 
 
 2,214,476 
 
 
 1,554,744 
 
 44. " 
 
 est. 
 
 1,900,000 
 
 est. 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 32.5 '« 
 
 TEA Statistics. Statement exhibiting the consumption of tea in the United 
 States during the years ending December 81, 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, 
 and 1866 : 
 
 Year. Qreen, Japan. Black. Total. 
 
 Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 
 
 1861, 7,485,000 18,035,000 25,520,00"! 
 
 1862, 13,871,600 13,597,000 27,468,600 
 
 1863, 14,490,680 12,415,685 26,906,365 
 
 1864, 13,564,295 9,573,251 23,137,546 
 
 1865, 18,874,199 10,979,234 29,853,433 
 
 1866, 29,643,187 
 
 See Reports of Revenue Coynmission^ 1865-66, pp. 53, 55. The above are 
 estimates made from data furnished the Commission by parties in the trade in 
 New York, except for 1866, which is taken from Messrs. Montgomery's Tea Cir- 
 cular. The Commission estimated the consumption for 1866 at 30,000,000 
 pounds. 
 
 The Pacific States are not included in the above, except for 1866, nor is any 
 allowance made for smuggling. The estimated consumption in 1860, was one 
 pound per capita. 
 
 OBAC( 
 
 '^0 Statistics. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Production. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 
 Average pries 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Leaf^ pounds. 
 
 Manufd, lis. 
 
 Total. 
 
 per lb.. Leaf 
 
 1861, 
 
 1862, 
 1863, 
 1864, 
 1865, 
 1866, 
 
 est. 200,000,000 
 136,736,596 
 276,850,870 
 197,460,229 
 185,316.953 
 
 est. 330,501,600 
 
 est. 160,000,000 
 est. 107,000,000 
 est. 112,000,000 
 est. 110,000,000 
 est. 149,000,000 
 190,826,248 
 
 14,783,363 
 4,071,963 
 7,025,248 
 8,586,494 
 7,294,165 
 6,515,709 
 
 174,783,363 
 111,071,963 
 119,025,248 
 118,586,494 
 156.294,165 
 197,341,957 
 
 9. cents. 
 11.9 " 
 14.9 '» 
 14.85 " 
 12.6 »« 
 13. » 
 
134 TUE WORLD'S PKOGKESS. 
 
 The production for 1862, 1863, 1864 and 1865 is given as found in the Ke^ 
 ports of the Department of Agriculture. The estimated production for 1866 is 
 taken from the Tobacco Circular of M. Rader & Son. 
 
 The quantities of leaf tobacco exported are estimated from the returns of 
 commerce and navigation for the years 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, and 1865. The 
 quantities of leaf for 1866, and of manufactured tobacco for each year specified, 
 are taken from the returns of commerce and navigation for those years. 
 
 In 1862, the production of only twenty-one States is given, Kentucky and 
 the disloyal States being omitted. In 1863, 1864, and 1865 Kentucky is included, 
 and in 1866 all the States. 
 
 IA.T Statistics. 
 
 
 
 
 Years. Production. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Av. Frice per bu 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Wheat, hushels. 
 
 Flour, bbls. 
 
 at Keys York. 
 
 1861, 
 
 1862, 189,993,500 
 
 1863, 191,068,239 
 
 1864, 171,695,823 
 
 1865, 159,522,827 
 
 1866, 151,999,906 
 
 31,238,057 
 37,289,572 
 36,160,414 
 23,681,712 
 9,937,152 
 6,579,103 
 
 4,323,756 
 4,882,033 
 4,390,055 
 3,557,347 
 2,604,542 
 2,183,050 
 
 $1,18 to $1.45 
 1.30 to 1.50 
 1.33 to 1.53 
 1.48 to 1.83 
 2.22 to 2.70 
 1.85 to 2.75 
 
 No returns of the production of 1861 are to be had, although inquiry was 
 made at the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 The figures relative to production in 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866 are 
 taken from the Monthly and Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture, 
 and embrace 22 States and Nebraska Territory, except 1866, which embraces 29 
 States and Nebraska Territory. There being no returns from Cahfornia In 1864 
 and 1865, the crop for each year is estimated at 11,000,000 bushels, v^hich ia 
 believed to be a low estimate, the crop for 1863 being 11,664,203 bushels, h 
 barrel of flour is considered as equal to 5 bushels of wheat. 
 
PAINTING. 135 
 
 PAINTING. Chro.:ological Table of the most celebrated Painters, arranged ia 
 Schools and Ages, from the revival of the art, 1600, to the commencement 9I 
 the Nineteenth Century. 
 
 {From BelVa Edition of Bredoxd's Tables of Universal History^ 
 
 1. Florentine School.— Style elevated and bold, seeking rather to be admired than to 
 please; sometimes gigantic; neglects coloring and grace— 1240, Cimabue; 1726, Giotto; 1211, 
 Andrea Tafla.; 1400, Massolino; 1402, Massacio; 1491, Filippo Lippi ; 1432, Andrea Verrochio, 
 Andrea Castagna, Pisanello; 1443, Ghirlandajo ; 1445, Leonakdo da Vinci; 1469, Bartoloinmeo 
 di San Marco; 1471, Baldassarre Per uzzi; 1474, Michael Angelo Buonarotti ; 1434, Dominico 
 Beccafami; 1488, Andrea del Sarto ; 1493. Jacopo Oarrucci da Ponturmo; 149', Del Ross^** 
 1500, Perino del Vaga; 1509, Daniel da Voltcrra; 1510. Francesco Salviati; 1510, Giorgio Vassari ; 
 1545, Antonio Tempesta; 1559, Luigi Cardi; 1563, Francesco Vanni; 15T8, Matteo Kosselli; 
 1596, Pietro Berretini, called Pietro da Cortona ; 1611, Pietro Testa ; 1615, Benvenuto da Garo- 
 foli ; 1616, Carlo Dolci; 1666, Benedetto Lutti; 1695, Giovan' Geronimo Servandoni; 17U2, 
 Pompeo Battoni. 
 
 2. EoMAN School carries invention and design to the highest perfection by the analytical 
 study of the antique and of nature; heads of the most sublime beauty; coloring and chiaro 
 oscuro less perfect. 1513, Bernardino Pinturichio ; 1446, Pietro Perrugino; 1483, Eaffr.el; 
 1488, G. F. Penni ; 1492, Giulio Romano ; 1528, Frederico Barocci; 1529, Taddeo Zucchero ; J543, 
 Frederico Zucchero ; 1589, Dominico Feti ; 1594, Nicholas Poussin ; 1597, Giovan' Lorenzo 
 Bernini; 1599, Andrea Sacchi ; 1600, Claude Gelee, called Claude of Lorraine; 1602, Cerioz?-\' 
 1605, G. B. Salvi, called II Sassoferrato ; 1613, Gaspard Doghet, called Poussin or Guaspro 
 J16I6, Luigi Scaramuccia; 1617, Francesco Romanell; 1623, Giacinto Brandi ; 1623, Filippo 
 Lauri ; 1625, Carlo Marattl ; 1634, Giro Ferri ; 1694, Pietro Bianchi ; 1728, Eaffael Mengs. 
 
 3. Venetian School. — Faithful imitation of well-chosen subjects of nature, excellent 
 coloring, admirable eifect ; design less perfect through the neglected study of the antique ; tins 
 school is now extinct. 1421, Gentile Bellini; 1431, Andrea Mantegna; 1478, Giorgione ; 1477, 
 Titian (Tiziano Vecelli da Cadore); 1480, G. A. Regillo ; 1485, Sebastiano del Piombo ; 1510, 
 Jacopo da Ponte; 1512, J. Eobusti, called II Tintoretto; 1522, Paolo Farinati; 1522, Andrei 
 Schiavone; 1528, Geronimo Muzziano; 1532, Paolo Cagliari; 1535, Giuseppe Ponta; 1539, Dario 
 Varotari; 1540, Felice Riccio ; 1540, Jacopo Palma (11 Vecchio); 1544, Jac Pahna; 1549, Giov. 
 Contarino; 1560, Maria Tintoretta; 1561, Leonardo Corona; 1586, Tiberio Tinelli; 1590, Aless. 
 Varotari; 1600, Aless. Turchi; 1635, Giov. B. Langetti; 1642, Andrea Pozzo ; 1656, Franc. 
 Trevisani; 1659, Sebast. Ricci ; 1666, Ant. Balestra; 1672, Rosa Alba Carriera : 1675. 
 Giov. Ant. Pellegrini; 1682, G. B. Piazztta; 1687, Ant. Canale ; 1693. Giov. Bati 
 Tiepolo ; 1699, Giuseppe Nogari. 
 
 4. LoMBAKD AND BoLOGNESE SCHOOLS. — Corrcggio, born in Lombardy, not having founded 
 a permanent School, but having been imitated by the painters of Bologna, these two Schools 
 are conjoined. Correggio's distinguished characteristics are a seducing and voluptuous (though 
 perhaps somewhat affected) grace in his figures and attitudes, and a magic harmony in his colo^*- 
 ing. Tibaldi and the Carracci introduce a more elevated character of design, and many of their 
 pupils unite therewith the fine coloring and the graces of Corrcggio. 1450, Francesco Franco ; 
 1490, F. Primaticcio; 1494, Corkeggio Antonio Allegri ; 1495, Po'lidori Caldari ; 1504, Fr. Maz- 
 zuoli; 1522, Pellegrino Tibaldi; 1546, Camillo Procaccini ; 1559, M. Angelo Amerigi, called Car- 
 rava2:gio; 1555, Lodov. Caracci; 1557, Agostino Caracci ; 1560, Annibale Caracci ;' 156it, Bartol. 
 Schidone; 1575, Guide Eeni, called Giiido; 1576, Lionello Spada; 1577, Aless. Tiarini; 157S, 
 Francesco Albano; 15S0, Giacomo Cavedcne; 1581, Dorn. Zamideri, called Domenichino ; l.oSl, 
 Giov. Lanfranco; 1588, Frances Gessi ; 1590, G. F. Barbieri ; 1597, Lodov. Lana ; 1600, Mic. Ang, 
 Colonna; 1606, Grimaldi; 1618, Giorg. And. Sivani ; 1612, Simone Canlarini; 1624, P.Fran. 
 Mola > 1628, Cignani ; 1638, P. F. Caroli ; 1643, Lodov. Quaini ; 1648, Ant. Franceschini : 1654, 
 Guis. del Sole; 1657, Fer. Galli Babiena; 16)5, Guis. Maria Crespi ; 1668, Dom. Maria Viani ; 
 1671, Donato Creti ; 1674, Giov. P. Zanotti ; 1691, G. P. Panini. 
 
 (Neapolitans, Genoese, Spaniards. These nations are not regarded as bavins: founded 
 general Schools; their painters are formed on the masters of the gi-eat Italian Schools." Neapol- 
 itan.— The painters of this nation are reproached with being in general somewhat affected. 
 Pietro and Tommaso Stefani, d. 1310 ; Fil del Tesauro, 1320; 1500,"and Sabbatani ; 1560, Guis 
 Cesare d'Arpino; I61JO, Aniello Falcone; 1603, Mario Nuzzi; 1613, Matteo Petri; 1615, Salvator 
 Rosa; 1631, Luca Giordana; 1657, Fran. Solimene; 1661, Nunzio Fcrajoli; 16T9, Sebast. Cone::, 
 1698, Carl Corrado. Genoese are ofter^ incorrect in design, — ^1400, Nich. da Vottri ; 1527, Cam- 
 biasi; 1544, G. B. Pag2;i; 1.557, Bern. Castelli ; 1581, Bernardo Strozzi ; 1590 Gio. Carlone; 1616, 
 Benedetto Castiglione; 1625, F. M. Borzoni ; 1639, G. B. Gauli; 1664, Greg. Ferrari ; 1654, Bart 
 Guidoboni; 1660, II Molinaretto ; Spaniards. — These painters have es[)ecially imitated the 
 Venetian School, and often display its brilliant coloring.— 1400, Alouso Berragente ; 1487, Blais* 
 
136 PAINTING. 
 
 dePn.^o; 1519, Morales; 1&2S, Luis de Vartras ; 1532, J. F. Ximenez de Navarete; 155^ PabU; 
 de las Eovias; 1589, Joseph Eibera; 1599, i)on Diego Velasquez de Silva; 16 il, Alonso Cirno,' 
 1610, Henrique de las Marinas; 1613, Bartolme Esteban deMurillo; 1017, Franc. Rizzi ; 1631, 
 Matias de Torres; 1G40, Pedro de Nunez; 1640, Juan <le Alfaro; 1651, Juan C. Falco ; 1663, P. 
 di Pietrl.) 
 
 5. GKR^rAN School. — This School having never liad a common point of union, bears no 
 general and distinctive character; it produces, in tlie diflFerent styles of painting, rival artists 
 to the great masters of Italy and of the Netherlands. 1297, Th. de Matina; 1857, Then, da 
 Prague; 1367, N. Wurmser; 1479, Albert Darer; 1492, Lucas Mnller: 1498, Hans Holbein; 
 1515, Lucas Cranach ; 1534, Tobias Stimmcr; 1550, Christ. Sohwartz ; 1.556, John Van Aachen: 
 1564, J. Eottenhammer; 1570, J. Lys; 1574, Adam Elzheimer; 1593, Sam. Plofmann ; 
 1600. J. W. Bauer; 1606, Jo. Sandrart; 1611, Ch. Lotli ; 1616, Govaert Flink ; 1618, P. Van de? 
 Faes; 1619, J. Spilberg: 1621, Leb. Stopkopt; 1625, J. Lingelback; 1631, J. Hen Rons : 
 1637, Jos. Warner; 1689, Gasp. Netscher; 1640, Ab. Mignon •1647, M. S. Merian; 1648. Godfrey 
 Kneller; 1666, G. P. Euggcndas; 1668, J. R. Huber: 1669, Anna Waser; 1685, Balthasar 
 Uenner ; 1689, Fr. P. Ferg: 1 698, J. E. Eiedenger ; 1709, Brinkman; 1712, C. W. E. Dietrich ; 
 
 1728, Eaffael Mengs; 1730, Solomon Gessner. 
 
 6. Flemish or Belgio School. — This School excels in coloring and in the faithful imi- 
 tation of nature, but does not always exhibit sufficient nobleness of design ; it produces 
 eminent artists in every st3'-le ; that to which Teniers has affixed his name had its birth in 
 this School; the Academy at Antwerp, the cradle of this School, was founded in 1510, but 
 there was a Society of Painters at Antwerp from the year 1442. — 1306, Eubert Van Eyk ; 
 1370, John Van Eyk; 1450, Quentin Messis ; 1490, Ber. V. Orley; 1499, J. de Mabiise ; 
 1553, Peter Knock; 1520, Frank Floris; 1534, Mar de Vos; 1536, J. Straden ; 1540, F. Por- 
 bus; 1546, B. Spranger; 1548, 0. Van Mander; 1550, H. Steenwvck; 1555, Denys Galvart; 
 1556, Otto Venius; 1569, P. Van Breughel: 1570, P. Neefs ; 1573, S. Frank; 1576, Fr. Sneydors; 
 1577, Peter Paul Eubens ; 1580, David Teniers; 1594, James Jordaens; 1599, Anthony Van 
 Dyk; 1602, Philip de Champagne; 1610, David Teniers; 1|618, J. Van Artois ; 1618, Gonzales 
 Coques; 1634, Van der Meulen; 1664, Simon Varelst ; 1668, G. P. Vanbruggen ; 1672, Ab. 
 Breughel ; 1742, Henry de Coort. 
 
 7. Dutch School. — This School is especially distinguished by an eminent intelligence 
 of the chiaro oscuro ; exhibits good coloring, and a faithful imitation of nature in the mi- 
 nutest details. The style of precious finishing is carried to the highest pitch in this Sclinol 
 1467, Erasmus; 1494, Luke of Leyden ; 1498, Martin Hemskerk ; 1518, An. Moro ; 1564, 
 Ab. Bloemart; 1579, Sol de Brey ; 1585, Cornelius Poelenbers ; 1596, Leo Bramer ; 1600, J. 
 D. de Heein; 1600, John Wynants; 1606, Albert Cuyp ; 1606, Paul Rembrandt van Ryn ; 
 1608, Gerard Terbra-g; 1610, Adrian Van Ostade ; 1613, Gerard Dow; 1615, Gabriel Met- 
 zu; 1620, Philip Woiivermans; 1624, Nicholas Bersham; 1625, Paul Potter; 1631, Ludolpli 
 Bakhytzen; 1633, W. Van der Velde; 1035, Jac. Euysdael, Hobbema; 1635, Fran, Mierirs; 1636, 
 John Steen ; 1637 ; Van den Heyden ; 1638, Adrian van der Velde ; 1640, Karel du Jardin ; 
 1664, John Weenix ; 1669, Adrian van der Werf ; 1682, John Van Huysum. 
 
 English Paintees. — Formed in general on the masters of the Flemish and Italian Schools ; 
 excel in portraits and landscapes, are unrivalled in water-colors. — 1480, Hans Holbein ; 1543. F. 
 Zucchero; 1572, Inigo Jones,; 1601, P. Oliver; ,1609, S. Cooper; 1610. W. Dobson : 1620. Eic. 
 Gibson; 1619, John Greenhill ; 1648,- Godfrey Kneller; 1660, Luke Cradock ; 1677, James 
 Thornhill; 1697, William Hogarth; 1714, Eich. Wilson; 1723. Joshua Reynolds; 1727, Thorn. 
 Gainsboroush ; 1733, Sawrey Gilpin; 1734, P. J. de Loutherbours ; 1735, David Allan; 1738, 
 Benjamin West; 1745, James Strutt; 1746, James Northcote; 1748, J. F. Nollekins; 1748, 
 Philip Eeinagle ; 1751. William Hamilton ; 1752, Wm. Beechey : 1755, Thorn. Stothard ; 1759, 
 Francis Bourgeois©; 1761, John Opie; 1764, Geo. Morland ; 1769, Thomas Lawrence; 1774. 
 Edward Bird ; 1776, John Constable ; 1786, Will. Hilton ; 1787, Geo. Hen. Harlow ; , Tho- 
 mas Daniell; 1785, David Wilkie; 1786, E. B. Haydon; , A. W. Calcott; 1789, W. Etty. 
 
 8. French School. — The good painters of this School are formed on the model of the diflFer- 
 ent Italian Schools, of which they bear the several characteristics ; they are in general more 
 successful in composition and design than in coloring. It is emancipated from the degradation 
 and aflfected style it assumed after the death of Le Brun by Vien, and become the most numer- 
 ous and flourishing school of all.— 1490, Fran. Primaticcio ; 1496, Eosso de Eossi ; 1502, J. Cousin : 
 1582, Simon Vouet ; 1594, Nicholas Pousin ; 1600, Claude Lorraine; 1600, Le Valentin; 1600,' 
 James Blanchard ; 1607, James Petitot; 1616, Sebastian Bourdon; 1617, Eustachius le Seur ; 
 1619, Charles le Brun; 1640, Charles de la Fosse; 1644, John Jouvenet; 1657, Joseph Vivien* 
 1667, Nicholas Bertin ; 1667, Anth. Rivally ; 1684, Ant Watteau ; 1688, Francis Le Moine; 1693 
 Noel N. Coypel; 1700, Chas. Natoire ; 1794, F. Bouchier; 1712, Joseph Vernet; 1716, Viest ' 
 
 1729, J. B. Deshays; 1756, J. L. David; 1758, Carle Vernet; 1567, A. L. Girodet. 
 
DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 CllIEFLY FROM Til AT OF JOSEPH HAYDN ; WITH REVISIONS AND ADDITlCVa. 
 
 ABBEYS AND MONASTERIES, were first founded in the third century, near 
 the close of which the sister of St. Anthony is said to have retired to one. 
 An abbey was founded by St. Anthony at Phaim in Upper Egypt, a. d. 805. 
 The first founded in France was at Poitiers^ in 360. The first in Ireland waa 
 in the fifth century : see Clogher, Elphin. Down. The first in Scotland was 
 in the sixth century : see Isles. And the first in Britain was in 560 : see 
 Bangor. The abbey of Mount Cassino, near Naples, founded by St. Benet 
 in 529, was esteemed the richest in the world, and furnished many thousands 
 of saints to the church. 110 monasteries and priories were suppressed in 
 i^ngland by order in council, 2 Henry V. 1414. — Salmon. The rcA^enues of 
 193 abbeys which were dissolved at the Reformation amounted to X2 653.000, 
 These foundations were totally suppressed throughout the realm, 31 Henry 
 VIII. 1539. See Monasteries. 
 
 ABDICATION of KINGS. They are numerous in ancient history. Those in 
 later times of most remarkable character and greatest political importance, 
 and to Mdiich reference may more frequently be made, are the following : — 
 
 Of Henry TV. of Germany, . . 1080 
 Of Stephen II. of Hungary, sumaraed 
 
 Thunder, 1114 
 
 1142 
 1200 
 };306 
 1306 
 1.309 
 1439 
 1441 
 1556 
 16.54 
 1669 
 1688 
 1704 
 1724 
 1730 
 
 Of Albert of Saxony, 
 
 Of Lestus V. of Poland, . 
 
 Of Tlladislaus III. of Poland, 
 
 Of Baliol of Scotland, . 
 
 Of Otho of Hunsjary, . 
 
 OfEric IX. of Denmark 
 
 Of Eric XIII. of Sweden, . 
 
 Of Charles V. Emperor, 
 
 Of Christina of Sweden, 
 
 Of .Tolin Casimir of Poland, . 
 
 Of .Tames II. of England, 
 
 Of Frederick Auaustus II. of Poland, 
 
 OfPhilipV. of Spain, . 
 
 Of Victor of Sardinia, . 
 
 Of Charles of Naplos, .... 1759 
 
 Of Stanislaus of Poland, . . . 1795 
 
 Of Victor of Sardinia, . . .Tune 4, 1802 
 
 Of Francis II. of Germany, who becomes 
 
 emperor of Austria only, . Aug. 11, 1804 
 Of Charles IV. of Spain, in favor of his 
 
 March 19, 1808 
 
 He again abdicates in favor of the Bo- 
 naparte family. See Spam. May 1, 1808 
 Of Joseph Bonaparte of Naples, to 
 
 take the crown of Spain, . .Tune 1, 1808 
 Of the same (by flying before the British 
 
 from Madrid), . . July 29, 180S 
 Of Louis of Holland, . . July 1, 1810 
 Of Jerome of Westphalia, . Oct. 20, 1813 
 Of Napoleon of France, . . April 5, 1814 
 Of Emanuel of Sardinia, . March 13, 1821 
 Of Pedro of Portuscal, . . May 2, 1820 
 Of Charles X. of France, . Aug. 2, 1830 
 Of Pedro of Brazil, . . April 7, 1831 
 
 Of Don .Miguel of Portugal (by leaving 
 
 the kingdom), . . . May 26, 1834 
 OfWilliam I. of Holland, . Oct. 8, 1810 
 Of Christina of Spain, queen dowager 
 
 and queen regent, . . Oct. 12, 1840 
 Of Louis Phillippe of France, Feb. 24, 18-18 
 Of Louis, king of Bavaria, . March 22, 1848 
 Of Ferdinand I. emperor of Austria, 
 
 Dec. 2, 1&18 
 Of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, 
 
 Aug. 1849 
 
 SO celebrated for its passion and 
 
 son, .... 
 ABELARD and HELOISE. Their amour 
 
 misfortunes, commenced at Paris, a. r. 1118, when HeloYse (a canon's daugh- 
 ter) was under 17 years of age. Abelard, after suffering an ignominious in- 
 jury, became a monk of the abbey of St. Denis, and died at St. Marcel, of 
 grief which never left his heart, in 1142. Helo/se begged his body, and had 
 
146 THE woe-ld's progress. [aca 
 
 it buried in tlie Paraclete^ of which she "was abbess, with the view of reposing 
 in death by his side. She Avas famous for her Latin letters, as well as love, 
 and died in 1163. The ashes of both were carried to the Museum of French 
 Monuments in 1800 ; and the museum having been subsequently broken u]), 
 they were finally removed to the burying-groimd of Pere La Chaise, in 1817. 
 
 ABORIGINES, the original inhabitants of Italy; or. as others have it, the nation 
 conducted Isy Saturn into Latium, founded by Janus, 1450 b. c. — Univ. IfiS' 
 tory. Their posterity was called Latiiii, from Latinus, One of their kings ; 
 and Rome was built in their country. They were called Aborigines, being 
 t.yOsqtoe origine, the primitive planters here after the flood. — SL Jerome. TL* 
 word signifies without origin, or whose origin is not known, and is generally 
 applied to any original inhabitants. 
 
 ABOUKIR, the ancient Canopus, the point of debarkation of the British expe- 
 dition to Egypt under general Abercromby. Aboukir surrendered to the 
 British, after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 18, 
 1801. The bay is famous for the defeat of the French fleet by Nelson, Au- 
 gust 1, 1798. See Nile. 
 
 ABRAHAM Er.4 of. Used by Eusebius; it began October 1, 2016 b. c. To 
 reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and three months. 
 
 ABSTINENCE. St. Anthony lived to the age of 105, on twelve ounces of bread, 
 and water. James the Hermit lived in the same manner to the age of 104. 
 St. Epipbanius lived thus to 115. Simeon, the Stylite, to 112 ; and Kenti- 
 gera, commonly called St. Mungo, lived by similar means to 185 years of 
 age. — Spottiswood. A man may live seven, or even eleven, days without 
 meat or drink. — Pliny Hist. Nat. lib. ii. Democritus subsisted for forty daya 
 by smelling honey and hot bread, 323 b. c. — Diog. Laert. A woman of Nor- 
 mandy lived for 18 years without food. — Petrns de Albano. Gilbert Jackson, 
 of Carse-grange, Scotland, lived three years without sustenance of any kind, 
 1719. A religious fanatic, who determined upon fasting forty days, died od 
 the sixteenth, 1789. — Phillips. A country girl, of Osnabruck, abstained four 
 years from all food and drink, - 1799. — Huf eland' s Practical Journal. Ann 
 Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, supposed to have been 
 an impostor, was said to have lived twenty months without food, Nov. 1808. 
 At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh was reported to have lived 
 two years without meat or drink; Aug. 1840; his imposture was afterwards 
 discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. See 
 instances in Haller's Elementce Physlologim ; Cornaro ; Prichefs Surgical 
 Library, &c. ; and in this volume, see Fasting. 
 
 ABSTINENTS. The abstinents were a sect that wholly abstained from wine, 
 flesh, and marriage; and were a community of harmless and mild ascetics. 
 They appeared in France and Spain in the third century ; and some autho- 
 rities mention such a sect as having been numerous elsewhere in a. d. 170. — 
 Bossuet. 
 
 A BYSSINIAN ERA. This era is reckoned from the period of the Creation, 
 which they place in the 5493d year before our era, on the 29th August, old 
 style ; and their dates consequently exceed ours by 5491 years and 125 days, 
 To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 5492 years and 
 125 days. 
 
 ACADEMIES, or societies of learned men to promote literature, sciences, and 
 the arts, are of early date. Academia was a shad}'' grove without the walls 
 of Athens (bequeathed to Hecademus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato 
 first taught philosophy, and his followers took the title of Academics 378 
 B. c. — Stanley. Ptolemy Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alex- 
 andria about 314 B. c. Theodosius the Younger and Dharlemagae are also 
 
4CH J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 147 
 
 named as founders. Italy has been celebrated for its academies ; and Jarckiua 
 mentions SoO of which 25 were in the city of Milan. The first philosophical 
 academy in France was established by Pere Mersenne, in 1135. Academies 
 were introduced into England by Boyle and Hobbes : and the Royal Society 
 of London was formed in 1660. The following are among the principal 
 academies : — 
 
 American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 
 1780. 
 
 American Philosophical Society, 1769. 
 
 Ancona, of the Caglmosi, 1G24. 
 
 Berlin, Royal Society, 1700; of Princes, 
 1703; Architecture, 1799. 
 
 Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1637; Mathematics, 
 1690; Sciences and Arts, 1712. 
 
 Brescia, of the Erranti, 1626. 
 
 Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682, 
 
 Brussels, Belles-Lettres, 1773. 
 
 Caen, Belles Lettres, 1750. 
 
 Copenhagen, Polite Arts, 1742, 
 
 Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. 
 
 Dublin, Arts, 1719 ; Science and Literature, 
 1786; Painting. Sculpture, &c., 1823. 
 
 Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1764. 
 
 Faenza, the Phiicponi, 1612. 
 
 Florence, Belles-Lettres, 1272 ; Delia Crus- 
 ca, 1582; Antiquities, 1807. 
 
 Geneva, Medical, 1715. 
 
 Genoa, Painting, &c., 1751 ; Sciences, 1783. 
 
 Germany, Medical, 1617 ; Natural Historv, 
 1652; Militaiy, 1752. 
 
 Haerlem, the Sciences, 1760. 
 
 Lisbon, History, 1720 ; Sciences, 1779. 
 
 London : its variotis Academies are de- 
 scribed through the volume. 
 
 Lyons, Sciences', 1 700 ; had Physic and Ma- 
 thematics added, 1758. 
 
 Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713; History, 
 1 7.30 ; Painting and the Arts, 1753. 
 
 Marseilles, Belles-Lettres, 17C6. 
 
 Milan, Architecture, 1380 ; Sciences, 171S. 
 
 Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759. 
 
 Naples, Rossana, 1540 ; Mathematics, 156Q ; 
 
 Sciences, 1695; Herculcmeum, 1755. 
 New York, Literature and Philosophy,i814.* 
 Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. 
 Padua, for Poetry, 1610'; Sciences, 1792. 
 Palermo, Medical, 1645. 
 Paris, Sorbunne, 1256 ; Painting, 1391 ; Mu- 
 sic, 1.543; French, 1635; Medals, 1663; 
 Architecture, 1671 ; Surgery, 1731 ; Mili- 
 tary, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796, 
 Parma, the Innominati, 1550. 
 Perousa, Insensali, 1561 ; Filirgiti, 1574. 
 Petersburgh, Sciences, 1725 ; Military, 1732 ; 
 
 the School of Arts, 1764. 
 Portsmouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806. 
 Rome, Umoristi, 1611; Fantascici, 1625; 
 Ivfecondi, 1653 ; Painting, 1665 ; Arcadi^ 
 1690 ; English, 1752. 
 Spain, Royal, 1713; Military, 1751. 
 Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles- Lettrea 
 
 1753 ; Agriculture, 1781. 
 Toulon, Military, 1682. 
 Turin, Sciences, 1759; Fine Arts, 1778, 
 Turkey, Military School, 1775. 
 Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. 
 Venice, Medical, &c., 1701. 
 Verona, Music, 1.543; Sciences, 1780. 
 Vienna. Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Sur- 
 gery,' 1783 ; Oriental, 1810. 
 Warsaw, Languages and History, 1753. 
 Woolvach, Military, 1741. 
 
 Manheim, Sculpture, 1775 
 
 Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704, 
 
 A.CCE]N"TS, The most ancient manuscripts are written without accents, and 
 without any separation of words ; nor was it until after the ninth century 
 that the copyists began to leave spaces between the words, Michaelis, after 
 Wetstein; ascribes the insertion of accents to Euthalius, bishop of Sulca, in 
 Egypt, A. D. 458; but his invention was followed up and improved upon by 
 other grammarians in the various languages, 
 
 A-CHATA, This country was governed by a race of kings, but even their names 
 are all forgotten. The capital, Achaia, was founded by Achseus, the son of 
 XuthuR, 1080 B. c. The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject to the 
 iEtolians until about 284 b. c. The Achsei were descendants of Achaeus, 
 and originally inhabited the neighborhood of Argos ; but when the Hera- 
 clida3 drove them thence, they retired among the lonians. expelled the na- 
 tives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. Peleni, ^gira, ^geum, Bura, Tri- 
 taea, Leontium, Rhypse, Ceraunia Olenos, Helice, Patrse, Dymse, and Phara3. 
 
 The Achffian league, . , e. c. 281 | Alliance with the Romans, . B. c. 2C1 
 
 Fortress of Atho.naeum built, . . 228 1 
 
 Defeat of the Achaeans by the Spartans, 
 
 and Lysiades killed, , . 226 
 
 Battle of Sallacia, , , .222 
 
 The Social war begun, , , 220 
 
 The Peloponnesus 1:avaged by the iEto- 
 
 iians, . . . , 219 
 
 Aratus poisoned at TEsrium. . , 215 
 
 Battle of Mantinea : Philonfiemen defeats 
 
 the Spartan tyrant Mechanidas, , 208 
 
 Philopcemen defeated by Nabis, in a na- 
 val battle, . , . , 
 
 Sparta joined to the league. 
 
 The Achaeans overrun Messenia with 
 fire and sword, 
 
 The Romans enter Achaia, 
 
 Metellits enters Greece, 
 
 The Achffian league dissolved, 
 
 Greece su^^jected to Rome, and named 
 the province of Achaia, , . 146 
 
 191 
 I^l 
 
 182 
 165 
 147 
 146 
 
 * Now extinct. 
 
148 THE world's niOGRESy. [ AD^ 
 
 The constitution of the United States of America bears some analogy to tJiai 
 of tlie Achaean league ; and the Swiss cantons also had a great resemblance 
 to it in their confederacy. 
 AC'OUSTICS. The doctrine of the different sounds of vibrating strings, an<l 
 the communication of sounds to the ear by the vibration of the atmosphere, 
 was probably first explained by Pythagoras, about 500 b. c. Mentioned by 
 Aristotle, 330 b. c. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by 
 Alexander the Great, 335 b. c. The discoveries of Galileo were made about 
 A. D. 1600. The velocity of sound was investigated by Newton before 1700. 
 Galileo's theorem of the harmonic curve was demonstrated by Dr. Brook 
 Ta5'^lor, in 1714 ; and farther perfected by D'Alembert, Euler, Bernoulli, and 
 La Grange, at various periods of the eighteenth century. See Sound. 
 
 ACRE, St. Jean d'. Taken by Richard I. and other crusaders in 1192. after a 
 siege of two .years, with the loss of 6 archbishoi)S, 12 bishops, 40 earls. 500 
 barons, and 300 000 soldiers. Retaken by the Saracens, when 60,000 rJhris- 
 tians perished, 1291. This capture was rendered memorable by the n.urder 
 of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to repress the lust of the Infidels. 
 Acre was attacked by Bonaparte in July 1798 ; and was relieved by Sir Syd- 
 nej^ Smith, who gallantly resisted twelve attempts during the memorable 
 siege by the French, between March and May 27, 1799, when, baffled by 
 the British squadron on the water and the Turks on shore. Bonaparte relin- 
 quished his object and retreated. St. .Jean d'Acre is a pachalic subject to 
 the Porte ; seized upon by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted, July 2, 1832. 
 It became a point of the Syrian war in 1840. Stormed by the British fleet 
 under Sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a few hours, 
 the Egyptians losing upwards of 2 000 in killed and wounded, and 3.000 
 prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 42 wounded, Nov. 3. 1840. 
 See Syria and Turkey. 
 
 '>CR0p6lIS of ATHENS. The citadel of Athens was built on a rock, and 
 accessible only on one side : Minerva had a temple at the bottom. — Pans, in 
 Attic. The roof of this vast pile, which had stood 2 000 years, was destroyed 
 in the Venetian siege, a. d. 1687. — Aspin. The Acropolis of Mycenae was 
 marked by terraces and defended by ponderous walls, on which were high 
 towers, each au the distance of fift}' feet. — Euripides. 
 ACTIUM, Battlk of, between the fleets of Octavianus Caesar on the one side, 
 and of Marc Antony and Cleopatra on the other, and which decided the fate 
 of Antony, 300 of his galleys going over to Caesar; fought Sept. 2, 31 b. c. 
 This battle made Augustus (the title afterwards conferred by the senate 
 upon Caesar) master of the world, and the commencement of the Roman 
 em})ire is commonly dated from this year. In honor of his victory, the con- 
 queror built the city of Nicopolis, and instituted the Actian games. — Blair. 
 
 ACTRESSES. Women in the drama ap])ear to have been unknown to the an- 
 cients ; men or eunuchs performing the female parts. Charles II. is said to 
 have first encouraged the public appearance of women on the stage in Eng- 
 land, in 1602 ; but the queen of James I. had previously performed in a the- 
 atre at court. — Thcat. Biog. 
 
 ACTS OF PARLIAMENT. The first promulgated, 16 John, 1215. See Par- 
 liament. For a great period of 3'ears the number of acts passed has been 
 Annually large, although varying considerably in every session. Between 
 the 4th and 10th of George IV. il26 acts were wholly repealed, and 443 
 repealed in part, chiefly arising out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr. 
 Peel (afterwards Sir Robert) : of these acts. 1344 related to the kingdom at 
 large and 225 to Ireland solely. 
 
 ADAillTES, a sect that imitated Adam's nakedness before the fall, arose a. d. 
 
ABM J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 149 
 
 130. They assembled quite naked in their places of worship, asserting that 
 if Adam had not sinned, there would have been no marriages. Their chief 
 was named Prodicns ; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and said it 
 was not necessary to confess Christ. — Eusebius. This sect, with an addition 
 of many blasphemies, and teaching from the text " increase and multiply,'-' 
 was renewed at Antwerp in the thirteenth century, under a chief named 
 Tandeme, who, being followed by 3 000 soldiers, violated females of every 
 age, calling their crimes by spiritual names. A Flandrian, named Picard, 
 again revived this sect in Bohemia, in the fifteenth century, whence thsy 
 spread into Poland and existed some time. — Bayle ; Pardon. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS. Successive administrations of the United States, sin 2€ 
 the formation of the goverinnent : — 
 
 First Administration ; — 1789 to 
 C-orge Washington, VirginiSj 
 
 John Adams, Massachusetts, 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, 
 Edmund Randolph, 
 Timothy Pickering, 
 Alexander Hamilton, 
 Oliver Wolcott, 
 Henry Knox, 
 Timothy Pickering, 
 James M'Henry, 
 Samuel Osgood, 
 Timothy Pickering, 
 Joseph Habersham, 
 Edmund Randolph, 
 William Bradford, 
 Cliarles Lee, 
 
 Vireinia, 
 
 do. 
 Pennsylvania, 
 New York, 
 Conneciicut, 
 Massachusetts, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Maryland, 
 Massachusetts, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Georgia, 
 Virginia, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 • Virginia, 
 
 1797 ;— S years. 
 
 April 30, 1789 
 
 do. 1789 
 
 Appointed. 
 
 Sept. 26, 1789 
 
 President. 
 Vice President. 
 
 2. 1794 } 
 lO; 1795 s 
 
 11, 1789 ( 
 
 3, 1795 ( 
 
 12, 1789 } 
 2, 1795 } 
 
 27, 1796 ) 
 Sept. 26, 1789 } 
 Nov. 7, 1791 } 
 Feb. 25, 1795 \ 
 Sept. 26, 1789 ) 
 Jan. 27, 1794 } 
 Dec. 10, 1795 S 
 
 Jan. 
 Dec. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Feb 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Secretaries of S ate. 
 
 Secretaries of the 
 Treasury. 
 
 Secretaries of War. 
 
 Post Masters Gen. 
 Attorneys General 
 
 Speakers nf the House of Representatives. 
 Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 1st Congress, 1789. 
 
 •Tonathan Trumbull, Connecticut, 2d do. 1791. 
 
 Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, 3d do. 1793. 
 
 Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, 4th do. 1795. 
 
 Second Administration;— 1797 to 1801 ; — 4 years. 
 
 John Adams, Massachusetts, March 4, 1797 President. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, 1797 Vice President. 
 
 Appointed. 
 
 Timothy Pickering, Pennsylvania, (^continued in office.) ? CpprPtarip« d Qtat- 
 
 John Marshall, ♦ Virginia, May 13, 1800 \ secretaries oi ^tata 
 
 Oliver Wolcott, Connecticut, {continued in office.) ? Secretaries of the 
 
 Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, Dec. 31, 1800 \ Treasury. 
 
 James M'Henry, Maryland, {continued in office.) \ 
 
 Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, May 13, 1800 v Secretaries of War. 
 
 Roger Griswold, Connecticut, Feb. 3, 1801 > 
 
 George Cabot.* Massachusetts, May 3, 1798 / Secre-nrieg yf the 
 
 Benjamin Stoddart, Maryland, May 21, 1798 \ Navy. 
 
 Joseph Habersham, Georgia, {continued in office.) Post Master Gen. 
 
 Charles Lee, Virginia, {continued in office.) Attorney General. 
 
 J onathan Dayton, 
 Theodore Sedgwick, 
 
 Speakers of the House of Representatives. 
 
 New Jersey, 5th Congress, 
 
 Massachusetts, 6th do. 
 
 -.797. 
 1799. 
 
 Third Administration;— 1801 to 1809 ;— 8 years. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, March 4, 1801 President. 
 
 Aaron Burr, New York, do. 1801 ) yr- p™^;^,..- 
 
 George Clinton, New York, do. ipo5 ^ ^^*^® *^^^^^"'''^*' 
 
 AppoinAed. 
 
 James Madison, Virginia, March 5, 1801 Seciotai-y of State, 
 
 Samuel Dexrer, Mass. {continued in office.) ? Secretaries of the 
 
 Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania, Jan. 26, 1802 \ Treasury. 
 
 Mr. Cabot declined the appointment. The JVavy Departynent was established ir 1798. 
 
150 
 
 THE WORLD S PE OGRESS. 
 
 [ AD3I 
 
 Henry Dearborn, 
 Benjamin Studdart, 
 Roben Sniiili,* 
 Josej'h Habeisbam, 
 Gideon Granger, 
 Levi Lincoln, 
 John Breckenridge, 
 Caesar A. Rodney, 
 
 Nathaniel Macon, 
 Joseph B. Vurnum, 
 Nathaniel Macon, 
 Joseph B. Varnum, 
 
 Robert Smith, 
 James iNIoiu'oe, 
 James iMonroe,t 
 Albert Gallatin, 
 George VV. Campbell, 
 Alexander J. Dallas, 
 William Eustis, 
 Joim Armstrong, 
 James Monroe, 
 William H. Crawford, 
 Paul Hamilton, 
 William Jones, 
 Beiij. VV. Crowninshield, 
 Gideon Granger, 
 Return J. Meigs, 
 Caesar A. Roilney, 
 William Pinkney, 
 Richa-d Rush, 
 
 Massachusetts, March 5, ) 801 Secretary of War. 
 
 Md. (continued \n office.) > Secretaries of the 
 
 Maryland, Jan. 26, U332 \ Navy. 
 
 Georgia, {continued in office.) ( Pc«t Masters Ge- 
 
 Connecticut .htn. 26, 1892 S neral, 
 
 Massachusetts, March 5, ISOl ) 
 
 Kentucky, Dec. 23, 18Uo V Attorneys Genfral 
 
 Delaware, Jan. 20, 1807 S 
 
 Speakers of the House of Representatives. 
 
 North Carolina, 7th Congress, 1801. 
 
 Massachusetts, 8th do. 1803. 
 
 North Carolina, 9th do. 1805. 
 
 Massachusetts, 10th do. ISO/. 
 
 1809 to 1817;— SyeoiB. 
 
 March 4, 1809 President. 
 New York, 1809, (died Apiil^, 1812) ? ^. p,.p^,,i.„., 
 Mass. 1813, (died Nor. 23, 1814) ^ ^^^® i-iesi^^ J. 
 
 Aj^pointed. 
 Maryland, March 6, 1809 
 
 Virginia, Nov. 25, 1811 
 
 Virginia, _ Feb. 25, 1815 
 
 Pennsylvania, (continued in office.) 
 Tennessee, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Massachusetts, 
 New York, 
 Virginia, 
 Georgia, 
 
 the 
 
 Fourth Administration; 
 James Madison, Virginia, 
 
 George Clinton, 
 Elbridge Gerry, 
 
 Secretaries of Stata 
 
 Secretaries of the 
 Treasury. 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Feb. 9. 1814 } 
 Oct. e; 1814 V 
 March 7, 1809 } 
 Jan. 13, J813f 
 Sept. 27, 1814 C 
 March 2, 1815 ) 
 
 ¥.t^■'=^.^'^^?^/ Secretaries c 
 
 Secretaries of War, 
 
 Navy. 
 
 Jan. 12, 1813 } ' 
 
 Dec. 19, 1814 ) 
 Connecticut, (continued in office.) ; Post Master? Ge- 
 
 Ohio, March 17, 1814 \ neral. 
 
 Delaware, (continued in office.) ) 
 
 Maryland, Dec. 11, 1811 > Attorneys General 
 
 Pennsylvania, Feb. 10, 1814 S 
 
 Joseph B. Vamum, 
 
 Henry Clay, 
 Henry Clay, 
 Langdon (Jheves, 
 Heniy Clay, 
 
 James Monroe, 
 Danic D. Tompkins, 
 
 1809. 
 
 1811. 
 ) 1812. 
 I 1814. 
 
 1815. 
 
 Vice President. 
 
 John Q,. Adams, 
 William H. Crawford, 
 Isaac Shelby ,t 
 Jt)hn C. Calhoun, 
 Benj. W. Crowninshield, 
 Smiih Thompson, 
 Samuel L. Southard, 
 Return J. Meigs, 
 John McLean, 
 Richard Rush, 
 William Wirt, 
 
 Speakers of the House of Representatives. 
 
 Massachusetts, 11th Congress, 
 
 Kentucky, 12th do. 
 
 Kentucky, ) ,q,u ,i„ 
 
 South Carolina, \ ^^^^ ^°- 
 
 Kentucky, 14ih do. 
 
 Fifth Administration ; — 1817 to 1825 ; —8 years. 
 
 Virginia, • March 4, 1817 President. 
 
 New York, do. 1817 
 
 Appointed. 
 
 Massachusetts, March 5, 1817 
 
 Georsria, March 5, 1817 
 
 Kentucky, March 5, 1817 } 
 
 South Ciirolina, Dec. 16, 1817 \ 
 
 Massachusetts, (continued in office.) J Opprptarip^; of th« 
 New York, Nov. ^0, isis ^ »^'='^®!^."^5 °* ^^^ 
 
 New .Jersey, Dec. 9, 1823 S ^ ■ 
 
 Ohio, (continued in office.) I PosT Masters Go- 
 
 do. Dec. 9, 1S23 \ neral. 
 
 Pennsylvania, (contiyiued in office.) 
 ■Virginia, Dec 
 
 Secretary of State. 
 Secretaiy of Treaa 
 
 Secretaries of Wal. 
 
 16^ 1817 ( -A-^'orn^ys GeneraJ 
 
 * Robert Smith was ap])oi ited Attorney General, and Jacob Crowninshield, of Massachusettft. 
 Seci9tary of the Navy, on the 2d of March, 1805, but they both declined these appointment ; and 
 T'It. S^iiith continued in the office of Secretary of the Navy, till the end of Mr. Jefferson's a>hav 
 Qi«tration. 
 
 t James Monroe was recommissioned, having for some time acted as Secrefary cf Wsr. 
 
 T Isaac Shelby declined the appointment. 
 
ADM ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 151 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS (United States) continued. 
 
 Speakers of the House of Representatives. 
 Ileniy Clay, Kentucky, 15th Congress, 
 
 Hem-yClay, ' Kentucky, ( ^g^j., ^^ 
 
 John W. Taylor, 
 Philip P. Barbour, 
 Henry Clay, 
 
 Kentucky, ^ 
 New York, ( 
 Virginia, 
 Kentucky, 
 
 17th 
 I8th 
 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 1817. 
 1819. 
 1820. 
 1821. 
 1823. 
 
 John Q,. Adams, 
 John C Calhoun, 
 
 Henry Clay, 
 Richard Rusli, 
 James Barbour, 
 Peter B. Porter, 
 Samuel L Southard, 
 John McLean, 
 William Wirt, 
 
 Sixth Administration; — 1825 to 1829; — 4 years. 
 
 John W. Taylor, 
 Andrew Stephenson, 
 
 Seventh 
 Andrew Jackson, 
 John C. Calhoun, 
 Martin Van Buren, 
 
 Martin Van Buren, 
 Edward Livingston, 
 Louis McLane, 
 John Forsyth, 
 Samuel D. Ingham, 
 Louis McLane, 
 William J. Duane, 
 Roser B. Taney, 
 Levi Woodbury, 
 John H. Eaton, 
 Lewis Cass, 
 John Branch, 
 Levi Woodbury, 
 Mahlon Dickerson, 
 William T. Barry, 
 Amos Kendall, 
 John McP. Berrien, 
 Roger B. Taney, 
 Benjamin F. Butler, 
 
 Massachusetts, March 4, 1825 President. 
 
 South Carolina, do. 1825 Vice President. 
 
 Appointed. 
 
 Kentucky, March 8,1825 Secretary of State. 
 
 Pennsylvania, March 7,1825 Sec'y oftheTieas'y 
 
 ^"■=*"^^' •^o- l^^-"^ i «?Pcrptarips of W »r 
 
 New York, May 26, 1828 \ »ecretaues ol V\ jr. 
 
 New Jersey, {continued m office.) Sec'y of the Navy. 
 
 Ohio, {continued in office.) Post Master Gen 
 
 Virginia, {continued in office.) Attorney Genera'. 
 
 Speakers of the House of Representatives. 
 
 New York, 19th Congress, 1827. 
 
 Virginia, 2Gth do. 1828. 
 
 Administration ; — 1829 
 Tennessee, 
 South Carolina, 
 New York, 
 
 New York, 
 
 Louisiana. 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 Nev^ Hampshire, 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 New York, 
 
 to 1837 ;— 8 years. 
 March 4, 1829 President. 
 *^^' }§| } Vice Presidents, 
 
 Appointed. 
 March 6, 1829^ 
 
 1833 '■ Secretaries of State. 
 
 183:' 
 
 March 6, 1829' 
 
 , Qoo I Secretaries of the 
 }g^ f Treasury. 
 
 1834 J 
 March 9, 1829 
 
 1&31 
 
 Secretaries of War. 
 
 March %f^l^^^,^,^^^^^oix\ve 
 
 Issi^ Navy. 
 
 March 9, 1829 } Post Masters Ge- 
 
 1835 S neral. 
 
 March 9, 1829 i 
 
 1831 > Attorneys General 
 
 1834 S 
 
 Speakers of the House of Representatives. 
 
 Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, 21st Congress, 1829. 
 
 Andrew Stevenson, Virginia, 22d do. 1831. 
 
 John Bell, Pennsylvania, 1835 
 
 Eighth Administration ;— 1837 to 1841 — 4 years. 
 
 M.irtin Van Buren, 
 Richard M. Johnson, 
 
 John Forsyth, 
 Levi Woodbury, 
 Joe! R. 1 oinsett, 
 Mrdi'on Dickerson, 
 Jinijs K. Paulding, 
 Amos Kendall, 
 John ^T. Niles, 
 Benjamin F Butler, 
 Felix Grundy, 
 Henry D. Gilpin, 
 
 James K. Polk, 
 Robert M. T. Hunter, 
 
 New York, 1837 
 
 Kentucky, 1837 
 
 Appointed. 
 Georgia, {continued in office.) 
 New Hampshire, {continued in office.) 
 South Carolina, 1837 i 
 
 New Jersey, {continued in office.) > 
 
 New York, 1838 S 
 
 Kentucky, {continued in office.) ) 
 
 Connecticut, 1840 ^ 
 
 New York, {continued in office.) ) 
 
 Pennsylvania, > 
 
 Penasylvania, 1839 \ 
 
 Speakers of tiic House of Representatives. 
 Tennessee, 
 Virginia, 
 
 I'reEident. 
 Vice President. 
 
 Secretary of State. 
 Sec'y of Treasuiy, 
 
 Secretaries of War 
 
 Post Masters Ge- 
 )ieral. 
 
 Atton.eys Genera?, 
 
 1837. 
 1839. 
 
152 
 
 THE WORLD S TROGRESS 
 
 [ads, 
 
 AJ)M1NISTRATI0NS (United States) continued. 
 
 Ninth ADAtiNisxRATiON; — 1841 to 1845;— 4 years. 
 
 William II. Harrison, 
 Died one month aftC' 
 
 Jolm Tyler, 
 
 Samuel L. Southard, 
 Willie P. Mangum, 
 
 Ohio, 
 inauguration, and 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 New Jersey, ■ 
 North Carolina, 
 
 1841 Presidttt. 
 
 Daniel Webster, 
 Abel P. Upshiir, 
 Thomas Ewing, 
 Walter Forward, 
 John C. Spencer, 
 John Bell, 
 John C. Spencer, 
 George E. Badger, 
 Abel P. Upshur, 
 David Henshaw, 
 Francis Granger, 
 Charles A. Wickliffe 
 John J. Crittenden, 
 Hugh S. Legare, 
 John Nelson, 
 
 John White, 
 John W, Jones, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 New York, 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 New York, 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 New York, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 Speakers of the House of Reepresentatives. 
 Kentucky, 
 Virginia, 
 
 1841 
 
 1841 
 1841 
 Apijointed. 
 
 1341 
 1841 
 1841 
 1841 
 1841 
 1841 
 1841 
 1841 
 1841 
 1841 
 1841 
 1841 
 1841 
 1841 
 1841 
 
 Vice Piesi lont, 
 became ac ing Pres. 
 ' Acting V. Pres. and 
 i Pres. Senate. 
 
 ■ Secretaries of Stat*. 
 
 Secretaries of 11:5 
 Iieasuiy. 
 
 Secretaries of War. 
 
 Secretaries of the 
 Navy. 
 
 Post Masters Gen 
 era I. 
 
 Attorneys General, 
 
 1841 
 1843 
 
 Tenth Administration ; —1845 to 1849 ; — 4 years. 
 
 James K. Polk, 
 George M. Dallas, 
 
 James Buchanan, 
 Robert J. Walker, 
 William L. Marcy, 
 George Bancroft, 
 John^Y. Mason, 
 Cave Johnson, 
 John Y. Mason, 
 Isaac Toucey, 
 
 Tennessee, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 John W. Davis, 
 
 Robert C. Winthrop, 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 Mississippi, 
 
 New York, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 Temiessee, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 Speakers of the House of Representatives. 
 Indiana, 
 
 1845 
 Appointed. 
 
 1S45 
 1845 
 1845 
 1845 
 1847 
 1845 
 1845 
 1.847 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Zachary Taylor, 
 Millard Fillmore, 
 
 John M. Clayton, 
 William E Meredith, 
 William B Preston, 
 George W. Crawford, 
 Thoinas Ewing, 
 Jacob Col lame:", 
 Reverdy Johnson, 
 
 Howell Cobb, 
 
 Eleventh Administration ;— 1849 to 1853 ; — 4 y; 
 
 Louisiana,, 
 New Y^ork,' 
 
 President. 
 Vice President. 
 
 Secretary of State. 
 
 Secretary of Treaa.' 
 
 Secretary of War. 
 } Secretaries of the 
 ^ Navy. 
 
 Post Master Gen. 
 
 > Attorneys General. 
 
 1845. 
 1847. 
 
 ;ars. 
 
 President. 
 Vice President, 
 
 Secretary of State. 
 Sec'y of Treasury. 
 Sec'y of the Navy. 
 Secretary of War. 
 Sec'y of Interior.* 
 Post Master Gen. 
 Attorney General. 
 
 1849. 
 
 ADMINISTRATIONS of ENGLAND, and of GREAT BRITAIN, from tli8 
 accession of Henry VIII. The following were the prime ministers, or favor- 
 ites, or chiefs of administrations^ in the respective reigns, viz. : — 
 
 KING henry VIII. I Sir Thomas More and Cranmer . .'SGS 
 
 Bishop Fisher and Earl of Surrey . 1509 Lord Audley, chancellor; archbishop 
 Cardinal Thomas Wolsey . . 1513 ! Cranmer . . . .532 
 
 * A new department, created by act of Congress, 1849. 
 .blcte. The dates of the appointments of the principal executive officers, in th<? several adminis- 
 Vn I ions, above exhibited, are the times when the several nominations, made by the PresideutSj 
 were CO ifirmed by the Senate, as staled in the " Journal of the Executive Proceedings of the Seoatfi 
 i)i the I'nited States." Am. Ali.ianac, 6cc. 
 
 Delaware, 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Virginia, 
 Georgia, 
 Ohio, 
 Vermont, 
 Maryland, 
 
 Speaker of the House of Representatives. 
 Georgia, 
 
 1849 
 1849 
 Appointed. 
 
 1849 
 1849 
 1849 
 1.819 
 1849 
 1849 
 1849 
 
A DAI J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 153 
 
 Anc* nrd Cron.well (earl of Essex) . 1534 
 Duice of Norfolk, carl of Surrey, and 
 
 bishop Gardiner . . . 1540 
 
 Lord VVriuuiesley, earl of Hertford . 1544 
 
 KTNG EDWARD VI. 
 
 The earl of Hertford, co7itinup.d 
 
 John., duke of Norilnimberlaad . 1552 
 
 QUEEN MARY. 
 
 Bishop Gardiner . . . 1553 
 
 Q.UEEN ELIZABETH. 
 
 Sir Nicholas Bacon . . . 1558 
 
 Sir William Cecil, afterwards lord 
 Burleigh; chief minister during al- 
 most the whole of this long reign 
 Earl of Leicester, a favorite . . 1.564 
 
 Earl of Essex .... 1538 
 Lord Burkhurst . . . 1601 
 
 KING JAMES. I. 
 
 Lord Burkhurst (ear! of Dorset) 
 
 Earls of Salisbury, Suffolk, and North' 
 ampton. 
 
 Sir R. Carr, created viscount Roches- 
 ter, a*''eru-ards earl of Somerset 
 
 Sir Ge^/rge Villiers, created earl, mar 
 ourtss, and duke of Buckingham 
 
 1608 
 1612 
 
 1615 
 
 KING CHARLES I. 
 
 Duke of Buckingham continued 
 
 Earl of Portland, archbishop Laud . 1628 
 
 Archbishop Laud, earl of Strafford, 
 
 lord Cottington . . . 1640 
 
 Earl of Essex .... 1640 
 Lord \ is. Falkland, lord Digby . 1641 
 
 [The civil war commenced, and all 
 
 went into confusion.] 
 
 KING CHARLES II. 
 
 Edward, earl of Clarendon 
 
 Dukes of Buckingham and Lauderdale 
 
 Lord Ashley, Lol'd Arlington, Sir T. 
 Clifford, afterwards lord Clifford . 
 
 Lord Arlington, lord Ashley, created 
 earl Shaftesbury, and Sir Thomas 
 Osborne .... 
 
 Sir Thomas Osborne 
 
 Earl of Essex, duke of Ormond, earl 
 qftericards marquess of Halifax, sir 
 William Temple . . 
 
 Duke of York, and his friends 
 
 1660 
 
 1667 
 
 1667 
 
 1673 
 1674 
 
 1677 
 
 1682 
 
 KING JAMES II, 
 
 Earls of Sunderland and Tyrconnel, 
 sir George afterwards lord .Jeffries 1685 
 
 Lord .Teffiies, earl of Tyrconnel, lord 
 Bellasis, lord Arundel, earl of Mid- 
 dleton, visct. Preston . . 1687 
 
 KING WILLIAM III. AND atlEEN MARY II. 
 
 Sir .John, afterivards lord Somers, lord 
 Godolphin, earl of Danby, cfier- 
 wards duke of Leeds, &c. . . 16S8 
 
 The earl of Sunderland, .&c. . . 1695 
 
 Charles Montagu, afterwards earl of 
 Halifax, ear! of Pembroke, viscount 
 Lonsdale, earl of Oxford, «fee. . 1697 
 
 aUESN ANNE. 
 
 lord Godolphin, R. Harley, esq., lord 
 Pen)broke, duke of Buckingham 
 
 7* 
 
 Duke of Marlborough, &c. . . 17(>i) 
 
 Lord Godolphin, lord Cowper, diikcs 
 
 of Marlborough and Newcastle . 1707 
 
 R. Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford 171''' 
 
 Earl of Rochester, Jord Dartmouth, 
 
 and Henry St. John, esq. afterwards 
 
 visct. Bolingbroke ; lord Harcourt . 17lt 
 
 Charles, duke ol' Shrewsbury, &c. . 17 U 
 
 KING GEORGE I. 
 
 Lord Cowper, duke of Shrewsbury, 
 marquess of Wharton, earl of Or- 
 ford, duke of Marluoroush. visct. 
 Townsiiend, <fec. . . . JtXi 
 
 Robert Walpole, esq. . . . 171? 
 
 James, a/"i!e?zi'«?-<^s earl Stanhope . 1715 
 Charles, earl of Sunderla,nd, &c. . ^.716 
 Robert Walpole, esq. afterwards sir 
 Robert and earl of Orford . . 17?1 
 
 KING GEORGE II. 
 
 Lord Carteret, lord Wilmingtt. i, lord 
 Bath, Mr. Sandys, <fec. . . 174^4: 
 
 Hon. Henry Pelham, lord Carteret, earl 
 of Harrington, duke of Newcastle . 1743 
 
 Mr. Pelham, earl ol' Chesterfield, duke 
 of Bedford, &c. . . . 174(i 
 
 Duke of Newcastle, Sir Thomas Rob- 
 inson, Henry Fox, <fec., lord Anson 1754 
 
 Duke of Devonshire, Mr. William Pitt, 
 earl Temple, Hon. H. B. Legge . 1756 
 
 [Dismissed in April, 1757. Restored in 
 June, same year.] 
 
 William Pitt, Mr. Legge, earl Temple, 
 duke of Newcastle, ifcc. . . 1757 
 
 KING GEORGE III. 
 
 Earl of Bute, earl of Egremont, duke 
 of Bedford .... 1761 
 
 Earl of Bute. hon. George Grenville, 
 sir Francis Dashwood, &c. . '. 1762 
 
 Right hon. George Grenville, earl of 
 Halifax, earl of Sandwich, duke of 
 Bedford, <fec 1763 
 
 Marquess of Rockingham, duke of 
 Grafton, earl of Shelburne, &c. July 1765 
 
 Duice of Grafion, hon. Chas. Towns- 
 hend, earl of ( 'hatham, &c. Aug. 1766 
 
 Duke of Grafton, right hon. Frederick, 
 lord North, <kc. . . Dec. 1767 
 
 Lord North, lord Halifax, «fec. . . 1770 
 
 Lord North, lord Dartmouth, lord Stor- 
 mont, lord Hillsborough, lord St. 
 Germain, &c. .... l?rJ 
 
 Marquess of Rockin£ham,right hon'ble 
 Charles James Fox, &c. Mar. 30, 1782 
 
 Earl of Shelburne, William Pitt, lord 
 Grantham, &c. . July 10, 17J?J 
 
 Duke of Portland, lord N orth, Mr. Fox, 
 &c. (The Coalition ML'iisrry. See 
 '•'■ CoaJition.") . April 5, 3733 
 
 Rt. hon. William Pitt, lord Gower, 
 lords Sidney, Carmarthen, and Thur- 
 low, right hon. W. W. Grenville, 
 Henry Dundas, lord Mulgrave, duke 
 of Richmond, &c. . Dec. 2?', l?8r 
 
 Mr. Pitt, lord Camden, marq. of Staf- 
 ford, lord Hawkesbury, &c. . , 178*^ 
 
 Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, duke of Leeds, 
 lord Camden. &c. . . . 1790 
 
 Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, earl of Chat- 
 ham, lord LougliboroLigh. &c. . 179^ 
 
IS74 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 ADE 
 
 Henry Hardinge, <fec., (Mr. IJuskis 
 son,visc Palmerston, Mr. Grant, ear! 
 of Dudley, &c. retiring) May W, 1823 
 
 KING WILLIAM iV, 
 
 Duke of Wellington and his cabinet 
 continued. 
 
 Eai'l Grey, viscounts Althorpe, Mel- 
 bourne, Goderich, and Palmerston, 
 marquess of Lansdowne, lord Hol- 
 land, lord Auckland, sir James Gra- 
 ham, &c. . . Nov. 22, J 330 
 
 [Earl Grey resisns May 9, but resumes 
 office May 18,' 1832.] 
 
 Viscount Melbourne, viscount Althorp, 
 lord John Russel, viscts. Palmerston 
 and Duncannon, sir J. C. Hobhouse, 
 loid Howie k. Mr. S. Rice, Mr. Pou- 
 leit Thomson, <fec. . July 14, 181^ 
 
 Viscount Melbournt's administration 
 fJ'" .wSJ. i;ie duke of Wellington 
 .unes the helm of state provisionally, 
 waiting the return of sir Robert Peel 
 from Italy . . Nov. 14, 1834 
 
 Sir Robert Peel, duke of Wellington, 
 lord Lyndhurst, earl of Aberdeen, 
 lord EUenborough, lord Rosslyn, 
 lord Wharncliffe, sir George Murray, 
 Mr. A. Baring, Mr. Berries, Mr. 
 Goviiburn, &c. . I>ec. 15, 1831 
 
 Viscount Melbourne and his colleagues 
 return to office . April 18, 1833 
 
 dUEEN VICTORIA. 
 
 Visct. Melbourne and the same cabi- 
 net, conlinued. 
 
 Viscount Melbourne resigns May 7, 1839 
 
 Sir Robert Peel receives the queen's 
 commands to form a new adminis- 
 tration, May 8. 
 
 This command is withdrawn, and lord 
 Melbourne and his friends are rein- 
 stated . . . May 10, 18S^ 
 
 Sir Robert Peel, duke of Wellington, 
 earl of Aberdeen, earl of Hadding- 
 ton, earl of Ripon, lord Stanley, Mr. 
 Goulbum, &c. . Aug. 7, 1841 
 
 Lord John Russell's administration 
 
 July 6, 1846 
 
 AD]M1RAL. The first so called in England was Richard de Lucy, appointed 
 by Henry ITI. 1223. Alfred. Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings, had 
 been previously the commanders of their own fleets. The first was appointed 
 in France, in 1284. The rank of admiral of the English seas was one of 
 great distinction, and was first given to William de Leybourne by Edward T. 
 in 1297. — Spelman; Ri/nicr. 
 
 A DMIRAL LORD HIGH, of ENGLAND. The first officer of this rank waa 
 created by Richard II. in December 1385 ; there had been previously high 
 admirals of districts — the north, west, and south. See Navy. 
 
 ADMIRALTY. Court of, erected by Edward III. in 1357. This is a civil court 
 for the trial of causes relating to maritime affairs. 
 
 ADRIANOPLE, Battle of, which got Constantine the empire, was fought July 
 3. A .D. 323. Adrii nople was taken by the Ottomans from the Greeks in 1B60 -, 
 and it continued to be the seat of the Turkish empire till the caf)tnre of 
 Constantinople in 1453. Mahomet II., one of the most distinguished of the 
 sultans, and the ane who took Constantinople, was born here in 1480.— 
 
 Mr. Pitt, iuke of Portland, lord Gren- 
 ville, Mr. Dundas, &c. . . 1795 
 
 Mr. Pitt, earl of Westmorland, earl 
 of Chatham, lord Grenville, &c. . 1798 
 
 Right hon. Henry Addington, duke of 
 Portland, lord Hawkesbury, lord Ho- 
 bart, lord Eldon, &c. . Mar. 17, 1801 
 
 Mr. Pitt, lord Melvillj, rt. hon. George 
 Canning, lord Ilarrowby, lord West- 
 morland, duke of Portland, Mr. Dun- 
 das, &c. . . May 12, 1804 
 
 Lord Grenville, lord Henry Petty, earl 
 Spencer, rt. hon. William Wind- 
 ham, Mr. Fox, lord Erskine, rt. hon. 
 Charles Grey, lord Sidmouth, &c. 
 (See ''AU the Talents.") Feb. 5, 1806 
 
 Duke of Portland, Mr. Canning, lord 
 Hawkesbury, earl Camden, right 
 hon. Spencer Perceval, &c. Mar. 25, 1807 
 
 Duke of Portland, earl Bathurst, lord 
 vicount Castlereagh, lord Granville 
 Gower, <fec 1808 
 
 Mr. Perceval, earl of Liverpool, mar- 
 quess Welleslev, viscount Palmers- 
 ton, Mr. Ryder," &c. . . Oct. 1809 
 
 BEGENCY OF GEORGE, PHINCE OP WALES, 
 
 Mr. Perceval, the earl of Liverpool, 
 
 &c. continued. 
 Earl of Liverpool, Earl Bathurst, visct. 
 
 Sidmouth, viscount Castlereagh, Mr. 
 
 Ryder, earl of Harrowby, right hon. 
 
 Nich. Vansittart, &c. "June 8, 1812 
 
 KING GEORGE IV. 
 
 Earl of Liverpool, viscount Sidmouth, 
 Mr. Vansittart, &c. continued. 
 
 Rt. hon. George Canning, lord viscount 
 Goderich, lord Lyndhurst, Mr. Stur- 
 ges Bourne, «fcc. . April 10, 1S27 
 
 Viscount Goderich, duke of Portland, 
 right hon. William Huskisson, Mr. 
 Herries, &c. . . August 11, 1827 
 
 Dukeof Wellington, right hon. Robert 
 Peel, earl of Dudley, viscount Mel- 
 ville, earl of Aberdeen, Mr. Goul- 
 bum, Mr. Herries, Mr. Grant, &c. 
 
 January 25, 1828 
 
 Duke of Wellington, earl of Aberdeen, ■ 
 sir George Mtifrray, lord Lowther, sir 
 
iDV J Di ;tionary of dates. 155 
 
 Priestley. Adrianople was taken by the Prussians, Aug. 20, 1829 ; but was 
 restored to the sultan at the close of the war, Sept. 14, same year. See Turkey. 
 
 A.I)jKJATIC. The ceremony of the doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic Sea 
 was instituted in a.d. 1173. Annually, upon Ascension-day, the doge married 
 the Adriaticum Mare, by dropping a ring into it from his bucentaur, or stale 
 barge, and was attended on these occasions by all the nobility of the state, 
 and foreign ambassadors, in gondolas. This ceremony was intermitted, f(.)r 
 the first time for centuries, in 1797. 
 
 ADULTEEY, ancient laws against it. Punished by the law of Moses with 
 the death of both the guilty man and woman. — Leviticus xx 10. This law 
 was repealed, first, because the crime had become common ; and secondly, 
 because God's name should not be liable to be too often erased by the ordeal 
 of the waters of bitterness. Leo, of Modena, says that the husband was obliged 
 to dismiss his wife for ever, whether he willed it or not. — Calviet. Lycurgus 
 punished the offender as he did a parricide, and the Locrians and Spartans 
 tore out the offenders' eyes. The Romans had no formal law against adultery ; 
 the emperor Augustus was the first to introduce a positive law to punish it, 
 and he had the misfortune to see it executed in the persons of his own chil- 
 dren. — Lenglet. Socrates relates that women who were guilty of adultery 
 were punished by the horrible sentence of public constupration. In England 
 the legal redress against the male offender has been refined into a civil 
 action for a money compensation. — Lord Mansfield. 
 
 A.DULTERY, English Laws against it. The early Saxons burnt the adulteress, 
 and erected a gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer. — 
 Pardon. King Edmund punished the crime as homicide. It was punished 
 by cutting off the hair, stripping the female offender naked, and whipping 
 her through the streets, if the husband so demanded it to be done, withoui 
 distinction of rank, during the Saxon Heptarchy, a.d. 457 to 828. — SUrwe. 
 The ears and nose were cut off under Canute, 1031. Ordained to be punished 
 capitally, together with incest, under Cromwell, May 14, 1650 ; but there is 
 no record of this law taking effect. In New England a law was ordained 
 whereby adultery was made capital to both parties, even though the man 
 were unmarried, and several suffered under it, 1662. — Hardie. At present 
 this offence is more favorably viewed ; to divorce and strip the adulteress 
 of her dower, is all her punishment among us ; but in Romish countries they 
 usually shut up the adulteress in a nunnery. — Ashe. 
 
 ADVENT. In the calendar it signifies, properly, the approach of the feast of 
 the Nativity ; it includes four Sundays, the first of which is always the nearest 
 Sunday to Saint Andrew (the 30th November), before or after. Advent was 
 instituted by the council of Tours, in the sixth century. 
 
 ADVENTURERS, MERCHANT, a celebrated and enterprising company of 
 merchants, was originally formed for the discovery of territories, extension 
 of commerce and promotion of trade, by John duke of Brabant, in 1296. 
 This ancient company was afterwards translated into England, in the reign 
 of Edward III., and queen Elizabeth formed it into an English corporation 
 in 1564. — Anderson. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENTS in NEWSPAPERS. In England, as now published, they 
 were not general until the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penally 
 of 50Z. was inflicted on persons advertising a reward with "No questions to 
 be asked" for the return of things stolen, and on the printer, 25 Geo. II. 1754. 
 — Statutes. The advertisement duty w^as formerly charged according to the 
 number of lines ; it was afterwards fixed, in England at 35. 6fZ., and in Ireland 
 at 25. 6^. each ad'Jertisement. The duty was further reduced, in England 
 to Is. 6rf., and in Ireland to Is. each, by statute 3 and 4 Will. IV. 1833 ' 
 
156 THE world's progress. r aff 
 
 ^DILES. magistrates of Rome, first created 492 b.c. There wenj three degrees 
 of these otticers, and the functions of the principal were similar to our justices 
 of the peace. The plebeian aidiles prc_sided over the more minute affairs of 
 the state, good order, and the reparation of the streets. They procured all 
 the provisions of the city, and executed the decrees of the people. — Varro. 
 
 iENIGIMA. The origin of the senigma is doubtful : Gale thinks that the Jews 
 borrowed their senigmatical forms of speech from the Egyptians. Tlie 
 philosophy of the Druids was altogether aenigmatical. In Nero's time tiie 
 Runians were often obliged to have recourse to this method of concealing 
 truth under obscure language. The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond i% 
 an elegant specimen of the asnigma : — 
 
 Uic jacet in tomba, Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda ; 
 Non redolet, sed olet, quae redolere solet. 
 
 .ffiOTJAN HARP. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to Kircher, lx5'6? ; 
 but Richardson proves it to have been kno-wn at an earlier period than his 
 time. — Dissertation on the Cicstcms of the East. There is a Rabbinical story 
 of the aerial harmony of the harp of David, which, when hung up at night, 
 was played upon by the north wind. — Baruch. 
 
 AERONAUTICS. To lord Bacon, the prophet of art as Walpole calls him, has 
 been attributed the first suggestion of the true theory of balloons. The 
 ancient speculations about artificial wings, whereby a man might fiy as well 
 as a bird, refuted by Borelli, 1670. Mr. Henry' Cavendish ascertained that 
 hyclrygen air is at least twelve times lighter than common air, 1777. The 
 true doctrine of aeronautics announced in France by the two brothers Mont- 
 golfier, 1782. — See Balloon. 
 
 .ffiSOP'S FABLES. Written by the celebrated fabulist, the supposed inventor 
 of this species of entertainment and instruction, about 565 b.c. ^sop's 
 Fables are, no doubt, a compilation of all the fables and apologues of wits 
 both before and after his own time, «>onjointly with his own. — Plutarch. 
 
 ^TOLIA. This country was named after ^Etolus of Elis, who, having acci- 
 dentally killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos. left the Peloponnesus, 
 and settled here. The inhabitants were very Mttle known to the rest of 
 Greece, till after the ruin of Athens and Sparta, when they assumed a con- 
 sequence in the country as the oppcsers and rivals of the Ach^ans, to whom 
 they made themselves formidable as the allies of Rome, and as its enemies. 
 They were conquered by the Romans under Fulvius. 
 
 The iEtolians begin to ravage the Pelo- Therma, Xenia, Cyphara, and other 
 
 poiinesus . . .B.C. 282 cities, and destroy with fire all the 
 
 They dispute the passage of tlie Mace- •_ country they invade <.__ B.C. 201 
 
 donians at ThermofiytEe . . 223 
 
 Acarnania ceded to Philip as the price 
 
 of peace .... 218 
 
 Battle of Lamia; the ^tolians, com- 
 manded bv Pyrrhus, are defviated by 
 Philip of Ma cedon . ' . .214 
 
 With the assistance of allies, they seize 
 
 Oreum^ Opus, Tribon, and Dryne . 212 
 They put to the sword the people of 
 
 They next invite the kings of Macedon, 
 Syria and Sparta, to coalesce with 
 tliem against the Romans . . 195 
 
 They seize Calchis, Sparta, and Dem?- 
 
 trias in Thessaly . . . 194 
 
 Their defeat near 'Thermopylae . .193 
 
 They lose Lamia and Amphissa . 192 
 
 Made a province of Rome . . 146 
 
 AFFINITY, Degrees op. Marriage within certain degrees of kindred was 
 prohibited by the laws of almost all nations, and in almost every age. 
 Several degrees were prohibited in scriptural law, as may be seen in Leviti- 
 cus^ chap, xviii. In England, a table restricting marriage within certain 
 near degrees was set forth by authority, a.p. 1568. Prohibited marriages 
 were adjurlged to be incestuous and unlawful by the ninety-ninth Canon, in 
 1603. All marriages celebrated within the forbidden degrees of Idndred are 
 declared to be absolutely void by statute 5 and 6 Will. IV. 1835. 
 
Liili ] DlCTiJNARY OF DATES. 157 
 
 AFFIRMATION of the QUAKERS. This was first legally accepted as an natli 
 in England a.d. 1696. The affirniatiou v/as altered in 1702, and again altered 
 and modiiied Dscember 1721. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN. Insurrection of the Afghans against the British power in 
 India, January 5, 1812. — See India. 
 
 AFRICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of the ancient 
 world, and the greatest peninsula of the universe, first peopled by Ham, It 
 ■was conquered by Beh sarins in a.d. 553 et seq. In the seventh century, about 
 637, the Mahometan Arabs subdued the north of Africa ; and their descend- 
 ants, under the name of Moors, constitute a great jmrt of the present popu- 
 lation. See the several countries of Africa through the volume. A^mong 
 the late distinguished travellers in this quarter of the world, may be men- 
 tioned Bruce, who commenced his travels in 1768 ; Mungo Park, who made 
 his first voyage to Africa, May 22, 1795 ; and his second voyage, January SO, 
 1804, but from which he never returned. See Park. Richard I.ander died 
 of shot-wounds (which he had received when ascending the river Nunn) at 
 Fernando Po, Jan. 31, 1831. The African expedition, for which parliament 
 voted 61,000Z., consisting of the Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan steam-ships, 
 sailed in the summer of 1811. The vessels commenced the ascent of the 
 Niger, Aug. 20; but when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the 
 crews, and they were successively obliged to return, the Albert having 
 ascended the river to Egga. 320 miles from the sea, Sept. 28. The expedi- 
 tion was, ill the end, wholly relinquished owing to disease, heat, and hard- 
 ships, Oct. 17. 
 
 AFRICAN COMPANY, a society of merchants trading to Africa. An associ- 
 ation in Exeter, which was formed in 1588, gave rise to this company. A 
 charter was granted to a joint stock company in 1618 : a third company was 
 created in 1631 ; a fourth corporation in 1662 ; and another formed by let- 
 ters patent in 1672, and remodelled in 1695. The rights vested in the pre- 
 sent company, 23 Geo. H. 1749. See Slave Trade. 
 
 AGE : Golden Age, Middle Age, &c. Among the ancient poets, an age was 
 the space of thirty years, in which sense age amounts to much the same as 
 generation. The interval since the first formation of man has been divided 
 into four ages, distinguished as the golden, silver, brazen, and iron ages ; but 
 a late author, reflecting on the barbarism of the first ages, will have the 
 order assigned by the poets inverted — the first, being a time of ignorance, 
 would be more properly denominated an iron, rather than a golden age. 
 Various divisions of the duration of the world have been made by historians : 
 by some the space of time commencing from Constantino, and ending witli 
 the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, in the fifteenth century, is called 
 the middle age ; the middlo is also styled the barbarous age. The ages of 
 the world may be reduced to three grand epochs, viz., the age of the law of 
 nature, from Adam to Moses ; the age of the Jewish law, from Moses to 
 Christ; and the age of grace, from Christ to the present year, 
 
 ^.GINCOURT, Battle of, between the French and English armies, gained by 
 Hemy V. Of the French, there were 10,000 killed, and 14,000 were taken 
 prisoners, the English losing only 100 men. Among the prisoners were the 
 dulNCS of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentlemen, 
 and men more numerous than the British themselves. Among the slain 
 were the dukes of Alei? ^on, Brabant, and Bar, the archbishop of Sens, ono 
 marshal, thirteen earls, linety-two barons, and 1500 knights, Oct. 25, 1415. 
 — Goldsmith. 
 
 AGRA, Fortress of, termed the key of Hindostan, surrendered, in the war 
 with the Mahj-attas, to the British forces, Oct. 17, 1803, This was once ths 
 
TnF world's progress. j ALI 
 
 most sp ondid of all the Indian cities, and now exhibits the most siagnificenl 
 ruins. In the 17th century the great mogul frequently resided here ; his 
 palaces, and those of the Omrahs, were very numerous ; Agra then con- 
 tained above 60 caravansaries, 800 baths, and 700 mosques. See Mau- 
 soMwis. 
 
 MrRARIAN LAW, Agraria Lex. This was an equal division among the Ro- 
 man people of all the lands which they acquired by conquest, limiting the 
 acres which each person should enjoy, first proposed by Sp. Cassius, to ga'a 
 the favor of the citizens, 486 b.c. It was enacted under the tribime libo 
 nus Gracchus, 132 b.c. ; but this law at last proved fatal to the freedom of 
 Rome under Julius Cfesar. — Livy ; Vossius. 
 
 A (j RICULTURE. The science of agriculture may be traced to the period im- 
 mediately succeeding the Deluge. In China and the eastern countries it was, 
 perhapS; coeval with their early plantation and government. Of the agri- 
 culture of the ancients little is known. The Athenians pretended that it 
 Avas among them the art of sowing corn began ; and the Cretans, Sicilians, 
 and Egyptians lay claim, the last with most probability, to the honor. 
 Brought into England by the Romans, as a science, about a.d. 27. 
 
 AGYNNIANS. This sect arose about a.d. 694, and alleged that God forbade 
 the eating of flesh, assuming the first chapter of Genesis to be the authority 
 upon which the doctrine was founded. A revival of this ancient sect now 
 flourishes at Manchester and other towns in England, and has been public 
 there since 1814. 
 
 AIR. Anaximenes of Miletus declared air to be a self-existent deity, and the 
 first cause of every thing created, 530 b.c. The pressure of air was discov- 
 ered by Torricelli, a.d. 1645. It was found to vary with the height by Pas- 
 cal, in 1647. Halley, Newton, and others, up to the present time, have 
 illustrated the agency and influences of this great power by various experi- 
 ments, and numerous inventions have followed from them ; among others, 
 the air-gun by Guter of Nuremburg in 1656 ; the air-pump, invented by 
 Otho Guericke at Magdeburg in 1650, and improved by the illustrious Boyle 
 in 1657 ; and the air-pipe, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, 
 about 1756. See Balloon. 
 
 AIX-LA-CHAPELLE; Peace of. The first treaty of peace signed here wa«. 
 between France and Spain, when France yielded Franche-Comtd, but 
 retained her conquests in the Netherlands, May 2, 1668. The second, or 
 celebrated treaty, was between Great Britain, France, Holland, Hungary, 
 Spain, and Genoa. Bv this memorable peace the treaties of Westphalia in 
 1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, 
 of Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in 
 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed. Signed on the 
 part of England by John Earl of Sandwich, and Sir Thomas Robinson, Oct. 
 7, 1748. A congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 
 assisted by ministers from England and France, was held at Aix-la-Cha- 
 Delle, and a convention signed, October 9. 1818. The sum then due from 
 France to the allies was settled at 265.000,000 francs. 
 
 JkLABAMA. One of the United States; most of its territory was included in 
 ihe original patent of Georgia It was made a part of the Mississippi ter- 
 ritory in 1817 ; admitted into the Union as a State in 1820. Population m 
 1810 was less than 10 000 ; in 1816. 29 683 ; in 1820, 127,901 ; in 1830, 
 308.997 ; in 1840, 590 756, including 253,532 slaves. Exports of the State ia 
 J 840 amounted to $12 854 694 ; imports, to $574 651 
 
 ALBA. Founded by Ascanius, 1152 b.c, and called Longa, because the city 
 r^xtended along tb • hill Albanus. This kingdom lasted 487 years, and waf ; 
 
AI.B I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 159 
 
 gCiVeined by a race of kings, the descendants of^neas. When A^mulius 
 dethroned his brother, he condemned Ilia, the daughter of Numitor, to a 
 life o? celibacy, 'jy obliging her to take the vows and office of a vestal, 
 therelyto assure his safety in the usurpation. His object was, however, 
 frustrated; violence was offered to Ilia, and she became tlie mother oil 
 twins, fof which Amulius ordered her to be buried alive, and her offspring to 
 be thrown into the Tiber, 770 b.c. But the little bark in which the infants 
 were sent adrift stopped near Mount Aventine, and was brought ashore by 
 Faustulus, the king's chief shepherd, who reared the children as his own, and 
 called tbeni Romulus and Remus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, was surnamed 
 Liipa ; whence arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were suckled 
 by a she-wolf. At sixteen years of age, Romulus avenged the wrongs of 
 Dia and Numitor, 754 b.c, and the next year founded Rome. — Varro. 
 
 ALBAN'S, ST. The name of this town was anciently Verulam ; it was once 
 the capital of Britain, and previously to the invasion of Julius Csesar was 
 the residence of British princes. It takes its present name from St. Alban, 
 who was born here, and who is said to have been the first person who suf- 
 fered martyrdom for Christianity in Britain. He is hence commonly styled 
 the proto-martyr of this country, and was decapitated during the perse- 
 cution raised by Diocletian, June 23, a.d. 286. A stately monastery was 
 erected here to his memory by OfFa. king of Mercia, in 793. St. Alban's 
 was incorporated by Edward VI. 1552. 
 
 ALBAN'S. ST., Battlks of. The first, between the houses of York and Lan- 
 caster, in which Richard duke of York obtained a victory over Henry VI., 
 of whose army 5000 were slain, while that of the duke of York suffered 
 no material loss, fought May 22, 1455. The second, between the Yorkists 
 under the earl of Warwick, and the Lancastrians, commanded by queen 
 Margaret of Anjou, who conquered : in this battle 2500 of the defeated army 
 perished; fought on Shrove Tuesday, February 2, 1461. 
 
 ALBANY, city, capital of the State of New- York, founded by the Dutch in 
 1623, and by them named Beaverwyck ; capitulated to the English in 1664, 
 and then received its present name in honor of the Duke of York and 
 Albany, its proprietor. Incorporated in 1686. Population in 1810, 9.356 : 
 in 1830, 24,238 ; in 1840, 33,721. 
 
 ALBIGENSES. This sect had its origin about a.d. 1160, at Albigeois, in Lan- 
 guedoc, and at Toulouse; they opposed the disciples of the Church of 
 Rome, and professed a hatred of all the corruptions of that religion. Simon 
 de Montfort commanded against them, and at Bezieres he and the pope's 
 legate put friends and foes to the sword. At Minerba, he burnt 150 of the 
 Albigenses alive ; and at La Vaur, he hanged the governor, and beheaded 
 the chief people, drowning the governor's wife, and murdering other 
 women. They next defeated, the count of Toulouse, with the loss of 17,000 
 men. Simon de Montfort afterwards came to England. See Waldenses. 
 
 ALBION. The island of Great Britain is said to have been first so called by 
 Julius Caesar, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast, on his invasion 
 of the country, 54 b.c. The Romans conquered it, and held possession about 
 400 years. On their quitting it, it was successively invaded by the Scots, 
 Picts, and Saxons, who drove the original inhabitants from the plain coun- 
 try, to seek refuge in the steeps and wilds of Cornwall and Wales ; the 
 Danes and Normans also settled at various times in England : and from a 
 mixture of these nations the present race of Englishmen is derived. See 
 Britain. — New Albion, district of California, was taken possession of by sir 
 Francis Drake, and so named by him, in 1578 ; explored by Vancouver in 
 1792. 
 
 AT.BUERA, Battle of, b tween the French, commanded by marshal Soult, 
 
160 THE world's moGREsa. [ a.lb 
 
 and tlie British and Anglo-Spanish army, commanded by marslial, now lord 
 Beresford, May 16, 1811. After an obstinate and sanguinary engagement, 
 the allies obtained the Aictory, justly esteemed one of the most brilliant 
 achievements of the Peninsular war. The French loss exceeded 9000 men 
 previously to their retreat. 
 .ALCHEMY". This was a pretended branch of chemistry, which effected the 
 transmutation of metals into gold, an alkahest, or universal menstruum, a 
 universal ferment, and other things equally ridiculous. If regard may be 
 had to legend and tradition, alchemy must be as old as the Flood : yet 
 few philosophers, poets, or physicians, from Homer till 400 years after 
 Christ, mention any such thing. Pli-ny says the emperor Caligula was the 
 tlrst who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left, it 
 orf because the charge exceeded the profit. Others say the Egyptians had 
 this mystery; which if true, how could it have been lost '? The Arabians 
 are said to have invented this mysterous art, wherein they were followed by 
 Ramond Lullius, Paracelsus, and others, who never found any thing else 
 but ashes in their furnaces. Another author on the subject is Zosimus, 
 about A. D. 410. — Fab. Bib. GrcBs. A license for practising alchemy with all 
 kinds of metals and minerals granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. — Rijmer's 
 Feed. Doctor Price, of Guildford, published an accoimt of his experiments 
 in this way. and pretended to success: he brought his specimens of gold to 
 the king, affirming that they were made by means of a red and white pow- 
 der ; but being a Fellow of the Royal Societyi, he was required, upon pain 
 of expulsion, to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Woulfe ; 
 but after some equivocation, he took poison and died, August 1783. 
 
 ALCORAN. The book which contains the revelation and credenda of Mahomet : 
 it is confessedly the standard of the Arabic tongue, and as the Mahometans 
 believe, inimitable hj any human pen ; hence they assume its divine origin. 
 It is the common opinion of writers, that Mahomet was assisted by Batiras, 
 a Jacobin, Sergius, a Nestoi'ian monk, and by a learned Jew, in composing 
 this book, most of whose principles are the same with those of Arius, Nes- 
 torius, Sabellius, and other heresiarchs. The Mahometans say, that God 
 sent it to their prophet bj'^ the Angel Gabriel : it was written about a. d. 610. 
 — See Koran, Mahomeii&m, Mecca, &c. 
 
 ALDERMEN. The Avord is derived from the Saxon Ealdorman, a senior, and 
 among the Saxons the rank was conferred upon elderly and sage, as well as 
 distinguished persons on account of the experience their age had given 
 tliem. At the time of the Heptarchy, aldermen Avere the governors of pro- 
 vinces or districts and are so mentioned up to a.d. 882. After the Danes 
 were settled in England, the title was changed to that of earl, and the Nor- 
 mans introduced that of coiont, which though different in its original signifl- 
 oation, yet meant the same thing. Henrj'' III. may be said to have given 
 its basis to this city distinction. In modern British polity, and also in tho 
 United States, an alderman is a magistrate next in dignity to the mayor. 
 
 AfiE and WINE. They are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the for- 
 mer where the soil, owing to its quality, would not grow grapes. — Tooke's 
 Pantheon. Ale was known as a bevei'age at least 404 b. c. Herodotus aa- 
 ci'ibes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley-wine to Isis, the wifb 
 of Asyris. The Romans and Germans very early learned the process of pre- 
 paring a liquor from corn by means of fermentation, from the Egyptians. — 
 Tacitus. Alehouses are made mention of in the laws of Ina, king of Wes- 
 sex. Booths were set up in England a.d. 728, when laws w< re passed for 
 their regulation. Alehouses were licensed 1621 ; and excise duty on ale 
 and beer was imposed on a svstem nearly similar to the present, 13 Charles 
 II., 1660. See Beer. Wine. 
 
ALG J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 161 
 
 ALEMANNI, OR Ail, Men, (i. e. men of all nations, . a body of Suevi. defeated 
 by Caracalla, a. d. 214. On one occasion 300 000 of this warlike people are 
 said to have been vanquished, in a battle near Milan, by Gailienas, at the 
 head of 10 000 Romans. Their battles were numerous with the Ivoman;^ and 
 Gauls. They ultimately submitted to the Franks. — Gibbon. 
 
 ALEXAND£,R, Era or, dated from the deaih of Alexander the Great, Novem- 
 ber 12, 323 B. c. In the computation of this era, the period of the creation 
 was considered to be 5502 years before the birth of Christ, and, in conse- 
 quence, the year 1 a, d. was equal to 5508. Ilii3 computation continued to 
 the year 284 A. D., which was called 5786. In the next year (285 a.d.), 
 which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date be- 
 came 6777. This is still used in the Abyssinian era, uohich see. The date i& 
 reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 6502 until the year 6786, and 
 after that time by subtracting 5492. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, in Egypt, the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, built by 
 Alexander the Great. 332 b. c. ; taken by Csesar, 47 b. c, and the library of 
 the Ptolemies, containing 400,000 valuable works in MS., burnt. Conquered 
 by the Saracens, whtn the second library, consisting of 700,000 volumes was 
 totally destroyed by che victors, who heated the water for their baths for 
 six months by burning books instead of wood, by command of the caliph 
 Omar, a. d. 642. This Avas formerly a place of great trade, all the treasures 
 of the East being deposited here before the discovery of the route by the 
 Cape of Good Hope. Taken by the French under Bonaparte, when a mas- 
 sacre ensued, July 5, 1798 ; and from them by the British in the memoraljle 
 battle mentioned in next article, in 1801. Alexandria was agsiQ taken by 
 the British, under General Frazer, March 21, 1807 ; but was evacuated by 
 them, Sept. 23, same year. For late events, see Syria and Turkey. 
 
 A] jEXx\NDRIA, Battle of, between the French, under Menou, who made the at- 
 tack, and the British army, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, amounting to about 
 15 000 men, which had but recently debarked, fought March 21, 1801. The 
 British were victorious, but Sir Ralph Abercrombie was mortally wounded, 
 
 ALEXANDRINE VERSE. Verse of twelve feet, or syllables, first written by 
 Alexander of Paris, and since called, after him, Alexandrines, about a. d, 
 1164. — Nouv. Diet. Pope, in his Essay 07i Criticism, has the following well- 
 known couplet, in which an Alexandrine is hai)pily exemplified : — 
 
 " A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 
 Thaf like a wound-ed snake, drags its slow length a-long." 
 
 ALGEBRA. Where algebra was first used, and by whom, is not precisely 
 known. Diophantus first wrote upon it, probably about a. d. 170 ; he is said 
 to be the inventor. Brought into Spain by the Saracens, about 900 ; and 
 into Italy by Leonardo of Pisa, in 1202. The first writer who used algebra- 
 ical signs was Stifelius of Nuremberg, in 1544. The introduction of sym- 
 bols for quantities was by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into 
 general use. — Morcri. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the 
 doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. 
 
 ilLGIERS. The ancient kingdom of Numidia. reduced to a Roman province, 
 44 B. c. It afterwards became independent, till, dreading the power of the 
 Spaniards, the nation invited Barbarossa, the pirate, to assist it, and he 
 seized the government, a. d. 1516 ; but it afterwards fell to the lot of Tur- 
 key. — Priestley. The Algerines for ages braved the resentment of the most 
 powerful states in Christendom, and the emperor Charles V. lost a fine fleet 
 and army in an unsuccessful expedition against them, in 1541. Algiers was 
 reduced by Admiral Blake, in 1653, and terrifled into pacific measures 
 with England ; but it repulsed the vigorous attacks of other European po^v- 
 ers, particularly those of France, in 1688, and 1761 ; and of Spain, in 1775 
 
162 THE would's progress. ^ albi 
 
 1783, and 1784. It was bombarded hj the British fleet, under lord Exmouth, 
 Aug. 27, 1816, when a new treaty followed, and Chrisiian slavery was abol- 
 ished. Algiers surrendered to a French armament, under Bourmont and 
 Dupcrre. after some severe conflicts. July 5, 1830, when the dey was deposed, 
 and the barbarian government wholly overthrown. The French ministry 
 announced their intention to retain Algiers, permanently, May 20, 1834, 
 . Marshal Clausel defeated the Arabs in two engagements (in one of which 
 the duke of Orleans was wounded), and entered Mascara. Dec. 8, 1836. 
 General Damremont attacked Constantina {;wMck see), Oct. 13, 1837 ;" since 
 when various other engagements between the French and the natives, havo 
 taken place. Abd-el-Kader surrendered to General Lamoriciere, Dee. 22, 
 1847. See Morocco. 
 
 ALI, Sect of'. Founded by a fauiv. ns Mahometan chief, the son-in-law of Ma- 
 homet, (having married his daughter Fatima.) about a. d. 632. Ali was 
 called by the Prophet, " the Lion of God, always victorious ;" and the Persians 
 follow the interpretation of the Koran according to Ali, while other Maho- 
 metans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. It is worthy of remark, 
 that the first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and 
 Ali, whom he had employed as his chief agents in establishing his religion, 
 and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that accoimt he styled the '• cut- 
 ting sword « of God," all died violent deaths ; and that this bloodjMmpos- 
 tor's fami.y was whollj' extirpated within thirty years after his own decease. 
 Ali was assassinated in 660. , 
 
 ALIENS. In England aliens were grievously coerced up to a. d. 1377. When 
 they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to bo half foreigners, if 
 they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or 
 handicraft by retail, 1483. 
 
 A.LL SAINTS. The festival instituted, a. d. 625. All Saints, or All Hallows, 
 in the Protestant church, is a day of general commemoration of all those saints 
 and martyrs in honor of whom, individually, no particular day is assigned. 
 The Church of Rome and the Greek church have saints for every day in the 
 3"ear. The reformers of the English church provided offices only for very 
 remarkable commemorations, and struck out of their calendar altogether a 
 great number of anniversaries, leaving only those which at their time were 
 connected with popular feeling or tradition. 
 
 ALLEGORY. Of very ancient composition. The Bible abounds in the finest 
 instances, of which Blair gives Psalm Ixxx. ver. 8, 16. as a specimen. Spen- 
 ser's i^ame Queene is an allegory throughout; Addison, in his Spectator, 
 abounds in allegories ; and 'the Pilgrim's Progress of Bunyan, 1663, is per- 
 fect in its way. Milton, among other English poets, is rich 'n allegory. 
 
 AI^LIANCES. Treaties of, between the high European Powers . See Coalition, 
 T^reaties, &c. 
 
 Alliance of Leipsic , . April 9, 1631 
 
 Alliance of Vienna . May 27, 1657 
 
 Alliance, the Triple , . .Tan. 28, 1668 
 
 Alliance of Warsaw . March 31, 1683 
 
 Alliance, the Grand , , May 12, 1689 
 
 Alliancf;, the Hague .Jan 4. 1717 
 
 Allance. the Quadruple . Aug. 2, 1718 
 
 Alliance of Vienna March 16, 1731 
 
 Alliance of Versailles . May 1, 1756 
 
 Germanic Alliance . ,Tuly'23, 17B5 
 
 Alliance of Paris . . May 16, 1795 
 
 Alliance of Petersburg . Apiil 8, 1805 
 
 Auistrian Alliance . March 14, 2812 
 
 Alliance of Sweden . \Iarch 24 iS12 
 
 Alliance of Toplitz . , Sept. 9, IS13 
 
 Alliance, the Holy , Sept. 26, 1S15 
 
 ALMANACS, The Egyptians computed time by instruments. Log calen- 
 dars were anciently in use. Al-mon-aght, is of Saxon origin. In the Bri- 
 tish Museum and universities are curious specimens of early almanacs. 
 Michael Nostrodamus, the celebrated astrologer, wrote an almanac in the 
 style of Merlin, WQQ.—Dufresnoy. The most noted early almanacs were. 
 
4LU J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 163 
 
 ALjMANACS, continued. 
 
 Jobn Somer's Calendar, written in Ox- 
 
 f(»rd 1380 
 
 One in Lambeth palace, written in , 1460 
 
 First printed one, published at Buda . 1472 
 First printed in England, by Richard 
 
 Pynson .... 1497 
 
 Tybault's Prognostications . . . 1533 
 
 Poor Robin's Alman;,c . . 1G52 
 
 Lady's Diary . . . . 1705 
 
 Moore's Almanac . . . 1713 
 
 Season on the Seasons . . . 1735 
 
 Gentleman's Diary . . . 1741 
 
 Nautical Almanac . . . . 1767 
 
 Poor Richard's Almanac, (Franklin's, 
 
 Lilly's Ephemeris . . . . ^&44 I Philadelphia) .... 1733 
 
 Of Moore's, at one period, upwards of 500,000 copies were annually sold. 
 The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of publishing, until 
 1790, in virtue of letters patent from James L, granting the privilege to this 
 company, and the two universities. The stamp duty on almanacs was 
 abolished in England, 1834. 
 
 ALMEIDA, Battle of, between the British and Anglo-Spanish army, com- 
 manded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Massena, who was 
 defeated with considerable loss. August 5, 1811. Wellington compelled Mas- 
 sena to evacuate Portugal, and to retreat rapidly before him ; but the route 
 of the French was tracked by the most horrid desolation. 
 
 ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, was the author of hieroglyphics, and 
 wrote thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 b. c. — Blair. But Josephus 
 affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; though 
 this is doubted, and deemed a mistake, or fabulous. The first lettei of the 
 Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks atpha^ and 
 abbreviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be derived 
 from the Phoenician. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought 
 the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into Greece ; they were the fol- 
 lowing: — 
 
 A, B, r, A, I, K, A, M, N, O, U, P, 2, T, Y. 
 Those letters were originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian char- 
 acters, and changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the 
 Roman letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented 
 the double characters, ©, X, *, E, about 1224 b. c. ; and Simoni^es added Z, 
 'F, H, il, about 489 b. c. — Arundeliaii Marbles. When the E was introduced 
 is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet consisted of sixteen letters 
 till 399 B. c, when the Ionic, of 24 characters, was introduced. The small 
 letters are of late invention, for the convenience of writing. The alphabets 
 of the different nations contain the following number of letters : — 
 
 English . 
 French 
 Italian 
 Spanish 
 
 ALPHONSINE TABLES • Celebrated astronomical tables, composed by com- 
 mand, and under the direction of, Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the 
 Wise. This learned prince is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 
 crowns in completing the work, whose value was enhanced by a preface, 
 Tt ritten by his OAvn hand : he commenced his reign in 1252. 
 
 ALTARS, were first raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, who also insti- 
 tuted and regulated marriages, 1556 b. c. He introduced among the Greeks 
 the worship of those deities which were held in adoration in Egypt. — Hero- 
 dotus,. Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Sixtus L in 185 ; 
 and they were first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The first Christian altar 
 in Britain was in 634. — Stowe. The Church of England, and all the reformed 
 churches, discontinue the name, and have abolished the doctrine that sup- 
 ported their use. 
 
 ALLTM, is said to have been first discovered at Rocha,, in Syria, about a. d. 1300; 
 it was found in Tuscany, in 1460; was brought to perfection in England, in 
 
 26 
 
 German . 
 
 . 26 
 
 Greek 
 
 . 24 
 
 Turkish . 
 
 . 33 
 
 23 
 
 Sclavonic 
 
 . 27 
 
 Hebrew 
 
 . . 22 
 
 Sanscrit 
 
 . 50 
 
 20 
 
 Russian . 
 
 . 41 
 
 Arabic 
 
 . 28 
 
 and 
 
 
 27 
 
 Latin . 
 
 . 22 
 
 Persian 
 
 . . 32 
 
 Chinese . 
 
 . 214 
 
l64 THE WORLl S PROGRESS. - |" AME 
 
 1608 : was discovered in Ireland, in 1757 ; and in Anglesey, in 1790. Alum 
 is a salt used as a mordant in tanning ; it is used also to harden tallow, and 
 to whiten bread. It maj^ be made of pure c\a.j exposed to vapors of sulphu- 
 ric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley ; but it is usually obtained 
 by means of ore called alum slate. 
 
 AMAZONIA, discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1580. Coming from Peru, 
 Orellana sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing com- 
 panies of women in arms on its banks, he called the country Amazonia, and 
 gave the name of Amazon to the river, which had previously been called 
 Maranon, 
 
 A MAZONS. Their origin is fabulous. They are said to have been the descend- 
 ants of the Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their husbands having 
 made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades by their 
 enemies. Their widows, reflecting on the alarms or sorrows they under- 
 went on account of the fate of their husbands, resolved to form a female 
 state, and having firmly estabiished themselves, they decreed that matri- 
 mony was a shameful servitude ; but, to perpetuate their race, .hey, at stated 
 times, admitted the embraces of their male neighbors. — Qiuntus Curtiui. 
 They were conquered by Theseus, about 1231 b. c. The Amazons were con- 
 stantly employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more 
 force, their right breasts were burned off, Avhence their name from the 
 Greek, non and mamma. Their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the 
 Great, while he Avas pursuing his conquests in Asia, and cohabited with 
 him, in the hope of having issue by so illustrious a warrior ; three hundred 
 females were in her train. — HerodoUts. 
 
 AIVIBASSADORS, accredited agents and representatives from one court to 
 another, are referred to early ages, and to almost all nations. In most coun- 
 tries they have great and peculiar privileges ; and in England, among others, 
 they and their servants are secured against arrest. The Portuguese ambas- 
 sador in England was imprisoned for debt, in 1653 ; and the Russian, by a 
 lace-merchant, in 1709, when a law, the statute of 8 Anne, passed for their 
 protection. Two men were convicted of arresting the servant of an ambas- 
 sador. They were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the ambassa- 
 dor, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them 
 to be imprisoned three months and the other fined. May 12, 1780. — P/iiUips. 
 
 AMBERo Of great repute in the world, from the earliest time; esteemed as a 
 medicine before the Christian era : Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 b. c. 
 Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of 
 the shore near Pillau. — Phillips. Much diversity of opinion still prevails 
 among naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber, some refer- 
 ring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal king- 
 dom ; its natural history and its chemical analysis affording something in 
 favor of each opinion. 
 
 AMEN. This word is as old as the Hebrew itself. In that language it means 
 true, faithful, certain. Employed in devotions, at the end of a prayer, it im- 
 plies", so be it; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It has been generally 
 used, both in the Jewish and Christian churches, at the conclusion of prayer. 
 
 AMENDE HoNOi^ABLE, originated in France in the ninth century. It was first 
 an infamous punishment inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the 
 offender was delivered into the hands of the hangman ; his shirt was stripped 
 oft", a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he was then led into 
 court, and was obliged to pray pardon of God, the king, and the country. Deatli 
 or banishment sometimes followed. Amende honorable is now a term used foi 
 making recantation in open court, or in the presence of the injured party. 
 
AMM J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 165 
 
 AMERICA: See United Slates. Discovered by Christopher Colombo, a Geno- 
 ese, better known as Cliristopher Columbus, a.d. 1492, on the 11th of Octo- 
 ber, on ^^•hich day he came in sight of St. Salvador. See Bahama Islands. 
 This grea*'' navigator found the continent of America in 1497, and the east- 
 ern coasts were found by Amerigo Vespucci (Americus Vespucius) in 149S ; 
 and from this latter discoverer the whole of America is named. 
 
 New England, the second, by the Ply- 
 mouth company . . .1624 
 New York, settled by the Dutch . . IG1(* 
 [For other occurrences, see Tabular 
 Views — United States. See also 
 separate states, Maine, &c. 
 
 Newloundland, the first British colony 
 in this quarter of the world, discover- 
 ed by Cabot, and by him called 
 Prima Vista. .... 1497 
 
 Virginia, the first English settlement 
 on the main land . . . 1607 
 
 AMERICA, SOUTH. The Spaniards, as being the first discoverers of this vast 
 portion of the Western World, had the largest and richest share of it. When 
 they landed in Peru, a. d. 1630, they found it governed by sovereigns called 
 Incas, who were revered by their subjects as divinities, but the^ were soon 
 subdued by their invaders under the command of Francis Pizarro. The 
 cruelties practised by the new adventurers wherever they appeared, will be 
 a reproach to Spain for ever.* Spanish America has successfully asserted 
 its freedom within the present century. It first declared its independence 
 in 1810 ; and the provinces assembled, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the 
 people in July, 1814; since when, although the wars of rival and contending 
 chiefs have been afflicting the country, it has released itself from the yoke 
 of Spain for ever. Its independence was recognized first by the United 
 States, chiefly through the influence of H. Clay ; by England, in 1823, et seq. ; 
 and by France. Sept. 30, 1830. See Bra.zil, Colombia, Lima, Peru, &c. 
 
 AJNIERICAN LITERATURE." The American Almanac for 1840 gives a list of 
 776 names of American authors who had died previous to that year. This 
 did not include authors of mere pamphlets, which would have swelled the 
 number three-fold; but the "authorship " of many in the list was of very 
 moderate amount or value. Of the 776 names, there were writers on Theo- 
 logy, Sermons, &c., 259; Poetry, 57 ; History and Biography, 80 ; Politics 
 and Law, 77. [In these numbers, writers on two or more of the subjects are 
 repeated.] 
 
 AMETHYSTS. When this 'Jtone was first prized is not known ; it was the ninth 
 in place upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priests, and the name 
 Issachar was engraved upon it. It is of a rich violet color, and according 
 to Plutarch, takes its name from its color, resembling wine mixed with water. 
 One worth 200 rix dollars having been rendered colorless, equalled a dia- 
 mo]id in lustre valued at 18 000 gold crowns. — De Boot Hist. Gemmarum. 
 Amethysts were discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1755. — Burns. 
 
 AMIENS, Peace of, between Great Britain, Holland, France and Spain; the 
 preliminary articles, fifteen in number, were signed by lord Hawkesbury and 
 M. Otto, on the part of England and France. Oct. 1, 1801 ; and the definitive 
 treaty was subscribed on March 27, 1802, by the marquis Cornwallis for 
 Eiigland, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmelpeii- 
 ninck for Holland. 
 
 ATdMONITES. Descended from Ammon, the son of Lot; they invaded the 
 land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated 
 
 ' Las Casas, in dcscribir g the barbarity of the Spania rds while pursuing their conquests, lecordi 
 .'ttany instances of it that fill the inind with horror. In .Tamaica, he says', they hanged the unre- 
 gistiug natives by thirteen at a time, in honor of the thirteen apostles! and he has beheld them 
 throw the Indian infants to their dogs for food! "I have heard them," says I,as Casas, "borrc\* 
 .he limb of a human bein£ to f -ed their dogs, and have seen them the next day return a quarter ot 
 innilier victim to the lender !" 
 
i66 HIE world's trogress. [ana 
 
 by J ephtliah, 1188 b. c. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul, 
 with an intention to put out the riglit eye of all those they subdued, but 
 Saul overthrew them, 1093 b. c. They were afterwards many times van- 
 quished ; and Antiochus the Great took Rabboath their capital, and destroyed 
 all the walls, 198 b. c. — Josephus. 
 
 AMNESTY. The word as well as the practice was introduced into Greece by 
 Thrasybulus. the Athenian general and patriot, who commenced the expul- 
 sion of the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only thirty of his friends : 
 having succeeded, the only reward he would accept was a crown made with 
 two branches of olive. 409 b. c. — Hume's Essays. 
 
 AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL : Established at Thermopj^lse by Amphictyon, for 
 the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated co^jncil, 
 which was composed of the wisest and most virtuous men of some c'ties 
 of Greece, consisted of twelve delegates, 1498 b. c. Other cities in process 
 of time sent also some of their citizens to the council of the Amphictyons. 
 and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased to the number of thirty. 
 — Suidas. 
 
 AMPHITHEATRES. They may be said to be the invention of Julius Csesar 
 and Curio : the latter was the celebrated orator, who called the former in 
 full senate " Omnium inulierum virum, etomnhtm virorum mulierem." In the 
 Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round and oval buildings, the people 
 assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhi-- 
 bitions ; they were generally built of wood, ibut Statilius Taurus made one 
 of stone, under Augustus Csesar. The amphitheatre of Vespasian was built 
 A. D. 79; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. The amphi- 
 theatre of Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes. 
 
 AMSTERDAM. This noble city was the castle of Amstel in a. d. 1100 ; and its 
 building, as a city, was commenced about 1203. Its famous exchange Avas 
 built in" 1634 ; and the stadthouse, one of the noblest palaces in the world 
 in 1648 ; this latter cost three millions of guilders, a prodigious sum at that 
 time. It is built upon 13,659 piles, and the magnificence of the structure is, 
 for its size, both in external and internal grandeur, perhaps without a parallel 
 in Europe. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince 
 invaded Holland in favor of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were 
 admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The ancient government was 
 restored in November, 1813. See Holland. 
 
 AMULETS, OR CHARMS. All nations have been fond of amulets. The 
 Egyptians had a great variety; so had the Jews, Chaldeans, and Persians. 
 Among the Greeks, they were much used in exciting or conquering the 
 passion of love. They were also in estimation among the Romans. — Pliny. 
 Ovid. Among the Christians of early ages, amulets were made of the wood 
 of the true cross, about a. d. 328. They have been sanctioned by religion 
 and astrology, and even in modern times by medical and other sciences — 
 witness the anodyne necklace, &c. The pope and Catholic clergy make and 
 sell amulets and charms even to this day. — Ashe. 
 
 ANABAPTISTS. This sect arose about a. d. 1525, and was known in England 
 before 1549. John of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusi- 
 asts, about the time of the reformation, spread its doctrines. The anaba[>- 
 tists of Munster (who are of course, properly distinguished from the existing^ 
 mild sect of this name in England) taught that infant baptism was a contriv- 
 ance of the devil, that there is no original sin, that men have a free will in 
 spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild and absurd. Munster 
 they called Mount Zi-on, and one Mathias, a baker, was declared to be the 
 king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led them to the maddest practices, and 
 
i'^rj J DICTlOINArtY OF DATES. 167 
 
 they, at length, rose in arms under pretence of gospel liberty. Mimsterwag 
 taken about fifteen months afterwards, and tliey were all put to death. The 
 anabaptists of England differ from other Protestants in little more than the 
 not baptizing children, as appears by a confession of faith, published by the 
 re]iresentatives of above one hundred of their congregations, in 1689. 
 
 ANACltEONTIC VERSE. Commonly of the jovial or Bacchanalian strain, 
 named after Anacreon, of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, about 510 b. c. The 
 odes of Anacreon are much prized ; their author lived in a constant round 
 of di unkenness and debauchery, and was choked by a grape stone in his 
 cdghty-tifth year. — Siaiileifs Lives of t-he Poets. 
 
 .AN.AGRAJNI, a transposition of the letters of a name or sentence ; as from Man/, 
 the name of the Virgin, is made anwij. On the question put by Pilate to our 
 Saviour. " Q:md est Veritas?" we have this admirable anagram, ^'' Est vir qui 
 adest." The French are said to have introduced the art as now practised, in 
 the reign of Charles IX., about the year 1560. — HenoAtlt. 
 
 /JN^ATHEMAS. The word had four significations among the Jews : the ana- 
 thema, or curse, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction. We 
 nave a remarkable instance of it in the city of Jericho (sec JosJma vi. 17). 
 Anathemas were used by the primitive churches, a. d. 387. Such ecclesias- 
 tical den'mciations caused great terror in England up to the close of Eliza- 
 beth's reign. — Rapin. The church anathema, or curse, with excommunica- 
 tion, and other severities of the Romish .religion, are still practised in Catholic 
 countries to this day. — Ashe. 
 
 J* N ATOMY. The structure of the human body was made part of the philoso- 
 phical investigations of Piato and Xenophon ; and it became a branch of 
 medical art under Hippocrates, about 420 b. c. But Erasistratus and Hero- 
 philus may be regarded as being the fathers of anatomy: they M-ere the first 
 to dissect the human form as anatomical research had been confined to 
 brutes only : it is mentioned that they practised upon the bodies of living- 
 criminals, about 300 and 293 b. c. In England, the schools were supplied 
 with subjects unlawfully exhumed from graves; and, until lately, the bodi»s 
 of executed criminals were ordered for dissection. The first anatomical 
 plates were designed by Vesalius, about a. d. 1538. The discoveries of 
 Harvey were made in 1616. The anatomy of plants was discovered in 1680, 
 — Frei'iuVs History of Physic. 
 
 ANCHORITES. Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion were the first anchorites. Many 
 of the early anchorites lived in caves and deserts, and practised great aus- 
 terities. Some were analogous to the fakeers, who impose voluntary pun- 
 isliments upon themselves as atonement for their sins, and as being acce})t- 
 able to God ; and their modes of torture were often extravagant and crimi- 
 nal. The order first arose in the fourth century. 
 
 ANCHORS FOR SHIPS are of ancient use, and the invention belong-s to the 
 Tuscans — Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the 
 Scythian. — Strabo. Anchors were first forged in England a. d. 578. The 
 anchors of a first-rate ship of war (of which such a ship has four) will 
 weigh 90 cwt. each, and each of them will cost .£450. — Phillips. 
 
 ANEMOMETER to measure the strength and velocity of the wind, was in- 
 vented by Wolfius in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Liud 
 to be 93 miles per hour. See article Winds. 
 
 A.VGELIC KNIGHTS of ST. GEORGE. Instituted in Greece, a. d. 456. The 
 Angdlci Mere instituted by Angelus Comnenus, emperor of Constantinople, 
 1191 'Vhfi Aiiselir(p^ 2in ')rder of nuns, was fmnded at Milan by Louisa 
 Tor< ill A. D 1534. 
 
168 THE world's progress. [ ant 
 
 ANGELS. Authors are divided as to the time of the creation of angels. Some 
 will have it to have been at the same time with our world ; others, before 
 all ages, that is, from eternity. This latter is Origen's opinion. — Cave's 
 Hist. Literat. The Jews had ten orders of angels ; and the popes have re- 
 cognized nine choirs and three hierarchies. 
 
 ANGELS, •!c COMMERCE. An angel was an ancient gold coin, weighing 
 four pennyweights, and was valued at 6s. Sd. in the reign of Henry VI., and 
 at 10s. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot was an ancient .gold 
 coin, value half an angel, struck at Paris when that capital was in the hands 
 of the English, in the reign of Henry VL, 1431. — Wood. 
 
 ANGLING. The origin of this art is involved in obscurity ; allusion is made 
 to it by the Greeks and Romans, and in the most ancient books of the Bible, 
 as Amos. It came into general repute in England about the period of the 
 Reformation. Wynkin de Worde's Treatyse of Fysshinge, the first book 
 ])rinted on angling, appeared in 1496. Isaac Walton's book was printed in 
 1653. 
 
 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. This deception was introduced oy father Hehl, at 
 Vienna, about 1774 ; and had wonderful success in France, in 1788. It had 
 its dupes in England also in 1789 ; but it exploded a few years afterwards. 
 It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of sympa- 
 thetic affection between the sick person and the operator. The effect on the 
 patient was supposed to depend on certain motjons of the fingers and features 
 of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whose 
 eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagina- 
 tion and enfeebled mind of the sick, and performing a number of distor- 
 tions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. — Haydn. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXONS, or ANGLES. The name of England is derived from a vil- 
 lage near Sleswick. called ^«^Zew, whose population joined the first Saxon 
 freebooters. Egbert called his kingdom Anglesland. Anglia East was a 
 kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, 
 Uft'a assumed the title of king, a. d. 575 : the kingdom ceased in 792. — See 
 Britain. 
 
 ANNIHILATION. The doctrine of annihilation was unknown to the Hebrews, 
 Greeks, and Latins : the ancient philosophers denied annihilation ; the first 
 notions of which are said to have arisen from the Christian theology. — Dr. 
 Burnet. 
 
 ANNO DOMINI ; in the year of our Lord ; used by the Christian Avorld, and 
 abbreviated A. D. This is the computation of time from the incarnation of 
 oriv Saviour and is called the vulgar era ; first adopted in the year 525. See 
 Era. Charles III. of Germany was the first sovereign who added "in the 
 year of our Lord " to his reign, in 879. 
 
 A-NTARCTIC. The south pole is so called, because it is opposite to the north 
 or arctic pole. A continent of 1700 miles of coast from east to west and 
 64 to 66 degrees south, was discovered in the Antarctic Ocean by French 
 and American Exploring Expeditions, under D Urville and Vv^'ilkes, respec- 
 tively on the same day, Jan. 19, 1840 ; a coincidence the more singular, as 
 the discoverers were at a distance from each other of 720 miles. It was 
 coasted by captain Wilkes for 1700 miles. Mr. Briscow, of the British Navy, 
 fell in with land which he coasted for 300 miles in lat. 67, long. 50, in the 
 year 1830. 
 
 ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of 
 people in the ancient world, or world as it existed previous to the Flood, 
 reached to the enormous amount of 549,755 millions, in the year of the world 
 1482. Burnet has supposed that the first human pair might have left, at thf 
 
ant] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 169 
 
 end of the first century, ten married couples ; and from these, allowing 
 them to multiply in the same decuple proportion as the first pair did, ■would 
 rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons than the earth was ca^^able 
 of holding. He therefore suggests a quadruple multiplication only ; and 
 then exhibits the following table of increase during the first sixteen centu- 
 ries that preceded the Flood : — 
 
 I. 
 
 10 
 
 V. 
 
 2,560 
 
 IX. . 
 
 . 655,360 
 
 XIII, . 
 
 . 167,142,160 
 
 11. 
 
 . 40 
 
 VI. . 
 
 . 10,240 
 
 X. 
 
 . 2,621.440 
 
 XIV. 
 
 671,083,640 
 
 III. . 
 
 . 160 
 
 vn. . 
 
 40,960 
 
 XL . 
 
 10,485,760 
 
 XV. , 
 
 2.684,354,460 
 
 IV. 
 
 640 
 
 vin. 
 
 16-3,840 
 
 XII. 
 
 . 41,943,040 
 
 XVI. 
 
 . 10,737,4]8,2i.:i 
 
 riiis calculation, although the most moderate made, exceeds, it will be seen, 
 by at least ten times, the present number of mankind, whith, at the highest 
 estimate, amounts to only a thousand millions. 
 
 \JVTHEMS, OR HYMNS. Hilary, bishop of Poitiere, and St. Ambrose, were 
 the first who composed them, about the middle of the fourth century. — 
 Lenglet. They were introduced into the church service in 386. — Baker. 
 Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose 
 into the Western church. They were introduced into the reformed churches 
 in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. 
 
 ANTHROPOPHAGI. Eaters of human flesh have existed in all ages of the 
 world. The Cyclops and Lestr3'gones are represented as man-eaters, by 
 Homer; and the Essedonian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus. 
 Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of men, as that of 
 other animals ; and the practice still exists in Africa, and the South Sea 
 Islands, &c. 
 
 ANTIMONY. This mineral was very early known, and applied by the ancients 
 to various purposes. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and wo- 
 men's eyes, as appears from 2 Kings ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv. 30, and in 
 eastern countries is thus used to this day. When mixed with lead, it makes 
 types for printing ; and in physic its uses are so various that, according to 
 its preparation, alone, or in company with one or two associates, it is sufti- 
 cient to answer all a physician desires in an apothecary's shop. — Boyle. 
 We are indebted to Basil Valentine for the earliest account of various pro- 
 cesses, about 1410. — Priestley. 
 
 ANTINOMIANS, the name first applied by Luther to John Agricola, in 1538. 
 The Antinomians trust in the gospel, and not in their deeds; and hold 
 that crimes are not crimes w^hen committed by them, that their own good 
 works are of no effect ; that no man should be troubled in conscience for 
 sin, and other equally absurd doctrines. 
 
 ANTIOCH, built by Seleucus, after the battle of Ipsus, 301 b. c. In ono 
 day, 100,000 of its people were slain by the Jews, 145 b. c. In this city, once 
 the capital of Syria, the disciples of the Redeemer wex-e first called Chris- 
 tians. The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writfsrs 
 attached to the churches of Antioch and Alexandria: it placed the creation 
 5492 years b. c. 
 
 A >fTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that anti- 
 podes existed, about 368 e.g. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate ol 
 pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintain- 
 ing this doctrine, a. d. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the south-east 
 of New Zealand; and near the spot is a small island, called Antipodes 
 Island. — Brookes. 
 
 ANTIQUARIES, and ANTIQUE. The term antique is applied to the produc- 
 tions of the arts from the age of Alexander to the time of the irruption 
 of the Goths into Italy, in a. d. 400. A college of antiquaries is said to have 
 existed in Ireland 700 years b. c. ; but this has very little pretensions to 
 
170 THE world's progkess. [afo 
 
 credit. A soc'ety was founded by archbishop Parker, Cainden, Stowe, and 
 others, in 1572. — Spelman. Application was made in 1589 to EHzabeth for 
 a charter, but her death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far from 
 favoring the design. In 1717 this society was revived, and in 1751 it re- 
 ceived its cliarter of incorporation from George II. It began to pubhsh X^'i 
 discoveries, &c., under the title of Archceologia^ in 1770. The Society o< 
 Antiquaries of Edinburgh was founded in 1780. 
 
 ANTI-RENTISM. In Rensselaer and Delaware counties, State of New- York, 
 an armed resistance of the tenants (chiefly those on the Van Rensselaer 
 estates) to the demand for the payment of rents, commenced in 1846. 
 See Riots. Gov. Young pardons eighteen anti-rent rioters, and releases them 
 from prison, Jan. 27, 1817. 
 
 ANTI- TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been 
 the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the 
 second century. This doctrine spread widely after the reformation, when it 
 was adopted by Lselius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle. — See Arians, Socini- 
 ans, and Unitarians. 
 
 ANTWERP. First mentioned in history in a. d. 517. Its fine exchange built 
 in 1531. Taken after a long and memorable siege by the prince of Parma, 
 in 1585. It was then the chief mart of Flemish commerce, but the civil wars 
 caused by the tyranny of Philip II. drove the trade to Amsterdam. The 
 remarkable crucifix of bronze., thirty-three feet high, in the principal street, 
 was formed from the demolished statue of the cruel duke of Alva, which 
 he had himself set up in the citadel. Antwerp was the seat of the civil war 
 between the Belgians and the house of Orange, 1830-31. In the late revolu- 
 tion, the Belgian troops having entered Antwerp, were opposed by the 
 Dutch garrison, who, after a dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, 
 cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief, 
 Oct. 27, 1830. General C basse surrendered the citadel to the French after 
 a destructive bombardment, Nov. 24, 1832. See Belgium. 
 
 APOCALYPSE, the Revelation of St. John, written in the Isle of Patmos, about 
 A. D. 95. — Irenmis. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, 
 and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many 
 churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded from the 
 sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other 
 councils, and confirmed by that of "Trent, held 1545, et seq. Rejected by 
 Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in all ages from 
 the time of Justin Martvr, who wrote his first Apology for the Christians in 
 A. D. 139. 
 
 APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, "These books are 
 neyther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." — Bible, 1539. The history 
 of the Apocrypha ends 135 b. c. The books were not in the Jewish canon, 
 but they were received as canonical by the Catholic church, and so adjudged 
 by the council of Trent, held in 1545, et seq. — Ashe. 
 
 A rOLLIN ARIANS, the followers of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, who 
 taught that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him ; tliai hig 
 flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was sent 
 down from heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin, as through a channel; 
 that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &c. 
 Apollinarius was deposed for his opinions in a. d. 378. 
 
 APOLLO, Tkmples of. Apollo, the god of all the fine arts, of medicine, music, 
 poetry, and eloquence, had temples and statues erected to him in almost 
 every country, particularly Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His most splendid 
 temple was at Delphi, built 1263 b. c. — See Delphi. His temple at Daphnae, 
 
ARA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 171 
 
 built 434 B. c. during- a period in which pestilence raged, -was burn^ iu a. d. 
 362, and the Christians accused of the crime. — Lenglet. 
 
 APOSTLES CREED. The summary of belief of the Christian faith, called the 
 Apostle's Creed, is generally believed to have been composed a great while 
 after their time. — Pardon. The repeating of this creed in public worship 
 was ordained in the (5rreek church at Antioch, and was instituted in th-* 
 Roman church in the eleventh century ; whence it passed to the church c^ 
 England at the period of the reformation, in 1534. 
 
 APOSTOLICI. The first sect of Apostolici arose in the third century ; lh# 
 second sect was founded by Sagarelli, who was burned alive at Parma, a. d. 
 300. They wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled 
 hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women whom they called their spirit- 
 ual sisters, preachi-ng against the growing corruption of the churck o? 
 Rome, and predicting its downfall. 
 
 APOTHEOSIS. A ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, oy which they 
 raised their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The nations of the 
 East were the first who paid divine honors to their great men, and the 
 Romans followed their example, and not only deified the most prudent and 
 humane of their emperors, but also the most cruel and profligate. — Herodian. 
 This honor of deifying- the deceased emperor was begun at Rome by Augus- 
 tus, in favor of Julius Caesar, b. c. 13. — Tillemont. 
 
 AITEAL OF MURDER. By the late law of England, a man in an appeal of 
 murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt 
 or innocence. In 1817. a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have 
 been violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, in appeal, claimed 
 his right to his wager of battle, which the court allowed ; but the appellant 
 (the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the criminal escaped, 
 April 16, 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck from otF the 
 statute book, 59 George III., 1819. 
 
 APPRAISERS. The rating and valuation of g-oods for another was an early 
 business in England ; and so early as 11 Edward I. it was a law, that if they 
 valued the goods of the parties too high, the appraiser should take them at 
 the price appraised. 1282. 
 
 A.PRIL. The fourth month of the year according to the vulgar computation, 
 but the second according to the ancient Romans, Numa Pompilius having 
 introduced Januarius and F\bruarius before it 713 b. c. — Peacham. 
 
 AQUARIANS. A sect in the primitive church, said to have been founded by 
 Tatian in the second century, and who forbore the use of wine even in the 
 sacrament, and used nothing but water. 
 
 AQUEDUCTS. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first aqueduct, 
 which was therefore called the Appian-v)ay, about 453 b. c. Aqueducts of 
 every kind w^ere among the wonders of Rome. — Livy. There are now some 
 remarkable aqueducts in Europe: that at Lisbon is of great extent and 
 beauty ; that at Segovia has 129 arches ; and that at Versailles is three miles 
 long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupen- 
 dous aqueduct on theEllesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and 
 126 feet high ; it was opened Dec. 26, 1805. 
 
 AQUITAINE, formerly belonged (together with Normandy) to the kings of 
 England, as descendants of William the Conqueror. It was erected into a 
 principality in 1362, and was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke 
 of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of England on the conquest of this 
 duchy by Henry V. in 1418 ; but was lost in the reign of Henry VI. 
 
 A.RABIA. This country is said never to have been conquered ; the Arabians 
 made no figure in history till a. d. 622, when, under the new name of Sara- 
 
1 72 THE world's progress. [ ARQ 
 
 cens. they followed Mahomet (a native of Arabia) as their general and pro- 
 phet, and made considerable conquests. — PriesUcy. 
 
 ARBELA, Battle of. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the 
 Great and Darius Codomanus, which decided the fate of Persia, 331 b.c.. 
 The army of Darius consisted of 1000 000 of foot and 40 000 horse; tho 
 Macedonian army amounted to onlj^ 40 000 foot and 7,000 horse. — Arrian 
 The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, 
 which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions ster- 
 ling ; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed 
 to load 20,000 mules and 5,000 camels. — Plutarch. 
 
 ARCADIA. The people of this country were very ancient, and reckoned them- 
 selves of longer standing than the moon ; they were more rude in theii 
 manners than any of the Greeks, from whom they were shut up in a valley^ 
 surrounded with mountains. Pelasgus taught them to feed on acorns, aji 
 being more nutricious than herbs, their former food ; and for this discovery 
 they honored him as a god, 1521 b. c. Arcadia had twenty-five kings, whose 
 history is altogether fabulous. The Arcadians were fond of military glory, 
 although shepherds ; and frequently hired themselves to fight the battles of 
 other states. — Eustathius. A colony of Arcadians was conducted by CEno- 
 trus into Italy, 1710 b. c, and the country in which it settled was afterwards 
 called Magna Grmcia. A colony under Evander emigrated 1244 b. c. — Idem. 
 
 ARCHBISHOP. This dignity was known in the East about a. d. 320. Atha- 
 nasius conferred it on his successor. In these realms the dignity is nearly 
 coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into 
 England there were three sees, London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; but 
 soon after the arrival of St. Austin, he settled the metropolitan see at Can- 
 terbury, A. D. 596. 
 
 ARCHDEACONS. There are sixty church oificers of this rank in England, 
 and thirty-four in Ireland. The name was given to the first or eldest dea- 
 con, who attended on the bishop, without any power ; but since the council 
 of Nice, his function is become a dignity, and set above that of priest, 
 though anciently it was quite otherwise. The appointment is referred to 
 A. D. 1075. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity: an 
 appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, stat. 24 Henry VIII. 1532. 
 
 ARCHERY. It originated, "according to the fanciful opinion of the poet Clau- 
 dian, from the porcupine being observed to cast its quills whenever it was 
 offended. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, by whom it was commu- 
 nicated to the Cretans. The eastern nations were expert in archer)'' in the 
 earliest ages, and the precision of the ancient archer is scarcely exceeded 
 by our skill in modern arms. Aster of Amphipolis, upon being slighted by 
 Philip, king of Macedonia, aimed an arrow at him. The arrow, on which 
 Avas written " Aimed at Philip's right eye," struck it, and put it out; and 
 Philip threw back the arrow with these words: "If Philip take the town, 
 Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his word. 
 
 ARCHERY IN England. It was introduced previously to a.d. 440, and Ha- 
 rold and his two brothers were killed b)^ arrows shot from the cross-bow? 
 of the Norman soldiers at the battle of Hastings, in 1066 ; that which killed 
 the king pierced him in the brain. Richard I. revived archery in England 
 in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow in 1199. The victories of Crecy, 
 Poitiers, and Agincourt, were won chiefly by archers. The usual range oj 
 the long-bow was from 300 to 400 yards. Robin Hood and Little John, it 
 is said, shot twice that distance. Four thousand archers surrounded the 
 houses of Parliament, ready to shoot the king and the members, 21 Rich- 
 ard II. 1397. — SUmie. The citizens of London were formed into companiei 
 of arclrers in the reign of Edward III. : they were formed into a corporal* 
 
^rgJ dictionary of dates. 173 
 
 body by the style of " The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henry VIII. 1538. 
 — Norlhouk's History of London. 
 A-RCHES, Triumphal, are traced to the era of the Macedonian conquest by the 
 best writers. Tlie triumphal arches of the Romans form a leading feature 
 in their architecture. Those of Trajan (erected a. d. 114) and Constantino 
 were magnificent. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE was cultivated by the Tyrians, about 1100 b. c. Their 
 King, Hiram, supplied Solomon with cedar, gold, silver, and other materials 
 for the Temple, in the building of which he assisted, 1015 b. c. The art 
 passed to Greece, and from Greece to Rome, The style called Gothic came 
 into vogue in the ninth century. The Saracens of Spain, being engaged 
 during peace to build mosques, introduced grotesque carvings, &c., and the 
 ponderous subhmity of bad taste ; which species is known by elliptic arches 
 and buttresses. The circular arch distinguishes the Norman-Gothic from 
 the Saracenic, and came in with Henry I. The true Grecian style did not 
 fully revive till about the reign of James I. 1603. 
 
 ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, the executive govern- 
 ment was vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose office con- 
 tinues for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, is the first who obtained this 
 dignity, 1070 b. o. 
 
 ARCOLA, Battle of, between the French under general Buonaparte, and the 
 Austrians under field-marshal Alvinzy, fought Nov. 19, 1796. The result of 
 this bloody conflict, which was fought for eight successive days, was the 
 loss on the part of the Austrians of 12^000 men, in killed, wounded, and 
 prisoners, four flags, and eighteen guns. 
 
 ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. Several have been undertaken by England, and 
 some by Russia and other countries. Sir Martin Frobisher was the first 
 Englishman who attempted to find a north-west passage to China, a. d. 1576. 
 Davis's expedition to the Arctic regions was undertaken in 1585. After a 
 number of similar adventurous voyages, Baffin, an Englishman, attempted 
 to find a north-west passage, in 1616. See Baffin's Bay. For the subsequent 
 and late expeditions of this kind, including among the latter those of Buchan, 
 Franklin, Ross, Parry, Liddon, Lyon, Back, &c., see North-West Passage. 
 
 AREOPAGIT^. A famous council said to have heard causes in the dark, be- 
 cause thftjudges were blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. 
 — Armid. Marbles. The name is derived from the Greek Areas pagos, the 
 ///// of Mars, because Mars was the first who was tried there for the mur- 
 der of Hallirhotius, who had violated his daughter Alcippa. Whatever 
 causes were pleaded before them, were to be divested of all oratory and fine 
 speaking, lest eloquence should charm their ears, and corrupt their judg- 
 ment. Hence arose the most just and impartial decisions. 
 
 ARGENTARIA, Battle of. One of the most renowned in its times, fought in 
 Alsace, between the Alle^iianni and the Romans, the former being defeated 
 by the latter with the loss of more than 35.000 out of 40,000 men, a. d. 37&, 
 — Dufresnoy. 
 
 ARGON AUTIC EXPEDITION, undertaken by Jason to avenge the death of 
 Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized by the king of Colchis. The ship 
 in which Phryxus had sailed, to Colchis having been adorned with the 
 figure of a ram, it induced the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason 
 Avas for the recovery of the golden fleece. This is the first naval expedition 
 on record ; it made a great noise in Greece, and many kings and the first 
 lieroes of the age accompanied Jason, whose ship was called Argo, from its 
 builder, 1263 e. c. — Dufresnoy. 
 
 A^GOS. This kingdom vras founded by Inachus, 1856 b. c, or 1080 years b© 
 
174 THE world's PROGllESS. [ A.llB 
 
 fore the first Olympiad. — Blair. The nine kings from the founder wer« 
 called Inachidcc. of whom the fourth was Argus, and he gave' his name to 
 the country. When the Heraclidas took possession of Peloponnesus, b. c. 
 1102, Temenus seized Argos and its dependencies. Argos was afterwards a 
 republic, and distinguished itself in all the wars of Greece.— Evripides. 
 
 Inachus founds the kingdom . b. c. 1856 
 Phoroneus reigns sixty years . ISP"' 
 
 Apis reigns thirty-five years . . 1747 
 "He city of Argos built hy Argus, son 
 
 ^^fNiobe 1711 
 
 Criasus, son of Argus, succeeds his 
 
 father, and reigns .... 1641 
 llcign of Triopas ; Polycaon seizes 
 part of the kingdom, and calls ii af- 
 ter his wife, Messenia , . 1552 
 Reign of Crotopus .... 1506 
 S'chenehts reigns .... 1485 
 Gelanor is deposed by Danaus . . 1474 
 Feast of the Flambeaux, in honor of 
 
 Hypermnestra, who saved her hus- 
 band, while her forty -nine sisters sa- 
 crificed theirs, {^ee. Flambeaux') 'B.o. \4!S> 
 Lynceus, son of Egyptus, whose life 
 had been preserved by his wife, .le- 
 throne? Danaus . . . . ! 425 
 Reign of Abas . . . 1384 
 
 Reign of Proetus, twin-brother of Acri- 
 
 sius 1361 
 
 Bellerophon comes to Argos ; the pas- 
 sion for him of Sthenobcea . . 136i 
 Rebellion of Acrisius .... 1344 
 Perseus leaves Argos, and founds My- 
 cenae {which see.) .... 1313 
 
 Argos, in modern history, was taken from the Venetians, a. d. 1686. It was 
 lost to the Turks in 1716, since when it continued in their hands until 1826. 
 Argos became united in the sovereignty of Greece under Otho, the present 
 and first king. January 25, 1833. See Greece. 
 
 .AJRIANS. The followers of Arius, a numerous sect of Christians, who deny iLe 
 divinity of Christ : they arose about a. d. 315. The Arians were condemned 
 by the council of Nice, in 325 ; but their doctrine became for a time the 
 reigning rehgion in the East. It was favored by Constantino, 319. Carried 
 into Africa under the Vandals, in the tifth century, and into Asia under the 
 Goths. Servetus pubhshed his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and hence 
 arose the modern system of Arianism in Geneva. Arius died in 336. Serve- 
 tus was burnt, 1553. — Varillas, Hist de VHeresie. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. Where first invented is not known, at least with certainty. 
 It was brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 b. c. The 
 oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th. 8th, and 9th books of his 
 Elements), about 300 b. c. The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used 
 A.u. 130. Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thirteen books of 
 Arithmetical questions (of which six are extant) in 156. Notation by nine 
 digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindpstan — 
 introduced from thence into Arabia, about 900 — into Spain, 1050 — into Eng- 
 land, 1253. The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World, Arabic characters, 
 is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented, 1482. First Avork printed in 
 England on arithmetic {de Arte Supputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of Dur- 
 ham, 1522. The theory of decimal fractions was perfected by lord Napier 
 in his Rabdologia, in 1617. 
 
 AKK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being 
 the place on which Noah's ark rested after the universal Deluge, 2347 b. c. 
 But Apamea. in Phrj'gia. claims to be the spot ; and medals have been struck 
 there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE. and two doves: this 
 place is 300 miles Avest of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length, fifty in 
 breadth, and thirty high ; but most interpreters suppose this cubit to be about 
 a foot and a half, and not the geometrical one of six. There were, we are told, 
 three floors — the first for beasts, the second for provisions, and the third for 
 birds, and Noah's family. It was not made Jke a ship, but came near the 
 figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. Thej'e was a 
 door in the first floor, and a great window in the third. 
 
 iLRKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase, 
 It was made a separate territory in 1819. and was admitted into the Union 
 in 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, includuio- 19,933 slaves 
 
AHM ] DIUTIOIARY OF DATES. ITfl 
 
 A-RMADA, The Invincible. The famous Spanish armament so called con- 
 sisted of 150 ships, 2650 great g-uns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 2000 
 volunteers, under the duke of Medina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel, 
 July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten 
 fire-ships having been sent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put 
 to sea, and endeavored to return to their rendezvous between Calais and 
 Gravelines : the English fell upon them, took many ships, and admiral 
 Howard maintained a running fight from the 21st July to the 27th, obliging 
 the shattered fleet to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a storm dis* 
 persed them, and the remainder of the armament returned by the Nortb 
 Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagement, 
 and 5,000 men ; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, 
 and upwards of 5000 men w^ere drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. The 
 English lost but one ship. — Rapin, Carte, Hume. 
 
 A.RMAGH, See of, the first ecclesiastical dignity in Irelaiid, was founded by 
 St. Patrick, its first bishop, in 444. 
 
 ARMED NEUTRALITY. The confederacy, so called, of the northern powers, 
 against England, was commenced by the empress of Russia in 1780 ; but 
 its objects were defeated in 1781. The pretension was renewed, and a treaty 
 ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent pow- 
 ers, December 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral 
 bottoms being contrary to the maritime system of England, the British 
 cabinet remonstrated, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Den- 
 mark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. That power, in consequence, was 
 obliged to secede from the alliance, and acknowledge the.claim of England to 
 the empire of the sea; and the Armed Neutrality was soon after dissolved. 
 
 A RMENIA. Here Noah and his people resided when they left the ark, 2347 
 B. c. After being subject successively to the three great monarchies, Ar- 
 menia fell to the kings of Syria. The Armenians were the original wor 
 shippers of fire: they also paid great veneration to Venus Analtis, to whose 
 priests even the highest classes of the people prostituted their daughters, 
 prior to marriage. — Martiii's Memoires s,ur V Armenie. 
 
 City of Artaxarta built . . b. c. 186 
 
 Tigranes the Great reigns . . 93 
 
 He is called to the throne of Syria, as- 
 sumes the fastidious title of " King of 
 Kings," and is served by tributary 
 princes . . . . .83 
 
 Artaxias is deposed . . b. c. 30 
 
 He is restored to his throne, and dies. — 
 
 Blair . . . . .1 
 
 Reign of Venones . . a. d. 16 
 
 Zenon reigns . . . .18 
 
 Tigranes IV. reigns ... 36 
 
 Tigranes defeated by Lucu^lus . 69, He is cited to Rome, and deposed . 37 
 
 .„j 1 I.,- _. Tiridates dethroned, and Roman power 
 
 paramount in Armenia . 62 
 
 Armenia reduced to a Persian province 
 
 under Sapor . . . 365 
 
 Subdued by the Saracens . . 687 
 
 Irruption of the Turks . . 755 
 
 Agam made a Persian province, under 
 
 Utfan Cassanes • . . . 1472 
 
 Subdued by Selim II. . . 1522 
 
 Overrun by the Russians . . 1S2S 
 
 Surrender of Erzeroum . July 1828 
 
 Again defeated, and lays his crown at 
 the feet of Pompey . . 66 
 
 His son, Artavasdes, reigns . . 54 
 
 Artavasdes assists Pompey against Ju- 
 lius Caesar . . . .48 
 
 Artavasdes assists the Parthians against 
 Marc Antony ... 36 
 
 Antony subdues, and sends him loaded 
 with silver chains to Egypt, to grace 
 his triumph . . . .34 
 
 The Armenian soldiers crown his son, 
 
 Artaxias . . . . 33 i (See Syria.') 
 
 ARMENIAN ERA commenced on the 9th of July, a d. 552 : the Ecclesiastical 
 year on the 11th August. To reduce this last to our time, add 651 years 
 and 221 days ; and in leap years subtract one day from March 1 to August 
 10. The Armenians use the old Julian style and months in their corre- 
 spondence with Europeans. 
 
 ARMILLARY SPHERE. Commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a 
 maimer that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their 
 
176 THE world's progress. [ AKH 
 
 natural position and motion, the whole being comprised in a frame It i» 
 said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 255 b. c. 
 ARMINIANS (the) chiefly contend for the doctrine of universal redemption, 
 and generally espouse the principles of the Church of England : especially 
 asserting the subordination of the Christian church to the civil poweis. 
 They also contend for the efficacy of good works, as well as their 7iecessUy, in 
 securing man's salvation. James I. and Charles I. favored the doctrines oi 
 the Arminians ; and the principles of the sect prevail generally in Holland 
 and elsewhere, though condemned at the synod of Dort (see Dort) in 1G18. 
 Arminius, who was a divinity professor at Leyden, died in 1609. — Bra^idt. 
 ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of the 
 twelfth century. They took their rise from the knights painting their ban- 
 ners with different figures, and were introduced by the Crusaders, in order 
 at first to distinguish noblemen in battle a. d. 1100. The lines to denote 
 colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Colum- 
 biere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798 — and again in 1808. 
 ARMOR. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other iefence 'ban 
 the shield. Skins and padded hides were first used ; and brass and iron 
 armor, in plates or scales, followed. The first body-armor of the Britons 
 was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the 
 well-tanned leathern cuirass. — Tacitus. This latter continued till the Anglo- 
 Saxon era. Hengist is said to have had scale armor, a. d. 449. The heavy 
 cavalry were covered with a coat of mail, Heriry III. 1216. Some horsemen 
 had visors, and skull caps, same reign. Armor became exceedingly splendid 
 about 1350. The armor of plate commenced, 1407. Black armor, used, 
 not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 1413. The armor of Henry 
 VII. consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. 
 Armor ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of 
 Charles II. oflficers wore no other armor than a large gorget, which is commem- 
 orated in the diminutive ornament known at the present day. — Meyrick. 
 ARMS. The club was the first offensive weapon; then followed the mace, 
 battle-axe, pike, spear, javelin, sword, and dagger. Ainong ancient missiles 
 were bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the 
 Phoenicians. See the variotis weapons throitgh the volume. 
 ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of 
 fighting men, 2017, b. c. The first guards and regular troops as a standing 
 army were formed hj Saul, 1093 b. c. — Ettsebms. One of the first standing 
 armies of which we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The 
 first standmg army, existing as such, in modern times, was maintained in 
 France by Chai'les VII. in 1445. Standing armies were introduced by 
 Charles I. in 1688 ; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Charles II. 
 1679. The chief European nations have had in their service the following 
 armies: Spain 150.000 men ; Great Britain. 310 000; Prussia 350.000; Tur- 
 key, 450 000 ; Austria, 500,000 ; Russia, 560 000 ; and France, 680,000. 
 ARM Y, BRITISH. Statement of the effective military strength of the United King- 
 dom at the decennial periods respectively mentioned, and of the sums voted 
 for military expenditure, drawn from parliamentary returt.s and other official 
 . records : 
 
 17C0, Time of war ; troops of the line . . amount 110,000 men 
 
 1800, War . . . . . . ditto 168,000 men . . ditto 17,973.0(0 
 
 1810, War ; army, including foreign troops ditto 300.000 men . . ditto 26.7-18.0tK3 
 
 !S15, Last year of the war . . . ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 39,150,000 
 
 1820, Time of peace ; war incumbrances . ditto 89,100 men. . ditto 18,253,(XiO 
 
 1830, Peace . . . . . ditto 89,300 men . . ditto 6,991,300 
 
 fn 1845. the array of all ranks, numbered 100 011 men: and the sum v)ted 
 was .-€4,487. 753. See Militia and Volunteers. 
 
 sum voted jE7,847,0(O 
 
ASS j • DICTIONARY OF DATES. 177 
 
 AJRTILLERY. The first piece was a small one, contrived by Schwartz, a Ger- 
 man cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. Artillery 
 was used, it is said, by the Moors at Algesiras, in Spahi, in the siege of 
 1341 ; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Cressy, in 
 1346, when Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the 
 battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venitians first 
 employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. — Voltaire. Cast in 
 England, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists in Sussex, 
 164^3. — Rymtr's Fczdera. Made of brass, 1635; improvements by Browne, 
 1728. See Irm. 
 
 ARTS. See Literature. In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences was 
 composed of these seven liberal arts, namely — grammar, rhetoric, logic, 
 arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. — Harris. The Royal Society 
 of England (which see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of 
 Arts to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, 
 was instituted in 1754 ; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and 
 of its first president, lord Folkstone. The first public exhibition by the 
 artists of the British metropolis took place in 1760, at the rooms of this 
 society, and was repeated there for several years, till, in process of time, the 
 Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society ol British Art- 
 ists was instituted May 21, 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April 
 19,1824. — See British Mil seu7)i ; Brilish Institution; National Gallery, <^-c. 
 
 ARUNDELIAN MARBLES ; containing the chronology of ancient history from 
 1582 to 355 B. c, and said to have been sculptured 264 b. c. They consist of 
 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and wore found in the Isle of 
 Pares, in the reign of James I., about 1610. They were purchased by lord 
 Arundel, and given to the university of Oxford, 1627. The characters are 
 Greek, of which there are two translations: by Selden. 1628; by Prideaux, 
 1676. — See Kidd's Tracts; and Porson's Treatise, 1789. 
 
 ASCALON, Battle of ; in which Richard I. of England, commanding the Chris- 
 tian forces, defeated the sultan Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other 
 infidels. No less than 40 000 of the enemy were left dead on the field of 
 battle ; and the victorious Richard marched to Jerusalem, a. d. 1192. — Rymer. 
 
 ASH-WEDNESDAY. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent 
 until the Sunday, now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix III., in a. d. 487. 
 first added the four days preceding the old Lent Sunday, to complete the 
 number of fasting days to forty ; Gregory the Great introduced the sprink- 
 ling of ashes on the first of the four additional daj^s, and hence the name of 
 Dies Cinerum, or Ash- Wednesday : at the Reformation this practice was 
 abolished, " as being a mere shadow, or vain show." 
 
 ASIA ; so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, the daughter of Oceanna 
 and Tethys, and wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the Avorld 
 peopled ; here the law of God was first promulgated ; here many of the 
 greatest monarchies of the earth had their rise ; and from hence most of 
 the arts and sciences have been derived. — Pardon. 
 
 ASPERNE, Battle of, between the Austrian army under the archduke Charles, 
 and the French, fought on the 21st May, 1809, and two following days. In 
 this most sanguinary fight, the loss of the former army exceeded 20,000 
 men, and the loss of the French was more than 30,000 : it ended in the defeat 
 of Bonaparte, who commanded in person, and was the severest check that lie 
 had yet received. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed, and his retreat 
 endangered ; but the success of the Austrians had no beneficial effect on 
 the subsequent prosecution of the war. 
 ASSASSINATION PLOT. A conspiracy so called, formed by the earl of Ayles- 
 bury and others to assassinate king William HI., near Richmond, J:5urrey, ai 
 
 S* 
 
178 THE world's progress. [ ASS 
 
 he came from Imnling. The object of the conspiracy was to have been con- 
 suramated February 15, 1695-6, but for its timely discovery by Prendergast. 
 — Hist. England. 
 \SSASSINS. A tribe in Syria, a famous heretical sect among the Mahometans^ 
 settled in Persia, in a. d. 1090. In Syria, they possessed a large tract of land 
 among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Mont- 
 ferrat in 1192; they assassinated Lewis of Bavaria in 1213; the khan oi 
 Tartary was murdered in 1254. They Avere conquered by the Tartars in 
 1257 ; and were extirpated in 1272. The chief of the corps assumed the 
 title of '^Ancient of the Mountains.'^ 
 
 ASSIENTO. A contract between the king of Spain and other powers, for fur- 
 nishing the Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves, — Burke. It 
 began in 1689, and was vested in the South Sea Company in 1713. By the 
 treaty of Utrecht it was transferred to the English, who were to furnisli 
 4800 negroes annually to Spanish America. This contract was given up to 
 Spain at the peace in 1748. See Guinea. 
 
 ASSIGN ATS. Paper currency, to support the credit of the republic during the 
 revolution, ordered by the National Assembly of France, April, 1790. At 
 one period the enormous amount of eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions 
 of pounds sterling of this paper were in circulation in France and its depen- 
 dencies. — Aliso n. 
 
 ASSUMPTION. A festival observed by the church of Rome in honor of the 
 Virgin Mary, who, as the Catholics believe. Was taken up to heaven in her 
 corporeal form, body and spirit, on August 15, a. d. 45. Mary is reported to 
 have been in her 75th year. The festival is said to have been instituted 
 in 813. 
 
 ASSURANCE, ^qq Insurance. The practice is of great antiquity. Suetonius 
 ascribes the contrivance to Claudius Caesar, a. d. 43. It is certain that assu- 
 rance of ships was practised in the year 45. The first regulations concern- 
 ing it are in the Lex Oleron, by which it appears to have been known in 
 Europe very generally in 1194. The custom of Lombard-street was made a 
 precedent for all policies at Antwerp, and in the Low Countries ; but the 
 first statute to prevent frauds from private assurers was made 43 Elizabeth, 
 1601. — Molineaux's Lex Mercatoria. 
 
 ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. This is the earliest recorded empire— that of Bacchus 
 wanting records. It commenced under Ninus, who was the Jupiter of the 
 Assyrians, and the Hercules of the Chaldeans, 2069 b. c. It arose out of the 
 union of two powerful kingdoms, Babylon and Assyria, or Nineveh, the latter 
 founded by Ashur, and ending with Sardanapalus, 820 b. c. When this last- 
 named prince was conquered by Arbaces, he shut himself up in his palace, 
 with his concubines and eunuchs, and causing it to be set on fire, they all 
 perished in the flames. On the ruins of the empire were formed the Assy- 
 rians of Babylon. Nineveh, and the Median kingdom. — Lenglet. 
 
 The tower of Babel built. — Genesis x. i Babylon and makes it the seat of her 
 
 6; xi. 1. — B/air - • b. c. 2247 i dominion. — Lenglet • B. c. 2017 
 
 The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 Semiramis invades Libya, Ethiopia, 
 
 Astronomical observations begmi by 
 the Chaldeans - - - 2234 
 
 Belus reigns 55 years. — Usher - 2124 
 
 Ninus, son of Bclus, reigns m Assyria, 
 and names his capital after himself - 2069 
 
 Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having 
 subdued the Armenians, Persians, 
 Bactrians, and all Asia Minor, estab- 
 lishes what is properly the Assyrian 
 monarchy, of which Nineveh was the 
 seat of empire. — Blair - - 2059 
 
 Semiramis enlarges and embellishes 
 
 and India. — Lenglet - - • 1975 
 
 The Arabs seize Nineveh - - - 1937 
 Beiochus, the last king of the race of 
 
 Ninus. — Blair .... 1446 
 He makes liis daughtei\ Artossa, sur- 
 
 nained Semiramis II., his associate 
 
 on the tlii"one - - - - 1433 
 
 Belatoies i-eigns .... 1421 
 ***** 
 
 The prophet Jonah appears m ihe 
 
 streets of Nineveh — Blair • • 840 
 
 Nineveh taken by Arbaces - . 820 
 
AST] 
 
 THE world's PROiJRESS. 
 
 1/1* 
 
 ASSYRIA, Proper. After the deslruction of tlie first Assyrian monarchy, Phul 
 the last king's son, was raised to the throne by the Ninevites, 777 b.c, and 
 the kingdom continued until 621 b. c, wheu Same, or Sardanapalus 11., being 
 besieged by the Medes and Babylonians, put his wife and children to death, 
 and burnt himself in his palace, a fate somewhat similar to that of Sarda- 
 napalus I. See preceding article. Nineveh was then razed to the ground, 
 and the conquerors divided Assyria. — Blair. It was finally conquered by 
 the Turks in 1637 a. d. — PriesLle^j. 
 
 I'Lul raised to the throne, about the 
 year. — Blair - - B.C. 777 
 
 lie invades Israel, but departs without 
 drawing a sword. — Blair; 2 Kings 
 XV. 19, 20 - - - - 770 
 
 Tidath-Pileser invades S3'ria, takes 
 Damascus, and makes great con- 
 quests . - . . 740 
 
 Shalmanezer takes Samaria, transports 
 the people, whom he replaces by a 
 colony of Cutheans and others, and 
 thus tinishes the kingdom of Israel. 
 —Blair - - - - - 721 
 
 He retires from before Tyre, after a 
 siege of five years. — Blair - • 713 
 
 Sennacherib invades Judea, and his ge- 
 neral, Rabshakeh, besieges Jerusa- 
 lem, when the angel of the Lord in one 
 night destroys 180,000 of his army.— 
 Isaiah xxxvii. - b. 0. 710 
 
 [Commentators suppose that this mes- 
 senger of death was the fatal blast 
 known in eastern countries by the 
 name of SuDtiel.] 
 Esar-haddon invades Judea, and takes 
 
 Babylon.— i;/«/r - - - 690 
 
 He invades Judea— S/a/r - . . 677 
 
 Holofernes is slain by Judith . • 677 
 
 Saosduchinus reigns.— t/^/zer - -667 
 Nineveh taken, and razed to the ground 621 
 
 ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldeans, and hence 
 was transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in 
 vogue in France in the time of Catherine de Medicis, 1533. — Henault. Tho 
 early history of astrology in England is very little known : Bede was addicted 
 ^ to it, 700 ; and so was Roger Bacon, 1260. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, calculated 
 the nativity of Elizabeth ; and she, and all the European princes, were the 
 humble servants of Dee, the astrologer and conjurer. But the period of the 
 Stuarts was the acme of astrology in England. — Sir Walter Scott has made 
 ample use of sir William Lilly, the noted astrologer, in his tales of this 
 period ; and it is certain that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting 
 his projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 1617. — Ferguson. 
 
 ASTRONOMY. The earliest accounts we have of this science are those of 
 Babylon, about 2231: b. c. — Blair. The study of astronomy was much ad- 
 vanced in Chaldaea under Nabonassur ; it was known to the Chinese about 
 1100 B. c. ; some say many centuries before. Lunar eclipses were observed 
 at Babylon with exceeding accuracy, 720 b. c. Spherical form of the earth, 
 and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 b. c. Further 
 discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, and 
 believed in the plurality of habitable worlds, 500 b. c, Hvpparchus began 
 his observations at Rhodes, 167 b.c. — began his new cycle of the moon in 
 143, and made great advances in the science, 140 b. c. The precession of 
 the equinoxes confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets discov- 
 ered, hy Ptolemy., a. d. 130. After the lapse of nearly seven centuries, during 
 which time astronomy was neglected, it was resumed by the Arabs about 800; 
 ind was afterwards brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, 
 but not sooner than 1201, when they also introduced geography. 
 
 The Alphonsine tables {winch see) were 
 composed - - - a. d. 1284 
 
 Clocks first used in astronomy, about - 1.500 
 
 True doctrine of the motions of the pla- 
 netary bodies revived by Copernicus 1530 
 
 The science greatly advanced by Tycho 
 Brahe, about - - - - 1582 
 
 True laws of the planetary motions, by 
 Kepler 1619 
 
 Telescopes and other instruments used 
 in astronomy, about ^ . ^ 1627 
 
 The discoveries of Galileo were made 
 Rbout • . . - - 1631 
 
 The transit of Venus over the sun's disk 
 
 first observed by Horrox, Nov. 24 a.d. 1639 
 Caf?«ini draws his m.eridian line, after 
 
 Dante.— See Bologna - - - 1655 
 
 The aberration of the light of the fixed 
 
 stars discovered by Horrebow - 16.59 
 
 Discoveries of Picart - - - 1669 
 
 Map of the moon constructed by Heve- 
 
 lius I.67G 
 
 Motion of the sun round its own axis 
 
 proveli by Halley - - - 1676 
 
 Discoveries of Hiiygens - - i 16J36 
 
 Newton's Principia published, and Iha 
 
ISO 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [ Atrfl 
 
 ASTRONOMY conlinued. 
 
 system as now taught incontrovenibly 
 established • - - a. d. 1687 
 
 Catalo2;ue of the stars made by Flam- 
 stead' ..... 1688 
 
 Satellites of Saturn, &c. discovered by 
 Cassini .... - 1701 
 
 Aberration of the stars clearly explained 
 by Dr. Bradley . - - - 1737 
 
 Celestial inequalities found by La 
 Grange 1780 
 
 Uranus and satellites discovered by 
 
 Ilerschel, March 13. — See Georgium 
 S'iclus - . - - 1781 
 
 Mecanique Celeste, published by La 
 
 Place" - - " - - " - 1796 
 
 Ceres discovered by Piazzi, Jan 1 • 1801 
 Pallas, by Dr. Olbers, March 28 • 1802 
 
 Juno, by Hardins, Sept. 1 - - - 1804 
 
 Vesta, by Olbers" - . - 1807 
 
 Neptune, by Le Verrier - - - iS»46 
 
 United States astronomical expedition 
 
 to the South Hemisphere, under Lieut. 
 
 Gillies, left Baltimore July 18 - - 1819 
 
 The distance of the fixed stars is supposed to be 400,000 times greater fioni 
 us than we are from the sun, that is to say, 38 millions of millions of miles ; 
 so that a cannon-ball would take near nine millions of years to reach one ol 
 them, supposing there were nothing to hinder it from pursuing its course 
 thither. As light takes about eight minutes and a quarter to reach us from 
 the sun, it would be about six years in coming from one of those stars ; but 
 the calculations of later astronomers prove some stars to be so distant, that 
 their light must take centuries before it can reach us ; and that every par- 
 ticle of light which enters our eyes left the star it comes from three or four 
 hundred years ago. — Objects of Science. 
 
 ASYLUMS, OR Privileged Places. At first they were places of refuge for 
 those who, by accident or necessity had done things that rendered them 
 obnoxious to the law. God commanded the Jews to build certain cities for 
 this purpose. The posterity of Hercules is said so have built one at Athens, 
 to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated, Cadmus 
 built one at Thebes, aud Romulus one on Mount Palatine. A while after the 
 coming of Christianity into England, superstitious veneration ran so high, 
 that churches, monasteries, church-yards, and bishops' houses became asy- 
 lums to all that fled to them, let the crime be what it would ; of which very 
 ill use was made, both by the clergy and laity. In London persons were 
 secure from arrest in particular localities : these were the Miiiories, Salis- 
 bury-court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's-rents, Mitre-court, Baldwin's-gardens, 
 the Savoy, Clink, Deadman's-place, Montague- close, and the Mint. This 
 security was abolished a. d. 1696 ; but the last was not wholly suppressed 
 until the reign of George I. — See Privileged Places and Sanctuaries. 
 
 ATHANASIAN CREED and CONTROVERSY. The great controversy regard- 
 ing the divinity of Christ, arose and extended between a. d. 333 and 351. 
 Athanasius, who was a native of Alexandria, encountered great persecution 
 at the hands of the Arians for his religious doctrines, and was exiled for 
 them again and again. The creed which goes by his name is supposed by 
 most authorities to have been written about the year 340 ; but it is affirmed 
 by other writers to be the compilation of an African bishop in the fifth cen- 
 tury. — Du Pin. 
 
 ATHEISM. This absurd doctrine has had its votaries and its martyrs. Spi- 
 nosa, a foreigner, was its noted defender in the 17th century. Lucilio Vanini 
 publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at Tou- 
 louse in 1619. Mathias Knatzen, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and 
 \ad upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674 ; he travelled 
 xo make proselytes, and his followers were called Cunscienciares, because 
 they held that there is no other deity than conscience. Many eminent men 
 of various countries have been professors of Atheism, and even in England 
 we have had writers tinctured with it. — Klckardson. Ashe. "Though a small 
 draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught wil) 
 certainly bring him back again to the belief of a God." — Lord Bacon. ' .*? 
 
j^TT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 181 
 
 Dieii n'evistait pas il faudrait Vivventer ;" If a God did not exist, it would 
 be necessary to invent one. — Voltaire. 
 
 ATHEN/fCA. These Avere great festivals celebrated at Athens in honor of 
 Minerva. One of them was called Panathenaea, and the other Chalcea ; 
 they were first instituted by Erectheus or Orpheus, 1397 b. c. ; and Theseus 
 afterwards renewed them, and caused them to be observed by all the people 
 of Athens, the first every fifth year, 1234 b. c. — Plutarch. 
 
 A rHEN-^UM. A place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, Avhere the poets and 
 philosophers declaimed and i*ecited their compositions. The most celebrated 
 Athen^a were at Athens, Rome, and Lyons : that of Rome was of great 
 beauty in its building, and was erected by the emperor Adrian, a. d. 125. — 
 Tilleniont's Life of Adrian. 
 
 ATHENS. The once celebrated capital of ancient Attica, whose magnificent 
 ruins yet attest its former grandeur — the seat of science and theatre of valor. 
 The first sovereign of whom we have any knowledge is Ogyges, who reigned 
 in Boeotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign a deluge 
 took place (by some supposed to be no other than the universal deluge, or 
 Noah's flood") that laid waste the country, in which state it remained two 
 hundred years, until the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by 
 whom the land was repeopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 b. c. The first 
 state of Athens was under seventeen kings, comprising a period of 487 5"ears, 
 but the history of its first twelve monarchs is mostly fabulous ; in its second 
 state it ivas governed by thirteen perpetual archons, a period of 316 years ; in 
 its third state by seven decennial archons, whose rule extended over 70 years, 
 and, lastly, in its fourth state by annual archons, who ruled for 760 years. 
 Under this democracy Athens became unrivalled, and her people signalized 
 themselves by their valor, munificence, and culture of the fine arts; and 
 perhaps not one other single city in the world can boast, in such a short 
 space of time, of so great a number of illustrious citizens. The ancients, to 
 distinguish Athens in a more peculiar manner, called it Astu, one of the eyes 
 of Greece. — Plutarch. The Venetians got possession of Athens in a. d. 1204, 
 and the Turks in 1687. — Priestley. It became the capital of Livadia, a pro- 
 vince of European Turkej''; and is now that of the new kingdom of Greece, 
 and the seat of its legislature, established und^r King Otho I., January 25th, 
 1833. — See Greece. For events in the history of >thens, see Tables from 
 B. c. 1556 to B. c. 21. 
 
 ATMOSPHERE. Posidonius first calculated the height of the atmosphere, 
 stating it to be 800 stadia, nearly agreeing with our modern ideas, about 79 
 B.C. Its weight was determined by Galileo and Terricellius, about 1630; 
 its density and elasticity by Boyle ; and its relation to light and sound by 
 Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The composition of the atmosphere was 
 ascertained by Hales, Black, Priestley, Scheele. Lavoisier, and Cavendish ; 
 and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. 
 
 ATTAINDER, Acts of, havebeen passed in numerous reigns : two witnesses 
 in cases of high treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred, 
 unless the party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 and 8 William III. 
 1694-5. — Blackstone. The attainder of Lord Russell, who was beheaded in 
 Lincoln's-inn-Fields, July, 21, 1683, was reversed under William, in 1689. 
 The rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of king 
 James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Sevei'al acts were 
 reversed in subsequent reigns. Among the last acts so reversed, not the least 
 interesting was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (wi i 
 was implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), July 1, 1819. 
 
 ATTILA, surnamed the " Scourge of God,''^ and thus distinguibhed for his con- 
 quests and his crimes, i ivagef* all Europe, a. d. 447. He invaded the Ro 
 
182 THE world's progress. [ Aur 
 
 man empire with an army of 500,000 Huns, and laid waste all the provincea. 
 He died on the night of his nuptials with a beautiful virgin named lidico, 
 about A. D. 453. — Goldsmith. 
 
 ATTORNEY-GENERAL. A great officer of the crown, appointed by letters 
 patent. It is among his duties to exhibit informations aud prosecute for 
 tlie king in matters criminal ; and to file bills in Exchequer, for any claims 
 concerning the crown, in inheritance or profit; and others may bring bills 
 agai ist the king's attorney. The first Attorney-General was "William de 
 Gisilham, 7 Edward I. 1278. — Beatson. 
 
 A FTORNEYS. The number practising in Edward HI. 's reign was under 400 
 for the whole kingdom. In the 32d of Henry VI. 1454. a laAV reduced the 
 practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and 
 restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in Eng- 
 land, or registered, or retired, is about 13,000. The number sworn, and 
 practising or retired in Ireland, is stated at 2000. A list of 19,527 '■^practis- 
 ing lawyers'' in the United States is given in the Lawijer's Directory, 1850. 
 
 ATTRACTION, Copernicus described attraction as an appetence or appetite 
 which the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter, about 1520. It was 
 described by Kepler to be a corporeal affection tending to union, 1605. In 
 the Newtonian philosophy, it is an original power wiiich restores lost motion ; 
 a principle whereby all bodies mutually tend to each other. — See Astronomy. 
 
 AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans, The first in Britain was 
 about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, in the East Indies, of 
 the goods he .had brought home with him. Auction and sales' tax began, 1 779. 
 
 AUERSTADT, Battle of. In this most sanguinary conflict between the French 
 and Prussian armies, they Avere commanded by their respective sovereigns, 
 and Napoleon obtained a decisive victory. The Prussians were routed on 
 every side, and lost 200 pieces of cannon, thirty standards, and 28,000 pri- 
 soners, leaving 30.000 slain upon the field, Oct. 14, 1806. The French 
 emperor immediately afterwards entered Berlin, from whence he issued his 
 memorable Berlin decree. — See Berlin Decree. 
 
 AUGSBURG CONFESSION of FAITH. The confession of articles of faith 
 drawn up at Augsburg by Melancthon, and by him and Luther presented to 
 the emperor Charles V. in 1530. It was divided into two parts, the first 
 consisting of twenty-one articles, and the second of seven, directly opposed 
 to the abuses that had crept into the Church of Rome. The elector of Sax- 
 ony, his son, and several other princes of Germany, signed this confession, 
 which was delivered to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of Augs- 
 burg, and hence it is called the Confession of Augsburg. 
 
 AUGSBURG, League of. A memorable treaty concluded between Holland 
 and other European powers, which had for its object the causing the trea- 
 ties of Munster and Nimeguen to be respected, 16^86. — See Munster and Nl- 
 oneguen. 
 
 AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds, 
 long before the time of Hesiod. Augurs instituted at Rome, with vestals 
 and several orders of the priesthood, by Numa, 710 b. c. There was a com- 
 munity of them, appointed to foretell events by the flight of birds, and 
 other circumstances. The king Car, from whom Caria in Asia Minor is 
 named, was the inventor of augury by birds. — Vossius. The augurs of 
 Rome drew omens from the phenomena of the heavens, the chirping and 
 flight of birds, and various strange casualties. — Livy. 
 
 AUGUST. The eighth month of the year. It was dedicated to the honor of 
 Augustus Caesar, from whom it was named in the year 8 b. c, because in 
 this month he was born, w^s created consul, or chief magistj-ate, thrico 
 
L!7b \ 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 16% 
 
 t&raiiiplietl in Rome, subdued Egypt to the Roman empire, and made an 
 ciid of th3 civil wars. It was previously called Sextills, or the sixth from 
 March. 
 
 ^USTERLITZ, Battle of, between the French and Austrian armies, gained by 
 the former. Three emperors commanded at this battle, Alexander of Rus- 
 sia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded 
 exceeded 40,000 on the side of the allies, who lost, besides, forty standards^ 
 150 pieces of cannon, and many thousands of prisoners. This decisive vic- 
 tory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, which was signed Dec. 26, 
 same year. The battle was fought Dec. 2, 1805. See Presburg. 
 
 AUSTRALASIA, includes New Holland, Van Diemen's Land., New Guinea, 
 New Britian, New Zealand, &c., mostly discovered within two centuries. Oi 
 a population of twenty-two millions, the native inhabitants are not supposed 
 to exceed one hundred thousand. Several settlements from Europe have 
 been made since the commencement of the present century. Act to pro- 
 vide for the government of Western Australia, 10 George IV. 1829. Act 
 to erect South Australia into a British province, 4 and 2 William IV. 1834. 
 New act, 5 and 6 William IV. 1835. Several companies and institutions con- 
 nected with Australia have lately been formed in London. 
 
 AUSTRIA, anciently the Belgic Gaul of the Romans. It was taken from Hun- 
 gary and annexed to Germany, when it received its present name, about a. d. 
 1040. This was after Charlemagne had re-established the Western Empire, 
 Austria being a part of what was called Eastern France, which its name in 
 the German language implies. 
 
 seizes 
 makes 
 
 1273 
 
 1307 
 
 1477 
 
 1496 
 
 Rodolpli, count of Hapsburj 
 Austria from Bohemia, an( 
 himself archduke 
 
 Revolt o( Switzerland froEU the house 
 of Austria, in the reign of Albert I. 
 
 Albert II. duke of Austria, succeeds to 
 three crowns — the imperial, and 
 those of Hungaiy ajid BoheiYiia ; his 
 family stili possess the empire, - 14^ 
 
 Burgundy accrues to Austria b}' the 
 marriage of Maximilian with the 
 heiress of that province 
 
 Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip 
 I. of Austria with the heiress of Ara- 
 gon and Castile 
 
 Charles V., reigning over Gennany, 
 Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, 
 the Netherlands, and. their dependen- 
 cies, abdicates, and retires from the 
 world, leaving his Germaii dominions 
 to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain 
 and the Netkerla«ds to his son, Philip 
 11. — See Spain 
 
 The Protestant princes of Germany, 
 being oppressed by the house of Aus- 
 tria, call in the aid of Gustavus Adol- 
 phus of Sweden, and tliis leads to the 
 treaty of Westphalia - 
 
 Leopold I reigns.— See Germany 
 
 Accession of Francis, duke of Lorraine, 
 who marries the ce!sln-ated queen of 
 Hungary, Maria Ther^ii, daughter of 
 the deceased emperor, Charles VI. - 174o 
 
 Reign of Joseph II. 
 
 Religious toleration granted 
 
 The emperor controls the pope 
 
 Raign of Leopold II. 
 
 Beign of Francis II. - - - 
 
 k ustria becomes a distinct empire, and 
 Fi-ancis 11, of Germany takes the title 
 of L of Austria - Aug. 9, 1804 
 
 1557 
 
 1648 
 1658 
 
 -1765 
 -1776 
 -1782 
 -1790 
 1792 
 
 The emperor issues his declaration 
 against France - - Aug. 5, 1805 
 
 Napoleon, after maiiy victories, enters 
 Vienna - - - Nov. 14, la^Q 
 
 Vienna evacuated by the French, 
 
 Jan. 12, 1806 
 
 They again capture it - May 13, 1809 
 
 But restore it at the peace Oct. 24, 1809 
 
 Napoleon marries the archduchess 
 Maria Louisa, the daughter of the 
 emperor - - April 1, 1810 
 
 Congress at Vienna - Oct. 2, 1814 
 
 Treaty of Vienna . Feb. 25, 1815 
 
 Death of Francis I., and accession of 
 Ferdinand - - March 2, 1835 
 
 New treaty of commerce with England 
 
 July 3, 1838 
 
 Ferdinand is crowned with great splen- 
 dor at Milan - - Sept. 6, 1838 
 
 Tumult at Vienna, agitation for re- 
 forms ; Metternich resigns and flies j 
 freedom of the press and national 
 guard granted by the emperor 
 
 March 13- IMI 
 
 The emperor publishes, at Milan, abo- 
 lition of the censorship and conven- 
 tion of the states ; the people demand 
 more, and are refused March 18, '^ 
 
 Milan revolts, and contends successfully 
 with the soldiery - March 23, " 
 
 Austrians retire to Mantua ; Milan en- 
 tered by Charles Albeit of Sardinia 
 
 March 23, " 
 
 Lombardy and the Tyrol in rebellion. 
 
 Marcb, " 
 
 The emperor retires to Innsbruck 
 
 May 18, « 
 
 Austrian army under Radetsky holds in 
 check Charles Albert of Sardinia, m 
 Lombardy - - May — " 
 
 Is defeated and dri ven to Mantua May 29^ •* 
 
1S4 THE world's PRCGRESh. [ AZO 
 
 AUSTRIA, continued. 
 
 Diet of the Croatian-Slavonic nation Ferdinand I. abdicates ; his oroiher, 
 
 summoned by the Ban of Croatia Francis Charles, declines the throne ; 
 
 May 20, 1848 it is taken by his son, Francis Joseph 
 Insurrection at Rome ; order re-esia- Dec. 2, 1846 
 
 blished after bombardment, June 12-15 " The emperor gives a new constitution 
 Vicenza and Padua subdued by Ra- March 4-6, 1841 
 
 deisky - • • Jime " Haynau takes Krescia, after great 
 
 Milan retaken - - Aug. 4, " • slaughter, and sacks it March 30, " 
 
 The emperor returns to Vienna " 12, " Bologna taken, after a siege of 8 days 
 Lisurrection at Vienna ; Count Latour, May 16, " 
 
 minister of war, killed by the mob ; Haynau takes command of the Aus- 
 
 the diet demands the retraction of the trian army in Hungary June — , " 
 
 measures against Hungary, and a Ancona taken, after bombardment 
 
 new ministry ; the emperor flies June 11, " 
 
 Oct. 6, " Venice taken by Radetsky Aug. 22, " 
 The Hunsranan army advanced within Hungarian war finished by the surren- 
 
 six miles of Vietma - Oct. 11, " derofGiirgey - Aug. 11, " 
 
 Prince Windischgratz appointed com- Followed by numerous executions. 
 
 mauder-in-chief, Oct. 16 ; and be- See Germany, Vienna, &c. 
 
 sieges Vienna, 17th; bombards the 
 
 city and masters it IS ov. 2, " i 
 
 Before the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, Fran- 
 cis ceased to be emperor of Germany, and became hereditary emperor of 
 Austria, under the title of Francis 1. Upon the formation of the Germanic 
 Confederation in 1815, the emperor of Austria was declared hereditary head 
 of that body. , 
 
 AUTHORS. For laws securing copyright, see- Copyright and Literary Property, 
 
 AUTO DA FE. See Inmdsition. The punishment, often by burning alive, of 
 a heretic. This is called an act of Faith, and is coeval with the Inquisition ; 
 and since its tirst practice in a. d. 1203, more than one hundred thousand 
 victims have been sacrificed by the sentence of the Inquisitions of Roman 
 Catholic countries on the burning pile. One of the last executions of this 
 kind was at Goa, where, for the glory of the Christian religion (!) and in 
 vindication of the Catholic faith, twenty sufferers perished in the flames, 
 1787. These horrible sacrifices have ceased in Spain. — Ashe. 
 
 AVIGNON, ceded by Philip III. of France to the Pope in 1273. The papal seat 
 was removed for seventy years to Avignon, in 1308. It was seized several 
 times by the French, by whom it was taken from the pope in 1769, but was 
 restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Declared to belong to 
 France by the National Assembly, 1791. Horrible massacres in October of 
 that year. Continued to France by the Congress of sovereigns, in 1815. 
 
 AXE, WEDGE, WIMBLE, &c. These instruments, with the lever, and vari- 
 ous others of a coarse construction, and still in common use, are said to 
 have been invented by Daedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is 
 ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 1240 b. c, 
 
 AZORES, OR WESTERN ISLES, supposed to be the site of the ancient Ata- 
 lantis : they were discovered by Vandenburg, a. d. 1439 ; and were settled 
 by the Portuguese, in 1448. Martin Behem found one of them covered with 
 beech-trees, and he called it therefore Fayal ; another abounding in sweet 
 flowers, and he therefore called it F lores; and all full of hawks, and he 
 therefore named them the Azores. A violent concussion of the earth took 
 place here for twelve days, in 1591. A devastating earthquake, in 1757. 
 Here are fountains of boiling water. A volcano at St. George's destroyed 
 the town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 1811, a volcano appeared near St. 
 Michael's in the sea, where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An islan«J 
 caUod Sabrina gradually disappeared, Dec. 1812. 
 
BAC ] DIG :iONARY OF DATES. 183 
 
 B. 
 BAEEL, THE TowEB OF, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 b c. The temple of 
 Belus, originally this celebrated tower, was the most magnificent in the 
 world; it had lofty spires, and was enriched with many statues of gold, one 
 c f them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of 
 the founder. Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred Scriptures), who was deified 
 after death ; and in an adjoining apartment was a magnificent bed, whither 
 the priests daily conducted a female, who, as they pretended, was there . 
 honored with the company of the god. — Blair. 
 
 nABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, formed in the cause of Mary against Elizabeth, 
 for which the chief conspirator, with thirteen others, suffered death. Bab- 
 ington was a gentleman of Derbyshire, and he associated with persons of hia 
 own persuasion (the Roman Catholic), with a design to assassinate the 
 queen, and deliver Mary. He seems to have been principally induced to 
 this rash conspiracy by a romantic hope that Mary, in gratitude, would 
 accept of him as a husband. 1586. 
 
 BABYLON, Empire of, founded by Belus, supposed to be the Nimrod of holy 
 writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 b. c. — Lenglet. Ninus of 
 Assyria seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assy- 
 rian empire, by uniting the two soveieignties, 2059 b.c. According to 
 Eusebius this empire existed 1240 years ; according to Justin, 1300 years ; 
 according to Herodotus, 500 or 600 years. Of these opinions Blair has 
 adopted the first, which calculates from the foundation of the empire by 
 Ninus, B. c. 2059, to the close of the reign of Sardanapalus, who was de- 
 throned by his generals, and his kingdom divided into the Assyrian, Baby- 
 lonian, and Median kingdoms, 820 b. c. — See Assyria. 
 
 and names his capital after himself, 
 Nineveh. — Lenglet • • b. c. 2069 
 
 Babylon taken by Ninus - - - 2059 
 
 The Assyrian empire ends - - 820 
 
 Belesis governs in Babylon - - 766 
 
 Babylon taken by Esar-haddon - - 680 
 Nebuchadnezzar reigns - - - 604 
 
 He takes Jerusalem. —Lenglet - - 587 
 He is driven from among men - - 569 
 
 Babylon taken by the Medes and Per- 
 sians, under Cyrus - - - 538 
 Taken by Darius. — Usher • • 511 
 
 The tower of Babel built - b. c. 2247 
 The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 
 
 Ashur builds a city, afterwards called 
 
 Nineveh - - - 2245 
 
 The astronomical observations are be- 
 gun at Babylon by the Chaldeans. — 
 Blair ; Lenglet ■ - - 2234 
 
 Belus, king of Assyria, extends his em- 
 pire over the neighboring states, de- 
 feats the Babylonians, and makes 
 them tributary. — Usher - -2124 
 
 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, 
 
 The city of Babylon was, anciently, the most magnificent in the world; and 
 in later times famous for the empire established under the Seleucidse. Its 
 greatness was so reduced in succeeding ages, that Pliny says, in his time it 
 was but a desolate wilderness ; and at present the place where it stood is 
 scarcely known to travellers. — Rollings Ancieiit Hist. 
 
 BACCHANALIA, games celebrated in honor of Bacchus. They arose in 
 Egypt, and were brought into Greece by Melampus, and were there called 
 Dioiiysia, about 1415 b. c. — Diodorus. They were celebrated in Rome under 
 the name of Bacchanalia. 
 
 BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried 
 men ; and men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at 
 certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged them round their altars, 
 and inflicted on them various marks of infamy and disgrace. — Vossius. After 
 twenty-five years of ago, a tax was laid upon bachelors in England. 12^. 10s. 
 for a duke, and for a common person, one shilling, 7 William III. 1695: 
 Bachelors were subjected to a double tax on their male and female servants, 
 in 1785, 
 
 BACKGAMjVON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game 
 (decidedly ^ne of the oldest known to our times), about 1224 b.c. It is 
 
/86 THE world's progress. [ BRI 
 
 stated by some to liave been invented iu Wales in the period preceding the 
 Conquest. — Henry. 
 
 BA.DAJOS, Siege of. This important barrier fortress had surrerdered to the 
 French, March 11, 1811, and was invested by the British under lord Wel- 
 lington on March 18, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6, following. 
 T\\.\9, victory was not only a glorious military achievement in itself, but it 
 obhged the French, who had entered Portugal for the purpose of plunder, 
 to commence a precipitate retreat from that kingdom. 
 
 BADEN, House of, descended from Herman, son of Berthold I. duke of Zah- 
 ringen, who died a.d. 1074. From Christojjher, who united the branches 
 of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Baden- 
 Baden, and Baden-Dourlach. This family makes a most conspicuous figure in 
 the annals of Germany, and is allied to all the principal families in the empire. 
 
 BADEN, Treaty of, between France and the emperor, when Landau was 
 ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 1714. Baden was formerly a margravate; it 
 was erected into a grand duchy, as a member of the Rhenish Confedei'ation, 
 in 1806. Its territorial acquisitions by its alliances with France, were gua- 
 ranteed by the congress of Vienna, in 1815. The grand Duke granted his 
 I>eople freedom of the press, a burgher guard, trial by jury, and the right 
 of public meeting. Feb. 29. Troops revolt at Rastadt, May, 1849. Insur- 
 rection at Carlsruhe ; — the grand Duke flees, May 13, 1849. Insurrection 
 subdued by the Prussians, June, 1849. ' 
 
 BAFFIN'S-BAY, discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. The 
 nature and extent of this discovery were much doubted until the expeditions 
 of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his state- 
 ment. These voyagers returned home in 1818. See article North West 
 Passage. 
 BAGDAD, built by Almansor, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, a. d. 
 762 — taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. It 
 has since been often taken by the Persians, and from them again by the 
 Turks. — Blair. 
 BAGPIPE. This instrument is supposed by some to be peculiar to Ireland and 
 Scotland ; but it must have been known to the Greeks, as, on a piece oi 
 Grecian sculpture of the highest antiquity, now in Rome, is represented a 
 bagpiper dressed -like a modern highlander. Nero is said to have played 
 upon a bagpipe, a.d. 51. 
 BAHAMA ISLES. These were the first points of discovery by Columbus. 
 San Salvador Avas seen by this great navigator on the night of the 11th Octo- 
 ber, 1492.~The Bahamas were not known to the English till 1667. Seized 
 for the crown of England, 1718, when the pirates who inhabited them sur- 
 rendered to Captain Rogers. 
 BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the Conquest, all felonies 
 were bailable, till murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 3d Edward 
 I. the power of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was laken 
 away, 1274. Bail was further regulated, 23 Henry VI. ; 2 Philip and I\Iary 
 and in later reigns. 
 BAILIFFS OR SHERIFFS, are said to be of Saxon origin. London had its shire- 
 reve prior to the Conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for 
 counties in England in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the 
 name of bailiffs, in 1308 ; and the name was changed to sheriff. 1548. There 
 are still some places v/here the chief-magistrate is called bailiff, as the high 
 bailift' of Westminster. The term Bum-bailiff \^ a corruption of bound-bailiff, 
 every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good be* 
 havior. -■ Blackstoae. 
 
BAL J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 187 
 
 BALANCE OF POWER, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and 
 control ambition ; the principle is said to be a discovery of the Italian poli- 
 ticians of the fifteenth century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France — 
 Robertson. By the treaty of Munster, the principle of a balance of power 
 was first recognized by treaty October 24, 1648. 
 
 MALLADS. They may be traced in British history to the Anglo-Saxons.— 
 Turner. Andhelme, who died a. d. 709, is mentioned as the first who intro- 
 duced ballads into England. "The harp was sent round, that those might 
 sing who could." — Bede. Alfred sung ballads. — Malmsbury . Canute com- 
 posed one. — Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of Edward IV. •, 
 but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable among rogues, 
 vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. — Viner. 
 
 BALLADS, NATIONAL. " Give me the writing of the ballads, and you may 
 make the laws." — Fletcher of Saltoun. A British statesman has said, " Give 
 me the writing of the ballads of the country, and while I place at your com- 
 mand every other species of composition, I will fix public opinion, and rule 
 public feeling, and sway the popular sentiment, more powerfully than all 
 your writers, political and moral, can do by any other agency or influence." 
 The beautiful and frequently touching ballads of Dibdin, particularly those 
 of the sea, inspired many a brave defender of his country in the late war ; 
 Dibdin died Jan. 20, 1833. 
 
 BALLETS. They arose in the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One 
 performed at the interview between Hen. VIII. of Eng. & Francis I. of France, 
 in the field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520. — Guiccio.rdini. In the next century, 
 
 - they reached the summit of their glory in the splendid pomps of the courts 
 of Tuscany and Lorraine ; and their most zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore 
 a part in one, 1664. 
 
 BALLOON. Galien of Avignon wrote on aerostation, in 1755. Dr. Black gave 
 the hint as to hydrogen, in 1767. A balloon was constructed in France by 
 MM. Montgolfier, in 1783, when Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes ascended 
 at Paris. PilSitre Desrozier and M. Remain perished in an attempted voyage 
 from Boulogne to England, the balloon having taken fire, June 14, 1785. At 
 the battle of Fleurus, the French riiade use of a balloon to reconnoitre the 
 enemy's army, and convey the observations by telegraph, June 17, 1794. 
 Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height of 4,000 feet, and descended by 
 • a parachute, Sept. 21. 1802. Gay-Lussac ascended at Paris to the height of 
 23.000 feet, Sept. 6, 1804. Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night, 
 and the balloon, being surrounded by fire-works, took fire, and she was pre- 
 cipitated to the ground, and killed, July 6, 1819. 
 
 BALLOON, The Nassau. The great Nassau balloon, of immense dimensions, 
 and which had for some time previously been exhibited to the inhabitants 
 of London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall gardens, started from that 
 place on an experimental voyage, having three mdividuals in the car, and, 
 after having been eighteen hours in the air, descended at Weilburg, in the 
 duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7, 1836. 
 
 BALTIMORE, the third city in population and fifth in commerce in the United 
 States ; founded 1729 ; named from lord Baltimore, the proprietor of the 
 Maryland patent. In 1765 it contained but 50 houses ; chartered as a city 
 in 1797. Population is 1790, 13 503 ; in 1810, 35,583 ; in 1830, 80,625 ; in 
 1840, 102,313, including 3,199 slaves. A handsome monument in the city 
 commemorates its successful defence against the attack of the British under 
 general Ross. Sept. 12, 181^. 
 
 BALTIMORE, Battle of, between the British army under general Ross and 
 the Americans ; the British in making an attack upon the town were unsuo- 
 
l88 THE world's TROGE-ESS. [ Ba« 
 
 cessful, and after a desperate engagement were repulsed with great loss; 
 tlie gallant general who led the enterprise was killed, Sept. 12, 1814. 
 
 BANK. The first established was in Italy, a. d. 808, by the Lombard Jews, ol 
 whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still 
 reside. The name bank is derived from banco, a bench, which was erected 
 in the market-place for the exchange of money. The mint in the tower of 
 London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charleys T. 
 laid his hands upon the money, and destroyed the credit of the mint, in 1640. 
 The traders were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold, 
 which, when kept at home, their apprentices frequently absconded with to 
 the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge it with the goldsmitha 
 in Lombard-street, who were provided with strong chests for their own vain - 
 able wares ; and this became the origin of banking in England. — 
 
 Bank of Venice formed - - -1157 Bank of Hamburgh - -1619 
 
 Bank of Geneva - - - 1345 
 
 Bank of Barcelona - - - 1401 
 
 Bank of Genoa - - - 1407 
 
 Bank of Amsterdam - - - 1607 
 
 Bank of Rotterdam . -1635 
 
 Bank of Stockholm ... 1688 
 
 Bank of England - - - '694 
 
 Bank of the United States - 1791 and 18itt 
 
 BANK OF ENGLAND, (See f receding article,^ originally projected by a mer 
 chant named Patterson. It was incorporated by William III. in 1694, in con- 
 sideration of 1 200 OOOZ., the then amount of its capital, being lent to gov- 
 ernment. The capital has gone on increasing from one period to another up 
 to the present time, as the discretion of parliament allowed ; and the same 
 authority has also at different intervals prolonged the privileges of the bank, 
 and renewed its charter. When first established the notes of the bank were 
 at 20 per cent, discount; and so late as 1745, they were under par. Bauk 
 bills were paid in silver, 1745. The first bank post-bills were issued 1754 ; 
 small notes were issued 1759 ; cash payments were discontinued February 25, 
 1797, when notes of one and Iwo pounds were put into circulation. Silver 
 tokens appeared in January, 1798 ; and afterwards Spanish dollars, with the 
 head of George III. stamped on the neck of Charles IV., were made current. 
 Cash payments were resumed partially, Sept. 22, 1817, and the restriction 
 had altogether ceased in 1821. For a number of years the financial mea- 
 sures of the crown have been largely aided by loans from this great reser- 
 voir of wealth. The average amount of the Bank of England notes in cir- 
 culation is as follows : — 
 
 In 1815 .... dE26,803,520 
 
 1820 .... 27,174,D0O 
 
 1830 - - - - 20,620,000 
 
 1835 .... 18,215,220 
 
 1840 - - - . 17,231,000 
 
 In 1718 (earliest account) - JE1,829,930 
 
 r/78 - - ... 7,030,680 
 
 1790 - - - - 10,217,000 
 
 1800 .... 15,450,000 
 1810 .... 23,904,000 
 
 Tlie circulation of notes, in 1845, exceeded 27 millions, and the bullion in 
 the bank fluctuated between 15 and 16 millions. The returns of issues, &c. 
 are now made weekly. To secure the credit of the Bank it was enacted, 
 " that no other banking company should consist of more than six persons," 
 6 Anne 1707. There are branch banks of the Bank of England in many of 
 the chief towns of the kingdom ; as Birmingham, Bristol, Exeter, Glouces- 
 ter, Hull, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Norwich, Swansea, &c., 
 all formed since 1828. See Funds. 
 
 BANK OP THE UNITED STATES, first one established 1791. Cap. S10,000,000. 
 -r-A new one with cap. of 835,000 000, 1816. The act of Congress rechar- 
 tering it vetoed by president Jackson, July 10, 1832. The "removal of 
 the deposits " of iho, U. S. government from the bank, by order of presi- 
 dent Jackson, signed by R. B. Taney, secretary of the Treasury, (W. J. 
 Duane the late secretary having refused to sign the order,) Sept. 23, 1833. 
 Resolution of the Senate that the removal was uncalled for, and the respon- 
 Bibilifcy assumed by the president unconstitutional, «fcc., introduced by Mr 
 
BAP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 18^ 
 
 Wenster and passed (26 to 20) March 28, 1834. Senate refused to enter on 
 their journal the president's protest against their resolution, May 7, 1834, 
 Noted resolution of the Senate "expunging" from their journals their reso- 
 lution of 1834, passed 24 to 19, Jan. 16, 1837. — Sub-Treasury Bill passed 
 Jan. 1840, repealed Aug. 9. 1841. The U. S. Bank newly incorporated by 
 Pennsylvania, March 29, 1836 : suspended payment Feb. 5, 1841. Bill for 
 establishing a " Fiscal Bank of the U. S." passed the House of Representa- 
 tives Aug. 6, 1841 ; vetoed by president Tyler Aug. 16. Another bill for a 
 "Fiscal Corporation" vetoed Sept, 9, 1841, followed by a resignation of a^ 
 the Cabinet, except Mr. Webster. 
 
 BANKRUPTCY. Suspension of specie payments by the banks of New Eng. 
 land and New- York, May 10 — 16, 1837 ; — legalized for one jear by legisla- 
 ture of N. Y. Banks of Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c., also suspended same 
 month. General bankruptcy law passed by Congress Aug. 9, 1841. 
 
 BANKRUPTS, in England, first law enacted regarding them, 35 Henry VIH. 
 1S43. Again, 3 of Elizabeth, 1560 ; again, 1 James I. 1602 ; again, 1706 ; 
 and more recently. It was determined by the King's Bench that a bankrujjt 
 may be arrested except in going and coming from any examination before 
 the commissioners. May 13, 1780. The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refused 
 a bankrupt his certificate because he had lost five pounds at one time in 
 gaming, July 17, 1788. Enacted that members of the house of commons 
 becoming bankrupts, and not paying their debts in full, shall vacate their 
 . seats, 1812. The new bankrupt bill, constituting a new bankrupt court, 
 passed October 1831. — Statutes at Large. 
 
 NUMBER OP BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 
 1700 
 
 1725 . 
 1750 
 1775- - 
 
 According to a return to parliament made at the close . of February 1826. 
 there had become bankrupt in the four months preceding, 59 banking-houses', 
 comprising 144 partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been 
 declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy 
 to a hundred merchants, traders, and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. 
 This was, however, the period of bubble speculation, and of unprecedented 
 commercial embarrassment and ruin. 
 
 BANNOCKBURN, Battle of, between king Robert Bruce, of Scotland, and 
 Edward II. of England ; the army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 Scots, and 
 that of Edward of 100,000 English, of whom 52,000 were archers. The 
 English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce having dug pits, which 
 he had covered, they fell into them, and were thrown into confusion. The 
 rout was complete, the king narrowly escaping, and 50,000 English were 
 killed or taken prisoners, June 25, 1314. — Barbour. 
 
 BANNS. In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of any thing, 
 and hence arose the custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage. 
 The use of matrimonial banns is said to have been introduced into the Galil- 
 ean church, about a. d. 1210; and banns of marriage are proclaimed in the 
 church of England to this day. 
 
 BAPTISM. The sacrament of admission instituted by Christ and practised l)y 
 all sects professing Christianity, except Quakers. St. John, the forerunner 
 of our Saviour, is eminently called the Baptist, as being the first that publicly 
 baptized with a spiritual intention. Christ came from Galilee to Jordan, 
 and was baptized by John. a. d. 30. Originally the people were baptized in 
 rivers; but in the reign of Constantine, a. d. 319, in great cities they built 
 chapels, or places specially to baptize in, which in the eastern countries was 
 
 - 38 
 
 1800 . 
 
 - 1339 
 
 1830 
 
 - 1467 
 
 - 416 
 
 1810 - 
 
 ■ - 2000 
 
 1835 • 
 
 - - 954 
 
 . 432 
 
 1820 
 
 . 1358 
 
 1840 
 
 - 1308 
 
 . 520 
 
 1825 - 
 
 - - 2683 
 
 1844 - 
 
 - - 1064 
 
l9U THE world's PRC GRESS. \^ BAR 
 
 by dipping the person .all over. Now, in the western and colder parts, they 
 use sprinkling ; at tirst every church had not a baptistery belonging to it ; 
 our fonts answer the same end. — Pardon. 
 
 BAPTISTS, OR Anabaptists, a sect distinguished from other Christians by their 
 opinions respecting baptism, began their doctrine about a. d. 1525, but much 
 earlier dates are mentioned. They suffered much persecution in England in 
 the sixteenth century. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists iu 
 1635. Of Baptist missions, it may be said, that the Moravian brethren led 
 the way to their benevolent enterprises, about 1732. — See Anabaptists. 
 
 B ARBADOES, the first English settlement in the West Indies. This mother 
 plantation gave rise to the sugar trade in England about 1605 ; and was, 
 with other Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to the earl of Marl- 
 borough, 2 Charles 1. 1627. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental 
 visitations : in a dreadful hurricane in 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabit- 
 
 • ants lost their lives. A large plantation with all its buildings was destroyed, 
 by the land removing from its original site to another, and covering every 
 thing in its peregrination, Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two 
 great fires, May and Dec. 1796. Awful devastation, with the loss of thou- 
 sands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, August 10, 1831. 
 The history of Inkle and Yarico, which Addison, in his Spectator, has re- 
 corded for the detestation of mankind, took its rise in this island. 
 
 BARBER. This trade was practised at Rome in the third century b. c. In 
 England, bar bers formerly exhibited a head, or pole, at their doors ; and the 
 barber's pole until lately used by them was a burlesque imitation of the 
 former sign 
 
 BARBER-SURGtEONS. Formerly the business of a surgeon was united to that 
 of a barber, and he was denominated a barber-surgeon. A company wa-s 
 formed under this name in 1308, and the London company was incorporated, 
 1st Edward IV. 1461. This union'of profession was dissolved by a statute 
 of Henry VIII 
 
 BARDS. The profession of bard appeared with great lustre in Gaul, Britain, 
 and Ireland, Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; Alexander the 
 Great had a bard named Cherylus ; and we find bards, according to Strabo, 
 among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The druids among the 
 English were philosophers and priqsts, and the bards were their poets. 
 They were the recorders of heroic actions, in Ireland and Scotland, almost 
 down to our own times. Ossian flourished in the third century, Merlin in 
 tiie fif& The former speaks of a prince who kept a hundred bards. Irish 
 sonnets are the chief foundations of the ancient history of Ireland. — See 
 Ballads. 
 
 BARNET, Battle of, between the houses of York and Lancaster, when Ed- 
 ward IV gained a decisive and memorable victory over the earl of War- 
 wick, Easter-day, April 14, 1471. — Brooks. 
 
 BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having discovered that no principle 
 of suction existed, and that Avater did not rise in a pump owing to nature's 
 abhorrence of a vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mercury, and 
 . made the first barometer, in 1643, and Descartes explained the phenomena. 
 Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668; pendant barometers in 1695; 
 marine in 1700. 
 
 BARONS. The dignity of baron is extremely ancient: its original name in 
 England was Vavasour, which, by the Saxons was changed into Tliane, and 
 by the Normans into Baron. Many of this rank are named in the his- 
 tory of England, and undoubtedly had assisted in. or had been summoned, 
 to parliament; but such is the deficiency of public records, that the first 
 
bat] dictionary of dates. 191 
 
 precept to be fljund is of no higher date than the 49th Henry III., 1265. Tho 
 first who was raised to this dignity by patent was John de Beauchanip, 
 created Baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1387. Barons first sum- 
 moned to parliament, 1205. Took arms against king John, and com- 
 pelled him to sign the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of the 
 forests, at Runnymede, near Windsor, June 1215. Charles II. granted a 
 coronet to barons on his restoration : they attended parliament in complete 
 armor in the reign of Henry III. — Beatsoii. 
 
 iJARONETS, the first among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is here- 
 ditary: instituted by James I., 1611. The baronets of Ireland were created 
 in 1619. Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 1625. 
 
 BARRISTERS. They are said to have been first appointed by Edward I. 
 about 1291 ; but there is earlier mention of professional advocates in Eng- 
 land. There are various ranks of barristers, as King's Counsel, Ser- 
 geants, &c. 
 
 BARROW'S STRAITS. Discovered by Parry, who penetrated as far as JVIel- 
 ville Island, in lat. 74° 26' N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait was entered 
 on the 2d August, 1819. The lowest state of the thermometer was 55° 
 below zero of Fahrenheit. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW, Massacre of St. This dreadful massacre in France com- 
 menced at Paris on the night of the festival of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 
 1572. More than seventy thousand Hugonots, or French Protestants, were 
 murdered throughout the kingdom, by secret orders from Charles IX., at 
 the instigation of the queen-dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mother. 
 The masaacre was attended with circumstances of demoniacal cruelty, even 
 as regarded the female and the infant. 
 
 BASTILE OF PARIS. A royal castle, built by Charles V. king of France, in 
 1369, et seq. for the defence of Paris against the English, completed in 1383. 
 It was afterwards used as a state prison, like the Tower of London, and be- 
 came the scene of the most deplorable suffering and frightful crimes. It 
 was of such strength that Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in 
 vain in the siege of Paris, during the intestine war that desolated Franco 
 between the years 1587 and 1594; yet it was pulled down by the infuriated 
 l)opu]ace, July 14. 1789, and thus was commenced the French revolution. 
 On the capture of this great monument of slavery, the governor and other 
 ofiicers were seized, and conducted to the Place de Greve, and having had 
 their hands cut off, they were then beheaded. The furious citizens having 
 fixed their heads on pikes, carried them in triumph through the streets. 
 '•The man with the iron mask," the n^o^^t mysterious prisoner ever known, 
 died here, November 19, 1703. — See Iron Mask. 
 
 B^-iTAVIA. The capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East 
 Indies, fortified by that people, 1618. Twelve thousand Chinese massacred 
 here in one day, 1740. . Taken by the English, January, 1782. Again, by 
 the British, under general sir Samuel Auchmuty, to whom the garrison 
 surrendered^ Aug. 8, 1811. 
 
 BATHS, long used in Greece, and introduced 'by Maecenas into Rome. TL3 
 thermae of the Romans and gymnasia of the Greeks were sumptuous. The 
 marble Laocoon was found in the baths of Titus, and the Farnese Hercules 
 in those of Caracalla. — Strabo. 
 
 BATTEL ROLL. After the battle of Hastings, which decided the fiite qI 
 England, and subjected it to the Norman yoke, a list Avas taken of William's 
 chiefs, amounting to 629, and called the Battel-roU; and among these chiefs 
 the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were dis- 
 tributed, 1066. 
 
192 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [BAI 
 
 BATTLE, Wager of. A trial by combat, formerly allowed b}^ Eng-lish laws, 
 where the defendant in an appeal of murder mig-ht light with the appellant, 
 and make proof thereby of his guilt or innocence. In a case of appeal ol 
 murder, Ashford v. Thornton, before the King's Bench in London, April 1818, 
 the court ailowed that the law gave the defendant a right to his wager of 
 battle ; but the appellant, the brother of a lovely girl, whom Thornton had 
 first violated and then murdered, not accepting the challenge, the murderer 
 was discharged. A statute was immediately passed, putting an end to this 
 mode of trial, 5*9 George IIL, 1819. — StakUes at large. 
 
 B ATTERIN'G-RAM. Testudo Arietaria, with other military implements, some 
 of which are still in use, invented by Artemones, about Ml b. c. These 
 ponderous engines by their own weight exceeded the utmost effects of our 
 battering csinnon.-—Desagidiers. Sir Christopher Wren employed a batter- 
 ing-ram in demolishing the old walls of St. Paul's church, previously to re- 
 building the new edifice in 1675. 
 
 B A.TTLES. Palamedes of Argos was the first who ranged an army in a regu- 
 lar line of battle, and placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the sol- 
 dier's vigilance by giving him a watch-word. — Le^iglet. The following are 
 the principal and most memorable battles mentioned in gv^neral history, and 
 are those also that are most commonly referred to : 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Ber\vi(fk - - • - - 1378 
 
 Bilhoa. (British legion) Dec. 2j, 183/3 
 
 Blackheath {Cornish Rebels defeated) 149/ 
 
 Blackrock (Amer. ^ Brit.) - Dec. 3, 1813 
 
 Actium (the em.pire of Rome is con 
 
 firmed to Augustus) - 
 Arbela (^FalL of Persia) 
 
 Aboukir ( Turks) 
 
 Acre (Siege cuniinenced) - 
 
 (Sir Sydney Siiiith) 
 
 (Storming of) 
 
 Adrianople ( Constant ine) 
 
 Albuera 
 
 Alford (Covenanters) - 
 
 Alexandria (Abercronibie) - 
 
 (Abercronibie) 
 
 Algiers (E.vmoutli) - 
 
 (French) 
 
 Alderton Moor 
 Agincourt 
 Aliwal (India) 
 Almanza,, in Spain 
 Amoy ( Ctty taken) - 
 Almeida - - 
 Anjou, or Breagne - 
 Aiitoign - 
 
 Areola 
 
 Ascalon (Richard I.) - 
 
 Assaye ( Welles! ey) - 
 
 Auerstadt 
 
 Augsburg 
 
 Austerliiz 
 
 Badajos 
 
 Balkan, passage of the - 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Bannockburn 
 
 Bamot (Edward IV.) 
 
 Barrosa - 
 
 Bautzen 
 
 Bayonne - 
 
 Belgrade 
 
 31 
 
 - - 331 
 
 A. D. 
 
 July 26, '1799 
 Mar. 18, 1799 
 May 27, ibid 
 
 ^'ov. 3, 1840 
 
 - 32:3 
 
 May 16, 1811 
 
 July 2, 1645 
 Mar. 21, 1801 
 May 17, 1799 
 Aug. 27, 1816 
 
 July 4, 1830 
 
 - - 1643 
 Oct. 25, 1415 
 Jan. 20, 1846 
 April 4, 1707 
 
 Aug. 27, 1.S41 
 Aug. 5, 1811 
 
 - - 1421 
 Aug, 13, 1792 
 Nov. 19, 1796 
 
 Sept. 3, 1191 
 Sept. 23, 1803 
 
 Oct. 14, 1806 
 Aug. 24, 1796 
 
 Dec. 2, 1805 
 Mar. 11, 1811 
 July 26, 1829 
 Sept. 12, 1814 
 June 2.5, 1314 
 April 14, 1471 
 
 Mar. 6, 1811 
 
 May 20, 1813 
 Mar. 19, 1794 
 
 - - 1456 
 - 1717 
 
 - Aug. 1777 
 Aprn 13, 1759 
 
 Bladensburg - - - Aug. 24, 1814 
 
 Blenheim (Marlborough) Aug. 2, 1/04 
 
 Borodina - - - Sept. 7, 1812 
 
 Bosworth - - Aug. 22, 1485 
 
 Both well Bridge, Scotland • - - 1679 
 
 Bn.yne, Ireland - - July 1, 1690 
 
 Bovines (French and Germans) - - 1214 
 Boxtel - - - Sept. 17, I'-^A: 
 
 Brandy wine - • • Sept. 11, 1777 
 
 Brechin, Scotland - - - 1452 
 
 Brenau (Anstrians and Bavarians) - 1743 
 Breslau - - - Nov. 22, 1757 
 
 Briar's Creek - - - - 1779 
 
 Brienne - - - Feb. 29, 1814 
 
 Bridjrewater (Americans and British) 
 
 July 25, 1814 
 Buena Vista (Amer. and Mexicans) 
 
 Feb. 22, 1847 
 Buenos Ayres (Pophavi) 
 ( Whitelock) 
 
 Bennington (Amer ^ Brit.) 
 Bergen - 
 
 Sept. 19 and "Oct. 2, 1799 
 
 i?ergen-op-Zoom (taken) - - 1747 
 
 — - - Mar. 6, 1814 
 
 Beresina - - - Sept. 7, 1812 
 
 Bunker's Hill 
 Busaco - 
 Brownstown (Canada) 
 
 Cannae ( Victory of Hannibal) 
 Carthage (taken by Publius Scipio) 
 Chceronea ( Tolmidas) • 
 
 (Philip) • 
 
 — (Sylla) 
 
 Cnidos (Lysander killed) • 
 
 Cranon, in Thessaly 
 
 Cyzicum .... 
 
 Calais taken 
 Calcutta (India) 
 Camden (Amer. Sf Brit.) 
 
 (Amer. Sf Brit.) - 
 
 Campo Santo 
 
 Canton (Bogue forts taken) 
 
 Castel Nuovo 
 
 Casiella 
 
 June 21, 1S06 
 
 July 6, 1807 
 
 June 17, 1775 
 
 Sept. 27, 1810 
 
 Aug. 8, 1812 
 
 B. C, 
 
 216 
 
 146 
 
 447 
 
 . - 333 
 
 - 86 
 
 - - 394 
 
 - 322 
 
 - . 406 
 
 A. ^. 
 
 -Jan. 7, 1558 
 
 June 1756 
 
 - Aug. 15, 1786 
 
 April 25, 1781 
 
 - 1743 
 Feb. 26, 1841 
 
 Sept. 29, 180G 
 Apiil 1.3. 1813 
 
)...-.] 
 
 DICT-OiNARY OF DATES. 
 
 193 
 
 BATTLES, continued. 
 
 Cassano (Prince Eugene) 
 
 Castlebar (French) - 
 
 Casiiglione 
 
 Casiillon, in Guienne 
 
 Charlei'oi 
 
 Charteroi Fleurus - 
 
 A. D. 
 
 - 1705 
 Aug. 28, 1798 
 
 July 2, 1796 
 - - 1453 
 
 - 1090 
 June 17, 1794 
 
 Charleston (taken hy the British) 
 
 May 12, 1780 
 Chepultepec(jl?«.^iV/er.)Sept. 12-14, 1S48 
 Chippewa - July 5 and 25, 1814 
 
 Oct. 1814 
 
 Ciudad Rodrigo (invested) June 11, 1812 
 
 (stormed) - Jan. 19, 1812 
 
 Clontarf, Ireland - - - 1039 
 
 Constantina (Algiers) - Oct. 13, 1837 
 Contreras (Amer. and Mexicuns) • 1848 
 Corunna, (Moore) - - Jan. 16, 1809 
 
 Cowpens (Amer. S;- Brit.) - - 1781 
 
 Craney island (Americans and Brit.) 
 
 June 21, 1813 
 Cressy (Ich Dien) - - Aug. 25, 1345 
 
 CuUodeu (Preteiider) • April 16, 1746 
 
 Cunnersdorf- - - Aug. 12, 1759 
 
 Detroit (surrendered) • Aug. 16, 1812 
 
 Dettingen (Geo?-g-e //.) - - -1743 
 
 Dresden - - - Aug. 26, 1813 
 
 Dreux. in France - - - - 1562 
 
 Drogheda (taken by storm) • - 1649 
 
 Dumblain (Sherijf-Muir) . Nov. 12, 1715 
 Dunbar - - - Sept. 3, 1650 
 
 (King of Scots taken) • • 1296 
 
 -, Siege of, - - - 1-337 
 
 DunganHill- - . July 10, 1647 
 
 Dunkirk - - - Sept. 7, 1793 
 
 Dunsinane - - - • 1054 
 
 Durham, Nevil's Cross - - 1346 
 
 Eastport (Americans and British) 
 
 July 1814 
 Edgehill fight - - Oct. 23, 1642 
 
 Erie, Fort - - - Aug. 15, 1814 
 
 'EYzevoMm. (Turks and Prussians) • 1745 
 Eutaw Springs - • - - 1781 
 
 Evesham - • Aug. 4, 1265 
 
 Eylau - - - Feb. 8, 1807 
 
 Fairfield (Amer. 4* Brit.) - - 1779 
 
 Falkirk, (Wa/toce) - • July 22, 1298 
 
 Flatbush, L. I. (Am. ^ Brit.) Aug. 27, 1776 
 Flodden - - - Sept. 9, 1513 
 
 Fontainebleau - - Feb. 17, 1814 
 
 Fnntenoy - • - April 30, 1745 
 
 Fort du Quesne - - July 9, 1755 
 
 French Town, Canada - Jan. 22, 1813 
 Friedburg - - June 4, 1745 
 
 Friedland - - - June 14, 1807 
 
 B. C. 
 
 Granicus . - . , - 334 
 
 A. D. 
 Germantown - - - Oct. 4,1 ?77 
 Gisors (Dieu ct man droit) - - 1198 
 Guilford - - - Mar. 16, 1781 
 Halidon Hill, Berwick • July 19, 1-333 
 Halle (Bernadotte) • • Oct. 17, 1806 
 Hanau ( Wrede) • Oct. 29, 1813 
 Hastings (Cojiquest) • Oct. 14, 1066 
 Hexham ( Yorkists defeated) May 15, >464 
 Hochkirchen - - Oct. 14, '.:758 
 Hohenlinden - - Nov. 3, 1800 
 
 B. C. 
 
 Ipsus (Antigonus sJai7i) - • • 301 
 
 Ifsus (110,000 Persians slain) ■ aSS 
 
 Jarnac 
 
 Jemappe 
 
 Jena - 
 
 Ket and Warwick 
 
 Killiecrankie, Scotland 
 
 Kowno - - . 
 
 Krasnoi 
 
 Leuctra - 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Mar. 3, 1569 
 Nov. 5, 1792 
 Oct. 14, 1806 
 
 - 1549 
 July 27, 1639 
 Dec. 14, 1812 
 Nov 16, 1812 
 
 B. C. 
 
 - 370 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Laffeldt (Duke of Cufnberland) - - 1747 
 Landshut (Prussians and Austrians) 1745 
 
 ——(Austrians) - April 21, J 809 
 
 Langside - - May 13, 1568 
 
 Leipzic - - - Oct. 16, 1813 
 
 Lepanto(G^eeAs) - - May 9, 1829 
 
 Lewes - - - May 14, 1264 
 
 l^exmgion {Amer. revolution) A.pi-\\ 19, 1775 
 Ligny - - - June 16, S15 
 
 Lincoln - - - Feb. 2, 1141 
 
 May 19, 1217 
 
 - 1708 
 Dec. 5, 1796 
 
 May 10, 1757 
 
 Aug. 27, 1776 
 
 May 2, 181-3 
 
 - - 1632 
 
 B. C. 
 
 353 
 
 45 
 
 A. D. 
 
 McHenry, Fort (Americans and Brit.) 
 
 Oct. 13, 1814 
 Malplaquet (Marlborough) 
 Manheim ... 
 
 Lisle (taken by the Allies) 
 
 Lissa - .' - 
 
 Lodi 
 
 Long Island - 
 
 Lutzen - 
 
 liUtzingen ( Gustavus slain) 
 
 Mantinea (Bpaminondas slain) 
 Munda, in Spain 
 
 Mantua - 
 
 Marengo - 
 
 Marignan, Italy 
 
 Mars ton Moor 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Milan 
 
 Minden 
 
 Mittau (Swedes and Russians) 
 
 Mockern 
 
 1709 
 May 30, 1793 
 July 12, 1794 
 
 - Sept. 23, 1795 
 
 May 29, 1796 
 
 - Jan. 31, 1797 
 June 14, 1800 
 
 - Sept. 1.5, 15!. 5 
 July 3, 1644 
 
 Sept. 12-14, 1848 
 
 April 27, 1799 
 
 Aug. 1, 1759 
 
 1705 
 
 Mohartz. Hungary - 
 
 Molwitz' - " - 
 
 Monmouth (Amer. 4* Brit.) 
 
 Monterey (Mexico) 
 
 Montmorenci 
 
 Moodkee, India 
 
 Morea ( Castle surrenders) 
 
 Moscow (burnt) 
 
 Moskwa 
 
 Moscow (retaken) 
 
 Narva ( Charles XII. of Sweden) 
 
 Naseby 
 Newark 
 
 Newbury - - - 
 
 (second battle) 
 
 April 1, 1813 
 
 Oct. 14, 1813 
 
 - - 1687 
 
 April 10, 1741 
 
 June 28, 1773 
 
 Sept. 24, 1846 
 
 Aug. 10, 1759 
 
 Dec. 18, L845 
 
 Oct. 28, 1S2S 
 
 Sept. 4, 1812 
 
 Sept. 7, 1812 
 
 Oct. 22, 1812 
 
 1700 
 
 June 14, 1645 
 1644 
 1613 
 
 DM. 20, 16J4 
 
 New London (burnt by the British) - 173i 
 New Orleans - - Jan 8, 1815 
 
 Niagara, Fort - - - Nov. 1813 
 
 Nisbet - - - May 7, 1402 
 
 Norfolk (burnt by the British) June 1779 
 Northallerton, (or the battle of the 
 Standard) - - - iI38 
 
 9 
 
194 
 
 THE WOR D S PROGRESS. 
 
 l^y 
 
 B ATI' L his, continiied. 
 
 Norwalk (burnt by the Brit.) Aug. 22, 
 Novi {Suwarrow) - Aug. 16, 
 
 . - - - Jan. 8, 
 
 Ogdensburg (British and Americans) 
 Feb. 22, 
 Oporto ■ - - May 11, 
 
 Otterburn (Chevy Chase) - 
 Oudenard (Marlborough) July 11, 
 
 Pharsalia . . . . 
 
 Phiiippi (Roman Republic ends) 
 
 Palo Alto (Is? ofAmer. dp Mex.) May S. 
 Parma (Austrians and French) 
 
 (Suicarrow)- • July 12, 
 
 Patay (Joan of Arc and the English) 
 Pavia (French ajid Austrians) Feb. 24, 
 Pensacola (taken by general Jacksoii) 
 
 Nov. 20, 
 Peterwarden - - Aug. £, 
 
 Pfaffendorf • - • Aug. 15, 
 
 Pink-ey - - - Sept. 10, 
 
 Plattsburg (Americans and British) 
 
 Sept. 11, 
 Poitiers 
 Prague 
 
 Sept. 19, 
 
 Nov. 9, 
 
 May 6, 
 
 Jan. 2, 
 
 July 8, 
 
 Dec. 26, 
 
 July 28, 
 
 June 16, 
 
 Princeton (Amer. Sf Brit.) 
 Pultowa (Charles XII.) 
 Pultusk - 
 Pyrenees 
 ftuatre Bras 
 
 Quebec (or the plains of Abraham) 
 
 Sept. 13, 
 
 (death ofMontgomery)Dec. 21, 
 
 - - - April 28, 
 
 Elueenstov/n (Amer. 4" Brit.) Oct. 13, 
 Ramilies (Marlborough) • May 23, 
 Resaca de la Palma (Mexico) May 9, 
 Rosbach - - - Nov. H., 
 
 - - - Nov. 5, 
 
 Sackett's Harbor (Americans and 
 
 British) .... 
 
 "Salamanca - - - July 22, 
 
 San Maretal (Spaniards) Aug. 4, 
 
 Saratoga (Burgoyne's surrender) 
 
 Oct. 17, 
 Savannah (taken by the British) 
 
 Dec. 29, 
 Schwerdnitz - - Aug. 16, 
 
 Sedgemoor - - - July 5, 
 
 Seidlitz (Poles) • • Mar." 31, 
 
 Sempach ... July 9, 
 Seringapatam .... 
 
 ( Tippoo reduced) - 
 
 ( Tip2Joo killed) May 4, 
 
 Shrewsbury - - July 21, 
 
 Skenesborough - - July 7, 
 
 Smolensko - - - Aug. 27, 
 
 A. D, 
 
 1779 
 1799 
 1800 
 
 1813 
 1809 
 1308 
 1708 
 
 B. C. 
 
 48 
 42 
 
 A.D. 
 
 ,1846 
 1734 
 1799 
 1429 
 1525 
 
 1814 
 1717 
 1760 
 1547 
 
 1814 
 1356 
 1620 
 1757 
 1777 
 1709 
 1806 
 1813 
 1815 
 
 1759 
 1775 
 1760 
 1812 
 1706 
 1846 
 1382 
 1787 
 
 1813 
 1812 
 1813 
 
 1777 
 
 1778 
 1762 
 1685 
 1831 
 1386 
 1791 
 1791 
 1799 
 1403 
 1777 
 1812 
 
 A. O. 
 
 Sobraon (India) • Feb. iC, 1S46 
 
 Solway Moss - - Nov. 25, 1542 
 
 St. Albans ( York and Lancastei ) • 1455 
 
 (second) 
 
 1461 
 
 - 1567 
 
 Jan 27, 1814 
 
 Mayf, 1836 
 
 Mar. 13, 1470 
 
 St. Denis (Monlniorenci) 
 St Dizier, France • 
 St. Sebastian 
 Stamford 
 
 Stony Point (taken by the Americans) 1779 
 Stratton (poet Waller) • May 16, 1643 
 Talavera de la Reyna • July 27, 1809 
 
 Tarragona - - - Jan. 24, 812 
 
 Tewkesbury - • May 4, 1471 
 
 Thames (A.7nericay<t and Brit.) Sept. 1313 
 Thermopylas (GreeArs) - July 13, 1823 
 
 Tirle.'nont (French and Allies) - 1705 
 
 Toplitz (Austrians and Prussians) - 1762 
 
 - . Aug. 30, 1813 
 
 Tournay - - . May 8, 1793 
 
 Toulon - - Oct. 1, 1793 
 
 Toulouse - - - April 10, 1814 
 
 Towton - - • Mar. 29, 1481 
 
 Trenton (Amer. ^ Brit.) - Dec. 26, 7, 1776 
 Turin (French and Germans) - 1706 
 
 Ulm .... June 21, 1800 
 
 (surrendered) • Oct. 29, 1805 
 
 Valencipnnes - - May 23, 1793 
 
 Varna (surrenders) • Oct. 11, lj'25 
 
 Vera Cruz (taken by Am,er. Gen. Scott) 
 
 March 27, 1847 
 Villa Franca 
 Vimiera ( Wellington) • 
 Vittoria, Spain 
 
 Wagram 
 
 Wakefield 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 April 10, 1812 
 
 Oct. 21, 1808 
 
 - - 1702 
 
 June 21, 1813 
 
 July 5, 1809 
 
 Dec. 31, 1460 
 
 Oct. 10, 1794 
 
 Nov. 8, ibid 
 
 Sept. 8, 1831 
 
 Washington (bvrnt by the British) 
 
 Aug. 1814 
 Waterloo • - June 18, 1815 
 
 White Plains (Amer. ^ Brit.) Oct. 28, 1776 
 Nov. 30, ibid 
 
 (taken) 
 
 Wilna (Poles) 
 Worcester 
 
 (Charles II.)* 
 
 June 12, 1831 
 Sept. 13, 1642 
 - - 1651 
 July 1778 
 
 Wyoming massacre 
 
 York (Canada) captured by Ameri 
 
 cans - - - April 27, 1813 
 
 York Town (surrender of Cornwallis) 
 
 Oct. 19, 1781 
 
 B. C. 
 
 Zama (Scipio and Hannibal) 
 Zela (Ccbsar : veni, vidi, vici) 
 
 Zeuta, Hungary (Prince Eugene) 
 Zurich .... 
 
 202 
 47 
 
 A.. D 
 
 1697 
 1799 
 
 BAVARIA, House of. The dukedom founded in the eleventh century; this 
 house has the same origin as that of Saxony, and is a branch of tlie Gucl- 
 phian family; Henry Guelph was made duke jf Bavaria by Conrad 11. em- 
 peror of Germany, who reigned in 1024. Otho, count Wittelpatch. was 
 made duke in 1179; and Maximilian I. elector in 1624. Bavaria was 
 
 * This battle and defeat of (Jharles put a period to the civil war in England. 
 N. B.— Many of the above battles are desenbeJ more fully under lach name. 
 
Bi»« J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 195 
 
 erected into a kingdom by Bonaparte in December 1805 ; and obtained by 
 the treaty of Presburg the incorporation of tlie whole of the Italian and 
 German Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lordships in Germany. This 
 kingdom joined the coalition against France in Oct. 1813. Bavarian cham- 
 ber recommends freedom of the press, &c., by almost unanimous vote, Oct, 
 17, 1847. Riots at Munich on account of Lola Monies, the king's mistress, 
 Feb. 9, 1848. Violent movement at Munich ; the king abdicates in favor of 
 his son, Maximillian II., March 22, 1848. 
 
 KINGS OP BAVARIA. I 1825 Louis, 13th October ; — abdicated, 
 
 1805 Maximilian .Joseph, the preceding elec- 1 March 22, 1848. 
 
 tor, created king. | 1848 MaximiUan II. 
 
 BA Y"EUX TAPESTRY. This important historical document was wrought by 
 Matilda, the queen of William I., and represents the facts of the Conquest, 
 from the signature of the will of the Confessor down to the crowning of 
 William, 1066. — Rapin. This curious monument of antiquity embroidered 
 by Matilda, is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into compart- 
 ments showing the train of events, commencing with the visit of Harold to 
 the Norman court, and ending with his death at Hastings ; it is now prese^. red 
 in the town-house of Rouen. — Agnes Strickland. 
 
 BAYONETS. The short sword or dagger fixed at the end of a musket. This 
 weapon was invented at Bayonne, in France (whence the name), about 1670. 
 According to the abbe Lenglet, it was first used in battle by the French, in 
 1603, " with great success against an enemy unprepared for the encounter 
 with so formidable a novelty," 
 
 BAZAAR, OR Covered Market. The word is of Arabic origin. The bazaar 
 of Ispahan is magnificent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which hasf 
 several times held 30,000 men in order of battle. 
 
 BE !VDS. The Druids appear to have used beads. They were early used by 
 Dervises and other holy men of the East. They were in general use in 
 Roman Catholic devotions, a. d. 1213. The bead-roll was a list of deceased 
 persons for the repose of whose souls a certain nuinj)er of prayers were re- 
 cited, which the devout counted by a string of beads. — Butter. 
 
 BEARDS. Various have been the customs of most nations respecting them. 
 The Tartars, out of a religious principle, waged a long and bloody war with 
 the Persians, declaring them infidels, because they would not cut their 
 beards after the rites of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards till the 
 time of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved lest the 
 beard should give a handle to their enemies, 330 b. c. Beards were worn 
 by the Romans, 297 b. c. They have been worn for centuries by the Jews. 
 In England, they were not fashionable after the Conquest, a. d. 1066, until 
 the thirteenth century, and were discontinued at the Restoration. The 
 Russians, even of rank, did not cut their beards until within these few 
 years ; and Peter the Great, notwithstanding his enjoining them to shave, 
 was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the beard by force. 
 
 BEARDS ON WOMEN. A bearded woman was taken by the Prussians at the 
 battle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I. 1724 : her beard 
 measured 1^ yards. A woman is said to have been seen in Paris with a bushy 
 beard, and her whole body covered with liair. — Diet, de Trevoux. The 
 great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very long stiff beard. 
 In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black beard. 
 
 BEAUVAIS, Heroines of. On the town of Beauvais being besieged by 
 Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80,000 men, the women 
 under the conduct of Jeanne de la Hachette, or Laine, particularly distin- 
 guished themselves, and the duke was obliged to raise the siege, July 10, 
 1472. In memory of their noble exploits during the siege, the females of 
 
196 THE world's PPcOGRESS. [ BKF 
 
 Beanvais walk first in a procession on the anniversary of tTioirdelivrianca 
 
 — Henau'd. 
 
 BECKET'S MURDER. Thomas, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at 
 the altar, Dec. 29, 1171. Four barons hearing Henry II. say, in a mcment 
 of exasperation, "What an unhappy prince am I. who have not about me 
 one man of spirit enough to rid me of this insolent prelate," resolved upon 
 Becket's assassination ; and rushing with drawn swords into the cathedral 
 of Canterbury, where he was at vespers, they announced their design, when 
 he cried out, " I charge you, in the name of the Almighty, not to hurt any 
 other person here, for none of them have been concerned in the late trans- 
 actions." The confederates then strove to drag him from the church ; but 
 not being able to do so, on account of his resolute deportment, they killed 
 him on the spot with repeated wounds, all which he endured without a 
 groan. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and set with jewels, in 
 1220 ; and were taken up and burned in the reign of Ilcxiry VIII. 1539. — 
 Siowe. 
 
 BED. The practice was universal in the first ages, for mankind to sleep upon the 
 skins of beasts. — Whitiaker. This was the custom of the early Greeks and 
 Romans, and of the Britons, before the Roman invasion. They were after- 
 wards changed for loose rushes and heather. Straw followed, and was used 
 in the royal chambers of England so late as the close of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. The Romans were the first who used feathers. 
 
 BEER. See Ale. A beverage of this sort is made mention of by Xenophon, in 
 his famous retreat, 401 b. c. Beer was drunk generally in England in the 
 thirteenth century. By a law of James I., when there was a kind of duty 
 paid on '■'■ale called hereP one quart of the best thereof was to be sold for a 
 penny. Subjected to excise in 1660. In England the number of retailers in 
 1834 amounted to about 60,000. See Brewers. 
 
 BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odoriferous flowers, thyme, and abun- 
 dance of honey, has been poetically called the " empire of bees." Hymettus, 
 in Attica, is also famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was 
 admired in the earliest ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on 
 bees, 741 b. c. There are 292 species of the bee, or afis genus, and 111 in 
 England. Strange to say, bees were not originally natives of New England: 
 they were introduced into Boston by the English, in 1670, and have since 
 spread over the whole continent ; the first planters never saw any. — Hardiest 
 America. 
 
 BEET-ROOT. It is of recent cultivation in England. Margrafi" first produced 
 sugar from the white beet-root, in 1747. M. Achard produced excellent 
 sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of France at the instance of Bo- 
 naparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. A refinery of 
 sugar from beet-root was lately erected at the Thames-bank, Chelsea. 
 
 BEGUINES. Nuns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, in 
 1207. The '• Grand Beguinage " of Bruges is the most extensive of modern 
 times. — Some of these nuns once fell into the extravagant error that they 
 could, in this life, arrive at the highest moral perfection, even to impec- 
 cability. The council of Vienne condemned this error, and abolished a 
 branch cf the order in 1311. 
 
 BEHEADING — or Decollatlo of the Romans, introduced into England from Nor- 
 mandy (as a less ignominious mode of putting high criminals to death) by 
 William the Conqueror, 1074. when Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, North- 
 ampton, and Northumberland, Avas first so executed. — Sah,t07i's Chron. 
 English history is filled with instances of this mode of execution, particU' 
 
EEL ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 19/ 
 
 larly in the reigns of Henry VIII., and Mary, when even women of the noblest 
 blood, greatest virtues, and most innocent lives, thus suffered death.* 
 
 BEHRING'S STRAIT. Explored by a Danish navigator in the service of Rus- 
 sia whose name it bears. Behring thus established that the continents 
 of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each other about 
 thirty-nine miles, 1728. 
 
 BELGIUM. Late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands, 
 and anciently the territory of the Belgae, who were conquered by Juhua 
 Cffisar, 47 b. c. Under the dominion of France so late as a. d. 1369 ; formed 
 into a kingdom in 1831. 
 
 Became an acquisition of the house of 
 
 Austria .... 1477 
 Charles V annexed the Netherlands to 
 
 the crown of Spain - - -1556 
 
 Seven provinces, under William, prince 
 
 of Orange, revolt, owing to the tyranny 
 
 of Philip II.; freed- - - 1579 
 
 The ten remaining provinces are given 
 
 to the archduke - - - 1598 
 
 These again fall to Spain - - - 1648 
 
 Seven again ceded to Germany - 1714 
 
 And three to France - - - 1748 
 
 Austrians expelled ; but then- rule after- 
 wards restored - - - - 1789 
 The French entered Belgium Nov. 1, 1792 
 United to France - Sept. 30, 1793 
 Placed under the sovereignty of the 
 
 house of Orange - - -1814 
 
 The revolution commences at Brussels 
 
 Aug. 25, 1830 
 The Provisional Government declares 
 
 Belgium independent - Oct. 4, 1830 
 The Belgian troops take Antwerp ; the 
 
 Dutch are driven to the citadel, from 
 
 whence they cannonade the town, 
 
 Oct. 27, 1830 
 Belgian independence acknowledged 
 
 This last treaty arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian 
 question ; b}^ the decision of which, the treatj^ of November 15, 1831, was 
 maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions of francs, 
 offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared in- 
 admissible. 
 
 BELGRADE. Battle of, between the German and Turkish armies, in which 
 the latter was defeated with the loss of 40.000 men, fought 1456. Belgrade 
 was taken by Solyman, 1522 ; and re-taken by the Imperialists in 1688, from 
 whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. Taken by prince Eugene in 
 1717 {see next article), and kept till 1739, when it was ceded to the Turks. 
 It was again taken in 1789, and restored ^t the peace of Reichenbach in 
 1790. 
 
 BELGRADE, Siege of. The memorable siege, so often quoted, was undei- 
 taken in May, 1717, under prince Eugene. On August 5, of that year, the 
 Turkish army, of 200,000, approached to relieve it, and a battle was fought, 
 in which the Turks lost 20,000 men ; after which Belgrade surrenderc i. 
 Belgrade has been frequently besieged. See Sieges. 
 
 by the Allied Poweis, announced by 
 Van der Weyer - - Dec. 26, 1830 
 
 Duke de Nemours elected kmg; but 
 his father, the king of France, refuses 
 his consent - - Feb. 3, 1831 
 
 M. Surlet de Chokier is elected regent 
 of Belgium - - Feb. 24, 1831 
 
 Leopold, prince of Coburg, is elected 
 king - - . July 12, 18.?1 
 
 He enters Brussels - - July 19, 1831 
 
 The king of the Netherlands recom- 
 mences the war - Aug. 3, 1831 
 
 [France sends 50,000 troops to assist 
 Belgium, and an armistice ensues.] 
 
 A conference of the ministers of the five 
 great powers is held in Loi-idon, which 
 terminates in the acceptance of the 
 24 articles of pacification - Nov. 15, 1831 
 
 Leopold marries I^ouise, eldest daughter 
 ot Louis Philippe - - Aug. 9, 1832 
 
 The French army returns to France 
 
 Dec. 27, 1832 
 
 Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) ; much 
 mischief ensues - . April 6, 1834 
 
 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, 
 signed in London - April 19, 1839 
 
 * Among other instances (besides queens of England), may be mentioned the Lady Jane Grey, 
 l-cheaded, Feb. 12, 1554 ; and the venerable countess of Salisbury— the latter remarkable for het 
 resistance of the executioner. When he directed her to lay her head on the block, she refused to 
 do it ; telling him, that she knew of no guilt, and would not submit to die like a criminal. He pur- 
 sued her round and round the scaffold, aiming at her hoary head, and at length took it off, aftei 
 Kiangiing the neck and shoulders of the illustrious victim in a horrifying manner. She was daughtej 
 of George, duke of {:larence, and la.st of th^ royal line of Plantagenet." May 27, 154l.~IIume. 
 
198 THE world's progress. [ BES 
 
 BELL, BOOK, and CANDLE ; im ecclesiastical ceremony of the Romish 
 
 church, used in excommunication, which see. 
 
 BELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Learning. We owe the revival of the belles- 
 lettres in Europe, after the darkness of previous ages to Brunetto. Latiui, 
 and other learned men in different countries, about a. d. 1272. — Gen. Hist. 
 Learning greatly promoted by the Medici family in Italy, about 1550. — Fo%- 
 tana. Literature began to flourish in France. Germany, and England, about 
 this time. The belles-lettres commenced in England in the reign of Eliza- 
 beth, and flourished in that of Anne. 
 
 BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been the inventor o 
 them, about 569 b. c. To him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, thg 
 potter's wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the furna- 
 ces of the Romans. 
 
 BELLS. Used among the Jews, Greeks, Roman Catholics, and heathens. The 
 responses of the Dodongean oracle were in part conveyed by bells. — Strabo. 
 The monument of Porsenna was decorated by pinnacles, each surmounted 
 by bells. — Pliny. Introduced by Paulinus, bishop cf Nole, in Campagna, 
 about A. D. 400. First known in France in 550. The army of Clothair II., 
 king of France, was frighted from the siege of Sens by the ringing of the 
 bells of St. Stephen's cliurch. The second Excerption of our king Egbert 
 commands every priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his church. 
 Bells were used in churches by order of pope 'John IX., as a defence, by ring- 
 ing Ihem, against thunder and lightnings about 900. First cast in England 
 by Turkey tel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. His successor im- 
 proved the invention, and caused the first tunable set to be put up at 
 Croyland abbey, 960. — Stowe. 
 
 St. Peter's, at Rome • - lbs. 18,607 
 
 Great Bell at Erfurth - - 28,224 
 
 St. Ivan's Bell, Moscow - - 127,836 
 
 Great Bell of St. Pauls, weighs - lbs. 8,400 
 Great Tom ol' Lincoln - - 9,894 
 
 Great Tom of Oxford - - - 17,000 
 Bell of the Palazzo, Florence • 17,000 ] Bell of the Kremlin - - 443,772 
 
 The last is the great unsuspended bell, the wonder of travellers. Its metal 
 alone is valued, at a very low calculation, at £66 565 sterling. In its fusion 
 great quantities of gold and silver were thrown in as votive oflerings by the 
 people. 
 BELLS, Baptism of. They Avere early anointed and baptized in churches. — 
 Du Fresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in Essex, were 
 baptized by the name of St. Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary. Holy Trinity, 
 &c., in 1501. — Weever. The great bell of Notre Dame, in Paris, was bap- 
 tized by the name of Duke of Angouleme, in 1816. On the Continent, in 
 the Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do ships, but with religious 
 solemnity. — Ashe. 
 
 BENEDICTINES. An order of monks founded by Benedict, who was the 
 first that introduced the monastic life into the western part of Europe, in 
 the beginning of the sixth century. No religious order has been so remark- 
 able for extent, wealth, and men of note, as the Benedictine. It spread 
 over a large portion of Europe, but was superseded in the vast influence it 
 possessed over other religious communities, about a. d. 1100. The Bene- 
 dictines appeared early in England ; and William I. built them an abbey on 
 the plain where the battle of Hastings was fought, 1066. 
 William de Warrenne. earl of Warren, built them a convent at Lewes, m 
 Essex, in 1077. At Hammersmith is a nunnery, whose inmates are denomi- 
 nated Bened'ctine dames. — Leigh. Of this order, it is reckoned that there 
 have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals. 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishops, 4GO0 
 bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 king* 41 queens, and 3600 saints. 
 Their founder was canonized. — Baronius 
 
BEN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 199 
 
 BENEFICES, Clerical benefices originated in the twelfth century; till then 
 the priests were supported by alms and oblations at mass. All that should 
 become vacant in the space of six months were given by pope Clement VII. 
 to his nephew, in 1534. — Notltia Monastica. The number of benefices in 
 England, according to parliamentary returns, is 10 533, and the number oi 
 glebe-houses 5 527 ; these are exclusive of bishoprics, deaneries, canonries 
 prebendaries, priest-vicars, lay-vicars, secondaries, and similar church pre- 
 ferments. The number of parishes is 11,077, and of churches and chapels 
 about 12,000. The number of benefices in Ireland is 1456, to which there 
 are not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest having no 
 glebe-houses. — See Church of England. 
 
 BENEFIT OF CLERGY. A privilege first enjoyed only by clergymen, but 
 afterwards extended to lettered laymen, relating to divers crimes, and par- 
 ticularly manslaughter. The ordinary gave the prisoner at the bar a Latin 
 book, in a black Gothic character, from which to read a verse or two ; and 
 if the ordinary said " Legit ut cleric^is,^' the offender was only burnt in the 
 hand, otherwise he suffered death, 3 Edward I., 1274. This privilege was 
 abolished with respect to murderers and other great criminals, as also the 
 claim of sanctuary, by Henry VIII., 1513. — Stowe. Benefit of clergy was 
 wholly repealed by statute 7 and 8 George IV., June 1827. 
 
 BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS, PUBLIC CHARITIES &c., in the U.viTEr 
 States. The known voluntary contributions by citizens of Boston alone, 
 during 45 years, ending 1845, was ascertained to be (see details in American 
 Almanac, 1846) as follows : 
 
 For theological education and other 
 
 religious objects - - $1,0-54,966 
 
 For purposes of instruction • 1,095,594 
 
 For charitable purposes - - 2,162,412 
 
 [Exclusive of the contributions in churches, for the poor, &c. The popula- 
 tion of Boston, in 1800, was about 25,000 ; in 1845, about 114.000. Few 
 cities can boast of such munificence, in proportion to the number of in- 
 habitants.] 
 
 BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES— some of the principal in the United States. 
 
 Formed. Income. 
 
 For miscellaneous objects (such as 
 monuments, &c.) - - • 438,321 
 
 Total - $4,751,293 
 
 Form,ed. IncoTne, 
 Amei-. Board of Com. Foreign 1849. 
 
 Missions - - - 1810 - $260,897 
 
 Amer. Sunday Sch. Union - 1824 207,764 
 " Bible Society - - 1816 - 284,514 
 " Tract Society - - 1814 - 308,423 
 " Home Miss. Society - 1826 - 157,460 
 
 1849. 
 
 Amer. Education Society - 1816 - $32,754 
 
 " Colonization Society 1819 17,414 
 
 " Seamen's Friend Society - 23,497 
 
 Miss. Soc. Methodist Church 1819 - 99,635 
 
 Presbyterian Board Missions - 126,013 
 
 United States .ship, .Jamestown, sailed from Boston for Cork, loaded with provisions, to be 
 given to the distitute Irish March 28th, 1847. The frigate Macedonian sailed from 
 New York on same errand. ,<aly 8, 1847. 
 
 Abbott Lawrence gave $50,000 to Harvard College, for scientific department, June, J&v/. 
 
 BENGAL. Of the existence of Bengal as a separate kingdom, there is no 
 record. It was ruled by governors delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi in 
 1340, when it became independent, until 1560. It afterwards fell to the 
 Mogul empire. — See India. 
 
 The Engli.?h were first permitted to 
 
 trade to Bengal - - a. d. 1-534 
 
 Factories of the French and Danes - 1664 
 First factory at Calcutta - - 1690 
 
 The settlements first placed in a state 
 
 of defence .... 1594 
 
 Calcutta bought, and fortified - - 1700 
 Its garrison consisted of only 129 sol- 
 -^iers, of whom but 55 were Europeans 1706 
 
 Calcutta taken by Surrjah Dowla ; and 
 the dreadful affair of the Black-hole- 1756 
 
 Retaken by Colonel Clive - - 1757 
 
 Imperial grant, vesting the revenues of 
 Bengal in the Company, by which 
 the virtual sovereignty of the country 
 was obtained - - Aug. 12, 1765 
 
 Celebrated India-bill ; Bengal m tde the 
 chief presidency - - J me 16, 1773 
 
 See India. 
 
200 THE world's progress. [ BEl 
 
 BERESINA, Battie of. Total defeat of the French main army by the Rus- 
 sians on the banlis of the Beresina, followed by their disastrous passage of 
 it when escaping out of Russia. The French lost 20,000 men in the battle, 
 and in their retreat the career of their glory was closed, Nov. 28, 1812. 
 
 BERGEN, Battle of, between the French and allies, the latter defeated, April 
 14, 1759. The allies again defeated by the French with great loss, Sept. 19, 
 1799. In another battle, fought Oct. 2, same year, the allies lost 4.000 men; 
 and on the 6th, they w^ere again defeated before Alkmaer, losing 5,000 men. 
 On the 20th, the duke of York entered into a convention by which he 
 exchanged his army for 6,000 French and Dutch prisoners in England. 
 
 BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, whose works were deemed impregnable, taken by the 
 French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. Here a gallant attempt was 
 made by the British, under Graham, to carry the fortress by storm, but it 
 was defeated ; after forcing an entrance their retreat was cut off, and a 
 dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, 
 March 8, 1814. 
 
 BERLIN. Founded by the margrave Albert, surnamed the Bear, in 1163. Its 
 five districts were united under one magistracy, in 1714 ; and it was subse- 
 quently made the capital of Prussia. This city was taken by an army oi 
 Russians, Austrians, and Saxons, in 1760, but they were obliged to retire in 
 a few days. On Oct. 27, 1806, thirteen days after the battle of Jena, the 
 French entered Berlin, and from its palace Napoleon issued his famous 
 Berlin decree. — See next article. 
 
 BERLIN DECREE, a memorable interdict against the commerce of England. 
 It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and all English- 
 men found in countries occupied by French troops were to be treated as 
 prisoners of war ; the whole world, in fact, was to cease from any commu- 
 nication with Great Britain : issued by Bonaparte from the court of the 
 Prussian king, shortly after the battle of Jena (which, for the time, decided 
 the fate of Prussia), Nov. 21, 1806. — See Jena. 
 
 BERMUDAS, or SOMMERS' ISLES, discovered by Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, 
 in 1527 ; but they were not inhabited until 1609, when sir George Sommers 
 was cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute of 9 James I., 
 1612. Awful and memorable hurricane here, October 31. 1780. Another, 
 by which a third of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping driven 
 ashore, July 20, 1813. 
 
 BERNARD, MOUNT St. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian 
 army by this pass into Italy ; and it was by the same route that Bonaparte 
 led his troops to the plains of Lombardy, before the battle of Marengo, 
 fought June 14, 1800. 
 
 BERNARDINE MONKS. This order was founded by Robert, abbot of Mo- 
 lenie, in the twelfth century. On the summit of the Great St. Bernard is a 
 large community of monks, who entertain in their convent all travellers 
 gratis for three days. — Brooke. 
 
 BERWICK. This town was the theatre of many bloody contests between the 
 English and Scots ; and while England and Scotland remained two king- 
 doms, was always claimed by the Scots as belonging to them, because it 
 stood on their side of the river. Berwick was burned in 1173, and again in 
 1216. It was taken from the Scots, and annexed to England, 1333 ; and 
 after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to Eng- 
 land in 1502. The town surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, and afterwarda 
 to general Monk. Since the union of the crowns (James I. 1603), the forti- 
 fications, which were formerly very strong, have been much neglected. 
 
 BETHLEHEM, the birth-place of Christ. The Bethlehemite monks, who 
 
BIB I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 2*1 
 
 had an order in England in 1257, are named from this once distinguished 
 city. It now contains a churcli, erected by the famous St. Helena, in the 
 form of a cross ; also a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, where 
 they pretend to show the manger in which Christ was laid ; another, called 
 the Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. Bethlehem is 
 much visited by pilgrims. — Ashe. 
 
 BEYROUT. This city, which was colonized from Sidon, was destroyed by an 
 earthquake, a. d. 566. It Avas rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by tho 
 Christians and Saracens ; and after a frequent change of masters, fell into 
 the power of Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman em- 
 pire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. Total defeat of the Egyp- 
 tian army by the allied British, Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacua- 
 tion of Beyrout, the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, 
 and 20 pieces of cannon, Oct. 10, 1840. 
 
 BIARCHY". When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, died, he left two sons twins, 
 Eurystlienes and Procles ; and the people not knowing to whom precedence 
 should be given, placed them both upon the throne, and thus established 
 the first biarchy, 1102 b. c. The descendants of each reigned alternately 
 for 800 years. — Herodotus. 
 
 BIBLE. The first translation from the Hebrew into the Greek was made by 
 seventy-two interpreters, by the order of Ptolemy Philadelphus ; it is thence 
 called the Septuagint version, and was completed in seventy-two days, at 
 Alexandria, 277 b. c. — Josephus. It was commenced 284 b. c. — Lenglet. In 
 283. — Blair. The Jewish sanhedrim consisted of seventy or seventy-two 
 members ; and hence, probably, the seventy or seventy-two translators of 
 Josephus. — Hewlett. The seventy-two were shut up in thirty-six cells, and 
 each pair translated the whole ; and on subsequent comparison, it was 
 found that the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or a letter. — Justin 
 Martyr. 
 
 BIBLE, Ancient copies of the. The oldest version of the Old and New Tes- 
 tament belonging to the Christians, is that in the Vatican, which' was writ- 
 ten in the fourth or fifth century, and published in 1455. The next in age 
 is the Alexandrine MS., in the British Museum, presented by the Greek 
 patriarch to Charles I., and said to have been copied nearly about the same 
 time. The most ancient copy of the Jewish Scriptures existed at Toledo, 
 about A. D. 1000 : and the copy of Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about 
 1100. 
 
 BIBLE, Bishops'. Bishop Alley prepared the Pentateuch ; bishops Davis and 
 Sandys, the Historical Books : bishop Bentham, the Psalms, &c. ; bishop 
 Home, the prophets ; bishop Grindal, the Minor Prophets ; bishops Park- 
 hurst and Barlow, the Apocrypha ; bishop Cox, the Gospels and Acts ; and 
 archbishop Parker, the remainder. Printed a. d. 1568. 
 
 BIBLE, Division of the. The Bible was divided into twenty-two books by the 
 Jews, the number of letters in their alphabet. The Christians divided the 
 Bible into thirty-nine books. The Hebrew division into chapters was made 
 by the rabbi Nathan, about 1445. Our Bible was divided into chapters, and 
 a part into verses, by archbishop Langton, who died in 1228 ; and this 
 division was perfected by Robert Stephens, about 1534. 
 
 BIBLE, Editions op the. The vulgate edition, in Latin, was made by St. Je- 
 rome, A. D. 405 ; and is that acknowledged by the Catholic church to be 
 authentic : it was first printed by Guttenberg at Mayence, 1450 — 55. (See 
 Books.) The first perfect edition in English was finished, as appears from 
 the colophon, by Tindal and Coverdale, Oct. 4, 1535. A revision of this 
 edition was made, 1538-9. This last was ordered to be read in churches, 
 
 9* 
 
i02 
 
 THE WORLD S PR06 RESS. 
 
 [blh 
 
 5»panish 
 
 -1478 
 
 Russian 
 
 German • 
 
 - . 1522 
 
 Hungarian 
 
 English 
 
 -1534 
 
 Polish 
 
 French - 
 
 - - 1535 
 
 Modem Greek 
 
 Swedish 
 
 - 1541 
 
 Turkish 
 
 Danish - 
 
 . - 1550 
 
 Irish 
 
 Dutch 
 
 -1560 
 
 Portuguese 
 
 Manks - 
 
 . 
 
 1771 
 
 Italian 
 
 . 
 
 ■ 1776 
 
 Bengalee 
 
 . 
 
 IS-Jl 
 
 Tartar 
 
 . 
 
 1813 
 
 Persian 
 
 . 
 
 1S15 
 
 African 
 
 . 
 
 3816 
 
 Chinese 
 
 - 
 
 1820 
 
 1549. In 1604, at the conference at Hampton-court (see Conference), a new 
 translation was resolved upon, which was executed 1607-11, and is that now 
 generally used in Great Britain. J. Eliot's Indian Bible, one of tlie first 
 books printed in North America, at Cambridg-e. 1663. The Bible was first 
 printed in Ireland, at Belfast, in 1704. Permitted by the pope to b^ trans- 
 lated into the language of the Catholic states, 1759. Tlie Bible was printed 
 in 
 
 -1581 
 
 - - 1589 
 
 - 1596 
 . - 1638 
 
 - 1666 
 
 - -1685 
 -1748 
 
 Editions of the Old and New Testament, separately, appeared in several in- 
 stances at earlier dates, particularly in European languages. The Polyglot 
 Bible, edited by Walton, bishop of Chester, in the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, 
 Samaritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek, and Latin languages, 1657. — 
 Wood's Fasti. Oxon. 
 
 BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have 
 made the dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object, 
 are the following : — The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was 
 formed 1698 ; Society for Propagating the Gpspel in Foreign Parts, 1701 ; 
 Society, in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1709 ; French 
 Bible Society. 1792 ; British and Foreign Bible Society, 1801 ; Hibernian 
 Bible Society, 1806 ; City of London Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812 ; American 
 Bible Society (which now has numerous branches), founded 1816 ; Ameri- 
 can and Foreign Bible Society (Baptist), founded at New- York, 1838. A 
 bull from the pope against Bible Societies appeared in 1817. 
 
 BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty parties with an infamous mark: 
 with us, the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. The first act 
 respecting it was passed 5 Edward I. 1276. — Viner's Statutes. I>eclared to 
 be felony, without benefit of clergy, 1 James I. 1602. Subjected to the 
 same punishments as grand or petit larceny, 35 George HI. 1794. — Statutes 
 at large. 
 
 B(LL OF RIGHTS. One of the great foundations of the British constitution, 
 was obtain -^d from Charles I. by parliament, 1628. Tliis bill recognized the 
 legal privileges of the subject; and notwithstanding the employment of all 
 marmer of arts and expedients to avoid it, Charles was constrained to pass 
 it into a law. The Bill of Rights, declaratory of the rights of British subjects, 
 passed 1 William and Mary, February 1689. This is the only loritten law 
 respecting the liberties of the people, except Magna Charta. — Viner's 
 Statutes. 
 
 BILLS OF EXCHANGE. Invented by the Jews, as a means of removing their 
 property from nations where they were persecuted, a. d. 1160. — And&son. 
 Eills were used in England, 1307. — The onlv legal mode of sending m.oney 
 from England, 4th Richard II., 1381. Regulated, 1698— first stamped, 1782 
 — duty advanced. 1797 — again, June 1801 ; and since. It was made capital 
 to counterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous 
 speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 400 millions of 
 pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes. 
 The present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The many 
 statutes regarding bills of exchange were consolidated by act 9 George IV. 
 1828. A new act regulating bills of exchange, passed 3 Victoria, July 1839. 
 
 81LLS OF MORTALITY for London. These bills were first compiled about 
 A. I). 1536, but in a more formal and recognized manner in 1593, after the 
 
16,634 
 
 In the 
 
 yeai 
 
 1780, Burials 
 
 - 20,50? 
 
 18,980 
 
 
 
 1790, Burials - 
 
 18,038 
 
 19,176 
 
 
 
 1800, Burials 
 
 ■ 23,068 
 
 19,930 
 
 
 
 1810, Burials - 
 
 19,892 
 
 26,158 
 
 
 
 1820, Burials 
 
 19.348 
 
 27,028 
 
 
 
 1&30, Burials - 
 
 23;524 
 
 30,387 
 
 
 
 1840, Burials 
 
 - 26,774 
 
 BiS J Blc nON ARY OF D ITES. "ZOo 
 
 great plague of that year ; and however imperfect they still are, they yet 
 afford valuable materials for computation on the duration of life ; no com- 
 plete series of them has been preserved. The following are returns, show- 
 ing the numbers at decennial distances, within the last sixty years; — 
 
 In the year 1780, Christenings 
 1790, Christenings 
 1800, Christenings 
 1810, Christenings 
 1820, Christenings 
 1830, Christenings 
 1840, Christenings 
 
 BILLIARDS. Invented by the French, by whom, and by the Germans, Dutch, 
 and Italians, they were brought into general vogue throughout Europe. — 
 No'uv. Diet. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an 
 artist, in the reign of Charles IX., about 1571. Slate billiard-tables were 
 mtroduced in England in 1827. 
 
 BIRDS. Divided by Linneeus into six orders ; by Blumcnbach into eight ; and 
 by Cuvier into six. Man is especially enjoined not to harm the nest of the 
 bird: "If a bird's nest chance to be before thee in the way in any tree, or 
 on the ground, whether they be young ones or eggs, and the dam sitting upon 
 the young, or upon the eggs, thou shalt not take the dam with the 
 young." — Duteronomy. xxii. 6. 
 
 BIRMINGHAM, England. This town existed in the reign of Alfred, a. d. 872 ; 
 but its importance as a manufactaring town commenced in the reign of Wil- 
 liam III. Birmingham was besieged and taken by prince Rupert in 1643. 
 The great works of Soho were established by the illustrious engineer, Mat- 
 thew Boulton, in 1761. 
 
 BIRTHS. Parish registers of them, and of marriages and burials, were insti- 
 tuted by Cromwell, earl of Essex, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The births of chil- 
 dren were taxed in England, viz. : birth of a duke, 30^. — of a common 
 person, 2s. — 7 William III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of 
 four children at a birth are numerous ; but the most extraordinary delivery 
 recorded in modern times is that of a woman of Konigsberg, who had five 
 children at a birth, September 3 1783. — Phillips. The wife of a man named 
 Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford-market, London, had five children at 
 a birth, in October 1800. — Annals of London. 
 
 BISHOPS. The name was given by the Athenians to those who had the in- 
 spection of the city. The Jews and Romans had also a like officer ; but 
 now it means only that person who has the government of church affairs in 
 a eerta.u district. In England, the dignity is coev^al with Christianity. St. 
 Petei, the first bishop of Rome, was martyred a.d. 65. The bishops of 
 Rome assumed the title of pope in 138, the rank was anciently assumed by 
 all bishops ; but it was afterwards ordained that the title of pope should 
 belong only to the occupant of St. Peter's chair. — Warner. 
 
 BISHOPS OF ENGLAND. The first was appointed in a. d. 180. See York, 
 London. They were made barons, 1072. The Conge d'' Elire of the king 
 to choose a bishop originated in an arrangement of king John with the 
 clergy. Bishops were elected by the king's Cons: 6 d' Elire, 26 Henry VIIL 
 1535. Seven were deprived for being married, 1554. Several suffered mar- 
 tyrdom under queen Mary, 1555-6, See Cramner. Bishops were excluded 
 from voting in tlie house of peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. 1640. 
 Twelve were committed for high treason, in protesting against the legahty 
 of all acts of parliament passed v/hile they remained deprived of their votes, 
 1641. Regained their seats, Nov. 1661. Seven were sent to the tower for not 
 reading the king's declaration for liberty of conscience, contrived to bring 
 the Catliolies into ecclesiastical and civil i)Ower, and were tried and acquit. 
 
204 THE WOr.LD's PROGRESS. [ BLA 
 
 ted, June 29-30, 1688. The archbishop of Canterburj (Dr. Saricroft) and 
 five bishops were suspended for refusing to take the oaths to William and 
 Maiy. 1689. and were deprived 1690. — Warner's Ecdcs. Hist. The sees of 
 Bristol and Gloucester were united, and that of Ripon created, in 1836. An 
 order in council, in Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to 
 be united on the next vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be 
 created thereupon. This order, as regarded the union of the sees, rescinded 
 in 1846. — See Manchester. 
 BISHOPS OF IRELAND. Bishops are said to have been consecrated in this 
 country as early as the second century. The bishopric of Ossory, first 
 planted at Saiger, was founded a. d. 402. thirty years before the arrival of 
 St. Patrick. 
 
 BISHOPS OF SCOTLAND. They were constituted in the fourth century. Th3 
 see of St. Andrew's was founded by Hergustus, king of the Picts, Avhc, 
 according to a legendary tale of this prelacy, encouraged the mission of 
 Regulus. a Greek monk of Patrse. about a. d. 370. The bishops were deprived 
 of their sees, and episcopacy abolished in Scotland at the period of the revo- 
 lution. 1688-9. Warners Eccles. Hist. — There are now. however, six bishops 
 belonging to the Scotch Episcopal Church, viz : Aberdeen, Brechin, Edin- 
 burgh, Glasgow, Moray, and St. Andrew's, 
 
 BISHOPS, Precedency of, was settled by statute 31 Henry VIII. to be ^ext to 
 viscounts, they being barons of the realm. 1540 ; and they have the title of 
 Lord, and Right Rev. Father in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and 
 York, taking place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of 
 London, Durham, and Winchester have precedence of all bishops ; the 
 others rank according to the seniority of consecration. A late contest in 
 Ireland between the i)i shops of Meath and Kildare for precedency was de- 
 cided in favor of the former, w^ho now ranks after the archbishop of Dublin. 
 The others rank according to consecration. 
 
 BISHOPS IN AMERICA. The first was the Right Rev. Doctor Samuel Sea- 
 bury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four nonjuring prelates, at 
 Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. The bishops of New- York and Penn- 
 sylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury, 
 Feb. 4. 1787 ; and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. The first Catholic bishop 
 of the United States was Dr. Carroll of Maryland, in 1789, 
 
 BISSEXTILE OR LEAP YEAR. An intercalary day was thrown into every 
 fourth year to adjust the calendar, and make it agree with the sun's course. 
 It originated with Julius Caesar, who ordered a day to be counted before 
 the 24th of February, which among the Romans was the 6th of the calends, 
 and which was therefore reckoned twice, and called bissextile : this added 
 day we name the 29th of February every fourth year. 45 b. c. — See Calen- 
 dar and Leap Year, 
 
 BITHYNIA. Conquered by Croesus, about 560 b. c. ; and again by Alexander, 
 332 B. c. It afterwards recovered its liberty ; but its last king bequeathed 
 it to the Romans, 40 b. c. In modern history Bithynia makes no figure, 
 except that from its ruins rose the Othman Turks, w^ho, in a. d. 1327, took 
 Prusa. its capital, and made it the seat of their empire before they possessed 
 Constantinople. 
 
 BLACK BOOK, a book kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the 
 scandalous enormities practised in religious houses were entered for the 
 inspection of visitors, imder Henry VIII., 1535, in order to blacken them and 
 hasten their dissolution ; hence the vulgar phrase " I'll set you dowTi in the 
 black book." 
 
 BLASPHEMY. This crime is recognized both by the civil and canon law of 
 
BLO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 205 
 
 England. Justinian adjudged it the punishment of death. In Scotland, the 
 tongue was amputated. Visited by fine and imprisonment, 9 & 10 William 
 III., 1696-7. — Statutes at large. In England this offence has been subjected, 
 on some late occasions, to the visitation of the laws. Daniel Isaac Eaton 
 was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 13th March, 1812. A pro- 
 testant clergyman, named Robert Taylor, was tried in London twice for the 
 same crime, and as often convicted. Taylor was last brought to the bar, 
 and sentenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely fined, for (among 
 other things) reviling the Redeemer in his discourses, July, 1831. Even as 
 late as in Dec. 1840, two prosecutions against publishers of blasphemous 
 writings, subjected the offenders to the sentence of the court of Queen's 
 Bench. 
 
 BLAZONRY. The bearing coats-of-arms was introduced, and oecame heredi- 
 tary in families in France and England, about a. d. 1192, owing to the 
 knights painting their banners with different figures, thereby to distinguish 
 them in the crusades. — Dugdale. 
 
 BLEACHING. This art was known early in Egypt, S}ria, and India. Known 
 in ancient Gaul. — Pliny. In the last century an improved chemical system 
 was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in 
 1768. There are now immense bleachfields. in both countries, particularly 
 in Lancashire, and in the counties of Fife,- Forfar, and Renferew, and in the 
 vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The chemical process of Berthollet was 
 introduced in 1795. — Blanchiinent des Toiles. 
 
 BLENHEIM, Battle of ; between the English and confederates, commanded 
 by the duke of Marlborough, and the French and Bavarians, under marshal 
 Tallard and the elector of Bavaria, whom Marlborough signally defeated 
 with the loss of 27,000 in killed, and 13,000 prisoners, Tallard being among 
 the latter : the electorate of Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. 
 The nation testified its gratitude to the duke by the gifts of the honor of 
 Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him one of the finest 
 seats in the kingdom, known as the domain and house of Blenheim. 
 Fought Aug. 2, VtQ4t.—Hume. 
 
 BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, a punish- 
 ment inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the mid- 
 dle ages they changed the penalty of total blindness to a diminution of 
 sight. Blinding the conquered was a practice in barbarous states ; and a 
 whole army was deprived of their eyes by Basilius, in the eleventh century. 
 ^QQ Bulgarians. Several of the Eastern emperors had their eyes torn from 
 their heads. See article Eastern Empire. 
 
 BLISTERS. They were first made, it is said, of cantharides.— Frem^. Blisters 
 are said to have been first introduced into medical practice by Aret^eus a 
 physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c.—Le Clerc's Hist, of Physic. 
 
 BLOOD, Circulation of the, through the lungs, first made pubhc by Michael 
 Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Cisalpinus published an account of 
 the general circulation, of which he had some confused ideas ; improved 
 afterwards by experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, commonly called Father 
 Paolo, whose real name was Peter Sarpi, certainly discovered the valves 
 which serve for the circulation ; but the honor of the positive discovery of 
 the circulation of the blood belongs to Harvey, an English physician by 
 whom it was fully confirmed, 1628.— i^m?z^'5 Hist, of Physic. 
 
 BLOOD, Drinking of. Anciently a mode was tried of giving vigor to the sys- 
 tem, by administering blood as a draught. Louis XI., in his last illness, 
 drunk the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his decayed 
 
208 THE world's progress. [ B(E<! 
 
 strengtli, li38. — Renault. Eating blood was prohibited to Noah, Geii. ix. ^ 
 and to the Jews, Lev. xvii. The prohibition repeated by the apostles «t 
 tlie council of Jerusalem, Acts xv. 
 
 BLOOD, Transfusion of. In the fifteenth century an opinion prevailed that 
 the declining strength and vigor of old people might be repaired by trans^- 
 fusing the blood of young persons, drawn from their veins, into those of the 
 infirm and aged. It was countenanced in France by the physicians, and 
 prevailed for many years, till the most fatal effects ensued from the opera- 
 tion. Some of the principal nobility having died, and others turned raving 
 mad, it was suppressed by an edict. Attempted in France in 1797. PraC/- 
 tised more recently there, in a few cases, with success; and in Englaal 
 (biit the instances are rare) since 1823. — Med. Jour. " One English physi- 
 cian, named Louver, or Lower, practised in this way : he died in 1691."-— 
 Freind^s Hist, of Physic. 
 
 BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell's 
 household, and his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach, 
 and had got him to Tyburn, intending to hang him, when he was rescued 
 by his friends. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergyman, stole the 
 regal crown from the Jewel-office in the Tower : yet, notwithstanding these 
 and other offences, he was not only pardoned, but had a pension of .£500 
 per annum settled on him by Charles II. 1673. 
 
 BLUE STOCKING. This term is applied to literary ladies, and was originally 
 conferred on a society of literary persons of both sexes. One of the most 
 active promoters of the society was Benjamin Stillingfleet, the distinguished 
 naturalist and miscellaneous writer, who always wore blue worsted stock-^ 
 ings, and hence the name : the society existed in 1760, et seq. — Anec. of 
 Buwyer. The beautiful and fascinating Mrs. Jerningham is said to have 
 worn blue stockings at the conversaziones of lady Montague ; and this pecu- 
 liarity also fastened the name upon accomplished women. 
 
 BOARD OF TRADE and PLANTATIONS. Charles II., on his restoration, 
 established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole com- 
 merce of the nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and 
 plantations, which was remodelled by William III. This board of superin- 
 spection was abolished in 1782 ; and a new council for the affairs of trade 
 was appointed, Sept. 2, 1786. 
 
 BOATS. Their invention was so early, and their use so general, the art cannot 
 be traced to any age or coimtry. Flat-bottomed boats were made in Eng- 
 land in the reign of the Conqueror: the flat-bottomed boat was again 
 brought into use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690. The life-boat was 
 first suggested at South Shields ; and one was built by Mr. Greathead, the 
 inventor, and was first put to sea, Jan. 30, 1790. 
 
 BOCCACCIO'S BOOK, II Decamerone, a collection of a hundred stories or 
 novels, not of moral tendency : feigned to have been related in ten days, and, 
 as is said by Petrarch, "possessing many charms." A copy of the first 
 edition (that of Valdafer, in 1471) was knocked down, at the duke of Rox- 
 burgh's sale, to the dulce of Marlborough, for £2260, June 17, 1812. This 
 identical copy was afterwards sold, by public auction, for 875 guineas, 
 June 5, 1819. 
 
 BCEOTIA, the country of which Thebes was the capital. Thebes was equally 
 celebrated for its antiquity, its grandeur, and the exploits and misfortunes 
 of its kings and heroes. The country was known successively as Aonia, 
 Messapia, Hyantis, Ogygia, Cadmeis. and Boeotia ; and it gave birth to Pin- 
 dar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Df^mocritus, Epaminondas, and the accomplished 
 and beautiful Corinna. 
 
BOI j 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 207 
 
 BCEOTIA contiimed. 
 
 Arrival of Cadmus, the founder of Cad- 
 
 Thebes besieged and taken - b. c. 1216 
 
 Thersander reigns in Thebes - - 1215 
 
 Tlie Thebans abolish royalty, and ages 
 of obscurity follow - - - 1125 
 
 Battle of Chasronea, in which tlie The- 
 bans defeat the Athenians 
 
 Epaminondas defeats the Lacedemo- 
 nians at Leuctra, restores his country 
 to independence, and puts it in a con- 
 dition to dictate to the rest of Greece 
 
 Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the The- 
 bans and Athenians, near Chaeronea - 
 
 44'' 
 
 371 
 338 
 
 Alexander destroyed Thebes, the 
 
 mea - - - b. c. 1493 
 
 Reign of Polydore - - - 1459 
 
 Labdacus ascends the throne - 1430 
 
 Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, 
 and dethrone Laius - - - 1388 
 
 CEdipus, not knowing his father Laius, 
 kills huii hj an affray, confirming the 
 oracle as to his death by the hands of 
 his son ..... 1276 
 
 OlJdipus encounters the Sphinx, and re- 
 solves her enigmas - - 1266 
 
 War of the Seven Captains - - 1225 
 
 Here the greatness of this country ends. 
 
 capital, oS5 b. c, when the house of Pindar alone was left standing, and all 
 
 the inhabitants were either killed or sold as slaves. — Strabo. 
 
 BOGS. Commonly the remains of fallen forests, covered with peat and loose 
 soil. Moving bogs are slips of land carried to lower levels by accumulated 
 water. Acts relating to Ireland, for their drainage, passed, March, 1830 
 The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres ; that of Scot- 
 land, at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of England, at near 1,000,000 of acres. 
 
 BOH, a fierce barbarian general, son of Odin, lived 60 b. c. The exclamation 
 of his name petrified his enemies, and is yet used to frighten children. 
 
 BOHEMIA. This country was originally governed by dukes : the title of king 
 was obtained from the emperor Henry IV, The kings at first held their 
 territory of the Empire, but they at length threw off the yoke : the crown 
 was elective till it came into the house of Austria, in which it is now here- 
 ditary, — See Germany. 
 
 John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two 
 of the first Reformers, are burnt for 
 heresy, which occasions an insurrec- 
 tion ; when Sigismund, who betrayed 
 them, is deposed, and the Imperialists 
 are driven from the kingdom 1415 & 1416 
 Albert, duke of Austria, marries the 
 daughter of the late emperor and 
 king, and receives the crowns of Bo- 
 hemia and Hungary - - - 14L7 
 The succession infringed by Ladislas, 
 son of the king of Poland, and George 
 Podiebrad, a protestant chief 1440 to 1459 
 Ladislas VI., king of Poland, elected 
 king of Bohemia, on the death of Po- 
 diebrad ..... 1471 
 The emperor Ferdinand I. marries 
 Anns, sister of Louis the late king, 
 and obtains the crown - - 1527 
 The elector palatine Frederick is driven 
 
 from Bohemia - - - - 1618 
 
 The crown is secured to the Austrian 
 
 -1643 
 -1742 
 -1744 
 -1757 
 -1775 
 -1806 
 
 The Sclavonians, seizing Bohemia, are 
 ruled by dukes - - a. d. 550 
 
 City of Prague founded - - - 795 
 
 Introduction of Christianity - - 894 
 
 Bohemia conquered by the emperor 
 Henry III., who spreads devastation 
 through the country - - - 1041 
 
 The regal title is conferred on Uratisias, 
 the first king .... 1061 
 
 The regal title is farther confirmed to 
 Ottoacre I. - - - - - 1199 
 
 Reign of Ottoacre IL, who carries his 
 arms into Prussia - - - 1258 
 
 Ottoa ire, refusing to do homage to the 
 emperor Rodolphus, is by him van- 
 quished, and deprived of Austria, 
 Styria, and Caraiola - - - 1282 
 
 In the reign of Winceslas III. mines of 
 silver are first discovered, and agri- 
 culture is encouraged and improved 
 (e« sea.) - - - - 1284 
 
 Winceslas IV. becoming odious for his 
 
 vices, is assassinated - - - 1305 
 
 John, count of Luxemburgh, is chosen 
 
 to succeed .... 1310 
 Silesia is made a province of Bohemia 1342 
 King John slain at the battle of Crecj 
 fought with the English - - 346 
 
 family by the treaty of 
 Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia 
 Prague taken by the Prussians - 
 The memorable siege of Prague 
 Revolt of the peasantry 
 The French occupy Prague 
 See Germany. 
 
 BOILING TO DEATH. A capital punishment in England, by statute 23 Henry 
 VIII., 1532. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons having been 
 poisoned by Rouse, the bishop of Rochester's cook, when the ofl:ence of 
 poisoning was made treason, and it was enacted to to be i^unished by boil- 
 ing the criminal to death ! Margaret Davie, a young woman, suffered in th« 
 same manner for a similar crime, in 1541. 
 
208 THE world's rr.OGRESS. [ BOO 
 
 BOLOGNA. Distinguished for its many rare and mag-n'.fioent specimens of 
 architecture. Its ancient and celebrated university was founded by Theo- 
 dosius, A. D. 433. Pope Julius II., after besieging- and taking Bologna, made 
 his triumphal entry into it with a pomp and magnificence by no means fitting 
 (as Erasmus observes) for the vicegerent of the meek Redeemer. Nov. 10, 
 1506. Here, in the church of St. Patronius, which is remarkable for it? 
 pavement. Cassini drew his meridian line, at the close of the seventeenth 
 century. Taken by the French, : 796 ; by the Austrians, 1799 ; again by tho 
 French, after the battle of Marengo, in 1800; restored to the pope in 1815 j 
 Austrians expelled by the people. August 8, 1848, 
 
 BOMBAY. India. Given as part of the marriage-portion of the princess Cath- 
 erine of Portugal, on her marriage with Charles II., 1661. Granted by Wil- 
 liam III. to the East India Company in 1688, and it now forms one of the 
 three presidencies. An awful fire raged here, and a number of lives were; 
 lost, Feb. 27, 1803.— See India. 
 
 BOMBS, invented at Venlo, in 1495, but according to some authorities near a 
 century after. They came into general use in 1634, having been previously 
 used only in the Dutch and Spanish armies. Bomb-vessels were invented in 
 France, in 1681. — Voltaire. The Shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls, 
 and a lighted fuse to make it explode before it reaches the enemy ; a thirteen- 
 inch bomb-shell weighs 198 lbs. 
 
 BONDAGE, OR VILLA NAGE, was enforced under "William I. A villain in 
 ancient times meant a peasant enslaved by his lord. A release from this 
 species of servitude Avas ordered on the manors of Elizabeth, in 1574. See 
 Villain. 
 
 BONE-SETTING. This branch of the art of surgery cannot be said to havo 
 been practised scientifically until 1620, before which time it was rather ihi- 
 })erfectly understood. — Bell. The celebrity obtained by a practitioner at 
 Paris, about 1600, led to the general study of bone-setting as a science. 
 — Freind's Hist of Physic. 
 
 BOOKS. Ancient books were originally boards, or the inner bark of trees ; and 
 bark is still used by some nations, as are also skins, for which latter parch- 
 ment was substituted. Papyrus, an Egyptian plant, was adopted in that 
 country. Books whose leaves were vellum, were invented by Attains, king 
 of Pergamus, about 198 b. c, at Avhich time books were in volumes or rolls. 
 The MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled and charred, and matted 
 together by the fire, and are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three 
 inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. The Pentateuch of 
 Moses, and the history of Job, are the most ancient in the world ; and in 
 profane literature, the poems of Homer, though the names of others still 
 more ancient are preserved. 
 
 BOOKS, Prices of. Jerome states that he had ruined himself by buying a copy 
 of the works of Origen. A large estate was given for one on cosmography, 
 by Alfred, about a. d. 872. The Roman de la Rose was sold for above 30Z.; 
 and a Homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and five quarters of wheat; and 
 they usually fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold at 
 prices varying from lOZ. to 40Z. each, in 1400. In our own times, the value 
 of some volumes is very great. A copy of Mackliii's Bible, ornamented by 
 Mr. Tomkins, has been declared worth 500 guineas. — Butter. A yet more 
 superb copy is at present insured in a London office for 3,000Z. — Times. II 
 Decamerone of Boccacio, edition of 1471, was bought at the duke of Rox- 
 burgh's sale by the duke of Marlborough for 2260Z.. June 17, 1812.— Phillips. 
 A copy of the " Mazarin Bible," being the first edition and first book ever 
 printed (by Guttemberg at Mentz in 1455) was sold at auction in London 
 
BOO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 209 
 
 in April 1846 for ^(yX. This copy, the only one known to exist except 19 
 in public libraries, is now in a private library in New iTork. 
 
 BOOKS, Printed, The first printed books were trifling hymns and psalters, and 
 being printed only on one side, the leaves Avere pasted back to back. The 
 first printing was, as a book, the Book of Psalms, by Faust and Schaeffer, h:a 
 son-in-law, Aug. 14, 1457. Several works were printed many years before; 
 but as the inventors kept the secret to themselves, they sold their first printed 
 works as manuscripts. This gave rise to an adventure that brought calamity 
 on Faust; he began in 1450 an edition of the Bible, which was finished in 
 1460, See article Devil and Dr. Faustus. The second printed was Cio-iro de 
 Officiis, 1466. — Blah: The first book printed in England was The Game and 
 Play of the Chesse, by Caxton, 1474, The first in Uablin was the Udtirgy, 
 in 1650. The first classical work printed in Russia was Corn. Nepotis Vdce, 
 in 1762. iMcian^s Dialogues was the first Greek book printed in America 
 (at Philadelphia), 1789. Books of astronomy and geometry were all de- 
 stroyed in England as being infected with magic, 6 Edward VI. 1552. — 
 Stowe's Chronicles. 
 
 The above is from Haydn; but according to Pettigrew, (Biblio. Sussex.) 
 the first book printed with movable types was the Latin Bible, printed by 
 John Guttemberg at Mayence, about 1455. It was in two folio volumes ; 
 and so excellent was the workm-anship, both in type, ink, paper, and press- 
 work, that it has scarcely been surpassed since. The succeeding editions 
 for 200 years were much inferior. This edition is called the Mazarin Bible ^ 
 as a copy was first found in the library of cardinal Mazarin. Only 20 copies 
 are now known to exist — all but one being in public libraries in Europe. 
 [See previous article.] Specimens of the block books^ printed with engraved 
 wooden blocks, instead of type, are now very rare. Of the Biblia Pauperum, 
 done in this way, only two copies exist, one of which belongs to a citizen of 
 New York, 
 
 BOOK-BINDING. The book of St. Cuthbert, the earliest ornamented book, is 
 supposed to have been bound about a. d. 650. A Latin Psalter in oak boards 
 was bound in the ninth century. A MS. copy of the four evangelists, the 
 bookon which Eng. kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. took their coronation 
 oath, was bound in oaken boards, nearly an inch thick, a. d. 1100. Velvet 
 was the covering in the fourteenth century ; and silk soon after. Vellum 
 was introduced early in the fifteenth century ; it was stamped and orna- 
 mented about 1510. Leather came into use about the same time. Cloth 
 binding superseded the common boards, generally, about 1831. Caoutchouc, 
 or India-rubber backs to account-books and large volumes introduced 1841. 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian book- 
 keeping, was taken from the course of algebra which was published by 
 Burgo, at Venice, then a great commercial stale, in the fifteenth century. 
 It was made known in England by James Peele, who published his Book- 
 keeping in 1569. — Anderso7i. 
 
 BOOK TRADE of Groat Britain, France, and Germany. The number of new 
 works published in successive years is thus stated : 
 
 France. Germany. 
 
 — - 5,654 
 
 — - 5,926 
 
 — - 6,074 
 
 The number of printed books received from 1814 to 1847 inclusive, under 
 the copyright acts, from the trustees of the British Museum, amount to 
 65,474, or 1681 each year. 
 
 England. — The whole number of books printed in England during 14 years, 
 from 1666 to 1680, was 3,550 ; equal to 253 yearly ; — but deducting tho 
 
 
 Gt. Brit. 
 
 1828 
 
 842 
 
 1830 
 
 • 1,142 
 
 1834 
 
 - 1,220 
 
 Gt. Brit. France, Germany 
 1836 - 1.332 . — . 7,891 
 
 1849 - — . _ . _ 
 
 1850 - — - 7,208 - — 
 
2 i THE world's PFwOGKESS. [ BOO 
 
 reprints, i>amphlets, single sermons, and maps, the annual average of new 
 books may be computed at much less than 100. 
 
 The number of new works, exclusive of " all pamphlet* and other tracts," 
 issued during 56 years, as appears from a " Complete Catalogue of Modern 
 Books published from the beginning of the century (1700) to 1756," waa 
 5,280 ; equal to a yearly average of 94. 
 
 The number of new Avorks, exclusive of reprints and pamphlets, issued 
 during eleven years, from 1792 to 1802 inclusive, was 4,096 ; equal to 372 
 each year. 
 
 The number of new publications issued in 27 years, from 1800 to 1827, in- 
 cluding reprints altered in size and price, but excluding pamphlets, was, 
 according to the London Catalogue, 19,860 : — deducting one fifth for reprints, 
 we have 15,888, equal to 588 each year. 
 
 Mr. McCiilloch estimates the number of volumes of new publications pro- 
 duced annually in Great Britain (exclusive of reprints, pamphlets, and 
 periodical publications not in volumes) at about 1,500 ; and the average 
 impression of each volume at 750 copies ; — annual total, 1,125,000 volumes ; 
 — value at 95. a volume, £506,250, " The number of reprinted volumes, 
 particularly of school-books, is very great; and if to these we add the 
 reviews, magazines, pamphlets, and all other publications, exclusive of news- 
 papers, the total publication value of the new works of all sorts, and new 
 copies of old works that are annually produced, may be estimated at about 
 £750,000." 
 
 Prance. — The activity of the French press has been very greatly increased 
 since the downfall of Napoleon. The count Daru, in a very instructive 
 work (^Notions Slatistiques sur la Librarie), published in 1827, estimated the 
 number of printed sheets, exclusive of newspapers, produced by the French 
 press in 1816 at 66 852 883 ; and in 1825, at 128,011,483 ; and we believe 
 that the increase from 1825 down to the present period has been little if any 
 thing inferior. 
 
 The first six months of the year 1887, as stated by the " Foreign Quarterly 
 review," there were printed in France, 3,413 works, in French and other 
 languages ; also 571 engravings and lithographs. 
 
 Germany. — The book-trade of Germany is greatly facilitated by the book- 
 fairs held at Leipsic at Easter and Michaelmas, which are attended by the 
 booksellers of Germany, and by many of those of the neighboring countries, 
 as France, Switzerland, Denmark, &c. This trade began to flourish in 1814; 
 the number of works then annually offered for sale was about 2,000 ; but 
 the number has been gradually increasing, having for the first time exceeded 
 5,000 in 1827 ; and it now exceeds 7,000. 
 
 "An Augsburg paper states," (says the " Foreign Quarterly Review," 1836,) 
 " that, on a moderate calculation, 10,000,000 of volumes are annually printed 
 in Germany, and as every half-yearly fair catalogue contains the names oi 
 • more than 1,000 German writers, it may be assumed, that there are now 
 living upwards of 50,000 persons who have written one or more books. The 
 total value of all the books published annually in Germany is estimated 
 from 5 to 6.000,000 dollars." 
 
 Russia. — In the year 1836, 674 original works, and 124 translations were 
 published in Russia, exclusive of 46 periodicals. 
 
 Svieden. — There are only 28 or 30 printing presses in Sweden ; 10 in Stock- 
 holm, 3 in Gottenburg, 2 in Upsal, 2 in Norkoping, and 1 in several otler 
 places. 
 
 BOOK-TRADE of the UNITED STATES. The number of new works wh'ch 
 appeared in the United States, in 1834 and 1835, amounted to 1,013, formmg 
 
BOS j 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 211 
 
 1,300 volumes and tlie cost of which maj'- be estimated at Sl;220,0t)0. In 
 1836. the number was considerably increased, and the cost of the hooks 
 published in that year cannot be computed at less than $ 1,500,000. Boston, 
 New York, Philadelphia, and Hartford furnished 19 20ths of the amount. 
 Another statement for the years 1833, 1834, and 1835, is as follows : — originala 
 1,030, reprints, 854 ; total, 1,884 ; — number of volumes printed (1,000 for 
 each edition), 1,884,000. 
 
 In most cases the editions of one and the same work are larger and more 
 frequent in the United States than in any other country. Many reprinted 
 English works have here passed three or four editions, while the publishers 
 of the original in England have but one. In one instance, the sale cf a 
 book in America amounted to 100,000 copies, whereas in England only four 
 editions, of 1,000 copies each, were disposed of. 
 
 The amount of literary productions in America has more than doubled 
 during the last ten years. The sales of five book-selling establishments 
 amounted in 1836, to $ 1,350,000. 
 
 The following statement will show the relative proportion of native and im- 
 ported literary productions in 1834 : 
 
 Original. Repri 
 
 Education - - 73 - < 
 
 Divinity - - - 37 - 1^ 
 
 Novels and Tales - 19 - 9i 
 
 History and Biography - 19 • \\ 
 
 Jurisprudence - - 20 - '< 
 
 Thus it appears in American literature the scientific and practically useful 
 predominate, and that works of imagination are chiefly derived from 
 foreign sources. The school-books are almost all written or compiled in the 
 United States ; and some idea of the extensive business done in them may 
 be formed from the circumstance, that, of some of the most popular com- 
 pilations in geography, from 100,000 to 300 000 copies have been sold in ten 
 years ; so that, in many instances, works of this kind produce a permanent 
 income, as well to the author as the publisher. During the last five years, 
 the number of American original works in proportion to reprints, has nearly 
 doubled. 
 
 [The preceding paragraph is derived from statistics in tne Booksellers^ Advertiser., edited by 
 O. P. Putnam, New York, 1835. Since then, no complete register has been kept of pubh 
 cations in successive years : but the foUov^ring list is compiled from the semi-moninly register 
 lo the Literary World.] 
 
 American PuBLiCATiours — Janum-y to June., 1849. 
 
 Or 
 
 iginal. 
 
 Reprint. 
 
 
 .Jrigmal. 
 
 Reprint 
 
 Education 
 
 73 
 
 9 
 
 Poetry - • - 
 
 . ~ 
 
 3 
 
 Divinity - 
 
 37 
 
 18 
 
 Travels 
 
 - 8 
 
 10 
 
 Novels and Tales 
 
 19 
 
 95 
 
 Fine Arts - 
 
 - 8 
 
 
 
 History and Biography • 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 Miscellaneous works 
 
 59 
 
 . 43 
 
 Jurisprudence 
 
 -20 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 Original. 
 
 Reprint. 
 
 Original, 
 
 Reprint, 
 
 Education 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 Travels • - - 21 
 
 7 
 
 Divinity - 
 
 - 25 
 
 25 
 
 Metaphysics - - 3 
 
 8 
 
 Novels and Tales 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 Miscellaneous • • 25 
 
 10 
 
 History 
 
 • 20 
 
 12 
 
 Law ) 
 
 
 Biography 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 Juvenile > not ascertained. 
 
 
 Political Economy 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Periodical ) 
 
 
 Medicine 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 Science 
 
 - 11 
 
 9 
 
 For six months - 200 
 
 ■ 128 
 
 Poetry 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 Total 
 
 328. 
 
 Tlic number of new publications for the year 1849 would thus be 656, exclu- 
 sive of law and juvenile books, and occasional pamphlets and periodicals. 
 
 BOOTS. They arc said to have been the invention of the Carians, and were 
 made of iron, brass, or leather ; of the last material some time after their 
 invention, boots were known to the Greeks, for Homer mentions them about 
 907 B. c. 
 
 BORODINO OR MOSKWA, Battle of, one of the most sanguinary in the 
 records of the world, fought Sept. 7, 1812, between the French and Russians ; 
 commanded on the one side by ]>"apoleon, and on the other by Kutusoff, 
 
212 THE world's progress. [ BOl 
 
 2-40,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory, because the 
 loss of the other was so immense ; but it was rather in favor of Napoleon, 
 for the Russians subsequently retreated, leaving Moscow to its fate. The 
 road being thus left open, the French entered Moscow, Sept. 14, with little 
 opposition. But a signal reverse of fortune now took place, which preserved 
 the Russian empire from ruin, and paved the way to the downfall of the 
 French military power over Europe. See Moscow. 
 
 BOROUGH. Anciently a company of ten families living together. The term 
 has been applied to such towns as send members to parliament, since the 
 election of burgesses in the reign of Henry HI. 1265. Burgesses were first 
 admitted into the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 — and into the 
 Irish, 1365, 
 
 BOROUGH ENGLISH. This was an ancient tenure by which the younger son 
 inherits. Its origin is thus explained : in feudal times the lord is said to 
 have claimed the privilege of spending the first night with the vassal's bride, 
 and on such occasions the land was made to descend to the next son, in con- 
 sequence of the supposed illegitimacy of the elder. This kind of tenure is 
 mentioned as occurring a. d. 834. It existed in Scotland, but was abolished 
 by Malcolm HI. in 10Q2.—Hmjdn. 
 
 BOSPHORUS, now called Circassia. The history of this kingdom is involved 
 in obscurity, though it continued for 530 years. It was named Cimmerian, 
 from the Cimmeri, who dwelt on its borders. The descendants of Archean- 
 actes of Mytilene settled in this country, but they were dispossessed by 
 order of the emperor Spartacus, in 438 b. c. Mithridates conducted a pris- 
 oner to Rome, by Claudius, and his kingdom soon afterwards made a pro- 
 vince of the empire, a. d. 40. The strait of the Bosphorus was closed by the 
 Turks, Sept. 8, 1828. It was blockaded by the Russian squadron under ad- 
 miral Greig, Dec. 31, same year. See Dardanelles. 
 
 BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, founded in August 1630. Here com- 
 menced the American Revolution. British soldiers fired on the people, 1770. 
 The celebrated " Tea-party" here, took place 1773. The port closed by par- 
 liament 1774. British army evacuated Boston in March 1776. [See Lexing- 
 to7i and Bunker Hill.] The cause of American freedom was nowhere more 
 actively sustained than by the people of Boston, Benjamin Franklin was 
 born here, Jan. 17, 1706. John Hancock, the first signer of the Declaration 
 of Independence, was a Bostonian. Boston incorporated as a city, 1822. 
 Population in 1700, 7000; in 1790, 18.038; in 1810, 33.250; in 1820, 43,298; 
 in 1830, 61,391 ; in 1845, 114,366. Tonnage of vessels in 1840, 220,243 tons. 
 
 BOSWORTH FIELD, Battle of, the thirteenth and last between the houses 
 of York and Lancaster, in which Richard III. was defeated by the earl of 
 Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., the former being slain, Aug. 22, 1485. 
 llie crown of Richard was found in a hawthorn bush, on the plain where the 
 battle was fought, and Henry was so impatient to be crowned, that he had 
 the ceremony performed on the spot with that very crown. In the civil con- 
 tests between the "Roses," many of the most ancient families in the king- 
 dom were entirely extinguished, and no less than 100,000 human beings lost 
 their lives. 
 
 BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the philosophy of botany. 
 The Historia Plantarum of Theophrastus, written about 320 b. c. Authors 
 on botany are numerous from the earlier ages of the world, to the close of 
 the 15th century, when the science became better understood. The study 
 was advanced by Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Caesalpinus, and others, between 
 1535 and 1600. — Melchior Adam. The system and arrangement of Linnjeus, 
 the first botanist of modern times, made kno\\Ti about 1750. Jussieu's sys- 
 
sou] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 213 
 
 tern, in 1758. At the time of Linnaeus's death, a. d. 1778, the species of 
 plants actually described amounted in number to 11,800. The number of 
 species of all denominations now recorded cannot fall short of 100,000. 
 
 BOTANY BAY, originally fixed on for a colony of convicts from Great Biitain. 
 The first governor, Philhps, who sailed from England in May, 1787, arrived 
 at the settlement in January, 1788. The bay had been discovered by cap- 
 tain Cook in 1770, and the place took its name from the great variety of 
 herbs which abounded on the shore. The colony was fixed at Port Jackson, 
 about thirteen miles to the north of the bay. See New South Wales aiid 
 TransporUbtion. 
 
 BOTTLES, of glass, were first made in England, about 1558. — See Glass. The 
 art of making glass bottles and drinking glasses was known to the Romans 
 at least before 79 a. d., for these articles and other vessels have been found 
 in the Ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained two hogsheads was 
 blown, we are told, at Leith, in Scotland, in January, 1747-8. 
 
 BOULOGNE, France. Taken by the British in 1542, but restored to France 
 upon the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, disabling ten vessels, 
 and sinking five. Aug. 3, 1801. Prince Louis Napoleon made a descent here 
 with about fifty followers, Aug. 6, 1840. — See next article and France. 
 
 BOULOGNE FLOTILLA. This celebrated armament against England excited 
 much attention for some years, but the grand demonstration was niade in 
 1804. In that year, Bonaparte had assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, 
 and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17 000 sailors to invade England. The 
 coasts of Kent and Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of 
 defence ; and nearly half the adult population of Britain Avas formed into 
 volunteer corps. It is supposed that this French armament served merely 
 for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriously intended the inva- 
 sion. 
 
 BOUNDARY QUESTIONS, m the United States. Award of the king of the 
 Netherlands on the boundary between Maine and the British possessions, 
 Jan. 10, 1831 (rejected by both parties). Collisions between the people of 
 Maine and New Brunswick in the disputed territory on the Aroostook, 1838-9, 
 suspended by a mutual agreement between sir J. Harvey, Governor of New 
 Brunswick, governor Fairfield, of Maine, and general Scott, of the U. S. 
 army, March 21, 1839. This boundary settled by the Treaty of Washing- 
 ton, 1842. Oregon boundary — 49th parallel agreed upon as the northern 
 boundary of the United States, in Oregon, by treaty signed at Washington, 
 June 1846. 
 
 BOUNTIES. They were first granted on the exportation of British commodi- 
 ties — a new principle introduced into commerce by the British parliament. 
 The first bounties granted on corn, were in 1688. First legally granted in 
 England for raising naval stores in America, 1703. Bounties have been 
 granted on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods. — Elements of Commerce. 
 
 BOUNTY, MUTINEERS of the Ship. Memorable mutiny on board the Bounty, 
 armed ship returning from Otaheite, with bread-fruit. The mutineers put 
 their captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka, 
 one of the Friendly Islands, April 28, 1789, and they reached the Island of 
 Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voyage of nearly ' 
 4000 miles, in which their preservation was next to miraculous. The muti- 
 neers were tried Sept. 15, 1792, when six were condemned, of whom three 
 were executed. See Pitcairn's Island. 
 
 BOURBON, House of. Anthony de Bourbon was the chief of the branch of 
 Bourbon, so called from a fief of that name which fell to them by marriage 
 with the heiress of the estate. Henry IV. of France and Navarre, justlj 
 
214 THE world's progress. [ BOT 
 
 style d the Great, was son of Anthony, and came to the throne in 1589. The 
 cro'.vn of Spain was settled on a younger branch of this family, and guaran- 
 teed by the peace of Utreclit 1713. — Rapin. The Bourbon Famil}" Compact 
 took place, 1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791. and were 
 restored, 1814. Re-expelled, and again restored, 1815. The elder branch 
 was expelled once more, in the persons of Charles X. and his family in 1830, 
 a", consequence of the revolution of the memorably days of July in that 
 year. — See France. 
 
 JiOURBON, IsLK OF, discovered by the Portuguese, in 1545. The French 
 first settled here in 1672, and. built several towns. The island surrendered 
 to the British, July 2, 1810. It is near the Isle of France, and the two are 
 styled the Mauritius. There occurred an awful hurricane here in February 
 1829, by which immense mischief was done to the shipping, and in the 
 Island. See Mam-itius. 
 
 BOURDEAUX (or Bordeaux) was united to the dominions of Henry II. of 
 England, by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black 
 Prince brought his royal captive, John, king of France, to this city after the 
 battle of Poitiers in 1356, and here held his court during eleven years : his son, 
 Richard II., (of Eng.) was born at Bourdeaux, in 1362. The fine equestrian 
 statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1743. Bourdeaux was entered by the 
 victorious British army, after the battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 25, 1814. 
 
 BOURIGNONISTS a sect founded by Madame A,ntoinctte Bourignon, a fanatic, 
 who, in 1658, took the habit of St. Augustin, and travelled into France, 
 Holland, England, and Scotland. In the last she made a strong party and 
 some thousands of sectarists, about 1670. She maintained that Christianity 
 does not consist in faith or practice, but in an inward feeling and supernatu- 
 ral impulse. This visionary pubUshed a book entitled the Light of the 
 World, in which, and in several other works, she maintained and tauglit her 
 pernicious notions. A disciple of hers, named Court, left her a good estate. 
 She died in 1680. 
 
 BOWLS, OR BOWLING, an English game, played as early as the thirteenth 
 century, and once in great repute among the higher ranks. Charles I. 
 played at it. It formed a daily share in the diversions of Charles II., at 
 Tunbridge. — Memoires de Grammont. 
 
 BOWS AND ARROWS. See Archery. The invention of them is ascribed to 
 Apollo. Known in England previoils to a. d. 450. The use of them was 
 again introduced into England by the Conqueror, 1066 ; and greatly encour- 
 aged by Richard I., 1190. — Bakers Chronicle. The usual range of the long- 
 bow was from 300 to 400 yards ; the length of the bow was six feet, and 
 the arrow three. Cross-bows were fixed to a stock of iron or wood, and 
 were discharged by a trigger. 
 
 BOXING, OR PRIZE-FIGHTING, the pugilatus of the Romans, and a favorite 
 sport with the British, who possess an extraordinary strength in the arm, an 
 advantage which gives the British soldier great superiority in battles decid- 
 ed by the bayonet. A century ago, boxing formed a regular exhibition, and 
 a theatre was erected for it in Tottenham-court — Broughton's amphitheatre, 
 behind Oxford-road, built 1742. Schools were opened in England to teach 
 boxing as a science in 1790. Owing to the dishonest practices in the " ring," 
 selling the victoiy, and one combatant allowing the other to beat him, &c., 
 the fights have been fewer of late, and the number of the patrons of boxing 
 have declined. 
 
 BOYLE LECTURES. Instituted by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl of 
 Cork), an exceedingly good man and philosopher, distinguished by his 
 genius, virtues, and unbounded benevolence. He instituted eight lectures 
 in vindication of the Christian religion, which were delivered at St, Mary-le- 
 
BRA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 2 IS 
 
 Bow cliurch, on the first Monday in each month, from January to May, and 
 September to November — endowed 1691. 
 
 BOYNE, Battle of, between king William III. and his father-in-law. James 11^ 
 foug-ht July 1, 1690. The latter was signally defeated, his adherents losing 
 1500 men, and the Protestant army about a third of that number. James 
 immediately afterwards fled to Dublin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to 
 France. The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle. 
 
 BRx\BANT. It was erected into a duchy a. d. 620, and devolved upon Lam- 
 bert I. count of Louvain, in 1005, and from him descended to Philip II. of 
 Eiirgiindy, and in regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In the 
 suveuteenth century it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabant, 
 and Walloon. These provinces underwent many changes in most of the 
 great wars of Earope. The Austrian division was taken by the French 1746 
 — again in 1794 by their Republic ; and it now forms part of the kingdom 
 of Belgium, under Leopold, 1831. See Belgmm. 
 
 BRACELETS. They were early worn and prized among the ancients ; we read 
 of them in almost all nations ; those that were called arviillce were usually 
 distributed as rewards for valor among the Roman legions. — Nouv. Diet. 
 Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies ; and armlets are 
 female ornaments to the present day. 
 
 BRAGANZA, House of, owes its elevation to royalty to a remarkable and 
 bloodless revolution in Portugal, a. d. 1640, when the nation, throwing off 
 the Spanish yoke, Avhich had become intolerable, advanced John, duke of 
 Braganza, to the throne, on which this family continues to reign. — Abi)z 
 Vertot. 
 
 BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian philosophers, reputed to be so ancient that Py- 
 thagoras is thought to have learned from them his doctrine of the M:temp- 
 sychosis ; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to 
 India on purpose to converse with them. The modern Brahmins derive 
 their name from Brahme, one of the three beings whom God, according to 
 their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world. 
 They never eat flesh, and abstain from the use of wine and all carnal enjoy- 
 ments. — Sirabo. The modern Indian priests are still considered as the de- 
 positaries of the whole learning of India. — Hohcell. 
 
 BRANDENBURGH, Family of, is of great antiquity, and some historians say 
 it was founded by the Sclavonians. who gave it the name of Banter, which 
 signifies Guard of the Forests. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, fortified 
 Brandeuburgh, a. d. 923, to serve as a rampart against the Huns. He be- 
 stowed the gov(;rnment on Sifroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title of 
 Margrave, which signifies protector of the marches or frontiers, in 927. 
 The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV". of Nurem- 
 berg, who was made elector in 1417. See Prussia. 
 
 BRANDYTV^NE Battle of. between the British royalist forces and the Ameri- 
 cans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell 
 to the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777. 
 
 BRASS. Its formation was prior to the Flood, and it v/as discovered in the 
 seventh generation from Adam. — Bible. Brass was known among all the 
 early nations. — Usher. The Britons from the remotest period were acquainted 
 with its use. — Whiftaker. When Lucius Mumonius burnt Corinth to tho 
 ground, 146 b. c, the riches he found were immense, and during the confla- 
 gration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and running together, 
 formed the valuable composition since knoAvn under the name of Corinth- 
 ian Brass. This, however, may well be doubted, for the Corinthian artists 
 bad long before obtained great credit for their method of combining gold 
 
216 THE world's progress. [ brb 
 
 and silvei with copper; and the Syriac translation of the Bible sa^s, that 
 Hiram made the vessels for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Articlei 
 made of this brilliant composition, though in themselves trivial and insig- 
 nificant, were yet highly valued. — Du Fresnoy. 
 
 BRAZIL. It was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was 
 driven upon its coasts by a tempest in 1500. He called it the Land of the 
 Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently called Brazil on account of its red 
 wood, and was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, about 1504. The 
 goldmines were first opened in 1684; and the diamond mines were discov- 
 ered 1730 (see Diamo7ids). The French having seized on Portugal in 1807, 
 the royal family and most of the nobles embarked for Brazil. A revolution 
 took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into an emj)ire, when Don 
 Pedro assumed the title of emperor, in November 1825. He abdicated the 
 throne of Portugal, May 2, 1826 ; and that of Brazil, in favor of his infant 
 son, now emperor, April 7, 1831, and returned to Portugal, where a civil 
 war ensued. — See Portugal. 
 
 BREAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been the 
 . first who taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method 
 of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hiso. 
 Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal ages ; see Exodus xii. 15. 
 Baking bread became a profession at Rome, 170 b. c. During the siege of 
 Paris by Henry IV., owing to the famine which then raged, bread, which 
 had been sold whilst oxij remained for a crown a pound, Avas at last made 
 from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, a. d. 1594. — 
 Henault. In the time of James I. the usual bread of the poor was made of 
 barley ; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread; 
 and the poor use potato-bread in many parts of Ireland. Earth has been 
 eaten as bread in some parts of the world : near Moscow is a portion of 
 land whose clay will ferment when mixed with flour. The Indians of Lou- 
 isiana C?) eat a white earth with salt ; and the Indians of the Oronooko eat 
 a white unctuous earth. — Greig ; Phillips. 
 
 BREAKWATER at PLYMOUTH. The first stone of this stupendous work 
 was lowered in the presence of the army and navy, and multitudes of the 
 great, August 12. 1812. It was designed to break the swell at Plymouth, 
 and stretches 5280 feet across the Sound ; it is 860 feet in breadth at the 
 bottom, and more than thirty at the" top, and consumed 3,666,000 tons of 
 granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841 ; and cost a 
 million and a half sterling. The architect was Rennie. The first stone of 
 the lighthouse on its western extremity was laid Feb. 1, 1841. 
 
 BREAST-PLATES. The invention of them is ascribed to Jason, 987 b. c. The 
 breast-plate formerly covered the whole body, but it at length dwindled in 
 the lapse of ages to the diminutive gorget of modern times. See Armor. 
 
 BREDA. This city was taken by prince Maurice of Nassau in 1590 ; by the 
 Spaniards in 1625 ; and again by the Dutch in 1637. Charles II. resided 
 here at the time of the Restoration, 1660. See Restoration. Breda was 
 taken by the French in 1793, and retaken by the Dutch the same year. The 
 French garrison was shut out by the burgesses in 1818, when the power of 
 France ceased here. 
 
 BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It was 
 worn by the Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations ; and in Italy, 
 it is said, it was worn in the time of Augustus Caesar. In the reign of Ho* 
 norius, about a. d. 894, the braccari, or breeches-makers, were expelled from 
 Rome ; but soon afterwards the use of breeches was adopted in other couji- 
 tries, and at length it became general. 
 
Bill J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 217 
 
 BREMEN, a venerable Hanse town, and duchy, sold to George I. as elector of 
 Hanover, in 1716. It was taken by the French in 1757 ; they were driven 
 out by the Hanoverians in 1758 ; and it was again seized in 1806. Bremen 
 was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its indepen- 
 dence was restored in 1813. See Hanse Towns. 
 
 BRESLAU, Battle of, between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter und;vf 
 prince Bevern, who was defeated, but the engagement was most bloody on 
 both sides, Nov 22, 1757, when Breslau was taken ; but was regained the 
 same year. This city was for some time besieged by the French, and sur- 
 rendered, to them January 5, 1807, and again in 1813. 
 
 BREST. It was besieged by Julius Ctesar, 54 b. c. — possessed by the English. 
 A. D. 1378 — given up to the duke of Brittany, 1391. Lord Berkeley and % 
 British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. 
 The magazine burnt, to the amount of some millions of pounds sterling, 
 1744. The marine hospitals, with fifty galley-slaves, burnt, 1766. The 
 magazine again destroyed by a fire, July 10, 1784. From this great depot 
 of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England 
 during the late war. 
 
 BRETHREN in INIQUITY. The designation arose from persons covenanting 
 formerly to share each other's fortune, in any expedition to invade a coun- 
 try, as did Robert de Oily and Robert de Ivery, in William I.'s invasion of 
 England, 1066. 
 
 BRETIGNY, Peace of, concluded with France at Bretigny, and by which Eng- 
 land retained Gascony and Guienne, acquired Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord, 
 Limousin, Bigorre, Angoumois, aud Rovergne, and renounced her preten- 
 sions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; England was also to 
 receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to release king John, who had been long 
 prisoner in London, May 8, 1360. 
 
 BREVIARIES. The breviary is a book of mass and prayer used by the church 
 of Rome. It was first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; and 
 both the clergy and laity use it publicly and at home. It was in use among 
 the ecclesiastical orders about a. d. 1080 ; and was reformed by the councils 
 of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIIL, and other popes. The 
 quality of type in which the breviary was first printed gave the name to the 
 type called brevier at the present day. 
 
 BREWERS. The first are traced to Egypt. Brewing was known to our Anglo 
 Saxon ancestors. — Tindai. " One William Murle, a rich maultman or bruer, 
 of Dunstable, had two horses all traped with gold, 1414." — Stowe. There 
 are about 1700 public brewers in England, about 200 in Scotland, and 250 in 
 Ireland : these are exclusively of retail and intermediate brewers, of which 
 there are in England about 1400 ; there are, besides, 28,000 victuallers, &c., 
 who brew their own ale. In London, there are about 100 wholesale brewers, 
 many of them in immense trade. Various statutes relating to brewers and 
 the sale of beer have been enacted from time to time. See Beer. 
 
 BRIBERY. In England an indictable oifence to bribe persons in the adminis- 
 tration of public justice. Thomas de Weyland, a judge, was banished the 
 land for bribery, in 1288 ; he was chief justice of the Common Pleas, Wil- 
 liam de Thorpe, chief justice of the King's Bench, was hanged for bribery 
 in 1351. Another judge was fined 20,000Z. for the like ofience, 1616. Mr. 
 Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the tower for bribery in 1712. Lord 
 Strangford was suspended from voting in the Irish House of Lords, for soli- 
 citing a bribe, January 1784. 
 
 BRIBERY at ELECTIONS, as in the preceding cases, made an indictable 
 offence. Messrs. Sykes and Rumbold fined and impi-isoned for bribery at 
 
 10 
 
218 THE world's progress. [ BRi 
 
 an election, March 14, 1776. An elector of Durham convicted, July 1803 ; 
 and several similar instances have occurred since. 
 BRICKS, for building, were used in the earliest times in Babylon, Egypt, 
 (xreece, and Rome. Used in England by the Romans, about a. d. 44. Made 
 xmder the direction of Alfred the Great, about 886.- — Saxon Chron. The 
 size regulated by order of Charles I. 1625. Taxed, 1784. The number of 
 bricks which paid duty in England in 1820 was 949,000,000 ; in 1830, the 
 number exceeded 1,100,000,000; and in 1840 it amounted to 14,000,000,000. 
 See Building. 
 
 BRIDAL CEREMONIES. Among the more rational ceremonies observed by 
 t he ancients, was the practice of conducting the bride to the house of her 
 spouse on a chariot, which was afterwards burned ; it originated with the 
 Thebans, and was intended as a sj'^mbol of the bride's future dependence on 
 her husband, from whom there was no chariot to convey her back to her 
 parents ; it is mentioned 880 b. c. 
 
 BRIDEWELL. Originally the name of a royal palace of king John, near 
 Fleet-ditch, London ; it was built anew by Henry VIII. in 1522, and was 
 given to the city by Edward VI. in 1553. There are several prisons of this 
 name throughout England. The first London Bridewell was in a locality 
 near to Bride's well; but this is no reason, as is justly observed, why simi- 
 lar prisons, not in a similar locality, should have this name. 
 
 BRIDGES. So early and general, and the expedients for their construction so 
 various, their origin cannot be traced ; they were first of wood. The ancient 
 bridges in China are of great magnitude, and were built of stone. Abydos 
 is famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont. 
 Trajan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was 
 built in A. D. 103. The Devil's bridge in the canton of Uri, so called from its 
 frightful situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that it could 
 scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were 
 invented to account for it. At ShatFhausen an extraordinary bridge was 
 built over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet wide : there was a pier in the 
 middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a 
 man of the ligiitest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet wagons 
 heavily laden passed over without danger. This bridge was destroyed by 
 the French in 1799. Suspension bridge at Niagara Falls completed July 
 29, 1848. 
 
 BRIDGES IN ENGLAND. The ancient bridges in England were of wood, and 
 were fortified with planks and merlined ; the first bridge of Stone was built 
 at Bow, near Stratford, a. d. 1087. Westminster bridge, then the finest 
 erected in these realms, and not surpassed by any in the world, except in 
 China, was completed in twelve years, 1750. The other London bridges are 
 Blackfriars, completed 1770 ; London, (rebuilt) 1831 ; Southwark, of iron, 
 1819. The first iron bridge, on a large scale, was erected over the Severn, 
 in Shropshire, 1779. The finest chain suspension bridge is that of the 
 Menai Strait, completed in 1825. Hungerford suspension bridge, 1845. 
 
 BRIDGE WATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was 
 begun by the duke of Bridgewater, styled the father of canal navigation in 
 that country, in 1758 : Mr. Brindley was the architect. The canal com- 
 mences at Worsley, seven miles from Manchester ; and at Barton-bridge is 
 an aqueduct which, for upwards of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the 
 navigable river Irwell ; its length is twenty-nine miles. 
 
 BRIEF. A written instrument in the Catholic church, of early but uncertain 
 date. Briefs are the letters of the pope dispatched to princes and others on 
 public affairs, and are usually written short, and hence the name, and are 
 without preface or preamble, and on paper ; in which particulars they are 
 
BRI J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 2l9 
 
 distinguished from bulls. The latter are ample, and always .vritten on 
 parchment ; a brief is sealed with red wax, the seal of the fisherman, or St 
 Peter in a boat, and always in presence of the pope ; they are used for gracea 
 and disi)ensations, as well as business. 
 BRIENNE, Battle of, between the allied armies of Russia and Prussia, and 
 the French, fought on the 1st, and resumed on the 2d February, 1814. Tho 
 allies were defeated with great loss ; this was one of the last battles in which 
 the French achieved victory, previously to the fall of Napoleon. 
 
 BRISTOL. This city, one of the principal in England, was built by Brennus, 
 a prince of the Britons, 380 b. c. It was granted a charter and became a 
 distinct county in the reign of Edward III. Taken by the earl of Glouces- 
 ter, in his defence of his sister Maude, the empress, against king Stephen, 
 1138. Bristol was attacked with great fury by the forces of Cromwell, 1655. 
 Riot at Bristol, on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the ecorder, into 
 the city, attended by a large police and special force, to open the sessions. 
 He being politically obnoxious to the lower order of the citizens, k riot en- 
 sued, which was of several days' continuance, and which did net terminate 
 until the mansion-house, the bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, some 
 of the prisons (the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses were burned, 
 and many lives lost, Oct. 29, 1831. Trial of the rioters, Jan. 2, 1832; four 
 were executed, and twenty-two transported. Suicide of col. Brereton during 
 his trial by court-martial, Jan. 9, same year. 
 
 BRITAIN. The earliest records of the history of this island are the manu- 
 scripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The Celts were the ancestors of the 
 Britons and modern Welsh, and Avere the first inhabitants of Britain. Bri- 
 tain, including England, Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion, 
 the name of Britain being applied to all the islands collectively — Albion to 
 only one, — Pliny. The Romans first invaded Britain under Julius Cassar, 
 55 B. c, but they made no conquests. Tho emperor Claudius, and his gen- 
 erals, Plautius, Vespasian, and Titus, subdued several provinces after thirty 
 pitched battles with the natives, a. d. 43 and 44. The conquest was com- 
 pleted by Agricola, in the reign of Domitian, a. d. 85. 
 
 First invasion of Britain by the Romans, 
 
 under Julius Csesar - - b. c. 55 
 
 Cymbeline, king of Britain - - 4 
 
 Expedition of ctaudius into Britain, A. d. 40 
 London founded by the Romans - 49 
 
 Caractacus carried in chains to Rome - 51 
 The Romans defeated by Boadicea; 
 
 70,000 slain, and London burnt - 61 
 
 A vast army of Britons is defeated by 
 
 Suetonius, and 80,000 slain - - 61 
 Reijrr- of Lucius, the first Christian king 
 
 of Britain, and in the world - - 179 
 
 Severus keeps his court at York, then 
 
 called Eboracum - - - 207 
 
 He dies at York - - - - 211 
 
 Carausius, a tyrant, usurps the throne 
 
 of Britain - - - - 286 
 
 He is killed by Alectus, who continues 
 
 the usurpation - - - - 293 
 
 Constantius recovers Britain by the de 
 
 Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at 
 York - - - - A. D. 306 
 
 The Pioman forces are finally with- 
 drawn from Britain - 420 to 426 
 
 The Saxons and Angles are called in to 
 aid the natives against their northern 
 neighbors the Picts and Scots - 449 
 
 Having expelled these, the Anglo-Sax- 
 ons attack the natives themselves, 
 driving them into Wales - - 455 
 
 Many of the natives settle in Armorica, 
 since called Brittany - - - 457 
 
 The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided 
 into seven kmgdoms -' - - 457 
 
 Reign of the renowned Arthur - - 506 
 
 Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and 
 establishment of Christianity - - 596 
 
 Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, 
 be-?an his reign - - - 678 
 
 The Saxon Heptarchy ends - - 829 
 
 See JEjis^-land, and also Tabular Views, p. 
 75, &c. 
 
 That Britain formerly joined the Continent has been inferred from the simi- 
 lar cliffs of the opposite coasts of the English Channel, and from the con- 
 stant encroachments of the sea in still widening the channel. For instance, 
 a large part of the clifis of Dover fell, estimated at six acres, Nov. 27, 1810. 
 PMUips's Annals. 
 
 BRITISH MUSEUM. The origin of this great national institution was tho 
 
 feat of Alectus - - - - 296 
 
220 THE world's progress. [ BRI 
 
 grant by parliameni of 20,000Z. to the daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in pay- 
 ment for his tine libi-ary, and vast collection of the productions of nature 
 and art, which had cost him 50,000Z, The library contained 50.000 volumes 
 and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of vertu were enumerated in the cat- 
 alogue of curiosities. The act was passed April 5, 1753 ; and in the same 
 year Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place for the recep- 
 tion of these treasures. The museum has since been gradually increased 
 to an immense extent by gifts, bequests, the purchase of every species ol 
 curiosity, MSS., sculpture and work of art, and by the transference to its 
 rooms of the Cottonian, Harleian, and other libraries, the Elgin marbles, 
 &c. George IV. presented to the museum the library collected at Bucking- 
 ham-house by George III. — See Cottonian Library, and other collections. 
 
 BROAD SEAL of ENGLAND, first affixed to patents and other grants of the 
 crown, by Edward the Confessor, a. d. 1048. — Baker^s Chron. 
 
 BROCADE. A silken stuff variegated with gold or silver, and raised and en- 
 riched with flowers and various sorts of figures, originally made by the Chi- 
 nese. — Johnson. The trade in this article was carried on by the Venetians. 
 — Anderson. Its manufacture was established with great success at Lyons, 
 in 1757. 
 
 "BROCOLI : an Italian Plant. — Pardon. The white and purple, both of which 
 are varieties of the cauliflower, were brought to England from the Isle of 
 Cj^prus, in the seventeenth century. — Andersoii. About 1603. — Burns. The 
 cultivation of this vegetable was greatly improved in the gardens of Eng- 
 land and came into great abundance about 1680. — Anderson. 
 
 BROKERS. Those both of money and merchandise were known early in Eng- 
 land. See Appraisers. Their dealings were regulated by law, and it was 
 enacted that they should be licensed before transacting business, 8 and 9 
 William III. 1695-6. The dealings of stock-brokers were regulated by act 
 6 George I. 1719, and 10 George 11. 1736. — Statutes at large. See Pawn- 
 brokers. 
 
 BRONZE, known to the ancients, some of whose statues, vessels, and various 
 other articles, made of bronze, are in the British Museum. The equestrian 
 statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place Venddme at Paris, (demolished Aug. 
 
 10, 1792,) was the most colossal ever made ; it contained 60,000 lbs. weight 
 of bronze. Bronze is two parts brass and one copper, and the Greeks added 
 one fifteenth of lead and silver. 
 
 BROTHELS, were formerly allowed in London, and considered a necessary evil, 
 under the regulation of a good police. They were all situated on the Bank- 
 side, Southwark, and subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Winches- 
 ter ; and they were visited weekly by the Sheriff's ofiicers, and the severest 
 penalties being enacted against keeping infected or married women, 8 Henry 
 
 11. 1162. — Survey of London. Brothels tolerated in France, 1280. Pope 
 Sixtus IV. licensed one at Rome, and the prostitutes paid him a weekly tax, 
 which amounted to 20-000 ducats a year, 1471. — Ital. Chron. 
 
 BROWNISTS, a sect founded by a schoolmaster in Southwark, named Robert 
 Brown, about 1615. It condemned all ceremonies and ecclesiastical distinc- 
 tions, and affirmed that there was an admixture of corruptions in all other 
 communions. But the founder subsequently recanted his doctrines for a 
 benefice in the church of England. — CoWms's Eccles. Hist. 
 
 BRUCE'S TRAVELS, undertaken to discover the source of the Nile. The 
 illustrious Bruce, the " Abyssinian Traveller,"' set out in June 1768, and pro- 
 ceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed the 
 desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jidda, passed some months in Arabia 
 FeliXj and after various detentions, reached Gondar, the capital ol Abys- 
 
•^LC ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 221 
 
 sinia, in Feb. 1770. On Nov. 14th, 1770, lie obtained the great object of hia 
 wishes — a sight of the sources of the Nile. Bruce returned to England in 
 1773, and died in 1794. 
 BRUNSWICK, HouiiE of. This house owes its origin to Azo, of the family of 
 Este. Azo died in 1055, and left, by his wife Cunegonde (the heiress of 
 Guelph III., duke of Bavaria), a son who was Guelph IV., the great-grand- 
 father of Henry the Lion. This last married Maude, daughted of Henry II. 
 of England, and is always looked upon as being the founder of the Bruns- 
 wick family. The dominions of Henry the Lion were the most extensive o( 
 any prince of his time ; but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick 
 Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., he drew the emperor's re- 
 sentment on him, and in the diet of Wurtzburg, in 1179, he was proscribed. 
 The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family 
 of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony, to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the 
 house of Anhalt ; and his other territories to different persons. On this, he 
 retired to England ; but on Henry's intercession, Brunswick and Lunenburg 
 were restored to him. The house of Brunswick has divided into several 
 branches. The present duke of B runs wick- Wolf enbuttel is sprung from the 
 eldest ; the duke of Brunswick-Zell was from the second ; and from this 
 last sprang the royal family of England. A revolution took place at Bruns- 
 wick, when the ducal palace was burnt, and the reigning prince obliged to 
 retire and seek shelter in England, Sept. 8, 1830. 
 
 BRUSSELS, founded by St. Gery of Cambray, in the seventh century. The 
 memorable bombardment of this city by Marshal Villeroy, when 14 churches 
 and 4000 houses were destroyed, 1695. Taken by the French, 1746, 
 Again, by Dumouriez, 1792. The revolution of 1830 commenced here, Aug, 
 25. — See Belgium. This town is celebrated for its fine lace, camlets, and 
 tapestry. There is here a noble building, called the HStel de Ville, whose tur- 
 ret is 364 feet in height ; and on its top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 
 feet high, which turns with the wind. Riot in Brussels, in which the costly 
 furniture of 16 principal houses was demolished, in consequence of a dis- 
 play of attachment to the house of Orange, 5th April, 1834. 
 
 BUBBLE COMPANIES, in commerce, a name given to projects for raising 
 money upon false and imaginary grounds, much practised, often with disas- 
 trous consequences, in France and England, in 1719 and 1721. Many such 
 projects were formed in England and Ireland in 1825, See Companies, and 
 JLaw^s Bubble. 
 
 BUCCANEERS. These piratical adventurers, chiefly French. English, and 
 Dutch, commenced their depredations on the Spaniards of America, soon 
 after the latter had taken possession of that continent and the West Indies. 
 The principal commanders of the first expedition were, Montbar, Lolonois, 
 Basco, and Morgan, who murdered thousands, and plundered millions. The 
 expedition of Van Horn, of Ostend, was undertaken in 1608 ; that of Gramont. 
 in 1685 ; and that of Pointis, in 1697. 
 
 BUCHANITES. Hundreds of deluded fanatics, followers of Margaret Buchan, 
 who promised to conduct them to the new Jerusalem, and prophesied tha 
 end of the world. She appeared in Scotland in 1779, and died in 1791, when 
 her followers dispersed. 
 
 BUCHAREST, Treaty of. The preliminaries of peace ratified at this place 
 between Russia and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be 
 the frontier limit of those empires, signed May 28, 1812. The subsequent 
 war between those powers altered many of the provisions of this treaty, 
 
 BUCKINGHAM PALACE, London. Buckingham-house, built 1703, was 
 pulled down in 1825, and the new palace commenced on its site • and after 
 
222 THE wori.d's frogeess. |_buil 
 
 expenditure which must have approached a million sterling, it was com- 
 pleted, and was taken possession of by queen Victoria, July 13, 1837- 
 
 BUCKLERS. Those used in single combat were invented by Proetus and Acri' 
 sius, of ArgoS; about 1370 b. c. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Sam- 
 nites, he took from them their bucklers, which were of gold and sih er, 309 
 B c. See article Armor. 
 
 BUCKLES. The wearing of buckles commenced in the reign of Charles 11, 5 
 but people of inferior rank, and such as atfected plainness in their garb 
 wore strings in their shoes some years after that period ; these last were 
 however, ridiculed for their singularity in using them. 
 
 BUDA; once called the Key of Christendom. It was taken by Solyaian IL at 
 the memorable battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, 
 and 200 000 of his subjects were carried away captives, 1526. Buda waa 
 sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hun- 
 gary was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1540. Retaken by the Imperial- 
 ists, and the Mahometans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. See 
 Hungary. 
 
 BUENA VISTA, Battle of, between the American force, of about 5 000 men, un- 
 der general Taylor and general Wool ; and the Mexicans, about 20,000, under 
 Santa Anna: the latter defeated with the loss of 2500 killed and wounded. 
 American loss, 264 killed, 450 wounded. Thisivictory securing to the Ameri- 
 cans the whole of the northern provinces of Mexico, Feb. 22, 1847. 
 
 BUENOS AYRES. The capital was founded by Pedro Mendoza, in 1535. It 
 Avas taken by the British under sir Home Popham, June 21, 1806 ; and was 
 retaken, after an attack of three days, Aug 12 the same year. The British 
 suffered a great repulse here under general Whitelock, who was disgraced, 
 July 6, 1807. Declaration of independence of this province, July 19, 1816; 
 the treaty was signed February 1822. To put a stop to a war between Bue- 
 nos Ayres and Monte Video. Englai>d and France blockaded the port of Bue- 
 nos Ayres, Oct. 24, 1845; the troops of Buenos Ayres under general Rosas, 
 defeated by the combined forces, Nov. 20, 1845. 
 
 BUFFOONS. These were originally mountebanks in the Roman theatres. The 
 shows of the buffoons were discouraged by Domitian, and were finally abol- 
 ished by Trajan, a. d. 98. Our ancient kings had. jesters, who are described 
 as being, at first, practitioners of indecent raillery and antic postures ; they 
 were employed under the Tudors. Some writers state that James I. con- 
 verted the jesters into poet-laureates ; but poet-laureates existed long before ; 
 Selden traces the latter to 1251. — Warton. 
 
 BUILDING. The first structures were of wood and clay, then of rough stone, 
 
 and in the end the art advanced to polished marble. Building with stone 
 
 was early among the Tyrians ; and as ornaments and taste arose, every 
 
 nation pursued a different system. The art of building with stone may be 
 
 referred in England to Benedict, or Benet, a monk, about a. d. 670. The first 
 
 % biidge of this material in England was at Bow, in 1087. Building with brick 
 
 I was introdticed by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encouraged it 
 
 - in England, in 886. Brick-building was generally introduced by the earl d 
 
 Arundel, about 1598, London being then almost built of wood. The increase 
 
 of building in London was prohibited within three miles of the city gates by 
 
 Elizabeth, who ordered that one family only should dwell in one house, 1580. 
 
 BULGARIANS. They defeat Justinian, a. d. 687; and are subdued by the 
 emperor Basilius, in 1019. On one occasion, this emperor having taken 
 15,000 Bulgarians prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one 
 eye only to every hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his countryraeu 
 
BUG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 223 
 
 home. Bulgaria Avas governed by Roman dukes till 1186 ; subdued by 
 Bajazet, 1396. — Univ. Hist. vol. xvii. 
 
 BULL, OR EDICT of ths POPE. This is an apostolical rescript, of ancient 
 use, and generally written on parchment. The bull is, properly, the seal, 
 deriving- its name from bulla, and has been made of gold, silver, lead, and 
 wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; and on the other, the 
 name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. The celebrated golden 
 bull of the emperor Charles IV. was so called because of its golden seal ; 
 and was made the fundamental law of the German empire, at the diet of 
 Nuremburg, a. d, 1356. Bulls denouncing queen Elizabeth and her abet- 
 tors, and corsigning them to hell-fire, accompanied the Spanish Armada, 
 1588. 
 
 BL'LL-BAITING, or BULL-FIGHTING. This atrociously criminal sport of 
 Spain and Portugal is somewhat equivalent in those countries to the fights 
 of the gladiators among the Romans. It is recorded as being an amuse- 
 ment at Stamforel so early as the reign of John, 1209. Bull-running was a 
 sport at lutbury in 1374. In the Spo?is of England, we read of the " Easter 
 fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls and 
 huge bears were baited with dogs ;" and near the Clink, London, was the 
 Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi- 
 bition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amusement. A bill to abolish 
 bull-baiting was thrown out in the Commons, chiefly through the influence 
 of the late Mr. Windham, who made a singular speech in favor of the cus- 
 tom. May 24, 1802. — BiUler. It has since been declared illegal. See Cni- 
 elty to Animals. Bull-flghts were introduced into Spain about 1260 : abol- 
 ished there, " except for _pw'MS and patriotic purposes," in 1784. There waa 
 a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by 10^000 specta- 
 tors, on Sunday, June 14, 1840. 
 
 BULLETS. Those of stone were in use a. d. 1514 ; and iron ones are first 
 mentioned in the Fcudera, 1550. Leaden bullets were made before the close 
 of the sixteenth century, and continue to be those in use in all nations for 
 musketry. The cannon-ball in some Eastern countries is still of stone, 
 instead of iron. — Ashe. 
 
 BUNKER HILL Battle of, (near Boston,) between the British under Howe, 
 and the Americans under Prescott and Putnam, June 17, 1775. British loss, 
 1054 killed and wounded ; American. 453. The latter obliged to retreat for 
 want of powder. But this, the first important battle of the revolution, has 
 always justly been regarded as a great victory for the American cause, and 
 is so commemorated by the granite obelisk on the battle-ground, of which 
 the corner-stone was laid by general La Fayette, in 1825. It was finished 
 July 28, 1842, at the cost altogether of about $100,000, raised by voluntary 
 contributions. The height is 220 feet. Its completion celebrated by a pro- 
 cession, &c., and an oration by Daniel Webster ; i)resident Tyler and 60,000 
 people present, June 17, 1843. 
 
 BL^ONAPARTES EMPIRE of FRANCE. Napoleon Bonaparte, the most 
 extraordinary man of modern times, ruled over France, and subdued most 
 of the nations of the Continent, in the early part of the present century. 
 See his various military and other achievements under their respective heads 
 throusrhout the volume : — 
 
 Napoleon born at Ajaccio, in Italy. 
 
 Aug. is, 1769 
 He first distinguishes himself in the 
 
 coraniand of the artillery at Toulon - 1793 
 He embarks for Egypt - May 10, 1798 
 
 fs repulsed before Acre - May 27, 1799 
 He returns from Egypt - Aug. 2.3, 1799 
 
 Deposes the French directory, and be- 
 comes first consul - Nov. 9, 1799 
 
 Sends overtures of peace tc the king of 
 England - - - Jan. 1 180C 
 
 His life attempted by an "infernal ma- 
 chine" . - - Dec. 21. I80f 
 
i2A 
 
 THE WOKLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [ Bua 
 
 BUONAPARTE'S EMPIRE of FRANCE, contmued. 
 
 Is defeated at Waterloo 
 
 Elected president of the Italian, late 
 
 Cisalpuie, republic - Jan. 25, 1802 
 
 Elected consul for 10 years - May 8, 1802 
 Made first consul for life - Aug. 2, 1802 
 Accepts 'he title of emperor from the 
 
 senate in name of the people May 18, 1804 
 Crowned emperor by the pope Dec 2, 1804 
 Crowned king of Italy - May 26, 1805 
 Divorced from the empress Josephine 
 
 Dec. 16, 1809 
 Marries Maria Louisa - April 7, 1810 
 A son, the fruit of this marriage, born, 
 
 and styled king of Rome - March 20, 1811 
 His overtures of peace to England re- 
 jected - - - April 14, 1812 
 [The reverses of Bonaparte now Ibllow 
 
 in quick succession.] 
 He renounces the thrones of France 
 and Italy, and accepts of the Isle of 
 Elba for his retreat - April 5, 1814 
 Embarks at Frejus - - April 28, 1814 
 Arrives at Elba - - May 3, 1814 
 
 Again appears in France ; he quits Elba 
 
 and lands at Cannes - March 1, 1815 
 Enters Lyons - - March 10, 1815 
 
 Arrives at Fontainebleau March 20, 1815 
 Joined by all the army - March 22, 1815 
 The allies sign a treaty for his exter- 
 mination - - - March 25. 1815 
 He abolishes the slave-trade March 2% 1815 
 
 June 18, 1813 
 Returns to Paris - June 20, 1815 
 
 And abdica'es in favor of his infant 
 
 son - - - June 22, 1815 
 
 Intending to embark for America, he 
 
 arrives at Rochefort - July 3, 1815 
 
 He surrenders to Capt. Maitland, of the 
 
 Bellerophon • - July 15, l%5 
 
 Transferred at Torbay to the Northuvi- 
 
 berland,a.nd sails for St. Helena Aug. 8, 1815 
 Arrives at St. Helena (where it is de- 
 creed by the allied sovereigns he shall 
 remain for life) - Oct. 15, 18iB 
 
 The family of Bonaparte excluded for 
 ever from France by the law of am- 
 nesty - - - Jan. '2, 1815 
 Death of Bonaparte - May 5, 1821 
 His will registered in England - Aug. 1824 
 His son, ex-king of Rome, dies July 22. 1832 
 The French chambers decree, with the 
 consent of England, that the ashes of 
 Napoleon be removed from St. Hele- 
 na, and brought to France - May 12, 1840 
 They are exhumed - Oct. 16, 1840 
 The Belle Poule, French frigate, arrives 
 at Cherbourg with the -emains of 
 Napoleon, in the care of Jhe prince 
 de Joi^ville - - Nov. 30, 1840 
 They are interred with great solemnity 
 in the Hotel des Invalides - Dec. 15, 1840 
 
 Leaves Paris for the army - June 12, 1815 
 
 BURGESS, from the French Bourgeois, a distinction coeval in England with 
 its corporations. Burgesses were called to parliament in England a. d, 1265 ; 
 in Scotland, in 1326 ; and in Ireland, about 1365. Burgesses to be resident 
 in the places which they are elected to represent in parliament, 1 Henry V. 
 1413. — Vmer''s Statutes. See Borough. 
 
 BURGLARY. Until the reign of George IV. this crime, in England, was pun- 
 ished with death. 
 
 BURGOS, Siege of. Wellington entered Burgos after the battle of Salamanca, 
 which was fought July 22, 1812, and the castle was besieged by the British 
 and allied army, and several attempts were made to carry it by assault, but 
 the siege was abandoned in October, ?ame year. The castle and fortifica- 
 tions were blown up by the French in June 1813. 
 
 BURGUNDY. This kingdom begins in Alsace, a. d. 413. Conrad II. of Ger- 
 many being declared heir to the kingdom, is opposed in his attempt to an- 
 nex it to the empire, when it is dismembered, and on its ruins are formed 
 the four provinces of Burgundy, Provence, Viennes, and Savoy, 1034. Bur- 
 gundy becomes a circle of the German empire, 1521, It falls to Philip II. 
 of Spain, whose tyranny and religious persecutions cause a revolt in the 
 Batavian provinces, 1566, After various changes, Burgundy annexed to 
 France, and formed into departments of that kingdom. 
 
 BURIAL. The earliest and most rational mode of restoring the body to earth. 
 The first idea of it was formed by Adam, on his observing a live bird cover- 
 ing a dead one with leaves. Barrows were the most ancient graves. See 
 Barrows. Places of burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in 210. — 
 Eusebius. The first Christian burial-place was instituted in 596 ; burial in 
 cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in church-yards, 758. Vaults were 
 erected in chancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woollen shrouds used in Eng- 
 land, 1666. Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland, 1729 ; and woollen 
 shrouds used, 1733. Burials were taxed, 1695 — again, 1673.. See Cemeteries, 
 
 BURIALS. Parochial registers of them, and of births and marriages, were in 
 
BVR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 225 
 
 stituted in England by Cromwell, Lord Essex, about 1536. — Stowe. A tax 
 wao exacted on burials in England : for the burial of a duke, £50, and foi 
 that of a common person 45., under William III., 1695, and Geo. III. 1783.— 
 Statutes. See BUls of Mortality. 
 
 BURKING. A new and horrible species of murder committed in England. It 
 was thus named from the first known criminal by whom the deed was perpe- 
 trated being called Burke. His victims were strangled, or made lifeless by 
 pressure, or other modes of suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no 
 marks of violence were afterwards sold to the surgeons for the purpose 
 of dissection. Burke was executed at Edinburgh in February, 1829. The 
 crime has been more recently perpetrated by a gang of murderers in London. 
 The monster named Bishop was apprehended in November 1831, and exe- 
 cuted with Williams, one of his accomplices, for the murder of a poor Italian 
 boy, named Carlo Ferrari, a friendless wanderer, and therefore selected as 
 being less likely to be sought after (they confessing to this and other similar 
 murders), December 5, same year, 
 
 BURMESE EMPIRE. Founded in the middle of the last century, by Alom- 
 pra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty. — See India 
 
 BURNING ALIVE. This punishment was inflicted among the Romans, Jews, 
 and other nations, on the betrayers of councils, incendiaries, and for incest 
 in the ascending and descending degrees The Jews had two ways of burn- 
 ing alive : one with wood and faggots to burn the body, the other by pour- 
 ing scalding lead down the throat of the criminal, combustio animcE, to burn 
 the soul. — See Suttees. 
 
 BURNING ALIVE, in England. Even in England (see p7'eceding article) burn- 
 ing alive was a punishment upon the statute-book. The Britons punished 
 heinous crimes by burning alive in wicker baskets. See Stonehenge. This 
 punishment was countenanced by bulls of the pope ; and witches suffered 
 in this manner. — See Witches. Many persons have been burned alive on ac- 
 count of religious principles. The first sufferer was sir William Sawtree, 
 parish priest of St. Osith, London, 3 Henry IV., February 9, 1401. In the 
 reign of the cruel Mary numbers were burned, among others, Ridley, bishop 
 of London ; Latimer, bishop of Rochester ; and Cranmer. archbishop of 
 Canterbury, who were burned at Oxford in 1555 and 1556. Numerous others 
 suffered this dreadfal death in Mary's reign.* 
 
 BURNING THE DEAD. The antiquity of this custom rises as high as the The- 
 ban war ; it was practised among the Greeks and Romans, and the poet Ho- 
 mer abounds with descriptions of such funeral obsequies. The practice was 
 very general about 1225 b. c. and was revived by Sylla, lest the relics of the 
 dead in graves should be violated ; and to this day the burning of the dead 
 is practised in many parts of the East and West Indies. 
 
 BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS. Their power was not unknown 
 to Archimedes, but the powers of these instruments are rendered wonderful 
 by the modern improvements of Settalla : of Tchirnhausen, 1680 ; of Bufibn, 
 1747 ; and of Parker and others, more recently. The following are experi- 
 ments of the fu.«ion of substances made with Mr, Parker's lens, or burning 
 mirror : 
 
 • It is coinputecl, that during the three years of Mary's reign in which these shocking violences 
 Bild barbariiies were carried on, thei-e were 277 persons brought to the stake; besides'ihosc who 
 were punished by imprisonment, fiqes, and confiscations. Among those who suffereit by fire wera 
 5 bishops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers, 
 5r> women, and 4 children. The unprincipled agents of this merciless queen were the bishops Gaf- 
 diuer and Bonner. The latter especially was a "man of brutal character, who seemed to derive a 
 savage pleasure in witnessing the torture of the sufferers. 
 
 10* 
 
226 THE WORLD'S PROGKESS. [ BYZ 
 
 Substances ftised. Weiglit. Tim^. 
 
 A topaz - - - 3 grains 45 secoijcJi 
 
 An emerald - • 2 grains 25 seconds 
 
 A crystal pebble - 7 gi-ains G seconds. 
 
 Flint - - - - 10 grains 3) s«Jcondai 
 
 Cornelian - - 10 grams 75 seconds. 
 
 Pumice stone • - 10 grains 24 seconds. 
 
 BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS, cmtinued. 
 
 Substances fused. Weight. Time. 
 
 Pure gold - - 20 grains 4 seconds. 
 
 Silver ■ - - 20 grains 3 seconds. 
 
 Copper - - - 33 gi-ains 20 seconds. 
 
 Platina - - - 10 grains 3 seconds. 
 
 Cast iron • - - 10 grains 3 seconds. 
 
 Steel - - • 10 grains 12 seconds. 
 
 Green wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils immediately ; bones are 
 calcined ; and things, not capable of melting, at once become red-hot like iron. 
 
 BURYING ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in Boeotia, wiiere Creon ordered 
 Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 b. c. The Roman 
 vestals were subjected to this horrible kind of execution for any levity in dress 
 or conduct that could excite a suspicion of their virtue. The vestal Minutia 
 was buried alive on the charge of incontinence, 337 b. c. The vestal Sextilia 
 was buried alive 274 b. c. The vestal Cornelia a. d. 92. Lord Bacon gives 
 instances of the resun-ection of persons who had been buried alive ; the fa- 
 mous Duns Scotus is of the number. The assassins of Capo d'Istria, Presi- 
 dent of Greece, were (two of them) sentenced to be immured in brick walls 
 built around them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in this 
 species of torture until they died, October, 183L — See Crreect. 
 
 BUSTS. Tliis mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is 
 the same with the herma. of the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the 
 inventor of moulds from which he cast wax tig-ures, 328 b. c. — Pliny. Busts 
 from the face in plaster of Paris were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about 
 
 A. D. 1466. — Vasari. 
 
 BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there /were three classes: the Suarii pro- 
 vided hogs, the Boarii oxen, and the Lanii, whose office was to kill. Tlie 
 butchers' trade is very ancient in England ; so is their company in London, 
 although it was not incorporated until the second year of James I. 1604. — 
 Aniials of London. 
 
 BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the 
 early Romans it was used only as a medicine — never as food. The Chris- 
 tians of Egypt burat butter in their lamps, instead of oil, in the third cen- 
 tury. In 1675. there fell in Ireland, during the winter time, a thick yellow 
 dew, which had all the medicinal properties of butter. In Africa, vegetable 
 butter is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of richer taste, at Kebba, 
 than any butter made from cow's milk. — Mimgo Park. 
 
 BUTTONS, of early manufacture in England ; those covered Avith cloth were 
 prohibited by a statute, thereby to encourage the manufacture of metal but- 
 tons, 8 George I. 1721. The manufacture owes nothing to encouragement 
 from any quarter of late years, although it has, notwithstanding, much im- 
 proved. — Phillips. 
 
 BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England, on his voyage round 
 the globe. Jnne 21, 1764, and returned May 9, 1766. In his voyage he dis- 
 covered the populous island in the" Pacific Ocean which bears his name, Au- 
 gust 16. 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his general ill fortune 
 at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet, " Foul-weather Jack."— 
 Bellchavibers. 
 
 BYZANTIUM. Now Constantinople, founded by a colony of Athenians, 716 
 
 B. c. — Eusebius. It was taken by the Romans, a. d. 73, and was laid inruina 
 by Severus in 196. Byzantium was rebuilt by Constantine in 338 ; and aftor 
 him it received the name of Constantinople. See Constantinople 
 
CAD J WCTIONARY OF DATES. '227 
 
 CABAL. A Hebrew word, used in various senses. The rabbins wcn-e cabalists, 
 and the Christians so called those who pretended to magic. In English his- 
 tory, the Cabal was a council which consisted of five lords in administration, 
 supposed to be pensioners of France, and distinguished by the appellation 
 of the Cabal, from the initials of their names: Sir Thomas Clifford, the lord 
 Ashley, the duke of Buckingham, lord Arlington, and the duke of Lauder- 
 dale, 22 Charles IL im^.—Hume. 
 
 CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils in England so eai^y as the reign 
 of Ina, king of the West Saxons, a. d. 690; Otfa. king of the Mercians, 758, 
 and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. The cabinet council, in which secret 
 ieliberations were held by the king and a few of his chosen friends, and the 
 great officers of state, to be afterwards laid before the second council, now 
 styled the privy council, was instituted by Alfred the Great about a. d. 896. 
 Spebiiaii. The modern cabinet council, as at present constituted, was recon- 
 structed in 1670, and usually consists of the following twelve members:* 
 
 Lord president. 
 
 Lord chancellor. 
 
 Lord privy seal. 
 
 First lord of the treasury. 
 Chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state. 
 
 President ol the board of control. 
 
 President of the boari of trade. 
 
 Master of the mint. 
 
 First lord of the admiralty. 
 
 In 1841 the number was 14, and included the Secretary at War, the Woods 
 and Forests, and Chief Secretary for Ireland, the Mint and the Board of 
 Trade being united in right hon. H. Labouchere. The cabinet ministers of 
 the various reigns will be found under the head Administrations of Englana. 
 
 CABLES. Their use was known in the earliest times : a machine for making 
 the largest, by which human labor was reduced nine-tenths, was invented 
 in 1792. This machine was set in motion by sixteen horses, when making 
 cables for ships of large size. Chain cables were introduced into the British 
 navy in 1812. 
 
 CADDEE, OR League of God's House. The celebrated league of independence 
 in Switzerland, formed by the Grisons, to resist domestic tyranny, a. d. 1400 
 to 1419. A second league of the Grisons was called the Grise or Graj 
 league, 1424. 
 
 CADES INSURRECTION. Jack Cade, an Irishman, a fugitive from his coun- 
 try on account of his crimes, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed 
 20 000 Kentish men, who armed " to punish evil ministers, and procure a 
 redress of grievances." Cade entered London in triumph, and for some time 
 . bore down all opposition, and beheaded the lord treasurer, Lord Saye, and 
 several other persons of consequence. The insurgents at length losing 
 ground, a general pardon was proclaimed ; and Cade, finding himself de- 
 serted by his fohowers, fled : but a reward being offered for his apprehen- 
 sion, he was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was slain by Alexander 
 Iden. sheriff of Kent, 1451. 
 
 CADIZ, formerly Gades, was built by the Carthaginians 530 b. c. — Priestley. 
 One htmdred vessels of the armament preparing, as the Spanish Armada, 
 
 * The term cai^mer ccmwczV is of compaiatively modern date, and originated thus: the affairs 
 ©f slate, in the reign of Charles I. were principally mana^'ed by the archbishop of Cajiterbury, the 
 earl of Strafford, and the lord Cottington ; to these were added the earl of Northumberland, for or- 
 nament; the bishop of London for his place, being lord treasurer; tlie two secretaries, Va:^e and 
 Windebank, for service and intelligence ; only the' marquis of Hamilton, by his skill and interest, 
 meddled just so far, and no further, than he had a mind. Those persons made up the committee c I 
 6lato, reproaclifuUy called \hcjmUo, and afterwardf?, enviously, the cabinet councxl.^LoRD Cijl- 
 
 REND ON. 
 
228 THE world's progress. [ CAlk 
 
 against England, were destroyed in the port by sir Francis Diake, 1587. 
 Cadiz was taken by the English, under the earl of Essex, and plundered, 
 September 15, 1596. It was attempted by sir George Rooke in 1702, but he 
 failed. Bombarded by the British in 1797, and blockaded by their fleet, 
 under lord St. Vincent, for two years, ending in 1799. Again bombarded by 
 the British, on board whose lleet were 18,000 land forces, October 1800. 
 Besieged by the French, but the siege raised after the battle of Salamanca 
 in 1812. Massacre of the inhabitants by the soldiery, March 10, 1820. 
 Cadiz was declared a free port in 1829, 
 
 CiESARS, ERA of the ; or Spanish Era, is reckoned from the first of January 
 38 B. c, being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was 
 much used in Africa, Spain, and the south of France; but by a synod held 
 in 1180 its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. 
 Pedro IV.. of Arragon, abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John 
 of Castile did the same in 1383. It continued to be used in Portugal till 
 1455. The months and days of this era are identical with the Julian calen- 
 dar, and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the 
 year; if before the Christian era subtract thirty-nine. 
 
 CAI-FONG, in China. This city being besieged by 100,000 rebels, the com- 
 mander of the forces who was sent to its relief, in order to drown the enemy, 
 broke down its embankments : his stratagem succeeded and every man oif 
 the besiegers perished ; but the city was at thp same time overflowed by 
 the waters, and 300,000 of the citizens were drowned in the overwhelming 
 flood, A. D. 1612. 
 
 CAIRO, OR GRAND CAIRO. The modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for 
 the minarets of its mosques, and the splendid sepulchres of its caliphs in 
 what is called the citj'- of the dead : it was built by the Saracens, in a. d. 
 969. Burnt to prevent its occupation by the Christian invaders, called Cru- 
 saders, in 1220. Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans, and their 
 empire subdued, 1517. Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, June, 
 1751, when 40 000 persons perished. Set on fire by a lady of the beglerbeg, 
 Dec, 1755. Taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte, July 23, 1798. 
 Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 French capitulated. June 27, 
 1801. 
 
 CALAIS. Taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4, 1347, and held 
 by England 210 years. It was retaken in the reign of Mary, Jan. 7, 1558, 
 and the loss of Calais so deeply touched the queen's heart, historians say it 
 occasioned her death which occurred soon afterwards. Calais was bom- 
 barded by the English, 1694. Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long 
 exile from France, April 24, 1814. See France. 
 
 CALCUTTA. The first settlement of the English here was made in 1689. It 
 was purchased as a Zemindary, and Fort William built in 1698. Calcutta 
 was attacked by a large army of 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants, 
 in June, 1756. On the capture of the fort, 146 of the British were crammed 
 into the Black-hole prison, a dungeon about 18 feet square, from whence 
 twenty-three only came forth the next morning alive. Calcutta was re- 
 taken the following year, and the inhuman Soubah put to death. Supremo 
 court of Judicature established 1773. College founded here 1801. — See 
 Bengal and India. 
 
 CALEDONIA. IS ow Scotland. The name is supposed by some to be derived 
 from Gael or Gaelmen, or Gadcl-doine, corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus, 
 who died a.d. 99, distinguishes this portion of Britian by the appellation of 
 Caledonia ; but the etyinolog}' of the word seems undetermined. Vener- 
 able Bedc says, that it retained this name until a. d. 258, when it was invaded 
 by a tribe from Ireland, and called Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appea? 
 
€AL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 229 
 
 to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, wl-o passed 
 over from the opposite coasts of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth 
 centur} of the Christian era, they were invaded (as stated by some autho- 
 rities), by the Scuyths or Scythians (since called Scots), who, having driven 
 the Picts into the north, settled in the Lowlands, and gave their name to 
 the whole country. Hence the origin of that distinction of language, habits, 
 customs, and persons, which is still so remarkable between the Highlandera 
 and the inhabitants of the southern borders 
 
 Caledonian monarchy, said to have been 
 founded by Fergus 1., about - b. c. 330 
 
 The Picts Irom The north of England 
 settle in the southern borders - - 140 
 
 Agricola carries the Roman arms into 
 tUaledonia, with little success, in the 
 reign of Galdus, otherwise called Cor- 
 bred II. - - - A. D. 79 
 
 He is signally defeated by the forces of 
 Corbred 80 
 
 Christianity is introduced into Caledonia 
 in the reign of Donald I. - - 201 
 
 The cour.tiy is invaded by the Scuyths, 
 or i^cois, and the government is over- 
 thrown, about - - A. D. dot 
 
 The ( ;aledonian monarchy is revived by 
 Fergus II. 401 
 
 After many sanguinary wars between 
 the Caleclonians, Picts, and Scots, Ken- 
 neth 11. obtains a victory over the Picts, 
 unites the whcje country under one 
 monarchy, and gives it the name of 
 Scotland ■ - - 8^ to S43 
 
 See Scotland. 
 
 The origin of the Scots, it should be stated, is very uncertain ; and the his- 
 tory of the country until the eleventh century, when Malcolm III., surnamed 
 Canmore, reigned (1057) is obscure, and intermixed with many and improb- 
 able fictions. 
 
 C ALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. By means 
 of this magnificent canal the nautical intercourse between ihe western 
 ports of Great Britain, and those also of Ireland, to the North Sea and Bal- 
 tic, is shortened in some instances 800, and in others, 1000 miles. A sum 
 exceeding a million sterling was granted by parliament from time to time ; 
 and tills safe -navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was completed, 
 and opened in 1822. 
 
 CALENDAR. The Roman calendar, which has in great part been adopted by 
 almost all nations, was introduced by Romulus, who divided the year into 
 ten months, comprising 304 days, a. d. 738 b. c. The year of Romulus was 
 of fifty days less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less than 
 the solar year, and its commencement did not, of course, correspond with 
 any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 b. c. corrected this calendar, by 
 adding two months ; and Julius Ceesar, desirous to make it more correct, 
 fixed the solar year as being 365 days and six hours, 45 b. c. This almost 
 perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed gener- 
 ally throughout the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII. 
 The calendar of Julius Caesar was defective in this particular, that the solar 
 year consisted of 365 days, five hours, and forty-nine minutes : and not of 
 365 days six hours. This difference, at the time of Gregory XIII. had 
 amounted to ten entire daj^s, the vernal equinox falling on the llth, instead 
 of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582, 
 that that year should consist of 365 days only ; and to prevent further irregu- 
 larity, it was determined that a year beginning a century should not be bis- 
 sextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century : tliiiH, 
 1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so; but the year 
 2000 will be a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400 
 ysars. because the lapse of eleven minutes makes three days in about that 
 period. The year of the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to 
 correspond with the true solar year ; and future errors of chronology are 
 avoided. See Nevj Style. 
 
 CALICO. The well-known cotton cloth, is named from Calicut, a city of Indi.**, 
 which was discovered by the Portuguese, in 1498. Calico was first brought 
 to Eugland by the East India Conpany, in 1631. Calico printing, and the 
 
230 THE WORLD*S PROGRESS. [ Caj. 
 
 Dutch loom engine, were first used in 1676. — Anderson'. Calicoes were pro- 
 hibited to he printed or worn, in 1700; and again, in 1721. They were first 
 made a branch of manufacture in Lancashire, in 1771. See Cotton. 
 
 C ALIFORNLV, Lower, discovered by Grigalon, sent by Cortes, the conqueror 
 of Mexico, 1534; explored by Cortes himself^ 1536, and by his subordinate 
 Ulloa, 1538. First settlement by Viscaino and a small colony sent out by 
 Philip II. of Spain, 1596. Viscaino explored the coast and founded St. Diego 
 and Monterej'', and was the first Spaniard in Upper California, 1602. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, Upper, discovered by sir Francis Drake, and named New Al- 
 bion, 15U6. The Spanish colonists having been expelled by the ill-used 
 natives, the country was granted by Charles II. of Spain to the Jesuits in 
 1697. Jesuit missions and Presidios established in New ."'alifornia 1769. 
 Eighteen missions established up to 1798. California a pro'vince of Mexico, 
 1824 ; the Mexican governor expelled from Monterey, 1836. California ex- 
 plored by the United States expedition, under Wilkes, co-operating with 
 that of Fremont, overland, in 1841-3. Another expedition under Fremont, 
 1845-6. Mexican war began 1845. San Francisco taken possession of by 
 Com. Montgomery. July 8, 1845. Com. Stockton takes possession of Upper 
 California May-August, 1846, and institutes United States military govern- 
 ment. Movements of general Kearney, lieutenant Emory, &c.. 1846. Cali- 
 fornia secured to the United States by the treaty with Mexico, 1848. Gold 
 placers first discovered on the grounds of captain Suter, February, 1848. 
 Great emigration from the United States commenced November, 1848. C-^n- 
 vention at Monterey for forming a state constitution, Aug. 31, 1849. Con- 
 stitution adopted by popular vote, and P. H. Burnet chosen first governor, 
 Dec. 1849. 
 
 CALIPH. In Arabic, vicar, or apostle; the title assumed by the Sophi of 
 Persia, in the succession of Ali, and by the Grand Seigniors as the succes- 
 sors of Mahomet. The caliphat was adopted by Abubeker, the father of 
 the Prophet's second wife, in whose arms he died, a. d. 631. In process of 
 time the soldans or sultans engrossed all the civil power, and little but the 
 title was left to the caliphs, and that chiefly in matters of religion. — Sir. T. 
 Herbert. 
 
 CALLIGRAPHY. Beautiful writing, in. a small compass, invented by Callicra- 
 tes, who is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesamum seed, 472 
 B. c. The modern specimens of this art are, many of them, astonishing and 
 beautiful. In the sixteenth century, Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Praj^er, 
 creed, decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the 
 month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth, to whom he 
 presented it at Hampton-court, all within the circle of a silver penny, 
 enchased in a ring and border of gold, and covered with crystal, so accu- 
 rately done as to be plainly legible, to the great admiration of her majesty, 
 the whole of the privy council, and several ambassadors then at court, 1574. 
 — Ilclinshed. 
 
 CALLAO, IN Peru. Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore, 
 and returned in mountainous waves, which destroyed the city, a. d. 1687. 
 The same phenomenon took place in 1746, when all the inhabitants perished, 
 with the exception of one man. who was standing on an eminence, and to 
 whose succor a wave providentially threw a boat, 
 
 CALOMEL. The mercurial compound termed calomel is first mentioned by 
 Crbllius, early in the seventeenth century, but must have been previously 
 known. The first directions given for its preparation were those announced 
 by Beguin, in 1608. It is said that corrosive sublimate was known sumo 
 centuries before. 
 
cam] dictloinary of dates. 231 
 
 CALVARY", Mount. The place where the Redeemer suffered death, a, d. 33. 
 Calvary was a small eminence or hill adjacent to Jerusalem, appropriated 
 to the execution of malefactors. See Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian at the time 
 of his persecution of the Christians erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount 
 Calvary, and a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, a. d. 142. 
 Here is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, whither pilgrims flock from all 
 Christian countries. 
 
 CALVINISTS. Named after their founder, John Calvin, the celebrated re- 
 former of the Christian church from the Romish superstition and doctrinal 
 errors. Calvin was a native of Noyon, in Picardy ; but adopting the princi- 
 ples of the Reformers, he fled to AngoulSme, where he composed his Listi- 
 tufio Ckristimitz Rehgionis, in 1533, published about two years afterwards. He 
 subsequently retired to Basle, and next settled in Geneva. Although he 
 differed from Luther in essential points, still his followers did not consider 
 themselves as different on this account from the adherents of Luther. A 
 formal separation first took place after the conference of Poissy, in 1561, 
 where they expressly rejected the tenth article of the confession of Augs- 
 burg, besides some others, and took the name of Calvinists. 
 
 CAMBRAY. The town whence the esteemed manufacture called cambric 
 takes its name. This city was taken by the Spaniards by a memorable sur- 
 prise, in 1595. Cambray was taken and retaken several times. In the war 
 of the French revolution it was invested by the Austrians, August 8, 1793, 
 when the republican general, Declay, replied to the Imperial summons to 
 surrender, that " he knew not how to do that, but his soldiers knew how to 
 fight." In the late war it was seized by the British under general sir Chas. 
 Colville. June 24, 1815. The citadel surrendered the next day, and was 
 occupied by Louis XYIII. and his court. 
 
 CAMBRAY, League of. This was the celebrated league against the republic 
 of Venice, comprising the pope, the emperor, and the kings of France and 
 Spain ; and whereby Venice Avas forced to cede to Spain her possessions in 
 the kingdom of Naples, entered into Dec. 10, 1508. 
 
 CAMBRICS. A fabric of fine linen used for ruffles. — Shakspeare. Cambrics 
 were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxury in dress, 22 Eliza- 
 beth, 1580. — Stowe. The importation of them was restricted, in 1745 ; and 
 was totally prohibited by statute of 32 George II. 1758. Readmitted in 
 1786, but afterwards again prohibited; the importation of cambrics is now 
 allowed. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, once called Granta., and of most ancient standing, being fre- 
 quently mentioned in the earliest accounts of the oldest British historians. 
 Roger de Montgomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged of 
 king William Rufus, The university is said to have been commenced by 
 Sigebert, king of East Angles, about a. d. 631 ; but it lay neglected during 
 the Danish invasions, from which it suffered much. Camljridge now contains 
 thirteen colleges and four halls, of which first, Peter-house is the most 
 ancient, and King's College the noblest foundation in Europe, and the 
 chapel one of the finest pieces of Gothic architecture in the world. 
 
 CAMERA LUCID A. Invented by Dr. Hooke, about im^.— Wood's Ath. Ox. 
 Also an instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, in 1807. The camera ob- 
 scura, or dark chamber, was invented, it is believed, by the celebrated Roger 
 Bacon, in 1297 ; it was improved by Baptista, Porta, the writer on natural 
 magic, about 1500.— ikf^reri. Sir I. Newton remodelled it. By the recent 
 invention of M. Daguerre, the pictures of the camera are rendered perma- 
 nent ; the last was produced in 1839. 
 
 CAMERONIANS. A sect in Scotland which separated from the Presbyterians, 
 and continued to hold their religious meetings in the fields.- -J5itr?^<?^. 
 
232 THE world's progress. [ CAa 
 
 CAMP. All the early warlike nations had camps, which are consequently 
 most ancient. The disposition of the Hebrew encampment was, we are 
 told, at tirst laid out by God himself. The Romans and Gauls had in- 
 trenched camps in open plains ; and vestiges of such Roman encampments 
 are existing to this day in numerous places in England and Scotland. The 
 last camp in England was formed at Hyde Park in 1745. 
 
 CAMPEACHY-BAY. Discovered about a, d. 1520 ; it was taken by the Eng- 
 lish in 1659 ; and was taken by the Buccaneers, in 1678; and by the fi'ee- 
 booters of St. Doraingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up 
 the citadel. The English logwood cutters made their settlement here, in 
 1662. 
 
 CAMPERDOWN, Battle of. Memorable engagement off Camperdown, south 
 of the Texel, and signal victory obtained by the British fleet under admiral 
 Duncan, over the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral de Winter ; the latter 
 losing fifteen ships, which were either taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797. 
 
 CAMPO FORMIO, Treaty of, concluded between France and Austria, the 
 latter power yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, 
 and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic. This memor- 
 able and humiliating treaty resulted from the ill success of Austria on the 
 Rhine. By a secret article, however, the emperor took possession of the 
 Venetian dominions in compensation for the Netherlands, Oct. 17, 1797. 
 
 CANADA. This country was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, a. d. 
 1499, and was settled by the French, in 1608. but it had been previously 
 visited by them. Canada was taken by the English, in 1628, but was re- 
 stored in 1631. It was again conquered by the English, in 1759, and was 
 confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. This country was divided into two 
 provinces, Upper and Lower Canada, in 1791 ; and it was during the debates 
 on this bill in the British parliament, that the quarrel between Mr. Burke 
 and Mr. Fox arose. 
 
 CANADIAN INSURRECTION. The Papineau rebellion commenced at Mon- 
 treal, Dec. 6, 1837. The Canadian rebels came to an engagement at St. 
 Eustace, Dec. 14, following. The insurgents surrounded Toronto, and were 
 repulsed by the governor, sir Francis Head, Jan. 5, 1838. Lord Durham, 
 governor general, Jan. 16, 1838. Lount and Mathews hanged as traitors, 
 April 12, 1838. Lord Durham resigned, Oct. 9, 1838. Rebellion again man- 
 ifested itself in Beauharnais, Nov. 3, 1838. The insurgents concentrated at 
 Napierville under command of Nelson and others, Nov. 6; some skirmishes 
 took place, and they were routed with the loss of many killed and several 
 hundred prisoners. Sir John Colborne announced the suppression of the re- 
 bellion in his dispatches dated Nov. 17, 1838. Lord Gosford, governor of 
 Lower Canada proclaims martial law, and a reward of i;l 000 for Papi- 
 neau, Dec. 5, 1837. M Leod (charged with the destruction of the Caroline, 
 American steamer, at Schlosser, Dec. 30, 1837) acquitted at Utica, Oct. 12, 
 1841. President Van Buren's proclamation warning citizens of the United 
 States against meddling with the Canadian insurrection. Sir Charles Met- 
 calfe, governor-general, 1844. Earl of Elgin appointed governor-general, 
 took the oath, Jan. 30, 1847. Riots at Montreal, and burning of the Parlia- 
 ment House by a mob (caused by the dissatisfaction about the act for paying 
 losses by the late rebellion to some of the rebels themselves), Aug. 15, 1849. 
 Movements in favor of annexation to the United States. Warning against 
 such movements as high treason, proclaimed in the dispatch of earl Grey, 
 the British colonial secretary, Feb. 1850. 
 
 CANALS. The most stupendous in the world is a canal in China, which passes 
 over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities, commenced in the tenth century. The 
 canal of Languedoc which joins the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Oceaa 
 
CAN J DICTIONAR-S OF DATES. 233 
 
 was commenced in 1666. That of Orleans, from the Loire to the Seine, com- 
 menced in 1675. That between the Caspian St'a and the Baltic, commenced 
 1709. That from Stockholm to Gottenburg, commenced 1751. That oetween 
 the Baltic and North Sea at Kiel, opened 1785. That of Bourbon, between 
 the Seine and Oise, commenced 1790. The first canal made in England was 
 by Henry I., when the river Trent was joined to the Witham, a. d. 1134. 
 That from the Durance to Marseilles, France, 83 000 metres, of which 17.000 
 are subterranean passages through the Alps, finished July 8, 1847. In Eng- 
 land, there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 miles of rivers, taking the 
 length of those only that are navigable — total, 5300 miles. In Ireland, there 
 are but 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navigable rivers, and 60 miles of the 
 Shannon, navigable below Limerick, making in all 510 miles. — WUliams. 
 
 CANALS IN THE UNITED STATES. Act for commencing the great Erie canal 
 in New York, passed chiefly through the influence of De Witt Clinton, 1817. 
 The canal (363 miles long) completed ; a grand celebration, 1825. Chesa- 
 peake and Delaware canal opened, &c., July 4, 1829. 
 
 CANARY ISLANDS. These islands' were known to the ancients as the FortU' 
 mate Isles. The first meridian was referred to the Canary isles by Hipparchus, 
 about 140 B. c. They were re-discovered by a Norman, named Bethencourt, 
 A. D. 1402 ; and were seized by the Spaniards, who planted vines, which 
 flourish here, about 1420. The canarj^-bird, so much esteemed in all parts 
 of Europe, is a native of these isles ; it was brought into England in 1500. 
 
 CANDIA, the ancient Crete, whose centre is Mount Ida, so famous in history. 
 It was seized by the Saracens, a. d. 808, when they changed its name. Taken 
 by the Greeks, in 961 ; sold to the Venetians, 1194, and held by them till the 
 Turks obtained it, after a 24 years' siege, during which more than 200,000 
 men perished, 1669. 
 
 CANDLE. The Roman candles were composed of strings surrounded by wax, 
 or dipped in pitch. Splinters of wood, fatted, were used for light among the 
 lower classes in England about a. d. 1300. At this time wax candles were 
 little used, and esteemed a luxury, and dipped candles usually burnt. The 
 wax-chandlers' company was incorporated, 1484. Mould candles are said 
 to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez of Paris. Spermaceti candles are of 
 modern manufacture. The Chinese candles (see Candleberry Myrtle) are 
 made from the berries of a tree, and they universally burn this wax, which 
 is fragrant, and yields a bright light. 
 
 CANDLEMAS-DAY. A feast instituted by the early Christians, who conse- 
 crated on this day all the tapers and candles used in churches during the 
 year. It is kept in the reformed church in memory of the purification of 
 the Virgin Mary, who, submitting to the law under which she lived, pre- 
 sented the infant Jesus in the Temple. Owing to the abundance of light, 
 this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. The practice 
 of lighting the churches was discontinued by English Protestants by an order 
 of council 2 Edward VI. 1548 ; but it is still continued in the church of Rome, 
 
 CANNAE, Battle of. One of the most celebrated in history, and most fatal to 
 the Romans. Hannibal commanded on one side 50,000 Africans. Gauls, and 
 Spaniards ; and Paulus ^milius and Terentius Varro, 88,000 Romans, of 
 whom 40,000 were slain. — Livy. The victor, Hannibal, sent three bushels 
 of rings, taken from the Roman knights on the field, as a trophy to Carthage. 
 Neither party perceived an awful earthquake which occurred during the 
 battle. The place is now denominated the field of blood ; fought May 21. 
 216 B. c. — Bossuet. 
 
 CANNIBALISM has prevailed from the remotest times. The Greeks inform 
 us that it was a primitive and universal custom, and many of the Soutb 
 
23 4 THE WOULD S x'llOGRESS. [ CAM 
 
 J^.miiri(;an tribes ami natives of the South Sea Islands eat human flesh at the 
 pnisent day, and the propensity for it prevails more or less in all savage 
 nations. St. Jerome says, that some British tribes ate human flesh ; and the 
 Scots from Galloway killed and eat the English in the reign of Henry I. 
 . The Scythians were drinkers of human blood, Columbus found cannibals in 
 America See Anthropophagi. 
 
 CANNON. They are said to have been used as early as a. d. 1338. According 
 to some of our historians they were used at the battle of Cressy in 1346 ; but 
 liis Voltaire disputes. They are said to have been used by the English at 
 the siege of Calais, 1317. Cannon were first used in the EngUsh service by 
 the governor of Calais, 6 Richard II. 1383. — Rymers Fadera. Louis XIV., 
 upon setting out on his disastrous campaign against the Dutch, inscribed 
 upon his cannon, " The last argument of kings." See Artillery. 
 
 CANNON, Remarkable. The largest known piece of ordnance is of brass, case 
 in India in 1685. At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest forts in 
 Germany, opposite Coblentz on the Rhine, is a prodigious cannon eighteen 
 feet and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and three feet 
 four inches in the breech. The ball made for it weighs I801bs. and its charge 
 of powder 91;lbs. The inscription on it shows that it was made by one Simon, 
 in 1529. In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen Elizabeth's pocket- 
 pistol, which was presented to her by the States of Holland ; this piece is 24 
 feet long, and is beautifully ornamented, having on it the arms of the States, 
 and a motto in Dutch, importing thus, 
 
 " Charge me well, and sponge me cleau, 
 I'll throw a ball to Calais Green." 
 
 Some fine specimens are to be seen in the Tovt'er, A leathern cannon was 
 fired three times m the King's Park, Edinburgh, Oct. 23, 1788. — Phillips. 
 
 CANON. The first ecclesiastical canon was promulgated, a. d. 380. — Usher. 
 Canonical hours for prayers were instituted in 391. The dignity of canon 
 existed not previously to the rule of Charlemagne, about 768. — Paschier. 
 Canon law was first introduced into Europe by Gratian, the celebrated canon 
 law authc, in 1151, and was introduced into England, 19 Stephen, 1151. — 
 Stowe. 
 
 CANONIZATION of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted in the 
 Romish church by pope Leo III. in 80,0. — TallenVs Tables. Saints have so 
 accumulated, every day in the calendar is now a saint's day. — Henmdt. 
 
 CANTERBURY. The Durovernum of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, 
 king of Kent, who reigned a. d. 560. Its early cathedral was erected during 
 the Heptarchy, and was several times burnt, and rebuilt. It was once famous 
 for the shrine of Becket (see Becket) and within it are interred Henry IV. and 
 Edward the Black Prince. 
 
 CANTERBURY, Archbishopric of. This see was settled by St. Austin, who 
 preached the gospel in England a. d. 596, and converted Ethelbert, king of 
 Ksnt. The king, animated with zeal for his new religion, bestowed great 
 fa 7ors upon Austin, who fixed his residence in the capital of Ethelbert's 
 dominions. The church was made a cathedral, and consecrated to Christ, 
 although it was formerly called St. Thomas, from Thomas h Becket, mur- 
 - dered at its altar, December 1171. The archbishop is primate and metropo- 
 litan of all England, and is the first peer in the realm, having precedency of 
 all officers of state, and of all dukes not of the blood royal. Canterbury had 
 formerly jurisdiction over Ireland, and the archbishop was styled a patriarch. 
 This see hath yielded to the church of Rome, 18 saints and 9 cardinals ; and 
 to the civil state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord treasurers. St. 
 Austin was the first bishop, 596 The se€ was made superior to York, 1073, 
 
CAP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 235 
 
 — See York. The revenue is valued in the king's books at £2816. 11 s. 9^Z.— 
 Beatson. 
 
 CANTH ARIDES. A venomous kind of inisects which, when dried iud pulver- 
 ized, are used principally to raise blisters. They were first introduced into 
 medical practice by Aretaeus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b, c. — 
 Freind's History of Physic. 
 
 C^VNTOJSr. The only city in China with which Europeans have been allowed 
 up to the present time to trade. Merchants first arrived here for this pur- 
 pose in 1517. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of Eng- 
 land surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Various particulars relating 
 to this city will be found under the article China. In 1822, a fire destroyed 
 15,000 houses at Canton ; and an inundation swept away 10,000 houses and 
 more than 1000 persons in October 1833. 
 
 CAOUTCHOUC, or Indian Rubber, is an elastic resinous substance that exudes 
 by incision from two plants that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, 
 called Hczvia caoutchouc and Siphonia, elastica, and vulgarly called syringe 
 trees. It w^as first brought to Europe from South America, about 1733. — 
 See India Rubber. 
 
 CAP. The Romans went for many ages, without regular covering for the >ead, 
 and hence the heads of all the ancient statues appear bear. But a'i one 
 period the cap was a symbol of liberty, and when the Romans gave it to their 
 slaves it entitled them to freedom. The cap was sometimes used as a mark 
 of infamy, and in Italy the Jews were distinguished by a yellow cap, and in 
 France those who had been bankrupts were for ever after obliged to wear 
 a green cap. The general use of caps and hats is referred to the year 1449; 
 the first seen in these parts of the world being at the entry of Charles VII. 
 into Rouen, from which time they took the place of chaperons or hoods. A 
 statute was passed that none should sell any hat above 20^. (40 cts.) nor cap 
 above 2s. 8^. (66 cts.) 5 Henry VII. 1489. 
 
 CAPE BRETON, discovered by the English in 1584. It was taken by the 
 French in 1632. but was afterwards restored ; and again taken in 1745 ; and 
 re-taken in 1748. It was finally possessed by the English, when the garrison 
 and marines, consisting of 5600 men, were made prisoners of war, and eleven 
 ships of the French navy were captured or destroyed, 1758. Ceded to Eng ■ 
 land at the peace of 1763. 
 
 CAPE COAST CASTLE, settled by the Portuguese, in 1610 : but it soon fell to 
 the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes, in 1661. All the British 
 settlements, factories, and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the 
 Dutch admiral, de Ruyter, in 1665. This Cape was confirmed to^tte English 
 by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE ; the geographical and commercial centre of the East 
 Indies : it was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1486, and was originally 
 called the " Cape of Tempests," and was also named the " Lion of the Sea," 
 and the "Head of Africa." The name was changed by John II., king of 
 Portugal, who augured favorably of future discoveries from Diaz having 
 reached the extremity of Africa. The Cape was doubled, and the paasage 
 to India discovered by Vasco da Gama, Nov. 20, 1497. Planted by the 
 Dutch, 1651. Taken by the English, under admiral Elphinstone and general 
 Clarke, Sept. 16, 1795, and restored at the peace in 1802 ; again taken by 
 sir David Baird and sir Home Popham, Jan. 8, 1806 ; and finally ceded to 
 Englan<l in 1814. Emigrants began to arrive here from Britain in March, 
 1820. The Caffi-es have made several irruptions on the British settlements 
 here ; and they committed dreadful ravages at Grahamstown. in Oct, ?,834, 
 Battle between the English and the Boors, Aug. 26, 1848. 
 
236 THE world's TROGHESS. [ CAf 
 
 CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients under 
 the name of Gorgades ; but were not visited by the moderns till discovered 
 by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator in the service of Portugal, a. d. 14 16. 
 
 CAPE ST. VINCENT, Battles of. Admiral Rooke, with twenty shi]« of war, 
 and the Turkey fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tourville, 
 with a force vastly superior to his own, off Cape St, Vincent, when twelve 
 English and Dutch uen-of-war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or 
 destroyed by the French, June 16, 1693. Battle of Cape St. Vincent, one of 
 the most glorious achievements of the British navy. Sir John Jervis, being 
 in command of the Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, gave battle to the 
 Spanish fleet of 27 ships of the line oif this Cape, and signally defeated the 
 enemy, nearly dauble in strength, taking four ships, and destroying several 
 others, Feb, 14, 17^7. For this victory Sir John was raised to the English 
 peerage, by the titles of baron Jervis and earl St. Vincent, with a pension of 
 3000^. a year. 
 
 CAPET, House of, the third race of the kings of France. Hugo Capet, count 
 of Paris and Orleans, the first of this race (which was called from him Cape- 
 vigians), was raised to the throne for his military valor, and public virtues, 
 A, D. 987. — Renault. 
 
 CAPITOL, the principal fortress of ancient Rome, in which a temi/le was built 
 to Jupiter, thence called Jupiter Capitolinus. The foundation laid by Tar- 
 quinius Priscus, 616. b. c. The Roman Consuls made large donations to 
 this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed 2000 pounds w^eight of 
 gold, of which precious metal the roof was composed, whilst its thresholds 
 were of brass, and its interior was decorated with shields of solid silver. De- 
 stroyed by lightning, 188 b. c. ; by fire, a. n. 70. The Capitoline games in- 
 stituted by Domitian, a. d. 86, 
 
 CAPPADOCIA. This kingdom was founded by Pharnaces, 744 b. c. The suc- 
 cessors of Pharnaces are almost wholly unknown, until about the time of 
 Alexander the Great, after whose death Eumenes, by defeating Ariarathes H. 
 became king of Cappadocia. 
 
 mg the throne, poisons five of her own 
 children, the sixth and only remaining 
 child is saved, and the queen put to 
 death - - ■ - - 153 
 
 This young prince reigns as Ariarathes 
 
 VII. 153 
 
 Gordius assassinates Ariarathes VII, - 97 
 Ariarathes VIII. assassinated - - 96 
 
 Cappadocia declared a free coimtry by 
 
 the senate of Rome - - - 95 
 
 The people elect a new king Ariobar- 
 
 zanes I. • - - . . 94 
 
 His son, Ariobarzanes II. reigns - 65 
 
 He is dethroned by Marc Antony • 38 
 
 Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia, 
 
 dies, and bequeathes tiis kingdom to 
 
 the Roman empire • A. d. 17 
 
 CAPRI. The Capreae of the Romans, and memorable as the residence of Tibtv 
 rius, and for the debau(?heries he committed in this once delightful retreat, 
 during the seven last years of his life: it was embellished by feim with a 
 sumptuous palace, and most magnificent works. Capri was taken by sir 
 Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806. 
 
 C^APUCHIN FRIARS. A sort of Franciscans to whom this name was given, 
 from their wearing a great Capuchon, or cowl, which is an odd kind of cap, or 
 hood, sewn to their habit, and hanging down upon their backs. The Capu- 
 chins were founded by Matthew Baschi. about a. d. 1525. Altho igh the 
 
 Phamaces is declared king - B. c. 744 
 His successors are unknown for nearly 
 
 three centuries. 
 
 * * * * * * 
 
 Reign of Ariarathes I. ■ - - 362 
 
 Perdiccas takes Cappadocia, and Aria- 
 rathes is crucified - - - - 322 
 Defeat of the Parlhians - - - 217 
 Irruption of the Trocmi - - • 164 
 Miihridates, surnamed Philopator, as- 
 cends the throne - - - 162 
 Orophernes dethrones Philopator - 161 
 Attains assists Philopator, and Oro- 
 phernes dethroned - - - - 154 
 Philopator joins the Remans against 
 
 Aristonicus, and perishes in battle - 153 
 His queen, Laodice, desirous of usurp- 
 
CAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 237 
 
 rigors of this order have abated, still the brethren are remarkable for tlieii 
 extreme poverty and privations. — Ashe. 
 
 CAR. Its invention is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, about 1486 b. c. The 
 covered cars (currus arcuati) were in use among the Romans. X^'i^^'^^pl^^^ 
 cars were introduced by Romulus, according to some ; and by Tarquin the 
 Elder, according to others. 
 
 C AR ACCAS. One of the early Spanish discoveries, a. d. 1498. The province 
 declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. In 1812, it was visited by 
 a violent convulsion of nature ; thousands of human beings were lost ; rocks 
 and mountains split, and rolled into valleys ; the rivers were blackened or 
 their courses changed ; and many towns swallowed up, and totally destroyed. 
 
 Carbonari, a dangerous and powerful society in Italy, a substitute for 
 freemasonry, which committed the most dreadful outrages, and spread terror 
 in several states ; they were suppressed, however, by the Austrian govern- 
 ment in Sept. 1820. 
 
 CARDINALS. They are properly the council of the pope, aLd constitute the 
 conclave or sacred college. At first they were only the principal priests,' or 
 incumbents of the parishes in Rome. On this footing they continued till the 
 eleventh century. They did not acquire the exclusive power of electing the 
 popes till A. D. 1160. They first wore the red hat to remind them that they 
 ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion, and were declared princes 
 of the church, by Innocent IV., 1243. Paul 11. gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ; 
 and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1630 ; some say in 1623. — Du Cange. 
 
 CARDS. Their invention is referred to the Romans ; but it is generally supposed 
 that they were invented in France about the year 1390, to amuse Charles VI. 
 during the intervals of a melancholy disorder, which in the end brought 
 him to his grave. — Mezerai, Hid. de France. The universal adoption of an 
 amusement which was invented for a fool, is no very favorable specimen of 
 wisdom. — Malkin. Cards are of Spanish, not of French origin. — Daines 
 Barrington. Picquetand all the early games are French. Cards first taxed 
 in England, 1756. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. 
 In 1825, the duty being then 2s. M. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were 
 stamped ; but in 1827, the stamp duty was reduced to Is., and 310,854 packs 
 paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs, in the year ending 5th 
 Jan. 1840. — Pari. Reports. 
 
 ''ARICATURES originated, it is said, with IJufalmaco, an Italian painter: he 
 first put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences, since followed by 
 bad masters, but more particularly in caricature engravings, about 1330. — 
 De Piles. A new and much improved style of caricatures has latterly set in ; 
 and the productions in this way of a clever but concealed artist, using the 
 initials H. B., aro political satires of considerable humor and merit. — Haydn. 
 
 CARLISLE. The frontier town and key of England, wherein for many ages a 
 strong garrison was kept. The castle, founded in 1092, by William II., was 
 made the prison of the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken 
 by the parliament forces in 1645. and by the pretender in 1745. 
 
 CARLSBAD, Congress of, on the affairs of Europe : The popular spirit oi 
 emancipation that prevailed in many of the states of Europe against despotic 
 government, led to this congress, in which various resolutions were come 
 to, denouncing the press, and liberal opinions, and in which the great conti- 
 nental powers decreed measures to repress the rage for limited monarchies 
 and free institutions, August 1, 1819. 
 
 CARMELITES, or White Friars, named from Mount Carmel, and one of thu 
 four orders of mendicants, distinguished by austere rules, appeared in 1141, 
 Their rigor was moderated about 1540. They claim their descent in an un- 
 
238 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ OaE. 
 
 Interrupted succession from Elijah, Elislia, &c. Mount Cin Mil has a monas- 
 tery, and the valley of Sharon lies to the south of the mcmnt, which is 2000 
 feet high, shaped like a flatted cone, with steep and barren sides: it is often 
 referred to in Jewish histories. 
 
 " See spicy clouds from lowly Sharon rise, 
 And Carmel's flowery top perfumes the skies." — Pops. 
 
 CAROLINA, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1550. A body of English, 
 amounting to about 850 persons, landed and settled here in 1667 ; and Caro- 
 lina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. Ses 
 N. (^ S. Carolina. 
 
 CARPETS They Avere in use, at least in some kind, as early as the days of 
 Amos, about 800 b. c. — Amus ii 8. Carpets were spread on the ground, on 
 which persons sat who dwelt in tents: but when first used in houses, 
 even in the East, we have no record. In the 12th century carpets were arti- 
 cles of luxury ; and in England, it is mentioned as an instance of Becket's 
 splendid style of living, that his sumptuous apartments were every day in 
 winter strewn with clean straw or hay; about a. d. 1160. The manufacture 
 of woollen carpets was introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of 
 Henry lY., between 1589 and 1610. Sotne artisans who had quitted France 
 in disgust went to England, and established the carpet manufacture, about 
 1750. There, as with most nations, Persian and Turkey carpets, especially 
 the former, are most prized. The famous Axminster, Wilton, and Kidder- 
 minster maiiufacture is the growth of the last hundred years. The manu- 
 fact^ire of Kidderminster and Brussels carpets has much advanced within 
 fifteen years, at Lowell, Mass. and. Thomsonville Conn. 
 
 CARRIAGES. The invention of them is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, who 
 ;^roduced the first chariot about 1486 b. c. Carriages were known in France 
 in the reign of Henry II. a. d. 1547; but they were of very rude construction, 
 and rare. They seem to have been known in England in 1555 ; but not the 
 art of making them. Close carriages of good workmanship began to be used 
 by persons of the highest quality at the close of the sixteenth century. Hen- 
 ry IV. had one, but without straps or springs. Their construction was va- 
 rious : they were first made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and were 
 then callecl whirlicotes. The duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six horses ; 
 and the duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. They were first 
 let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre ; and hence their name. 
 See Coaches. 
 
 CARTESIAN DOCTRINES. Their author was Rene des Cartes, the French 
 philosopher, who promulgated them in 1647. He was an original thinker : 
 his metaphysical principle " I think, therefore I am," is refuted by Mr. Locke ; 
 and his physical principle, that "nothing exists but substance," is disprov- 
 ed by the Newtonian philosophy. His celebrated system abounds in great 
 singularities and originalities ; but a spirit of independent thought prevails 
 throughout it. and has contributed to excite the same spirit in others. Des 
 Cartes was the most distinguished philosopher of his time and country.™ 
 Dufresnoij. 
 
 CARTHAGE, founded by Dido, or Elissa, sister of P3^gmalion, king of Tyre, 
 869 B. c. She fled from that tyrant, who had killed lier husband, and took 
 refuge in Africa. Carthage became so powerful as to dispute the empire of 
 the world with Rome, which occasioned the Punic wars, and the total denr.^- 
 lition of that city. Taken by Scipio, and burned to the ground. 146 b. c. 
 when the flames raged during seventeen days, and many of the inhabitants 
 perished in them, rather than siirvive the subjection of their country. The 
 Roman senate ordered the walls to be razed, that no trace might remain of 
 this once powerful republic. — Eusebius, 
 
CAS] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 239 
 
 CAETHAGE, contlmied. 
 
 Dido arrives in Africa, and builds Eyrsa. 
 
 —Blair ■ ' - - b. c. 869 
 
 First alliance of the Carthaginians with 
 
 the Romans - - - - 509 
 
 The Cartliaginians in Sicily are dei'eated 
 by Gelo ; the elder Hamilcar perishes. 
 Herodotus, I. vii. - - 480 j 
 
 They send 300,000 men into Sicily - 407 
 The siege of Syracuse - - - 396 i 
 
 The Carthaginians land in Italy - 379 | 
 
 I'heir defeafby Timoleon - -3401 
 
 They are defeated by Agathocles, and 
 immolate their children on the altar of I 
 Saturn, thereby to propitiate the gods - 310 ' 
 The first Punic war begins - - 264 
 
 Tlie Carthaginians defeated by the Ro- 
 mans in a naval engagement - - 260 
 Xantippus defeats Regulus - - 255 
 Rc^ulus is crucified - - - - 23t) 
 A'sdrubal defeated by Metelhis - - 251 
 Romans defeated before LilybcEum - 250 
 End ol the first Punic war - - 241 
 War between the Carthaginians and 
 
 Atrican mercenaries - - - 241 
 
 Hamilcar Barcas is sent into Spain ; he 
 takes with him his son, the famous 
 
 Hannibal, at the age of nine years, 
 having first made hfm swear an eter- 
 nal enmity to the Romans - b. c. 
 Hamilcar is killed in battle by the Vet- 
 tones - - - ' - 
 Asdrubal is assassinated - 
 Hannibal subjects all Spain, as far as 
 the Iberus .... 
 The second Punic war begins - - 
 First great victory of Hannibal - 
 Hannibal cvosses the Alps, an I ejiters 
 Italy v/iih 100.000 men - - - 
 Great battle of Cannse (which see) 
 New ("arihage taken by Pub. Scipio - 
 Asdrubal, brother of Hannibal, defeated 
 
 and slain in Italy - - - 20/ 
 
 The Carthaginians expelled Spain - - 206 
 Scipio arrives in Africa, and lays siege 
 to Uiica - - - - - 
 
 Harmibal recalled from /taly 
 Great battle of Zama (uhich see) 
 An igi^ominious peace ends the second 
 Punic war .... 
 
 The third Punic war begins 
 Destruction ofCarthage, which is burned 
 to the sround - - - - 146 
 
 237 
 
 227 
 
 220 
 
 219 
 219 
 "217 
 
 217 
 
 210 
 210 
 
 j:o4 
 
 203 
 
 202 
 
 201 
 149 
 
 CARTHAGENA or New Carthage, in Spain; built by Asdrubal, the Ca, tlia- 
 ginian general, 227 b. c. From here Hannibal set out in his memorable 
 march to inracle Italy, crossing the Alps, 217 b. c. Carthagena, in Colombia, 
 was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1584:. It was pillaged by the French of 
 .£1 200,000 in 1697 ; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon in 1740-1, but 
 he was obliged, though he took the forts, to raise the siege. 
 
 I'ARTHUSIANS. A religious order founded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired 
 from the converse of the world, in 1084, to Chartreuse, in the mountains of 
 Daiiphine. Their rules were formed by Basil VII.. general of the order, and 
 were peculiarly distinguished for their austerity. The monks could not 
 leave their cells, nor speak, without express leave; and their clothing was 
 two hair cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, and a cloak, all coarse. The 
 general takes the title of prior of the Chartreuse, the principal monastery, 
 from which the order is named. — Auberti; Mirai Origines Carthus. 
 
 C^.RTOONS OF RAPHAEL. They were designed in the chambers of the Va- 
 tican, under Julius II. and Leo X.. about 1610 to 1515. The seven of them 
 that are preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of 
 England, for Hampton-court palace, in 1629. These matchless works repre- 
 sent — 1. The miraculous draught of Fishes; 2, the Charge to Peter; 3, Peter 
 ind John healing the Lame at the gate of the Temple ; 4. the Death of Ana- 
 nias; 5, Elj'mas, the Sorcerer, struck with Blindness; 6, the Sacritice to 
 Paid and Barnabas, by tlie people of Lystra ; 7, Paul preaching at Athens. 
 
 CARVING. We have scriptural authority for its early introduction. See Ex- 
 odus xxxi. The art of carving is first mentioned in profane history 772 b. c. 
 and is referred to the Egyptians. It was first in wood, next in stone, and 
 afterwards in marble and brass. Dipoenus and Scyllis Wcre eminent carvers 
 and sculptors, and opened a school of statuary, 568 b. c. — Pliny. See arti- 
 cle Sculptures. Carvers of meat, called by the Greeks deribitares^ are mention- 
 ed by Homer. 
 
 CASHxMERE SHAWLS. The district from whence come these costly shawls 
 is described as being " the happy valley, and a paradise in perpetual spring." 
 The true Cashmere shawls can be manufactured of no other wool than that 
 Thibet. They were first brought to England in 1666 ; but they were well 
 imitated by the spinning at Bradford, and the looms of Huddersfield. 
 
240 THE world's progress. f CAT 
 
 Shawls for the omrahs, of the Thibetian wool, cost 150 rupees each, about 
 the ye&r 1650. — Benikr. 
 CASTEL NUOVO, Battle of. The Russians defeated by the French army, 
 Sei)t. 29, 1806, Castel Nuovo has several times suffered under the dreadful 
 visitation of carthijuakes : in the ^reat earthquake which convulsed all Na- 
 ples and Sicily, in 1783, this to^^n was almost obliterated. It is recorded 
 that an inhabitant of Castel Nuovo, being on a hill at no great distance, 
 looking back, saw no remains of the town, but only a black smoke ; 4000 
 persons perished; and in Sicily and Naples, more than 40 000. 
 
 C ASTIGTJONE, Battle o'f. One of the most brilliant victories of the French 
 arms, under general Bonaparte, against the main army of the Austrians, 
 commanded by general Wurmser : the battle lasted iive days successively, 
 from the 2d to the 6th Julj^, 1796. Bonaparte stated the enemy's loss in 
 this obstinate conflict at 70 field-pieces, all his caissons, between 12 and 15,- 
 000 prisoners, and 6000 killed and wounded. 
 
 CASTILE. The most powerful government of the Goths was established here 
 about A. D. 800. Ferdinand, count of Castile, assumed the title of king in 
 1020. Ferdinand of Arragon married Isabella of Castile, and nearly the 
 whole of the Christian dominions in Spain were united in one monarchy, 1474. 
 See Arragon and Spain. 
 
 CASTLES. Anciently British castles were tall houses, strongly fortified, and 
 built on the tops of hills, with gates and walls. The castle of the Anglo 
 Saxon was a tower-keep, either round or square, and ascended by a flight oi 
 steps in front. There were eleven hundred castles built in England by the 
 nobles, by permission of king Stephen, a. d. 1135, and 1154: most of these 
 were demolished by Henry IL, who deprived the barons of such possessions, 
 on his accession, in 1154. 
 
 CATACOMBS; the early depositories of the dead. The name first denoted 
 the tombs of Saints Peter and Paul at Rome, and afterwards the burial-places 
 of all martyrs. They were numerous in Egypt ; and Belzoni, in 1815 and 1818, 
 explored many catacombs both in that country and Thebes, built 3000 years 
 ago: among others, a chef-d^ (Biivre of ancient sculpture, the temple of Psam- 
 maticus the Powerful, whose sarcophagus, formed of the finest oriental 
 alabaster, exquisitely sculptured, he brought to England. Many other na- 
 tions had their catacombs ; there WQre some of great extent at Rome. The 
 Parisian catacombs were projected a. d. 1777. The bodies found in cata- 
 combs, especiall} 'ihose of Egypt, are called mummies. See Embalming. 
 
 CATANIA, OR C ATANE A . At the foot of mount Etna. Founded by a colony 
 from Chalcis, 753 b. c. Ceres had a temple here, in which none but women 
 were permitted to appear. This ancient city is remarkable for the dreadful 
 overthrows to which it has been subjected at various times from its vicinity 
 to Etna which has discharged, in some of its eruptions, a stream of lava 
 four miles broad and fifty feet deep, advancing at the rate of seven miles in 
 a day. Catania was almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna, in 
 1669. By an earthquake which happened in 1693, Catania was nearly swal- 
 lowed up. and in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were buried 
 in the ruins of the city. An earthquake did great damage, and a number 
 of persons perished here, Feb. 22, 1817. 
 
 C \TAPHRYGIANS. A sect of heretics, so called because they were Phry- 
 gians, who followed the errors of Montanus. They made up the bread of 
 the eucharist with the blood of infants, whom they pricked to death with 
 needles, and then looked upon them as martyrs. — Pardon. 
 
 CATAPULTS. Ancient military engines for throwing stones of immense 
 weight, darts, and arrows ; invented by Dionysius, 899 b. c. — JosepMis. They 
 
CAUj PICTIONARY OF DATES. 24.1 
 
 were capable of throwing darts and javelins of four and f;e yards kcgth,— • 
 Pardo7i. 
 
 CATHOLIC MAJESTY. The title of Catholic was first given by pope Gre- 
 gory III. to Alphonsus 1. of Spain, who was thereupon surnamed tAe Cctho' 
 lie; A. D. 739 The title of Catholic was also given to Ferdinand V., 1474. 
 See Spain. 
 
 CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Sergius L. Catiline, a Roman of noble family, 
 having squandered away his fortune by his debaiicheries and extravagance, 
 and having been refused the consulship, he secretly meditated the ruin cf 
 his country, and conspired with many of the most illustrious of the Romans, 
 as dissolute as himself, to extirpate the senate, plunder the treasury, and uei 
 Rome on fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered by the consul Cicero, 
 whom he had resolved to murder ; and on seeing five of his accomplices 
 arrested, he retired to Gaul, where his partisans were assembling an army. 
 Cicero punished the condemned conspirators at home, while Petreias 
 attacked Catiline's ill-disciplined forces, and routed them, and the conspii- 
 ator Avas killed in the engagement, about the middle of December, 63 b. c. 
 Kis character has been branded with the foulest infamy, and to the violence 
 he offered to a vestal, he added the murder of his own brother ; and it is 
 said that he and his associates drank human blood to render their oaths 
 more fii'm and inviolable. — Sallust. 
 
 C ATO, SUICIDE OF. Termed as the " era destructive of the liberties of Rome." 
 Cato, the Roman patriot and philosopher, considered freedom as that which 
 alone " sustains the name and dignity of man :" unable to survive the inde- 
 pendence of his country, he stabbed himself at Utica. By this rash act of 
 suicide, independently of all moral considerations, Cato carried his patriot- 
 ism to the highest degree of political frensy ; for Cato, dead, could be of 
 no use to his country ; but had he preserved his life, his counsels might 
 have moderated Caesar's ambition, and have given a different turn to public 
 affairs. Feb. 5, 45 b. c. —Montesquieu. 
 
 CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY. The mysterious plot of a gang of low and 
 desperate politicians, whose object was the assassination of the ministers of 
 tjie crown, with a view to other sanguinary and indiscriminate outrages, 
 and the overthrow of the government : the conspirators were arrested Feb. 
 23, 1820 ; and Thistlewood and his four principal associates. Brunt, Davison, 
 Ings. and Tidd, after a trial commenced on April 17th, Avhich ended in their 
 CO '.viction, were executed according to the then horrid manner of traitors, 
 on May 1, following. — Haydn. 
 CAUCASUS. A mountain of immense height, a continuation of the ridge of 
 Mount Taurus, between the Euxine and Caspian seas, inhabited anciently 
 by various savage nations who lived upon the wild fruits of the earth. It 
 was covered with snow in some parts, and in others was variegated with 
 fruitful orchards and plantations : its people were at one time supposed to 
 gather gold on the shores of their rivulets, but they afterwards lived with- 
 out making use of money. Prometheus was tied on the top of Caucasus by 
 Jupiter, and continually devoured by vultures, according to ancient authors, 
 1648 B. c. The passes near the mountain were called Caucasia Portce, and 
 it is supposed that through them the Sarmatians, called Huns, made their 
 way, when they invaded the provinces of Rome, a. d. 447. — Straho. Hero- 
 dotus. 
 
 CAUSTIC IN PAINTING. The branch of the art so called is a method of 
 burning the colors into wood or ivory. Gausias, a painter of Sicyon. was 
 the inventor of this process. He made a beautiful painting of his niistress 
 Glycere, whom he represented as sitting on the ground, and making gai- 
 lands of flowers: and from this circumstance the picture, which was 
 
 11 
 
242 THE world's TROGRESS. [ CEM 
 
 bon ■,'-lit afterwards by Lucullus for two talents, received the name of St£p\xtr- 
 nnpLocon^ 335 b. c. — PLinii Hist. Nat. 
 
 CAVALIERS. This appellation was given as a party name in Eng-land to those 
 who es})0us8d the cause of the king during the unhappy war which brought 
 Charlef. I. to the scaffold. They were so called in opposition to the Round- 
 heads, or friends of the parliament, between 1642 and 164.9. — Hume. 
 
 CAVALRY. Of the ancient nations the Romans were the most celebrated fo^ 
 their cavalry, and for its discipline and efficiency. Attached to each of the 
 Roman legions was a body of horse 300 strong, in ten turmge ; the com- 
 mander was always a veteran, and chosen for his experience and valor. In the 
 early ages, the Persians brought the greatest force of cavalry into the field : 
 they had 10,000 horse at the battle of Marathon, 490 e.g.: and 10,0OQ 
 Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 b. c. — Plutarch. 
 
 CAYENNE. First settled by the French in 1625, but they left it in 1654. II 
 was afterwards successively in the hands of the English, French, and Dutch, 
 These last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by 
 the British, Jan. 12, 1809, but was restored to the French at the peace in 
 1814. In this settlement is produced the capsicum baccatum, or cayenne 
 pepper, so esteemed in Europe. 
 
 C/ELESTIAL GLOBE. A celestial sphere was brought to Greece from Egypt, 
 368 B. c. A planetarium was constructed b}^ Archimedes before 212 b. c. 
 The celestial globe was divided into constellations after the age of Perseus. 
 The great celestial globe of Gottorp, planned after a design of Tycho Brache, 
 and erected at the expense of the duke of Holstein, was eleven feet in 
 diameter : and that at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. Long, is 
 eighteen feet. See Globes. 
 
 CELESTINS. A religious order of monks, reformed from the Bernardins by 
 pope Celestiue V. in 1294. The order of nuns was instituted about the 
 same period. 
 
 CELIBACY, and the monastic life, preached by St. Anthony in Egypt, about 
 A. D. 305. The early converts to this doctrine lived in caves and desolate 
 places till regular monasteries were founded. The doctrine was rejected at 
 the council of Nice, a. d. 325. Celibacy was enjoined on bishops only in 
 692. The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow of celibacy in 
 1073. Its observance was finally established by the council of Placentia, 
 held in 1095. Among the illustrious philosophers of antiquity, the follow- 
 ing were unfriendly to matrimony: — Plato, Pythagoras, Epicurus, Bion, 
 Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus, and Diogenes ; and the following 
 among the moderns: — Newton, Locke, Boyle, Gibbon, Hume, Adam Smith, 
 Harvey, Leibnitz, Bayle, Hobbes, Hampden, sir F. Drake, earl of Essex, 
 Pitt, Michael Angelo, the three Caraccis, sir Joshua Reynolds, Haydn, 
 Handel. Wolse3^ Pascal, Fenelon, Pope, Akenside, Goldsmith, Gray, Collins, 
 Thompson, and Jeremy Bentham. 
 
 CEMETERIES. The ancients had not the unwise custom of crowding all 
 their dead in the midst of their towns and cities, within the narrow j)re 
 cincts of a place reputed sacred, much less of amassing them in the bosom 
 of their fanes and temples. The burying places of the Greeks and Romans 
 were at a distance from their to\vns ; and the Jews had their sepulchres in 
 gard3ns — Jo/ui x\x. il ; and in fields, and among rocks and mountains — 
 Matiliew xxvii, 60. The present practice was introduced by the Romish 
 clergy, who pretended that the dead enjoyed peculiar privileges by being 
 interred in consecrated ground. The burying-places of the Turks are hand- 
 some and agreeable, and it is owing chiefly to the many fine plants that 
 grow in them, and which they carefully place over their dead. It is only 
 
CEY ] DICTIONAHY OF DATES. 243 
 
 within a very few years that public cemeteries have been formed in these 
 countries, although the crowded state of our many churchyards, and the 
 danger to health of burial-places in the midst of dense populations, called 
 for some similar institutions to that of the celebrated P^re la Chaise at 
 Paris. Six public cemeteries have been recently opened in London 
 suburbs. The inclosed area of each of these cemeteries is planted and laid 
 out in walks after the manner of Pere la Chaise.* There are similar ceme- 
 i teries in Manchester, Liverpool, and other towns ; and in Ireland, at Cork, 
 Dublin, &c. Some of the rural cemeteries of the United States, es})ecially 
 that at Mount Auburn, near Boston (opened 1831), Laurel Hill, Philadelphia 
 (183-), and Greenwood, near New- York (1839), are far more beautiful in 
 their natural features than any of those near London or Paris. 
 
 CENSORS. Roman magistrates, whose duty it was to survey and rate, and 
 correct the manners of the people ; their power was also extended over 
 private families, and they restrained extravagance. The two first censors 
 were appointed 443 b. c. The office was abolished by the emperors. 
 
 CENSUS. In the Roman polity, a general estimate of every man's estate and 
 personal effects, delivered to the government upon oath every five years : 
 established by Servius Tullius, 566 b. c— Legal Polity of the Roman State. 
 In England the census, formerly not periodical, is now taken at decennial 
 periods, of which the last were the years 1811, 1821, and 1831 ; and the new 
 census, 1841. 
 
 CENSUS OF THE UNITED STATES, has been taken at six different periods, 
 viz. 1790, 1800, 1810, 1820, 1030, and 1840. The seventh census is taken 
 this year, 1850. — See Popidation. 
 
 CENTURION. The captain, head, or commander of a subdivision of a Ro- 
 man legion, which consisted of 100 men, and was called a centuria. He was 
 distinguished by a branch of vine which he carried in his hand. By the 
 Roman census, each hundred of the people was called a centuria, 566 b. c. 
 
 CENTURY. The method of computing by centuries was first generally 
 observed in ecclesiastical history, and commenced from the time of our 
 Redeemer's incarnation, a. d. 1. It is a period that is particularly regarded 
 by church historians. — Pardon. 
 
 CERES. This planet, which is only 160 miles in diameter, was discovered by 
 M. Piazzi, astronomer royal at Palermo, on the 1st. of Jan. 1801. To the 
 naked eye it is not visible, nor will glasses of a very high magnifying 
 power show it with a distinctly defined diameter. Pallas, discovered by 
 Dr. Olbers, is still smaller. 
 
 CEYLON. The natives claim for this island the seat of paradise ; it was dis- 
 covered by the Portuguese a. d. 1505 ; but it was known to the Romans in 
 the time of Claudius, a. d. 41. The capital, Colombo, was taken by the 
 Hollanders in 1603 ; and was recovered by the Portuguese in 1621. The 
 Dutch again took it in 1656. A large portion of the country was taken by 
 the British in 1782, but was restored the next year. The Dutch settlements 
 
 * Pere la Cliaise takes its name from a French Jesuit, who was a favorite of Louis XIV., and 
 bis confessor. He died in 1709 ; and the site of his house and grounds at Paris is now occupied by 
 this beautiful cemetery. It was a practice of high antiquity to plant herbs and flowers about the 
 graves of the dead. The women in Egypt go weekly to pray and weep at the sepulchres, and it is 
 then usual to throw a sort ot herb (our sweet-basil) upon the tombs ; which in Asia Minor, and 
 Turkey in Europe, are also adorned either with the leaves of the palm-tree, boughs of myrtle, or 
 cypresses planted at the head and feet. Between some of the tombs is placed a chest of ornamented 
 stone, filled with earth, in which are planted herbs and aromatic flowers. These are regularly cul- 
 tivated by females, who assemble in groups for that duty. At Aleppo, there grow many myrtles, 
 which they diligently propagate, because they are beautiful, and remain long green, to cut about 
 ihcir graves.— />fa!7ei/ Chandler; Butler. 
 
244 THE world's progress. [ CHA 
 
 were seized by the British ; Trincomalee Aug-. 26, 1795. and Jaffuapatam, ia 
 Sept. same ycir. Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of Amiens 
 in 1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred, or imprisoned 
 by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sove- 
 reignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815. 
 
 CH^^RONEA, Battlks of. The Athenians are defeated by the Boeotians, 
 and Tolmidas, their general, is slain, 447 b. g. Battle of Chaeronea, in which 
 Greece lost its liberty to Philip, 32,000 Macedonians defeating the confed- 
 erate army of Thebans and Athenians of 30,000, Aug. 2, 338 b. c. Battle 
 of Chaeronea in which Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, is defeated by 
 Sylla, and 110 000 Cappadocians are slain, 86 b. c. 
 
 (.HAIN-B RIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is said to 
 be that at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top ol 
 one mountain to the top of another. The honor of constructing the lirst 
 chain-bridge on a grand scale belongs to Mr. Telford, who commenced the 
 chain-suspension bridge over the strait between Anglesey' and the coast ol 
 Wales, July 1818.— See Menai Bridgi. 
 
 CHAIN-CABLES, PUMPS, and SHOT. Iron chain-cables were in use by the 
 Veneti, a people intimately connected with the Belgas of Britain in the time 
 of Caesar, 55 b. g. These cables came into modern use, and generally in the 
 royal navy of England, in 1812. Chain-shot, to destroy the rigging of an 
 enemy's ships, was invented by the Dutch admn'al De Witt, in 1666. Chain- 
 pumps were tirst used on board the FLora^ British frigate, in 1787. 
 
 CHAISE OR CALASH. The invention of the chaise, which is described as a 
 light and open vehicle, is ascribed to Augustus Ctesar, about a. d. 7. Aure- 
 lius Victor mentions that the use of post-chaises was introduced by Trajan, 
 about A. D. 100. The chariot was in use fifteen centuries before. See Chariot 
 
 CHALDEAN REGISTERS. Registers of celestial observations were commenced 
 2234 B. G., and were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander, 
 331 B. c., being a period of 1903 j^ears. These registers were sent by Callis- 
 thenes to Aristotle. Chaldean Characters : the Bible was transcribed 
 from the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra. 
 
 CHAMP DE MARS an open square space in front of the Military School at 
 Paris, with artificial embankments raised on each side, extending nearly to 
 the r'ver Seine, with an area sufiScient to contain a million of people. Here 
 ■was held, on the 14th July, 1790, the famous "federation," or solemnity of 
 swearing fidelity to the "patriot king" and new constitution. In the even- 
 ing great rejoicings followed the proceedings ; public balls were given by 
 the municipality in the Champs Elysees and elsewhere, and Paris was illumi- 
 nated throughout. 1791, July 17, a great meeting of citizens and others held 
 here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the "altar of the 
 country" — left standing for some time afterwards — praying for the enforced 
 abdication of Louis XVI. Another new constitution sworn to here, under 
 the eye of Bonaparte, May 1, 1815, a ceremony called the Champ de Mai. 
 
 CH AMPION OF ENGLAND. The championship was instituted at the corona- 
 tion of Richard II. 1377. At the coronations of English kings the champion 
 still rides completely armed into Westminster-hall, and challenges any one 
 that would deny their title to the crown. The championship is hereditary 
 in the Dymocke family. 
 
 CHANCELLORS, LORD HIGH, of ENGLAND. The Lord Chancellor ranks 
 after the princes of the Blood Royal as the first lay subject. Formerly, the 
 office was conferred ui)on some dignified clergj'man. Maurice, afterwards 
 bishop of London, was created chancellor in 1067. The first personage whc 
 
CliA J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 245 
 
 was qualified by great legal education, and who decided causes upon his own 
 judgment, was Sir Thomas More, in 1530, before which time the office waa 
 more that of a high state functionary than the president of a court of justice. 
 Sir Christopher Hatton, who was appointed chancellor in 1587, was very 
 ignorant, on which account the first reference was made to a master in 1588, 
 In England, the great seal has been frequently put in commission ; but it 
 was not until 1813 that the separate and co-existent office of Vice-Chaiicellor 
 was permanently held. 
 
 LORD CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND, | 
 
 {From ihe time of Cardinal Woisey.') | 
 
 1515 Cardinal Woisey. j 
 
 1530 Sir Thomas More (beheaded). I 
 
 1533 Sir Thomas Audley. j 
 
 1534 Thomas, bishop of Ely. 
 
 1545 Lord Wriothesiey. I 
 
 1547 Lord St. John. i 
 
 1547 Lord Rich. j 
 
 1551 Bishop of Ely again. ' 
 
 1551 Sir Nich. Hare, i^oj-rf .BTeeper. 
 
 1653 Bishop of Winchester. 
 
 1555 Archbishop of York. 
 
 1559 Sir Nicholas Bacon. 
 
 1579 Sir Thomas Bromley. 
 
 1587 Sir Christopher Hatton. 
 
 1592 Sir John Packering. 
 
 1596 Sir Tiiomas Egerlon. 
 
 1616 Sir Francis Bacon, afterwards lord 
 
 Verulam. 
 1625 Sir Thomas Coventry. 
 
 1639 Sir John Fhich. 
 
 1640 Sir Edward Littleton, afterwards lord 
 
 Littleton. 
 1645 Sir Richard Lane. 
 1648 In commission. 
 1653 Sir Edward Herbert. 
 1658 Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of 
 
 Clarendon. 
 1667 Sir Orlando Bridsreman, L. K. 
 1672 EarlofShaftesbu"ry. 
 J 673 Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of 
 
 Nottingham. 
 1682 Lord Guilford, L. K. 
 1685 Sir George Jeffreys, lord Jeffreys. 
 1690 In commission. 
 1690 Sir John Trevor, Sir William Rawlin- 
 
 son, and Sir Geo. Hutchins, L. K. 
 
 1692 Sir John Somers, afterwaris \yi\ 
 
 Somers. 
 1702 Sir Nathan Wright, L. K. 
 1705 Lord Cowper, L. K. 
 1710 In commission. 
 
 1713 Lord Harcourt. 
 
 1714 Loi-d Cowper again. 
 1718 In commission. 
 
 1718 Viscount Parker, afterwards earl ol 
 
 Macclesfield. 
 1725 Sir Peter King, L. K. afterwards lord 
 
 King. 
 1733 Lord Talbot. 
 1737 Philip, lord Hardwicke. 
 1761 Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord 
 
 Henley, and earl of Northington. 
 1766 Charles Pratt, lord Camden. 
 1770 Hon. Chas. Yorke, Jan. 18 ; died next 
 
 day. 
 
 1770 In commission. 
 
 1771 Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley, succeed- 
 
 ed as earl Bathurst. 
 
 1778 Lord Thurlow. 
 j 1783 Lord Loughborough and others 
 I (in commission) - 
 
 l'"83 Lord Thurlow again - 
 
 1792 In commission. 
 
 1793 Lord Loughborough again. 
 1801 Lord Eldon. 
 
 1806 Lord Erskine. 
 
 1807 Lord Eldon again. 
 : 1827 Lord Lyndhurst. 
 
 1830 Lord Brougham. 
 
 1834 Lord Lyndhurst again 
 
 1835 In commission. 
 
 1836 Lord Cottenham. 
 1841 Lord Lyndhurst again. - 
 1846 Lord Cottenham again 
 
 April 9 
 - Dec. 23 
 
 April 14 
 Feb. 7 
 March 25 
 April 2C 
 Nov. 22 
 Nov. 14 
 
 • Jan. 16 
 
 Aug. 31 
 
 July 6 
 
 C HANCELLOR of IRELAND. LORD HIGH. The earliest nomination was by 
 Richard I. a. d. 1186, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this rank. The 
 office of vice-chancellor was known in Ireland, but not as a distinct appoint- 
 ment, in the reign of Henry III., Geffrey Turville, archdeacon of Dubhn, 
 being so named, 1232. 
 
 CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND. In the laws of Malcolm 11. who reigned 
 A. D. 1004, this officer is thus mentioned: "The Chancellar sal at al tyraes 
 assist the king in giving him counsall mair secretly nor of the rest of the 
 nobility. The Chancellar sail be ludgit near unto the kingis Grace, for 
 keiping of his bodie, and the seill, and that he may be readie, baith day and 
 nicht, at the kingis command." — Sir James Balfoiir. James, earl of Seafield, 
 afterwards Findlater, was the last lord high' Chancellor of Scotland, the 
 office having been abolished in 1708. — Scott. 
 
 CHANCERY, COURT of. Instituted as early as a. d. 605. Settled upon a 
 better footing by William I., in 1^%"1 .—Stowe. This court had its origin in 
 •the desire to render justice complete, and to moderate the rigor of other 
 courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to or 
 against infants, notwithstanding their minority ; and to or against married 
 
1770 ■ 
 
 Amount lod-ged 
 
 1780 
 
 ditto 
 
 1790 . 
 
 - ditto 
 
 1800 
 
 ditto 
 
 1810 - 
 
 Amount lodged - 
 
 jE26,212,000 
 
 1820 
 
 ditto 
 
 - 34,208,785 
 
 1830 . 
 
 ditto 
 
 38,88(5,1.35 
 
 1840 
 
 ditto 
 
 - 39.772 746 
 
 246 THE world's progress. [ CIU 
 
 women, notwithstanding their coverture ; and all frauds, deceits, breaches 
 of trust and confidence, for which there is no ledress at common law. are 
 relievable here. — Blackstone. 
 
 EFFECTS OF SUITORS LODGED IN COURT AT THE FOLLOWING DECENNIAL PERIODS, 
 
 £.5,300.000 
 
 . 7,741,000 
 
 13,338,000 
 
 - 19,834,000 
 
 There are about 10,000 accounts. By the last official returns the nnmber 
 of committals for contempt was ninety-six persons in three years. — Pail 
 Returns. 
 CHANTRY. A chapel endowed Avith revenue for priests to sing mass for the 
 souls of the donors. — Shaks'peare. First mentioned in the commencement of 
 the seventli century, when Gregory the great established schools of chant- 
 ers. — See Chanting. 
 
 CHAOS. A rude and shapeless mass of matter, and confused assemblage of 
 inactive elements which, as the poets suppose, pre-e:jfisted the formation of 
 the world, and from which the universe was formed by the hand and power 
 of a superior being. This doctrine was first advanced by Hesiod, from whom 
 the succeeding poets have copied it ; and it is probable that it was obscurely 
 drawn from the account of Moses, by being copied from the annals of San- 
 choniathon, whose age is fixed antecedent to the siege of Troy in 1193 b. '.■;. 
 See Geology. 
 
 CHARIOTS. The invention of chariots, and tlie manner of harnessing horses 
 to draw them, is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, 1486 b. c. Chariot 
 racing was one of the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the Ethiopian 
 officer, mentioned in Acts viii. 27, 28, 31, was, it is supposed, something in 
 the form of our modern chaise with four wheels. Csesar relates that Cassi- 
 belanus, after dismissing all his other forces, retained no fewer than 4000 
 war chariots about his person. The chariots of the ancients were like our 
 phaetons, and drawn by one horse. See Carriages, Coaches, <^-c. 
 
 CHARITIES in the United States. — See Benevolence. In England there are tens 
 of thousands of charitable foundations ; and the charity commission reported 
 to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain amounted to 
 £\ 500,000 annually, in 1840. — Pari. Rep. Charity schools were instituted 
 in London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic 
 seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — Rapin. 
 
 CHARLESTON. S. C, was first settled in 1680. In 1690 a colony of French 
 refugees, exiled in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 
 settled in Carolina, and some of them in Charleston : from them are de- 
 scended many of the most respectable of the inhabitants. At the close of 
 1779, the city was taken by the British and held by them until JMay follow- 
 ing. Population in 1790, 16 359 ; in 1810. 24 711 ; in 1820, 24.780 ; in 1830, 
 30 289; in 1840, 29,261— (a decrease of 1,028 in ten years) including 14,673 
 slaves. 
 
 :H ARTEKS OF RIGHTS. The first charters of rights granted by the kings of 
 England to their subjects, were by Edward the Confessor, and by Henry 1. 
 A. D. 1100. The famous bulwark of English liberty, known as Magna Chaita. 
 or the great charter, was granted to the barons by king John, June 15, 1215. 
 The rights and privileges granted by this charter were renewed and ratified 
 by Henry III. in 1224, el seq. Sir Edward Coke says that even in his days it 
 had been confirmed above thirty times. Charters to corporations were of 
 frequent grant from the reign of William I. See Magna Charta. 
 
 CHARTERS to the American colonies. That to Virginia granted by Jameg L, 
 1606 ; to Massachusetts, by the same. 1620, but withdrawn by Charles IT. 
 
CHE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 247 
 
 3G84 ; that granted to Connecticut by Charles II., 1665, was concealed in an 
 cik to preserve it from the tyrannical Andros. General suppression of 
 charter governments in America, 1688. 
 
 CHARTER PARTY. The same species of deed or agreement as the ancient 
 chirograph. A covenant between merchants and masters of ships relating 
 to the ship and cargo. It was first used in England in the reign of Henry 
 III., about 1243. 
 
 CHARTISTS. The agitators for radical political reforms in England were so 
 called from the Charter which they drew up and urged for adoption as the 
 law of the land, 1838. The petition for it, signed by about 5,000,000 names. 
 Proclamation against tumultuous assemblies of the Chartists, Dec. 12, 1838. 
 Chartist attacli on Newport, Wales, headed by John Frost, an ex-magistrate_ 
 defeated, Nov. 4, 1839. Frost and others taken prisoner, tried, and trans- 
 ported. Another Chartist demonstration on Kennington Common, near 
 London, exciting great alarm (chiefly because of the recent revolution in 
 Paris), April 10, 1848. The six chief demands of the Chartists are; 1. Uni- 
 versal suffrage. 2. Vote by ballot. 3. No property qualification. 4. Annual 
 parliaments. 5. Paj^ment of members. 6. Equal electoral districts. 
 
 CHARTS. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical and celes- 
 tial charts, about 570 b. c. Modern sea-charts were brought to England by 
 Bartholomew Columbus, with a view to illustrate his brother's theorj^-espect- 
 ing a western continent, 1489. Mercator's chart, in which the world is taken 
 as a plane, was drawn, 1556. 
 
 CHARYBDIS, a dangerous whirlpool on the coast of Sicily, opposite another 
 whirlpool called Scylla on the coast of Italy. It was very dangerous to sail- 
 ors, and it proved fatal to part of the fleet of Ulysses. The exact situation 
 of the Charybdis is not discovered by the moderns, as no whirlpool suffi- 
 ciently tremendous is now found to correspond to the description of the 
 ancients. The words Incidit in Scyliam qui vult vitme Charybdim, became a 
 proverb, to show that in our eagerness to avoid an evil, we fall into a greater. 
 
 CHANTING, Chanting the psalms was adopted by Ambrose from the pa- 
 gan ceremonies of the Romans, about a. d. 350. — LeMglet. Chanting in 
 churches was introduced into the Roman Catholic service in 602, by Gregory 
 the Great, who established schools of chanters, and corrected the church 
 song. — Dufresnoy. 
 
 CHEATS. The convicted cheat punishable by pillory (since abolished), impri- 
 sonment, and fine, 1 Hmok, L. C. 188. A rigorous statute was enacted 
 against cheats, 33 Henry VIII. 1542. Persons cheating at play, or winning 
 at any time more than lOZ., or any valuable thing, were deemed infamous, 
 and were to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 1711. — Black- 
 sto7ie^s Comm. 
 
 CHEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned the 
 process of making cheese from the Romans (who brought many useful arts 
 with them) about the Christian era. Cheese is made by almost all nations. 
 Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire, make vast quantities; the last alone, amm- 
 ally, about 31,000 tons. The Cheddar of Somerset, and Stilton of Hunting- 
 don.; are as much esteemed as the cheese of Parma, and Gruyere of Switz- 
 erland. In 1840 England imported, chiefly from the U. States, for home use, 
 a quantity exceeding 10,000 tons. 
 
 CHEMISTRY and DISTILLING. Introduced into Europe by the Spanish 
 Moors, about a. d. 1150; they had learned them from the African Moors, 
 and these from the Egyptians. In Egypt, they had, in very early ages, ex- 
 tracted salts from their bases, separated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine } 
 
248 THE world's progress. [ CHI 
 
 and embalming- was a kind of chemical process. The Ciiinese also claim an 
 early acquaintance with chemistry; but the fathers of true chemical philo- 
 sophy were of our own country ; Bacon, Boyle, Hooke, Mayow. Newton. &c. 
 The modern character of chemistry was foi'med under Beecher and Stahl, 
 who perceived the Connection of the atmosphere and the gases, with the 
 production of phenomena. Bergman and Scheele were cotemporary with 
 Priestley in England, and Lavosier in France; then followed Thomson, Davy, 
 and other distinguished men. 
 
 CHERRIES. They were brought from Pontus, to Lucullus, to Rome, about 70 
 s. c. Apricots from Epirus : peaches from Persia ; tbe finest plums from 
 Damascus and Armenia; pears and figs from Greece and Egypt; citrona 
 from Media; and pomegranates from Carthage; 114 b. c. The cherry tree 
 was first planted in Britain, it is said, about a. d. 100. Fine kinds were 
 brought from Flanders, and planted in Kent, and with such success that an 
 orchard of thirty-two acres produced in one year ^1000, a. d. 1540. See 
 Gardening. 
 
 CHESAPE.A.KE, Battle of. At the mouth of the b?y of that name, between 
 the British admiral Greaves, and the French admiral De Grasse. with the 
 naval force sent to assist the United States ; the former was obliged to retire, 
 1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware were blockaded by a British fleet 
 in 1812. The Chesapeake American frigate struck to the Shannon British 
 frigate, commanded by captain Broke, after a severe action, June 2, 1818. 
 
 CHESS, Game of. Invented, according to some authorities, 680 b. c. ; and ac- 
 cording to others, in the fifth century of our era. The learned Hyde and 
 Sir William Jones concur in stating (as do most writers on the subject) that 
 the origin of chess is to be traced to India. The automaton chess-player 
 was exhibited in England in 1769. 
 
 CHEVALIER D'EON. This extraordinary personage, who had been acting in 
 a diplomatic capacitj^ in several countries, and who was for some time a 
 minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was proved upon a trial 
 had in the King's Bench, in an action to recover wagers as to his sex, to be 
 Siwoman^ July 1, 1777. He subsequently wore female attire for many years; 
 yet at his death, in London, in 1810, it was manifest, by the dissection of 
 his body, and other undoulbted evidence, that he was of the male sex. — 
 Bio. Die. 
 
 t!HILDREN. Most of the ancient nations had the unnatural custom of expos- 
 ing their infants — the Egyptians on the banks of rivers, and the Greeks on 
 highways — when they could not support or educate them; in such cases 
 they were taken care of, and humanely protected by the state. The custom 
 \vhich long previously existed of English parents selling their children to 
 the Irish for slaves, was prohibited in the reign of Canute, about 1017. — ■ 
 Mat. Paris. At Darien, it was the practice when a widow died, to bury 
 with her, in the same grave, such of her children as vere unable, from their 
 tender years, to take care of themselves. And in some parts of China, su- 
 perstition has lent her hand to sanction the horrid deed of ofiering infants 
 to the spirit of an adjoining river, first attaching a gourd to their necks to 
 prevent them from immediately drowning. 
 
 ('HILI. Discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conquerors of Peru, a. d. 
 1535. Almagro crossed the Cordilleras, and the natives, regarding the Span- 
 iards on their first visit as allied to the Divinity, collected lOr them gold and 
 silver, amounting to 290,000 ducats, a present which led to the subsequent 
 cruelties and rapacity of the invaders. Chili was subdued, but not wholly, 
 in 1546. The Chilians fought for liberty at various times, a'»d with various 
 Buccess, until 1817, when, by the decisive victory gained by i^ui Mai'tin cvct 
 
^nij 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 249 
 
 the royal forces, Feb. 12, in that year, the province was released from its op- 
 pressors, and declared independent. 
 CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An estate of the crown in England, on the chain 
 of chalk hills that pass from east to west through the middle of Bucking- 
 hamshire, the stewardship" whereof is a nominal office, conferred on members 
 of parhament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an 
 office under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again 
 returned by his constituents : this custom has existed time immemoriaf. 
 
 ('HIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chim- 
 neys, which were first introduced into these countries in a. d. 1200, when 
 they were confined to the kitchen and large hall. The family sat round the 
 stove, the funnel of which passed through the ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys 
 were genei'al in domestic architecture in 1310. The ancients made use of 
 stoves, although Octavio Ferrari affirms that chimneys were in use among 
 them ; but this is disputed. 
 
 CHINA. This empire is very ancient, and the Chinese assert that it existed 
 many thousands of years before Noah's flood ; but it is allowed by some author- 
 ities to have commenced about 2500 years before the birth of Chribt. By 
 others it is said to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of 
 the Bible, 2240 b. c. We are told that the Chinese knew the periods of the 
 sun, moon, and planets, and were iicute astronomers, in the reign of Yao, 
 which is set down 23-57 b. c. But dates cannot be relied upon until towards 
 the close of the seventh century, b. c. when the history of China becomes 
 more distinct. In the battle between Phraates and the Scythians 129 b. c, 
 the Chinese aided the latter, and afterwards ravaged the countries on the 
 coasts of the Caspian, which is their first appearance in history. — Lenglet. 
 
 The Chinese state their first cycle to 
 have commenced - - b. c 2700 
 
 The first of llie 22 Chinese dynasties 
 commenced .... 2207 
 ***** * 
 
 In the history of China, the first dates 
 which are fixed to his narrative, by 
 Se-ma-tsien, begin - - - 651 
 
 Confucius, the father of the Chinese 
 
 philosophers, born - - - 551 
 Stupendous wall of China completed - 211 
 The dynasty of Han - - - • 206 
 Literature and the art of printing encou- 
 raged 202 
 
 Religion of Ta -tse commenced - - 15 
 Religion of the followers of Fo, com- 
 menced about - - A. D 60 
 Embassy from Rome - - - 166 
 Nankin becomes the capital - - 420 
 The atheistical philosopher, Fan-Shin, 
 
 flourishes - - - - 449 
 
 The Nestorian Christians permitted to 
 
 preach their doctrines - - - 635 
 
 They are proscribed, and extirpated - 845 
 The seat of the imperial government is 
 
 transferred to Pekin - - - 1260 
 
 Wonderful canal, called the Yu Ho, 
 
 completed about - - - 1400 
 
 Eur:j--3ans first arrive at Canton - 1517 
 
 Macao is granted as a settlement to the 
 
 Portuguese - - - - 1536 
 
 Jesuit missionaries are sent by the pope 
 
 from Rome .... 1575 
 The country is conquered by the East- 
 ern Tartars, who establish the pre- 
 sent reigning house - - - 1644 
 Aa earthquake throu ghout China buries 
 300,00f persons at Pekm alone - 1662 
 
 11* 
 
 Jesuit missionaries endeavor to esta- 
 blish Christianity - - - - 1692 
 
 The .[esuits are expelled through their 
 own misconduct - - - 1724 
 
 ENGLISH INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA. 
 
 Earl Macartney's embassy ; he leaves 
 England - - Sept. 26, 1792 
 
 He is ordered to depart from Pekin, 
 
 Oct. 7, 1793 
 
 Edict against Christianity - - 1812 
 
 Lord Amherst's embassy ; he leaves 
 England - - - Feb. 8, 1816 
 
 [His lordship failed in the objects of 
 his mission, having refused to make 
 the prostration of the kou-tou, lest he 
 should thereby compromise the ma- 
 jesty of England.] 
 
 The exclusive rights of the East India 
 Company cease - April 22, 1834 
 
 Lord Napier arrives at Macao, to super- 
 intend British commerce - July 15, 1834 
 
 Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese, 
 
 Nov. 7, 1831 
 
 Commissioner Lin issues an edict for 
 the seizure of opium - March 18, 1839 
 
 British and other residents forbidden to 
 leave Canton - - March 19, 1839 
 
 The factories surrounded, and outrages 
 committed - - March 24, 1839 
 
 The opium destroyed during several 
 days by the Chinese - June 3, 1S39 
 
 The British trade with China ceases, by 
 an edict of the emperor, and the last 
 servant of the company leaves the 
 country this day - - Dec. 6, 133f 
 
 Edict of the emperor interdicting all 
 trade and intercourse wiih England 
 for ever - - - Jan. 5, 1S4C 
 
250 
 
 THE AVORLD'S progress. 
 
 [ cm 
 
 CHINA, continued. 
 
 Blockade of Canton by a British fleet of 
 15 sail and several war steamers, hav- 
 ing 4,000 troops on board, by orders 
 from Sir Gordon Bremer - June 28, 1340 
 
 Seizure of (Japt. Anstruther - Sept. 16, 1840 
 
 Lin deprived of his authority, and 
 finally degraded; Keshin appointed 
 imperial commissioner - Sept. 16, 1840 
 
 Capt. Elliott declares a truce with the 
 Chinese - - - Nov. 6, 1840 
 
 Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great 
 Britain, and 6,000,000 dollars agreed to 
 be paid within ten days to the British 
 authorities - - - Jan. 20, 1841 
 
 Imperial edict from Pekin rejecting the 
 conditions of the treaty made by Ke- 
 shin - - - Feb. 11, 1841 
 
 Hostilities are in consequence resumed 
 against the Chinese - - Feb. 23, 1841 
 
 Chusan evacuated ■ - Feb. 24, 1841 
 
 Rewards proclaimed at Canton for the 
 bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ; 
 50,000 dollars to be given for ring- 
 leaders and chiefs - Feb. 25, 1841 
 
 Bogue Forts taken by Sir Gordon Bre- 
 mer ; admiral Kwan killed, and 459 
 guns captured - - Feb. 26, 181] 
 
 Sir Hugh Gough takes the command of 
 the army - - March 2, 1841 
 
 Heights behind Canton taken, and 94 
 guns captured - - May 25, 1841 
 
 The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars, 
 of which 5,000,000 are paid down, 
 and hostilities cease - May 31, 1841 
 
 British trade re-opened - July 16, 1841 
 
 Arrival at Macao of Sir Henry Potiin- 
 ger, who, as plenipotentiary, pro- 
 claims the objects of his mission ; 
 Capt. Elliott superseded ■ Aug. 10, 1841 
 
 Amoy taken, and 296 guns found and 
 destroyed - - Aug. 27, 1841 
 
 The Bogue forts destroyed - Sept. 14, 1841 
 
 The city of Tinghae taken, 136 guns 
 capturedj and the island of Chusan 
 re-occupied by the British - Oct. 1, 1841 
 
 Chin-hae taken, with 157 guns, many 
 of them brass - - Oct. 10, 1841 
 
 Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, 
 on board the Cornwal' s by sir Henry 
 Pottinger for Englanc, and Keying? 
 Elejx>o and Neu-Kien on tht part of 
 the Chinese emperor - Aug. 29, 1^ 
 
 C0NDIT10H8 OF THE TKEATT. 
 
 Lasting peace and friendship between 
 the two empires. 
 
 China to pay 21,000,000 of dollars, part 
 forthwith and the remainder within 
 three years. 
 
 The ports of Canton. Amoy, Foo-choo- 
 foo, Ning-po, and Shang-hae to be 
 thrown open to the British. 
 
 Consuls to reside at these cities. 
 
 Taritfs of import aiid export to be esta- 
 blished, &c. «&c. 
 
 The emperor signifies his assent to the 
 conditions - - Sept. 8, !842 
 
 Mr. Davis succeeds Sir Henry Pottinger 
 as British commissioner • Feb. 16, 1844 
 
 Bogue Forts captured by Gen. Aguilar 
 and Sir John Davis, 836 pieces of ar- 
 tillery seized and spiked - April 5, 1847 
 
 Treaty between China and the Uiu- 
 ted "States negotiated by Caleb 
 Cushing, American Commis- 
 sioner - - July 3, 1844 
 
 ratified at Washington 
 
 Jan. 16, 1845 
 
 Alexander H. Everett appointed 
 commissioner to China from the 
 United States - - - 1845 
 
 John W. Davis appointed commis- 
 sioner from the IFnited States - 1847 
 
 CHINESE EMPERORS. 
 
 The following is a list of those who have 
 reigned for the last two centuries : — 
 
 Chwang-lei 1627 
 
 Shun-che ... - - 1644 
 
 Kang-he 1669 
 
 Yung-ching .... 1693 
 Keen-lung - - ... 1739 
 
 Kea-ding ..... 1796 
 Taou-kwang- - - - - 1821 
 
 Sze-Hing, present emperor - - 1850 
 
 The embassy of lord Macartney from England procured the first authentic 
 information respecting this empire : it appears that it is divided into 15 pro- 
 vinces, containing- 4402 walled cities; the population of the whole country is 
 given at 333 000,000 ; its annual revenues at i;66,000,000 ; and the army, in- 
 cluding the Tartars, 1,000,000 of infantry, and 800,000 cavalry; the religion 
 is pagan, and the government is absolute. Learning, with the arts and sci- 
 ences in general, are encouraged, and ethics are studied profoundly, and 
 influence the manners of the people. See details in Williams's " Middle 
 King do my 
 CHINA PORCELAIN. This manufacture is first mentioned in history in 1531 ; 
 it was introduced into England so early as the sixteenth century. Porcelain 
 was made at Dresden in 1706 ; fine ware in England, at Chelsea, 1752 ; at 
 Bow in 1758; in various other parts of England, about 1760; and by the 
 ingenious Josiah Wedgwood, who much improved the British manufacture, 
 in Staffordshire, 1762 et seq. 
 
 CHINESE ERAS. They are very numerous, fabulous, and mythological. 
 Like the Chaldeans, they represent the world as having existed some hun- 
 dreds of thousands of years; and their annals and histories record everta 
 
CHO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 251 
 
 said to have occurred, and name philosophers and heroes said to have lived, 
 more than 27,000 years ago. By their calculation of time, which must, of 
 course, differ essentially from ours, they date the commencement of their 
 empire 41,000 years b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. 
 
 CHIPPEWA, Battles of. The British forces under general Riall were ie- 
 feated by the Americans under general Brown, July 5, 1814. Another ac- 
 tion with the British, commanded by generals Drummond and Riall ; the 
 latter taken prisoner at Bridgwater, near Chippewa, July 25, 1814. 
 
 CHIVALRY. Began in Europe about a. d. 912. From the twelfth to the flP- 
 teenth century it had a considerable influence in refining the maimers of 
 most of the nations of Europe. The knight swore to accomplish the duties 
 of his profession, as the champion of God and the ladies. He devoted him- 
 self to speak the truth, to maintam the right, to protect the distressed, to 
 practise courtesy, to fulfil obligations, and to vindicate, in every perilous 
 adventure, his honor and character. Chivalry, which owed its origin to the 
 feudal system, expired with it. — Robertson ; Gibbon. 
 
 CHIVALRY, Court of. It was commonly after the lie-direct had been given, 
 that combats took place in the court of chivalry. By letters patent of 
 James I. the earl-marshal of England had " the like jurisdiction in the court 
 of chivalry, when the office of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter 
 and the marshal did jointly exercise," 1623. The following entries are 
 found in the pipe-roll of 31 Henry I., the date of which has been fixed by 
 the labors of the record commission : — " Robert Fitz Seward renders account 
 of fifteen marks of silver, for the office and wife of Hugh Chivill. Paid into 
 the exchequer four pounds. And he owes six pounds;" p. 53. "William 
 de Hocton renders account of ten marks of gold that he may have the loife of 
 Geoffrey de Faucre in marriage, with her land, and may have her son in 
 custody until he is of age to become a knight ; he paid into the exchequer 
 ten marks of gold, and is discharged." — Pari. Reports. 
 
 CHOCOLATE. First introduced into Europe from Mexico about a. d. 1520. It 
 is the flour of the cocoa-nut, and makes a wholesome beverage, much used 
 in Spain. It was sold in the London coffee-houses soon after their establish- 
 ment, 1650. — Tatler. 
 
 CHOIR. The choir was separated from the nave of the church in the time 
 of Constantino. The choral service was first used in England at Canter- 
 bury, A. D. 677. The service had been previously in use at Rome about 602. 
 — See Chanting. The Choragus was the superintendent of the ancient 
 chorus. — Warhurton. 
 
 CHOLERA MORBUS. This fatal disease, known in its more malignant form 
 as the Asiatic cholera, after having made great ravages in many countries 
 of the north, east, and south of Europe, and in the countries of Asia, where 
 alone it had carried ofi" more than 900,000 persons in its progress within two 
 years, made its first appearance in England, at Sunderland, October 26, 1831, 
 Proclamation, ordering all vessels from Sunderland to London, to perform 
 quarantine at the Nore, December 4, 1831. Cholera first appeared at Edin- 
 burgh, Feb. 6, 1832. First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, London, 
 February 13 ; and in Dublin, March 3, same year. The mortality Avas verj. 
 great, but more so on the Continent ; the deaths by Cholera in Paris were 
 18,000 between March and August, 1832. Cholera first appeared on this 
 continent at Quebec, Juno 8, 1832 ; and at New- York, June 27, 1832. Cho- 
 lera again raged in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, Berlin, &c. in 1836-7. It 
 again appeared in Asia and the cast of Europe in 1848, and raged in Lon- 
 don, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and Paris at intervals, in 1848-9. First ap- 
 peared again on this continent in 1849, on the Mississippi, in Now York in 
 
252 THE world's progress. [ cKa 
 
 May. and continued more or less in various parts of the United States 
 until November of that year. 
 
 CHRIST. See Jesus Christ. This name, so universally given to the Redeemer 
 of the world, sigiiifies, in Greek, The Anomted, being the same with Mes- 
 siah in the Hebrew, which the Jews called that Saviour and Deliverer whona 
 they expected, and who was promised to them by all the prophets. This 
 appellation is commonly put to our Jssus (signifying Saviour), the name of 
 the great object of our faith, and divine author of our religion. St. Clement, 
 the earliest father, according to St. Epiphanius, iixes the birth of Christ on 
 the 18th of November, in the 28th year of Augustus, i. e. two years before 
 the Christian era as adopted in the sixth century. Cerinthus was the hr^t 
 Chri3tian writer against the divinity of Christ, about a. d. 67. The divinity 
 of Christ was adopted at the council of Nice, in a. d. 325, by two hundred 
 and ninety-nine bishops against eip;hteen. 
 
 CHRISl'IAN. This name was first giv^n to the believers and followers of 
 Christ's doctrines at Antioch, in Syria, J /. xi. 26, in the year 38, accord- 
 ing to B titter ; in the year 40, according to Tacitus ; and according to other 
 authorities in the year 60. The Christians were divided into episcopoi, 
 presbyteroi, diaconoi, pistol, catachumens, or learners, and energumens who 
 were to be exorcised. 
 
 CHRISTIAN ERA. The era which is used by almost all Christian nations ; it 
 dates from January 1st, in the middle of the, fourth year of the 194th 
 Oljanpiad, in the 753d of the building of Rome, and 4714th of the Julian 
 period. It was first introduced in the sixth century, but was not very 
 generally employed for some centuries afrer. We style the Christian era 
 A. D. 1. It was first used in modern chronology in 516. 
 
 CHRISTIAN KING; Most Christian King; Ckristianissimus. This title was 
 given by pope Paul II. to Louis XI. of France in 1469 ; and never was a 
 distinction more unworthilj'' conferred. His tyranny and oppressions 
 obliged his subjects to enter into a league against him ; and 4,000 persons 
 were executed publicly or privately in his merciless reign. — Henault : Fleunj. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. Founded by the Saviour of the world. The persecutions of 
 the Christians commenced a. d. 64. — See Persecutions. Christianity was first 
 taught in Britain about this time ; and it was propagated with some success 
 in 156. — Bede. Lucius is said to have been the first Christian king of Bri- 
 tain, and in the world : he reigned in 179. But the era of Christianity in 
 England commenced with the mission of St. Austin in 596, from which time 
 it spread rapidly throughout the whole of Britain.* It was introduced into 
 Ireland in the second century, but with more success after the arrival of St. 
 Patrick in 482. It was received in Scotland in the reign of Donald I. about 
 201, when it was embraced by that king, his queen, and some of his nobility. 
 
 Constantine the Great made his solemn 
 
 declaration of the Christian religion a. d. 312 
 Christianity was established in France 
 
 under Clovis the Great - - 496 
 
 In Helvetia, by Irish missionaries - 643 
 In Flanders in the seventh century. 
 In Denmark, under Harold • - 827 
 
 In Bohemia, under Borzivoi • - 894 
 
 In Russia, by Swiatoslaf - - 940 
 
 In Poland, under Meicislaus I. - - 992 
 In Hungary, under Geisa • - 994 
 
 In Norway and Iceland, undei. Olaf I. - 1000 
 
 In Sweden, between 10th and 11th centuries. 
 
 In Prussia, by the Teutoric knights, 
 when they were returnir.g from the 
 holy wars - - - a. d. 122^ 
 
 In Lithuania, where Paganism was abo- 
 lished, about .... 1^6 
 
 In China, where it made some progress 
 (but was afterwards extir])ated, and 
 thousands of Chinese Christians were 
 put to death) .... 1575 
 
 In Greece, where it was once more re- 
 established .... 1628 
 
 * It is said that Gregoiy the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, chanced one 
 day to pass through the slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some children of great beauty who 
 were set up for sale, he inquired about their country, and finding they were English Paganb, he ia 
 «aid to have cried out, in the Latin language, " Non Angli, sed Angeli,for.ent, siessent Chris iani.'' 
 
CHU ] DICTIONARY 3F DATES. 253 
 
 Christianity was propagated in various parts of Africa, as Guinea^ Angola, 
 and Congo, in the lifteentli century ; and in America and India it made some 
 progress in the sixteentli, and now rapidly gains ground in all parts of the 
 Avorld. 
 
 CHRISTMAS-DAY. A festival of the church, universally observed in com- 
 memoi ation of the nativity of our Saviour. It has been denominated Christ- 
 mass, fi'om the appellative Christ having been added to the name of Jesus to 
 express that he was the Messiah, or The Anointed. It was first observed as a 
 festival a. d. 98. Ordered to be held as a solemn feast, and Divine service to be 
 performed on the 25th of December, by pope Telesphorus, about a. d. 137.* 
 In the eastern primitive church, Christmas and Epiphany {ivhich see) were 
 deomed but one and the same feast ; and to this day the church universally 
 keeps a continued feast within those limits. The hcUy and misletoe used 
 at Christmas are remains of the religious observances of the Druids, and so 
 with many other like customs. 
 
 CHRONICLES.' The earliest chronicles are those of the Chinese, Hindoos, 
 Jews, and perhaps those of the Irish. After the invention of writing, all 
 well-informed nations appear to have kept chroniclers, who were generally 
 priests or astrologers, and who mingled popular legends with their records. 
 — Phillvps. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. The Chinese pretend to the most ancient, but upon no cer- 
 tain authority. The most authentic, to which all Europe gives credit, is the 
 Jewish ; but owing to the negligence of the Jews, they have created abun- 
 dance of difficulties in this science, and very little certainty can be arrived 
 at as to the exact time of many memorable events. The earliest epoch is 
 the creation of the world, 4004 b. c. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, was the 
 lij'st Christian chronologist, about a. d. 169, See the diferent eras through the 
 "jolunie. 
 
 i-UURCH. It is said that a church was built for Christian worship in the first 
 century ; and some will have it that one was built in England, a. d. 60. See 
 Glastonbury. In the small island of Whitehorn, Scotland, are the remains of 
 stn ancient church, which was the first place of Christian worship, it is be- 
 lieved, in that country, and supposed to have been built before the cathedral 
 at Whitehorn, in Wigtonshire, where Nenian was bishop in the fourth cen- 
 tury. The Christians originally preached in woods, and in caves, by candle- 
 light, whence the practice of candle-light in churches. Most of the early 
 churches were of wood. The first church of stone was built in London, in 
 1087. The first Irish church of stone was built at Bangor, in the county of 
 Down, by Malachy, archbishop of Armagh, who w^as prelate in 1134. — Gor- 
 don'' s Ireland. Church towers were originally parochial fortresses. Church- 
 yards were permitted in cities in 742. 
 
 LHURCH OF ENGLAND, (the present). Commenced with the Reformation, 
 and was formallj established in the reign of Henry VIII. 1534. This churcli 
 consists of two archbishops and twenty-four bishops, exclusively of that of 
 Sodor and Man ; and the other dignitaries are chancellors, deans (of cathe- 
 drals and xiollegiate churches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor 
 canons, and priest vicars ; thc-e, and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages, 
 
 fe.4 IS, " they would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." From that time lie was 
 Mruck with an ardent desire to convert that unenlightened nation, and ordered a monk, named 
 Austin, or Augustin, and others of the same fraternity, to undertake the mission to Britain, in the 
 year 596 — Goldsmith. 
 
 ' Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court at Nicomedia, being informed that the 
 Christians were assembled on this day in great multitudes, to celebrate Christ's nativity, ordered ihe 
 doors to be shut, and the cliuich to be set on fire, and six hundred perished in thn iaurning p;le. 
 This was the comraencemc it of the tenth persecution, which lasted ten years, a. d 303. 
 
254 THE world's progress. [ CIN 
 
 and chctpelries, mi ke the mimber of preferments of the established church, 
 according to the last official returns, 12 327. The number of churches for 
 Protestant worship in England was 11,742 in 1818. 
 
 CHURCH OF IRELAND. Called, in connection with that of England, the 
 United Church of England and Ireland. Previously to the Church Tempo- 
 ralities Act of William IV. in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and 
 eighteen bishoprics in Ireland, of which several have since ceased ; that act 
 providing for the union of sees, and for the abolition of certain sees, accord- 
 ingly as the present possessors of them die. There are 1,659 places of Prot- 
 estant worship, 2 109 Catholic chapels, 452 Presbyterian, and 414 other 
 houses of prayer. See Bishops. 
 
 CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. Presbyterlanism is the rehgion of Scotland. Its 
 distinguishing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formuiary of 
 faith attributed to John Knox, and compiled by that reformer in 1560. It 
 was approved by the parliament and ratified in 1567 ; was finally settled by 
 an act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and was afterwards secured by the 
 treaty of union with England in 1707. Previously to the abolition of episco- 
 pacy in Scotland in 1688, there existed two archbishoprics and twelve bish- 
 oprics, which were then dissolved; but there are now six bishops. The 
 Church of Scotland is regulated by four courts — the General Assembly, the 
 Synod, the Presbytery, and Kirk Session, See Presbyterians. 
 
 CHURCH MUSIC, was introduced into the Christian church by Gregory the 
 Great, in a. d. 602. Choir service was first introduced in England, at Can- 
 terbury, in 677. Church organs were in general use in the tenth century 
 Church music was first performed in English in 1559. See Choir; Chanting. 
 
 CHURCH- WARDENS. Officers of the parish church, appointed by the first 
 canon of the synod of London in 1127. Overseers in every parish were also 
 appointed by the same body, and they continue now nearly as then consti- 
 tuted. — Johnson's Canons. 
 
 CHURCHING OF WOMEN. It originated in the Jewish rite of purification, 
 A. D. 214. Churching is the act of returning thanks in the church for any 
 signal deliverance, and particularly after the delivery of women. — WheatLey. 
 It was a Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days 
 after her lying in, if she had a son, and eighty if she had a daughter, at the 
 expiration whereof she was to go to the temple, and offer a lamb with a 
 young pigeon or turtle and in case of poverty, two pigeons or turtles. 
 See Purification. 
 
 CIDER. Anciently this beverage, when first made in England, was called wine, 
 about A. D. 1284. When the earl of Manchester was ambassador in France, 
 he is said to have frequently passed off cider upon the nobility of that coun- 
 try for a delicious wine. It was subjected to the excise regulations in 
 England, 1763, et seq. A powerful spirit is drawn from cider by distillation. — 
 Butler. 
 
 CIMBRI. The war of the Cimbri, 113 b. c. They defeat the consul Marcus 
 Silanus, 109 b. c. They defeat the Romans under Manlius, on the banks of 
 the Rhine, where 80 000 Romans are slain, 105 b. c. The Teutones are de^ 
 feated by Marius in two battles at Aquae SextisB (Aix) in Gaul, 200,000 aro 
 killed, and 70 000 made prisoners, 102 b. c. The Cimbri are defeated by 
 Marius and Catullus as they were again endeavoring to enter Italy ; 120,000 
 are killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 101 b. c. Their name afierwards sunk 
 in that of the Teutones or Saxons. 
 
 CINCINNATI. Ohio, the most populous city west of the Alleghanies in the 
 United States, was foimded in 1789, by emigrants from New England and 
 
ma 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 255 
 
 New Jersey. Population in 1795, 500 ; in 1800, 750 ; in 1810, 2,510 ; in 1820, 
 9,642 ; in 1830, 24,831 ; in 1840, 46,338. 
 
 CINCINNATI, Society op. Established by the officers of the American army, 
 in 1783, after the Revolution, and still continued by them and their descend- 
 ants. There was at one time a popular jealousy of this society as suggest- 
 ing a sort of hereditary nobility or aristocracy ; but this has long since passed 
 away, and the society is now but seldom mentioned. 
 
 ('IRCASSIA. The Circassians are descended from the Alanians. They contin- 
 ued unsubdued, even by the arms of the celebrated "^imur ; but in the six- 
 teenth century the greater part of them acknowledged the authority of the 
 Czar, Ivan II. of Russia. About a d. 1745. the princes of Great and Little 
 Kabarda took oaths of fealty to that power. One branch of their traffic is 
 the sale of their daughters, famed throughout the world for their beauty, 
 and whom they sell for the use of the seraglios of Turkey and Persia : the 
 merchants who come from Constantinople to purchase these girls are gener- 
 ally Jews,— Klaprot/i^s Travels in tlie Caucasus, and Georgia. 
 
 CIRCULATING LIBRAR\^. The first in England, on a public plan, was opened 
 by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 1740. He had 
 little encouragement in the undertaking, which in the end failed. — Fergn- 
 son's Biog, 
 
 CIRCULATION of the BLOOD, and the motion of the heart in animals, con- 
 firmed experimentally by William Harvey, the celebrated English physician 
 and anatomist, between 1619 and 1628. See article Blood, By this dis- 
 covery the medical and surgical art became greatly improved, to the benefit 
 of mankind. — Freind's Hist, of Physic. 
 
 CIRCUMCISION. A rite instituted 1897 b. c. It was the seal of the covenant 
 made by God with Abraham. — Josephus. Even to the present day many of 
 the Turks and Persians circumcise, although not regarding it as essential to 
 salvation ; but in some eastern and African nations it is rendered necessary 
 by a peculiar conformation, and is used without any reference to a religious 
 rite. — Bell. The festival of the Circumcision was originally called the Octave 
 of Christmas. The first mention found of it is in a. d. 487. It was instituted 
 by the church to commemorate the ceremony under the Jewish law to 
 which Christ submitted on the eighth day of his nativity ; it was introduced 
 into the Liturgy in 1550. 
 
 CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the greatest and most daring of human en- 
 terprises was the circumnavigation of the earth at the period when it was 
 first attempted, a. d. 1519.* The following are the most renowned of this 
 illustrious class of men ; their voyages were undertaken at the dates affixed 
 to their names. See Navisators. 
 
 Magellan, a Portuguese, the first who 
 
 entered the Pacific ocean - a. d. 1519 
 
 Groalva, a Spanish navigator - - 1537 
 
 Avalradi, a Spaniard - - - 1537 
 
 Mendana, a Spaniard - - - - 1567 
 
 Sir Francis Drake, first English - 1577 
 
 Cavendish, his first voyage - . 1586 
 
 Le Maire, a Dutchman - - - 1615 
 
 Qui ros, a Spaniard - - - 1625 
 Tasman. Dutch .... 1642 
 
 Cowley, British - - - - 1683 
 
 Dampier, an Englishman . . 1689 
 
 Cooke, an Englishman - - . 1708 
 
 Clipperton, British - • a, D. 1719 
 
 Roggewein, Dutch . - 1721 
 
 Anson (afterwards Lord) - - - 1740 
 
 Byron (grandfather of Lord Byron) 
 Wallis, British 
 Carteret, an Englishman 
 Cook, the illustrious captain 
 On the death of Captain Cook, h 
 voyage was continued by King 
 Bougainville, French 
 Portlocke, British 
 Wilkes, American • 
 D'Urville, French 
 
 .1764 
 .1766 
 .176e 
 -176& 
 last 
 .1779 
 -1776 
 -1788 
 -1837 
 -1837 
 
 * The first ship that sailed round the earth, and hence determined its being globular, was 
 Magellan's, or Magelhoen's; he was a native of Portugal, in the service of Spain, and by keeping a 
 westerly course he returned to the same place he had set out from in 1519. The voyage was com- 
 pleted in three years and twenty-nine days; but Magellan was killed or his homeward passage, a( 
 *e Pliilippines. in 1521 .—Butler. 
 
256 THE world's progress. f CIt 
 
 Several voyages have been since undertaken, and, among other nations, bj 
 the Russians. The early navigators, equally illustrious, are named else- 
 where. 
 
 CIRCUS. There Avere eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome ; 
 the largest of them was called the Circus Maximus, which vas built by, the 
 elder Tarquin, 605 b. c. ; it was of an oval figure ; its length was three stadia 
 and a half, or more than three English furlongs, and its breadth 960 Roman 
 feet. This circus was enlarged by Caesar so as to seat 150,000 persons, and 
 was rebuilt by Augustus. All the emperors vied in beautifying it, and 
 Julius C?esar introduced in it large canals of water, which on a sudden could 
 be covered with in infi.nite number of vessels, and represent a sea-fight.— - 
 Pliny. 
 
 CISALPINE REPUBLIC. Founded by the French in June 1797. It was ac- 
 knowledged by the emperor of Germany to be independent, by the treaty of 
 Campo Formio (jvhich see), Oct. 17, following. Received a new constitution 
 in Sept. 1798. It merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805 ; Napo- 
 leon was crowned king in May following, and was represented by his vice' 
 roy, Eugene Beauharnois. See Italy. 
 
 CISTERCIANS. An order founded by Robert, a Benedictine, in the eleventh 
 centur/. They became so powerful that they governed almost all Europe 
 in spiritual and temporal concerns. They obstjrved a continual silence, ab- 
 stained from flesh, lay on straw, wore neither shoes nor shirts, and were most 
 austere.— Z>e Vitri. 
 
 CITIES. The word city has been in use in England only since the Conquest, at 
 which time even London was called Londonburgh, as the capital of Scotland 
 is still called Edinburgh. The English cities were ve7'y inconsiderable in 
 the twelfth century. Cities were first incorporated a, d. 1079. The institu- 
 tion of cities has aided much in introducing regular governments, police, 
 manners, and arts. — Robertson. 
 
 CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome. — Livy. In England 
 a citizen is a person who is free of a city, or who doth carry on a trade 
 therein. — Camden. Various privileges have been conferred on citizens as 
 freemen in several reigns, and powers granted to them. The wives of citi- 
 zens of London (not being aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) 
 were obliged to wear minever caps, being white woollen knit three-cornered, 
 Avith the peaks projecting three or four inches beyond their foreheads; alder- 
 men's wives made them of velvet, 1 Elizabeth, 1558. — Stoive. • The title of 
 citizen, only, was allowed in France at the period of the revolution, 1792, et seq. 
 
 CIUDAD RODRIGO. This strong fortress of Spain was invested by the French 
 June 11, 1810: and it surrendered to them July 10, following. It remained 
 in their possession until it was gallantly stormed by the British commanded 
 by Wellington, Jan. 19, 1812. Wellington had made a previous attack upon 
 Ciudad Rodrigo (Sept. 25, 1811), which ended in his orderly retreat from 
 the position. 
 
 CIVIL LAW. Several codes come under this denomination of laws. A body 
 of Roman laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations, was first 
 collected by Alfrenus Varus, the Civilian, who flourished about 66 b. c. ; and 
 a digest of them was made by Servius Sulpicius, the Civilian, 53 b. c. The 
 Gregorian laws were compiled a. d. 290; the Theodosian in 435; and the 
 Justinian. 529-534. Many of the former laws having grown out of use, the 
 emperor Justinian ordered a revision of them, Avhich was called the Justinian 
 cod';, and this code constitutes a large part of the present civil law. Civil 
 law was restored in Italy, Germany, ifcc. 1127. — Blctlr. Civil law was intro- 
 duced into England by Theobald, a Norman abbot, who was afterward* 
 
CLE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 257 
 
 archbishop of Canterbury, in 1138. It is now used in the spiritual coiirla 
 only, and in maritime affairs. See Lmvs. 
 
 CIVIL LIST IN ENGLAND. This comprehends the revenue awarded to the 
 kings of England, partly in lieu of their ancient hereditary income. The 
 entire revenue of Elizabetji was not more than 600 000^. and that of Charles I. 
 was but 800,000^. After the Revoluticu a civil list revenue was settled on 
 the new king and queen of TOO.OOOZ., iho parliament taking into its own 
 hands the support of the forces, both maritime and military. The civil list 
 of George 11, was increased to 800,000Z. ; and that of George III. in the 55th 
 year of his reign, Avas 1,030,000Z. By the act 1 William IV. 1831, the civil 
 list of that sovereign was fixed at 510 OOOZ. By the act of 1 Victoria, Dec. 
 1837, the civil list of the queen was fixed at 385,000/. ; and Prince Albert 
 obtained an exclusive sum from parliament of 30,000Z. per ann. 4 Victoria, 
 1840. 
 
 CLANSHIPS. These were tribes of the same race, and commonly of the same 
 name, and originated in feudal times. — See Feudal Laws. They may be 
 said to have arisen in Scotland, in the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008. 
 Clanships and other remains of heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scot- 
 land (where clans were taken to be the tenants of one lord), and the liberty 
 of the English was granted to clansmen. 20 George II., 1746, — Ruffhead. 
 The chief of each respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's 
 feathers in his bonnet, in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan. — 
 Chambers,. 
 
 CLARENDON, Statutes of. These were statutes enacted in a parliament 
 held at Clarendon, the object of which was to retrench the then enormous 
 power of the clergy. They are rendered memorable as being the ground of 
 Becket's quarrel with Henry II. A number of regulations were drawn up 
 under the title of the statutes or constitutions of Clarendon, and were voted 
 without opposition, k. d. 1164. These stringent statutes were enacted to 
 prevent the chief abuses which at that time prevailed in ecclesiastical 
 atfairs, and put a stop to church usurpations which, gradually stealing on, 
 threatened the destruction of the civil and royal power, — Hurme. 
 
 CLARION, This instrument originated with the Moors, in Spain, about a, d. 
 800 ; it was at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding their 
 tenor and bass. — Ashe. Its tube is narrower, and its tone shriller than the 
 common trumpet. — Pardon. 
 
 CLASSIS. The name was first given by Tullius Servius in making divisions of 
 the Roman people. The first of six classes were called dassici, by way of 
 eminence, and hence authors of the first rank came to be called classics, 
 573 B. c. 
 
 CLEMENTINES. Apocryphal pieces, fable and error, attributed to a primi- 
 tive father, Clemens Romanus, a cotemporary of St, Paul; some say he 
 succeeded Peter as bishop of Rome. He died a. d. 102. — Niceron. Also the 
 decretals of pope Clement V., who died 1314. published by his successor. — ■ 
 Bowyer. Also Augustine monks, each of whom having been a superior nine 
 years, then merged into a common monk. 
 
 CLEMENTINES and URBANISTS. Parties by whom Europe was distracted 
 for several years. The Urbanists were the adherents of pope Urban VI., the 
 others those of Robert, son of the count of Geneva, who took the title of 
 Clement VII. All the kingdoms of Christendom according to their various 
 interests and inclinations were divided between these two pontiffs ; the courts 
 of France, Castile, Scotland, &c. adhenng to Clement, and Rome, Italy, and 
 
253 THE world's progress. I CLO 
 
 England declaring for Urban. This contention was consequent upon the 
 death ol Gregory XI. 1378. — Hiivie. 
 
 CLERGY. In the first century the clergy were distinguished by the title of 
 presbyters or bishops. The bishops in the second century assumed higher 
 functions, and the presbyters represented the inferior priests of the Levites: 
 this distinction was still further promoted in the third century ; and, under 
 Coustantine, the clergy attained the recognition and protection of the secu- 
 lar power. 
 
 CLERGY IN England. They increased rapidly in number early in the seventh 
 century, and at length controlled the king and kingdom. Drunkenness was 
 forbidden among the clergy by a law, so early as 747 a. d. The first finite 
 of the then clergy were assigned by parliament to the king, 1534. The cler- 
 gy were excluded from parliament in 1536. The conference between the 
 Protestant and Dissenting clergy was held in 1604. See Conference. Two 
 thousand resigned their benefices in the church of England, rathei than 
 subscribe their assent to the book of common pra^yer, including the thirty- 
 nine articles of religion, as enjoined by the Act of Uniformity, 1661-2. The 
 Irish Protestant clergy were restored to their benefices, from which they had 
 been expelled, owing to the state of the kingdom under .«,mes II., 1689. 
 The Clergy Incapacitation act passed, 1801. See Church of England. 
 
 CLfcRK. The Clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges being chosen 
 after the Norman custom from the sacred orde^- ; and the officers being cler- 
 gy ; this gave them that denomination, which they keep to this day. — Black- 
 stone's Comm. 
 
 CLOCK. That called the clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome 
 158 B. c. by Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesi- 
 bius, about 140 b. c. Said to have been found by Csesar on invading Britain, 
 55 B. c. The only clock supposed to be then in the world was sent by pope 
 Paul I. to Pepin, king of France, a. d. 760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, 
 invented one in the ninth century. Originally the wheels were three feet in 
 diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is any certain record, 
 was made by a Saracen mechanic, in the 18th century. 
 
 Thescapement, ascribed to Gerbert, A. D. 1000 I den) and the younger Galileo con- 
 
 A clock constructed by Richard, abbot | structed the pendulum - a. d. 1641 
 
 of St. Alban's, about - - -1326 Christian Huygens contested this disco- 
 
 A striking clock in Westminster - 1368 | very, and made his pendulum clock 
 
 A perfect one made at Paris by Vick - 1370 i some time previously to - - 1658 
 
 The first portable one made - - 1530 , Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the 
 
 In England no clock went accurately pendulum, about - . - 1659 
 
 before that set up at Hampton-court ( Repeating clocks and watches invented 
 
 (maker's initials, N. O.) - - 1540 by Barlow, about - - - 1676 
 
 Richard Harris (who erected a clock in i The dead beat, and horizontal escape- 
 
 the church of St. Paul s, Covent-Gar- I ments, by Graham, about - - - 1700 
 
 The subsequent improvements were the spiral balance spring suggested, and 
 the duplex scapement invented by Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes jewelled by Facio ; 
 the detached scapement invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthoud, 
 Arnold, Earnshaw and others, 
 
 CLOCK, MAGNETIC. Invented by Dr. Locke of Cincinnati, 1847-8. 
 
 CLOTH. Both woollen anci linen cloth were known in very early times. Coarse 
 woollens were introduced into England a. d. 1191 ; and seventy families of 
 cloth-workers from the Netherlands settled in England by Edv^ard III.'s in- 
 vitation, and the art of weaving was thereby introduced, 1331. — Rymer's Fce- 
 dera. Woollens were first made at Kendal, in 1390. Medleys were manu- 
 factured, 1614. Our fine broad cloths were yet sent to Holland to be dyed, 
 1654. Dyed and dressed in England, by one Brewer, from the Low Coun- 
 tries, 1667. The ma lufacture was discouraged in Ireland and that of 15'.ien 
 
COA 1 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 259 
 
 countenanced, at the request of both houses of parliament, 1698. Seo 
 
 Woollen Cloth. 
 
 CliOVIS, Family of. Kings of France. The real founder of the French mo- 
 narchy was Clovis I., who commenced his reign a. d. 481, and was a warlike 
 prince. He expelled the Romans, embraced the Christian religion, and pub- 
 lished the Salique law. On his being first told of the sufferings of Christ, 
 he exclaimed, "O, had I been there with my valiant Gauls, how I would 
 have avenged him !" Clovis united his conquests from the Romans, Germans, 
 and Goths, as provinces to the then scanty dominions of France : removed 
 the seat of Government from Soissons to Paris, and made this the capital of 
 his new kingdom; he died in 511. — Henault. 
 
 COACH. The coach is of French invention. Under Francis I., who was a co- 
 temporary with our Henry VIII., there were but two in Paris, one of which 
 belonged to the queen, and the other to Diana, the natural daughter of 
 Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550; and Henry IV. had one, bur, 
 without straps or springs. The first courtier who set up this equipage was 
 John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin, who could not travel otherwise on account 
 of his enormous bulk. Previously to the use of coaches the kings of France 
 travelled on horseback, the princesses were carried in litters, and ladies rode 
 behind their squires. The first coach seen in England was in the reign of 
 Mary, about 1553. — Priestley's Led. They were introduced much earlier. — 
 Andrews' Hist. Great Brit. They were introduced by Fitz- Allen, earl of 
 Arundel, in 1580. — Stowe. And in some years afterwards the art of making 
 them. — Anderson's Hist, of Commerce. A bill was brought into parliament 
 to prevent the effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* — Carle. 
 See Carriages, Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. 
 
 COALITIONS, The great coalitions against France since the period of the 
 French revolution, have been six in number ; and they generally arose out 
 of the subsidizing by England of the great powers of the Continent. They 
 were entered into as follows : 
 
 4th. By Great Britain, Russia, Prus&ia. 
 
 and Saxony - ^ '- Oct. 6^ I3()6 
 
 5th. By England and Austria • April 6, 18*.** 
 6th. By Russia ar.ri Prussia ; the treaty 
 
 ratified at Kalisch - March 17, 1813 
 See Treaties. 
 
 1st. The king of Prussia issues his ma- 
 nifesto - - - June 26, 1792 
 
 2nd. By Great Britain, Germany, Rus- 
 sia, Naples, Poi'tugal, and Turkey, 
 signed - - - June 22, 1799 
 
 3rd. By Great Britain, Russia, Austria, 
 
 and Naples - - Aug. 5, 1805 
 
 COALITION MINISTRY. This designation was given to the celebrated min- 
 istry of Mr. Fox and lord North, and which was rendered memorable as an 
 extraordinary union in political life, on account of the strong personal dis- 
 like which had always been displayed by these personages, each towards 
 the other. The ministry was formed April 5, 1783, and dissolved Dec. 19, 
 same year. See Admi7iistrations. 
 
 COALS. It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coals, although they 
 are not mentioned by the Romans in their notices of Britain, were yet in use 
 by the ancient Britons. — Brandt. They were first discovered at Newcastle- 
 iipoQ-Tyne in 1234, some say earlier ; and others in 1239. Sea-coal was pro- 
 hibited from being used in and near London, as being " prejudicial to human 
 health ; " and even smiths were obliged to burn wood, 1273. — Stowe. Coals 
 were first made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 4 Richard II. 
 1381. — Rymer's Fcedera. Notwithstanding the many previous complaints 
 
 • In the beginning of the year 1619, the earl of Northumberland, who had been imprisoned ever 
 Bincf. the Gunpowder Plot, obtained his liberation Hearing that Buckingham was drawn about 
 with pjx horses in his coach (being the first that was so), he put on eight to his, and in that mannei 
 piieiae* torn the tower through the city.—Rapm. 
 
1650 - - 160,000 cliald. 
 1700 - 317,000 ditto. 
 
 1750 • - 510,000 ditto. 
 
 1830 - - 1,588,360 chald. 
 1835 - 2,299,816 tons, 
 1840 - - 2,638,256 ditto. 
 
 260 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ Cod 
 
 against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length generally burned in Lou- 
 don in 1400 ; but coals were not in common use in England until the i-eign 
 of Charles I., 1625. 
 
 NVHBER OP CHALDRONS OF COALS CONSUMED IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING TEARS: 
 
 1800 - . 814,000 chald. 
 
 1810 - - 980,372 ditto. 
 1820 - - 1,171,178 ditto. 
 
 The coal-fields of Durham and Northumberland are 723 square miles in 
 extent ; those of Newcastle, Sunderland, Whitehaven, and other places, are 
 also of vast magnitude ; and there are exhaustless beds of coal in Yorkshire. 
 The coal in South Wales alone, would, at the present rate of consumption, 
 supply all England for 2000 years. — Blakewell. It is supposed that there aro 
 now about 25,000,000 of tons consumed annually in Great Britain. — Phillips. 
 Scotland teems with the richest mines of coal, and besides her vast coUieries 
 there must be vast fields unexplored. — Pennant. Fine coal is found in Kil- 
 kenny, Ireland. The first ship laden with Irish coal arrived in Dubhn from 
 Newry, in 1742. — Burns. 
 
 COALS IN THE United States. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylva- 
 niai first mined and used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in 
 Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c., extend 700 miles. 
 
 COCCEIANS. A sect founded by John Cocceius of Bremen; they held, 
 amongst other singular opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world, 
 after a general conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian 
 faith, 1665. 
 
 COCHINEAL. The properties of this insect became known to the Spaniards 
 soon after their conquest of Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was not known in 
 [taly in 1548, although the art of dyeing then flourished there.— See Dyeing. 
 The annual import of this article into England was 260,000 lbs. in 1830 ; and 
 1,081,776, in 1845. 
 
 COCK-FIGHTING. Practised by the early barbarous nations, and by Greece. 
 It was instituted at Rome after a victory over the Persians, 476 b. c. ; and 
 was introduced by the Romans into England. William Fitz-Stephen, in the 
 reign of Henry II., describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on 
 Shrove Tuesday. Cock-fighting was prohibited, 39 Edward III., 1365; and 
 again by Henry VIII. and Cromwell. Till within these few years there was 
 a Cock-pit Royal, in St. James's-park : but this practice is happily now dis- 
 couraged by the law. 
 
 COCK-LANE GHOST. A famous imposition (?) practised upon the credulous 
 multitude by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter. The contrivance 
 was that of a female ventriloquist, and all who heard her believed she 
 was a ghost : the deception, which arose in a malignant conspiracy, was 
 carried on for some time at the house, No. 33 Cock-lane, London ; but 
 it was at length detected, and the parents w^ere condemned to the pillory 
 and imprisonment, July 10, 1762. 
 
 COCOA. Unknown in Europe until the discovery of America, about 1600. 
 The cocoa-tree supplies the Indians with almost whatever they stand in need 
 of, as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, 
 clothes, thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, 
 -cordage, nails, covering for their houses, &c. — Ray. 
 
 CODES OF LAWS. The laws of Phoroneus were instituted 1807 i. c : those 
 of Lycurgus, 884 b. c. ; of Draco, 623 b. c. ; of Solon, 587 b. c. Alfrenus 
 Varus, the civilian, first collected the Roman laws about 66 b. c. ; and Ser- 
 vius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 b. c. The Gregorian 
 and Hermoginian codes were published a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian code in 
 435 • the celebrated code of the emperor Justiniau, in 529— a digest from 
 
ITOI J D1CT10NAE.Y OF DATES 261 
 
 this last was made in 533. — Blair. Alfred's code of laws is the fourdation 
 of the common law of England, 887. — See Laws. 
 
 CODKHLS TO WILLS. C. Trebatius Testa, the civilian of Rome, was the 
 first who introduced the use of this supplementary instrument to wills, 
 about 31 B. c. 
 
 CaiUll DE LION, OR THE Lion-hearted. The surname given to Richard Plan- 
 tagenet I. of England, on account of his dauntless courage, about a. d. 1192. 
 Tills surname was also conferred on Louis VIII. of France, who signalized 
 himself in the crusades and in his wars against England, about 1223. This 
 latter prince had also the appellation of the Lion given Mm. 
 
 COFFEE. It grows in Arabia, Persia, the Indies, and America. Its use as a 
 beverage is traced to the Persians.* It came into great repute in Arabia 
 Felix about a. d. 1454 ; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence, 
 in 1511, to Constantinople, where coffee-houses were opened in 1554. M. 
 Thevenot, the traveller, was the first who brought it into France, to which 
 country he returned after an absence of seven years, in 1662. — Chambers. Cof^ 
 fee Avas brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel Canopus, a Cretan, who 
 made it his common beverage at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1641. — Anderson. 
 
 COFFEE AND TEA. The consumption in the United States at different periods 
 is reported by the secretary of the treasury (see American Almanac^ 1848) 
 thus : — 
 
 1821 
 
 . Tea, 4,586,223 lbs. 
 
 .' Coffee, 11,886,063 lbs. 
 
 18.30 - 
 
 " 6,873,091 lbs. - 
 
 " 38,363.687 lbs 
 
 1885 
 
 - " 12,331,638 lbs. 
 
 " 91,753;002 lbs. 
 
 1842 - 
 
 " 13,482,645 lbs. - 
 
 " 107,387,567 lbs. 
 
 1846 
 
 - " 16,891,020 lbs. 
 
 " 124,336,054 lbs. 
 
 COFFEE-HOUSES. The first in England was kept by a Jew, named Jacobs, 
 in Oxford, 1650. In that year, Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, 
 brought home with him a Greek servant named Pasquet, who kept the first 
 house for making coffee in London, which he opened in George- j^ard, Lom- 
 bard-street, in 1652. Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened the 
 first house in that country. — Anderson. The Rainbow coffee-house, near 
 Temple-bar, was represented as a nuisance to the neighborhood, 1657. 
 Coffee-houses were suppressed by proclamation, 26 Charles 11. , 1675. The 
 proclamation was afterwards suspended on the petition of the traders in tea 
 and coffee. 
 
 COFFEE-TREES. These trees were conveyed from Mocha to Holland in 1616; 
 and were carried to the "West Indies in the year 1726. First cultivated at 
 Surinam by the Dutch about 1718. The culture was encouraged in the 
 plantations about 1732. 
 
 COFFINS. The Athenian heroes were buried in coffins of the cedar tree ; ow- 
 ing to its aromatic and incorruptible qualities. — -Thucydides. Coffins of 
 marble and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been 
 buried in one of gold : and glass coffins have been found in England. — Gough. 
 The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us, is that of the burial of 
 king Arthur, who was buried in an entire trunk of oak, hollowed, a. d. 542, 
 — Asser. The patent coffins were invented in 1796. 
 
 COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 b. c. The invention of 
 coin is ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished commerce, and whose money 
 
 * Some ascribe the discovery of coffee as a beverage to the prior of a monastery, who, being in- 
 ibrmed by a goat -herd that his cattle sometimes browsed upon the tree, and that they would then 
 wake at night, ai d sport and bound upon the hills, became curious to pro^ e its virtues. He ac 
 cordingly tried it on his monks, to prevent their sleeping at matins, and he found that it checked 
 Vheir sliunbera. 
 
262 THE WOl LD'S mOGHESS. [ coi 
 
 was of gold and silver. Both were coined by Phidon tyrant of Argos, 862 
 B. c. Money was coined at Rome under Servius Tullius, about 573 b. c. 
 The most ancient known coins are Macedonian, of the fifth century b. c. ; but 
 others are beF.eved to be more ancient. Brass money only was in use at 
 Rome previously to 269 b. c. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver), a sign that 
 little correspondence was then held with the East, where gold and silver 
 were in use long before. Gold was coined 206 b. c. Iron money was used 
 in Sparta, and Iron and tin in Britain. — Dufresnoy. Julius Csesar was the 
 first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his portrait 
 on the coins, and the example was soon followed. In the earlier and luoro 
 simple days of Rome, the likeness of no living personage appeared upon 
 ^heir money: the heads were those of their deities, or of those who had re- 
 ceived divine honors. 
 
 COIN IN ENGLAND. The fii-st coinage in England was under the Romans at 
 Camulodunum, or Colchester. I^nglish coin was of different shapes, as 
 square, oblong, and round, until the middle ages, when round coin only was 
 used. Groats were the largest silver coin until after a, d. 1351. Coin was 
 made sterling m 1216, before which time rents were mostly paid in kind, and 
 maney was found only in the cotters of the barons. — Stoive 
 
 The first gold coins on certain record, 
 struck, 42 Henry III. - a. d. 1257 
 
 Gold florin first struck, Ed. III. (Cam- 
 den) 1337 
 
 First large copper coinage, putting an 
 
 end to the circulation of private lead- 
 en pieces, &c. .... 1620 
 Halfpence and farthings coined - 1665 
 
 Guineas first coined, 25 Char. II. - 1673 
 Soverdgns, new coinage - - 1816 
 
 Half-farthings - < • - 1843 
 
 Gold coin was introduced m six shilling pieces by Edward III. and nobles 
 followed, at six shillings and eightpence, and hence the lawyer's fee : after- 
 wards there were half and quarter nobles. Guineas were of the same size • 
 but being made of a superior gold from sovereigns, guineas passed fo) 
 more. SeeGtdncas. English and Irish money were assimilated Jan. 1. 1826 
 See Gold. 
 
 MONEYS COINED IN THE FOLLOWING REIGNS, AND THEIR AMOUNT. 
 
 Elizabeth - 
 
 - jE5,83-2,000 
 
 .Tames II. 
 
 James I. 
 
 - 2,500,000 
 
 William III 
 
 Charles I. - 
 
 - - 10,500,000 
 
 Anne 
 
 Cromwell 
 
 - 1,000,000 
 
 George I. 
 
 Charles II. 
 
 - - 7,524,100 
 
 George II. 
 
 George III. and regency, 
 
 gold . - JE74,501,5S6 
 George IV. - -41,782,815 
 William IV. - - 10,827,603 
 Victoria, to 1848, 32.370.814 
 
 - je3,740,000 
 
 - 10,511,900 
 
 - 2,691,626 
 
 - 8,725,920 
 
 - 11,966,576 
 
 The coin of the realm was about twelve millions in 1711. — Davenant. It was 
 estimated at sixteen millions 1762. — 'Anderson. It was supposed to be twen- 
 ty millions in 1786. — Chalmers. It amounted to thirty-seven millions in 1800. 
 • — Philtips. The gold is twenty-eight millions, and the rest of the metallic 
 currency is thirteen millions, while the paper lai'gely supplies the place of 
 coin,1830. — Duke of Wellington. In 1841, it may be calculated as reaching 
 forty-five millions. See Gold. 
 
 COIN OF THE U. S. The U. S. Mint was established in 1792. The coinage from 
 that time to 1836 was thus : — 
 
 Pieces. Value. 
 
 Gold - - 4,716,325 - - $22,102,035 
 
 Silver - - - 115,421,762 - - 46,739,182 
 
 Copper • - 77,752,965 - 740,331 
 
 Total - 197,891,502 - ■ $69,581,549 
 
 1837 to 1848 inclusive 145,389,748 - - $81,436,165 
 
 Total in 56 years - 343,281,250 pieces. • $151,017,714 
 The gold coinage consists of double eagles $20, eagles, half eagles, quarter 
 eagles and dollars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. The first de- 
 posit of California gold for coining, was made by Mr. David Carter, 1804 
 ounces, Dec. 8, 1848. 
 
COIiJ ^ICTIONAP^Y OF DATES. 263 
 
 COINING. ITils operation was originally performed by the metal being placed 
 between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. In 1553, a mill was 
 invented by Antonie Brncher, and introduced into England in 1562. An en- 
 gine for coining was invented by Balancier in 1617. The great improvements 
 of the art were effected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho. 1788, and subsequently. 
 The art was rendered perfect by the creation of the present costly machinery 
 at the mint, London, commenced in 1811. 
 
 COLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to produce the same percep- 
 tions on the skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero, 
 the sensation is the same as touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost 
 1740, a palace of ice was built at St. Petersburg, after an elegant model, and 
 in the just proportions of Augustan architecture. — Greig. Perhaps the cold- 
 est day ever known in London was Dec. 25, 1796, when the thermometer was 
 16" below zero. Quicksilver was frozen hard at Moscow Jan. 13, 1810. See 
 Frosts, Ice. 
 
 COLISiEUM. The edifice of this name at Rome was built by Vespasian, in 
 the place where the basin of Nero's gilded house had previously been a. d, 
 72. The splendid ColisaBum of London, and one of its most worthy objects 
 of admiration, is built near the Regent's Park, and was completed in 1827-8. 
 
 COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which 
 were munificent foundiitions to relieve the students from the expense of liv- 
 ing at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said 
 to have been first conferred at the University of Paris, a. d. 1140; but soiie 
 authorities say, not before 1215. In England, it is contended that the date 
 is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at 
 Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they were the first 
 doctors of those universities. Cambridge, Oxford, &c. 
 
 Cheshunt College founded - a. d. 1792 
 
 Doctor's Commons, civil law - - 1670 
 
 Durham University - • - ' * 
 
 Edinbursh University - - - 1-580 
 
 Eton College- - • - -1441 
 
 Glasgow University - - - 1451 
 
 Harrow - - - • - 1585 
 
 Highbury College - - - 1826 
 
 King's College, Aberdeen - - - 1494 
 
 King's College, London - - -1829 
 
 COLLEGES IN THE Unitkd Statks. The first established was Harvard, at 
 Cambridge. Mass., by John Harvard, 1638; and this is now the most im- 
 portant and best endowed in the United States. The second was William 
 and Mary, in Virginia, 1693. Third. Yale, at New Haven, 1700. Fourth, 
 College of New Jjrsey. Princeton, 1746. Fifth. Columbia, New- York, 1754. 
 Sixth, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1755. Seventh. Brown 
 University, Providence, 1764. Eighth, Dartmouth, at Hanover, N. H., 1769. 
 Ninth, Rutgers. New Brunswick, N. J., 1770. These were all prior to the 
 Revolution. The first medical school was that at Philadelphia, founded 
 1764. The first law school was founded at Litchfield, Conn., 1782. In 
 1849 there were 118 colleges in the United States ; 42 theological schools ; 
 12 law schools ; 36 medical schools. See list in American Almanac. Girard 
 College opened Jan. 1, 1848, 
 
 C( LOGNE. A member of the Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews were expelled 
 from here in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618. and it has since fallen into 
 ruin. Cologne was taken by the French, under Jourdan, Oct. 6, 1794. In 
 the cathedral are shown the heads of the three Magi; and in the church of 
 St. Ursula is the tomb of that saint, and bones belonging to the 11,000 vir- 
 gins said to have been put to death along with her. 
 
 COIiOMBIA. A republic in South America, formed of states which have 
 
 Mareschal College, Aberdeen ^ A- D. 1593 
 Maynooth College - * - 1795 
 
 Physicians, London - - - - 1518 
 
 Sion College .... 1329 
 Sion College, re-founded • . - 1630 
 
 Surgeons, London - - - 1745 
 
 Trinity College, Dublin - - - 1591 
 
 University, London ... 1826 
 Winchester College - - . - i387 
 
264 THE world's progress. [col 
 
 declared their independence of the crown of Spain ; hut its several chiefa 
 have been contending one against another, and each state has been a prey 
 to civil war, and the stability of the union is far from assured. 
 
 New Grenada, discovered by Colum- , Battle ofCarabobo, the Royalists wholly 
 
 bus - - • - A. D. 1497 I overthrown - - June 24, 1821 
 
 Venezuela discovered ■ - - 1498 
 
 1 he Caraccas formed into a kingdom, 
 
 under a capiain-general - - 1547 
 
 The history of those provinces under 
 the tvranny and oppression of the Spa- 
 niards, presents but one continuous 
 
 scene ol rapine and blood. 
 * * --r * * * « 
 
 Confederation of Venezuela - -1810 
 
 Independence formally declared • - 1811 
 Defeat of General Miranda - - 1812 
 
 Bolivar defeated by Boves - - - 1816 
 
 Bolivar defeats Morillo in the battle of 
 Sombrero - - - Feb. 1818 
 
 Bolivar is named Dictator by the Con- 
 gress of Peru - - Feb. 10, 1821 
 Alliance between Colombia and Mexico 
 
 formed - - - June 30, 1824 
 
 Alliance with Guatimala - March 1S25 
 Congress at Lima names Bolivar Pre- 
 sident of the republic - Aug. 1826 
 Bolivar's return to Bogota - Nov. 18<i6 
 He assumes the dictatorship - Nov. 23, 1826 
 Padilla's insurrection - April 9, 18^9 
 Conspiracy of Santander against the 
 
 life of Bolivar - Sept. 25, 1828 
 
 Bolivar resigns his office of president of 
 the republic - - April 11, l?ii> 
 
 Union of the States of Grenada and Ve- He dies - - - Dec. 17, 183G 
 
 nezuela - - Dec. 17, 1819 Santander dies - - May M, 1810 
 
 ('OLON. This point was known to the ancients, but was not expressed as it 
 is in modern times. The colon and period were adopted and explained by 
 Thrasymachus about 373 b. c.—Swidas. It was known to Aristotle. Our 
 punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing. 
 The colon and semicolon were both first used in British literature, in the 
 sixteenth century. ' 
 
 COLONIES OF GREAT BRITAIN. They are described under the name of each. 
 The white and the free colored population, as far as it has been ascertained, 
 amounts to about 2 500;000, and the slaves at the period of their emancipa- 
 tion, were 770 280. The number of convicts in New South Wales and Van 
 Diemen's Land is 36,267 ; the aborigines of the latter place have not been 
 ascertained. The act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British 
 colonies, and for compensation to the owners of slaves (£20,000,000 sterling) 
 was passed 3 & 4 William IV. 1833. By the provisions of this statute all 
 the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on August 1, 
 1834. 
 COLONIZATION. The American Colonization Society, for colonizing free 
 people of color on the coast of Africa, founded December, 1816, at Wash- 
 ington, chiefly through the exertions of Rev. Robert Finley. [Plan advo- 
 cated by Jefferson as early as 1777, urged by Dr. Thornton, 1787, and by the 
 legislature of Virginia, 1801.] First president of the society, Bushroci 
 Washington; succeeded by Charles Carroll, James Madison, and Henrj 
 Clay Liberia purchased 1821. 
 COLOSSLS OF RHODES. A brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high, 
 erected at the port of Rhodes in honor of the sun, and esteemed one of tha 
 wonders of the world. Built by Chares of Lindus, 290 b. c. It was thrown 
 down by an earthquake 224 b. c. ; and was finally destroyed by the Saracens 
 on their taking Rhodes in a. d. 672. The figure stood upon two moles, a leg 
 being extended on each side of the harbor, so that a vessel in full sail could 
 enter between. A winding staircase ran to the top, from which could be 
 discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that sailed on the coast of Egypt. 
 The statue had lain in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and had never been 
 i\)paired ; but now the Saracens pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, 
 ^velghiug 720,900 lbs , to a Jew, who is said to have loaded 900 camels in 
 transporting it to Alexandria — Du Fresnoy. 
 COLUMBIA, District cf. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Yir- 
 gftiia and Maryland to the United States, for the purpose of forming the 
 seat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetov/a 
 
COM J D :!TIONARY OF DATES 265 
 
 and Alexandria ; bnt in 18 iS the latter was re-ceded to Virginia, Popula- 
 tion in 1800, 14,093 ; in 1840, 43,712, including 8.361 free colored persons, 
 and 4.694 slaves. 
 COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyric poetry. Susarion an-1 
 Dolon were the inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 b. c. They performed 
 the first comedy at Athens, on a wagon or movable stage, on four wheels, 
 for which they were rewarded with a basket of figs and a cask of wine. — 
 Arundelian Marbles. Aristophanes was called the prince of ancient comedy, 
 434 B. c, and Menander that of new, 320 b. c. Of Plautus, 20 comedies are 
 extant ; he flourished 220 b. c. Statins Caecilius wrote upwards of 30 come- 
 dies ; he flourished at Rome, 180 b. c. The comedies of Lselius and Terence 
 were first acted 154 b. c. The first regular comedy was performed in Eng- 
 land about A. D. 1551. It was said of Sheridan, that he wrote the best comedy 
 (the School for Scandal), the best opera (the Due7ina), and the best after- 
 piece (the Critic), in the English language. — See Drama. 
 rOMETS. The first that was discovered and described accurately, was by 
 Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comets 
 appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days together, and whose splen- 
 dor eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and occupied forty-five degrees, or 
 the fourth part of the heavens, 135 b. c. — Justin. A remarkable one was 
 seen in England, 10 Edward III., 1337. — Stowe. These phenomena were firs* 
 rationally explained by Tycho Brache, about 1577. A comet, which terri- 
 fied the people from its near approach to the earth, was visible from Nov. 
 3, 1679, to March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses, 
 by Newton, 1704. A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed 
 within two millions of miles of the earth. One still more brilliant appeared 
 in Sept., Oct., and Nov., 1811, visible all the autumn to the naked eye. 
 Another brilliant comet appeared in 1823. — See the three next articles. 
 COMET, BIELA'S. This comet has been an object of fear to many on account 
 of the nearness with which it has approached, not the earth, but a point of 
 the earth's path : it was first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer, 
 Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the three comets whose reappearance was pre- 
 dicted, its revolution being performed in six years and thirty-eight weeks. 
 Its second appearance was in 1832, when the time of its perihelion passage 
 was Nov. 27. Its third appearance was in 1839, and its fourth in 1845. 
 COMET, ENCKE'S. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 26, 1818, but justly 
 named by astronomers after professor Encke, from his success in detecting 
 its orbit, motions, and perturbations ; it is, like the preceding, one of the 
 three comets which have appeared according to prediction, and its revolu- 
 tions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks. 
 COMET, HALLEY'S. This is the great and celebrated comet of the greatest 
 astronomer of England. — Lalande. Doctor Halley first proved that many of 
 the appearances of comets were but the periodical returns of the same todies, 
 and he demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet 
 of 1456, of 1531. and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute observation of 
 the first mentioned comet, and being struck by its wonderful resemblance to 
 the comets described as having appeared in those years : Halley, therefore, 
 first fixed the identity of comets, and first predicted their periodical returns. 
 — Vince's Astronomy. The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in 
 about seventy-six years : it appeared in 1759, and came to its perihelion on 
 March 13 ; and its last appearance was in 1835. 
 COMMERCE. Flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the Phoenicians in 
 the earliest ages. In later times it was spread over Europe by a confed- 
 eracy of maritime cities a. d. 1241. — See Hanse Towns. The discoveries of 
 Columbus and ihe enterprises of the Dutch and Portuguese, enlarged the 
 
 12 
 
266 ^ THE VVOKLD S I'UUOfKb&o. L *^°^ 
 
 sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly England, to engage 
 extensively in its pursuit. — See the various articles connected with this sid)ject. 
 
 COMMERCE. See Navigation. 
 
 COMMERCE, New-York Chamber of, instituted 1783. 
 
 COMMERCIAL TREATIES. The first treaty of commerce made by Eng- 
 land with any foreign nation, was entered into with the Flemings. 1 Edward 
 I., 1272. The second was with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edward 11. 1308. — 
 Anderson. See Treaties. 
 1 COMMON COUNCIL of LONDON. Its formation commenced about 1208. 
 The charter of Henry I. mentions the folk-mote, this being a Saxon appella- 
 tion, and which may fairly be rendered the court or assembly ol the people. 
 COMMON LAW of ENGLAND. Custom, to which length of time has 
 given the force of law, or rules generally received and heij as law, called 
 lex 7ion scripta, in contradistinction to the written law. Common law 
 ' derives its origin from Alfred's body of laws (wLich was lost), a. d. 890. 
 The common law of the United States is founded on that of England. — See 
 • Custo7n. Laics. 
 COMMON PRAYER. Published in the English language by the authority of 
 parliament, in 1548. The Common Prayer was voted out of doors, by par- 
 liament, and the Directory {vMch see), set up in its room in 1644. A pro- 
 clamation was issued against it, 1647. See Directory. 
 COMMONS, House of. The great representative assembly of the people of 
 Great Britain, and third branch of the Imperial legislature, originated with 
 Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who ordered returns to be made of 
 two knights from every shire, and deputies from certain boroughs, to meet 
 the barons and clergy who were his friends, with a view thereby to strengthen 
 his own power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry III. This was 
 the first confirmed outline of a house of commons ; and the first commons 
 were summoned to meet the king in parliament 42 & 43 Henry III. 1258. 
 — Goldsmith. Stowe. According to other authorities, the first parliament 
 formally convened was the one summoned 49 Henry III., Jan. 23, 1265 ; and 
 writs of the latter date are tlie earliest extant. Some historians date the 
 first regularly constituted parliament from the 22d of Edward 1. 1294. The 
 first recorded speaker, duly chosen, was Petre de Montfort in 1260 ; he was 
 killed at the battle of Evesham, in 1265. The city of London first sent 
 members to parliament in the reign of Henry III., while Westminster was 
 not represented in that assembly until the latter end of Henry VIII's life, 
 or rather in the first House of Commons of Edward VI. The following 
 is the constitution of the House of Commons since the passing of the 
 Reform Bills {which see,) in 1832 : — 
 
 English and \A'eIsli - 50(J 
 Scotch. — County members • 30 
 
 Cities and Boroughs - 23 — 53 
 
 English. — County members • 144 
 
 Universities - - - 4 
 
 Cities and boroughs - - 323 — 471 
 
 Welsh. — County members - - 15 
 
 Cities and Boroughs - - 14 — 29 
 
 Irish. — County members • - 64 
 
 University - - - - 2 
 
 Cities and boroughs • - 39— 1()5 
 
 English and Welsh - 500 
 
 Total (see Parliament') • 658 
 
 COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND. This was the interregnum between the 
 decollation of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. The form of the 
 government was changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I. Jan. 30, 
 1649. Oliver Cromwell was made Protector, Dec. 12, 1653. Richard Crom- 
 well was made Protector, Sept. 1 658. Monarchy was restored in the person 
 of Charles II., who returned to London May 29, 1670. See Englaiid. 
 
 COMMONWEALTH of ROME. See Rome. The greatest and most renown- 
 ed republic of the ancient world. It dates from 509 b. c, when the govern- 
 
CON J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 267 
 
 mentof kings ceased with the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus, the se"venth 
 and last king of Rome, and the election of consuls. After this revolution Rome 
 advanced by rapid strides towards universal dominion. The whole of Italy 
 received her laws. Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, Carthage, Africa, Greece, Asia, Sy- 
 ria, Eg3q3t, Gaul, Britain, and even a part of Germany, were successively sub- 
 dued by her arms : so that in the age of Julius Cassar this republic had the 
 i Euphrates, Mount Taurus, and Armenia, for the boundaries in the east; 
 Ethiopia, in the south ; the Danube, in the north ; and the Atlantic Ocean, 
 in the west. The repulDlic existed under consuls and other magistrates un- 
 til the battle of Actium. from which we commonly date the commencement 
 of the Roman empire, 31 b. c. 
 
 C OMMUNION. It originated in the Lord's supper, and was practised early m 
 the primitive church. Communicating under the form of bread alone is 
 said to have its rise in the west, under pope Urban II. 1096. The fourth 
 Lateran council decreed that every believer shall receive the communion at 
 least at Easter, 1215. The communion service, as now observed in the 
 church of England, was instituted by the authority of council, 1548. 
 
 COMPANIES. Among the earliest commercial companies in England may be 
 named the Steel-yard society, established a. d. 1232. The second company 
 was the merchants of St. Thomas k Becket, in 1248. — Stowe. The third was 
 the Merchant Adventurers, incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. Thv re are 
 ninety-one city companies in London ; the first twelve are 
 
 1 Mercers - - - A. d. 
 
 2 Grocers ... 
 
 3 Drapers 
 
 4 Fishmongers 
 
 5 Goldsmiths - . - 
 
 6 Skinners - 
 
 COMPANIES, BUBBLE. Ruinous speculations coming under this name have 
 been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's Bubble, in 1720-1, 
 was perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea Bubble, 
 in the same year, was scarcely less memorable for its ruin of thousands of 
 families. Many companies were established in Great Britain in 1824 and 
 1825, and most of them turned out to be bubbles; and owing to the rage for 
 taking shares in each scheme as it was projected, immense losses were in- 
 curred by individuals, and the families of thousands of speculators were 
 totally ruined. See Law's Bubble, and Bankrupts. 
 
 COMPASS, The MARINER'S. It is said to have been known to the Chinese, 
 1115 B. c. ; but this seems to be a mistake. They had a machine which self- 
 moved, pointed towards the south, and safely guided travellers by land or 
 water ; and some authors have mistaken it for the mariner's compass, the 
 invention of which is by some ascribed to Marcus Paulua a Venetian, a. d. 
 1260; while others, with more seeming justice, assign it to Flavio Gioja, of 
 Pasitano, a navigator of Naples. Until his time the needle was laid upon a 
 couple of pieces of straw, or small split sticks, in a vessel of water; Gioja in- 
 troduced the suspension of the needle as we have it now, 1302. Its variation 
 was discovered by Columbus, in 1492. The compass-box and hanging com- 
 pass used by navigators were invented by William Barlowe, an English di- 
 vine and natural philosopher, in 1608. — Biog. Die. The measuring compass 
 was invented by Jost Byng, of Hesse, in 1602. 
 
 CONCEPTION OF THE VIRGIN. This is a feast in the Romish church in 
 honor of the Virgin Mary having been conceived and born immaculate, or 
 without original sin. The festival w^as appointed to be held on the 8th of 
 Dec. by the church, in 1389. Conceptionists, an order of nuns, established 
 1488. 
 
 ). 1393 
 
 7 Merchant Tailors - 
 
 A. D. 146f; 
 
 -1345 
 
 8 Haberdashers 
 
 - 1447 
 
 -1439 
 
 9 Salters 
 
 - - 1553 
 
 -1384 
 
 10 Ironmongers - 
 
 -1484 
 
 . 1327 
 
 11 Vintners - 
 
 - - 1437 
 
 -1327 
 
 12 Clothworkers- 
 
 - 1482 
 
268 THE world's progress. [ CON 
 
 CONCERT. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford, in 
 1665, when it was attended by a great number of personages of rank and 
 talent from every part of England. The first concert of like kind perform- 
 ed in London was in 1678. Concerts afterwards became fashionable and 
 frequent. 
 
 CONCHOLOGY. This branch of natural history is mentioned by Aiistotle and 
 Pliny, and was a favorite with the most intellectual and illustrious men. It 
 'A-as first reduced to a system by John Daniel Majoi' of Kiel, who published 
 nis classification of the Testacea in 1675. Lister's system was published iu 
 1685 ; and that of Largius in 1722. 
 
 CONCLAVE FOR THE ELECTION of POPES. The conc'ave is a range of small 
 cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope at Rome, where the 
 cardinals usually hold their meetings to elect a pope. The word is also used 
 for the assembly, or meeting of the cardinals shut up for the election of a 
 pope. The conclave had its rise in a. d. 1271. Clement IV. being dead at 
 Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years imable to agree in the 
 ciioice of a successor, and were upon the point of breaking up, when the 
 magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at Viterbo. shut the 
 gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical j>to,lace till 
 they agreed. Hence the present custom of shutting up the cardinals while 
 they elect a pope. 
 
 CONCORDANCE to the BIBLE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all 
 the words in the Bible, and also a chronological account of all the transac- 
 tions of that sacred volume. The first concordance to the Bible was made 
 under the direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who employed as many as 500 
 monks upon it, a. d. 1247. — Abb^ Lenglet. 
 
 CONCORDAT. The name given to an instrument of agreement between a 
 prince and the pope, usually concerning benefices. The celebrated concordat 
 between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., whereby the then French consul 
 was made, in effect, the head of the Galilean Church, as all ecclesiastics 
 Avere to have their appointments from him, was signed at Paris, July 15, 
 1801. Another concordat between Bonaparte and the same pontiff* was sign- 
 ed at Fontainbleau, Jan. 25, 1813. 
 
 CONCUBINES. They are mentioned as-having been allowed to the priests, a. d. 
 1132. Cujas observes, that although concubinage was beneath marriage, 
 both as to dignity and civil effects, yet concubine was a reputable title, very 
 different from that of mistress among us. This kind of union, which is 
 formed by giving the left hand instead of the right^ and cdiWecii half -marriage, 
 is still in use in some parts of Germany. 
 
 CONFEDERATION at PARIS. Upwards of 600,000 citizens formed this 
 memorable confederation, held on the anniversary of the taking of the bas- 
 tile, at which ceremony the king, the national assembly, the army, and the 
 people, solemnly swore to maintain the new constitution, July 4, 1790. Se« 
 
 Champ de Mars, Bastile. 
 
 CONFEDERATION of the RHINE, or League of the Germanic States form- 
 ed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated league, 
 tl?e minor German princes collectivelj' engaged to raise 258,000 troops to 
 serve in case of war, and they established a di( t at Frankfort, July 12, 1806 
 See Germanic Confederation. 
 
 CONFERENCE. The celebrated religious conference held at Hampton Court 
 palace, between the prelates of the church of England and the dissenting 
 ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the instance oi' the king, 2 
 James I. 1004. This conference led to a new translation of the Bible, which 
 
CON ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 269 
 
 v/as execnted in 1607-11, and is that now in general use in England and the 
 United States ; and during the meeting some alterations in the church liturgy 
 were agreed upon, but this not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was 
 done. A conference of the bishojis and presbyterian ministers with the same 
 view was held in 1661, 
 
 CONFESSION. Auricular confession in the Romish church was first instituted 
 about A. D. 1204, and was regularly enjoined in 1215. It is made to a priest, 
 in order to obtain absolution for the sins or faults acknowledged by the pe- 
 nitent, who performs a penance enjoined by the priest; and if this be done 
 with a contrite heart, the sins thus absolved are supposed to be absolved in 
 heaven. At the reformation, the practice was at first left wholly indifferent, 
 by the council ; but this was the prelude to its entire abolition in the chtirch 
 of England. — Burnet. 
 
 rONFIRMATION. One of the oldest rites of the Christian hurch; it was 
 used by Peter and Paul ; and was general, according to some church au- 
 thorities, in A. D. 190. It is the public profession of the Christian religion 
 by an adult person, who was baptized in infancy. It is still retained in the 
 church of England ; but to make it more solemn, it has been advanced into 
 a sacrament by the church of Rome. 
 
 CONGE DELIRE. The license of the king, as head of the church, to chap- 
 ters, and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops. After the 
 interdict of the pope upon England had been removed in 1214, king John had 
 an arrangement with the clergy for the election of bishops. Bishops were 
 elected by the king's Conge d'Elire, 26 Henry VIIL, 1535. 
 
 CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers, or meeting for the settle- 
 ment of the affaii-s of nations, or of a people. Several congresses were held 
 during the continental wars ; but the following were the most remarkable 
 congresses of Europe: — 
 
 Congress of Soissons - June 14, 1728 Congress of Carlsbad - Aug. 1, 1819 
 
 Congi-ess of Antwerp - April 8, 1793 
 
 Congress of Radstaclt - Dec. 9, 1797 
 
 Congress of Chatillon - - Feb. 5, 1814 
 
 Congress of Vienna - Nov. 3, 1814 
 
 Congress of Troppau - Oct. 20, 1820 
 
 Congress of I.aybach • May 6, 1821 
 
 Congress of Verona - Aug. 25, 1822 
 
 See Alliances, Conventions, Sfc, 
 
 CONGRESS, U. S. A. The first Colonial Congress, composed of the delegates 
 from nine of the colonies (Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., N. J., Pa., Del., Md., S. 
 Ca.), met at N. Y. Dec. 7, 1765 .-Tim. Ruggles. Prest. The Continental Congress 
 met at Phila. Sep. 5, 1774 : again May 10, 1775 : adopted Dec. Indep. July 4, 
 1776; met at Bait. Dec. 20, 1776; at Phila. March 4, 1777; at Lancaster, Pa. 
 Sep. 27, 1777; at York, Pa. Sep. 30. 1777; at Phila. July 2, 1778; at Prince- 
 ton. June 30, 1783 ; at Annapolis, Nov. 26, 1783 ; at Trenton, Nov. 30, 1784 ; 
 at N. York, Jan. 1785 ; and that continued to be the place of meeting until 
 the adoption of the constitution, 1789: removed to Phila. 1790 : to Wash- 
 ington, 1800. 
 
 CONVENTION, The, for forming he Constitution of the U. S. met at Phila. 
 May 10, 1787 ; in session till Sep. 17, same year. 
 
 CONGREVE ROCKETS. Invented by general sir William Congreve, in 1803. 
 They were used with great effect in the attack upon Boulogne, in Oct. 1806, 
 when they set a part of the town on fire, which burned for two days; they 
 were employed in various operations in the late war with much success, dis- 
 charged by a corps called rocket-men. 
 
 CONIC SECTIONS. Their most remarkable properties were probably known 
 to the Greeks four or five centuries before the Christian era. The study of 
 them was cultivated in the time of Plato 390 b. c. The earliest treatise 
 was written by Aristseus, about 380 b. c. Appolonius's eight books were 
 
270 
 
 THE won LI) S PROGRESS. 
 
 [CC3» 
 
 written about 240 b. c The parabola was applied to projectiles by Galileo 
 the ellipse to the orbit of planets, by Kelper. 
 
 CONJURATION and WITCHCRAFT. They were declared to be f<Oonyby 
 various statutes, and the most absurd and wicked laws were in force agamst 
 them in England in former times. See a,vtic\e Witchcraft. Conjuration vvas 
 felony by "statute 1 James I., 1603. This law was repealed 9 George II., 
 1735 ; but pretensions to such skill was then made punishable as a ?jaisd6» 
 meanor. — English Statutes. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. One of the U. States: first settled in 1683, at Windsor, by 
 a colony from Massachusetts. Hartford, settled by the English in 1685, the 
 Dutch having previously built a fort there, which they did not permanently 
 hold. English colony founded at New Haven, 1638. The two colonies of New 
 Haven and Hartford united by a charter of Charles II., in 1655. This char- 
 ter, when in danger from the tyranny of Andros, was preserved in an oak, 
 near Hartford, since called the Charter Oak. Conn, took an active part in 
 the revolution; a number of its towns, Danbury, N. London, &c., burnt by 
 the British during that struggle. It became one of the original 13 states, 
 adopting the constitution of the Union in 1788, by a vote of 128 to 40. Pop- 
 ulation 1713, 17,000: 1790, 237,946; 1810, 261,942; 1880, 297.655; 1840, 
 309,978. 
 
 CONQUEST, The. The memorable era in British history, when William duke 
 of Normandy overcame Harold II., at the battle of Hastings, and obtained the 
 crown which had been most unfairly bequeathed to him by Edward the 
 Confessor (for Edgar was the rightful heir) Oct. 15, 1066. William has been 
 erroneously styled the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the crown of England 
 by compact. He killed Harold, who was himself a usurper, and defeated 
 his army, but a large portion of the kingdom afterwards held out against 
 him, and he, unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the laws and cus- 
 toms of the realm, in order to induce the submission of the people. For- 
 merly the judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the bar 
 who casually gave him the title of William the Conqueror, instead of Wil- 
 liam I. — Seidell. 
 
 CONSCRIPT FATHERS. Patres conscripti was the designation given to the 
 Roman senators, and used in speaking of them, in the eras of the republic 
 and the ( -sesars : because their names were written in the registers of the 
 senate. 
 
 CONSECRi^TION. Tha^^ of churches was instituted in the second century, 
 the temple of worship being dedicated with pious solemnity to God and a 
 patron s'iint. Tl>-= consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., is admit- 
 ted in the reformed religion. The consecration of bishops was ordained in 
 the laUcr church in 1549. — Stowe. 
 
 CONSISTORY COURT in England. Anciently the Consistory was joined with 
 the Hundred court, and its original, as divided there fit»m, is found in a law 
 of William I. quoted by lord Coke, 1079. The chief and most ancient Con- 
 sistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, and is called 
 the Court of Arches. 
 
 CONSPIRACIES AND INSURRECTIONS in GREAT BRITAIN. Among the 
 recorded conspiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most remark- 
 able. They are extracted from Camden, Temple, Hume, and other authori- 
 ties of note : — 
 
 Of Anthony Babington and others, 
 against Elizabeth - - a. d. 1586 
 
 T'.j Gunpowder Plot (tohich see) ■ 1005 
 
 In^'urrection of the fifth monarchy men 
 i,gainsf, Charles II. - - - IGCO 
 
 O* Blood and his associates, who seized 
 
 the Duke of Ormond, wounded hiin. 
 and would have hanged him; and 
 who afterwards stole the crown - 1671 
 The pretended conspiracy of the French, 
 Si)aiiish. and Eiiglish .lesuits to assas- 
 sinate Gh. II. revealed by the infa- 
 
CON ] DICTIONAUY OF DATES. 
 
 mous Titus Gates, Dr. Tongue, and 
 others - - - - - 1678 
 
 The Meal-tub plot 1679 
 
 The Rye-house plot to assassinate the 
 king on his way to Newmarket. (See 
 Rye-house plot) .... 168-3 
 Of Simon Fraser. lord Lovat, against 
 Queen Anne. - - - - 1703 
 
 Of Colonel Despard and others, to ovei- 
 
 turn the government - - - 1802 
 
 Of Robert Emmett in Dublin, when 
 
 lord Kilwarden was killed - July 23, 1803 
 Of Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges, 
 
 against Bonaparte - heb. 15, 1804 
 
 Of Thistlewood, to assassinate the 
 
 king's ministers. (See Cato-slreet) - 1820 
 
 CONSPIRACIES, in or relating to the United States. 
 
 Burr's trial for conspiracy to divide the 
 United Stales .... 1807 
 
 John Henry's secret mission from the 
 British government, to undermine 
 the American union, exposed, Feb. 25, 1S12 
 
 CONSTANCE, Council of. The celebrated council of <:^i'ymes (!) which con- 
 demned the pious martyrs John Hiiss and Jerome of Prague, to be burnt 
 alive, a sentence executed upon the first on July 6, 1415, and on the other, 
 on May 30, following. Huss had complied with a summons from the coun- 
 cil of Constance to defend his opinions before the clergy of all nations in 
 that city, and though the emperor Sigismund had given him a safe-conduct, 
 he was cast into prison. Jerome of Prague hastened to Constance to defend 
 him, but was himself loaded with chains, and in the end shared the fate of 
 his friend. This scandalous violation of public faith, and the cruelty and 
 treachery which attended the punishment of these unhappy disciples of 
 Wickliffe, our great reformer, prove the melancholy truth, that toleration 
 is not the virtue of priests in any form of ecclesiastical government. — Hume. 
 
 CONSTANTINA. The former capital of Numidia. It has become known to 
 Europeans but very recently, they being strangers to it until the French 
 occupation of Algiers. Here w^as fought a gx-eat battle between the French 
 and the iVrabs, Oct. 13, 1837, when the former carried the town by assault, 
 but the French general, Daremont, was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 
 12,000 men as the victors entered Constantina. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE. So called from Constantine the Great, who removed the 
 seat of the Eastern Empire here, a. d. 328. Taken by the western crusaders 
 who put the emperor Mourzoufle to death, first tearing out his eyes, 1204. 
 Retaken by Michael Palaeologus, thus restoring the old Greek line, 1261. 
 Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew Constantine Pala^ologus, the last 
 Christian emperor, and 60,000 of his people, 1153. The city, taken by as- 
 sault, had held out for fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, on seeing 
 the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, 
 and was cut to pieces ; the children of the imperial house were massacred 
 by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conquer- 
 or. This put an end to the Eastern Empire, which had subsisted for 1125 
 years, and was the foundation of the present empire of Turkey in Euroiie 
 See Eastern Empire and Turkey. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, Era op. This era has the creation placed 5508 years b. c. 
 It was used by the Russians until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used 
 in the Greek church. The civil year begins September 1, and the ecclesias- 
 tical year towards the end of March; the day is not exactly determined. 
 To reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January to August, and 
 5509 from September to the end. 
 
 CONSTELLATIONS. Those of Arcturus, Orion, the Pleiades, and Mazzaroth, 
 are mentioned by Job, about 1520 b. c. Homer and Hesiod notice constel- 
 lations ; but though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained 
 in very early ages, our first direct knowledge was derived from Claud. 
 Ptolemseus, about a. d. 140. 
 
 CONSTITirnON OF ENGLAND. See Magna Charta. It comprehends thb 
 whole body of laws by which the British peoi)le are governed, and to which 
 
:272 THE world's progress. I con 
 
 it is presumptively held that every individual has assented. — Lord Somers. 
 This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government, in 
 this respect — that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought 
 to govern at all times : and government is that by which he does govern at 
 any particular time. — Lord Bolingbroke The king of England is not seated 
 on a solitary eminence of power ; on the contrary, he sees his equals in the 
 co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognizes his superior in 
 the LAW. — Sheridan. 
 CONSTITUTION of the U. S. Adopted by the general convention of dele- 
 gates from all the (then) states, May, 1787. Ratified by the several states 
 at different times. See the respective states. 
 The 50th anniversary of Washington's inauguration, was celebrated in New 
 York as a jubilee of the constitution, and John Quincy Adams pronounced 
 an oration before the Hist. Soc'y, April 30, 1840. 
 
 CONSTITUTION and GUERRIERE. The American frigate Constitution, 
 capt. Hull, after an action of 30 minutes, captured the British frigate Guer- 
 riere, capt. Dacres, Aug. 20, 1812. American loss 7 killed, and 7 wounded, 
 British loss 100 killed and wounded. The English attribute the victory to 
 the superior force of the American frigate. As this was the first important 
 naval victory of the U. S.. it caused a strong sensation. For others see 
 Nojval Battles. 
 CONSULS. These ofiiicers were appointed at Roipe, 509 b. c. They possessed 
 regal authority for the space of a year : Lucius Junius Brutus, and Lucius 
 Tarquinius Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia, were the 
 first consuls. A consular government was established in France, November 
 9, 1799, when Bonaparte, Cambacer6, and Lebrun, were made consuls; and 
 subsequently Bonaparte was made first consul for life, May 6, 1802. Com- 
 mercial agents were first distinguished by the name of consuls in Italy, in 
 1485. 
 CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary. In the tvi^o last wars voluntary contributions 
 to a vast amount were several times made by the British people in aid of 
 the government. The most remarkable of these acts of patriotism was that 
 in 1798, when, to support the w^ar against France, the contributions amount- 
 ed to two millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, among others, 
 sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,000Z. ; and 200,000/, 
 were transmitted from India in 1799.- 
 CONVENTICLES. These were private assemblies for religious worship, and 
 were particularly applied to those who differed in form and doctrine from 
 the established church. But the term w^as first applied in England to the 
 schools of Wickliffe. Conventicles, which were very numerous at the time, 
 were prohibited 12 Charles II., 1661. 
 CONVENTIONS. See Alliances, Treaties, &c. in their respective places through- 
 out the volume. 
 CONVENTS. They were first founded, according to some authorities, in a. d. 
 270. The first in England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald. in 630.^ 
 Camden. The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, when Ethelreda took 
 the veil, in 670. They were founded earlier than this last date in Ireland. 
 Convents were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly in that 
 of Henry VIII., and comparatively few now exist in Great Britain. More 
 than 3000 have been suppressed in Europe within the last few years. The 
 emperor of Russia abolished 187 convents of monks, by a ukase dated July 
 31, 1832, The king of Prussia followed his example, and secularized all 
 the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in 
 Portugal, in 1834, and Spain has lately abolished 1800 convents. 
 
COP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 ;/a 
 
 CONMCTS. The first arrival of transported convicts from England, at Botany 
 Bay, was in 1788. Convicts are now sent to Van Diemen's I.and, Norfolk 
 Island, Sydney, in New South Wales, &c. See New South Wales and Trans- 
 porlation. 
 
 COOK'S VOYAGES. The illustrious captain Cook sailed from England in the 
 Endeaoor, on his first voyage, July 30, 1768 ;* and returned home after hav- 
 ing circumnavigated the globe; arriving at Spithead, July 13, 1771. ^ Sir 
 Joseph Banks, afterwards the illustrious president of the Royal Society, 
 accompanied captain Cook on this voyage. Captain Cook again sailed to 
 explore the southern hemisphere, July 1772, and returned in July 1775. [» 
 liis third expedition this great navigator was killed by the savages of O-why* 
 hee, at 8 o'clock on the morning of February 14, 1779. His ships, the Reso- 
 lution and Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept. 22, 1780. 
 
 COOPERAGE. This art must be coeval with the dawn of history, and seems 
 to have been early known in every country. The coopers of London were 
 incorporated in 1501. 
 COPENHAGEN. Distinguished as a royal residence, a. d. 1443. In 1728 more 
 than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its famous palace, 
 valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 per- 
 sons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arsttial, 
 admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bom- 
 barded by the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker : and in their 
 engagement with a Danish fleet, of twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen 
 were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, after a bom- 
 bardment of three days, the city and the Danish fleet surrendered to admi- 
 ral Gambler and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. The capture consisted of 
 eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun- 
 boats, and immense naval stores. — See Denmark. 
 COPERNICAN SYSTEM. The system of the world wherein the sun is sup- 
 posed to be in the centre, and immovable, and the earth and the rest of the 
 planets to move round it in elliptical orbits. The heavens and stars are 
 here imagined to be at rest, and the diurnal motion which they seem to 
 have from east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion from west to east. 
 This system was published at Thorn, a. d. 1530 ; and may in many points be 
 regarded as that of Pythagoras revived. — Gassendiis. 
 COPPER. It is one of the six primitive metals ; its discovery is said to have 
 preceded that of iron. We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine 
 copper, precious as gold. — Ezra viii. 27. The great divisibility of this 
 metal almost exceeds belief; a grain of it dissolved in alkali, as pearl ashes, 
 soda, &c., will give a sensible color to more than 500,000 times its weight in 
 water ; and when copper is in a state of fusion, if the least drop of water 
 touch the melted ore, it will fly about like shot from a gun. — Boyle. The 
 mine of Fahlun, in Sweden, is the most surprising artificial excavation in the 
 world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and copper now 
 forms an immense branch in the British trade : there are upwards of fifty 
 
 • A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 1768, setting forth the advan- 
 tages which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transit 
 of Venus over the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Endeavor was, in consequence, 
 jirepared for that purpose, and the command of her given to Lieutenant James Cook. He sailed 
 m July 1768, touched at Madeira and Rio de Janeiro, doubled Cape Horn, and after a prosperous 
 voyage reached Otaheite, the place of destination, in April 1769. By a comparist^ii of the observa- 
 tions made on this transit (June 3. 1769) from the various parts of the globe, on which it was viewml 
 bv men of science, the system of the universe has in some particulars, been better understood ; tna 
 distance of the sun from the earth, as calculated by this and the transit in 1761. is now settled at 
 U)8,OXi,000 miles, instead of the commonly received computation, of 95,000,000. — Butler. 
 
 12* 
 
274 THE world's progress. [ C07 
 
 mines in CornwuU, where mining- has been increasing since the reign of Wil 
 liani III. 
 
 COPPER-MONEY. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius Tullius, used 
 rude pieces of copper for money.— See Coiii. In England, copper-money is 
 of extensive coinage. That proposed by sir Robert Cotton was brought into 
 use in 1609. Copper was extensively coined in 1665. It was again coined 
 by the crown, 23 Charles II., 1672. Private traders had made them previ- 
 ously to this act. In Ireland copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in Scot- 
 land in 1406 ; in France in 1580. Wood's coinage in Ireland (which see) com- 
 menced in 1723. Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively used, 1797. 
 
 COPPER-PLATE PRINTING. This species of printing was first attempted in 
 Germany, about a. d, 1450. Rolling-presses for working the plates were in- 
 vented about 1545. Messrs. Perkins of Philadelphia, invented, in 1819, a 
 mode of engraving on soft steel which, when hardened, will multiply cop- 
 per-plates and fine impressions indefinitely. — See Engraving. 
 
 COPPERAS. First produced in England by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. 
 
 COPYRIGHT ON BOOKS, &c. in ENGLAND. The decree of the Star-chamber 
 regarding it, a. d.1556. Every book and publication ordered to be licensed, 
 1585. An ordinance forbidding the printing of any work without the 
 consent of the owner, 1649. Copyright further secured by a statute en- 
 acted in 1709. Protection of copyright in prints and engraving, 17 Georg-e 
 III., 1777. Copyright protection act 54 George III., 1814. Dramatic au- 
 thors' protection act^ 3 William IV., 1833. The act for preventing- the pub- 
 lication of lectures without consent, 6 William IV.. 1835. The act of the 
 17th George III., extended to Ireland, 7 William IV., 1836. International 
 copyrig-ht bill, 1 Victoria, 1838. Copyright of designs for articles of manu- 
 facture protected, 2 Victoria 1839. For important act of 1842, see Literary 
 Property . — Ha ijdn . 
 COPYRIGHT IN UNITED STATES. The first act for the protraction of literary 
 property in the United States passed chiefly through the influence of Noah 
 Webster, the lexicographer, May 31, 1790. Another act in relation to it, 
 April 29, 1802 — granting copyright for 14 j^ears, subject to renewal for 14 
 years if the author is living. Memorial of 56 British authors asking for 
 International Copyrig-ht, presented in the Senate by Mr. Clay, Feb. 1, 1837. 
 
 • Act to establish the Smithsonian Institute, requiring that copies of books 
 to secure the copyright must be deposited in there as well as in the library 
 of Congress and office of Sec. State, Aug. 10, 1846. 
 
 COPYRIGHT, Produce of. The following sums are stated to have been paid 
 to the authors for the copyright of the works mentioned. 
 
 POETRY. 
 
 Byron's Works (in all) - - X2O.0O8 
 
 Moore's Lalla Rookh - - - 3,000 
 
 Rejected Addresses - - • 1,()00 
 
 Campbell's Pieasui'es of Hope (after 
 
 ten years' publication) - - l,lK)0 
 
 Campbell's Gertrude, after ditto - 1.6l?0 
 
 FICTION. 
 
 It -was estimated that Scott's novels 
 produced for copyright at least - 2.50,000 
 
 Bulwer received for his novels, each 
 
 1,200 I o 1,500 
 
 Marryatt, do. do. 1,000 to 1,200 
 
 Goldsmith's " Vicar" was sold by Dr. 
 Johnson for - - - - 63 
 
 Fraijments of English History, by 
 
 Cr.T. Fox - - - ■ jE5,000 
 History of England by Sir J. Mackin- 
 tosh 5,000 
 
 Ditto, bv Linsard - - - - 4,633 
 
 Life of israporeon, by Sir W. Scott - 18,000 
 History of England, by Macaulay, vol. 
 1 anci remainder, .£600 per annum 
 for ten yeai-s, say - - - 3,000 
 
 Prescoti'sHistorical Works are said to 
 have produced to the author (who yet 
 o-wns the copyright) before 1850 - $100,000 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 I.ifeqfWilberforce - - - i;4,000 
 
 Life oi Byron, by Moore - - 4,000 
 
 tiockhai-t's Scott (tv/o years' use) - r2,.500 
 Iiying's Columbqs (paid hy Murray) - 4.00f) 
 
 Goldsmith received for " Animated 
 Nature" - - - - 800 
 
 Noah Webster is said to have derived 
 $1000 per annum from his Spelling 
 Book. ■' ■■ ^ 
 
COR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 275 
 
 CORDAGE. The naval cordage in early ages was, probably, morel}" thongs of 
 leather ; and these primitive ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the 
 third century, and by some northern nations in the ninth. Cordage of weed 
 and of horse-hair was also used anciently before that made of hemp. See 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 CORFU. So celebrated in mythology and poetry, and capital of the island of 
 the same name, was placed under British administration, by the treaty of 
 Paris in Nov. 1815. It is the chief of the Ionian Isles, which see. 
 
 CORINTH. This city was built in 1520 and the kingdom founded by Sisyphns 
 in 1376 B. c. In 146 b. c. the capital was destroyed by the Romans, but was 
 rebuilt by Julius Caesar ; and was among the first cities of Greece that em- 
 braced the Christian religion. It was defended by a fortress called Aero- 
 corinth, on a summit of a high mountain, surrounded with strong walls. 
 The situation of this citadel was so advantageous, that Cicero named it the 
 Eye of Greece, and declared, that of all the cities known to the Romans,, 
 Corinth alone was worthy of being the seat of a great empire. 
 
 Corinth biiilt on the ruins of Ephyra. 
 
 {Abbe Lenglet) . - b. c' 1520 
 
 Rebuilt by the king of Sicyon, and first 
 
 called by its name - • - 1410 
 
 Sisyphus, a public robber, seizes upon 
 
 the city (idem) - _ - - - 137' 
 
 A colony goes to Sicily, and they build 
 Syracuse - - - b. c. 732 
 
 Sea fight between the Corinthians and 
 Corcyreans - ... 664 
 
 Periander rules and encourages genius 
 and learning - - . . 629 
 
 The Pyihian games instituted, it is said ! Death of Periander - - - -585 
 
 by Sisyphus .... 1375 | The Corinthians form a republic . 5S2 
 
 The reign of Bacchus, whose successors j War with the Corcyreans - -439 
 
 are called Bacchidae. in remembrance The Corinthian war (t^jAzc^ see) - -395 
 
 of the equity of his reign - - 935 j Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus ■ 24'i 
 
 The Corinthians invent ships called | The Roman ambassadors first appear 
 
 trireines ; vessels consisting of three at Corinth .... 228 
 
 benches of oars - - - 786 Corinth destroyed by Lucius Mummius 
 
 Thelestes deposed, and the government | who sends to Italy the first fine paint- 
 
 of the Prytanes instituted: Au'o- higs there seen, they being part of the 
 
 menes is the first on whom this dig- | spoil {Livy) .... 146 
 
 nity is conferred - - - 757 ! 
 
 CORINTHIAN ORDER. The finest of all the orders of ancient architecture, 
 aptly called by Scamozzi, the virginal order, as being expressive of the deli- 
 cacy, tenderness and beauty of the whole composition. The invention of it 
 is attributed to Callimachus, 540 b. c. 
 
 CORINTHIAN WAR. The war which received this name, because the battles 
 were mostly fought in the neighborhood of Corinth, was begun b. c. 895, by a 
 confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against 
 the Lacedaemonians. The most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuc- 
 tra, which see. 
 
 CORN OR GRAIN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who 
 having taught the art to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 b. c. — 
 Arundetian Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the method of making 
 bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is attributed by tlie Chinese to Ching 
 Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998 b. c — 
 Univ. Hist. But corn provided a common article of food from the earliest 
 ages of the world, and baking bread was known in the patriarchal ages.— 
 See Exodus xii. 15. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the sixth century, 
 by Coll ap Coll Frewi. — Roberts' Hist. Anc. Britons. The first imp-ortatioii 
 of corn of which we have note, was in 1347. Bounties were granted on il3 
 importation into England, in 1686. 
 
 CORN LAWS IN England. Various enactments relative to the duty on " corn'* 
 or grain passed 1814. Riots, caused by the passing of the act permitting its 
 importation when corn should be 8O5. "per quarter," 1815. The "sliding- 
 scale" of duties passed July 15, 1828. Another, April 29, 1842; act fixing 
 
276 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. f COll 
 
 the duty on wlieat at 45. until Feb. 1849, and artt,/ Liiat xi ^ per quarter, 
 passed June 26, 1846. This was the virtual abolition of the* Corn Laws— 
 and the Anti-Corn Law League — which had been formed in 1841 was there- 
 fore formally dissolved, July 2, 1846. 
 
 CORONATION. The lirst coronation by a bishop, was that of Majocianus, at 
 Constantinople, in a. d. 457. The ceremony of anointing at coronations waa 
 introduced into England in 872, and into Scotland in 1097. The coronation 
 of Henry III. took place, in the first instance, without a crown, at Gloucester, 
 October 28, 1216. A plain circle was used on this occasion in lieu of the 
 crown, which had been lost with the other jewels and baggage of king John, 
 in passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach. — Matthew 
 Paris. Rymer. 
 
 CORONATION FEASTS, and OATH. The oath was first administered to the 
 kings of England by Dunstan (the archbishop of Canterbury, afterwards 
 canonized), to Ethelred II. in 979. An oath, nearly corresponding with that 
 now in use, was administered in 1377 ; it was altered in 1689. The fetes 
 given at coronations commenced with Edward I. in 1273. That at the cor- 
 onation of George IV. rivalled the extravagances and sumptuousness of 
 former times. 
 
 CORONERS. They were officers of the realm in a. d. 925. Coroners for every 
 county in England were first appointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edward 
 I. 1276. — Stowe. Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign of MaL 
 colm il., about 1004. By an act passed in the 6th and 7th of queen Victoria, 
 coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for them, but only in case of 
 illness. Aug. 22, 1843. 
 
 CORONETS. The caps or inferior crowns, of various forms, that distinguish 
 the rank of the nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry 
 III. ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and for barons by Charles II. — Baker. 
 But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was the first of 
 the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 1604. — Beatson. It is uncertain when 
 the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled. — Idevi. 
 
 CORPORATIONS. They are stated by Livy to have been of very high anti- 
 quity among the Romans. They were introduced into other countries from 
 Italy. These political bodies were first planned by Numa, in order to break 
 the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by instituting sep- 
 arate societies of every manual trade and profession. — Plutarck. 
 
 CORPORATIONS, MUiNICIPAL, in ENGLAND. Bodies politic, authorized 
 by the king's charter to have a common seal, one head officer, or more, and 
 members, who are able, by their common consent, to grant or receive, in 
 law, any matter within the compass of their charter. — Coioel. Corporations 
 were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of England to vari- 
 ous towns, first by Edward the Confessor. Henry I. granted charters, a. d. 
 1100; and succeeding monarchs gave corporate powers, and extended them 
 to numerous large communities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oaths, 
 and conditions. — Blackstone. 
 
 CORSICA. Called by the Greeks Cijrnos. The ancient inhabitants of this 
 island were savage, and bore the character of robbers, liars, and atheists, 
 according to Seneca, when he existed among them. It was held by the Car- 
 thaginians ; and was conquered by the Romans 231 b. c. In modern times, 
 Corsica was dependent upon the republic of Genoa, until 1730 ; and was sold 
 to France in 1733. It was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its first 
 and only king, in 1736. He came to England, where he was imprisoned in 
 the King's Bench prison for debt, and for manj' years subsisted on the be- 
 nevolence of private friends. Having been released by an act of inso]"^encj 
 
COS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 277 
 
 in 1756, he gave in his schedule the kingdom of Corsica as an estate to hit* 
 creditors, an I died the same year, at his lodgings in Chapel street, Soho. 
 The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet ere Ued near his 
 grave, in St. Anne's church, Dean-street: — 
 
 " The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings 
 Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. 
 But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead; 
 Fate j)our'd its lesson on his living head, 
 Besiow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." 
 
 The celebrated Pascal Paoli was chosen for their general by the Corsicans, 
 in 1753. He was defeated by the count de Vaux, and tied to England, 1769. 
 The people acknowledged George III. of England for their king, June 17, 
 1791, when sir Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, and ne opened a parliament 
 in 1795. A revolt was suppressed in June 1796 ; and the island was relin- 
 quished by the British, Oct. 22. same year, when the people declared for the 
 French. 
 CORTES OF SPAIN. A deliberative assembly under the old constitution ot 
 Spain; several times set aside. The cortes were newly assembled after a 
 long interval of years, Sept. 21, 1810; and they settled the new constitution, 
 March 16, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who 
 banished many members of the assembly in May, 1814, The cortes or states- 
 general were opened by Ferdinand VII. 1820, and they have since been reg- 
 ularly convened. 
 
 CORUNNA, Battle of, between the British army under sir John Moore (who 
 was killed) and the French, Jan. 16, 1809. 
 
 <" OSMETICS. Preparations for improving beauty were known to the ancients, 
 and some authorities refer them even to mythology, and others to the Gre- 
 cian stage. The Roman ladies painted ; and those of Italy excelled in height- 
 ening their charms artificially, by juices and colors, and by perfumes. 
 Rouge has always been in disrepute among the virtuous and well-ordered 
 women of England, though some simple cosvietics are regarded as innocent, 
 and are in general use. — Ashe. The females of France and Germany paint 
 more highly than most other nations. — Richardson. A stamp was laid on 
 cosmetics, perfumery, and such medicines as really or suppositiously beau- 
 tify the skin, or perfume the person, and the venders were obliged to take 
 out licenses, 26th Geo. III. 1786. 
 
 COSMOGRAPHY. The science which teaches the structure, form, disposition, 
 and relation of the parts of the world, or the manner of representing it on a 
 plane. — Selden. It consists of two parts, astronomy and geography : the 
 earliest accounts of the former occur 2234 b. c. — Blair. The first record 
 of the latter is from Homer, who describes the shield of Achilles as rep- 
 resenting the earth. — Iliad. See the articles on Astronomy and Geogra.phy 
 respectively. 
 
 COSSACKS. The warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia, 
 Tartary, and Turkej^. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleya 
 and the people of Natolia : they were formed into a regular army by Ste- 
 phen Batori, in 1576, to defend the frontiers of Russia from the incursiona 
 of the Tartars. In the late great war of Europe against France, a vast body 
 of (Cossacks formed a portion of the Russian armies, and fought almost in- 
 vin( ibly. 
 
 COSTUME. See Dress. Accounts of magnificent attire refer to very remote 
 antiquity. The costume of the Grecian and Roman ladies was comely and 
 graceful. The women of Cos, whose countrj'' was famous for the silkworm, 
 wore a manufacture of cotton and silk of so beautiful and delicate a texture, 
 and their garn ents, which were always white, were so clear and thin, thai 
 
273 
 
 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 
 
 [ COT 
 
 their bodios could be seen through them Oi-id. As relates to costume 
 woi'u on the stage, ^.schylus the Athenian was, it is said, the first who 
 erected a regular stage for liis actors, and ordered their dresses to he suited 
 to their characters, about 436 b. c. — Parian Marbles. 
 
 COTTON. The method of spinning cotton formerly was by the hand ; bi.t 
 about 1767, Mr. Hargreaves, of Lancashire, invented the spimiing-jenny 
 with eight spindles ; he also erected the first carding-machine with cylin- 
 ders. Sir Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for a new invention of 
 machinery in 1769 ; and another patent for an engine in 1775. Crompton 
 invented the mule, a further and wonderful improvement in the manufac- 
 ture of cotton, in 1779, and various other improvements have been since 
 made. The names of Peel and Arkwright are eminently conspicuous in con- 
 nection with this vast source of British industry ; and it is calculated that 
 more than one thousand millions sterling have be' >n yielded by it to Great 
 Britain. Cotton manufacturers' utensils were prohibited from being export- 
 ed in 1774. — Haydn. 
 
 HISTORY OF COTTON, FOR OVER ONE HUNDRED YEARS. 
 
 J 'he following bi'ief items of the history of cotton, from 1730 to 1830, are taken from a >South 
 
 Carolina paper : — 
 
 1730. Mr. Wyatt spins the first cotton yarn 
 in England by machinery. 
 
 1735. -The Dutch first export cotton from 
 Surinam. 
 
 1742. First mill for spinning cotton erected 
 at Birmingham, moved by mules or horses ; 
 but not successful in its operations. 
 
 1749. The fly shuttle generally used in 
 England. 
 
 1756. Cotton velvets and quiltings made 
 in England for the first time. 
 
 1761. Arkwright obtained tlie first patent 
 for the spinning frame, which he furtiier 
 improved. 
 
 1768. The stocking frame applied by 
 llammond to making of lace. 
 
 1773. A bill passed to prevent the export 
 of machinery us«d in cotton factories. 
 
 1779. Mule spinning invented by Hargrave. 
 
 17S2. First import of raw cotton from 
 Brazil into England. 
 
 1782. Watt took out his patent for the 
 steam-engine. 
 
 1783. A bounty granted m England on the 
 export of certain cotton goods. 
 
 1785. Power-looms invented by Dr. ( ;art- 
 wright — steam engir.es used in cotton fac- 
 tories. 
 
 1785. Cotton impoited into England from 
 the United States. 
 
 1786. Bleaching first performed by the 
 agency of the oxy muriatic acid. 
 
 1787. First machinery to spin cotton put 
 in operation in France. 
 
 1789. Sea Island cotton first plantecl in the 
 United States ; and upland cotton first cul- 
 tivated for use and export about this time. 
 
 1790 Slator, an Englishman, builds the 
 first American cotton factory, at Pawtucket, 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 1792. Eli Whitney, an American, invents 
 the cotton gin, which he patents. 
 
 1798. First mill and machinery for cotton 
 erected in Switzerland. 
 
 1799. Spinning by machinery introduced 
 into Saxony this year. 
 
 1803. First cotton factory built in New 
 Hampshire. 
 
 1805. Power-looms successfully and widely 
 introduced into England. 
 
 1807. The revolution in Spanish America 
 begins to furnish new markets for cotton 
 manufactures. 
 
 1810. Digest of cotton manufactures in tho 
 United Slates by Mr. Gallatin, and another 
 by Mr. Tench Coxe, of Philadelphia. 
 
 1811. Machinery to make bobbin lace pa 
 tented by John Burn. 
 
 1813. The India trade more free, and more 
 British manuiactures sent thither. 
 
 1814. The power-loom introduced into the 
 United States ; first at Waltham. 
 
 1818. Average price of cotton 34 cents — 
 higher than since 1810. New method ol 
 preparing sewing cotton by Mr- Holt. 
 
 1S19. Extraordinary prices for Alabama 
 ■cotton lands. 
 
 1820. Steam power first applied with suc- 
 cess extensively to lace manufactures. 
 
 1822 First cotton factory in Lowell erected. 
 
 1823. First export of raw cotton from Egypt 
 into Great Britain. 
 
 1825. In New Orleans cotton at from 23 to 
 25 cents per pound. 
 
 1826. Self acting mule spinner patented 
 in England by Roberts. 
 
 1827. American cotton manufactures first 
 exported to any considerable extent. 
 
 1829. Highest duty in the United States on 
 foreign cotton manufactures. 
 
 1830. About this time Mr. Dyer introduced 
 a machine from the United States into Eng- 
 land for the purpose of making cards. 
 
 1832. Duty on cotton goods miported int") 
 the United States reduced ; and in England 
 it is forbid to employ minors in cotton mills, 
 to work them more than ten hours per day, 
 or more than nine hours on a Saturday ; in 
 consequence they work at something else. 
 
 1834. Cotton at 17 cents. 
 
 1835. Extensive purchases madeof cottoa 
 lands by speculators and others. 
 
 1836. Cotton at from 18 to 20 cents. 
 
cou ] 
 
 DICTIOr^ARY OF DATES. 
 
 279 
 
 50 
 
 COTTONIAN LIBRARY. Formed by great labor and with great judgment 
 by sir Robert Cotton, a. d. 1600 et seq. This vast treasury of knowledge, 
 after having been with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicans 
 during the protectorate, was secured to the public by a statute, 13 William 
 III. 1701. It was removed to Es.sex-house in 1712; and in 1730 to Dean's- 
 yard, Westminster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books sustained 
 damage by fire. The library was removed to the British Museum in 1753. 
 
 COUNCILS. An English council is of very early origin. The wise Alfred, to 
 whom we are indebted for many excellent institutions, so arranged the busi- 
 ness of the nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils. The first 
 was a select council, to which those only high in the king's confidence were 
 admitted ; here were debated all affairs that were to be laid before the 
 second council, which consisted of bishops and nobles, and resembled the 
 present privj" council, and none belonged to it but those whom the king was 
 pleased to appoint. The third was a general council or assembly of the na- 
 tion, called in Saxon, Wittenagemot. to which quality and offices gave a right 
 to sit independent of the king. In these three councils we behold the origin 
 of the cabinet and privy councils, and the antiquity of parliaments ; but the 
 term cabinet council is of a much more modern date, according to lord Clar- 
 endon. — See Cabinet Council, Common CouncU, Privy Council, &.C. 
 
 COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH, The following are among the most memorable 
 Christian councils, or councils of the Church of Rome. Most other councils 
 (tJie list of which would make a volume) either respected national churches 
 or ecclesiastical government. Sir Harris Nicolas enumerates 1604 councils. 
 
 The second Lateran, tenth General, In- 
 nocent II. presided ; the preservation 
 of the temporal ties of ecclesiastics, 
 the priticipal subject, which occa- 
 sioned the attendance of 1000 fa- 
 thers of the church - - A. D. 
 
 The third Lateran, eleventh General ; 
 held against schismatics - - 1179 
 
 Fourth Lateran, twelfth General ; 400 
 bishops and 1000 abbots attended ; 
 Innocent III. presided • - - 1215 
 
 Of Lyons, the thirteenth General, under 
 pope Innocent IV. - - -1^5 
 
 Of Lyons, the fourteenth General, under 
 Gregory X. - - - - 1274 
 
 Of Vienne in Dauphine, the fifteenth 
 General ; Clement V. presided, and 
 the kings of France and Arragon at- 
 tended. The order of the Knight 
 Templars suppressed - - • 1311 
 
 Of Pisa, the sixteenth General; Gre- 
 gory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed, 
 and Alexander elected 
 
 Of Constance, the seventeenth General ; 
 Martin V. is elected pope ; and John 
 Huss and Jerome of Prague con- 
 demned to be burnt 
 
 Of Basil, the eighteenth General 
 
 The fifth Lateran, the nineteenth Gene- 
 ral, begun by Julius I!. 
 
 Continued under Leo X. for the sup- 
 pression of the Pragmatic sanction of 
 France, against the council of Pisa, 
 &c. till - - - - - 151/ 
 
 Of Trent, the twentieth and last Gene- 
 ral council, styled Oecumenical, as re- 
 garding the affairs of all the Chris- 
 tian world ; it was held to condemn 
 the doctrines of the reformers, Luther, 
 Zuinglius, and Calvin. — Abbe Lenglet 1546 
 
 Of the Apostles at Jerusalem - a.» 
 
 Of the western bishops at Aries, in 
 France, to suppress the Donatists ; 
 three fathers of the English church 
 went over to attend it - 
 
 The first CEcumanical or General Ni- 
 cene, held at Nice, Constantine the 
 Great presided ; Arius and Eusebius 
 condemned for heresy. This council 
 composed the Nicene Creed - 
 
 At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athana- 
 sius was canvassed 
 
 The first held at Constantinople, when 
 the Arian heresy gained ground 
 
 At Rome, concerning Athanasius, which 
 lasted eighteen months 
 
 At Sardis ; 370 bishops attended 
 
 Of Rimini ; 400 bishops attended, and 
 Constantine obliged them to sign a 
 new confession of faith 
 
 The second General at Constantinople ; 
 350 bishops attended, and pope Da- 
 masius presided 
 
 The third at Ephesus, when pope Ce- 
 lestine presided 
 
 Fourth at Chalcedon ; the emperor Mar- 
 cian and his empress attended 
 
 The fifth at Constantinople, when pope 
 Vigilius presided 
 
 The sixth u.t Constantinople, when pope 
 Agatho presided 
 
 Authority of the six general councils re- 
 established by Theodosius 
 
 The second Nicene council, seventh Ge- 
 neral ; 350 bishops attended - 
 
 Of Constantinople, eighth General ; the 
 emperor Basil attended 
 
 The first Lateran, the ninth General; 
 the right of ii ivestitures settled by 
 treaty between pope Calixtus II. and 
 she emoerov Henry V. - - 1122 
 
 314 
 
 - 325 
 1- 
 
 - 335 
 
 a37 
 
 342 
 
 347 
 
 359 
 
 381 
 
 - 431 
 451 
 553 
 
 - 680 
 e- 
 
 - 715 
 
 787 
 
 - 869 
 
 1139 
 
 1109 
 
 1114 
 1131 
 
 1513 
 
280 THE WOULD's PHOGRESS. [ COY 
 
 COUNCILS, French Republican. The council of Ancients was an assembly 
 of revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov. 
 1, 1795, together with the council of Five Hundred; the executive was a 
 Directory of Five. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five Hundred at St. 
 Cloud, Nov 9, 1799, declaring himself, Roger Ducos, and Sieves, consuls pro- 
 visoires. — See France. 
 
 COUNSEL. See Barristers. Counsel who were guilty of deceit or collusion 
 were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edward L, 1284. Coun- 
 sel were allowed to persons charged with treason, by act 8 William IH. 1696. 
 Act to enable persons indicted of felony to make their defence by counsel, 
 6 & 7 William IV., Aug. 1836. 
 
 COUNTIES. The division of England into counties began, it is said, with king 
 Alfred ; but some counties bore their present names a century before. The 
 division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. County courts were 
 instituted in the reign of Alfred, 896. Counties tirst sent members to par- 
 liament, before which period knights met in their own counties, 1259. — See 
 Commons, and Parliament. 
 
 COURIERS OR POSTS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus ; and 
 Herodotus says that they were common among the Persians. But it does 
 not appear that the Greeks or Romans had regular couriers till the time of 
 Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24, b. c. Couriers or posts are 
 said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. 
 The couriers or posts for letters were established in the early part of the 
 reign of Louis XL of France, owing to this monarch's extraordinary eager- 
 ness for news. They were the first institution of the kind in Europe, a. d. 
 1463. — Henault. 
 
 COURTS. Courts of justice were instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. — See Areopa- 
 gitcB. There were courts for the distribution of justice in Athens, in 1272 
 B. c. — Blair. They existed under various denominations in Rome, and other 
 countries. 
 
 COURT OF HONOR. In England, the court of chivalry, of which the lord high 
 constable was a judge, was called Curia Militaris in the time of Henry IV., 
 and subsequently the Court of Honor. In the States of Bavaria, in order to 
 prevent duelling, a court of honor was instituted in April, 1819. In these 
 countries, Mr. Joseph Hamilton has ardently labored to establish similar in- 
 stitutions. 
 
 COVENANTERS. The name which was particularly applied to those persons 
 who in the reign of Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby 
 mutually engaging to stand by each other in opposition to the projects of 
 the king ; it was entered into in 1638. The covenant or league between 
 England and Scotland, was formed in 1643; it was declared to be illegal by 
 parliament, 14 Charles II., 1662. 
 
 (JOVENTRY, PEEPING TOM of. The great show fair of Coventry owes its 
 origin to the following tradition : — Leofric, earl of Mercia, had imposed such 
 heavy taxes on the citizens, his lady, Godiva, moved by their entreaties, 
 importuned her lord to remit them, and he consented on the condition of her 
 riding naked through the city at mid-day. Her humanity induced her to 
 consent, and she so disposed her flowing tresses as to hide her person ; and 
 ordering all the inhg,bitants, on pain of death, to close their doors and win- 
 dows, she rode quite naked through the town. One person, yielding to 
 curiosity, stole a glance at the countess, and was struck dead ; and has been 
 famed ever since under the name of Peeping Tom, and his effigy is shown 
 to this day. To commemorate this event, a. d. 1057, at the great show fair 
 the mayor and corporation walk in procession through the town, accom- 
 
ore] dictionary of dates. 2Sl 
 
 paniod by a female on horseback, clad in a linen dress closely fitted to lier 
 limbs. 
 
 COW-POCK INOCULATION. This species of inoculation, as a security 
 against the small-pox, was introduced by Dr. Jenner, and it became general 
 in 1799. The genuine cow-pox appears in the form of vesicles on the 
 teats of the cow, and was first noticed by Dr. Jenner, in 1796. He was re- 
 warded by parliament with the mui.iticent grant of i;10,000, June 2, 1802.— 
 See Inoculation, Small-Pox, Vaccination. 
 
 CRACOW. The Poles elect Cracus for their duke, and he builds Cracow with 
 the spoils taken from the Franks, a. d. 700, et seq. Taken by Charles XII. 
 in 1702 ; taken and retaken by the Russians and confederates on the ono 
 side and the patriotic people on the other several times. Kosciusko expel- 
 led the Russian garrison from the city, March 24, 1794. It surrendered to 
 the Prussians, June 15, same year. Formed into a republic in 1815. Occu- 
 pied by 10,000 Russians who followed there the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831. 
 Its independence extinguished ; seized by the emperor of Austria, and in- 
 corporated with the Austrian empire, November, 1846. — See Poland. 
 
 CRANES. They are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes may 
 be so called. The theory of the inclined plain, the pulley, &c. are also his, 
 220 B. c. — Livy. 
 
 CRANIOLOGY. The science of animal propensities. Dr. Gall, a German, 
 started this new doctrine respecting the brain, in 1803. Dr. Spurzheim fol- 
 lowed, and by his expositions gave a consistency to the science, and it seems 
 to be rapidly gaining ground ; it has now many professors, and in almost all 
 countries craniology is countenanced by learned and enhghtened men. The 
 science assigns the particular locations of certain organs, or as many differ- 
 ent seats of the most prominent operations of the mind. 
 
 CRANMER, LATIMER, and RIDLEY. Illustrious names in the list of Eng 
 lish martyrs of the reiformed religion. Ridley, bishop of London, and Lati- 
 mer, bishop of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 1555^; and Cran 
 mer, archbishop of Canterbury, March 21, 1556. His love of life had in- 
 duced Cranmer, some time previously, in an unguarded moment, to sign a 
 paper wherein he condemned the Reformation ; and when he was led to the 
 stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretched forth his right hand, 
 with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before 
 the rest of his body, exclaiming from time to time, " This unworthy hand !" 
 Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired with the dying prayer of the first 
 martyr of the Christian church, "Lord Jesus, receive my spirit!" 
 
 CRAPE. A lis:ht kind of stuff like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and 
 twisted on the mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said 
 some crape was made by St. Badour, when queen of France, about a. d. 680. 
 It was first made at Bologna, and in modern times has been principally used 
 for mourning. 
 
 CRA\fONS. They were known in France before a. d. 1422— improved by 
 L'Oriot, 1748. 
 
 CREATION OF THE WORLD. It was placed by Usher, Blair, and Duf\-esnoy, 
 4004 B. c. Josephus makes it 4658 years. — Whiston. The first date agrees 
 with the common Hebrew text, and the vulgate Latin translation of the Old 
 Testament. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the creation: 
 some place it 3616 years before the birth of our Saviour. Plato, in his dia- 
 logue entitled Critias, asserts his celebrated Atalanbis to have been buried 
 in the ocean about 9000 years before the age in which he wrote. The Clii- 
 nese represent the world as having existed some hundreds of thousands of 
 years ; and we are told th^t the astronomical records of the ancient ChaJ- 
 
282 THE world's progress. [ oai 
 
 deans carried back the origin of society to a period of no less than 473,000 
 years. 
 
 CREATION, Era of the. In use by many nations. This era would be found 
 convenient, by doing away with the difficulty and ambiguity of counting 
 before and after any particular date, as is necessary when the era begins at 
 a later period ; but, unfortunately, writers are not agreed as to the right 
 time of commencing. This epoch is fixed by the Samaritan Pentateuch at 
 4700 B. c. The Septuagint makes it 5872. The authors of the Talmud 
 make it 5344 ; and different chronologers, to the number of 120, make it 
 vary from the Septuagint date to 3268. Dr. Hales fixed it at 5411 ; but the 
 Catholic church adopted the even number of 4000, and subsequently, a cor- 
 rection as to the birth of Christ adds four years : therefore, it is now gener- 
 ally considered as 4004 years, which agrees with the modern Hebrew text. 
 
 CREED. The Apostles' Creed is supposed to have been written a great while 
 after their time. — Pardon. It was introduced formally into public worship 
 in the Greek church at Antioch, and subsequently into the Roman churcli. 
 This creed was translated into the Saxon tongue, about a. d. 746. The 
 Nicene Creed takes its name from the council by whom it was composed, in 
 A D. 325. The Athanasian Creed is supposed to have been written about 
 340. — See Apostles' , Niceyie, and other creeds. 
 
 CRESSY, OR CRECY, Battle of. Edward III. and his son, the renowned Ed- 
 ward the Black Prince, obtained a great and memorable victory over Philip, 
 king of France, Aug. 26, 1346. This was one of the most glorious triumphs 
 ever achieved by English arms. John, duke of Bohemia ; James, king of 
 Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes) ; a number of French 
 nobles, together with 30.000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the 
 English was very small. The crest of the king of Bohemia was three ostrich 
 feathers, with the motto '"/cA Dien" in English, " I serve ;" and in memory 
 of this victory it has since been adopted by the heirs to the crown of Eng- 
 land. — Froissart, Carte ^ Huvie. 
 
 CRESTS. The ancient warriors wore crests to strike terror into their enemies 
 by the sight of the spoils of the animals they had killed. The origin of 
 crests is ascribed to the Carians. In English heraldry, are several represen- 
 tations of Richard I., 1189, with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume 
 of feathers ; and after his reign most of the English kings have crowns 
 above their helmets; that of Richard .II., 1377, was surmounted by a lion 
 on a cap of dignity. In later reigns, the crest was regularly borne as well 
 on the helmet of the kings, as on the head-trappings of their horses. 
 
 CRETE. Now Candia, ^uhich see. This island was once famous for its hundred 
 cities, and for the laws wffich the wisdom of Minos established about 1015 
 B. c. Some authors reckon the Labyrinth of Crete as one of the seven won- 
 ders of the world. Crete became subject to the Roman empire, 68 b. c. It 
 was conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 808 ; taken by the Greeks, 961 ; passed 
 into the hands of the Venetians, 1194 : and was taken from them by the 
 Turks, in 1669. — Priestley. 
 
 CRIME. " At the present moment," observes a popular English wi-iter, 'a 
 one-fifteenth part of the whole population of the United Kingdom is sub- 
 sisting by the lowest and most degrading prostitution ; another fifteenth 
 have no means of support but by robbery, swindling, pickpocketing, and 
 every species of crime ; and five-fifteenths of the people are what are denomi- 
 nated poor, living from hand to mouth, and daily sinking into beggary, and, 
 as an almost necessary consequence, into crime."' A comparative view of 
 foreign coimtries with Great Britain demonstrates the effects of poverty and 
 ignorance on the great mass of the population. In North America pauper- 
 ism is almost unknown, and one fourth of the people are educated ; pro- 
 
CnO j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 283 
 
 meditated murder is alone capital ; imprisonment for debt has, in several 
 states, been abolished, and crimes, particularly of enormity, are exceedingly 
 rare. The Dutch, who possess a competency, and are generally educated, 
 are comparatively free from grave offences ; and France affords a remark- 
 able illustration in the same way. But in the United Kingdom, the differ- 
 ence is painfully exemplified : — 
 
 Scotland. England. Ireland. 
 Instr iction to the people - - - 1 in 11 - 1 in 20 - 1 in 35 
 
 Criminals among the people - 1 in 5093 - I in 920 - 1 in 468 
 
 There was recently a revision of the English criminal code, and several 
 acts have been passed calculated to reduce the amount of crime, and miti- 
 gate the severity of its punishment. An act for improving the criminal law 
 of England, passed 8 George IV., 1827. An act for consohdating and 
 revising the laws relating to crime, conformably with Mr. Peel's digest, 
 passed 9 George IV., 1828. Hanging criminals in chains was abolished by 
 statute 4 William IV., 1834. See Executions, Hanging, Triali, &,c- — Haydn. 
 
 <!!RIMEA. The ancient Taurica Chersonesus. Settled by the Genoese, in 1193. 
 The Genoese were expelled by the Crim Tartars, in 1474. The khans w^ere 
 tributary to the Turks until 1774. The Russians, with a large army, took 
 possession of this country, in 1783 ; and it was ceded to them the following 
 year; and secured to them in 1791. 
 
 "CRISPIN, The name sometimes given to shoemakers. Crispin and Crispianus 
 were two legendary saints, born at Rome, from whence, it is said, they tra- 
 velled to Soissons, in France, about a. d. 303, to propagate the Christian 
 religion ; and because they would not be chargeable to others for their main- 
 tenance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers ; but the governor of the 
 town discovering them to be Christians ordered them to be decollated. On 
 this account, the shoemakers, since that period, have made choice of them 
 as their tutelar saints. 
 
 CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 b. c— Blair. Of this class 
 were Varro, Cicero, Appolonius, and many distinguished men. In modern 
 times, the Journal de Scavans was the earliest work of the system of period- 
 ical criticism, as it is now known, It was originated by Dennis de Sallo, 
 ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and was first published 
 at Paris, May 30, 1665, and continued for nearly a century. The first work 
 of this kind in England, was called the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term 
 being invented by himself) published in Feb. 1703. The Waies of Litera- 
 ture was commenced in 1714, and was discontinued in 1722. The Monthly 
 Review, which may be said to have been the third work of this nature in 
 England, was published 1749. The Critical Review appeared in 1756; the 
 Edinburgh Review, in 1802 ; and London Quarterly in 1809. The American 
 Review, established in N. Y. 1799, was the first Review in the U. S. The 
 North American Revievj was established by Wm. Tudor in 1818 ; the AmeH- 
 can Qtiarterly, by Robert Walsh, at Phila., 1827; the New York Review, by 
 Prof C. S. Henry, 1835; the Southern Quarterly, at Charleston, 1842. See 
 Periodicals. The legality of fair criticism was established in the English 
 courts, in Feb 1794, when an action that excited great attention, brought 
 by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was de- 
 termined in favor of the defendant, on the principle that criticism, however 
 sharp, if just and not malicious, is allowable. See Reviews, &c. 
 
 CROCKER V. In use, and made mention of, as produced by the Egyptians and 
 Greeks, so early as 1390 b. c. The Romans excelled in this kind of ware, 
 many of their domestic articles being of earthen manufacture. Crockery,, 
 of a fine kind, in various household utensils, was made at Faenza, in Italy, 
 about A.D. 1310; and it is still caW'td. fa.yence in French. See Earthenivcure, 
 
284 THE world's progress. r oul 
 
 CROWN. "The ancientest mention of a royal crown is in the holy story 
 of the Araalekites bringing Saul's crown to David." — Selden. The first Ro- 
 man who wore a crown was Tarquin, 616 b. c. The crown was first a fillet 
 tied round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and 
 also of stuffs adorned with jewels. The royal crown was first -vorn in En- 
 gland by Alfred, in a. d. 872. The first crown or papal cap was used by 
 pope Damasius II., in 1053; John XIX. first encompassed it with a crown, 
 1276; Boniface VIII. added a second crown in 1295 ; and Benedict XII, form- 
 ed the tiara, or triple crown, about 1334. The pope previously wore a crowB 
 with two circles. — Rainaldl. 
 CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Egyptians, 
 Persians, Greeks, Romans, and Jews, and esteemed the most dreadful on 
 account of the shame attached to it: it was usually accompanied by other 
 tortures. Among early accounts may be mentioned, that Ariarathes of Cap- 
 padocia, when vanquished by Perdiccas, was discovei^d among the prison- 
 ers ; and by the conqueror's orders the unhappy monarch was flayed alive, 
 and then nailed to a cross, with his principal oflScers. in the eighty-first year 
 of his age, 322 b. c. Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constan- 
 tino, A. D. 330. — Lenglet. See Death, Punishment of. 
 CRUSADES, OR Holy Wars. (In French, Croisades.) Undertaken by the Chris- 
 tian powers to drive the infidels from Jerusalem, and the adjacent countries, 
 called the Holy Land. They were projected by Peter Gautier, called Peter 
 the Hermit, an enthusiast, and French officer of Amiens, who had quitted 
 the military profession and turned pilgrim. Having travelled to the Holy 
 Land, he deplored, on his return, to pope Urban II. that infidels should be in 
 possession of the famous city where the author of Christianity first promul- 
 gated his sacred doctrines. Urban convened a Council of 310 bishops at 
 Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Christian poten- 
 tates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe to a 
 general war, a. d. 1094. The first crusade was published; an army of 300,- 
 000 men was raised, and Peter had the direction of it, 1095. — Voltaire. The 
 holy warriors Avore a red cross upon the right shoulders, with the name of 
 Croises, Crossed, or Crusaders; their motto was Volonte de Dieu, "God's 
 will." The epidemical rage for crusading now agitated Europe, and in the 
 end, these unchristian and iniquitous wars against the rights of mankind, 
 cost the lives of 2 000,000 of men.— Voltaire. 
 CUBA. Discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, in 1492. It was conquered 
 by Valasquez, in 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. The Buccaneer Mor- 
 gan took Havana in 1069. See Buccaneers. The fort here was erected by 
 admiral Vernon, in 1741. Havana was taken by admiral Pococke and lord 
 Albermarle in 1762, but was restored at the peace, in 1763. Attempt of 
 Lopez and his 400 followers, landing at Cardenas, to stir up a revolution, 
 defeated May, 1850. 
 CUBIT. This was a measure of the ancients, and is the first measure we rea I 
 of; the ark of Noah was made and measured by cubits. — HoUen. The Fe- 
 brew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven Eng\sh 
 feet. Originally it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards to ihe 
 cxtremitj^ of the middle finger. — Calviet. 
 CUCUMBITRS. They grew formerly in great abundance in Palestine and 
 Egypt, where, it is said, they constituted the greater part of the food of tho 
 poor and slaves. This plant is noticed by Virgil, and other ancient poets. 
 It was brought to England from the Netherlands, about 1538. 
 CULLODEN, Battle of. In which the English, under William duke of Cum- 
 berland, defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, the 
 last of the Stuarts, near Inverness,. April 16, 1746. The Scots lost 2500 mea 
 
UYC J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 285 
 
 in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred in the pursiut, 
 while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. The duke's army prac- 
 tised great cruelties upon the vanquished, as well as upon the defenceless 
 inhabitants of the adjacent districts after the battle. — Smollett. Immediately 
 after the engagement, Prince Charles sought safety by flight, and continued 
 wandering among the frightful wilds of Scotland for six months, while 30,- 
 000/. were offered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were 
 constantly in search. He at length escaped from the Isle of Uist to Morlaix, 
 and died at Rome, in 1788. 
 
 OiRACOA. In the Caribbean Sea, seized by Holland, in 1634. In 1800, the 
 French having settled on part of this island, and becoming at variance with 
 the Dutch, the latter surrendered the island to i single British frigate. It 
 was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1802, and taken from them by a 
 British squadron, in 1807, and again restored by the peace of 1814. 
 
 CURFEW BELL. From the French couvre feu. This wjtS a Norman institu- 
 tion, introduced into England in the reign of William I , a. d. 1068. On the 
 ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening, all fires and candles 
 were to be extinguished, under a severe penalty. — Rapin. The curfew was 
 abolished 1 Hen. I., a. d. 1100. 
 
 CURRANTS. They were brought from Zante, and the tree planted in England 
 1533. The hawthorn currant-tree {Bibes ozyacanthoides) came from Canada 
 in 1705. 
 
 CUSTOM. This is a law, not written, but established by long usage and con- 
 sent. By lawyers and civihans it is defined lex non scripta^ and it stands 
 opposed to lex scripta, or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is 
 derived from a. d, 1189, downwards. Sixty years is binding in civil law, 
 and forty years in ecclesiastical cases. 
 
 CUSTOMS. They were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethel- 
 red II., in 979. The king's claim to them by grant of parliament was estab- 
 lished 3 Edward I., 1274. The customs were farmed to Mr. Thomas Smith, 
 for 20,000Z. for several years, in the reign of Elizabeth. — Stowe. They were 
 farmed by Charles II. for 390,000Z. in the year 1666. — Davenant. 
 
 In 1530 they amounted to - - jE14,000 
 
 In 1592 ditto - - - 50,000 
 
 In 1614 ditto - - 148,000 
 
 In 1622 ditto . . - 168,000 
 
 In 1642 ditto - - 500,000 
 
 In 1720 ditto - - - 1,555,600 
 
 The customs in Ireland were, in the year 1224, viz., on every sack of wool 
 M. ; on every last of hides, Qd. ; and 2rf. on every barrel of wine. — Aimals 
 of Dublin. Custom-house officers, and officers of excise, were disquahfied 
 from voting for the election of members of parliament, by statute 22 George 
 III., 1782. See Revenue. 
 
 CUSTOMS (DUTIES) in the UNITED STATES. The amounts collected 
 were, in 
 
 In 1748 they amounted to - je2,000,000 
 
 In 1808 ditto - - 9,973.240 
 
 In 1823 ditto - - - 11,498,762 
 
 In 1830 United Kingdom - - 17,540,323 
 
 In 1835 ditto - - - 18,612,906 
 
 In 1840 ditto - - 19,915,296 
 
 ] 789-9- 
 
 - $4.3^9,473 
 
 1820 
 
 1300 
 
 • 9;080,93S 
 
 1825 
 
 1505 
 
 12.936,487 
 
 1830 
 
 1810 - 
 
 8,-583,309 
 
 1835 
 
 1815 
 
 - 7,282,942 
 
 1840 
 
 $1.5.005,612 
 20,098,714 
 21,922.391 
 19,39i;311 
 13,499,940 
 
 1845 - - $27,528,113 
 
 1846 - . - 26,712,668 
 184? , - 23,747.864 
 1848 - - - ai,757,070 
 
 See Tariff. 
 
 CYCLE. That of the sun is the twenty-eight years before the days of the 
 week return to the same days of the month. That of the moon is nineteen 
 lunar years and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar years. The 
 cycle of Jupiter is sixty years, or sexagenary^ The Paschal cycle, or the 
 time of keeping Easter, was first calculated for the period of 582 years by 
 Victorius. a. d. 463. — Blair. 
 
286 THE world's progress. [ DAQ 
 
 CYCLOPEDIA.— S:je Eiicyclopcsdia. 
 
 CYMBAL. The oldest musical instniment of which we have certain record. 
 I't was made of brass, like a kettle drum, and some think in the same form, 
 but smaller. Xenophon makes mention of the cymbal as a musical instru- 
 ment, whose" invention is attributed to Cybele. by whom, we are told, it was 
 used in her feasts, called the mysteries of Cybele. about 1580 b. c. Tho 
 festivals of Cybele were introduced by Scamander, with the dances of Cory- 
 bantes, at Mount Ida, 1546 b. c. 
 
 CYNICS. The sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes, 396 b. c, — Diog, 
 Laert. He lived in the ninety-fourth Olympiad. — Pardon. These philoso- 
 phers valued themselves for contemning all worldly things, and even all 
 sciences, except morality ; they were very free in reprehending vice, and did 
 all their actions publicly, and practised the greatest obscenities without 
 blushing. — Idem. Diogenes was one of this sect. They generally slept on 
 the ground. — Diog. Laert. 
 
 CYPRUS. An island, whose inhabitants anciently were much given to love 
 and pleasure. — PLvmj. It was divided among several petty kings till the 
 time of Cyrus, who subdued them; it ranked among the proconsular pro- 
 vinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 648; but 
 recovered by the Romans, in 957. Cyprus was reduced by Richard I. of 
 England, in 1191. Taken by the Turks from the Venetians, in 1570.-- 
 Priestley. , 
 
 CYRENAIC SECT. Aristippus the Elder, of Cyrene, was the founder of 
 the Cyrenaici, 392 b. c. They maintained the doctrine that the supreme 
 good of man in this life is pleasure, and particularly pleasure of a sensual 
 kind ; and said that virtue ought to be commended because it gave pleasure, 
 and .only so far as it conduced thereto. The sect flourished for several ages. 
 — Laer. Ar. Cicero. 
 
 CYRENE. Founded by Battus, 630 b. c. Aristgeus, who was the chief of the 
 colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called Pentap- 
 olis, on accotmt of its five towns, namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apol- 
 lonia, and Arsinoe. Cyrene was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97 
 B. c. It is now a desert. — Priestley. 
 
 CZAR, From Caesar, a title of honor assumed by the sovereigns of Russia. 
 Ivan Basilowitz, after having achieved great triumphs over the Tartars, and 
 made many conquests, pursued them to the centre of their own country, and 
 returning in triumph, took the title of Tzar, or Czar (signifying Great King). 
 — Aspiri's Chron. The courts of Europe consented to address the Russian 
 Czar by the title of Emperor in 1722. — Idem. 
 
 D. 
 
 DAGUERREOTY^PE. The name given to a process invented by M. Daguerre of 
 Paris, in 1839, by which perfect fac-similes of objects are transferred upon 
 thin copper plates, plated Avith silver. The images are produced by the ac- 
 tion of light upon the iodine, through the focus of the camera obscura. An 
 apparatus somewhat kindred in design, was in contemplation about the same 
 time by M. Niepc^ and about 5 years previously by Henry Fox Talbot of Lon- 
 don : the original idea, however, is traceable as far back as the days of Roger 
 Bacon. By means of the Talbotype, a recent improvement upon the above 
 process, pictures in colors are produced both on paper and plates. So im- 
 portant a discovery in th^fine arts, was the Daguerreotype deemed by the 
 French government, that it awarded to its inventor a life pension of G00() 
 francs. 
 
LAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 287 
 
 DAMASCUS. This city was in being- in the time of Abraham. — Gen. xir. It 
 is, consequently, one of the most ancient in the world. From the Assyrians, 
 Damascus passed to the Persians, and from them to the Greeks under Alex- 
 ander; and afterwards to the Romans, about 70 b. c. It was taken by the 
 Saracens, a. d. 633 ; by the Turks in 1006; and was destroyed by Tamerlano 
 in 1400. It was in a journej^ to this place that the apostle Paul was miracu- 
 lously converted to the Christian faith, and here he began to preach the 
 gospel, about a. d. 30. Damascus is now the capital of a Turkish pachalic. 
 
 DAMASK LINENS and SILKS. They were tirst manufactured at Damascus, 
 and hence the name, their large fine figures representing flowers, and bein^ 
 raised above the groundwork. They were beautifully imitated by the 
 Dutch and Flemish weavers; and the manufacture was brought to England 
 by artisans who fled from the persecution of the cruel duke of Alva, between 
 the years 1571 and 1573. — Anderso7i. 
 
 DAMON AND PYTHIAS. Pythagorean philosophers. When Damon was con- 
 demned to death b}^ the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, he obtained leave to 
 go and settle some domestic affairs, on a promise of returning at the i. ppoint- 
 ed time of execution, and Pythias being surety for the performance of his 
 engagement. When the fatal hour approached, Damon had not appeared, 
 and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led away to execution; but at 
 this critical moment Damon returned to redeem his pledge, Dionysius was 
 ' so struck with the fidelity of these friends, that he remitted the sentence, 
 and entreated them to permit him to sha-re their friendship, 387 b. c. 
 
 DANCING. The dance to the measure of time was invented by the Curetes. 
 1534 B. c. — Eusebins. The Greeks were the first who united the dance to 
 their tragedies and comedies. Pantomimic dances were first introduced on 
 the Roman stage, 22 b. c. — Usher. Dancing by cinque paces was introduced 
 into England from Italy a. d. 1541. In modern times, the French were the 
 first who introduced ballets analogues in their musical dramas. The country 
 dance {contre-danse) is of French origin, but its date is not precisely known. 
 — Spelman. 
 
 r*ANES, Invasions of the. The invasions of this people were a scourge to 
 England for upwards of two hundred years. During their attacks upon 
 Britain and Ireland, they made a descent on France, where, in 895, under 
 Rollo, they received presents under the walls of Paris. They returned and 
 ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked Italy 
 in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of France to Rollo and his Nor- 
 mans (Northmen), hence Normandy, in 912. 
 
 DANTZLC. A commercial city in a. d. 997. — Buschins. It was built, accord- 
 ing to other authorities, by Waldemar I. in 1169. Seized by the king 
 of Prussia, and annexed to his dominions in 1793. It surrendered to the 
 French after a siege of four months. May 5, 1807 ; and by the treaty of Til- 
 sit, it was restored to its former independen :e, under the protection of 
 Prussia and Saxony. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812; and after 
 a gallant resistance, surrendered to them Jan. 1. 1814. By the treaty of Pan's 
 it again reverted to the king of Prussia. Awful inundation here, owing to 
 the Vistula breaking through its dykes, by which 10,000 head of cattle 
 and 4,000 houses were destroyed, and a vast number of lives lost, April 0, 
 1829. 
 
 liARDANELLES Passage of the. The Dardanelles are two castles, one called 
 Sestos, seated in Romania, the other called Abydos, in Natolia, commanding 
 the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli. They Avere built by the emperor 
 Mahomet IV.. in 1659, and were named Dardanelles from the contiguous 
 toTn of Dardanus. The gallant exploit of forcing the passage of the Dar* 
 
288 THE world's progress. [ DEA 
 
 danelles was achieved by the British squadron under admiral sir John 
 Duckworth; Feb. 19, 1807 ; but the admiral was obliged to repass them, 
 which he did with great loss and immense damage to the fleet, March 2, 
 following, the castles o£ Sestos and Abydos hurling down rocks of stone, 
 each of many tons weight, upon the decks of the British ships. 
 
 DAUPHIN. The title given to the eldest sons of the kings of France, from 
 the province of Dauphind, which was ceded by its last prince, Humbert U. 
 to Philij) of Valois, on the condition that the heirs of the French throno 
 should bear the arms and name of the province, a. d. 1343. — Priestley. 
 
 DrVVISS STRAIT. Discovered by the English navigator, John Davis, whose 
 name it bears, on his voyage to find a North-west passage, in 1585. 
 
 DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, and at sun- 
 set among tha Athenians and Jews. Among the Romans day commenced 
 at midnight, as it now does among us. The Italians in most places, at the 
 present time, reckon the day from sunset to sunset, making their clocks 
 strike twenty-four hours round, instead of dividing the day, as is done in all 
 other countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. This mode is but par- 
 tially used in the larger towns of Italy, most public clocks in Florence, Rome, 
 and Milan, being set to the hour designated on French or English clocks. 
 The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil 
 day is distinguished from the astronomical day, which begins at noon, and is 
 the mode of i-eckoning used in the Nautical Almanac. At Rome, day and 
 night were first divided in time by means of water-clocks, the invention of 
 Scipio Nasica, 158 b. c. — Vossius de Scien. Math. 
 
 DEACON. An order of the Christian priesthood, which took its rise from the 
 instituti->n of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a 
 long period in many churches, about 4. d. 51. See Acts, chap. vi. The 
 original deacons were Philip, Stephen, Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parme- 
 nos. and Nicolas. The qualifications of a deacon are mentioned by St. 
 Paul, 1st Timothy iii. 8-13. 
 
 DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb 
 was made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about a. d. 1570, 
 Bonet, who was also a monk, pxiblished a sj'^stem at Madrid, in 1620. Dr. 
 Vt-allis published a Avork in England on the subject, in 1650. The first 
 regular academy for the deaf and dumb in Great Britain was opened in 
 Edinburgh in 1773. 
 
 DEAF and DUMB, BLIND, and INSANE PERSONS, in the United States. 
 In 1810 there were 6,916 blind persons, or 1 in 2 467 of the population; 
 7 659 deaf and dumb, or 1 in 2 2°28; 17,434 insane and idiotic, or 1 in 979. 
 There were in the United States 23 asylums for the insane, with about 
 2,840 patients. 
 Among the most prominent and successful of the philanthropists who have 
 })romoted the education and good treatment of the above persons in the 
 United States are Dr. Amariah Brigham, of Hartford; Dr. S. G. Howe, of 
 Boston ; Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, Harttord. 
 
 DEATH, Punishment op. Death by drowning in a quagmire was a punish- 
 m<^nt among the Britons before 450 b. c. — Stoioe. The most eulogized 
 heroes of antiquity inflicted death by crucifixion, and even women suffered, 
 on the crcGS, the victims sometimes living in the most excruciating torture 
 many days. A most horrifying instance of death by torture occurs in the 
 fate of Mithiidates, an assassin of Xerxes. See a note to the article Persia; 
 see also Rav lilac; Boiling to Death; Burnirig to Death. &c. Maurice, the 
 son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, and quartered for piracy, the first 
 eicecution in that manner in England, 25 Henry III., 1241. The punishment 
 
DEL j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 289 
 
 of death was abolished in a great number of cases by j\Ir. Peel's acts, 1824-0 
 in other cases 1832, for forg-ery 1837. Capital punishment, except in cases 
 of martial law, abolished by Prussia, and by German parliament, at Frank- 
 fort, same day, Aug-ust 4, 1848, 
 
 DECEMBER. In the year of Romulus this was the tenth month of the 
 year, called so from decern, ten, the Romans commencing their year in 
 March. Numa introduced January and February before the latter month, 
 in 73 J B. c, and from thenceforward December became the twelfth of the 
 year 
 
 J>}ICEM VIRI. Ten magistrates, who were chosen annually at Rome to go- 
 vern the commonwealth instead of consuls ; first instituted 450 b. c. — Livy, 
 The decem viral power became odious on account of their tyranny, and the 
 attempt of Appius Claudius to defile Virginia, and the office was abolished, 
 the people demanding from the senate to burn the decemviri alive. Con- 
 suls were again appointed, and tranquillity restored. — See Virginia. 
 
 DEEDS. They were formerly written in the Latin and French languages : the 
 earliest known instance of the English tongue having been used in deeds, i8 
 that of the indenture between the abbot and convent of Whitby, and Robert, 
 the son of John Bustard, dated at York, in the year 1343. The English 
 tongue was ordered to be used in all law pleadings in 1364. Ordered to be 
 used in all law-suits in May, 1731. 
 
 DEFENDER of the FAITH. Fidei Defensor. A title conferred by Leo X. 
 on Henry VIII. of England. The king" wrote a tract in behalf of the Church 
 of Rome, then accounted Domicilium fidei CatlioliccB, and against Luther, 
 who had just begim the Reformation in Germany, upon which the pope gave 
 him the title of Defender of the Faith, a title still retained by the monarchs 
 of Great Britain: the bull conferring it bears date Oct. 9, 1521. 
 
 DEGREES. The first attempt to determine the length of a degree is recorded 
 as having been made, by Eratosthenes, about 250 b. c. — Stiellius. The first 
 degree of longitude was fixed by Hipparchus of Nice (by whom the latitude 
 Avas determined also), at Ferro, one of the Canary islands, whose most west- 
 ern point was made the first general meridian, 162 b. c. Several nations 
 have fixed their meridian from places connected with their own territories ; 
 and thus the English compute their longitude from the meridian of Green- 
 wich. See Latitude, Longitude, and the various Collegiate degrees. 
 
 DEISM. This denomination was first assumed about the middle of the six- 
 teenth century by some gentlemen of France and Italy, in order thus to 
 disguise their opposition to Christianity by a more honorable appellation 
 than that of Atheism. — Virofs Instruction Chretienne, 1563. Deism is a 
 rejection of all manner of revelation : its followers go merely by the hght 
 of nature, believing that there is a God, a providence, vice and virtue, and 
 an after state of punishments and rewards : it is sometimes called free-think- 
 ing. The first deistical writer of any note in England, was Herbert, baron 
 of Cherbury, in 1624. The most distinguished deists were Hobbes, Tindal, 
 Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Hume, Holcroft, and Godwin. 
 
 DELAWARE. The smallest of the U. States except R. Island. First settled 
 in 1630, by the Swedes and Fins under the patronage of Gustavus Adolplms 
 and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by tl e 
 Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English m 
 1664, and then named Delaware. The duke of York granted it to Wni. 
 Penn, in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1775. 
 This state bo-e an honorable part in the revolution, and suffered mucli in 
 the struggle, She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. by a unanimous 
 
 - 13 
 
290 THE world's mOGRESS. f DEN 
 
 vote ill convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population,— 1790, 59.1)94; 1840, 78,085; 
 including 2,605 slaves. 
 
 1>£LHL The once gi-eat capital of the Mogul empire: 't is now in decay, hut 
 contained a million of inhahitants, in 1700. In 17o8, Avhen Nadir Shah 
 invaded Hindoostan, he entered Delhi, and dreadful massacres and famine 
 followed : 100 000 of the inhabitants perished by the sword; and plunder to 
 the amount of 62,000,000^ sterling was said to be collected. 
 
 DELPHI. Celebrated for its oracles delivered by Pythia, in the temple of 
 Apollo, which was built, some say, by the council of the Amphictyous, 
 1263 B.C. The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came 
 to consult the oracle, and was supposed to be suddenly inspired. The tem- 
 ple was burnt by the Pisistratidse, 548 b. c. A new temple was raised by the 
 Alctnasonidge, and was so rich in donations that at one time it was plundered 
 by the people of Phocis of 20,000 talents of gold and silver ; and Nero car- 
 ried from it 500 costly statues. The first Delphic, or sacred war, concerning 
 the temple was 449 b. c. The second sacred war was commenced < a Delphi 
 being attacked by the Phocians, 356 b. c. — Du Presnoy. 
 
 DELUGE, THE GENEPtAL. The deluge was threatened in the year of the 
 world 1536; and it began Dec. 7, 1656, and continued 377 daj's. The ark 
 rested on Mount Ararat, May 6, 1657 ; and Noah left the ark, Dec. 18, follow- 
 ing. The year corresponds with that of 2348 Bi c. — Blair. The following 
 are the epochs of the deluge, according to the table of Dr. Hales. 
 
 Septuagint b. c. 3246 
 
 Persian - b. c. 3103 
 
 Jackaon - 3170 
 
 Hindoo - -3102 
 
 Hales - - 3155 
 
 Samaritan - - 2998 
 
 Josephus - 3146 
 
 Howard - - 2698 
 
 Playfair - b. c. 2352 
 Usher - - 2348 
 English Bible - 2348 
 Marsham - -2344 
 
 Petavius - b. c. 2329 
 Strauchuis - 2293 
 Hebrew - - 2288 
 Vulgar Jewish 2104 
 
 Some of the states of Europe were alarmed, we are told, by the prediction 
 (!) that another general deluge would occur, and arks were everywhere built 
 to guard against the calamity; but the season happened to be a very fine 
 dry one, a. d. 1524. 
 
 DELUGE OF DEUCALION. The fabulous one, is placed 1503 b. c. according 
 to Eusebi'us. This flood has been often confounded by the ancients with the 
 general flood: but it was 845 years posterior to that event, and was merely 
 a local inundation, occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus, whose 
 course was stopped by an earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and 
 Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha, and 
 .some of their subjects, saved themselves by climbing up Mount Parnassus. 
 
 DELUGE OF OGYGES. In the reign of Ogyges v/as a deluge which so inun- 
 dated the territories of Attica that they lay waste for near 200 years ; it 
 occurred before the deluge of Deucalion, about 1764 b. c. — Blair. Butfon 
 thinks that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and arose froja 
 , the Atlantic and Bosphorus bursting into the valley of the Mediterranean. 
 
 DEMERARA and ESSEQUIBO. These colonies, founded by the Dutch, were 
 taken by the British, 1796. but were restored at the peace of 1802. Demarara 
 and Essequibo again surrendered to the British under general Grinfield and 
 commodore Hood, Sept. 20, 1803. They are now fixed Enghsh colonies. 
 
 DENMARK. The most ancient inhabitants of this kingdom were the Cimbri 
 and the Teutones. who were driven out by the Jutes or Gcths. The Teutones 
 sottlsd in Germany and Gaul ; the Cirabrians invaded Italy, where they were 
 defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland obtains its name from the 
 Tutes ; and the general name of Denmark is supposed to be derived from 
 Dan, the founder of the Danish monarchy, and mark, a German word signi- 
 fying country, z. e. Dan-mark, the country of Dan. 
 
D£LN 
 
 DICIIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 291 
 
 DENMARK, continued. 
 
 Reign of Sciold, first king - b. c. 60 
 
 Tile Danish clironicles mention 18 kings 
 to the time of Ragnor Lodbrog - a. d. 750 
 
 [Ragnor is killed in an attempt to i*:- 
 vade England, and for more thai 200 
 years from this time tlie Danes. were 
 a terror to the northern nations of Eu- 
 rope, and at length conquering all 
 England. SeeZ^apes.] 
 
 Reign of Canute the Great - • 1014 
 
 Reign of Waldemar the Great - -1157 
 
 Waldemar II., with a fleet of 1000 sail, 
 makes immense conquests - - 1^23 
 
 Gothland conquered - - - 1347 
 
 Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are 
 united into one kingdom - - 1397 
 
 Revolt of the Swedes - • -1414 
 
 The nations reunited - - - 1439 
 
 Copenhagen made the capital - - 1440 
 
 Accession of Christian I., from whom 
 the present royal family springs - 1448 
 
 Christian II. is deposed, and the inde- 
 pendence of Sweden acknowledged - 1523 
 
 Lutheranism established by Christian 
 III. 1536 
 
 Danish East India Company established 
 by Christian IV. - - - - 1612 
 
 Christian IV. cliosen head of the Pro- 
 testant league - - - - 1629 
 
 Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades 
 Denmark, besieges Copenhagen, and 
 makes large conquests • - 1658 
 
 The crown made hereditary and abso- 
 lute 1660 
 
 Frederick IV. takes Holstein, Sleswick, 
 Tonningen, and Stralsund ; reduces 
 Weismar, and drives the Swedes out 
 of Norway - - - 1716 et seq. 
 
 Copenhagen destroyed by a fire which 
 consumes 1650 houses, 5 churches, the 
 university, and 4 colleges - - 1728 
 
 The peaceful reign of Cliristian VI., 
 who promotes the happiness of his 
 subjects .... 1730 
 
 Christian VII. in a fit of jealousy sud- 
 denly confines his queen, Caroline 
 Matilda, sister of George III. who is 
 afterwards banished. See Zell Jan. 18, 1772 
 
 The counts Struensee and Brindt Jfe 
 seized at the same time, on the charge 
 of a criminal intercourse with the 
 queen; and the former confessing to 
 avoid the torture, both are beheaded 
 for high treason - April 28, 1772 
 
 The queen Caroline Matilda dies at 
 Zell - - _ - May 10, 1775 
 
 Christian VII. becomes deranged, and 
 prince Frederick is appointed regent 1784 
 
 One- fourth of Copenhagen is destroy 3d 
 by fire - - - June 9 1793 
 
 Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard 
 Copenhagen, and engage the Danish 
 fleet, taking or destroying IS ships of 
 the line, of whose crews 1800 are kill- 
 ed. The Confederacy of the North 
 (see Armed Neutrality) is thus dis- 
 solved - - - April 2, 1801 
 
 Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart 
 bombard Copenhagen, and seize the 
 Danish fleet oil?, ships of the line, 15 
 fi e'ates, and 37 brigs, &c. • Sept. 7, 1807 
 
 Pomerania and Rugen are annexed to 
 Denmark, in exchange for Norway - 1814 
 
 Commercial treaty with England - 1824 
 
 Frederick bestows a new constitution 
 on his kingdom - - - 1831 
 
 A new constitution offered by Christian 
 VIII. - - - Jan. 20, 1848 
 
 Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein de- 
 mand separation from Denmark 
 
 March, 1848 
 
 The king grants freedom of the press 
 and of public meetings - March, 1848 
 
 Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein re- 
 volt and join the great German na- 
 tion - - - March 26, 1848 
 
 Prussia aids the duchies, and re-organ- 
 izes the Grand Duchy of Posen 
 
 March 26, 1848 
 
 Danes victorious over the Germans, 
 April 10 ; but driven out of Schleswi? 
 
 April 23, 1848 
 
 Truce agreed upon (provisional govern- 
 ment of 5 to rule the duchies mean- 
 while) - - - July 10, 1848 
 
 Armistice till March 1, 1849, signed Aug. 1843 
 (See Copenhagen.) 
 
 KINGS OF DENMARK. 
 
 714 Gorrao I. 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 1014 
 
 750 Ragnor I.odbrog. 
 
 
 
 
 1036 
 
 770 Sisefrid. 
 
 
 
 
 1041 
 
 801 Godefrid. 
 
 
 
 
 1048 
 
 809 Glaus I. 
 
 
 
 
 1079 
 
 811 Hemming. 
 
 
 
 
 1080 
 
 812 Sivvard and Ringon, killed 
 
 nasea 
 
 fight. 
 
 1086 
 
 814 Harold and Regner; 
 
 the 
 
 latter 
 
 made 
 
 1097 
 
 prisoner in Ireland 
 
 and died 
 
 in a 
 
 1106 
 
 dungeon there. 
 
 
 
 
 1135 
 
 849 Si ward II. deposed. 
 
 
 
 
 11.38 
 
 8-56 Eric ; killed in battle 
 
 
 
 
 1147 
 
 858 Eric II. 
 
 
 
 
 
 873 Canute I. 
 
 
 
 
 11.57 
 
 915 Frothon. 
 
 
 
 
 1182 
 
 920 Gormo 11. 
 
 
 
 
 1202 
 
 925 Harold. 
 
 
 
 
 1240 
 
 928 Hardicanute 
 
 
 
 
 1250 
 
 930 Gormo III. 
 
 
 
 
 
 935 Harold III 
 
 
 
 
 1252 
 
 980 Suenoa. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Canute II. the Great. 
 
 Hardicanute II. 
 
 Magnus I. 
 
 Suenon II. • 
 
 Harold IV. 
 
 Canute III. assassinated. 
 
 Olaus II. 
 
 Eric III. 
 
 Nicholas, killed in Sleswick. 
 
 Eric IV., killed at Ripen. 
 
 Eric V. 
 
 Suenon III., beheaded by Waldemar 
 
 for assassinating prince Canute. 
 Waldemar the Great. 
 Canute V. 
 Waldemar II 
 Eric VI. 
 Abel I., killed in an exptditioc against 
 
 the Prisons. 
 Christopher I., ]ioisoned by the bishop 
 
 of Arhus. 
 
292 
 
 TUL. WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 mk 
 
 15'^3 Frederick. 
 
 1534 Chrisiian III. 
 
 1559 Frederick II. 
 
 1588 Christian IV. 
 
 1648 Frederick III. 
 
 1670 Christian V. 
 
 1699 Frederick IV. 
 
 1730 Christian VI. 
 
 1746 Frederick V. 
 
 1766 Chrisiian VII. 
 
 1808 Frederic VI. 
 
 1839 Christian VIII. died Jan. 21, 1648l 
 
 DENMARK, continued. 
 
 1259 Eric VII. assassinated. 
 
 12.86 Eric VIII. 
 
 1319 Christopher II. (An interregnum of 
 
 seven years.) 
 1340 Waldemar III. 
 1375 Olaus III. 
 1375 Margaret I., queen of Denmark and 
 
 Norway. 
 1411 Eric IX., abdicated. 
 1439 Christopher III. 
 
 1448 Christian I. of the house of Oldenburgh. 
 1481 John. 
 1513 Christian II., confined 27 years in a 
 
 dungeon, where he died. 
 
 1>ENIS. St. Aq ancient town of France, six miles Irom Paris to the nortli- 
 ward, the last stage on the road from England to that capital, — famous for 
 its abbey and church, the former abolished at the Revolution; the latter 
 desecrated at the same epoch, after having been the appointed place of 
 sepulture to the French kings, from its foundation by Dagobert, in 613. 
 
 • DEVIL AND DR. FAUSTUS." Faustus, one of the earliest printers, had the 
 policj'^ to conceal his art, and to this policy we are indebted for the tradition 
 of " The Devil and Dr. Faustus." Faustus associated with John of Gut- 
 temberg; their types were cut in wood, and fixed, not movable, as at 
 present. Having printed off numbers of copies of the Bible, to imitate 
 those which were commonly sold in MS., he undertook the sale of them at 
 Paris, where printing was then unknown. As he sold his copies for sixty 
 crowns, while the scribes demanded five hundred, he created universal as- 
 tonishment ; but when he produced copies as fast as they were wanted, and 
 lowered the price to thirty crowns, all Paris was agitated. The uniformity 
 of the copies increased the wonder ; informations were given to the police 
 against him as a magician, and his lodgings being searched, and a great 
 number of copies being found, they were seized. The red ink with which 
 they were embellished was supposed to be his blood, and it was seriously 
 adjudged that he was in league with the devil ; and if he had not fled, he 
 would have shared the fate of those whom superstitious judges condemned 
 in those days for witchcraft, a. d. 1460. Nouv. Diet. See Printing. 
 
 DIADEINI. The band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and 
 which was consecrated to the gods. • At first, this fillet was made of silk or 
 wool, and set with precious stones, and was tied round the temples and 
 forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and let fall on the neck, 
 Aurelian was the first Roman emperor who wore a diadem, a. d. 272. — 
 Tillemont. 
 
 DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c. — Pliny. The first dial of the 
 sun seen at Rome, was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. Papirius 
 Cursor, wRen time was divided into hours, 293 b. c. — Blair. In the times 
 of the emperors almost every palace and public building had a sun-dial. 
 They were first set up in churches in a. d. 613. — Lenglet. 
 
 DIAMONDS. They were first brought to Europe from the East, where the 
 mine of Sumbulpour was the first known; and where the mines of Golconda 
 were discoverd in 1584. This district may be termed the realm of diamonds. 
 The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1728. From these last a diamond, 
 weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, 
 and was valued by M. Romeo de I'lsle at the extravagant sum of 224 mil- 
 lions ; by others it was valued at fifty-six millions : its value was next stated 
 to be three millions and a half; but its true value is 400 OOOZ. The diamond 
 called the "mountain of light," which belonged to the king of C bul, was 
 'the most superb gem ever seen ; it was of the finest Avater, and the size of 
 
©IE J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES 293 
 
 an egg, and was also valued at three millions and a hilf. The great dia- 
 mond of the emperor of Russia weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 12 dwt. 4 gr., 
 troy. The empress Catharine II. offered for it 104,166Z. besides an annuity 
 for life, to the owner, of 1041Z. which was refused ; but it was afterwarda 
 sold to Catharine's favorite, count Orloff, for the first mentioned sum, with- 
 out the annuity, and was by him presented to the empress on her birth- 
 day, 1772 ; it is now in the sceptre of Riissia. The Pitt diamond weighed 
 136 carats, and after cutting 106 carats ; it was sold to the king of France 
 for 125.000Z. in 1720. 
 
 DIANA, TEMPLE of, at EPHESUS. One of the seven wonders of the world, 
 built at the common charge of all the Asiatic States. The chief architect 
 was Ctesiphon ; and Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing 
 this temple, whose riches were immense. It was 425 feet long, 225 broad, 
 and was supported by 127 columns, (60 feet high, each weighing 150 tons 
 of Parian marble,) furnished by so many kings. It w?us set on tire on the 
 night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratus, 
 who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had prompted him 
 to destroy so magnificent an edifice, was the desire of transmitting his name 
 to future ages, 356 b. c. The temple was rebuilt, and again burned by the 
 Goths, in their naval invasion, a. d. 256, Univ. Hist. 
 
 DICTATORS. These were supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, in 
 stituted 498 b. c, when Titus Larcius Flavus, the first dictator, was ap 
 pointed. This office, respectable and illustrious in the first ages of the 
 Republic, became odious by the perpetual usurpations of Sylla and J. 
 Caesar ; and after the death of the latter, the Roman senate, on the motion 
 of the consul Antonj^ passed a decree, which for ever forbade a dictator to 
 exist in Rome, 44 b. c. 
 
 DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing 
 about 40,000 characters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representations 
 somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who 
 lived about 1100 b. c. — Morrison. Cyclopaedias were compiled in the fif- 
 teenth and sixteenth centuries. The first dictionary of celebrity, perhaj)s 
 the first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar, in Latin ; he wrote one 
 in eight languages, about a. d. 1500. — Niceron. The Lexicon Heptaglotto7i 
 was published by Edmund Castell, in 1659. Bayle's dictionary was pub- 
 lished in 1696, " the first work of the kind in which a man may learn to 
 think." — Voltaire. Chambers' Cyclopaedia, the first dictionary of the circle 
 of the arts, sciences, &c., was published in 1728. The great dictionary of 
 the English language, by Samuel Johnson, appeared in 1755. Francis 
 Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, was compiled in 1768 ; and from 
 this period numerous dictionaries have been added to our store of literature, 
 Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two 
 quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven in 1828. It was re- 
 printed in ] adon, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. Numerous 
 abridgments and a new edition of the whole work have since bt^jn published. 
 See Encyclopedia. 
 
 DliCT OP THE GERMAN EMPIRE. The supreme authority of 'Ms empire 
 may be said to have existed in the assemblage of princes undc: this nama. 
 The diet, as composed of three colleges, viz. : — the college of sectors, the 
 college of princes, and the college of imperial towns, commenced with 
 tlie famous edict of Charles IV. 1356. — See Golden Bull. Diets otherwise 
 constituted had long previously been held on important occasions. The 
 diet of Wurtzburg, which proscribed Henry the Lion, was held in 1179. 
 The celebrated diet of Worms, at which Luther assisted in person, was 
 held in 1521. That of Spires, to condemn the Reformers, was held in 1529 ; 
 
294 THE world's progress. j DU 
 
 and the famous i.iet of Augsburg, in 1530. In the league of the German 
 princes, called the confederation of the Rhine, they fixed the diet at Frank- 
 fort, July 12, 1806. A new diet at Frankfort, for the purpose of con- 
 solidating the government of the German States, 1848. See Germany, 
 
 VIEU ET MON DROIT, "God and my right." This was the panic of 
 the day, given by Richard I. of England, to his army at the battle of Gisors, 
 in France. In this battle {which see) the French army was signally defeated ; 
 and in remembrance of this victory, Richard made " Dieu et vion droit " 
 the motto of the royal arms of England, and it has ever since been retained 
 A. D. 1198. — Rijmer's Foidera. 
 
 IHGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was prepared 
 by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian of Cremona, 66 b. c. — Quintil. Inst. Orat. 
 Other digests of Roman laws followed. The Digest, so called by way of 
 eminence, was the collection of laws made by order of the emperor Justi- 
 nian : it made the first part of the Roman law, and the first volume of the 
 civil law. Quotations from it are marked with a ff. — Pardon. 
 
 DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, which were 
 at that period civil governments, is ascribed to Constantino, a. d. 323 ; but 
 Strabo remarks that the Romans had the departments called dioceses long 
 before. — Strabo, lib. xiii. In England these circuits of the bishops' juris- 
 diction are coeval with Christianity ; there are twenty-four dioceses, of 
 which twenty-one are suffragan to Canterbiiry, and three to York. 
 
 DIOCLETIAN ERA. Called also the era of Martyrs, was used by Christian 
 writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the sixth century, and 
 is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on 
 which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, 29th August, 284. 
 It is called the ei-a of martyrs, on account of the persecution of the Chris- 
 tians in the reign of Diocletian. 
 
 DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long previously been an 
 object of wonder and delight at Paris, was first opened in London, Sept. 29, 
 1823. The diorama differs from the panorama in this respect, that, instead 
 of a circular view of the objects represented, it exhibits the whole picture 
 at once in perspective, and it is decidedly superior both to the panorama 
 and the cosmorama in the fidelity with which the objects are depicted, and 
 in the completeness of the illusion. 
 
 DIPLOMACY OF THK UNITED STATES. List of ministers plenipotentiary to 
 Great Britain and France. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIM. , FRANCE. 
 
 1783 .!ohn Adams. | 1776 B. Franklin, S. Dea-ae, & A. Lee, com'ra 
 
 1789 Gouv. Morris, commissioner. j 1790 Wm. Sliort, of Va., charge d'affaires. 
 
 1792 Thomas Pinckney. otS. C, min. plen. I 1792 Gouv. Morris, N. J., minister plea. 
 
 1794 .John .lay, of N. Y. do. I 1799 James Munroe, Va. do. 
 
 1796 Riifus King, do. do. 1796 C. C. Pinckney, S. C. ? ^_ 
 
 '"^" ' " " — • - 1797 E. Gerry & John Marshall, S 
 
 1S03 James Monroe, Va. ) Jointly, 
 lS.>o VVm. Pinckney, Mass. \ in 1806. 
 1308 Wm. Pinckney, do. alone do 
 1315 John Q.iiincy Adams, Mass. do 
 
 1799 Ol. Ellsworth, Patrick Henry, 
 
 and W. Vans Murray, do. 
 1801 .Tames A. Bayard, Del. c'p. 
 
 1817 Richard Rush, Pa. do. | 1801 R. R. Livingston, N. Y. CO 
 
 18-26 Albert Gallatin, N. Y. do 
 
 1828 James Barbour. Va. do. 
 
 1830 Lou\s Mcl^ane, Del. do. 
 
 1831 M. Van Buren. N. Y. do. 
 
 1832 Aaro:. Vail, charge d'affaires. 
 
 1536 And. Stevenson, Va., minister plen. 
 1841 Edward Everett, Mass. do. 
 
 1815 Louis McLjixie, Md. do. 
 
 1846 George Bancroft, Mass. do. 
 
 1849 Abbott Lawrence, do. do. 
 
 1804 John Armstrong, do. do. 
 
 IRll Joel Barlow, Conn. Jo. 
 
 1813 Wm. H. Crawford. Geo. do. 
 
 1815 Albert Gallatin. Pa. do. 
 
 1823 James Brown, La. "lo. 
 
 1830 Wm. (;. Rives, Va. do. 
 
 1833 Edward Livinsston, La. do. 
 
 1836 Lewis Cass, MicJt. ' lO. 
 
 1S44 Wm. R. King. Asa. do. 
 
 1819 W. C. Rives, Va da 
 
WV J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 295 
 
 DIRECT()RY, THE CHURCH. The book so called was published in England 
 at the period of the civil war. It was drawn np at the instance of the par- 
 liament, by an assembly of divines at Westminster, with the object that the 
 ministers might not be wholly at a loss in their devotions after the suppres- 
 sion of the Book of Common Praj^er. There were some general hints given, 
 which were to be managed at discretion, for the Directory prescribed no 
 form of prayer, nor manner of external worship, nor enjoined the people to 
 make any responses, except Amen. The Directory was established by an 
 ordinance of ihe parliament in 1644. — Bishop Taylor, 
 
 DIRECTORY, French. The French Directory was installed at the little I ux- 
 embourg, at Paris, under a new constitution of the government, November 
 1. 1795, and held the executive power four years. It was composed of live 
 members, and ruled in connection with two chambers, the Council of A n- 
 I'ients and Council of Five Hundred, which see. Deposed by Bonaparte, who, 
 with C'ambaceres and Sieyes, became the ruling power of France, the three 
 governing as consuls, the first as chief, Nov. 9, 1799. 
 
 DISSENIERS. The " Dissenters " from the Church of England arose early in 
 the Rc'formation, contending for a more complete departure from the Romish 
 models of church government and disciphne. They were reproached with 
 the name of Puritans, on account of the purity they proposed in religious 
 worship and condiict ; and the rigorous treatment they endured under Eliza- 
 beth and James I. led multitudes of them to emigrate to this coimtry in 
 those reigns. The first place of worship for Dissenters in England was 
 established at \yands worth, near Loudon. Nov. 20, 1572; and now, in Lon- 
 don alone, the number of chapels, meeting-houses, &c., for all classes of Dis- 
 senters, amounts to near 200. The great act for the relief of Dissenters 
 from civil and religious disabilities, was the statute passed 9 George IV. 
 c. 17. By this act. called the Corporation and Test Repeal Act, so much of 
 the several acts of parliament of the preceding reigns as imposed the neces- 
 sity of receiving- the sacrament of the Lord's Supper as a qualification for 
 certain offices, &c. was repealed. May 9, 1828. Several other acts of ameli- 
 orating etFect have been since passed. 
 
 DIVINATION. In the Scriptures we find mention made of different kinds of 
 divination ; and it is mentioned by most of the ancient authors. It was re- 
 tained in the hands of the priests and priestesses, the magi, soothsayers, 
 augurs and otht.'r like professors, till the coming- of Christ, when the doc- 
 trines of Christianity and the spirit of philosopiiy banished such visionary 
 opinions. The oracles of Delphi began 1263 b. c. Augurs were instituted 
 by Numa at Rome, 710 b. c. See Aiig^iry, Witchcraft, <^c. 
 
 DIVING-BELL. First mentioned, though obscurely, by Aristotle, 325, b.c. 
 The diving-bell was first used in Europe, a. d. 1509. It is said to have been 
 used on the coast of Mull, in searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish 
 Armada, before a. d. 1669. Halley greatly improved this machine, and was, 
 it is said, the first who, by means of a diving-bell, set his foot on dry ground 
 at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton applied the condensing-pump to force 
 €lown air. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving-bell iu 
 Ireland, were drowned, June 1. 1783. The Royal George man-of-war. which 
 was sunk off Portsmouth in 1782. was first surveyed by means of a diving- 
 bell, in May 1817. Lately, and particularly in 1840, it has been employed 
 in sub-marine surveys. The first 6.\\mg-bell€ was the wife of Captain Mor- 
 ris at Plj^mouth, who descended in one a few^ years ago. 
 
 DIVORCES FOR ADULTERY. Of the earliest institution, both in ecclesiasti- 
 cal and ci\il law, among the ancients. First put in practice by Spurius Car- 
 vilius at Rome, 231 b. c. — Blair. At this time morals were so debased, 
 that 3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Divorces were attempted 
 
290 THE world's progress. [ DOG 
 
 to be made of more easy obtainment in England, in a, d. 1539. The bill to 
 prevent women marrying- their seducers was brought into parliament in 
 1801. 
 
 DOCKS OP LONDON. They are said to be the most extensive and finest con- 
 structions of the kind, for the purposes of commerce, in the world. In Lon- 
 don there are a number of these docks, of which the following are the 
 principal: — The West India docks, the act for whose formation passed in 
 July 1799 ; they were commenced February 3, 1800, and were opened Aug, 
 27, 1802, when the Henry Addington West Indiaman first entered them, 
 
 1 decorated with the colors of the different nations of Europe. The London 
 docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and were opened January 31, 1805. 
 The East India docks were commenced under an act passed July 27, 1803, 
 and were opened August 4, 1806. The first stone of the St. Kalherine docks 
 was laid May 3, 1827 ; and 2,500 men were daily employed upon them until 
 they were opened, Oct. 25, 1828. 
 
 DOCTOR. This rank was known in the earliest times. Doctor of the church 
 was a title given to SS. Athanasius, Basil, Gregory^Nazianzen, and Chrysos- 
 tom, in the Greek church ; and to SS. Jerome, Augustin, and Gregory the 
 Great, in the Romish church, a. d. 373, et seq. Doctor of the law was a title 
 of honor among the Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England, 
 8 John, 1207. — Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, referring it to the 
 time -jf the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the former of whom, it 
 is said, was the first that obtained the degree stt Cambridge, about a. d, 725. 
 See Collegiate Degrees. 
 
 DOCTORS' COMMONS. The college for the professors of civil and canon law 
 residing in the city of London ; the name of Commons is given to this col- 
 lege from the civilians commoning together as in other colleges. Doctors' 
 Commons was founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, whose original college was de- 
 stroyed in the great fire of 1666, but after some years it was rebuilt on the 
 old site. The causes taken cognizance of here are, blasphemy, divorces, 
 bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, proi)ate of wills, &c. See 
 article Civil Laiv. 
 
 DOG. The cliien de berger, or the shepherd's dog, is the origin of the whole 
 race. — Buffon. BuflTon describes this dog as being " the root of the tree," 
 assigning as his reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of 
 instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is supposed to be the earliest dog known in 
 Europe, if Irish writers be correct. Dr. Gall mentions that a dog was taken 
 from Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got on board a vessel, 
 landed at Calais, and after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned 
 to Vienna. 
 
 DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3d of July, and end 
 on the 11th of August. Common opinion has been accustomed to regard 
 the rising and setting of Sirius, or the dog-star,* with the sun, as the cause 
 of excessive heat, and of consequent calamities, instead of its being viewed 
 as the sign when such effects might be expected. The star not only varies 
 in its rising, in every one year as the latitude varies, but is alwaj^s later dn\3 
 later every year in all latitudes, so that in time the star may, by the same 
 rule, come to be charged with bringing frost and snow. — Dr. Hntton. 
 
 DOGE. The title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed bj a 
 
 * Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the Dog Star, is the nearest to us of all the fixed stars.; 
 sod they compute its distance from our earth at 2,200,000 millions of miles. Thoy maintain that 
 a sound woul! n('t reach our earth from Sirius in 50,000 years, and that a cannon ball, flying with 
 its usual velocity of 480 miles an hour, would consume 523,211 years in its passage tJiei.'ce 'o oui 
 flobe. 
 
DOR J DICTIO^^VRY OF DATES. 297 
 
 prince so named, Anafesto Paululio, a. d. 697. The Genoese revolted ag^ainst 
 their count, and chose a doge from among their nobihty, and became an 
 aristoci'atic republic, 1030-4. The ceremony of the doge of Venice marrying 
 the sea, " the Adriatic wedded to our duke," was instituted in 1173, and was 
 observed annually on Ascension-day, until 1797, when the custom was dis- 
 pensed with. See Adriatic. 
 
 DOMINGO, ST. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. The 
 city was founded in 1494. The town of Port-au-Prince was burnt down and 
 nearly destroyed by the revolted negroes, in Oct., Nov., and Dec, 1791. 
 Toussaint L'Ouverture governed the island, on the expulsion of the French 
 colonists, after this till 1802, when he was entrapped by Bonaparte, and died 
 in prison. His successor, Dessalines, recommended the blacks, by proclama- 
 tion, to make a general massacre of the whites, which was accordingly ex- 
 ecuted with horrid cruelty, and 2500 were butchered in one day, March 29, 
 1804. Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor, Oct. 8, 1804. See Hayti. in 
 which article particulars Avill be found up to the independence of St. Do- 
 mingo, acknowledged by France, in April, 1825. 
 
 DOMINICA. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. This 
 island was taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed to them by the 
 peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the 
 subsequent peace in 1783. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hur- 
 1 inane in 1806 ; and several devastating hurricanes have more recentlj* 
 occurred. 
 
 DOMINICAL LETTER. Noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days 
 of the week, reckoned as beginning on the 1st of January, are designated as 
 by the first seven letters of the alphabet, A, B, C. D, E, F, G; and the one 
 of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If the year begin 
 on Sunday, A is the dominical letter ; if it begin on Monday, that letter is 
 G ; if on Tuesday, it is F, and so on. Generally to find the dominical letter 
 call New Year's day A, the next day B and go on thus till you come to the 
 first Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is the dominical letter ; in leap 
 years count two letters. 
 
 DOMINICANS. A religious order whose power and influence were almost uni- 
 versal. They were called in France Jacobins, and in England Blackfriars, 
 and were founded by St. Dominick approved by Innocent III. in 1215 ; and 
 the order was confirmed by a bull of Honorius III, in 1216. under St. Austin's 
 rules, and the founder's particular constittitions. In 1276 the corporation 
 of London gave them two whole streets by the river Thames, Avhere they 
 erected a large and elegant convent, and whence that part is still called 
 Blackfriars. . 
 
 DOOM'S-DAY OR DOMES-DAY BOOK. Liber Judiciarius vel Censualis 
 Ans-licB. A book of the general survey of England, commenced in the reign 
 of William I. a. d. 1080. The intent of this book was, to be a register 
 whereby to determine the right in the tenure of estates ; and from thisbook 
 the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still 
 decided. The book is still preserved in the Exchequer, fair and legible, 
 consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the counties of 
 England, except Northumberland and Durham, are surveyed. It was fin- 
 ished in A. D. 1086, having been completed by five justices. " This dome's- 
 day book was the tax-book of kinge WWUamJ'— Camden. The taxes were 
 levied according^ to this survey till 13 Henry VIII. 1522. when a more accu- 
 rate survey was taken, and was called by the people the new Doom's-day 
 book. 
 
 t?t)RfC Ordkr of Architkcturr. The most ancient of the five, the invention 
 of the Dorians, a people of Greece. The Dorians also gave the name W; 
 
 13* 
 
298 THE world's progress. [ DRJ> 
 
 the Doric muse. The migration of this people to the Peloponnesu; ; took 
 place 1104 b. c. They sent, in their vast spirit of enterprise, many colonies 
 into different places, which afterwards bore the same name as their native 
 country. 
 
 DORl . Here happened an awful inundation of the sea, a. d. 1446. It arose in 
 the breaking down of the dykes; and in the territory of Dordrecht 10 000 
 persons were overwhelmed and perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dul- 
 lart, in Friesland and in Zealand. In the last two provinces upwards of 300 
 villages were overflowed, and the tops of their towers and steeples were for 
 ages after to be seen rising out of the water. Dort is famous for the Prot- 
 estant synod held in 1618 ; a general assembly, to which deputies were sent 
 from England, and from all the Reformed churches in Europe, to settle the 
 differences between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, princi- 
 pally upon points '*■ justification and grace. The synod condemned the 
 tenets of Armi'iius. — Aitzema. 
 
 DOTJAY, IN France. Erected into a university by Philip II. of Spain, who 
 founded here the celebrated college of Roman Catholics, a.d. 1569. Douay 
 was taken from the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in person, in 1667. It was 
 taken by the duke of Marlborough, in 1710; and retaken by the "K'rencli 
 next year. This town gives its name to the Catholic edition of thv Bible, 
 which continues in almost universal use by the consent of the sucv.essive 
 popes among the members of that communion, as the only English version 
 authorized by Catholics ; its text being copiously explained by the notes 
 of Catholic divines. 
 
 DRACO, Laws of. Draco, when he exercised the office of archon, made a 
 code of laws, which, on account of their severity, were said to be written 
 in letters of blood : by them idleness was punished with as much severity as 
 murder ; the smallest transgression, he said, deserved death, and he could 
 not find any punishment more rigorous for more atrocious crimes, 623 b. c. — 
 Sigonivs de Repub. Athen. 
 
 DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth, 
 No. 13, 1577, and saiHng round the globe, returned to England, after many 
 perilous adventures. Nov. 3, 1580. This illustrious seaman was vioe-admiral 
 under lord Howard, high-admiral of England, in the memorable conflict 
 with the Spanish Armada, July 19. 1588. His expeditions and victories over 
 the Spaniards have been equalled by modern admirals, but not his gene- 
 rosity ; for he divided the booty he took in proportional shares with the 
 common sailors, even to wedges of gold given him in return for his presents 
 to Indian chiefs* — Stowe. Rapin. 
 
 DRAMA. We owe both forms of composition, tragedy and comedy, to the 
 Greeks. The first comedy was performed at Athens, by Susarion and Dolon, 
 on a movable scaffold, 562 b. b. See Comedy. The chorus was introduced 
 556 B. c. See Chorus. Tragedy was first represented at Athens, by Thespis, 
 on a wagon, 536 b. c. Arund. Marb. Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tra- 
 gedy, performed at Athens Alcestis, this year, and was rewarded with a 
 goat, 536 b. c. — Pliny. Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who in- 
 troduced intrigues and rapes upon the stage. He composed about a hun- 
 dred plays, of which ten obtained the prize ; he died 340 b. c. 
 
 RAMA IN ROME. The drama was first introduced into Rome on occasion 
 of a plague which raged during the consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and 
 C. Lucinius Stolo. The magistrates to appease the incensed deities insti- 
 tuted the games called Scenici, which were amusements entirely new. 
 Actors from Etruria danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute 364 b. c. 
 Jjuhsequently came satires accompanied with music set to the flute ; and 
 
DRO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 295 
 
 afterwards plays were represented by Livius Androniciis, who, abandoning 
 satires, \^rote plaj^s with a regular and connected plot, 240 b. c. — Livy. 
 Andronicus was the first person who gave singing and dancing to two ditfer- 
 ent })erformers ; he danced himself, and gave the singing to a younger 
 exhibitor. — Livy. 
 
 DllAMA, Modern. The modern drama arose early in the rude attempts of 
 minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, Italy, and England. — Warton. 
 Stories from the Bible were represented by the priests, and were the origin 
 of sacred comed3^ — Idem. Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the 
 church, is said to have constructed a drama about a. d. 364, on the Passion 
 of Christ, to counteract the profanities of the heathen stage, and thus to 
 have laid the foundation of the modern romantic drama, but this is wot 
 clearly proved. Fitzstephen, in his Life of Tiiomas, a Becket, asserts that 
 " London had for its theatrical exhibitions holy plays, and the representa- 
 tion of miracles wrought by holy confessors." The Chester Mysteries 
 were performed about 1270. Plays were performed at Clerkenwell by the 
 parish clerks in 1397, and miracles were represented in the fields. Allego- 
 rical characters were introduced in the reign of Henry VI. Individual 
 characters were introduced in Henry VII. 's reign. The first regular drama 
 acted in Europe was the " Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the pre- 
 sence of pope Leo X., 1515. — Voltaire. The Enghsh drama became perfect 
 in the reign of Elizabeth. The first royal license for the drama in England 
 was to master Burbage, and four others, servants to the earl of Leicester, 
 to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, 1674. A license was granted to Shak- 
 speare, and his associates in 1603. Plays were opposed by the Puritans in 
 1633, and were afterwards suspended until the Restoration in 1660. Two 
 companies of regular performers were licensed by Charles II., Killegrew's 
 and Davenant's, in 1662. Till this time boys performed women's parts. 
 DRESDEN, Battle of, between the allied army under the prince of Schwar- 
 zenberg, and the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27, 
 1813. The allies, who were 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his posi- 
 tion at Dresden, and the event had nearly proved fatal to them, but for an 
 error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They were defeated with 
 dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia ; but Vandamme 
 pursuing them too far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself and all 
 his staff" made prisoners. In this battle general Moreau received his mortal 
 wound while in conversation with the emperor of Russia. 
 
 DRESS. Excess in dress was restrained bj'' a law in England, in the reign of 
 Edward IV., 1465. And again in the reign of Elizabeth, 1574. — Siowe. 
 Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close 
 sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a brown doublet finely flowered, 
 and embroidered with pearls. In the feather of his hat, a large ruby and 
 pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig, in place of a button. His breeches, 
 with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; and 
 buff shoes, which on great court days, were so gorgeously covered with 
 precious stones, as to have exceeded the value of 6600/. ; and he had a suit 
 of armor of solid silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds, 
 ruhies, and pearls. King James's favorite, the duke of Buckingham, could 
 afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to 
 shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame he desired from the 
 pickers-up, who were generally les Dames de la Cour. 
 
 LEOA^NING PERSONS. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons 
 were first instituted in Holland, a. d. 1767. The second society is said to 
 have been formed at Milan, in 1768; the third in Hamburg, in 1771; the 
 ft^vrth at Paris, in 1772; and the fifth in London in 1774. Similar societies 
 
300 THE WOULD's progress. j_ I>UK 
 
 have been instituted in other countries. The motto of tufe Royal Humane 
 Society in England is very appropriate : — Lateat sciiitUlula fonan — a small 
 sparli may kirk unseen. 
 
 DRUIDS. A celebrated order among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and BritonS; 
 who from their veneration for the oak (Drys) were so called. They acted 
 as priests and magistrates ; one of them was invested occasionally with 
 supreme authority. In England they were chosen out of the best families, 
 that the dignity of their station, added to that of their birth, might pro- 
 cure them the greater respect. They were versed in sciences ; had the 
 administration of all sacred things ; were the interpreters of the gods ; and 
 supreme judges in all causes. The Druids headed the Britons who opposed 
 Cassar's tirst landing, 55 b. c. They were cruelly put to death, defending 
 the freedom of their country against the Roman governor, Suetonius Pau- 
 liuus, who totally destroyed every mark of Druidism, a. d. 59. — Rowland' r 
 Mona AiUiqua. 
 
 DRUNKARDS. The phrase " Drunk as a lord," arose out of an older proverb, 
 " Drunk as a beggar;" and we are told that it was altered owing to the vice 
 of drunkenness prevailing more among the great of late years. Drunken- 
 ness was punished in many of the early nations with exemplary severity. 
 In England, a canon law restrained it in the clergy so early as a. d. 747. 
 Constantine, king of Scots, punished this offence against society with death. 
 He used to say, that a drunkard was but the rhimic of a man, and differed 
 from the beast only in shape, a. d. 870. Drunkenness was restrained in the* 
 commonalty in England in 975 ; and by several later laws. 
 
 DUBLIN. This city, anciently called Aschcled, built a. d. 140. 
 
 DUCAT. First coined by Longinus, governor of Italy. — Procopius. First 
 struck in the duchy of Apulia. — Dii Cange. Coined by Robert, king ot 
 Sicily, in a. d. 1240. The ducat is so called because struck by dukes.^JoAwr 
 son. It is of silver and gold, the value of the first being 4s. 6^., and that o/ 
 the gold 9s. &d. — Pardon. 
 
 DUELLING AND KNIGHT-ERRANTRY, took their rise from the judicial com- 
 bats of the Celtic nations. The first duel in England, not of this character, 
 took place a. d. 1096. Duelling in civil matters was forbidden in France, 
 1-305. The present practice of duelling arose in the challenge of Francis I. 
 to the emperor Charles V., 1527. Tlie fight with small swords was intro- 
 duced into England, 29 Elizabeth 1587. Proclamation that no person should 
 be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 30 Charles II., 1679. Duelling 
 was checked in the army, 1792. — See Battle, Wager of; Combat, d^c. As 
 many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand cli- 
 macteric. — Sir J. Bar?-i)igton. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in 
 which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded : in three of these cases 
 both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sen- 
 tence of the law. — Uaniilton. 
 
 DUKE, originally a Roman dignity, first given to the generals of armies. In 
 England, during Saxon times, the commanders of arniies*were called dukes, 
 d.uces. — Camden. The title lay dormant from the Conquest till the reign of 
 Edward III., who conferred the title on his eldest son, Edward the Black 
 Prince, by the style of duke of Cornwall, a. d. 1336. Robert de Vere was 
 created marquis of Dublin and duke of Ireland, 9 Richard II., 1385. The 
 first duke created in Scotland was by king Robert III., who created David, 
 pi ince of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to 
 the king's eldest son, a. d. 1398. 
 
 DUKE Grand. The Medici family was one of extraordinary greatness and 
 immense wealth. Of this family, Alexander de Medicis was acknowledged 
 
EAR J E ICTIONARY OF DATES. 30 1 
 
 the chief of the republic of Tuscany in 1531 ; he was stabbed in the night; 
 and his son, Cosmo, was created grand duke, the first of tliat rank, by pope 
 Pius V. in 1569. 
 DUNBAR, Battle of, between the Scottish and English armies, in which John 
 Baiiol was defeated by the earl of Warrenne, and Scotland subdued, by Ed- 
 ward I., fought April 27, 1296. Battle between the Scots and English undc" 
 Croniwell. who obtained a signal victory, September 3, 1650. 
 
 DUNKIRK. This town was taken from the Spaniards by the English and 
 Freni h, and put into the hands of the English, June 24. 1658, the last year 
 of Cromwell's administration. It was sold by Charles II. for 500.000/. t( 
 Loiiis XIV.. in 1662. The French king made Dunkirk one of the best for- 
 tified ports in the kingdom ; but all the works were demolished, and the 
 basins filled up, in consequence of the treat}" of Utrecht in 1713. 
 
 DUNSINANE, Battle of. Celebrated in dramatic story by the immortal 
 Shakspeare. On the hill of Dunsinane was fought the renowned battle 
 between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, and Seward, earl of Northumber- 
 land. Edward the Confessor had sent Seward on behalf of Malcolm III., 
 whose father, Duncan, the thane and usurper had murdered. Macbeth, who 
 was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, it is said, to Lumphanan, in 
 Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1057. The history of Macbeth is the sub- 
 ject of Shakspeare's incomparable drama. 
 
 DURHAM, Battle of, between the English and Scottish armies, fought at 
 Nevill's-cross, near Durham. The former armj was commanded by queen 
 Philippa and lord Piercey, and the latter by David Bruce, king of Scotland, 
 who was vanquished. Fifteen thousand of Bruce's soldiers were cut to 
 pieces, and himself, with many of his nobles and knights, and many thou- 
 sand men, were taken prisoners, Oct. 17, 1346. 
 
 DYEING, Art of. The discovery of it attributed to the Tyrians. In dyeing 
 and dipping their own cloths, the English were so little skilled, that their 
 manufactures were usually sent white to Holland, and returned to England 
 for sale. The art of dyeing woollens was brought from the Low Countries 
 in 1008. "Two dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in the 
 north''' (of England) 1628. 
 
 E. 
 
 EAGLE. The standard of the eagle was first borne by the Persians ; and the 
 Romans carried figures of the eagle, as ensigns, in silver and gold, and 
 sometimes represented with a thunderbolt in its talons, on the point of a 
 spear; they adopted the eagle in the consulate of Marius, 102 b. g. When 
 Charlemagne became master of the whole of the German empire, he added 
 the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires of 
 Rome and Germany were united in him, a. d. 802. The eagle was the im- 
 perial standard of Napoleon; and is that of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. 
 It is also the national emblem of the United States of America. 
 
 EARL. An honor which came from the Saxons, and continued for many ages 
 the highest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes, and Richard 
 II. created marquesses, both having precedency assigned above earls. They 
 had, anciently, for the support of their state, the third penny out of tho 
 sheritf' s court, issuing out of the pleas of the shire whereof tliey had their 
 title, as in ancient times there were no counts or earls but had a county or 
 shire for his earldom. Upon the increase of earls their revenue ceased, and 
 their powers were abridged. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute for 
 king. 
 
302 
 
 THE WORJ.d's TROGRESS 
 
 EAR 
 
 EARTH. The globular form of the earth was first suggested by Thales of 
 Miletus about 640 b. c. Its magnitude was calculated from measuring &n 
 arc of the meridian by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The Greeks taught the 
 sj)hericity of the earth, and the popes beheved it to be a plane, and gave all 
 towards the west to the kings of Spain. The first ship that sailed round 
 the earth, and thence demonstrated that its form was globular, was Magel- 
 lan's, in 1519. The notion of its magnetism was started by Gilbert in 1576. 
 The experiments of M. Richer, in 1672, led Newton to prove the earth to 
 be in the shape of an oblate spheroid. The variation of its axis was dis- 
 covered by Dr. Bradley in 1737. See Globe. 
 
 E ARTHENWARE. Vessels of this ware were in use among the most ancieut 
 nations. Various domestic articles w^ere made by the Romans, 715 b. c. 
 The art was revived and improved in Italy, a. d. 1310. Wedgewood's patent 
 Avare was first made in 1762. His potter}^ in Staffordshire was extended to 
 a variety of curious compositions, subservient not only to the ordinary pur- 
 l)Oses of life, but to the arts, antiquity, history, &c., and thereby rendered a 
 very important branch of commerce, both foreign and domestic. See 
 China . — Porcelain . 
 
 EARTHQUAKES. The theory of earthquakes has not yet been formed \vith 
 any degree of certainty. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were pro- 
 duced by subterraneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the 
 vaults that confined them, b. c. 435. — Diog. l^aert. Kircher, Des Cartes, 
 and others, supposed that there were many vast cavities under ground which 
 have a communication "with each other, some of which abound with waters, 
 others with exhalations, arising from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitu- 
 men, sulphur, &c. These opinions continued to be supported till 1749-50, 
 when an earthquake w^as felt at London, and several parts of Britain. Dr. 
 Stukeley, who had been engaged in electrical experiments, then began to 
 suspect that a phenomenon of this kind ought to be attributed not to vapors 
 or fermentations generated in the bowels of the earth, but to electricity. 
 These principles at the same time w^ere advanced by Signor Beccaria, with- 
 out knowing any thing of Dr. Stukeley's discoveries, and the hypothesis has 
 been confirmed by the experiments of Dr. Priestley. In many cases, how- 
 ever, it appears probable that the immense power of water converted into 
 steam by subterraneous fires must contribute to augment the force which 
 occasions earthquakes. Among those which are recorded as having been the 
 most destructive and memorable, are the following, which are quoted from 
 the best sources : it would be impossible to enumerate in this volume all 
 that have occurred : — 
 
 One which made the peninsula of 
 Eubofa an island - - b. c. 425 
 
 Ellice and Bula in the Peloponnesus, 
 swallowed up ... 372 
 
 One at Rome, when, in obedience to 
 an oracle, M. Curtius, armed and 
 mounted on a stately horse, leaped 
 into the dreadful chasm it occasion- 
 ed (^Livy) .... 358 
 
 Duras, in Greece, buried with all its 
 inhabitants ; and twelve cities in 
 Campania also buried - - 345 
 
 Lysimachia totally buried, with all its 
 inhabitants - - - - 283 
 
 .4wful one in Asia, which overturned 
 twelve cities - - - a. d. 17 
 
 One accompanied by the eruption of 
 Vesuvius ; the cities of Pompeii and 
 Herculaneum buried - 79 
 
 Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, a id 
 two in Galatia, overturned • • 107 
 
 Antioch destroyed - - A. D. 114 
 
 Nicomedia, Caesarea, and Nicea in 
 
 Bithynia, overtui-ned - - 126 
 
 In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 
 
 cities and towns damaged. - - 357 
 
 Nicomedia again demolished, and its 
 
 inhabitants buried in its ruins 
 One felt by nearly the whole world • 
 At Constantinople ; its edifices destroy- 
 ed, and thousands perished - 
 In Africa ; many cities overturned 
 Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and 
 Asia ; more than 500 cities were de- 
 stroyed, and the loss of life surpass- 
 ed all calculation 
 In France, Germany, and Italy 
 Constantinople overturned, and all 
 
 Greece shaken 
 One felt throughout England - - 1089 
 
 One at Antioch ; many towns destroy- 
 
 35S 
 543 
 
 558 
 560 
 
 742 
 801 
 
 936 
 
GAS J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 303 
 
 1114 
 
 1137 
 
 1142 
 
 3183 
 1274 
 
 - 1456 
 
 1580 
 
 1596 
 1638 
 
 1662 
 1690 
 
 1692 
 
 1693 
 
 - 1726 
 
 1731 
 
 1736 
 
 EARTHQUAKES, co7i thmed. 
 
 ed : among ihem, Morissum and Ma- 
 inistria - - - a. d. 
 
 Catania in Sicily overturned, and 
 15,000 persons buried in liie ruins - 
 One severely felt at Lincoln 
 At Calabria, when one of its cities and 
 all its inhabitants were overwhelm- 
 ed in the Adriatic Sea 
 One again felt throughout England - 
 At Naples, when 40,000 of its inhabit- 
 ants perished - 
 One left ia London : part of St. Paul's 
 
 and the Temple churches fell 
 In Japan, several cities made ruins, 
 
 and thousands perished 
 Awful one at Calabria - 
 One in China, when 300,000 persons 
 
 were buried in Pekin alone - 
 One severely felt in Irelaiid 
 One at Jamaica, which totally destroy- 
 ed Port Royal, whose houses were 
 ingulfed forty fathoms deep, and 300 
 persons perished 
 ■ One in Sicily, which overturned 54 
 cities and towns, and 300 villages. 
 Of Catania and its 18.000 inhaljit- 
 ants, not a trace remaiiied; more 
 than 100,000 lives were lost - 
 Palermo nearly destroyed, and 6000 
 
 perso-ns perished 
 Again in China; and 100,000 people 
 
 swallowed up at Pekin 
 One in Hungaiy, which turned a 
 
 mountain round 
 Lima and Callao demolished; !8,000 
 
 persons buried in the ruins Oct 28, 1746 
 One at Palermo, which swallowed up 
 
 a convent; but the monks escaped 1740 
 In London, the inhabitants terrified by 
 
 a slight shock - Feb. 8, 1750 
 
 Another, but severer shock, March 8, 1750 
 Adrianople nearly overwhelmed 1752 
 
 At Grand Cairo, half of the houses, and 
 
 40,000 persons swallowed up - 1754 
 
 Quito destroyed - - April, 1755 
 
 Great ear tiiquake at Lisbon. In about 
 oight minutes most of the houses, 
 and upwards of 50,000 inhabitants, 
 were swallowed U|j,andwhole stre«tf? 
 buried. The cities of Coimbra, 
 Oporto, and Braga, suffered dread- 
 fully, and St. Ubes was wholly over- 
 turned. In Spain, a large part of 
 Malaga became ruins. One half of 
 Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and 
 more than 12,000 Arabs perished 
 there. Above half of the island of 
 Madeira became waste: and 2,000 
 houses in the island of Meteline, in 
 the Archipelago, were overthrown : 
 this awful earthquake extended 5000 
 miles, even to Scotland Nov. 1, 1755 
 
 One in Syria extended over 10,000 
 
 square miles : Balbec destroyed 
 One at Martinico, when 1600 persons 
 lost their lives - - Aug. 
 
 At Guatemala, which, with 80,000 iii- 
 
 178S 
 1791 
 
 1734 
 1791 
 
 1793 
 
 1800 
 1804 
 
 1810 
 1812- 
 
 - 1759 
 
 1767 
 
 A destructive one at Smyrna - a. D 1778 
 At Tauris : 15,000 houses thrown down, 
 
 and multitudes buried - - 1780 
 
 One which overthrew Messina and a 
 number of towns in Italy and Sicily : 
 40,000 persons perished - - 1783 
 
 Archindschan wholly destroyed, and 
 
 12,000 persons buried in its ruins - 1784 
 At Borgo di San Sepolcro, an opening 
 of the earth swallowed up many 
 houses and 1000 persons - Sep'.. 
 Another fatal one in Sicily 
 One in Naples, when Vesuvius issuing 
 forth its liames overwhelmed the city 
 of Torre del Greco 
 III Turkey, where, in three towns, 
 
 10,000 persons lost their lives 
 The whole country between Santa Fe 
 and Panama destroyed, including the 
 cities of Cusco and Quito, 40,000 of 
 whose people were, in one second, 
 hurled into eternity - 
 One at Constantmople, which destroy- 
 ed the royal palace and an immen- 
 sity of buildings, and extended into 
 Romania and Wallachia. 
 A violent one felt in Holland - Jan. 
 In the kingdom of Naples, where 20,000 
 
 persons lost their lives - - 1805 
 
 At the Azores: a village of St. Mi- 
 chael's sunk, and a lake of boiling 
 water appeared in its place - Aug. 
 Awful one at Caraccas {which see) - 
 Several felt throughout India, The 
 district of Kutch sunk ; 2000 i>ersons 
 were buried with it - - June 1819 
 
 In Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many 
 other towns ; great damage sustain- 
 ed, and thousands jjerished - - 181 9 
 One fatal, at Messina - - Oct. 1826 
 One ia Spain, which devastated Mur- 
 cia, and numerous villages; 6000 
 persons perished - Iviarch 21, 1829 
 In the duchy of Pamia ; no less than 
 40 shocks were experienced at Bor- 
 gotaro ; and at Pontremoli many 
 houses were thrown down, and not a 
 chimney was left standing Feb. 14, 1831 
 In many cities of Southern Syria, by 
 which hundreds of houses were 
 thrown down, and thousands of the 
 ' inhabitants perished Jan. 22, 1337 
 At Martinique, by which nearly half 
 of Port Royal is destroyed, nearly 
 700 persons killed, and the whole 
 island damaged - Jan. 11. 
 At Ternate : the island made a waste, 
 almost every house destroyed, and 
 thousands of the inhabitants lose 
 their lives - - Feb. 14, 1840 
 Awful and -destructive earthquake at 
 Mount Ararat ; in one of the districts 
 of Armenia 3137 houses were over- 
 thrown, and several hundred persons 
 perished - - July 2, 1840 
 Great earthquake at Zante, where 
 many persons perished Oct. 30, ..340 
 
 1839 
 
 habitants, was swallowed up Dec. 1773 
 
 E ASTER So called in England from the Saxon g^oddess Eosirc The festival 
 
 of Easter was instituted about a. d. 68 ; the day for the observance of it 
 
 was fixed in England by St. Austin, in 597. It was orda'ned by the counciJ 
 
304 
 
 THE WORLDS niOGRESS. 
 
 ECL 
 
 of Nice to be observed on the same day throughout the whole Christian 
 world. Easter is the first Sunday after the first full moon that occurs after 
 the 21st of March. 
 
 EASTERN EMPIRE. Commenced under Valens. a. d. 364, and ended in the 
 defeat and death of Constantino XIII., the last Christian emperor, in 1453. 
 Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him, and possess himself of Constan- 
 tino])le ; he laid seige to that city both by sea and land, and took it by 
 assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, 
 seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the 
 enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the Imperial house were 
 massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the 
 conqueror; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Constantines, and cOm* 
 luenced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. See Tabular Views, 
 in this vol. from page 61. See also Turkey. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and 
 ecclesiastical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, a. d. 1066. 
 The following are the causes cognizable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, 
 apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to be- 
 nefices, matrimony, divorces, bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adultery, 
 probate of wills, administrations, &c. — Blackstone. 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL STATE or STATES of the CHURCH. See Roine. In 
 
 A. D. 1798, tliis state was taken possession of by the French, who erected it 
 into the " Roman Republic." They obliged the pope. Pius VI., to remove 
 into Tuscany, and afterwards into France, where he died in 1799. In the 
 same year a conclave was permitted to be held at Venice ; and. in 1800, 
 cardinal Chiaramonti, who was elected to the papal chair, took the title of 
 Pius VII., and resumed the dominion of the Ecclesiastical State. This 
 power was held until 1809, when he was deprived b)'' Bonaparte of his 
 temporal sovereignty, and reduced to the condition of bishop of Rome ; 
 but in 1814 the pope was restored. For succession of popes, see p. 50 et seq. 
 
 ECLECTICS. Ancient philosophers, also called Analogetici, and Philaletkes, 
 or the lovers of truth. Without attaching themselves to any sect, they 
 chose what they judged good fi'om each : founded by Polemon of Alex- 
 andria, about A. D. 1. — Dri/den. Also a sect, so called in the Christian 
 church, Avho considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to the spirit of 
 the doctrine of the Christian. 
 
 ECLIPSES. The theo-y of eclipses was known to the Chinese at least 120 
 
 B. c. — Gaubil. An eclipse was supposed by most of the eastern nations to 
 be the effect of magic ; hence the custom among them of drumming during 
 its continuance. The first eclipse recorded, happened March 19, 721 b. c. 
 at 8' 40" p. M. according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was observed with 
 accuracy at Babjion. — See Astronomy. The following were extraordinary 
 eclipses of the sun and moon : — 
 
 585 
 424 
 
 188 
 
 OF THE STTN. 
 
 That predicted by Thales ; observed at 
 SardLs (P/m?/. //6. ii.) - b. c. 
 
 Dne at Athens (Thuct/dides, lib. iv.) - 
 
 Total one ; three days' supplication de- 
 creed at Rome {Livy) 
 
 On? general at the death of Jesus Christ 
 (.Josepfius) - - -AD. 
 
 One at Rome, causing a total darkness 
 at noon-day (Livy) 
 
 One observed at Constantinople 
 
 It. F.rance, when it Avas dark at noon- 
 day (Bu fiesnoy) - June 29, 1033 
 
 33 
 
 291 
 968 
 
 In England, where it occasioned a total 
 ds.rkness (Wni. Malmsb.) • -1140 
 
 Again ; the stars visible at ten in the 
 moi-nmg (Camden) - June 23, 119] 
 
 The true sun, and the appearance of 
 another, so that astronomers alone 
 could distinguish the difference by 
 their glasses (Comp. Hist. Eng.) - 1191 
 
 Again ; lotal darkness ensued (idetn) - 1331 
 
 A total one ; the darkness so great that 
 the stars shone, and the birds went to 
 roost at noon ( Old nixon's Annals of 
 Geo. /.) . . April 22, 1715 
 
EDJ J DICTIONARY OF DATES, 305 
 
 Again, in Asia Minor (Polt/bius) - 215 
 
 One at Rome, predicted by Q,. Sulpitius 
 
 Gallus (Livy, lib. xliv.) - - 168 
 
 One terrified the Roman trcops and 
 
 quelled iheir revolt ( Tacitus) a. d. 14 
 
 ECLIPSES, continued. 
 
 Remarkable one, central and annular 
 in llie interior of Europe - Sept. 7 1820 
 
 OF THE MOON. 
 
 The first, observed by the Chaldeans at 
 
 Babylon (P/ofc/nt/, /z6. iv.) - b.c. 721 
 A total one, observed at Sardis (Thu- 
 
 cydides,iib. vii.) - - - 413 
 
 The revolution of eclipses was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian, 
 336 B. c. The Egyptians say they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of 
 the sun, and 882 of the moon, up to the period from Vulcan to Alexander, 
 who died 323 b. c. 
 
 EDEN, GARDEN of. The question about the site of Eden has greatly agi- 
 tated theologians ; some place it near Damascus, others in Armenia, some 
 in Caucasus, others at Hillah, near Babylon, others in Arabia, and some in 
 Abyssinia. The Hindoos refer it to Ceylon : and a learned Swede asserts 
 that it was in Sudermania ! Several authorities concur in placing it in a 
 peninsula formed by the main river of Eden, on the east side of it, below 
 the confluence of the lesser rivers, which emptied themselves into it, about 
 27° N. iat., now swallowed up by the Persian Gulf, an event which may 
 have happened at the Universal Deluge, 2348 b. c. The country of Eden 
 extended into Armenia. — Calmet. The Almighty constructed Eden with a 
 view to beauty, as well as usefulness ; not only every plant there was good 
 for food, but such also as were pleasant to the eye, were planted there. — 
 Genesis ii. 8, 9. 
 
 EDGEHILL, Battle of, also called Edgehill Fight, between the Royalists and 
 the Parliament army, the first engagement of importance in the civil war ; 
 Charles I. was personally present in this battle. Prince Rupert commanded 
 the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians. Oct. 23, 1642. 
 
 EDICT OF NANTES. This was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of 
 France granted toleration to his Protestant subjects, in 1598. It was re- 
 voked by Louis XIV., Oct. 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to 
 France 800 000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50 000 
 industrious artisans. Some thousands, who brought with them the art of 
 manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalflelds, where their descendants yet 
 remain : others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued 
 the art of making crystal glasses, and various fine works in which they 
 excelled ; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England. — An- 
 derson's Orig. of English Commerce. 
 
 EDILES. These were Roman magistrates, like our mayors, and there Avere 
 two ediles at a time. They had the superintendence and care of public 
 and private works and buildings, baths, aqueducts, bridges, roads, &c. ; 
 they also took cognizance of weights and measures, and regulated the mar- 
 kets for provisions ; they examined comedies before they were acted, and 
 treated the people with games and shows at their own expense. The duties 
 of ediles have suggested similar ofiices in our own polity, and served in 
 many instances as models for our magistracy. — Pardon. 
 
 EDINBURGH. The metropolis of Scotland, and one of the' first and finest 
 cities of the empire. It derives its name — in ancient records, Dun Edin, 
 signifying the '• hill of Edin" — from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin, 
 king of Northumbria. who, having greatly extended his dominions, erected 
 it for the protection of his newly-acquired territories from the incursions of 
 the Scots and Picts, a. d. 626. But it is said the castle was first built by 
 Camelon, king of the Picts. 330 b. c. It makes a conspicuous appearance, 
 standing at the west end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and before 
 the use of great guns, was a fortification of <ionsiderable strength. 
 
306 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Eay 
 
 EDUC ATION IN U. S. See Colleges and Schools. American Institute of In- 
 struction organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830. Literary Convention at New 
 York. Oct. 20, 1830. 
 
 EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. A grant of 30,000Z. for national education, pro- 
 posed in parliament V)y Lord Jolm Kussell and passed, 275 to 273, July 9, 
 and the House of Lords went in a body to ask the Queen to rescind the 
 grant, July 11, 1839. 
 
 EGALITE. Equality. The surname assumed by Philip Bourbon Capet, the 
 infamous duke of Orleans, to ingratiate himself with the republicans, on the 
 abolition of monarchy in France, Sept. 11, 1792. He voted for the death ol 
 Louis XVI. his relative ; but this did not save him from a like doom. He 
 was guillotined Nov. 6, 1793. 
 
 EGYPT. The dynasty of its Pharaohs or kings commenced with Mizraim, the 
 son of Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 b. c. The kingdom lasted 1663 years ; 
 it was conquered by Cambyses, 525 b. c. In a. d. 639, this country was wrest- 
 ed from the eastern emperor Heraclius, by Omar, calif of the Saracens. The 
 famous Saladin established the dominion of the Mamelukes, hi 1171. Selim 
 I., emperor of the Turks, took Egypt in 1517, and it was governed by Beys 
 till 1799, when a great part of the country was conquered by the French, 
 under Bonaparte. In 1801, the invaders were dispossessed by the British, 
 and the government was restored to the Turks. — See Turkey, for modern 
 events. See Tabular Views, in this vol. page 5 et seq. 
 
 2188 
 
 Mizraim builds Memphis {Blair) b. c, 
 
 Egypt made four kingdoms, viz. : Up- 
 per Egypt, Lower Egypt, This, and 
 Memphis {Abbi Lenglef, Blair) 
 
 Athotes invents hieroglyphics - 
 
 Busii-is builds Thebes ( tlsher) 
 
 Osymandyas, the first warlike king, 
 passes into Asia, conquers Bactria, 
 and causes his exploits to be repre- 
 sented in sculpture and painting 
 (Usher, Lenglel) 
 
 The Phoenicians invade Lower Egypt 
 and hold it 260 years ( Usher) 
 
 The lake of Moeris constructed 
 
 The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt 
 to avoid the famine in Canaan 
 
 Syphoas introduces the use of the com- 
 mon letters ( Usher) - 
 
 Memnon invents the Egyptian letters 
 {Blair, Lenglet) 
 
 Amenophis L is acknowledged the 
 king of all Egypt (Le?io'/e;) - 
 
 .Joseph the Israelite is sold into Egypt 
 as a slave (Lenglet) - 
 
 He interprets the king's dreams 
 
 His father and brethren settle here 
 
 Sesostris reigns ; he extends his do- 
 minion by conquest over Arabia, 
 Persia, India, and Asia Minor (Leng- 
 let)' 1618 
 
 Settlement of the Ethiopians (Blair) 1615 
 
 Rampses, who imposed on his sub- 
 jects the building of walls and pyra- 
 mids, and other labors, dies (Lenglet) 1492 
 
 Amenophis I. is overwhelmed in tlie 
 Red Sea, with all his army (Leiiglet, 
 Blair) 1492 
 
 Reign of Egypt us, from whom the 
 
 2125 
 2122 
 2111 
 
 2100 
 
 2080 
 1938 
 
 - 1921 
 
 1891 
 
 - 1822 
 
 1821 
 
 1728 
 1715 
 1706 
 
 country, hitherto called Mizraim, is 
 now called Egypt (Blair) - b. c. 
 Reign of Thuoris (the Proteus of the 
 Greeks) who had the faculty of as- 
 suming whatever form he pleased, 
 as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, water, 
 
 fire 
 
 [These fictions were probably intend- 
 ed to mark the profound policy of 
 this king, who was eminent for his 
 wisdom, by which his dominion 
 flourished. — Blair.] 
 Pseusennes enters Palestine, ravages 
 Judea, and carries off" the sacred ves- 
 sels of the Temple 
 The dynasty of kings called Tanites 
 
 begins with Petubastes (Blair) 
 The dynasty of Saites (Blair) 
 Sebacon invades Egypt, subdues the 
 king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to 
 be roasted alive ( Usher) 
 Psammetichus the Powerful reigns - 
 He invests Azoth, which holds out for 
 19 years, the longest siege in the an- 
 nals of antiquity (t/s/te/-) 
 Necho begins the famous canal be- 
 tween the Arabic gulf and the Medi- 
 terranean sea (Blair) 
 This canal abandoned, after costing 
 the lives of 120,000 men (Herodotus) 
 Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes 
 
 Apries ( Usher) 
 Apries taken prisoner and strangled in, 
 
 his palace (Diod. Siculus) - 
 The philosopher Pythagoras comes 
 from Samos into iSgypt, and is in- 
 structed in the mysteries of Egyp- 
 tian theology ( Usher) 
 
 1485 
 
 1189 
 
 971 
 
 825 
 781 
 
 737 
 660 
 
 64.- 
 
 610 
 
 6C0 
 
 - 5S1 
 
 571 
 
 53i^ 
 
 * The epoch of the reign of Sesostris; is very uncertain ; Blair makes it to fall 1-33 years later. 
 Aa to the achie\ ements of this monarch, they are supposed to have been the labors of several kings, 
 »ttributed by th Egyptian priests to Se3)stris alone, whose very existence, inieed, is doubted. 
 
ELE J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 307 
 
 EGYPT, continued. 
 
 The line of the Tharaohs ends in the | 
 
 murder of Psaramenitus by Camby- 
 ses i Blair) - ■ - b. c. 526 
 
 Dreadful excesses of Cambyses; he 
 puts the children of the grandees, 
 
 male and female, to death, and makes 
 
 the com xry a. wdsle (Herodotus) • 524 
 He sends an army of 50,000 men across 
 
 the desert to destroy the temple of 
 
 Jupiter Ammon, but they all perish 
 
 in the burning sands (Justin) - 524 
 
 Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again 
 
 subdued by Xerxes (Blair) - - 487 
 
 A revolt under Inarus (Blair) - - 463 
 
 Successful revolt under Amyrtseus, 
 
 who is proclaimed king (Lenglet) - 414 
 Egypt again reduced by Persia, and its 
 
 temples pillaged ( Usher) - • 350 
 
 Alexander the Great enters Egypt, 
 
 wrests it from the Persians, and 
 
 builds Alexandria (Btozr) - - 332 
 
 Philadelphus completes the Pharos of 
 
 Alexandria (Blair) - - - 283 
 
 TheSeptuagint version of the Old Tes- 
 tament made about this time - 283 
 The famous library of Alexandria also 
 
 d^tes about this period (Blair) - 283 
 Ambassadors first sent to Rome - 269 
 
 Ptolemy Euergetes overruns Syria, 
 
 and returns laden with rich spoils, 
 
 and 2500 statues and vessels of gold 
 
 and silver, which Cambyses had 
 
 taken from the Egyptian temples 
 
 (Blair) - - - - 246 
 
 Reign of Philometer and Physcon - 151 
 At the dearh of Philometer, his brother 
 
 Physcon marries his queen, and on 
 
 the day of his nuptials murders the 
 
 infant son of Philometer in its moth- 
 er's arms .... 145 
 He repudiates his wife, and marries 
 
 her daughter by his brother ( Blair) 130 
 
 ELECTORS. Those for members of parliament for counties were obliged to 
 have forty shillings a year in land, 39 Henry VI., 1460. — Riiffhead's Statutes. 
 Among the recent acts relating to elections are the following : act depriving 
 excise and custom-house officers, and contractors with government, of their 
 votes. 1782. In the U. S., the qualifications vary in the different states. 
 
 ELECTORS OF GERMANY. Originally, all the members of the Germanic 
 body ma'3e choice of their head ; but amidst the violence and anarchy which 
 prevailed for several centuries in the empire, seven princes who possessed 
 the greatest power assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the em- 
 peror. — Dr. Robertson. An eighth elector was made, in 1648 ; and a ninth 
 in favor of the duke of Hanover, in 1692. The number was reduced to 
 eight, in 1777; and was increased to ten at the peacjp of Luneville, in 1801. 
 The electorship ceased on the dissolution of the German empire, and when 
 the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804, 1806. — See Germany. 
 
 ELECTRICITY', That of amber was known to Thales, 600 j\. c. Electricity 
 was imperfectly discovered a. d. 1467. It was found in various substancea 
 by Dr. Gilbert, of Colchester, in 1600 ; he first obtained the knowledge of its 
 power, of conductors and non-conductors, in 1606. Ottoguerick found that 
 two globes of brimstone contained electric matter, 1647. The electric shock 
 was discovered at Leyden, 1745, and hence the operation is termed the 
 *'Leyden phial." Electric matter was first found to contain caloric, or fire, 
 and that it would fire spirits, 1756. The identity of electricity and lightning 
 
 His subjects, wearied with his cruel- 
 ties and crimes, demolish his stat- 
 ues, set fire to his palace, and he 
 flies from their fury (Blair) b. 0. 13 
 He murders his son by his new queen ; 
 also his son by her mother, sending 
 the head and limbs of the latter as a 
 present to the parent on a feast day 123 
 
 Yet, defeating the Egyptian army, he 
 recovers his throne ; and dies - 123 
 
 Pestilence from the putrefaction of 
 vast swarms of locusts ; 800,000 per- 
 sons perish in Egypt - - - 128 
 
 Revolt in Upper Egypt; the famous 
 city of Thebes destroyed after a siege 
 of three years (Diod. Siculus) - 82 
 
 Auletes dying, leaves his kingdom to 
 his eldest son, Ptolemy, and the fa- 
 mous Cleopatra (Blair) - - 3l 
 
 During a civil war between Ptolemy 
 and Cleofatra, Alexandria is be- 
 sieged by Csesar, and the famous 
 library nearly destroyed by fire 
 (Blair) - - - - 47 
 
 Caesar defeats the king, who, in cross- 
 ing the Nile, is drowned ; and the 
 younger Ptolemy and Cleopatra 
 reign - - - - - 46 
 
 Cleopatra poisons her brother (only 14 
 years of age) and reigns alone - 43 
 
 She appears before Mark Antony, to 
 answer for this crime. Fascinated 
 by her beauty, he follows her into 
 Egypt - - - - - 40 
 
 Antony defeated by Octavius Cssar 
 at the battle of Actium (Blair) - 31 
 
 Octavius enters Egypt; Antony and 
 Cleopatra kill themselves ; and the 
 kingdom becomes a Roman prov- 
 ince - - - - - 30 
 
308 THE would' S PHOGRESS. [ EMfl 
 
 was proved by Dr. Franklin, about tliis period. The electricity of the Au- 
 rora Borealis was discovered by means of the electric kite, in 1769, 
 
 ELECTRO-GALVANISM. It owes its origin to the discoveries of Dr. L. Gal- 
 vani, an eminent Italian philosopher, in 1789. Volta pursued the inquiries 
 of this good man (for he was alike distinguished by his virtues and genius), 
 and discovered the mode of combining the metals; constructed what is 
 very properly called the Voltaic pile ; and extended the whole science into a 
 system which should rather be called Voitaism than Galvanism. 
 
 ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Analogies between electricity and magnetism were 
 discovered by Oersted of Copenhagen, in 1807. This analogy was established 
 in 1819. and was confirmed by subsequent experiments in England, France, 
 Germany, the United States and other countries 
 
 ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Experiments in electricity, ^aving more or less 
 bearing upon its ijractical use in telegraphic communication, were made by 
 V.^inckler, at Leipsic, 1746 ; La Monnier, in Paris ; Watson, in London, 1747 ; 
 Lomond, in 1781:; Betancour, at Madrid, 1798. Galvani's discovery of 
 'Galvanism," at BolotTga 1791. Prof Volta's "Voltaic Battery," at Pavix, 
 1801 ; Saemmerring, at Munich, 1807. The practical use of Galvanism in 
 telegraphs, as prophesied by John Redman Coxe, of Phila., in 1816. Great 
 advance made by Prof Oersted at Copenhagen, in 1819. The electro-rnag- 
 netic agency first fully developed and applied by Prof. Morse, 1832, patented 
 1840. Thu first telegraph by this agency in the United States, was between 
 Washington and Baltimore, in 1844. Cooke &' Wheatsone's patent in En- 
 gland, 1840. Bain's patent in England, first, 1842; applied in United States 
 in 1849. House's in 1848. The telegraphic lines in the United States, in 
 Jan. 1850 extended 6.679 miles. — See Supplement. 
 
 ELEPHANT. This animal, in the earliest times, was trained to war. The his- 
 tory of the Maccabees informs us, that "to every elephant they appointed 
 1000 men, armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse ; and upon the elephants 
 were strong towers of wood," &c. The elephants in the army of Antiochus 
 were provoked to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and mulber- 
 ries." The first elephant said to have been seen in England, was one of 
 enormous size, presented by the king of France to our Henry III., in 1238. — 
 Baker's Chron. 
 
 ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. A great festival under this name was observed 
 by the Athenians and other nations : these mysteries were the most celebra- 
 ted of all the religious ceremonies of Greece, and were instituted hj Eumol- 
 pus, 1356 B. c. They were so superstitiouslj^ observed, that if any one 
 revealed them, it was supposed that he had called divine vengeance upon 
 him, and he was put to death. The mysteries were introduced from Eleusis 
 into Rome, and lasted about 1800 years, and were at last abolished by Theo- 
 dosius the Great, a. d. 389. 
 
 ELGIN MARBLES. These admirable works of ancient art were derived 
 chieflj^ from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens, 
 of which temple they formed part of the frieze and pediment, built by Phi- 
 dias about 500 B. c. Lord Elgin began the collection of these marbles during 
 his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802; they were purchased of him by 
 the British government for 36,000Z., and placed in the British Museum, in 
 1816. 
 
 EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believed that their souls, after many 
 thousand years, would come to reinhabit their bodies, in case these latter 
 were preserved entire. Hence arose their practice of embalming the dead. 
 The Egyptian manner of preserving the dead has been the admiration and 
 "wouder of modern times. They rendered the body not only incorruptible, 
 
£MP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 309 
 
 but it retained its full proportion of size, sjmimetry of features, and personal 
 likeness. The)' called the embalmed bodies mummus, some of which, buried 
 ;JO0O years ago, are perfect to this day. The art of such embalming is now 
 lost. \Yhen Nicodemus came with Joseph of Arimathea, to pay the last 
 duties to our Saviour after his crucifixion, he brought a mixture of myrrh 
 and aloes to embalm his body. — John xix. 38, 
 
 EMBARGO IN ENGLAND. This power is invested in the crown, but it is 
 rarely exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as a prelude to 
 war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those for the preven- 
 tion of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766; and for the detention of all 
 Russian. Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom, 
 owing to the armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Armed Neutrality. 
 
 EMBARGO IN THE UNITED STATES. Embargo on all essels in the ports 
 of the United States, passed by Congress with reference to the quarrel with 
 Great Britain after the attack on the U. S. frigate Chesapeake, 1807. Re- 
 pealed and non-intercourse act passed, 1809. Embargo again laid for 90 
 days, April, 1812. War declared June 19, 1812. 
 
 EMBER WEEKS. Observed in the Christian church in the third century, to 
 implore the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and 
 fasting. Ember Days, three of which fall in these weeks, and in which 
 penitents sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. Four 
 times in each year were appointed for these acts of devotion, so as to answer 
 to the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. 
 
 i^MBROIDERY. Its invention is usually ascribed to the Phrygians ; but we 
 learn from Homer, and other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particu- 
 larly excelled in this decorative species of needle-work. Of this art very 
 early mention is made in the Scriptures. — Exodtis xxxv. 35 and xxxviii. 23. 
 An ancient existing specimen of beautiful embroidery is the Bayeux tapes- 
 try, worked by Matilda, the queen of William I. of England. See Bayeux 
 Ta.pestry. 
 
 EMERALD. The precious stone of a green color is found in the East and in 
 Peru ; inferior ones in other places. It has been alleged that there were no 
 true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of Peru ; but there is a gen- 
 uine emerald in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II., 
 who died in 1513. and Peru was not conquered till 1545 ; hence it is inferred 
 that this emerald was brought from Africa, or the East. 
 
 EMIGRATION. Of late j^ears emigrations from Britain have been considera- 
 ble. In the ten years ending 1830, the emigrations to the North American 
 colonies, West Indies, Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales. Swan River, 
 Van Diemen's Land, &c. were, according to official returns, 154,291. In the 
 . decennial period to 1840. the emigrations advanced to 277,696, exclusively 
 of the vast numbers settling in the United States of America. The num- 
 ber of emigrants to the United States in one year ending Sept. 30, 1848, were 
 registered as born in 
 
 Great Britaii and Ireland - - 148,212 | Denmark - ■ - - 210 
 
 Germany .... 58,018 Switzerland - - - - - 319 
 
 France - - - - - 7,748 Other countries or unknown • - 3,043 
 Sweden and Norway - - 903 1 
 
 EMIR. A title of dignity among the Turks and Persians, first given to caliphs. 
 This rank was first awarded to the descendants of Mahomet by his daughter 
 Fatima, about a. d. 650. — Ricaut. To the emirs only was originally given 
 the privilege of wearing the green turban. It is also given to high officers 
 (another title being joined). 
 
 EMPALEMENT. This barbarous and dreadful mode uf putting criminals to 
 
310 THE world's progress. I ENO 
 
 death is mentioned by Juvenal, and was often inflicted in Rome, paiticularly 
 by the monster Nero. The victim doomed to empalement is spitted tlirongh 
 the body on a stake fixed npright; and tliis punishment is still used in 
 Turke}^ and Arabia. The dead bodies of murderers were sometimes staked 
 in this manner, previously to being buried, in England. — Southern. Wil- 
 liams (who committed suicide) the murderer of the Marr family, in Rat- 
 cliffe Highway, London. Dec. 8, 1811, was staked in his ignominious grave. 
 This practice has since been abolished there. See Burying Alive. 
 
 EMTEROR. Originally a title of honor at Rome, conferred on victorious ge- 
 nerals, who were first saluted by the soldiers by that name. Augustas 
 Caesar was the first Roman emperor, 27 b. c. Valens was the first emperor 
 of the Eastern empire, a. d. 364. Charlemagne was the first emperor of 
 Germany, crowned by Leo IIL a. d. 800. Ottoman L, founder of the Turk- 
 ish empire, was the first emperor of Turkey, 1296. The Czar of Russia 
 was the first emperor of that countrj'^, 1722. Don Pedro IV. of Portugal 
 was the first emperor of Brazil, in 1825. 
 
 EMPIRICS. They were a set of early physicians who contended that all hj'- 
 pothetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was 
 useless, and that experience and observation alone were the foundation of 
 the art of medicine. The sect of Empii'ics was instituted by Acron of 
 Agrigentum, about 473 b. c. 
 
 ENAMELLING. The origin of the art of enamelling is doubtful. It was 
 practised by the Egyptians and other early nations ; and was know^n in 
 England in the times of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel 
 which belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscription, was 
 made by his order, in his reign, about a. d. 887. 
 
 ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, known to the ancients. This very beautiful art, 
 after having been lost, was restored by Count Caylus and M. Bachelier, 
 A. D. 1749. 
 
 ENCYCLOPJ^^DTA. The first work to which this designation w^as expressly 
 given, Avas that of Abulfarius, an Arabian writer, in the thirteenth century. 
 Many were published as early as the fifteenth century, but none alphabet- 
 ically. Chambers' Dictionary was the first of the circle of arts and sciences, 
 in England, first published in 1728. The great French work, Encydopedie 
 Metkodique, to which Voltaire, Diderot. D'Alembert, and other savans contri- 
 buted, was published in ll82etseq., in 200 quarto volumes. The British En- 
 cyclopedia, xjrinted in Philadelphia ill 1798, by Thomas Dobson, was the 
 first in the United States. The Edinburgh Encyclopedia, edited by Sir David 
 Brewster, was published, 1810 et seq., and republished in the United States.. 
 Rees' Cyclopedia republished in the United States in 1822. The cost of 
 the 7th edition of Encyclopedia Britannica. edited by Professor Napier, and 
 published by A. &C. Black. Edinburgh, in 1840 etc.. was stated to have been 
 .£126,000, of which je23 000 were pa '.d to the contributors. This was pro- 
 bably the most costly undertaking of the kind ever achieved by private enter- 
 prise. The Encyclopedia Metropolitana was commenced in 1815 and finished 
 in 1845. Both of these works comprised articles by the most distinguished 
 writers in Great Britain. The German Conversations Lexicon, published 
 1796-1880. and upon the basis of this the Encyclopedia Americana was com- 
 menced in Philadelphia in 1829-30, Penny Cycl. (Knight's) finished 1844. 
 
 ENGINEERS. This name is of modern date, as engineers were formerly called 
 Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as trench-master in 1622. 
 The chief engineer was called camp-master-general in 1634. Captain 
 Thomas Rudd had the rank of chief engineer to the king, about 1650. Tb* 
 corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, but was made a military 
 force, and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. It has a 
 
fiKG J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 311 
 
 coloiiel-in-chief, and a second, and five colonel-commandants, and twenty 
 colonels. The Association of civil engineers was established in 1828. The 
 Bureau of Topographical Engineers of the U. S. Army, established at 
 Washington. 
 
 ENGLAND. See BrUai7i. So named by order of Egbert, first king of Eng- 
 land, in a general council held at Winchester, a. d. 829. This appellative 
 had been used as far back as a. d. 688, but had never been, until then, rati- 
 fied by any assembly of the nation. It came from Angles, a tribe of Saxons, 
 and lond, the Saxon for country. For English history and succession of 
 Sovereigns, see Tabular Views, beginning on p. 75 in this volume. England 
 and Wales were united a. d. 1283 and Scotland was united to both in 1707, 
 and the three were then styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated 
 with these countries hy the Act of Legislative Union, January 1, 1801, and 
 the whole called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 ENGLAND, NEW. See New England: 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. See article Languages. From the High Dutch or 
 Teutonic sprung (among others) the English language, now one oi tho 
 most copious and beautiful of Europe. Law pleadings were made in En- 
 glish by order of Edward III. instead of the French language, which had 
 been continued from the time of the Conqueror, a. d. 1362. The English 
 tongue and English apparel were ordered to be used in Ireland, 28 Henry 
 VIII. 1536. The English was ordered to be used in all lawsuits, and the 
 Latin disused. May 1731. 
 
 ENGRAVING. The engraving of gems is a branch of art of the highest an- 
 titjuity. The earliest writers make mention of engraved seals and seal 
 rings, and there still exist many antique engravings equal to later produc- 
 tions of similar artists. Engraving from plates and Avood is chiefly of mo- 
 dern invention, having its origin about the middle of the fifteenth century. 
 Engraving on glass was perfected to an art by Boudier of Paris, 1799. The 
 art of engraving, in various styles, has made great progress in the United 
 States during the last ten years. 
 
 ENGRAVING on COPPER. Prints from engraved copper-plates made their 
 appearance about a. d. 1450, and were first produced in Germany. Masso, 
 surnamed Finiguerra, was the first Italian artist in this way, 1450. The 
 earliest date known of a copper-plate engraving is 1461. Rolling presses 
 for working the plates were invented in 1545, and many improvements of it 
 followed. Of the art of etching on copper by means of aquafortis, Francis 
 Mazzouli, or Parmagiano, is the reputed "inventor, about a. d. 1532.— 
 De Piles. 
 
 ENGRAVING, Lithographic. This is a new branch of the art, and Alois 
 Sennefeldermay be regarded as the inventor of it. It was first announced 
 on the Continent in 1798, and became more known as polyautography in 
 1808. It was introduced into general use in England by Mr. Ackermann of 
 London in 1817. 
 
 ENGRAVING, Mezzotinto. The art was discovered by Siegen. and was im- 
 proved by prince Rupert in 1648; Sir Christopher Wren further improved 
 it in 1662. Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is pruduced, 
 '/.as invented by the celebrated French artist, St. Non, about 1662 : he com^ 
 rmnicated his invention to Le Prince. Barrabe of Paris was distinguished 
 for his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. Chiaro-oscuro en- 
 graving originated with the Germans, and was first practised by Mair, one 
 of whose prints bears date 1491. See Zmcography, i^c. 
 
 ENGRAVING ON STEEL. The mode of engraving on soft steel, which, after 
 it has been hardened, will multiply copper plates and tine impressions, in- 
 
312 THE world's frogress. [ kpi 
 
 definitely, was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, cf 
 Philadelphia, in 1819. 
 ENGRAVING on WOOD, took its rise from the brief viahlerj, or manufacture: 8 
 of playing-cards, about a. d. 1400; and from this sprung the invention of 
 printing, first attempted by means of wooden types not movable. See 
 PriiUiiig. The art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to 
 Reuss a German ; it was greatly improved by Durer and Lucas Van Leyden 
 in 1497 ; and was brought to perfection in England by Bewick, his brother, 
 and pupils. Nesbett, Anderson, &c., 1789, et. seq. The earliest wood en- 
 graving which has reached our times is one representing St. Christopher 
 carrying the infant Jesus over the sea ; it bears date a. d. 1423. 
 
 ENTO.MOLOGY. This branch of natural history cannot be regarded as rank- 
 ing as a science until the arrangement of Linnaeus, a. d. 1739. The London 
 Entomological Society was instituted in 1806 ; it is directed chiefly to the 
 study of insects found in Great Britain ; and inquires into the best methods 
 of destroying noxious insects, and making known such as are useful. 
 
 ENVOYS. They enjo}^ the protection, but not the ceremonies of ambassadors. 
 Envoys Extraordinary are of modern date. — Wicquefort. The court of 
 France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the 
 royal carriages, a. d. 1639. 
 
 EPHESUS. Famous for the temple of Diana, which magnificent structure wa? 
 one of the seven wonders of the world ; it was 425 feet long and 200 broad, 
 and cost 220 years of labor. Ctesiphon was the chief architect, and 127 kings 
 contributed to its grandeur. The temple was burnt by Erostratus, solely to 
 ])erpetuate his memory. 356 b. c. — Pliny. It rose from its ruins, and was 
 richer and more splendid than before ; but it was again burnt a. d. 260. — 
 Univ. Hist. 
 
 EPHORI. Powerful magistrates of Sparta, first created by Theopompus to con- 
 trol the royal power, 760 b. c. They were five in number, and acting as 
 censors in the state, they could check and restrain the authority of the 
 kings and even imprison them, if ihej were guilty of irregularities. 
 
 EPIC POETRY. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the first epic poems. See 
 
 Homer. 
 
 EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, was the 
 founder of it. about 300 b. c. and taught that the greatest good consists in a 
 happiness springing not from sensual gratifications or vicious pleasures, but 
 from virtue, and consisting in the 'peace and harmony of the soul with 
 itself His disciples had all things in common; and the pleasantness of his 
 system, and its ease and luxury, made him many followers. 
 
 EPIGRAMS. They derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the 
 ancients on their tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin 
 epigrammatist, who flourished about a. d. 83, is allowed to have excelled all 
 others, ancient or modern, in the tasteful and pointed epigram. The follow- 
 ing Latin epigram on the miracle of our Saviour in turning water into wine 
 at Cana (John iii.) is a beautiful example: — 
 
 " Videt et erubuit lympha putlica Deum." 
 And Dr. Johnson has declared that the subjoined English epigram, by Dr. 
 Doddridge, on the words Dum vivirniis vivavius, is the finest specimen in 
 our language : — 
 
 " Live while we live !" the epicure will say, 
 
 " Ami taste tlie pleasures of tlie present day." 
 
 " Live while we live !" the hoary preacher cries, 
 
 " And give to God each moment as it flies." 
 I/Ord ! in 7717/ view let both united be, 
 We live in cleasure when we live to thee. — Doddridge 
 
Ell-A J DICTIONA.lr OF DATES. 31b 
 
 EIPIRUS. Known by the great warlike achievements of Pyrrhns. Its ?^arly 
 history is very obscure, and it is only dni'ing the reign of this bovercign. 
 who was the last, that it becomes interesting. The first Pyrrhus (Neopto- 
 lemns) settled in Epirus after the Trojan war, 1170 b. c. He was killed in 
 the temple of Delphi, about 1165 b. c. 
 
 Reign of the gi'eat Pyrrhus - b. c. 306 
 He enters into a league against Deme- 
 trius ; the battle of Bercea - - 294 
 Expedition into Italy ; he gains his first 
 
 battle against the Romans • - 280 
 
 He gains another great battle - - 279 
 
 His conquest of Sicily - - - 278 
 
 His last battle with the Romans - 274 
 
 He takes Macedon from Antigonus - 274 
 
 Expedition against Sparta - b. c. 27<i 
 
 He enters Argos, and is killed by a tiU, 
 throv/n at him from a house-top by a 
 woman .... 272 
 
 Philip unites Epirus to Macedon • 2^ 
 
 Its conquest bv the Romans - - 167 
 
 * * '« -s * * » 
 
 Annexed to the Ottoman empire A. D. 1466 
 
 EPISCOPACY. The government, by its bishops, of the Christian church. It 
 may be said to have been instituted a. d. 33, when Peter sat in the bishop's 
 chair at Rome. — Butler. Episcopacy commenced in England in the second 
 century ; in Ireland about the same time ; and in Scotland in the fourth cen- 
 tury ; but historians dispute with theologians upon this point. See Bhlwp'^. 
 In Scotland, episcopacy was finally abolished at the period of the revolution, 
 1688-9. The sect called Episcopalians first appeared about the year 500. — 
 Burnet. 
 
 EPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the United States. Episcopacy established in New- 
 York by law, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first bishops of 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church in America were bishop White of Penn- 
 sylvania and Provost of New- York, consecrated in London. 1787. First 
 Episcopal convention. 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky, and 
 Ohio consecrated at New- York, Nov. 2, 1832. 
 
 EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, by the Athenians, the Ro- 
 mans, and most of the nations of antiquity ; their date is referred in Eng- 
 land to the earliest times. In the epitaphs of the ancients arose the 
 epigram. — Boileau. 
 
 EPITHALAMIUM. Tisias, the lyric poet, was the first writer of a nuptial 
 complimentary song, or epithalamium. He received the name of Stesicho- 
 ru,s from the alterations made by him in music and dancing, 536 b. c. — 
 
 Bassuet. 
 
 EPOCHAS. These are periods in historj^ which are agreed upon and acknow- 
 ledged by the respective historians and chronologers, and which serve to 
 regulate the date of events. The following are the epochas thus particu- 
 larly adopted. — See Eras. 
 
 Creation - - - • b. c. 4004 
 
 Deluge ... - -•(♦2348 
 
 Calling of Abraham . . - 1921 
 
 Argonautic expedition - - - 1225 
 
 Destruction of Troy - - 1184 
 
 1st Olympiad - - - -776 
 
 EQUINOX. The precession of the equinoxes was confirmed, and the places 
 and distances of the [)lanets were discovered by Ptolemy, a. d. 130. When 
 the sun in his progress through the ecliptic comes to the equinoctial circle, 
 the day and night are equal all over the globe : this occurs twice in the year : 
 once in the first point of Aries, which is called the vernal equinox ; ntxt in 
 the first point of Libra, which is the autumnal equinox. — Blair. 
 
 EQUITY, COURTS of. To determine causes according to the rule of equity 
 and conscience, rather than according to strict law, a. d. 1067. — See Chaiv- 
 cery. 
 
 ERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order , 
 a few only need be mentioned here. The era of Nabonasser, after which 
 
 14 
 
 Building of Rome - • . -B.C. 753 
 
 Nabonassar - - <> • 747 
 
 The Seleucidae • • • - 312 
 
 The battle of Actium - - - 38 
 
 The Christian era • • A. D. 1 
 
 Diocletian .... 284 
 
314 THE WORLD'S TROGRESS. [ EME 
 
 the Astronomical obsenations made at Babylon were reckoned, began Feb 
 26, 747. The era of the Seleucidae (used hj the Maccabees) commenced 
 312 E. c. The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date from the year 
 776 L. c. ; but they subsequently reckoned by Indictions, the first beginning 
 A. D. 313 : these, among chronologers, are still used. — See Indiciions. The Ro- 
 mans reckoned from the building of their city, 753 b. c. ; and afterwards 
 from the 16th year of the emperor Augustus, which reckoning was adopted 
 among the Spaniards until the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic. The disci- 
 ples of Mahomet began their Hegira from the flight of their prophet from 
 Mecca, which occurred a. d. 622. 
 
 ERAS OF THE CREATION and REDEMPTION. The Jews and Christians 
 have had divers epochas ; but in historical computation of time are chiefl 7 
 used the most extraordinary epochs, which are two, the Creation of the 
 World, and the appearance of our Redeemer, which last the Chrisiians ha vo 
 made their era. They did not adopt it, however, until the sixth century, 
 Avhen it was introduced by Denys the Little, a Scythian, who became abbot 
 of a monastery near Rome : he was the first who computed time from the 
 birth of Christ, and fixed that great event according to the vulgar era. — 
 Casslodorus Chron. This computation began in Italy, a. d. 525, and in Eng- 
 land in 816. It is the only one now in general use, and is that observed in 
 this work. — See Creation^ and Christian Era. 
 
 ESC^URIAL. The palace of the kings of Spain, on^ of the largest and most 
 magnificent in the world. It was commenced by Philip II. in the year 1562 ; 
 and the first expenditure of its erection was 6,000,000 of ducats. It forms 
 a vast square of polished stone, and paved with marble. It may give some 
 notion of the surprising grandeur of this palace to observe, that, according 
 to the computation of Francisco de los Santos, it would take up more than 
 four days to go through all its rooms and apartments, the length of the way 
 being reckoned thirty-three Spanish leagues, which is above 120 English 
 miles. Alvarez de Colnienar also asserts, that there are 14,000 doors, and 
 11.000 windows belonging to this edifice. 
 
 ESQUIRES. Among the Greeks and Romans, esquires were armor-bearers to, 
 or attendants on, a knight. — Blount. In England the king created esquires 
 by putting about their necks the collar of S S, and bestowing upon them a 
 pair of silver spurs. A British queen is recorded as having married the 
 armigerum, or esquire, of her deceased husband. The distinction of esquire 
 was first given to persons of fortune not attendant upon knights, a. d. 1345. 
 - — Stoioe. Meyrick^s A7icie7it Armor. 
 
 ETHER. It was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first dis- 
 covered by Kunkel, in 1681 ; and muriatic ether was first made from the 
 chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered by 
 count Lauraguais, same year ; and hydriodic ether was first prepared by 
 Gaj'-Lussac. The phosphoric was obtained by M. Boullay. Ether is said 
 to have been first applied to the purpose of causing insensibility to pain by 
 Dr. Horace Wells, of Connecticut, in 1846. This, however, is disputed, for 
 about the same time Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston, well known as a geologist 
 and chemist, suggested the use of ether in surgery ; but to Dr. Morton, of 
 Boston, probably belongs the credit of first demonstrating, by actual experi- 
 ment, the use of ether in dentistry and surgery, as an annihilator of pain. 
 It was used in surgical cases, in that year, by Drs. J. C. Warren, C banning, 
 and Morton, of Boston, who afterwards published the results of their experi- 
 ments. The practice was first copied in Europe by Dr. Robertson, of Edin- 
 burgh, and Dr. Booth, of London, the same year. The sulphuric ether is 
 inhaled from an apparatus with flexible tube, &c. Etherization was first 
 used in oj)erative midwifer}', in the United States, May, 1847. The substance 
 
eve] dictionary of dates. 315 
 
 called chloroform, originally discovered hj Soubeiran, in 1831, was also first 
 employed for similar purposes in 1847, by professor Simpson, of Edinburgh. 
 
 ETHICS. The doctrine and system of morality ; a science which is scarcely 
 more inculcated by religion and virtue, than it is influenced by manners and 
 government: the Chinese, who are said to have been acquainted with 
 astronomy at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, were so refined in 
 the earliest ages, that they studied ethics, we are told, a thousand years 
 before that event ; and hence they must have lived at that time under not 
 only civilized and enlightened, but refined and moral governments. 
 
 ETNA, MOUNT. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops ; and it is called 
 by Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus 
 Siculus as happening 1693 b. c, and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions 
 as occurring, 734, 477, and 425 b. c. There were e-uptions, 125, 121, and 43 
 B. c. — Livy. Eruptions a. d. 40, 253, and 420. — Carrera. One in 1012, — • 
 Geoffrey de Viterbo. Awful one which overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 
 inhabitants perished in the burning ruins, 1169. Eruptions eaually awful 
 and destructive, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1536, 1537, 1564. and in 1669; when tens 
 of thousands of persons perished in the streams of lava which rolled over 
 the whole country for forty days. Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and 
 in May 1830, when several villages were destroyed, and showers of lava 
 reached even to Rome. Another violent eruption, and the town of Bronte 
 destroyed, Nov. 18, 1832. 
 
 EUCLID, Elements of. Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished 
 there about 300 b. c. The Elements are not wholly his, for many of the invalu- 
 able truths and demonstrations they contain were discovered and invented 
 by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others ; but Euclid was the first who 
 reduced them to regular order, and who probably interwove many theo- 
 rems of his own. to render the whole a complete and connected system of 
 geometry. The Elements were first printed at Basil, by Simon Grynaeus, 
 in A. D. 1533. 
 
 EUNUCHS. This species of mutilation is first mentioned among the Egyptian 
 and Assyrian nations ; and eunuchs in the earliest times were attendants in 
 courts. The first princess who was waited upon by eunuchs in her cham- 
 ber, was Semiramis, queen of Assyria and Babylon, about 2007 b. c. — Leng- 
 let. Numbers of this class of persons are in the quality of attendants on 
 the ladies of the Seraglio in Turkey. 
 
 EUSTATIA, ST. This island was settled by the Dutch in 1632 : it was taken 
 by the French in 1689 ; by the English in 1690 ; and again by the British 
 forces, under admiral Rodney and general Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It 
 was recovered by th€ French under the marquis de Bouille, Nov. 26, same 
 year; and was again captured by the British in 1801, and 1810; but re- 
 stored in 1814. 
 
 EVANGELISTS. Mark and Matthew wrote their Gospels in a. d. 44 ; Luke ia 
 55 ; and John in 97. In 95, John was thrown into a caldron of boiling oil 
 at Rome, whence, being taken out unhurt, he was banished to the Isle of 
 Patmos, and there, in the year 96, he wrote the Apocalypse, and died in 100. 
 — Butler. At the council of Nice in 325, there were 200 varied versions cf 
 the adopted Evangelists. . 
 
 EVESHAM, Battle of, between prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., and 
 Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, in which the barons were defeated, 
 and the earl, his son, and most of his adherents slain. Henry III. at one 
 period of the battle was on the point of being cleft down by a soldier who 
 did not know his rank, but was saved by his timely exclamation, "Do not 
 
316 THE world's TROGllESS. [ EXK 
 
 kill rae. soldier, I am Henry of Winchester, thy king !" This victory broke 
 lip the treasonable conspiracy of the barons; fought August 4, 12G5. 
 
 EXCHANGE. One called Collegium Mercatorum, existed at Rome, 493 b. u. 
 The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of the kind 
 in the world. Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are mag- 
 nificent. The exchange of London was founded by sir Thomas Gresham, 
 June 7, 1566, and was called Royal, by Elizabeth, on her paving it a visit in 
 Jail. 1571. Destroyed by fire in 1666 and in 1838 : rebuilt and v pened in 184-1. 
 
 EXCHANGE (Merchants') in NEW YORK. The present building, on the site 
 of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1836, was commenced in 1836, and 
 finished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. That of Boston, 
 also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846, 
 
 EXCHEQUER. An institution of great antiquity, consisting v»f officers whose 
 functions are financial or judicial : the chancellor of the exchequer is the 
 first of these, and he formerly sat in the court of exchequer above the 
 barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de Fauconbridge, bishop of Lon- 
 don, in the reign of Henry HI., about 1221. The exchequer stopped pay- 
 ment from Jan. to May the 24th, Charles H. 1673. — Stowe. The English 
 and Irish exchequers were consolidated in 1816. 
 
 EXCISE. The excise system was established in England by the Long I'iiilia- 
 ment; was continued under Cromwell and Charles II. ; and was organized 
 as at present in the Walpole administration. It was first collected and an 
 office opened in 1643, and was arbitrarily levied upon liquors and provisions 
 to support the parUament forces against Charles I. The excise office was 
 built on the site of Gresham College, in 1774. The officers of excise and 
 customs were deprived of their votes for members of i)arliament in 1782 
 See Revenue. 
 
 AMOUNT OF THE EXCISE REVENUE OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 
 
 1744 Great Britain - 
 1786 Ditto 
 1808 Ditto 
 1820 Ditto , - 
 1827 United Kingdom 
 
 EXCOMMUNICATION. An ecclesiastical anathema, or interdict from Chris- 
 tian communion. It was originally instituted for preserving the purity of 
 the church ; but ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an en- 
 gine for promoting their own power. • Some suppose excommunication to 
 be of Hindoo origin in the Pariah caste, and that it was adopted by the 
 Jews (who had three degrees of it), and from these latter by the Christian 
 churches. The Greek and Roman priests and even the Druids had similar 
 punishments in aid of their respective religions. — Phillips. 
 
 EXCOMMUNICATION by the POPES. The Catholic church excommuni- 
 cates by bell, book, and candle. — See Bell, Book, and Candle. The popes 
 have carried their authority to such excess as to excommunicate and depose 
 sovereigns. Gregory VII. was the first pope who assumed this extravagant 
 power. He excommunicated Henry IV. emperor of German}'-, in 1077, ab- 
 solving his subjects from their allegiance ; and on the emperor's death, 
 " his excommunicated body" was five years above ground, no one daring to 
 bury it. In England were many excommunications in Henry II. 's reign ; 
 and king John Avas excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. in 1208, when all 
 England lay under an interdict for six years. The citizens of Dublin were 
 excommunicated by Clement IV. in 1206. Bulls denouncing hell-fire to 
 queen Elizabeth accompanied the Spanish Armada, and plenary inr^ul- 
 gences were offijrcd to all who should assist in deposing her. 
 
 EXECUTIONS. See Crime. In the reign of Henry VIII. fthirty-eight yearu) 
 
 je3,754,U72 
 
 1830 United Kingdom 
 
 JB18,644,385 
 
 5,540,114 
 
 1834 Ditto 
 
 • 16,877,292 
 
 19,867,914 
 
 1837 Ditto 
 
 - 14,518,142 
 
 26,364,702 
 
 1840 Ditto 
 
 • - 12,607,766 
 
 20,995,324 
 
 1845 Ditto 
 
 - 13,585,583 
 
EXP J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 317 
 
 it is shown that no less a number than 72 000 criminals were executed. — 
 Stowe. In the ten years between 1820 and 1830, there were executed in Eng- 
 land alone 797 criminals ; but as our laws became less bloody, the number 
 of executions proportional!}^ decreased. In the three years ending 1820, 
 the executions in England and Wales amounted to 312 ; in the three years 
 ending 1830, they were reduced to 178 ; and in the three years ending 1840, 
 they had decreased to 62. — Pari. Returns. 
 
 EXECTTT10>"S IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 
 
 In the year 1841 - I 
 In the year 1842 - 3 
 In the year 1843 - I 
 
 In the year 1820 - 43 In the year 1835 - 7iil l In the year 1838 -nil 
 In the year 1825 - 17 In the year 1836 - nil In the year 1839 - 2 
 In the year 1830 - 6 In the year 1837 - 2 | In the year 1840 - 1 
 
 EXPLORING EXPEDITION (U. S.). consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of 
 war ; Peacock, ditto ; Porpoise, brig ; Relief. Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, 
 smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads, 
 Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. At- 
 tack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers. July 25, 1846. The 
 Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July 1841. The Vincennes 
 (flag-ship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly four years, 
 June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. Imp. 
 8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports of the ex- 
 pedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes. 
 
 EXPORTS, AND IMPORTS of the United States from 1791. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 1791 
 
 ■ $52,200,000 
 
 $19,012,041 
 
 1792 
 
 31,500,000 - 
 
 20,7.53,098 
 
 1793 
 
 • 31,100,000 
 
 26,109,572 
 
 1794 
 
 34.600,000 . 
 
 33,026.23:3 
 
 1795 
 
 - 69,756,268 
 
 47,989,472 
 
 1796 
 
 81.436,164 . 
 
 67.064,097 
 
 1797 
 
 - 75;379.406 
 
 56,850,206 
 
 1793 
 
 68,.55i;700 - 
 
 61,-527,097 
 
 1799 
 
 - 79,'«8,148 
 
 78,665,522 
 
 1800 
 
 91,252,768 - 
 
 70,971,780 
 
 1801 
 
 - 111,36.3,511 
 
 94.115,925 
 
 1802 
 
 76,333,333 - 
 
 72,483,160 
 
 1803 
 
 - 64,666,666 
 
 55.800,033 
 
 1804 
 
 85,000,000 - 
 
 77,699,074 
 
 1805 
 
 - 120,000,00-0 
 
 95,566.021 
 
 1806 
 
 129.000,000 - 
 
 101 ,.536,963 
 
 1807 
 
 - 138;o00,000 
 
 108,-343,150 
 
 1808 
 
 56,990,000 - 
 
 22,439.960 
 
 1809 
 
 • 59,400,000 
 
 52.203,231 
 
 1810 
 
 85,400,000 - 
 
 66,757,974 
 
 1811 
 
 - 53,400,000 
 
 - 61.316,831 
 
 1812 
 
 77,030,000 . 
 
 38;527.236 
 
 1813 
 
 . 22,005,000 
 
 ■ 27,855,997 
 
 1814 
 
 12,965,000 ■ 
 
 6,927,441 
 
 1815 
 
 - 113.041,274 
 
 - 52,557,753 
 
 1816 
 
 147,103,000 - 
 
 81,920,452 
 
 1817 
 
 - 99.250.000 
 
 87,671,569 
 
 1818 
 
 121,750,000 . 
 
 93,281,133 
 
 1819 
 
 - 87,125,000 
 
 ^0,142,521 
 
 EXPORTS, 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Edward I 
 
 years. 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 1836 
 1837 
 1838 
 1839 
 1840 
 1841 
 1842 
 1843 
 1844 
 1845 
 1846 
 1847 
 1848 
 
 Imports. 
 
 74,450.000 
 
 62,585,724 
 
 83,241,541 
 
 77.579,267 
 
 80,549,007 
 
 96,:340,075 
 
 84,974.477 
 
 79,484,068 
 
 88.509,824 
 
 74,492,527 
 
 70.876,920 
 
 103.191,1-34 
 
 I0i;029,266 
 
 108.118,311 
 
 126,521,332 
 
 149.895,742 
 
 1891980,035 
 
 140;989,217 
 
 108.486,616 
 
 12i;0i8,416 
 
 131.571,950 
 
 127,946,177 
 
 100,162,087 
 
 64,753,799' 
 
 108,435,035t 
 
 117.254,564t 
 
 12i;691,797t 
 
 146.545,638t 
 
 154,977,876t 
 
 Exports. 
 
 69,691.6b9 
 
 64,974;332 
 
 72,160.281 
 
 74,699.030 
 
 75,986^657 
 
 99,535,388 
 
 77,595,352 
 
 82,324,827 
 
 72,264,686 
 
 72,-358,671 
 
 73 849,508 
 
 81,310,583 
 
 87,176,943 
 
 90,140,4:33 
 
 104,336,973 
 
 121,693,577 
 
 128,663,040 
 
 117,419.376 
 
 113,717;404 
 
 162,092.1.32 
 
 104.805:891 
 
 121,851 ;803 
 
 104,691,534 
 
 84,346,480' 
 
 111,20c 046t 
 
 114,64f .6061 
 
 113,48^- 516t 
 
 158,64f ,622t 
 
 154,032 ,131 1 
 
 Edward III., by his encouragement of ti-ade, 
 turned the scale so much in favor of English merchandise, that by a balaiK e 
 of trade taken in his time, the exported commodities amounted to 294,000c'., 
 and the imported to only 38,000Z. 
 
 VALUE OP EXPORTS FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, VIZ : — 
 
 In 1700 - 
 
 - je6,097,120 
 
 In 1820 - 
 
 -JE51,7.33.113 
 
 In 1842 - 
 
 -;£l()2,180,517 
 
 In 1750 
 
 - 10,130,991 
 
 In 1830 
 
 - . 66,735,445 
 
 In 1843 
 
 - - 100,260,101 
 
 In 1775 - 
 
 - 16,-326,363 
 
 In 1835 ■ 
 
 . 78,376,732 
 
 In 1844 - 
 
 - 117,877,278 
 
 In 1800 
 
 - 38,120,120 
 
 In 1840 
 
 - - 97,402,726 
 
 In 1845 
 
 . - 131,564,503 
 
 In 1810 . 
 
 - 45,869.839 
 
 In 1841 - 
 
 - 102,705,372 
 
 In 1846 . 
 
 . 134,509.1 H 
 
 ' Oaly nine monilis of 1843. t For the year ending June 30. 
 
318 THE world's progress. [ PAL 
 
 The amounts above given relate to the exports of the United Kingdom 
 of British and Irish produce only. The total exports, including foreign and 
 colonial produce, were, according to ofiicial returns, as follows : 
 
 In 1811 • -j£116,479.678 | In 1843 - -jEl 13,844,259 i In 1845 - - JE145,961,749 
 In 1812 - - 116,903,668 | In 1844 - - 131,833,391 | In 1846 - - 150,879,986 
 
 In the year ending 5th January 1846, the amount of imports into the 
 United Kingdom was 85.28l,958Z; and the balance of trade in favor of Eng- 
 land, deducting this sum from her exports, was 65 598.028Z. But even thi.s 
 great balance has been exceeded in recent years, as, for instance, the year 
 immediately preceding, when it mounted to upwards of seventy millions. — ■ 
 Brit. Revenue Returns. 
 
 EYLAU, Battle of, between the French and Russians, one of the most 
 bloody of Napoleon's wars : it terminated in favor of Napoleon, Avho com- 
 manded in person ; but both armies by this and other recent battles were 
 so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the Russians 
 on the Pregel : the loss to the victor was 15,000 men, and the Russian loss 
 in slain alone was 20,000. Feb. 8, 1807. 
 
 F. 
 
 FABII, A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name from 
 faba, a bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse : they 
 were said to be descended from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and 
 were once so numerous that they took upon themselves to wage war iigainst 
 the Yeientes. They came to a general engagement near the Cremera, in 
 which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were slain, b. c. 477. There 
 only remained one. whose tender age had detained him at Rome, and from 
 him arose the noble Fybii in the following ages. 
 
 FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees is the oldest extant, and as beautiful 
 
 as any made since." — Addison. Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. 
 
 xii.) is next in antiquity. The earliest coUectionof fables extant is of east- 
 
 . ern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma, 
 
 called Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient, in the world. 
 
 ■ — Sir Wdlicnn Jones. The well-known ^sojj's fables {which see), were 
 
 written about 540 years b. c. — Plutarch. 
 FACTIONS. Among the Romans, factions were parties that fought on cha- 
 riots in the cirque, and who were distinguished by their different colors, 
 a green, blue. red. and white, to which Domitian added two others, one in 
 coats embroidered with gold, a second wearing scarlet, about a. d. 90 Both 
 the emperors and people had generall}^ greater inclination for some parti- 
 cular color than the rest; but upon a quarrel happening in Justinian's reign, 
 between the blue and green, when 40 000 were killed on both sides, the 
 name of faction was abolished. With us. faction means a party or sect in 
 religious or civil matters, and is always taken in an ill sense. 
 
 FAIRS AND WAKES. They are of Saxon origin, and Avere tirst instituted in 
 England by Alfred, a. d. 886. — Spehnan. They were established by order of 
 Gregory VII. in 1708, and termed Ferice, at which the monks celebrated the 
 festival of their patron saint ; the vast resort of people occasioned a great de- 
 mand for goods, wares, &c. They were called wakes from the people malting 
 merry during the vigil, or eve. Fairs were established in France and Eng- 
 land by Charlemagne and William the Conqueror, about a. d. 800 in the 
 first, and 1071 in the latter kingdom. The fairs of Beaucaire, Falaise, and 
 Leipsic, are the most famous in Europe. 
 
 FALKIRK, Battle of, between the English under Edward I. and the Scota 
 commanded by the heroic Wallace, in which 40 000 of the latter were slain 
 
FSU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. -jly 
 
 the whole Scotch army was broken up, and was chased off the field with 
 dreadful slaughter, July 22, 1298. 
 
 FAMINES, AND SEASONS op REMARKABLE SCARCITY, The famine of 
 the seven years in Egypt began 1708 b. c. — Usher ; Blair. In a famine tliat 
 raged at Rome thousands of the people threw themselves into the Tiber, 
 436 B. c. Lity. 
 
 Awful famine in Egypt - a. d. 42 i voured the flesh of horses, dogs, cats, 
 
 Al Rome, attended by plague * - 262 
 
 In Britain, so grievous that people ate 
 
 the bark of trees - - - 272 
 
 111 Scotland, and thousands die - - 306 
 
 In England, where 40,000 perish - 310 
 
 Awful one in Phrygia - - - 370 
 So dreadlul in Italy, that parents ate 
 
 their children {Dufresnoy) - - 450 
 
 In England, Wales, and Scotland - 739 
 
 and vermin - - - a. d. 13! 5 
 
 One in England and France (Rapin) - 1353 
 Again, one so great, that bread was 
 
 made from fern roots {Stoice) - 14;38 
 
 Awful one in France ( Voltaire) - 1693 
 
 One general in Great Britain - - 1748 
 One which devastates Beugal - - 1771 
 
 At the Cape de Verds, where 16,000 per- 
 sons perish - • - - - 1773 
 
 Again, when thousands starve - - 823 i One grievously felt in France - - 1789 
 Again, which lasts four years - - 954 I One severely felt in England - - 1795 
 
 Awful one throughout Europe - - 1016 Again, throughout the kinsdom - - 1801 
 
 In England and France ; this famine 
 leads to a pestilential fever, which 
 lasts from 1193 to - - -1195 
 
 Another famine in England - - 1251 
 
 Again, so dreadful, that the people de- 
 
 At Drontheim, owing to Sweden tiier- 
 cepting the supplies - - - 1813 
 
 Scarcity of food, severely felt by the 
 Irish poor, 1814, 1816, 1822, and - 1845-6 
 
 FAN, The use of the fan was known to the ancients: Cape hoc Jlabellum et 
 ventulnm huic sic facito. — Terence. The modern custom among the ladies 
 was borrowed from the East, Fans, together with muffs, masks, and false 
 hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, and were brought to England 
 from France. — Stowe. The fan was used by females to hide their faces in 
 church. — Pardon. 
 
 FARCE. This species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows 
 which were exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons in the open street. 
 These were introduced into our theatres in a ludicrous and more refined 
 form ; and they are now only shorter, but often superior to the pieces called 
 comedies. See article Drama. 
 
 FASTING, AND FASTS. They were practised and observed by most nations 
 from the remotest antiquity. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other 
 stated times, and on particular occasions, begun in the Christian church, 
 to appease the anger of God, in the second centmy, a. d. 138. Retained aa 
 a pious practice by the reformed churches. — Euseblus. 
 
 FEASTS and FESTIVALS. The feast of the Tabernacles was instituted by 
 Moses in the wilderness, 1490 b. c, but was celebrated with the greatest 
 magnificence for fourteen days, upon the dedication of the tem])le of Solo- 
 mon. 1005 B. c. — Jusephns. In the Christian church, those of Christmas, 
 Easter, Ascension "and Pentecost or Whitsuntide, were first ordered to be 
 observed by all Christians, a.d. 68. Rogation days were appointed in 469. 
 Jubilees in the Romish church were instituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300. 
 See Jubilee:,. For fixed festivals observed in the church of England, as set- 
 tled at the Reformation, cl seq., see Book of Common Prayer. 
 
 FEBRUARY. The second month of the year, so called from Februa. a feast 
 which was held therein in behalf of the manes of diseased persons, when 
 sacrifices were performed and the last oflfices were paid to the shades of tho 
 dead. This month, with January, was added to the year, which had pre- 
 viously but ten months, by Numa, 713 b. c. See Calendar, and Year. 
 
 FERRARA. A city in the papal dominions, eracuated by the Austrians, ex- 
 cept the citadel, Dec. 23, 1847. 
 
 F fiUJ>AL LAWS. The tenure of land, by suit or service to the lord or owner 
 of it, was irtroduced into England by the Saxons, about a. d. 600. 'ilie 
 
32C THE world's progress. [ FIR 
 
 slavery of this tenure was increased under William I. in 10G8. Thi& was 
 done by dividing the kingdom into baronies, and giving them to certain 
 l)ersons, requiring them to furnish the king with money, and a stated num- 
 ber of soldiers. These laws were discountenanced in France by Louis XL 
 in 1470. The vassalage was restored, but limited by Henry VII. 1495. Abol- 
 ished by statute 12 Charles II. 1663. The feudal system was introduced into 
 Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008 ; and was finally abolished in that kingdom 
 20 Geoi'ge II. VJ ^^.^ Little ton ; Ruffliead ; Blackstone. 
 
 FEUILLANS, Members of a society formed in Paris to counteract the intrigues 
 and operations of the Jacobins, named from the Feuillan convent, where 
 their meetings were held, early in the revolution. A body of Jacobins 
 invested the building, burst into their hall, and- obliged them to separate, 
 Dec. 25, 1791. 
 
 FEZ. The ancient Mmtritania, founded by Edrus, a Barbary farmer, about 
 A. D. 696. It soon afterwards became the capital of all the western IM rocco 
 States. Leo Africanus describes the Mauritani as containing more than 
 seven hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the twelfth 
 century. 
 
 FICTION LAW. Invented by the lawyers in the reign of Edward I. as a means 
 of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the courts became 
 checks to each other. — Hume. Memorable declaration of Lord Mansfield, 
 in the court of King's Bench, emphatically uttered, tl at " no fiction of law 
 
 SHALL EVER SO FAR PREVAIL AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH OF THE FACT, AS TO 
 
 PREVENT THE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE,'" May 21, 1784, This constitutional 
 maxim is now a rule of law. 
 
 FIEF. In France we find fiefs-men mentioned as early as the age of Childebert 
 I., A. D. 511. They were introduced into Italy by the Lombards, Into Spain, 
 before the invasion of the Moors, a. d. 710. Into England by the Saxons 
 (see Feudal Laios). Into Scotland directly from England, by Malcolm II.. 1008, 
 
 FIELD OF THE CLOTH of GOLD. Henry VIII. embarked at Dover to meet 
 Francis I. of France at Ardres, a small town near Calais in France, May 31, 
 1520. The nobility of both kingdoms here displayed their magnificence with 
 such emulation and profuse expense, as procured to the place of interview 
 (an open plain) the name of Tke Field of the Cloth of Gold. Many of the 
 king's attendants involved themselves in great debts on this occasion, and 
 were not able, by the peniiry of the rest of their lives, to repair the vain 
 splendor of a few days. A painting of the embarkation, and another of the 
 interview, are at Windsor Castle. — Butler. 
 
 FIFTH MONARCHY-MEN. Fanatical levellers who arose in the time of 
 Cromwell, and who supposed the period of the Miileilhium to be .just at 
 hand, when Jksus should descend from heaven and erect the fifth univ^ersal 
 monarchy. They actuall}^ proceeded to elect Jesus Christ king at London ! 
 Cromwell dispersed them, 1653. 
 
 FIGURES. Arithmetical figures (nine digits and zero), and the method of 
 computing by them, were brought into Europe from Arabia, about a. d. 900, 
 They were first known in England about the year 1253. previously to whii.h 
 time the numbering by letters was in use there. See Arithmetic. 
 
 FIRE. It is said to have been first produced by striking flints together. Tlift 
 poets suppose that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Zoroaster, 
 king of Bactria, was the founder of the sect of the Magi, or worshippers of 
 Fire, since known by the appellation of Guebres, still numerous in the coun- 
 tries of the East, 2115 b. c. — Justin; Pliny. Heraclitus maintained that the 
 world was created from fire, and he deemed it to be a god omnipotent, and 
 
pia ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 321 
 
 taught this theory about 506 b. c. — Nonv. Did. Tn the Scriptures God is 
 said often to have appeared in, or encompassed with fire — as to Moses in the 
 burning bush, on mount Sinai ; and to the prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel, and St. 
 John. The wrath of God is described by a consuming fire, and the angels, 
 as his ministers, are compared to it. See the Bihle. 
 
 FIRE-ARMS. Small arms were contrived by Schwartz, a. d. 1378; they were 
 brought to England about 1388. Fire-arms were a prodigious rarity in Ire- 
 land in 1489, when six muskets were sent from Germany as a present to the 
 carl of Kildare, who was then chief governor. Muskets were first used at 
 the siege of Rhegen, in 1525. The Spaniards were the first nation who 
 armed the foot soldier with these weapons. — Ulloa. Voltaire states, that the 
 Venetians were the first to use guns, in an engagement at sea against the 
 Genoese, in 1377; but our historians affirm, that the English had guns ^t the 
 battle of Cressy, in 1346 ; and the year following at the siege of Calais. See 
 Artillenj. 
 
 FIRE-ENGINES. The fire-engine is of modern invention, although ftie forcing 
 pump, of which it is an application, is more than two centuries old. The 
 fire-engine, to force water, was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about 
 the year 1663; it was improved materially in 1752, and from that time to the 
 present. The fire-watch, or fire-guard of London, was instituted November 
 1791. The fire brigade was established in London in 1833. 
 
 FTRE-SHIPS. They were first used in the sixteenth century. Among the most 
 formidable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to 
 destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use o? 
 them in the English navy was by Charles, lord Howard of Effingham, after- 
 wards earl of Nottingham, lord high admiral of England, in the engagement 
 with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. — Rapin. 
 
 r'IRE- WORKS. Are said to have been familiar to the Chinese in remote ages : 
 they were invented in Europe at Florence, about a. d. 1360; and were first 
 exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. At an exhibition of fire-works in Paris, 
 in honor of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., the pas- 
 sages being stopped up occasioned such a crowd, that the people, seized with 
 a panic, trampled upon one another till they lay in heaps ; a scaffold erected 
 over the river also broke down, and hundreds were drowned ; more than 
 1000 persons perished on this occasion, June 21, 1770. Madame Blanchard 
 ascending from Tivoli Gardens, Paris, at night, in a balloon surrounded by 
 fire- works, the balloon took fire, and she was precipitated to the ground, and 
 dashed to pieces, July 6, 1819. See Balloon. 
 
 FIRES. Some of the most noted and destructive in North America. 
 
 In New York, destroying 600 warehou- 
 ses and r^operty to amount of $20,- 
 000,000 - - - Dec. 16. 1835 
 
 At Washington, destroying the General 
 Post Office and Patent Office, with 
 10,000 valuable models, drawings, 
 «fec. - - - Dec. 15, 1836 
 
 At Charleston, S. C. ; 145 acres and 
 1,1.58 buildings destroyed - April 27, 1838 
 
 New York ; 46 buildings ; loss, $10,- 
 000,000 - - ^ - Sept. 6, 1839 
 
 Philadelphia ; 52 buildings ; loss, 
 $.500,000 - - - Oct. 4, 1839 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa. 1,000 buildings, and 
 property valued about $6,000,000 
 
 April 10, 1845 
 
 Quebec, Canada ; 1,500 houses burnt, 
 immense loss of property, and se- 
 veial lives. May 28, 1845. Another, 
 burnmr 1.300 dvvellings; in all, two- 
 thi-dsofthe city - June 28, 1845 
 
 14* 
 
 New York, destroying 302 stores and 
 dwelling-houses, and property worth 
 $6,000,000—4 lives lost - .luly 19, 1845 
 
 St. .lohn's, Newfoundland ; nearly the 
 whole town destroyed— 6,000 people 
 made houseless - - .Tune 12, 1846 
 
 Quebec Theatre Royal ; 47 persons 
 burned to death - - June 14, 1846 
 
 Nantucket ; 300 buildings, valued 
 $800,000 - - - July 1.3, 1846 
 
 Dupont's powder mills, Md., exploded, 
 18 persons killed - April 14, 18-J7 
 
 At Albany ; 600 buildings, besides 
 steamboats &c., 24 acres burned over. 
 loss, $3,000,000 - Aug. 17, .849 
 
 At Brooklyn, N. Y., 200 houses, value, 
 $7.50,000 - - - Sept. 9, 1843 
 
 At St Louis; 23 steamboats and 15 
 blocks of houses destroyed, loss about 
 $3,000,000 - - May 17, 184i 
 
 At Philadelphia, 300 houses July i>, 1850 
 
3?2 THE world's progress. [ F^ O 
 
 F^E OF LONDON, the GREAT. Destroyed in the space of four days eighty- 
 nine churches, including St. Paul's ; the city gates, the Royal Exchange, the 
 Custom House. Guildhall, Sion College, and many other public buildings, 
 besides 13 200 houses, laying waste 400 streets. This conflagration happened 
 (not without strong suspicion of treason), Sept. 2, 1666, and continued three 
 days and nights, and was at last only extinguished by the blowing up oi 
 houses. — Hume; Rapin; Carte. 
 
 fIRST FRUITS. Primiti-cB among the Hebrews. They were offerings which 
 made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood. First fruits 
 were instituted by pope Clement V., in a. d. 1306; and were collected in 
 England in 1316. The first year's income of every church benefice in Eng- 
 land was given to the popes till the 27th of Henry VHI, 1535, when the 
 first fiuits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and his succes- 
 sors. — Carte. Granted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes of 
 the poor clergy, by queen Anne, Feb. 1704. Consolidation of the offices of 
 First Fruits, Tenths, and queen Anne's Bounty, by Statute 1 Vict., April 
 1838. 
 
 FI^AGELLANTS, Sect op. They established themselves at Perouse, a. d. 
 1260. They maintained that there was no remission of sins without flagel- 
 lation, and publicly lashed themselves while in procession, preceded by the 
 cross, until the blood flowed from their naked backs. Their leader, Conrad 
 Schmidt, was burnt, 1414. , 
 
 FLANDERS. The country of the ancient Belgfe; conquered by Jvilius Caesar, 
 47 B. c. It passed into the hands of France, a. d. 412. It was governed by 
 its earls subject to that crown, from 864 to 1369. It then came into the 
 house of Austria by marriage ; but was yielded to Spain in 1556. Flanders 
 shook off the Spanish yoke in 1572; and in 1725, by the treaty of Vienna, it 
 was annexed to the German empire. — Priestley. Flanders was overrun by 
 the French in 1792 and 1794, and was declared part of their Republic. It 
 was made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814, and was erected 
 into the kingdom of Belgium in 1831. — See Belgium. 
 
 FLAX. Tlie flax seed was first planted in England in a. d. 1533. For many 
 ages the core was separated from the flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand. 
 A mallet was next used ; but the old methods of breaking and scutching the 
 flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland about 1750, 
 See article Hemp. 
 
 FLODDEN FIELD, Battle of, between the English and Scots. James TV. of 
 Scotland, having taken part with Louis XII. of France, against Henry VIII. 
 of England, this battle was one of the consequences of his unfortunate policy ; 
 and James, and most of his chief nobles, and upwards of 10,000 of his army 
 were slain, w^hile the English, who were commanded by the earl of Surry, 
 lost only persons of small note. Henry VIII. was at the time besieging 
 Terouenne, near St. Omer ; fought Sept. 9, 1513. 
 
 FLORENCE. It is said to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla, and en- 
 larged by the Roman Triumviri. It was destroyed by Totila, and was re- 
 built by Charlemagne. This city is truly the seat of the arts. In its pal- 
 aces, university, academies, churches, and libraries, are to be found the 
 rarest works of sculpture and painting in the world. The Florentine acad- 
 emy, and the Accademia delta Crnsca, were instituted to enrich the literature 
 and improve the language of Tuscany ; the latter is so named because it 
 lejects like bran all words not purely Tuscan. Florence was taken by the 
 French in July 1796, and again in March, 1799; and was restored in 1814. 
 
 FLORIDA, now one of the United States, was discovered by Sebastian Caboi 
 sailing under the English flag, in 1497. Ponce de Leon, a Spanish adven- 
 
FLO 1 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 323 
 
 turer from Hispaniola, explored the country in 1512 and 151S. In 1539j 
 Hernando de Soto, who had been an officer under Pizarro, overran the penin- 
 sula with an armed force, but most of his followers were cut off a few years 
 after. In 1763 Florida was ceded to Great Britain by Spain in exchange for 
 Havana. The Spanish reconquered it in 1781, and ceded it to the United 
 States in 1819. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. First war with the 
 Seminoles in Florida in 1818, when general Jackson subdued tliem. Another 
 protracted and expensive warfare there commenced and continued until 
 1842. General Jessup, general Taylor, and others, were engaged in it. The 
 Seminole chief, Osceola, was captured, 1837. Population in 1830, 34.723; 
 in 1840, 54,477 including 25,717 slaves. 
 
 FLORIN. A coin first made by the Florentines. A Jioren was issued by Ed- 
 ward III, which was current in England at the value of 6s., in 1337. — Cam- 
 den. This English coin was called floren after the Florentine coin, because 
 the latter was of the best gold. — Ashe. The florin .f Germany is in value 
 2s. 4:d. ; that of Spain 4s. 4^^. ; that of Palermo and Sicily 2s. Qd, ; that of 
 Holland 2s. — Ayliffe. 
 
 FLOWERS. The most delightful and fragrant among the ornaments of our 
 gardens are of foreign production. The modern taste for flowers came, it is 
 said, from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence to Europe for 
 the first time in the sixteenth century ; at least many of the productions of 
 our gardens were conveyed by that channel. — Beckmann. With what good- 
 ness does God provide for our happiness and enjoyments, by making even 
 the most remote countries contribute towards them ! — Skorm. From the 
 reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth, our present common flowers were, 
 for the most part, introduced into England. The art of preserving flowers 
 in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from the effects 
 of frost in winter, and hastening their vegetation in summer, was invented 
 in America, by George Morris, in 1792. Among the flowers, the periods of 
 whose introduction to English gardens have been traced, Haydn gives the 
 followino- : — 
 
 FLOWERS, PLANTS, &C. 
 
 Acacia, N. America, before - a. d. 164U 
 
 Allspice shrub, Carolina - - 172''i 
 
 Anniseed tree, Florida, about - - 17(56 
 
 Arbor Vitae, Canada, before - - 1596 
 
 Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope - 1774 
 
 Auricula, Switzerland - - - 1367 
 
 Azarole, S. Europe, before - - 1640 
 
 Bay, royal, Madeira • - • 1665 
 
 Bay, sweet. Italy, before - - 1548 
 
 Camellia, China - - - - 1811 
 
 Chaste tree, Sicily, before - - 1570 
 
 Christ's thorn, Africa, before • - 1596 
 
 Canary bell-flower. Canaries - - 1696 
 
 Carnation, Flanders - - - J. 567 
 
 Ceanothus, blue, New Spain - - 1818 
 
 Canary convolvulus, Canaries - - 1690 
 
 Convolvulus, many-flowered - - 1779 
 
 Coral tree. Cape - - - - 1816 
 
 Coral tree, bell-flowered. Cape - 1791 
 
 Coral tree, tremulous, Cape - - 1789 
 
 CrBeper. Virginian, N. America - 160-3 
 
 Dahlia, China - - - - 180.3 
 
 Diyandra, New Holland - - 1803 
 
 Evergreen thorn, Italy - - • 1629 
 
 Everlasting, great-flowered, Cape 178"1 
 
 Everlasting, giant. Cape - • 1793 
 
 Fernbush,sw"eet, N. America - - 1714 
 
 Fox-glove, Canaries - - - 1698 
 
 Geranium, Flanders - - - 1534 
 
 Gillyflower. Flanders - - - 1567 
 
 Gold plant, .Japan ... 1783 
 
 Golden bell-flower, Madeira - -1777 
 
 Hawthorn, American, from N. Amer- 
 ica, before - - - • 1683 
 Heath, ardent, Cape ... 1800 
 Heath, beautiful. Cape - - - 1795 
 Heath, fragrant. Cape - - - 1803 
 Heath, garland. Cape - - - 1774 
 Heath, perfumed. Cape • - 1803 
 Honeyflower, great. Cape • - - 1688 
 Honeysuckle, Chinese, China - - 1806 
 Honeysuckle, fly. Cape - - - 1752 
 Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America - 1656 
 Hyssop, south of Europe, before - - 1548 
 Jasmine, Circassia, before - - 1548 
 Jasmine, Catalonian. East Indies - - 1629 
 Judas-tree, south of Europe, before - 1596 
 Laburnum, Hungary - - - 1576 
 Laurel, Alexandrian, Portugal, before 1713 
 Laurestine, south of Europe, before - 1595 
 Lavender, south of Europe, before • I56S 
 Lily. Italy, before - - ■ - 1460 
 Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales ■ 1800 
 Lily, retl-colored, South America - - 1623 
 Loblolly-bay, N. America, before - 1739 
 Lupine tree. Cape, about - - • 17P3 
 Magnolia (see Magnolia)^ N. America 1638 
 Magnolia, dwarf, China - - - 1786 
 Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America - 1734 
 Maiden hair. .Japan - • - ■• 1714 
 Mignioueite. Italy - - - 1528 
 
324 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGPwESS. 
 
 [POK 
 
 FLOWERS, continued. 
 
 Milk-wort, great-flowered, Cape - 
 
 Milk-wort, showy, Cape 
 
 Mountain tea, N. America, before - 
 
 Mock orange, south of Europe, before 
 
 Myrtle, candleberry, N. America - 
 
 Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China - 
 
 Nettle-tree, south of Europe, before - 
 
 Olive, Cape, Cape 
 
 Olive, sweet-scented, China 
 
 Oleander, red, south of Europe 
 
 Paraguay tea, Carolina, before 
 
 Passionflower, Brazil - 
 
 Passion-flower, orange, Carolina - - 
 
 Pigeon-berry, N. America 
 
 Pink, from Italy - - • - 
 
 Ranunculus, Alps . . - 
 
 Roses, Netherlands - - - - 
 
 Rose, the China, China 
 
 Rose, the damask, Marseilles, and 
 
 south of Europe, about 
 Rose, the Japan, China 
 Rose, the moss, before - 
 Rose, the musk, Italy 
 Rose, the Provence, Flanders - 
 Rose, sweet-scented guelder, from 
 
 China - • - - 
 
 1713 
 
 1814 
 1758 
 1596 
 1699 
 1776 
 1596 
 1730 
 1771 
 1596 
 1724 
 1692 
 1792 
 1736 
 1567 
 1528 
 1522 
 1789 
 
 1543 
 1793 
 1724 
 1522 
 1567 
 
 - 1821 
 
 Rose, tube, from Java and C<)yIon - 1623 
 Rose without thorns, N. America, be- 
 fore 1726 
 
 Rosemary, south of Europe - - 1548 
 
 St. Peter's wort, North America - • 1730 
 Sage, African, Cape - - • 1731 
 
 Sage, Mexican, Mexico - - - 1724 
 
 Sassafras tree, N. America, before - 1663 
 Savin, south of Europe, before - - 1584 
 Snowdrop, Carolina - - * - 1756 
 
 Sorrel tree, N. America, before - - 1752 
 Sweet bay, south of Europe, before - 1548 
 Tamarisk plant, Germany - - - 1560 
 
 Tea ti-ee, China, about - - - 1768 
 
 Tooth-ache tree, Carolina, before - - 1739 
 Trumpet-flower, N. America - - 1640 
 
 Trumpet- flower. Cape - • - 1823 
 
 Tulip, Vienna .... 1578 
 Virginia creeper, N. America, before 1629 
 Virgin's-bower, Japan - - - 1776 
 
 Weeping willow, Levant, before - - 1692 
 Wax tree, China - - - 1794 
 
 Winter berry, Virginia - - • 1736 
 
 Youlan, China .... 1789 
 
 FLUTE. Invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian, the father of Marsyas. — Plutarch. 
 The flute, harp, lyre, and other instruments were known to the Romans ; 
 and the flute was so prized in antiquity, that several female deities lay 
 claim to its invention. It was in far more general use as a concert instru- 
 ment than the violin, until early in the last century, when the works of Co- 
 relli came over. — See Music. 
 
 FLUXIONS. Invented by Newton, 1669. The differential calculus by Leib- 
 nitz, 1684. The finest applications of the calculus are by Newton, Euler, 
 La Grange, and La Place. 
 
 FLYING. Artificial. It has been attempted in all ages. Friar Bacon main- 
 tained the possibility of the art, and predicted it would be of general prac- 
 tice, A. D. 1273. Bishop Wilkins says, it will yet be as usual to hear a man 
 call for his wings when he is going on a journey, as it is now to hear him 
 call for his boots, 1651. We apprelnjnd that many ages will pass away i>re- 
 Adously to the accomplishment of these predictions. 
 
 FONTAINEBLEAU, Peace of, concluded between France and Denmark in 
 1679. Treaty of Fontainebleau between the emperor of Germany and 
 Holland, signed November 8, 1785. Treaty of Fontainebleau between Na- 
 poleon and the royal family of Spain. Oct. 27, 1807. Concordat of Fon- 
 tainebleau between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. January 25, 1813. Fon- 
 tainebleau was entered by the Austrians, Feb. 17, 1814. And hei-e 
 Napoleon resigned his imperial dignity, and bade a farewell to his army, 
 April 5, 1814. 
 
 FONTENOY, Battle of, near Tournay, between the French under count Saxe, 
 and the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians. commanded by the 
 duke of Cumberland. The battle was fought with great obstinacy, and the 
 carnage on both sides was considerable, the allies losing 12,000 men, and 
 the French nearly an equal number of lives ; but the allies were in the end 
 defeated. Count Saxe, who was at the time ill of the disorder of which 
 he afterwards died, was carried about to all the posts in a litter, assuring 
 his troops that the day would be their own; April 30, 1745. 
 
 FONTS. Formerly the baptistry was a small room, or place partitioned off ia 
 a church, where the persons to be baptized (many of whom in the early 
 
POU J DICTIONAHY OF DaTES. 32r« 
 
 ages were adults), were submerged. Previously to these artificial reser- 
 voirs, lakes and rivers were resorted to for immersion. Fonts for the initia- 
 tion into Christianity were instituted in a. d. 167. 
 FOOLS, Festivals of, at Paris. They were held on the first of January, and 
 were continued for 240 years. In their celebration, we are told, all sorts of 
 absurdities and indecencies were committed, a. d. 1198. Fools or licensed 
 jesters were kept at court in England (as they were at other courts of F.u- 
 ro}<o), and were tolerated up to the time of Charles I. 1625. 
 
 FORESTS. There were in England, even in the last century, as many as 68 
 forests, 18 chases, and upwards of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hamp- 
 shire was made by William I., who for that purpose destroyed 36 parishes, 
 I)ulled down 36 churches, and dispeopled the country for 30 miles round, 
 
 A. D. 1079-85. —Stowe. 
 
 FORGERY IN England. The forging of, or giving in evidence forged deeds, &c., 
 made punishable by fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut 
 off", the nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and perpetual 
 imprisonment, 5 Elizabeth, 1562. Forgery was first punished by death in 
 1634. 
 
 FORGERY, Remarkable Executions for. The unfortunate Daniel and Ro- 
 bert Perreau, brothers and wine-merchants, were hanged at Tyburn, Jan- 
 uary 17, 1776. The rev. Dr. Dodd was found guilty of forging a bond, in 
 the name of Lord Chesterfield, for 4 2001. : the greatest interest was made, 
 and the highest infiuence was exerted to save him, but when the case came 
 before the council, the minister of the day said to George IIL, "if your 
 majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have murdered the Perreaus ;" and he 
 Avas hanged accordingly, June 27, 1777. Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, a London 
 banker, was hanged, November 30, 1824. Joseph Hunton, a quaker mer- 
 chant, suffered death, December 8, 1828. The last criminal hanged for 
 forgery at the Old Bailey, was Thomas Maynard, December 31, 1829. 
 
 FORKS. They were in use on the Continent in the 13th and 14th centuries. — 
 Voltaire. This is reasonably disputed, as being too early. In Fynes Mory- 
 son's Itinerary, reign of EUzabeth, he says, "At Venice each person was 
 served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to hold the meat while he 
 cuts it, for there they deem it ill manners that one should touch it with his 
 hand." Thomas Coryate describes, with much solemnity, the manner ot 
 using forks in Italy, and adds, "I myself have thought it good to imitate 
 the I<^alian fashion since I came home to England," a. d. 1608. 
 
 FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were the first people who had fortified 
 cities. Apollodorus says that Perseus fortified Mycenae, where statues 
 were afterwards erected to him. The modern system was introduced about 
 A. D. 1500. Albert Durer first wrote on the science in 1527 ; and improve- 
 ments were made by Vauban, towards 1700. 
 
 FO THERINGAY CASTLE Northamptonshire. Built a. d. 1408. Here Richard 
 in. of England was born in 1443 ; and Mary queen of Scots, whose death 
 is an indelible stain upon the reign of our great Elizabeth, was beheaded 
 in this castle, in which she had been long previously confined, February 8, 
 1587, after an unjust and cruel captivity of almost nineteen years in Eng- 
 land. It was ordered to be demolished by her son James I. of England. 
 
 FOUNDLING HOSPITAL. Even in ancient times the state made provisio?; 
 for the preservation of exposed children ; but foundling hospitals are a 
 modern institution. That of Paris was established in 1640, and up to 1S07 
 had received 464,628 children. In France, the number of foundlings in 
 1784, was 40,000 • in 1798, over 51,000 ; in 1822, 138,500. The increase 
 in Europe during the last fifty years has been very great. In England 
 these hospitals are of comparatively recent date. Catherine II. built a 
 tostly one near Moscow where 8000 infants were succored. 
 
326 
 
 THE world's rRuGRE&S. 
 
 [ TRA 
 
 FRANCE. This country was known to the Romans by the name of Gaul, in 
 the dechne of then' power it was conquered by the Franks, a people of Ger- 
 many, then inhabiting what is still called Franconia. These invaders gave 
 the name to the kingdom ; but the Gauls, being by far the most numerous, 
 are the real ancestors of the modern French. Previous to the revolution, 
 France was divided into 32 provinces ; and after that era it was divided, 
 first into 84, and subsequently into 103, departments, including Corsica; 
 Geneva, Savoy, and other places, chiefly conquests. Tab. Views, 65 et seq. 
 
 1350. John II. ; died suddenly in the Savoy 
 in London. 
 
 1364. Charles V. , sumamed the Wise ; tha 
 first prince who had the title of dau- 
 phin. (See article Dauphin.) 
 
 1380. Charles VI., the Beloved. 
 
 1422. Charles VII., the Vict.a-ious. 
 
 1461. Louis XL, detested for his atrocious 
 cruelties. 
 
 1483. Charles VIII., the Affable. 
 
 1498. Louis XII., duke of Orleans, sumamed 
 the Father of his People. 
 
 1515. Francis I. 
 
 1547. Henry II. : died of a wound received 
 at a tounidinent. 
 
 1559. Francis II. ; married Mary Stuart, 
 afterwards queen of Scots ; died 
 the year after his accession. 
 
 1560. Charles IX. Catherine of Medicis, his 
 mother, obtained the regency, which 
 trust she abused. 
 
 1574. Henry III., elected king of Poland; 
 murdered Aug. 1, 1589, by .Jacques 
 Clement, a Dominican friar. In this 
 prince was extinguished the house 
 of Valois. 
 
 1-589. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon, 
 king of Navarre ; murdered by Fran- 
 cis Ravillac. (See Ravillac.) 
 
 1610. Louis XIII., the Just. 
 
 1643. Louis XIV., the Great, also styled 
 
 DzBtt-DOTl/TlS 
 
 1715. Louis XV., tlie Well-Beloved; but 
 which su rname he lost. 
 
 1774. Louis XVI., his grandson ; guillo- 
 tined, Jan. 21, 1793; and his queen 
 Maria- Antoinette, Oct. 16, following. 
 
 1789. The Revolution commences with the 
 destruction of the Bastile, July 14. 
 
 1795. Louis XVII., dies in prison. 
 
 FRENCH EMPIRE. 
 
 1804. Napoleon Bonaparte declared Empe- 
 ror, May 18, 1804 ; crowned by the 
 pope, Dec. 2, following ; assumes 
 the iron crown, May 26, 1805. Re- 
 nounces the thrones of France aud 
 Italy, Apr. 5, 1814. 
 
 BOURBONS RESTORED. 
 
 1814. Louis XVIII. ; ascends the throne i 
 May 3, 1814 : dies, Sept. 16. 1824. 
 
 1824. Charles X. ; deposed, July 30, laSO; 
 retires to Rambouillet same day, 
 and subsequently seeks protection 
 in England. 
 
 HOUSE OF 0RLEA»«5. 
 
 1830. TiOuis- Philippe ; declared " king ti 
 the French," August 9. 
 
 The Franks, under their leader Phara- 
 mond, settle in that part of Gaul till 
 late called Flanders - - a. D. 420 
 
 Reign of Clevis the Great - - 481 
 
 [The Events in French History and the 
 succession of sovereigns will be found 
 in the Tabular Views in this volume, 
 commencing p. 65.] 
 720. Childeric II. 
 737. Charles Martel ruled with despotic 
 
 sway during an interregnum. 
 742. Childeric III., the Stupid ; turned 
 monk. 
 
 THE CARLOVINGIANS. 
 
 752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Mar- 
 tel ; this race called Carlovingians. 
 
 768. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great ; 
 also emperor of Germany. 
 
 814. Louis I., the Gentle, surnamed, also, 
 the Debonnaire ; dethroned, and im- 
 prisoned in a monastery. 
 
 840. Charles II., surnamed the Bald; poi- 
 soned by his physician Renault. 
 
 877. Louis the Stammerer. 
 
 879. Carloman and Louis III. The latter 
 died, 882. Carloman reigned alone. 
 
 884. Charles the Fat ; an usurper. 
 
 887. Eudes or ITngh. 
 
 898. Chanes III., the Simple; ieposed and 
 died in prison. 
 
 923. Rudolph. 
 
 936 Louis IV., d'Outremer; died by a fall 
 from his horse. 
 
 954. Lothaire III. poisoned; it is said by 
 his wife Emma. 
 
 986. Louis V. the Indolent ; poisoned by 
 
 his wife Blanche, and in liim ended 
 the vice of Charlemagne. 
 
 THE CAPETS. 
 
 987. Hugh Capet, from whom this race of 
 
 kings are called Capevinsians. 
 996. Robert the Sage. 
 1031. Henry I. 
 1060. Philip I., the Fair. 
 1108. Louis VI., the Lusty. 
 1137. Louis VII., the Yoimg. 
 11^0. Philip II., Augustus. 
 1223. Louis VIII., the Lion. 
 1226. Louis IX., called St. Louis ; died in 
 
 his camp before Tunis : canonized. 
 1270. Philip III., the Hardy. 
 1285. Philip IV., the Handsome. 
 1314. Louis X., Hutin. 
 1316. John, who reigned only eight days. 
 1316. Philip v., the Long. 
 1323. Charles IV., the Handsome; king of 
 
 Navarre. 
 
 HOUSE OF VALOI& 
 
 12S. Philip de Valois. 
 
FRE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 327 
 
 FRANCHISE. A privilege, or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction; and an- 
 ciently an asylum or sanctuary where the person was secure, in Spain, 
 churches and monasteries were, until lately, franchises for criminals, as they 
 were formerly in England. The elective franchise was conferred for coun- 
 ties on persons having 405. a year in land, 39 Henry VI., 1460. — Ruff head's 
 Statut-es. See Electors. 
 
 FRANCISCANS. An order of friars, called also Gray Friars, in the Church 
 of Rome, founded by Francis de Assise in a. d. 1209, or, according to some 
 authorities, about 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and 
 very austere regimen of life. In 1224 they are said to have appeared in 
 England, where, at the time of the dissolution of Monasteries by Henry VIII., 
 they had fifty-five abbeys or other houses, a. d. 1536-38. 
 
 FRANKFORT on the Main. Many ages a free city ; it was taken and retaken 
 several times during the wars of the late and present centuries, and felt the 
 
 I iron rule of Bonaparte from 1803 to 1813, when its independence was guar- 
 anteed by the allied sovereigns. The diet of the princes of Germany was 
 established here by the Rhenish confederation in 1806. 
 
 FREDERICKSHALL, Siege of. Rendered memorable by the death of 
 Charles XII., of Sweden, who was killed by a cannon-shot before its walls, 
 and while in the trenches, leaning against the parapet, examining the works. 
 He was found in that position, with his hand upon his sword, and a prayer- 
 book in his pocket, Dec. 11, 1718. It is now generally supposed that a pis- 
 tol fired by some near and traitorous hand closed the career of this cele- 
 brated monarch, who was too aptly styled the *' Madman of the North," 
 
 FREEMASONRY. It is of great antiquity. Writers on masonry, themselves 
 masons, affirm that it has had a being " ever since symmetry began, and 
 harmony displayed her charms." Masonry is traced by some to the build- 
 ing of Solomon's temple ; and it is said the architects from the African coast, 
 Mahometans, brought it into Spain, about the sixth century, as a protec- 
 tion against Christian fanatics. Its introduction into Great Britain has been 
 fixed at the year a. d. 674 ; although by other authorities it is assigned % 
 much earlier date. The grand lodge at York was founded a. d. 926. Free- 
 masonry was interdicted in England, a. d. 1424 ; but it afterwards rose into 
 great repute. In 1717, the grand lodge of England was established ; that 
 of Ireland was established in 1730 ; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freema- 
 sons were excommunicated by the pope, in 1738. 
 
 FRENCH LANGUAGE. The language of France and many of the French 
 laws and customs were first introduced into England by William I. 1066. 
 The language, and fashions in dress and diet were then very general in Eng- 
 land. Law pleadings were changed from French to English, in the reign of 
 Edward III., lZQ2.—Stowe. 
 
 FRENCHTOWN, Canada. This town was taken from the British by the 
 American general, Winchester, January 22, 1813. It was retaken by the 
 British forces under general Proctor, immediately afterwards, and the Ameri- 
 can commander and his troops were made prisoners. 
 
 • FRENCH WAR, in North America. The first war between France and Eng- 
 land, which was carried on also by the American colonies, 1689. The 
 Freiich destroyed Schenectady, N. Y., Caseo, Me.. &c., 1690 ; but were defeated 
 by Schuyler at La Prairie, 1691. Peace of Ryswyck, 1697. " Queen Anne's 
 war," 1702. French and Indians ravaged Maine, 1703. French and Spanish 
 Invade Carolina, 1706. Expedition from New Eng.and against the French 
 in Part Roj'al, 1707 ; and against Canada, 1710 ; both failed. Peace of 
 Utrecht, 1713. Another war declared by England. 1744 ; Louisbourg and 
 Cape Breton taken by English colonists, 1745. Peace, 1749. French en- 
 
32b THE WOFcLD's rPv-OGRESS. [ FIIQ 
 
 croachinent on English colonies, 1750, leads to the noted French war, 1752-3 
 Washington's mission, 1754. Braddock's defeat, 1755. Oswego, &c, taken 
 by French, 1756, and fort William Henry, 1757. Loiiisbourg taken by the Eng- 
 lish general Amherst, and fort Du Quesne by general Forbes, 1758. Ticon- 
 deroga. Crown Point, Niagara, and Quebec taken by the English (sir W. 
 Johnson and General Wolfe), 1759. Canada surrendered to Great Britain, 
 Sept. 8, 1760, and secured to her by the peace of Paris, 1763. 
 French alliance with the United States in the war of the revolution, Feb. 6, 
 1778, French revolution and politics caused serious dissensions in the 
 United States, 1793-6. French spoliations on American commerce, 1797. 
 
 FB]DA"i , The sixth day of the week; so called from Friga. a goddess wor- 
 shipped by our forefathers on this day, commonly supposed to be the same 
 with Venus. Friga was the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, 
 and riches. Good-Friday is a fast in the church of England in memory of 
 our Sa\ iour's crucifixion, April 3, 33, See Good Friday. 
 
 FRIEDLAND, Battle of, between the allied Russian and Prussian armies on 
 the one side, and the French, commanded by Napoleon in person, who com- 
 pletely vanquished the allies, with the loss of eighty pieces of cannon, and 
 50,000 men, June 14, 1807. This victory led to the peace of Tilsit, by whicl" 
 Russia lost no territory, but Prussia was obliged to surrender nearly half hei 
 dominions. 
 
 FRIENDLY ISLES. These islands Avere discovered by Tasman, ... d. 1642. 
 Visited by VVallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767 ; and by capt. Cook, 
 who called them by their present name on account of the friendly disposi- 
 tion of the natives, 1773. 
 
 FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, England. These useful institutions originated in 
 the clubs of the industrious classes ; and since they began to spring into 
 importance they have been regulated and protected by various legislative 
 enactments. They have now, with other similar institutions, more than 
 twenty millions sterling in the public funds. Laws regarding Friendly 
 Societies consolidated by statute, June, 1829. See Charities. 
 
 FRIESLAND. Formerly governed by its own counts. On the death of prince 
 Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia ; Han- 
 over disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Hol- 
 land by Bonaparte, in 1806, and afterwards to the French empire; but 
 Prussia regained the country in 1814. The term Chevaux de Frise (some- 
 times, though rarely, written Cheval de Frise, a Friesland Horse) is derived 
 from Friesland, where it was invented. 
 
 FROBISHER'S STRAITS. Discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, the first Eng- 
 lishman who attempted to find a northwest passage to China, in 1576. 
 After exploring the coast of New Greenland, he entered this strait, which 
 has ever since been called by his name. Frobisher returned to England, 
 bringing with him a quantity of black ore, which was supposed to contain 
 gold, and which induced queen Elizabeth to patronize a second voyage, and 
 lend a sloop of war for the purpose. The delusion was even kept up to a 
 third expedition ; but all of them proved fruitless. 
 
 il'UOSTS The Euxine Sea frozen over for twenty days, a. d. 401. — Univ. Hist. 
 A frost at Constantinople which commenced in October, 763, and continued 
 until February of the next year ; the two seas there were frozen a hundred 
 miles from the shore. — Univ. Hist. A frost in England on Midsummer-day 
 was so violent that it destroyed the fruits of the earth, 1035. — Speed. The 
 frost in Russia in 1812 surpassed in in tenseness that of any winter in that 
 country for many preceding years, and caused the total destruction of the 
 French army in its retreat from MoscoW; at the close of that memorable 
 
PUN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 329 
 
 year. Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th November, when the 
 frost covered the ground, and the men perished in battalions, and the horses 
 fell by hundreds on the roads. What with her loss in battle, and the efiects 
 of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost in the campaign of this year 
 more than 400,000 men. 
 
 FRUITS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Several varieties of fruit are mentioned 
 as having been introduced into Italy, 70 b. c. et seq. Exotic fruits and 
 flowers of various kinds, previously unknown in England, were brought 
 thithsr in the reigns of Heni-y VII. and VIII., and of Mary and Elizabeth, 
 between the years 1500 and 1578. See Gardening, and Flowers. Among 
 others of less note, were musk-melons plum-trees, and currant-plants of sun- 
 dry sorts, the musk and damask roses, tulips, &c. ; also saifron, woad, and 
 other drugs for dyeing, but these last were attempted to be cultivated with- 
 out success. — Hackluijt; Lord Kaimes. The following are among the fruits 
 whose introduction into England has been traced : — 
 
 FRUITS, ETC. Mulberry, the red, from North Anae- 
 
 Almond-tree, Barbary - - A. d. 1548 rica, before - - - a. d. 1629 
 
 Apples, Syria - - - -1522 Mulberry, the paper^ from .^i pan, before 1754. 
 
 Apple, the custard. North America - 1736 Nectarine, Persia - • - - 1562 
 
 Apple, the Osage, ditto • - 1818 Olive, the Cape, Cape - • - 1730 
 
 Apricots, Epirus - - • - 1540 Olive, the sweet-scented, China - 1771 
 
 Cherry-trees, Pontus - - - 100 Oranges - - - - - 1595 
 
 Cornelian cherry, Austria - - - 1596 Peaches, Persia ... - 1562 
 
 Currants, Zante - - - - 1533 Pears, from various climes - • ' * * 
 
 Currant, the hawthorn, Canada - 1705 Pine-apple, Brazils - - - 1568 
 
 Fig-tree, south of Europe, before - 1548 Pippins, Netherlands - - - 1525 
 
 Fig, the Botany-bay, New South Wales 1789 Plums, Italy .... 1522 
 
 Gooseberries, Flanders, before - 1540 Plum, the date, Barbary - - - 1596 
 
 Grapes, Portugal - - - 1528 | Pomegranate, Spain, before • - 1548 
 
 Lemons. Spain . - - - - 15.54 I Q,uince, Austria - - - - 1573 
 
 Limes, Portugal .... 1554 Quince, the .Japan • • - 1796 
 
 Lime, the American, before - -1752 Raspberry, the flowering, N. America - 1700 
 
 Melons, before - - - - 1.540 i Raspberry,the Virginian, ditto, before- 1696 
 
 Mock orange, south of Europe, before- 1596 I Strawberry, Flanders - - -1-530 
 
 Mulberry, Italy - - . - 1520 | Strawberry, the Oriental Levant - 1724 
 
 M ilberry, white, China, about - - 1596 '■ Walnut, the black, N. America, before I62i; 
 
 FUNDS To the Venetians is ascribed the origin of the funding system, in 
 A. D, 1171. Public funds were raised by the Medici family at Florence, in 
 1340. The English funding system, or the method of raising the supplies 
 for the public service in England, by anticipations of the public revenues 
 (the origin of the national debt), introduced at the Revolution, 1689. — Mo'-'- 
 timer's Broker. The funding system is coeval with the commencement of 
 the Bank of England. — Anderson. The Three per cent, annuities were crea- 
 ted in 1726. The Three per cent, consols were created in 1731. The Three 
 per cent, reduced, 1746. Three per cent, annuities, payable at the South Sea- 
 house, 1751. Three and a-half per cent, annuities created, 1758. Long annui- 
 ties, 1761. Four per cent, consols, 17G2. Fiv3 j^er cent, annuities, 1797, and 
 1802. Five per cents, reduced to four, 1822. See National Debt. 
 
 FUNERAL GAMES are mentioned by most early writers. Among the Greeks 
 they were chiefly horse races ; and among the Romans, processions and tne 
 mortal combats of gladiators around the funeral pile. These games were 
 abolished by the emperor Claudius, a. d. 47. Funeral orations have a hea- 
 then origin. Solon was the first who spoke one, 580 b. c. They were in- 
 dispensable among the Romans; the custom of led horses took place a, d, 
 12©8. A tax laid on funerals in England, 1793. 
 
 FUNERAL ORATIONS. The Romans pronounced harangues over their dead, 
 w^hen people of quality, and great deeds, and virtues. Theopompus obtain- 
 ed a prize for the best funeral oration in praise of Mausolus, 353 b. c. Po- 
 pilia was the first Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funeral 
 
330 THE world's phogress. [ GAn. 
 
 wliicli was don»i by her son Crassus ; and it is observed by Cicero that Julius 
 Caesar did tlie like for his aunt Julia, and his wife Cornelia. In Greece, 
 Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral oration, according to Herodo- 
 tus, 580 B. 0. 
 FI'R. The refined nations of antiquity never used furs : in later times, as lux- 
 ury advanced, they were used by princes as finings for their tents. They 
 were worn by our first Henry, about a. d. 1125. Edward HI. enacted that 
 all such persons as could not spend 1001. a year, should be prohibited this 
 species of finery, 1337. 
 
 G. 
 
 GALLEYS. The ancient galleys with three rows of rowers, tri-revies, were 
 invented by the Corinthians, 786 b. c. — Blair. They were built at Athens, 
 786 B. c. For an account of their construction and the method of fighting 
 in them, see Polybius. 
 
 GALVANISM. The discovery of it is recent; it was first noticed in 1767, by 
 Saltzer; but it was not till about 1789 that Mrs. Galvani, wife of Dr. Galvani 
 of Bologna, accidentally discovered its extraordinary effects on animals ; and 
 from the name of the discoverer it was called galvanism. Mrs. Galvani 
 having observed the convulsions produced in the muscles of frogs by the 
 contact of metals, directed her husband's attention to the phenomenon : and 
 in 1791, Galvani announced the result of his observations on this subject. 
 Since that period a great many experiments have been made, and many cu- 
 rious facts observed, which have excited much attention among philosophers. 
 See Electro- Galvanism. Bonaparte, after the discovery of the true principles 
 of galvanic electricity bj^ Volta, presented him with a gold medal, and 3000 
 livres, in 1808. — PAillips. See Mesmerism. 
 
 GAME LAWS. The laws restricting the killing of game are peculiar to the 
 north of Europe, and partake of the nature of the forest laws imposed by 
 William the Conqueror, who, to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of 
 property to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes for a stag, buck, or boar. 
 Of these laws the clergy were zealous promoters : and they protested against 
 ameliorations under Henry III. The first game act in England passed in 
 1496. Game certificates were first granted with a duty in 1784-5. Nume- 
 rous statutes have been passed on this subject from time to time. 
 
 GAMING, Excessive. Introduced into England by the Saxons; the loser was 
 often made slave to the winner, and sold in traffic like other merchandise. — 
 Camden ; Siowe. Act. prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and interdicting 
 tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c., to inferior people, except at Christmas time), 
 33 Henry VIII. 1541. Gaming-houses were licensed in London in 1620. Act 
 to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, when all private lotteries, and 
 the games of Faro, Basset, and Hazard were suppressed, 13 George II. 1739. 
 — Riiffliead's Statutes. The profits of a well-known gaming house in London 
 for one season have been estimated at 150,000Z. In one night a million of 
 money is said to have changed hands at this place. — Leigh. 
 
 GAMES. Those of Greece and Rome will be found imder their respectivo 
 heads. The candidates for athletic games in Greece used to be dieted ou 
 new cheese, dried figs, and boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The 
 games were leaping, foot-races, darting, quoits, Avrestling, and boxing. See 
 
 the Capitoline, Isthmian, Olympic, Pythian, Secular, and other Go.mes. 
 
 GARDENING. Gardening was one of the first arts that succeeded the art of 
 building houses. — Walpole. Noah planted a vineyard, and drank of the wine. 
 Of fruit, fiower, and kitcho i gardens,, the garden of Eden was, no doubt. 
 
GAR J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 331 
 
 the protuiype. — Idem. There wants nothing but the embroidery of a par- 
 terre to make a garden in the reign of Trajan serve for a description of one 
 in that of our Wilham III. — Idem.. The art of gardening became better 
 understood in England about a. d 1500, before which time many of our 
 vegetables were imported from Brabant. The era of the art was the reign 
 of Elizabeth ; but the modern mode of gardening was introduced about 
 1700. The following came from the countries respectively named : — 
 
 ROOTS AND VECETABLES. 
 
 Carrots 
 
 - Flanders 
 
 Plums - 
 
 Damascus 
 
 
 
 Brocoli - 
 
 - Cyprus 
 
 Oranges • 
 
 Spain 
 
 Rice, from 
 
 Ethiopia 
 
 Beans - 
 
 - Greece 
 
 Lemons 
 
 Spain 
 
 Buckwheat - 
 
 Asia 
 
 Peas- 
 
 - Spain 
 
 Pink 
 
 Italy 
 
 Borage 
 
 Syria 
 
 
 
 ProveQce-rose 
 
 - Marseilles 
 
 Cresses 
 
 Crete 
 
 PRUITS ANC 
 
 FLOWERS. 
 
 Convolvulus • 
 
 Canaries 
 
 Cauliflow3r 
 
 Cyprus 
 
 
 
 Arctopus 
 
 Cape 
 
 Asparagus - ■ 
 
 Asia 
 
 Jasmine 
 
 • Circassia 
 
 Bell-fower 
 
 Canaries 
 
 Lettuce - 
 
 Brabant 
 
 Elder-tree 
 
 - Persia 
 
 Cherr^bS 
 
 Pontus 
 
 Artichol:45S - ■ 
 
 Holland 
 
 Tulip - 
 
 - Cappadocia 
 
 Figs - 
 
 Italy 
 
 Garlic 
 
 The East 
 
 Daffodil - 
 
 - Italy 
 
 Date-plum - 
 
 Barbary 
 
 Shallots 
 
 Siberia 
 
 Lily - 
 
 Syria 
 
 Mulberry - 
 
 Italy 
 
 Horse-radish • 
 
 China 
 
 Tuberose - 
 
 Java, &c. 
 
 Nectarine - 
 
 Persia 
 
 Kidney-braas 
 
 East Indies 
 
 Carnation • 
 
 Italy, dec. 
 
 Passion-flower 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Gourds - 
 
 Astracan 
 
 Ranunculus 
 
 Alps 
 
 Pomegranate 
 
 Spain 
 
 Lentils- - • 
 
 France 
 
 Apples 
 
 ■ Syria 
 
 Rosemary 
 
 Italy 
 
 Chervil - 
 
 Italy 
 
 Apricots - 
 
 - Epirus 
 
 Laburnum - • 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Celeiy • 
 
 Flanders 
 
 Currants 
 
 - Zante 
 
 Laurel 
 
 Levant * 
 
 Potatoes - 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Damask-rose 
 
 - Damascus 
 
 Lavender 
 
 Italy 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 America 
 
 Hops - 
 
 - Artois 
 
 Peaches - 
 
 Persia 
 
 Cabbage - 
 
 - Holland 
 
 Gooseberries 
 
 - Flanders 
 
 Quiice 
 
 • Austria 
 
 Anise - 
 
 ■ Egypt 
 
 Gilly-flo-wers 
 
 - Toulouse 
 
 Weep. Willow Levant 
 
 Pai-sley - 
 
 ■ Egypt 
 
 Musk-rose 
 
 - Damascus 
 
 Fennel - 
 
 Canaries 
 
 Musk-melons and other rich fruits that are now cultivated in England, and 
 the pale gooseberry, together with salads, garden-roots, cabbages, &c, 
 were brought from Flanders, and hops from Artois, in 1520. The damask- 
 rose was brought hither by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about 
 1540. Pippins were brought to England by Leonard Mascal, of Plumstead, 
 in Sussex, 1525. Currants or Corinthian grapes were first planted in Eng- 
 land in 1533, brought from the Isle of Zante. The musk-rose and several 
 sorts of plums were brought from Italy by lord Cromwell. Apricots came 
 from Epirus, 1540. The tamarisk plant was brought from Germany, by 
 archbishop Grindal, about 1570 ; and about Norwich, the Flemings planted 
 •flowers unknown in England, as gilly-flowers, carnations, the Provence rose, 
 &c., 1567. Woad came originally from Toulouse, in France. Tulip roots 
 from Vienna, 1578 ; also, beans, peas and lettuce, now in common use, 
 1600. See Flowers; Fruits, 
 K A.RTER, Order of the. This institution outvies all other similar institu- 
 tions in the world. It owes its origin to Edward III., who conquered France 
 and Scotland, and brought their kings prisoners to England. Edward, 
 with a view of recovering France, which descended to him by right of bxs 
 mother, was eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into hi« interest, and 
 thereupon projecting the revival of king Arthur's round table, he proclaimed 
 a solemn tilting, to invite foreigners and others of qualitj^ and courage to 
 the exercise. The king, upon New Year's day, 1344, published royal 
 letters of protection for the safe coming and returning of such foreign 
 knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at the jousts and tour- 
 naments about to be held. The place of the solemnity was Windsor •, it 
 was begun by a feast, and a table was erected in the castle of 200 feet dia- 
 meter, in imitation of king Arthur"'s at Winchester, and the knights were 
 entertained at the king's own expense of lOOZ. a week. In 1346, Edward 
 gave his garter for the signal of a battle that had been crowned with suc- 
 cess (supposed to be Cressy), and being victorious on sea and land, and 
 having David, king of Scotland, a prisoner j and Edward the Black Prince. 
 
3b2 THE world's niOGKESS. [ GE» 
 
 his son, having expelled the rebels in Castile, and enthroned the lawful so- 
 vereign, Don Pedro, he, in memory of these exploits, instituted this order, 
 A. D. April 23, 1349-50. Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among tha 
 ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet bordered with gold, with the in- 
 scription in old French — " Honi soit qui vial y pense " — evil to him who evil 
 thinks. The knights are always installed at Windsor; and were styled 
 Equites aurecB Periscelidis, knights of the golden garter. — Beatson. 
 
 GAS. The inflammable aeriform fluid was first evolved from coal by Dr. 
 Clayton, in 1739. — Phil. Trans. Its application to the purposes of illumi- 
 nation was first tried by Mr. Murdock, in Cornwall, in 1792. The first diS' 
 play of gas-lights was made at Boulton and Watt's foundry, in Birmingham, 
 on the occasion of the rejoicings for peace in 1802. Gas was permanently 
 used to the exclusion of lamps and candles at the cotton mills of Phillips 
 and Lee, Manchester, where 1000 burners were lighted, 1805. Gas-lights 
 were first introduced in London, at Golden-lane, August 16, 1807. They 
 were used in lighting Pall Mall, in 1809 ; and were general through London 
 in 1814. They were first used in Dublin in 1816, and the streets there ge- 
 nerally lighted in October, 1825. The gas-pipes in and round London ex- 
 tend to 1100 miles. The streets in New York (the first in the United States) 
 first lighted with gas, 1823-4. 
 
 GAZETTE. A paper of public intelligence and news of divers countries, first 
 printed at Venice about the year 1620, and so called (some say) because 
 una gazetta, a small piece of Venetian coin, was given to buy or read it. 
 Others derive the name from gaza, Italian for magpie, i. e. chatterer. — 
 Tnisler. A gazette was printed in France in 1631 ; and one in Germany in 
 1715. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 
 GAZETTE, THE LONDON. See Newspapers. The first English gazette was pub- 
 lished at Oxford, the court being then there on account of the plague, Nov. 
 7, 1665. On the removal of the court to the capital, the title was changed 
 to the London Gazette, Feb. 5, 1666. London Gazettes Extraordinary are 
 used for the publication of extraordinary oflicial news. One of these latter 
 was forged with a view of affecting the funds, May 22, 1787. The fraud 
 succeeded, but the planners of it were never discovered. — Phillips. The 
 Dublin Gazette was first published in an official form about 1767. 
 
 GENERAL ASSEMBLY of SCOTLAND. The first General Assembly of the 
 church was held December 20, 1560". The General Assembly constitutes 
 the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edin- 
 burgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists of a grand commis- 
 sioner, appointed by the king, who represents his majesty, and delegates 
 from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and universities, some being laymen. 
 To this court all appeals from the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its 
 decision is final. See Chnrch of Scotland. 
 
 ^■JENERALS. This rank has been given to commanders from very remote 
 times. Matthew de Montmorency was the first officer honored with the 
 title of General of the French armies, a. d. 1203. — Renault. It is observed 
 by M. Balzac that cardinal Richelieu first coined the word Generalissimo^ 
 upon his taking the supreme command of the French armies in Italy, in 
 1629. 
 
 GENEVA. Part of the empire of Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. The Repub- 
 lic was founded in 1512. It became allied to the Swiss Cantons in 1584. 
 Memorable insurrection here, February 1781 : about 1000 Genevans, in 
 consequence of it, applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, lord lieutenant of Ire- 
 land, for permission to settle in that country : the Irish pai-liament voted 
 SO.OOOZ. to defray the expenses of their journey, and to purchase them 
 lands near Waterford, called New Geneva. Many of the fugitives came to 
 
dEO J DlCTIONAfir OF DATES. 3S3 
 
 Ireland in July 1783, but they soon after abandoned it: at this period many 
 Genevan families settled in England. Another revolution, July 1794. Ge- 
 neva was admitted by the diet into the Swiss Confederation, in 1813. 
 
 GENOA. Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the Ro- 
 mans. 115 B.C., and underwent the revolutions of the Roman empire till 
 A. D. 950. The Genoese revolt against their count, choose a doge and other 
 magistrates from among their nobility, and become an aristocratic Republic, 
 1030 to 1034. Several revolutions occurred up to 1528, when the celebrated 
 Andrew Doria rescued his country from the dominion of foreign powers. 
 Bombarded by the French in 1684, .and by the British in 1688 and 1745. 
 Genoa was taken by the Imperialists, Dec. 8, 1746 ; but their oppression of 
 the people was such, that the latter suddenly rose, and expelled their con- 
 querors, who again besieged the city the next year, August 17, without 
 effect. Genoa lost Corsica 1730. The celebrated bank failed 1750. The 
 city sustaineii a siege by a British fleet and Austrian army, until literally 
 starved, and was evacuated by capitulation, May 1800 ; but it was surren- 
 dered to the French soon after their victory at Marengo. The Tagurian 
 Republic was founded upon that of Genoa, in 1801, and the doge solemnly 
 invested, August 10, 1802. Genoa annexed to the French empire. May 25, 
 1805. It surr(!ndered to the combined English and Sicilian army, April 18, 
 1814 ; and was transferred to the king of Sardinia in 1816. Insurrection 
 against Victor Emmanuel, April 1 ; subdued April 11, 1849. 
 
 GENTLEMEN. The Gauls observing that, during the empire of the Romans, 
 the Scutarii and GentUes had the best appointments of all the soldiers, ap- 
 plied to them the terms ecuijers and gentilshommes. This distinction of gen- 
 tleman was much in use in England, and was given to the well descended, 
 about A. D. 1430. — Sidney. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. The first correct record we have of geographical knowledge 
 is from Homer. He describes the shield of Achilles as representing 
 the earth, surrounded by the sea. — Iliad. He accurately describes the 
 countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago, and site of Troy. The 
 priests taught that the temple of Apollo at Delphos w^as the centre of the 
 Avorld. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical maps, 
 about 568 b. c. Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to mathemati- 
 cal bases, about 135 b. c. It was first brought to Europe by the Moors of 
 Barbary and Spain, about a. d. 1201. — Lengiet. The invention of the mari- 
 ner's compass is the important connecting link between ancient and modern 
 geography. The modern maps and charts were introduced into England 
 by Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a 
 western continent, a. d. 1489. 
 
 GEOLOGY. The science of the earth has been the subject of philosophical 
 speculation from the time of Homer ; and this science is said to have been 
 cultivated in China many ages before the Christian era. When the theories 
 and discoveries of geologists were first propounded, they were condemned as 
 being opposed to the statements of the Bible ; but in this enlightened age the 
 astronomer and geologist, in proportion as their minds are expanded by 
 scientific investigation^ see that there is no collision between the discoveries 
 in the natural world, and the inspired record. We are not called upon by 
 Scripture to admit, neither are we required to deny, the supposition that 
 the matter without form and void, out of which this globe of earth was 
 framed, may have consisted of the wrecks and relics of more ancient worlds, 
 created and destroyed by the same Almighty power which called our world 
 into being, and will one day cause it to pass away. Thus while the Bible 
 reveals to us the moral history and destiny of our race, and teaches us that 
 man and other living things have been placed but a few thousand yoars 
 
334 THE world's progress. [ GEB 
 
 upon the earth, the physical monuments of our globe hear witness to tne 
 same truth ; and as astronomy unfolds to us myriads of worlds, not spoken 
 of in tlie sacred records, geology in like manner proves, not by arguments 
 drawn from analogy, but by the incontrovertible evidence of physical phe- 
 nomena, that there were former conditions of our planet, separated from 
 each other by vast intervals of time, during which this world was teeming 
 with life, ere man. and the animals which are his contemporaries, had been 
 called into being. — Dr. Mantell and Bishop Blomjield. 
 
 GEOMETRY. Its origin is ascribed to the Egyptians ; the annual inucdationa 
 of the Nile having given rise to it by carrying away the landmarks, and the 
 boundaries of farms. Thales introduced geometry into Greece about 600 
 B. c. Euclid's Elements were compiled about 280 b. c. The doctrine of 
 curves originally attracted the attention of geometricians from the conic 
 sections, which were introduced by Plato about 390 b c. The conchoid 
 curve was invented by Nicomedes, 220 b. c. The scienoe of geometry was 
 taught in Europe in the thirteenth century. Books on the subject of geo- 
 metry and astronomy were destroyed in England, being regarded as infected 
 with magic, 7 Edward VI., 1552. — Stowe. 
 
 GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable conspiracy in France ; general 
 Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadoudal, who was commonly known 
 by the name of Georges, and others, arrested at Paris, charged with a conspi- 
 racy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of Louis XVIII., 
 Feb. 28, 1804. The conspirators were tried June 9, when seventeen were 
 sentenced to death, and many to imprisonment. Moreau was suffered to leave 
 France, and was escorted from the temple to embark for America, June 22. 
 In 1813 he received his mortal wound before Dresden, whick see. 
 
 GEORGIA, one of the United States, was granted by George II. to Gen. Ogle- 
 thorpe, who, with forty followers, founded Savannah, Feb. 1, 1733. Savan- 
 nah taken by the British in the revolutionary war, Dec. 29, 1778 ; the town 
 and State evacuated by them in July 1782. The State unanimously adopted 
 the Federal Constitution, Jan. 2, 1788. Population in 1790, 82,584"; in 1840, 
 691.392, including 280,944 slaves. Staple commodities, cotton and rice. 
 
 GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. Napoleon had determined that the German, 
 or Holy Roman Empire, as it was called, should no longer exist ; but that 
 instead thereof, a confederation of states should be formed ; and this ar- 
 rangement was adopted in 1815, by the allied sovereigns ; and Germany is 
 now governed by a diet consisting of seventeen voices, and in case any 
 alteration be requisite in the constitution, they are then to take a new divi- 
 sion, and the general assembly then to be formed is to contain sixty-five, 
 divided according to the relative consequence of the states. See Addenda. 
 
 GERMANY, From Gervianni, warlike men. First mentioned by the Roman 
 historians about 211 b. c. : it was anciently divided into several independent 
 stat<!S until 25 b. c, when the Germans withstood the attempt of the Romans 
 to subdue them, although they conquered some parts ; but by the repeated 
 efforts of the Germans they were entirely expelled, about a. d. 290. In 432, 
 the Huns, driven from China, conquered the greatest part of this extensive 
 country; but it was not totally subdued till Charlemange, the first emperor, 
 became master of the whole, a. d. 802. 
 
 Charlemagne crowned emperor of the | Charles III. was the first sovereign who 
 
 West at Rome - - a. d. 800 
 
 He adds a second licad to the eagle, to 
 
 denote that the empires of Rome and 
 
 Germany are united in him - - 802 
 
 Louis {Debonnaire) separates Germany 
 
 frim France .... 814 
 
 added " in the year of our Loi-d" tt 
 
 his reign .... 879 
 
 The German princes assert their inde- 
 pendence, and Conrad reigns - 912 
 
 [The electoral character assumed about 
 this time. See Eleciora.] - - 912 
 
C*ER J 
 
 LTCTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 335 
 
 GERMANY, continued. 
 
 Reign of Henry I. (king) surnamed the 
 Fowler ; he vanquishes the Huns, 
 Danes, Vandals, and Bohemians - 919 
 
 Otho I. extends his dominions, and is 
 crowned emperor by the pope - 962 
 
 Henry III. conquers Bohemia, wasting 
 It with fire and sword - "- 1042 
 
 Peter the Hermit leads the crusaders 
 through Germany, where they m.as- 
 sacre the Jews - - - . 1095 
 
 Henry IV. excommunicated by pope 
 Pascal I. (Hildebrand) about - 1105 
 
 Disputes relating to ecclesiastical in- 
 vestitures, with the pope - - 1122 
 
 The Guelph and Ghibeline feuds begin ir40 
 
 Conrad HI. leads a large army to the 
 holy wars, where it is destroyed by 
 the treachery of the Greeks - - 1147 
 
 Trutonic order of knighthood - - 1190 
 
 Reign of Rodolph, count of Hapsbnrgh, 
 chosen by the electors - - 1273 
 
 The famous edict, called the Golden 
 Bull, by Charles IV. - - - 1356 
 
 Sigismond, king of Bohemia, elected 
 emperor. He betrays Jolm Huss and 
 Jerome of Prague, who are burned 
 alive (.?ee Bohemia) - - - 1414 
 
 Sigismond being driven from the throne, 
 Albert II., duke of Austria, succeeds. 
 (In his family the crown resides for 
 three centuries) - - - 1438 
 
 The Pragmatic sanction {ichich see) - 1439 
 
 The empire divided into circles - 1512 
 
 Era of the Reformation (Luther) - 1517 
 
 Abdication of Charles V. - - 1556 
 
 VVar of the two parties, the Evangelic 
 union under Frederick, elector pala- 
 tine, and the Catholic league, under 
 the duke of Bavaria - - -1618 
 
 Battle of Prague, which lost the elector 
 palatine the crown - - - 1620 
 
 Treaty of Westphalia - - - 1648 
 
 Joini Sobieski, king of Poland, defeats 
 the Turks in many battles, and obliges 
 them to raise the siege of Vienna - 1683 
 
 The peace of Carlowitz - - 1699 
 
 The Pragmatic sanction (which see) - 1722 
 
 The reign of Charles VI. is chiefly occu- 
 pied with wars against the Turks, and 
 in establishing the Pragmatic sanc- 
 tion, in favor of the succession of his 
 daughter, Maria Theresa, married to 
 the duke of Lorraine - 1711 to 1742 
 
 Francis I., Duke of Lorraine, marries 
 (he heiress of Austria, the celebrated 
 Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary ; 
 ana is elected emperor - - 1745 
 
 Joseph II. extends his dominions by the 
 dismemberment of Poland - - 1772 
 
 Again, by the final partition of that de- 
 voted kingdom - - - 1795 
 
 [In the ruinous wars between Germany 
 and France, the emperor loses the 
 Netherlands, all his territories west 
 of the Rhine, and his estates in Italy, 
 1793, et seq.] 
 
 Francis I. assumes the title of empe- 
 i-or of Austria - - Aug. 11, 1804 
 
 Dissolution of the German empire ; for- 
 mation of the Confederation of the 
 Rhine - - - July 12, 1803 
 
 General agitation among the people. 
 
 and demands for refonn granted in 
 various degrees by sovereigns of 
 Prussia, Bavaria, &c. ; and by those 
 of the smaller principalities of Ger- 
 many - - Feb. and March, 1848 
 
 A federal union of the German States 
 demanded by Prussia March, 1848 
 
 Congress of deputies at Frankfort— Mit- 
 ter-Meyer, President March 31, 184S 
 
 German Parliament meets at Frank- 
 fort - - - May 18, 184? 
 
 The archduke, John of Austria, elected 
 by the parliament as lord-lieutenant 
 of the Empire - - June 29, 1848 
 
 He is installed at Frankfort, and names 
 his ministers - - July 15, 1848 
 
 Great excitement in Germany on ac- 
 count of the execution .at Vienna of 
 Robert Blum, a Leipsic publisher, 
 for aiding the insurrection Nov, " 1843 
 
 A. D. EMPERORS C? GB JMANY. 
 
 800. phariemagne the Great. 
 
 814. Louis the Debonnaire. 
 
 840. Lothaire. 
 
 855. Louis II. 
 
 875. Charles II., the Bald ; poisoned. 
 
 878. Louis III., the Stammerer. 
 
 879. Charles III., the Gross. 
 887. Arnould. 
 
 899. Louis IV. 
 
 912. Otho, duke of Saxony; he refused the 
 dignity on account of his age. 
 
 912. Conrad, duke of Franconia. 
 
 919. Henry 1., the Fowler. 
 
 936. Otho I., the Great. 
 
 973. Otho II., the Bloody. 
 
 983. Otho III., the Red ; poisoned. 
 1002. Henry II., duke of Bavaria; the Holy 
 
 and Lame. 
 1024. Conrad II., the Salique. 
 1039. Henry III., the Black. 
 10.55. Henry IV. ; deposed. 
 1077. Rodolphus; killed in battle. 
 1080. Henry IV. ; re-instated. 
 1105. Henry V. 
 1125. Lothaire II. 
 1138. Conrad III. 
 
 1152. Frederick Barbarossa ; drowned in Bo- 
 hemia. 
 1191. Henry VI., the Sharp. 
 1198. Philip; killed at Bamberg. 
 1208. Otho IV; deposed. 
 1211. Frederic M. ; deposed. 
 1245. Henry VII ; killed. 
 J 246. William ; killed in battle. 
 1273. Rodolphus, count of Hapsburg, tha 
 
 first of the Austrian family. 
 1291. Adolphus ; deposed. 
 1298. Albert I. ; killed by his nephew. 
 1308. Henry VIII. ; poisoned by a priest- m 
 
 tlie consecrated water. 
 1314. Louis IV., cf Bavaria; killed by a fiU 
 
 from his 1. .irse. 
 1-347. Charles IV., of Luxembourg. 
 1378 Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia. 
 1399 Frederick, Duke of Brunswick. 
 1400. Rnpert, palatine of the Rhine. 
 1410. Sigismond, king of Hungary. 
 1437. Albert II., duke of Austria and king vtl 
 
 Bohemia. 
 1440. Frederick III., archduke of Austria, 
 
336 THE world's progress. r GIB 
 
 GERMANY, continued. 
 
 1493. Maximilian I. ; he married the heiress 
 
 of Burgundy. 
 1519. Charles v., kins; of Spain. 
 15.58. Ferdinand I., king of Hungary. 
 1564. Maximilian 11. 
 1.576. Ilodolphus 11. 
 1612. Matthias 1. 
 
 1619. Ferdinand 11., king of Hungary. 
 J 637. Ferdinand lit, ditto. 
 J658. Leopold 1., ditto 
 1705. .loseph 11., ditto, and of Bohemia. 
 1711. Charles VI. 
 1742. Charles Vll. 
 
 1745. Francis 1.; husband of Maria Thereasi 
 queen of Hungary and Bohemia. 
 
 1765. .loseph II. 
 
 1790. Leopold II. 
 
 1792. Francis II. ; he takes the title of em 
 peror of Austria only, in 1806. 
 
 1806. Confederation of the Rhine (which see), 
 
 1815. Germanic Confederation. 
 
 1835. Ferdinand 1., of Austria. 
 
 (See Tabular Views in this vol., beginning 
 p. 76 ; see, also, Austria, Bavariay 
 Prussia, Wurtemburg, &c.) 
 
 There are about 20 German principalities witli territories equal to English 
 counties. The free towns are Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort on the Maine 
 (one of the greatest trading places in Europe), and Lubeck, which was the 
 head of the famous Hanseatic League, formed in that city in 1164. 
 
 GHENT. Anciently the capital of the Nervii. Prince John, third son of Ed- 
 ward ni. of England, was born here, and hence named John of Gaunt. 
 Pacification of Ghent. November 8, 1576. Ghent was taken by the duke of 
 Marlborough in a. d. 1706, and several times taken and retaken by the con- 
 tending armies during the late wars. The peace of Ghent between Great 
 Britain and the United States, was signed here, December 24, 1814. 
 
 it^ f ANTS. The emperor Maximus was eight feet and a half in height ; he was 
 also of great bulk, and used the bracelet of his wife as a ring for his thumb, 
 and his shoe was longer by a foot than that of an or-iinary man. — Zuinglius. 
 ••The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was one named Gabara. 
 who in tlie days of Claudius the late emperor was brought out of Arabia. 
 He was nine feet nine inches high." — Pliny. John Middleton, of Hale, in 
 Lancashire, born in 1578, was nine feet three inches high. Patrick Cotter, 
 the celebrated Irish giant, born in 1761, was eight feet seven inches in 
 height ; his hand, from the commencement of the palm to the extremity of 
 the middle finger, measured twelve inches, and his shoe was seventeen inch- 
 es long ; he died in September 1806, in his 46th year. Giants' bones 17, 18, 
 20, and 30 feet high, were once reported to have been found ; but there is 
 now no doubt that they were organic remains of colossal quadrupeds. 
 
 GIBRALTAR. A fortress, whose immense strength excites wonder and admi- 
 ration, and renders it impregnable : it is the ancient Calpe, which, with 
 Abyla on the opposite shore of Africa, obtained the name of the Pillars of 
 Hercules. The height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 English 
 feet : it was taken by the Saracens under Tarik ( Gibel- Tarik. Mountain of 
 Tarik, whence its pi'esent name) in a. d. 712. In the year 1462 the king of 
 Castile took Gibraltar from the Moors ; and the English, under sir George 
 Rooke, the prince of Hesse Darmstadt, sir John Leake, and admiral B5nig, 
 bravely won it, July 24, 1704. It was surrendered, after a dreadful cannon- 
 ade, to the British, by the governor, the marquis de Salines ; and it has since 
 continued an appendage to the British crown. 
 
 Gibraltar attacked by the British on the 
 •21st .Tuly, and taken on tbe24ih, a. d. 1704 
 
 Besieged hy ihe Spanish and French; 
 they lose 10.000 men, and the victori- 
 ous English but 400 - Oct. 11-, 1704 
 
 The Spaniards again attack Gibraltar, 
 and are repulsed with great loss - 1720 
 
 They again attack it with a force of 
 
 20,000 7inien, and lose 5000, while the 
 loss of the English is only 300 - 1721 
 
 Memoi-able siege of the Spaniards and 
 French, whose prodigious arma- 
 ments' (the greatest ever brought 
 against a fortress) were wholly over- 
 thrown. The siege continued from 
 .luly 1779, to Feb. - - 1783 
 
 * The army amounted to 40,000 men. The duke of Crillon commanded 12.000 of the best troops 
 •f France. iOOO pieces of artillery were brought to bear against the fortress, besides which, thara 
 
S-LE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 337 
 
 GILDING. First jn-actised at Rome, about 145 b. c. I'he capitol was the first 
 building- on which this enrichment was bestowed. — Pliny. Of gold leaf for 
 gilding the Romans made but 750 leaves, four fingers square, out of a whole 
 ounce. — PLiny. It consequently was more like our plating. — Truslcr. A 
 .«ingle grain of gold may now be stretched out under the hammer into a leaf 
 that will cover a house. — Dr. Halley. Gilding with leaf gold on bole ammo- 
 niac was first introduced by Margaritone, in 1273. The art of gilding on 
 wood, previously known, was improved in 1680. 
 
 GISORS, Battle of, in France, between the armies of France and England, in 
 which the former was signally defeated by Richard I., whose parole for the 
 day was " Dieuet mo7i droit" — "God and my right;" and from this time it 
 Avas made the motto to the royal arms of England, a. d. 1198. 
 
 GLA.DIATORS. They were originally malefactors who fought for their lives, 
 or captives who fought for their freedom. They exhibited at the funeral 
 ceremonies of the Romans. 263 b. c, probably following the Greek custom 
 of sacrificing to the manes of deceased warriors the prisoners taken in battle. 
 Gladiator fights afterwards exhibited at festivals, about 215 b. c. When 
 Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought at Rome in celebra- 
 tion of his triumph for 123 days. a. d. 103. Their combats on public thea- 
 tres were suppressed in the East by Constantine the Great, a. d. 325. Fi- 
 nally suppressed by Theodorick, in the year 500. — Lenglet. 
 
 GLASGOW. Erected into a burgh in a. d. 1180. Its charter was obtained from 
 James II., in 1451, at which period the university was founded. Its earliest 
 commerce was in salmon, about 1420. 
 
 GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been taught the art of making glass 
 by Hermes. The discovery of glass took place in Syria. — Pliny. Glass- 
 houses were erected in Tyre, where glass was a staple manufacture for 
 many ages. This article is mentioned among the Romans in the time of 
 Tiberius ; and we know, from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows were 
 formed of glass before a. d. 79. Italy had the first glass windows, next 
 France, whence they came to England. Used for windows in private houses 
 in the reign of Henry II., 1177, but imported. — Anderson. The manufacture 
 was established in England at Crutched-friars, and in the Savoy, in 1557. — • 
 Stowe. It was improved in 1635, and was brought to great perfection in the 
 reign of William III. The duties on glass in England were entirely remit- 
 ted, 1845. 
 
 GLASS, Painting on. This was a very early art. It was practised at Marseilles 
 in a beautiful style, about a. d. 1500. It is said the art existed in England 
 towards the 12th century. It reached to a state of great perfection about 
 1530. 
 
 GLENCOE, Massacre of. This was the horrible massacre of the unoflTending 
 and unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, merely for not surrendering 
 in time to king William's proclamation. About 38 men were brutally slain; 
 and women and children, their wives and offspring, were turned out naked 
 
 were 47 sail of the line, all three-deckers; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carrying 
 21'2 sans; innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb-ketches, cutters, and gun and mortar boats; 
 while small craft for disembarking the forces covered the bay. For weeks together, 6000 sheila 
 were daily thrown into the town" and on a single occasion, 8000 barrels of eunpowder were ex- 
 pended by the enemy. Yet in one night, their floating batteries were destroyed with red-hot balls, 
 and their whole line of woi'ks antihilated by a sortie from the garrison, commanded by general 
 Elliot, Nov. 27, 1781. The enejny' 3 loss in munitions of war, on this night alone, was estirnated at 
 upwards of 2,600,0OOZ sterling B it their srand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British, occurred 
 Sept. 13, 1782. 
 
 15 
 
338 THE world's progress. [god 
 
 in a dark and freezing night, and perished by cold and hunger : this black 
 deed was perpetrated by the earl of Argyle's regiment, May 9, 1691. 
 
 GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principa. 
 circles of the sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true cause of lunar 
 eclipses, were taught, and an eclipse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 
 640 B. c. Pythagoras demonstrated from the varying altitudes of the stars 
 by change of place, that the earth must be round ; that there might be an- 
 tipodes on the opposite part of the globe ; that Venus Avas the morning and 
 evening star; that the universe consisted of twelve spheres — the sphere o/ 
 the earth, the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the sphere of fire, 
 the spheres of the moon, the sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, 
 and the sphere of the stars, about 506 b. c. Aristarchus, of Samos, main- 
 tained that the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved about the sun j 
 which doctrine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the phi- 
 losopher had nearly lost his life to his theory, 280 b. c. The first voyage 
 round the globe was performed by Picaro, commanding a ship of Magel- 
 lan's squadron, 1520-4. The first English navigator who performed the same 
 enterprise was sir Francis Drake, 1577. — See Circumnavigation, and Earth. 
 
 GLORY. The glory or nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints, 
 angels, and holy men, and the circle of rays on images, were adopted from 
 the Caesars and their flatterers, by whom they were used in the first centur}^ 
 The doxology of the prayer Gloria Patri was i ordained in the church of 
 Rome, and was called doxology because it began with S6^a. glory, a. d. 
 382. 
 
 GLOVES. They were in use in very early times. In the middle ages, the giving 
 of a glove was a ceremony of investiture in bestowing lands and dignities ; and 
 two bishops were put in possession of their sees by each receiving a glove, 
 A D. 1002. In England, in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves 
 was a ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company of London was in- 
 corporated in 1556. Embroidered gloves were introduced into England in 
 1580, and are presented to judges at maiden assizes to this day. 
 
 GNOSTICS. Ancient heretics, who were famous from the first rise of Christianity. 
 The tenets of this sect were revived in Spain, in the fourth century, by the 
 Priscillianists ; but the name, which Avas once glorious, at length became in- 
 famous. The Gnostics were not so much a particular sect of heretics, as a 
 complication of many sects ; and were so called, because they pretended to 
 extraordinary illuminations and knowledge, one main branch of which con- 
 sisted in their pretended genealogies or attributes of the Deity, in which 
 they differed among themselves as much as they did from others. 
 
 GOBELIN-TAPESTRY. Tapestry so called from a noted house at Paris, in the 
 suburb of St. Marcel, formerly possessed by famous wool-dyers, whereof the 
 chief, called Giles Gobelin, who lived in the reign of Francis L, is said to 
 have found the secret of dyeing scarlet, which w^as from him called the 
 scarlet of the Gobelins ; the house and river that runs by it also took the 
 same name. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. for a maniifactory of 
 all manner of curious works for adorning the roj'^al palaces, under the direc- 
 tion of Mons. Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for which were drawn by 
 the celebrated Le Brun. by appointment of the king, a. d. 1666. — Du Frei' 
 noy. 
 
 GODFATHERS and GODMOTHERS. The Jews had godfathers in the cir- 
 cumcision of their sons. In the Christian church sponsion in baptism arose 
 in the desire of assuring that the child should be of the religion of Christ. 
 It was first ordained to be used, according to some, by pope Alexander; 
 according to others, by Sixtus, and others refer it to Telesphorus, about a. d. 
 
GOO ( DICTIONARY OF DATES. 339 
 
 130, In Catholic countries they ha\o godfathers and godmothers in the 
 baptism of their bells. 
 
 fiOLD, The purest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reascn it has, 
 from the earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most 
 valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with 
 copper or silver : in its pure state it is twenty- four carats ; that used in our 
 coin is twenty-two carats, and two parts of copper. In the early ages no 
 metals were used but those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. The 
 smelting of ores was a comparatively late invention, and ascribed both to 
 observations on volcanoes and to the burning of forests, 
 
 GOLD MINES. Gold is found in various parts of the earth, but is most 
 abundant in Africa, Japan, and South America, in which l&et gold was dis- 
 covered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which time to 1731, they imported 
 into Europe 6000 millions of pieces of eight, in register gold ancl silver, ex- 
 clusively of what were unregistered. In 1730, a piece of gold weighing 
 ninety marks, equal to sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), 
 was found near La Paz, a town of Peru. Gold was discovered in Malacca, 
 in 1731 ; in New Andulasia in 1785 ; in Ceylon in 1800 ; in Virginia 1829 ; 
 in North Carolina 1824 ; South Carolina 1829 ; in Georgia 1830 : in Cali- 
 fernia, April 1848. 
 
 GOLD AND SILVER. Quantity produced in forty years from 1790 to 1830, as 
 stated in the Mining Journal : 
 
 Gold. Silver. 
 
 Mexico j66,436,453 = dE139,818,032 
 
 Chili ........ 2,768,488 = 1.822,924 
 
 Buenos Ayres 4,024,895 = 27;i82,673 
 
 Russia 3,703,743 = 1,502,981 
 
 JBI7,003,579 = £170,326,610 
 The mines of North and South America had, in 1840, sent to Europe 3^ 
 times more gold, and 12 times more silver, than those of the other hemis- 
 phere. The gold mines in Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia, 
 discovered 1824-30, had produced altogether up to 1835, $4,377,500.. Those 
 of California, discovered in the spring of 1848, had produced up to Feb. 
 1850, at least 25 millions of dollars in value, a considerable part of which 
 was sent to Europe. The amount of California gold coined at the U. S. 
 mint in 1849 was about $6,000,000. The total annual production of gold in 
 the world was estimated in 1840 at about 36 tons, proportioned thus : North 
 and South America 11, Europe and Asiatic Russia 6^, Indian Archipelago, 
 4|, Africa 14. See Coiii. 
 
 GOLDEN FLEECE. Jason, the Argonaut, sailed with his companions from 
 lolchos to Colchis to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and to re- 
 cover his treasures, which the perfidious ^etes, king of Colchis, had seized, 
 after murdering their owner. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to 
 Colchis, was adorned with the figure of a ram on the poop ; which gave 
 occasion to the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for the re- 
 covery of the golden fleece, 1263 b. c, 
 
 GOLDEN NUMBER. The cycle of nineteen years, or number which sliows 
 the years of the moon's cycle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of Athens, 
 about 432 b. c. — Pliny. To find the golden number or year of the Lunar 
 cycle, add one to the date and divide "by nineteen, then the quotient is the 
 number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder is the Golden number, 
 
 GOOD FRIDAY. From the earliest records of Christianity, this day has been 
 held as a solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifixion of our Saviour en 
 Friday, April 3 a. d. 33. Its appellation of good appears to be peculiar to 
 the Church of England : our Saxon forefathers denominated it Long Fri- 
 
340 THE world's progress. [ GOV 
 
 day, on account of the great length of the offices observed, and fastings en- 
 joined on this day. 
 
 GORDIAN KNOT. The knot made of the thongs that served as harness to 
 the wagon of Gordius, a husbandman, who was afterwards king of Phrygia, 
 Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the 
 oracle declared should be emperor of Persia. Alexander the Great cut 
 away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of it, and thus, in a 
 military sense at least, this " conqueror of the world " interpreted the ora- 
 cle, 330 B. c. 
 
 GORDONS "NO POPERY" MOB: occasioned by the zeal of lord George 
 Gordon. It consisted of 40,000 persons who assembled in St. George's 
 Fields, under the name of the Protestant Association, to carry up a petition 
 to parliament for the repeal of the act which granted certain indulgences 
 to the Roman Catholics. The mob once raised, could not be dispersed, but 
 proceeded to the most daring outrages, pillaging, burning, and pulling down 
 the chapels and private houses of the Catholics first, but afterwards of several 
 other persons ; breaking open prisons, setting the prisoners free, even at- 
 tempting the Bank of England, and in a word totally overct ming the civil 
 power for nearly six days. At length, by the aid of armed associations of 
 the citizens, the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several counties, 
 then embodied and marched to London, the riot was quelled. It com- 
 menced June 2 ; and on the 3d, the Catholic chapels, and numerous private 
 mansions, were destroyed, the bank attempted, and the jails opened; 
 among these Avere the King's Bench, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons ; on the 
 5th, thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. In the end, 210 of the 
 rioters were killed, and 248 were wounded, of whom 75 died afterwards in 
 the hospitals. Many were tried, convicted, and executed. Lord George 
 was tried the year after for high treason, but acquitted, June 2 to 7, 1780. 
 — Annual Register. 
 
 GOSPELS. St. Mark wrote his gospel a. d. 44 ; St. Matthew in the same year ; 
 St. Luke in 55 ; and St. John in 96-7. The gospel of Matthew was found 
 buried in the tomb of St. Barbus, and was conveyed to Constantinople in 
 485. — Butler. John wrote his gospel at Ephesus two j^ears after he was 
 thrown into a caldron of burning oil, from which he was taken out unhurt, 
 and banished to the isle of Patmos. — Idem. The gospel is the glad tidings 
 of the actual coming of the Messiah; and hence the evangelical history of 
 Christ. — Hammond. Dr. Robert Brsiy was the author of the first plan for 
 propagating the gospel in foreign parts. Society for the Propagation of the 
 Gospel in Foreign Countries, incorporated in 1701. 
 
 GOSPELLERS. The name which was given to the followers of Wicklifie, who 
 first attempted the reformation of the Church from the errors of popery : 
 it was affixed to them by the Roman Catholics in derision, on account of 
 their professing to follow and preach only the gospel, a. d. 1377. — Bishop 
 Burnet. 
 
 Gf^THS. A warlike nation that inhabited the space between the Caspian, 
 Pontus. Euxine, and Baltic seas. They attacked the Roman empire a. d. 
 251. They were defeated by Claudius, and 320,000 slain, a. d. 269. After 
 the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under 
 Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained 
 their dominion till a. d. 553, when they were finally conquered by Narses, 
 Justinian's general. The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a king- 
 dom, which continued until the country was subdued by the Saracens. 
 
 GOTERNMENT, cost of, in EUROPE and the UNITED STATES. In_an 
 elaborate article in the American Almanac, 1847, this result is reached, viz. j 
 
ORic: J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 34. 
 
 "m the United States : aggregate of 
 national expenditure, lor each in- 
 habitant - - - - $0 97 
 
 Aggregate of State expenditure, for 
 each inhabitant - - - 50 
 
 Aggregate of town or city expendi- 
 ture, for each inhabitant - - 92 
 
 Total cost of Government in the 
 
 United States, per head - - $2 39 
 
 or $47,800,000 if the population is 
 20 millions. 
 
 In England, according to Maccul- 
 
 loch, the average is equal, per 
 head, to - 
 
 In France, according to Chevalier, 
 in 1833, the cost was about 1,250 
 millions of francs, or 40 francs per 
 head — say - - - . 
 
 Thus, France pays about three 
 times, and Great Britain five timea 
 as much for Government as the 
 United States. (See Adminiatra- 
 tions of the United States.) 
 
 $12 33 
 
 S7W 
 
 GRACE AT MEAT. The table was considered by the ancient Greeks as the 
 altar of friendship, and held sacred upon thai .account. They would not 
 partake of any meat until they had first offered part of it, as the first fruits, 
 to their gods ; and hence came the short prayer said before and after meat 
 in all Christian countries from the earliest times. — Lenglet. 
 
 GRAMMARIANS, or CRITICS. Anciently, the most eminent men in litera- 
 ture were denominated grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed 
 at Rome so early as 276 b. c. — Blair. Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Ci- 
 cero, Messala. Julius Caesar, Nicias, ^lius Donatus, Remmius Palemon, 
 Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenseus, and other distinguished men, were of 
 this class. Cobbett declared Mr. Canning to be the only purely grammati- 
 cal orator of his time ; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's 
 said, " We threw our whole grammatical mind upon it and could not dis- 
 cover cnae error." 
 
 GRANARIES. The Romans formed granaries in seasons of plenty, to secure 
 food for the poorer citizens ; and all who wanted it were provided with corn 
 from these reservoirs, in necessitous times, at the cost of the public trea- 
 sury. There were three hundred and twenty-seven granaries at Rome. — 
 Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at Bridewell to hold 6000 
 quarters of corn, and two store-houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads, 
 thereby to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by the great in- 
 crease of inhabitants, 7 James I., 1610. — Stowe. 
 
 GRANICUS, Battle of, in which Alexander the Great signally defeated the 
 Persians. The Macedonian troops crossed the Granicus in the face of the 
 Persian army, although the former did not exceed 30,000 foot and 5000 
 horse, while the Persian army amounted to 600000 foot, and 20,000 horse. 
 — Justin. Yet the victors lost in this great battle but fifty-five foot soldiers, 
 and sixty horse. Sardis capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken 
 by storm, and numerous other great towns submitted to the conqueror, 334 
 B. c, — Bossuet. 
 
 GRATES. The hearths of the early Britons were fixed in the centre of their 
 halls. The fire-place originally was perhaps nothing more than a large 
 stone depressed below the level of the ground to receive the ashes. There 
 Avere arched hearths among the Anglo-Saxons ; and chafing dishes were 
 most in use until the general introduction of chimneys, about a. d. 1200. 
 See Chimneys. 
 
 GRAVITATION. This, as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the 
 Greeks, and also by Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters, 
 about A. D. 38. Kepler enlarged upon it, about a. d. 1615 ; and Hook pub- 
 lished it as a system. The principles of gravity were proved by Galileo, at 
 Florence, about 1633; and thej'^ were subsequently adopted by Newton, 
 about 1687. 
 
 tJRiECIA MAGNA, Thai part of Italy where the Greeks planted colonies. 
 
342 
 
 THE world's progress 
 
 [ GRB 
 
 but its boundaries are very uncertain. Some say that it extended to the 
 southern parts of Italy ; and others suppose that Magna Grascia compre- 
 hended only Campania and Lucania. To these is added Sicily, which was 
 likewise peopled by the Greek colonists. — Lempi-iere. 
 
 GREECE. The first inhabitants of this justly celebrated country of the an- 
 cient world, were the progeny of Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Greece 
 was so called from a very ancient king named Grsecus ; and another king 
 named Hellen, gave his subjects the appellation of Hellenists. Homer calls 
 the inhabitants, indifferently, Myrmidions, Hellenists, and Achains. For 
 ancient Grecian history, see Tabular Views, p. 5 et seq. 
 
 Sicyon founded (^Eiisebius) - b. c. 2089 
 Uranus arrives in Greece (^Lenglet) - 204:2 
 Revolt of I he Titans - - - * * 
 
 War of the Giants - - - * * 
 
 Kingdom of Argos begun (Eusebius)- 1856 
 Reign of Ogyges ni Bueotia (idem) - 1796 
 Sacrifices to the gods first introduced in 
 
 Greece by Phoroneus - - - 1773 
 
 According to some authors, Sicyon was 
 
 now begun {Lenglet) • - - 1773 
 
 Deluge ol Ogyges {which see) • - 1764 
 
 A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy 
 
 under O^notrus : the country first 
 
 called (Enortria, afterwards Magna 
 
 Groicia {Eusebius) - - - 1710 
 
 Chronology of the Arundelian marbles 
 
 commences (Eusebius) - - 1582 
 
 Cecrops comes into Attica (idem) - 1556 
 The Areopagus instituted - - 1506 
 
 Deluge of Deucalion {Eusebius) - 1503 
 Reign of Hellen {idem) - - - 1459 
 
 Cadmus, with the Phoenician letters, 
 
 settles in Boeotia - - - 1493 
 
 Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards 
 
 called Sparta - - - - 1490 
 
 Arrival of Danaus, with the first ship 
 
 ever seen in Greece - - - 1485 
 
 He gets possession of Argog. His fifty 
 
 daughters - ... 1475 
 
 First Olympic games celebrated at Elis, 
 
 by the Idcbi Dactyli {Eusebius) - 14.53 
 Iron discovered by the IdcBi Dactyli - 1406 
 Corinth rebuilt, and so named - - 1384 
 
 Ceres arrives in Greece, and teaches 
 
 the art of making bread - - 1383 
 
 The Isthmi«..i games instituted - - 1326 
 
 Mycense created out of Argos - -1313 
 
 Argonautic expedition {which see) - 1263 
 The Pythian games by Adrastus - 1263 
 
 War of the seven Greek captains - 1225 
 The Amazonian war ; these martial fe- 
 males penetrate into Greece - - 1213 
 Rape of Helen by Theseus - -1213 
 Rape of Helen by Paris - - 1198 
 Commencement of the Trojan war - 1193 
 Troy taken and destroyed on the night 
 
 of the 7th of the month Thargelioa 
 
 <27lh May, or 11th .June) - - 1184 
 
 ^Eneas sets sail, winters in Thrace, and 
 
 arrives in Italy - - • 1181 
 
 Migration of the ^oliao colonies, who 
 
 build Smyrna, «fec. - - 1124 
 
 Settlement of the lonians from Greece 
 
 ir. Asia Minor - - - - 1044 
 
 The first laws of navigation originate 
 
 with the Rhodians - - - 916 
 
 Homer flourishes about this time 
 
 {Arundelian Marbles) - - 907 
 
 Olympic games revived at Elis - 884 
 
 The first Messenian war - b. c. 
 
 The second Messenian war 
 
 The capture of Ira 
 
 The Messenians enngrate to Sicily, and 
 
 give their own name Messene to Zan- 
 
 cle (now called Messina) 
 Sea-fight, the first on record, between 
 
 tlie Corinthians and the inliabitants 
 
 of Corcyra .... 
 Byzantium built by the Argives 
 Sybaris, in Magna Graecia", destroyed, 
 
 100,000 Crotoniaiis under Milo defeat 
 
 300,000 Sybarians 
 Sardis taken and burnt, which occa- 
 sions ,the Persian invasion 
 Thrace and Macedonia conquered 
 Battle of Marathon {which see) • 
 Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked 
 
 at ThermopylcB by -Leonidas - 
 Battle of Salamis (tpA/cA see) - 
 Mardonius defec'ed at Plataea - 
 Battle of Eurymedon - - . 
 
 The third Messenian war 
 Athens begins to tyrannize over the 
 
 other states of Greece 
 Peloponnesus overrun by Pericles 
 The first sacred war 
 Herodotus reads his histO)y ic the 
 
 Council at Athens 
 The sea-fight at Cnidus - 
 Battle of Mantinea 
 Sacred war ended by Philip, who takes 
 
 all the cities of the Phoceans 
 Battle of Cheeronea 
 Alexander, the son of Philip, enters 
 
 Greece ; subdues the Athenians, and 
 
 destroys the city of Thebes - 
 Commencement of the Macedonian or 
 
 Grecian Monarchy 
 Alexander goes to Susa, and sits on the 
 
 throne of Darius 
 
 743 
 
 685 
 670 
 
 668 
 
 664 
 658 
 
 - 508 
 
 504 
 
 496 
 490 
 480 
 
 480 
 479 
 476 
 465 
 
 459 
 4.55 
 448 
 
 445 
 394 
 633 
 
 348 
 338 
 
 - 335 
 r 
 • 331 
 
 33fll 
 
 395 
 
 Alaric invades Greece - - a. d. 
 
 The empire under Nicephorus com- 
 menced - - - - 811 
 Greece mastered by the Latirs - - 1201 
 Re-conquered .... 1261 
 Invaded by the Turks - - - 1.350 
 Its final overthrow. See Eastern Em- 
 pire ..... 1353 
 [This country, so long illustrious for the 
 militaiy exploits, the learning, and 
 arts of its people, became of late 
 years the scene of desperate con- 
 flicts with the Turks, in order to re- 
 gain its independence, and the coun- 
 cils of the great powers of Europe 
 were friendly to the depisn.l 
 Great struggle for independence • J770 
 
gke] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 GREECE, continued. 
 
 The firdt decided movement in tliese lat- 
 ter times, by the Servians - a. d. 1800 
 
 The Servians defeat th« Turks at Nyssa 
 
 April 2, 1807 
 
 100,000 Turks, under Chourshid Pasha, 
 overrun the country, committing the 
 most dreadlal excesses - - 1813 
 
 Insurrection in Moldavia and Walla- 
 chia, in which the Greeks join - 1821 
 
 Proclamation of prince Alexander to 
 shake off the Turkish yoke March, 1821 
 
 The Greek patriarch put to death at 
 Constantinople - April 23, 1821 
 
 10,000 Christians perish in Cyprus, al- 
 though not engaged in the revolt - 1821 
 
 Massacre of the inhabitants of Bucha- 
 rest; even the women and children 
 not sj)ared .... 1821 
 
 Lidependence of Greece formally pro- 
 claimed - - Jan. 27, 1822 
 
 Siege of Corinth - - - Feb. 1822 
 
 Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; 
 most horrible massacre recorded ni 
 modern history* - April 23, 1822 
 
 Victories of the Greeks at Larissa, 
 Thermopylae, and Salonica, - July 8, 1822 
 
 National Congress at Argos - April 10, 18^3 
 
 Victories of Marco Botzans - June, 1823 
 
 Lord Byron lands in Greece, to devote 
 himself to its cause - August, 1823 
 
 Lamented death of Lord Byron, at Mis- 
 solonghi - - April 19, 1824 
 
 Signal defeat of the Capitan Pacha, at 
 Samos - - August 16, 1824 
 
 The Provisional Government ol Greece 
 instituted - - Oct. 12, 1824 
 
 The Greek fleet defeats that of the Ca- 
 pitan Pacha - - June 2, 1825 
 
 The Provisional Government of Greece 
 invites the protection of England 
 
 July 24, 1825 
 
 Siege of Missolonghi : the besieging 
 Turks are defeated in a formidable 
 attack upon it - August 1, 1826 
 
 The Greeks disperse the Ottoman fleet 
 
 Jan. 28, 1826 
 
 Ibrahim Paclia takes Mistoloughi by 
 assault - - April 23, 1826 
 
 The Greeks land near Salonica ; battle 
 with Omisr Pacha - June 1, 182fi 
 
 Ibrahim Pai,ha signally defeated by the 
 Mainotes . August 8 and 9, 1826 
 
 Redschid Pacha takes Athens, Aug. 15, ]8;-iS 
 
 Ticaty of Loudon, between Great Bri- 
 tain, Russia, and France, on behalf 
 of Greece, signed - ' July 6, 1827 
 
 Battle of Navarino ^which see) ; the 
 Turkish fleet destroyed - Oct. 20, 1827 
 
 Count Capo d'Istria arrives as Presi- 
 dent of Greece - - Jan. 18, 1828 
 
 The Panhellenion or Grand Council of 
 Slate established - Feb. 2, 1828 
 
 National Bank founded - Feb. 14, 1828 
 
 Greece divided into departments, viz. 
 Argolis, Achaia, Elis, Upper Hesse- 
 nia. Lower Messenia, Laconia, and 
 Arcadia, and the islands formed also 
 into departments - April 26, 182d 
 
 Final evacuation of the Morea by the 
 Turks - - - Oct. 30, 1828 
 
 Missolonghi surrenders - May 17, 1829 
 
 Greek National Assembly commences 
 its sittings at Argos - July 23, 1829 
 
 The Porte acknowledges the indepeijt.- 
 ence of Greece - - April 25, 1830 
 
 Prince Leopold finally declines the so- 
 vereignty - - May 21, 1830 
 
 Count Capo d'Istria, President of 
 Greece, assassinated by the brother 
 and son of Mavromichaelis, a Mainote 
 chief, whom he had imprisoned Oct. 9, 1831 
 
 The assassins put to death Oct. 29, 1881 
 
 Otho I. elected king of Greece, Jan. 25, 1833 
 Colocotroni's conspiracy - Oct. 27, 1833 
 A bloodless revolution at Athens, to en- 
 force ministerial responsibility and 
 national representation, is consum- 
 mated - - - Sept. 14, 1843 
 The king accepts the new constitution 
 
 March 16, 1844 
 [See Athens, Macedon, Sparta, 2'hrace, and 
 
 other states of Greece.] 
 
 GREEK CHURCH. A difference arose in the eighth century between the 
 eastern and western churches, which in the course of two centuries and a 
 half terminated in a separation : this church is called Greek in contradis- 
 tinction from the latter, or Roman church. The Greek church claims prior- 
 ity as usmg the language in which the Gospel was first promulgated, and 
 many of its forms and ceremonies are similar to those of the Roman Catho- 
 lics : but it disowns the supremacy of the pope.. It is the established reli- 
 gion of Russia. 
 
 GREEK FIRE. A composition of combustible matter invented by one Calli- 
 nicus, an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the seventh century, 
 
 * The slaughter lasted 10 days; 40,000 of both sexes falling victims to the sword, or to the^fire 
 which raged until every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the ground. 7000 
 Greeks, who had fled to the mountains, were induced to surrender by a promise of amnesty, guar- 
 anteed by the consuls of England, France and Austria, yet even they were, every man of them, 
 butchered ! The only exception made during the massacre was in favor of the young and more 
 beautiful women and boys, 30,000 of whom were reserved for the markets. The narrative of plun- 
 der, violation, and crime, while the infidel army was 1ft loose upon the captured city, is too long 
 aud too shocking for transcription here. 
 
344 THE world's progress. I UUA 
 
 in order tc destroy the Saracens' ships, which was effected by the g-eneral 
 of the empei'or Pogonat's tieet, and 30,000 men were killed. The property 
 of this tire was to burn briskest in water, to diffuse itself on all sides, ac- 
 coi'ding to the impression given it. Nothing but oil, or a mixture of vine- 
 gar, urine, and sand, could quench it. It was blown out of long tubes of 
 copper, and shot out of cross-bows, and other spring instruments. The in- 
 vention was kept a secret for many years by the court of Constantinople ; 
 but ii is now lost. 
 
 GREEK LANGUAGE. The Greek language was first studied in Euroi^e 
 about A. D. 1450 — in France, 1473. William Grocjm, or Grokeyu, a learned 
 English professor of this language, travelled to acquire its true pronuncia- 
 tion, and introduced it at Oxford, where he had the honcr +o teach Erasmus, 
 1490. — Wood's Athen. Oxon. 
 
 GREENLAND. Discovered by some Norwegians from Iceland, about x n. 980, 
 and thus named on account of its superior verdure compared with the latter 
 country. It was visited by Frobisher, in 1576. The first ship from England 
 to Greenland was sent for the whale fishery by the Muscovy Company, 2 
 James I. 1604. In a voyage performed in 1630, eight men were left behind 
 by accident, and suffered incredible hardships till the following year, when 
 the company's ships brought them home. — Tindal. The Greenland Fishing 
 Company was incorporated in 1693. 
 
 GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. Built at the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore 
 and sir Christopher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flamstead-hill, 
 so called from the great astronomer of that name, who was the first astro- 
 nomer-royal here. The English began to compute the longitude from the 
 meridian of this place, 1675 ; some make the date 1679. This observatory 
 contains a transept circle by Troughton ; a transit instrument of eight feet 
 by Bird ; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and Bradley's zenith sector 
 The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromatics, and a six-feet re- 
 flector ; and among other tine instruments and objects is a famous camera 
 obscura. 
 
 GREGORIAN CALENDAR. Ordained to be adopted by pope Gregory XIII., 
 from whom it derives its name, a. d. 1582 ; and introduced into the Catholic 
 states of Europe in that year ; into most other states in 1710 ; and adopted 
 by England in 1752. To the time of Gregory, the deficiency in the Julian ca- 
 lendar had amounted to ten days ; and in the year 1752 it had amounted to 
 eleven days. See Calendar^ and New Style. 
 
 GRENADA. Conquered by the Moors, a. d. 715; it was the last kingdom pos- 
 sessed by them, and was not annexed to the crown of Castile until 1491 ; 
 the capital of this province is magnificent. New Grenada was conquered 
 by the Spaniards in 1536. Grenada, in the West Indies, was settled by the 
 French, 1650 ; it was taken from them by the English in 1762, and was 
 ceded to England in 1763. The French possessed themselves of it again, in 
 1779 ; but it was restored to the English at the peace of 1783. In 1795 the 
 French landed some troops and caused an insurrection in this island, which 
 was not finally quelled till June, 1796. 
 
 GROCERS. One of the oldest trades in England. The word anciently meant 
 " ingrossers or moncpolizers," as appears hy a statute, 37 Edward III. The 
 Grocers" Company is one of the twelve chief companies of the city of Lou- 
 don, incorporated in 1429. 
 
 GUADALOUPE. Discovered by Columbus, a. d, 1493. It was colonized by 
 the French in 1635. Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763. 
 Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810 ; and in order to a'.lure 
 
C-\n ] DIUTIONAllY OF DATES. 345 
 
 the Swedes into the coalition against France, gave tliemtliis island. It was, 
 however, by the consent of Sweden, restored to France in 1814. 
 
 GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES. These were party nanaes, and are said to have 
 been deriv^ed from Hiewelf and Hiegiblin, the names of towns. The desig- 
 nation began in Italy, a. ft. 1139, and distinguished the contending armies 
 during the civil wars in Germany ; the Guelphs were for the pope, and the 
 Ghil)elines were for the emperor. Guelph is the name of the present roj'al 
 family of England.— See Brunswick. The Guelphic order of knighthood 
 was instituted for the kingdom of Hanover, by the prince regent, afterwards 
 George IV., in 1816. 
 
 GLFILLOTINE. An engine for decapitation, which has made an otherwise 
 obscure name immortal. A similar instrument, but of ruder form, may be 
 seen in an engraving accompanying the Symbolicce Qiiestiones of Achilles 
 Bocchius, 4to, 1555 (see the Travels of Father Labat in Italy) ; it is there 
 called the Mayonaia. In Scotland, also at Halifax, England (see Halifax ; 
 Maiden), soon after it was in use, and served to behead its introducer, the 
 regent Morton. Dr. Guillotin, about 1785, recommended its use in France, 
 from motives of humanity, as a substitute for the more cruel gibbet, and his 
 name was applied to it, at first from mere waggishness. Its unwilling god- 
 father was imprisoned during the revolutionary troubles, and ran some 
 hazard of being subjected to its deadly operation ; but he (contrary to a 
 prevailing opinion) escaped, and lived to become one of the founders of the 
 Academy of Medicine at Paris. He died May 26, 1814, aged seventy-six, 
 enjoying to the last the esteem of all who knew him, for his mild virtues. 
 
 GUINEAS. An English gold coin, so named from their having been first 
 coined of gold brought from the coast of Guinea, a. d. 1673. They were 
 then vahie.d at oOs. and were worth that sum in 1696. They were reduced 
 in currency from 22s. to 21s. by parliament in 1717. Broad pieces were 
 coined into guineas in 1732. The original guineas bore the impression of 
 an elephant, on account of their having been coined of this African gold. 
 
 GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Ber- 
 tholdus or Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Bruns- 
 wick, in Germany, about a. d. 1320. But many writers maintain that it was 
 known much earlier in various parts of the world. Some say that the Chi- 
 nese possessed the art a number of centuries before. Its composition, 
 moreover, is expressly mentioned by our own famous Roger Bacon, in his 
 treatise De Nullitate Magice, which was published at Oxford, in 1216. 
 
 GUNPOWDER PLOT in ENGLAND. The memorable conspiracy known by 
 this name, for springing a mine under the houses of parliament, and des- 
 troying the three estates of the realm — king, lords, and commons — there 
 assembled, was discovered^ on Nov. 5, 1605. This diabolical scheme was 
 projected by Robert Catesl)y, and many high persons were leagued in the 
 enterprise Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the House of Lords, 
 preparing the train for being fired on the next day. Catesb)^ and Percy (of 
 the family of Northumberland) were killed ; sir Everard Digby, Rockv/ood, 
 Winter, Garnet, a Jesuit, and others, died by the hands of the executioner, 
 as did Guy Faux, January 31, 1606. The vault called Guy Faux cellar, in 
 which the conspirators lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained in tlia 
 late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was converted into offices. 
 
 GUY'S HOSPITAL. This celebrated London hospital is indebted for its origin 
 to Thomas Guy, an eminent and vrealthy bookseller, who. after having be- 
 stowed immense sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be the sole founder 
 of another hospital. At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced the 
 erection of the present building, and lived to see it nearly completed. It 
 
 15* 
 
S46 niE world's progress. [ h/o 
 
 cost him 18.793i., in addition to which he left to endow it, the immense suna 
 
 of 219,499/, A splendid bequest, amounting to 200,000/. was made to tliia 
 * hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide additional accommodation for 100 patients ; 
 
 his will was proved Sept. 24, 1829. 
 GYMNASIUM, a place among the Greeks, where all the public exercises were 
 performed, and where not only wrestlers and dancers exhibited, but also 
 ])hilosophers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In Avrest- 
 ling and boxing, the athletes were often naked, whence the word Gymna- 
 sium — gumnos, nudus. They anointed themselves with oil to brace their 
 limbs, and to render their bodies slippery, and more difficult to be grasped. 
 The first modern treatise on the subject of Gymnastics was pviblished in 
 Germany in 1793. London society fonned, 1826. 
 
 GYPSIES, OR EGYPTIANS. A strange commonwealth of wanderers and pecu- 
 liar race of people, who made their appearance first in Germany, about a. d. 
 1517, having quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks. They are the des- 
 cendants of a great body of Egyptians who re\olted from the Turkish yoke, 
 and being defeated, dispersed in small parties all over the world, while their 
 supposed skill in the black art gave them an universal rece^. tion in 'hat age 
 of credulity and superstition. Although expelled from France in 1560, and 
 from most countries soon after, they ai-e yet found in every part of Europe, 
 as well as in Asia and Africa. Having recovered their footing, they have con- 
 trived to maintain it to this day. In England an act was made against their 
 itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. thirteen persons were ex- 
 ecuted at one assizes for having associated with gypsies for about a month, 
 contrary to the statute. The gypsey settlement at Norwood, near London, 
 Avas broken up, and they were treated as vagrants. May 1797. There were 
 in Spain alone, previously to the year 1800, more than 120.000 gypsies, and 
 many communities of them yet exist in England; and notwithstanding their 
 intercourse with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners, 
 customs, visage, and appearance, wholly unchanged. 
 
 H. 
 
 HABEAS CORPUS. Tlie subjects' Writ of Right, passed for the security and 
 liberty of individuals. May 27, 1679. This act is next in importance to 
 Magna Charta, for so long as the statute remains in force, no subject of En- 
 gland can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention is 
 shown to be justified by the law. The Habeas Corpus Act can alone be sus- 
 pended by the authority of parliament, and then for a short time only, and 
 when the emergency is extreme. In such a case, the nation parts with a 
 portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected 
 persons may then be arrested without cause or purpose being assigned. — • 
 BlacksLone. 
 
 HACKNEY^ COACHES are of French origin. In France, a strong kind of cob- 
 horse ijiaqucnee) was let out on hire for short journeys: these were latterly 
 harnessed (to accommodate several wayfarers at once) to a plain vehicle 
 called cuche-h-haqnenee : hence the name. The legend that traces their ori- 
 gin to Hackney, near London, is a Aailgar error. They were first licensed in 
 1662. and subjected to regulations, 6 William and Mary, 1694. — Survey of 
 Ijonrion. The number plying in London fixed at 1000, and their fares raisca, 
 1771. The cabriolets are of Parisian origin; but the aristocratic taste of 
 Englishmen suggested the propriety of obliging the driver to be seated on 
 ih^ Dutgide of the vehicle. 
 
 HAGUE. Once CftHed t|ie finest village in Europe : the place of meeting of the 
 States-General, an4 residence pf thp former earls of H >lland, the yMn'^es of 
 
HAM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 347 
 
 Holland, &c. Here tlie States, in 1586, abrogated the authority of Philip 
 [J. of Spain, and held a conference in 1610, upon the live articles of the re- 
 monstrants, which occasioned the synod of Dort. Ti-eaty of the Hague, 
 entered into with a view to preserve the equilibrium of the North, signed 
 by England, France, and Holland, May 21, 1659. De Witt was torn in pieces 
 here, August 20, 1672. The French took possession of the Hague in Janu- 
 ary, 1795; favored by a hard frost, they marched into Holland, where the 
 inhabitants and troops declared in their favor, a general revolution ensued, 
 and the stadtholder and his family were compelled to leave the country and 
 escape to England. The Hague was evacuated in November 1813, shortly 
 after the battle of Leipsic, and the stadtholder returned to his dominions 
 and arrived here in December, that year. Treaty of Commerce between 
 England and Holland, December 16, 1837. 
 
 HAIR. By the northern nations, and in Gaul, hair was much esteemed, and 
 hence the appellation Gallia comata; and cutting otF the hair was inflicted 
 as a punishment among them. The royal family of France had it as a par- 
 ticular mark and privilege of the kings and princes of the blood, to wear 
 long hair, artfully dressed and curled. The clerical tonsure is of apostolic 
 institution. — Isuhrus Hispalensis. Pope Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear 
 long hair, a. d. 155. Long hair was out of fashion during the Protectorate 
 of Cromwell, and hence the term Round-heads. It was again out of fashion 
 in 1795 ; and very short hair was the mode in 1801 . Hair-powder came into 
 use in 1590; and in 1795 a tax was laid upon persons using it in England, 
 which yielded 20,000Z. per annum. 
 
 HALCYON DAYS, in antiquity, implied seven days before and as many after 
 the winter solstice, because the halcyon laid her eggs at this time of the 
 year, and the weather during her incubation was always calm. The phrase 
 was afterwards employed to express any season of transient prosperity, or 
 of brief tranquillity, the scpbem placidi dies of human life. — Butler. 
 
 HALLIDON HILL. Battle of, near Berwick, bi.-tween the English and Scots, 
 in which the latter were defeated with the loss of 13.000 slain, while a com- 
 paratively small number of the English suffered, reign of Edward III.. July 
 19, 1333. After this victory, Edward placed Edward Baliol on the throne of 
 Scotland. — Robertson. 
 
 HALIFAX, Yorkshire. Here prevailed a remarkable law. The woollen ma- 
 nufacture being very great, and prodigious quantities of cloths, kersej^s, 
 shalloons. &c. being continually on the tenters and liable to be stolen, the 
 town, at its first incorporation, was empowered to punish capitally any crim- 
 inal convicted of stealing to the value of u])wards ot thirteen pence halfpenny, 
 by a peculiar engine, which beheaded the offender in a moment; but king 
 James I. in the year 1620, took this power away : and the town is now under 
 the ordinary course of justice. See Maiden. 
 
 HALLELUJAH and AMExNT. Hebrew expressions frequently used in the 
 Jewish hymns : from the Jewish they came into the Christian church. Tlie 
 meaning of the first is Praise the Lord, and of the second So be it. They were 
 first introduced by Haggai, the prophet, about 584 b. c. ; and their intro- 
 duciion f -om the Jewish into the Christian church is ascribed to St. Jerome^ 
 one of the primitive Latin fathers, about a. d. 390. — Cavers Hist. Lit. 
 
 HAMBTJPtGH. The company of Hambro' merchants was incorporated in 1296. 
 France declared war upon Hamburgh for its treachery in giving up Napper 
 Tandy, (see Napper Tandy.) October 1799. British property sequestrated, 
 March 1801. Hamburgh" taken by the French after the battle of Jena in 
 1806. Incorporated with France, January 1810. Evacuated by the French 
 on the advance of the Russians into Germany in 1813 ; and *estored to its 
 
S48 THE world's progress. [ HAP 
 
 independence by the allied sovereigns, Maj^ 1814. Awful fire here, which 
 destroyed numerous churches and public buildings, and 2000 houses ; it con- 
 tinued for three days. May 4, 1842. 
 HAMPTON-COURT PALACE. Built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the 
 manor-house of the knights-hospitallers. In 1526, the cardinal presented it 
 to his royal master, Henry VIII. Here Edward VI. was born, and his 
 mother, Jane Seymour, died ; ^nd Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and others of 
 our sovereigns, resided. Most of the old apartments were pulled down, and 
 the grand inner court built, by William III. in 1694. In this palace was 
 held, in 1604, the celebrated conference between the Presbyterians and the* 
 members of the Established Church, v/hich led to a new translation of the 
 Bible. See Conference. 
 HANGED, DRAWN, and QUARTERED. The first infliction of this barbar- 
 ous punishment took place upon a pirate, named William Marise, a noble- 
 man's son, 25 Henry III., 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of 
 Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place of 
 execution were hanged, cut down alive instantly, then stripped naked, and 
 their bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 25 Henry VI. 1447. 
 — Stoive. The punishment of deatli by hanging has been abolished in nu- 
 merous cases by various statutes. See Death, punishment of. Hanging in 
 chains was abolished 4 WilUam IV., 1834. 
 HANOVER. This country had no great rank, although a duchy, until George 
 I. got possession of Zell, Saxe, Bremen. Verden, and other duchies and 
 principalities. Hanover became the ninth electorate, a. d. 1692. It was 
 seized by Prussia April 3, 1801 ; was occupied by the French, June 5. 1803 ; 
 and annexed to Westphalia, March 1, 1810. Regained to England by the 
 crown prince of Sweden, November 6, 1813. and erected into a kingdom, 
 Oct. 13, 1814. The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant governor, in 
 November, 1816. Visited by George IV. in October, 1821. Ernest, duke 
 of Cumberland, succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837 ; he granted freedom 
 of the press and other concessions, March 17, 1848. 
 HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION, estabHshed by law, June 12, 1701, when an 
 act passed limiting the succession of the crown of England, after the demise 
 of William HI. and of queen Anne (without issue), to the princess Sophia, 
 of Hanover and the heirs of her body, being protestants, she being the 
 granddaughter of James I. George I. tlie son of Ernest Augustus, duke of 
 Brunswick Luneburgh elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, ascended the 
 throne, to the exclusion of the exiled family of the Stuarts, August 1, 1714. 
 HANSE TOWNS. A commercial union called the Hanseatic league, was 
 formed by a number of port towns in Germany, in support of each other 
 against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes : this association began in 
 1164, and the league was signed in 1241. At first it consisted only of towns 
 situate on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but its strength and reputation in- 
 creasing, there was scarce any trading city^ in Europe but desired to be 
 admitted into it, and in process of time it consisted of sixty-six cities. They 
 grew so formidable as to proclaim war on Waldemar, king of Denmark, 
 about the year 1348, and against Erick in 1428, with forty ships, and 12 000 
 regular troops besides seamen. This gave umbrage to several princes, who 
 ordered the merchants of their respective kingdoms to withdraw their 
 effects, and so broke up the greatest part and strength of the association. 
 In 1630, the only towns of note of this once powerful league retaining the 
 name, were Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. 
 
 HAPSBURGH, House op. One of the most illustrious families in Europe. 
 Hapsburgh was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a lofty eminence, near 
 Schintznach. This castle was the cradle, as it were, of the house of Austria, 
 
HAS 1 DICTiONAR-S OF DATES. 349 
 
 whose ancestors may be traced back to the beginning of the loth century, 
 when Rodolph, count of Hapsburgh, was elevated to the empire of Germany 
 and archduchy of Austria, a. d. 1273. See Germany. 
 
 HARLEQUIN. This term is derived from a famous and droll comedian, who 
 so much frequented Mr. Harley's house, that his friends and acquaintance 
 used to call him Harleqiiino, little Harley. — Menage. Originally the name 
 implied a merry andrew, or bufibon ; but it now means an expert dancer at 
 a play-house. 
 
 HARLOTS. Women who were called by synonyma conveying the meaning of 
 liarlot, were tolerated among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. The celebra- 
 ted Lais of Corinth, a beautiful courtesan, but remarkable for her vicious 
 amours, was assassinated in the temple of Venus, by the women of Thes- 
 saly, in order to prevent her corrupting the fidelity of their husbands, about 
 850 B. c. It is affirmed that the mother of William I., of England, a fur- 
 rier's daughter of Falaise, whose name was Arlotta, was of so infamous a 
 character, that our odious term harlot is derived from her name. — Dr. John- 
 son. In England, harlots were obliged to wear striped hoods of party -olors, 
 and their garments the wrong side outwards, by statute 27 Edward III., 
 1352. 
 
 HARMONIC STRINGS. Pythagoras is said to have invented harmonic strings, 
 in consequence of hearing four blacksmiths Avorking with hammers in har- 
 mony, whose weights he found to be six, eight, nine, and twelve ; or rather 
 by squares, as thirty-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and one hundred and forty- 
 four. The harmonica, or musical glasses, airs from the tones of them were 
 first formed by an Irish gentleman named Puckeridge. — Franklin. The in- 
 vention was improved by Dr. Franklin in 1760. 
 
 HARP. It is traced to the earliest nations. David played on the harp 
 before Saul. — 1 Sam. xvi. 23. The lyre of the Greeks is the harp of the 
 moderns. The Romans had their harp ; so had the Jews, but it had very 
 few strings. The Cimbri or English Saxons had this instrument. The cele- 
 brated Welch harp was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more 
 ancient harps, with wire. 
 
 HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mr. Harrison's first instrument was invented in 
 1735 ; his second in 1739 ; his third in 1749 ; and his fourth, which procured 
 him the reward of 20 000/., advertised 13th Anne by the Board of Longi- 
 tude, was produced a few years after. His celebrated time-piece was per- 
 fected in 1772. 
 
 HARTFORD CONVENTION. The celebrated convention of delegates from 
 the New P^ngland States opposed to the war and to the administration ol 
 Madison, met Dec. 15, 1814. 
 
 HASTINGS, Battle of, one of the most memorable and bloody, and in which 
 more than thirty thousand were slain, fought between Harold II. of Eng- 
 land, and William, duke of Normandy, in which the former lost his life and 
 kingdom. William, hence surnamed the Conqueror, was soon after crowned 
 king of England, and introduced a memorable epoch, known as the Con- 
 quest, in the annals of the country, Oct. 14, 1066. 
 
 BASTINGS, WARREN, Trial of. Mr. Hastings, governor-general of India, 
 tried by the peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors, but 
 acquitted, although he had committed many acts during his government 
 which, it was thought, ought to have led to a difterent result. Among other 
 charges against him, was his acceptance of a present of 10O,0OOZ. from the 
 nabob of Oude, and this was not a solitary instance of his irregular means 
 of accumulating wealth. The trial lasted seven years and three months, 
 
b50 THE world's progress. I" HEQ 
 
 1788-95. Sheridan's celebrated speech, on the impeachment of Mr. Has- 
 Tilths, attracted universal admiration. 
 
 HATS. See article Caps. First made by a Swiss at Paris, a. d. 1404. They 
 are mentioned in history at the period when Charles VII. made his trium- 
 phal entry into Rouen, in 1449. He wore a hat lined with red "velvet, and 
 surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. It is from this reign that the 
 use of hats and caps is to be dated, which henceforward began to take place 
 of the chai)eroons and hoods that had been worn before in France. Hats 
 were first manufactured in England by Spaniards, in 1510: before this time 
 both men and women wore close-knit woollen caps. — Stoive. Very high 
 crowned hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers ; and high crowns 
 were again introduced in 1783. A stamp-duty was laid upon hats in Eng- 
 land in 1784, and again in 1796 ; it was repealed in 1811. 
 
 HAVRE-DE-GRACE. This place was defended for the Huguenots by the 
 English, in 1562. It has .been bombarded several times by the British navy, 
 in 1759, in 1794. in 1795 and in 1798. Declared to be in a state of blockade, 
 Sept. 6, 1803. The attempts to burn the shipping here failed, August 7, 
 1804. 
 
 HAYTI, OR Haiti, the Indian name of St. Domingo, discovered by Columbus .n 
 1492. Before the Spaniards finally conquered it, they are said to have de- 
 stroyed in battle or cold blood, 3,000,000 of its inhabitants, including 
 women and children. Toussaint established an independent republic in St. 
 Domingo, July 22, 1801. He surrendered to the French, May 7, 1802. Des- 
 salines made a proclamation for the massacre of all the whites, March 29, 
 1804. See St. Domingo. Dessalines was crowned king, by the title of Jac- 
 ques T., Oct. 8, 1804. He died Sept. 21, 1805. Henry Christophe, a man of 
 color, became president in Feb. 1807, and was crowned emperor by the title 
 of Henry I., in March 1811 ; while Petion ruled as president at Port-au-Prince. 
 Numerous black nobility and prelates were created same year. Petion died, 
 and Boyer was elected in his room, in May 1818. Christophe committed 
 suicide in Oct. 1820. Independence declared at St. Domingo, in Dec. 1821. 
 Decree of the king of France confirming it, April 1825. Souloque elected 
 president, March 2, 1847 ; proclaimed emperor of Hayti, August 24, 1849. 
 
 HEBRIDES, NEW, discovered by the navigator Quiros, a. d. 1606. Bourgain- 
 ville visited them in 1768, and found that the land was r^t connected, but 
 composed of islands, which he called the Great Cyclades. Cook, in 1774, 
 ascertained the extent and situation of the whole group, and gave them the 
 name they now bear. 
 
 HECATOMB. This w^as a sacrifice among the ancients of a hundred oxen ; 
 but it was more particularly observed by the Lacedemonians when they 
 possessed a hundred capital cities. In the course of time this sac- 
 rifice was reduced to twentj^-three oxen ; and in the end, to lessen the 
 expense, goats and lambs were substituted for oxen. — Potter. 
 
 HECLA. Its first eruption is recorded as having occurred a. d. 1004. About 
 twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson. 
 The most dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcanic 
 mountain occurred in 1783. See Iceland. 
 
 EEGIRA, Era of the, dates from the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, 
 which event took place in the night of Thursday the 15th July, a. d. 622 ; 
 the era commences on the following day, viz : — the 16th of July. Many 
 chronologists have computed this era from the 15th July ; but Cantemir 
 lias given examples proving that, in most ancient times, the 16th was the 
 first day of the era ; and there is now no doubt it is so. See Makometism 
 and Medina. 
 
DOR ] DICTIONARY OF BATES. 351 
 
 HEIDELBERG, and HEIDELBERG TUN. Heidelberg, in Germany, on the 
 river Neckar, was formerly the capital of the Palatinate : the protestant 
 electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a bloody war ensued, in which the 
 famous castle. was ruined, and the elector removed his residence to Mann- 
 heim. Here was the celebrated HeildelbergTun, which held 800 hogsheads, 
 and was formerl}'' kept full of the best Rhenish wine. The University of 
 Heidelberg, one of the most celebrated in Europe, was founded in 1346j 
 contained in 1840, 622 students. 
 
 HELEN, Rape of, which caused the Trojan war, 1204 b. c. Helen was the 
 most beautiful woman in the world, and even in her childhood was so very 
 lovely, that Theseus stole her away in her tenth year. From him, however, 
 she was released, yet innocent, by her brothers ; and after her return to the 
 
 ' court of Sparta she was eagerly sought in marriage by the princes of Greece, 
 and Ulysses persuaded the suitors to bind thepaselves on oath to abide by 
 the uninfluenced choice of Helen, and to defend her person and character 
 from that time. The princes took the oath, and Helen then made choice of 
 Menelaus. Paris coming soon after to the court of this king, abused his 
 hospitality by corrupting the fidelity of Helen: carrying her away, though 
 not an unwilling captive, to Asia Minor. At Troy, the father of Paris, Priam, 
 received her in his palace without difficulty ; and Menelaus, assembling the. 
 princes of Greece, reminded them of their oath: and the siege and destruc- 
 tion of Troy followed, 1184 b. c. Paris was previously married, his Avife 
 being (Enone, who lived with him in happiness on Mount Ida ; and at his 
 death by one of the arrows of Hercules, then in the possession of Philoc- 
 tetes, he desired in his dying moments to be caiTied to (Enone, whom he 
 had so basely deserted ; but he expired on the way. The nymph, however, 
 still mindful of their former happiness, threw herself upon the body, bathed 
 it with her tears, and then plunged a dagger in her heart. 
 
 HELENA. St. This island was discovered by the Portuguese, on the festival 
 of St. Helena, a. d. 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it 
 until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India 
 company settled here in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by 
 the English and Dutch, until 1673, w^hen Charles II. on Dec. 12, assigned it 
 to the company once more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's 
 captivity, Oct. 16, 1815, and it became the scene of his death, May 5, 
 1821. 
 
 HELIGOLAND. This island formerly belonged to the Danes, from whom it 
 was taken by the British, Sept. 5, 1807, and formed a dep6t for British mer- 
 chandise intended for the Continent during the war. Confirmed to England 
 by the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, the same treaty by which Norway was 
 ceded to Sweden. Though a mere rock, this is an important possession of 
 the British crown, « 
 
 HELIOMETER. A valuable scientific instrument for measuring the stars, in- 
 vented by M. Bouguer, in 1774. The helioscope was invented by Christo- 
 pher Scheiner in 1625. 
 
 HELMETS. They were worn, it is said, by the most savage tribes. Among 
 the Romans the helmet was provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise- 
 above the eyes, and a bever to lower for eating; the helmet of the Greeks 
 was round, and that of the Romans square. Richard I. of England wore a 
 plain round helmet; and after this monarch's reign most of the English 
 king? had crowns above their helmets. Alexander ifl. of Scotland, 1249, had 
 a flat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert I. was 
 surn^ounted by a crown, 1306. — Gwillim. 
 
 BEIjOTS. The people of Helos, against whom the Spartans bore despe^-ate 
 
352 THE world's progress. [ HEh 
 
 resenUnci.it for refusing to pay tribute, 883 b. c. The Spartans, not satisfied 
 with the ruin of their city, reduced the Helots to the most debasing slavery; 
 and to complete their infamy, they called all the slaves of the state, and the 
 prisoners of war, by the degrading name of Hdotce, and further exposed 
 them to every species of contempt and ridicule, 669 b. c. But in the P(?lo- 
 ])onnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were reward 
 ed with their liberty, 431 b. g. But this act of justice did not last long; ana 
 the sudden disappearance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to the 
 Lacedemonians. — Herodotus, 
 
 IIEMP AND FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directed 
 to be sown for fishing-nets, a. d. 1533. Bounties were paid to encourage its 
 cultivation in 1783 ; and every exertion should be made by the government 
 and legislature to accomplish such a national good. In 1785 there were im- 
 ported from Russia in British ships, 17695 tons of hemp and flax. — Sir John 
 Sinclair. The annual importations of these articles now amount to about 
 100,000 tons. More than 180,000 lbs. of rough hemp are used in the cordage 
 of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging and sails. 
 
 HEPTARCHY. The Heptarchy (or government of seven kings'^ in England 
 was gradually formed from a. d. 455, when Hengist became the king of Kent, 
 and that kingdom was erected. The Heptarchy terminated in a. d. 828, 
 when Egbert reduced the other kingdoms, and became sole monarch of 
 England. For the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, see Britain. 
 
 RERKCJADM, The, or the return of the Heraclidse into the Peloponnesus : a 
 famous epoch in chronology that constitutes the beginning of profane his- 
 tory, all the time preceding that period being accounted fabulous. This 
 return happened 100 years after they were expelled, and eighty years after 
 the destruction of Troy, 1104 b. c. 
 
 HERALDRY. Signs and marks of honor were made use of in the first ages of 
 the world. — Ni^bet. The Phrygians had a sow ; the Thracians, Mars ; the 
 Romans, an eagle : the Goths, a bear ; the Flemings, a bull ; the Saxons, a 
 horse ; and the ancient French, a lion, and afterwards the fleur-de-lis, which 
 see. Heraldry, as digested into an art, and subjected to rules, may be ascribed 
 in the first instance to Charlemagne, about the year 800 ; and in the next, 
 to Frederick Barbarossa, about the year 1152 ; it began and grew with the 
 feudal law. — Sir George Mackenzie! It was at length methodized and 
 perfected bv the crusades and tournaments, the former commencing in 
 1095. 
 
 HERCULANEUM. An ancient city of Campania, overwhelmed, together with 
 Pompeii, by an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 24, a. d. 79. Herculaneum was 
 buried under streams of lava, and sucgessive eruptions laid it still deeper 
 imder the surface. All traces of them were lost until a. d. 1711, from which 
 year many curiosities, works of art, and monuments and memorials of civil- 
 ized life have been discovered to the present time. 150 volumes of MSS. 
 were found in a chest, in 1754 ; and many antiquities were purchased by sir 
 William Hamilton, and re-purchased by the trustees of the British museum, 
 wliere they are deposited ; but the principal antiquities are preserved iutho 
 niu.seum of Portici. 
 
 HERETICS. Formerly the term heresy denoted a particular sect ; now here- 
 tics are those who propagate their private opinions in opposition to the Ca- 
 tholic church. — Bacon. Tens of thousands of them have suffered death by 
 torture in Roman Catholic countries. — Burnet. See Inquisition. Simon 
 Magus was the first heretic; he came to Rome a. d. 41. Thirty heretics 
 came from Germany to England to propagate their opinions, and were 
 
Klti J ItlCTlONARY OF DATES. 353 
 
 branded in the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the streets m 
 the depth of winter, where, none daring to reheve them, they died of hun- 
 ger and cold, 1160. — Speed. In the reign of Henry VIII. to be in possession 
 of Tindal's Bible constituted heresy. The laws against heretics were re- 
 pealed, 25 Henry VIII., 1534-5. 
 
 HERMITS. The name first given to those that retired tc desert places, to 
 avoid persecution, where they gave themselves up to prayers, fasting, and 
 meditation. They were also called anchorets ; and commonly lodged ia 
 dark caves, where their food was such roots as nature bestowed freely with- 
 out culture. From these came the monks, and almost all the sorts of reli- 
 gious assemblies that live in monasteries. In the seventh persecution of the 
 Christians, one Paul, to avoid the enemies of his faith, retired into Thebais, 
 and became the first example of a monastic life, about a. d, 250. 
 
 liERO AND LEANDER : their amour. The fidelity of these lovers was so 
 great, and their attachment to each other so strong, that Leander in the 
 night frequently swam across the Hellespont, from Abydos to Sestos, to 
 have secret interviews with Hero, a beautiful priestess of Venus, she 'di- 
 recting his course bj^ a burning flambeaux. After many stolen interviews, 
 Leander was drowned in a tempestuous night, and Hero threw herself from 
 her tower, and perished in the sea, 627 b. c, — Livij, Herodotus. 
 
 HERRING-FISHERY. It was largely encouraged by the Scotch so early as 
 the ninth century. The herring statute was passed in 1857. The mode of 
 preserving herrings by pickling was discovered about 1390, and gave rise to 
 the herring fishery as a branch of commerce. — Anderson. The British 
 Herring Fishery Company was instituted Sept. 2, 1750. 
 
 HERSCHEL TELESCOPE, The. Herchel's seven, ten, and twenty-feet re- 
 flectors were made about 1779. He discovers the Georgium Sidus (which 
 see), March 21. 1781. He discovers a volcanic mountain in the moon, in 
 1783 ; and about this time laid the plan of his great forty-feet telescope, 
 Avhich he completed in 1787, when he discovered two other volcanic moun- 
 tains, emitting fire from their summits. In 1802, he by means of his teles- 
 copes, was enabled to lay before the Royal Society a catalogue of 5000 new 
 nebulae, nebulous stars, planetary nebulae, and clusters of stars which he 
 had discovered, 
 
 IfESSE, House of. Its various branches derive their origin from Gerberge, 
 daughter of Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis V. of France, who was 
 descended from Louis the Courteous. She was married to Lambert II. earl 
 of Louvain, from whom the present landgraves of Hesse-Cassel, by Henry 
 v., first of the family who bore the title of landgrave, are descended. 
 There is no family in Germany more noble by their alliances than this ; and 
 it gives place to none for the heroes and statesmen it has produced. Six 
 thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in consequence of an invasion 
 being expected, in 1756. The sum of 471,000Z. three per cent, stock, was 
 transferred to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in the 
 American war, at 30Z. per man, Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were again 
 hired hj England, and served in Ireland during the memorable rebellion 
 there in 1798, 
 
 GlEROGLYPHICS. The first writing men used was only the single pictures 
 and engravings of the things they would represent. — Woodward. Hiero- 
 glyphic characters were invented by Athothes, 2112 b. c. — Usher. Tha 
 earliest records of them were the Egyptian, the first step towards letters, 
 and some monuments whose objects were described by exaggerated tradi- 
 tion, or when forgotten, imagined. — Phillips. 
 
 IHGH CHURCH and LO^^ CHURCH PARTIES. These were occasioned by 
 
o^4 
 
 THE world's mOGrLESS. 
 
 [hcl 
 
 the prosecution of Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's Souths ark, for 
 two seditious sermons, the object of which was to rouse the apprehensions 
 of the people for the safety of the Churcli, and to excite hostility against 
 the dissenters. His friends were called High Church, and his opponents 
 Low Church, or moderate men, 8 Anne, 1710. The queen, wlio favored Sa- 
 cheverel, presented him with the valuable rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. 
 He died in 1724. 
 
 HfGH TREASON. The highest offence known to the law, and in regulating 
 the trials for which was enacted the memorable statute, so favorable to 
 British liberty, the 25th of Edward III. 1-552. By this statute two living 
 witnesses are required in cases of high treason ; and it arose in the refusal 
 of parliament to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of Somer- 
 set — it is that which regulates indictments for treason at the present day. 
 By the 40th George III. 1800, it was enacted that where there was a trial 
 for high treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life 
 of the sovereign, such trial should be conducted in the same manner as the 
 case of an indictment for murder. See Trials. 
 
 HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given to Henry VII. ; and this, and 
 sometimes Your Gra:,e^ was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; b\tt 
 about the close of the reign of the latter mentioned king, the title of High- 
 ness and "Your Grace " were absorbed in that of Majesty, 
 
 HINDOO ERA. or Era of the Caliyug, began 3101 b. c. or 756 before the De- 
 luge, in 2348 : and the Hindoos count their nionths by the progress of the 
 sun through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 57 b. c. : and the Saca era, 
 A. D. 77 : they are all used by the Hindoo nations. 
 
 EIISTORY. Previously to the invention of letters the records of history are 
 vague, traditionary, and erroneous. The chronicles of the Jews, the Parian 
 Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer, 
 are the foundations of early ancient history. Later ancient history is con- 
 sidered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, a. d. 
 476 ; and modern history dates from the age of Charlemagne, about a. d. 
 800. There was not a professorship of modern history in either of the 
 English universities imtil the 3^ears 1724 and 1736, when Regius professor- 
 ships were established by George I. and George II. A professorship of 
 histor}^ founded at Harvard College, was filled by Jared Sparks, who was 
 succeeded by Francis Boweu, 1850. , 
 
 HOHENLINDEN, Battle op, between the Austrian and French armies, the 
 latter commanded by general Moreau. The Imperialists were defeated 
 with great loss, their killed and wounded amounting to 10,000 men, and 
 their loss in prisoners to 10,000 more, November 3, 1800, 
 
 HOLLAND. The original inhabitants of this country were the Batavians, who 
 derived their origin from the Catti, a people of Germany. Having been 
 obliged to abandon their country on account of civil wars, they came and 
 established themselves in a morass, formed by the waters of the Rhine and 
 the Waal, which they named Bettuive, or Batavia, from Batton, the son of 
 their chieftain. To these have since been added a pretty large proportion 
 <f f Francs and Frisians. 
 
 Sovereignty nunded by Thierry, first 
 
 count of n '.land - - a. d. 868 
 
 The county o Holland devolves to the 
 
 counts of Hitinault - - - 1299 
 
 It falls to the crown of Philip the Good, 
 
 duke of Burgundy - - - 1436 
 
 100,000 persons are drowned by the sea 
 
 breaknig in at Dort - - 1446 
 
 Burgundy and its dependencies become 
 a circle of the empire - - - I52I 
 
 They fall to Spain, whose tyranny and 
 religious persecution cause a revolt 
 in Batavia - - - - 15S8 
 
 The revolted states with William, 
 prince of Oi'ange, at their head, en- 
 ter into a treaty at Utrecht - • 1579 
 
KOL. 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 355 
 
 IIOLIjAND, continued. 
 
 They elect William as Stadtholder ■ 1579 
 
 The Stadtholder, William, is assassi- 
 nated - - - - - 1584 
 
 The Dutch East India company found- 
 ed - - - - - 1602 
 
 After a struggle of thirty years, the king 
 of Spain is obliged to declare the Ba- 
 tavians free - - - - 1609 
 
 The republic wars against Spain in the 
 East, and in America ; the Dutch ad- 
 miral, Peter Hen, takes several Spa- 
 nish galleons, value 20,000,000/. ster- 
 ling 1635 
 
 Cromwell declares war against Hol- 
 land, and many naval battles are 
 fought ; Blake signally defeats Van 
 Tromp 1653 
 
 William, prince of Orange, having 
 married Mary, daughter of James II., 
 is called to the British throne - 1688 
 
 The office of Stadtholder is made here- 
 ditary in the Orange family - - 1747 
 
 Era of the civil war - - - 1787 
 
 The French Republican army march 
 into Holland ; the people declare in 
 their favor - - - - 1793 
 
 The Stadtholder expelled Jan. 15, 1795 
 
 He arrives in England - Jan. 21, 1795 
 
 Battle of Camperdown, Duncan sig- 
 nally defeats the Dutch - Oct. 11, 1797 
 
 The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the 
 line, with thirteen Indiamen, surren- 
 dered to the British admiral Duncan, 
 without firing a gun - Aug. 28, 1799 
 
 A new constitution is given to the Ba- 
 tavian republic ; the chief officer (R. 
 J. Schimmelpennick) takes the title 
 of Grand Pensionary - April 26, 1805 
 
 Holland erected into a Kingdom, and 
 Louis Bonaparte declared king 
 
 June 5, 1806 
 
 Louis abdicates - - July 1, 1810 
 
 Holland united to Francts - July 9, 1810 
 
 Restored to the house of Orange, and 
 Belgium annexed to its dominions 
 
 Nov. 18, 1313 
 
 The prince of Orange is proclaimed so- 
 vereign prince of the United Nether- 
 lands - - - Dec. 6, 1813 
 
 He receives the oath of allegiance 
 from his subjects - March 30, 1814 
 
 And takes the title of king as William 
 I. - - - March 16, 1815 
 
 The revolution in Belgium (which see) 
 commenced - - Aug. 25, 1830 
 
 The Belgians take the city of Antwerp 
 (whicii :^e) - - Oc: 27, 1830 
 
 Belgium is sepa:.'ated from Holli^nd, 
 and Leopold of Cobourg is elected 
 king - - - July 12, 1831 
 
 Holland renews the war against Bel- 
 gium - - - Aug 3j 1831 
 
 Conference in London on the affairs ol 
 Holland and the Netherlands termi- 
 nates, see Belgium - Nov. 1.5, 1831 
 
 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, 
 signed in London - April 19, 1839 
 
 Abdication of William I. in favor of 
 his son - - - Oct. 8, 1840 
 
 Death of the ex-king - Dec. 12, 1844 
 
 The king promises his assent to all re- 
 forms passed by the chambers 
 
 March 14, 1848 
 
 New constitution appears, April 17, 1848 
 
 Death of William II. - March 17, lt49 
 
 STADTHOLDERS, ETC. 
 
 A,T> 1554 William the Great succeeds his cou- 
 sin Rene, to whom the United Pro- 
 vinces ow^e their foundation and glo- 
 ry : killed by an assassin, hired by 
 Philip of Spain. 
 
 15S4 Henry Philip William. 
 
 1618 Maurice, a consummate generaL 
 
 1625 Frederick Hemy. 
 
 1647 William 11. 
 
 1650 William III. made stadtholder in 1672, 
 and king of England in 1689. 
 
 1702 John William Frizo, drowned in pass 
 ing a ferry in Holland. 
 
 171 1 Charles Henry Frizo. 
 
 1747 William IV., first hereditary stadt- 
 holder. 
 
 1751 William V. 
 
 KINGS. 
 
 1813 William I. 
 1840 William II 
 
 1849 William III., present king, (1852.) 
 See Belgium. 
 
 HOI.LiAND, NEW. It is not clearly ascertained when this country was first 
 discovered. In 1605, etseq,., various parts of the coast were traced by the 
 Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. What was deemed till lately the 
 south extremity, was discovered by Tasman, in 1642. The eastern coast, 
 called New South Wales, was taken possession of, in his Britannic majesty's 
 name, by captain Cook, in 1770. See Botany Bay, New South Wales, and 
 Van Diemen^s Land. 
 
 HOLV ALLIANCE. A league so called between the emperors of Russia and 
 Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bound them- 
 selves, among other things, to be governed by Christian principles in all 
 their political transactions. This alliance was ratified at Paris, Septem- 
 ber 26, 1815. 
 
 HOLY WATER is said to have been used in churches as early as a. d. 120.— 
 
 Ashe. 
 
356 THE world's progress. [ HOT 
 
 HOMER'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY. The misfortunes of Troy furnibh xae two 
 most perfect Epic* poems in the Avorld, written by the greatest poet that 
 has ever lived ; about 915 b. c. The subject of the first is the wrath of 
 Achilles ; the second recounts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses after 
 the destruction of Troy. Among the thousands of vglumes burnt at Con- 
 stantinople, A. D. 477, were the works of Homer, said to have been written 
 in golden letters on the great gut of a dragon, 120 feet long. — Univ. Hist. 
 The works of Homer are supposed by some to have done great injury to 
 mankind, by inspiring the love of military glory. Alexander was said to 
 sleep with them always on his pillow. — Darwin. 
 
 HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the Areopagites, 1507 b. c. 
 He that killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another 
 that lay perdue to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, was not 
 deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken with another's wife, sister, 
 daughter, or concubine, or he who killed a man who, without just grounds, 
 assaulted another violently, was not deemed a homicide. Among the Jews, 
 wilful murder was capital ; but for chance-medley, the offender should fly 
 to one of the cities of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high 
 priest. In the primitive church, before the Christians had the civil poweij 
 wilful homicide was punished with a twenty years' penance. Our laws dis- 
 tinguish between justifiable homicide and homicide in its various degrees 
 of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness. See Mwder. 
 
 HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients, a beverage prepared with honey, such 
 as that known as mead, and as metheglin, in England, was a luxurioua 
 drink. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey for thirty days or a 
 moon's age. after a wedding- feast, and hence arose the term honey-moon^ of 
 Teutonic origin. Attila, the devastating Hun, who ravaged nearly all Eu- 
 rope, drank, it is said, so freely of hijdroniel on his marriage-day, that he 
 died in the night from sufibcation, 453 a. d. His death is, however, ascribed 
 to another cause. See Atiila. 
 
 *' HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE." It is said that the countess of Salis- 
 bury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward 
 III., took it up, and j^resented it to her with these words: " Honi soit qui mal 
 11 pense" " evil be to him who evil thinks." They afterwards became the 
 iuotto of the Garter ; but this statement of the origin of the motto is un- 
 supported by sufficient authority. — Goldsmith. 
 
 HONOR. Honor was a virtue highly venerated by the ancients, particularly 
 among the Romans, and temples were ultimately erected to Honor by that 
 people as a divinity. The first temple was built by Scipio Africanus, about 
 B. c. 197 ; and others were raised to her worship by C. Marius, about 102 
 B. c. These temples were so constructed that it was impossible to enter 
 that to Honor without going through the temple of Virtue ; and Marius 
 ordered his edifices not to be built too much elevated or too lofty, thereby 
 to intimate to the worshippers that humility was the true way to honor. 
 
 HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands into England, a. d. 1524, and wervs 
 used in brewing ; but the physicians having represented that they were un- 
 wholesome, parliament was petitioned against them as being a wicked weed, 
 and their use was prohibited in 1528. — Anderson. At present there are 
 between fifty and sixty thousand acres, on an average, annually under the 
 
 * The epic poems of Homer and Virgil, the Gierusalemme of Tasso, the Paradise Lost ol 
 Mir.TON, and the Henriade of Voltaire, are the noblest that exist ; and Milton's is considorec 
 to rank next to Homer's. ^^ Paradise Lost is lo! ihe greatest of epic poems," observes Dr TutrH 
 •c«, "only because ii is not the first." — BuUe 
 
aUD ] D1CTJONAE.Y OF DATES. 357 
 
 culture of nops in England. They are grown chiefly in Herefoi 1, Kent, and 
 Worcestershire. 
 HOR ATII AND CURATII, The Combat of the, 669 b. c. The Romans and the 
 Albans contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on 
 each side to determine to which it belonged ; and the three Horatii, Roman 
 knights, and the three Curatii, Albans, being elected by their respective 
 countries, engaged in the celebrated combat which, by the victory of the 
 Horatii, united Alba to Rome. 
 
 HORSE, The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably 
 were the first, among the Greeks at least, who rode upon horses, and broke 
 them in for service in war ; whence arose the fable that Thessaly was ori- 
 ginally inhabited by centaurs. And Solomon had 40 000 stalls of horses for 
 his chariots, and 12.000 hoj-semen. — 1 Kings, iv. 26. The power of the 
 horse is equal to that of five men, — Smeaton. A horse can perform the 
 work of six men. — Bossuet. The Greeks and Romans had some covering 
 to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In the ninth century, horses were 
 only shod in the time of frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced 
 into England by William L, 1066. In England there are two millions 
 of draught and pleasure horses, and one hundred thouband agricultural 
 horses, which consume the produce of seven millions of acres. The horse- 
 tax was imposed in 1784, and was then levied on all saddle and coach horses 
 in England. The existing duty upon " horses for riding " only in England, 
 amounts to about 350.000Z. per year. See Race Horses. 
 
 HOSPITALLERS. Military knights of the order of St. John, of Jerusalem, 
 Avho were under religious vows ; instituted by opening a hospital for the 
 reception of pilgrims at Jerusalem, in a. d, 1048. They became a monastic 
 order in 1092 ; and a military order in 1118. See Malta. 
 
 HOSPITALS OF LONDON. Severnl of these most valuable and merciful in- 
 stitutions are of ancient date, and richly endowed. One of the most muni- 
 ficent erections by a single individual is that of Guy's Hospital, Southwark, 
 a London bookseller of that name having built it at the cost of 18,793Z., and 
 endowed it, in 1724, by a bequest of 219,499Z. See Infirmaries. 
 
 HOST, Elevation of the. Introduced in Roman Catholic worship, and pros- 
 tration enjoined, in a. d. 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontiff who 
 decreed a bell to be rung as a signal for the people to betake themselves to 
 the adoration of the host, which is done to this day. — Dr. A. Rees. 
 
 HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 b. c, when 
 L. Papirius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. 
 Previously to the invention of water-clocks (which see), 158 b. c, the time 
 was called at Rome by public criers. The Chinese divide the day into 
 twelve parts of two hours each. The Italians reckon twenty-four hours round, 
 instead of two divisions of twelve hours each, as we do. In England, the 
 measurement of time was alike uncertain and dilficult : one expedient was 
 by wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six wax-candles burning 
 twenty-four hours : these candles were invented by Alfred, clocks and hour- 
 glasses not being then known in England, a. d. 886, 
 
 HUDSON'S BAY. Discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a 
 North- West passage to the Pacific Ocean, a. d. 1610 ; but in fact, this part 
 of North America may more properly be said to have been discovered by 
 Frobisher in the reign of Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured further 
 north. The latter, passing the winter in this bay on his fourth voyage, was, 
 with four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, and left to perish. The 
 Hudson-Bay Company obtained chartered possessions here, in 1670. Tho 
 forts were destroyed by the French in 1686 and 1782. 
 
358 
 
 HE world's TROGRESS. 
 
 *) IIL'R 
 
 HUE AND CRY. The old common-law process of pr//.'xf* ' yfifr t,' m and 
 with voice," from Inmdred to hundred, and councy vo co<'xity, all a jbbera 
 and felons. Formerly the hundred was bound to make good all Ioht occa- 
 sioned by the robberies therein committed, unless the felon were taken ; 
 but by subsequent laws it is made answerable only for damage committed 
 by riotous assemblies. 
 
 inJGUENOTS. This word is of uncertain derivation. It was used, as a torm 
 of reproach, by the French Catholics, to nickname their countrymen of the 
 reformed churches, or Protestants of France, and had its rise in 1560. Tha 
 memorable massacre of the Huguenots of France, on the festival of St 
 Bartholomew, took place on Aug. 24, 1572. — See Bartholomew, St. A con- 
 siderable number of Huguenots emigrated after that event to North Ame- 
 rica, and settled on the Delaware, and in th£ Carolinas. 
 
 IIUMILIATI. A congregation of religious in the church of Rome, which was 
 formed by some Milanese who had been imprisoned under Frederick I,, 
 1162. This order had ninety monasteries ; but it was abolished for luxury 
 and cruelty by pope Pius V., and their houses were given to the Domini- 
 cans and Cordeliers, in 1570. 
 
 HUNGARY. The Pannonia of the ancients, and subject to the Romans, 11 
 B. c, and kept possession of by them until, in the fourth century of the 
 Christiar era, the Vandals drove them out of it. About forty years after- 
 wards, the Vandals migrated towards Gaul, an(^ their deserted settlements 
 were occupied by the Goths, who in the beginning of the fifth century were 
 expelled by the Huns, a ferocious tribe of Scythians, headed by Attila, 
 whose dreadful ravages obtained him the appellation of "The Scoui-ge of 
 God." — In more recent times, the Hungarians have been much intermixed 
 with Sclavonic nations, as Bohemians, Croats, Russians, and Vandals ; be- 
 sides German settlers, as Austrians, Styrians, Bavarians, Franks, Swabians 
 Saxons, &c. Hungary was annexed to the empire of Germany under Char- 
 lemagne, but it became an independent kingdom in 920. 
 
 Stephen receives the title of Apostolic 
 khig from the pope - - A. D. 997 
 
 The Poles overrun Hungary - - 1061 
 
 Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under 
 the sonsof Jenghis Khan, throughout 
 Hungary, Bohemia,and Russia, 1226 et seq. 
 
 Victories of Louis the Great in Bulga- 
 ria, Servia, and Dalmatia - - 1342 
 
 Louis carries his arms into Italy - 1342 
 
 He dies, and the history of Hungary 
 now presents a frightful catalogue of 
 crimes - - 
 
 Charles Duras is murdered ; Elizabeth, 
 queen of Louis, is drowned, and kin^" 
 Mary, their daughter, marries Sigis- 
 mond, marquis of Brandenburg, and 
 causes the rivers of Hungary to flow 
 with blood -_ - - - 1 
 
 The unhappy Hungarians call the 
 Turks to their assistance - - 1380 
 
 Sultan Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond 
 in battle .... 1389 
 
 Sigismond recovers from this blow, 
 and makes Wallachia and Moldavia 
 tributary to him - • - 1390 
 
 1378 
 
 78 
 
 1437 
 14.39 
 
 152G 
 
 He obtains the crown of Bohemia, and 
 
 is elected emperor of Germany - 141C 
 Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne 
 of Hungary, thus laying the founda- 
 tion of the subsequent power and 
 greatness of the house of Austria 
 It passes to the king of Poland 
 Solyman II., emperor of the Turks, in- 
 vades Hungary, and takes Buda; 
 battle of Mohatz {which see) - 
 Buda sacked a second time by the 
 Turks, and all the inhabitants put to 
 the sword .... ]540 
 
 Sclavonia taken by the Turks - - 1540 
 
 Temeswar taken by them - - 1552 
 
 Transylvania seized by Solyman - 1556 
 
 The duke of Lorraine loses 30,000 men 
 in a fruitless attempt to take Buda 
 from the Turks - - 1631 
 
 He at length carries Buda by storm, 
 and delivers up the Mahometans to 
 the fury of the soldiers - - 1689 
 
 Temeswar wrested from the Turks by 
 prince Eugene - - • -1719 
 
 * The Hungarian people have an irreconcilable aversion to the name of queen ; and conse- 
 
 ?uentiy, whenever a female succeeds to the throne of Hungary, she reigns with the title of king. 
 hus, in 1383, when Mary, the daughter of Charlos Duras, ca)ne to the crown, she was styleJ 
 King Masy. 
 
filJN J 
 
 DICTlONAE-iT OF DATES. 
 
 859 
 
 HITNGARY, continued. 
 
 Servia and Wallacliia ceded to Turkey 
 at the peace of Belgrade - • 1739 
 
 Tenieswar incorporated with the king- 
 dom of Hungary - - - 1778 
 
 The struggle for independence com- 
 menced m - - - - 1848 
 
 Count I/Omburg, Austrian conmiission- 
 er, murdered at Pesth Sept. 27, 
 
 The Hungarian Diet dissolved by the 
 emperor of Austria ; martial law 
 proclaimed; Jellachich, Ban of Cro- 
 atia, appointed to the supreme gov- 
 ernment, - - Oct. 3, 1848 I 
 
 Kossuth appointed by the Diet piesi- i 
 
 dent of the defence committee and | 
 
 dictator - - - - Oct. 1848 
 
 [Insurrection of Vienna, Oct. 6.] I 
 
 Hungarian army advances within six I 
 
 miles of Vienna ; Jellachich also ad- 
 vances there, Octtber 11; Kossuth 
 retreats to Hungarian territory, 17th, 
 
 Hungary declares itself an independent 
 republic - - - Dec. 1843 
 
 Raab (Dec.) and Buda Pesth, entered 
 by Windisgratz - - .Ian. 5, 1849 
 
 Ukase of Russiar. emperor Nicholas, 
 declaring his purpose of aiding Aus- 
 tria against Hungary - April 26, 
 
 Gorgey, commantler-in-chief, surren- 
 ders the Hungarian army to the Aus- 
 trians at Villargos - Aug. 11, 18'i9 
 
 The war ended by the complete subju- 
 gation of Hungary, and tire flight or 
 execution of her leaders. 
 See GeTiiiani/. 
 
 KINGS OF HUNGARY. 
 
 A. D. 997 Stephen, duke, assumes the title of king. 
 1038 Peter I., deposed. 
 1041 Otto, killed in battle. 
 1044 Peter again ascends the throne ; is 
 
 again deposed, and has his eyes put 
 
 out. 
 1047 Andrew, assassinated by his brother 
 
 Bela. 
 1059 Bela, killed by the fall of a ruinous 
 
 tower. 
 1063 Solomon, deposed by his son. 
 1073 Geisa I. 
 1076 St. Ladislaus. 
 1095 Coloman. 
 
 1114 Stephen II., surnamed Thunder; turn- 
 ed monk. 
 1131 Bela II. ; he had his eyes put out by 
 
 his uncle Coloman, so that his queen 
 
 ruled the kingdom. 
 1141 Geio-all. 
 1161 Stephen III. 
 1173 Bela III. 
 1191 Emeric. 
 
 1200 Ladislaus II. 
 
 1201 Andrew II. 
 1235 Bela IV. 
 1275 Stephen IV. 
 
 1278 Ladislaus III., murdered. 
 1291 Andrew IIL 
 1301 Wenceslaus. 
 1304 Otho. 
 
 1309 Charles Robert. 
 
 1-342 Louis I. the Great. 
 
 1383 Mary. 
 
 1389 Mary, and her husband Sigisn. tid. 
 
 1437 Albert ; he died of a surfeit of melons. 
 
 1440 Ladislaus IV., killed in battle with the 
 Turks. 
 
 1444 liadislaus V., poisoned while an infant. 
 
 1458 Matthias I., son of Huniades, late re- 
 gent. 
 
 1490 Ladislaus VL 
 
 1516 Louis II. drowned whilst fighting the 
 Turks. 
 
 1526 John Sepusius, deposed. 
 
 1527 Ferdinand, king of Bohemia. 
 1534 .lohn Sepusius, again. 
 
 1539 John II. 
 
 1561 Maximilian, afterwards emperor o/ 
 
 Germany. 
 1573 Rodolphus. 
 1609 Matthias II. 
 
 1618 Ferdinand II., emperor of Germany 
 1625 Ferdinand III., ditto. 
 1647 Ferdinand IV. 
 16.56 Leopold, emperor of Germany. 
 1687 Joseph, ditto 
 1711 Charles VI ditto. 
 1740 Maria Theresa. 
 
 1780 Joseph, her son, emperor of Germany, 
 See Germany. 
 
 On the death of Charles VI., in 1740, his daughter, Maria Theresa, who had 
 married into the house of Lorraine, was in danger of being deprived of her 
 father's hereditary dominions by France, and also by Bavaria : but at length 
 overcoming all difficulties, her husband was elected emperrv, and Hungary, 
 Austria, and Bohemia are at this time governed by their d '.sceudants. See 
 Germany. 
 
 iElUKS. A fierce and warlike nation, occupying eastern Tartary nearly 1200 
 years ; they were almost wholly exterminated by the Chinese, in a. d. 93. and 
 the remnants settled on the Volga, and attacked the Roman allies on the 
 Danube, in 376 ; but having been subsidized under Attila, they turned their 
 arms towards Germany. The latter country and Scythia were conquered by 
 them, about a. d. 433. 100 000 of them were slain on the plains of Cham- 
 pagne in 447. They were defeated by Charles the Great in several battles 
 during eight years, and were almost extirpated, and soon ceased to appear as 
 
3(30 THE world's progress. [ lAM 
 
 a distinct nation after 780. Wlien tliey settled in Pannonia, they gave it the 
 name of Hungary, whicli see ; see also Attila. 
 
 HUSS, JOHN ; His Martyrdom. The clergy having instigated the pope to 
 issue a bull against heretics, Huss, who had been zealous to pronioto a refor- 
 mation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance to give 
 an account of his doctrines. To encourage him to do so, the emperor Sigis- 
 mund sent him a safe conduct, and engaged for his security. On the 
 strenirth of this pledge he presented himself accordingly, but was soon 
 thrown into prison, and after some months' confinement was adjudged to be 
 burned alive. He endured this dreadful death with magnanimity and resig- 
 nation, July 6, 1415. The same unhappy fate was borne with the same 
 fortitude and constancy of mind by Jerome of Prague, the intimate com- 
 panion of Huss, who came to this council with the generous design of sup- 
 porting and seconding his persecuted friend : he, too, suffered, May 30, 1416. 
 See Cranme?-, and M..rtijrs. 
 
 HUSSARS. This species of force originated in Poland and Hungary ; and as 
 they were more fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they are sup- 
 posed to have taken their names from the huzzas or shout they made at their 
 hrst onset. They were generally opposed to the Turkish horse, "and were 
 oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers and other wild beasts hanging on 
 their backs, against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock's feather," 
 — Pardon. 
 
 HYDROMETER. The oldest mention of the Hydtometer occurs in the fifth 
 century, and may be found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia ; but it is 
 not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor of it, though no proofs 
 of it are to be found. — Beckmann. Hypatia was torn to pieces, 415 a. d., 
 and Archimedes was killed 212 b. c. Hydraulic chemistry became a science 
 in 1746. 
 
 HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school, about 
 300 B. c. The pressure of fluids was discovered by Archimedes, about 250 
 B. c. The forcing-pump and air-fountain were invented by Hero, about 120 
 B. c. Water-mills were known about the time of the birth of Christ. The 
 science was revived by Galileo, about a. d. 1600. The theory of rivers was 
 scientifically understood in 1697. The correct theory of fluids and oscilla- 
 tion of waves, explained by Newton, in 1714. A scientific form was given 
 to hydrodynamics, by Bernoulli, 1738. 
 
 HYMNS. Religious songs, or odes, were at first used by the heathens in praise 
 of their false deities, and afterwards introduced both into the Jewish and 
 Christian churches. St. Hilary, the bishop of Aries, in France, is said 
 to have been the first who composed hymns to be sung in Christian churches, 
 about A. D. 431. The hymns of the Jews are usually accompanied with 
 trumpets, drums, and cymbals. 
 
 MBIC VERSE. lambe, an attendant of Metanii-a, wife of Celeus, king of 
 S|)arta, when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over 
 Attica in quest of her daughter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes, 
 stories, and poetical effusions ; and from her free and satirical verses have 
 been called Iambics. — Apollodorus. Iambic verses were first written, about 
 700 B. c, by Archilochus, who had courted Neobule, the daughter of Lycam- 
 bes ; but after a promise of marriage, the father preferred another suitor, 
 richer than the poet; whereupon Archilochns wrote so bitter a satire on ih« 
 old man's avarice, that he hanged himself. — Herodotus. 
 
IDO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 3G1 
 
 ICE. Galileo was the first who observed ice to he lighter than tht water which 
 composed it, and hence ice floats, about 1597. Ice produced in sunuuer by 
 means of chemical mixtures, prepared by Mr. Walker and others, in 178:^, 
 Leslie froze water under the receiver of an air-pump by placing undei" it a 
 vessel full of oil of vitriol. One part of sal-ammonia and two of commoa 
 salt, with five of snow, produce a degree of cold twelve degrees below the 
 zero of Fahrenheit. Five parts of muriate of lime and four of snow freeze 
 mercury ; and mercury can be solidified by preparations of sulphuric acid, 
 ' so as to bear the stroke of a hammer. See Cold. 
 
 iCE TRADE, The, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor, 
 of Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to 
 Calcutta, 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are 
 capable of containing 141.332 tons. 
 
 ICELAND. Discovered by some Norwegian chiefs who were compelled to 
 leave their native country, a. d. 871 ; according to some accounts, it had 
 been previously visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the 
 Norwegians, in 874. In 1783, there occurred here the most tremendous vol- 
 canic eruption on records it was accompanied by violent wind and rain, and 
 a darkness of the heavens ; and it was feared that the island would fall to 
 pieces. Three tire spouts broke out of Mount Skapta, which, after rising 
 to a considerable height in the air. formed a torrent of red-hot lava thafc 
 flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in a broken 
 breadth of nearly 12 miles : 12 rivers were dried up ; 21 villages totally 
 overwhelmed by fire or water; and 34 others were materially injured. 
 
 ICELANDIC LITERATURE, Royal Society of, in Copenhagen. Their 
 library, containing 2000 Icelandic MSS. and many books, burnt, September 
 26, 1847. 
 
 ICONOLOGY. The science that describes men and deities, distinguished hy 
 some pecuhar characteristic, and the doctrine of picture or image represen- 
 tation. Thus, Saturn is represented as an old man with a scythe ; Jupiter 
 with a thunderbolt, and an eagle by his side ; Neptune with a trident, in a 
 chariot drawn by sea-horses ; Mercury, with wings on his hat and at his 
 heels ; Bacchus, crowned with ivy ; Pallas, leaning on her aegis ; Venus, 
 drawn by Swans or pigeons ; Juno, riding in a cloud, &c. Heathen mytho- 
 logy gave rise to the later worship of the sun, moon, stars, and other objects ; 
 and to the representation of the true God in various forms ; and to images. 
 The Iconoclastic schism rent asunder the Roman Catholic church in the 
 early part of the eighth century. See Idols. 
 
 IDES. In the Roman calendar, the ides meant the thirteenth day of each 
 month except in March, May, July, and October, in which months it was 
 the fifteenth day, because in these four it was six days before the nones, 
 and in the other months four days. The ides of March was the day on 
 which Julius Caesar was assassinated in the senate house by Casca and other 
 conspirators, 44 b. c. 
 
 IDIOTS. It is shown hy the latest returns, that exclusive of lunatics (see In- 
 sanifAj), there are in England, pauper idiots, or idiots protected by national 
 institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 3893 ; total, 7265. In England there is 
 one lunatic or idiot in every 1033 individuals ; in Wales, there is one in 
 every 807 ; in Scotland, one in 731 ; and in Ireland, one in 812. 
 
 IDOLS, AND IDOLATRY. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ni- 
 nus, king of Assyria, 2059 b. c. — Vossius. Idols are supposed to have origi- 
 nated in the pihar set up by Jacob, at Bethel, about 1800 b. c. — Dujresnoy. 
 Constantino, emperor of Rome, ordered all the heathen temples to be de- 
 stroyed, and all sacrifices te cease, 330 a. d. — Dufresiioy. In Britain, tho 
 
 16 
 
3t>2 THE world's PROURESS. I IMI* 
 
 religion of the Druids gave way to the more gross and barbarous supersti- 
 tions of the Saxons, who had their idols, altars, and temples, and they soon 
 overspread the country with them : they had a god for every day in the 
 week. See Wec/c. The idolatry of the Saxons yielded to Christianity after 
 the coming of St. Augustin. See Christianity. 
 
 lUUM. A city was built here by Dardamis, and called Dardania, 1480 b. c. 
 Troy {wkicli see), another city, was founded by Troas, about 1341 b. c. ; and 
 Ihis, his successor, called the country Ilium. This kingdom existed 298 
 years from the reign of Dardanus, Priam being the sixth and last king. The 
 Trojan war was undertaken by the united states of Greece to recover Helen, 
 whom Paris, son of Priam, had borne away from her husband, Menelaus, 
 king of Sparta, 1204 b. c. See Heten. More than 100,000 warriors engaged 
 in this expedition ; and the invaders, having wasted many defenceless towns 
 and villages, laid siege to the capital, 1193 b. c. Troy was taken after ten 
 years' war by stratagem, and burnt to ashes by the conquerors, who put the 
 inhabitants to the sword, or carried them olf as slaves, 1184 b. c. — Apc^lo- 
 dorus. 
 
 ILLINOIS. One of the United States, first settled on the Kaskaskia and Caho- 
 kia by the French from Canada. Ceded to Great Britain at the peace of 
 1763. Chiefly settled by emigrants from other states since 1800. In 1789 it 
 was part of the North-West territory. In 1809 it was made a separate terri- 
 tory, and in 1818 admitted into the Union, being* the 23d state. Population 
 in J 810, 12,282 ; in 1830, 157,575 ; in 1840, 476,183. It is a free state and has 
 always been so. The chief products are grain and Indian corn ; it has in- 
 exhaustible lead-mines. New constitution adopted August 31, 1847. 
 
 ILLUMINATI. These were heretics who sprang up in Spain, where they were 
 called Alumbrados, about a. d. 1575 ; and after their suppression in Spain, 
 they appeared in France. One of their leaders was the friar Anthony Bou- 
 chet. The chief doctrine of this sect was, that they obtained grace, and 
 attained perfection, by their own sublime manner of prayer. A secret 
 society bearing this name was founded by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May, 
 1776. 
 
 ILLUMINATED BOOKS and PAGES. The practice of adopting ornaments, 
 drawings, and emblematical figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of 
 great antiquity ; and illuminated pages are, many of them, exquisitely painted. 
 Varro wrote the lives of 700 illustrious Romans, which he embellished with 
 their likenesses, about 70 b. c. — Plin. Hist. Nat. 
 
 [MPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parlia- 
 ment, and the first of a lord chancellor, was in 1386. By statute of the 12th 
 and 13th of William and Mary, it was enacted, that no pardon under the 
 great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment by the commons in parlia- 
 ment, 1699 and 1700. Memorable impeachment of Warren Hastings, Feb. 
 13, 1788 ; the trial lasted seven years, ending April 25, 1795, in an acquittal. 
 Impeachment of lord Melville, April 29, and his acquittal, June 12, 1806, 
 Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel Wardle against the duke ol 
 York, commenced Jan. 26, and ended March 20, 1809, in his acquittal 
 Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains and penalties, bo- 
 fore the house of lords, commenced Aug. 16 ; Mr. Brougham entered on 
 her maiesty's defence, Oct. 3 ; and the last debate on the bill took place, 
 Not. 10, 1820. See Clucen of George IV. 
 
 IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. By the Union with Ireland, the parliament of 
 Great Britain became Imperial; and the first Imperial parliament, admit 
 ting 100 Irish members into the commons, and 28 temporal and 4 spii'itual 
 peers into the house of lords, was held at Westminster, Januar/ 22, 1801. 
 
IMP J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATi.{5, 
 
 363 
 
 ■ The Imperial parliament is now constituted thus ; in the Commons, since 
 the passing of the Reform Bill {wJilch see), in 1832, there are 471 Enghsh; 
 29 Welsh ; 105 Irish ; and 53 Scotch members— in all 658. In the Lords, 
 459 members, of whom 28 are temporal, and 4 spiritual representative peers 
 of Ireland ; and 16 representative peers of Scotland. * See Commons, Lords, 
 Parliament^ and Reform. 
 
 IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE in the UNITED STATES. See Exports, &c 
 Table, p. 317. 
 
 VALUE OF IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 In 1710 
 
 £4,753,777 1 
 
 In 1800 
 
 jE30,570,605 
 
 In 1830 
 
 £AQ;2W,Q4\ 
 
 1750 - 
 
 7,289,582 
 
 1810 - 
 
 - 41,136,135 
 
 1840 - 
 
 62,004,00i) 
 
 1775 
 
 - 14,815,855 
 
 1820 
 
 - 36,514,564 
 
 1845 
 
 - 85,281,958 
 
 iriPDSTORS. The names and pretensions of religious, political and other im- 
 postors, would fill a volume ; they have been, of course, found in every 
 country, and have existed in every age. The following are selected from 
 various authorities, as being among the most extraordinary : — 
 
 Boleyn. She and her confederates were 
 hanged at Tyburn, 24 Henry VIII, 1534.— 
 Mapjn. 
 
 In the first year of Mary's rei^, after her 
 marriage with Philip of Spain, Elizabeth 
 Croft, a girl of 18 years of age, was se- 
 creted in a wall, and with a whistle, made 
 for the purpose, uttered many seditious 
 speeches against the qlieen and the priu^?, 
 and also against the n'^ass and confession, 
 for which she was sentenced to stand upon 
 a scaffold at St. Paul's cross, during ser- 
 mon-lime, and make public confession of 
 her nnposture, 1553: she was called the 
 Spirit of the Wall. — Bakers Chron. 
 
 Wil'liam Haclcet, a fanatic, personated our 
 Saviour, and was executed for blasphemy, 
 34Eliz., 1591. 
 
 -Tames Naylor, personated our Saviour ; he 
 was convicted of blasphemy, scourged, 
 and his tongue bored thi'ough with a hot 
 iron on the pillory, by sentence of the 
 House of Comm-ms, under Cromwell's 
 administration, 1656. 
 
 '"'alentine Greatrakes, an Irish impostor, 
 who pretended to cure all diseases by 
 stroking the patient ; his imposture de- 
 ceived the credulous, and occasioned very 
 warm disputes in Ireland, in 1665, and in 
 England, where it fell into disrepute, in 
 1666, upon his examination before the 
 Royal Society, after which we hear no 
 more of him. Birch's Memoirs of the 
 Roy. Society. 
 
 Dr. Tirus Gates. See Conspiracies. 
 
 Mary Tofts, of Godalming, by pretending 
 she bred rabbits within her, so im{:osed 
 upon many persons (among others, Mr. 
 St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they 
 espoused her cause, 1726. 
 
 The Cock-lane ghost imposture by WiUJans 
 Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 1762. 
 
 Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed liei 
 conception of the Messiah, and hadamul 
 titude of followers ; she died in Dec. 1814 
 
 IN THE UNITED STATE."*. 
 
 Matthias, alias Matthews, who professed to 
 
 be the Messiah, New- York, 1330-31. 
 Joseph Smith. See article Mormons. 
 
 Aldebert, who, in the eighth century, pre- 
 tended he had a letter from the Redeem- 
 er, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem ; 
 he seduced multitudes to follow him into 
 woods and deserts, and to live in imitation 
 of John the Baptist. 
 
 Gonsalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to 
 be the angel Michael ; he was burnt by 
 the inquisition of Spain, in 1360. 
 
 George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, 
 styled himself the nephew of God, sent 
 into the world to adopt children worthy of 
 lieaven ; he denied the resurrection, 
 preached against marriage, in favor of a 
 community of women, and taught that 
 the body only could be defiled by sin ; he 
 had many foUovvere ; died at Basle, J5.56. 
 
 Demetrius Griska Eutropeia, a friar, pre- 
 tended to be the son of Basilowitz, czar of 
 Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had 
 put to death ; but he maintained that ano- 
 ther child had been substituted in his 
 place : he was supported by the arms of 
 Poland ; his success astonished the Rus- 
 sians, who invited him to the throne, and 
 delivered into his hands Fedor, ihe reign- 
 ing czar, and all his family, whom he 
 cruelly put to death : his imposition being 
 discovered, he was assassinated in his 
 palace, 16()6. — D'Alembert's Revolutions 
 of Russia. 
 
 Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smy;rna, amused 
 the Turks and Jews a long time at Con- 
 stantinople and other places, by person- 
 ating our Saviour, 1666. 
 
 IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH 
 HISTORY. 
 
 Two men crucified, both pretending to be 
 the Messiah ; and two women executed for 
 assuming the characters of the Virgin 
 Mary and Mary Magdalen, 5 Henry III., 
 
 Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy maid of 
 Kent spirited up to hinder the Reforma- 
 tion, by pretending to inspirations from 
 heaven, fortelling that the king would have 
 an early and violent death if he divorced 
 Catherine of Spain, and man'ied Anne 
 
 IMPRESS.MENT of SEAMEN. Affirmed by Sir M. Foster to be of ancient 
 
364 THE woe,ld's progress. ,[ INB 
 
 practice. The statute 2 Richard II. speaks of impressment as a matter well- 
 known, 1378. The first commission for it was issued 29 Edward III. 1355. 
 Pressing:, either for the sea or land service, declared to be illegal by the Bri- 
 tish parliament, Dec. 1611. None can be pressed into the king's naval service 
 above 55, nor under 18. No apprentice nor landsmen who have not served at 
 sea for 3 or 2 years. No masters of merchants' ships, first-mates of 50 tons, 
 and boatswains and carpenters of 100 tons. No men employed by the pub- 
 lic boards, and none except by an officer with a press-warrant. 
 
 INCENDIARIES. The pnnishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and 
 Gothic constitutions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to _ 
 death, This crime was made high treason by statute 8 Henry VI., 1429 ; and 
 it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 Henry VIII. , 1528. 
 
 IN('EST. It has been looked upon with horror by most nations, but Persia and 
 Egypt are exceptions. The history of the latter country abounds with in- 
 stances of incestuous marriages among its sovereigns Physcon married his 
 brother's queen, then repudiated her, and married her daughter by his 
 brother, and murdered his children by both wives, 129 b. c. See Egypt. 
 In our own country. Vortigern, a king of South Britain, married his own 
 daughter, a. d. 446. The instances are numerous in Portugal. Maria, 
 queen of Portugal, married her uncle, the prince of Brazil June, 1760; and 
 the son of that incestuous marriage. Joseph, then in his sixteenth year, mar- 
 ried his aunt, the princess Mary, Feb., 1777. The present Don Miguel of 
 Portugal was betrothed to his niece, Donna Maria, by procuration at Vienna, 
 inOct7l826, she being then only seven years of age. In England, incest was 
 early punishpd with death ; and was again made capital by a law of the 
 Commonwealth, in 1650. 
 
 [NCOME TAX IN ENGLAND. This is not. as some suppose, a new impost 
 In 1512, parliament granted a subsidy of two fifteenths from the commons, 
 and two tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with 
 France. — Rapin. This tax was attempted in 1793, and 1799 : and again in 
 1802; but was abandoned. In 1803, it was revived, at the rate of 5 per 
 cent, on all incomes above 150^., and lower rates on smaller incomes. In 
 1805, it was increased to 6^ per cent. ; and in 1806 was raised to 10 per cent, 
 embracing the dividends at the bank. It produced — 
 
 In 1804, at Is. in the pound - £4,650,000' I In 1806, at 2s. in the pound • JEI 1,500,000 
 In 1805, at Is. 3d. ditto - • 5,937,500 | And subsequently - - 16,548,985 
 
 The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &c., 8,657.937^. ; from fund- 
 ed and stock properties, 2 885 505Z. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831, 088Z. 
 and salaries and pensions, 1.174.456Z. ; total, sixteen millions and a half. 
 Repealed in March, 1816. Sir Robert Peel's bill, imposing the present tax 
 of 21. 18s. 4d. per cent, per ann., to subsist for three years, passed June 22, 
 1842 ; it produced about 5 350,O00Z. a year. This tax was renewed for three 
 years more, in March, 1845. 
 
 INDEPENDENTS. Sects of Protestants, chiefly in England and Holland. They 
 are such as hold the independency of the church, or that each congregation 
 may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no absolute occa- 
 sion for synods or coimcils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise and 
 prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; they affirm 
 that one church may advise or reprove another, but has no authority to ex- 
 communicate or censure. Their first meeting-house founded in England was 
 that by Henry Jacobs, 1616. 
 
 INDEX EXPURGATORY. A catalogue of prohibited books in the Church of 
 Rome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent, 
 
ind] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 565 
 
 The index of heretical books, by which the reading of the Scriptures waa 
 forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, was confirmed by a bull ot 
 pope Clement VIII. in 1595. It enumerated most of the celebrated works 
 of France, Spain, Germany, and England, and which are still prohibited. 
 
 — Aske, 
 
 INDIA. Known to the ancients, many of whose nations, particularly the Ty- 
 rians and Egyptians, carried on much commerce with it. It was conquered by 
 Alexander, 827 b. c, and subsequently the intercourse betvv^een India and 
 the Roman empire was very great. The authentic history of Hindoostan l? 
 reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmud Gazni, a. d. 1000. — 
 Rennal. 
 
 Irruption of the Mahometans, under 
 Mahmud Gazni - - A. d. 1000 
 
 Patna, or Afghan empire founded - 1205 
 
 Reign of Jenghis Khan, one of the most 
 bloody conquerors of the world ; 
 14,000,000 of the human race perish 
 by his sword, under the pretence of 
 establishing the worship of one god ; 
 he died 1237 
 
 The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct 
 of the celebrated Timour, or Tamer- 
 lane, invade Hindostan - - 1398 
 
 Tamerlane takes the city of Delhi ; de- 
 feats the Indian army, makes a con- 
 quest of Hindostan, and butchers 
 100,000 of its people - - -1399 
 
 The passage to India discovered by 
 Vasco da Gama - - - 1497 
 
 'Conquest of the country completed by 
 the sultan Baber, founder of the Mo- | 
 
 gul empire .... 1525 j 
 
 Reign of the illustrious Acbar, the \ 
 
 greatest prince of Hindostan ■ - 1555 j 
 
 Reign of Auruiigzebe ; his dominions 
 extendmg from 10 to 35 degrees in I 
 
 latitude, and nearly as much in longi- 
 tude, and his revenue amounting to 
 32,000,000/!. sterling - - - 1660 j 
 
 Invasion of the Persian, Nadir Shah, or 
 Kouli Khan .... 1738 | 
 
 At Delhi he orders a general massacre, 
 and 1.50,000 persons perish - - 1733 
 
 He carries away treasure amounting 
 to 125,CtOO,0OOZ. sterling - - 1739 
 
 Defeat of the last imperial army by the 
 Rohillas .... 1749 
 
 [The Mogul' empire now became mere- 
 ly nominal, distinct and independent 
 sovereignties being forme 1 by nu- 
 merous petty princes. The empe- 
 rors were of no political consequence 
 from this period. 
 
 BRITISH POWER IN INDIA. 
 
 Attempt made to reach India by the 
 
 north-east and north-west passages - 1528 
 Sir Francis Drake's expeditions - 1579 
 
 Levant company make a land expedi- 
 tion to India .... 1589 
 First adventure from England - - 1591 
 
 First charter to the London company 
 
 of merchants ... - 1600 
 
 Second charter to the East India com- 
 pany ..... 1609 
 Calcutta purchased - - • 1698 
 
 Capture of Calcutta by Serajah Dowla. 
 
 See Calcutta. - - . - 1756 
 
 He imprisons 14G British subjects, of 
 
 whom 123 perish in one night. See 
 Blackhole. - - May 19, 1756 
 
 Calcutta retaken by colonel, afterwards 
 lord Clive ; he defeats the soubah, at 
 Plassey - - June 20, 1757 
 
 Warren Hastings becomtjs governor of 
 Bengal - - - April 13, 1772 
 
 India Bill. See India Bill .lune 16, 1773 
 
 Supreme court established - - 1773 
 
 Pondicherry taken - Oct. 11, 1778 
 
 The strong fortress of Gualior taken by 
 major Popham - Aug. 4, 1778 
 
 Hyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and 
 defeats the British - Sept. 10, 1780 
 
 He takes Arcot - - Oct. 31, 1780 
 
 Lord Macartney arrives as governor of 
 Madras - - - June 22, 1781 
 
 Hyder Ali signally defeated by Sir Eyre 
 Coote ... - July 1, 1781 
 
 Death of Hyder, and accession of his 
 son, Tippoo Saib - Dec. 11, 1782 
 
 Trial of Warren Hastings. See Hast- 
 ings, Trial of - Feb. 13, 1783 
 
 Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two 
 sons hostages - - March 19, 1792 
 
 Government of lord Mornington, after- 
 wards marquis Wellesley May 17, 1793 
 
 Seringapatam stormed, and Tippoo 
 Saib killed - - May 4, 1799 
 
 Victories of the British ; the Carnatic 
 conquered .... 1800 
 
 Victories of Sir Arthur Wellesley - 1803 
 
 Marquis Cornwallis resumes the gov- 
 ernment . . July 30, 1805 
 
 Act by which the trade to India was 
 thrown open ; that to China remain- 
 ing with the company July 31, 1813 
 
 Lord Amherst's government . Aug. 1, 1823 
 
 Lord William Bentinck arrives as go- 
 vernor-general . - July 4, 1828 
 
 Act opening the trade to India, and tea 
 trade, «fec. to China, forming a new 
 era in British commerce - Aug. 28, 1833 
 
 Lord Auckland, governor-general ; he 
 leaves England - - Sept. 1835 
 
 Battle of Ghizny ; victory of Sir John, 
 now Lord Keane. (See Ghizny) 
 
 July 23, 1S39 
 
 Shah Soujah restored to his sovereignty, 
 and he and the British army enter 
 Cabul - - - Aug. 7, 1839 
 
 English defeat Dost Mahomed, - Oct. 18, 184C 
 
 Kurrock Singe, king of Lahore, dies ; at 
 his funeral his successor is killed by 
 accident, and Dost Mahom-zJ, next 
 heir, surrenders to England - ^o\. 5, 184ll 
 
 General rising against the B Irtish at 
 
366 
 
 THE world's progress 
 
 JJD 
 
 INDIA, cuntiniicd. 
 
 Cabul; Sir Alcxnnder Burnes and 
 oiher ofticers nuuxlered - Nov. 2, 1841 
 
 Lord Ellenborough appointed governor- 
 general - - - Oct. 13, 1841 
 
 Sir William Macnaghten treacherously 
 assassinated - - Dec. 25, 1S41 
 
 The British, under a convention, evacu- 
 ate Cabul, placing Lady Sale, &c., as 
 hostages in the hands of Akbar Khan ; 
 a dreadi'ul massacre ensues - Jan. 6, 1842 
 
 Ameers of Scmde defeated by Sir Char- 
 les Napier; Scinde is afterwards an- 
 nexed to the British empire - Feb. 17, 1843 
 
 Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar ; 
 the strong fort ol Gwalior, the " Gib- 
 raltar of the East," taken - Dec. 29, 'SIS 
 
 Sir Henry Hardinge appointed gover- 
 nor-general - - May 2, \SAA 
 
 THE LATE WAR BETWEEN THE SIKHS AND THE BRITISH. 
 
 The Sikh troops cross the Sutlej river, 
 and attack ihe British post at Feroze- 
 pore, which was held by Sir John 
 Littler - - - Dec. 14, 1845 
 
 Battle of Alivral; the Sikhs defeated 
 
 Jan. 28, 1846 
 
 Battle of Sobraon ; the enemy defeated 
 with immense loss in killed and 
 drowned - - Feb. 10, 1846 
 
 [The Sikhs lost 10,000 men ; the British 
 2,338 in killed and wounded.] 
 
 The citadel of Lahore is occupied by 
 the British under Sir Hugh Gough ; , 
 and the war terminates - Feb. 20, 1846 
 
 Great battle between the British under 
 ]-ord Gough, and the Sikhs under 
 Sheere Singh, at Ramluggar. Nov. 22, 1848 
 
 Moultan taken, after a long -"ieere.Jau 3. 1849 
 
 Sheere Sing defeated by Lord Gough 
 
 Feb. 21, 1849 
 
 The Punjaub formally annexed to the 
 British crown - March 29, 1849 
 
 INDIA COMPANY, the East. The first commercial intercourse of the En- 
 glish with the East Indies, was a private adventure with three ships fitted 
 out in 1591 ; only one of them reached India, ^ and after a voyage of three 
 years, the commander, captain Lancaster, was brought home "in another 
 ship, the sailors having seized on his own ; but his information gave rise to 
 a capital mercantile voyage, and the Company's first charter, in Dec. 1600. 
 Their stock then consisted of 72 OOOZ., ami they fitted out four ships, and 
 meeting with success, have continued to trade ever since. India stock sold 
 at 500Z. for a share of 100/.. in 1683. A new company was formed in 1698 ; 
 and both were united in 1702. The India-house was built iu 1726, and en- 
 larged in 1799. Board of control instituted 1784. 
 
 INDIA BILL. Tlie bill placing the company's affairs under the control of the 
 British government, and re-organizing the various departments in India, 
 passed June 16, 1773. See East India BUI. Mr. Fox's celebrated bill 
 passed in the commons, but was thrown out in the lords' house, 1783. Mr. 
 Pitt's bill constituting the Board of Control passed August 13, 1784. 
 
 INDIA RUBBER. Also called Caoutchouc, first brought to Europe from 
 South America, about the beginning of the eighteenth century. Several 
 l)lants produce various kinds of elastic gum ; but that in commerce is 
 chiefly the juice of the Siphania Elaslica. or syringe tree. Incisions in the 
 bark of this tree give vent to a liquid which forms India rubber. No sub- 
 stance is yet known which is so pliable, aud at the same time so exceedingly 
 elastic ; it oozes out under the form of a vegetable milk, from incisions 
 made in the tree, and is gathered chiefly in the time of rain, because it 
 flows then most abundantly. — M. Macquer. 
 
 I!VDIANA, one of the Avestern United States, first settled at Vincennes by the 
 French ; ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement mado 
 by them until 1787. Was ])art of the N. W. Territory in 1801. Suffered 
 much during the war of 1812. See battle of Tippecanoe. Admitted into 
 the Union in 1816. Population in 1800, 5,641 ; in 1820, 147,178 ; in 1840, 
 685,866. 
 
 INDIANS, North American. The origin of the aborigines of this continent 
 continues to be a matter of speculation among the ethnologists. They 
 have gradually but now almost entirely disappeared before the track of the 
 white man east of the Mississippi, and even in the far west their numbers 
 
IND ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, • 367 
 
 are yearly becoming smaller. King Philip's Indian war in New England, 
 1675. Indians joined the French against the English colonies, 1690. At- 
 tacked by Capt. Church, 1704; burned Deerfield, Mass., 1704; and Havex'- 
 hill, N. H., 1708 ; Indian war in South Carolina, 1715 ; again joined the 
 French, 1754-9 ; Cheroicees subdued, 1761 ; Indians besieged Detroit, 1763. 
 [During the revolutionary war the Indians were employed at times on both 
 sides, but chiefly by the British.] Treaty with the Choctaws, 1786 ; with 
 the Creeks, 1790; Gen. Harmer defeated by the Indians near Chillicothe, 
 1790 ; Gen. Butler defeated by the Indians on the Miami, 1791 ; treaty 
 with Six Nations, &c., 1794 ; with the Delawares, 1804 ; Gov. Harrison de- 
 feated hostile Indians on the Wabash, May 16, 1811 ; Creek war in Florida, 
 Gen. Jackson, 1813 ; treaty with Choctaws, Cherokees, &c., by Gen. Jack- 
 son, 1816 ; Indian land in Ohio ceded to the United States, 1816 ; war with 
 Seminoles, 1817 ; bill for removing the Indians west of Mississippi, passed 
 May 27. 1832 ; war with Winnebagoes, 1832 ; Black Hawk captured, Aug. 
 27, 1832 ; Winnebagoes subdued by Gen. Scott, 1832 ; war against the 
 [ndians in Florida, Alabama, and Georgia, conducted by Gens. Scott. Gaines, 
 Tessup, &c.. 1835-40. In 1836 the Secretary of War reported as follows : 
 
 Number of Indians emigrated from the Atlantic States to the lands provided for 
 
 them west of the Mississippi - ..... 31,357 
 
 Number yet 10 be removed ----..... 72,181 
 Niuiiber of Indians of indigenous tribes, between the Mississippi and the Rocky 
 Mountains - ..... 150,341 
 
 Total within the territory of the United States - - 352,879 
 
 Treaty with the Sioux, they relinqui^hine- 5.000,000 acres west of Missis- 
 sippi for S1,000 000. Sept. 29, 1837 ; with Winnebagoes, Oct. 1, 1837; Powell 
 aiias Osceola, the Seminole chief, with 50 warriors, taken prisoners in Flo- 
 rida, Oct. 20. 1837 ; great mortality from small-pox among the Mandans, 
 Mintarees, Blackfeet. and other Indians in Missouri territory — the Mandans 
 tribe entirely destroyed — Nov., Dec, 1837 ; fight in Arkansas between the 
 Ross and Ridge parties and Cherokees — Ross and about 40 others killed, June 
 28, 1839; 150 Chippewas treaclierously massacred by the Sioux, at a meet- 
 ing for a treaty at the Falls of St. Anthony, July 1, 1839 ; Cayuse Indians 
 in Oregon having attacked and murdered 15 persons, and carried off 64 pri- 
 soners from a missionary station, are chastised by the settlers in a severe 
 engagement, Nov. 29, 1847. 
 
 INDIGO. Before the American colonies were established, all the indigo used 
 in Europe came from the East Indies ; and until the discovery of a passage 
 round the Cape of Good Hope, it was conveyed like other Indian products, 
 l>artl3^ through the Persian Gulf and partly by land to Babylon, or through 
 Arabia and up the Red Sea to Egypt. The real nature of indigo was so 
 little known in Europe, that it was classed among minerals, as appears by 
 letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from mines in the principality 
 of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 23, 1705 ; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny call 
 indictim is supposed to have been our indigo. — Beckviann. The first men- 
 tion of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1581. The first brought to 
 Europe was procured from Mexico. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina, 
 in 1747. The quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840, was 5,831.2691b., 
 and in 1845, it was 10,127,4881b. 
 
 INDULGENCES. They were commenced by Leo. III., about a. d. 800 ; were 
 much used by Urban II. 1090 ; and were subsequently conferred by the Ro- 
 man pontiffs in the twelfth century as rewards to the crusaders. Clement 
 V. was the first pope who made xmblic sale of indulgences, 1313. In 1517, 
 Leo. X. published general indulgences throughout Europe, when the prac- 
 tice led to the Reformation in Germany, in 1517, and to the Reformation in 
 
368 THE world's progress. [ INC 
 
 England, in 1534. — Bower s Lives of the Popes. Indulgences were fbr the 
 pardon of sins, and were sometimes so extensive as to be for the past, pre- 
 sent, and to come. They were written upon parchment, and sealed and 
 signed by the pope or his delegates. — Ashe. 
 
 INFIRJMARIES. Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick. Dis- 
 eased persons, however, were carried to the temple of ^sculapius for a cure, 
 as Christian believers were taken to churches which contained wonder- 
 working images. Benevolent institutions for the accommodation of tra- 
 vellers, the indigent, and sick, were first introduced with Christianity, and 
 the first infirmaries or hospitals were built close to cathedrals and monaste- 
 ries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries situated on mountains to be 
 visited, a. d. 855. In Jerusalem the knights and brothers attended on the 
 sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constantinople, in the 11th cen- 
 tury. The oldest mention of physicians and surgeons established in infir- 
 maries, occurs in 1437. — Beckmann. See Hospitals. 
 
 INFORMERS. This tribe was once very numerous in Greece and Rome, they 
 being countenanced by wicked princes. The emperor Titus punished in- 
 formers by banishment, and sometimes death ; and Pliny gives praise to 
 Trajan for the like good policy. In England, and particularly in London, 
 numbers of unprincipled men obtain large gains as informers against per- 
 sons whose slightest infractions of the law, often unconsciously committed, 
 subject them to the power and exactions of this despised class. 
 
 INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivory-black, and 
 Vitruvius and Pliny mention lamp-black ; but they had likewise various 
 colors, as red, gold, silver, and purple. Red ink was made by them of ver- 
 milion and various kinds of gum. Indian ink is brought from China, and 
 must have been in use by the people of the east from the earliest ages, 
 most of the artificial Chinese productions being of very great antiquity. 
 It is usually brought to Europe in small quadrangular cakes, and is com- 
 posed of a fine black and animal glue. — Beckma%n. 
 
 INNS OF COURT. A number of inns of court were established at different 
 periods, in some degree as colleges for teaching the laAv. The Temple (of 
 which there were three societies, namely, the Inner, the Middle and the 
 Outer) was originally foimded in the Temple church, built by the knights 
 Templars, 32 Henry II. 1185. The inner and Middle Temple were made, 
 inns of law in the reign of Edward III., about 1340 ; the Oftter not until the 
 reign of Elizabeth, about 1560. — Siowe's Survey. 
 
 INOCULATION. Lady Mary Wortley Montague introduced inoculation in 
 England from Turkey. In 1718 she had her own son inoculated at Adrian- 
 ople, with perfect success ; and she was allowed to have it tried, for the 
 first time in England, on seven condemned criminals, 7 George I. 1721. 
 The practice was preached against by many of the bishops and other clergy 
 from that period until 1760.* Vaccine inoculation was introduced by Dr, 
 lenner, January 21, 1799; he had discovered its yirtue in 1796, and had 
 been making experiments during the intermediate three years. He was 
 voted 10.000/. as a reward by parliament, June 2, 1802. The emperor Na- 
 poleon valued this service of I3r. Jenner to mankind so highly that he libe- 
 berated Dr. Wickham when a prisoner of war, at Jenner"s request, and 
 subsequently the emparoi liberated whole families of English, making it a 
 
 * Inoculation was deemerl a very precarious affair nj our grandfathers. The London Daily 
 Advertise}- (Nov. 7, 1751) has this paragraph : — " We hear that tlie son and daughter of Thcmas 
 Davison, esfj., of Blakestone, have been inoculated in this town (Newcastle), and that they are 
 both well recovered." Dr. Mead practised inoculation very successfully up to 17.'i4. and Dr. 
 Dini.'dale of Loudon niocuLated Catliarine II., empress of Russia, in 1763. " Sie Small Pox. 
 
INS J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 36S 
 
 point to refuse liim nothing that he asked. Innociilation introduced ia the 
 United States by Dr. B.Waterhouse, 1800, SeixSruall Pox and Vaccination 
 
 INQUISITION. Before the conversion of Constantine the Great, the bishops 
 only examined into doctrines, and punished heresy with excommunica- 
 tion ; but after the emperors became Christians, they ordained that such as 
 were excommunicated should be also banished and forfeit their estates. 
 This continued till about the year 800, when the western bishops' power 
 was enlarged to the authority of citing persons to their courts, both to con- 
 vict and punish them by imprisonment, penances, or death. In the twelfth 
 century, heresy, as it was then called, was much increased ; and the inqui- 
 sition arose in the persecution of the Albigenses and Waldenses. It was 
 instituted by pope Innocent III,, in 1203 , and Gregory IX. in a council held 
 At Toulouse in 1229, gave it its final form, committing the management of 
 it to the bishops ; but afterwards thinking these too indulgent, he gave the 
 direction of his inquisition to the Dominicans. It was established in France, 
 by St. Louis, in 1226 ; and in the four Christian kingdoms <jf Spain. It was 
 established in Portugal in 1536. The last great Auto da Fe was celebrated 
 in 1781 ; and although the rack and faggot are not now employed in the 
 work of torture and death, yet the power of the Holy office is still exer- 
 cised in encouraging vexations ; enjoining ridiculous penances and priva- 
 tions ; prohibiting liberal institutions ; and interdicting useful books, 
 
 IN'SANITY. In England within twenty years, insanity has more than 
 tripled. In France it is more extensive in proportion to its population than 
 it is in most other countries. The total number of lunatics and idiots in 
 England is as follows : lunatics 6806 — idiots 5741 — together 12 547 ; but 
 allowing for defective returns, the number may be taken at 14,000 — an ave- 
 rage of one to every tkousand of the population. In Wales : lunatics 133 — 
 idiots 763 — total 896; and adding for parishes that have made no returns, 
 they may be set down at 1000— a proportion of one to eight hundred. Scotland 
 has 3652 insane persons — or one to about seven hundred. In Ireland the num- 
 ber of lunatics and idiots exceeds 8000, as shown by returns, which, however, 
 were not completed. — Sir Andrew Halliday. The number of insane persons 
 and idiots in the United States, in 1840, was 17,434. There were 23 asylums 
 capable of containing 2840 patients. Great advances have been made of 
 late years in the treatment of insanity. The late Dr, A. Brigham of Utica, 
 formerly of Hartford, was an able and successful philanthropist in this 
 cause. 
 
 INSOLVENCY in the UNITED STATES. In May, 1837. a ' commercial crisis' 
 was at its height. The 'heavy' failures, in two months, in New York alone 
 amounted to 260, besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans 
 to the amount of $27 000 000 in two days. In Boston 168 failures from Nov, 
 1. 1836, to May 12, 1837. New York city Banks all suspended specie pay- 
 ments May 10, 1837. The New England Banks generally, immediately 
 after. 
 
 INSOLVENCY, The first Insolvent Act in England was passed in 1649, but it 
 was of limited operation ; a number of acts of more extensive operation were 
 passed at various periods, and particularly in the reign of George III. The 
 benefit of the act known as the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in England, 
 by 50,733 insolvents, from the time of its passing in 1814, to March 1827, a 
 period of thirteen years. Since then, the acts relating to insolvency have 
 been several times amended. Persons not traders, or, bein^ traders, whose 
 debts are less than 300Z., may petition the Court of Bankruptcy, and propose 
 compositions and have pro tern, protection from all pi*ocess against his per- 
 son and piopv^rty, 6 Vict., 1842. Act amended. 8 Met., Aug., 1844, 
 
 INSURANCE ON SHIPS and MERCHANDISE. Suetonius conjectures that 
 
 16* 
 
THE WORLDS FEOGKESS. 
 
 [ rNU 
 
 Claudius was the first contriver of it, a. d. 4B. Insurance was in g-enera) use 
 in Italy in 1194, and in England in 1500. Insurance policies were first used in 
 Florence in 1523. The first law relating to insurance ^vas enacted in IttOl, 
 Insurance of houses and goods in London began in 1667. This was the yeai 
 following that of the great lire of London. An office was then set up for 
 insuring houses and buildings, principally contrived by Dr. Barton, one of 
 the first and most extensive builders of the city of London. The first regular 
 office set up in London was the Hami-iii-Hand, in 1695. A duty was laid 
 on insurances of Is. 6,'/. per hundred pounds insured, in 1782: this duty was 
 increased in 1797, and was variously altered since. The date of the first id • 
 surance office in the United States, has not been ascertained. 
 
 II^^'SURRECTIONS in the UNITED STATES. Shay's Insurrection in Massa- 
 chusetts (caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insur- 
 rection in Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794. See the accounts 
 
 of Conspiracies., Massacres, RebeUions, Riots, Slc. 
 
 INTEREST OF MONEY. It was twenty per cent, in Europe in the twelfth cen- 
 tury. Fixed at twelve ^er cent, in Spain Germany and Flanders, by Charles 
 V. in 1560. — Robjrtson. Till the fifteenth century, no Christians were allow- 
 ed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and. there- 
 fore, often banished and persecuted. Interest was first settled by law in 
 England at ten per cent., 37 Henry VIII.. 1546. This law was repealed by 
 Edward YL; but it was restored by Elizabeth. In those days the monarch 
 could not borrow without the collateral security of the metropolis. Interest 
 was reduced to eight per cent., and the word first used instead of usury, 21 
 James I., 1624. Reduced by the Rump-parliament to six per cent.; and so 
 confirmed at the Restoration. Reduced to five per cent., 13 Anne. 1714, at 
 which rate it remains. The rate in Ireland is six per cent. ; regulated 14 
 George III., 1773. All interest above the legal standard of Britain is usury, 
 and punishable by the statute. — Blackslone. The law does not now apply to 
 bills having only 60 days to run. See Usury Laios. 
 
 INTEREST OF MONEY in the UNITED STATES. The rates vary in differ- 
 ent States, viz: — In La. five ;?r. ct., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., 
 N. J., Pa., Del., Md., Va., N. Ca., Tenn. Kent., Ohio, Ind., lUin., Misso., 
 Ark., and the United States government claims, the rate is six per cent. In 
 N. Y,, S. Ca., Mich., and Wise, seven per cent. In Geo., Ala., Mississ., and 
 Flor., eight per ce7i-^. Laws against usury, with penalty of forfeiting the 
 whole debt, in Me., Conn.. N. Y.. N. J., Penn., Del. Forfeit of the usury, 
 and double, treble, the usury, in 14 other States. Usurious contracts void 
 in Md., N. Ca., Geo., Tenn.. Ohio, Ark. 
 
 [N UNDATIONS, It would be impossible to record in this volume the numerous 
 catastrophes which class under this head ; the following are among the most 
 remarkable: — 
 
 An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned 
 more tlian 400 families, 738. — fordun. 
 
 Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town 
 and harbor of Ostend totally immersed, 
 1108. The present city was built above a 
 league from the channel where the old one 
 iies submerged. — Histoire de Fiandre. 
 
 At the Texel, which first raised the com- 
 merce of Amsterdam, 1400. 
 
 The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 
 villages, and 100,000 people, and formed 
 the Zuyder Sea (see Dort\ April 17, 1446. 
 
 The Severn overflowed during ten days, and 
 carried away men, women, and children, 
 in their beds, aid covered the tops of many 
 mountains ; the waters settled upon the 
 
 lands, and were called The Great Waters 
 for 100 years after, 1 Richard IIT. 1483.— 
 HoUins'hed. 
 
 A general inundation by the failure of the 
 clikes in Holland, 1530 ; the number of 
 drowned said to have been 400,000. 
 
 At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perish- 
 ed, 1017. 
 
 An inundation at Yorkshire, when a rock 
 opened, and poured out water to the height 
 01' a church steeple, 1086. — Vide Fhil. 
 Trans. 
 
 Part of Zealand overflowed. 1300 inhabiianta 
 were drowned, and incredible damage waa 
 done at Hamburg. 1717. 
 
 At Madrid, several' of ihe Spanish nftti/ 71 
 
low J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 371 
 
 EKI7NDATI0NS, continued. 
 
 and other pei'sons of distinction perished, 
 1723. — Die Fresnoy. 
 
 In Navarre, v/here 2000 persons lost their 
 lives by the torrents from the mountains, 
 Sept. 1787. 
 
 At Pest, near Presburg, the overfiow^ of the 
 Danube, by which 24 villages and their 
 inhabitants were swept away, April 1811. 
 
 By the overflow of the Da tube, a Turkish 
 corps of 2000 men, on a s nail island near 
 Widdin, were surprised, and met instant 
 death, Sept. 14, 1813. 
 
 In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the 
 ruin of the French army under Macdonald 
 was accelerated by the floods ; also in Po- 
 land 4000 lives were supposed to have 
 been lost, same year. 
 
 In Germany, 119 villages were laid under 
 water, and great loss of lile and property 
 was sustained, in March 1816. 
 
 Awful inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by 
 the Vistula breaking through some of its 
 dikes, by which 10,000 head ol' cattle and 
 4000 houses were destroyed, and numerous 
 
 At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its in- 
 habitants laid under water. Feb. 1830. 
 
 10,000 houses swept away, a* d Lboui lOOfl 
 persons perished, at Cantor, 13' China, in 
 consequence of a a ir '^i_dation, occasioned 
 by incessant raiiis. Equal or greater ca- 
 lamity was produced by the same cause 
 in other parts of China. Oct. 1833. 
 
 Awful inundation in France ; the Saone 
 poured its waters into the Rhone, brokj 
 through its banks, and covered 60,000 
 acres ; Lyons was inundated, in Avignon 
 100 houses were swept away ; 218 houses 
 were carried away at La Guillotiere ; and 
 upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and 
 Nismes ; the Saone had not attained such 
 a height for 233 years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4. 
 1810. 
 
 Inundation of the Mississippi at New Or- 
 leans, 160 squares and 1600 houses flood- 
 ed, May 12, 1849. 
 
 The inundations of the Ohio, Mississippi. 
 &c., at different times, have caused grea; 
 destruction of property, and (at times) of 
 life. 
 
 lives lost, April 9, 1829 
 
 INVOCATION OF THE VIRGIN and SAINTS. The practice of the Romish 
 church of invoking the intercession of saints with God, particularly the 
 prayers to the Virgin, has been traced to the time of Gregory the Great, 
 about A. D. 593. — Ashe. The Eastern church begun (in the fifth century) by 
 calling upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in the di- 
 vine offices ; but the Western church carried it so far as frequently to ca- 
 nonize those they had any regard for, though the wickedness of their lives 
 gave them no title to any such honor, to make processions, masses, litanies, 
 prayers and oblations for and to them. 
 
 IODINE. This most important substance was discovered by M. de Courtois. a 
 manufacturer of saltpetre at Paris, in 1812 ; the discovery was pursued with 
 great advantage by M. Clement, in 1813. Iodine is very active; it is of a 
 violet liue, easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees ; changes vegetable 
 blues to yellow, and. a seven-thousandth part converts water to a deep yel- 
 low color, and starch into a purple. Five volumes of oxygen and one of 
 iodine form iodic acid. 
 
 IONIAN ISLANDS. They were subject to Venice until ceded by the treaty 
 of Campo-Formio to France, in 1797. By a treaty between Russia and 
 Great Britain they were placed under the protection of the latter power, 
 November 5, 1815. A constitution was ratified by the prince regent of 
 England for the government of these islands in 1818. The Ionian Islands 
 are now among the free states of Europe. Corfu is the principal, and the 
 seat of government. 
 
 IONIC ORDER OF ARCHITECTURE. This order which is an improvement 
 on the Doric, was founded by the lonians, about l^bQ b. c.— Vitrnvius by 
 Perrauli. 
 
 IONIC SECT OF PHILOSOPHERS. Founded by Thales of Miletus, 570 b. c. 
 This sect distinguished itself for its deep and abstruse speculations, under 
 the successors and pupils of the Milesian philosopher, Anaximander, Anax- 
 imenes, Auaxagoras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. 
 
 'OWA, now one of the United States, once formed part of the French posses- 
 sions, and was included in the vast tract of country purcha3ed in 1803 
 under the general name of Louisiana. First purchase of land from the 
 Indians in Iowa was made in 1832. Iowa separated from Wisconsin as a ter- 
 ritory, 1838. Admitted into theUnion, Dec. 1846. Population in 1840, 43,111. 
 
172 
 
 THE WORLD S rPcOGRESS. 
 
 [IRO 
 
 IPSUS, Battle of, by wliicli Scleiicus is confirmed in his kir^clom by the de« 
 feat and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. On the one side were Antigo- 
 nus and his son ; on the other Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cas- 
 Sander. The former led into the field an array of above 70.000 foot, and 
 10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The latter's forces consisted of 64,000 iu 
 fantry, besides 10 500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. ^. nti 
 gonus and his son were defeated, 301 b. c. — Plutarch. 
 
 IRELAND. It is disputed by historians from what nation this country was 
 originally peopled. It seems, however, to be satisfactorily shown that the 
 first colonists were Phoenicians. The Partholani landed in Ireland about 
 2048 B. c. The descent of the Damnonii was made about 1463 b. c. This was 
 followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian princes, from Gali- 
 cia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171 
 kings. 
 
 Arrival of Heremon - - b c. 1070 
 
 A colony from Spain bring with them 
 the Phoenician letters, about - - 500 
 
 Arrival of St. Patrick - - a. d. 448 
 
 The renowned Brian Boiroimhe is 
 crowned at Tara - - - 1002 
 
 Battle of Ciontarf, which terminates 
 the power of the Danes - - 1039 
 
 [In the twelfth century Ireland is divi- 
 ded into five kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, 
 Leinster, Meath, Cormaught, and 
 Munster; besides a number of potty 
 principalities, whose sovereigns con- 
 tinually war with each other.] 
 
 Adrian IV permitted Henry II. to in- 
 vade Ireland, on condition that he 
 compelled every Irish family to pay 
 a carolus to the Holy See, and held 
 it as a fief of the church - - 1157 
 
 Henry II. lands near Waterford, and re- 
 ceives the submissions of the kings 
 and princes of the country, settles the 
 government upon a footing similar to 
 that of England, and makes his son 
 John lord of Ireland - - - 11?2 
 
 Ireland wholly subdued - - - 1210 
 
 English laws and customs introduced 
 by king John - - - - 1210 
 
 Henry Vlll. assumes the title of king, 
 instead of lord of Ireland - - 1542 
 
 The Catholics enter into a conspiracy to 
 expel the English, and cruelly mas- 
 
 sacre the Protestant settlers in Ulster, 
 to the number of 40,000 persons, com- 
 menced on St. Ignatius's day, Oct. 23, 1641 
 
 Cromwelland Ireton reduce the whole 
 island to obedience between 1649 and 1656 
 
 Landing of king William III. at Car- 
 rickfergus - - June 14, 169C 
 
 Battle of the Boyne ; the Duke oj" 
 Schoi^iberg killed • July 1, 1690 
 
 Memorable Irish rebellion commenced 
 May 4, 1798, and was not finally sup- 
 pressed until the next year - - 1799 
 
 Legislative Union of Great Britain and 
 Ireland - - - Jan. 1, ISOl 
 
 Emmett's insurrection - July 23, 1803 
 
 Roman Catholic emancipation. (See 
 Roman Catholics) - April 13, 1829 
 
 Great repeal movement ; meeting at 
 Trim. (See Repeal) - March 19, 1843 
 
 O'Connell's trial. (See Trials) Jan. 15, 1844 
 
 O'Connell died at Genoa, aet. 72, May 15, 1847 
 
 Famine and great distress in Ireland 
 throughout - ... 1847 
 
 Relieved by England, and by voluntary 
 gifts from the United States. 
 
 Bill for suppression of crime in Ireland 
 passed parliament - Dec. 20, 1&17 
 
 Mitchell convicted of treason - May 26, 1848 
 
 Habeas Corpus act suspended. July 25, 1848 
 
 Smith O'Brien arrested, and the rebel- 
 lion put down - - Aug. 5, 1848 
 
 IRON. It was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forests of the 
 mount having been burnt by lightning, 1432 b. c. — Arundelian Marbles. 
 The Greeks ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves and referred glass 
 to the Phoenicians ; but Moses relates that iron was wrought by Tubal^Cain. 
 Iron furnaces among the Romans were unprovided with bellows, but were 
 placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of the prevailing winds, 
 Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Daunemora is the greatest mine of 
 Sweden. British iron was cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in Sussex^ 
 in 1543. — Rymer^s. Fczdera. Iron-mills were first used for slitting iron into 
 bars for smiths by Godfrey Bochs, in 1590. Tinning of iron was first 
 introduced from Bohemia in 1681. There are upwards of 800 000 tons of 
 iron produced annually in England.* For iron vessels, iron war-steamers, 
 &c., see Steamers. 
 
 ' Tneie is iron enough in the blood of forty-two men to make a ploughshare weighing tweul f 
 four pounds. — AnoTi. 
 
ITA J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 373 
 
 IRON-MASK, THE MAN of the. A mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a 
 mask, and closely confined, under M. dc St. Mars, at Pignerol, Sainte Mar- 
 guerite, and afterwards at the Bastile. He was of noble mien, and waa 
 treated with profound respect; but his keepers had orders to dispatch hin^ 
 if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself always placed the disii^^s on his 
 table, and stood in his presence. Some conjecture him to have been in 
 Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from Constantinople, although he died 
 ten years before the mask ; others that he was the count de Vermandois, 
 son of Louis XIV., although he was reported to have perished in the camp 
 before Dixmude. More believe him to have been the celebrated duke of 
 Beaufcit, whose head is recorded to have been taken off before Candia; 
 while ?till more assert that he was the unfortunate James, duke of Mon- 
 mouth, who, in the imagination of the Londoners, at least, was executed on 
 Tower-hill But there are two better conjectures ; he is said to have been 
 a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XIIL. his .%ther being tte duke 
 of Buckingham ; or the twin-brother of Louis XIV., wliose birth was con- 
 cealed to prevent civil dissensions in France, which it might one day liavo 
 caused. The mask died after a long imprisonment, Nov. 19, 1703. 
 
 ISLAMISM. The religion of Mahomet, planned by him in a cave near Mecca, 
 where he employed a Persian Jew, well versed in history and laws, and two 
 Christians, to assist him. One of these latter was of the Jacobite, and the 
 other of the Nestorian sect. With the help of these men he framed his 
 Koran, or the book which he pretended to have received at different times 
 from heaven by the hands of the angel Gabriel. At the age of forty he 
 ])ublicly assumed the prophetical character, calling himself the apostle of 
 God, A. D. 604. See Koran, Mecca, (f-c. 
 
 ISLE OF FRANCE. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1500 ; but the Dutch 
 were the first settlers in 1598. The French formed their establishment at 
 Port Louis in 1715. This island, together with six French frigates and 
 many Indiamen was taken by the British, Dec. 2, 1810. They retain pos- 
 session of it, and it is now a fixed British colony. See Mauritius. 
 
 i'^MAEL, Siege of, in Bessarabia. After a long siege by the Russians, who 
 lost 20,000 men before the place, the town was taken by storm, December 
 22, 1790 ; when the Russian general, Suwarrow^, the most merciless and sa- 
 vage warrior of modern times, put the brave Turkish garrison, consisting 
 of 80,000 men, to the sword ; every man was butchered ; and Suwarrow, 
 not satisfied with this vengeance, delivered up Ismael to the pillage of 
 his ferocious soldiery, and ordered the massacre of 6000 women, who were 
 murdered in cold blood. 
 
 ISSUS. Battle of. Alexander defeats Darius in this, his second great battlo 
 with him ; Darius loses 100,000 men, and his queen and family are cap- 
 tured, 333 B. c— Plutarch,. The Persians lost 100,000 foot and 10 000 horse 
 in the field; and the Macedonians only 300 foot and 150 horse. — Diodorus 
 S'/c«Z?/s. • The Persian army, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 foot 
 and 100,000 horse, and 61,000 of the former, and 10,000 of the latter, were 
 left dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners. — Justin. 
 
 ISTHMIAN GAMES. These were combats among the Greeks, and received 
 their name from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were observed, insti- 
 tuted in honor of Melicerta, 1326 b. c. — Lenglet. They were re-instituted 
 in honor of Neptune by Theseus, and their celebration was held so sacred 
 and inviolable that even a public calamity could not prevent it. 1259 b. c — 
 Arundelian Marbles. 
 
 £TALY. The garden of Europe, and the nurse of arts as well as arms. It re- 
 ceived its name from Italus, a king of the corn'.ry, or from Italos, a Greek 
 word signifying an ox. The aborigines o\ Italy v^re the progeny of 
 
sU 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [JA4 
 
 Meshec'i, tlie sixth son of Japheth. In process of time, the Gomerites of 
 Celts, who inhabited the greatest part of Gaul, sent several colonies into 
 Italy, while other colonists arrived from Greece, and the country was di- 
 vided into three grand par(s, viz. — Cisalpine Gaul, the settlement of tho 
 Celts ; Italia Propria, the residence of the first inhabitants ; and Magna 
 Gra^cia, the seat of the Grecian colonists. The modern inhabitants of Italy 
 may be derived from the Goths and Lombards, who contributed so largely 
 to the overthrow of the Roman empire, and who founded on its ruins the 
 kingdoms of Italy and Lombardy. For Roman empire, see Tabular VieiLs, 
 
 410 
 
 447 
 
 476 
 
 553 
 
 568 
 596 
 697 
 
 774 
 
 - 800 
 
 Rome taken and plundered by the Visi 
 goths under Alaric. See Rome a. d. 
 
 The Huns ravage the Roman empire 
 under Attila, "/Ae Scourge of God'^ - 
 
 The 'Western Roman empire is de- 
 stroyed by the Heruli, whose leader, 
 Odoacer, erects the kingdom of Italy 
 
 The reign of Totila, who twice pillages 
 Rome, and reduces the inhabitants to 
 such distress, that the ladies and peo- 
 ple of quality are obliged to beg for 
 bread at the doors of the Goths - 5'11 to 552 
 
 The power of the Goths destroyed, and 
 their kingdom overthrown by the ge- 
 nerals of the Eastern empire - 
 
 Narses, governor of Italy, invites the 
 Lombards from Germany into this 
 country .... 
 
 The Lombards overrun Italy 
 
 Venice first governed by a doge 
 
 Charlemagne invades Italy - 
 
 He repairs to Rome, and is crowned 
 emperor of the West - 
 
 [During the reign of Charlemagne, the 
 pope of Rome, who had hitherto been 
 merely a spiritual minister, finds 
 means to assume a temporal power, 
 not only independent of, but superior 
 to all others.] 
 
 Pope Damasius II. is the first who caus- 
 es himself to be crowned with a tiara 1053 
 
 Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hilde- 
 brand, pretends to universal sove- 
 reignty, in which he is assisted by the 
 countess Matilda, mistress of the 
 greater part of Italy, who makes a do- 
 nation of all her estates to the Church 1076 
 
 Disputes between the popes and empe- 
 rors, relative to the appointment of 
 bishops, begin about 1106, and agitate 
 Italy and Germany during several 
 centuries. 
 
 The Venetians obtain many victories 
 over the Eastern emperors - - 1125 
 
 Tuscany becomes independent - - 1208 
 
 The duchies of Ferrara, Modena, and 
 Reggio are created - - - 1228 
 
 Milan erected into a duchy - - 1277 
 
 The papal seat removed for seventy 
 years to Avignon, in France - - 13(K 
 
 The cardinals not agreeuig in the elec- 
 tion of a pope, they set fire to the con- 
 clave, and separate, and the papal 
 chair is left vacant for two years - 1314 
 
 Louis Gonzaga makes himself master 
 of Mantua, with the title of imperial 
 vicar ... - 1326 
 
 Lucca becomes an independent repui. 
 lie 1370 
 
 Naples conquered by Ciiarles VIII. - 1422 
 
 The republic of Venice loses all its Ita- 
 lian provinces in a single campaign, 
 assailed by the pope, the emperor, 
 and the kings of Spain and France - 1509 
 
 Leo X. h,aving exhausted all his finan- 
 ces, opens the sale of indulgences and 
 absolutions, which soon replenishes 
 his treasury .... 1517 
 
 Parma and Placentia made a duchy - 1545 
 
 Cosmo de Medicis made grand-duke of 
 Tuscany by Pius V. - - - 1569 
 
 Pope Gregory XIII. reforms the calen- 
 dar. See Calendar • - - 1582 
 
 Ambassadors from Japan to the pope. 
 See Jeddo - - - - 1619 
 
 The Corsicans revolt from the Genoese, 
 and choose Theodore for their king. 
 See Corsica - . - - 1736 
 
 Milan vested in the house af Austria by 
 the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle - 1748 
 
 Division of the Venetian states by 
 France and Austria - - - 1797 
 
 Italy overrun, and Pius VI. deposed by 
 Bonaparte - - - - - 1798 
 
 The Italian republic - - - 1802 
 
 Italy formed into a kingdom, and Napo- 
 leon crowned - - - - 1805 
 
 Eugene Beauhamois made Viceroy of 
 Italy 1805 
 
 The kingdom ceases on the overthrow 
 of Napoleon - - - - 1814 
 
 [The various other events relating to 
 Italy will be found under the respec- 
 tive heads of Genoa, Lombmrdy, Mi- 
 lan, Naples, Rome, Venice, S^c.^ 
 
 The population of the whole of Italy proper now amounts to 23,677,000.— 
 Aim, de Gotha. 
 
 J. 
 
 J. Introduced into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1660. — Du 
 Fresnoy. 
 
 JACOBINS. The name given to one of the principal parties in the French re« 
 volution. The Jacobin club originated from a small and secret association 
 of about forty gentlemen and men of letters, who had united to disse»niDa,t« 
 
5AN J DICTIONARY Oi LaTES, 371 
 
 political and other opinions; the members were called Jacobins from their 
 meeting in the hail of the Jacobin fnars at Paris, The club became nu- 
 morons and popular, and fraternal societies were instituted in all the prin- 
 cipal towns of the kin^^dom. From its institution, one principal object was, 
 to discuss such political questions as seemed likely to be agitated in the 
 national assembly, in order that the members might act in concert. They 
 are represented as having been determined enemies of monarchy, aristo- 
 cracy, and the Christian religion, and may be regarded as the first grand 
 spring of the revolution. They were suppressed October 18, 179-i. The 
 religious sect called Jacobins are those of both sexes who follow the rules 
 of St. Dominick. See Dojninicans. 
 JACOBITES. A sect among the eastern Christians, so called from Jacob Ba- 
 radseus, a Syrian, whose heresy spread to a great extent in the sixth and 
 seventh centuries. In England existed a political party called Jacobites. 
 They were the partisans of James 11., and were so named after his expul- 
 sion in 1688. Those who openly appeared in arms for, or who expressed 
 their wishes to restore the abdicated family, were called Jacobites- the dis- 
 tinction is now entirely lost. 
 
 JAFFA. Celebrated in Scripture as Joppa„ the port whence Jonixh embarked, 
 and the place where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead. In profane history, 
 the place whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jafia was taken by Bona,- 
 parte in February 1799 ; and the French were driven out by the British in 
 June, same year. Here, according to sir Robert Wilson, were massacred 
 3800 prisoners by Bonaparte : but this is reasonably doubted, 
 
 JAMAICA. Discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1495. It was conquered from 
 the Spaniards by admiral Penn, and the land forces commanded by Venables 
 in 1655; the expedition had been planned by Oliver Cromwell against St. 
 Domingo. An a«-ful earthquake occurred here in 1692; and the island was 
 desolated by a furious hurricane in 1722 ; and again 1734 and 1751. In June 
 1795, the Maroons, or original natives, who inhabit the mountains, rose 
 against the English, and were not quelled till March 1796. Tremendous 
 hurricane, by which the whole island was deluged, hundreds of houses 
 washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thousand persons drowned, October 
 1815. An alarming insurrection, commenced by the negro slaves, in which 
 numerous plantations were burned, and property of imniense value destroy- 
 ed. Before they were overpowered, the governor, lord Belmore, declared 
 the island under martial law, Dee. 22, 1831. Awful fire here, Aug. 26, 
 1843. The Cholera in 1850. 
 
 TANISS ARIES. This order of infantry in the Turki.sh army was formerly 
 reputed to be the grand seignor's foot guards. They were first raised by 
 Amurath I. in 1361; and have several times deposed the sultan. Owing to 
 an insurrection of these troops on the 14th June, 1826, when 3000 of them 
 were killed on the spot, the Ottoman army was reorganized, and a firman 
 was issued declaring the abolition of the Janissaries two days afterwards. 
 
 JANSENISM. This sect was founded by Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres, 
 about 1625. Jansen was a prelate of piety and morals, but his ^^Augusti- 
 nus'' a book in which he maintained the Augustine doctrine of free grace, 
 and recommended it as the true orthodox belief, kindled a fierce control 
 versy on its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a bull of pope Ur- 
 ban VI]I. 
 
 j^ANUARY. This month, the first in our year, derives its name from Janus, a 
 divinity among the early Romans. See next o.rtide. January was added to 
 the Roman calendar by Numa, 713 b. c. He placed it about the winter sol- 
 stice, and made it the first month, because Janus was supposed to preside 
 over the beginning of all business. This god was painted with two facea 
 
375 THE WOULD S PROGRESS. [ JEN 
 
 because, as some persons have it, on the one side the first of January looked 
 towards the new year, and on the other towards the old one. On the first 
 day, it was customary for friends and acquaintances to make each other 
 presents, from whence the custom of new year's gifts, still retained among 
 us, was originally taken. 
 
 JANUS, Temple op, at Rome. Was erected hj Romulus, and kept open in 
 the f '.me of war and closed in time of peace. It was shut only twice, during 
 abo^e 700 years, viz : — under Numa, 714 b. c. and under Augustus, 5 b. c. ; 
 and during that long period of time, the Romans were continually employed 
 in war, 
 
 JAJVVILLIERS, Battle of, between the French and Prussians, in which, after 
 an obstinate engagement, Blucher, who commanded the latter army, was 
 driven back to Chalons with considerable loss, February 14, 1814. About 
 this period there were many battles fought between Napoleon and Blucher, 
 and Napoleon and prince Sch\\artzenberg, until the capitulation of Paris, 
 March 31, 1814. 
 
 JAPAN. This island was first made known to Europe by Marco Paulo; and 
 was visited by the Portuguese about 1535. The Japanese are as fabulous as 
 the Chinese in the antiquity of their empire, but the certain period begins 
 with the hereditary succession of the ecclesiastical emperors, from the year 
 660 B. c. The English visited Japan in 1612. There was once a great num- 
 ber of Christians in different parts of the empire ; but, in 1622, they under- 
 Avent great persecutions, insomuch that they were all extirpated. See 
 Jsddo. 
 
 JAVA. The atrocious massacre of 20 000 of the unarmed natives by the Dutch, 
 sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, took place in 1740, 
 and for its cruelty and cowardice fixes an indelible stain not only upon 
 their nation, but upon man. The island capitulated to the British, August 
 8, 1811. The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the hereditary 
 prince raised to the throne, in June, 1813. Java was restored to Holland 
 in 1814. 
 
 JEDDO. The capital of Japan, containing about 1 680,000 inhabitants, a num- 
 nearly equal to London. In 1619, ambassadors from Japan arrived at the 
 court of Paul V. to do him homage as the head of the Christian religion, 
 which their master had embraced through the preaching of the Jesuit mis- 
 sionaries ; but the misconduct of the Jesuits, who were endeavoring to over- 
 turn the Japanese government, caused them to be expelled in 1622. and the 
 inhabitants relapsed into their former idolatry. The emperor's palace is of 
 indescribable magnificence ; its hall of audience is supported by many pillars 
 of massive gold and plates of gold cover its three towers, each nine stories 
 high. Several other costly palaces, belonging to the emperor, empress, con-- 
 cubines, and vassal kings, enrich this great eastern city. 
 
 JEMMAPPES, Battle of, one of the most obstinate and bloody of modern 
 times; 40,000 French troops forced 28,000 Austrians, who were intrenched in 
 woods and mountains, defended by forty redoubts, and an immense number 
 of cannon ; the revolutionary general Dumouriez was the victor in this battle, 
 whl^h lasted four days. According to the most authentic accounts, the 
 number of killed on the side of the Austrians amounted to 10,009, ou that 
 of the French to 12,000, Nov. 5, 1792. 
 
 JENA, Battle of, one of the most sanguinary of modern times, between the 
 French and Prussian armies ; the one commanded by the emperor Na- 
 poleon, and the other by the Prussian king, who Avas signally defeated, with 
 the loss of 30,000 slain and nearly as many thousands made prisoners lu 
 
JES j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 377 
 
 tbis battle the Prussians lost 200 field-pieces, and Napoleon advanced to 
 iJerlin, Oct. 14, 1806 
 
 JERSEY, GUERNSEY, SARK, and ALDERNEY, appendages to the duchy 
 of Normandy, were united to the crown of England, by William the Con- 
 queror, in 1066. Jersey was attempted by the French in 1779 and 1781. A 
 body of French troops surprised the governor, made him prisoner, and 
 compelled him to sign a capitulation; but major Pierson, the commander ol 
 the English troops, refusing to abide by this forced capitulation, attacked 
 the French, and compelled them to surrender prisoners of war; but he was 
 killed in the moment of victory, Jan. 6, 1781. 
 
 JERUSALEM. Built 1800 b. c. The first and most famed Temple was found- 
 ed by Solomon, 1015 b. c. ; and was solemnly dedicated on Friday, October 
 30, 1004 B. c, being one thousand years before the birth of Christ — Blair ; 
 Usher ; Bible. Jerusalem was taken by the Israelites, 1048 b. c. and by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Razed to the ground by Titus, a. d. 70, after one 
 of the most remarkable sieges in history. More than 1,100,000 of the Jews 
 perished on this occasion. A city was built on the ruins of the former by 
 the emperor Adrian, a. d. 130. The walls were rebuilt by the empress Eu- 
 doxia in 437. Jerusalem was taken by the Persians in 614; by the SaiAcens 
 in 636; and by the crusaders, when 70,000 intidels were put to the sword, 
 1099. A new kingdom was founded, which lasted 88 years. Taken from 
 the Christians by Saladin, in 1187 ; and by the Turks, who drove away the 
 Saracens in 1217. Jerusalem was taken by the Fi-ench under Bonaparte in 
 February 1799. See Jews. 
 
 JESTER. In some ancient works, a jester is described as "a witty and jocose 
 person, kept by princes to inform them of their faults, and those of other 
 men, under the disguise of a waggish story." Several of the early English 
 kings kept jesters, and particularly the Tudors. There was a jester at court 
 in the reign of James I., but we hear of no licensed jester afterwards. 
 
 JESUITS. The order was founded by Ignatius Loyola (who was canonized), 
 a page to Ferdinand V. of Spain, and subsequently an officer of his army. 
 Loyola having been wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, in both legs, a. d. 
 1521, devoted himself to theology while under cure, and renounced the mi- 
 litary for the ecclesiastical profession. His first devout exercise was to dedi- 
 cate his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; he next made a pilgrimage 
 to the Holy Land, and on his return laid the foundation for his new order 
 in France. He presented the institutes of it in 1539, to pope Paul III. who 
 made many objections to them ; but Ignatius adding to the three vows of 
 chastity, poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the 
 holy see, the institution was confirmed by a bull, September 27, 1540, by 
 which their number was not to exceed 60. That clog, however, was taken 
 off by another bull, March 14, 1543 ; and popes Julius III., Pius V., and 
 Gregory XIII., granted them such great privileges as rendered them pow- 
 erful and numerous. But though Francois Xavier, and other missionaries, 
 the first brothers of the order, carried it to the extremities of the habitable 
 globe, it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly at Ixris. The 
 Sorbonne issued a decree in 1554, by which they condemned the institution, 
 as being calculated rather for the ruin than the edification of the faithful. 
 Even in Romish countries, the intrigues and seditious writings of this order, 
 have occasioned it to be discountenanced. The Jesuits were expelled Eng- 
 land by proclamation, 2 James I. 1604, and Venice 1606. They were put 
 down in France by an edict from the king, and their revenues confiscated, 
 1764 ; and were banished Spain 1767. Suppressed by pope Clement XIV. 
 in 1773, Restored by Pius VII. in 1814 ; and since tolerat ^\ in othe^ states, 
 
378 
 
 THE WORLD'S PHOGE.ESS. 
 
 [ JETfe 
 
 and even wl^ere not tolerated, the bod}^, as now in England, possesses a se- 
 cret and extensive existence. 
 
 JESUS CHRIST. Born on Monday, December 25, a. m. 4004, in the year of 
 Rome 752 ; but this event should be dated four years before the commence- 
 ment of the common era. Christ's baptism by John, and 
 his first ministry, a. d. 30. He celebrated the last passover, and instituted 
 the sacrament in its room, on Thursday, April 2. He was crucified on Fri- 
 day, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon. He arose, April 5 ; ascended 
 to heaven from Mount Olivet, on Thursday, May 14, following : and hia 
 Spirit descended on his disciples on Sunday, the day of Pentecost, May 24, 
 A. D. 33. 
 
 JEWELRY. Worn by most of the early nations. So prodigious was the ex- 
 travagance of the Roman ladies, that Pliny the elder says, he saw Lollia 
 Paulina wearing ornaments which were valued at 322,916Z. sterling. Jewels 
 were worn in France by Agnes Sorel, in 1434. The manufacture was ex- 
 tensively encouraged in England in 1685. See article Dress. 
 
 JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucidae until 
 the fifteenth century, when a new mode of computing was adopted by them. 
 They date from the creation, which they consider to have been 3760 years 
 and three months before the commencement of our era. To reduce Jewish 
 time to ours, subtract 3761 years. 
 
 JEWS. A people universally known both in ancient and modern times. They 
 derive their origin from Abraham, with whom, according to the Old Testa- 
 ment and the Jewish writers, God made a covenant, 1921 b. c. See Tabula}- 
 Views, p. 6 to p. 42. 
 
 JEWS, Modern History of. 
 
 Titus takes Jerusalem ; the city and 
 temple are sacked and burnt, and 
 1,100,000 of the Jews perish, multi- 
 tudes destroying themselves a. d. 70 
 
 100,000 Greeks and Romans are mur- 
 dered by the Jews about Cyrene - 115 
 
 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, and erects 
 a temple to Jupiter - - - 130 
 
 More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain 
 by the Romans, in 135 and - - 136 
 
 [They are now banished from Judea by 
 an edict of the emperor, and are for- 
 bidden to return, or even to look back 
 upon their once flourishing and be- 
 loved city, on pain of death. From 
 this period, the Jews have been scat- 
 tered among all other nations.] 
 
 GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Jews first arrive in England - - 1078 
 
 Thinking to invoke the divine mercy, at 
 a solemnization of the Passover, they 
 sacrifice a youth, the son of a rich 
 tradesman at Paris, for which the 
 criminals are executed, and all Jews 
 banished France - - - 1080 
 
 The Jews massacred in liOndon, on the 
 coronation-day of Richard I., at the 
 instigation of the priests - -1089 
 
 500 being besieged in York castle by 
 the mob. they cut each other's throats 
 to avoid their fury - - - 1190 
 
 Jews of both sexes imprisoned ; their 
 eyes or teeth plucked out, and num- 
 bers inhumanly butchered, by king 
 John 1204 
 
 They circumcise and attempt to cruci- 
 fy a child at Norwich ; the offenders 
 
 are condemned in a fine of 20,000 
 marks 1235 
 
 They crucify a child at Lincoln, for 
 which eighteen are hanged - - 1255 
 
 700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew 
 having forced a Christian to pay him 
 more tlian 2s. per week as interest 
 upon a loan of 20s. — Stoxoe - -1262 
 
 Statute that no Jew should enjoy a free- 
 hold, passed . - - . 1269 
 
 Every Jew lending money on interest 
 compelled to wear a plate on his 
 breast signifying that he was a usu- 
 rer, or to quit the realm - - 1274 
 
 267 Jews hanged and quartered for 
 clipping coin - - - - 1277 
 
 They crucify a child at Northampton, 
 for which fifty are drawn at horses' 
 tails and hanged - - - 1282 
 
 15,660 Jews are apprehended in one 
 day, and are all banished England. — 
 Rapin - - - - - 1287 
 
 Massacre of the Jews at Verdun by the 
 peasantry ; 500 defend themselves in 
 a castle, wherej for want of weapons, 
 they throw their children at their en- 
 emies, and then destroy one another 131 
 
 A fatal distemper raging in Europe, 
 they are suspected of having poison- 
 ed the springs, and 1,500,000 are mas- 
 sacred. — Leiiglet. - - - 1348 
 
 500,000 Jews are banished Spain, and 
 150,000 from Portugal - - 1492 
 
 They are banished France ■ - 14&i 
 
 After having been banished England 
 365 years, they are re-admitted by 
 Cromwell, in virtue of a treaty with 
 Manasseh Ben Israel - - - 1652 
 
J'JD J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 37 J 
 
 land, lost on the secor,d reading, by a 
 majority in tlie Commons, 228 against 
 165 - - - May 17, 1330 
 
 Moses Monteiiore, esq., elected sheriff 
 of liOndon ; and knighted by the 
 queen, being the first Jew on whom 
 that honor has been conferred, Nov. 9, 18J7 
 
 Ukase of the emperor of Russia, per- 
 mitting tiie title of citizen of the first 
 class to be held by any Jew who ren- 
 ders himself worthy of it - - IS'9 
 
 Owing to the disappearance ol a Greek 
 priest, a persecution of the Jews be- 
 gan at Daaascus. — See Daniascics 
 
 Feb. 1, ISIO 
 
 JEWS, continued. 
 
 Statute to natv ralize them in England, 
 
 passed ----- 1753 
 This act repealed on the petition of all 
 
 the cities in England - - - 1754 
 
 The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and 
 
 Avignon are declared to be citizens 
 
 of France .... 1790 
 
 Sitting of the great Sanhedrim, of Paris, 
 
 convened by the emperor Napoleon 
 
 Jan. 20, 1807 
 London Society for promoting Christi- 
 anity among the Jews - - iSOS 
 Alexander of Russia grants land on the 
 
 sea of Azoph to converted Jews, 
 
 Sept. 1, 1820 
 Bill for Jewish emancipation in Eng- 
 
 JOAN OF ARC, OR MAID OF ORLEANS. The young and celebrated heroine 
 of France. The English under Bedford closely besieging Orleans, /oan of 
 Arc pretended she had a divine commission to expel tliem, and Charles 
 VII. intrusted her with the command of the French troops. She raised 
 the siege, and entered Orleans with supplies, April 29, 1429, and the En- 
 glish who were before the place from October 12, preceding, abandoned the 
 enterprise, May 8, following. She captured several towns in the possession 
 of the English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, June 10, 1429. 
 In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty ever stained her conduct. 
 She was wounded several times herself, but never killed any one, or shed 
 any blood with her own hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, 
 May 25, 1431 ; and to the great disgrace of the English, was burnt for a 
 witch five days afterwards at Rouen, in the 22d (some say 29th) year of her 
 age. — Voltaire's Pucelle (V Orleans, 
 
 JOHN DOE AND RICHARD ROE. Names, as pledges to prosecute, well 
 known in the law. Magna Charta demanded witnesses before trial, and 
 since the reign of Edward III. the fictitious names of John Doe and Richard 
 Roe are put into writs, as pretended witnesses. 
 
 JUBILEE. By Mosaic institution the Jews celebrate a Jubilee every fifty 
 years. Among the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by 
 pope Boniface VIII., in the year 1300. It was celebrated every fifty years 
 by command of pope Clement VI. ; and was afterwards reduced by Urban 
 VI. to every thirty-third year j and Sixtus V, to every twenty-fifth year, at 
 which period it is now fixed. 
 
 FUDGES. On the Norman conquest the judges had the style of Justiciarius 
 Anglifz: these judges continued until the erection of the Courts of King's 
 Bench and Common Pleas. The last who had the office of Justiciarius Anglic 
 was Phillip Basset, in 1261. Judges punished for bribery, 17 Edward I, 
 1288, when Thomas de Weyland was banished the land; and in 1351, Wil- 
 liam de Thorp was hanged. John de Cavendish was beheaded by the Kent- 
 ish rebels, 1382. Tresylian, chief justice, was executed for favoring des- 
 potism, and other judges were seized and condemned, 1388. The prince of 
 Wales was committed by Judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the bench. 
 1412. Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, was beheaded, July 6, 1535. 
 Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley taken off the bench 
 and committed by the commons, 1641. Three impeached, 1680. Most of 
 them dismissed for not allowing the legality of a dispensing power in the 
 crown, 3 James II. 1687. The celebrated Judge JefFeries was committed by 
 the lord mayor to the Tower, where he died, 1689. The independence of the 
 judges in England was established by making their appointments patents 
 for life, 1761. Judges were sent to India, 1773. Three additional judges, 
 
380 THE world's rPcOGRESS. [ JDl. 
 
 one to each court, were appointed, 1784. A new judge took Lis seat as 
 vice-chancellor, May 5, 1813. 
 JUDGES IN THK UNITED STATES. Those of the Supreme Court, eight in 
 number, are appointed for life or during good conduct, by the President and 
 Senate. The chief justices of the Supreme Court of the United States have 
 been John Jay, appointed, 1789; "William Cushing, of Mass., 1796; Oliver 
 Ellsworth, 1796 ; John Marshall, 1801 ; Roger B. Tanej^ 1836. U. S. Cir- 
 cuit Judges were first appointed 1801. The judges of the several States 
 are thus appointed : — 
 
 By the Governor and Legislature, or Senate, or Council, in Maine, New 
 Hampshire, Massachusetts, Loaisana, Missouri, Indiana, and Michigan. 
 
 By the Legislature alone, in Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, 
 Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas, 
 Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois. 
 
 By the Governor alone in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Kentucky. 
 
 By popular vote, in Mississippi and in New York,* and Maryland. 
 
 The term of Office of the superior judges, is for life (or " during good 
 behavior ") in Massachusetts, Pennsjdvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginiaj 
 North Carolina, South Carolina. Louisiana, Kentucky and Illinois. 
 
 Until seventy years of age, in Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut. 
 
 Until sixty-five years of age, in Missouri. 
 
 For periods varying from two to tioelve years, in New Jersey, Georgia, Ala- 
 bama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan; and for 
 one year in Rhode Island, and Vermont. 
 
 They are removable — 
 By impeachment in fourteen States. By conviction of misconduct in a court 
 of law, in Maryland. By joint resolution of Senate, and two-thirds of As- 
 sembly, in New ^ork. 
 JUDICIAL COMMirrEE of the PRIVY COUNCIL, in lieu of the Court of 
 Delegates, for appeals from the Lord Chancellors of England and Ire 
 land in cases of lunacy — from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts 
 of England, and Vice Admiralty Courts abroad — from the Courts of the 
 Isle of Man, the Colonial Courts, &c., fixed by statute 3 and 4 William 
 IV. 1833. 
 JUGGERNAUT, or "Lord of the world."' The first object of Hindoo venera- 
 tion, is a celebrated idol of an irregular pyramidical black stone, with two 
 rich diamonds to represent eyes ; the nose and mouth are painted Vermil- 
 lion, and the visage is frightful. The number of pilgrims that visit the god 
 is stated at 1,200,000 annually: of these a great many never return, and 
 to the distance of fifty miles the way is strewed with human bones : the 
 temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years. 
 JUGURTHA, THE War with. A memorable war against the Numidian to re- 
 duce his kingdom, commenced 111 b. c. and continued five years. Csecilius 
 Metelkis was first sent against him, and defeated him in two battles; and 
 afterwards Sylla and Marius; the latter of whom dragged him in chains to 
 Rome to adorn his triumph. The name and wars of Jugurtha have been 
 immortalized by the pen of Sallust. 
 JULIAN PERIOD. A term of years produced by the multiplication of the 
 lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It con.sists of 7980 
 
 * The election of judges by the people, in New York, was first provided for by the nejr con«t» 
 tution of 1846. 
 
JUS. ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 38 ! 
 
 years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in comput- 
 ing time, to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attenflant on reckoning any period 
 antecedent to our ei-a, an advantage which it has in common with the mun- 
 dane eras used at diiferent times. By subtracting 4713 from the Julian 
 period, our year is found ; if before Christ, subtract the Julian period from 
 4714. For Julian year, see Calendar and Year. 
 
 JULY. The seventh month of the year, from the Latin Julms, the surname of 
 C. Ctesar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. It was the fifth month 
 in the Roman calendar until Numa added January and February to the 
 year, 713 b. c. See those months severally, and article Yeaf 
 
 JITNE. The sixth month, but originally the fourth month of the Roman year. 
 It had its name Junius, which some derive a Junone, and oi\\eY&d Junior i- 
 bus, this being for the young, as the month of May was for aged persons. 
 When Numa added two months before March, this month became, as it is 
 now, the sixth of the calendar, 713 b. c. See Year. 
 
 J UNIUS'S LETTERS. Junius was the assumed name of a concealed political 
 writer, who published his letters in the Public Advertiser, in 1769. They 
 were written in a nervous, sarcastic, and clear style, and produced a power- 
 ful impression, and the volume is now one of the most admired in British 
 literature. These letters have been ascribed to Mr. Burke, Mr. William 
 Gerard Hamilton, commonly called single-speech Hamilton, John Wilkes, 
 Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Mr. Serjeant Adair, the rev. J. 
 Rosenhagen, John Roberts, esq., Mr. Charles Lloyd, Mr. Samuel Dyer, ge- 
 neral Lee, Hugh Boyd, esq., and sir Philip Francis; but ihe matter is still 
 hidden in obscurity. "I am the depositary of mj^ own secret, and it shall 
 perish with me." — Junius. And recently to Horace Walpole. 
 
 J 6'PITER. Known as a planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans : to the for- 
 mer, it is said 3000, b. c. ; and correctly inserted in a chart of the heavens, 
 made about 600 b. c. and in which 1460 stars are accurately described ; this 
 chart is said to be in the royal library at Paris. The satellites of Jupiter 
 were discovered by Galileo, a. d. 1610 ; but Jansen, it is affirmed, claimed 
 some acquaintance with them about twenty years before. 
 
 JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon Hep- 
 tarchy, mention being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen 
 appointed to try causes between the English and Welsh men of property, 
 and made responsible with their whole estates, real and personal, for false 
 verdicts. — Lambard. But by most authorities their institution is ascribed 
 to Alfred. In Magna Charta, juries are insisted on as the great bulwark of 
 the people's liberty. When either party is an alien born, the jury shall be 
 one-half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 28 Edward III. 1353. 
 By the common law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal, might challenge 
 peremptorily thirty-five, being under three juries ; but a lord of parliament, 
 and a peer of the realm that is to be tried by his peers, cannot challenge 
 any of his peers. 
 
 ILTRIES, Coercion of. About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used 
 to feed the jury empanelled in their action, and hence arose the common 
 law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. A 
 jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agree 
 upon a verdict ; and maybe confined without meat, drink, or candle, till 
 they are unanimous. Some jurors have been fined for having fruit in their 
 pockets, when they were withdrawn to consider of their verdict, though 
 they did not eat it. — Leon. Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being able to 
 agree, and having been some time under duress, forcibly broke from the 
 court where they were locked up, and went home, October 9, 1791. — 
 Pliillifs. 
 
Is82 THE world's progress, [ kie 
 
 JUSTJCES OF THE PP^ACE. These are local magistrates, invested with ex- 
 tensive powers in minor cases, but subject to supercession and punish- 
 ment by the king's bench for an abuse of their authority. Justices of tho 
 peace in every countj^ first nominated by William the Conqueror, in 1076. 
 — Stowe. In the United Stages the office is held by special appointment, 
 and the tenure is different in different States ; it is usually for seven years. 
 
 JUSTINIA.N CCDE. Wherein was written what may be termed the statute 
 law, scattered through 2000 volumes, reduced to fifty, completed a. d. 529. 
 To this code of laws Justinian added the Pandects, the Institutes, and 
 Novels. These compilations have since been called, collectively, the body 
 of civil law {corpus juris civilis). A digest was made in 533. — Blair. 
 
 K. 
 
 KALEIDOSCOPE. This optical instrument, which combines mirrors, and pro- 
 duces a symmetrical reflection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr, 
 Brewster of Edinburgh ; it was first suggested in 1814, and the instrument 
 perfected in 1817, when it found its way into every body's hands. It is in- 
 tended to assist jewellers, glass-painters, and other ornamental artists, in the 
 formation of patterns, of which it produces an infinite number. 
 
 KAMTSCHATKA. The peninsula on the eastern co^st of Asia. It was dis- 
 covered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, a. d. 1690; and was taken possession of 
 by Russia in 1697 ; it was not ascertained to be a peninsula until visited by 
 Behring, in 1728. Four months, commencing at our midsummer, may be 
 considered as the spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year 
 being dreary winter. 
 
 KENILWORTH CASTLE. Built in 1120, but much of the pile was erected 
 subsequently by John of Gaunt ; and its remains now form one of the most 
 picturesque objects in the kingdom. This celebrated castle was conferred 
 on Dudley, earl of Leicester, by queen Elizabeth, whom he afterwards en- 
 tertained within its walls for seventeen days. His sumptuous entertainment 
 of the queen commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily lOOOZ. a vast 
 expenditure in those times. 
 
 KENTUCKY, one of the United States, was first explored by Daniel Boone, 
 an enterprising hunter, in 1770. First white settlement near Lexington, 1775. 
 Was a pa^'t of Virginia until 1782, when it was made a separate district. Ad 
 mitted into the Union 1792. Population in 1790, 73.677 ; in 1810, 406,511 , 
 in 1830, 688,844 ; in 1840, 779,828, including 182,258 slaves. 
 
 KEYS. The invention of them is ascribed to Theodore, of Samos, by Pliny, 
 about 730 b. c. But this is an error, as keys are mentioned in the siege of 
 Troy, 1193 b. c. Keys were originally made of wood, and the earliest form 
 was a simple crook similar to the common picklock now in use. The ancient 
 keys now to be found in the cabinets of the curious are mostly of bronze. 
 The late P'^rancis Douce, esq., had some of remarkable shapes, the shaft ter- 
 minating on one side by the works, on the other by a ring. Keys of this 
 description were presented by husbands to wives, and were returned again 
 upon divorce or sepai'ation. 
 
 KIEL, Treaty of. Between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, signed Jan- 
 uary 14, 1814. By this treaty Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously 
 the Norwegians had been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent 
 a deputation to England, to interest that country in their favor. The mission 
 was fruitless. On the contrary, the English blockaded the ports of Norway, 
 and the Swedes entered by land. The Norwegians fought some brave actions, 
 b)it they were defeated. The prince of Denmark quitted Norway, and the 
 diet elected the king of Sweden to be their king. 
 
e.m J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 383 
 
 BTFNG.. The Latin Rex, the Scythian Eeis, the Spanish Beij, llie French Rot^ 
 all come from the Hebrew Rosch, chief, or head. Nimrod was the first 
 founder of a kingdom, 2245 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. Misraim built cities in 
 Eg'315t, and was the first who assumed the title of king in that division of the 
 earth. Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 b. c. Most of the Grecian states 
 were governed by kings ; and kings first ruled in Rome. The Egyptians 
 understood the only just principle of government, namely, to make the peo- 
 ple happy ; and although among them the monarchy was hereditary, the 
 sovereign was as much bound by the laws as his meanest subject : there was 
 a peculiar code for his direction in the most minute particulars of public 
 , and private life. The king's hour of rising, the portion of time he should 
 devote each day to the services of religon, tlie administration of justice, 
 the quality of his food, and the rank of persons by whom he was servedj 
 were all prescribed. 
 
 KING ov- ENGLAND. _ The style "kirgof England," was first used by Egbert 
 A. D. 828; but the title Rex ge^itis Ang brum, king of the English nation, 
 existed during the Heptarchy. See BrUain. The plural phraseology of we, 
 us, our, was first adopted by king John, in 1207. The title of '■ king of L-e- 
 - land," by British sovereigns, was not assumed until 542, when Henry VIH. 
 changed Lord of Ireland into king. The style " Great Britain " was adopted 
 at the union of England and Scotland, 6 Anne, 1707; and of the "United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " at the union of these countries, Jan- 
 uary 1, 1801, when the royal style and title was appointed to run thus :— 
 ^'•Georgius Tcrtius, Dei Gratia Britanniarum Rex, Fidei Defensor,''^ "George 
 the third, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
 and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith." 
 
 KING OF THE FRENCH. Decreed by the National Assembly that the title of 
 " king of France" should be changed in the person of Louis XVI. to that ol 
 " king of the French," October 16, 1789. The royal title was abolished in 
 1792: but restored in the Boui'bon family, in 1814. Louis-Philippe I. 
 was invited to the monarchy under the style of the " king of the French," 
 August y, 1830. See France. 
 
 KING OF HUNGARY. The averseness of the Hungarian people to the terra 
 queen, has led to the custom among them, that whenever a female succeeds 
 to the throne, she shall be called king. Thus it will be seen in the annals of 
 Hungary, that the daughter of Louis I. reigned as Vdng Mary, in 1383. See 
 Hungary. 
 
 KING OF THE ROMANS. The emperors of Germany, in order that their eldest 
 sons might be chosen their successors, in their own lifetime politically ob- 
 tained them the title of "king of the Romans," this people being compre- 
 hended in that sovereignty. The first emperor so elected was Henry IV,, in 
 1055. Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was induced to go to 
 Germany, wheie he disbursed vast sums under the promise of being elected 
 next emperor; he obtained the title of "king of the Romans," but failed in 
 succeeding to the Imperial crown. The style " king of Rome " was revived 
 by Bonaparte, who conferred it on his son, upon his birth, in April, 1811 ; 
 but the title ceased with the extinction of the dynasty of Napoleon, April 
 5, 1814. 
 
 KINGS BENCH, Court of, in England. Obtained its name from the kir.g 
 sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and the judges, to whom the 
 judicature belongs in his absence, on a low bench at his feet. The jurisdic- 
 tion of this court extends all over England, and is not so subject to control 
 as others, because the law presumes the king to be here in person. The 
 name of this court has been altered to that of Qiteen's Bench, since the 
 
384 THE world's progress. [ KNi 
 
 accession of Victoria, in June, 1837, as is the case with all institutions in 
 immediate connection with, or dependent upon the sovereign. 
 
 KLiV^'S EVIL. Supposed to be cured by the touch of the kings of England, 
 The first who touched for it was Edward the Confessor, 1058. This vulgar 
 ciedulity had in the age of Charles II. arisen to such a height, that in four- 
 teen years, 92107 persons w^ere touched ; and, according to Wiseman, the 
 king's physician, they were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne officially an- 
 nounced in the London Gazette, March 12, 1712, her royal intention to touch 
 publicly for the cure of the evil ; and touching for it continued a custom un- 
 til it was wisely discouraged, and ultimately dropped by George I., 1714. 
 
 E.INGS SPEECH. The fiist royal speech from the throne was delivered by 
 Henry I., in 1107. A late celebrated writer, after remarkii'ig with his accus- 
 tomed harshness upon Mr. Canning, who had just then (April 1827) become 
 chief of a new administration, said — ■" Canning being now minister, of one 
 thing, and one thing only, we are certain, we shall have no more grammati- 
 cal blunders in king's speeches; these things will still be Aviitten in the 
 same meagre way, in point of matter, as before ; but we shall have them in 
 a perspicuous and pure style." — Cobbett. 
 
 KINGDOMS. The origin of kingdoms may be referred to Belus, supposed to 
 have been the Nimrod of Holy Writ ; he was the founder of the Babylonian 
 monarchy, 2::i45 b. c. — Usher. Menes. or Misralfm, makes his son Atholas, 
 surnamed the first Mercury, king of Upper Egypt ; and another son, Tosc>-- 
 thrus, he establishes at Memphis, 2188 b. c. — Blair. Ninus founds the As- 
 syrian monarchy, 2059 b. c. — Lenglet. 
 
 KISSING. Kissing the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing 
 was a mode of salutation among the Jews, as we may collect from Judas 
 approaching his master with a kiss ; it was also customary in Rome. Kiss- 
 ing the pope's foot took its rise from the custom of kneeling to sovereigns, 
 and began with Adrian I. or Leo III. at the close of the eighth century. 
 From kneeling to sovereigns came also the ceremony of a vassal kneeling 
 to his lord in homage, first practised, a. d. 709. 
 
 KtT-KAT CLUB. A society which consisted of about thirty noblemen and 
 gentlemen of distinguished abilities, instituted in 1703, for the purpose of 
 promoting the Erotestant succession in the house of Hanover, which they 
 efl>3Cted by spirited publications as well as other measures. Addison, Steele, 
 and Dr. Garth were members, and made several epigrams upon the toasts of 
 the club. The club took its name from one Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook, 
 who lived near the tavern where they met, in King-street, Westminster, and 
 who served them with pastry. — Bowyer's Life qf Queen Anne. 
 
 KNIGHT. The origin of this title as a military honor is said to be derived 
 from the siege of Troy, but this solely depends upon a passage or two in 
 Homer. With certainty we may trace the distinction to the Romans, who. 
 after their union with the Sabines, created three centuries of knights, about 
 750 B. c. — Livy. 
 
 FaNIGHT-ERRANTRY. Took its rise in the combats of the Celtic nations, 
 particularly the judicial combats, and much prevailed in Spain, France, and 
 Germany. Tilts and tournaments commenced with the return of the cru- 
 saders from the holy wars, and for about 300 years they were the chief 
 amusements of courts, and the successful combatants acquired knighthood, 
 and the favor of the ladies. When public combats declined, the knighta 
 travelled in search of adventures, to correct injustice, and fight in the 
 cause of the fair ; and the consequent follies gave rise to the novel of Don 
 Quixote. 
 
 RNIGHTHOOD. Was conferred in England by the priest at the altar, after 
 
ENI ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 3Fi5 
 
 confession and consecration of the sword, during the Saxon Heptarch/ 
 The first knight made by the sovereign with the sword of state was AtliL-i- 
 Stan, on whom Alfred bestowed this new dignitj^ a. d. 900. — Spelman. The 
 custom of ecclesiastics conferring the honor of knighthood was suppressed 
 in a synod held at Westminster in 1100. — Ashviole's Institutes. All persons 
 having ten pounds j^early income were obliged to be knighted, or pay a line, 
 38 Henry HI. 12M..~Salmon. 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD in EUROPE. As a system, under the denomination of chi- 
 valry, knighthood is to be dated from the eleventh century. On the de- 
 cline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe being reduced to a state of 
 anarchy, the proprietor of every manor became a petty sovereign ; his man- 
 sion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a guard, and called a castle. 
 Excursions were made by one petty lord against another, and the women and 
 treasure were carried oft' by the conqueror. At length the owners of rich 
 fiefs associated to repres these marauders, and to make property secure, and 
 to protect the ladies ; binding themselves to these duties by a solemn vow, 
 and the sanction of a religious ceremony. The first knights being men of 
 the highest rank and largest possessions, adriission into the order was 
 fleemed. a great honor, 
 
 MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND HONORARY ORDERS OP KNIGHTHOOD. 
 
 Generosity, Brandenburgh - - 16^ 
 
 Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by 
 
 Alcantara, instituted - - A. d. 1160 
 
 Alexander Nevskoi, Russia - - 1700 
 
 Amaranta, Sweden ... 1645 
 
 Angelic Knights, Greece - - - 456 
 
 Annunciada, Mantua • - - 1618 
 
 Annunciation, Savoy - - - 1355 
 
 Argonauts, Naples - - - 1382 
 
 Avis, Portugal - - - - 1147 
 
 Band, Spain .... 1232 
 
 Bannerets, England, 1360. Renewed. 
 See Bannerets - - - - 1485 
 
 Bath, England, 1399. Renewed. See 
 Bath - , - - - -1725 
 
 Bear, Switzerland - - - - 1213 
 
 Black Eagle, Prussia, instituted by 
 Frederick I. - - - - 1701 
 
 Blood of Christ, Mantua - - - 1608 
 
 Broiherly Love, instituted - - 1708 
 
 Burgundian Cross - - • • 1535 
 
 Calatrava, Castile, instituted by San- 
 cho III. ..... 1156 
 
 Carpet, England - - - - 1553 
 
 Catharine, Russia - - - 1698 
 
 Chase, instituted by the duke ofWir- 
 temberg - - - - - 1719 
 
 Christ, Livonia - - - ' - 1203 
 
 Christ, Portugal - • • 1319 
 
 Christian Charity, France - 3590 
 
 Cincinnatus, America • - - 1783 
 
 Conception of the Virgin . . 1619 
 
 Concord, Prussia, instituted by Chris- 
 tian Ernest, elector of Brandeuturgh 1660 
 Crescent, Naples . - - . 1448 
 
 Crown Royal, France . - . 802 
 
 Daneburgh, Denmark, instituted by 
 Waldemar II., 1219 ; revived by 
 Christian V. - - - - 1671 
 
 Death's Head, Female Order, by the 
 widow Louisa Elizabeth of SiXxe 
 Mersburgh - - - - 1709 
 
 Dove of Castile - ' - - 1379 
 
 Dragon, Hungary - - • 1439 
 
 Earof Corn, Brittany . - - 1050 
 
 Elephan'. Denmark, by Christian l. . 1478 
 jDrmine, France - - - - 14-50 
 
 Carter. England - - • -1350 
 
 17 
 
 Philip, surnamed the Good . - 1429 
 
 Golden Lion, Hesse- Cassel - . 1785 
 
 Golden Shield- and Thistle - - -1370 
 
 Golden Spur, by Pius IV. • • 1559 
 
 Guelphic, Hanover - . - - 1816 
 
 Holy Ghost, France, 14C8. Revived - 1559 
 Holy Ghost, Rome - - - 1 198 
 
 Holy Trinity 1211 
 
 Hospitallers (ichich see) • - 1092 
 
 Januarius, Naples - • • - 173S 
 
 .Jerusalem. See Malta - ■ - 1048 
 
 .Jesus, France - - - - 1206 
 
 Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John 
 
 XXII., 1415. Reformed by Paul V. 16^0 
 Knot, Naples .... 1351 
 La Calza, Venice - - - - 1400 
 
 Legion of Honor, France, instituted by 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte - - - 1802 
 
 Lily of Arragon - - - - 1403 
 
 Lily of Navarre • - - -1048 
 
 Loretto, Lady of • - - - 1587 
 
 Malta. See Malta. • - - 1531 
 
 Martyrs, Palestine - - - - 1319 
 
 Maria-Theresa, Order of Ladies, Spain 1792 
 Alauritians, Savoy - - - 1430 
 
 Merit, instituted by the landgrave of 
 
 Hesse Cassel • - • - 1785 
 
 Merit, Prussia ... - 1740 
 
 Noble Passion, Germany - - - 1704 
 
 Oak of Navarre, Spain - • - 722 
 
 Passion of Jesus Christ, I Vance - 1382 
 
 Pius, founded by Pius IV. - - - 15.''>9 
 
 Porcupine, France - - - 1303 
 
 Red Eagle, Prussia - - - - 1792 
 
 Redemption, instituted - - -1212 
 
 Rosary, Spain - - - - 1172 
 
 Round Table, Enjlfind— See Knights 
 
 of the Round Table - 
 St. Andrew, Russia (tradition ascribes 
 to this saint the introduction of Chris- 
 tianity into Muscovy) . . • 
 St. Andrew, Scotland, 809; renewed 
 
 1452 ; and again by James VI. 
 St. Anthony. Ethiopia 
 
 - 528 
 
 1698 
 
 1605 
 357 
 
^86 
 
 THE world's TROGRESS. 
 
 [ KIT 
 
 KNIGHTHOOD IN EUROPE, continue.!. 
 
 -]382| 
 
 - - 12:50 ! 
 -1163! 
 
 - . 1698 
 - 1267 
 
 St. Anthony, Ilainault - 
 St. Blaze, Aeon 
 St. Catharine, Palestine - 
 St. Catharine, Russia 
 St. Denis, France 
 
 St. George, Austria - - - • 1470 
 
 St. George, Carinlhia - - - 1279 
 
 St. George, Defender of the Immacu- 
 late Conception, Bavaria - - 1729 
 St. George, England ; instituted by Ed- 
 ward III. See Garter ■ - 1349 
 St. George; tutelary saint of Genoa, by 
 
 Frederick III. - - -' - 1400 
 
 St. George, Rome - - - 1496 
 
 St. George, Russia - - - - 1782 
 
 St. George, Siiain - - - 1318 
 
 St. George, Venice - - - - 1200 
 
 St. Hubert, Germany, by the duke of 
 
 Juliers and Cleves 
 St. .lames, Holland - 
 St. James, Portugal 
 St. .James, Spain 
 St. .Jerome, Germany 
 St. .John of Aeon 
 St. .John of. Jerusalem 
 St. .John of Malta 
 St. John of Rhodes 
 St. Julien, of Alcantara 
 
 1447 
 
 - 1290 
 
 - 1310 
 
 - 1030 
 
 - 11.54 
 
 - 1370 
 •1048 
 -1522 
 
 - 1300 
 
 - 1176 
 
 St. Lazarus, and St. Maurice, by Eman- 
 uel Philibert, duke of Savoy - - 1572 
 St. Louis, France - - - - 1693 
 St. Mark, Venice, 830; renewed - 1562 
 St. Mary the Glorious - - - 12,33 
 St. Mary de Merced, Spain • - 1218 
 St. Michael, France - - - - 1469 
 
 St. Michael, Germanj - . - 1613 
 
 St. Patrick, Ireland - • - 1783 
 
 St. Paul, Rome .... 1540 
 Si. Peter, Rome - - - . 1520 
 
 St. Rupert, Germany, by tl 3 arc hbisli- 
 
 op of Saltzburgh - - -1701 
 
 St. Sepulchre, Palestine - - - 1092 
 
 St. Stephen, by Casimir de Medicis, 
 
 grand-duke of Tuscany -1561 
 
 St. Thomas of Aeon- • - -1370 
 
 Saviour, Greece - - June 1, 1833 
 
 Seraphims, Sweden - - - - 1331 
 
 Ship and Crescent, France - - 126^ 
 
 Sincerity, instituted by the elector of - 
 
 Saxony - - - - - 1691 1 
 
 Slaves of Virtue, Germany - -1662 
 
 Swan, Cleves - - - - 960 
 
 Sword, Cyprus - . - - 1195 
 
 Sword, Sweden, 1523; revived • -1772 
 Templars. — See Templars ■ - 1113 
 
 Teste Morte, Wurtemburg - - - 1652 
 
 Teutonic, 1190; renewed in Prussia - 1522 
 Thistle of Bourbon - - - 1370 
 
 Thistle of Scotland, 812; revived . 1540 
 Trinitarians, Spain - - - 1594 
 
 Truxillo, Spain - - - - 1227 
 
 United Ladies for the honor of tie 
 
 Crossi in Germany • - - 1666 
 
 Virgin Mary 1233 
 
 Virgin of Mount Carmel, France - 1607 
 
 Warfare of ( Uirist, Poland - • - 1705 
 
 Warfare of Christ, Russia - - 1325 
 
 Wing of St. Michael, Portugal - -1165 
 Wladimir, Russia - - - 1682 
 
 KNIGHTS, Female. The title of knight, which was given to men of snperioi 
 worth, ability, and fortune, in former times, was sometimes given to womei 
 also. As an instance, it was conferred on the women who preserved tho' 
 cit}^ of Tortosa from falling into the hands of the Moors in 1149, by their 
 stout resistance and vigorous attack of the besiegers, by which means the 
 Moors were forced to raise the siege. Large immunities and favors were 
 granted to them and their descendants for their heroism on this occasion. 
 
 KNIGHTS OF THE ROUND TABLE. Instituted by king Arthur, about a. d. 
 528. — Asserts Life of Alfred. This ancient order was revived by Edward 
 III. at Windsor, upon New Year's day, 1344. The king, with a view to the 
 recovery of France, which descended to him in right of his mother, became 
 anxious to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and thereupon 
 projecting and setting up king Arthur's Round Table, he proclaimed a 
 solemn tilting, to invite foreigners of quality and courage to the exercise. 
 He published his royal letters of protection, for the safe coming and return 
 of such foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at those 
 jousts and tournaments. — Beatson. 
 
 KNIGHTS OF THE SHIRE. The barons, or tenants in chief, or freeholders by 
 Doorasday-book, were 700 in number, but being split into small parts, wero 
 greater and lesser, all of whom were entitled to sit in parliament ; but the 
 latter, or lesser barons, were allowed to choose two representatives, hence 
 called knights of the shire, a. d. 1307. 
 
 EI^'IGHTS TEMPLARS. A religious and military order, instituted a. d. 1118 
 They came to England early in Stephen's reign, and settled at the Temple 
 in London ; and at other places in the reign of Henry II. All the knights 
 were arrested in France in one day, being charged with great crimes, and 
 possessing great riches ; fifty-nine of them were burnt alive at Paris in Oct., 
 
LAU j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 387 
 
 1307. Those in England were all seized the same year. Thei. order was 
 abolished by Philip the Fair of France, at the council of Viennc, in 1312 ; 
 and many thousands were subsequently massacred, their wealth being given 
 to the kniglits of Malta. See Malta. 
 
 KNIVES. First made in England in 1563, They were the earliest branch of 
 cutler3^ and were first manufactured by one Mathews, of Fleet-Bridge, Lon- 
 don, 6th Eliz., 1563. — Chamherlaiii^ s England^ edit. 1683. See Forks. 
 
 KORAN, OR ALKORAN of MAHOMET, written about a. d. 610. Its general 
 aim was, to unite the professions of Idolatry and the Jews and Christians !Q 
 the worship of one God (whose unity was the chief point inculcated), under 
 certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience to Mahomet as the pro- 
 phet. It was written in the Koreish Arabic, and this language, which cer- 
 tainly possessed every fine quality, was said to be that of paradise. Maho- 
 met asserted that the Koran was revealed to him, during a period of twenty- 
 three years, by the angel Gabriel. The style of this volume is beautiful, 
 fluent, and concise, and where the majesty and attributes of God are de- 
 scribed, it is subhme and magnificent. Mahomet admitted the divine mis- 
 sion both of Moses and Jesus Christ. — Dr. Jortin. The leading artirle of 
 faith wdiich this impostor preached, is compounded of an eternal truth, and 
 a necessary fiction, namely, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet 
 is the apostle of God. — Gibbon. Tlie Koran was translated into Latin in 
 1143; and into English and other European languages about 11QZ, et seq. 
 It is a rhapsody of 3000 verses, divided into 114 sections. See Alcoran j 
 Islaviism; Mecca; MaJiometism, d^c. 
 
 L. 
 
 LA HOGUE, Battle of, between the English and Dutch combined fleets, under 
 admirals Russel and Rooke, and the French fleet commanded by admiral 
 Tourville. The English attacked the French near La Hogue, gaining a 
 splendid victory, burning thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight 
 more, forcing the rest to fly, and thus preventing a threatened descent upon 
 England, May 19, 1692. 
 
 LA PEROUSE^S VOYAGE. It was commenced in 1785, when Perouse sailed 
 from France for the Pacific, with the Boussole and Astrolabe under his com- 
 mand. The last direct intelligence received from him was from Botany Bay, 
 in March 1788. Several expeditions were subsequently dispatched in search 
 of Perouse, but no certain information Avas had until captain Dillon, of the 
 East India ship Research, ascertained that the French ships had been cast 
 away on two different islands of the New Hebrides — a fate authenticated by 
 various articles of the WTCck of these vessels, which capt. Dillon brought 
 Avith him to Calcutta, April 9, 1828, 40 years afterwards. 
 
 LA VENDEE, War of. The French Royalists here took to arms, and were 
 ' successful in a niimber of battles with the Republican armies, fought be- 
 tween July 12, 1793, and January 1, 1794, when they experienced a severe 
 reverse. Numerous other engagements were fought, with various success, 
 until this war terminated, Jan. 10, 1800. 
 
 LABYRINTH. There were four most famous in history : the first was built by 
 Daedalus, in the island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 b. c. ; 
 the second in Egypt in the isle of Moeris, by Psammeticus, king of that 
 place, 683 b. c. ; and the fourth in Italy, erected by Porsenna, king of the 
 Hetrurige, about 520 b. c. — Pliny. The beauty and art of the labyrinth of 
 Egypt were almost beyond belief; it had 12 halls and 3000 chambers, with 
 pillars, was encrusted with mai'ble, and adorned with sculpture. — Herodotus. 
 The labyrinth of Woodstock is famous from its connection with the story of 
 
388 THE world's progress. [ ljm 
 
 Fair Rosamond, mistress of Henry II. ; there is a curious Maze at Hampton 
 Court that is much visited. 
 LACE. Mention is made of it as being of very delicate texture in Fraaace and 
 Flanders in 1320 ; and fine laces were much in use for ruffles and frills foi 
 the men, and headdresses for the women, in the fifteenth century. Lace 
 was general in the court costume of Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, Valencien- 
 nes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been famous for their fine lace. An 
 ounce weight of Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four pounds 
 in London, and its value when manufactured has been increased to forty 
 pounds, ten times the price of standard gold. 
 
 i, ACED^MON. See Sparta. I<elez begins the kingdom of Lelegia, in Laco- 
 nia, 1516 b. c. Eurotas gives his daughter Sparta in marriage to Lacedee- 
 mon, and makes him partner on the throne, 1490 b. c. The city of Sparta 
 was built about this time, and hence the name by which the country is mosl 
 known. The Lacedsemon republic became famous in History after 700 b. c, 
 particularly by the conquest of Athens. It was made a Roman province 71 
 B. c. The territory now belongs to the Turks. — Thucijdides ; Priestley. 
 
 LADIES. The mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out to the 
 ])oor weekly with their own hands certain quantities of bread, and were 
 therefore called Lef-days — two Saxon words signifying bread-giver, and the 
 words were at length corrupted, and the mistress is called to this day Lady, 
 that is, Lef-day. The introduction of ladies to court, was first to that of 
 Louis XII. of France in 1499. As a title of honor, the title of lady properly 
 belongs only to the daughters of earls, and all of higher rank ; but custom 
 has made it a term of complaisance for the wiv.es of knights, and all women 
 of eminence or gentility. See Lord. 
 
 LADRONE ISLES. Discovered by Magellan, in 1520 ; they are eleven in nun* 
 ber ; at the island of Guam he first touched. Here, some of the natives 
 having stolen some of his goods, and showing a great disposition to theft, 
 he named the islands the Ladrones, or Islands of Thieves, which they are 
 called to this day. 
 
 LADY DAY. This festival, the 25th March, was instituted about a. d. ,S50, 
 according to some authorities, and not before the seventh century accord- 
 ing to others. On this day, the 25th of March, the angel Gabriel brought 
 to the Virgin Mary the message concerning her son Jesus ; hence it is called 
 the Annunciation, and is celebrated' in the Catholic church as one of its 
 chief feasts ; and in the Reformed church also, on account of the con- 
 nection between the circumstance commemorated and the Incarnation. In 
 England, before the alteration of the style, the new year began on the 25th 
 of March. 
 
 LA. FAYETl'E'S first visit to the United States, to aid the cause of American 
 independence ; he arrived at Charleston, April 25, 1777, being then nineteen 
 years old. He raised a corps at his own expense ; was wounded at Brandy- 
 wine ; employed in Rhode Island, 1778 ; visited France, promoting new re- 
 inforcements for the United States, and returned 1779. His triumphal 
 reception in the United States on a visit of pleasure, Aug. 13, 1824 ; re- 
 ceived from Congress the sum of $200 000 and a township of land in reward 
 for his services : returned to France in the frigate Brandywine, September 
 7, 1825. 
 
 t A-MPS. See Lanterns. Lamps are mentioned in all the early ages ; they 
 were in use in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The earthen lamp which Epic- 
 tetus the philosopher had in his study sold, after his death, for 8000 
 drachmas, a. d. 161. Lamps with horn sides were tlie invention of Alfred. 
 T^mps were in general use through the streets of London up to the close 
 
lan] 
 
 DICTIOXAKY OF DATES. 389 
 
 of the ISih century, as were flambeaux which were carried by link-boys. 
 London streets were first lighted by oil-lamps in 1681 ; and with gas lamps 
 in iyi-1. The domestic lamp is now of elegant manufacture; of this kind 
 is the Argand lamp, brought into general use in England in 1785, et seq. 
 See Safety Lamp. 
 
 LANCASTER! AN SCHOOLS. On a system of education by means of mutual 
 instruction, propagated by Joseph Lancaster and Dr. Bell ; they were not 
 much patronized till about 1808, when Lancaster's system attracted general 
 attention, notwithstanding the prejudices that existed against the foundei-, 
 who had been laboring to introduce schools upon his economic plan from 
 1798. They became general in 1818, and there are now some hundreds of 
 them in England, and in London more than forty. They were founded in 
 Senegal, and were extensively instituted in Russia, in 1819. 
 
 LAND. Was let generally in England for Is. per acre, 36 Henry YIII. 1544. 
 The whole rental of the kingdom was about 6,000,000Z. in 1600. It was 
 about 14,000,000Z. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of 
 10 per cent, on an estimate of 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 50 
 millions, the rent of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of trade at 40 
 millions; but in this estimate were exempted much land and the inferior 
 class of houses. See Income Tax. The rental of the United Kingdom has 
 been recently estimated in parliament at 1 27 millions, but authorities vary 
 much on the amount. See Public Lands, U. S. 
 
 LANDG-RAYP]. This is from land, and grave a count, a German title of do- 
 minion, which appears to have commenced in the eleventh century; it be- 
 came the title of the house of Hesse Cassel, about the year 1300 ; and the 
 rank was subsequently assumed by the branches of Hesse Homburg, Hesse 
 Philipstal, Hesse Darmstadt, &c. See Hesse. 
 
 LANG-SIDE, Battle OF; between the forces of the regent of Scotland, the 
 earl of Murray, and the army of Mary queen of Scots, in which the latter 
 suffered a complete defeat, May 15, 1568. Immediately after this last fatal 
 battle, the unfortunate Mary fled to England, and landed at "Workington, in 
 Cumberland, on May 16 ; and was soon afterwards imprisoned by Ehzabeth, 
 
 LANGUAGE. Language must either have been revealed originally from hea- 
 ven, or it is the fruit of human invention. The latter opinion is embraced by 
 Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek and Roman writers ; the 
 former opinion by the great majority of the Jews and Christians, and the pro- 
 tbundest philosophers of France and England. It has been affirmed that 
 Hebrew was the language spoken by Adam : but others deny this, and say that 
 the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, are only dialects of the original, which has 
 for many ages been lost and unknown. Psammeticus the Powerful, desiring 
 Lo know the most ancient people and language on the earth, caused two 
 children to be kept from all knowledge of the use of speech, until they 
 were two years old : they were then brought into his presence, and tlioy 
 both pronounced the sound beccos, the Phoenician term for bread. He tliere- 
 fore gave the Phoenician the precedence, in point of antiquity, to all other 
 nations, 647' B. c. — Herodotus, Polycen., Strabo. 
 
 LANGUAGES. Of the Hebrew, the Chaldee and Syriac are dialects. Ti.e 
 original European ones are thirteen, viz: Greek, Latin, Dutch, Sclavonian, 
 spokeii ii. the east : Welsh, Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish, Albanian, in 
 the mountains of Epirus, Tartarian, the old Illyrian, the Jazygian, remain- 
 ing yet in Liburnia ; the Chaucin, in the north of Hungary ; and the Finnic, 
 in East Friesland. Arabic is the mother tongue of Africa. From the Latin 
 sprung the Italian, French and S^ anish ; and from the Spanish the Portu- 
 guese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. From the High 
 Dutcli, or Teutonic, sprang the Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, 
 
390 THE world's progress. [ LAI 
 
 &c. There are 3664 known languages now used in the world Of these, 
 937 are Asiatic; 587 European; 276 African; and 1624 American languages 
 and dialects. — Professor Adelung. 
 
 LANTERN'S. In general use from a very early date. Those of scraped horn 
 were invented in England, it is said by Alfred, and it is supposed that horn 
 was used for window-lights also, as glass was not known in Alfred's reign, 
 A. D. 872-901. — Sioioe's Ghron. London was lighted by suspended lanterns, 
 with glass sides, a. d. 1415. The pellucid laminae of the ox horn have served 
 for ages for the sides of lanterns instead of glass, and for many uses are 
 preferred. See article, Lamps. 
 
 LAOCOON. This exquisite work of art, executed in marble, is universally 
 allowed to be the triumph of Grecian sculpture. It was modelled by Ages- 
 ander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and of great eminence 
 as statuaries ; and in all ages, and by all nations, this beautiful group is 
 allowed to be the greatest victory of art that has ever been achieved by 
 human hands. 
 
 LATERAN, COUNCILS of the. They were held in the Basilica of the La- 
 teran, at Rome. Of these councils there were five : by the first, the right 
 of investitures was settled between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor Henry 
 v., 1122; by the second council were secured the temporalities of ecclesias- 
 tics, 1139; the third was to denounce schismatics, 1179; the fourth on 
 church affairs, attended by 400 bishops and' 1000 abbots; and the fifth was 
 the famous council of Juhus II., 1512. 
 
 LATHE, for turning ivory, wood, iron, and other substances, so as to shape 
 them to the views of the artist, was originally an instrument of rude 
 construction, invented by Talus, a grandson of Daedalus, about 1240 b. c. 
 Pliny ascribes the invention to Theodore of Saraos. Modern lathe engines 
 frequently cost thousands of pounds. 
 
 LATIN LANGrUAG-E. One of the thirteen original languages of Europe, and 
 from which sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish. It is named after the 
 Latini, and the Latini from Latinus, their king. A vast portion of our most 
 beautiful and expressive words are derived from the Latin. It ceased to be 
 spoken in Italy, about A. d. 581 ; and was first taught in England by Adel- 
 mus, brother of Ina, in tlie seventh century. During six or seven hundred 
 years the Latin tongue prevailed' in all public proceedings from the Tweed 
 to the Euphrates, and from the Danube to Mount Atlas, and has been more 
 or less retained even to this day. In England it was ordered to be discon- 
 tinued in conveyancing, and in courts of law, in 1731. 
 
 LATITUDE. Eirst determined by Hipparchus of Nice, about 170 b. c. It is 
 the extent of the earth or of the heavens, reckoned from the equator to 
 either pole. Maupertuis, in latitude 66.20, measured a degree of latitude, 
 and made it 69.493 ; he measured it in 1737. Swanberg, in 1803, made it 
 69.292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 68.732; and 
 Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 68.743. Mudge, in England, made it 
 69.148. Cassini, in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69.12; and Biot, 
 68.769 ; while a recent measure in Spain makes it but 68.63 — less than at 
 the equator; and contradicts all the others, proving the earth to be a pro- 
 late spheroid, which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernouilli, Euler, and others, 
 while it has more generally been regarded as an oblate spheroid. 
 LATIUM. Now the city of Eomania ; built by Latinus, king of Janiculum, 
 who gave his name to the country, calling his subjects Latines, 901 b. c. 
 Laurentum was the capital of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavinium 
 under ^neas, and Alba under Ascanius. The Latins, though originally 
 known only among their neighbors, soon rose in rank when Romulus had 
 founded the city of Rome in their country. 
 
LAW J 
 
 DICTION A RY OF DATES. 391 
 
 LATTER-DAY SAIXTS. A new sect, whose principles are variously repre* 
 sented. By some we are told that their ^nets do not vary much from those 
 of the Church of England, the Scriptures, without mysticism, being the 
 foundation of them. By others it is said that they assume the power of 
 curing the sick, resisting the operations of the deadliest poisons, and work 
 ing miracles of several kinds ; and maintain that this is the last generatioi 
 of men. They have appeared in Hertfordshire, Lancashire, and Yorkshire 
 and an address was published by them at Manchester, in May, 1840. Great 
 numbers of these fanatics have latel}^ emigrated to the United States. 
 
 LAWS, ANCIENT. The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of Argos, 1807 
 B. c, were the first Attic laws, reduced to a system by Draco, for the Athe- 
 nians, 628 B C. ; but the latter code was afterwards superseded by that of 
 Solon, 578 B. C. The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made 884 b. C. ; they 
 remained in full force for 700 years, and are calculated to raise our admira- 
 tion, as well by their singularity, as by the effect they had in forming a race 
 of men totally different from all others living in civilized society. The Roman 
 laws were founded on those of Phoroneus. The G-regoriau and Hermoginian 
 codes were published in a. d. 390, The Theodosian code in 435. The Jus- 
 tinian code, iu 529, and the digest, in 533. — Blair. See Civil Lata. 
 
 LAWS, BRITISH. The British laws of earliest date were translated into the 
 Saxon, in a. d. 590. The Saxon laws of Ina were published in 709. Alfred's 
 code of laws, which is the foundation of the common law of England, was 
 compiled in 887, but in use previously. Edward the Confessor promulgated 
 his laws, in 1065. Stephen's charter of general liberties, 1136; Henry II.'s 
 confirmation of it, 1154 and 1175. The maritime laws of Richard I., 1194. 
 See article Oleron. Magna Charta, by king John, 1215. Its confirmation 
 by Henry HI., 1216, ei seq. See Mo,gna Charta and Forests, Charter of the. 
 Celebrated declaration made by the lord chief justice of the King's Bench, 
 ' That no fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the real truth of the 
 fact as to prevent the execution of justice," May 21, 1784. — Lord Mansfield. 
 
 LAW'S BUBBLE. The most ruinous speculation of modern times. The pro- 
 jector, John Law, of Edinburgh, raised himself to the dignity of comptroller- 
 general of the finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme for esta- 
 blishing a bank, an East India, and a Mississippi company, by the profits of 
 which the national debt of France was to be paid off. He first offered his 
 plan to Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was not powerful 
 enough to ruin himself The French ministry accepted it in 1710; and in 
 1716, he opened a bank in his own name, under the protection of the duke 
 of Orleans, regent of Prance ; and most of the people of property of every 
 rank in that kingdom, seduced by the prospect of immense gains, subscribed 
 both hi the bank and the companies. In 1718 Law's was declared a Royal 
 bank, and the shares rose to upwards of twenty-fold the original value, so 
 that in 1719, they were worth more than eighty times the amount of all the 
 current specie in France. But the following year this great fabric of false 
 credit fell to the ground, and almost overthrew the French government, 
 ruining tens of thousands of families. It is remarkable that the same des- 
 perate game was played by the South Sea directors in England, iu the same 
 fatal year, 1720. — Hist, of France, Nouv. Diet 
 
 LAWYERS. The pleaders of the bar, called barristers, are said to have been 
 first appointed by Edward I. or in his reign 1291. Serjeants, the highest 
 members of the bar, are alone permitted to plead in the court of Common 
 Pleas. The first king's counsel under the degree of serjeant was sir Francis 
 Bacon, in 1604. There are about 12i)0 barristers in England: and the num- 
 ber of lawyers in England and Wales, counting London and country attor- 
 neys, solicitors, &c., is about 14,000. A list of 19.527 practising lawyers In 
 the United States, was published in New York, 1850. 
 
392 THE world's peogress. [lea 
 
 LEAD, Is found in various countries, and is abundant in various parts of Bri- 
 tain, and in some places richly mixed with silver ore. The famous Clydes- 
 dale mines were discovered in 1513. The lead mines of Cumberland and 
 Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per annum. The finest sort of black lead, 
 that most fit for pencils, is produced only at Borrowdale, but there in great 
 quantities. Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water were brought into use 
 in 1236. 
 
 LEAGUES, POLITICAL and RELIGIOUS. The League of the Public Good, 
 was one between the dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon, and other 
 princes against Louis XL of France, in 1464. The League of Cambray was 
 entered into in 1508. The Holy League against Louis XII., 1510. The 
 League of Smalcald, 1529 The League of the Beggars (the Protestants so 
 called, though Catholics joined the league) to oppose the institution of the 
 Inquisition in Flanders, 1560. The League, so denominated by way of emi- 
 nence, to prevent the accession, of Henry lY. of France, who was then of the 
 reformed religion, was commenced in 1576. The League of Wurtzburg, 
 1610. League against the emperor, 1626. Solemn League and Covenant in 
 Scotland, against the episcopal government of the church, and the regal 
 authority, 13 Charles I., 1638. League of Augsburg, 1686. 
 
 LEAP-TEAR, or BISSEXTILE. The Leap-year originated with the astrono- 
 mers of Julius Caesar, 45 b. c. They fixed the solar year at 365 days 6 hours, 
 comprising, as they thought, the period from on^ vernal equinox to another; 
 the six hours were set aside, and at the end of four years, forming a day, the 
 fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The day thus added was 
 called intercalary, and was added to February. See Bissextile. This almost 
 perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed through- 
 out the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII., in 1582, when 
 the calendar was altered to its present state. See Calendar. The difference 
 between 365 days 6 hours, and 365 days 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, 
 and 6 decimals, which last is the true length of the astronomical year, in 
 the course of years caused 1700 and 1800 not to be leap-years, nor will 1900 
 be a leap-year ; but the year 2000 will be one. See Julian Year, Chregorian 
 Calendar, &c. 
 
 LEARNING and the ARTS. These were carried to their height among the 
 Greeks during the fourth century b. c. ; and with the Romans with the com- 
 mencement of the Christian era. On the death of Augustus they declined 
 until the refugees from Greece caused them to revive in Italy, about a.d. 
 1250. Learning had been found so to obstruct the tyranny of the emperors, 
 that mathematicians and philosophers were, by several decrees, banished from 
 Rome, A. D. 16, and 89, et seq. After the dark ages, came Brunette, Latini, 
 and numerous enlightened men ; and Leo X., about 1513, gave vast encou- 
 ragement to literature and the arts. 
 
 The illustrious Medici family greatly promoted learning in Italy, about 1550. 
 — Fontana. And about this time literature began to flourish in France, 
 Germany, and England The reign of Anne has been called by some the 
 "golden," by others, the "Augustan age" of English literature. 
 
 LEATHER. It was very early known in Egypt and Greece, and the thongs of 
 manufactured hides were used for ropes, harness, &c., by all ancient nations. 
 The Gordian knot was made of leather thongs, 330 b. c. The ancients un- 
 derstood the art of tanning leather, and it was practised early in England, 
 and great improvements made in it up to 1795. Leather is converted into 
 many uses : a leathern cannon was proved at Edinburgh, fired three times, 
 and found to answer, Oct. 23, 1788. — Phillips. The duty on leather produced 
 annually in England, 450,000Z., and in Ireland, about 50,000Z. It was abo 
 lished in both countries, May 29,1830. 
 
LEP| DICTIONAr.Y OF DATES. ^ 303 
 
 LEGHORN. Livorno. This city suffered dreadfully by an earthquake in 1741. 
 It was entered by the French army in the revolutionary war, July 17, 1196, 
 but the iniraeuse amount of British property then there had been previously 
 removed. Leghorn was evacuated by the French in 1799, and was retaken 
 the following year. It was unsuccessfully attacked by the British and Ital- 
 ian allied forces, in Dec. 1813. 
 
 LEG-ION". The Legio was a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, and was first 
 formed by Romulus, under whom it consisted of i^OOO foot and 300 horse, 
 about 750 B. c. "^heu Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B. c, the legion consisted 
 of 5000 soldiei-s; and under Marius, in 88 b. c, it was 6200 soldiers, besides 
 700 horse. There were ten and sometimes as many as eighteen legions kept 
 at Rome. Augustus maintained a standing army of twenty -five legions, 
 about 5 B. t". ; and the peace establishment of Adrian was thirtj'- of these 
 formidable brigades. The peace of Britain was protected by three legions. 
 A Legion was divided into 10 cohorts, and every cohort into 6 centuries, with 
 a vexillum, or standard guarded by 10 men. 
 
 LEGION OF HONOR. A military order in France, embracing all distinctions 
 in the army, and including in its incorporation civil officers, and all such 
 individuals as have eminently distinguished themselves for services to the 
 state, military deeds, and for public virtue ; instituted by Napoleon Bona- 
 parte, when tirst consul, May 18, 1802, On the restoration of tlie Bourbon 
 family, Louis XVIII. confirmed this order, April 1814. 
 
 LEIPSIC. Famous for its university and its fair. Here Gustavus Adolphus, 
 king of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, Sept 7, 1631. The siege of Leip- 
 sic was sustained in 1637. Leipsic was taken by the Prussian army, 1756. In 
 the same year, the Austrians laid siege to Leipsic in vain, but they took it 
 two years afterwards, though they did not retain it long. In the late wars 
 it has frequently fallen into adverse handa See next article. 
 
 LEIPSIC, Battle of. One of the greatest, most sanguinary, and decisive of 
 modern times, between the French army, commanded by Napoleon, on the 
 one side, and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian armies on the other ; the 
 former 160,000, and the latter 240,000 strong. This great battle was lost 
 by the French, chiefly owing to 17 German battalions, their Saxon allies, 
 turning upon them in the heat of the engagement. 80,000 men perished in 
 the field, of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of 
 artillery, and many standards. The victory of the allies was followed by 
 the capture, next day, of Leipsic, and of the rear-guard of the French army. 
 The king of Saxony and his family were also made prisoners ; and the em- 
 peror of Austria and Russia, the king of Prussia, and crown prince of Swe- 
 den, entered'Leipsic immediately after the battle, Oct. 16 and 18, 1813. 
 
 LF/NT. 'The quadragesimal fast observed in the Catholic church from Ash- 
 Wednesday {which see) to Easter-day, and supposed to be of apostolic institu- 
 tion. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent until the Sunday 
 which is now called the first Sunday of Lent ; and the four days beginning 
 were added by pope Felix III., in the year 487, in order that the number of 
 fasting days should amount to forty. Lent was first observed in England by 
 command of Ercombert, king of Kent, in 640. — Baker's Ghron. 
 LEPxiNTO, Battle ok. The great naval engagement between the combined 
 fleets of Spain, Yenice, and Pius V., and the whole maritime force of the 
 Turks. Don John of Austria commanded the Christian fleet, which consisted 
 of 206 galleys, and 30,000 men, while the Turks had 250 galleys of which, 
 after a dreadful conflict, they saved but 100, losing 30,000 men in killed 
 and prisoners ; and thus was prostrated for a time the naval power of Turkey, 
 Oct. 7, 1571. — Voboaire. 
 
304 , THE world's progress. [lex 
 
 LETTERS. Those of the alphabet were invented by Memnou, the Egyptian 
 1822 B.C. — U>iher, Blair. The first letter of the Phoeuician and Hebrew 
 alphabet was alepli, called by the Greeks alpha, and abbreviated by other 
 nations to A. The letters, both in the ancient and modern languag'ts, so 
 vary in number and sound, that a volume might be written in describing the 
 alphabets which are known. See Alphabet. 
 LETTERS OF MARQUE and REPRISAL. These are licenses, first issued m 
 England by Edward L, for the seizure of the enemy's vessels and for repri- 
 sal and retaliation upon the enemy on the sea. — Rymer^s FcBdera. They were 
 first granted in 1295. — Bakefs Chron. They are usually granted in time of 
 war to private armed ships, and do great mischief to the commerce of 
 belligerent nations. — Powel. 
 LlilTTERS BE CACHET. These instruments of oppression were so much in 
 use by the French government previously to the Revolution, that one of the 
 earliest acts of the National Assembly was to denounce them, and decree 
 their abolition, and the abolition of arbitrary imprisonment, Nov. 1, 1789. — 
 Hist, of the French RevoL. 
 LEUCTRA, Battle of. One of the most famous of ancient history, fought al 
 the village of Leuctra, between Platsea and Thespia, between the Thebans, 
 under Epaminondas, and the superior force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, 
 the victory being with the former. In this battle, Cleombrotus and 4000 
 Lacedemonians were slain, and not more th^n 300 Thebans ; July 8, 37 
 B. C. From this day the Spartans lost their preponderance in Greece, 
 which they had maintained for about 500 years, and it passed to the 
 Thebans. — Plutarch. Xenophon says 1400, out of whom 400 were Spartans. 
 LEVELLERS. Men whose purpose is to destroy superiority, and bring all 
 things to a level or equality. — Collier. There were various associations of 
 this kind. The most extraordinary was that of which Muncer and Storck 
 were the chiefs. These two began by pulling down all the images in the 
 churches which Luther had left standing ; and then finding an army in their 
 followers, they became levellers, and Muncer openly taught that all distinc- 
 tions of rank were usurpations on the rights of mankind. At the head of 
 40,000 men, he wrote to the sovereign princes in Germany and to the ma- 
 gistrates of cities to resign their authority ; and on his march to enforce 
 these principles of equality and reformation, his followers ravaged the coun- 
 try. The landgrave of Hesse at length defeated him; 7000 of the enthusi- 
 asts fell in battle, and the rest, with their leader, fled ; he was taken and be- 
 headed at Mulhausen, in 1525. — Nouv. Diet. Hist. At the period of the French 
 Revolution some knots of persons styled levellers appeared in England. 
 LEWES, Battle of. Between Henry III., king of England, and Montfort, 
 earl of Leicester, and the rebellious barons, fought May 14, 1264. In this 
 battle the royal army was overthrown, and the king, his brother, Richard 
 king of the Romans, his son, and prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., 
 were taken prisoners. One division of four of Montfort's army, a body oi 
 Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of prince Edward, wdio pursuing 
 the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost. From this time Montfort 
 used his power so despotically as to be in the end the cause of his own de- 
 struction. See Evesham. 
 LEXICOGRAPHY. Morrison mentions a standard dictionary in the Chinese 
 language of 40,000 hieroglyphic characters as having been compiled 1100 
 B. c. Numerous dictionaries appeared in Europe about the close of the fif- 
 teenth and beginning of the sixteenth century. Calipini's dictionary ap- 
 peared about A. D. 1500. The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published in 1759. 
 See article, Dictionary. 
 LEXINGTON, Battle of. This battle claims distinction as being the first 
 Toiight hp.t.wp.ftii Great Britain and the United States of America, in the wai 
 
lib] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 395 
 
 of independence. The British troops, under Major Pitcairn, sent from Bos- 
 ton to destroy the American stores at Lexington, were attacked by iho 
 Americans and 273 of them were killed and wounded, April 19, 1775. 
 
 LEYDP]iSr, Siege of. A memorable siege sustained against the armies of Spain, 
 and during which 6000 of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence, a. d. 
 1574. In commemoration of this long siege, a university was founded, ce- 
 lebrated for its colleges and medicinal garden, and valuable library, 1575. 
 The university was almost destroyed by the catastrophe of a vessel laden 
 with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up, and demolishing a large 
 part of the town, and killing numbers of people, Jan. 1807. 
 
 LIBEL. By the laws of Rome (those of the XTI. Tables), libels which aflfectec 
 the reputation of another, were made capital offences. In the British law 
 whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the opinion or esteem 
 of the world, is deemed a libel. " The greater the truth, the greater the 
 libel," the well-known law maxim of a high authority, is now disputed. 
 Among the most remarkable cases of libel were, viz.: Lord George Gor- 
 don's libel on the queen of France, for which he was sentenced to imprison- 
 ment for five years and fined 500/., Jan. 28, 1788. The Times' libel on 
 the Prince of Wales, afterwards George lY., Feb. 1790. The Morning Post a 
 libel on lady Elizabeth Lambert, damages 4000Z. July 9, 1792. Peltier's libel 
 on Napoleon Bonaparte, in L'Amhigu, of which he was found guilty, Feb. 
 21, 1803. Act against blasphemous and seditious libels, punishing the of- 
 fender by banishment for the second offence, passed in England 1820. Act 
 regulating the law of libel in England, July 1830. By statute in New York 
 and Massachusetts, the truth may be a justification, if the publication was 
 made with good motives and for justifiable ends. 
 
 LIBERIA. Colony in West Africa, founded by colored people sent out by 
 American Colonization Society, 1822 ; Jehudi Ashmun was the first supei- 
 intendent of the colony; new Constitution — Robeits elected president — 
 Oct. 5, 1847 ; ratification of a treaty of commerce with Great Britain, Au- 
 gust 1, 1849. 
 
 LIBERTINES. A sect distinguished by its monstrous doctrines. Its heads 
 were persons named Quintin and Corin. They maintained that whatever 
 was done by men was done by the Spirit of God, and that there was no 
 sin but to those who thought so ; that to live without any doubt or scruple 
 was to return to the state of innocency ; that the soul died with the body ; 
 that heaven was a dream, and hell a phantom ; religion a mere state trick ; 
 with many other monstrous opinions. This sect arose in a. d. 1 525 ; and 
 the term libertine has been held in a bad sense ever since. 
 
 LIBRARY. The first public library of which we have any certain account in 
 history was founded at Athens, by Pisistratus, 544 b. C. The second of any 
 note was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 b. c. It was nearly de- 
 stroyed when Julius CaBsar set fire to Alexandria, 47 b. c. 400,000 valuable 
 books in MS. are said to have been lost by this catastrophe. — Blair. The 
 first private library was the property of Aristotle, 334 b. c. — Strabo. The 
 first library at Rome was instituted 167 b. c. : it was brought from Ma- 
 cedonia. The library of Apellicon was sent to Rome, by Sylla, from Athens, 
 86 B. 0. This library was enriched by the original manuscripts of Aristotle's 
 works. A library was founded at Constantinople by Constantine the Great, 
 about A. D. 335 ; it was destroyed in 477. A second library was formed 
 from the remains of the first, at Alexandria, by Ptolemy's successors, con- 
 sisting of 700,000 volumes, which was totally destroyed by the Saracens. 
 who heated the water of their baths for six months, by burning books instead 
 of wood, by command of Omar, caliph of the Saracens, in 642. — Nonv. 
 Diet. Hist. Pope Gregory I. ordered that the library of the Palatine 
 
396 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [lib 
 
 Apollo should be committed to tlie flames under the notion of confiiuiig tho 
 clergy to the attention of the Scriptures From that time, all ancient learn- 
 ing which was not sanctioned by the authority of the church, has been 
 emphatically distinguished as profane in opposition to sacred. The early 
 Chinese literature suffered a similar misfortune to that of the west in tiie 
 destruction of the Alexandrian library ; their emperor, Chee-wang-tee, 
 ordered all writings to be destroyed, that everything might begin anew as 
 from his reign ; and books and records were afterwards recovered by suc- 
 ceeding emperors with great difficulty. 
 
 lilBRARIES IN EUROPE. There are in Europe 383 public libraries, contain- 
 ing over 10,000 volumes each. The number of books which are thus pub- 
 licly accessible are in this proportion, viz. : in Saxony, for every 100 inhabit- 
 ants, there are 417 books; in Denmark, 412; in Bavaria, 339; in Tuscany, 
 261; in Prussia, 200; in Austria, 167; in Prance, 129; in Belgium, 95 ; in 
 Great Britain, 53. The first public library in Europe, before the invention 
 of printing, is said to have been founded by Richard de Bury, chancellor of 
 England, as early as 1341. The first in Italy was founded by Nicholas 
 Niccoli, one of the great restorers of learning ; at his death he left his li- 
 brary for the use of the public, A. D. 1436. j It was enlarged by Cosmo de 
 Medici. The first permanent libraries were, Turin Univ., 1436 ; Yienna, 
 (imperial,) 1440 ; Vatican, 1465; &c. See toSZe, below. 
 In the following tables, the libraries containing less than 10,0C0 volumes 
 each (of which there are, in Prance alone, at least seventy or eighty,) are 
 not taken into the account : 
 
 France has 170 Public Li- 
 braries, containing 
 Belpam has 14 do. 
 Prussia " 44 do. 
 Austria " 48 do. 
 
 4,000,000 vols. 
 
 538,000 " 
 2,400,000 " 
 2,400,000 " 
 
 Taking the capital cities we find the following results 
 
 Saxony has 6 
 Bavaria " 17 
 Denmark " 5 
 Tuscany " 8 
 G. Britain " 33 
 
 containing 554,000 vols. 
 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 do. 
 
 1,267,000 
 645,000 
 411.000 
 
 1,771,493 
 
 Paris has 9 Public 
 
 braries, containing 
 Brussels has 2 do. 
 Berlin " 2 do. 
 Vienna " 3 do. 
 Milan " 2 do. 
 
 Li- 
 
 2 
 
 1,474,000 vols. 
 143,500 " 
 530,000 " 
 453,000 •' 
 230,000 " 
 
 Arranging these libraries according to their extent, they would stand as 
 
 follows : — 
 
 I Dresden 
 
 Munich 
 
 Copenhagen 
 
 Florence 
 
 London 
 
 has 4 containing 840,500 vols. 
 
 800,000 
 557,000 
 318.000 
 490,500 
 
 Founded. Vols. 
 
 Paris (1) National Lib., 1595 824,000 
 
 Munich, Eoyal Lib., 1550 600,000 
 
 Petersburg Imperial Lib., 446,000 
 
 London, British Museum, 1753 435,000 
 
 Copenhagen, Pwoyal Lib., 1550 412,000 
 
 Berlin, Eoyal Lib.,- 1G50 410,000 
 
 Vienna, Imperial Lib., 1443 313,000 
 
 Dresden, Pwoyal Lib., 1653 300,000 
 
 Madrid I^ational Lib., 1712 200,000 
 
 Wolfenbuttel, Ducal Lib., 1604 200,000 
 
 Stuttffard, Eoyal Lib., 1765 187,000 
 
 Paris''(2) Arsenal Lib., 1781 180,000 
 
 Founded. Vols. 
 
 Milan, Brerea Lib., 1797 170,000 
 
 Paris (3), St. Genevieve, 1624 150,000 
 
 Darmstadt, Grand Ducal, 1760 150,000 
 
 Florence, Magliabecchian, 1714 150,000 
 
 Naples, Eoyal Lib., 150,000 
 
 Brussels, Eoyal Lib., 1839 1S8,5()0 
 
 Eome (1), Casanate Lib., 1760 120,000 
 
 ILague, Eoyal Lib., 100,000 
 
 Paris (4\ Mazarine Lib., 1661 100,000 
 
 Eome (2), Vatican Lib., 1465 100,000 
 
 Parma, Ducal Lib., 1760 100.000 
 
 The chief University Libraries may be ranked in the following order: — 
 
 Founded. Vols. 
 
 Gottingen,Univ"tyLib., 1736 360.000 
 
 Breslau, University Lib., 1811 250,000 
 
 Oxford, Bodleian Lib., 3597 220,000 
 
 Tubingen, Univ'tv Lib., 1562 200,000 
 
 Munich, University Lib., 200,000 
 
 Heidelburg, Univ'ty Lib., 1703 200.000 
 
 Cambridge, Public Lib., 1484 166,724 
 
 Bologna, University Lib., 1690 150,000 
 
 Prague, University L'b., 1777 130,000 
 
 Fou/iided. VoU. 
 
 Vienna, University Lib., 1777 115.000 
 
 Leipsic, Universitv Lib., 1544 112,000 
 
 Copenhagen, Univ'rsity Lib., 1730 110,000 
 
 Turin, University Lib., 1436 110,000 
 
 Louvaine, University Lib., 1639 105.000 
 
 Dublin, Trinity College Lib., 104,239 
 
 Upsal, University Lib., 1621 100,000 
 
 Erlangen, University Lib., 1743 100,000 
 
 Edinburgh, University Lib., 1582 90,854 
 
lib] 
 
 DICTIO:srAEY OF DATES. 
 
 397 
 
 220,(00 
 166J24 
 
 The largest Libraries in Great Britain arc those of tlie 
 
 Founded. Vols. 
 Eoj-al Institution, London, 
 London Institution, 
 Litndon Library, 
 
 148'000 1 Sion College, &e. 
 
 104,289 I 
 
 LIBRARIES IN THE UNITED STATES. The number of volumes in the chief 
 public and college libraries in tlie United States in 1849, was stated to be 
 1,294,000. Tlie number of libraries is 182. Of these, 43 contain over 
 10,000 volumes each; 9 over 20,000 ; and only 2 over 50,000. In 1849 the 
 precedence of the largest as to numbers stood thus : 
 
 Vols. 
 
 Founded. VoU. 
 
 1 British Mnsenm, London, 1758 43f>,000 , 
 
 2 Bodleian, Oxford, 1598 — ' -^ 
 8 University, Cambridge, 1484 
 
 4 Advocates, Edinburgh, 1682 
 
 5 Trinity College, Dublin, 1601 
 
 Harvard College, including Divin- 
 ity and Law Schools, 
 Philadelphia and Loganian Lib., 
 Boston Athenfeum, 
 Library of Congress, 
 
 5 New York Society Library, 
 
 6 Mercantile Library, New York, 
 T Georgetown College, D. C, 
 
 8 Brown University, 
 
 9 New York State Library, 
 
 10 Yale College, 
 
 11 Astor Library, New York, 
 
 Vols. 
 32,000 
 25.000 
 24.000 
 24.000 
 21,000 
 20,000 
 
 72,000 
 60,C00 
 50,000 
 50,000 
 82,000 
 
 The Astor Library is scarcely yet opened, and the building is not yet erected. 
 The Smithsonian Institution at Washington has not yet commenced collecting 
 its library. The number of volumes in the School District libraries of the 
 State of New York, in 1849, was 1,338.848. There are 10,621 school dis- 
 tricts, and 1.785 incorporated or private schools. The mercantile libraries, 
 chiefly for mercliants' clerks, in the large cities, are of comparatively recent 
 date and of great utility. That in New York was founded in 1820, and 
 contains 32,000 volumes; in Boston, founded 1820, contains 7,637 volumes; 
 in Philadelphia, founded 1822, contains 12,200 volumes. There are similar 
 ones in Baltimore, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Troy, &c. 
 
 The public libraries containing over 5000 volumes, were distributed (accord- 
 ing to evidence in the British Museum Report in 1849) thus : — 
 
 
 
 Vols. 
 
 
 
 
 Vols. 
 
 1 Alabama, has 1 Public Library, 
 
 6,000 
 
 Brought up. 
 
 
 84, 
 
 453,609 
 
 2 Columbia, Dist. 
 
 of, has 2, 
 
 53,000 
 
 12 New Jersey, 
 
 has 
 
 3, 
 
 28,500 
 
 3 Connecticut, 
 
 " 6, 
 
 81,449 
 
 13 New York, 
 
 11 
 
 12, 
 
 157,411 
 
 4 G-eorgia, 
 
 " 1, 
 
 13,000 
 
 14 North Carolina, 
 
 (( 
 
 1, 
 
 10,000 
 
 5 Kentucky, 
 
 " :«, 
 
 7,000 
 
 15 Ohio, 
 
 (( 
 
 1, 
 
 30,497 
 
 6 Louisiana, 
 
 " 1, 
 
 5,500 
 
 16 Pennsylvania, 
 
 hi 
 
 14, 
 
 15!»,200 
 
 7 Maine, 
 
 " 3, 
 
 38,860 
 
 17 Rhode Island, 
 
 (( 
 
 3, 
 
 87,185 
 
 8 Maryland, 
 
 " 1, 
 
 12,000 
 
 18 South Carolina, 
 
 (( 
 
 2, 
 
 30,000 
 
 9 Massachusetts, 
 
 " 14, 
 
 200,000 19 Tennessee, 
 
 (( 
 
 2, 
 
 16,000 
 
 10 Missouri, 
 
 " 2, 
 
 14,300 20 Vermont, 
 
 (I 
 
 2, 
 
 16,254 
 
 11 New Hampshire 
 
 , " 2, 
 
 22,500 21 Virginia, 
 
 (I 
 
 4, 
 
 41.000 
 
 34 453,6091 Total - - - 72, 979,656 
 
 The above estimate is perhaps below the mark, and does not include school, 
 parish, and town libraries, which are numerous, but of moderate extent. 
 The city of Paris alone has 1,474,000 volumes, in large pubhc hbraries; i. e. 
 half as many again as the whole of the United States. See Pari. Rep. Brit 
 Mus. ; Prof. JeweWs Rep. Smithsonian Inst. ; G. Livermore in N. Amer. Rev.^ 
 July 1850, (fee. 
 
 LIEGE. Formerly called, on account of the number of its churches and con- 
 vents, "the pai^adise of priests, the purgatory of men, and the hell of wo< 
 men." In the time of Louis XI. of Prance, a.d. 1461, Liege was a large 
 and wealthy place, and the prince bishop was a prelate of almost sovereign 
 power. Taken by the English under the duke of Marlborough, in 1702 ; 
 and by the French and other powers, at various times, up to 1796, when it 
 was annexed to France. Liege was incorporated with the Netherlands, in 
 1814. 
 
398 THE world's progress. [lib 
 
 LIGIIT-HOUSP^S. They were erected by all the ancient commercial people, 
 and called 7hrs, or pillars, as those of Hercules, near Gibraltar ; that of 
 Pharos, at Alexandria, 550 feet high, and visible forty-two miles ; the Pharos 
 of Messina; the Colossus of Rhodes, &c. There are forty-two round the 
 coasts of England, iifteen on the east coast, thirteen in the English channel, 
 and fourteen in the Irish channel. There are seventeen on the Scottish 
 coasts, and twenty-six on the Irish coasts. 
 
 LIGURIAN REPUBLIC. Founded in June, 1802, upon the ruins of that of 
 G-enoa. The doge of this new republic was solemnly invested at Genoa. 
 August 10, 1802. The Ligurian republic was incorporated with France, it 
 having demanded a union with the latter country, May 25, 1805. It merged 
 into the kingdom of Italy. 
 
 LIMA. See America and Columbia. In 1524, Pizarro, marching through Peru, 
 was struck with the beauty of the valley of Rimac, and there he founded a 
 city, and gave it the name of Ciudad de los Reyes, or City of the Kings. 
 This Spanish name it retains in all legal deeds, but it is better known as 
 Lima. Awful earthquakes occurred here, since solemnly commemorated by 
 annual festivals, a.d. 1586, 1630, 1687, arid October 28, 1746. In the last it 
 was almosi totally destroyed, as well as Callao, which see. 
 
 LINEN. A fabric of very remote antiquity. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in ves- 
 tures of fine linen. — Gen. xli. 42. This article was first manufactured in 
 England by Flemish weavers, under the protection of Henry III., 1253. 
 Before this period woollen shirts were generally worn. A company of linen 
 weavers established itself in London in 1368; and the art of staining linen 
 became known in 1579. A colony of Scots, in the reign of James I., and 
 other Presbyterians who fled from persecution in that country in the suc- 
 ceeding inglorious reigns, planted themselves in the northeast part of Ire- 
 land, and there established the linen manufacture. It was liberally encou- 
 raged by the lord deputy Wentworth, in 1634. Hemp, flax, linen, thread, 
 and yarn, from Ireland, were permitted to be exported duty free, 1696. 
 This law gave rise to the subsequently improved state of the manufacture 
 there. The Irish Linen Board was estabhshed in 1711 ; the Linen-hall, Dub- 
 lin, was opened 1728; the board was abolished in 1828. Dunfermline in 
 Fifeshire, Dundee in Angusshire, and Barnesley in Yorkshire, are, in Great 
 Britain, chief seats of the linen manufacture. 
 
 LINN^AN SYSTEM. The system of Botany of the eminent Linne, a Swede, 
 or, as his name is Latinized, Linnaeus, was commenced about 1725-30 ; and 
 his first great work was a dictionary of 7300 plants arranged in classes, 
 orders, and genera ; he classed the plants according to the number and situ- 
 ation of the sexual parts, and made the flower and fruit the test of his vari- 
 ous genera. The Linnsean Society in London was instituted in 1788, and 
 was incorporated March 26, 1802. 
 
 LISBON. The Moors are said to have given the name of Lisboa to this city 
 when they conquered it, a.d. 716. It was made the capital of Portugal by 
 Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon was almost destroyed by an earthquake, November 
 1, 1755. See Earthquakes. It became a point of the late war, and the court 
 fled to the Brazils, November, 1807, in which month (the 30th) the French 
 army under Junot entered Lisbon, and held possession of it until the battle 
 of Vimeira, in which they were defeated by the British, under Sir Arthur 
 "Wellesley, August 21, 1808. Insurrection at Lisbon, August 21, 1831. Mas- 
 sacre at Lisbon, June 9, 1834. See Portugal. 
 
 LISLE, Siege of. Lisle was besieged by the duke of Marlborough and the 
 ttllies ; and though its immense fortifications were deeaied impregnable, it 
 was taken after a three months' siege, in 1708. It was restored by the treaty 
 of Utrecht, in 1713, in consideration of the demolition of the fortifications 
 
LIV] 
 
 DICTION AEY OF DATES. 399 
 
 of Dunkirk : this siege is reckoned one of tine most famous of modern his- 
 tory. In the Revolutionary war, Lisle sustained a severe bombardment from 
 the Austrians, v^dio were obliged to raise the siege, Oct. 7, 1792. 
 
 LITANIES. They were iirst used in processions and other devotions, about 
 A. D. 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were first introduced by pope Gre- 
 gory I., in or about 595. — Neivton on the Prophecies. The first English litany 
 was commanded to be used in the Reformed Churches by Henry VIII. in 
 \h4:Z.— Collier's Ecc. Hist. 
 
 LITERARY PROPERTY, in England. See Copyright The statute of queen 
 Anne, 1709-10, securing literary property, was confirmed by a memorable 
 decision at the bar of the House of Lords, and the claim of perpetual copy- 
 right was overruled Feb. 22, 1774. The statute declared the author to have 
 an exclusive right for 14 years, and if at the end of that term he were living, 
 the right to again return to him for the same term of years. The later acts 
 extended the author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that time, 
 then to the remainder of his life. By the 5th and 6th of Victoria, the right 
 is to endure for the life of the author, and for seven years alter his death ; 
 but if that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is still to endure for 
 42 years, for which term also any work published after the author's death is 
 to continue the property of the owners of the manuscript ; act passed July 
 1, 1842. The Dramatic Authors' Protection act, passed June 10, 1833. The 
 International Copyright bill, passed July 31, 1838; this act secures protection 
 in England to works of authors of any country which concedes the same 
 protection to Enghsh authors. 
 
 LITERARY SOCIETIES, CLUB, PUND, &c. The various societies connected 
 with literature in London, will be found in their respective places through 
 the volume. Tlie celebrated Literary Club was instituted by Dr. Johnson, 
 and included many of the illustrious men in literature of the age, 1765. 
 The Literary Fund, in Lincohi's-Inn Fields, was founded in 1790, to relieve 
 authors and literary men who by age or infirmities are reduced to poverty ; 
 this society was incorporated in 1818. The Royal Society of Literature was 
 established Sept. 15, 1825. 
 
 LITHOGRAPHY. The invention of it is ascribed to Alois Sennefelder, whose 
 first essays were executed about 1796 ; and shortly afterwards the art was 
 announced in Germany, and was known as polyautography. It became par- 
 tially known in England in 1801 et seq., but its general introduction may be 
 referred to Mr. Ackermann, of London, about 1817. Sennefelder died in 
 184L 
 
 LITURGY. In the ancient Greek and Roman churches the word Liturgy was 
 restrained to signify the mass only. The present English Liturgy was first 
 composed, and was approved and confirmed by parliament, in 1547-8. The 
 ofl&ces tor morning and evening prayer were then put into nearly the same 
 form in which we now have them, but other parts were different. Upon the 
 solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturgy was reviewed and altered to 
 very nearly its present state, 1551. It was first read in Ireland, in the Eng- 
 lish language in 1550, and in Scotland, where it occasioned a tumult, in 1637. 
 Again altered in 1661. The liturgy was revised by Whitehead, formerly 
 chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, Grindall, Cox, and Pil- 
 kington, and dean May, and secretary Smith. 
 
 LIVERIES. In England they originated with our ancestors, who clothed their 
 vassals in uniform, thereby to distinguish families ; they were originally a 
 single article of dress, or a particular color used on a part of some one gar- 
 ment, and in the end they became rich suits and gaudy trappings. — Ashe. 
 
 LIVERPOOL. This town, which within the last century has, by a progressive 
 
400 THE world's PKOGRESS. [T OC 
 
 increase in extent, population, and commercial importance, obtained tlie first 
 rank after the metropolis, in England, is supposed to be noticed in Domes- 
 day-book under the name Esmedane^ or, Smedune. In other ancient records 
 its various appellations are, Lith.erptd, and Lyrpid, signifying- probably, in the 
 ancient dialect of the "county, the lower pool ; though some have deduced 
 its etymology from a pool frequented by an aquatic fowl, called the " Liver," 
 or from a sea-weed of that name; it was but a small fishing place, until, in 
 1172, its favorable situation, and the convenience of its port, attracted the 
 notice of Henry II., who made it the place of rendezvous and embarkation 
 of his troops for the conquest of Ireland. In 1843, the number of ships 
 which enteri^d the port of Liverpool was as follows; British, 2,615, of the 
 aggregate burthen of 691,707 tons; foreign, 1,014, burthen, 417,621 tons. 
 The amount of duties paid at the custom-house for the jear ending 5th Jan- 
 uary, 1844, was £4,121.522.— i^ttr^. Bet. 
 
 LLOYD'S, London. The cofifee-house in connection with the Eoyal Exchange, 
 and held previously to the late fire (see Exchange) on the northern side 
 of that building. Lloyd's was established in 1772, and is the resort of 
 eminent merchants, underwriters, insurance brokers, <fec. ; and here are 
 effected insurances for all the world on ships and merchandise. The books 
 kept here contain an account of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and are 
 remarkable for their early intelligence of maritime affairs. 
 
 LOADSTONE. One of the most wonderful pr^odactions of the earth. Its 
 virtues were but indistinctly known to the ancients, yet its attractive qua- 
 lity had been taken notice of from very remote times. — Siurmius. Aristotle 
 assures us that Thales made mention of it, and Hippocrates speaks of it 
 under the name of stone that attracts iron, and Pliny was struck with its 
 attractive power. The polar attraction of the loadstone was, it is said, 
 known m France before A. i>. IISQ; but this honor is accorded to Roger 
 Bacon about 1267. The Italians discovered that it could communicate its 
 virtues to steel or iron: and Flavio Giojo of Amalfi, was the inventor of 
 the mariner's compass. See Compass. 
 
 LOAN'S. Those for the service of the crown of England were generally bor- 
 rowed at Antwerp until after the reign of Ehzabeth. In 1559, that queen 
 borrowed 200,000^. of the city of Antwerp, to enable her to reform her own 
 coin, and sir Thomas G-resham and the city of London joined in the secu- 
 rity. — Rapin. The amount of the English loans, during four late memo- 
 rable periods, was, viz : 
 
 Seven years war from 1755 to 1763 - - £52,000,000 
 
 American war from 1776 to 1784 - - 75,500,000 
 
 French revolutionary war - - ■- - from 1793 to 1802 - - 168,500.000 
 
 War against Bonaparte - - - - from i SOS to 1814 - - 200,300,000 
 
 Besides the property tax. In 1813, were raised two loans of twenty-one 
 millions and twenty-two mihjons ; and it deserves to be recorded that a 
 subscription loan to carry on the war against France was filled up in Lon- 
 don in fifteen hours and twenty minutes, to the amount of eighteen mil- 
 lions, Dec. 5, 1796. 
 
 LOCH LE YEN CASTLE, Kinross. Built on an island in the celebrated lake 
 of Loch Leven, in 1257, and was a royal residence when Alexander HI. and 
 his queen were forcibly taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged by the 
 Engli^^h in 1301, and again in 1835. Patrick Graham, first archbishop of 
 St. Andrew's, was imprisoned and died within its walls, 1447. The earl 
 of Northumberland was confined in it in 1569. It is, however, chiefly re- 
 markable as the place of the unfortunate queen Mary's imprisonment, in 
 1567, and of her escape, on Sunday, May 2, 1568. In this castle Mary wag 
 compelled to sign her abdication of the throne of Scotland, of which p.n 
 interesting account is given by sir Walter Scott, in The Abbot: and of which 
 
lom] dictionary of dates. 401 
 
 also, some new aud affecting particulars are given hy Mr. Tytler, in the Ith 
 volume of his History of ScoUand^ published in August, 1840. 
 
 LOCKS. Those of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, were clumsy con- 
 trivances. Denon has engraved an Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cange 
 mentions locks and padlocks as early as a. d. 1381. The Erench are ac- 
 counted the worst locksmiths in Europe and the Phigiish the best, Bra- 
 niah's celebrated patent locks were registered iu 1784, Locks have been 
 made at Wolverhampton in suits of eight, ten, or more, of exquisite work- 
 manship, all with different keys, so that none of them can open any but its 
 own lock, yet a master key will open all. See Keys. 
 
 LOCUSTS. The visits of these animals in Eastern countries have frequently 
 superinduced pestilence and death, and many instances are recorded of 
 these consequences. Owing to the putrefaction of vast swarms in Egypt 
 and Lybia, upwards of 800,000 persons perished, 128 b. g. The country of 
 Palestine was infested with sucli swarms that they darkened the air, and 
 after devouring the fruits of the earth they died, and their intolerable 
 stench caused a pestilential fever, a. d. 406. A. similar catastrophe occurred 
 in France in 873. A remarkable swarm of locusts settled upon the ground 
 about London, and consumed the vegetables ; great numbers fell in the 
 streets, and were preserved by the curious ; they resembled grasslioppers, 
 but were three times the size, and their colors more variegated, Aug. 4, 
 1748. They infested G-ermany in 1749, Poland in 1750, and Warsaw in June 
 1816. 
 
 LODI, Battle of the Bridge of. One of the great early achievemcRts in 
 Italy of Bonaparte. He commanded the Erench army, which was opposed 
 to the Austrians commanded by general Beaulieu, and obtained a brilliant 
 and decisive victory after a bloody engagement in which several thousands 
 of the imperialists perished on the field, and many thousands were made 
 prisoners. May 10, 1796, The conqueror pursued his advantage with won- 
 derful rapidity, as after this battle all Lombardy lay open to his army, and 
 the republican flag floated in Milan a few days afterwards. 
 
 LOGr-LINE, used in navigation, a. d. 1570 ; and first mentioned by Bourne 
 in 1577, The log-line is divided into spaces of fifty feet, and the way which 
 the ship makes is measured by a half-minute sand glass, which bears nearly 
 the same proportion to an hour that fifty feet bear to a mile : the line used 
 in the royal navy is forty-eight feet. 
 
 LOGARITHMS, so useful in mathematics, are the indexes of the ratio of num- 
 bers one to another. They were invented by baron Merchiston, an eminent 
 Scotchman (sir John Napier) in 1614. The method of computing by means 
 of marked pieces of ivory was discovered about the same time, and hence 
 called Napier s bones. The invention was afterwards completed by Mr. 
 Briggs, at Oxford. 
 
 LOLLARDS. The name given to the first reformers of the Roman Catholic 
 religion in England, and a reproachful appellation of the followers of Wick- 
 lifte. — Chaucer, The original sect was founded by Walter Lollard in 1315 ; 
 he was burned for heresy at Cologne in 1322. After his death the disciples 
 of Wickliffe were called Lollards, The first martyr in England on account 
 of religious opinions was William Sawtree, the parish priest of St. Osith, 
 London, Feb. 19, 1401, reign of Henry IV, The Lollards were proscribed 
 by the English parliament in 1416, and about 1414, numbers of them, or 
 persons to whom the name was given, were burnt alive. — Moreri ; Carte. 
 
 LOMBARD MERCHANTS. In England they were understood to be com- 
 posed of natives of some one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, 
 or Y Qn\c£."~ Anderson on Commerce. Lombard usurers were sent to England 
 
402 THE world's progress. [loo 
 
 by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to convents, communities, and private 
 persons, who'were not able to pay down the tenths which were collected 
 throughout the kingdom with great rigor that year, 13 Henry JIL, 1229. 
 They had offices in Lombard-street, which great banking street is called 
 after them to this day. Their usurious transactions caused their expulsion 
 from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. 
 LOMBARDY. The Lombards were a detachment of Alemanni from the 
 marches of Brandenburgh, famous for their bravery. They were invited 
 into Italy by Justinian, to serve against the G-oths. To reward their ser- 
 vices, the emperor gave them part of Upper Pannonia, a. d. 548 They 
 passed into Italy, and their chief was proclaimed king by his army at Milan, 
 in 570. The kingdom of Lombardy supported itself and made considerable 
 conquests till 772, when Charlemagne took Desiderius, the last king, and 
 annexed his territories to the German empire. — La Combe. See Milan, &c. 
 LONDON. The greatest and richest city in the world. Some will have it that 
 a city existed on the spot 1107 years before the birth of Christ, and 854 
 years before the foundation of Rome. It was the capital of the Trinobantes 
 54 B. c. and long previously the royal seat of their kings. In a. d, 61, it was 
 known to the Romans as Lundinium. Lundinium or Colonia Augusta was 
 the chief residence of merchants at that period, and the great mart of trade 
 and commerce, though not dignified with the name of a colony. — Tacitus. It 
 is said, but not truly, to have derived its name from Lud, an old British king 
 who was buried near where Ludgate formerly stood ; but its name is from 
 Llyn-Din, the "town on the lake." See Fires, Plague, &c. 
 LONGEVITY. In Great Britain the instances of it are remarkable, though 
 rare. Golour M'Crain, of the Isle of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is said to 
 have kept 180 Christmasses in his own house, and died in the reign of 
 Charles I., being the oldest man on anything approaching to authentic 
 record for upwards of 3000 years. — Greig. Thomas Parr, a laboring man of 
 Shropshire, was brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, and 
 considered the wonder of his time, being then in his 163d year, and in per- 
 fect health; but the journey and change of air and diet killed him, Nov. 15, 
 the same year. Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried 
 in Bolton church-yard, Dec. 6, in that year, aged 169 years. There are 
 some extraordinary instances of great; age in Russia; and at Dantzic a man 
 is said to have died at 184 ; and another to be living in Wallachia, aged 186 
 years. In Holy Writ, Methuselah is stated to have hved 969 years, the 
 greatest age of any on record, according to the reckoning before the Flood ; 
 but the length of the years of that time is not ascertained ; hence there is no 
 fixed principle to determine the real ages of that epoch. 
 LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus at Nice, who fixed the first degree 
 in the Canaries, 162 b. C. Harrison made a time-keeper in a. d. 1759, which 
 in two voyages was found to correct the longitude within the limits required 
 by the act of parhament, 12th Anne, 1714; and in 1763, he applied for the 
 reward of 20,000^. offered by that act, which he received. The celebrated 
 Le Roi of Paris, in 1776, invented a watch that keeps time better; and the 
 chronometers of Arnold, Earnshaw, and Breguet bring the longitude almost 
 to the truth. Philosophers have sought the longitude in vain ; but New4;on 
 has said it will yet be discovered by a fool. 
 LOOKING-GLASSES. Made only at Yenice in 1300. They were made in 
 England, by Venetian artists, some of whom took up their abode in Lambeth, 
 in 1673. — Salmon. The French excelled in their manufacture of them in the 
 last century ; but the English have brought their factories to great perfection 
 of late years, and now make looking-glasses to cover, in a single plate, the 
 walls of large rooms. 
 
lot] 
 
 DICTION ABY OF DATES. 403 
 
 LOOM-EJSTG-INE. The weaver's, otherwise cahed the Dutch loom, was broughi 
 into use in London from Holhind, in or about the year 1676, since when the 
 general principle of the loom has been infinitely varied by mechanical in- 
 genuity. There are about 250,000 hand-looms in Great Britain, and 75,000 
 power-looms, each being equal to three hand looms, making twenty-two 
 jE^ds each per day. The steam-loom was mtroduced in 18u7. 
 
 LORD. In the Old and New Testament, Lord is a particular appellation for 
 the supreme majesty of God and Christ, and in that sense cannot be ap- 
 plied to any other being. With us, it is a term of nobiUty. — See Lords and 
 Baron. The word lord is abbreviated from two syllables : it was originally 
 Hlaford, which, by droppmg the aspirate became Laford, and afterwards by 
 contraction. jLord "The etymology of this word," a writer observes, "is 
 Avorth observing, for it was composed of hlaf, a load of bread, and ford, to 
 give or afford ; so that Hlaford, now Lord, implies a giver of bread ; be- 
 cause in those ages, such great men kept extraordinary houses, and fed the 
 poor; for which reason they weie called givers of bread." — See Ladies. The 
 nickname of "My Lord," given by vulgar people to hunchbacked persons, 
 is from the Greek word lordos, crooked. — Haydn. 
 
 LORDS. The now recognized nobility of England take their creation from the 
 1st of William the Conqueror, 1066, when William Eitzosborne, the first 
 peer, was made earl of Hereford ; Walter Devereux made earl of Salisbury ; 
 Copsi, earl of Northumberland : Henry de Ferrers made earl of Derby, and 
 Gerbodus (a Fleming) made earl of Chester. Twenty-two other peers were 
 made in this sovereign's reign. Peers of England are free from all arrests 
 for debts, as being the king's hereditary counsellors. Therefore a peer can- 
 not be outlawed in any civil action, and no attachment lies against his per- 
 son ; but execution may be taken upon his lands and goods. For the same 
 reason, they are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriif 's turns ; or, 
 in case of a riot, from attending the jposse comitatus. See Baron; Earl; 
 3Iarquess, &c. 
 
 LORDS, House of. The peers of England were summoned ad consulendum, to 
 consult, in early reigns, and were summoned by writ 6 and 7 John, 1205. 
 The commons did not form a part of the great council of the nation until 
 some ages after the conquest. — Hume. Deputies from certain boroughs 
 were returned to meet the barons and the clergy in 1258. — Goldsmith. And 
 writs are extant of the date of Jan. 23, 1265 ; but several historians maintain 
 that the first regular parliament of the three estates, as now constituted, was 
 held 22 Edward I., 1293-4. The house of lords includes the spiritual as well 
 as temporal peers of England. The bisliops are supposed to hold cer- 
 tain ancient baronies under the king, in right whereof they have seats in 
 this house. The temporal lords consist of the several degrees of nobility : 
 some sit by descent, as do all ancient peers ; some by creation, as all new- 
 made peers; and others by election, since the union with Scotland in 1707, 
 and with Ireland in 1801. Scotland elects 16 representative peers, and Ire- 
 land 4 spiritual lords by rotation in sessions, and 28 temporal peers for life 
 The house of lords now consists of 3 princes, 20 dukes, 21 marquesses, 115 
 earls, 22 viscounts, 201 barons, 16 Scotch lords, 28 Irish lords, 26 English 
 prelates, and 4 Irish bishops — in all 456 peers. 
 LOTTERY, STATE. The first mentioned in English history began drawing at 
 the western door of St. Paul's cathedral, January 11, 1569, and continued 
 day and night until May 6 following. Its profits were for repairing the 
 fortifications on the coast of England, and the prizes were pieces of plato. 
 The first lottery mentioned for sums of money took place in 1630. Lotte- 
 ries were established in 1693, and for more than 130 years yielded a large 
 annual revenue to the crown. The Irish state lottery was dravrr: in Dabliu 
 
404 THE avorld's progress. [lut 
 
 in 1780. All lotteries were suppressed in France by a decree of the n.ational 
 convention, Nov. 15, 1793. Thej^ were abolished in England, 1826 ; and an act 
 was passed imposing a penalty of 50^ for advertising foreign or any lotteries 
 in the British newspapers, ls36. Abolished in Bavaria by unanimous vote 
 of the deputies, Oct. 19, 1847. They Imve long been abolished in New Eng- 
 land ; in New York the}'- were prohibited about 1830. In nearly all the gtates 
 there is a penalty against lotteries not specially authorized by the legislatures 
 LOUISIANA, One of the United States. Eirst explored by the Erench, and 
 received its name in 1682, from M. La Salle, in honor of Louis XIV., and a 
 settlement was attempted in 1684, but failed. In 1699, a more successful 
 attempt was made by M. Iberville, who entered the Miss., and founded a 
 colony. His efforts were followed up by one Crozat, a man of wealth, wh>» 
 held the exclusive trade of the country for a number of years. About the 
 year 1711, he transferred his interest in the province to a chartered company, 
 at the head of which was the notorious John Law, whose national bank and 
 Mississippi speculation involved the ruin of half the Erench nobility. In 
 1731, the company resigned the concern to the crown, who, in 1762, ceded 
 the whole of Louisiana to Spain. In 1800, Spain reconveyed the province 
 to the Erench, of whom it was purchased by the United States, in 1803, for 
 $15,000,000. The purchase included the territory of the United States W. of 
 the Mississippi, In 1812 the present State of Louisiana formed a constitu- 
 tion, and was admitted into the Union. Population in 1810, 76,556 ; in 1820, 
 153,407 fin 1830, 215,575 ; in 1840, 352,411, including, 168,452 slaves. 
 
 LOUVRE. This renowned edifice in Paris was a royal residence in the reign 
 of Dagobert, a. d. 628 ; but Erancis I. laid the foundation of what is now 
 called the Old Louvre, 1522. Here were deposited the finest collection of 
 paintings, of statues, and treasures of art known in the world. The chief 
 of them were brought from Italy during the triumph of Bonaparte's ai'ms, 
 but most of them have since been restored to the rightful possessors. 
 
 LUCCA, The Duchy of, adjoining Tuscany. On the fall of the Lombard king- 
 dom, A. D. 774, it was annexed to the German empire. In 1815 it wa.s occupied 
 by the Austrians and granted to Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles IV. of 
 Spain, The duke retires to Massa, but returns and yields to his people's 
 demand for reforms, Sept. 3, 1847 : appointed a regency and again fled, 
 Sept, 15. The duchy sold by the duke to Tuscany for an annuity of ^215,- 
 000, until he should succeed to the dnchy of Parma, on the death of Maria 
 Louisa, present duchess, Oct. 10, 1847, 
 
 LUCIA, St Eirst settled by the Erench in 1650, Taken by the British several 
 times in the subsequent wars. Memorable insurrection of the Erench 
 negroes, April, 1795. In this year Guadaloupe, St. Vincent, Grenada, Domi- 
 nica, St. Eustatia, and St. Lucie, were taken by the British. St. Lucia was 
 restored to Erance at the peace of 1802 ; but was again seized on by Eng- 
 land the next year, and confirmed to her by the treaty of Paris in 1814, 
 See Colonies. 
 
 LUNEVILLE, Peace of, concluded between the Erench republic and the em- 
 peror of Germany, confirming the cessions made by the treatj^ of Campo 
 Formio, stipulating that the Rhine, to the Dutch territories, should form 
 the boundary of Erance, and recognizing the independence of the Batavian, 
 Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, Eeb. 9, 1801. 
 
 LUSTRUM. An expiatory sacrifice made for the whole body of the Roman 
 people, at the end of every five years, after the census had been taken, 572 
 B. c. Every five years were called a IvMrum; and ten, fifteen, or twenty 
 years were commonly expressed by two, three, or four liLstra. 
 
 LUT FIE RAN ISM. Sprung up in Germany in 1517, in which year Leo X. pub* 
 liihed his indulgcn-^es for money; and Iccelius, a Dominican friar, v/ho was 
 
I,YCj DICTiOXARY OF DATES. 405 
 
 deputed will: others of his order to collect in Saxony, carried his zeal to such 
 a height as to declare his commission unbounded; that no crime could be 
 committed too great to be pardoned : and that by purchasing indulgences, 
 not only past sins, but those which were hitended, were to be forgiven. 
 Against these practices Luther openly preached with wonderful success, and 
 thus began the Reformation in Germany. — Melchior Adam, in Vita Lutheri. 
 
 LUTZEN, Battle of, between the French army commanded by Napoleon on 
 the one side, and the combined armies of Russia and Prussia, commanded by 
 general Wittgenstein, fought May 2, 1813. This sanguinary battle opened 
 the campaign of that year ; and though each of the adversaries claimed the 
 victory, it was manifestly on the side of France; but in this engagement 
 marshal Duroc was mortally wounded. The battles of Bautzen and Wmt- 
 zen immediately followed (May 20 and 26), both in favor of Napoleon, when 
 the allies were compelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was agreed to. 
 and afterwards prolonged, but unfortunately for the French emperor it did 
 not produce peace. 
 
 LUTZENGEN, or LUTZEN, Battle of ; Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, 
 against the emperor. In this sanguinary and memorable battle, Gustavus, 
 the most illustrious hero of his time, and the chief support of the Protestant 
 religion in Germany, and in alliance with Charles I. of England, was foully 
 killed in the moment of victory, Nov. 6, 1632. This is also called the battle 
 of Lippstadt. 
 
 LUXEMBURG. Considered the strongest fortress in the world. It was taken 
 and pillaged by the French in 1543; was taken by the Spaniards in 1544; 
 by the French in 1684; and restored to Spain in 1697. It was again taken 
 by the French in 1 701 ; and afterwards given to the Dutch as a barrier town, 
 and ceded to the emperor at the peace in 1713. These are among the chief 
 occurrences. Luxemburg withstood several sieges in the last century ; it 
 surrendered to the French after a long and memorable siege, June 7, 1795. 
 The garrison, on the capitulation, took an oath not to serve against the re- 
 public of France until exchanged, and were conducted to the right side of the 
 Rhine immediately after. 
 
 LUXURY. The instances of extravagance and luxury are numerous in the his- 
 tory of almost all countries, ancient and modern, and many laws have been 
 enforced to repress them. Horace mentions fowls dressed in Falernian wine, 
 muscles and oysters from the Lucrine lake and Circean promontory, and 
 black game from the Umbrian forests. — Lardner. Lucullus, at Rome, was 
 distinguished for the immoderate expenses of his meals; his halls were 
 named from the different gods; and when Cicero and Pompey attempted to 
 surprise him, they were amazed \>j the costliness of a supper which had been 
 prepared upon the word of Lucullus, who merely ordered his attendants to 
 serve it in the hall of Apollo ; this feast for three persons casually met, 
 would have sufficed for three hundred nobles specially invited. In England, 
 luxury was restricted by a law wherein the prelates and nobility were con- 
 lined to two courses every meal, and two kinds of food in every course, 
 except on great festivals. The law also prohibited all who did not enjoy a 
 free estate of 100^. per annum from wearing furs (see Furs), skins, or silk; 
 and the use of foreign cloth was confined to the royal family alone ; to all 
 others it was prohibited, a. d. 1837. An edict was issued by Charles VI. of 
 France, which said, " Let no man presume to treat with more than a soup 
 and two dishes," 1340. 
 
 LYCEUM. The Lyceum took its name from its having been originally a tem- 
 ple of Apollo Lyceus ; or rather, a portico, or gallery, built by Lyceus, sou 
 of Apoho. The Lyceum was a celebrated spot near the banks of the Ilis- 
 sus 'u Attica, where Aristotle taught philosophy ; and as he generally taught 
 
406 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [lyr 
 
 his pupils while he walked, hence they were called peripatdics, and his phi- 
 losophy was called from this place, the philosophy of the Lyceum, 342 b. c. 
 — Stanley. 
 
 I(YDIA. A very ancient kingdom under a long djmasty of kings, the last of 
 whom was Croesus, whose riches became a proverb : he was conquered by 
 Cyrus, 548 B. c. The coinage of money of gold and silver (together with 
 many other useful inventions, and the encouragement of commerce) is as- 
 cribed to the Lydians. A number of illustrious men flourished here. — Hti^o- 
 dotus. 
 
 Argon, a descendant of Hercules, reigns 
 in Lydia. — Herod. . . b. c. 1223 
 
 The kingdom of Lydia, properly so 
 called, begins under Ardysus L — 
 Mair 797 
 
 Alyattes reigns 761 
 
 Meles commences his rule . . 747 
 
 Reign of Candaules .... 735 
 
 Gyges, first of the race called Merm- 
 nadsB, pnts Candaules to death, mar- 
 ries his queen, usuips the throne, 
 and makes great conquests 
 
 Ardysus II. reigns; the Cimbri be- 
 siege Sardis, the capital of Lydia . 
 
 The Milesian war commenced under 
 Gyges, is continued by Sadyattes, 
 who reigns 
 
 Eeign of Alyattes II . 
 
 Battle upon the river Halys between 
 the Lydians and Medes, intercepted 
 by an almost total eclipse of the sun, 
 which superstltiously occasions a 
 conclusion of the wav.-Bldir. May2S, 585 
 
 [This eclipse had been predicted many 
 years before by Thales, of Miletus. — 
 
 718 
 680 
 
 631 
 619 
 
 Croesus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to 
 the throne, and becomes celebrated 
 for his victories and conquests, b.c. 562 
 
 Ephesus falls into his hands ; the loni- 
 ans, ^olians, and other parts of Asia 
 Minor are subjected to his dominion 554 
 
 All the nations west of the Halys are 
 conquered, and that river becomes 
 theboundaryof the kingdom Blair 550 
 
 Croesus, dreading the power of Cyrus, 
 whose conquests had reached to the 
 borders of Lydia, crosses the Halys 
 to attack the Medes. with an army 
 of 420,000 men and 60,000 horse 5i3 
 
 He is defeated by Cyrus, pursued, be- 
 sieged in his capital, and taken 543 
 
 The conqueror orders Croesus to be 
 burned alive, and the pile is already 
 on Are, when he calls on the name 
 of Solon in agony of mind,andCyru3 
 hearing him pronounce it, spares his 
 life 543 
 
 Lydia, the kingdom of the "richest of 
 mankind," is made a province of the 
 Persian empire . ... 5i3 
 
 Blair.] 
 
 -^sop, the Phrygian fabulist, Alcman, the first G-reek poet who wrote in a 
 style of gallantry, Thales of Miletus, Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Anacreon of 
 Teos, Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c., flourished in Lydia. The country remain- 
 ed subject to the Persian empire until the latter was conquered by Alexan- 
 der, about 3.30 b. c. It next became part of the new kingdom of Pergamus, 
 founded by Philseterus, the eunuch ; Attains afterwards bequeathed it to tho 
 Eomans, and finally the Turks conquered it from the Eastern Emjaire, a. d. 
 1326.— Friestley. 
 
 LYONS. Founded by L. Plancus, 43 b. c. The city was reduced to ashes in a 
 single night by hghtning, and was rebuilt in the reign of Nero. Two gen- 
 eral councils were held here in the 13th and 14th centuries. The silk man- 
 ufacture commenced in the reign of Francis L, 1515. Lyons was besieged 
 in 1793 by the convention army of 60,000 men, and surrendered Oct. 7, 
 when awful scenes of blood and rapine followed. The National Convention 
 decreed the demolition of the city, Oct. 12, same year. It capitulated to the 
 Austrians, March, 1814, and July 1815. An insurrection among the artisans, 
 which led to great popular excesses for many days, broke out, Nov. 21,1831. 
 Dreadful riots, April 15, 1834. A dreadful inundation occurred at Lyons, 
 Nov. 4u 1840. See Inundations. 
 
 TA^RE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian Mercury, who, according to 
 Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first tliat played upon it with method, and 
 accompanied it with poetry. The invention of the primitive lyre with three 
 strings, is due to the first Egyptian Hermes. Terpander added several 
 strings to the lyre, making the number seven, 673 b. g. Phrynis, a musician 
 of Mi'^ylene, added two more, making nine, 438 b. c. 
 
mac] 
 
 DICTIONAKY OF DATES. 
 
 40/ 
 
 M. 
 
 MACEDON. The first kingdom was founded by Carinus, about 814 b. c. It 
 was an inconsiderable country, sometimes under tlie protection of Athens, 
 sometimes of Thebes, and sometimes of Sparta, until the reign of Pliilip, the 
 father of Alexander the Great, who by his wisdom as a politician, and ex- 
 ploits as a general, made it a powerful kingdom, and paved the way to hia 
 son's greatness. Macedon ha,d twenty -one kings, from Caranus to Alexan- 
 der inclusive : after the conqueror's death, when his dominions were divided 
 among his generals, Cassander seized Macedon, and established a new king- 
 dom. See Tabular Vietus, p. 15 to p. 37. 
 
 Eeign of Caranus - - b. c. 
 
 Eeign of Perdiccas 1. - - - 
 
 Keign of Argseus L- 
 
 Eeign of Philip I. - - - 
 
 Eeign of ^ropas; he conquers the 
 Illyrians . - - - 
 
 Eeign of Anayntas - - 
 
 Eeign of Alexander I. - - - 
 
 Eeign of Perdiccas II. 
 
 Avchelaus, natural son of Perdiccas, 
 murders the legitimate heirs of his 
 father, and seizes the throne 
 
 He is surnamed the "Patron of 
 Learning" , 
 
 He is murdered by a favorite to 
 whom he'promised his daughter in 
 marriage, yet gave her to another - 
 
 Eeign of Amyntas II. - - - 
 
 He is driven from the throne 
 
 Recovers his throne, and puts Pau- 
 sanias to death - - 
 
 The Illyrians enter Macedonia, ex- 
 pel Amyntas, and put Argseus, 
 brother of Pausanias, on the throne 
 
 Amyntas again recovers his kingdom 
 
 Eeign of Alexander II, 
 
 He is assassinated - - 
 
 Eeign of Perdiccas III. 
 
 He is killed in battle 
 
 Eeign of Philip II. and institution of 
 the Macedonian phalanx 
 
 Philip gains the battle of Metbon 
 over the Athenians 
 
 He defeats the Illyrians in a despe- 
 rate engagement - - - 
 
 He takes Amphipolis, and receives an 
 arrow in his right eye. /See Archery 
 
 He conquers Thrace and Illyiia 
 
 Birth of Alexander the Great 
 
 Philip adds to his conquests 
 
 Close of the first sacred war 
 
 lUyricumoverranbythearmyof Philip 
 
 Thrace made tributary to Macedon - 
 
 Aristotle appointed tutor to the 
 young prince Alexander 
 
 War against the Athenians 
 
 Philip besieges Byzantium 
 
 Battle of Chaeronea; Philip conquers. 
 See Ghceronea - - 
 
 Philip is assassinated byPausanias, at 
 £g8ea,duringthecelebrationofgames 
 in honor of his daughter's nuptials 
 
 Alexander 111., surnamed the Great, 
 succeeds his father - - - 
 
 He enters Greece 
 
 The Greeks appoint him general of 
 their armiies against the Persians 
 
 The Thebans revolt; he levels Thebes 
 
 814 
 729 
 678 
 640 
 
 602 
 547 
 497 
 
 454 
 
 413 
 - 411 
 
 899 
 899 
 
 397 
 
 392 
 390 
 371 
 370 
 366 
 360 
 
 360 
 
 360 
 
 359 
 
 858 
 356 
 356 
 348 
 348 
 344 
 343 
 
 343 
 341 
 341 
 
 336 
 
 336 
 335 
 
 335 
 
 to the ground ; the house of Pindar 
 
 is alone left standing - - 335 
 
 The Almighty favors Alexander with 
 a vision, in which the high-priest of 
 the Jews appears to him, exhorting 
 him to enter Asia. See Jews - 334 
 
 He passes into Asia, and gains his 
 first battle over Darius. See Gra- 
 nieus, Battle of - - - 334 
 
 Sardis surrenders to the conqueror ; 
 Halicarnassus is taken, and nume- 
 rous cities in Asia Minor - 334 
 
 Meranon ravages the Cyclades ; Da- 
 rius takes the field with 460,000 in- 
 fantry and 100,000 cavalry - 338 
 
 Battle of Issus (which see) • - 333 
 
 Alexander, in his way to Egypt, lays 
 siege to Tyre, which is destroyed 
 after seven months - - 332 
 
 Damascus is taken, and the vast trea- 
 sures of Darius come into the pos- 
 session of the victor - - 332 
 
 Gaza surrenders - - - 332 
 
 Alexander enters Jerusalem ; and 
 Egypt conquered - - 382 
 
 Alexandria founded - - - 33'i 
 
 Great battle of Arbela, the third and 
 last between Alexander and Da- 
 rius ; the Persian army totally de- 
 feated. See Arhela - - 331 
 
 Alexander proclaimed master of Asia; 
 he enters Babylon in triumph - 331 
 
 GKECIAN OE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Alexander sits on the throne of Da- 
 rius at Susa ... 330 
 
 Parthia and Hyrcania are overrun by 
 Alexander - - - - 329 
 
 Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, 
 visits him, attended by a retinue of 
 300 women. See Amazons - 329 
 
 He puts his friend Parmenio to 
 death, on a charge of conspiracy, 
 supposed to be false - - 829 
 
 Alexander makes more conquests - 828 
 
 His expedition to India; Porus, king 
 of India, is defeated and taken ; 
 and the country as far as the 
 Ganges is overrun - - 327 
 
 Calisthenes is put to the torture for 
 refusing to render divine homage 
 to Alexander ... 326 
 
 Subjection of the Cosseans - - 326 
 
 Death of Alexander - - - 323 
 
 His conquests are divided among his 
 generals .... 323 
 
 His remains are transported to Alex- 
 andi-ia, and burled by Ptolemy - 322 
 
408 THE world's pkogress. [mau 
 
 MACE DON, coniinuefl 
 
 Th'? Greeks defeated by sea and land 
 
 near (Jrauon (tchich see) - b. c. 822 
 
 Thebes rebuilt by Gassander - - 315 
 
 Seleucus recovers Babylon - 312 
 
 Gassander puts Koxana and her son 
 
 to death, and usurps the throne - 311 
 
 Battle of Ipsus (w'/^icA see) - - 301 
 
 New division of the empire - - 301 
 
 Reign of Antigonus Gonatus b. o. 277 
 Pyrrhus invadesMacedon,defeatsAn- 
 
 tigonus, and is proclaimed king - 274 
 
 Pyrrhiis slain ; Antigonus restored - 272 
 
 AntiiTonus takes Athens - - 268 
 
 The Gauls again invade Macedon - 263 
 
 Revolt of the Parthians - - 250 
 
 Reign of Demetiius XL - - 242 
 
 Reign of Philip, his son - - 232 
 
 His war against the Rhodians - 2(i2 
 
 Philip is defeated by the Romans - 198 
 
 He is totally subdued - - 196 
 
 The reign of Perseus - - - 179 
 
 Perseus defeated by the Romans - 171 
 
 MACEDON II. 
 
 Death of Gassander - - - 298 
 
 Reign of Alexander and Antipater - 298 
 Demetrius murders Alexander, and 
 
 seizes the crown of Macedon - 294 
 
 Irruption of the Gauls - - - 279 
 
 The consul JEmilius Panlus enters Macedon, and pronounces it a Roman 
 province. Perseus and iiis sons are made prisoners, 168 b. c, and next year 
 walk in chains before the ciiariot of ^milius in his triumph for tlie conquest 
 of Macedon, The country is finally conquered by the Turks under Amurath 
 II. in A. I). 1429. Priestley. 
 MACHIAYELIAN PRINCIPLES. These are principles laid down by Nicho- 
 las Machiavel, of Florence, in his Practice of Politics, and The Prince. By 
 some they are stigmatized as " the most pernicious maxims of government, 
 founded on the vilest policy;" and by others as "sound doctrines, notwith- 
 standing the prejudice erroneously raised agairist them." The work appeared 
 in 1517 ; and was translated into English in 1761.* 
 
 MADAGASCAR. One of the largest islands in the world, discovered by Lo- 
 renzo Almeida A. D. 1506. In the centre of the island is said to exist a race 
 of dwarfs, with a strange peculiarity of form ; but this rests on the unsup- 
 ported statement of a French traveller who was in possession of a preserved 
 pigmy which he had brought from Madagascar. ' A paper describing tiie 
 pigmy was presented to the Royal Society by an eminent physician, in 1 809. 
 
 MADEIRA. So called on account of its woods ; it was discovered, it is said, by 
 Mr. Macham, an English gentleman, or mariner, who fled from England for 
 an illicit amour. He was driven here by a storm, and his mistress, a French 
 lady, dying, he made a canoe, and carried the news of his discovery to Pedro, 
 king of Arragon, which occasioned the report that the island was discovered 
 by a Portuguese, A d. 1345. But it' is maintained that the Portuguese did 
 not visit this island until 1419, nor did tney colonize it until 1431. It was 
 taken possession of by the British in July 1801. And again, by admiral 
 Hood and general (now viscount) Beresford, Dec. 24, 1807, and retained in 
 trust for the royal family of Portugal, which had just then emigrated to the 
 Brazils. It was subsequently restored to the Portuguese crown. 
 
 MADRAS. Colonized by the English, and Fort George built by permission of 
 the king of Golconda, 17 James I., 1620. Madras was taken by the French 
 in 1746, and was restored in 1749, immediately after the peace of Aixla- 
 Chapelle. 
 
 MADRID. Mentioned in history as a castle belonging to the Moors. It was 
 sacked A. d. 1109. It was made the seat of the Spanish court in 1516. Tlie 
 Escurial was built in 1557, et seq. The old palace was burnt down in 1734. 
 The French took possession of this city in March 1808, after the roj'-al family 
 had retired into France ; and on May 2, the citizens rose up in arms to 
 
 * The writings of this celebrated politician countenanced (another commentator says) "the 
 doing of any act to compass or bring about those things which are neither honorable nor just, 
 whereby ambitious sovereigns or evil ministers may accomplish what their extra vagant desires 
 prompt them to, at the expense of their subjects' peace, or their country's safety."— ^erfirtt«o?i. 
 
mag] 
 
 DICTION^AKY OF DATES. 409 
 
 expel them, when a dreadful conflict nnd carnage took place. Joseph Bona- 
 parte entered Madrid as king of Spain, July 20, 1808; but soon retired. 
 Eetakcn by the French Dec. 2, same year; and retained till Aug. 12, 1812, 
 when Madrid was entered by the British army. Ferdinand VII. was restored 
 May 14, 1814. Madrid was the scene of various occurrences during the 
 late civil war, for which see Spain. 
 
 MAESTRICHT. This city revolted from Spain 1 570, and was taken by the 
 prince ot Parma in 1579. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced it after a 
 memorable siege, and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648. Louis XIV. 
 took it in 1673; Wilham prince of Orange invested it in vain, in 1676; but, 
 in 1678, it was restored to the Dutch. In 1748, it was besieged by the French, 
 who were permitted to take possession of the city on condition of its being 
 restored at the peace then negotiating. At the commencement of 1793, Maes- 
 tiicht was unsuccessfully attacked by the French, but they became masters 
 of it toward the end of the following year. In 1814, it was delivered up to 
 the allied forces. 
 
 MAGDALBNS and MAGDALENETTES. Communities of nuns and women, 
 the latter class consisting chiefly of penitent courtesans. The convent of 
 Naples was endowed by queen Sancha, a. d. 1324. That at Metz was insti- 
 tuted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. The Magdalen at Eome was endowed by 
 pope Leo X., in 1515; and Clement VIII. settled a revenue on the nuns, and 
 further ordained that the effects of all public prostitutes who died without 
 will should fall to them, and that those who made wills should not have 
 their bequests sanctioned by the law unless they bequeathed a part of their 
 effects to the Magdalen institution, which part was to be at least one-fifth, 
 1594. The Magdalen hospital, London, was founded in 1758, principally 
 under the direction of Dr. Dodd. In New- York, a similar institution caUed 
 " A Home for tlie Friendless " was founded, 1846. 
 
 MAG-ELL AN, Str.uts of. They were passed by Ferdinand Magellan (Fer- 
 nando de Magellhaens) a Portuguese, with a fleet of discovery fitted out by 
 the emperor Charles V., in 1519. The first voyage round the world was 
 undertaken by this illustrious navigator ; and his vessel performed the enter- 
 prise although the commander perished. The Spaniards had a fort here, 
 since called cape Famine, because the garrison had all perished for want of 
 food. 
 
 MAGI, OR WORSHIPPERS OF FIRE. The prime object of the adoration of 
 the Persians was the invisible and incomprehensible God, whom, not know- 
 ing, they worshipped as the principle of all good, and they paid particular 
 homage to fire, as the emblem of his power and purity. They built no altars 
 nor temples, as they deemed it absurd to pretend to confine an omnipresent 
 God within walls ; accordingly their sacred fires blazed in the open air, and 
 their ofterings were made upon the earth. The Magi were their priests, and 
 their skill in astronomy rendered the secrets of nature familiar to them, so 
 that the term Magi was at length applied to all learned men, till they were 
 finally confounded with the magicians. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was the 
 leformer of the sect of the Magi: he flourished 1080 b. c. — Du Fresnoy. 
 
 MAGIC LANTERN. This was the invention of the illustrious Roger Bacon, 
 England's great philosopher, about a. d. 1260. Bacon first invented the con- 
 vex magnifying glasses in 1252 ; and he afterwards, in his many experiments, 
 applied them to this use. 
 
 MAGNA CHARTA. The great charter of English liberty may be said to have 
 been derived from Edward the Confessor, continued by Henry I. and his 
 successors, Stephen, Henry II., and John. But the Charter more particularly 
 meant, was a body of laws, the great charter of our rights granted by John 
 
 18 
 
410 THE world's peogeess. [ma J 
 
 and signed at Runnymede, near Windsor, June 15, 1215. The barons took 
 arms to enforce this sacred possession, which was many times confirmed, 
 and as frequently violated, by Henry III. This last king's grand cliarter 
 was granted in the 9th year of his reign, 1224, and was assured by Edward 
 I. Tt is remarked, that when Henry HI. granted it he swore on the word 
 and faith of a king, a Christian, and a knight, to observe it. For this grant 
 a tifteenth of all moveable goods were given to ihe king, whether they were 
 temporals or spirituals; yet sir Edward Coke says that even in his days it 
 had been confirmed above thirty times. 
 MAGNET. Sturmius, in his Episiola, dated at Altorf, 1682, observes that the 
 attractive quality of the magnet has been taken notice of from time im- 
 memorial; but, that it was our countryman, Roger Bacon, of Ilchester,.in 
 Somersetshire (he died the 17th June, 1294), who first discovered its pro- 
 perty of pointing to the nortli pole. The Italians discovered that it could 
 communicate its virtue to steel or iron. The variation not being always the 
 same was taken notice of by Helvelius, Petil, and others. Flavio Gioja, of 
 Naples, invented or improved the mariner's compass, in 1302. The impor- 
 tant discovery of the inclination or dip of the magnetic needle was made 
 about 1576 (published 1580) by Robert Norman, of London. Dr. Gilbert's 
 experiment was made in 1600. Artificial magnets were invented, or rather 
 improved, in 1751. A magnetic clock, invented by Dr. Locke, of Ohio, an- 
 nounced at Washington, Jan. 5, 1849. 
 
 MAHOMETISM. See Alcoran and Koran. The creed of Mahomet was pro- 
 mulgated A. D. 604, by Mahomet, styled by some writers as a renowned 
 general and politician ; and by others as a successful impostor and tyrant. 
 Mahomet asserted that the Koran was revealed to him by tlie angel Gabriel 
 during a period of twenty-three years. It was written in the Koreish Ara- 
 bic, which he asserted was the language of Paradise, and it is considered 
 as possessing every fine quality of a language. It has 1000 terms for sword, 
 500 for lion, 200 for serpent, and 80 for honey. It is spoken and written in 
 various parts of Asia and Africa. Mahomet died in 631, of the effects, it is 
 said, of a slow poison, given to him in a piece of mutton three years before, 
 by a Jew, who took this method to discover if he was a true prophet, and 
 immortal, as he had declared himself to be. — Frideaux. 
 
 MAIL-COACHES m ENGLAND. Were first set up at Bristolin 1784; and 
 were extended to other routes in 1785, at the end of which year they be- 
 came general in England. This plan for the conveyance of letters was the 
 invention of Mr. Palmer of Bath ; the mails had been previously conveyed by 
 carts with a single horse, or by boys on horseback. 
 
 MAINE, one of the United States; first permanent settlement in, at Bristol. 
 The district was granted in 1635 to sir Ferdinand Gorges, who appointed a 
 governor and council. It was purchased of the heirs of Gorges in 1652 by 
 the State of Massachusetts, for $5,334; annexed to Massachusetts, under 
 charter from William & Mary, in 1691: became a separate State in 1820. 
 Population in 1790 was 96,540; in 1810, 228,705; in 1840, 501,793. 
 
 MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emperor and imperial family were ad- 
 dressed by this title, which was previously given to their great officers of 
 state. Popes also had the title of majesty. The emperors of Germany 
 took the title, and endeavored to keep it and the closed crown to themselves. 
 It was first given to Louis XL of France, in 1461. — Voltaire. Upon Charles 
 V. being chosen emperor of Germany in 1519, the kings of Spain took the 
 style of Majesty. Francis I. of France, at the interview with Henry VII I. of 
 England on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, addressed the latter as Your 
 Majesty, 1520. — See Field of the Cloth of Gold. James I. coupled this title 
 with the term "Sacred," and '-Most Excellent Majesty." See Titles. 
 
MAJv] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 4J1 
 
 MAJORCA AND MINORCA. For occurrences relating to these islands, see 
 Minorca. 
 
 MALPLAQUET, Battle of. The allies under the duke of Marlborough and 
 prince Eugene, against the arms of France commanded by marshal Vi lars, 
 Tlie armies consisted on each side of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers, and the 
 victor}'- was with the allies ; but this action was attended with great slaugh- 
 ter on both sides, the allies losing 18,000 men, which loss was but ill repaid 
 by the capture of Mons; fought Sept. 11, 1709. 
 
 MALTA, Knights of. A military-religious order, called also Hospitallers of 
 St. John of Jerusalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some 
 merchants of Melphis, trading to the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph of 
 Egypt to build a house for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and 
 whom they received with zeal and charity, a. d. 1048. They afterwards 
 founded a hospital for the sicii, from whence they were called Hospitallers. 
 This foundation was laid in a. D. 11 04, in the reign of Baldwin, and they 
 now became a military order in 1118, into which many persons of quality 
 entered, and changed their names into knights. After the Christians had 
 aost their interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the knights retired 
 to Margett, and then to Acre, which they defended valiantly in 1290 ; then 
 they followed John, king of Cyprus, who gave them Limisson in his domi- 
 nions, where they stayed till 1310, and that same year they took Rhodes, 
 under the grand master Foulques de Yallaret, and next year defended ii 
 und^r the duke of Savoy, against an army of Saracens ; since when, his 
 successors have used F. E. R. T. for their device, that is, Fortitudo ejus 
 lihodum tenuit, or, he kept Rhodes by his valor ; from this they were called 
 knights of Rhodes; but Rhodes being taken by Solyman in 1522, they 
 retired into Candia, thence into Sicily. Pope Adrian VL granted them the 
 cit}'- of Yiterbo for their retreat ; and in 1530, the emperor Charles V. gave 
 ihem the isle of Malta. Tlie emperor Paul of Russia declared himself 
 grand-master of the order in June, 1799. 
 
 MALTA. The memorable siege by the Turks, who were obliged to abandon 
 the enterprise after the loss of 30,000 men, 1566. The island was taken by 
 general Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition to Egypt, June 12, 1798. 
 He found in it 1200 cannons, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships of the line, 
 a frigate, four galleys, and 40,000 muskets; besides an immense treasure 
 collected by superstition ; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he set at 
 liberty. Malta was blockaded by the British from the autumn of 1798, and 
 was taken by major-general Pigot, Sept. 5, 1 800 ; but at the peace of 
 Amiens, it was 'stipulated that it should be restored to the knights. The 
 British, however, retained possession, and the war recommenced between 
 the two nations: but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was gua- 
 ranteed to Great Britain. 
 
 MA MELUKES. The name of a dynasty which reigned a considerable time in 
 Egypt. They were originally Turkish and Circassian slaves, and were 
 established by the sultan Saladin as a kind of body-guard, a.d. 1246. They 
 advanced one of their own corps to the throne, and continued to do so until 
 Egypt became a Turkish province in 1517, when the beys took them into 
 pay, and filled up their ranks with renegades from various countries. On the 
 conquest of Egypt by Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia. As- 
 sisted by the Aruauts, who were introduced into the country in the war, the 
 Mamelukes once more wrested Egypt from the Turkish government In 1811 
 they were deco^^ed into the power of the Turkish pacha, and slain. 
 
 MAN]SrHP]IM. First built in a.d. 1606; and became the court residence in 
 1719; but the extinction of tlie palatinate family in 1777 caused the re* 
 
412 THE WOULd's PP.OGKESS. [ilAlI 
 
 moval of the court to Munich. Battle of Mannhemi, between the armies of 
 the alUes and tlie French, fbuglit May 30, 1793. Mannheim surrendered to 
 the French, under command of general Pichegru, Sept. 20, 1796. On the 
 25th of the same month, the Austrians under general Wurmser, defeated the 
 French near the city. Several battles were fought with various success in 
 the neighborhood during the late wars. Kotzebue, the popular dramatist, 
 was assassinated at Mannheim, by a student of Wurtzburg, named Sandt, 
 April 2, 1819. 
 
 MANICHEAiSrS. An ancient sect, founded by Manes, which began to infest 
 the East, about a.d. 277. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, and Africa, and 
 particularly into Persia. A rich widow, whose servant Manes had been, left 
 him a store of wealth, after which he assumed the title of apostle, or envoy 
 of Jesus Christ, and announced that he was the paraclete or comforter that 
 Christ had promised to send. He maintained two principles, the one good, 
 and the other bad ; the first he called light, which did nothing but good, 
 and the second he called darkness, which did nothing but evil. Several 
 other sects sprung from the Manicheans. Manes was put to death by Sapor, 
 king of Persia, in 290. His offence against this prince was, his having 
 dismissed the physicians of the court, pretending he could cure one of the 
 royal famil}^ by his prayers, instead of which the patient died in his arms. — 
 Nouv. Did. Hist. 
 
 MANILLA. Capital of the Philippine Isles ; a , great mart of Spanish com- 
 merce. 3000 persons perished here by an earthquake in 1645. Manilla was 
 taken by the English in 1757 ; and again in Oct. 1762, by storm. The cap- 
 tors humanely suffered the archbishop to ransom it for about a million ster- 
 ling; but great part of the ransom never was paid. Since the establishment 
 of a free trade in the Spanish colonies, which took place in 1783, the usual 
 Acapulco ships and other government traders have been discontinued ; and 
 the commerce to the Manillas and other parts, is carried on in private bottoms 
 by free companies of merchants. — Bittler. 
 
 MANTINEA, Battle of, between Epaminondas, at the head of the Thebans, 
 and the combined forces of Lacedtemon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia. 
 The Theban general was killed in the engagement, and from that time 
 Thebes lost its povt^er and consequence among the Grrecian states, 363 B.C. — 
 Strdbo. 
 
 MANTUA. Yirgil was born at a village near the city. Mantua surrendered to 
 the French, Jan. 7, 1797, after a siege of eight months; and it was attacked^ 
 by the Austrian and Russian army, July 30, 1799, to which it surrendered 
 after a short siege. In 1800, after the battle of Marengo, the French again 
 obtained possession of it ; but they delivered it up to the Austrians in 
 1814. 
 
 MAPS AND CHARTS. They were invented by Anaximander, the Milesian 
 philosopher, a disciple of Thales, and the earliest philosophical astronomer 
 on record, 570 B.C. He was also the first who constructed spheres. A 
 celestial chart was, it is said, constructed in China, in the sixth century. — 
 Freret. And sea-charts were first brought to England, by Bartholomew 
 Columbus, to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, 
 A.D. 1489. The earliest map of England was drawn by George Lily in 1520. 
 Mercator's chart, in wlich the world was taken as a plane, was invented in 
 1556. A map of the moon's surface was first drawn at Dantzic, in 1647. See 
 Charts. 
 MARATHON, Battle op. One of the most extraordinary in ancient history 
 Tlie Greeks were only 10,000 strong, tlie number of tlie Persians not known. 
 The former were commanded by Milliades. Aristides, and Themistocles, who 
 defeated the Persians. Persian loss 6,400 — Athenian 192. Among the 
 
mar] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 413 
 
 number of the slain was Hippias, the instigator of the war ; the remaind(!r 
 of the Persian army were forced to re-embark for Asia, Sept. 28, 490 b. c. 
 
 MARBLE. Lipsenus and Scylhs, statuaries of Crete, were the first artists who 
 sculptured marble, and polished their works ; all statues previously to their 
 time being of wood, 568 b. c. — Pliny. Marble afterwards came into use for 
 statues, and the columns and ornaments of fine buildings and the edifices 
 and monuments of Rome, were constructed of, or ornamented with, fine 
 marble. The ruins of Palmyra prove that its magnificent structures, which 
 were chiefly of white marble, were far more extensive and splendid than 
 those of even Rome itself. These latter were discovered by some Englisli 
 travellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. See Palmyra. 
 
 MARCH. This was the first month of the year, until Numa added January 
 and February, 113 b. c. Romulus, who divided the year into months, gave 
 to this month the name of his supposed father Mars ; though Ovid observes, 
 that the people of Italy had the month of March before the time of Romu- 
 lus, but that they placed ir very differently in the calendar. The year for- 
 merly commenced on the 25th day of this month. See Tear. 
 
 MARENGO, Battle of. In thi^ ever-memorable engagement the French army 
 was commanded by Bonaparte, against the Austrians, and after prodigies 
 of valor, his army was retreating, when the timely arrival of general Dessaix 
 (who was afterwards mortally wounded in this battle) turned the fortunes 
 - of the day. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful : the Austrians lost 
 6000 in killed, 12,000 in prisoners, and 45 pieces of cannon ; and though the 
 French boasted that the loss on their side did not much exceed 3000 men, 
 it was afterwards known to be vastly more, June 14, ] 800. By a treaty be- 
 tween the Austrian general Melas and the conqueror, Bonaparte, signed on 
 the next day, twelve of the strongest fortresses in Italy were put into pos- 
 session of the latter : and he became, in fact, the master of Italy. 
 
 MARESCHAL, or MARSHAL. In France marshals were the ancient esquires 
 of the king ; and by their first institution they had the command of the van- 
 guard, to observe the enemy, and to choose proper places for its encamp- 
 ment. Till the time of Francis I., in a. d. 1515, there were but two French 
 marshals, who had 500 livres per annum in war, but no stipend in time of 
 peace. The rank afterwards became of the highest military importance, 
 the number was without limit, and the command supreme. During the em- 
 pire of Napoleon, the marshals of France tilled the world with their renown. 
 See Marshal, Field. 
 
 MARIG-NAISr, Battle of, near Milan, in Italy, one of the most furious engage- 
 ments of modern times. In this sanguinary conflict, which happened be- 
 tween the heroic Swiss and the French under Francis the First upwards of 
 twenty thousand men were slain ; the former, after losing all their bravest 
 troops, were compelled to retire, September 13, 151-5. 
 
 MARINER'S COMPASS The Chinese ascribe the invention of the compass to 
 their emperor IIong-Ti, who they say was a grandson of Noah; and some of 
 their historians refer the invention of it to a later date, 1115 b. c. See Com- 
 'jpa^s. The honor of its discovery, though much disputed, is generally given 
 to Flavio de G-ioja, or Giovia, a native .of Amalfi, an ancient commercial city 
 of Naples, a. d. 1302. The variation of the needle was first discovered by 
 Columbus in his voyage of discovery, 1492 ; and it was observed in London 
 in 1580. The dipping-needle was invented by Robert Norman, a compass- 
 maker of Ratcliflfe, in tliat year. 
 
 MARQUE, Letters of. Instruments authorizing the subjects of one prince to 
 make reprisals upon, and capture the ships, property, and subjects of another 
 prince or country. Some such instruments are said to have been first used 
 
114 THE WORLD'S PllOGRESS. [mAK 
 
 by the Venetian government. The first letters of marque granted In Eng- 
 land were in the reign of Edward 1., against the Portuguese., A. d. 1295. — 
 Rymer^s F<Mdera. 
 MARQUESS. This dignity, called by the Saxons Markin-Reve, and by the 
 Germans Markgrave, took its original from Mark or March, which, in the 
 kmguage of the northern nations, is a limit or bound, and their office was 
 to guard or govern the frontiers of a province. It has the next place of 
 honor to a duke, and was introduced several years after that title had been 
 established in England. The first on whom it was conferred, was the great 
 favorite of king Richard IL, Robert de Yere, earl of Oxford, who was created 
 marquess of Dublin, and by him placed in parliament between the dukes and 
 earls, a. d. 1385. Alexander Stewart, second son of James III. of Scotland, 
 was made marquess of that kingdom, as marquess of Ormond, in 1480. 
 
 MARRIAGE. The first institution of this union between man and woman for 
 life, with certain ceremonies of a binding and solemn nature, is ascribed to 
 Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 B. c. — Eusebius Pref. to Chron. The prevail- 
 ing ceremony in most countries was that of a man leading home his bride, 
 after a solemn contract with her friends. To render this contract the more 
 sacred, it was made the work of the priest, instead of being that of a civil 
 magistrate adopted by several civilized nations. The celebration of mar- 
 riage in churches was ordained by pope Innocent III., about a. d. 1199. 
 Marriage was forbidden in Lent, A. d. 364. It was forbidden to bishops in 
 692 and to priests in 1015 ; and these latter w6re obliged to take the vow 
 of celibacy in 1073. Marriages were solemnized by justices of the peace 
 under an act of the Commons in Oliver Cromwell's administration, 1 653. A 
 tax was laid on marriages, viz. : on the marriage of a duke 50Z, of a com- 
 mon person 2s. 6d, the 8th of William III., 1695. Marriages were again 
 taxed in 1784. 
 
 MARRIAGES BY SALE. Among the Babylonians at a certain time every year, 
 the marriageable females were assembled, and disposed of to the best bid- 
 der, by the public crier. The richest citizens purchased such as pleased 
 them at a high price ; and the money thus obtained was used to portion off 
 those females to whom nature had been less liberal of personal charms. 
 When the beauties were disposed of, the crier put up the more ordinary lots, 
 beginning with the most ill-favored among those that remained, announcing 
 a premium to the purchaser of each : the bidders were to name a sum below 
 the given premium, at which they would be willing to take the maid; and 
 he who bid lowest was declared the purchaser. By these means every female 
 was provided for. This custom originated with Atossa, daughter of Belo- 
 chus, about 1433 b. C. 
 
 MARSEILLES. Is supposed to have been founded by the Phoceans, about 
 600 B. c. — Univ. Hist. Cicero- styled it the Athens of Gaul. It was taken 
 by Julius Caisar after a long and terrible siege ; and it was sacked by the 
 Saracens, a. d. 473. Marseilles became a republic in 1214. It was subjected 
 to the counts of Provence in 1251 ; and was again united to the crown of 
 Prance in 1482. In 1649 the plague raged with great violence in Marseilles, 
 and with still greater in 1720, when it carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants. 
 
 MARSHALS, FIELD, in the British army. The rank is of modern date, and 
 was preceded by that of captain-general, and that also of commander-in- 
 chief. The duke of Marlborough was captain-general, 1702. The first mil- 
 itary chiefs bearing the rank of marshal were those of France. George IL 
 i!rst conferred the rank upon John, duke of Argyle, and George, earl of Ork- 
 ney iu 1736. See MareschaL 
 
 MARSTOISr MOOR, Battle op. This battle was the beginning of the misfor- 
 tunes and disgrace of the unfortunate Charles I. of England. The Scots and 
 
marJ 
 
 DlCTluNxVRY OF DATES. 415 
 
 parliapaentarian army had joined, and were besieging York, when prince Ru- 
 pert, joined by tlie marquis of Newcastle, deterniiaed to raise the siege. 
 JBoth sides drew up on Marston Moor, to the number of filty thousand, and 
 tlie victory seemed long undecided between them. Rupert, who command- 
 ed tlie riglit wing of the royahsts, was opposed by OUver Cromwell, who 
 now tirst came into notice, at the head of a body of troops wliom he had 
 taken care to levy and discipline. Cromwell was victorious, he pushed his 
 opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second en- 
 gagement and a second victory. The prince's whole train of artilery was 
 taken, and the royalists never afterwards recovered the blow; fought July 
 3, 1644. 
 
 MARTINIQUE. This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and St. Yincent, an J 
 the Grenadines, were taken by the British from the French in February 
 1762. They were restored to France at the peace of the following year. 
 They were again taken March 16, 1794; were restored at the peace of 
 Amiens in 1802 ; and were again captured February 23, 1809, A revolution 
 took place in this island in favor of Napoleon, but it was finally suppressed 
 by the British, June 1, 1815 ; and Martinique reverted to its French masters 
 at the late general peace, 1815. 
 
 MARTYRS. The Christian Church, Catholic and Protestant, has abounded in 
 martyrs, and history is filled with accounts of their wonderful constancy to 
 their faith. The festivals of the martyrs are, many of them, of very ancient 
 date, and took their rise about the time of Polycarp, who suffered martyr- 
 dom A.D. 168. England has had its Christian martyrs ; and the accounts of 
 those who suffered for their adherence to the Protestant religion would fill 
 volumes. The following documents in connection with the fate of Cranmer, 
 Latimer, and Ridley, are of melancholy interest. They are taken from a 
 " Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner and Supper, and the charge thereof, for Cran- 
 mer, Laiimer, and Ridley,'''' kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were 
 in the custody of those officers, previously to their being burnt alive : — 
 
 1st. octobee, 1554. — ^dinneb. 
 
 Bread and ale - - - £0 2 
 
 Oysters - - - - 1 
 
 Butter - - - - 2 
 
 Eggs - - - - - 2 
 
 Lyng - - - - 8 
 
 A piece of fresh Salmon - - 10 
 
 Wine - - - - 3 
 
 Cheese and pears - - - 2 
 
 The three dinners- -£026 
 
 TO BUEN LATIMEB AND KIDLEY. 
 
 For three load of wood faggots to 
 
 burn Latimer and Eidley - 12 
 Item, 1 load of furze faggots - 3 4 
 Item, for the carriage of these 4 
 loads • - - - - 2 6 
 
 -£0 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 - 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 - 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 Item, a post 
 Item, 2 chains 
 Item, 2 staples 
 Item, 4 laborers 
 
 £15 8 
 [They were burnt on Oct the 16th, 1555.] 
 
 CHAEGE FOE THE BTJENING OF THE BODY 
 
 OP CEANMEB. 
 
 For 100 of wood faggots for the 
 
 fire - - - - 6 
 
 For 100 and 3^ of furze - - 3 4 
 
 For the carriage of them - 8 
 
 For two laborers - - - 2 8 
 
 £0 12 8 
 [He was burnt on March the 21st, in 1556.] 
 
 MARTYRS, Era of. This is also called the era of Diocletian, and was used 
 by the writers of ecclesiastical history until the Christian era was introduced 
 in the sixth century ; and it still continued to be the era of some nations, 
 particularly tiie Abyssinians and Copts. It commences from the day upon 
 which Diocletian was proclaimed emperor, August 29, a.d. 284; and the 
 persecutions of the Christians in his reign caused it to be so called. 
 
 MARYLAND, one of the middle United States, was originally included in the pa- 
 tent of Virginia, granted under charter to Calvert, lord Baltimore, in 1632 ; 
 named in honor of Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. ; first colony were 
 Catholics who settled at St. Mary's, on the Potomac, 1634; free toleration 
 of all religions and creeds granted by lord Baltimore ; Constitution settled 
 
4iG 
 
 TOE woeld's rnOGKESS. 
 
 [mas 
 
 in 1650, and again in 1V76; the State bore an active loart in the revolution; 
 adopted the Federal Constitution April 28, 1788, by 63 to 12. Population 
 in 1790 was 319,728 ; in 1810, 380,546; in 1840, 469,232, including 89,485 
 slaves. Maryland resumed the payment of interest on her debt, March, 
 1847. 
 
 MASKS. Popp{Ba, the wife of Nero, is said to have invented the mask to guaid 
 lier complexion from the sun. But theatrical masks were in use among the 
 Greeks and Romans. Horace attributes them to -5i]schylus ; yet Aristotle 
 says the real inventor and time of their introduction were unknown. Modern 
 masks and muffs, fans, and false hair for the women, were devised by the 
 harlots of Italy, and brought to England from France in 1572. — Stowe's Ghron. 
 
 MASQUERADES. They were in fashion in the court of Edward III., 1340 ; 
 and in the reign of Charles, 1660, masquerades were frequent among the 
 citizens. The bishops preached against them, and made such representa- 
 tions as occasioned their suppression, 9 George 1. 1723. [No less than six 
 masquerades were subscribed for in a month at this time.] They were re- 
 vived, and carried to shameful excess by connivance of the government, 
 and in direct violation of the laws, and tickets of admission to a masque- 
 rade at Ranelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at twenty -five 
 guineas each, 1776. — Mortimer. 
 
 MASS. In the Romish church, mass is the office or prayers used at the cele- 
 bration of the eucharist, and is in general believed to be a representation of 
 the passion of our Saviour. Hence every parti of the service is supposed to 
 allude to the particular circumstances of his passion and death. The ge- 
 neral division of masses consists in high and low : the first is that sung by 
 the choristers, and celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and sub- 
 deacon ; low masses are those in which the prayers are barely rehearsed 
 without singing. Mass was first celebrated in Latin about a.d. 894. Its 
 celebration was first introduced into England in the seventh century. Pros- 
 tration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in 1201. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS, one of the United States. First settled at Plymouth by '^. 
 colony of English Puritans from Holland, who landed Dec. 22, 1620. This 
 was called the Plymouth colony. The Massachusetts colony at Salem and 
 Charlestown, in 1628, and Boston, 1630. These colonies united in 1692 
 The American revolution originated here, at Boston and vicinity, and this 
 State bore an important and honorable part in the contest. See Boston, 
 Bunker Hill, Lexington, &c. Present State Constitution formed in 1780 ; 
 revised and altered in 1820 ; slavery abolished in 1783 ; Shay's rebellion in 
 this State in 1786; Federal Constitution adopted Feb. 6, 1788, by 187 
 against 168. Population in 1721, 94,000 ; in 1790, 388,727 ; in 1810, 472,040; 
 in 1820, 523,287; in 1840, 737,699. 
 
 MASSACRES. Ancient and modern history abound with events which class 
 under this head; and perhaps the most frightful and unprovoked enormities 
 of this kind have been perpetrated by opposing Christian sects, one upon 
 another, in vindication of the Christian religion 1 The fohowing are among 
 the most remarkable massacres recorded by various authors : — 
 
 BEFORE CHRIST. 
 
 Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, which 
 took place 397 b c. 
 
 2000 Tyrians crucified, and 8000 put to the 
 sword for not surrendering Tyre to 
 Alexander, 831 b.c. 
 
 The Jews of Antioch fall upon the other in- 
 habitants, and massacre 100,000 of them, 
 for refusing to surrender their arms to 
 Demetrius Nicanor, tyrant of Syria, 
 154 B.o, 
 
 A dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and 
 Ambrones, near Aix, by Marius, the IJo- 
 man general, 200,000 being left dead on 
 the spot, 102 B.C. 
 
 The Eomans, throughout Asia, women and 
 children not excepted, cruelly massacred 
 in one day, by order of Mithridates, 
 Idng of Pontus, 88 B.C. 
 
 A great number of Roman senators mas- 
 sacred by Cinna, Marius. and Sertoriua, 
 
MAS 
 
 DICTION A EY OF DATES. 
 
 417 
 
 MASSACRES, contimted. 
 
 Many patricians dispatch themselves to 
 avoid their horrid butcheries, 86 b. c. 
 
 Again, under Sylla, and Catiline, his minis- 
 ter of vengeance, 82 and 79 b. c. 
 
 At Praeneete, Octavianus Csesar ordered 
 300 Eoman senators and other persons 
 of distinction, to be sacrificed to the 
 manes of Julius Osesar, 41 b. c. 
 
 AFTER CHRIST. 
 
 At the destruction of Jerusalem. 1,100,000 
 of Jews were put to the sword, a. d. 70. 
 
 The Jews, headed by one Andrse, put to 
 death 100,000 Greeks and Eomans, in 
 and near Cyrene, a. d. 115. 
 
 Gassius, a Roman general under the empe- 
 ror M. Aurelius, put to death 400,000 of 
 the inhabitants of Seleucia, a. d. 167. 
 
 At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens 
 are massacred, by an order of Antoninus, 
 A. D. 213. 
 
 The emperor Probus put to death 700,000 
 of the inhabitants upon his reduction of 
 Gaul, A. D. 2T7. 
 
 Of eighty Christian fathers, by order of the 
 emperor Gratian, at Mcomedia; they 
 were put into a ship which was set on 
 fire, and then driven out to sea, a. d. 370. 
 
 Of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons, invit- 
 ed into the circus, were put to the sword, 
 by order of Theodosius, a. d. 390. 
 
 Belisarius put to death about 30,000 citi- 
 zens of Constantinople for a revolt, to 
 which they were impelled by the tyran- 
 ny and exactions of two rapacious minis- 
 ters set over them, a. d. 552. 
 
 Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, 
 by order of Andronicus, a. d. 1184. 
 
 Of the Albigenses and Waldenses, com- 
 menced at Toulouse, a. d. 1209. Tens 
 of thousands perished by means of the 
 sword and gibbet. 
 
 The Sicilians massacre the Trench through- 
 out the whole island of Sicily, without 
 distinction of sex or age, on Easter-day, 
 the first bell for vespers being the signal. 
 This horrid aflfair is known in history by 
 the name of Sicilian Vespers, a. d. 1282. 
 — Du Fresnoy. 
 
 A general massacre of the Jews at Verdun, 
 by the peasants, who, from a pretended 
 prophecy, conceived the Holy Land was 
 to be recovered from the infidels by them. 
 500 of these Jews took shelter in a castle, 
 and defended themselves to the last 
 extremity, when, for want of weapons, 
 they threw their children at the enenjy, 
 and then killed each other, a. d. 1317. 
 At Paris, of several thousand persons, at 
 the instance of John, duke of Burgun- 
 dy, A. d. 1418. 
 Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by or- 
 der of Christian II., a. d. 1520. 
 Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants 
 throughout the kingdom of France, at- 
 tended with circumstances of the most 
 horrid treachery and cruelty. It began 
 at Paris, in tlie night of the festival of 
 St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24. 1572, by se- 
 cret orders from Charles IX., king of 
 France, at the instigation of the queen 
 dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mo- 
 
 18* 
 
 ther. It is styled in history, the Massa- 
 cre of St. Bartholomew. 
 
 Of the Christians in Croatia, by the Turks, 
 when 65,000 were slain, a. r>. 1592. 
 
 Of Protestants, at Thorn, put to de.ith un- 
 der a pretended legal sentence of the 
 chancellor of Poland, for being concerned 
 in a tumult occasioned by a Eonian 
 Catholic procession, a. d. 1724. All the 
 Pi'otestant powers in Europe intei'ceded 
 to have this unjust sentence revoked, 
 but unavailingly. 
 
 At Batavia, 12,0t)0 Chinese were massacred 
 by the natives, October 1740, under the 
 pretext of an intended insurrection. 
 
 At the taking of Ismael by the Eussians, 
 30,000 old and young were slain, Decem- 
 ber, 1790.^See Inmael. 
 
 In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made 
 proclamation for the massacre of all the 
 whites, March 29, 1804, and many thou- 
 sands perished. 
 
 Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of 
 the French, May 2, 1808. 
 
 Massacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel 
 of Cairo, March 1, 1811. 
 
 Massacre at Nismes, perpetrated by the 
 Catholics, May 1815. 
 
 Massacre of vast numbers of the inhabi- 
 tants of Cadiz, by the soldiery, whose 
 ferocious disorders continue for soi )e 
 days, March 6, 1820. 
 
 MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY. 
 
 Of 300 English nobles on Salisbury Plain, 
 May 1, A. D. 474. 
 
 Of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 
 1200, by Ethelfrid, king of JSTorthumber- 
 land, A. D. 580. 
 
 Of the Danes in the southern counties of 
 England, in the night of November 13, 
 1002, and the 23d Ethelred IL At Lon- 
 don it was most bloody, the churches 
 being no sanctuary. Amongst the rest 
 was Gunilda, sister of Swein, king of 
 Denmark, left in hostage for the per- 
 formance of a treaty but newly conclud- 
 ed. — Baker's Chronicle. 
 
 Of the Jews in England. Some few press- 
 ing into Westminster Hall at Eichard I.'s 
 coronation, were put to death by the peo- 
 ple ; and a false alarm being given that 
 the king had ordered a general massacre 
 of them, the people in many parts of 
 England, from an aversion to them, slew 
 all they met. In York, 500, who had 
 taken shelter in the castle, killed them- 
 selves, rather than fall into the hands of 
 the multitude, a. r». 1189. 
 
 Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen's Wood, 
 Ireland (see CuUen's Wood), a. d. 1209.' 
 
 Of the English factory at Amboyna, in 
 order to dispossess its members of the 
 Spice Islands, a. d, 1623. 
 
 Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in 
 O'Neiirs rebellion, Oct. 28, 1641. Up- 
 wards of 30,000 British were killed in the 
 commencement of this rebellion. — Sir 
 WiUiani Petti/. In the first two or three 
 days of it, forty or fifty thousand of the 
 Protestants were destvoyed.—Lo/'dClar- 
 eiulon. Before the rebellion Avas entirely 
 
;S THE WOELU'S PROGRESS. [maH 
 
 death by pikes perpetrated by the insnr- 
 gent Irish, at the barn of Scullabogue, 
 Ireland, in 1798. — Sir Rich. Musgrote. 
 Massacre of 64 American prisoners at 
 Dartmoor, England, (disowned by Brit- 
 
 af ASS ACRES, coniinned. 
 
 suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were 
 
 massacred. — Sir W. Temple. 
 Of the unoffending Macdonalds of Glencoe, 
 
 May 9, \&i\.—^eeGlencoe. 
 Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly 
 
 Protestants, burnt, shot, or pierced to ish Governmeiit,) April 6, 1815. 
 
 MASTER OF THE CEREMO]!^IES. An officer in several of the principal 
 courts of Europe. Following the usage in other countries, a master of 
 the ceremonies was instituted in England for the more honorable reception 
 of the ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 1 James I. 1603.— « 
 Baker. 
 
 MASTER IN CHANCERY, Owing to the extreme ignorance of Sir Christopher 
 Hatton, lord Chancellor of England, the first reference in a cause was made 
 to a master, a, d, 1588 ; and the masters have since been chosen from -among 
 the most learned equity members of the bar. 
 
 MASTER OF THE ROLLS in ENG-LAND, An equity judge, so called from 
 his having the custody of all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and 
 recognizances, which being made into rolls of parchment, gave occasion for 
 that name. 
 
 MATHEMATICS. "With the ancients they meant all sorts of learning and disci- 
 pline; but even then, as now, in a more particular manner, mathematics 
 were restrained to those arts that more immediately related to numbers and 
 quantity. They were first taught to the Jews, and by them to the Egyptians, 
 so early as 1950 B. c. — Josephus de Aniiq. Jud. 
 
 MATIISTS, The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning 
 of the day in the Catholic church. Emphatically, the French Matins imply 
 the massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. The Maiins of Moscow ^ 
 the massacre of prince Demetrius, and all the Poles his adherents, at six 
 o'clock in the morning of May 27, 1600, 
 
 MAURITIUS. The isle of France was discovered by the Portuguese, a. d. 
 1500; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598, They called it after 
 prince Maurice, their stadtholder, but on their acquisition of the Cape of 
 Good Hope they deserted it ; and it continued unsettled until the French 
 landed, and gave it the name of one of the finest provinces in France, This 
 island was taken by the British in 1810, and confirmed to them by the treaty 
 of Paris in 1814, 
 
 MAUSOLEUM, Artemisia, sister and wife of Mausolus, married her own bro- 
 ther, famous for his personal beauty. She was so fond of her husband, that 
 at his death she drank in her liquor his ashes after his body had been burned, 
 and erected to his memory a monument, which for its grandeur and magnifi- 
 cence, was called one of the seven wonders of the world. This monument 
 she called Mausoleum, a name which has been given to all monuments of 
 unusual splendor. She invited all the literary men of her age, and proposed 
 rewards to him who composed the best elegiac panegyric upon her husband. 
 The prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 351 B. c. 
 
 MAY. The fifth month of the year, and the confine of spring and summer, 
 received its name, say some, from Romulus, who gave it this appellation in 
 respect to the senators and nobles of his city, who were denominated majorcs; 
 though others supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of Mercury, 
 to whom they offered sacrifices on the first day of it, JSTuma Porapilius by 
 adding January and February to the year, made this month the fifth, which 
 before was the third, 713 b. c. 
 
 MAY-DAY. The ancient Romans used to go in procession to the grotto of 
 ]p]genq, on l^fay-da}^ May-day has also been immeniorinlly observed in 
 
MEC] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 419 
 
 England as a rural festival ; and high poles, denominated May-poles, are in 
 many places profusely decorated with garlands wreathed in honor of the day. 
 The late benevolent Mrs. Montague gave, for many years, on May-day, an 
 entertainment at her house in Portman-square, to that unfortunate class the 
 chimney-sweepers of London. They were regaled with the good English 
 fare of roast-beef and plum-pudding, and a dance succeeded. Upon their 
 departure, each guest received the donation of a shilling from the mistress of 
 the feast. 
 
 MAYNOOTH COLLEGE, Ireland. Founded by act of parliament, and en- 
 dowed by a yearly grant voted for its support, and the eclucation of studentsi 
 who are designed for the priesthood of the Roman Catholic church in Ireland, 
 35 G-eo III., 1*795. It contains 500 students. Permanent endowment of 
 this college, at the instance of the government, to which 30,000Z. for the en- 
 largement of the buildings, and 26,000^. annually, were granted by parliament, 
 June, 1845. This endowment occasioned much excitement and controversy 
 in England. 
 
 MAYOR. The office of mayor arose out of the immunities granted to free cities 
 by the emperors, and in some towns they had considerable power. Mayor 
 of the palace was a high office in France. In this quality Charles Martel 
 ruled with despotic sway, a. d. 135, et seq., under the last kings of the Mero- 
 vingian dynasty ; his father had previously held this office, and had it made 
 hereditary in his family. Mayors are the chief magistrates of corporate towns, 
 before whose institution in England, towns were generally governed by port- 
 reeves. The office of mayor may be properly said to date from the reign of 
 Richard I. 
 
 MEASURES AND WEIGHTS. They were invented by Phidion of Argos, 869 
 B. c. — Arund. Marbles. They became general in most countries soon after- 
 wards ; they were very early known in England. Standards of weights and 
 measures were provided for the whole kingdom by the sheriffs of London. 
 8 Richard I., A. d. 1197. Standards were again fixed in England, 1257. 
 They were equalized for the United Kingdom in 1825. 
 
 MECCA. This city is famous as being the birthplace of Mahomet, A. d. 571. 
 The temple is a gorgeous structure, much visited by pilgrims. On one 
 of the neighboring hills is a cave, where it is pretended Mahomet usually 
 retired to perform his devotions ; and where the greatest part of the Koran 
 was brought to him by the angel Gabriel, a. d. 604. Two miles from 
 the town is the hill where they say Abraham went to offer up Isaac, 
 1871 B. c. 
 
 MECHANICS. The time when the simple mechanical powers were first in- 
 troduced is so uncertain, and perhaps so little known, that they have been 
 ascribed to the Grecian and other deities of the heathen mythology — for 
 instance, the axe, the wedge, wimble, &c., are said to be the invention of 
 Daedalus. We know nothing of the machinery by which the immense masses 
 of stone which are found in some of ther ancient edifices were moved and 
 elevated. 
 
 The first writing on mechanics, was by 
 Aristotle, about . . . b. c. 
 
 The Statera Romana invented . 
 
 The f undanaiental property of the lever 
 and other instruments was demon- 
 strated by Archimedes . 
 
 The hand-iiiill, or quern, was very early 
 in use; the Romans found one in 
 Yorkshire ** 
 
 Cattle mills, molce jumentarioB, were 
 also in use by the Romans, and In 
 parts of Europe . . . . ** 
 
 320 
 
 •I::*: 
 
 205 
 
 The water-mill was probably invente 1 
 in Asia; the first that was described 
 was near one of the dwellings of 
 Mithridates . . . . b. c. 70 
 
 A water-mill is said to have been erect- 
 ed on the river Tiber, at Rome . 50 
 
 Floating mills on the Tiber . a. d. 536 
 
 Tide-mills were, many of them, in use 
 in Venice about .... 1078 
 
 Wind-mills were in very general use 
 In the twelfth century . . . ** 
 
420 
 
 THE WOELD'S PKOGEESS. 
 
 [men 
 
 MECHANICS, continued. 
 
 Saw-mills are said to have been in use 
 
 at Augsburg . . . .a.d. 1332 
 Theoiy of the inclined plane inves- 
 tigated by Cardan, about . . 1540 
 Work on statics, by Stevinus . . 1586 
 Theory of falling bodies, Galileo . 1638 
 Theory of oscillation, Huygens . 1647 
 
 Laws of collision, Wallis, Wren . 1662 
 Epicycloidal form of the teeth of 
 wheels, Eoemer .... 1675 
 
 Application of meclflnics to astrono- 
 my, parallelogism of forces, laws of 
 motion, &c.. Newton . a. d. 1679 
 
 Problem of the catenary with the 
 analysis, by Dr. Gregory . . 1697 
 
 Spirit level (and many other inven- 
 tions), by Dr. Hooke, from 1660 to 1702 
 
 The Mechanics' Institute in London 
 was formed in .... 1823 
 
 Mechanics' Institute in New York 
 formed 1833 
 
 Percussion and animal mechanics, 
 Borelli; hedied . . . .1679 
 
 Mechanics' institutions are now very numerous in the United States and in 
 England. 
 MEDIA. In ancient times Media was a province of the Assyrian empire. It 
 revolted from Arbaces 820 b. C, and afterwards became an independent 
 kingdom, and conquered Persia; but Cyrus having vanquished Darius the 
 Mede, 536 B. c, Media was from that time united to the Persian empire, and 
 shared its fate. — Blair ; Priestley. 
 
 820 
 
 Eevolt of the Medes. — Blair. b. c. 
 
 The country was subjected to the As- 
 syrians. — Idem. .... 
 
 Phraortes reigns ; he conquers Persia, 
 Armenia, and other countries . 
 
 Battle of Eages ; the Assyrians defeat 
 the Medes. — Blair. . . . 
 
 War with the Lydians; the hostile ar- 
 mies meet; but an eclipse of the sun 
 so alarms them, they conclude peace 
 without striking a blow . 
 
 The reign of Astyages. — Blair. . 
 
 766 
 647 
 625 
 
 585 
 585 1 
 
 Cyrus made king of Persia . b. c. 559 
 Astyages deposed by Cyrus . . 550 
 Croesus king of Lydia defeated, and his 
 
 throne seized by Cyrus . . . 548 
 Cyrus takes Babylon ; puts Belshazzar 
 to de^ath : and makes Astyages (or 
 Darius, the Mede) viceroy . . 538 
 By the death of Astyages, Cyrus be- 
 comes master of all Persia ; and this 
 era is properly the commencement 
 of the Persian empire. — Lenglet. . 357 
 
 The Medes were a brave people, but they degenerated, and introduced lux- 
 ury into Persia. They admitted polygamy, and a man was deemed infamous 
 who had less than seven wives, as was also a woman who could not boast 
 of at least five husbands. — Aspin. 
 
 MEDICAL LITERATURE in the UNITED STATES. The Medical Reposi- 
 tory, commenced at New York, IVOT, was the first work of the kind. It was 
 conducted by Dr. S. L. Mitchill. 
 
 MEDICINE. The art of preparing simples was brought into Europe from the 
 East, about a. d. 1150. In the early stages of the practice, the preparation 
 was principally confined to ecclesiastics in Europe genefally, until the close 
 of the fifteenth century, or the beginning of the sixteenth. The practice of 
 medicine is now one of the highest sciences, and in most countries is in the 
 hands of the most learned and distinguished men ; and various statutes have 
 been enacted to discourage pretenders to the healing art. 
 
 MEDINA, IN Arabia Deserta, famous for the tomb of Mahomet, contained in 
 a large mosque, closed with rich curtains and lighted by a vast number of 
 rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the Prophet, because here Maho- 
 met was protected when he fled from Mecca, July 16, a. d. 622. This flight 
 gave rise to the remarkable epocha in chronology called the Hegira, a word 
 that, in Arabic, denotes, to flee^ or quit one's country or friends. 
 
 MEMORY. That faculty of the mind or soul whereby past things are repre- 
 sented to us as if they were present. — Cardon. Simonides, grandson of 
 Simonides the elder, of Cos, poet and historian, obtained a prize at Olympia 
 for teaching artificial memory, of which he was the inventor, 477 b. o. — 
 Arv/ndelian Marbles. The science of mnemonics was made known in Ger- 
 many in 1807. See Mnemonics. 
 
 MENDICANT FRIARS. The term was applied to Several orders of religious 
 
MES] 
 
 DICTIONAKY OF DATES. 421 
 
 who commenced their ahns-beggiog in the thirteenth century, in the pontic 
 ficate of Innocent III. They were confined by a general council, held by 
 Gregory X. at Lyons, in 1272, to the following four orders — Dominicans^ 
 Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustines. The Capuchins and other orders 
 subsequently branched from them. 
 
 ifEXSURATIOX. The art of measuring geometrical superficies and solids ia 
 of very early date. The various properties of con'ic sections were dis- 
 covered by Archimedes, to whom the chief advancement in mensuration 
 may be attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, spheroids, &c., 
 about 218 B. c. 
 
 MERCATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of these charts is said to have 
 been a Mr. Wright, who made several voyages ; and in his absence Merca- 
 tor published the charts in his own name, 1556. — Pardon. They are, how- 
 ever, now confidently ascribed to Mercator's own ingenuity. In these 
 charts the meridians and parallels of latitude cut each other at right an- 
 gles, and are both represented by straight lines, enlarging the degrees of 
 latitude as they recede from the equator. 
 
 MERCHANT — from mercans. The name given to high commercial citizens who 
 trade abroad. The merchants of London and Amsterdam were accounted 
 the most enterprising and richest in the world. An attempt was made by 
 queen Anne's ministry to esclude merchants from sitting in the House of 
 Commons, in 1711; but it failed. The Merchant Adventurers' society (see 
 Adventurers Merchant) was established by the duke of Brabant, in 1296; it 
 extended to England in Edward III.'s reign; and was formed into an 
 English corporation in 1564. — Haydn. 
 
 MERCURY. This substance was known to the ancients, and has been found 
 in vast quantities in various countries. The mines in Carniola in Germany 
 are the most productive in Europe, and have yielded in some years 1200 
 tons ; they were discovered by accident in 1497. The anti-venereal virtues 
 of mercury were found by James Carpus, an Itahan surgeon, a. d. 1512. — 
 Noiw. Diet. The compound termed calomel was first mentioned by Crol- 
 lius early in the seventeenth century ; the first direclHons for its preparation 
 were given by Beguin, 1 608. It was given to patients under inoculation 
 for the small-pox in 1745. Pallas congealed mercury by artificial cold in 
 1762. Its malleable qualities were discovered by M. Oberlin, of Vienna, 1785. 
 
 MERRY ANDREW. The name was first given to a droll and eccentric phy- 
 sician, whose name was Andrew Borde, who lived in the reign of Henry 
 VIIL, and who, on some occasions, on account of his facetious manners and 
 good-humor, appeared at court, 1547. He used to attend markets and fairs, 
 and harangue the people, by whom he was called Merry Andrew. Tlie 
 name is now given to a buffoon, a zany, or jack-pudding. — L Estrange. 
 Johnson. 
 
 MESSALIAiSTS. A sect whose rehgious error consisted in adhering to the letter 
 of the gospel, interpreting the words to justify and excuse their worst pro- 
 pensities and vices. Amongst other absurdities they refused to work, quoting 
 this passage, "Labor not for the food that perisheth;" about A. d. 310 — 
 Baronius, Annal. 
 
 MESSENIA, now Maicra-Mdtra, a country of the Peloponnesus. This kingdom 
 was commenced by Policaon, 1499 b. c. It is celebrated for its long and san- 
 guinary wars against Sparta (see next article), and once contained a hundred 
 ciiies, most of whose names even are now unknown. Messenia joined the 
 Aclicean league 216 b. g. 
 
 MESSENIAN WARS The celebrated wars between Lacedemon and Messenia. 
 Tho first began 743 b. C, and was occasioned by violence having been ofi:ered 
 
422 THE WOELD'S PROGRESS. [mET 
 
 to some Spartan women who had assembled in a temple of devotion commoii 
 to both nations ; tlie king of Sparta being killed in his efibrts to defend the 
 females. This dreadful war raged for nineteen years, and at one period made 
 so great a carnage, that the Spartan army sent orders home for all the un- 
 married women to prostitute themselves to recruit the population. In the 
 end Ithome was taken, and the Messenians became slaves to the conquerors. 
 The second war was commenced 685 b. c. to throw off the galling Spartan 
 yoke, and lasted fourteen years, ending m the defeat of the Messenians who 
 fled to Sicily. The third took place 465 b. c, it endured ten years, when 
 the whole nation abandoned the Peloponnesus. 
 
 M ESSINA, IN Sicily. So named by the Messinese, who seized this city, then 
 called Zancle, 671 b. o. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire, 
 but fell to the Saracens A. D. 829. — Priestley. — In the eleventh century Roger 
 the Norman took it by surprise, and delivered it from the Mahometan op- 
 pression. G-reat Messinian conspiracy, 1282, The memorable revolt took 
 place 1672. Almost ruined by an earthquake 1693 ; and nearly depopulated 
 by a plague in 1743. In 1780 Messina suffered much by an earthquake; and 
 in Feb. and March, 1783, was half destroyed by the same calamity; since 
 which it has been handsomely rebuilt. 
 
 METALLURGrY. In the fourth chapter of Genesis, Tubal Cain is mentioned 
 as "an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." The seven metals 
 are mentioned by Moses and Homer. Virgil mentions the melting of steel 
 in furnaces. The Phoenicians had an extraordinary skill in working me- 
 tals. 
 
 METAPHYSICS. This term, literally denoting "after physics," originated 
 with Aristotle. "What may be denoted the modern metaphysics, cannot be 
 traced farther back than the fifteenth century — the period when an extraor- 
 dinary impulse was given in Europe to the human mind, and commonly 
 called the revival of learning. 
 
 METEMPSYCHOSIS. A doctrine supposing the transmigration of the soul from 
 one body to another. The first belief in it is ascribed to the Egyptians, who 
 would eat no animal food, lest they should devour the body into which 
 the soul of a deceased friend had passed. They had also an idea, that so 
 long as the body of the deceased was kept entire, the soul would not trans- 
 migrate ; which accounts for the extraordinary pains they were at in em- 
 balming the dead ; a doctrine of Pytfiagoras, 528 b. o. 
 
 METHODISTS. A large and increasing body of religionists, whose tenets, dis- 
 cipline, and designs, are often misunderstood, and of course misrepresented. 
 " Our end," says Mr. Benson, in his Apology, "is not to form a sect, or to 
 bring people to this or the other speculative opinion, mode of worship, or 
 form of church-government, but simply to make them Christians — Christians 
 in heart and life, in temper, word, and work — such as lived in the early days 
 of Christianity, and such as we may conceive may still live." The methodists 
 may be said to have appeared formally, if not originally at Oxford a. d. 
 1729 ; the reverend John Wesley being the first who there introduced me- 
 thodism. John and Charles Wesley, and Mr. Whitfield, commenced their 
 career by teaching in 1734. The term appears to have been brought forward 
 in the days of Puritanism, being suggested b}'- the Latin appellative Metho- 
 distce, given to a college of physicians in ancient Rome, in consequence of 
 the strict regimen under which they placed their patients. The methodist 
 missions were commenced and superintended by Mr. Wesley and Dr. Coke 
 in 1769, when two missionaries were sent out to North America. But these 
 missions were not reduced to a system, nor were societies regularly organiz« 
 ed for their support, until 1817. 
 
mid] DICTIOXARY OF DATES. 423 
 
 MEXICO. Discovered in a. d. 1.j18. It was conquered b}' the Spaniards under 
 Cortes, whose name is infamous on account of his cruelties to the vanquished, 
 A. D. 1521. The mint of iVIexico, the richest in the world, was begun in 
 1535. This country, lil<G other states in the new world, has recovered its in- 
 dependence. Iturbide made emperor, Maj, 1822. Mexican constitution 
 proclaimed by the president Villoria, Oct. 1823. Iturbide shot July 19, 
 1824. Treaty of commerce with Great Britain ratified, April 1825. Titles 
 suppressed, May 1826. The expulsion of the Spaniards decreed, March, 
 1829. Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, Sept. 26, same year. 
 Mexican revolution; the president G-uerrero deposed Dec. 23, same year. 
 The independence of Mexico, previously recognized by the great European 
 powers, also recognized by the emperor of Brazil, June, 1830. Civil war 
 between Bustamente and Santa Anna, 1832. Santa Anna elected president, 
 March 1834. Declaration of war against France, Nov. 30, 1838. Castle of 
 San Juan de Ulloa taken by the French, Nov. 27, 1838. This war terminated, 
 March 9, 1839. Civil war with change of leaders at various times. Santa 
 Anna displaced Bustamente again, Oct. 6, 1841. Insurrection of general Pa- 
 redes against Santa Anna, Nov. 5, 1844, succeeds without bloodshed, and 
 Herrera made president, Dec. 1844 Paredes overturns Herrera, Dec. 1845. 
 War with the United States, 1846 : Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, 
 MsLj 8, 1846 ; and subsequently, at Matamoras. Santa Fe captured, Aug. 23, 
 and Monterey, Sept. 34, 1846. Mexican congress authorized their govern- 
 ment to raise $15,000,000 for the war against the United States, upon the 
 mortgage or sale of church property, Jan. 8, 1847. Battle of Buena Vista, 
 Feb. 22, 1847. Vera Cruz surrendered to general Scott, March 29, 1847. 
 Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18. General Paredes landed at Vera Cruz in 
 disguise, Aug. 14, 1847. Battles of Contreras and Churubusco, Aug. 20, 
 1847; of Chepultepec, Sept. 12. Surrender of city of Mexico to American 
 general Scott, Sept. 14, 1847. Treaty of peace with the United States rati- 
 fied at Queretaro, May 30, 1848. Paredes excites a revolt at Guanaxuato, 
 June 15. Mexico evacuated by the American troops, June 12. Herrera be- 
 comes president, July 6. Bustamente defeats Paredes, July 18. Vera Cruz 
 surrendered by the United States, Aug. 1. See War of the United States and 
 Mexico. Signor de la Rosa, first Mexican minister to the United States after 
 the war, presented his credentials, Dec. 2, 1848. 
 
 MEZZOTINTO. A peculiar manner of engraving, representing figures on cop- 
 per, received its name from its resemblance to painting. The invention of it 
 is generally ascribed to prince Rupert, a. d. 1648 ; but baron Heinikin states 
 that colonel de Siegen engraved a large and admirable print of Amelia Eliza- 
 beth of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643. See Engraving, 
 
 MICHIGAN, one of the United States, first settled by the French at Detroit 
 in 1647. Many of the Hurons, a native tribe in this region, were converted 
 to the Catholic faith by the Jesuits. The territory ceded to England by the 
 peace of 1763 ; made a separate territory of the United States in 1805 ; 
 admitted into the Union as a State in 1836. During the war of 1812-13 the 
 territory was gained for a time by the British, but it was recovered by gen- 
 eral Harrison. Population in 1810, was 4,528 ; in 1820, 9,048 ; in 1830 
 31,639; in 1840, 212,267. 
 
 MICROSCOPES. Invented nearly at the same time in Italy and Holland, a. d. 
 1621. Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of re- 
 fraction was discovered, about 1624. The honor of this invention is awarded 
 to Drebel and Torricelli. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In 
 England, great improvements were made in the microscope by Henry Baker, 
 F.R.S., w4io wrote two treatises upon it, about 1763. — Biog. Bid. 
 
 MIDWIFERY. Women were the only practitioners of this art among the He- 
 
424 THE avokld's pkogeess. [mil 
 
 brews and Egyptians. Hippocrates, who practised medicine in Greece, 4G0 
 B. C, is styled by some the father of midwifery, as well as of physic* It ad- 
 vanced under Celsus, who flourished a. d. 37, and under Galen, who lived a d. 
 131. In England midwifery became a science about the period of the insti- 
 tution of the College of Physicians, 10 Henry VII., 1518. The celebrated 
 Dr. Harvey personally engaged in the practice of it, about 1603; and after 
 his example the calling in of men in all difficult cases followed. Astrac 
 affirms that the epoch of the employment of men-midwives goes no farther 
 back than the first lying-in of Madame de la Valliere, mistress of Louis XIV., 
 1668. She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted 
 with great secrecy to the house. The same surgeon was employed in the 
 subsequent labors of this lady, and he being very successful, men-midwivea 
 after came into repute, the name of accoucheur being given to them. 
 
 MILAN. The capital of this celebrated dukedom, the ancient Liguria, is re- 
 puted to have been built by the Gauls about 408 B. c. It submitted to the 
 Eomans 222 B.C.; was formed into a republic a. d. 1221; and lastly was 
 governed by dukes from a. d. 1395 until 1505, when it was conquered by 
 Louis XII. John Galeazzo was the first who took the title of duke of Milan, 
 about 1390. The Erench v/ere expelled from Milan by Charles V. of Ger- 
 many, about 1525 ; and this emperor gave it to his son, Philip II. Milan 
 was given to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being ceded to Spain, 1748. 
 Seized by the Erench, June 30, 1796, Betaken by the Austrians in 1799 ; 
 but regained by the Erench May 31, the next year. This city was made the 
 capital of the late kingdom of Italy, and Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned 
 with the Iron crown at Milan, May 26, 1805. The celebrated Milan decree 
 of Napoleon against all Continental intercourse with England, declaring 
 England in a state of blockade, was issued from this city, Dec. 17, 1807. 
 Put under military occupation in consequence of disturbances, Sept 8, 1847. 
 Collision of the Milanese with the Austrian soldiers, Jan. 1, 1848; followed 
 by conciliations. Martial law proclaimed in Lombardy, Eeb. 1848 ; the gov- 
 ernment threatens the people with the fate of the Poles. The people revolt- 
 ed and expelled the Austrians, and Charles Albert of Sardinia entered 
 Milan in the popular cause, March 23, 1848. A vote taken in Lombardy on 
 proposed union with Piedmont. — 561,002 in favor of it ; 681 for postponing 
 it till the end of the war, June 9, 1848. Vicenza surrenders to the Austri- 
 ans under Badetsky, June 10. The duke of Genoa repulses the Austrians 
 at Bivoli, July 1. Milan capitulates to the Austrians, Aug. 4, 1848. 
 
 MILITABY OR MABTIAL LAW. This is a law built on no settled principle, 
 but entirely arbitrary, and in truth, no law ; but sometimes indulged, rather 
 than allowed, as law. — Sir Matthew Hale. Martial law was several limes 
 proclaimed in Great Britain during rebellions. It was almost general through- 
 out Ireland in 1798. The last proclamation of martial law was in that coun- 
 try, July 26, 1803. Paris was under martial law for several weeks after the 
 insurrection of June, 1848. 
 
 MILITIA. The standing national militia of Great Britain is traced by most 
 historians to king Alfred, who, by his prudent discipline, made all his sub- 
 jects soldiers, a. d. 872 to 901. The feudal military tenures became involved 
 in this force. The first commission of array to raise a militia in England 
 was in 1422. In the United States the laws relating to the militia and the 
 
 * Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, disguised her sex to learn medicine. She was taught by 
 Hieropholus, her father, the art of Midwifery, and when employed, always discovered her sex 
 CO her patients. This brought her into so much practice, that the males of her profession, who 
 wore now out of employment, accused her, before the Areopagus, of corruption. She confessed 
 her sex to the judges, and a law was made to empower all free-born women to leajrn midwifery, 
 -Hyg.fa. 27i 
 
Mijsrj 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 425 
 
 appointment of officers are different in the different States See EncyclC' 
 pedia Americana. The aggregate militia force of tlie United States, as re- 
 ported in 1848, was 1,888,538, but as the returns in some instances were 
 for former years, the number probably reached, in 1850, at least to 2,100,000, 
 As the regular army has always been small (in time of peace about 8000) 
 the republic has relied chiefly on the militia in time of war. 
 
 MILKY WAY. Ancient poets and philosophers speak of the galaxy as tho 
 road by which heroes went to heaven. The Greeks supposed that Juno ac- 
 cidentally gave suck to Mercury when an infant, or to the infant Hercules, 
 who, while she slept, was laid by her side; but perceiving who he was, slie 
 threw him from her, and the heavens were thus marked by the wasted milk. 
 Democritus was the first who taught that the via ladea was occasioned by a 
 confused multitude of stars, about 428 b. C. 
 
 MILLENNIUM. This doctrine supposed that the world would end at the ex- 
 piration of the seven thousandth year from the creation ; and that during 
 the last thousand years Christ and the saints would reign upon earth. It 
 was generally inculcated as early as the second and third centuries. It was 
 propagated by Papias, Justin-Martyr, and many others. The Millennhnn 
 was grounded upon a doubtful text in the Apocalypse, to the effect that our 
 blessed Saviour should reign with the faithful upon earth after the resurrec- 
 tion, before the final completion of beatitude. — Burnet 
 
 MILLINER. Defined by Shakspeare and Johnson as a seller of ribands and 
 dresses for woman, a very ancient occupation ; the term is supposed to be 
 derived from Milan. Tliere are men-milliners in England, and the adoption 
 of such a trade by the male sex has been strongly and justly censured. In 
 1810, men-milliners and other classes of an epicene character were very 
 strongly censured in the Society of Arts. Young females are employed at 
 all seasons, and in all weathers, to carry bandboxes through the streets, ex- 
 posed to the insolence of libertines, and the perils of vicious example, while 
 the perfumed coxcomb ["He was perfumed like a milliner." — Shakspeare.'] 
 measures ribands safely at home, or folds gauzes, and lisps the while in lady 
 phrases to females of distinction.* — Butler. 
 
 MILLS. The earliest instrument for grinding manna and corn, was the mortar. 
 Moses forbade them to be taken in pawn, because that, he says, would be 
 like taking a man's life to pledge. The hand-mill was in use among the 
 Britons previously to the conquest by the Romans. The Romans introduced 
 the water-mill. See article Mechanics. 
 
 MINES. Those of Great Britain are very numerous, rich, and of various kinds. 
 Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among the products of Eng- 
 land. The earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being enforced, 
 occurs 47 Henry III., 1262. — Ending. It related to mines containing gold, 
 together with copper, in Devonshire. In the United States, iron, coal, lime, 
 and salt exist in great abundance, in various States: lead mines in Mis- 
 souri are very productive. Gold mines have been found in Virginia, North 
 Carolina, and Georgia, but their supply is but moderate. See Coa\ Copper.^ 
 Tin, Gold, &c. 
 
 MINNESOTA. A territory of the United States lying between 40« 30' norf- 
 lat , and between 91" 10' and 102" west long., inhabited chiefly by the Sioux 
 Indians. First explored by the French ; began to be settled by emigrants 
 from the United States about 1845-6. 
 
 * I look iipoii a man-milliner not only as one of the most unworthy members of society, but 
 as one of the most injurious. "When I hear one of these persons haranguing upon the merits 
 of muslin or the becoming color of a riband, anger will mingle itself with the feeling of con- 
 tempt; for Ihe employment that degrades this man might have p cserved awomanfroui pros 
 titution. — Dr. ISouthey. 
 
426 THE world's progress. [jus 
 
 MINORCA, This islaud and Majorca were called by the Greeks, Balearides. 
 Miuorca was captured b}' lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir John Leake in 
 August 1708, and was confirmed to ihe British by the treaty of Utrecht in 
 1713. It was retaken by the Spanish and Erench in June 1756. Admiral 
 Byng fell a victim to the exasperation of the public mind, and to the safety 
 of ministers, for not relieving it with a force greatly inferior to that of the 
 enemy. See Bijng. It was restored to the British at the peace in 1768, 
 Besieged by the Spaniards, and taken, Feb. 5, 1782. It was again captured 
 by the British, without the loss of a man, Nov. 15, 1798 ; but was given up 
 at the peace of 1802. 
 
 MINSTRELS. They were originally pipers appointed by lords of manors to 
 divert their copyholders while at work. They owed their origin to the glee- 
 men or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till about a. d. 1560. John of 
 Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the reign 
 of Henry YIII. they intruded without ceremony into all companies, even at 
 the houses of the nobility. In Elizabeth's reign they had, however, sunk 
 into neglect. 
 
 MINT OF THE UNITED STATES established at Philadelphia, 1792. Branch at 
 New Orleans, 1838 ; at Charlotte, N. C, 1837 ; atDahlonega, 1838. See Coining. 
 
 MIRRORS. In ancient times mirrors were made of metal; and from a passage 
 in the Mosaic writings we learn that the mirrors used by the Jewish women 
 were made of brass. Mirrors in silver were introduced by Praxiteles, 328 
 B. c. See Looking Glasses. ' 
 
 MISS. In the seventeenth century, the epithet Miss applied to females was 
 considered a terra of reproach. Miss Cross who is particularly noticed in 
 Hayne's epilogue to Farquhar's Love in a iottle, about 1782, was the first 
 actress announced as Miss. — GaWs Lives of the Players. 
 
 MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominick, St. 
 Francis, St. Augustin, &c., had missions to the Levant and to America. 
 The Jesuits had missions ta China {which see), and to most other parts of 
 the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this kind was 
 a Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV., in 1706. But the Moravian 
 Brethren may be said to have led the way to the new Christian missions, 
 about 1732. The London Missionary Society held their first meeting, Nov. 
 4, 1794; and it has since been the parent of many benevolent institutions. 
 The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, formed 1810; 
 first mission at Bombay, 1813; at Ceylon, 1816; to Choctaws, 1817; Che- 
 rokees, 1820. The Board has an annual income from voluntary contribu- 
 tions of about $200,000. The statistics of its operations in various parts 
 of the world are given in its annual reports. The contributions of this 
 Board and its missionaries to the fund of geographical and ethnographical 
 science, to say nothing of religion and civilization, have been very important. 
 The missions of the Baptists, Episcopalians, Methodists, &c., are also nu- 
 merous. American Baptist Board of Missions, founded 1814. Board of 
 Missions of G-eneral Assembly (Presbyterian), 1818. Methodist Mission- 
 ary Society, 1819. American Home Missionary Society, 1826. See Benevo- 
 lent Societies. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI, one of the United States. First settled by the French at Nat- 
 chez, and claimed as part of Louisiana, 1716. Colony destroyed by the 
 Indians. The countrj^ ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 1753. Part 
 of it belonged to Georgia, and the southern part to Florida. The territory, 
 together with Alabama, constituted the "Mississippi Territory" until 1817, 
 when it was admitted into the Union as a State. Population in 1816, 45,929; 
 in 1830, 136,806; in 1840, 375,651, including 195,211 slaves. 
 
mog] dictionary of dates. 427 
 
 MISSOURI, one of the United States. Was included witli Louisiana in the 
 purchase from the French in 1803. Town of St. Louis settled by the French 
 in 1764, but was little more than a tradinp^ post until 1804, when the terri- 
 torial government was formed. Missouri admitted into the Union as a State 
 in 1821, after a long debate on slavery, ending in the Missouri Compromise. 
 which prohibits slavery north and west of Arkansas, but tolerates it in Mis« 
 souri. Population in 1810, 19,833; in 1830, 140,074; in 1840, 383,702, in- 
 cluding 58,240 slaves. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI TRADE. This trade was begun in November, 1716. The cele- 
 brated Mississippi scheme or bubble in France, which was commenced 
 about that period, exploded in 1720 ; at which time the nominal capital ia 
 said to have amounted to 100,000,OOOZ. See Law's Bubble. 
 
 MITHRIDATE. A physical preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed 
 to be the oldest compound known to us at the present day. It was invented 
 by Mithridates II. the king of Pontus, about 70 b. c. It was formerly 
 thought to be a great antidote against poison ; but though it is now out 
 of date for that purpose, it is stUl used as an opiate, and is one of the 
 capital medicines of our shops. 
 
 MITHRIDATIC WAR. Caused by the massacre of 100,000 Romans, 86 b. c, 
 and remarkable for its duration, its many battles, the devastation of human 
 life it occasioned, and the cruelties of its commanders. Mithridates having 
 taken the consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of 
 Asia, crying out as he rode, " I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He 
 ultimately dispatched him, by ordering melted gold to be poured down his 
 throat, which was done in derision of his avarice, 85 B. C. — Lenglet. 
 
 MITRE, The cleft cap or mitre is of very ancient use, having been worn by 
 the high-priest among the Jews. .Among the primitive Christians, young 
 women who professed a state of virginity, and solemnly consecrated thereto, 
 wore a purple or golden mitre. The pope has four mitres, which according 
 to the solemnity to be performed, or festival day it is worn on, is more or less 
 magnificent. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres, but at the council of 
 Lyons, in 1245, they were appointed to wear hats, which remains to this day. 
 
 MNEMONICS. Artificial memory had its professors in the ancient world. 
 The art of assisting memory, by getting by heart, was introduced by Simon- 
 ides the younger, 477 B. C. — Arund. Marbles. In modern times, mnemonics 
 have been elaborately treated ; and the Memoria Technica of Dr. Grey is an 
 esteemed work on the subject. The science of mnemonics, as we now have 
 it, was announced in Germany, in 1806-7 ; but it had been previously no 
 ticed in the London monthly periodicals. 
 
 MODENA. Erected into a duchy in 1451. The duke was expelled by the 
 French, 1796. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the Modenese possessions 
 were incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797. The archduke Fran- 
 cis of Este was restored in 1814. Insurrection here, Feb. 5, 1831. The 
 archduke escaped; but the Austrian troops soon afterwards entered and 
 restored the deposed authorities. The people revolt and imprison the duke, 
 March 20, 1848, The troops of Tuscany occupy Modena, March 24; Provi- 
 sional government appointed, April 9, 1848, 
 
 MOGULS. They deduce their origin from Japhet, son of Noah. His son, 
 Turk, they say, was the first king or khan of those nations afterwards 
 known as Turks, Tartars, and Moguls. The first conqueror of the Mogul 
 empire was Jenghis Khan, a Tartarian prince, who died a. d, 1236. Timour 
 Beg became great Mogul by conquest, 1399. Khouli Khan, the famous 
 sophi of Persia, considerably diminished the power of the moguls, carried 
 away immense treasures from Delhi, and since that event many of the 
 nabobs have made themselves independent. See India. 
 
428 THE WOKLD'S PKOGIIESS. [aiON 
 
 MONARCHY. The most ancient was that of the Assyrians, founded soon 
 after the Deluge, See Assyria. Historians reckon four grand, or almost 
 universal monarchies, — the Assyrian, Persian, G-reciao, and Eomaii, See 
 them respectively. 
 
 MONASTERIES. The first founded was, according to some authorities, in 
 A. D. 270 ; and according to others, in a. d. 305. The suppression of monastic 
 houses has been frequent, even in Catholic countries ; and many religioua 
 communities have bowed to the variable notions of mankind regarding re- 
 ligion, and to the altered state of the world. Constantino IV., among 
 other persecutors, commanded a vast number of friars and nuns to appear 
 dt Ephesus : he there ordered them to change their black habits for white, 
 and to destroy their images. They explained that this, on account of the 
 vows they had taken, was impossible ; whereupon he directed that their 
 eyes should be put out, and that they should be banished, forfeiting their 
 various monasteries, which he sold for the uses of the state. When St. 
 Austin arrived in England a. d. 596, Ethelbert of Kent gave him an idol 
 temple without the walls of his capital, as a burial-place for him and his 
 successors, which was converted into the first monastery. Various monastic 
 houses were suppressed in England in various reigns ; and a vast number in 
 1515. But the general dissolution took place in the reign of Henry VIII. 
 1534-9. The abbey lands were afterwards granted to numerous courtiers, 
 whose descendants enjoy them to this day. 
 
 MONEY. It is mentioned as a medium of commer'ce in the 23d chapter of Ge- 
 nesis, when Abraham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah, in the year 
 of the world 3139. In profane history, the coinage of money is ascribed to 
 the Lydians. Moneta was the name given to their silver by the Romans, it 
 having been coined in the temple of Juno Moneta, 269 B. c. Money was 
 made of different ores, and even of leather and other articles, both in an- 
 cient and modern times. It was made of pasteboard by the Hollanders so 
 late as 15*74. Silver has increased more than thirty times its value since 
 the Norman conquest, viz. a pound in that age was three times the quantity 
 that it is at present, and twelve times its value in purchasing any commo- 
 dity. See articles, Coin ; Gold ; Silver ; Copper ; Mint, &c. 
 
 MONK. The first is said to have been Paul of Thebais, who fled into the de- 
 serts to avoid the Decian persecution about a. d, 250. St. Anthony is sup- 
 posed by other authorities to have been the first example of a regular 
 monastic life, a. d. 305, soon after which time monks began to associate, 
 St. Athanasius introduced the monastic life into Rome in 341. See Abbeys. 
 
 MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth, a natural son 
 of Charles II., was banished England for a conspiracy in 1683. He invaded 
 England at Lyme, June 11, 1685. He was proclaimed king at Taunton on 
 the 20th of the same month. "Was defeated at Bridgewater, July 5 ; and 
 was beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15, 1685. The county of Monmouth, 
 from which he was named, was made an English county by Henry VIII. 
 about 1535. 
 
 MONOPOLIES. Commercial monopolies reached to such a height in England, 
 that parliament petitioned against them, and they were in consequence 
 mostly abolished about the close of Elizabeth's reign, 1602. They were 
 further suppressed, as being contrary to law, 19 James I., 1622 ; and were 
 totally abolished, and it was decreed that none should be in future created, 
 as was previousl}'- the custom, by royal patent, 16 Charles!., 1640. — Ander 
 soTi's Ilistm-y of Commetre. 
 
 MONTANISTS. A sect founded by Montanus, of Ardaba, in Mysia, an extra- 
 
MOHj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 429 
 
 ordinarj- enthusiast, about a. d. 171. He was reputed to have the gift of 
 prophecy, and proclauued himself the comforter promised by Christ, con- 
 demned second marriages as fornication, permitted the dissolution of mar- 
 riage, forbade to avoid martyrdom, and ordered a severe fast of three 
 lents ; he hanged himself with Maximilla, one of his women-scholars, be- 
 fore the close of the second century. — Cave's Hist Lit. 
 MONTREAL. Surrendered to the English by the French in 1760. It was 
 taken by the Provincials in the American war of Independence, ISToveni'ber 
 12, 1775, and was retaken by the British, June 15, 1776. The church, Je- 
 suits' college, prison, and many buildings burnt down, June 6, 18U3. Great 
 military affray, Sept. 29, 1833. Riot about the "Rebellion. Losses" Act; 
 the parliament house burnt by the mob, 1849. 
 •MOON. The full moon was held favorable for any undertaking by the Spar- 
 tans, and the Greeks generally looked upon full moons, or the times of 
 conjunction of the sun and moon, as seasons most favorable to marriage. 
 Opacity of the moon, and true causes of lunar eclipses, was taught by 
 Thales, 640 b. c. Posidonius accounted for the tides from the motion of the 
 moon, 79 b. c. — Biog. Laert. A map of the moon was first taken at Dant- 
 zic, A. D. 1647. The strength of moon-light at full moon is 90,000 times 
 less than the light of the sun. — Dr. Smith. It is 300,000 times lesa — 
 Bouguer. 
 MOORS. They first invaded Spain, a. d. 113.— Univ. Hist. The Saracens in 
 Spain, beset by the Christians, called in the assistance of the Moors, who 
 seized the dominions they came to protect, and subdued the Saracens, A. d. 
 1091. Alphonsus I. of Navarre, defeated them in many battles, 1118, et seq. 
 The Moors began the kingdom of Granada, being their last refuge from the 
 power of the Christians, 1238. Alphonsus XI. of Leon and Castile, slew 
 200,000 Moors in one battle; three leagues round the country was covered 
 with the dead, 1327. The power of this people was overthrown by Ferdi- 
 nand Y., who conquered Granada, 1492. Philip III. banished them to the 
 number of 900,000, confiscating their property, 1610. — Priestley. 
 
 MORAL PHILOSOPHY. The ]^nowledge of our duty and felicity, the science 
 of ethics, or art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates is universally re- 
 garded as the father of moral philosophy, about 430 B. c. And Grotius is 
 esteemed by many writers as the father of moral philosophy in modern times, 
 about A. D. 1623.— 5afe, &c. 
 
 MORAYIANS. United Brethren. A sect which took its rise in Moravia, in, 
 it is said, the fifteenth century, which some doubt ; while the Brethren say 
 that their sect is derived from the Greek church in the ninth century. They 
 appeared in England about 1737, introduced by count Zinzendorf, who died 
 at Chelsea, in June 1760. They settled at Bethlehem, Penn., 1741. In order 
 to the conversion of the heathen world, these persevering brethren formed 
 settlements also in Greenland, the Cape, East and West Indies, and 
 other climes. The Moravians led the way to the Scriptural missions now 
 so general 
 
 MORGARTEN, Battle of, the most memorable, as well as extraordinary and 
 glorious in the annals of Switzerland; 1300 Swiss engaged 20,000 Austrians, 
 commanded by the duke Leopold, whom tliey completely defeated. They 
 seized upon the heights of Morgarten, which overlooked the defile through 
 which the enemy was to enter their territory from Zug, and thus achieved 
 their victory, Nov. 15, 1315. 
 
 MORMONS. The pretended revelation of the Mormon Scriptures to "Joe 
 Smith" is said to have been made in the state of New York, about 1835. 
 Surrender of a body of 700 Mormons under arms, with their leaders, Jo9 
 
430 THE world's rjROGKESs. [mun 
 
 Smith, Rigdon, &c., to tlie Missouri militia, under Gen. Atcbiuson, Oct. 28, 
 1838. Joe Smith and his brother murdered in jail hy a mob, June 27, 1844. 
 The Mormon temple at Nauvoo, Illinois, sold to the Icarians, or Socialists, 
 and the Mormons emigrated to Deseret and California, 1848-9. 
 
 MOROCCO. Anciently Mauritania. From its early possession by the Romans 
 it underwent various revolutions. About a. d. 1116, Abdallah, a leader 
 of a sect of Mahometans, founded a dynasty which ended in the last 
 sovereign's defeat in Spain. About this period, 1202, Fez and other provinces 
 shook oif their dependence: but the descendants of Mahomet, about 1650, 
 subdued them, and formed the empire of Morocco. Hostilities with France 
 provoked by Abd-el-Kader, the heroic and indomitable ameer of Algiers, 
 commenced May, 1844; Tangier bombarded, Aug. 6, 1844; peace concluded, 
 and the French forces evacuate Mogador, Sept. 16, 1844. Abd-el-Kader taken 
 prisoner by the French and carried to France, 1846. 
 
 MORTARS. A short gun with an extraordinary large bore, and close chamber, 
 used for throwing bombs, first ^made in England in 1543. The celebrated 
 mortar left by Soult in Spain, was fixed in St. James's park in August, 1816. 
 
 MOSCOW. One of the largest cities in Europe. It was founded in 1156; was 
 taken by Tamerlane, 1382; and subsequently it fell into the hands of the 
 Tartars, whose last attack upon it was in 1571, when they set it on fire. This 
 city was entered by the French, Sept. 14, 1812, and the Russian governor, 
 Rostochin, ordered that it should be set on fire in five hundred places at 
 once. In this memorable conflagration, 11,^40 houses were burnt to the 
 ground, besides palaces and churches. The French, thus deprived of quar- 
 ters, evacuated Moscow Oct. 19, and it was re-entered by the Russians Oct. 
 22, following. This city has been since rebuilt. 
 MOSKWA, Battle of, between the French and Russians. See Borodino. 
 MOSS-TROOPERS. These were a desperate sort of plunderers, secreting 
 themselves in the mosses on the borders of Scotland, defiling women, and 
 perpetrating the most savage enormities, as well as minor mischiefs, extirpa- 
 ted A. D. 1609. 
 MOST CHRISTIAN KING. The title given to Louis XI. by pope Paul II., 
 1469. It has been justly remarked, that never was the title or name of 
 Christian given to a prince more unworthilj'- bestowed, or less deserved. 
 MOTTOES, ROYAL. Dieu et mon Droit was first used by Richard I., A. d. 1193. 
 The Bohemian crest, viz. three ostrich feathers, and the motto Ich dien, " I 
 serve," was adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy, 
 the king of Bohemia being slain in the battle, 1346. Honi soit qui mal y 
 pense, was made the motto of the Garter, 1349-50. Je maintiendrai, "-I will 
 maintain" was adopted by William III., 1688. And Semper eadem was or- 
 dered by queen Anne to be used as her motto. 
 MOURNING FOR THE DEj^D. The practice of the Israelites was, neither to 
 wash nor anoint themselves during the time of mourning. The exhibition 
 of grief for a friend lasted for seven days ; and upon extraordinary occasions 
 it lasted a month. The Greeks and Romans also exhibited their grief lor 
 the dead by many public abstinences. The ordinary color for mourning in 
 Europe is black; in China it is white; in Turkey, violet; in Ethiopia, brown; 
 and it was white in Spain, until A. D. 1498. — Herrera. 
 MUNSTER, Treaty of, between France, the Emperor, and Sweden ; _ Spain 
 continuing the war against the former kingdom. By this peace, the principle 
 of a balance of power in Europe was first recognized. Signed at Munster, 
 Oct. 24, 1648. 
 
MUSj DICTIONARY OF DATES. 431 
 
 MURDER. The highest offence against the law of nature. A court of Ephetse 
 was eetabhshed by Demophoon for the trial of murder, 1179 B. c. The Per- 
 sians did not punish the first offence. In England, during a period of the 
 Heptarch)', murder was punished by fines only. So late as Henry VIII.'s 
 time, the crime was compounded for in Wales. Murderers were allowed 
 benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated murder, ov petit treason, may happen 
 in three ways ; by a servant killing his master ; a wife her husband ; and 
 au ecclesiastical person his superior, statute 25 Edward III., 1350. Tho 
 enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its wilful com- 
 mission has been excepted from mercy by our sovereigns in every instance. 
 The act whereby the murderer should be executed on the day next but one 
 after his conviction, was repealed 7 William IV., Jul}'- 1836. — Haydn. 
 
 MUSEUM Originally a quarter of the palace of Alexander, like the Pryta- 
 neum of Athens, where learned men of extraordinary merit were maintained 
 by the pubhc, because of their considerable services to the commonwealth. 
 The foundation of this establishment is attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus 
 who here placed his hbrary, about 284 B c. See British Museum, &c. 
 
 MUSIC. Lucretius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the winds in 
 hollow reeds. Franckinus to the various sounds produced by the hammers 
 of Tubal Cain. Cameleon Pontique and others to the singing of birds. And 
 Zarhno to the sound of water. It is, however, agreed that music was first 
 reduced to rules by Jubal, 1800 B c. The flute and harmony or concord in 
 music was invented by Hyagnis, 1506. — Arund. Marbles. Vocal choruses of 
 men are first mentioned 556 B. c. — Ba Presnoy. Pythagoras maintained that 
 the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds inaudible 
 \iO mortal ears, which he called "the music of the spheres." St. Ceciha, a 
 Eoman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an angel 
 was enticed from the celestial regions by the iascinating charms of her 
 melody : and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed sufficient author- 
 ity to make her the patroness of music and musicians. She died in the third 
 century. 
 
 MUSICAL NOTES. The first six are said to have been invented by Guido Aretin, 
 a Benedictine monk of Arezzo, a. d. 1025. — Blair. The notes at present 
 used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint was brought to perfection by 
 Palestrina about 1515. G-affurius of Lodi read lectures on musical composi- 
 tion in the sixteenth centurj^, and they effected great improvement in the 
 science. The Italian style of composition was introduced into these countries 
 about 1616. 
 
 MUSICAL INSTITUTIONS, England. The Ancient Academy of Music was in- 
 stituted in 1710. It originated with numerous eminent performers and gen- 
 tlemen to promote the stud}'' of vocal harmony. The Madrigal Society was 
 established in 1741. and other musical societies followed The Royal Society 
 of Music arose from the principal nobility and gentry uniting to promote the 
 performance of operas composed by Handel, 1785. Royal Academy of Mu- 
 sic established 1822. 
 
 MUSKETS. They were first used at the siege of Arras in 1414. The Spanish 
 historians state that Spain was the first power that armed the foot- soldier 
 with these weapons. They were used at the siege of Rhegen in 1521. In- 
 troduced generally into the English army, and bows and arrows laid aside, 
 12 Henry VIII 1521. — Carte. It was the duke of Alva who first brought the 
 musket into use in the Low Countries, 1569. — Bransione. 
 
 MUSLIN. A fine cloth, made wholly of cotton. According to some, it is so 
 called as not being bare but having a downy nap on its surface resembling 
 11088, which the French call mousse. According to others it was first brought 
 
i32 THE world's phogkess. [myi 
 
 from Mousol, in India, whence the name. Muslins were first wom in Eng- 
 land in 1670. — Anderson. They were manufactured in great perfection in 
 England in 1778. 
 
 MUTES. A prisoner is said to stand mute when, being arraigned for treason or 
 felony, he either makes no answer, or answers foreign to the purpose. An- 
 cioutlj^, a mute was taken back to prison, placed in a dark dungeon, naked, 
 on his back, on the bare ground, and a great weight of iron placed upon 
 liis body ; in this situation he was fed with three morsels of bad bread one 
 day, and three draughts of stagnant water the next, and so on alternately 
 until he died. For a very memorable instance of this punishment in a. d. 
 1605, see article Pressing to Death. By statute 12 George III judgment is 
 awarded against mutes, in the same manner as if they were convicted or 
 confessed. A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at the 
 Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778 Another on a charge of burglary, 
 at Wells, 1792. At Shrewsbury a man tried and convicted notwithstanding, 
 Aug. 21, 1801. — Fhillips. 
 
 MUTINY ON BOARD U. S. Brig SOMERS, commander A. S. Mackenzie ; m'd- 
 shipman Spencer and two seamen hung, Dec. 1. 1842. 
 
 MUTINY OF THE BOUNTY, April 28, 1789. Eor particulars see Bounty. 
 
 MYCALE, Battle of, fought September 22, 479 b. c, between the Greeks and 
 Persians ; being the identical day on which Mardonius was defeated and 
 slain at Platea, The Persians consisted of about 100,000 men, who had just 
 returned from an unsuccessful expedition of Xerxes in Greece. They were 
 ' completely defeated, some thousands of them slaughtered, their camp burnt, 
 and the Greeks triumphantly embarked their troops and sailed back to Sa- 
 mos with an immense booty. 
 
 MYCEN^. A division of the kingdom of the Argives. It stood about fifty 
 stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Heraclidse Perseus 
 removes from Argos to Mj^cense, and reigns, 1313 B. c. Mycense destroyed 
 by the Argives, 568 B. c. 
 
 MYSTERIES. They originated in Egypt, the land of idolatry, and were an iii- 
 stitution of the priesthood to extend their own influence ; so that all max- 
 ims in morality, tenets in theology, and dogmas in philosophy, were wrapt 
 up in a veil of allegory and mystery. From the Egyptian mysteries of Isis 
 and Osiris sprung those of Bacchus and Ceres among the Greeks The 
 Eleusinian mysteries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 b. c. 
 The laws were — 1. To honor parents ; 2. To honor the gods with the fruits 
 of the earth ; 3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes the civJ- 
 ization of mankind one of the beneficial effects of the Eleusinian mysteries 
 They were abolished by the emperor Theodosius, a. d. 389. 
 
 MYTHOLOGY. Fable usurped the place of historical truth as soon as the 
 authentic tradition concerning the Creation had been lost or adulterated : 
 and persons who had rendered themselves renowned avS kings or leaders in 
 this life, and whose achievements had dazzled the benighted understanding 
 of men hving in a state of nature, were supposed to be more than mortal, 
 and therefore after death the multitude wore easily taught to reverence them 
 with divine honors. The Egyptians and Babylonians, after forgetting the in- 
 visible and true God, worshipped positive objects, as the sun and moon ; and 
 then transferred their adoration to the operations of nature and the passions 
 of their own minds, which they embodied under symbolical representations, 
 and ultimately worshipped the symbols themselves. Thoth is supposed to 
 have introduced mythology among the Egyptians, 1521 b. c. ; and Cadmus 
 the worship of the Egyptian and Phoenician deities, among the Greeks, 1193 
 B, C. 
 
nap] 
 
 DICTIOXARY OF DATES. 
 
 4M 
 
 ■ N. 
 
 NABONASSER, Era of. This era received its name from the celebrated prince 
 of Babylon, and began Feb. 26, 74:7 b. c. To find the Julian year on wliich 
 the year of Nabonasser begins, subtract the year, if before Christ, from 747 ; 
 if after Christ, add to it 74 8. 
 
 NAMES, Originally every person had but one name. Plato recommended it 
 to parents to give happy names to their children ; and the Pythagoreans 
 taught that the minds, actions, and successes of men were according to their 
 names, genius, and fate. The popes changed their names at their exaltation 
 to the pontificate, " a custom introduced by pope Sergius, whose name till 
 then was Swine-snout, a. d. 687." — Platina. Onuphrius refers it to John XII. 
 956 : and gives as a reason, that it was done in imitation of Sts. Peter and 
 Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. In Prance it was usual to 
 change the name given at baptism, as was done in the case of two sons of 
 Henry II. of France. They were christened Alexander and Hercules; but 
 at their confirmation, these names were changed to Henry and Francis. It 
 is usual for the religious at their entrance into monasteries to assume new 
 names, to show they are about to lead a new life, and have renounced the 
 world, their family, and themselves. See Surnames. 
 
 NAMUR. Ceded to the house of Austria bj the peace of Utrecht. It was 
 garrisoned by the Dutch as a barrier town to the United Provinces in 1715. 
 Namur was taken by the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In 1781, 
 the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792, it was again 
 taken by the French, who were compelled to evacuate it the following year ; 
 but they regained possession of it in 1794. The French, however, delivered 
 it up to the Allies, in 1814. 
 
 NANTES, Edict of. See Edict. 
 
 NAPLES. The continental division of the kingdom of the two Sicilies. Naples 
 was a part of the Roman territory at a very early period. In the fifth cen- 
 tury it became a prey to the G-oths, and afterwards to the Lombards ; and 
 the Saracens, Normans, and French, also successively had possession of this 
 country. 
 
 The Goths having become masters of 
 Naples and of Sicily, are expelled 
 
 by Belisarius, general of the Eastern 
 empire - - - A. d. 537 
 
 The Lombards next get possession of 
 Naples, and are dispossessed by 
 Charlemagne - - - 800 
 
 Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, 
 king of France, obtains the crown 
 from the pope, to the exclusion of 
 the rightful heir, Conradin, who is 
 beheaded, aged sixteen years - 1266 
 
 The French becoming hated by the Si- 
 cilians, a general massacre of the in- 
 vaders takes place, one Frenchman 
 only escaping. See Sicilian Vespers 
 
 March 30, 1282 
 
 Peter of Arragon reigns - - 1282 
 
 The two crowns disjoined - 1303 
 
 Charles Durazzo, becoming king of 
 Hungary,is murdered thei-e by order 
 of the queen regent, in her presence 1386 
 
 For this murder she is taken out of her 
 carriage, and drowned in the river 
 Boseth ... - 1386 
 
 Sicily again united to Naples, and the 
 kings ever since called king of the 
 Two Sicilies - - - 1442 
 
 Taken from the French and annexed 
 to Spain - - - - 1504 
 
 The tyranny of the Spaniards leads to 
 an insurrection, excited by Massa- 
 niello, a fisherman, who in fifteen 
 days raises an army of 200,000 men 1647 
 
 This insurrection subsides, and Massa- 
 niello is murdered - - 1647 
 
 Attempt of the duke of Guise to pos- 
 sess the crown - - 1647 
 
 The kingdom completely conquered 
 by prince Eugene - - 1707 
 
 Discovery of the ruins of Hercula- 
 neum. ^qq IlerculaneuTn - 1711 
 
 Naples ceded to the emperor by the 
 treaty of Eadstadt, 1714 ; Sicily 1720 
 
 Both kingdoms are recovered by the 
 crown of Spain ... i734 
 
 And Charles, the son of Philip of 
 Spain, reigns - . - 1735 
 
 Reign ot Ferdinand IV. - - 1759 
 
 His flight on the approach of the 
 French republicans - Jan. 14, 1739 
 
 Nelson appears, Naples is retaken, and 
 the king restored - July 13, 1799 
 
 It is again taken by the French, Ap'H.lBOt 
 
 Dreadful earthquake felt throughout 
 
13 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [nat 
 
 N'Al'LES, continued, 
 
 the kingdom, and thousands perish 
 
 July26,lS05 
 Treaty offensive and defensive be- 
 tween France and Naples Oct. 8, 1S05 
 Ferdinand is again driven from Na- 
 ples, and Joseph Bonaparte is 
 crowned king - Feb. 6, 1806 
 
 Joseph abdicates for the crown of 
 
 Spain - - - June 1, 1808 
 
 The crowu is transferred to Joachim 
 
 Murat - - - July 1, 1808 
 
 Naples is surrendered to aBritishfleet, 
 
 and Ferdinand re-enters June 17, 1815 
 Execution of Joachim Murat Oct. 15, 1815 
 Revolutionary movement, headed by 
 
 general Pepe - - July 15, 1820 
 
 Suppressionof the Carbonari Sept.l6, 1820 
 Reign of Francis I. - - - 1826 
 
 And of Ferdinand II. - Nov. 8, 1830 
 Commencement of the dispute rela- 
 tive to the sulphur monopoly,(which. 
 
 Demonstration in favor of Pius IX. 
 and reform, fired upon at Naples, 
 and arrests made - Dec. 15, 1S4T 
 
 Sanguinary disorders at Messina Jan. 4,1^4S 
 
 Rebellion at Palermo, &c. Jan. 12, 1S48 
 
 Palermo bombarded Jan. 13-19, lSi8 
 
 The king signed a constitution Jan.2S, 184S 
 
 Messina expelled the Neapolitan gar- 
 rison - - - Feb. 22, 1848 
 
 The parliament of Sicily declares that 
 island independent ; Messina bom- 
 barded by theNeapolitan fleet Ap.3, 1848 
 
 The national guard raises bari'icadesat 
 Naples - - May 14, 184S 
 
 The people put down by the king's , 
 troops ; 1440 killed - May 15, 1848 
 
 TheSicilian parliament elects the duke 
 of Genoa as king of Sicily July 10, 1848 
 
 Messina bombarded and taken by the 
 Neapolitan troops - Sept. 2, 1818 
 
 New constitution conceded to Sicilv 
 
 March'6, 1849 
 
 Catania bombarded and reducedAp. 5.1849 
 
 is afterwards amicably adj usted) 
 
 March 15, 1840 
 
 NARY A, Battle of, in which Peter the G-reat of Russia was totally defeated 
 by the renowned Charles XII. of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year. The 
 army of Peter is said to have amounted to 100,000 men, while the Swedish 
 army did not much exceed 20,000 : fought Nov. 30, 1700. 
 
 NASEBY, Battle of, between Charles I. and the parliament army under Fair- 
 fax and Cromwell. The main body of the royal army was commanded by 
 lord Astley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Marmaduke Langdale 
 the left, and the king himself headed the body of reserve. The victory 
 was with the parliamentary forces, and was decisive of the fate of the unfor- 
 tunate Charles, who was obliged to abandon the field to his enemies, losing 
 all his cannon and baggage, and 5000 of his army were made prisoners, June 
 14, 1645. 
 
 NATIONAL DEBT of ENGLAND. The first mention of parliamentary secu- 
 rity for a debt of the nation, occurs in the reign of Henry VI. The present 
 national debt commenced in the reign of Wilham III. It had amounted in 
 the year 1697, to about five millions sterling, and the debt was then thought 
 to be of alarming magnitude. 
 
 In 1702, On the accession of queen 
 Anne, the debt amounted 
 to- - - - £14,900,000 
 
 In 1714, On the accession of Geo. I. 
 
 it amounted to . 54,000,000 
 
 In 1749, Geo. II. ; after the Spa- 
 nish war,it amounted to 78,000,000 
 
 In 1763, George III.: end of the 7 
 years' war, it amounted 
 to ... . 139,000,000 
 
 In 1786,Threeyears aftertheAme- 
 
 ricanwar,itamounfd to 268,000,000 
 
 In 1798, The civil and foreign war, 
 
 it amounted to - 462,000,009 
 
 NATIONAL DEBT of the UNITED STATES, at different times. 
 
 $75,463,476 
 82,976,294 
 
 - 53.173,217 
 
 - - 99.833.660 
 
 - 127,334,934 
 
 - - 91,015,566 
 
 NATURALIZATION. It is defined to be " the making a foreigner or alien 
 a denizen or freeman of any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it wer^ 
 
 In 1802, Close of the French Re- 
 volutionary war, it a- 
 mounted to - £571,000,000 
 
 In 1814, Close of the war against 
 
 Bonaparte - - 865,000,000 
 
 In 1817, When the Irish and Eng- 
 lish exchequers were 
 consolidated - 848,282,477 
 
 In 1830, Total amount of the 
 funded and unfunded 
 debt - - - 840,184022 
 
 In 1840, Total amount of ditto 789,578.000 
 
 In 1845, Funded debt 
 
 768,789,241 
 
 In 1791 the debt was 
 
 In 1800 
 
 u a 
 
 In 1810 
 
 n u 
 
 In 1815 
 
 11 (( 
 
 In 1816 
 
 " " 
 
 In 1820 
 
 (I (( 
 
 In 1830 the debt was 
 
 - $4S,565.406 
 
 In 1835 " " - - 
 
 37,733 
 
 In 1839 
 
 - 11,983,738 
 
 In 1845 " " - - 
 
 - 16,801,647 
 
 In 1848 " 
 
 - 65,804,450 
 
NA.vJ 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 435 
 
 both a subject and a native of a king or country, that by nature he did n^t 
 belong to." The first act of naturahzation in England passed in 1437 ; and 
 various similar enactments were made in most of the reigns from that time, 
 several of them special acts relating to individuals. An act for the natural- 
 ization of the Jews passed in 1*153, but it was repealed in the following year, 
 on the petition of all the cities in England. See United States. 
 
 NATIONAL ASSEMBLY of FRANCE. Upon the proposition of the abbe 
 Sieyes, the states of France constituted themselves into the National Assem- 
 bly, June 16, 1*789. On the 20th, the hall of this new assembly was shut by 
 order of the king : upon which the deputies of the Tiers Mat repaired to 
 the Jeu de Paume, or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until they had 
 digested a constitution for France. On the 2d they met at the church of St. 
 Louis. This assembly dissolved itself, Sept. 21, 1792. See next article. 
 
 NATIONAL CONVENTION of FRANCE. Constituted in the hall of the 
 Tuileries, Sept. 17, and formally opened, Sept. 21, 1792, when M. Gregoire, 
 at the head of the National Assembly, repaired thither and announced that 
 that assembly had ceased its functions. It was then decreed, " That the 
 citizens named by the French people to form the National Convention, being 
 met to the number of 371, after having verified their powers, declare, that 
 the National Convention is constituted." This convention continued until a 
 new constitution was organized, and the Executive Directory was installed 
 at the Little Luxembourg, Nov. 1, 1795. See Directory. 
 
 NATIONAL GrALLERT, London. The foundation of this great institution 
 was the purchase, by the British government, for the public service, of the 
 Angerstein collection of pictures, whose, number did not much exceed forty. 
 They were purchased of Mr. Angerstein's executors, in Jan. 1822 ; and the 
 first exhibition of them took place in Pall Mall, in May, 1824. Sir G. Beau- 
 mont, Mr. Howell Carr, and many other gentlemen, as well as the British 
 Institution, contributed many fine pictures; and the collection has been 
 augmented by numerous later gifts, and recent purchases. The present edi- 
 fice in Trafalgar-square was designed by Mr. Wilkins, and was completed 
 and opened in 1837. 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES, The Argonautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the 
 first upon record, 1263 b. c. — Bu Fresnoy. The first sea-fight on record is 
 that between the Corinthians and Corcyreans, 664 b. c. — Blair. The fol- 
 lowing are among the most celebrated naval engagements to be found on the 
 page of history. 
 
 at Cnidos : Pisander, the Athenian 
 admiral, is killed; and the mari- 
 time power of the Lacedemonians 
 destroyed. — Thucydides - - 394 
 
 The Roman fleet employed in the 
 siege of Lilybaenm, burned by the 
 Carthaginians - - - 249 
 
 The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by 
 the consul Lutatius ... 242 
 
 The Koman fleets vanquished by 
 Hannibal, the Carthaginian gene- 
 ral ; 800 galleys taken, and 16,000 
 prisoners; second Punic war - 209 
 
 At Actium,'between the fleets of Octa- 
 vianusCsBsarandMarcAntony. This 
 battle decides the fate of the latter, 
 300 of his galleys going over to CiT>- 
 sar, by which he is totally defeated 31 
 
 BEFOEE CHRIST. 
 
 First sea-fight on record, in which the 
 Corinthians conquer theCorcyreans 664 
 
 The Athenian fleet under Themistoc- 
 les, with 380 sail, defeat the Per- 
 sian, consisting of 2000, at the 
 straits of Salamis - - - - 480 
 
 Again, at the mouth of the river Eu- 
 rymedon ; Cymon, theAthenian ad- 
 miral, vanquishes the Persian fleet 
 and army, in one day. — Herodotus 470 
 
 The Lacedemonian fleet taken by Al- 
 cibiades, the Athenian - - - 410 
 
 The Spartan general, Lysander, total- 
 ly defeats the Athenian fleet under 
 Conon; bythis victoryhe puts an end 
 to the maritime power of Athens - 407 
 
 The Persians engage Conon to com- 
 mand their fleet, with which he en- 
 tirely vanquishes theLacedemonian 
 fleet, and takes 50 sail out of 90 - 400 
 
 The Persian fleet conquer the Spartan 
 
 ANNO DOMINI. 
 
 The emperor, Claudius II. defeats 
 the Goths, and sinks 2000 of their 
 &in:^s,.—Du Fresnoy - - 263 
 
436 
 
 THE WORLD'S PEOGRESS. 
 
 [nay 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES, continued. 
 
 The fleets belonging to Spain, Venice, 
 and Pius V. defeat the Turkish 
 fleet in the Gulf of Lepanto. The 
 Christian fleet consisted of 206 gal- 
 leys, and 80,000 men. The Turks, 
 out of 250 galleys, saved only 100; 
 and lost 30,000 men in killed and 
 prisoners. — Voltaire - - . 1571 
 
 Bay of Gibraltar ; Dutch and Spani- 
 ards. This was a bloody conflict and 
 decisive victoryandsettledfor a time 
 thesuperiorityof theDutch,Apr. 25, 1607 
 
 NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH HISTORY. 
 
 Alfred, with 10 galleys, defeated 800 
 sail of Danish pirates on the Dorset 
 and Hampshire coast.— Asserts Life 
 of Alfred 897 
 
 Near teluys; Edward III. defeated 
 the French fleet of 400 sail, which 
 were all sunk. 30,000 French were 
 killed in this engagement - - 1340 
 
 The English and Flemings; the latter 
 signally defeated - - - - 1371 
 
 English and French, in which the 
 latter power loses 80 ships - - 1389 
 
 Near MilfordHaven; the English take 
 14, and destroy 15 French ships - 1405 
 
 Off Barfleur ; the Duke of Bedford 
 takes 500 French ships - - 1416 
 
 In the Downs : the French fleet cap- 
 tured by the earl of Warwick . - 1459 
 
 Bay of Biscay ; English and French, 
 the latter defeated ... 1512 
 
 r3ir Edward Howard defeats the 
 French under Prejeant - - 1513 
 
 In the Channel; the British defeat 
 the French fleet with great loss - 1545 
 
 TheSpanis/iArmadadTiYen from the 
 EnglishChannel tothe roadof Calais, 
 bya running fight the Spaniards los- 
 ing 15 ships and 5000 men ; they are 
 asain defeated, and obliged to bear 
 awaylor Scotland and Ireland, when 
 theirfleet isdispersed in a storm,and 
 they lose 17 more ships, and 5000 
 more men. See Armada, July 19, 1588 
 
 Dover Straits; between the Dutch 
 admiral. Van Tromp, and admiral 
 Blake. TheDutch surprise the Eng- 
 lish in the Downs, 80 sail engaging 
 40 English, six of which are taken 
 or destroyed ; and the Dutch admi- 
 ral sails in triumph through the 
 channel, with a broom at his mast- 
 head, to denote that he had swept 
 the English from the seas. June 29, 1652 
 
 In the Downs ; same admirals, and 
 nearly same loss 
 
 Sept. 28, Oct. 28, and Nov. 29, 1652 
 
 The English gain a victory over the 
 Dutch fleet otf Portsmouth, taking 
 and destroying 11 men-of-war and 
 30 merchantmen. Van Tromp was 
 the Dutcli, and Blake the English 
 admiral - - - - Feb. 10, 1653 
 
 Again, near Portland, between the 
 English and Dutch ; the latter de- 
 feated - . - . Feb. 18, 1653 
 
 Again, oft' the North Foreland The 
 Dutch and English fleets consisted 
 of near 100 men-of-war each. Van 
 
 Tromp commai-'ied the Dutcli; 
 Blake, Monk, and Deane, the Eng- 
 lish. Six Dutch ships were taken ; 
 11 were sunk, and the rest ran into 
 Calais road . . . June 2, 1653 
 
 Again, on the coast of Holland ; the 
 Dutch lost 80 men-of-war, and ad- 
 miral Tromp was killed - July 31, 1663 
 
 At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 
 2,000.000 pieces of eight, were taken 
 by the English - . - Sept. 1056 
 
 The Spanish fleet vocquished. and 
 then burnt in the harbor of Santa 
 Cruz, by Blake - - - April, 1657 
 
 English and French ; 180 of the Bor- 
 deaux fleet destroyed by the duke 
 of York ... - Dec. 4, 1664 
 
 The duke of Tork (afterwards James 
 II.), defeats the Dutch fleet off Har- 
 wich ; the Dutch admiral blown up 
 with all his crew ; 18 capital thips 
 taken, 14 destroyed - June 3, 1665 
 
 The earl of Sandwich took 12 men of 
 war and 2 India ships - Sept. 4, 1665 
 
 A contest between the Dutch and 
 English fleets for victory,maintain- 
 ed fur four days. The English lose 
 9,and theDutch 15 sMps, June 1--4, 1666 
 
 Decisive engagement at the mouth of 
 the Thames, when the English 
 gain a glorious victory, the Dutch 
 lose 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals kill- 
 ed, and 4,000 officers and seamen. 
 Fought - - - - July 26, 1666 
 
 The English fleet of 16 sail, defeat the 
 French of 30, near Martinico - - 1667 
 
 Coast of Holland ; by Prince Eupert, 
 May28, June 4,and Aug. ll,D'Etrees 
 and Euyter defeated . - . 1678 
 
 Several actions to the disadvantage of 
 the Dutch. They agree to strike to 
 the English colors in the British 
 seas. 25 Charles II. ... 1673 
 
 Off Tangiers, battle between the En- 
 glish and Moors, which lasted 11 
 days , 1679 
 
 Off Beachy-head; the English and 
 Dutch are defeated by the French, 
 
 June 30, 1690 
 
 The English and Dutch combined 
 fleets gain a signal victory over the 
 French fleet,near CapeLallogue ; 21 
 of their largest men-of-warwere de- 
 stroyed. — See La Ilogue, May 19, 1692 
 
 Off St. Vincent; theEnglish andDutch 
 squadrons,under admiral Kooke,de- 
 feated by the French - June 16, 1698 
 
 Off Carthagena,between admiral Ben- 
 bow and theFrench fleet,command- 
 ed by admiral Du Casse, fought 
 
 Aug. 19, 1702 
 
 The English and Dutch fleets, under 
 sir George Kooke,defeat the French 
 fleet (having theSpanish galleons in 
 convoy) in the port of Vigo. They 
 take 9 out of 13 galleons,laden chief- 
 ly ^^ ith silver, and six men-of-war ; 
 the other 4 galleons, and 14 men-of- 
 war, destroyed, fought - Oct. 12, 1702 
 
 Off the Lizard, when the English fleet 
 was defeated - - - Oct. 9, 1707 
 
NA\ J 
 
 D <3T10NARY OF DATES. 
 
 NAVAL B,\TTLES, conti7iued. 
 
 In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake 
 took sixty French vessels laden with 
 provisions - - May 22, 1708 
 
 The Spanish fleet of 27 sail totally de- 
 feated by sir George Byng, in the Faro 
 of Messina - - Aug. 11, 1718 
 
 Bloody battle off Toulon ; Matthews 
 and Lestock against the fleets of 
 France and Spain. Here the brave 
 captain Cornwall fell ; and the vic- 
 tory was lost by a misunderstanding 
 between the English admirals. — Na- 
 val Hist. .... 1744 
 
 Off Cape Finistere, the French fleet 
 taken by admiral Anson May 3, 1747 
 
 In the Fiast Indies ; the French retired 
 to Pondicherry - - - 1747 
 
 Off Ushant, when admiral Hawke took 
 seven men-of-war of the French 
 
 Oct. 14, 1747 
 
 Admiral Hawke defeats the French 
 fleet commanded by Conflans, in 
 Quiberon Bay ; and thus prevents a 
 projected invasion of England, fought 
 
 Nov. 20, 1759 
 
 Keppel took 3 French frigates, and a 
 fleet of merchantmen - - Oct. 9, 1762 
 
 Near Cape St. Vincent, between admi- 
 ral Rodney and admiral Don Lan- 
 gara, the latter defeated and taken 
 prisoner, losmg 8 ships Jan. 8, 1780 
 
 At St. Jago ; Mons. Suffrein defeated by 
 commodore Johnston April 16, 1781 
 
 Admiral Rodney defeated the French 
 going to attack Jamaica, took 10 ships 
 of the line, (1 sunk, and 3 blown up) 
 and sent the French admiral, count 
 d§ Grasse, prisoner to England 
 
 April 12, 1782 
 
 The British totally defeated the fleets 
 of France and Spain, in the bay of 
 Gibraltar. — See Gibraltar Sept. 13, 1782 
 
 Cape St. Vincent ; the Spanish fleet de- 
 feated by Sir J. Jervis, and 4 line of 
 battle ships taken - Feb. 14, 1797 
 
 Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ; 
 admiral Nelson loses his right arm ; 
 
 July 24, 1797 
 
 Camperdown; the Dutch signally de- 
 feated by admiral Duncan, and 15 
 ships of war, with the admiral (De 
 Wmter), taken - Oct. 11, 1797 
 
 Nile ; Toulon fleet defeated by sir Ho- 
 ratio Nelson, at Aboukir ; 9 ships of 
 
 the line taken , 2 burnt, 2 escaped, 
 
 Aug. 1. 179W 
 
 Gibraltar bay ; engagement between 
 the French and British fleets ; the 
 Hannibal of 74 guns lost July 6, 180 
 
 Off Cadiz ; sir James Saumarez obtains 
 a victory over the French and Span- 
 ish fleets; 1 ship captured, fough?; 
 
 July 12, ISOl 
 
 Sir Robert Calder with 15 sail, takes 2 
 ships (both Spanish) out of 20 sail of 
 the I'rench and Spanish combined 
 fleets, oft" Ferrol - July 22, 1805 
 
 Off Trafalgar; memorable battle, m 
 which lord Nelson defeated the fleeta 
 of France and Spain, and in which 
 he received his mortal wound. — (See 
 Trafalgar) - . Oct. 21, 1805 
 
 Sir R. Stfachan, with 4 sail of British, 
 captures 4 French ships of the line, 
 off Cape Ortegal - Nov. 4, 1805 
 
 In tlie West Indies ; the French defeat- 
 ed by sir T. Duckworth ; 3 sail of 
 the line taken, 2 driven on shore 
 
 Feb. 6, 180G 
 
 Sir John Borlase Warren captures the 
 French fleet under command of ad- 
 miral Linois - - March 13. 1806 
 
 Admiral Duckworth effects the passage 
 of the Dardanelles. See Dardanelles, 
 
 Feb. 19, 1807 
 
 Copenhagen fleet of 18 ships of the line, 
 15 frigates, and 31 other vessels, sur- 
 I'enders to lord Cathcart and admiral 
 Gambler. (See Copenhagen) Sept 7, 180? 
 
 The Russian fleet of several sail, in the 
 Tagus, surrenders to the British, 
 
 Sept. 3, 180& 
 
 Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth. 
 See Algiers - - Aug. 27. 1815 
 
 Navarino ; the British, French, and 
 Russian squadrons, defeat and anni- 
 hilate the Turkish navy, &e Nava- 
 rino ■ • ■ Oct. 20, 1827 
 
 Action between the British ships Vol- 
 age and Hyacinth, and 29 Chinese 
 war junks, which were defeated 
 
 Nov. 3, 1839 
 
 Bombardment and fall of Acre. The 
 British squadron under admiral Stop- 
 ford achieved this triumph with tri- 
 fling loss, while the Egyptians lost 
 2000 killed and wounded, and 3000 
 prisoners. See Syiia - Nov. 3, I&IO 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES of the UNITED STATES. 
 
 Paul Jones, in the Providence priva- 
 teer, takes 16 prizes - - - 17r6 
 
 His descent on Whitehaven - April 1778 
 
 He captures the British frigate Serapis 
 
 Sept. 23, 1779 
 
 Frigate Philadelphia taken by the Tri- 
 poli tans - - - - 1803 
 
 — recaptured by Decatur ■ - Feb. 1, 1804 
 
 Tripoli bombarded by commodore Pre- 
 ble - • - - Aug. 1804 
 
 Frigate Chesapeake fired upon by the 
 British ship Leopard, for refusing to 
 be searched .... 1807 
 
 Frigate President, vs. British sloop 
 Little Belt - - May 1«, 1811 
 
 Constitution captures British frigate 
 Guerrriere - - Aug. 13, 1812 
 
 Captain Elliott captures two British 
 frigates on lake Erie - - Oct. 8, 1812 
 
 Sloop Wasp captures British sloop Fro 
 lie, Oct. 18 ; both vessels captured by 
 British 74, Poictie;a - Oct 20, 1812 
 
 Frigate United States, captain Decatur, 
 captures British frigate Macedonian 1812 
 
 Constitution, captain Bainbridge, cap- 
 tures British frigate Java Oct. 29, 1812 
 
 Hornet, captain Lawrence, captures 
 British ship Peacock, captain Peake, 
 
 Feb 23,1813 
 
433 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [na^ 
 
 NAVAL BATTLES, U. S. continued. 
 
 [Delaware and Chesapeake bays block- 
 aded by British.] 
 
 Frigate Cliesapeake surrendered to the 
 British frigate Shannon June 1, 1813 
 
 Sloop Argus, captured by British sloop 
 Pelican - - - Aug. 14, 1813 
 
 B 'li E.:terprise captures the British 
 brig Boxer - - - Aug. 1813 
 
 Fleet on lake Erie, commodore Perry, 
 captures the British fleet Sept. 10, 1813 
 
 fl.-^tilla, commodore Chauncey, cap- 
 tuies British flotilla on lake Ontario, 
 
 Oct. 5, 1813 
 
 Frigate Essex, commodore Pi.rter, cap- 
 tured by frigate Phcebe and sloop 
 Cherub - - - March 28, 1814 
 
 Sloop Frolic, commodore Bainbridge, 
 surrendered to British frigate Or- 
 pheus - - - April 21, 1814 
 
 Sloop Peacock, captain Warrington, 
 captures British brig Epervier 
 
 April 29, 1814 
 
 Sloop Wasp, captain Blakeley, cap- 
 tures British brig Reindeer, June 28, 1814 
 
 Flotilla, commodore Macdonough, vic- 
 torious over the British on lake Cham- 
 plain - - - Sept. 11, 1814 
 
 Frigate President, surrendered to the 
 British frigate Endymion Jan. 15, 1815 
 
 Frigate Constitution captures British 
 brigs Cyane and Levant, off Maderia 
 
 Feb. 1815 
 
 Sloop Hornet, commodore Biddle, cap- 
 tures British brig Penguin, off Brazil, 
 
 Feb. 23, 18 5 
 
 U. S. naval force under commodore 
 Conner bombards Vera Cruz (jointly 
 with the land force under general 
 Scott) 1S47 
 
 NAVARINO, Battle of, between the combined fleets of England, Franw, and 
 Russia, under command of admiral Codrington, and the Turkish nav^y, in 
 which the latter was almost wholly annihilated. More than thirty ships, 
 manj'^ of them four-deckers, were blown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks 
 themselves, to prevent their falling into the hands of their enemies, Oct. 20, 
 1827. The species of policy which led to this attack upon Turkey, was that 
 of Mr. Canning's administration. This destruction of the Turkish naval 
 power was characterized, by the illustrious duke of Wellington, as being an 
 " untoward event," a memorable phrase, applied to it to this day, 
 
 NAVIGATION. It owes its origin to the Phoenicians, about 1500 b. c. The 
 first laws of navigation originated with the Rhodians, 916 b. c. The first 
 account we have of any considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians sailing 
 round Africa 604 b. c. — Blair. On the destruction of Thebes by Alexander 
 the Great, 335 b. c, its commerce passed to Alexandria, and subsequently 
 the Romans became the chief masters of commerce. It passed successively 
 from the Venetians, Genoese, and Hanse Towns, to the Portuguese and Span- 
 iards ; and from these to the English and Dutch. 
 
 Plane charts and mariner's compass 
 
 used about - - - a. d. 1420 
 
 Variation of the compass discovered 
 
 by Columbus - - - - 1492 
 
 That the oblique rhumb lines are spi- 
 rals, discovered by Nonius - - l.'i37 
 First treatise on navigation - - - 154.5 
 The log first mentioned by Bourne - 1577 
 Mercator's chart - - - - 1599 
 Davis's quadrant, or backstaff, for 
 measuring angles, about - - 1600 
 
 Logarithmic tables applied to naviga- 
 tion by Gunter - - a. d. 1620 
 Middle latitude sailing introduced - - 1623 
 Mensui'ation of a degree, Norwood - 1631 
 Hadley's quadrant • .- - 1731 
 Harrison's time-keeper used - - - 17&4 
 Nautical almanac first published - 1767 
 Barlow's theory of the deviation of the 
 compass - - - - - 1820 
 See Compass^ Latitude, Longitude, 6^c. 
 
 N-\V1GATI0N, INLAND, op thk United States. An official report of U. S. 
 Engineers in 1842 states the number of miles of the rivers west of the Alle- 
 ghanies, navigable for steamboats, 16 674 miles ; entire length of lake coast, 
 of which 2000 belong to British possessions, 5000 miles. The steamboat 
 tonnage of the western rivers in 1846 was 249.055 tons. Aggregate value of 
 commerce on the western rivers, $183 609,725. Estimated amount of lake 
 tonnage, $61,914,910. [For tonnage of ocean shipping at different periods, 
 see Skipping.] 
 
 NAVIGATION, INLAND, of Gre.4T Britain. Mr. Nimmo. in his evidence be- 
 fore the Committee on the state of Ireland, in 1824, said, "we have more 
 inland navigation in Britain than in all the rest of the world put together." 
 The total length of the inland navigation of England, including as well tlie 
 
Nat] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES, 
 
 439 
 
 navigable rivers as canals, is 5300 miles. See Canals. — Haydn. This state- 
 ment scarcely agrees with the preceding, 
 
 NAVIGATION LAWS. The laws of Oleron were decreed, 6 Richard I., 1194 
 See Oleron. The first navigation act was passed in 1381. Another and more 
 extensive act was passed in 1541. Act relating to the trade of the colonies 
 passed in 1646 ; and several acts followed relating to navigation. The act 
 regulating the navigation of the river Thames was passed in 1786. Naviga- 
 tion Act, for the encouragement of British ships and seamen, passed 4 Wil- 
 liam IV., August 1833. British and American navigation laws repealed, 1849. 
 
 NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. The first ship of war of the United States 
 was built under the superintendence of the celebrated John Paul Jones, at 
 Portsmouth, N. H., 1781 ; but the regular navy was commenced by Act of 
 Congress, authorizing the building of six frigates, March 30, 1794. The 
 Constitution launched at Boston. Constellation at Baltimore, 1797. [See 
 Naval Battles. 1 
 
 NAVIES OF EUROPE and AMERICA. 
 
 COMPARATIVE 
 
 VIEW OF THE NAVAL FORCES OP THE POWERS OF EUROPE 
 
 
 
 
 AND 
 
 AMERICA, 1846. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Relative naval 
 power of each nation. 
 
 In commission. 
 
 Building, ordina- 
 ry, &c. 
 
 Total. 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 d 
 
 > « 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 62 
 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Guns. 
 
 Vessels. 1 Guns. 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Guns. 
 
 12; 
 
 •^m 
 
 Great Britain, 
 
 332 
 
 4,583 
 
 304 
 
 13,098 
 
 §636 
 
 17,681 
 
 40,000 
 
 141 
 
 France, 
 
 215 
 
 4,293 
 
 131 
 
 4,635 
 
 346 
 
 8,928 
 
 27,554 
 
 68 
 
 Russia, - 
 
 179 
 
 5,896 
 
 
 
 179 
 
 5,896 
 
 59,000 
 
 32 
 
 Turkey, - 
 
 62 
 
 2,636 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 66 
 
 2,660 
 
 26,8S0 
 
 9 
 
 United States, 
 
 47 
 
 1,155 
 
 30 
 
 1,190 
 
 77 
 
 2,345 
 
 8,724 
 
 5 
 
 Egypt, - - - 
 
 35 
 
 1,148 
 
 3 
 
 .312 
 
 38 
 
 1,760 
 
 
 1 
 
 Holland, 
 
 48 
 
 302 
 
 86 
 
 1,344 
 
 134 
 
 1,646 
 
 
 4 
 
 Sweden, - 
 
 330 
 
 660 
 
 50 
 
 1,196 
 
 380 
 
 1,856 
 
 
 2 
 
 Denmark, 
 
 96 
 
 344 
 
 12 
 
 732 
 
 108 
 
 1,076 
 
 
 
 Austria, - 
 
 74 
 
 686 
 
 
 
 74 
 
 686 
 
 . . 
 
 
 Brazil, - 
 
 31 
 
 450 
 
 11 
 
 325 
 
 42 
 
 775 
 
 
 8 
 
 Sardinia, - . - 
 
 11 
 
 226 
 
 4 
 
 220 
 
 15 
 
 446 
 
 
 2 
 
 'Spain, - 
 
 21 
 
 348 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 348 
 
 
 4 
 
 Two Sicilies, 
 
 17 
 
 338 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 338 
 
 
 
 Portugal, 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mexico 
 
 23 
 
 42 
 
 -- 
 
 
 23 
 
 42 
 
 -- 
 
 
 COMPARATIVE VIEW OP THE COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. 
 
 Nations, in the order ol' their commercial 
 importance. 
 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain, 
 United States .... 
 
 France, 
 
 Norway and Sweden ... 
 
 Holland, 
 
 Russia, . . . . - 
 
 Two Sicilies, .... 
 
 Austria, 
 
 Turkey, ..... 
 
 Sardinia. 
 
 Denmark, .... 
 
 Portugal, . . - . . 
 
 Spain, 
 
 Brazil, . . . . . 
 Mexico. 
 
 No. of vessels 
 in commerce 
 and fisheries. 
 
 23,898 
 
 19,666 
 
 13,782 
 
 5,450 
 
 1,.528 
 
 Not known. 
 
 9,174 
 
 6,199 
 
 2,220 
 
 3,502 
 
 3.036 
 
 '798 
 
 2,700 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 Tonnage, 
 
 No. of guns 3 
 each 100,000 
 tons of com- 
 merce. 
 
 3,007,581 
 
 2,416,999 
 
 839,608 
 
 471,772 
 
 241,676 
 
 239,000 
 
 21.3,198 
 
 208,-551 
 
 182,000 
 
 167,360 
 
 153,408 
 
 80,.525 
 
 80,000 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 588 
 
 1.063 
 '224 
 68^^ 
 
 2,466 
 158 
 321 
 
 1,461 
 265 
 709 
 
410 
 
 fHE world's progress. 
 
 NEM 
 
 NAVY OF ENGLAND. Tlie first fleet of galleys, like those of ;he Danes, 
 was built by Alfred, a. d. 897^ The number of galleys had increased undei 
 Edgar to 350, about a. d. 965. A formidable fleet Avas equipped by the pub- 
 lic contribution of every town in England, in the reign of Ethelred 11. , 1007, 
 et seq., when it rendezvoused at Sandwich to be ready to oppose the Danes. 
 From this period fleets were occasionally furnished by the maritime towns, 
 and the Cinque ports, and were usually commanded by the king, or an ad- 
 miral under him : such was the fleet of Edward III. at the siege of Calais Id 
 1347 ; it consisted of 40 ships, badly equipped, under no public fixed regu- 
 lations. The date of the commencement of the Royal or British navy, may 
 therefore be placed 4 Henry VIII. 1512, when the first Navy-office was ap- 
 pointed, with commissioners to manage naval affairs, and a number of stem 
 ships of war began to be permanently kept on foot by the crown. — Gibson'' s 
 Camden. In the time of Henry VIII. the navy consisted of 1 ship of 1200 
 tons, 2 of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller ; the largest was called the 
 Ch-eat Harrij. Elizabeth's fleet at the time of the Spanish Armada, in 1588, 
 consisted of only 28 vessels, none larger than frigates. James I. added 10 
 ships of 1400 tons each, and 64 guns, the largest then ever buL*. — Gibsoii's 
 Co7itinuation of Camden. 
 
 ACCOUNT OF THE PROGRESSIVE INCREASE OF THE ROYAL NAVY OF ENGLAND, FROM HENRY 
 • VIII'S REIGN TO THE CLOSE OF THE LAST WAR, 1814. 
 
 Yr. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men voted 
 
 Navy estiin. 
 
 Yr. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Men voted 
 
 Navy estim. 
 
 1521 
 
 16 
 
 7,260 
 
 
 no account. 
 
 1760 
 
 412 
 
 321,134 
 
 70,000 
 
 je3,227.143 
 
 1578 
 
 24 
 
 10,506 
 
 6,700 
 
 no account. 
 
 1793 
 
 498' 
 
 433,226 
 
 45.000 
 
 5,525;331 
 
 1603 
 
 42 
 
 17,055 
 
 8,346 
 
 no account. 
 
 1800 
 
 767 
 
 668,744 
 
 135,000 
 
 12,422.837 
 
 1658 
 
 1.57 
 
 57,000 
 
 21,910 
 
 no account. 
 
 1808 
 
 869 
 
 892,800 
 
 143.800 
 
 17,495;047 
 
 1638 
 
 173 
 
 101,892 
 
 42,000 
 
 no account. 
 
 1814 
 
 901 
 
 966,000 
 
 146,000 
 
 18,786,509 
 
 1702 
 
 272 
 
 159,020 
 
 40.000 
 
 i;i,056.915 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In 1814, Great Britair. had 901 ships, of which 177 were of the line ; and in 
 1830, she had 621 ships, some of 140 guns each, and down to surveying ves- 
 sels of 2 guns only. Of these 148 sail were employed on foreign and home 
 service. On Jan. 1, 1841, the total number of ships of all sizes in commis- 
 sion was 183. 
 NAVY OF FRANCE. It is first mentioned in history a. d. 728, when, like that 
 of England at an early period, it consisted of Galleys ; in this year the 
 French defeated the Frison fleet. It was considerably improved under 
 Louis XIV. at the instance of his minister Colbert, about 1697. The French 
 navy wa^ in perhaps its highest splendor about 1781 ; but it became greatly 
 educed in the late wars against England. 
 
 .NEBRASKA. A territory of the United States as yet (1850) unorganized, oc- 
 cupying 400,000 square miles, the entire space between the Missouri and 
 White Earth Rivers on the east, the Rocky Mountains on the west, the 49th 
 parallel lat. on the north, and the Kansas and Arkansas rivers on the south. 
 First traversed by Lewis and Clarke's expedition, in 1805, and partly ex- 
 plored by Fremont, on his way to Oregon, in 1842. 
 
 Kl^EDLES. They make a considerable article of commerce, as well as of home 
 trade in England, German and Hungarian steel is of most repute for nee- 
 dles. The first that were made in England were fabricated in Cheapside, 
 London, in the time of the sanguinary Mary, bj^ a negro from Spain-^ but, 
 as he svould not impart the secret, it was lost at his death, and not recovered 
 again till 1566, in the reign of Elizabeth, when Elias Growse, a German, 
 taught the art to the English, who have since brought it to the highest 
 degree of perfection. — Stowe. The family of the Greenings, ancestors of 
 lord Dorchester, established a needle manufactory in Bucks, about this 
 time. — Anderson. 
 
 NE MEAN GAMES. So called from Nemaha, where they were celebrated. 
 
NEW j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 441 
 
 Tliey were originally instituted by the Argives in honor of Archemorus, 
 who died by the bite of a serpent, and Hercules some time after renewed 
 them. They were one of the four great and solemn games which were 
 observed in Greece. The Argives, Corinthians, and the inhabitants of Cle- 
 onge, generally presided by turns at the celebration, in which were exhitited 
 foot and horse-races, chariot-races, boxing, wrestling, and contests of every 
 kind, both gymnical and equestrian. The conqueror was rewarded with a 
 crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley, in memory of the adventure 
 of Archemorus, whom his nurse laid down on a sprig of that plant. They 
 were celebrated every third, or according to others, every fifth year, or 
 more properly on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 1226 b. c.~ 
 Herodotus. 
 
 NEPTUNE. The new planet predicted by Le Verrier ; discovered by Dr. Galle 
 of Berhn, Sept. 23, 1846. 
 
 NESTORIANS. A sect of Christians, the followers of Nestorius, some time 
 bishop of Constantinople, who, by the general strain of church historians, 
 is represented as a heretic, for maintaining that though the Virgin Mary was 
 the mother of Jesus Christ as man, yet she was not the mother of God, for 
 that no human creature could participate that to another, which she had not 
 herself; that God was united to Christ under one person, but remained as 
 distinct in nature and essence as though he had never been united at all ; 
 that such union made no alteration in the human nature, but that he was 
 subject to the same passions of love and hatred, pleasure and pain, &c., as 
 oth(3r men have, only that they were better regulated, and more properly 
 applied than in ordinary men. The generality of Christians in the Levant 
 go under this name ; they administer the sacrament with leavened bread, 
 and in both kinds, permit their priests to marry, and use neither confirma- 
 tion nor auricular confession, &c. Nestorius died a. d. 439. — Du Pin. 
 
 NETHERLANDS. They were attached to the Roman Empire under the name 
 of Belgia, until its decline in the fifth century. For several ages this coun- 
 try formed part of the kingdom of Austrasia. In the twelfth century it was 
 governed by its own counts and earls ; and afterwards fell to the dukes of 
 Burgundy, and next to the house of Austria. The seventeen provinces v/erc 
 united into one state, in 1549. For the late history of the Netherlands see 
 Holland and Belgium. 
 
 NEVIS. An English colony, first planted by the English in 1628. This island 
 was taken by the French, Feb. 14, 1782, but was restored to th« English at 
 the general peace in the next year. The capital of this island (one of the 
 Caribbees) is Charleston. See Colonies. 
 
 NEW ENGLAND. The confederation of the northeastern colonies of America 
 under this name, for mutual defence, 1643. Sir E. Andros, the tyrannical go- 
 vernor of New England, 1686. The New England States are Maine, New ■ 
 Hampshire, Massachusetts^ Vermont, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Se<j 
 - these respectively. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. One of the United States ; was first granted to Ferdi- 
 nando Gorges in 1662 ; first settled at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623. It- 
 came voluntarily under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts in 1641 ; but was 
 made a separate province by an act of Charles I. in 1679. It was several 
 times afterwards connected with Massachusetts until 1741, since which it 
 has remained a separate State. Constitution formed in 1784, and amended, 
 1792. Population in 1790 was 141,885 ; in 1800, 138,858 ; in 1830, 269,328; 
 in 1840, 284 574. 
 
 NEW HOIjLAND. The largest known land that does not bear the name of a 
 continent. When this vast island was first discovered is uncertain. In the 
 beginning of the seventeenth century the north and west coasts were traced 
 
 19* 
 
442 THE world's progress. [ .^EW 
 
 by the Dutch ; and what was deemed, till lately, the south extremity, was 
 discovered by Tasman, in 1642. Captain Cook, in 1770, explored the east 
 and north-east from 38° south, and ascertained its separation from New 
 Guinea; and, in 1773, captain Furneaux, by connecting Tasman's disco\e- 
 ries with Cook's, completed the circuit. But the supposed south extremity, 
 which Tasman distinguished by the name of Van Diemen's Land, was found, 
 in 1798, to be an island, separated from New Holland by a channel forty 
 leagues wide, named from the discoverer, Bass Strait. Difierent parts of 
 the coast have been called by the names of the discoverers, &c. The east- 
 ern coast, called New South Wales, w^as taken possession of in the name of 1 
 George III. of England, by captain Cook, and now forms a part of the Bri- 
 tish dominions. See New South Wales. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. One of the United States ; first settled by the Dutch from 
 New York, at Bergen, 1614-20. A colony of Swedes and Finns, on the De- 
 laware, 1627. The province included with New York in the grant by 
 Charles II. to the duke of York in 1664 ; granted by the duke to lord Berkley 
 and sir George Cartaret, who established a government in 1695. Subdued 
 by the Dutch in 1672, but surrendered by them, 1674 ; purchased by a 
 company of English emigrants, who formed the first English settlement at 
 Salem, 1674 ; government surrendered to the crown (in consequence of diffi- 
 culty about titles, &c.) and accepted by queen Anne, 1702 ; continued under 
 royal instead of proprietary government until 1776. This State suffered 
 much in the revolution, and acted an important part. Adopted the Federal 
 Constitution by unanimous vote in 1787. Inoculation in 1732, 47,000; in 
 1790, 184,lt39; in 1^30, 320,779; in 1840, 373,306. 
 
 NEW MEXICO, according to Spanish and Mexican authorities, extends from 
 about 32° to 42°, N. latitude, and from 23° to about 33° long. W. of Wash- 
 ington — an area of about 200 000 square miles. The country taken posses- 
 sion of for Spain, by Juan de Onate, sent by count de Monterey, viceroy of 
 Mexico, in 1594. A great massacre of the Spaniards in their pueblos or 
 fort, by the Indians, 1680, when the governor retreated from Santa Fe, and 
 founded Paso del Norte. The whole country reconquered by the Spaniards 
 after a war of ten years ; but a deadly hatred has since continued between 
 the races. New Mexico ceded to the United States by the treaty with 
 Mexico, 1848. A large part of it is claimed \)y Texas, and the boundary is 
 yet (July 1850) undecided. 
 
 NEW SOUTH WALES. See New HoUand. The eastern coast of New Hol- 
 land was explored and taken possession of by captain Cook, for England, 
 in 1770. It was at the recommendation of this illustrious navigator that 
 the design of a convict colony here was first formed. Governor Phillips, the 
 first governor, arrived at Botany Ba}^ with 800 convicts, January 20, 1788 : 
 but he subsequently preferred Sydney, about seven miles distant from the 
 head of Port Jackson, as a more eligible situation for the capital. 
 
 NEW STYLE. Ordered to be used in England in 1751 ; and the next _ ear 
 eleven days were left out of the calendar — the third of September, 1*752, 
 being reckoned as the fourteenth — so as to make it agree with the Grego- 
 rian Calendar, which see, and also article Calendar. In the year a. d. 200, 
 there was no difference of styles ; but there had arisen a difference of ele- 
 ven days betAveen the old and the new style,, the latter being so much be- 
 forehand with the former ; so that when a person using the old style dates 
 the 1st of May, those who employ the new, reckon the 12th. From tliia 
 variation in the computation of time, we may easily account for the differ- 
 ence of many dates concerning historical facts and biographical notices. 
 
 N^EW YEAR'S DAY. Its institution as a feast, or day of rejoicing, is the 
 oldest on authentic record transmitted do^vn to our times, and still observed. 
 
NEW J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 443 
 
 The feast was instituted by Niima, and was dedicated to Janus (vvlio pre- 
 sided over the new year), January 1, 713 b. c. On this day, the Romans 
 sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine ; 
 and all the mechanics began something of their art or trade ; the men of 
 letters did the same as to books, poems, &c. ; and the consuls, though cho- 
 sen before, took the chair and entered upon their office this day. After tho 
 government was in the hands of the emperors, the consuls marched on 
 New-year's day to the capitol, attended by a ci owd, all in new clothes, when 
 two white bulls never yoked were sacrificed to Jupiter Capitolinus. A great 
 deal of incense and other perfumes were spent in the temple ; the flamens, 
 together with the consuls, during this religious solemnity v^ffered their vows 
 for the prosperity of the empire and the emperor, after having taken an 
 oath of allegiance, and confirmed all public acts done by him the preceding 
 year. On this day the Romans laid aside all old grudges and ill humor, 
 and took care not to speak so much as one ominous or untoward word. 
 The first of January is more observed as a feast-day in Scotland than it is 
 in England. In many parts of the United States, but chiefly in New York, 
 this is observed as a holiday, the ladies receiving complimentary visits from 
 the other sex. This custom is derived from the Dutch ; but is also observed 
 in Paris. 
 
 fiEW- YEAR'S GIFTS. Nonius Marcellus refers the origin of New-Year's gifts 
 among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines. Avho having consi- 
 dered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated 
 to Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of 
 the new year, authorized the custom afterwards, and gave these gifts the 
 name of Strenae, 747 b. c. In the reign of Augustus, the populace, gentry, 
 and senators used to send him new-year's gifts, and if he was not in town, 
 they carried them to the capitol. From the Romans this custom went to 
 the Greeks, and from the heathens to the Christians, who very early came 
 into the practice of making presents to the magistrates. Some of the fa- 
 thers wrote very strenuously against the practice, upon account of the immo- 
 ralities committed under that cover and protection ; but since the govern- 
 ments of the several nations in Europe became Christian, the custom is 
 still retained as a token of friendship, love, and respect. It is well observed 
 in the United States. 
 
 NEW YORK. One of the United States. The river Hudson and the island of 
 Manhattan, wh(M-e New York city now stands, were discovered by Henry 
 Hudson, an Englishman, in the service of the Dutch, 1609. First permanently 
 settled on Maniiattan island by the Dutch in 1621 ; surrendered to the En- 
 glish, under Richard Nichols, for the duke of York, in 1664 ; confirmed to 
 England by the peace of Breda, 1667 ; retaken by a Dutch expedition in 
 1673 ; restored to the duke of York with a new patent, 1674 ; first legisla- 
 tive assembly, 1683 ; Jacob Leisler's revolution, 1689 ; episcopacy esta- 
 blished by law, 1693 ; negro conspiracy, 1741 ; colony took an active jjart in 
 French war, 1756, and the war of Independence ; city captured by English, 
 1776 ; who evacuated it Nov. 25, 1783 ; State adopted the Federal Constitution 
 by 30 to 35, 1788 ; adopted new State Constitution, 1846. Population in. 
 1732 65,000 ; in 1790, 340,820 : in 1810, 959,049 : in 1820, 1,372.812 ; in 1840, 
 2,428921. 
 
 NEW YORK. City of. Founded by the Dutch, 1614 ; fort built by them at 
 S. point of the island, 1623 ; surrendered to the English, 1664 ; assessed 
 value of all the property in the town in 1668, was ^78,231 ; city taken by 
 the British, 1776 ; evacuated, Nov. 25, 1783 ; meeting of first United States 
 Congress here, 1785; Washington inaugurated President of the United 
 States, at the City Hall in Wall-street, April 30, 1789 ; yellow fever pre- 
 vailed here in 1795 and 1805 ; cholera in 1832, 1834, and 1849. Great fire in 
 
444 THE world's progress. [ NEW 
 
 the business pari of the city, swept over 40 acres, and destroyed property 
 valued at about $20,000,000, Dec. 16, 1835 ; another in same neighborhood, 
 1845 ; the whole district rebuilt and improved shortly after ; celebration 
 of the completion of Croton Aqueduct, Oct. 14, 1842. Population in 1790, 
 33,131; in 1810, 96,373; in 1830, 202,589; in 1840, 312,710. 
 
 NEW ORLEANS, City of. Founded by the French in 1717 ; conveyed to 
 the Spanish, 1762; recovered by the Freiich, 1800; purchased by the 
 United States in the purchase of Louisiana, 1803. The battle of, between 
 the Americans under Gen. Jackson, and the British under Packenham, in 
 which the latter were defeated with loss of 3^000 killed and wounded, the 
 Americans losing only 7 killed and 6 wounded, Jan. 8, 1815. Population 
 in 1810, was 17,242; in 1830, 46,310; in 1840, 102,193, including 23,448 
 slaves. 
 
 NEWCASTLE, ENGLAND. The first coal port in the world. The coal-mines 
 were discovered here about a. d. 1234. The first charter which was granted 
 to the townsmen for digging coal was by Henry III, in 1239 ; but in 1306, 
 the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in London, by royal proclamation, 
 chiefly because it injured the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which 
 were then growing about that city ; but this interdiction did not long conti- 
 nue, and we may consider coal as having been dug and exported from this 
 place for more than 500 years. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Prima Vista. 
 June 24, a. d. 1494. It was formally taken possession of by sir Henry Gilbert, 
 1583. In the reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advantage of the 
 English in the fishery. There were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from 
 Portugal, 150 from France, and only 15, but of larger size, from England, in 
 1577. — Hackluyt. But the English fishery in some years afterwards had in- 
 creased so much that the ports of Devonshire alo»e employed 150 ships, and 
 sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 1625. Nearly 1000 English fa- 
 milies reside here all the year ; and in the fishing season, beginning in May 
 and ending in September, more than 15,000 persons resort to Newfoundland, 
 which may be esteemed as one of our finest nurseries for seamen. New- 
 foundland has recently obtained the privilege of a colonial legislation. A 
 bishopric was established here in 1839. Appalling fire at St. John's ; a great 
 portion of the town destroyed; the loss estimated at .£1,000,000 sterling, 
 June 9, 1846. 
 
 NEWS. The origin of this word has been variously defined. News is a fresh 
 account of any thing. — Sid7iey. It is something not heard before. — V Es- 
 trange. News is an account of the transactions of the present times. — Addi- 
 son. The word "news" is not, as many imagine, derived trom the adjective 
 new. In former times (between the years 1595 and 1730) it was a prevalent 
 practice to put over the periodical publications of the day the initial letters 
 of the cardinal points of the compass, thus ; — 
 
 E — 
 
 — w 
 
 importing that these papers contained intelligence from the four quarters 
 of the globe ; and from this practice is derived the term Newspaper. 
 NEWSPAPERS. The first published in England, which might truly be consi- 
 dered as a vehicle of general information, was established by sir Roge? 
 L'Estrange, in 1663 ; it was entitled the Public Intelligencer^ ' and continued 
 nearly three years, when it ceased on the appearance of "the Gazette. A 
 publication, with few claims however to tlie character of a newspaper, bad 
 
MEW ] - DICTIONARY OF DATES. 445 
 
 previously ai)peared; it was called the English Merc-^'-y,'^ and came out un- 
 der the authority of queen Elizabeth, so early as 1588, the period of the 
 Spanish armada. An early copy of this paper is dated July 23, in that year. 
 In the reign of James I., 1622, appeared the London Weekly Courant^ and 
 in the year 1643 (the period of the civil war) were printed a variety of pub- 
 lications, certainly in no respect entitled to the name of newspapers, of which 
 the following were the titles : — 
 
 England's Memorable Accidents. 
 
 The Kingdom's Intelligencer. 
 
 The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Par 
 
 liam.ent. 
 The Mercurius Aulicus. 
 The Scotch Intelligencer. 
 The Parliament's Scout. 
 
 A paper called the London Gazette was published August 22, 1642. The 
 London Gazette of the existing series, was published hrst at Oxford, the 
 court being there on account of the plague, Nov. 7, 1665, and afterwards at 
 London, Feb. 5, 1666. See Gazette. The printing of newspapers and 
 pamphlets was prohibited 31 Charles I., 1680. — :<c2vion''s Chron. Newspa- 
 pers were first stamped in 1713. No. of the stamps issued : — 
 
 The Parliament's Scout's Discovery, or 
 
 Certain Injormation. 
 The Mercurius Civicus, or London's h^ 
 
 telligencer. 
 The Country's Complaint, Sfc. 
 The Weekly Account. 
 Mercurius Britannrcus. 
 
 In 1753 - 
 
 - 7,411,757 
 
 In 1810 - 
 
 - -20,172,837 
 
 In 1835 . 
 
 . -32,874,652 
 
 In 1760 - 
 
 - - 9,404,790 
 
 In 1820 - 
 
 -24,862,186 
 
 In 1840 - 
 
 - 49,033,384 
 
 In 1774 - 
 
 - 12,300,000 
 
 In 1825 - 
 
 - -26,950,693 
 
 In 1843 . 
 
 - -56,443,977 
 
 In 1790 - 
 
 • - 14,035,639 
 
 In 1830 - 
 
 - 30,158,741 
 
 In 1849 - 
 
 - 76,569,235 
 
 In 1800 - 
 
 - 16,084,905 
 
 
 
 
 
 The total number of newspapers published in the United Kingdom in 1849 
 was 603, viz : 160 in London, 232 in the English provinces, 117 in Ireland, 
 and 94 in Scotland. The number of advertisements inserted in the London 
 newspapers in 1849 was 886,108, paying a gross duty of i;66,458 25. ; in the 
 English provincial newspapers, 834. 729, yielding to the crown a revenue of 
 ^62,604 135. Qd. ; in the Irish papers, 220,524, paying ^11,026 45., and in the 
 Scotch papers, 2,40911, paying in duty i;18,075 I65. Qd. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS, &c, in the United States. The first was the ''Boston Newi, 
 Letter" in 1704, which was continued till 1774 ; the second was the Boston 
 Gazette, 1719 ; the third the American Weekly Mercury, at Philadelphia, 
 started one day after the last. First Neio York Gazette, in 1725 ; first 
 newspaper in the Carolinas at Charleston, 1731-2 ; first Rhode Island Ga- 
 zette, at Newport, 1732 ; first Virginia Gazette, at William sburgh, in 1736. 
 In 1775. there were in all the colonies 37 newspapers; in 1810, in the United 
 States, 358 ; in 1828, 802 ; in 1839, 1555. See Periodical Lit. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS IN France. The first was the Gazette de France, established 
 by Eenaudot, in 1631, and continued with few interruptions till 1827; when 
 it ceased and another paper assumed its name. The Moniteur, commenced 
 1789, has been since 1800 the official journal of the Government. The Con- 
 stitutionelle and the Journal des Debats have long had the largest circula- 
 tion. There were 374 newspapers published in France in 1832. See Peri- 
 odical Lit. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS, Irish. The first Irish newspaper was Pue's Occurrences, pub- 
 lished in 1700: Faulkner's Journal was established by George Faulkner, "a 
 man celebrated for the goodness of his heart, and the weakness of his head," 
 1728. — Supplement to Swift. The oldest of the existing Dublin newspapers, 
 
 ' The f.iU title is, " No. 50, The English Mercuric, published by authoritie, for the preveii'ico 
 ©f false reports, imprinted by Christopher Barker, her highness's printer. No. 50." It describcB 
 the armament called the Spanish Armada, giving " A journall of what passed since the 21st of thia 
 month, between her Majestie's fleet and that of Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admirall 10 
 the Lordes of council." 
 
 I It is said by Mr. Watts of the British Museum (1850), that this papei was a forgery, and thAl 
 <»« first El igUsh paper was the Weckley Newes, published by Nathaniel Butler in 1622.] 
 
446 THE vV^ORLE's progress [ NIT 
 
 is the Freeman s Jour:",al, founded by the patriot, Dr. Lucas, about the year 
 1755. — Westminster Review, Jan. 1830. The Limerick Chronicle, the oldest 
 of the i)rovincial prints, was established in 1768. — Idem. 
 
 IS'EY, MARSHAL, his Execution. Ney was the duke of Elchingen, and prince 
 of the lloskwa, and one of the most valiant and skilful of the marslials of 
 Franot!. After the abdication of Napoleon, 5th April, 1814, he took the oath 
 of allegiance to the king, Louis XVIII. On Napoleon's return to France 
 from Elba, he marched against him ; but his troops deserting, he regarded 
 the cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's way to Paris. 
 March 13, 1815. Ney led the attack of the French at Waterloo, where he 
 fought in the midst of the slain, his clothes filled with bullet-holes, and five 
 horses having been shot under him, untJ night and defeat obliged him to 
 fly. But though he Avas included in the decree of July 24, 1815, which guar- 
 anteed the safety of all Frenchmen, he was afterwards sought out, and taken 
 in the castle of a friend at Urillac, where he lay concealed, and brought to 
 trial before the Chamber of Peers. The 12th article of the capitulation of 
 Paris, fixing a general amnesty, was quoted in his favor, yet he was sentenced 
 to death, and met his fate with the fortitude which such a hero could hardly 
 fail to evince, Aug. 16, 1815. 
 
 NICENE CREED. A summary of the Christian faith, composed at Nice by 
 the first general council held there in the palace of Constantino the Great. 
 In this celebrated council, which assembled a, d. 325, the Arians were con- 
 demned. It was attended by 318 bishops from divers parts, who both set- 
 tled the doctrine of the Trinity, and the time for observing Easter. 
 
 NILE, Battle of the. One of the greatest in British naval history, between 
 the Toulon and British fleets, the latter commanded by lord, then sir Hora- 
 tio Nelson. This engagement took place near Rosetta, at the mouth of the 
 celebrated river Nile ; nine of the French line-of-battle ships were taken, 
 two were burnt, and two escaped, August 1, 1798. This is sometimes called 
 the battle of Aboukir ; it obtained the conqueror a peerage, by the title of 
 baron Nelson of the Nile ; his exclamation upon commencing the battle was, 
 " Victory or Westminster-abbey !" 
 
 NILE. SOURCE of the. This great river rises in the Mountains of the Moon^ 
 in about ten degrees of N. lat., and in a known course of 1250 miles receives 
 no tributary streams. The travels of Bruce were undertaken to discover the 
 source of the Nile ; he set out from England in June, 1768 ; on the 14th of 
 Nov. 1770, he obtained the great object of his wishes, and returned home in 
 1773. This river o'-'erflovvs regularly every year, from the 15th of June to 
 the 17th of September, when it begins to decrease, having given fertility to 
 the land ; and it must rise 16 cubits to insure that fertility. In 1829, the 
 inundation of the Nile rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 30,000 people were 
 drowned, and immense property lost. 
 
 KIMEGUEN, Treaty of. This was the celebrated treaty of peace between 
 France and the United Provinces, 1678. Nimeguen is distinguished in his- 
 tory for other treaties of peace. The French were successful against the 
 British under the duke of York, before Nimeguen, Oct. 28, 1794 : but v.'ere 
 defeated by the British, with the loss of 500 killed, Nov. 8, following. 
 
 KlfRIC ACID, formerly called aquafortis, first obtained in a separate state by 
 Raymond Lully, an alchemist, about a. d. 1287 ; but we are indebted to Cav- 
 endish, Priestley, and Lavoisier, for our present knowledge of its properties. 
 Mr. Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid, in 1785. Nitrous acid, 
 nearly similar to nitric, was discovered by Scheele, in 1771. Nitrous gas 
 was accidentally discovered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous Oxide Gap was discov- 
 ered by Dr. Priestley, in 1776. 
 
nor] dictionary of dates. 447 
 
 MOBILITY. The origin of nobility is referred to the Goths, who, after they 
 had seized a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes with titles of honor, to 
 distinguish them from the common people. The right of peerage seems to 
 have been at first territorial. Patents to persons having no estates were first 
 granted to Philip the Fair of France, a. d. 1095. George Neville, duke of 
 Bedford (son of John, marquess of Montague), ennobled in 1470, was de- 
 graded from the peerage by parliament, on account of his utter want cf 
 property, 19 Edward IV. 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained ia 
 June 1773, See the various orders of nobility through the volume; see also 
 Peerage 
 
 NOBILITY OF FRANCE The French nobility preceded that of England, and 
 continued through a long line, and various races of kings, until the period 
 of the memorable revolution. The National Assembly decreed that hered- 
 itary nobility could not exist in a free state ; that the titles of dukes, counts, 
 marquisses, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, and others, be abolished; 
 that all citizens take their family names ; liveries, and armorial bearings, 
 shall also be abolished, June 18, 1790. The records of the nobility, 600 vol- 
 umes, were burned at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV., June 26, 1792. A 
 new nobility was created by the emperor Napoleon, 1808. The hereditary 
 peerage was abolished in that kingdom, December 27, 1831. See France. 
 
 NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in England are divided into conforr;- 
 ists and non-conformists ; or, as they are commonly denominated, churchmen 
 and dissentei-s. The former are those who conform to that mode of worship 
 and form of church-government which are established and supported by the 
 state ; the latter are those who meet for divine worship in places of their 
 own. The first place of meeting of the latter, in England, was established 
 at Wandsworth, near London, November 20, 1572. The name of non-con- 
 formists was taken by the Puritans, after the Act of Uniformitj^ had passed, 
 August 24, A. D. 1662, when 2000 ministers of the established religion re- 
 signed, not choosing to conform to the Thirty-nine Articles. 
 
 PTON- JURORS, IN ENGLAND. Persons who suppose that James XL was un- 
 justly deposed, and who, upon that account, refused to swear allegiance to 
 the family that succeeded him. Among this class of persons were several 
 of the bishops, who were deprived in 1690. Non-jurors were subjected to a 
 double taxation, and were obhged to register their estates, May 1723. 
 
 NOOTKA SOUND. Discovered by captain Cook in 1778. It was settled by 
 the British in 1786, when a few British merchants in the East Indies formed 
 a settlement to supply the Chinese market with furs ; but the Spaniards, in 
 1789, captured two English vessels, and took possession of the settlement. 
 The British ministry made their demand for reparation, and the affair was 
 amicably terminated by a convention, and a free commerce was confirmed to 
 Ergland in 1790. 
 
 N'ORFOLK ISLAND. A penal colony of England. It was discovered in 1774, 
 by captain Cook, who found it uninhabited, except by birds. The settle- 
 ment was made by a detachment from Port Jackson, in 1788, in Sydney bay, 
 on the south side of the island. This has latterly been made the severest 
 penal colony of Great Britain. 
 
 N'ORMANDY, Anciently Neustria. From the beginning of the ninth cen- 
 tury this country was continually devastated by the Scandinavians, called 
 Northmen or Normans, to purchase repose from whose irruptions Charles 
 the Simple of France ceded the duchy to their leader Rollo, a. d. 905 to 912, 
 and from its conquerors it received its present name. Rollo. was the first 
 duke, and held it as a fief of the crown of France, and several of his suc- 
 cessors after him, till William, the seventh duke, -^nquered England, Ik 
 
448 
 
 THE WORLD S TROGRESS. 
 
 [ NO? 
 
 1066, from wliich time it became a province of England, till it was lost in 
 the reign of king John, 1204, and reunited to the crown of France. Tha 
 English, however, still keep possession of the islands on tlie coast, of which 
 Jersey and Guernsey are the principal, 
 
 NORTH WEST PASSAGE. The attempt to discover a northwest passage wa.s 
 made by a Portuguese named Cortereal, about a. d. 1500. It was attempted 
 by the English in 1553 ; and the project was greatly encouraged by queen 
 Elizabeth, in 1585, in which year a company was associated in London, and 
 was called the " Fellowship for the Discovery of the Northwest Passage." 
 The following voyages with this design, were undertaken, under British 
 navigators, in the years respectively stated :— 
 
 Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition to 
 find a north-west passage to China, 
 sailed from the Thames* May 20, 1553 
 Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find 
 
 a north-west passage to Cliina - 1576 
 
 Captain Davis's expedition to find a 
 
 north-west passage - - - 1585 
 
 Barentz's expedition - - - 1594 
 
 Weymouth and Knight's - - 1602 
 
 Hudson's voyages ; the last undertaken 
 
 (See Hudson's Bay.)- - - 1610 
 
 Sir Thomas Button's - - - 1612 
 
 Baffin's. — See Baffin's Bay - - 1616 
 
 Foxe's expedition - - - - 1631 
 
 [A number of enterprises undertaken 
 
 by various countries, followed.] 
 Middleton's expedition - - - 1742 
 
 Moore's and Smith's - - - - 1746 
 
 Hearne's land expedition - ■ 1769 
 
 Captain Phipps, afterwards lord Mul- 
 
 grave, his expedition - - - 1773 
 
 Captain Cook in the Resolution and 
 
 Discovery - - • July 1776 
 
 Mackenzie's expedition • - - 1789 
 
 Captain Duncan's voj^age ' - - 1790 
 
 The Discovery, captain Vancouver, re- 
 turned from a voyage of survey and 
 discovery on the north-west coast of 
 America - - Sept. 24, 1795 
 
 Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition - Oct. 1815 
 Captain Buchan's and lieut. Franklin's 
 
 expedition in the Dorothea and Trent 1818 
 Captain Ross and lieut. Parry, in the , 
 
 Isabella and Alexander - - 1818 
 
 Lieuts. Parry and Liddon in the Hecla 
 
 and Griper - - May 4, 1819 
 
 They return to Leith - Nov. 3, 1820 
 
 Capts. Parry and Lyon, m the Fury 
 
 and Hecla - - - May 8, 1821 
 
 Capt. Parry's third expedition with the 
 
 Hecla ' - - - May 8, 1824 
 
 Capis. Fianklin and Lyon, after having 
 attempted a land expedition, again 
 sail from Liverpool - Feb. 16, 1825 
 
 Captain Parry, again in the HecUu 
 sails from Deptford - March 25,' 1827 
 
 And returns - - - Oct. 6, 1827 
 
 Capt. Ross arrived at Hull, on his re- 
 turn from his arctic expedit >n, after 
 an absence of ^our years, aud when 
 all hope of lilt return had been near- 
 ly abandoned - - Oct. 18, 1833 
 
 Capt. Back and his companions arrived 
 at Liverpool from their perilous Arc- 
 tic Land Expedition, after having 
 visited the Great Fish River, and ex- 
 amined its course to the Polar Seas 
 
 Sept. 8, 1835 
 
 Captain Back sailed from Chatham in 
 command of His Majesty's ship Ter- 
 ror, on an exploring adventure to 
 Wager River. [Captain Back, in 
 the month of Dec. 1835, was award- 
 ed, by the Geographical Society, the 
 king's annual premium for his polar 
 discoveries and enterprise .June 21, 1836 
 
 Dease and Simpson traverse the inter- 
 vening space between the discover- 
 ies of Ross and Parry, and establish 
 that there is a north-west passage 
 
 Oct. 1839 
 
 Sir John Franklin and capt. Crozier In 
 the Erebus and Terror leave Eng- 
 land - - - May 24, 1845 
 
 Capt. Ross returned from an unsuccess- 
 ful expedition in search of Franklin 1849 
 
 Another expedition (one sent out by 
 lady Franklin) in search of sir John 
 Franklin, consisting of two vessels, 
 sailed from England, April-May 185C 
 
 Still another, consisting of two vessels, 
 the Advance and Rescue, liberally 
 purchased for the purpose by Henry 
 Grinnell, a New York merchant, and 
 manned at Government cost from the 
 U. S. navy, under command of lieut. 
 de Haven, sailed from New York 
 
 May 1850 
 
 N(JRT1I CAROLINA, one of the UNITED STATES. First permanent settle- 
 ment at Albemarle, by emigrants from Virginia, who fled from religious per- 
 
 * The gallant sir Hugh Willoughby took his departure from RadclifTe, on his fatal voyage for 
 discovering the north-east passage to China. He sailed with great pomp by Greenwich, where the 
 court then resided. Mutual honors were paid on both sides. The council and courtiers appeared 
 at the windows, anct the people covered the shores. The young king, Edward VI., alone lost tha 
 noble and novel sight, for he then lay on his death-bed; so that the principal object of the parade 
 was disappointed. Sir Hugh Willoughby was unfortunately entangled in the ice, and frozen t» 
 death, on the coa^t of Lapland. — Hackluyt. 
 
NUL ] DR.'TIONAE.Y OF DATES. 449 
 
 sedition, about 16G0. The district granted to lord Clarendon, whc* induced 
 the celebrated John Locke to prepare a constitution for it, 1663. The chief 
 magistrate was called the palatine, and there was an hereditary nobility. 
 This constitution abolished, as defectiv^e, 1693. The two Carolinas purchas- 
 ed by the crown for .£17,500, and divided into North and South, in 1720. 
 
 NORWAY, Until the ninth century, Norway was divided into petty principali- 
 ties, and was little known to the rest of Europe except by the piratical ex- 
 cursions of its natives. It was converted to Christianity in a. d. 1000. The 
 city of Bergen was founded in 1069. The kingdom was united to Denmark 
 in 1378 ; and the three kingdoms of Norway, Denmark and Sweden -were 
 united, in 1439. Pomerania and Rugen were annexed to Denmark in ex- 
 change for Norway, in 1814, and on Nov. 4, in that year, Charles XIII. was 
 proclaimed king by the National Diet assembled at Christiana. The two 
 countries of Sweden and Norway have since then been termed the Scandi- 
 navian Peninsula, of which Bernadotte was crowned king by the title of 
 Charles XIV., Feb. 5, 1818. See Sweden. 
 
 NOTABLES of FRANCE. An assembly of the notabks of France was con- 
 vened by Calonne, the minister of Louis XVI. , in 1788. The deranged state 
 of the king's finances induced him to convoke the notables, who assembled 
 Nov. 6, when Calonne opened his plan, but any reform militated too much 
 against private interest to be adopted. Calonne not being able to do any 
 good, was dismissed, and soon after retired to England : and Louis, having 
 lost his confidential minister, Mons. de Vergennes, by death, called Mons. 
 de Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his councils. In the end, the States General 
 were called, and from this assembly sprang the National Assembly, v:ihich 
 see. The notables were dismissed by the king, Dec. 12, 1788. The Spanish 
 notables assembled and met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by 
 him commanding their attendance,) at Bayonne, May 25, 1808. See Spain. 
 
 NOTARIES PUBLIC. They were first appointed by the primitive fathers of the 
 Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs, 
 in the first century. — Du Fresnoy. This office was afterwards changed to a 
 commercial employment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to establish their 
 authenticity in any other country. 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA. Settled in a. d. 1622, by the Scotch, under sir William Alex- 
 ander, in the reign of James I. of England, from whom it received the name 
 of Nova Scotia. Since its first settlement it has more than once changed 
 rulers and proprietors, nor was it confirmed to England till the peace of 
 Utrecht, in 1713. It was taken in 1745, and 1758 ; but was again confirmed 
 to England in 1760. Nova Scotia was divided iLto two provinces, in 1784; 
 and was erected into a bishopric in August, 1787. See Baronets. 
 
 NOVEMBER. This was ancienly the ninth month of the year (whence its 
 name), but when Numa added the months of January and February, 713 
 B. c, the Romans had it for the eleventh, as it is now. The Roman senators 
 (for whose mean servilities even Tiberius, it is said, often blushed) wished 
 to call this month in which he was born, by his name, in imitation of Julius 
 Cfesar, and Augustus ; but this the emperor absolutely refused, saying, 
 " What will you do, conscript fathers, if 5^ou have thirteen Caesars % ''' 
 
 NOVT, Battlp: of, in which the French army commanded by Joubert Avas de- 
 feated by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss, Aug. 15, 1799. 
 Among 10,000 of the French slain was their leader, Joubert, and several 
 other distinguished officers. A second battle fought here between the Aus- 
 trian and French armies, when the latter Avere signally defeated , Janua ry 8, 
 1800. 
 
 NITLLIFICATION of the LAWS of the UNITED STATES. The right 
 
450 THE world's progress. [ OAl 
 
 claimed b^'' South Carolina, and various threats held out by the legislature 
 of that State, in 1832. Proclamation of president Jackson against tho 
 NulUtiers, l>ec. 10. A ." State ilights" convention at Columbia, S. C, 
 same day. Calhoim resigned the office of vice-president of the United 
 States, Dec. 28, 1832. NulHiication nullified by South Carolina convention in 
 consequence of Mr. Clay's compromise tariff, March 11, 1834, 
 
 NUMANTINE WAR, and SIEGE. The celebrated war of Nurnantia with the 
 Romans was commenced solely on account of the latter having given refuge 
 to llie Sigidians, their own allies, who had been defeated by the Romans, 
 141 B. c. — Livy. It continued for fourteen years ; and though Numantia 
 was unprotected by walls or towers, it bravely withstood the siege. The 
 inhabitants obtained some advantages over the Roman forces till Scipio Af- 
 ricanus was empowered to finish the war, and to see the destruction of Nu- 
 mantia. He began the siege with an army of 60 000 men, and was bravely 
 opposed by the besieged, who were not more than 4000 men able to bear 
 arms. Both armies behaved with uncommon valor, and the courage of the 
 Numantines was soon changed into despair and fury. Their provisions be- 
 gan to fail, and they fed upon the flesh of their horses, and afterwards on 
 that of their dead companions, and at last were obliged to draw lots to kill 
 and devour one another ; and at length they set fire to their houses, and all 
 destroyed themselves, b. c. 133, so that not even one remained to adorn tho 
 triumph of the conqueror. 
 
 NUNCIO. A spiritual envoy from the pope of Rome to Catholic states. In 
 early times they and legates ruled the courts of sevei'al of the sovereigns of 
 Germany, France, and even England. The pope deputed a nuncio to the 
 Irish rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a nuncio, and his admission 
 to an audience by James II., 1687, is stated to have hastened the Revolu- 
 tion. 
 
 NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of 
 St. Anthony retired at the close of the third century. The first founded in 
 France, near Poitiers, by St. Marcellina, sister to St. Martin, a. d. 360. — Du 
 Frcsnoy. The first in England was at Folkstone, in Kent, by Eardbald, 
 king of Kent, 630. — Dugdale's Monasticon Aiiglicanuvi. See articles Abbeys 
 and Monasteries. The nuns were expelled from their convents in Germany, 
 in Julv, 1785. They were driven out of their convents in France, in Jan., 
 1790. " 
 
 O. 
 
 OATES TITUS, his PLOT. This Oates was a wicked man, at one time chai> 
 lain of a ship of war. Being dismissed the service for his immoral conduct, 
 he became a lecturer in London ; and, in conjunction with Dr. Tongue, in- 
 vented a pretended plot to assassinate Charles II., of which several persons, 
 Catholics, were accused, and upon false testimony, convicted and executed, 
 A. D. 1678. Oates was afterwards tried for perjury, (in the reign of James 
 Ii.) and being found guilty, he Avas fined, put in the pillory, publicly whip- 
 ped from Newgate to Tyburn, and sentenced to imprisonment -for life, 1685; 
 but was pardoned; and a pension granted him, 1689. 
 
 OATHS. The administration of an oath in judicial proceedings was introduce; ^l 
 by the Saxons into England, a. d. 600. — Rapin. That administered to a 
 judge was settled 1344. Of supremacy, first administered to British sub- 
 jects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Henry VIII., 1535. Of allegiance, first 
 framc'I and administered 3 James I., 1605. — Stnioe's Chroii. Of abjuration, 
 being an obligation to maintain the government of king, lords, and com- 
 mons, the Church of England, and toleration of Protestant dissenters, and 
 
OGT ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 451 
 
 abjuring all Roman Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 William ill. 1701. 
 Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as a. d. 528 ; and the words " So 
 help me God and all saints," concluded an oath until 1550. 
 
 OATHS, Ancient. The Greeks and Romans looked upon the infringement of 
 an oath with still greater abhorrence than Christians ; they permitted oaths 
 to be taken upon every object in which the person who swore had a 
 decided and sincere belief, upon all kinds of animals, fruits, and vegetables, 
 the stars, the sun, the moon, and other things, without rendering the oaths 
 less binding than if they had been sworn by Jupiter. Jaques Lydius has 
 left us a long catalogue of the numerous objects by which the ancients 
 swore. It was usual with them to swear by what they held most dear ; as, 
 for instance, by their own heads, by that of their friend, or by those pei • 
 sons whom they loved most tenderly. The most sacred oath far abov( 
 any other was by the eyes of their mistress, by her kisses, by her hair. — 
 Ovid, (^*c. 
 
 OBELISK. The first mentioned in history was that of Rameses, king of 
 Egypt, about 1485 b. c. The Arabians call them Pharaoh's needles, and 
 the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun ; they differed very much as to 
 their costliness, magnitude and magnificence. Several were erected at Rome ; 
 one was erected by the emperor Augustus in the Campus Martins, on the 
 pavement of which was a horizontal dial, that marked the hour, about 
 14 B. c. 
 
 OBSERVATORIES. The first is supposed to have been on the top of the 
 temple of Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandias, in Egypt, was 
 another, and it contained a golden circle 200 feet in diameter: that at 
 Benares was at least as ancient as these. The first in authentic history was 
 at Alexandria, about 300 b. c. The first in modern times was at Cassel, 
 1561. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich was founded by Charles II. a. d. 
 1675 ; and from the meridian of Greenwich all English astronomers mako 
 their calculations. 
 
 Berlin, erected under Leibnitz's direc- 
 tion ..... 171'. 
 At Bologna - - - - - 171^ 
 
 At Petersburg .... 1725 
 Oxford, Dr. RadcUffe - - ■ 1772 
 
 Dublin, Dr. Andrews • • ■ 1783 
 
 Cambridge, England • - . 1824^ 
 
 Cambridge, Mass. ... 
 
 New Haven - - - - - 
 
 Cincinnati .... 
 
 First modem meridional instrument, 
 
 by Copernicus- - - a. d. 1540 
 First observatory at Cassel - - - 1561 
 Tycho Brahe's, at Uranibourg - . 1576 
 Astronomical tower at Copenhagen - 1667 
 Royal {French) - - . . 1667 
 Royal Observatory at Greenwich - - 1675 
 Observatory at Nuremberg - - 1678 
 At Uu-echt 16S0 
 
 OCTOBER. The eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports, 
 and the tentL in the year of Numa, 713 b. c. From this time October has 
 still retained its first name, in spite of all the different appellations which 
 the senate and Roman emperors would have given it. The senate ordered 
 it to be called Faustinus, in honor of Faustina,, wife of Antoninus the 
 emperor; Commodus would have had it called Invictus ; and Domitian 
 Domitianus. October was sacred to Mars. 
 
 ODES are nearly as old as the lyre ; they were at first extempore compositions 
 accompanying this instrument, and sung in honor of the gods. Perhaps 
 the most beautiful and sublime odes ever written, as well as the oldest, are 
 those of the roj^al prophet Isaiah, on the fall of Babylon, composed about 
 757 B. c. The celebrated odes of Anacreon were composed about 532 b. c. ; 
 and from his time this species of writing became usual. Anciently odes 
 were divided into Strophe, Antistrophe, and Epode. This species* of writing 
 is that of our court poets at this day. 
 
 OGYGES, DELUGE of. The Deluge so called, from which Attica lay waste 
 200 years, occm-red 1764 u. c. Many authorities suppose this to be no other 
 
452 THE world's progress. [ OMa 
 
 than the uni /ersal del ige ; but according to some writers, if it at all oc- 
 curred, it arose in the overflowijg of one of the great rivers of the country. 
 See Deluge. 
 OHIO. One of the United States. First permanently settled at Marietta, 
 April 1788 ; second settlement was Symmes's purchase, 6 miles below Cincin- 
 nati, 1789 ; third by French emigrants at Gallipolis, 1791 ; fourth by New 
 Englanders, at Cleveland and Comeant, 1796. First territorial legislature 
 met at Cincinnati, 1799. The Western Reserve, under jurisdiction of Con- 
 necticut. Avas sold by that State for the benefit of her " School fund " in 
 1800. Ohio formed her State Constitution and was admitted into the Union, 
 1802. Population in 1790. was 3 000; in 1800, 45,365; in 1810, 230,760; in 
 1830, 937,637 ; in 1840, 1,519,467. 
 
 OIL. It was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham, 
 about 1921 B. c. It was the staple commodity of Attica, and a jar full was 
 the prize at the Panathentean games. It was the custom of the Jews to 
 anoint with oil persons appointed to high offices, as the priests and kings, 
 Psahn cxxxiii. 2 ; 1 Savi. x. 1 ; xvi. 13. The anointing with this liquid 
 seems also to have been reckoned a necessary ingredient in a festival dress. 
 Ruth iii. 3. The fact that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will be 
 resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to chemists ; and after the 
 process of lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and Mar- 
 tineau contrived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale. 
 
 OliBERS. The asteroid of this name was discovered by M. Olbers, in 1802. 
 
 OLYMPIADS. The Greeks computed time by the celebrated era of the Olym- 
 piads, which date from the year 776 b. c, being the year in which Coroebus 
 was successful ^,l the Olympic games. This era diflTered from all others in 
 being reckoned by periods of four years instead of single years. Each pe- 
 riod of four years was called an Olympiad, and in marking a date, the year 
 and Olympiad were both mentioned. The second Olympiad began in 
 772 ; the third, in 768 ; the fourth, in 764 ; the fifth, in 760 ; the 10th in 
 740, &c. 
 
 OLYMPIC GAMES. These games, so famous among the Greeks, were insti- 
 tuted in honor of Jupiter. They were holden at the beginning of every 
 fifth year, on the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, 
 now the Morea, to exercise their youth in five kinds of combats. Those 
 who were conquerors in these gamqs were highly honored by their coun- 
 trymen. The prize contended for was a crown made of a peculiar kind of 
 wild olive, appropriated to this use. The games were instituted by Pelops, 
 1307 B. c. They are also ascribed to an ancient Hercules ; and were revived 
 by Iphytus among the Greeks, 884 b. c. — Dufresnoy. 
 
 OMENS. See Augury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having 
 drawn prognostications from omens, 1497 b. c. Alexander the Great is said 
 to have had these superstitions ; and also Mithridates the Great, cele- 
 brated for his wars with the Romans, his victories, his conquest of twenty- 
 four nations, and his misfortunes. At the birth of this latter there were 
 seen, for seventy days together, two large comets, whose splendor eclipsed 
 that of the noonday sun, occupying so vast a space as the fourth pait of 
 the heavens ; and this omen, we are told, directed all the actions of Mithri- 
 dates throughout his life, so much had superstition combined with nature 
 to render him great, 135 b. c. — Justin. 
 
 OMNIBUSES. These vehicles, of which there are nearly 4000 in the London 
 circuit, were introduced there by an enterprising coach proprietor named 
 Shillibeer, and first licensed at Somerset house in July, 1829. They pro- 
 bably originated in Paris, where they ure now also very numerous. In New 
 
OFT J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATE&. 
 
 45& 
 
 York, Boston, &c., they were common as early as 1830. There were 166 
 licensed in New York in 1849. 
 
 OPERA. Octavio Rinuccini, of Florence, was the inventor of operas, or of 
 the custom of giving- musical representations of comedy, tragedy, and other 
 dramatic pieces. Emelio de Cavalero, however, disputed this honor with 
 him, A. D. 1590. — Nouv. Did. Hist. Among the Venetians, opera was the 
 chief glory of their carnival. About the year 1669, the abbot Perrin ob- 
 tained a grant from Louis XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, in 1672, 
 was acted Pomona. Sir William Davenant introduced a species of opera in 
 London, in 1684. The first regularly performed opera was at York-build- 
 ings, in 1692. ~ The first at Drurj^-lane was in 1705. The operas of Handel 
 were performed in 1735, and they became general in several of the theatres 
 a few years after. Among the favorite performances of this kind was Gray's 
 Beggar's, Opera, first performed in 1727. It ran for sixty-three successive 
 nights, but so often offended the persons in power, that the lord-chamberlain 
 refused to license for performance a second pa';t of it, entitled " Polly," 
 This resentment induced Gay's friends to come forward on its publication 
 with so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted to 1200^., 
 whereas the Beggar's Opera had gained him only 400Z. — Life of Gay. 
 
 OPORTO. By nature one of the most impregnable cities in Europe ; the gi-eat 
 mart of Portuguese wine known as " Port." A chartered company for the 
 regulation of the Port- wine trade was established here in a.d. 1756. See 
 article Wines. The French under marshal Soult were surprised here by 
 lord Wellington, and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. The Mi- 
 guelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with conside- 
 rable loss, Sept. 19, 1832. See Porhigal. 
 
 OPTICS. As a science, optics date their origin a little prior to the time of 
 Alhazen, an Arabian philosopher, who flourished early in the twelfth cen- 
 tury. It has advanced rapidly since the time of Halley, and is now one of 
 our most flourishing as well as useful sciences. 
 
 [Jansen and Galileo have also been 
 
 staled to be the inventors.] 
 Cassegrainian reflector - - - 162] 
 
 Law of refraction discovered by Snell- 
 
 ius, about - - - a.d. 1624 
 Reflecting telescope, .lames Gregory - 1663 
 Newton - - 1666 
 
 at 
 
 Athens 
 - B. c. 
 principles known 
 
 424 
 
 300 
 280 
 
 Burning lenses known at 
 least 
 
 Two of the leadin 
 to the Platonists 
 
 First treatise on, by Euclid, about 
 
 The magnifying power of convex glass- 
 es and concave mirrors, and the pris- 
 matic colors produced by angular 
 glass, mentioned bySeneca, aboutA.D. 50 
 
 Treatise on Optics, by Ptolemy - - 120 
 
 Greatly improved by Alhazen - - 1108 
 
 Hints for spectacles and telescopes giv- 
 en by Roger Bacon about - - 1280 
 
 Spectacles (said to have been) mvented 
 by Salvinus Armatus, of Pisa, before 1300 
 
 Camera obscura said to have been in- 
 vented by Baptista Porta - - 1560 
 
 Telescopes invented byLeonard Digges, 
 about - - - - - 1571 
 
 Telescope made by Jansen (virho is said 
 also to have invented the micro- 
 scope), about - - - . 1609 
 
 [The same instrument constructed by 
 Galileo, without using the pi'oduc- 
 tion of Jansen] 
 
 Astronomical telescope suggested by 
 Kepler 1611 
 
 Microscope, according to Huygens, in- 
 vented by Drebbel, about - - 162] 
 
 Motion and velocity of light discovered 
 
 by Roemer, and alter him by Cassini 1667 
 [Its velocity demonstrated to be 190 
 
 millions of miles in sixteen minutes.] 
 Double refraction explained by Bartho- 
 
 linus - - - - - 166S 
 
 Newton's discoveries - - - 1674 
 
 Telescopes with a single lens, by 
 
 Tschirnhausen, about - - - 1690 
 
 Polarization of light, Huygens, about - 1692 
 Structure of the eye explained by Petit, 
 
 about 1700 
 
 Achromatic telescope constructed by 
 
 Mr. Hall (but not made public) in - 1733 
 Constructed by Dollond, most likely 
 
 without any knowledge of Hall's - 1757 
 Herschel's great reflecting telescope, 
 
 erected at Slough - - - - 1789 
 
 Camera lucida (Dr. Wollaslon) - 1807 
 
 Ramage's reflecting telescope erected 
 
 at Greenwich - • - - 1820 
 
 OPTIC NERVES. The discoverer of the optic nerves is reputed to have been 
 N. Varole, a surgeon and physician of Bologna, about a. d. 1538. — Nouv 
 Diet. 
 
454 THE world's progress. [ ORD 
 
 OIJACLES. The most ancient oracle was that of Dodona ; but the most fa- 
 mous was the oracle of Del])hi, 1263 b. c. See Delphi. The heathen oracle? 
 were always delivered in such dubious expressions or terras, that let Avhat 
 would happen to the inquirer, it might be accommodated or explained to 
 mean the event that caine to pass. Among the Jews there were several 
 sorts of oracles ; as firs*, those that were delivered viva voce, as when God 
 spoke to Moses ; secondly, prophetical dreams, as those of Joseph ; thirdly, 
 visions, as when a prophet in an ecstasy, being properly neither asleep no? 
 awake, had supernatural revelations ; fourthly, when t\iQj were accompanied 
 with the ephod or the pectoral worn by the high priest, who was indued 
 with the gift of foretelling future things, upon extraordinary occasions ; 
 fifthlj'-, by consulting the prophets or messengers sent by God. At the be- 
 ginning of Christianity, prophecy appears to have been very common ; but 
 it immediately afterwards ceased. — Lempriere ; Pardon. 
 
 ORANGE, House of. This illustrious house is as ancient as any in Europe, 
 and makes a most distinguished figure in history. Otho I., count of Nas- 
 sau, received the provinces of Guelderland and Zutphen with his two wives, 
 and they continued several hundred years in the family. Otho II. count of 
 Nassau Dilemboui-g, who died in 1369, got a great accession of territories 
 in the Low Countries by his wife Abelais, daughter and heiress of Godfrey 
 count of Vianden ; and his grandson Gilbert, having married Jane, daughter 
 and heiress of Philip, baron of Leek and Breda, added these to his other 
 domains in 1404. The title of prince of Orange came first into the Nassau 
 family by the marriage of Claude de Chalons with the count of Nassau 
 in 1530. William prince of Orange, afterwards William III. of England, 
 landed at Torbay, with an army, Nov. 5, 1688, and was crowned with his 
 queen, the princess Marj^, daughter of James IL, April 11, 1689. 
 
 ORATORIOS. Their origin is ascribed to St. Philip Neri. The first oratorio 
 in London was performed in Lincoln's-Inn theatre, in Portugal-street, in 
 1732. 
 
 ORCHARDS. As objects of farming or field culture, orchards do not appear 
 to have been adopted imtil about the beginning of the seventeenth century, 
 although they had doubtlessly existed in Great Britain for many ages pre- 
 viously, as appendages to wealthy religious establishments. — Loudon. 
 
 ORDEAL. The ordeal was known among the Greeks. With us it is a term 
 signifying the judiciary determination of accusations for criminal offences 
 by fire and water. It was introduced into England with other superstitions 
 taken from the codes of the Germans. That by fire was confined to the 
 upper classes of the people, that of water, to bondsmen and rustics. Hence 
 the expression of going through fire and water to serve another. Women 
 accused of incontinenc}^ formerly underwent the ordeal, to prove their in- 
 nocence. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he would 
 j)ut himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this 
 day, or upon God only ; and then it was called the judgment of God, pre- 
 suming he would deliver the innocent. The accused were to pass bare- 
 footed and blindfold over nine red-hot ploughshares, or were to carry 
 burning-irons in their hands ; and accordingly as they escaped, they were 
 judged innocent or guilty, acquitted or condemned.* The ordeal was used 
 from Edward the Confessor's time to that of Henry III. It was abol- 
 
 * The water ordeal was performed in either hot or cold : in cold water, the parties suspccteri 
 were adjudged innocent, if their bodies were borne up by the water, contrary to the course oJ 
 lature ; in hot water, they were to put their bare arms or legs into scalding water, whick if they 
 brought oui without 1- urt, tliey were taken to be innocent of the cr «ie. 
 
OER J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 455 
 
 ishod by a royal proclamation, 45 Henry III.. 1261. — Laio Diet. Rytner'i 
 Poidcra. 
 
 ORDINATION. In the ancient church there was no such thing as a vague and 
 absolute ordination ; but every one ordained had a church whereof he was 
 to be clerk or pri(ist. In the twelfth century, they grew more remiss, and 
 ordained without any title or benefice. The church of Rome is episcopal ; 
 and the Church of England so far acknowledges the validity of the ordina- 
 tion of that church, that a Catholic priest is only required to abjure its pe- 
 culiar distinctions, and he can officiate without re-ordination. 
 
 OREGON. Territory of the United States, on the N. W. coast of America. 
 First visited by the Spaniards under Juan de Fuca. 1592 ; by sir Francis 
 Drake, 1578 ; by Vancouver, 1792. The Columbia river discovered and en- 
 tered by Capt. Gray, of merchant ship Columbia, of Boston, United States, 
 May 7, 1792 ; overland expedition of Lewis and Clarke, sent out by Jefferson, 
 1804-5-6. Missouri Fur Company established at St. Louis, 1808 ; Pacific Fur 
 Company (J. J. Astor) at New York. 1810 ; Astoria founded it the mouth of 
 the Columbia, by Aster's colony, 1811 : sold to the N. W. Company, 1813: 
 occupied by the British until restored by treaty of Ghent, 1815 ; operations of 
 the Hudson's Bay Company (English) commenced 1821 ; the territory divi- 
 ded at the 49th parrallel of lat.. leaving all north of that line, with the whole 
 of Vancouver's island to Great Britain, remainder to the United States, by Mr. 
 McLane's treaty, signed at London, ratified by the Senate, 41 to 14, June 18, 
 1846. Population at that time about 20.000. Territorial government esta- 
 blished by the U. S. Congress, Aug. 2-13, 1848. 
 
 ORGANS. The invention of the organ is attributed to Archimedes, about 
 220 B. c. ; but the fact does not rest on sufficient authoritj^. It is also at- 
 tributed to one Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 b. c. The 
 organ was brought to Europe from the Greek empire, and was first applied 
 to religious devotions, in churches, in a. d. 658. — Bellarmine. Organs Avere 
 used in the Western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658. — Aimmmius. It 
 is afSrmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I., 815, 
 when one was constructed by an Italian priest. St. Jerome mentions an 
 organ with twelve pairs of bellows, which might have been heard a mile 
 off; and another at Jerusalem which might have been heard on the Mount 
 of Olives. The organ at Haerlem is one of the largest in Europe ; it has 60 
 stops, and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 100 stops, and 5300 jnpes. 
 The organ at Amsterdam has a set of jiipes that imitate a chorus of human 
 voices. 
 
 ORGANS IN England. That at York-minster is the largest; and the organ in the 
 Music-hall, Birnungham, the next; both equal, perhaps, to that atHarlaem. 
 
 ORKNEY AND SHETLAND ISLES. These islands were ceded by Denmark 
 to Scotland in a. d. 839, and were confirmed to James III., for a sum of 
 money, in 1468. The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades ; and united with 
 Shetland, they now. form one of the Scotch counties. The bishopric of 
 Orkney was founded by St. Servanus early in the fifth century, some affirm 
 by St. Colm. It ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about 
 1689. 
 
 ORLEANS, Siege of, by the English, under John Talbot, earl of Salisbury, 
 Oct. 12, 1428. The city was bravely defended by Gaucour, the more so a.s 
 its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles VI., king of France ; and it 
 was relieved and the siege raised, by the intrepidity and heroism of Joan 
 of Arc, aftcrrwards surnamed the Maid of Orleans, April 29, 1429. Siege 
 of Orleans, when the duke of Guise was killed, 1563. 
 
 ORRERY. The employment of planetary machines to illustrate and explain 
 
45t) THE world's progress. [ ov> 
 
 the motions of the heavenly bodies, appears to have been coeval with tha 
 construction of the clepsydrai and otlier horological automata. Ptolemy 
 devised the circles and epicycles that distinguish his system about a. d. 130. 
 The planetary clock of Fin^e, was begun a. d. 1553. The planetarium of 
 Be Rheita was formed about 1650. The Orrery, so called. Avas invented by 
 Charles, earl of Orrery; but perhaps with more justice it is ascribed to Mr. 
 Eowley of Lichfield, whom his lordship patronized, 1670. This Orrery has 
 been greatly improved of late years. 
 
 ■'>STEND. This town is famous for the long siege it sustained against the Spa- 
 niards, from July 1601 to September 1604, when it surrendered by an honor- 
 able capitulation. On the death of Charles II. of Spain the French seized 
 Ostend ; but, in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by the 
 allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In 
 the war of 1756, the French garrisoned this cown for the empress-queen 
 Maria Theresa. In, 1792, the French once more took Ostend. which they 
 evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794. 
 
 OSTRACISM. From the Greek word Ostracon, an oyster ; a mode of proscrip- 
 tion at Athens, where a plurality of ten voices condemned to ten years' 
 banishment those who were either too rich, or had too much authority, for 
 fear they might set up for tyrants over their native country, but without 
 any confiscation of their goods or estate. This custom is said to have been 
 first introduced by the tyrant Hippias; by others it is ascribed to Clys- 
 thenes, about 510 b. c. The people wrote the names of those whom they 
 most suspected upon small shells ; these they put into an urn or box, and 
 presented it to the senate. Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest 
 written was sentenced by the council to be banished, ab aris etfocis. But 
 this law at last was abused, and they who deserved best of the common- 
 wealth fell under the popular resentment, as Aristides noted for his justice, 
 Miltiades for his victories, &c. It was abolished by ironically proscribing 
 Hyperbolus, a mean person. 
 
 OTAHEITE, OR Tahiti. Discovered in 1767, by Wallis, who called it George the 
 Third Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768, to observe the transit of 
 Venus ; sailed round the whole island in a boat, and staid three months : it 
 was visited twice afterward by that celebrated navigator. See Cook. Omai, 
 a native of this island, was brought over to England by captain Cook, and 
 carried back by him, in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the 
 district of Mataivai to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare com- 
 pelled to place herself under the protection of France, Sept. 9, 1843. She 
 retracts, and Otaheite and the neighboring island are taken possession of by 
 admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the French king, Nov. 1843. Sei- 
 zure of Mr. Pritchard, the English consul, Mai'ch 5, 1844. 
 
 OTl^ERBURN, Battle of, fought in 1388, between the English under the earl 
 of Northumberland and his two sons, and the Scots under sir William Dou- 
 glas, who was slain by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur ; but the Scots ob- 
 tained the victory, and the two Percies were made prisoners. On this battle 
 the ballad of Chevy Chase is founded. — WaUingham. 
 
 OTTOMAN EMPIRE. The sovereignty of the Turks, founded by Othman [. 
 on the ruin of the empire of the eastern Greeks, a. d. 1293. See Turkey. 
 
 OVATION. An inferior triumph which the Romans allowed the generals of 
 their army whose victories were not considerable. He who was thus re- 
 warded, entered the city with a myrtle crown upon his head, that tree being 
 consecrated to Venus ; wherefore when Marcus Crassus was decreed the 
 honor of an ovation, he particularly desired it as a favor of the senate to bo 
 allowed a laurel crown instead of a myrtle one. This triumph was called 
 ovation, because the general offered a sheep when he came to the capitol, 
 
PAl j 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DAIES. 
 
 45> 
 
 wliereas in the great triumph he offered a bull. Publius Posthumiua 
 Tubertus \^as the ilrst who was decreed an ovation, 503 b. c. 
 
 OWHYHEE OR HAWAII, one of the Sandwich Islands. Discovered by 
 captain Cook in 1778. Here this illustrious seaman fell a victim to a sudden 
 resentment of the natives. A boat having been stolen by one of the island- 
 ers, the captain went on shore to seize the king, and keep him as a hostage 
 till the boat was restored. The people, however, were not disposed to sub- 
 mit to this insult ; their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Ccok 
 and some of his companions were killed, Feb. 14, 1779. 
 
 "XFORD UNIVERSITY. This university is supposed by some to hav*^ beea 
 a seminary for learning before the time of Alfred, and that it owed its re- 
 vival and consequence to his liberal patronage. Others state that though 
 the university is ascribed to Alfred, yet that no regular institution deserving 
 the name existed even at the period of the Norman conquest. 
 
 bishop of Winchester ; first called St. 
 
 COLLEGES. 
 
 All Souls' College, founded by Henry 
 Chichely, abp. of Canterbury a. d. 1437 
 
 Baliol. John Baliol, knt., and Deborah 
 his wife ; he was lather to Baliol king 
 of the Scots . - . . 1263 
 
 Brazen-nose. William Smith, bishop 
 of Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton - 1509 
 
 Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ; 
 and afterwards by Henry VIII. - - 1532 
 
 Corpus Christi. Richard Fox, bishop 
 of Winchester - - - - 1516 
 
 Exeter. Walter Stapleton, earl of Ex- 
 eter 1314 
 
 Hertford College- - - -1312 
 
 Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price ; queen 
 Elizabeth - - ... 1571 
 
 Lincoln College. Richard Fleming, 
 1427 ; finished by Rotheram, bishop 
 of Lincoln .... 1475 
 
 Magdalen. Waynflete. bishop of Win- 
 chester - - - - - 1458 
 
 Merton ('oUege. Walter de Merton, 
 bishop of Rochester - - - 1274 
 
 New College. William of Wykeham, 
 
 Mary of Winchester - - - 1375 
 
 Oriel College. King Edward II. ; 
 
 Adam de Brom, archdeacon of Stow 1334 
 Pembroke. Thos. Teesdale, and R. 
 
 Whitwick, clerk - - - 1623 
 
 Queen's College. Robert Eglesfield, 
 clerk, confessor to queen Philippa, 
 consort of Edward III. - - -1310 
 
 St. John's. Sir Thomas White - 1557 
 
 Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope - - 155< 
 
 University. Said to have been founded 
 by king Alfred, 872 ; founded by Wil- 
 liam of Durham - - - ll?,f 
 Wadham. Nicholas Wadham, and 
 
 Dorothy his wife - - - - 16' 2 
 
 Worcester. Sir Thomas Coke of Bent- 
 ley in Worcestershire ; it was ong- 
 mally called Gloucester College - 1714 
 
 HALLS. 
 
 St. Albans .... 1547 
 
 St. Edmund's .- - - - 1269 
 
 St. Mary's .... 1616 
 
 St. Mary Magdalen - - - - 1602 
 
 New Inn Hall .... 1392 
 
 OXYGEN AIR or GAS. One of the most important agents in the chemical 
 phenomena of nature, and the processes of art, discovered by Dr. Priestley, 
 Aug. 1774. 
 
 PADLOCKS. This species of lock was invented by Bechar at Nuremberg in 
 A. D. 1540. 
 
 PAGANISM. Pagans, in the Scriptures called the heathen, idolaters and gen- 
 tiles, are worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set form or points of be- 
 lief, except in that of one God supreme, in which point all travellers assure 
 us thciy concur, and their having gods is a demonstrative proof of that be- 
 lief. Constantine ordered the Pagan temples to be destroyed throughout 
 the Roman empire, a. d. 331 ; and Paganism was finally overthrown in the 
 reign of Theodosius the Younger, about 390. — Tlllemont. 
 
 PAINTING. An art, according to Plato, of the highest antiquity in Egypt. 
 Os^Tuandyas (See Egypt) causes his exploits to be represented in painting 
 2100 B. c. — Usher. Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a 
 method of burning the colors into wood or ivory. 335 b. c. The ancients 
 considered Sicyon the nursery of painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said 
 to have been the inventor of the grotesque, 332 b. c. — Pliny. The art was 
 
 20 
 
458 THE world's progress. [ FA5 
 
 introduced at Rome from Etruria, by Quintus Fabius, Vvlio on that account 
 was styled Pldor, 291 b. c. — Livy.'^ The first excellent pictures were 
 brought from Corinth by Mummius, 146 b. c. After the death of Aug astus, 
 not a sing-lo painter of eminence appeared for several ages ; Ludius, who 
 was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the last, about a. d. 14. Paint- 
 ing on canvas seems to have been known at Rome in a. d. 66. Bede, the 
 Saxon historian, who died in 735, knew something of the art. It revived 
 about the close of the 13th century, and Giovanni Cimabue, of Floience, is 
 awarded the honor of its restoration. It was at once encouraged and gen- 
 erously patronized in Italy. John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother 
 Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school of painting in 
 oil, 1415. — Du Fresnoy. Paulo Uccello was the first who studied perspec- 
 tive. The earliest mention of the art in England, is a. d. 1523, about which 
 time Henry VIII patronized Holbein, and invited Titian to his court. 
 
 PAINTING IN THE UNITED STATES. The first practising artist of celebrity 
 was John Watson (born in Scotland, 1685), who commenced painting por- 
 traits in New Jersey, 1715. Nathaniel Smybert, of Edinburgh, began in 
 Boston, 1728. Benjamin West was the first native American artist; born in 
 Chester County, Pennsylvania, 1708 : painted his first portrait in Lancaster, 
 Pa., 1753. John Singleton Copley, born in Boston, 1738; first painted in 
 1760; he was the father of lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor of Great Britain. 
 Chas. W. Peale (born in Maryland, 1741), Gilbert Charles Stuart (Rhode 
 Island, 1754), John Trumbull (Connecticut, 1756), William Dunlap (New 
 Jersey, 1766), E. G. Malbone (Rhode Island, 1777), were the next artists 
 in succession in the United States. See Dunlaf's Arts of Design, &c. 
 
 PALATINE. A German dignity. William the Conqueror made his nephew, 
 Hugh D'Abrincis, count palatine of Chester, with the title of earl, 1070. 
 Edward III. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1376. See Lancaster, Duchy 
 of. The bishoprics of Ely and Durham were also made county palatines. 
 
 PALATINES AND SUABIANS. About 7000 of these poor Protestants, from 
 the banks of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the French, arrived 
 in England, and were encamped on Blackheath and Camberwell common ; a 
 brief was granted to collect alms for them. 500 families went under tho 
 protection of the government to Ireland, and settled chiefly about Limerick, 
 wli«re parliament granted them 24,000'. for their support. 3000 were sent 
 to New York and Hudson's Bay, but not having been received kindly by the 
 inhabitants, they went to Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encouraged 
 by the Quakers, they invited over some thousands of German and Swiss 
 Pi'otcetants, who soon made this colony more flourishing than any other, 7 
 Anne, 1709. — Anderson. 
 
 PALLADIUM. The statue of Pallas, concerning which ancient authors disa- 
 gree. Some say it fell from heaven, near the tent of Ilus. as he was build- 
 ing Ilium ; but on its preservation depended the safety of Troy ; which the 
 oracle of Apollo declared should never be taken so long as the palladium 
 was found within its walls. This fatality being made known to the Greeks, 
 they contrived to steal it away during the Trojan war, 1184 b. c, though 
 some maintain, that it was only a statue of similar size and shape, and that 
 the real palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by ^neas, 1183 e.g., 
 
 * Parthasius cf Ephesus and Zeuxis were cotemporary paintei's. These artists once (ontumlcd 
 for pre-eminence in their profession, and when they exhibited their respective pieces, the birda 
 came to peck the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhasius tlien produced his piece, and 
 Zeuxis said, " Remove tlie curtain, that we may see the painting." The curtain itself was thu 
 paintiner, and Zeuxis acknowledged himself to be conquered, exclaiming, " Zeuxis has deceive;! 
 the birds; but Parrhasius lias deceived Zeuxis!" Parrhasius dressed in a puiple robe, aud wora 
 R crown of gold, calling himself king of painters, 415 b. c. — Plutarch. 
 
TAP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 459 
 
 and preserved by the Romans with the greatest secrecy in the temple of 
 Vesta, and esteemed the destiny of Rome. 
 
 PALM SUNDAY. When Christ made his triumphal entry into Jurusalem, 
 multitudes of the people who were come to the feast of the Passover, toot 
 branches of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, with acclamations 
 and hosannas, a. d. 33. In memory of this circumstance it is usual, in popish 
 countries, to carry palms on the Sunda}' before Easter ; hence called Palro 
 Sunday. Conquerors were not only accustomed to carry palm-trees in theii 
 hands ; but the Romans, moreover, in their triumphs, sometimes wore toga 
 falmata, in which the figures of the palm-trees were interwoven. 
 
 PALMYRA, Ruins of, in the deserts of Syria, discovered by some English 
 travellers from Aleppo, a. d. 1678. The ruins of Palmyra, which are chiefly 
 of white marble, prove it to have been more extensive and splendid than 
 even Rome itself. It is supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilder- 
 ness built by Solomon. Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, resisted the Roman 
 power in the time of Aurelian, who having made himself master of the- 
 place, caused all the inhabitants to be destroyed, and gave the pillage of the 
 city to the soldiers. The stupenduous ruins of this city were visited, in 
 1761, by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. Mr. Bruce, 
 on ascending a neighboring mount, was struck with the most magnificent 
 sight which, he believes, ever mortal saw : the immense plains below were 
 so covered with the grandest buildings (palaces and temples), they seemed 
 to touch one another. 
 
 PALO-ALTO, Battle of. See Battles. 
 
 PANDECTS. A digest of the civil law made by order of Justinian, about a. d. 
 504. These pandects were accidentally discovered at Amalfl. a. d. 1137; 
 they were removed from Pisa in 1416 ; and are now preserved in the library 
 of Medici at Florence, as the Pandectce Floreniince. 
 
 P.A.NORAMA. This ingenious and useful species of exhibition is the invention 
 of Robert Barker. Panoramas are bird's-eye views painted in distemper 
 round the wall of a circular building, with a striking resemblance to reality. 
 In 1788, Mr. Barker exhibited at Edinburgh a view of that city, being the 
 first picture of the kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in Lon- 
 don, having adopted the name of ' Panorwma^ to attract notice, and was 
 ultimately enabled to build commodious premises in Leicester-square for 
 that purpose. He died 1806. The panorama of the Mississippi, by Banvard, 
 a self-taught American artist, was a gigantic undertaking, without precedent 
 in dimensions, completed about 1816 ; since which numerous similar works 
 have been achieved. 
 
 PANTHEON AT ROME. A temple built by Augustus Cgesar, some say by 
 Agrippa. his son-in-law, 25 b. c. It was in a round form, having niches in 
 the wall, w'lere the particular image or representation of a particular god 
 was set up ; the gates were of brass, and beams covered with gilt brass, and 
 the roof covered with silver plate. Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to the 
 Virgin Mary, and all the saints, by the name of St. Mary de la Rotunda. 
 
 PANTOMIMES. They were representations by gestures and attitudes among 
 the ancients. They were introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and 
 Bathyllus. 22 b. c. ; and were then considered as the most expressive part of 
 stage performances.— fMer. Pantomime dances were introduced about the 
 same time.— /^e??i. Representation by gesture and action only, is contem- 
 poraneous with our stage. 
 
 PAPER. See Papyrus. Paper is said to have been invented in China. 170 
 B.C. It was first made of cotton, about a. d. 1000; and of rags in 1319. 
 White coarse paper was made by sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford, 
 
460 THE world's progress. [ I All 
 
 in England, 33 Eliz., 1590; and here the first paper-mills were eiectof?.— 
 Stowe. Paper for Avriting and printing, manufactured in England, and an 
 act passed to encourage it, 2 William III., 1690 ; before this time we paid 
 for these articles to France and Holland lOOOOOZ. annually. The French 
 refugees taught our people, who had made coarse brown paper almost ex- 
 clusively, until they came among us. White paper was first made by us in 
 1690. — Anderson. Paper-making by a machine was first suggested by Louis 
 Robert, who sold his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the great printer. 
 The latter brought it to England, and here, conjointly with M. Fourdrinier, 
 he perfected the machinery. M. Fourdrinier obtained a patent for manufac- 
 turing paper of an indefinite length, in 1807 ; it had previously been made 
 tediously by the hand. A sheet of paper was made . 13,800 feet long, and 
 four feet wide, at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830. 
 
 PA PER-HANGINGS. Stamped paper for this purpose was first made in Spain 
 and Holland, about a. d. 1555. Made of Velvet and floss for hanging apart- 
 ments, about 1620. The manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly improved 
 in this country from early in the eighteenth century ; and it has now been 
 brought to such perfection that rich stained paper is made at twelve shil- 
 lings for one yard, and the common kinds a dozen j^ards for one shilling. 
 
 PAPYRUS, the reed from which was made the celebrated paper of Egypt and 
 India, used for writings until the discovery of parchment about 190 b. c. 
 Ptolemy prohibited the exportation of it from Egypt, lest Eumenes of Per- 
 gamus should make a library equal to that ,of Alexandria. A manuscript 
 of the Antiquities of Jusephus on papyrus of inestimable value was among 
 the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the National Library 
 at Paris ; but it was restored in 1815. 
 
 PARCHMENT. Invented for writing books by Eumenes (some say by Attains), 
 of Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on 
 the model of the Alexandrian, about 190 b. c. Parchment-books from this 
 time became those most used, and the most valuable as well as oldest in the 
 world are written on the skins of goats. It should be mentioned that the 
 Persians, and others, are said to have written all their records on skins long 
 before Eumenes's time. 
 
 PARDONS. General pardons were proclaimed at coronations ; first by Edward 
 III., in 1327. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a lege 
 sues dignitatis ; and no other person has power to remit treason or felonies, 
 stat. 27 Henry VIII., 1535. In democracies there is no power of pardoning ; 
 hence Blackstone mentions this prerogative to be one of the greatest advan- 
 tages of a monarchy above an}'' other form of government. But the king 
 cannot pardon a nuisance to prevent its being abated ; or pardon where pri- 
 vate justice is concerned. — Blackstone. A pardon cannot follow an impeach- 
 ment of the House of Commons. — Harjdn. In the United States, the par- 
 doning power is vested in the governors of the several states — a practice 
 which upsets Blackstone's tlieory. 
 
 PARIAN MARBLES. The chronology of the Parian Marbles was composed 
 264 B. c. The Parian Marbles were discovered in the Isle of Pares, a. d, 
 1610. They were brought to England, and were presented to the university 
 of Oxford, by Thomas Howard, lord Arundel, whence they are called the 
 Anmdelian Marbles, which see. 
 
 PARIS. At the time of the Roman invasion, Paris was only a miserable town- 
 ship. It began to be calljed the city of the Parish, a. d. 380. Clovis fixed 
 U[)on it as the capital of his states in 507. This city was several times ra- 
 vaged by the Normans ; and in 1120 was taken by the English, who held it 
 fifteen years. More than 50,000 persons died of famine and plague in 1438, 
 when tlie hungry wolves entered the city and committal, we are told, great 
 
The Palais-Royal built - - - 1610 
 
 The Val-de-Grace - - - - 1C45 
 
 Arch of St. Denis erected • - 1672 
 
 The Palace of the Deputies • - 1722 
 
 The Military School - • -1751 
 
 The Pantheon ; St. GenevieTS • - 17G1 
 
 par] dictionary of dates. 461 
 
 devastation. The events in connection with this great city will be found 
 under their respective heads. 
 
 St. Denis founded - - A. d. 613 1 The Luxembourg, by Mary of Medicis - 1594 
 
 Rebuilt ..... 1231 Hospital of Invalids - • - 1595 
 
 Church of Notre Dame built - - 1270 | The Hotel Dieu founded - • • 16fti 
 
 The Louvre built (see Louvre) • - 1522 
 Hotel de Ville .... 1533 
 The Boulevards commenced - - 1536 
 
 Fountain of the Innocents - - 1551 
 
 The Tuileries built (see Tuileries) - 1564 
 The Pont Neuf begun - - -1578 
 
 Fortifications of Paris, a continuous wall embracing both banks of the Seine, 
 and detached forts, with an e^iceinte of lb\ leagues, were commenced in Dec. 
 1840. and completed March, 1846, at an expense exceeding .£5,000,000 ster- 
 ling. See Prance. 
 
 PARK, MUNGO, hts Travels. This enterprising traveller set sail on his first 
 voyage to Africa, under the patronage of the African Society, to trace the 
 source of the river Niger, May 22, 1795; and returned Dec. 22, 1797, after 
 having encountered great dangers, without his journey through intertropi- 
 cal regions having enabled him to achieve the great object of his ambition. 
 He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, ap- 
 pointed to a new expedition by government ; but never returned. The ac- 
 counts of his murder on the Niger were a long time discredited ; unhappily 
 however, they were at length too well authenticated by later intelligence. 
 It appears that Park and his party were attacked by the natives at Boussa, 
 and all killed, with the exception of one slave. 
 
 PA.RKS. The Romans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupinus, Pom- 
 pey, and Hortensius, among others, had large parks. In England, the first 
 ^reat park of which particular mention is made, was that of Woodstock, 
 formed by Henry I., 1125. The parks of London are in a high degree essen- 
 tial to the health of its immense population, St. James's Park was drained 
 by Henry VIII., 1537. It was improved, planted, and made a thoroughfare 
 for public, use 1668, The Green Park forms a part of the ground inclosed by 
 Henry VIII. In Hyde Park, the sheet of water called the Serpentine River, 
 although in the form of a parallelogram, was made between 1730 and 1733, 
 by order of queen Caroline, consort of George II. This queen once inquired 
 of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards the earl of Chatham), how much it would 
 cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. He replied, "Three crowns, 
 your majesty." She took the hint, and the design was never afterwards enter- 
 tained, 
 
 PARLIAMENT, IMPERIAL, of GREAT BRITAIN. It derives its origin 
 from the Saxon general assemblies, called Wittenagemots ; but their constitu- 
 tion totally differed, as well as the title, which is more modern, and is taken 
 from parler la ment, which in the Norman law-style signifies to speak one's 
 wind. This at once denotes the essence of British parliaments. The name 
 was applied to the general assemblies of the state under Louis VII. of France, 
 about the middle of the twelfth century, but it is said not to have appeared 
 in our law till its mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edward I,, a. d. 
 1272; and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and spoke to the same effect, 
 when speaker (a. d. 1592). that this name was used even in the time of 
 Edward the Confessor, 1041. The first summons by writ on record was di- 
 rected to the bishop of Salisbury, 7 John, 1205. The first clear account wa 
 have of the representatives of the people forming a house of commons, was 
 in the 43rd Henry III., 1258, when it was settled, by the statutes at Oxford, 
 that twelve persons should be chosen to represent the commons in the three 
 pariiaments, which by the sixth statute, were to be held yearly. — Burton's 
 Annals. The general representation by knights, citizens, and burgesses, took 
 
462 THE world's TROGRESS. [ fkH 
 
 place 49 Henry III., 1265. — Ditgdalc's Summonses to Parliament, edit. 1685. 
 The power and jurisdiction of parliament are so transcendent and absolute, 
 that it canni.>t be conlined, either for causes or persons, within any bounds. 
 It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making and repealing 
 laws. It can regulate or new-model the succession to the crown, as was done 
 in the reigns of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish the 
 religion of the country, as was done in the reigns of Henry VIIL, Edward 
 VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. — Sir Edward Coke. 
 P^^RMA. Formed by the ancient Etrurians. It was made a duchy (with Pla- 
 centia) a. d. 1545. It fell to Spain by Phillip V.'s marriage with Elizabetli 
 Farnese, 1714. The duke of Parma was raised to the throne of Tuscany, 
 with the title of king of Etruria, in Feb. 1801. Parma was afterwards uni- 
 ted to France (with Placentia and Guastalla), and on the fall of Napoleon^ 
 Avas conferred on Maria Louisa, the ex-empress, by the treaty of Fontaine- 
 bleau, April 5, 1814. Battle of Parma : the confederates, England, France, 
 and Spain, against the emperor; indecisive, both armies claiming the victory, 
 June 29, 1734. Great battle of Parma, in which the French, under Macdon- 
 ald, were defeated by Suwarrow, with the loss of 10 000 men, and four 
 generals, July 12. 1799. Maria Louisa died Dec. 17, 1847, and the duke of 
 Lucca succeeds by previous com[)act. The new duke refuses petitions for 
 reforms; Parma occupied by Austrian soldiers, Dec. 21, 1847. The people 
 revolt ; barricades, and slaughter, March 20. The duke appoints a regency ; 
 flees; is brought back; the duchy proclaimed to be annexed to Piedmont, 
 March 20, 1848. The duke promises to join the league against Austria and 
 is then liberated, April 1, 1848, but is deposed, April 9. 
 
 PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in ancient Rome, such a crime not 
 being supposed possible. About 500 years after Numa's reign, L. Ostius 
 having killed his father, the Romans first scourged the parricide ; then sewed 
 him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, with a live dog, a cock, a viper, and 
 an ape, and thus cast him into the sea. The old Egyptians used to run sharp 
 reeds into every part of the bodies of parricides ; and after having thus 
 wounded them, threw them upon a heap of thorns, and set fire to them. In 
 France, before the execution of the criminal, the hand was cut off. 
 
 PARTHIA. The Parthians were originally a tribe of Scj^thians. who, being 
 exiled, as their name implies, from their own country, settled near Hyrcania. 
 Arsases laid the foundation of an empire which ultimately extended over 
 all Asia, 250 b. c. ; and at one timd the Parthians disputed the empire of the 
 world with the Romans, and could never be wholly subdued by that nation, 
 who had seen no other people upon earth unconquered by their arras. The 
 last king was Artabanus V., who being killed a. d. 229, his territories were 
 annexed to the new kingdom of Persia, under Artaxerxes. 
 
 PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty between England and Holland, 
 for regulating the Spanish succession, was signed Oct. 11, 1698; and the 
 second (between France, England, and Holland, declaring the archduke 
 Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish monarchy, Joseph Ferdinand hav- 
 ing died in 1699), March 13, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland : the 
 first was a secret convention between Russia and Prussia, Feb, 17, 1772 ; the 
 second, between the same powers and Austria, Aug. 5, same year ; the third 
 was between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Nov. 25. 1795. There were other 
 similai treaties relating to Poland, but not under this name. 
 
 PASQUINADES. This name, which is given to humorous libels, originated in 
 this way: — At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Rome, a number of 
 idle persons used to assemble to listen to the pleasant sallies of Pasquin, and 
 to relate little anecdotes in their turn, and indulge then; selves in raillery at 
 the expense of *he passers -bf. After the cobbler's death in the sixteenth 
 
Pi V ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 46S 
 
 century, the statue of a gladiator was found near his stall, to which the peo- 
 ple gave his name, and on which the wits of the time affixed their lampoons 
 upon the state, and their satirical effusions on their neighbors, secretly at 
 night. Small poems, and writings of a similar kind, from this obtained the 
 name of Pasquinades, about a. d. 1533. 
 
 PASSOVER. A solemn festival of the Jews, instituted 1491 b. c, in commem^ 
 oration of their coming out of Egypt ; because the night before their de- 
 parture, the destroying angel, who put to death the first-born of the Egyp- 
 tians, passed over the houses of the Hebrews without entering them : they 
 being marked with the blood of the lamb that was killed the evening before, 
 and which for this reason is called the Paschal Lamb, It was celebrated in 
 the new Temple, April 18, 515 b. c, — Usher. 
 
 PAT AY, Battle op, in which the renowned and ill-fated Joan of Arc (the 
 Maid of Orleans) signally defeated the English, June 10, 1429. Talbot was 
 taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe was forced to fly. In consequence 
 of this victory, Charles of France entered Rheims in triumph, and was 
 cro^vned July 17, same year, Joan of Arc assisting in the ceremony in full 
 armor, and holding the sword of state. See Joan of Arc. 
 
 PATENTS. Licenses and authorities granted by the king. Patents granted 
 for titles of nobility, were first made a. d. 1344, by Edward III. They were 
 first granted for the exclusive privilege of printing books, in 1591, about 
 which time the property and right of inventors in arts and manufactures 
 were secured by letters patent. 
 
 PATRIARCHS. Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of dioceses. The dignity 
 among the Jews is referred to the time of Nerva, a. d. 97. In the Christian 
 church it was first conferred on the five grand sees of Rome, Constanti- 
 nople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The Latin church had no pa- 
 triarchs till the 7th century. 
 
 PAUL'S, ST., CATHEDRAL, London. The noblest Protestant church in the 
 world. The best authority that exists illustrative of the origin of this church 
 is its great restorer, sir Christopher Wren. His opinion, that there had been 
 a church on this spot, built by the Christians in the time of the Romans, 
 was confirmed when he searched for the foundations for his own design. He 
 explodes the notion of there having been a temple of Diana. The first church 
 is supposed to ha*ve been destroyed during the Dioclesian persecution, and 
 to have been rebuilt in the reign of Constantino. This was demolished by 
 the pagan Saxons, and restored by Sebert in 603, It was destroyed by the 
 great conflagration in 1086, after which Mauritius, then bishop of London, 
 commenced the magnificent edifice which immediately preceded the present 
 cathedral. St. Paul's was totally destroyed by the memorable fire of 1666 ; 
 and the first stone of the present edifice was laid June 21, 1675, and the 
 whole was completed in 1710-11, under the illustrious architect sir Christo- 
 pher Wren. 
 
 Length of St. Paul's, within - 500 feet. 
 Its greatest breadth - - 223 
 
 Height from the ground - - 340 
 
 Length of St. Peter's, Rome - 669 feet. 
 Its greatest breadth within - - 442 
 Height from the ground - - 432 
 
 PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to have been the first who paved 
 their towns with stones. The Romans in the time of Augustus had pave- 
 ment in many of their streets ; but the Appian Way was a paved road, and 
 was constructed 312 b. c. In England there were few paved streets before 
 Henry Vll.'s reign. London was first paved about the year 1533. Wood 
 pavement commenced in 1839; but was generally disused in 1847. 
 
 PAVIA, Batple of, between the French and Imperialists, when the former 
 were defeated, and their king. Francis I., after fighting with heroic ''^alor, 
 
464 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 f TEl. 
 
 and killing seven men with his own hand, was at last obliged to surrender 
 himself prisoner. Francis wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent of 
 the kingdom in his absence, the melancholy news of his captivity, conceived 
 in these dignified and expressive terms: — Tout est perdu, madame, fors 
 r/ionneur ; Feb. 24, 1525. Collision between the students and the Austrian 
 soldiers, 10 killed and 40 wounded, Jan. 8, 1848. 
 
 PAWNBROKERS. The origin of borrowing money by means of pledges de- 
 posited with lenders is referred, as a regular trade, to Perousa, in Italy, about . 
 A. D. 1458 ; and soon afterwards in England. The business of pawnbrokers 
 was regulated 30 George 11. , 1756. Licenses were issued 24 George HI., 
 1783. In London there are 334 pawnbrokers; and in England, exclusively 
 of London, 1127. 
 
 PEARLS. The formation of the pearl has embarrassed both ancient and mo- 
 dern naturalists to explain, and has given occasion to a number of vain and 
 absurd hypotheses. M. Reaumur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are formed 
 like other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was valued by Pliny at 
 80,000Z. sterling. One which was brought, in 1574, to Philip II. of the size 
 of a pigeon's egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats, equal to 13,996Z. A pearl 
 spoken of by Boetius, named the Incomparable, weighed thirty carats, equal 
 to five pennyweights, and was about the size of a muscadine pear. The 
 pearl mentioned by Tavernier as being in possession of the emperor of 
 Persia was purchased of an Arab in 1633, and is valued at a sum equal to 
 110,400Z. 
 
 PEERS. The first of the present order created in England was William Fitz 
 Osborn, as earl of Hereford, by William the Conqueror, in 1066. The first 
 peer who was created by patent was lord Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by 
 Richard II., in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was created earl of Angus by 
 Malcolm III., 1037. In Ireland, sir John de Courcy v/as created baron of 
 Kinsale, &c., in 1181 ; the first peer after the obtaining of that kingdom by 
 Henry II. The house of lords consisted of, viz : — 
 
 At the death of Charless 11. - 176 peers. 
 At the death of William III. - 192 
 
 At the death of Anne ■ • 209 
 At the death of George I. • 216 
 
 At the death of George II. - 229 
 
 At the death of George III. - 339 peers. 
 At the death of George IV. - 396 
 
 At the death of William IV. - 456 
 In 10th Victoria, 1847 - - 454 
 
 PELAGIANS. A sect founded by Pelagius, a native of Britain. The sect 
 maintained, 1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had 
 sinned or not, would certainly have died. 2. That the consequences of 
 Adam's sin were confined to his own person. 3. That new-born infants are 
 in the same condition with Adam before the fall. 4. That the law qualified 
 men for the kingdom of heaven, and was founded upon equal promises with 
 the gospel. 5. That the general resurrection of the dead does not follow in 
 virtue of our Saviour's resurrection, &c. This sect appeared a. d. 400 at 
 Rome, and in Carthage about 412. 
 
 PELEW ISLANDS. Discovered by the Spaniards in the seventeenth century. 
 The wreck here of the East India Company's packet Ajitelope, captain Wil- 
 son, 1783. The king, Abba Thule, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince 
 Lee Boo, his son, to England, where he arrived in 1784, and died soon after 
 of the small-pox ; and the East India Company erected a monument over 
 his grave in the Rotherhithe churchyard. 
 
 PELOPONNESIAN WAR. The celebrated war which continued for twenty- 
 seven years between the Athenians and the inhabitants of Peloponnesus, 
 with their respective allies. It is the most famous and the most interesting 
 of all the wars which happened between the inhabitants of Greece. It 
 be^an 431 b. c, and ended 404 b, c. 
 
PEH ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 46^ 
 
 PENAL LAWS, affecting ROMAN CATHOLICS. Ihe laws enacted against 
 Roman Catholics in Great Britain were very severe ; and even np to the 
 period of passing the Emauci})ation Bill many of them remained unre- 
 pealed. Ail the laM's there against Roman Catholics were rei^ealcd by the 
 Relief Bill, passed April 13, 1829. 
 
 PENANCE. Called by the Jews Thejouvtha. Penance, they said, consisted 
 in the love of God attended with good works. They made a confession 
 upon the day of expiation, or some time before ; and had stated degrees of 
 penance in proportion to' the crimes committed. Penance was introduced 
 into the Romish church a. d. 157. In our canon law, penance is chiefly ad- 
 judged to the sin of fornication. 
 
 PENDULUMS FOR Clocks. AtHrmed to have been adapted by Galileo tho 
 younger, about a. d. 1641. Christian Huygens contested the priority of this 
 discovery : the latter brought clocks with pendulums to perfection, 1656.- 
 Dufresnoy. 
 
 PENITENTS. There are various orders of penitents, Magdalens, Magdalen- 
 ottes, &c. The order of Penitents of St. Magdalen was founded at Mar- 
 seilles, about a. d. • 1272, The Penitents of the Name of Jesus was a con- 
 gregation of religious in Spain who had led a licentious life, formed about 
 1550. The Penitents of Orvieto were formed into an order of nuns about 
 1002. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA, one of the United States. Granted by James II. to William 
 Penn, of the Society of Friends, in 1681. (Previously settled by Swedes 
 and Fins, and conquered by the Dutch in 1654.) A tract of 20,000 acrefa 
 sold by Penn for .£400 to a colony which formed a settlement at Philadelphia. 
 The colony governed by proprietors until the revolution of 1776, when the 
 legislature purchased it, paying the proprietors £130,000 in lieu of quit- 
 rents. Battles of Brandywine and Germantown, and other important ac- 
 tions in this State in the war of independence. See Philadelphia. Federal 
 Constitution adopted in convention, Dec. 13, 1787, by 46 to 23. Continental 
 Congress at Philadelphia, in 1774. United States Congress, 1790 to 1800, 
 when it was removed to Washington. Population of State in 1732, 30,000 ; 
 1790, 434,373 ; in 1800, 602,545 ; in 1820, 1,049,13 ; in 1840, 1^724,033. 
 
 PENNY-POST. First set up in London and its suburbs by a Mr. Murray, up- 
 holsterer. A. D. 1681. Mr. Murray afterwards assigned his interest in the 
 undertaking to Mr. Dockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a trial at the King's 
 Bench bar in the reign of Charles II., was adjudged to belong to the duke 
 of York as a branch of the general post, and was thereupon annexed to 
 the revenue of the crown. — DeLaune, 1690. This institution was considera- 
 bly improved in and round London, July 1794, et seq., and was made a two- 
 penny-post. A penny post was first set up in Dublin in 1774, See Post- 
 office. 
 
 PENTECOST. It literally signifies the ordinal number called the fiftieth ; and 
 in the solemn festival of the Jews, so called because it was celebrated fifty 
 days after the feast of the Passover, Lev. xxiii. 15, It is called the feast 
 of ^\eeks, Exod. xxxiv, 22, because it was kept seven weeks after the 
 Passover. 
 
 PERFUMERY. Many of the wares coming under this name were known to 
 the ancients, and the Scriptures abound with instances of the use of incenses 
 and perfumes. No such trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in ]76o. 
 — Creech. A stamp tax was laid on various articles of perfumery in Eng- 
 gland and the vendor was obliged to take out a license, in 1786. At the cor- 
 ner of Beaufort Buildings, in the Strand, resided Lilly the perfumer, men- 
 tioned in the Sjyectator. — Leigh. 
 
 20* ■ 
 
466 THE world's progress, [pek 
 
 PERIODICAL LITERATURE. See Reviews and Magazines. 
 
 PERIPATETKJ PHILOSOPHY. The philosophy taught by Aristotle about 
 342 E. c. Like Plato, who taught in a shady grove called Academia, Aris- 
 totle chose a spot of a similar character at Athens, adjacent to the same 
 river, where there were trees and shades : this spot was denominated the 
 Lyceum ; and as he usually walked while he instructed his pupils, his philo- 
 sophy was called Peripatetic. 
 
 PERJURY. In some countries this crime was punished with death. The early 
 Romans at first punished it by throwing the offender headlong from the 
 Tarpeian precipice ; but that penalty was afterwards altered, upon a suppo- 
 sition that the gods would vindicate their own honor by some remarkable 
 judgment upon the ofl'ender. The Greeks set a mark of infamy upon 
 them. After the empire became Christian, and if any one swore falsely 
 upon the gospels, he was to have his tongue cut out. The canons of the 
 primitive church enjoined eleven years' penance ; and in some states the 
 false-sw^earer became liable to the punishment he charged upon the innocent. 
 In England, perjury was punished with the pillory, 1563. 
 
 PERONNE, Treaty op. Louis XI. of France having placed himself in the 
 power of the duke of Burgundy, was forced to sign a treaty at Peronne. con- 
 firming those of Arras and Conflans, with some other stipulations of a re- 
 strictive and humiliating character, a. d. 1468. 
 
 PERSECUTIONS, General, of the Christians. Historians usually reckon 
 ten. The first under N.ero, who having set fire to Rome, threw the odium 
 of the act upon the Christians. Multitudes of them were, in consequence, 
 massacred. Some were wrapped up in the skins of wild beasts, and torn 
 and devoured by dogs ; others were crvicified, and numbers burned alive, 
 A. D. 64. The 2nd, unJer Domitian, a. d. 95. The 3rd, in the reign of Tra- 
 jan, A. D. 100. The 4th, under Adrian, 118. The 5th, under the emperor 
 Severus, 197. The 6th, under Maximinus, 235. The 7tli, under Decius, 
 more bloody than any preceding. They were in all places driven from their 
 habitations, plundered and put to death by torments, the rack, and fire. The 
 8th, under Valerian, 257. The 9th, under Aureliah, 272. The 10th, under 
 Dioclesian. In this persecution, which lasted ten years, houses filled with 
 Christians were set on fire, and droves of them were bound together with 
 ropes and cast into the sea. See Massacres. 
 
 PERSECUTIONS of the JEWS. See articles Jews and Massacres. 
 
 PERSECUTION of the PROTESTANTS. In Franconia, where a multitude 
 of Luther's followers were massacred by William de Furstemberg, 1525.— 
 Du Fresnoy. In England when Cranmer. archbishop of Canterbury, and La- 
 timer and Ridley, prelates, and 300 Protestants, were burned alive, and great 
 mimbers perished in prison, 3 Mary, 1556. — Warner's Ecdes. Hist. Of the 
 Protestants in France, when numbers perished ; their assemblies were pro- 
 liibited, their places of worship pulled down, and sentence to the galleys 
 proclaimed against all who harbored them, 1723. Executions of the Pro- 
 testants at Thorn, when great numbers were put to death under pretence of 
 their having been concerned in a tuimult occasioned by a procession, 1724. 
 See Massacres and Bartlioloview. 
 
 PERSIAN EMPIRE. The country which gave name to this celebrated empire 
 was originally called Elam, and received the appellation of Persia from Per- 
 seus, the son of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled here, and perhaps 
 established a petty sovereignty. But long before his time, it was subject 
 to independent princes. Persia was at length included in the first Assyrian 
 monarchy ; and when that empire was dismembered by Arbaces, &c., it 
 appertained to the kingdom of Media. Persia was partly conquered from 
 the Greeks, and was tributary to the Parthians for nearly 500 years, when 
 
PET 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 467 
 
 Artaxerxes, a common soldier, became tlie founder of the second Persian 
 inonarchyj a. d. 229. 
 
 Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of 
 the Magi. — Justin - b. c. 2115 
 
 Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, ge- 
 nerally confounded with the king of 
 Bactria. — Zanthus - - - 10S2 
 
 Cyrus, king of Persia - - - 560 
 
 I.ydia conquered by the Persians - 548 
 Cyrus becomes master of all Asia - 536 
 (Jambyses conquers Egypt {which see) 525 
 Darius made king of Persia - - 522 
 
 Revolt of the Babylonians - - - 512 
 
 Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed - 498 
 Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, vviih 
 an army of 300,000 soldiers, to invade 
 the Peloponnesus 
 The troops advance towards Athens, but 
 are met in the plains of Marathon, by 
 Miltiades, at the head of 10,000 Athe- 
 nians. — See Marathon 
 Xerxes enters Greece in the spring of 
 this year, at ihe iiead of an immense 
 force. The battle of Thermopylse - 
 Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 
 200,000 of his troops, and is deieated 
 in a naval engagement of!" Salamis - 
 Cymon, son of Miltiades, wish a fleet of 
 250 vessels, takes several cities from 
 the Persians, and destroys their navy, 
 consisting of 340 sail, near the island 
 of Cyprus .... 
 Xerxes is murdered in his^bed by Mith- 
 ridates, the eunuch - b. c. 
 
 The assassin is put to death in a horrible 
 manner . - - - . 
 
 Reign of Artaxerxes 
 Cyprus taken from the Persians 
 Memorable retreat of the Greeks. See 
 article Retreat 
 
 490 
 
 490 
 
 480 
 
 480 
 
 470 
 
 455 
 
 465 
 464 
 449 
 
 - 401 
 
 - 334 
 
 331 
 
 331 
 
 330 
 
 The sea-fight near C'nidus - - 394 
 
 The Sidonians being besieged by the 
 Persians, set fire to their city, and ptrish 
 in the llames - - -_ 351 
 
 Alexander the Great enters Asia; first 
 battle m Plirygia, near the river Gra 
 nicus 
 
 [For the exploits of Alexander in Per- 
 sia, see the article Mocedon.] 
 
 Murder of Darius by Bessus, who is 
 torn in pieces - - - - 
 
 Alexander Ibunds the third or Grecian 
 monarchy .... 
 
 Alexander, in a moment of intoxication, 
 at the instance oi his mistress Thais, 
 sets fire to the palace of Persepolis - 
 
 [The riches of this town, whose ruins, 
 even as ihey exist at tliis day, are of 
 indescribable magnificence, were so 
 immense that 20,000 mules and 5000 
 horses were laden with the spoils.] 
 
 Persia was partly reconquered from the 
 Greeks, and remained tributary to 
 Parthia for near five hundred j'ears, 
 till about - - -AD. 
 
 Artaxerxes I. of this new empire, a 
 common soldier, restores to Persia its 
 ancient title .... 
 
 Rei^n of Sapor, conqueror and tyrant - 
 
 He is assassinated 
 
 Hoi'misdas reigns - - - - 
 
 Reign of Sapor II. (of 70 years), a cruel 
 iind successful tyrant - 
 
 Persia was conquered by the Saracens 651 
 
 It fell under the domiinon of Tamer- 
 lane, by the defeat of Bajazet - 1402 
 
 Reign ofThamas Kouli Khan - - 1732 
 
 He carried the Persian arms into India, 
 whicli he ravaged. See India - 1738 
 
 250 
 
 229 
 238 
 
 273 
 273 
 
 - 310 
 
 In \ ^47, Ahmed Ahdalla founded the kingdom of Candahar. In 1779, corn- 
 pet, ors for the throne of Persia s[)ruDg np and caused a period of slaughtei 
 and lesolation till 1794, when Mahomed Khan became sole monarch. 
 
 PERU. First visited in a. d. 1513, and soon afterwards conquered by the Spa- 
 niard \, whose avarice led to the most frightful crimes. The eas)^ conquest 
 of th. i country has not its parallel in history. Pizarro, in 1580, and others, 
 with I ne vessel, 112 men, and four horses, set out to invade South America, 
 wliich^ however, not succeeding, he again in 1531, embarked with three 
 small vessels, 140 infantr}'', and thirt3''-six horses ; with these, and two re- 
 inforce) aents of thirty men each, he conquered the empire of Peru, and laid 
 the foL "idation of that vast power which the Spaniards enjoy in the New 
 V/orld. Pizarro's expedition, 1524. Peru remained in subjection to the 
 Spaniards (who murdered the Incas and all their descendants) without any 
 attempt being made to throw off the oppressive yoke till 1782 ; but the in- 
 dependence of the country was completely achieved in 1826. The new 
 Peruvian constitution was signed by the president of the Republic, March 
 21, 1828. 
 
 PETER-PENCE. Presented by Ina, king of the West Saxons, to the pope at 
 Rome, for the endowment of an English college there, a. d. 725. So called, 
 because agreed to be paid on the feast of St. Peter. The tax was levied on 
 all families possessed of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of which they 
 paid one penny. It was confirmed by Offa, 777, and was afterwards claimed 
 
468 THE world's PROGRESS- [ PHA 
 
 by the popes, as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, till sup- 
 pressed by Honry VIII. — Camden. 
 PETER, THE WILD BOY. A savage creature found in the forest of HertS' 
 wold, electorate of Hanover, when George I. and his friends were hunting. 
 He was found walking on his hands and feet, climbing trees like a squirrel, 
 and feeding on grass and moss, November 1725. At this time he was sup- 
 posed to be thirteen years old. The king caused him to taste of all the 
 dishes at the royal table ; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, and the bark 
 of trees, which he had lived on from his infancy. No human efforts of the 
 many philosophic persons about the court could entirely vary his savage 
 habits, or cause him to utter one distinct syllable. He died in Feb, 1785, 
 at the age of 72. Lord Monboddo presented him as an instance of the hy- 
 pothesis that " man in a state of nature is a mere animal." 
 
 PETER'S CHURCH, ST., at Rome. Originally erected by Constantine. About 
 the middle of the 15th century, Nicholas VI. commenced the present mag- 
 nificent pile, which was not completed under numerous succeeding popes, 
 until A. D. 1629. The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 180 feet, 
 and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of 
 324 feet : the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming the most spacious 
 hall ever constructed by human hands. See Paul's, St. 
 
 PETERSBURGH. The new capital of Russia. Peter the Great first began 
 this city, in 1703. He built a small hut for ^himself, and some wretched 
 wooden hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first house of brick ; 
 and the next year, the emperor, with his ov/n hand, laid the foundation of a 
 house of the same materials. From these small beginnings rose the imperial 
 city of Petersburg!! ; and in less than nine years after the wooden hovels 
 were erected, the seat of empire was transferred from Moscow to this place. 
 Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses ; and in 1780, another fire con- 
 sumed 11 000 houses; this last fire was occasioned by lightning. Again, in 
 June 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 100 vessels were destroyed. 
 The winter palace was burnt to the ground, Dec, 29, 1837. See Russia. 
 
 PETERSBURGH, Peace of, between Russia and Prussia, the former restoring 
 all her conquests to the latter, signed May 5, 1762. Treaty of Petersburgh, 
 for the partition of Poland, (see article Partition Treaties,) Aug. 5, 1772, 
 Treaty of Petersburgh, for a coalition against France, Sept. 8, 1805, 
 Treaty of alliance, signed at St. Petersburgh, between Bernadotte, prince 
 royal of Sweden, and the emperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to join 
 in the campaign against France, in return for which Sweden was to receive 
 Norway, March 24, 1812. 
 
 PETRARCH AND LAURA. Two of the most eminent persons of the four- 
 teenth century, celebrated for the exquisite and refined passion of the for- 
 mer for the latter, and the great genius and virtue of both. The chief subject 
 of Petrarch's enchanting sonnets was the beautiful Laura. He was crowned 
 with laurel, as a poet and writer, on Easter-day, April 8, 1341 ; and died at 
 Arqua, near Padua, July 18, 1374. Laura died April 6, 1348. 
 
 PHALANX A troop of men closely embodied — Milton. The Greek phalanx 
 consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, and spears 
 crossing each other. The battalion formed by Philip of Macedon was called 
 the Macedonian phalanx, and was instituted by him 360 b. c, 
 
 PHARISEES. They were a flimous sect among the Jews ; so called from a He- 
 brew word which signifies to separate or set apart, because they pretended 
 to a greater degree of holiness and piety than the rest of the Jews. The 
 admirable parable of the Pharisee and Publican is levelled against spiri 
 tual pride, and to recommend the virtue of humility. — Luke xviii, 9. 
 
PHJ ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 469 
 
 PHAROS AT ALEXANDRIA, called the Pharos of I'tcueniy Philadelphus, and 
 esteemed as one of the wonders of the world. It was a tower built of white 
 marble, and could be seen at the distance of 100 miles. On the top, tires 
 were constantly kept, to direct sailors in the bay. The building of this 
 .ower cost 800 talents, which are equivalent to above 165,100^. English, if 
 Attic ; or if Alexandrian, double that sum. There was this inscription upon 
 it — " King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit of sailors ;" but 
 Sostratus the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his own 
 name upon the stones, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, and wrote 
 the above inscription. When the mortar had decayed by time, Ptolemy's 
 name disappeared, and the following inscription then became visible; — 
 " Sostratus the Cnidian, son of Dexijjhanes, to the gods, the saviours, for 
 ihe benefit of sailors." About 280 b. c. 
 
 PHARSALIA, Battle of, between Julius Csesar and Pompey, in which the for- 
 mer obtained a great and memorable victory, glorious to Caesar in all its 
 consequences. Ceesar lost about 200 men, or, according to others 1200. 
 Pompey's loss was 15,000, or 25 000 according to others, and 24,000 of his 
 - army were made prisoners of war by the conqueror. May 12, 48 b. c. After 
 this defeat, Pompey fled to Egypt, v\diere he was treacherously slain, by or- 
 der of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body thrown naked on 
 the strand, exposed to the view of all those whose curiosity led them that 
 way, till it was burnt by his faithful freedman Philip. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, City of. First surveyed and regulated by the English colo. 
 ny under Penn's grant, in 1682. [The Swedes had settled on Delaware bay 
 in 1627.] Named after a city in Asia-Minor and first laid out with a view 
 to rival ancient Babylon in extent ; but the plan was restricted to its pre- 
 sent limits by the charter of 1701. First or " Continental" Congress at 
 Philadelphia, Sept. 5, 1774. The Declaration of Independence adopted, July 
 4, 1776, in the State House, still standing in Chesnut-street. The city taken 
 . by the British, Sept. 26, 1777; evacuated by them, June 18, 1778. Conven- 
 tion met here, May 17, 1787, and on 17th of Sept. following, agreed on a 
 constitution for the United States. Yellow fever raged, 1793 and 1798. 
 Congress removed to Philadelphia, 1800. United States Bank established 
 here, 1816. United States Mint, in 1792. Girard College opened, 1846. 
 Population in 1732, 12 000; in 1790, 42,000; in 1810, 96 664; in 1830, 
 167,811 ; in 1840, 220,423. 
 
 PHILIPPI, Battle op, between Octavius Caesar and Marc Antony on one side, 
 and the republican forces under Brutus and Cassius, in which the former 
 obtained the victory. Two battles were fought: in the first, Brutus, who 
 commanded the right wing, defe§,ted the enemy ; but Cassius, who had care 
 of the left, was overpowered, and he ordered his freedman to run him 
 through the body. In the second battle, the wing which Brutus command- 
 ed obtained a victory ; but the other was defeated, and he found himself 
 surrounded by the soldiers of Antonj^ He however made his escape, and 
 soon after fell on his sword. Both battles were fought in October, 42 b. g. 
 — Bossuet. 
 
 PHILIPPICS. This species of satire derives its name from the orations of De- 
 mosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, and from Cicero^s Orations (the 
 second of which was called divine by Juvenal) against Marc Antony, which 
 latter cost Cicero his life, 43 b. c. 
 
 PHILIPPINE ISLES. Discovered by the Spaniards a. d. 1519. In this archi- 
 pelago the illustrious circumnavigator Magellan, like the still more illustri- 
 ous Cook in the Sandwich Islands, lost his life in a skirmish, in 1521. 
 
 PHILOSOPHY. The knowledge of the reason of things, in opposition to his- 
 tory, which is only the Knowledge of facts ; or tq mathematics, which is the 
 
470 THE world's progress. [phi 
 
 knowledge of the quantity of things ; — the hypothesis or system upon wliich 
 natural effects are explained. — Locke. Pytli^goras first adopted the name of 
 philosopher (such men having previously been called sages), about 528 b. c. 
 See Mural Philosophy . Philosophers were expelled from Rome, and theii 
 schools suppressed, by Domitian, a. d. 83. — Univ. Hist. Philosophy haa 
 undergone four great changes : — 1. A total subserviency to priestcraft and 
 superstition, by the Chaldeans and Egyptians. 2. A commixture of reason 
 and poetry, hj the Greeks. 3. A mechanical system, introduced by Coper- 
 nicus and Galileo ; and, 4. A system of poetical, verbal, and imaginary causa- 
 tion, taught Ly Newton, Lavoisier, &c. The world, at present, are divided 
 between the two last. 
 
 PHILOSOPHERS STONE. By this name is usually meant a powder, which 
 some wise heads among the chemists imagined had the virtue of turning all 
 imperfect metals into silver and gold — all metals but these being so consid- 
 ered. Kircher observes, with truth, that the quadrature of the circle, per- 
 petual motion, the inextinguishable lamp, and the philosopher's stone, have 
 cracked the brains of philosophers and mathematicians for a loLg time, 
 without any useful result. For a remarkable case of folly and imposition in 
 relation to this subject, see Alchemy. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS. It was discovered in the year 1667, by Brant, who procured 
 it from urine ; and Scheele soon after found a method of preparing it from 
 bones. The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckell, a Saxon chemist, 
 1670, and by the lion. Mr. Boyle^ about the saia,ie time. — Nouv. Diet. Phos- 
 phoric acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is said to have been known ear- 
 lier ; the distinction was first pointed out by Lavoisier, in 1777. Canton's 
 phosphorus is so called from its discoverer, 1768. Protophosphurated hy- 
 drogen was discovered by sir Humphrey Davy in 1812. 
 
 PHRENOLOGY. The science of the mind, and of animal propensities, a mod- 
 ern doctrine, started by Dr. Gall, in 1803. See Craniology. Dr. Spurzheim 
 improved the science in 1815, and it has now many professors ; and a Phre- 
 nological Society has been established in London. 
 
 PHYSIC. Reason and chance led early to the knowledge and virtues of cer- 
 tain herbs. The sea-horse drawing blood from his body by means of a reed 
 to relieve himself from plethora, taught men the art of artificial blood-let- 
 ting. — Pliny. In fabulous history it is mentioned that Polydius having seen 
 a serpent approach the wounded body of another with an herb, with which 
 he covered it, restored the inanimate l)ody of Glaucus in the same manner. 
 — Hyginus. Egypt appears to have been the cradle of the healing art ; "and 
 the priests," says Cabanus, "soon seized upon the province of medicine, 
 and combined it with their other instruments of power." From the hands 
 of the priests, medicine fell into those of the philosophers, wiio freed it 
 from its superstitious character. Pythagoras endeavored to explain the 
 formation of diseases, the order of. their symptoms, and the action of medi- 
 cine, about 529 b. c. Hippocrates, justly regarded as the father of medicine 
 and the founder of the science, flourished about 422 b. c. Galen, born a. d. 
 131, was the oracle of medical science for nearly 1500 years. The discovery 
 of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, furnished an entirely new 
 system of physiological and pathological speculation, 1628. 
 
 PHYSICS. Well described as a science of unbounded extent, and as reaching 
 from an atom to God himself It is made to embrace the entire doctrine of 
 the bodies and existences of the universe ; their phenomena, causes, and 
 effects. Mr. Locks* would include God, angels, and spirits, under this term. 
 The origin of physics is referred to the Brachmans, magi, ana Hebrew and 
 Egyi^tian priests. From these it Avas derived to the Greek sages, x>articu- 
 larly Tliales, who first professed the study of nature in Greece, about 595 
 
PIG ' DICTIONARY OF DATES. 471 
 
 B. c. Hence, it descended to the Pythagoric, Platonic, and Peripatetic 
 schools ; and from these to Italy and the rest of Europe. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. In connection with natural philosophy, and that part of phy- 
 sics which teaches the constitution of the body, so far as it is in its healthy 
 or natural state, and to that purpose endeavors to account for the reason of 
 the several functions and operations of the several members. Sometimes it 
 is limited to that part of medicine which particularly considers the struc- 
 ture and constitution of human bodies, with regard to the cure of diseases. 
 Its date is referred to the same time with physics, which see. 
 
 PHYSIOGNOMY. This is a science by which the dispositions of mankind aro 
 discovered, chiefly from the features of the face. The origin of the term is 
 referred to Aristotle ; Cicero was attached to +110 science. It became a 
 fashionable study from the beginning of the sixteenth century ; and in the 
 last century, the essays of Le Cat and Pernethy led to the modern system. 
 Lavater's researches in this pursuit arose from his having been struck 
 with the singular countenance of a soldier who passed under a window at 
 which he and Zimmerman were standing ; published 1776. 
 
 PIANO-FORTE Invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 1717 ; he present- 
 ed a model of his invention to the court of Saxony ; and some time after, 
 G. Silverman, a musical-instrument maker, began to manufacture piano-fortes 
 with considerable success. The invention has also been ascribed to an in- 
 strument-maker of Florence. The square piano-forte was first made by 
 Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 1758. Piano-fortes were 
 made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766 ; and have been since 
 greatly improved by others here. 
 
 PICHEGRU'S, MOREAU'S, and GEORGES' CONSPIRACY. The memorable 
 conspiracy against Napoleon Bonaparte detected, and Georges and Moreau 
 arrested at Paris, February 23, 1804. Pichegru, when captured, was con- 
 fined in the Temple, where he was found strangled on the morning of the 
 6th April following. For the particulars relating to this conspiracy, see ar- 
 ticle Georges^ &c. 
 
 PICQUET, The Game of, the first known game upon the cards, invented by 
 Joquemin, and afterwards other games, for the amusement of Charles VI. 
 of France, who was at the time in feeble health, 1390. — MezeraL See ar- 
 ticle Cards, 
 
 PICTS. A Scythian or German colony, who landed in Scotland much about 
 the time that the Scots began to seize upon the EbudfB, or Western Isles. 
 They afterwards lived as two distinct nations, the Scots in the highlands 
 and the isles, and the Picts in that now called the lowlands. About a. d.. 
 838 to 848, the Scots under Kenneth II. totally subdued the Picts, and seized 
 all their kingdom, and extended the limits as far as Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
 
 PICTURES. Bularchus was the first who introduced, at least among the 
 Greeks, the use of many colors in one picture. One of his pictures wag 
 purchase 1 by the king of Lydia for its weight in gold ; he flourished 740 b. c. 
 See Painting. 
 
 PIGEON, The Carrier. The courier pigeons are of very ancient use. Tho 
 ancients being destitute of the convenience of posts, were accustomed when 
 they took a long journej'', and were desirous of sending back any news with 
 uncommon expedition, to take some pigeons with them. When they thought 
 proper to write to their friends, they let one of these birds loose, with let- 
 ters fastened to its neck : the bird, once released, would never cease its 
 flight till it arrived at its nest and young ones. Taurosthenes announced to 
 his father his victory at the Olympic games by sending to him at ^gina a 
 
472 THE woiiLu's rxLOCiiEss. [ pii 
 
 pigeon stained with purple. — Ovul. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded bj 
 means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. In modern times, the most noted 
 were the ])igeons of Aleppo, which served as couriers at Alexaudretta and 
 Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons sent from Antwerp were liberated from Lon- 
 don at 7 o'clock in the morning ; and on the same day at noon, one of them 
 arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter of an hour afterwards a second arrived; the 
 remainder on the following day, Nov. 23, 1819. — Phillips. 
 
 PILGRIMAGES. They began to be made about the middle ages of the church, 
 but they were most in vogue after the close of the 11th century. Many 
 licenses were granted to captains of English ships to carry pilgrims abroad, 
 7 Henry VI., 1428. 
 
 PILLORY. A scaffold for persons to stand on, in order to render them infa- 
 mous, and make them a public spectacle, for every one to see and know, 
 that they might avoid and refuse to have any commerce or dealings with 
 them, for the future. This punishment was awarded against persons con- 
 victed of forgery, perjur)^, libelling, &.c. In some cases the head was put 
 through a hole, the hands through two others, the nose slit, the face branded 
 with one or more letters, and one or both ears cut off. It Avas in use in En- 
 gland in the reign of Henry III., 1256. Many persons died in the pillory, 
 by being struck with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and 
 putrid otfal. It was abolished as a punishment in all cases except perjury, 
 in 1815-16. The pillory was totally abolished by act 1 Victoria, June 
 1837. 
 
 PINS. As an article of foreign commerce, pins are first mentioned in the sta- 
 tutes A. D. 1483. Those made of brass wire were brought from France 
 in 1540, and were first used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, 
 queen of Henry VIII. Before the invention of pins, both sexes used ri- 
 bands, loop-holes, laces with points and tags, clasps, hooks and eyes, and 
 skewers of brass, silver, and gold. They were made in England in 1543. — 
 Slovje. 
 
 PISA, Leaning Tower of. This celebrated tower, likewise called Campanile, 
 on account of its having been erected for the purpose of containing bells, 
 stands in a square close to the cathedral of Pisa. It is built entirely of 
 white marble, and is a beautiful cylinder of eight stories, each adorned with 
 a round of columns, rising one above another. It inclines so far on one side 
 from the perpendicular, that in dropping a plummet from the top, which is 
 188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the base. Much pains have 
 been taken by connoisseurs to prove that this was done purposely by the 
 architect ; but it is evident that the inclination has proceeded from another 
 cause, namely, from an accidental subsidence of the foundation on that 
 side. 
 
 PISTOLS. These are the smallest sort of fire-arms, carried sometimes on the 
 saddle-bow, sometimes in a girdle round the waist, sometimes in the pocket, 
 &c. — Pardon. The pistol was first used by the cavalry of England, in 
 1544. 
 
 PITCAIRN S ISLAND. A small solitary island in the Pacific Ocean, seen by 
 Cook in 1773, and noted for being colonized by ten mutineers from the 
 ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in 1789, from which time, till 1814, they (or 
 rather their descendants) remained here unknown. See Mutiny of the 
 Bountif. 
 
 PITT'S ADMINISTRATION. The first administration of this illustrious states- 
 man was formed on the dismissal of the Coalition ministry (which sec), Dec. 
 27, 1783. His second administration was formed May 12, 1804. The right 
 honomble William Pitt was son of the great earl of Chatham. He died 
 
PLA ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 47: 
 
 Jan. 23, 1806. Mr. Pitt was a minister of commanding powers, and still 
 loflier pretensions : and he departed life in possession of the esteem of a 
 large portion of his countrymen. A public funeral Avas decreed to his ho- 
 nor by parliamentj and a grant of £40,000 to pay his debts. 
 
 PIUS. This name was first given to the emperor Antoninus Titus, thence called 
 Antoninus Pius, on account of his piety and virtue, a. d. 138. This name 
 was also given to a son of Metellus, because he interested himself so warm- 
 ly to havu his father recalled from banishment. The name of Pius has also 
 been taken by nine of the popes of Rome, the first of whom assumed it ia 
 A. D. 142. 
 
 PLAGUE. "The offspring of inclement skies, and of legions of ijutrifying 
 locusts." — Thomsun. The first recorded general plague in all parts of the 
 world occurred 767 b. c. Petavius, At Carthage the plague was so terrible 
 that the people sacrificed their children to appease the gods, 534 b. c. — Ba- 
 ronius. At Rome prevailed a desolating plague, carrying ofi" a hundred 
 thousand persons in and round the city, 461 b. c. At Athens, whence it 
 spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, and caused an awful devastation, 430 b. c. 
 Another which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, and destroyed 
 2000 persons every d.ay, 188 b. c. Pli7iy. 
 
 An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; and 
 throughout England a plague which de- 
 stroyed more people than the continual 
 wars for the fifteen preceding years, 1-17S. 
 — Rapin ; Salmoii. 
 
 The awful Sudor AngUcus, or sweating 
 sickness, very fatal at London, 1485. — 
 JJelnune. 
 
 The plague at London so dreadful that Hen- 
 ry VII. and his court removed to Calais, 
 1500. — Stowe. 
 
 Again, the sweating sickness (mortal in 
 "three hours). In most of the ca])ital 
 towns in England half the inhabitants 
 died, and Oxford was depopulated, 9 IL 
 VIII., \b\7.— Stowe. 
 
 Limerick was visited by a plague, when 
 many thousands perished, 1522. 
 
 A pestilence throughout Ireland, 1525 ; and 
 the English Sweat, 1528 ; and a pestilence 
 in Dublin, 1575. 
 
 30,578 persons perished of the plague in 
 London alone, 1603-1604. It was also 
 fatal in Ireland. 
 
 200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constan- 
 tinople, in 1611. 
 
 In London, a great mortality prevailed, and 
 35,417 persons perished, 1625. 
 
 In France, a general mortality; at Lyona 
 60,000 persons died, 1632. 
 
 The plague, brought from Sardinia to Na- 
 ples (being introduced by a transport with 
 soldiers on board), raged with such vio- 
 lence as to carry off 400,000 of the inhabit- 
 ants in six months, 1656. 
 
 Memorable plague which carried off 68,596 
 persons in London, 1665. 
 
 [Fires were kept up night and day to \ urify 
 the air for three days ; and it is thought 
 the infection was not totally destroyed til\ 
 the great conflagration of 1666.] 
 
 60,000 persons persons perished of the 
 plague at Marseilles and neighborhood, 
 brought in a ship from the Levant, 1720. 
 
 One of the most awful plagues that ever 
 rnged, prevailed in Syria, 1760. — Abbi 
 Mariti 
 
 At Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 per- 
 sons perish daily, a. d. 78. 
 
 The same fatal disease again ravaged the 
 Roman empire, a. d. 167. 
 
 In Britain, a plague raged so formidably, 
 and swept away such multitudes, that the 
 living were scarcely sufficient to bury the 
 dead, a. D. 430. 
 
 A dreadful one began in Europe in 558, ex- 
 tended all over Asia and Africa, and it is 
 said did not cease for many years. Univ. 
 Hist. 
 
 At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its in- 
 habitants perished, a. d. 746. 
 
 [This plague raged for three years, and was 
 equally fatal in Calabria, Sicily, and 
 Greece.] 
 
 At Chichester in England, an epidemical 
 disease carried off 34,000 persons, 772. — 
 Will. Malms. 
 
 In Scotland, 40,000 persons perished of a 
 pestilence, A. d. 954. 
 
 In London, a great mortality, A. d. 1094 ; 
 and ill Ireland, 1095. 
 
 Again in London : it extended to cattle, 
 fowls, and other domestic animals, 1111. 
 — Holings. 
 
 In Ireland : after Christmas this year, Henry 
 II. was forced to quit the country, 1172. 
 
 Again in Ireland, when a prodigious number 
 perished, 1204. 
 
 A genera] plague raged throughout Europe, 
 causing a most extensive mortality. Bri- 
 tain and Ireland suffered grievously. In 
 London alone, 200 persons were buried 
 daily in the Charterhouse yard. 
 
 Li Paris and London a dreadful mortality 
 prevailed in 1362 and 1367; and in Ire- 
 land, in 1.370. 
 
 A great pesiilence in Ireland, called the 
 fourth, destroyed a great number of the 
 people, 1.383. 
 
 30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pesti- 
 lence in London, 1407. 
 
 Again in Ireland, superinduced by a fam- 
 ine ; great numbers died, 1466 ; and Dub- 
 lin was wasted by a plague, 1470. 
 
474 THE world's progress. [pla 
 
 bers were cavned oif by a pestilent dia. 
 ease in ISOi and 1805. 
 
 Again, at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever, mucb 
 1-escmbling the plague, caused gixat mor- 
 tality, 18'23. 
 
 The Asiatic cholera (see Cholera) 1832, 
 1834, 1849. 
 
 PLAGUE, continued. 
 
 In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which earned 
 
 oil" 80,000 of the inhabitants of Ijassorah, 
 
 1773. 
 In Egypt, more than 800,000 persons died 
 
 of plague, 1792. 
 In Barbary, 3000 died daily; and at Fez 
 
 247,000 perished, 1799. 
 In Spain, and at Gibraltar, immense num- 
 
 PLAGUES OP EGYPT. The refusal of the king to hearken to Moses, although 
 he had performed many miracles to prove his divine mission, brings a display 
 of wrath npon the land, in ten awful instances, which are denominated the 
 plagues of Egypt, 1492 b. c. In this year the king, named by some Amen- 
 ophis, by others Cherres, is, with his whole army, overwhelmed in the Red 
 Sea. — Usher, Blair, Lengiet. 
 
 PLANTAGENET, House of. A race of fourteen English kings, from Henry 
 II. to Richard III., killed at the battle of Bosworth {which see), 1486. Anti- 
 quaries are at a loss to account for the origin of this appellation; and the 
 best derivation they can find for it is, that Fulk, the first earl of Anjou, of 
 that name, being stung with remorse for some wicked action, went on a pil- 
 grimage to Jerusalem, as a work of atonement ; where being scourged with 
 broom twigs, growing on tlie spot, he took the surname of Plantagenet, or 
 Broom-stalk, which was retained by his posterity. 
 
 PLASTER OF PARIS, for moulds, figures, statuary, &c. The method of tak- 
 ing likenesses by its use was first discovered 'b}" Andrea Verrochio, about 
 A. D. 1466. This gypsum was first found at Montmartre, a village near Paris, 
 ^vhence it obtained its name. 
 
 PLAT^A, Battle op, between Mardonius the commander of Xerxes king of 
 Persia, and Pausanias the Lacedaemonian, and the Athenians. The Persian 
 army consisted of 300,000 men, 3000 of which scarce escaped with their 
 lives by flight. The Grecian army, which was greatly inferior, lost but few 
 men ; and among these, ninety-one Spartans, fifty-two Athenians, and sixteen 
 Tegeans, were the only soldiers found in the number of the slain. The 
 plunder which the Greeks obtained in the Persian camp wsis immense. Pau- 
 sanias received a tenth of all the spoils, on account of his uncommon valor 
 during the engagement, and the rest were rewarded each according to their 
 respective merit. This battle was fought on the 22d September, the same 
 day as the battle of Mj^cale, 479 b. c.>; and by it Greece was totally deliver- 
 ed for ever from the continual alarms to which she was exposed on account 
 of the Persian invasions, and from that time none of the princes of Persia 
 dared to appear with a hostile force beyond the Hellespont. 
 
 PLATE. The earliest use of plate as an article of luxury cannot be precisely 
 traced. In England, plate, with the exception of spoons, was prohibited in 
 public houses by statute 8 William III., 1696. The celebrated Plate Act 
 passed in May 1756. This act was repealed in 1780. The act laying a duty 
 upon plate passed in 1784. 
 
 PLATINA. This is the heaviest of all the metals, and harder than silver and 
 gold. The name which is given to it originated with the Spaniards, from 
 the word Plata, signifying silver, it would seem on account of its silvery 
 color. It was unknown in Europe until a. d. 1748, when Don Antonio 
 LTlloa announced its existence in the narrative of his voyage to Peru. — 
 Greig. 
 
 PLATTSBURGH, on Lake Cuamplain, New York, Battle of; 14,000 British 
 troops under sir George Prevost repulsed, Sept. 11, 1814. The British fleet 
 on the lake captured by Macdonough, at same time. 
 
POE J DICTIONAPcY OF DATES. 475 
 
 PLATS. Tragedy, comedy, satire, and pantomime were performed in Greece 
 and Rome. Piays became a general and favorite pastime about 165 b. c; 
 but they were performed on occasions of festivity some ages before. The 
 Trojan plays consisted of horse-races and exercises of the youth, under a 
 proper head or captain, wherein the utmost dexterity was practised. The 
 plays of Ceres were instituted to please the ladies, who from the 12th to the 
 20th of April were clad in white, and, in imitation of that goddess, v.'ent 
 with a torch in their hands as if in search of her daughter Proserpine. The 
 plays of Flora were so offensive, that they were forced to be put down. 
 The funeral plaj^s Avere plays in honor of the dead, and to satisfy their 
 ghosts. There were numerous institutions under the name of plays. Plays 
 were first acted in England at Clerkenwell, a. d. 1397. The first company 
 of players that received the sanction of a patent was that of James Burbage, 
 and others, the servants of the earl of Leicester, from queen Elizabeth, in 
 1674. In England plays were subjected to a censorship in 1737. See 
 Drama. 
 
 PLEADINGS. In the early courts of judicature in England, pleadings were 
 made in the Saxon language in a. d. 786. They were made in Norman- 
 French from the period of the Conquest in 1066; and they so continued un- 
 til the 36th of Edward III. 1362. Cromwell ordered all law proceedings to 
 De taken in English in 1650. The Latin was used in conveyancing in the 
 courts of law till 1731. 
 
 POET LAUREAT. Selden could not trace the precise origin of this office. 
 The first record we have of poet-laureat in England is in the 35tli Henry III. 
 1251. The laureat was then styled the king's versifier, and a hundred shil- 
 lings were his annual stipend. — Warton; Maddox, Hist. Exch. Chaucer, on 
 his return from abroad, assumed the title poet-laureat; and in the twelfth 
 year of Richard II., 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of 
 wine. James I., in 1615, granted to his laureat a yearly pension of 100 
 marks ; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented by letters patent of Charles 
 I. to lOOZ. per annum, with an additional grant of one tierce of Canary 
 Spanish wine, to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. 
 
 NAMES OF PERSONS WHO FILLED THE OFFICE FROM T E REIGN OP Q,UEBN ELIZABETH. 
 
 Elizabeth appointed Edmund Spenser, 
 
 wlio died - - - a. d. 1598 
 
 Samuel Daniel, diet] - - - 1619 
 
 Ben .lonson, died - - - 1637 
 
 Sir William Davenant, died - - 1668 
 
 John Dryden ; he Wcis deposed at the 
 
 revolution .... 1688 
 Thomas Shadwell, died - - - 1692 
 
 Nahum Tate, died - - a. d. 1716 
 
 The rev. Laurence Eusden, died - 1730 
 
 Colley Gibber, died - - - - 1757 
 
 William Whitehead, died - - 1785 
 
 Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died - - 1790 
 Henry James Pye, died- - -1813 
 
 Dr. Robert Southey, died - March 21, 1843 
 William Wordsworth, died - - 1850 
 
 The present laureate is Tennyson. 
 POETRY. The oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest 
 species of refined literature. It was the first fixed form of language, and 
 the earliest perpetuation of thought. It existed before music in melody, 
 and before painting in description. — Hazlitt. The exact period of the in- 
 vention of poetry is uncertain. In Scriptu-ral history, the song of Moses on 
 the signal deliverance of the Israelites, and their passage through the Red Sea, 
 is said to be the most ancient piece of poetry in the world, and is very sub- 
 lime. — Exodus XV. Orpheus of Thrace is the earliest author, and is deemed 
 the inventor of poetry (at least in the western part of the world), about 1249 
 B. c. Homer, the oldest poet whose works have descended to us, flourished 
 about 907 b. c. — Parian Marb. Iambic verse {which see) was introduced by 
 Archilochus, 700 b. c. — Du Eresnoi/. For odes, see article Odes. We are 
 told that poetry (or more properly the rules of poetry) was first brought to 
 England by Aldhelmi , or Adelmus, abbot of Malmsbury, about the close oi 
 the seventh century. 
 
476 
 
 THE WORLD S TROGllESS. 
 
 ^OL 
 
 POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed a conspiracy fc^- poisoning 
 their husbands, which they too fatally carried into effect. A Itmale slave 
 denounced 170 of them to Fabius Maxim us, who ordered them to be pub- 
 licly executed, 331 b. c. It is said that this was the first public knowledge 
 they had of poisoning at Rome. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng- 
 land, and was punished by boiling to deatb (of which there were some re- 
 markable instances) 23 Henry VIII. 1532. See article Boiling to Death. 
 
 "OITIERS, Battle of, in France, between Edward the Black Prince and John 
 king of France, in which the English arms triumphed. The standard of 
 France was overthrown, and many of her distinguished nobility were slain. 
 The French king was taken prisoner, and brought to London, through 
 which he was led amidst an amazing concourse of spectators. Two kings, 
 prisoners in the same court and at the same time, were considered as glo- 
 rious achievements ; but all that England gained by them was only glory, 
 Sept. 19, 1356.— Carte. 
 
 POLAND, Anciently, the countiy of the Vandals, who emigrated from it tc 
 invade the Roman empire. It became a duchy under Lechus I. a. d. 550: 
 and a kingdom under Boleslaus a. d. 999. Poland was dismembered by the 
 emperor of Germany, the empress of Russia, and king of Prussia, who seiz- 
 ed the most valuable territories in 1772. It was finally partitioned, and its 
 political existence annihilated, by the above powers, in 1795.* The king 
 formally resigned his crown at Grodno, and '»vas afterwards removed to Pe- 
 tersburgh, where he remained a kind of statp prisoner till his death in 
 1798. With him ended the kingdom of Poland. 
 
 842 
 
 992 
 1059 
 
 Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the du- 
 cal dignity - - - a. d. 
 [Piastus lived to the age of 120, and his 
 reign was so prosperous that every 
 succeeding native sovereign was call- 
 ed a Piast.] 
 Introduction of ChristianUy 
 Red Russia added to Poland 
 Boleslaus 11. murders the bishop of 
 Cracow with his own hand? ; his 
 kingdom laid under an interdict by 
 the pope, and his subjects absolved 
 of their allegiance - - -1080 
 He flies to Hungaiy for shelter; but is 
 refused it by order of Gregory VII., 
 and he at length kills himself - 1081 
 Uladislaus deposed - - - 1103 
 Preniislaus assassinated- - - 129-5 
 Louis of Hungary elected king- - 1370 
 War against the Teutonic knights - 1447 
 The Wallachians treacherously carry 
 off 100,000 Poles, and sell them to 
 the Turks as slaves - - - 1498 
 Splendid reign of Sigismund II. - 1548 
 Stephen forms a militia composed of 
 Cossacks, a barbarous race, on whom 
 he bestows the Ukraine - - 1575 
 
 Abdication of .John Casimir - - 1669 
 
 Massacre of the Protestants at Thorn - 1724 
 Stanislaus' unhappy reign begins - 1763 
 He abolishes torture - - - 1770 
 
 An awful pestilence sweeps away 
 
 250,0u0 of the people - - -1770 
 
 The evils of civil war so wea,ken the 
 kingdom, it falls an easy prey to the 
 royal plunderers, the empress of 
 Russia, emperor of Austria, and king 
 of Prussia .... 1772 
 The first partition treaty Feb. 17, 1772 
 
 The public partition treaty Aug. 5, 1772 
 A new constituiion is formed by the 
 
 virtuous Stanislaus - -May 3, 1791 
 
 [The royal and imperial spoliators, on 
 various pretexts, pour their armies 
 into Poland, 1792, et seq.] 
 The brave Poles, under Poniatowski 
 and Kosciusko, several times contend 
 successfully against superior armies, 
 but in the end are defeated. Kosci- 
 usko, wounded and taken, is carried 
 prisoner to Russia - - - 1794 
 
 Suwarrow's victories and massacres - 1794 
 Battle of Warsaw - Oct. 12, 1794 
 
 [Here Suwarrow subsequently butch- 
 
 * An act of spoliation more unprincipled never dishonored crowned heads. For a century pre- 
 viously, the balance of power had engaged the attention of the politicians of Europe; buim per- 
 mitting this odious crime, such an object appears to have been totally lost sight of. Austria and 
 Prussia had long been deadly enemies, and both hated Russia ; yet ihey nowconspired against a 
 country they were each pledged to protect, and with unexampled profligacy became leagued in a 
 scheme of plunder consummated by the destruction of 500,000 lives ! Russia seized Lithuania, 
 and all that part to the eastward that suited her. Austria took Gallicia, the most fertile of the 
 provinces, lying contiguous to her own dominions ; and Prussia secured the maritime .listricts. 
 The most extraordinary circumstance attending this afl'air was the total inaction of the two great 
 powers, England and France, whose supineness in a more recent instance also is rebuked by polir/ 
 as well as justice, and dejilored by the | ood and brave among maukind. — Haydn. 
 
POL 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 477 
 
 PO^ ND, coniimied. 
 
 er.M 30,000 Poles of all'^ges and condi- 
 tions in cold blood.] 
 Couriand is annexed to Russia- - 1795 
 
 Stanislaus resigns his crown ; final par- 
 tition of his kingdom - Nov. 25, 1795 
 Kosciusko set at liberty Dec. 25, 1796 
 Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburgh, 
 
 Feb. 12, 179S 
 Treaty of Tilsit iiohich see) - .July 7, 1807 
 ['I he central provinces form the duchy 
 of Warsaw, between 1807 and 1SI3.] 
 General Diet at Warsaw - June, 1812 
 
 New constitution - - Nov. 1815 
 
 Polish Diet opened - - Sept. 1820 
 
 Revolution commenced at Warsaw ; 
 the army declare in favor of the jDeo- 
 ple - - - Nov. 29, 1830 
 
 The Diet declares the throne of Poland 
 
 vacant - - - .Jan. 2-5, 1831 
 
 Battle of Growchow, near Praga : the 
 
 Russians lose 70iO men ; the Poles, 
 who keep the field, 2000 Feb. 20, 1831 
 Battle of Ostrolenka ; signal defeat of 
 
 the Russians ■ - May 26, 1831 
 
 The Russian, Dicbitsch, dies .June 10, 183] 
 Grand Duke Constantine dies. June 27, ISil 
 Battle of Winsk (see Winskj July 14, 1831 
 Warsaw taken (see Warsaw) Sept. 8, 1331 
 [This last fatal event terminated the 
 nemorable and glorious, but unfor- 
 tunate struggle of the Poles.] 
 Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, 
 decreeing that the kingdom of Poland 
 shall henceforth form an integral part 
 of the Russian empire Feb. 26, 1832 
 
 A powerful insurrection ; 40,000 march 
 
 on Cracow, but are defeated, Feb. 23, 1S4G 
 Cracow occupied by the Austrians, and 
 the treaty which had made it inde- 
 pendent, declared abrogated, Nov. 16, 1&16 
 Unsuccessful revolt at Cracow, Apr. 25, 1818 
 
 DUKES AND KINGS OP POLAND. 
 
 f 0. 550 
 
 700 
 
 7.50 
 760 
 
 804 
 
 810 
 
 815 
 
 830 
 
 842 
 
 861 
 
 802 
 
 913 
 
 964 
 
 999 
 
 ]025 
 
 1041 
 
 1058 
 
 x032 
 
 1102 
 
 li40 
 
 1145 
 
 1173 
 
 1178 
 
 1194 
 
 1200 
 
 1203 
 1206 
 
 1228 
 1279 
 
 Lechus I. His posterity held the 
 dukedom for about 150 years. 
 
 Cracus I. 
 
 Cracus II., assassinated by his brother. 
 
 Lechus II., deposed. 
 
 Venda, drowned herself. 
 
 Premislaus. who on being elected was 
 named Lescus or Less. 
 
 I,escus II., killed by the French. 
 
 Lescus III. 
 
 Popiel I. 
 
 Popiel II. 
 
 Piastus, a country peasant. 
 
 Zemo Vitus. 
 
 Lescus IV. 
 
 Zemomislaus. 
 
 Miecislaus, surnamed the Blind. 
 
 Boleslaus I., surnamed the Intrepid. 
 
 Miecislaus II., went mad. 
 
 Casimir the Pacific. 
 
 Boleslaus II., killed himself. 
 
 Uladislaus, surnamed Humanus. 
 
 Boleslaus III., surnamed Wry-mouth. 
 
 Uladislaus II., fled. 
 
 Boleslaus IV., the Curled. 
 
 Miecislaus III., deposed. 
 
 Casimir II., surnamed the Just. 
 
 Lescus v., relinquished. 
 
 Miecislaus IV., whose tyranny in a 
 few months restored Lescus V. ; but 
 for bad contluct he was again forced 
 to relinquish the government. 
 
 Uladislaus III. ; he vohmtarily retired. 
 
 Lescus v., a third time, being chosen 
 by the iiobles, assassinated ; suc- 
 ceeded by his son, an infant. 
 
 Boleslaus V., the Chaste. 
 
 Lescus VI., surnamed the Black, son 
 of Conrad, brother of Lescus V., 
 died 1289. An interregnum of five 
 years, when the Poles chose 
 
 1295 Premislaus, great duke of Poland, as- 
 
 sassinated. 
 
 1296 Uladislaus IV., surnamed Loeticus; 
 
 he refused the title of king ; deposed. 
 
 1300 Winceslaus. 
 
 1335 Uladislaus IV., again. 
 
 1333 Casimir the Great, kilied by a fall 
 from his horse, while hunting. 
 
 1370 Lev/is, king of Hungary, succeeded by 
 his daughter, 
 
 1333 HedwigiSj^'who married, in 
 
 1385 Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, who em- 
 braced the Christian religion, and 
 took the name of 
 Uladislaus V. ; united Lithuania to 
 Poland. 
 
 14-34 Uladislaus VI., killed in battle. 
 
 1444 Boleslaus, duke of Massovia. 
 
 1447 Casimir IV. 
 
 1492 John Albert. 
 
 1-502 Alexander, prince of Livonia. 
 
 1507 Sigismund I. 
 
 1548 Sigismund IL, Augustus, chose 
 
 1573 Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou, sue 
 ceeding to the French throne. 
 
 1576 Stephen Battory, prince of Transyl- 
 vania. 
 
 1587 Sigismund III., son to the king oi 
 Sweden. 
 
 1632 Uladislaus VII. 
 
 1648 John Casimir, abdicated. 
 
 1669 Michael Koribert Wiesnown. 
 
 1674 John Sobieski, died in 1697. An inter 
 regnura for a year. 
 
 1698 Frederick Augustus II., forced to re- 
 sign. 
 
 1704 Stanislaus I. , Leczinsky, forced to re 
 tire in 1710, 
 
 1710 Frederick Augustus II., again. 
 
 1733 Stanislaus I., again. 
 
 1733 Frederick Augustus III. 
 
 1764 StanislausAugustus resigns the crowa 
 
 So late as the 13th century, the Poles retained the custom of killing old mea 
 when past labor, and such children as were born imperfect. 
 
 POLAR REGIONS. For voyages of discovery to the, see North-west Pas- 
 scge. 
 
i7S THE world's trogress. [pom 
 
 POLE STAR. A star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of the con- 
 stellation called the LiUle Bear; its nearness to felie North Pole causes it ne- 
 ver to set to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the 
 seaman's guide. The discovery of the Pole Star is ascribed by the Chinese 
 to their emperor Hong Ti, the grandson (they sayj of Noah, who reigned 
 and flourished 1970 b. c.— Univ. Hist. 
 
 POLICE. That of London has been extended and regulated at various pe- 
 riods. Its jurisdiction! was extended 27 Elizabeth 1585, and 16 Charles I. 
 1610 ; and the system improved by various acts in subsequent reigns. The 
 London police grew out of the London watch, instituted about 1253. The 
 London police was remodelled by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel, by sts: ute, 
 June 19, 1829. Some advance has been made since 1810, in intioducing a 
 suitable police in New York and other large cities of the United States ; but 
 we are yet very far behind London in this matter. Probably no city in the 
 world, large or small, is so well provided as London with an efficient and 
 useful police force ; a force which not only detects and prevents crime, but 
 preserves order, quiet, and public convenience, in an admirable manner. 
 
 POLITICAL ECONOMY, or improvement of the condition of mankind. A 
 science justly viewed as the great high-road to public and private happiness. 
 Its historj^ may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's Wealth 
 of Nations. 1776. 
 
 POLITICIANS. A politician is described as a man well versed in policy, or 
 the well regulating and governing of a state, or kingdom ; a wise and cun- 
 ning man. — Pardon. The term was first used in France about a. d. 1569. — 
 Henault. 
 
 POLL-TAX. The tax so called was first levied in England a. d. 1378. The re- 
 bellion of Wat Tyler sprung from this impost (see Tijle?-), 1381. It was 
 again levied in 1513. By the 18th Charles II. every subject was assessed 
 by the head, viz. — a duke lOOZ., a marquis 80Z., a baronet 30/-., a knight 20Z., 
 an esquire lOZ., and every single pi'ivate person 12d., 1667. This grievous 
 impost was abolished by William III. at the period of the Revolution. 
 
 POLYGAMY. Most of the early nations of the world admitted polygamy. 
 It was general among the ancient Jews, and is still so among the Turks and 
 Persians. In Medea it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven 
 wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony is mentioned as the first who 
 took two wives; and the practice became frequent until forbidden by Arca- 
 dius A. D. 393. The emperor Charles V. punished this offence with death. 
 In England, by statute 1 James 1. 1603, it was made felony, but with bene- 
 fit of clergy. This offence is now punished with transportation. See 
 Ma/rriages. Poh^gamy forms an article of the Mormon Creed. 
 
 POLYGLOT. The term is derived from two Greek words denoting " many lan- 
 guages," and it is chiefly used for the Bible so printed. The Polyglot Bible 
 termed the Comptutensian Polyglot, in 6 vols, folio, was printed a. d. 1514-17 ; 
 the first edition at the expense of the celebrated cardinal Ximenes. Three co- 
 pies of it were printed on vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 483Z. 
 for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. The second Polyglot was printei 
 at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 vols, folio, in 1569. The third was printed at Pa- 
 ris, by Le Jaj^, in 10 vols, folio, 1628-45. The fourth in London, printed by 
 Bryan Walton, in 6 vols, folio, 1657. — Brunet. 
 
 POMPEII, Ruins of. This ancient city of Campania was partly demolished 
 by an earthquake in a. d. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, and was swallowed 
 up by an awful eruption of Vesuvius, accompanied by an earthqiuxke, on the 
 night of the 21th of August, a. d. 79. Many of the principal citizens ha^'^pen- 
 ed at the. lime to be assembled at a theatre where public spectacles weie 
 
pop] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 479 
 
 exhibited. The ashes buried the whole city, and covered tlie snri-ounding 
 country. After a hipse of fifteen centuries, a countryman, as he was turning 
 up the ground, accidentally found a bronze figure ; and this discovery attract- 
 ing the attention of tlie learned, further search brought numerous produc- 
 tions to light, and at length the city was once more shone on by the sun. 
 Ditterent monarchs have contributed their aid in uncovering the buried 
 city; the part first cleared \Yas supposed to be the main street, a. d. 1750. 
 
 rONDJCHERRY. Formerly the capital of French India, and first settled by 
 the French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and 
 was beseiged by the English in 1748. It was taken by the English forces in 
 January 1761, and was restored in 1763. Pondicherry was once more cap- 
 tured by the British, August 23, 1793 ; and finally in 1803, 
 
 PONTUS, The early history of this country (which seems to have been but a 
 portion of Cappadocia, and received its name from its vicinity tc the Pon- 
 tus Euxinus) is very obscure. Artabazes v\'as made king of Pontus bj Darius 
 Hystaspes. His successors were little more than satraps or lieutenants of 
 the kings of Persia, and are scarcely known even by name. 
 
 Art-ibazes made king of Pontus by Da- 
 
 E. c. 
 
 487 
 383 
 363 
 336 
 301 
 266 
 
 - 252 
 
 - 219 
 
 rius Hystaspes - 
 
 Reign olMithriLlates I. 
 
 Ariobarzanes invades Pontus - 
 
 Mithridates II. recovers it - 
 
 Mithridates III. reigns - 
 
 Ariobarzanes II. reigns 
 
 Mithridates lY. is besieged in his capi^ 
 tal by tlie Gauls, dec. 
 
 Miihridates makes an unsuccessful at- 
 tack upon the free city of Sinope, and 
 is obliged to raise the siege by the 
 Rhodians 
 
 Reign of Pharnaces ; he takes Sinope, 
 and makes it the capital of his king- 
 dom 183 
 
 Reign of Mithridates V. - - - 157 
 
 He IS murdered in the midst of his court 123 
 
 Mithridates VI., surnamed the Great, or 
 Eupator, receives the diadem at 12 
 years of age - - - - 123 
 
 Marries Laotlice, his own sister - - 115 
 
 Slie attempts to poison him ; he puts 
 her and Iter accomplices to death 
 
 Miiiiridates makes a glorious campaign ; 
 conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, Col- 
 chis, and other countries 
 
 He enters Cappadocia 
 
 His war with Rome 
 
 - 112 
 
 Tigranes ravages Cappadocia b. c. 
 
 Midiridates enters Bithynia, and makes 
 himself master ol' iwany Roman pro- 
 vinces, and puts 80,000 Romans to 
 death ..... 
 
 Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chaero- 
 nea ; 100,000 Cappadocians slain 
 
 Victories and conquests of Mithridates 
 up to this time - - . . 
 
 The fleet of Mithridates defeats tliat un- 
 der Lucullus, in two battles 
 
 Mithridates defeated by Lucullus 
 
 Miihridates defeats Fabjus - 
 
 But is defeated by Pompey 
 
 Miihridates stabs himself, and dies 
 
 Reign of Pharnaces 
 
 Battle of Zela (see Ze.la) ; Pharnaces 
 defeated by Cossar 
 
 Darius reigns - - . - 
 
 Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns 
 
 Polemon II. succeeds liis father - a. e. 
 
 Mithridates Vil. reigns 
 
 Pontus afterwards became a Roman 
 province, under the emperors. 
 
 Alexis Comnenus founded a new empire 
 of the Greeks at Trebisond, in this 
 country, a. d. 1204, which continued 
 till the Turks destroyed it in 1459. 
 
 8L 
 86 
 
 74 
 7-3 
 
 6!-; 
 
 C5 
 63 
 
 63 
 
 47 
 39 
 36 
 33 
 
 40 
 
 POOR LAWS. The poor of England till the time of Henry VIII. subsisted as 
 the poor of Ireland do to this day, entirely upon private benevolence. By 
 an ancient statute, 23 Edward III. 1348, it was enacted that none should 
 give alms to a beggar able to work. By the common law. the poor were to 
 be sustained by '" parsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that 
 none should die for default of sustenance ;" and by statute 15 Richard IT. 
 impro])riators were obliged to distribute a yearly sum to the poor But no 
 compulsory law was enacted till the 27th Henry VIII., 1535. The origin of 
 the present system of poor laws is referred to the 43d of Elizabeth, 1600. 
 
 £188,811 
 
 665.562 
 
 8191000 
 1,556,804 
 2,184,950 
 4,952,421 
 
 POPE. This title was originally given to all bishops. It was first adopted by tly- 
 geuus, A. D. 138; and pope Boniface III. procured Phc2as, emperor of tha 
 
 In 1580, the Poor Rates were 
 1680, they amounted to 
 1698, they amounted to - 
 1760, they amounted to 
 1785, they amounted to 
 1802, tliey amounted to 
 
 In 1815, the Poor Rates were 
 1820, they amounted to 
 1830, they amounted to 
 1835, they amounted to 
 1840, they amounted to 
 1845, they amounted to 
 
 £5,418.845 
 7,329^594 
 8,111,422 
 6,356,ai5 
 5,468,'-:99 
 5,543,650 
 
)v THE world's riiOGRESS. [ POI 
 
 East, to confine it to the prelates of Rome, 606. By the connivance of Pho- 
 cas also, the pope's supremacy over the Christian church was established. The 
 custom of kissing- the pope's toe was introduced in 708. The first sovereign 
 act of the popes of Rome was bj^ Adrian I., who caused money to be coined 
 with his name, 780. Sergius II. was the first pope who changed his name, 
 on his election in 844. Some contend that it was Sergius I. and others John 
 XII. or XIII. See Names. John XVIIL, a layman, was made pope 1024. The 
 first pope who kept an army was Leo IX. 1054. Gregory VII. obliged Henry 
 IV., emperor of Germany, to stand three days in the depth of winter, bare- 
 footed, at his castle g-ate, to implore his pardon, 1077. The pope's authority- 
 was lirmly fixed in England 1079. Appeals from English tribunals to the 
 pope were introduced 19 Stephen, 1154. — Viner's Statutes. Henry II. of Eng- 
 land held the stirrup of pope Alexander III. to mount his horse, 1161; and 
 also for Becket, 1170.* Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI.'s crown 
 o(F his head while kneeling, to show his prerogative of making and unmak- 
 ing kings, 1191. The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom of 
 England, 1226. The papal seat was removed to Avignon, in France, in 1308, 
 for'seventy years. The Holy See's demands on England were refused by 
 parliament, 1363. Appeals to Rome from England were abolished 1533. — 
 Vmer. The words " Lord Pope" were struck out of all English bookS; 1541. 
 The papal authority declined about 1600. Kissing the pope's toe and other 
 ceremonies, were abolished by Clement XIV. 1773. The pope beca,me des- 
 titute of all political influence in Europe, 1787. Pius VI. was burnt in efligy 
 at Paris 1791. He made submission to the French republic, 1796. Was 
 expelled from Rome, and deposed. February 22, 1798, and died at Valence, 
 August 19, 1799. Pius VII. was elected in exile, March 13, 1800. Was 
 dethroned May 13. 1809. Remained a prisoner at Fontainebleau till Napo- 
 leon's overthrow ; and was restored May 24, 1814. Pope Pius IX. elected 
 June 1846, decrees a senate of 100, Oct. 2, 1847. Riot at Rome, new ministrj^, 
 May 1, 1848. Count Rossi, the pope's prime minister, assassinated Nov. 
 16. 1848. Attack of the people on the Quirinale ; the pope yields and 
 g-rants a liberal ministry, Nov. 16. After being a prisoner in his palace 
 for a week, the pope escapes in disguise of a servant to Mola-di-Gaeta, Nov. 
 24, and thence goes to Portici, near Naples. Roman republic proclaimed 
 Feb. 9, 1849. See Rome. The pope returned to Rome, April 1850. See 
 Italy ; Rome; Reformation, i^c. 
 
 POPES SINCE THE REFORMATION. 
 
 1513 Leo X. ; his grant of indulgences, for 
 crime led to the reformation. 
 
 1522 Adrian VI. 
 
 i523 Clement VII. ; denounced Henry VIII. 
 of England. 
 
 1.534 Paul III. 
 
 1.550.IuliusIII. 
 
 1555 Marcellus II. ; died in 21 days. 
 
 1555 Paul IV. ; fiery and haughty. 
 
 1.5.59 Pius IV. 
 
 1566 Pius V. 
 
 1572 Gregory XIII. ; learned canon ; re- 
 formed the Calendar, (lohich see). 
 
 1585 Sixtus V. ; supposed poisoned. 
 
 1590 Urban VII. ; died 12 days after. 
 
 1590 Gregory XIV. 
 
 1591 Innocent IX. ; died in 2 months. 
 
 1592 Clement VIII. ; learned and just. 
 1605 Leo XI. ; died same month. 
 1605 Paul V. 
 
 1621 Gregory XV. ; beneficent. 
 1623 Urban VIII. 
 
 1644 Innocent X. ; violent and cruel. 
 1655 Alexander VII. ; liberal and learned. 
 1667 Clement IX. ; died of grief. 
 1670 Clement X. 
 
 1676 Innocent XL ; reformed abuses. 
 1689 Alexander VlII. 
 1691 Innocent XII. ; abolished nepotism. 
 1700 Clement XI. 
 
 1721 Innocent XIII. ; the eighth pontiff of 
 his family. 
 
 * '-^ When Louis, king of France, and Hemy II. of England, met pope Alexander III. at the castle 
 0/ Torcj, on the Loire, they both dismounted to receive him, and holding each of them one of the 
 reins of his bridle, walked on foot by his side, and conducted him in that submissive manner into 
 the castle." — Hume. Pope Adrian IV. was the only Englis^hman that ever obtained the tiara. His 
 arrogance was such, that he obliged Frederick I. to prostrate himself before him, kiss his foot. Hold 
 his slirrup, and lead the white palfrey on which he rode. His name was Nicholas Brek^ivjieare. 
 lie was elected to the popedom in 1154. 
 
FOP j 
 
 DICTION^\KY OF DATES. 
 
 481 
 
 ISOO Cardinal Chiaramonte, elected at Ven 
 
 ice, as Pius Vil., March 13. 
 
 1823 Annibal della Geiiga,Leo XIL, Sept.28 
 
 1831 Mauio Capellari, Gregnry Xyi..Feb.2 
 
 1846 Mastai Ferretti, Pius IX., iciugurate'l 
 
 June 21, aged 54. - - J uae I*i. 
 
 Views, from pai;e 
 
 rOi'ES, continued. 
 
 1724 Benedict XIU. 
 
 1730 Clement XII. ; reformed al)uses. 
 
 1740 Benedict XIV. ; wise and pious. 
 
 1758 Clement XIII. 
 
 1769 Clement XIV. Ganganelli. 
 
 1775 Pius VI., February 14. 
 
 For Succession of Popes to the Reformation, see Tabular 
 50 to page 115. 
 
 POPE JOAN, It is fabulously asserted that in the ninth century, a female, 
 named Joan, conceived a violent passion for a youug monk named Felda. 
 and in order to he admitted into his monastery assumed the male habit. 
 On the death of her lover, she entered on the duties of professor, and being 
 very learned, was elected pope when Adrian 11. died in 872. Other scan- 
 dalous particulars follow ; " yet until the Reformation the tale was repeated 
 and believed without offence." — Gibbon. 
 
 POPISH PLOT. This plot is said to have been contrived by the Catholics to 
 assassinate Charles II. ; concerning which, even modern historians have 
 affirmed, that some circumstances were true, though some were added, and 
 others much magnified. The popish plot united in one conspiracy three 
 particular designs : to kill the king, to subvert the government, and extir- 
 pate the Protestant religion. Lord Stafford was convicted of high treason 
 as a conspirator in the Popish plot, and was beheaded, making on the 
 scaffold the most earnest protestations of his innocence, Dec. 29, 1680. — 
 Rapin. 
 
 POPULATION. The population of the world may now, according to the best 
 and latest authorities, Balbi, Hanneman, the Almwnac de Gotha^ <S6C., be 
 stated in round numbers at 1050 millions. Of these, Europe is supposed to 
 contain 270 millions ; Asia, 565 millions ; Africa, 115 millions ; America, 75 
 millions ; and Australasia, 25 millions. The population of England in a. d. 
 1377 was 2.092.978 souls. In a little more than a hundred years, 1483 it 
 had increased to 4,689,000. The following tables of the population of the 
 United Kingdom are from official retiirns : — 
 
 POPULATION OF ENGLAND AND WALES DECENNIALLY FOR ONE HUNDRED YEARS. 
 
 Year 1700 
 1710 
 1720 
 1730 
 1740 
 1750 
 1760 
 
 Year 1790 
 1800 
 1810 
 1820 
 
 Population 5,475,000 
 
 ditto 5,240,000 
 
 ditto 5,505,000 
 
 ditto 5,796,000 
 
 ditto 6,064,000 
 
 ditto 6,467,000 
 
 ditto 6,736,000 
 
 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Year 1830 
 1840 - 
 
 Year 1770 
 1780 
 1790 
 1801 
 1821 
 1841 
 
 Population 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 
 7,428,000 
 
 7,953.000 
 
 8,675,000 
 
 10,942,646 
 
 14,391,631 
 
 18,844,4a4 
 
 Population 3,929.827 
 ditto 5,305,925 
 ditto 7,239,814 
 ditto 9,638,131 
 
 Population 12.866,920 
 ditto 17,063,353 
 See the several States. ' 
 
 PRESENT POPULATION OP THE CHIEF KINGDOMS AND CITIES OP THE WORLD. 
 
 Chinese empire 
 
 {Balbi) ■ . 180,000.000 
 
 Russia - - - 58,-500,000 
 
 Russian empire - 72,000,000 
 
 France - - 36,500,000 
 
 Austria - - - 34,599,000 
 Great Britain and 
 
 Ireland - - 27,000,000 
 British einpire - 158,000,000 
 
 Japan - - - 27,000,000 
 
 Spain - - - 17,1 30,000 
 Spanish empire 
 
 {total) - - - 19,500,000 
 
 Pruss. monarchy 
 United States of 
 
 America* 
 Turkey - - - 
 Ottoman empire 
 
 {total) - 
 Persia - - - 
 Mexico 
 Kingdom of the 
 
 twoSkilies- - 
 Brazil - 
 
 Sardinia - - - 
 Morocco 
 
 16,550,000 
 
 17,06.3,000 
 12,000,000 
 
 24,500.000 
 
 11.800,000 
 
 9,500,000 
 
 8,750,000 
 6,250.000 
 5,800,000 
 5,200,000 
 
 Holland - - - 
 Dutch monarchy 
 
 {total) 
 Bavaria - - - 
 Sweden and Noi- 
 
 way - 
 Belgium- - - 
 Poland 
 
 Portugal - - 
 Republic of Co- 
 lumbia - 
 Eccle.s. States- - 
 British America - 
 
 5,10r,,0oG 
 
 14,750,000 
 4,600,000 
 
 4,550,000 
 4,50' ',000 
 4,250,000 
 3,950,000 
 
 3..3.50,0f-)0 
 2,970,GC>0 
 2.950,(i00 
 
 In 1810. In 1&'*, estimated at 22,000,000. 
 21 
 
482 
 
 
 THE 
 
 WORLD'S rnOGRESS. 
 
 
 { POE 
 
 LATION, contiimcd. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 2,450,00(1 
 
 St. Petersburg!! - 
 
 405,000 
 
 Hamburgh 
 
 172,031. 
 
 Denmark - - 
 
 2,400.000 
 
 Vienna - - - 
 
 395,000 
 
 Lyons 
 
 168.OO0 
 
 Hanover 
 
 1,780,000 
 
 New York (1845) 
 
 371.000 
 
 Palermo - 
 
 147;00C 
 
 Wineniberg - - 
 
 ] .080,000 
 
 Moscow 
 
 355;000 
 
 Marseilles - 
 
 146,000 
 
 Saxony 
 
 1.650.000 
 
 Grand Caii-o - - 
 
 3-35,000 
 
 Copenhagen • - 
 
 145,0(-i0 
 
 Tuscany - - - 
 
 i;550,'000 
 
 Lisbon 
 
 298.000 
 
 Turin - 
 
 143,000 
 
 Baden 
 
 1,400,000 
 
 Aleppo - - - 
 
 280,000 
 
 Seville - - - 
 
 142,000 
 
 CITIES. 
 
 
 Berlin - 
 
 280,000 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 14l,O0C 
 
 Cities. 
 
 Inhab. 
 
 Amsterdam - - 
 
 274,000 
 
 Tunis - - - 
 
 138.000 
 
 London {Parlia- 
 
 
 Madrid 
 
 270,000 
 
 Baltimore (1818) 
 
 134,000 
 
 mentary Ret.) 
 
 1.776,556 
 
 Philadelphia (1848) 
 
 258,000 
 
 Prague 
 
 133,(KXI 
 
 Jeddo irejmted) • 
 
 1,680,000 
 
 Bordeaux - • 
 
 247,000 
 
 Smyrna - - - 
 
 132.a)0 
 
 I'ekin (reputed) 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 Bagdad 
 
 245,000 
 
 Brussels 
 
 !30;000 
 
 Taris - 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Mexico - - - 
 
 £25.000 
 
 Florence • - 
 
 i;>2;ooo 
 
 Nankin - - - 
 
 850,000 
 
 Rome - 
 
 224;000 
 
 Stockholm - 
 
 Ik 1,000 
 
 Cons'.an-inople - 
 
 •800,ai0 
 
 Rio Janeiro • - 
 
 200,000 
 
 Munich - - - 
 
 ll.iOOO 
 
 Calcutta - 
 
 710,000 
 
 Milan - 
 
 193,000 
 
 Dresden 
 
 ll^LOOO 
 
 Madras - - - 
 
 435,000 
 
 Barcelona - - 
 
 183,000 
 
 Boston (1845) - - 
 
 114:000 
 
 Naples 
 
 410,000 
 
 
 
 Fi-ankfort - 
 
 iio;ooo 
 
 PORCELAIN. Porcelaine. Said to be derived from Pour cent annies, it being 
 formerl}^ believed that the materials of porcelain were matured under 
 ground 100 years. It is not known who first discovered the art of making 
 porcelain, nor is the date recorded ; but the manufacture has been carried 
 on in China at King-te-ching, at least since a. d. 442, and here still the finest 
 porcelain is made. It is first mentioned in Europe in 1531, shortly after 
 which time it was known in England. See China Porcelain^ and Dresden 
 Cfiina. 
 
 PORTLAND, the largest town in Maine, formerly part of Falmouth; burnt by 
 t\\Q British, Oct. 1775. Population in 1800, 3.677 ; in 1820, 8.581 ; in 1840. 
 15,082. 
 
 PORTO BELLO. Discovered by Columbus, November 2, 1502. It was taken 
 from the Spaniards by the British under admiral Vernon, November 22, 
 1739. It was again taken by admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortifica- 
 tions, in 1742. Before the a.bolition of the trade by the galleons, in 1748, 
 and the introduction of register ships, this place was the great mart for the 
 rich commerce of Peru and Chili. 
 
 PORTO FERRAJO. Capital of Elba ; built and fortified by Cosmo I. duke 
 of Florence, in 1548 ; but the fortifications were not finished till 1628, when 
 Cosmo 11. completed them with a magnificence equal to that displayed by 
 the old Romans in their public undertakings. Here was the residence of 
 Napoleon in 1814-15. See Bonaparte\ Elba, and Prance. 
 
 PORTSMOUTH. The most considerable haven for men-of-war, and the most 
 strongly fortified place in England. Tlie dock, arsenal, and storehouses 
 were established in the reign of Henry VIII. 
 
 PORTUGAL. The ancient Lusitania. The name is derived from Porto Callo, 
 the original appellation of the city of Oporto. It submitted to the Roman 
 arras about 250 b. c. and underwent the same changes as Spain on the fall 
 of the Roman empire. Conquered by the Moors, a. d. 713. The}^ kept 
 possession till they were conquered by Alphonsus VI. the Valiant of Castile, 
 assisted by many other princes and volunteers. Among those who shone 
 most in this celebrated expedition was Henry of Lorraine, grandson of 
 Robert, king of France. Alphonsus bestowed upon him Theresa, his na- 
 tural daughter, and, as her marriage portion, the kingdom of Portugal, 
 which he was to hold of him, a. d. 1093. 
 
 Settlement of the Alains and Visisoths Alphonsus Henriquez defeats 5 Moorish 
 
 here - - - - "a. D. 472 kings, and is proclaimed king by his 
 
 Invasion by the Saracens - - 713 army - - - - - IJ^Si 
 
 The kinss of Asturias subdue some Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders in their 
 
 Saracen chiefs, and Alphonsos III. way to the Holy Land, he takes Lis- 
 
 establishes eijiscopai sees - - 900 bon from the Moors - - - 114^ 
 
Pur ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 483 
 
 rORTrjGAL, continued. 
 
 The kingdom of Algarve taken from the 
 Moors by Sancho I. - - -1189 
 
 Ueign of Dionysius I. or Denis, father 
 of his country, who builds 44 cities 
 or towns in Portugal - - - 1279 
 
 Military orders of Christ and St. James 
 instituted, - - - 1279 to 1325 
 
 John I., surnamed the Great, carries 
 his arms into Africa - - - 1415 
 
 Madeira and the Canaries seized - 1420 
 
 Passage to the East Indies, by the Cape 
 of Good Hope, discovered - - 149S 
 
 Discovery of the Brazils - - 150U 
 
 The Liquisition established - -1526 
 
 The kingdom seized by Philip II. of 
 Spain 1580 
 
 The Portuguese throve off the yoke, and 
 place John, duke of Braganza, on the 
 throne. His posterity still possess 
 the crown .... 1640 
 
 The great earthquake which destroys 
 Lisbon. See Earthquake • - 1755 
 
 Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and ■ 
 narrowly escapes death - - 1758 
 
 [This affair causes some of the first 
 families of the kingdom to be tortured 
 to death, their very names being for- 
 bidden to be mentioned ; yet many 
 were unjustly condemned, and their 
 mnocence was soon afterwards made 
 manifest. The Jesuits were also ex- 
 pelled on this occasion.] 
 
 Joseph, having no son, obtains a dis- 
 Densation from the pope to enable 
 his daughter and brother to intermar- 
 ry. See Incest. - . - 1760 
 
 The Spaniards and French invade Port- 
 ugal, which is saved by the valor of 
 the English - - 1762 and 17(53 
 
 Regency of John (afterwards king) 
 ovTxng to the queen's lunacy - - 1792 
 
 The Court, on the French invasion, 
 emigrates to the Brazils Nov. 2, 1807 
 
 Marshal Junot enters Lisbon, Nov. 29, 1807 
 
 Convention of Cintra (see article under 
 that name) - - Aug. 30, 1808 
 
 Portu£;al cedes Guiana to France - 1814 
 
 Revolution in Portugal - Aug. 29, 1820 
 
 Constitutional Junta - - Oct. 1, 1820 
 
 Return of the Court - -July 4, 1821 
 
 Independence of Brazil, the prince re- 
 gent made emperor - Oct. 12, 1822 
 
 The king of Portugal suppresses the 
 constitution - - June 5, 1823 
 
 Disturbances at Lisbon ; Don Miguel 
 departs, &c. - - May 1-9, 1824 i 
 
 Treaty with Brazil - Aug. 29, 1825 | 
 
 Death of JolinVL - Feb. 18, :82€ 
 
 Don Pedro grants a charter, and con- 
 firms the regency - April 26, 1826 
 
 He relinquishes the throne in favor of 
 his daughter Donna Maria May 2, 1826 
 
 Marquess of Chaves' insurrection at 
 Lisbon .... Oct. 6, 1626 
 
 Don Miguel and Donna Maria betroth- 
 ed - - - Oct. 29, 1826 
 
 Portugal solicits the assistance of Groat 
 Britain - - - Dec. 3, 182G 
 
 Departure of the first British auxiliary 
 troops for Portugal - Dec. 17, 1825 
 
 Don Miguel formally assumes the title 
 of king - - - -July 4, 1828 
 
 He dissolves the three estates July 12, 1828 
 
 Revolution at Brazil - April 7, 1831 
 
 Don Pedro arrives in England June 16, 1831 
 
 Insurrection in favor of the queen, in 
 which 300 lives are lost Aug. 21, 1831 
 
 Don Pedro's expedition sails from 
 Belle-isle - - - Feb. 9, 1832 
 
 At TerceiraDon Pedro proclaims him- 
 self regent of Portugal, on behalf of 
 his daughter - - April 2, 1SJ2 
 
 He takes Oporto - - - July 8, 1832 
 
 After various conflicts, Don Miguel ca- 
 pitulates to the Pedroites May 26, 1834 
 
 Don Miguel is permitted to leave the 
 country unmolested - May 31, 1834 
 
 Massacres at Lisbon - June 9, 1834 
 
 The queen declared by the Cortes to be 
 of ase - - - Sept. 15, 1^34 
 
 Don Pedro dies - - Sept. 21, 1834 
 
 Prince Augustus of Portugal (duke of 
 Leuchtenberg), just married to the 
 queen, dies - - March 28, 1835 
 
 The queen marries prince Ferdinand of 
 Saxe Coburg - - -Jan. 1, 183G 
 
 A sudden change of ministry leads to a 
 formidable revolution Oct. 9, 1846 
 
 Action at Evora ; the insurgents defeat- 
 ed by the queen's troops Oct. 23, 18-16 
 
 [Oporto, where a revolutionary junta 
 is established, and other large towns, 
 are seized by the insurgent army ] 
 
 Actions are fought at Viana, Valpasso?', 
 Braga, Ton-es-Vedras, &c., favorable 
 to the queen. Battle oi St. Ubes ; the 
 Lisurgents defeated, losmg 861 men 
 in killed and wounded - May 1, 1847 
 
 Intervention of England, France, and 
 
 &pain, signed in I'.ondon May 21, 1847 
 Claim of the United States on Portugal 
 for damages in the war of 1812, re- 
 sisted, and U. S. minister leaves Lis- 
 bon .... July, 1850 
 
 KINGS OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 A,D. 1093 Kmg of Lorraine, count or earl of Port- 
 ugal. 
 
 1112 Alphonso I. ; proclaimed king - 1139 
 
 1 185 Sancho I. 
 
 1212 Alphonso II., surnamed Crassus, or 
 the Fat. 
 
 1224 Sancho II., the Idle, deposed. 
 
 1247 Alphonsus III. 
 . 1279 Der>nis. 
 
 1325 Alphonsus IV 
 
 1-357 Peter ihe Severe. 
 
 1367 Ferdinand I., died 1383; an interreg- 
 num for 18 moiitb.s. 
 
 1385 John I., the Bastard, natural aon t« 
 
 Peter the Severe. 
 1433 Edward. 
 1433 Al phonsus V. 
 1481 John 11. 
 1495 Emanuel. 
 1.521 John m. 
 
 15.57 Sebastian, killed in Africa. 
 1573 Henry, the Cardinal. 
 1580 Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Enian 
 
 uel, deposed by Philp II. of S',»ain, 
 
 who united Portugal to his other do 
 
 minions, ill 1640. 
 
THE WORLD S mOGRESS. 
 
 ros 
 
 1750 Joseph. 
 
 1777 Mary Francos Isabella. 
 
 1799 John VI. 
 
 1826 Don Pedi'o ; he abdicates May 2, m 
 
 favor of his daughter. 
 1826 Maria de Gloria. 
 
 POIifUGAL, co7itlnued. 
 
 1640 John IV., duke of Braganza, dispos- 
 sessed the Spaniards, and was pro- 
 claimed kin?, Dec. 1. 
 
 10.56 Alplionsua VL 
 
 1668 Peier II. 
 
 1-37 John V. 
 
 POSTS. Posts originated in the regular couriers established by Cyrus, who 
 erected post-houses throughout the kingdom of Persia. Augustus was tho 
 first who introduced this institution among the Romans, and who employed 
 
 * ])Ost-chaises. This plan was imitated by Charlemagne about a. d. 800.-- 
 Ashe. Louis XL first established post-houses in France owing to his eager- 
 ness for news, and they were the first institution of this nature in Europe, 
 1470. — Renault. In England the plan commenced in the reign of Edward 
 IV., 1481, when riders on post-horses went stages of the distance of twenty 
 miles from each other in order to procure the king the earliest intelligence 
 of the events that passed in the course of the war that had arisen w^th the 
 Scots. — Gale. Richard III. improved the system of couriers in 1483. In 
 1543 similar arrangements existed in England. — Sadler^ s Letters. Post com- 
 munications between London and most towns of England, Scotland, and 
 Ireland, existed in 1635.— Strype. 
 
 POST-OFFICE, This General, of England. See preceding article. The first 
 chief postmaster of England was Mr, Thomas Randolph, appointed by 
 queen Elizabeth in 1581.* 
 
 THE REVENUE OF THE POST-OPFICE OF ENGLAND AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS, VIZ. 
 
 In 1643 It yielded 
 
 1653 Farmed to John Manley, 
 
 Esq., for 
 1663 Farmed to Daniel O'Neale, 
 
 Esq., for - 
 1674 Farmed fo : - - - 
 
 16S5 It yielded - 
 1707 Ditto - . - • 
 
 1764 Ditto 
 1800 Ditto - - - - 
 
 £5,000 
 10,000 
 
 In 1805 Great Britain - - 1,424,994 
 
 1815 Ditto - - - -1,755,898- 
 
 1820 United Kingdom - - 2,402,697 
 
 1825 Ditto - - - -2,255,239 
 
 1835 Ditto - - -2,353,340 
 
 1839 Last year of the 
 postage 
 
 heavy 
 
 1840 First year of the low rate, 
 1 penny for all distances 
 
 2,522,495 
 471,000 
 
 The first post-office in the colo- 
 
 21 ,.500 
 
 43.000 
 
 65;000 
 111,461 
 432.048 
 745,313 
 
 POST-OFFICE IN THE UiNITED STATES 
 
 nies was established in 1710, by act of Parliament for establishing a general 
 post-office for all her Majesty's dominions. During the revolution this de- 
 partment was, of course, controlled by Congress, and the Constitution of 
 the United States, 1789, provided for the continuance of this control — the 
 Postmaster-General being appointed by the President and Senate, as one of 
 the cabinet. For successive Postmaster- Generals &ee Administrations. The 
 fv>llowing table gives the statistics of the post-offices in the United States 
 jtt different times since 1790. 
 
 Year. 
 
 1790 
 
 1800 . 
 1810 • 
 
 1820 
 1830 
 1840 
 1845 ■ 
 1346 
 1847 ■ 
 l&i8 ' 
 
 No. of Post 
 Offices. 
 75 - 
 
 - 903 - 
 
 - 2,300 - 
 
 - 4,500 - 
 
 - 8,000 - 
 
 - 13.468 - 
 
 - 14; 183 - 
 
 - 14.601 - 
 
 - 15;i46 - 
 
 - 16,159 - 
 
 Amount of 
 Postage 
 
 - 280,804 
 
 - 551,684 
 -1,111,927 
 - 1,850,583 
 -4,539,265 
 
 - 4,289,842 
 -3,487, 1 99 1 
 
 - 3,955,893 1 
 
 - 4,371,077 1 
 
 Net Revenue. 
 
 - $5,795 
 
 - 66,810 
 
 - 55,715 
 
 t 
 
 t 
 
 t 
 
 t 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 Exter,t in miles 
 of PoH Rjads 
 
 - 1,875 
 
 - 20,817 
 
 - 36,406 
 ■ 72,492 
 
 - 115,000 
 
 - 155,739 
 . 143,940 
 . 152,865 
 
 - 153,818 
 
 - 163.208 
 
 - 44,227 
 The number of dead letters returned quarterly is estimated at 450,000. 
 
 * Even so late as between 1730 and 1740, the post was only transmitted three days a week be- 
 <.w jou Edinburgh and London ; and the metropolis, on one occasion, only SLiit a sitigle letter^ which 
 was for an Edinburgh banker, named Ramsay. 
 
 1 In all these years the receipts fell short of the e.'^penditures. 
 
 i The returns for 1846, 7, and 8, are for the first thi'ee years of the new law passed March 3, 1813, 
 reducing the letter postage to 5 cents under 300 miles, and 10 cents for all greater distances. 
 
pra] dictionary of dates. 485 
 
 POTATOES. Tl. c potato is a native of Chili and Peru. Potatoes were ori- 
 ginally carried to Eng-land from Santa Fe, in America, by sir John Haw- 
 kins, A. D. 156-3. Others ascribe this introduction to sir Francis Drake, in 
 1586; while their general introduction is mentioned .by many writers as 
 occurring- in 1592. Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Walter 
 Raleigh, who had large estates in that country, about Youghal, in the 
 county of Cork. It is said that potatoes were not known in Flanders until 
 1020. A fine kind of potato was first brought from America, by that 
 "patriot of every clime," the late Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Carding - 
 ton, near Bedford, 1765 ; and its culture became general soon after. It ia 
 affirmed that the Neapolitans once refused to eat potatoes during a famine. 
 — Butler. Potatoe disease first appeared in Ireland, &c,j causing great 
 ♦»larm and distress, Oct. 1845. 
 
 POTOSI, Mines of. These mines were discovered by the Spaniards in 1545, 
 and produce the best silver in America. They are in a mountain in the 
 form of a sugar-loaf. Silver was as common in this place as iron is in 
 Europe ; but the mines are now much exhausted, or at least little is got in 
 comparison of what was formerly obtained. 
 
 POUND. From the Latin Pondus. The pound sterling was in Saxon times, 
 about A. D. 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was its twentieth part, 
 consequently the latter was three times as large as it is at present. — Peachani. 
 The value of the Roman pondo is not precisely known, though some sup- 
 pose it was equivalent to an Attic mina, or 3^. 45. Id. Our avoirdupois 
 weight (avoir du poids) came from the French, and contains sixteen ounces ; 
 it is in proportion to our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen, — Chambers. 
 
 POWDERING THE HAIR. This custom took its rise from some of the ballad- 
 singers at the fair of St. Germain whitening their heads to make them- 
 selves ridiculous. Unlike other habits it was adopted from the low by the 
 high, and became very general about a. d. 1614. In England the powdered- 
 hair tax took place in May 1795, at which time the preposterous practice 
 of using powder was at its height ; this tax was one guinea for each person. 
 The hair-powder tax is still continued, though it yields in England under 
 7000Z. per year, and in Scotland about 250Z. It was abolished in Ireland, 
 
 PR^TORS. Magistrates of Rome. The office was instituted 365 b. c, when 
 one praetor only was appointed ; but a second was appointed in 252 b. c. 
 One administered justice to the citizens, and the other appointed judges 
 in all causes which related to foreigners. In the year of Ronie 520, 
 two more praetors were created to assist the consul in the government 
 of the provinces of Sicily and Sardinia, which had been lately conquered, 
 and two more when Spain was reduced into the form of a Roman province, 
 A. u. c. 551. Sylla the dictator added two more, and Julius Csesar increas- 
 ed the number to 10, and afterwards to 16, and the second triumvirate to 
 64. After this their numbers fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 12, till, 
 in the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, and their numbers 
 were reduced to three. 
 
 PRAGA, Battle of, in which 30,000 Poles were butchered by the merciless 
 Russian general Suwarrow, fought Oct, 10, 1794. Battle of Praga, in which 
 the Poles commanded by Skrznecki defeated the Russian army comn\and(.'d 
 by general Giesmar, who loses 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 prisoners, and 
 12 pieces of cannon ; fought between Grothoff and Wawer, March 31, 1831. 
 
 PRAGMATIC SANCTION. An ordinance relating to the church and some- 
 times state affairs ; and at one time particularly the ordinances of the kings 
 of France, wherein the rights of the Galilean church were asserted against 
 the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops. Also the em])eror's 
 letter by advice of his council, in answer to high personages in particular 
 
4S6 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ rR3 
 
 contingencies. The Pragmatic Sanction for settling tlie empire of Germany 
 in the house of Austria, a. d. 1439. The emperor Charles VI. published tho 
 Pi'agmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of male issue, his daughters should 
 succeed iu preference to the sons of his brother Joseph I., April 17, 1713, 
 and he settled his dominions on his daughter Maria Theresa in conformity 
 thereto, 1722. She succeeded in Oct. 1740 ; but it gave rise to a war, in 
 which most of the powers of Europe were engaged. 
 
 PRAGUE, Battle of, between the Imperialists and Bohemians. The latter, 
 who had chosen Frederick V. of the Palatine (son-in-law to our James I.) for 
 their king, were totally defeated. The unfortunate king was forced to fleo 
 with his queen and children into Holland, leaving all his baggage and money 
 behind him. He was afterwards deprived of his hereditary dominions, and 
 the Protestant interest was ruined in Bohemia; all owing to the pusilla-i 
 nimity and inactivity of James, Nov. 7, 1620. Prague was taken by the 
 Saxons in 1631 ; and by the Swedes in 1648. It was taken by storm by tho 
 French, in 1741; but they were obliged to leave it in 1742. In 1744, it was 
 taken by the king of Prussia ; but he was obliged to abandon it the same 
 3^ear. The great and memorable battle of Prague was fought May 6, 1757. 
 In this engagement the Austrians were defeated by prince Henry of Prussia, 
 and their whole camp taken ; their illustrious commander, general Brown 5, 
 was mortally wounded ; and the brave Prussian, marshal Schwerin, was 
 killed. After this victor}'', Prague was besieged b}^ the king of Prussia, but 
 he was soon afterwards obliged to raise the siege. 
 
 PPvAISE-GOD-BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT.' A celebrated parliament, so 
 called from one of the members (who had thus fantastically styled himsell 
 according to the fashion of the times), met July 4, 1653. This parliament 
 consisted of 144 members, summoned by the protector Cromwell ; they were 
 to sit for fifteen months, and then they wei-e to chose a fresh parliament 
 themselves. 
 
 PRATIQUE. The writing or license of this name was originally addressed by 
 the Southern nations to the ports of Italy to which vessels were bound, and 
 signified that the ship so licensed came from a place or country in a healthy 
 state, and no way infected with the plague or other contagious disease. 
 The pratique is now called a bill of health, and is still of the same intend 
 and import. — Ashe. 
 
 PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD, &c. They w^ere first introduced into the Chris 
 tian church about a. d. 190. — Eu'sebius. Prayers addressed to the Y^rgin 
 Mary and to the saints were introduced by pope Gregory, a. d. 593. The 
 mode of praying with the face to the east was instituted by pope Boniface 
 II., A. D. 532. 
 
 PRECEDENCE. Precedence was established in very early ages ; and in most 
 of the countries of the East and of Europe, and was amongst the laws of 
 Justinian. In England, owing to the disputes that prevailed among cour- 
 tiers respecting priority of rank and office, the order of precedency was 
 regulated chiefly by two statutes, namely, one passed 31 Henry VIIL, 1539 ; 
 and the other, 1 (reorge I., 1714. 
 
 THE QUEEN. 
 
 Prince of Wales. 
 Prince Albert. 
 Queen Dowager. 
 Queen's other sons. 
 Princess royal. 
 
 TABLE OF PRECEDENCY. 
 
 Princess Alice ; and other ! Archbishop of Canteitwrj. 
 
 princesses. . . ~. 
 
 Duchess of Kent. 
 Queen's uncles. 
 Queen's aunts. 
 Queen's cousins. 
 
 Lord Chancellor. 
 Archbishop of York. 
 *Lord high treasurer. 
 *I.oi-d president. 
 'Lord privy seal. 
 
 * If of the rank of barons. 
 
PRE 1 
 
 DICTIONArcY OF DATES, 
 
 4-87 
 
 PRECEDENCE, contbAied. 
 
 'I-ord high constable. 
 ILord great chamberlain of 
 England. 
 
 *Earl marshal. 
 
 *Lord high admiral. 
 
 Lord steward of the house- 
 hold. 
 
 Lord Chamberlain. 
 
 Dukes, according to patent. 
 
 Marquesses, according to 
 their patents. 
 
 Dukes' eldest sons. 
 
 Earls, according to their pa- 
 tents. 
 
 Marquesses' eldest sons. 
 
 Dukes' younger sons. 
 
 Viscounts, according to their 
 patents. 
 
 Earls' eldest sons. 
 
 Marquesses' younger sons. 
 
 Bishop of London. 
 
 Bishop of Durham. 
 
 Bishop of Winchester. 
 
 All other bishops, according 
 to their seniority of conse- 
 cration. 
 
 Secretary of State, being a 
 bai'on. 
 
 Commissioners of the great 
 seal. 
 
 Barons, according to their 
 patents. 
 
 [All the above, except the 
 royal family, hold their 
 precedence of rank by act 
 
 I COMMONERS. 
 
 The Speaker. 
 
 Treasurer, comptroller, and 
 
 vice-chamberJain of the 
 
 household. 
 Secretaries of State, if they be 
 
 under the degree of baron. 
 Viscounts' eldest sons. 
 Earls' younger sons. 
 Barons' eldest sons. 
 Knights of the Garter. 
 Privy councillors. 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer. 
 Chancellor of the duchy of 
 
 Lancaster. 
 Lord chief justice of the 
 
 queen's bench. 
 Master of the rolls. 
 Vice-chancellor. 
 Lord chief justice of the com- 
 mon pleas. 
 Lord chief baron. 
 Judges and barons, according 
 
 to seniority. 
 Hereditary bannerets. 
 Viscounts' younger sons. 
 Barons' younger sons. 
 Baronets. 
 
 Bannerets for life only. 
 Knights of the bath. 
 
 Grand Crosses. 
 Knights commanders. 
 Knights bachelors. 
 Eldest sons of the younger 
 
 sons of peers. 
 Baronets' eldest sons. 
 
 Knights of thi Garter's eldesi 
 sons. 
 
 Bannerets' eldest sons. 
 
 Knights of the bath's eldesi 
 sons. 
 
 Knights' eldest sons. 
 
 Baronets' younger sons. 
 
 Flag and field officers. 
 
 Sergeants-at-law. 
 
 Doctors, Deans, and Glifl.n 
 cellors. 
 
 Masters in chancery. 
 
 Companions of the" bath. 
 
 Gentlemen of the pr'vy 
 chamber. 
 
 Esquires of tf je knip^Iits of the 
 Bath. 
 
 Esquires by creation. 
 
 Esquires by office or cora^ 
 mission. 
 
 Younger so; 6 of knights of 
 the garter. 
 
 Sons of bannerets. 
 
 Younger sons of knights of 
 the bath. 
 
 Younger sons of knights ba- 
 chelors. 
 
 Gentlemen entitled to bear 
 arms. 
 
 Clergymen, not dignitaries. 
 
 Barristers at law. " 
 
 Officers of the army and 
 navy, not esquires by com- 
 mission. 
 
 Citizens, burgesses, &c. 
 
 31 Henry VI IL] 
 
 PREDESTINATION. The belief that God hath from all eternity nnchangeablr 
 appointed whatever comes to pass. This doctrine is the subject of one of 
 the most perplexing- controversies that have occurred among mankind. It 
 Avas taught by the ancient Stoics and earlj^ Christians ; and Mahomet intro- 
 duced the doctrine of an absolute predestination into his Koran in the 
 strongest light. The controversy respecting it in the Christian church arose 
 in the fifth century, when it was mamtained by St. Augustin ; and Lucidus. 
 a priest of Gaul, taught it a. d. 470. 
 
 PRESBURG, Peace of, between France and Austria, by which the ancient 
 states of Venice were ceded to Italy ; the principality of Eichstett, part of 
 the bishopric of Passau, the city of Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions 
 of Austria in Suabia, in Brisgau. and Ortenau, were transferred to the elec- 
 tor of Bavaria and the duke of Wirtemberg, who. as Avell as the duke of 
 Baden, were then created kings \>j Napoleon ; the independence of the Hel- 
 vetic republic was also stipulated, Dec. 26, 1805. 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS. A numerous and increasing sect of Christians, so called 
 from their maintaining that the government of the church appointed in the 
 New Testament was by Presbyteries, or associations of ministers and ruling 
 elders, equal in power, office, and in order. The first Presbyterian meeting- 
 house in England was established by the Puritans at Wandsworth, Surrey 
 Nov. 20, 1572. Presbyterianisra is the religion of Scotland. Its disting-uish- 
 ing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formulary of faith attri- 
 
 • Above all of their own rank only, by 31 Henry VIII. 
 t When in actual office only, by 1 George I. 
 
 N. B. TlcS priority of signing any treaty or public instrument by ministers of state 
 «nk of office, and net title. 
 
 \h lakt^n a J 
 
ABS THE world's progress [ Pits 
 
 buted to John Knox, and compiled by that reformei in 1560, It was 
 approved by the parhament, and ratified, 1567; and finally settled by an act 
 of the Scottish senate, 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of union with 
 England in 1707. 
 PRESIDENTS of the UNITED STATES. Washington, unanimously elecled 
 president of the federal convention, which sat at Philadelphia from May 25 
 to Sept. 17, 1787 ; and was unanimously elected first president of the United 
 States, April 6, 1789. See United States and Administrations. 
 
 PRESS, THE PRINTING. This great engine was of rude construction from 
 the period of the discovery of the art of printing, up to the close of tha 
 eighteenth century, when many improveinents were made. William^ Caxton, 
 a mercer of London, had a press set up at Westminster, 1471. — Slowe's 
 Cfiron. The earl of Stanhope's iron presses were in general use in 1806. 
 The printing-machine was invented hy Koenig in . 811. and Applegath's fol- 
 lowed. The Columbian press of Clj^mer was produced in 1814; and the 
 Albion press, an improvement on this last, came into use a few years after. 
 Printing by means of steam machinery was first executed in England at 
 The Times office, London, on Monday, November 28, 1814. Cowper's and 
 Applegath's rollers for distributing the ink upon the types were brought in, o 
 use in 1817. Vast improvements have been made in the United States within 
 a few years, both in hand and steam-presses. The most celebrated manufac- 
 turers, probably, are R. Hoe & Co., of New- York. Their largest presses 
 for newspapers are capable of throwing otf 10^000 sheets per hour, which is 
 so much in advance of any presses in Europe that they have supplied orders 
 from Paris. The presses of Seth Adams & Co., of Boston, are perhaps the 
 best in the world for book printing. See article Printing. 
 
 PRESS, Liberty of the. The imprimatur, "let it be printed," was much used 
 on the title-pages of books printed in the 16th and 17th centuries. The 
 
 - liberty of the press was restrained, and the number of master printers in 
 London and Westminster limited, by the star-chamber, 14 Charles I., 1638. 
 And again by act of parliament, 6 William III., 1693. The celebrated toast, 
 "The liberty of the press — it is like the air we breathe — if we have it not 
 we die," was first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, London, at a Whig 
 dinner in 1795. Presses were licensed, and the printer's name required 
 to be placed on both the first and last pages of a book, July 1799. In France 
 and Germany the liberty of the press has been occasionally granted, but 
 again restricted by the reactionary governments. In the United States it 
 was fully guaranteed by the constitution, 
 
 PRESSING to death. A punishment in England, referred to the reign of 
 Henry III. or of Edward I., and on the statute book until the latter part of 
 the last century. A remarkable instance of this death, in England, i? the 
 following : — Hugh Calverly, of Calverly in Yorkshire, esq., having murdered 
 t\\o of his children and stabbed his wife in a fit of jealousy, being ai'raign- 
 ed for his crime at York assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon pressed to 
 death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed upon his breast, 3 James 
 I. 1605 — Stowe's Chron. 
 
 PRESTONPANS, Battle op, between the Young Pretender, prince Charles 
 Stuart, heading his Scotch adherents, and the roj^al army under sir John 
 Cope. The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, and was forced to 
 fly at the very first onset. Sir John Cope precipitately galloped from the 
 field of battle to Berwick-upon-Tweed, where he was the first to announce 
 his own discomfiture. His disgrace is perpetuated in a favorite Scottish 
 ballad, called, from the doughty hero, "Johnie Cope." Fonght Sept. 21, 
 1745. 
 
 PRETENDER, The person known in English history by the title of the Pretender^ 
 
PRlJ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 48t 
 
 or Chevalier do St. Geor^^e, was the son of James II., born in 1688, and ac« 
 fcnowledged by Louis XIV. as James III. of England, in 1701. He was pro- 
 claimed, and his standa?'d set up, at Braemar and Castletown in Scotland, 
 Sept. 6, 1715 ; and he landed at Peterhead, in Abei'deenshire, from France, 
 to encourage the rebellion that the earl of Mar and his other adherents had 
 promoted, Dec. 26, same year. This rebellion having been soon suppressed, 
 the Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he arrived at Gravelines), 
 Feb. 4, 1716 ; and died at Rome, Dec. 30, 1765, 
 
 PRETENDER, the Young. The son of the preceding, called prince Charles^ 
 born in 1720. He landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king, June 
 1745. He gained the battle of Prestonpans, Sept. 21, 1745, and of Falkirk, 
 Jaifuary 18, 1746 ; but was defeated at Culloden, April 16, same year, and 
 sought safety by flight. He continued wandering among the frightful wilds 
 of Scotland for nearly six months, and as 30,000/. was oifered for taking him, 
 he was constantly pursued by the British troops, often hemmed round by 
 his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky accident, and he at length es- 
 caped from the isle of Uist to Morlaix. He died March 3, 1788. His natur- 
 al daughter assumed the title of Duchess of Albany ; she died in 1789. His 
 brother, the cardinal York, calling himself Henry IX. of Jngland, born 
 March 1725, died at Rome in August 1807. 
 
 PRIDE'S PURGE. In the civil war against Charles I. colonel Pride, at the 
 li ead of two regiments, surrounded the house of parliament, and seizing 
 in the passage 41 members of the Presbyterian party, sent them to a low 
 room, then called heLl. Above 160 other members were excluded, and none 
 admitted but the most furious of the independents. This atrocious invasion 
 of parliamentary rights was called Pride's Purge, and the privileged mem- 
 bers were named the Rmnp, to whom nothing remained to complete their 
 wickedness, but to murder the king, 24 Charles I., 1648. — Goldsmith. 
 
 PRIESTS. Anciently elders, but the name is now given to the clergy only. 
 In the Old Testament the age of priests was fixed at thirty years. Among 
 the Jews, the dignity of high or chief priest was annexed to Aaron's fa- 
 mily, 1491 B. c. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil government and 
 the crown were superadded to the high priesthood ; it was the jjeculiar 
 privilege of the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no court but 
 that of the great Sanhedrim. The heathens had their arch-flamen or 
 high-priest, and so have the Christians, excepting among some particular 
 sects. 
 
 PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and for- 
 merly set forth or published by authority, as the first book children should 
 publicly learn or read in schools, containing prayers and portions of the 
 Scripture. Copies of primers are preserved of so early a date as 1539. — 
 
 Ashe. 
 
 PRIMOGENITURE, Right of, an usage brought down from the earliest times. 
 The first born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over his brethren, 
 and in the absence of his father was priest \ji the family. In England, by 
 the ancient custom of gavel-kind, primogeniture was of no account. It 
 came in with the feudal law, 3 William I., 1068. 
 
 PRINTING. The greatest of all the arts. The honor of its invention has 
 been appropriated to Mentz, Strasburg, Haerlem, Venice, Rome, Florence, 
 Basle and Augsburg ; but the claims of the three first only are entitled to 
 attention. Adrian Junius awards the honor of the invention to Laurenzes 
 John Coster of Haerlem, " who printed with blocks, a book of images and 
 letters, Speculuvi Hamance. Salvatonis, and compounded an ink more viscous 
 and tenacious than common ink, which blotted, about a. d. 1438." The 
 leaves of this book being printed on one side only, were af( ^rvvards pasted to- 
 
 21* 
 
490 
 
 THE WOPwLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [ PR* 
 
 ^tlier. John Faust established a printing office at Mentz, and printed the 
 TractaUis Petri Hispani, in 1442. John Guttenberg invented cut metal 
 types, and used them in printing the earliest edition of the Bible, which was 
 commenced in 14 i4, and finished in 1460. See Book. Peter Schseffer cast 
 the first metal types in matrices, and was therefore the inventor of complj:te 
 I'RiNTiNG, 1452. — Adrian Junius ; Du Frcsnoy. 
 
 Book of Psalms printed -1 a. D. 1457 
 
 The Durandi Rationale, first work 
 primed with cast metal types 1 - 1459 
 
 [Printing was introduced into Oxford, 
 about this time. — Collier. But this 
 statement is discredited by Dibdin.] 
 
 A Livy printed. — Dufresnoy - 1 • 1460 
 
 The first Bible completed.— /dew'? - 1460 
 
 [Mentz taken and plundered, and the art 
 of printing, in the general ruin, is 
 spread to other towns] - - 1462 
 
 The types were uniformly Gothic, or 
 old German (whence our English, or 
 Black Letter) until - - - 1465 
 
 Greek characters (quotations only) first 
 used, same year - - - - 1465 
 
 Cicero de Officiis printed {Blair) - 1466 
 
 Roman characters, first at Rome - 1467 
 
 A Chronicle, said to have been found 
 in the archbishop of Canterbury's pa- 
 lace (the fact disputed), bearing the 
 date Oxford, anno - - - 1468 
 
 William Caxton, a mercer of London, 
 set up the first press at Westminster' 1471 
 
 lie printed Willynm Caxton's Recuyel 
 of the Historyes of Troy, by Rauid 
 le Feure. — Phillips - - - 1471 
 
 His first pieces were, A Treatise nn llie 
 Game of Chess, and Tally's Offices 
 (see below). — Died in - - - 1474 
 
 jEsop's Fables, printed by Caxton, is 
 supposed to be the first book with its 
 leaves numbered - - - 1484 
 
 Aldus cast the Greek alphabet, and a 
 Greek book printed {ap Aldi) - - 1476 
 
 He introduces the Italic - - - 1496 
 
 The Pentateuch, in Hebrew - A. d. 1432 
 
 Homer, infolio, beautifully done at Flo- 
 rence, eclipsing all former printij:^, 
 by Demetrius ;453 
 
 Printing used in Scotland - - - 'J&J9 
 
 The first edition of the whole Bible was, 
 strictly speaking, the Complutensian 
 Polyglot of cardinal Ximenes (see 
 Polyglot 1517 
 
 The Liturgy, the first book printed in 
 Ireland, by Humphrey Powell - - 1.551) 
 
 The first Newspaper printed in England 
 (see Newspapers) .... 1588 
 
 First patent granted for printing - 1591 
 
 First printing-press improved by Wil- 
 liam Blaeu, at Amsterdam - - 1601 
 
 First printing in America at Cambridge, 
 Mass., when the Freeman's Oathaad 
 an Almanac were printed 
 
 First Bible printed in Ireland was at 
 Belfast. — Hardy's Tuur. - 
 
 First types cast in England by Caslon.- 
 Phillips. 
 
 S:ereotype printing suggested by Wil- 
 liam tied, of Edinburgh. — Nichols. 
 
 The present niode of stereotype inven- 
 ted by Mr. Colden, of New York 
 
 Stereotype printing was in use in Hol- 
 land in the last century. — Phillips.] 
 See Stereotype. 
 
 The printing-machine was first suggest- 
 ed by Nicholson .... 1790 
 
 The Stanhope press was m general use 
 in 1806 
 
 Machine printing (see Press) - • 1811 
 
 Steam machinery (see Press) - - 1814 
 
 .639 
 
 1704 
 1720 
 1735 
 
 1779 
 
 TITLES OF THE EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND WYNKYN DE WORDE. 
 
 The GuT/ipand Playeofthe Chesse. Trans- 
 lated out of the Frenc/ie and empryiited 
 by me Wiliia m Caxton Fynysshid the last 
 day of Marche the yer of our Lord God a 
 thousand f owe hondred and Ixxiiij. 
 
 TULLY. 
 
 The Boke of Tulle of Olde age Emjwynted 
 by me simple persone William Caxton in 
 to Englysshe as thep ay sir solace and re- 
 verence of men growyncr in to old age the 
 xij day of August the yere of our lord 
 M.cccc.lxxxJ. — Herbert. 
 
 THE POLYCRONYCON. 
 
 7Vie Polycronycon cunteyning the Berynges 
 and Dedes of many Tymes in eyghlBokes. 
 Imprinted by William Caxton f</"/e?- hav- 
 ing somewhat chaunged the I'ude and 
 olde Eyiglysshe, that is to wete (to wit) cer- 
 
 tayn Words ichich in these Days be ney- 
 ther vsyd ne understatiden. Ended the 
 second day of Juyll at Westmestre the 
 xxij yere of the Regne ofKynge Edward 
 the fourth, and of tlie Incarnacion of oure 
 Lord a Thousand four Hondred four 
 Score uiul twe-yne [1482.] — Dibdin's Tvp. 
 Antiq,. 
 
 THE CHRONICUES. 
 
 The Cronicles of Englond Enpnted by me 
 Wyllyam Caxton thabbey of Westmynstre 
 by London the v day of Juyn the yere 
 of thincaniucion of our lord god 
 m cccc.lxxx. 
 
 polycronicon. 
 
 Polycronycon. Ended the thyrtenth daye 
 of Apryll the tenth yere of the regne of 
 kini^e Hami the seuenth and of the Jit- 
 
 ' To the west of the Sanctuary, in Westminster Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, 
 where the first printing-press in England was erected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged b/ 
 the learned Thomas Milling, then aJSbot. He produced " The Game and Play of the Chesse," tt o 
 first book ever printed in these kingdoms. There is a slight difference about the place in which it 
 was printed, li ut all agree that it was within the precincts of this religious house. — Ltigh. 
 
pr:] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 491 
 
 PRINTING, continv£d. 
 
 carnacyon of our lord mcccclxxxxv 
 Emprynted by Wynkyn Theworde at 
 Wesiiitestre. 
 
 HILL OF PERFECTION. 
 
 The Hylle of Perfection 'er^iprynled at the 
 instance of the reverend relygyous fader 
 The. Prior of the hous of S't. A7in. t/ie or- 
 der of the chartero2ise Accomj}/yshe[d] 
 andfynysshe[d] att Westmy7isier the uiii 
 day ofjaneur the yere of our lord Thou- 
 sande cccc.lxxxxvii. And i?i thexii y^re 
 qfkynge Henry the vii by me wynkyn de 
 worde. — Ames, Herbert, Dibdin. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 The JDescrypcyo7i of Eiiglonde Walys Scot- 
 land and Ireland speaking of the Aoblesse 
 and Wort hynesse of the same tyi.nysshed 
 and enpry7ited in Flete strete in the syne 
 of the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde 
 the yere of our lord a m.ccccc and ij. men- 
 sis Mayiis [mense Mail]. — Dibdins Typ. 
 Ant. 
 
 the festival. 
 
 The Festyvall or Sermons on sondays and 
 holidais taken out of the golden legend en- 
 
 prynted at London in F letestrete at ye syne 
 of ye Sonne by wynkyn de worde. In the 
 yere ol'our lord m.ccccc. viii. And elided 
 the xi daye of Maye. — Ames. 
 
 THE lord's PUAYER. 
 
 As printed by Caxton in 1483. 
 
 Father our that art in heavens, halloiced bt 
 thy name : thy kyjigdonie come to us ; thy 
 will be done in earth as is in heaven : oure 
 evejy days bred give us to day ; and for- 
 give us oure tresspasses, as we forgive 
 them that tresspiass against us ; and lead 
 us not into teniptution. but deliver usfroin 
 all evil sin, am^n. — Lewis's Life op 
 Caxton. 
 
 a placard. 
 As printed by William Caxton. 
 
 If it jjlese ony man spirituel or temporel to 
 bye 07iypies cflwo or thre C07ne7noraci6s of 
 Scdisburi use' enpryntid after the f 07-771,6 
 of this presZt lettre whiche ben wel and 
 truly correct, late /^^w^ co7ne to icestmon- 
 esler in to the al7no7iestye at the reed p>ale 
 [red pale] and he shall have them good 
 there. — Dibdin 's Typ. Anti^. 
 
 Among the earlj^ printers, the only points used were the comma, parenthesis, 
 interrogation, and full stop. To these succeeded the colon ; afterwards the 
 semicolon ; and last the note of admiration. The sentences were full of 
 abbreviations and contractions ; and there were no running-titles, numbered 
 leaves or catch-words. Our punctuation appears to have been introduced 
 with the art of printing. 
 
 PRINTED GOODS. The art of calico-printing is of considerable antiquity, 
 and there exist specimens of Egyptian cotton dyed by figured blocks many 
 hundred years old. A similar process has been resorted to even in tho 
 Sandwich Islands, where they use a large leaf as a substitute for the block. 
 See article Cotton. The copyright of designs secured in England by 2 Vic- 
 toria, 1839. 
 
 PRIORIES. They were of early foundation, and are mentioned in a. d. 722 in 
 England. See Abbeys and Monasteries. The priories of aliens v/ere first 
 seized upon by Edward I. in 1285, on the breaking out of a war between 
 England and France. They were seized in several succeeding reigns on 
 the like occasions, but were usually restored on the conclusion of peace. 
 These priories were dissolved, and their estates vested in the crown, 3 
 Henry V. 1414. — Ri/iners Fadera. 
 
 PRISONERS OF WAR. Among the ancient nations, prisoners of war when 
 spared by the sword were usually enslaved, and this custom more or less 
 continued until about the thirteenth century, when civilized nations, instead 
 of enslaving, commonly exchanged their prisoners. The Spanish, French, 
 and American prisoners of war in England were 12 000 in number, Sept. 30, 
 1779. The number exchanged by cartel with France from the commence- 
 ment of the then war, was 44,000, June 1781. — Phillips. The English pri- 
 soners in France estimated at 6000, and the French in England, 27,000, 
 Sept. -1798. — Idem. The English in France amounted to 10,300, and the 
 French, &c., in England to 47,600, in 1811. — Idem. This was the greatest 
 
 * Romish Service books, user! at Salisbury by the devout, called Pies {Pica, Latin), as is sup 
 posed from the ditferent color ol the text and rubric. Our Pica is called Cice7'o by foreign prin* 
 6re. — Wheatley. 
 
492 THE world's progress. [ PRO 
 
 number, owing to the occasional exchanges made, up to the period of the 
 last war. 
 
 PRISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY, in England, owes its existence to the philan- 
 thropic labors of Sir T. F. Buxton, M."P. It was instituted in 1815, and held 
 its first public meeting in 1820. Its objects are, the amelioration of jails, by 
 the diffusion of information respecting their construction and management, 
 the classification and employment of the prisoners, and the prevention of 
 crime, by inspiring a dread of punishment, and by inducing the criminal, 
 on his discharge from confinement, to abandon his vicious pursuits.— 
 Haydn. In the United States a Prison Discipline Society for the same object 
 was established in Boston in 1825. The Rev. Louis Dwight was its active 
 promoter and secretary. Great efforts have been made in several States for 
 the amelioration and improvement of prisoners ; and the various systems 
 adojjted and practised at Wethersfield, Conn., at Auburn, N. Y., Philadel- 
 phia, &c., have attracted the attention of statesmen and travellers from 
 Europe. Among those who have labored effectively in this matter is a lady 
 — Miss Dix, of New York — who has accomplished more than any other per- 
 son, for the welfare of prisoners and of the insane, and may deserve even a 
 higher name than the American Mrs. Fry. 
 
 PRIVY COUNCIL England. This assembly is of great antiquity. Instituted 
 by Alfred, a. d. 895. In ancient times the number was twelve ; but it was 
 afterwards so increased, that it was found inconvenient for secrecy and 
 despatch, and Charles II. limited it to thirty, whereof fifteen were the 
 principal officers of state (councillors ex officio), and ten lords and five com- 
 moners of the king's choice, a. d. 1679. The number is now indefinite. To 
 attempt the life of a privy-councillor in the execution of his office made 
 capital, occasioned by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter was 
 examining him on a charge of high treason, 10 Anne, 1711. 
 
 PRIZE MONEY. In the 'English navy the money arising from captures 
 made upon the enemy, is divided into eight equal parts, and thus distri- 
 buted by order of government : — Captain to have three-eighths, unless 
 under the direction of a flag-officer, who in that case is to have one of the 
 said three-eighths ; captains of marines and land forces, sea lieutenants. 
 &c., one-eighth : lieutenants of marines, gunners, admiral's secretaries, &c. 
 one-eighth ; midshipmen, captain's clerks, &c., one-eighth ; ordinary and 
 able seamen, marines. &c., two-eighths, 
 
 PROFILES. The first profile taken, as -recorded, was that of Antigonus, who 
 having but one eye, his likeness was so taken, 330 b. c. — Ashe. " Until the 
 end of the third century, I have not seen a Roman emperor with a full face ; 
 they were always painted or appeared in profile, which gives us the view of 
 a head in a very majestic manner." — Addison. 
 
 PROMISSORY NOTES. They were regulated and allowed to be made af=sign- 
 able in 1705. First taxed by a stamp in 1782 ; the tax was increased in 
 1804, and again in 1808. and subsequently. See Bills of Exchange. 
 
 PROPAGANDA FIDE. The celebrated congregation or college in the Romish 
 Church, Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, was constituted at Rome by popo 
 Gregory XV. in 1622. Its constitution was altered by several of the suc- 
 ceeding pontiffs. 
 
 PROPERTY TAX in England. Parliament granted to Henry VIII. a subsidy 
 of two-fifteenths from the commons and two-tenths from the clergy to aid 
 the king in a war with France, 1512. — Rapin. Cardinal Wolsey pro- 
 posed a tenth of the property of the laity and a fourth of the clergy 
 to the same king, 1522. The London merchants strenuously opposed this 
 tax : they were required to declare on oath the real value of tlieir effects ; 
 but they firmly refused, alleging that it was not possible for them to giv« 
 
PE,?;J DICTIONAP»,Y OF DATES. 49h 
 
 an exact account of their effects, part whereof was in the hands of corres- 
 pondents in foreign countries. At length, by agreement, the king waa 
 pL)ased to accept of a sum according to their own calculation of themselves, 
 — Butler. This tax was levied at various periods, and was of great amount 
 in the last years of the late war. The assessments on i ial property, under 
 the property-tax of 1815, were 51,898,423Z. 
 
 PROPHECY. The word prophet, in proper language, means one of the sacred 
 writers empowered by God to display futurity. We have in the Old Testa- 
 ment the writings of sixteen prophets ; i. e. of four greater, and twelve 
 lesser. The former are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ; the latter 
 are Hosea. Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Jonah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Ze- 
 phaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi. Prophecy is instanced in the 
 earliest timesl The prophetic denunciations upon Babylon were executed 
 by Cyrus, 638 b. c. God's judgment upon Jerusalem (^Isaiah, xxix. 1 — 8) 
 executed by Titus, a.d. 70. Many other instances of prophecy occur in 
 Script are. 
 
 PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. called a diet at Spires in 1529, to 
 request aid from the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means 
 for allaying the religious disputes which then raged, owing to Luther's op- 
 position to the Roman Catholic religion. Against a decree of this diet, to 
 ■ support the doctrines of the church of Rome, six Lutheran princes, with 
 the deputies of thirteen imperial towns, formally and solemnly protested, 
 April 17, 1530. Hence the term protestants was given to the followers of 
 Luther, and it afterwards included Calvinists, and all other sects separated 
 from the see of Rome, The six protesting princes were John and George, 
 the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg ; Ernest and Francis, the two 
 dukes of Lunenburg ; the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt ; 
 these were joined by the inhabitants of Strasburg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Con- 
 stance, Hailbron and seven other cities. See Lutheranism, Calvinism, (|'C,- 
 
 PROVISIONS — Remarkable facts concerning them, V/heat for food for 100 
 men for one day worth only one shilling, and a sheep for fourpence, Henry 
 I., about 1130. The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, and 
 eightpence for white, that the sellers might be enabled to live by it, 2 John, 
 1200. — Biirtoii's Annals. When wheat was at 6s. per quarter, the farthing 
 loaf was to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (made of the whole 
 grain), and to sixteen the white. When wheat was at Is. 6<^. per quarter, 
 the farthing loaf white was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain 
 (the same as standard now) ninety-six, by the first assize, a. d. 1202. — Ma,t. 
 Paris. A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. — Dufresnoij. Wheat Is. 
 per quarter, 14 Edward I. 1286. — Stoioe. The price of provisions fixed by 
 the common-council of London as follows : two pullets, three-halfpence ; 
 a |*artridge. or two woodcocks, three-half-pence ; a fat lamb sixpence from 
 Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest of the year fourpence, 29 Edward T. 1299, 
 Siowe. Price of provisions fixed by parliament : at the rate of 21. 8s. of 
 our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn "61. 12s. ; a shorn sheep, 5s. ; two 
 dozen of eggs, Zd. ; other articles nearly the same as fixed by the common- 
 council above recited, 7 Edward 11. 13lk — Rot. Pari. Wine, the best sold 
 for 20s. per tun. 10 Richard H. 1387. Wheat being at Is. Id. the bushel in 
 1390, this was deemed, so high a price that it is called a dearth of corn by 
 the historians of that era. Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, 
 and veal three farthings, by act of parliament, 21 Henry VIII. 1533. — An- 
 dersoii's Origin of Commerce. Milk was sold, three pints, ale-measure, foi 
 one halfpenny, 2 Eliz. 1560. — Stowe's Chronicle. 
 
 PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi, about 32C 
 B, c. The Venedi wei'e conquered by a people called the Borussi, who in- 
 
494 
 
 THE WORLD S TROGRESS, 
 
 [PS-XI 
 
 halited the Ripli^ean mountains ; and from these the country was called 
 Burussia. Some historians, however, derive the name from Po, sig- 
 nifying near, and Russia — Po-Russia, easily modified into Prussia. The 
 Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers of the Teutonic knights, 
 and latterly, with the Poles. This people and country were little known 
 until about a. d. 1007. 
 
 St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach 
 Christianity, but is murdered by the 
 pagans - - - A. D. 1010 
 
 Boleslaus of Poland revenges his death 
 by dreadful ravages - - - * * * 
 
 Berlin built by a colony from the Nether- 
 lands, in the reign of Albert the Bear - 1163 
 
 Tiie Teutonic knights, returning from 
 the holy wars, undertake the conquest 
 of Prussia, and the conversion of the 
 people - - - - . 1225 
 
 Konigsberg, lately built, made the capi- 
 tal of Prussia - - - . - 1286 
 
 The Teutonic knights, by their barba- 
 rities, almost depopulate Prussia. It 
 is repeopled by German colonists in 
 the 13th century - - . ' * • 
 
 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg obtains by 
 purchase from Sigismond, emperor 
 of Germany, the margraviate of Bran- 
 denburg .... 1415 
 
 [This Frederick is the head of the pre- 
 sent reigning family.] 
 
 Casimir IV. of Poland assists the na- 
 tives against the oppression of the 
 Teutonic knights - - - 1446 
 
 Albert of Brandenburg, grand-master 
 of the Teutonic order, renounces the 
 Roman Catholic religion, embraces 
 Lutheranism, and is acknowledged 
 duke of East Prussia, to be held as a 
 fief of Poland - - - -1525 
 
 University of Konigsberg founded by 
 duke Albert - . . . 1544 
 
 The dukedom of Prussia is joined to the 
 electorate of Brandenburg, and so 
 continues to this day - - - 1594 
 
 John Sigismund created elector of Bran- 
 denburg and duke of Prussia - 1608 
 
 The principality of Halberstadt and the 
 bishopric of Minden transferred to the 
 house of Brandenburg - -1648 
 
 Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia 
 as an independent state, under Frede- 
 rick William ... - 1657 
 
 Order of Concord instituted by Christian 
 Ernest, duke of Prussia, to distinguish 
 the part he had taken in restoring 
 peace to Europe - - - 1660 
 
 The foundation of the Prussian monar- 
 chy was established between the years 
 1640 and .... 1680 
 
 Frederic III., in an assembly of the 
 states, puts a crown upon his own 
 head, and upon the head of his con- 
 sort, and is proclaimed king of Prus- 
 sia, by the title of Frederick I. - 1701 
 
 Guelders taken from the Dutch - - 1702 
 
 Frederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Neun- 
 burgh, and Valengia, and purchases 
 the pi'incipality of Tecklenburgh - 1707 
 
 Reign of Frederick the Great, during 
 
 which tlie Prussian monarchy is 
 made to rank among the first powers 
 in Eui'ope - - • a. D. 1740 
 
 Breslau ceded to Prussia • - - 1741 
 
 Silesia, Glatz, &c., ceded - - 1742 
 
 Frederick the Great visits England - 1744 
 General Lacy with 15,000 Austrians, 
 and a Russian army, march to Berlin. 
 The city laid under contribution ; and 
 pays 800,000 guilders, and 1,900,000 
 crowns, the magazines, arsenals, and 
 foundries destroyed - - - 1760 
 
 Frederick the Great dies - Aug. 17, 1786 
 The Prussians take possession of Hano- 
 ver - - - Jan. 30, 1806 
 Prussia jcms the allies of England 
 
 against France - - Oct. 6, 1*506 
 
 Fatal battle of Jena - Oct. 14, 18l)6 
 
 [Here followed the loss of almost every 
 corps in succession of the Prussian 
 army, the loss of Berlin, and of every 
 province of the monarchy except 
 Prussia proper.] 
 Berlin decree promulgated - Nov. 20, 1806 
 Peace of Tilsit (which see) - July 7, 1807 
 Convention of Berlin - Nov. 5, 1803 
 
 Prus.sia joins the allies - March 17, 1813 
 Treaty of Paris - - April 11, 1814 
 
 The king promised liberty of the press 
 
 March, 1847 
 Outbreak at Berlin : the king resists 
 urgent demands for liberal measures, 
 
 March 14, 1847 
 Barricades and fights between troops 
 
 and students - - March 15, 1847 
 
 The king goes to Potsdam - March 18, 1847 
 - issues decree demanding a federal 
 union of Germany, and granting li- 
 berty of the press - "^ March 18, 1847 
 Another bloody collision, 274 killed 
 
 March 18, 1847 
 New ministry formed - March 18, 1817 
 The king grants general amnesty 
 
 March 20, 1847 
 Agitations general throughout Prussia 
 A free constitution granted, in a sc>lemn 
 
 convocation, by the king - April IJ, 1347 
 The duchy of Posen reorganized by the 
 
 king - - - March 26, 1843 
 
 Prussian diet meets at Berlin - April 3, 1848 
 Constitutional assembly of Prussia 
 
 meets - - - May 22, 184S 
 
 The arsenal at Berlin captured by the 
 
 mob - - - June 16, 1849 
 
 The king prorogues the assembly at 
 Berlin, and appoints its meeting at 
 Brandenburg - - Nov. 9, 1818 
 
 The Burgher Guard refuses to obey the 
 order of the king to disband. Berlin 
 in a state of siege - Nov. 12, 1848 
 
 The assembly dissolved, and a new con- 
 stitution promulgated - Dec. 6, 1848 
 
 MARGRAVES AND ELECTORS OF BRANDENBURG, ETC. 
 
 D. 923 Si froi, margrave of Brandenburg. | succession of time, passed into the 
 
 Geron, margrave of Lusatia, which, in 
 
 families ol" Staden, Ascanit, Bellen 
 
PUR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 495 
 
 PRUSSIA, conliimed. 
 
 stadt, and that of Bavaria ; till the 
 emperor Sigisraond, with the consent 
 of the states of the empire, gave per- 
 petual investiture to 
 
 1416 Frederick IV. of Nuremberg, made 
 elector of Brandenburgh, 1417. 
 
 I^IO Frederick II., surnamed Ferreus, or 
 Ironside ; resigned. 
 
 1470 Albert I., surnamed the German Achil- 
 les. He confirmed the deed made by 
 his predecessor, of mutual succession 
 with the families of Saxony and 
 Hesse; resigned. 
 
 1476 John, surnamed the Cicero of Germany, 
 his son. 
 
 1499 Joachim L , his son. 
 
 1535 Joachim II. ; he was poisoned by a Jew. 
 1571 John George. 
 1598 Joachim Frederick. 
 1608 John Sigismund. 
 1619 George William. 
 1640 Frederick William the Great. 
 1688 Frederick, who, in 1701, was made kin{ 
 of Prussia, 
 
 KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 
 
 1701 Frederick I. 
 
 1713 Frederick William I. 
 
 1740 Frederick 11., surnamed the Griat, 
 
 1786 Frederick William II. 
 
 1797 Frederick William III. 
 
 1840 Frederick William IV., June 7. 
 
 PUBLICHOUSES in England. A power of licensing them was first granted 
 to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel for their own emolument, 
 A. D. 1620-1. The number of public houses in England at this period was 
 about 13,000. In 1700 the number was 32 600 ; and in 1790, the number in 
 Great Britain was 76,000. It is supposed that there were about 50,000 
 public houses, and 30,000 beer-shops in England and Wales in 1830. The 
 number on Jan. 5, 1840, was 95,820. 
 
 PULLEY. The pulley, together with the vice and other mechanical instru- 
 ments, are said to have been invented by Archytas of Tarentum, a disciple 
 of Pythagoras, about 516 b. c. — Univ. Hist. It has been ascertained that in 
 a single movable pulley the power gained is doubled. In a continued com- 
 bination the power is twice the number of pullies, less 1. — Phillips, 
 
 PULTOWA, Battle of. In this memorable engagement Charles XII. of 
 ■ Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, and obliged to 
 take refuge at Bender, in the Turkish dominions. The vanquished monarch 
 would have fallen into the hands of the czar after the engagement, hadlie 
 not been saved by the personal exertions of the brave count Poniatowski, a 
 Polish nobleman, whom Voltaire has commemorated and immortalized. 
 This battle was lost chiefly owing to a want of concert in the generals, and to 
 the circumstance of Charles having been dangerously wounded, just before, 
 which obliged him to issue his commands from a litter, without being able 
 to encourage his soldiers by his presence. Fought July 8, 1709. 
 
 PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria, architect and mechanic, is said to have in- 
 vented the pump (with other hydraulic instruments) about 224 b. c, although 
 the invention is ascribed to Uanaus, at Lindus, 1485 b. c. They were in 
 general use in England, a. d. 1425. The air-pump was invented by Otto 
 Guericke in 1654, and was improved by Boyle in 1657. An inscription on 
 the pump in front of the Royal Exchange, London, states that the well 
 beneath was first sunk in a. d. 1282. 
 
 PUNIC WARS. The first Punic war was undertaken by the Romans against 
 Carthage 264 b. c. The ambition of Rome was the origin of this war ; it 
 lasted twenty-three years, and ended 241 b. c. The second Punic war be- 
 gan 218 B. c, in which year Hannibal marched a numerous army of 90,000 
 foot and 12,000 horse towards Italy, resolved to carry on the war to the 
 gates of Rome. He crossed the Rhone, the Alps, and the Apennines, with 
 uncommon celerity ; and the Roman consuls who were stationed to stop his 
 progress were severally defeated. The battles of Trebia, of Ticinus, and 
 of the lake of Thrasymenus, followed. This war lasted seventeen years, and 
 ended in 201 b. c. The third Punic war began 149 b. c, and was terminated 
 by the fall of Carthage, 146 b. c. See Carthage. 
 
 PURGATORY. The middle place between the grave, or heaven, and hell, 
 
496 THE world's TROGRESS. I TYI 
 
 where, it is believed by the Roman Cathohcs, the soul passes through the 
 fire of purification before it enters the kingdom of God. The doctrine of 
 purgatory was known about a. d. 250; and was introduced into the Roman 
 church in 593. — Piatina. It was introduced early in the sixth century. — 
 Dupin. 
 PURIFICATION. The act of cleansing, especially considered as relating to 
 the religious performance among the Jewish women. It was ordained by the 
 Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days after the 
 birth of a son, and eighty days after the birth of a daughter, when she was 
 to go to the temple and offer a lamb, pigeon, or turtle, a. d. 214. Among 
 the Christians, the feast of purification was instituted, a. d. 542, in honor of 
 the Virgin Mary's going to the temple, where, according to custom, she 
 presented her son Jesus Christ, and offered two turtles for him. Pope Ser- 
 gius I. ordered the procession with wax tapers, from whence it is called 
 Candlemas-day. 
 
 PURITANS. The name given to such persons as in the reigns of queen Eliza- 
 beth, king James, and king Charles I., pretended to greater holiness of 
 living and stricter discipline than any other people. They at first were 
 members of the established church, but afterwards became separatists upon 
 account of several ceremonies that were by the rigidness of those times se- 
 verely insisted upon. — Bishop Sanderson. 
 
 PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. The pyramids, according to Dr. Pococke and Son- 
 niui, " so celebrated from remote antiquity, are the most illustrious monu- 
 ments of art. It is singular that such superb 'piles are nowhere to be found 
 but in Egypt ; for in every other country, pyramids are rather puerile and 
 diminutive imitations of those in Egypt, than attempts at appropriate mag- 
 nificence. The pyramids are situated on a rock at the foot of some high 
 mountains which bound the Nile." The first building of them commenced, 
 it is supposed, about 1500 b. c. They were formerly accounted one of the 
 seven wonders of the world. The largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpen- 
 dicular height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of 
 the base is 746 feet. It occupies eleven acres of ground, and is constructed 
 of such stupendous blocks of stone, that a more marvellous result of hu- 
 man labor has not been found on the earth. 
 
 " Virtue alone outbuilds the pyi-amids, 
 
 " Her monuments shall stand when Egypt's fall." — Young. 
 
 PYRENEES, Battle of the, between the British army, commanded by lord 
 Wellington, and the French, under' the command of marshal Soult. The 
 latter army was defeated with great slaughter, July 28, 1813. After the 
 battle of Vittoria (fought June 21), Napoleon sent Soult to supersede Jour- 
 dan, Avith instructions to drive the allies across the Ebro, a duty to which 
 his abilities were inferior ; for Soult retreated into France with a loss of 
 more than 20,00 men, having been defeated in a series of engagements from 
 July 25 to August 2. 
 
 PYRENEES, Peace of the. A peace concluded between France and Spain; 
 by the treaty of the Pyrenees, Spain yielding Roussillon, Artois, and her 
 rights to Alsace ; and France ceding her conquests in Catalonia, Italy, &c., 
 and engaging not to assist Portugal, Nov. 7, 1659. 
 
 PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. ^Founded by Pythagoras, of Samos, head 
 of the Italic sect. He first taught the doctrine of metempsychosis or 
 tran3migration of the soul from one body to another. He forbade his dis- 
 ciples to eat flesh, as also beans, because he supposed them to have been 
 produced from the same putrified matter from which at the creation of the 
 world man was formed. In his theological system, Pythagoras supported 
 that the universe was created from a shapeless heap of passive matter hy 
 
^UA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 437 
 
 the hands of a powerful being, who liimself was the mover and soul of thG 
 world. He was the inventor of the multiplication-table, and a great im- 
 prover of geometry, while in astronomy he taught the system adopted at 
 this day, 539 b. c. 
 PYTHIAN GAMES. Games celebrated in honor of Apollo, near the temple 
 of Delphi. They were first instituted, according to the more received 
 opinion, by Apollo himself, in commemoration of the victory which he had 
 obtained over the serpent Python, from which they received their name; 
 though others maintain that they were first established by Agamemnon, 
 or Di< )medes, or by Amphictyon, or, lastly, by the council of the Amphio 
 tyons, B. c. 1263. — Arundelian Marbles. 
 
 Q. 
 
 QUACKERY and QUACK MEDICINES. At the first appearance that a 
 French quack made in Paris, a boy walked before him, publishing, with a 
 shrill voice, " My father cures all sorts of distempers ;" to which the doctor 
 added in a grave manner, " What the child says is true." — Addi&on. Qviacks 
 sprung up with the art of medicine ; and several couniiies, particularly 
 England and France, abound with them. In London, some of their v^sta- 
 blishments are called colleges. Quack medicines were taxed in England in 
 1783 et seq. An inquest was held on the body of a young lady, Miss 
 Cashin, whose physician, St. John Long, was afterwards tried for man- 
 slaughter ; he was found guilty, and sentenced to pay a fine of 250Z., Oct. 
 30, 1830. 
 
 QUADRANT. The mathematical Instrument in the form of a quarter circle. 
 The solar quadrant was introduced about 290 b. c. The Arabian astrono- 
 nomers under the Caliphs, in a.d. 995, had a quadrant of 21 feet 8 inches 
 radius, and a sextant 57 feet 9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for mea- 
 suring angles was produced about 1600. Hadley's quadrant, in 1731. See 
 Navigation. 
 
 QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. The celebrated treaty of Alliance between Great 
 Britain, France, and the Emperor, signed at London. This alliance, on the 
 accession of the states of Holland, obtained the name of the Quadruple 
 Alliance, and was for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the 
 reigning families in Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of 
 the Spanish monarchy. Aug. 2, 1718, 
 
 QU^^.STOR, in Roman antiquity, was an officer who had the management of 
 the public treasure, instituted 484 b. c. The questorship was the first office 
 any person could bear in the commonwealth, and gave a right to sit in the 
 senate. At first there were only two; but afterwards the number was 
 greatly increased. 
 
 C^UAKERS OR FRIENDS. Originally called Seekers, from their seeking the 
 truth ; and afterwards Friends — a beautiful appellation, and characteristic 
 of the relation which man, under the Christian dispensation, ought to bear 
 towards man. — ClarJcson. Justice Bennet, of Derby, gave the society the 
 name of Quakers in 1650, because Fox (the founder) admonished him and 
 those present with him, to tremble at the word of the Lord, This respect- 
 able sect, excelling in morals prudence, and industry, was commenced m 
 England about a. d. 1650, by George Fox, who was soon joined by a num- 
 ber of learned, ingenious and pious men — among others, by George Keith, 
 Wm. Penn, and Robert Barclay of Ury.* The thee and thou used by the 
 
 * The Quakers early siifTered grievous pei ^ecutions in England and America. At Boston, where 
 ihe first Friends who arrived weie females, hey, even females, were cruelly scourged, and theu 
 
4y8 THE world's progress. [ QUft. 
 
 Quakers originated with their founder, who published a book of instruc- 
 tions for teachers and profeijisors. The solemn affirmation of Quakers was 
 enacted to be taken in all cases, in the courts below, wherein oaths are re- 
 quired from other subjects, 8 William III. 1696. 
 
 QUARANTINE. The custom first observed at Venice, a. d. 1127, whereby all 
 merchants and others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in 
 the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazaretto, 40 days before they were ad- 
 mitted into the city. Various southern cities have now lazarettos ; that of 
 Venice is built in the water. In the times of plague, England and all other 
 nations oblige those that come from the infected places to perform qua- 
 rantine with their ships, &c., a longer or shorter time, as may be judged 
 most safe. 
 
 QUATRE-BRAS; Battle of, between the British and allied army under the 
 duke of Brunswick, the prince of Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the 
 French under marshal Ney, fought two days before the battle of Vv'aterioo. 
 In this engagement the gallant duke of Brunswick fell, Jmie 16, 1815. 
 
 QUEBEC. Founded by the French in 1605. It was reduced by the English, 
 with all Canada, in 1626, but was restored in 1632. Quebec was besieged 
 by the English, but without success, in 1711 ; but was conquered by them, 
 after a battle memorable for the death of general Wolfe in the moment of 
 victory, Sept. 13, 1759. This battle was fought on the Plains of Abraham. 
 Quebec was besieged by the Americans under Gen. Montgomery, who was 
 slain, December 31, 1775; and the siege wa^ raised the next year. The 
 public and private stores, and several wharfs, were destroyed by fire in 
 1815 ; the loss being estimated at upwards of 260,000Z. Awful fire, 1650 
 houses, the dwellings of 12,000 persons, burnt to the ground, May 28, 
 1845. Another great fire, one month afterwards; 1365 houses burnt, Jime 
 28, 1845. Disastrous fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost^ Jan. 12, 1846. • 
 
 QUEEN. The first queen invested with authority as a ruling sovereign, was 
 Semiramis, queen and empress of Assyria, 2017 b. c. She embellished the 
 city of Babylon, made it her capital, and by her means it became the most 
 magnificent and superb city in the world. The title of queen is coeval with 
 that of king. The Hungarians had such an aversion to the name o.f queen, 
 that whenever a queen ascended the throne, she reigned with the title of 
 king. See note to article Hmigarij. 
 
 QUEEN CAROLINE'S TRIAL. Caroline, the consort of George IV. of Eng- 
 land, was subjected; when princess of Wales, to the ordeal of the Delicate 
 Investigation, May 29, 1806. Her trial commenced Aug. 19, 1820. Illumi- 
 nations on her acquittal, Nov. 10-12. Her death Aug. 7, 1821. Riot at her 
 funeral, Aug. 14. 
 
 QUEENS OF ENGLAND. There have been, since the conquest, besides the 
 present sovereign, four queens of England who have reigned in their own 
 right, not counting the empress Maude, daughter of Henry I., or the lady 
 Jane Grey, whose quad reign lasted only ten days. There have been thirty- 
 four queens, the consorts of kings, exclusively of four wives of kings who 
 
 (gars cut off, yet they were unshaken hi their constancy. In 1659, they stated in parliament tha{ 
 2,(X)0 Friends had endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate ; and 164 Friends offered them- 
 selves at this time, by name, to sovernment, to be imprisoned in lieu of an equal number in danger 
 (from confinement) of death. Fifty-five (out of 120 sentenced) were transported to America, by an 
 order of council, 1664. The masters of vessels refusing to carry thein for some months, an em- 
 bargo was laid on West India ships, when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the service. 
 But the Friends would not walk on board, nor would the sailors hoist them into the vessel, and sol- 
 diers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed; but it was immediately captured 
 by the Dutch, who liberated 28 of the prisoners in Holland, the rest having died of the plague in that 
 year. 8cc Plague. Of the 120 few reached America. 
 
que] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 499 
 
 died previously to their husbands ascending the throne. Of thirty- five ac- 
 tual sovereigns of England, four died unmarried, three kings and one queen 
 The following list includes all these royal personages : — 
 
 Of William I. 
 Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of 
 Flandei-s ; she was married in 1051 ; and 
 died 1084. 
 
 William II. 
 This sovereign died unmarried. 
 
 Of Henry I. 
 Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of 
 Scotland ; she was married November 11, 
 1100 ; and died May 1, 1119. 
 
 Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of Lou- 
 vaine ; she was married January 29. 1129. 
 Survived the king. 
 
 Maude oi Matilda. 
 
 Di. nghter of Henry I., and rightful heir to 
 the throne ; she was born 1101 ; was betroth- 
 ed in 1109, at eight years of age, to Henry 
 v., emperor of Germany, who died 1125. 
 She married, secondly. Geoffrey Plantagenet, 
 sari of Anjou, 1130. Was set aside from the 
 English succession by Stephen, 1135 ; landed 
 in England and claimed the crown, 1 139. 
 Crowned, but was soon after defeated at 
 Winchester. 1141. Concluded a peace with 
 Stephen, which secured the succession to 
 her son, Henry, 1153; died 1167. 
 
 Of Stephen. 
 
 Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of 
 Boulogne ; she was married in 1128 ; and 
 lied May 3, 1151. 
 
 Of HExMRY II. 
 
 Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis 
 VII. king of France, and heiress of Guienne 
 and Poitou ; she was married to Henry 1152 ; 
 and died 1204. 
 
 [The Fair Rosamond was the mistress of 
 this prince. 
 
 Of Richard L 
 Berengera, daughter of the king of Na- 
 van'e ; she was married May 12, 1191. Sur- 
 vived the king. 
 
 Of John. 
 
 Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ; 
 she was married in 1189. Divorced. 
 
 Isabella, daughter of the count of Angou- 
 leme ; she was the young and virgin wife of 
 the count de la Marche ; married to John in 
 1200. Survived the king, on whose death 
 Bhe was remarried to the count de la Marche. 
 
 Of Henry IH. 
 Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro- 
 vence ; she was married January 14, 1236. 
 Survived the king ; and died in 1292, in a mo- 
 nastery, whither she had retired, 
 
 Of Edward I. 
 
 Eleanor of Castile ; she was married in 
 1^3; died of a fever, onher journey to Scot- 
 land, at Horneby, in Lincolnshire, 1296. 
 
 Margaiet, sister of the king of France ; she 
 
 was married September 12, 1299. Survived 
 the king. 
 
 Of Edward II. 
 Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; 
 she was married in 1308. On the death, by 
 the gibbet, of her favorite, Mortimer, she was 
 confined for the rest of her life in her owK 
 house at Risings, near London. — Hutne. 
 
 Of Edward III. 
 
 Philippa, daughter of the count of Holland 
 and Hainault ; she was married January 24 
 1328 ; and died August 16, 1369. 
 
 Of Richard II. 
 
 Anne, of Bohemia, sister of the emperor 
 Winceslaus of Germany ; she was married 
 in January 1382 ; and died August 3, 1395. 
 
 Isabella, daughter of Charles VI. of France; 
 she was married Nov. 1, 1396. On the mui- 
 der of her husband she returned to her fa- 
 ther. 
 
 Of Henry IV. 
 
 Mary, daughter of the earl of He eford ; 
 she died, before Henry obtained the crown, 
 in 1394. 
 
 Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of 
 Bretagne ; she was married in 1403. Sur- 
 vived the kmg, and died in 1437. 
 
 Of Henry V. 
 
 Catherine, daughter of the king of France 5 
 she was married May 30, 1420. 'She outliv- 
 ed Henry, and was married to Owen Tudol , 
 grandfather of Henry VII. 
 
 Of Henry VI. 
 
 Margaret, daughter of the duke of Aajoii ; 
 she was married April 22, 1445. She surviv- 
 ed the unfortunate king, her husband, and 
 died in 1482. 
 
 Of Edward IV. 
 
 Lady Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir 
 Richard Woodeville, and widow of sir John 
 Grey, of Groby ; she was married March 1, 
 1464. Suspected of favoring the insurrection 
 of Lambert Siranel ; and closed her life in 
 confinement. 
 
 Edward V. 
 
 This prince perished in the Tower, in 
 the 13th year of his age ; and died unma •• 
 ried. 
 
 Of Richard III. 
 
 Anne, daughter of the eail of Warwick, 
 and widow of Edward, priace of Wales, 
 whom Richard had murdere\i, 1471. She in 
 supposed to have been poisoned by Richard 
 (having died suddenly March 6, 1485), to 
 make way for his intended marriage with 
 the princess Elizabeth of York. 
 
 Of Henry VII. 
 
 Elizabeth of York, princess of Englaad. 
 daughter of Edward IV. ; she was marrieq 
 January 18, I486: and died February 11 
 1503. 
 
50C 
 
 THE WORLD S TE-OGRESS. 
 
 [QUI 
 
 QUEENS, continued. 
 
 Of Henry VHI. 
 
 Catherine of Arragon, widow of Henry's 
 elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales. She 
 was married June 3, 1509; was the mother 
 of queen Mary ; was repudiated, and after- 
 wards formally divorced, May 23, 1533; died 
 January 6, 1536. 
 
 Anna Bolei/n, daughter of sir Thomas Bo- 
 leyn, and maul of honor to Catherine. She 
 was privately married, before Catherine was 
 divorced, Nov. 14, 1532 ; was the mother of 
 queen Elizabeth ; was beheaded at the Tow- 
 er, May 19, 1536. 
 
 Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Sey- 
 mour, and maid of honor to Anna Boleyn. 
 She was married May 20, 1536, the day after 
 Anna's execution ; was the mother of Ed- 
 ward VT., of whom she died in childbirth, 
 Oct. 13, 1537. 
 
 Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke 
 of Cleves. She was married January 6, 
 1540 ; was divorced July 10, 1540 ; and died 
 in 1557. 
 
 Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of 
 Norfolk ; she was married August 8, 1540 ; 
 and was beheaded on Tower hill February 
 12, 1542. 
 
 Catherine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas 
 Parr, and widow of Nevill, lord Latimer. 
 She was married July 12, 1543. Survived 
 the king, after whose death she married sir 
 Thomas Seymour, created lord Sudley ; and 
 died September 5, 1548. 
 
 Edward VI. 
 This prince, who ascended the throne in his 
 tenth year, reigned six years and five months, 
 and died unmarried. 
 
 Lady Jane Grey. 
 Daughter of the duke of Sufblk, and v^^ife 
 of lord Guildford Dudley. Proclaimed queen 
 on the death of Edward. In ten days after- 
 wards returned to private life ; was tried 
 Nov. 13, 1553 ; and beheaded February 12, 
 1554, when but seventeen years of age. 
 
 Mary. 
 Daughter of Henry VIII. She ascended 
 the throne July 6, 15.53 ; married Philip II. 
 of Spain, July 25, 1554 ; and died Novem- 
 ber 17, 1558. The king her husband died in 
 1598. 
 
 Elizabeth. 
 Daughter of Henry VIII. Succeeded to 
 the crown Nov. 17, 1558; reigned 44 years, 
 4 months, and 7 days ; and died unmarried. 
 
 Of James I. 
 
 Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of 
 Frederick II. ; she was married August 2), 
 1589; and died March 1619. 
 
 Of Charles I. 
 Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. 
 king of France ; she was married June 13, 
 1625. Survived the unfortunate king ; and 
 died in France, August 10, 1669. 
 
 Of Charles II. 
 
 Catherine, infanta of Portugal, daughtei 
 of John IV. end sister of Alfonso VI. : 8h« 
 was married May 21, 1662. Survived th« 
 king, returned to Portugal, and died Dec 
 21, 17a5. 
 
 Of James II. 
 
 Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, 
 ear! of Clarendon ; she was married in Sep 
 tember 1660 ; and died before James ascend- 
 ed the throne, in 1671. 
 
 Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daugh 
 ter of Alphonzo d'Este, duke ; she was mar- 
 ried November 21, 1673. At the revolution 
 in 1683, she retired with James to France; 
 and died at St. Germains in 1718, having sur- 
 vived her consort seventeen yeA^'.". 
 
 Wn.r.iAiw and Mary. 
 Mary, the princess of Orange, daughter >f 
 James II.; married to William, Nov. 4, 16] 7 \ 
 ascended the throne Feb. 13, 1689 ; died De- 
 cember 28, 1694. 
 
 Anne. 
 Daughter of James II. She married George 
 prince of Denmark, July 28, 1683 ; succeed-' 
 ed to the throne March 8, 1702 ; had thirteen 
 children, all of whom died young ; lost her 
 husband, October 28, 1708 ; and died August 
 1, 1714. 
 
 Of George I. 
 Sophia Dorothea, daughter of the duke ol 
 Zell. She died a few weeks previously to 
 the accession of George to the crown, Jute 
 8, 1714. 
 
 Of George II. 
 Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Bran- 
 denburgh-Anspach ; married in 1704: and 
 died November 20, 1737. 
 
 Of George III. 
 Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke oJ 
 Mecklenburgh-Strelitz ; married Septembei 
 8, 1761 ; and died November 17, 1818. 
 
 Of George IV. 
 Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the 
 duke of Brunswick ; she was married April 
 8, 1795, ; was mother of the lamented prin- 
 cess Charlotte; anddied August?, 1821. See 
 article Queen Caroline. 
 
 Of William IV. 
 
 Adelaide Amelia Louisa Teresa Caroline^ 
 sister of the duke of Saxe-Meinengen ; she 
 was married July 11, 1818; and survived tha 
 king. 
 
 Victoria. 
 Alexandrina Victoria, the reigning queen 
 daughter of the duke of Kent ; bornTVIay 24 
 1819 ; succeeded to the crown June 20, 1837 
 crowned June 28, 1838. Married her cousin 
 prince Albert of Saxe-Cotrrrg-Gotha, Feb- 
 ruary 10, 1840. 
 
 QUEENSTOWN, Canada. Taken by the troops of the United States of Amcri- 
 
RAC J DICTIOIJARY OF DATES. 501 
 
 ca, October 13, 1812 ; but retaken by the British forces, who defeated the 
 Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners, the 
 same day. 
 
 Qlf^ICKSILVER. In its liquid state, it is commonly called virgin mercury. It 
 is endowed with very extraordinary properties, and used to show the weight 
 of the atmosphere, and its continual variations, &c. Its use in refining sil- 
 ver was discovered a. d. 1540. There are mines of it in various parts, tho 
 chief of which are at Almeida in Spain, and at Udria in Carniola in Ger- 
 many, discovered by accident in 1497. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 
 1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter at St. Petersburgh in 1759. It 
 was congealed in England by a chemical process, without snow or ice, by 
 Mr. Walker, in 1787. 
 
 QT7IETISTS. The doctrines and religious opinions of Molinus, the Spaniard, 
 whose work, the Spiritual Guide, was the foundation of the sect of Quietists 
 in France, His principal tenet was, that tht. purity of religion coijsisted in 
 an internal silent meditation and recollection of the merits of Christ, and 
 the mercies of God. His doctrine was also called quietism from a kind of 
 absolute rest and inaction in which the sect supposed the soul to be, when 
 arrived at that state of perfection called by them unitive life. They then 
 imagined the soul to be wholly employed in contemplating its jJod. Ma- 
 dame de la Mothe-Guj^on, who was imprisoned in the Bastile for her visions 
 and prophecies, but released through the interest of Fenelon, the celebrated 
 archbishop of Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, she 
 occasioned the famous controversy concerning Quietism, 1697. The sect 
 sprang up about 1678. — Nouv. Diet. 
 
 QUILLS. They are said to have been first used for pens in a. d. 553 ; but some 
 say not before 635. Quills are for the most part plucked with great cruelty 
 from living geese ; and all persons, from convenience, economy, and feeling, 
 ought to prefer metallic pens, which came into use in 1830. — Phillip'i 
 
 QUITO. A presidency of Colombia {which see) celebrated as having been <he 
 sc^ne of the measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and 
 Spanish mathematicians, in the reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls 
 were hurried into eternity by a dreadful earthquake at Quito, which almost 
 overwhelmed the city, Feb. 4, 1797. 
 
 R. 
 
 RACES. One of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece (see Cha/u 
 ots). Horse-races were known in England in very early times. Fitz-Stephen, 
 who wrote in the days of Henry II., mentions the delight taken by the citi- 
 zens of London in the diversion. In James's reign, Croydon in the south, 
 and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses. Near York there were 
 races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. — Camden. In the end of 
 Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hyde-park, and also Newmarket, 
 although first used as a place for hunting. Charles II. patronized them, 
 and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. 
 
 RACKS. This engine of death, as well as of torture, for extracting a confes- 
 sion from criminals, was early known in the southern countries of Europe. 
 The early Christians suffered by the rack, which was in later times an in- 
 Btrument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of Henry VL, 
 erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now 
 Leen in the Tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered the duke of 
 Buckingham, the judges of England nobly protested against the punish- 
 ment proposed in the privy council of putting the assassin to the rack, as 
 being contrary to the laws, 1628. See Ravillac. 
 
502 THE world's progress. [ RAl 
 
 RADCLIFFE LIBRARY. Oxford. Founded under the will of Dr. John Rad- 
 cliffe, the most eminent physician of his time. He left 40,000/. to the Uni- 
 versity of Oxford for this purpose, dying Nov. 1, 1714. The first stone of 
 the library was laid May 17, 1737 ; the edifice was completely finished in 
 1749, and was opened April 13, same year. 
 
 RADSTADT, Peace of, between France and the emperor, March 6, 1714. Con- 
 gress of— commenced to treat of a general peace with the Germanic powers, 
 Dec. 9, 1797. Negotiations were carried on throughout the year 1798. Atro- 
 cious massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Radstadt by the Austrian 
 regiment of Szeltzler, April 28, 1798. 
 
 RAFTS. The Greeks knew no other way of crossing the narrow seas but en 
 rafts or beams tied to one another, until the use of shipping was "brought 
 among them by Danaus of Egypt, when he fled from his brother Rameses, 
 1485 B. c. — Heylin. 
 
 RAILROADS. There were short roads called tram-ways in and about New- 
 castle so early as the middle of the 17th century; but they were made of 
 wood, and were used for transporting coals a moderate distance from the 
 pits to the place of shipping. They are thus mentioned in 1676 : — " The 
 manner of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the colliery to the 
 river, exactly straight and parallel ; and bulky carts are made with four roll- 
 ers fitting those rails, wherebj^ the carriage is so easy that one horse wil) 
 draw down four or five chaldrons of coals, and is an immense benefit to the 
 coal-merchants," — L^fe of Lord-Keeper North.' They were made of iron, ai-i 
 Whitehaven, in 1738. The first considerable iron railroad was laid down at 
 Colebrook Dale in 1786. The first iron railroad sanctioned by parliament 
 (with the exception of a few undertaken by canal companies as small 
 branches to .mines) was the Surrey iron railway (by horses), from the Thames 
 at Wandsworth to Croydon, for which the act was obtained in 1801. The first 
 great and extensive enterprise of this kind is the Liverpool and Manchester 
 railway (by engines), commenced in October 1826, and opened Sept. 15, 1830. 
 
 EXTENT OF RAILWAYS OPENED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, IN 1847. 
 
 Miles. Miles 
 
 - 115 
 
 - - 106 
 
 - 800 
 
 - - 52 
 - 1,000 
 
 - - 500 
 Total length of railways opened throughout the world :— in 1847, 21,761 miles. 
 
 In 1824, the first locomotive constructed travelled at the rate of 6 miles 
 per hour ; in 1829, the Rocket travelled at the rate of fifteen miles per hour; 
 in 1834, the Fire Fly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour ; in 1839, tho 
 North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per hour; and at the present 
 moment locomotives have attained a speed of 70 miles per hour. During 
 the same period the quantity of fuel required for generating steam has been 
 diminished five-sixths, that is, six tons of coal were formerly consumed for 
 one at the present moment, and other expenses are diminished in a corres- 
 ponding ratio. — Tilde's Railways, 1847. 
 
 EAILROADS in the UNITED STATES. In January 1849, the lines ccmple^ 
 
 ed reached an aggregate of 
 
 In New England 1,219 miles. 
 
 In New York &10 do 
 
 In other parts of the United States 4,058 do. 
 
 Total .... 6,117 do 
 [See American Almanac, 1850, p.ige 211, for complete list.] 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland 
 
 - 3,375 
 
 Italy • 
 
 United States (in 1849, 6,117) - 
 
 - 3,800 
 
 Denmark - 
 
 Germany (in 1849, 3,100) 
 
 - l,.570 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Holland - - - - 
 
 - 200 
 
 Russia 
 
 Belgium 
 
 - 1,095 
 
 British Colonies 
 
 France . . . - 
 
 - 2,200 
 
 East Lidia - 
 
RAV ] DICTIONARY OS BhTiLS. 503 
 
 A considerable number of miles have since been compleled, including a 
 portion of the New York and Erie; Hudson River Railroad, &c., &c. The 
 first railway in the United States, was the Quincy and Boston, to convey 
 granite for Bunker Hill monument, 1827. Boston and Providence Railroad, 
 opened June 2, 1835. Boston and Lowell, June 27, and Boston and Wor- 
 cester, Jul3^6, same year. Utica and Schenectady, opened Aug. 1, 1836. Bal- 
 timore to Wilmington, July 19, 1837. Providence and Stonington, Nov. 10, 
 1837. Worcester and Springfield, Mass., Oct. 1, 1839. Housa tonic, Feb. 
 12, 1840. 
 
 R A-HjROADS in FRANCE. There was a small one at mount Cenis as early as 
 1 783 ; the first of any extent was the St. Etienne and Andrezieux 22 miles, 
 commenced in 1825. Paris and Versailles commenced 1827. Horrible accident 
 on that from Paris to Versailles, 70 persons killed by collision and fire, includ- 
 ing the celebrated navigator D'Urville, May 8, 1842. Another on the Paris and 
 Brussels Railway, train ran oft'" a bridge, 14 killed and 20 wounded, July 
 8, 1846. 
 
 R ALWAYS, BELGIUM. That between Brussels and Antwerp, the first in 
 Belgium, opened May 3, 1836. 
 
 RAMILIES, Battle of, between the English under the duke of Marlborough 
 and the allies on the one side, and the French on the other; fought on 
 Whitsundaj^ May 23, 1706. The duke achieved one of his most glorious 
 victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, and other import- 
 ant places, and parliament rewarded the victor by settling the honors which 
 had been conferred on himself, upon the male and female issue of his 
 daughters. 
 
 RATISBON, Peace op, concluded between France and the emperor of Ger- 
 many, and by which was terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, 
 October 13, 1630. It was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German 
 I)rinces seceded from the Germanic empire, and placed themselves under 
 the protection of the emperor Napoleon, August 1, 1806. 
 
 RATS. The brown rat, very improperly called the Norway rat, the great pest 
 of our dwellings, originally came to us from Persia and the Southern regions 
 of Asia. This fact is rendered evident from the testimony of Pallas and F. 
 Cuvier. Pallas describes the migratory nature of rats, and states that in 
 the autumn of 1729 they arrived at Astrachan in such incredible numbers,, 
 that nothing could be done to oppose them; they came from the western 
 deserts, nor did the waves of the Volga arrest their progress. They only ad- 
 vanced to the vicinity of Paris in the middle of the sixteenth century, an(?. 
 in some parts of France are still unknown. 
 
 RAVENNA, Battle of, between the French under the great Gaston de Foix 
 (duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.) and the Spanish and papal 
 armies. De Foix gained the memorable battle, but perished in the moment 
 of victory, and his death closed the fortunes of the French in Italy, April 
 11, 1512. 
 
 R A VILLAGES MURDER of HENRY IV. of FRANCE. The death cf Ravil- 
 lac is one of the most dreadful upon record. He assassinated the king, May 
 14, 1610; and when put to the torture, he broke out into horrid execrations. 
 He was carried to the Greve, and tied to the rack, a wooden engine in tho 
 shape of St. Andrew's cross. His right hand, within which was fastened 
 the knife with which he did the murder, was first burnt at a slow fire. 
 Then the fleshy and most delicate parts of his body were torn with red hot 
 pincei's, and into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil pitch, and rosin were 
 poured. His body was so robust, that he endured this exquisite pain; and 
 his strength resisted that of the four horses by which his limbs were to be 
 
504 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ REI 
 
 piiilcd to pieces. The executioner in consequence cut him into quarters, 
 and the spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged tliem through tho 
 streets. 
 
 REFORM IN PARLIAMENT. This subject was a chief source of agitation 
 for many years, and during several administrations. Mr. Pitt's motion for 
 a reform in parliament was lost by a majority of 20, in 1782. The discus- 
 sion on this motion was the most remarkable up to the period at which re- 
 form was conceded. The first ministerial measure of reform was in earl 
 Grey's administration, when it was proposed in the house of commons by 
 lord John Russell, March 1, 1831. His bill defeated in the house of lords 
 by 41 majority, Oct. 8. The bill of 1832 defeated by 35 majority. May 7. 
 New peers were created May 18, and the bill w'as finally passed by peers 
 (106 to 22) June 4, 1832. 
 
 REFORMATION, Thr. The early efforts for the reformation of the church 
 may be traced to the reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinus, bishop of Aqui- 
 leia, employed his voice and pen to accomplish this object. The principal 
 reformers were Wickliffe, Huss, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Petri, 
 Melancthon, Erasmus, Jerome of Prague, Zisca. Browne, and Knox. Tho 
 eras of the Reformation are as follows : — 
 
 In Sweden {Petri) - - - a. d. 1530 
 
 In 'Eng\dJ\A iWickliffe) - - a. d. 1360 
 In Bohemia (Huss) .... 1405 
 In Germany (Luther) - - - - 1517 
 In Switzerland (Zuinglius) ■ - - 1519 
 
 In Denmark 1521 
 
 In France ( Calvin) 1529 
 
 Protestants first so called - - - 1529 
 
 In England (Henry VUI.) ■ - - 1534 
 In Ireland (Broicne) . - . . 1535 
 In England, completed (Cran7ner, 1 u- 
 cer, F'agins, Sf'c.) .... (.'>47 
 
 In Scotlfind (Knox) 1560 
 
 In the Netherlands .... \^Q2 
 
 The reformed religion "was established bj^ queen Elizabeth on her accession 
 to the throne, 1558. George Browne, archbishop of Dublin, was the first 
 prelate who embraced the Protestant religion in Ireland, 1535. See Luther, 
 Protestant, cf-c. 
 
 RELIGION. Properly, that awful reverence and pure worship that is due to 
 God, the supreme Author of all beings, though it is very often abused, and 
 applied to superstitious adorations among Christians, and to idols and false 
 gods among the heathens. — Pardon. Religion had its origin in most tribes 
 and nations in their ignorance of the causes of natural phenomena, benefits 
 being ascribed to a good spirit, and evils to a bad one. — Philtips. Religions 
 ceremonies in the worship of the Supreme Being are said to have been in- 
 troduced by Enos, 2832 b.c. — Lenglet. See the different sects as described 
 throughout the volume. The Established religion of England commenced 
 Avith the Reformation {tohic/i see), 1534. The Six Articles of Religion, for 
 the non-observance of which many Pi-otestants as well as Catholics suffered 
 death, passed 1539. The Thirty-nine Articles were established first in 1552; 
 they were reduced from forty-two to thirty-nine in January 1563, and receiv- 
 ed the sanction of parliament in 1571. 
 
 REPEAL OF THK UNION of Great Britain and Ireland. An Irish associa- 
 tion was formed with this object under the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, Id 
 1829. A new and more resolved association afterwards sprung up, and in 
 1841, 1842, and 1843 became more violent, each successive year, in its deli- 
 berations. Assemblies of the people were held, in the last-named year, in 
 various parts of Ireland, some of them amoimting to 150,000 persons, and 
 called "monster meetings." A meeting to be held at Clontarf on Oct. 8, 
 was suppressed by government; O'Connell and his chief associates were 
 brought to trial, Jan. 15, 1844. 
 
 RETREAT of thb GREEKS. Memorable retreat of 10 000 Greeks who had 
 joined the army of the younger Cyrus in his revolt against his brother Arta- 
 xerxes. Xenophon was selected by his brother officers to superintend ihe 
 retreat of his countrymen. He rose superior to danger, and though auder 
 
lEv] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 505 
 
 continual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was enabled 
 to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops ^f moun- 
 tains, till he could rest secure for awhile, and refresh his tired companions. 
 This celebrated retreat was at last happily effected ; the Greeks returned 
 home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues, which was performed in 
 215 days, after an absence of fifteen months. The whole perhaps might 
 now be forgotten, or at least but obscurely known, if the great philosopher 
 who planned it had not employed his pen in describing the dangers which 
 he escaped, and the difficulties which he surmounted. 401 b. c. — Vossius. 
 (IF.VENUE, PUBLIC, of England. The revenue collected for the civil list 
 and for all the other charges of government, as well ordinary as extraordi- 
 nary, .£1,200,000 per annum, in 1660, the first after the restoration of Charles 
 II. Raised to .£6,000,000, and every branch of the revenue anticipated, 
 which was the origin of the funds and the national debt, William and Mary, 
 1690. — Salmon's Chron. Hist.. 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OP THE PUBLIC REVENUE SINCE 
 
 William the Conqueror 
 
 William Rufus • 
 
 Henry 1. 
 
 Stephen 
 
 Henry II. 
 
 Richard I. 
 
 John 
 
 Henry III. 
 
 Edward I. 
 
 Edward II. 
 
 Edward III. 
 
 Richard II. 
 
 Henry IV. 
 
 Henry V. 
 
 Henry VI. 
 
 Edward IV. 
 
 Edward V. 
 
 Richard III. 
 
 Henry VIL 
 
 - £400,000 
 
 350,000 
 
 300.000 
 
 2.50,000 
 
 200:000 
 
 1.50,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 150,900 
 
 100,000 
 
 154,000 
 
 130,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 76,643 
 
 %976 
 
 100,000 
 130,000 
 400,000 
 
 THE CONaUEST, BY SIR JOHN 
 
 Henry VIII. 
 
 Edward VI. • - - 
 
 Mary .... 
 
 Elizabeth 
 
 James I. .... 
 
 Charles I. . . r 
 
 Commonwealth 
 
 Charles 11. - • - 
 
 James II. - 
 
 William III. - 
 
 Anne (at the Union) • 
 
 George I. ... 
 
 Georse II. ... 
 
 George III., 1788 - 
 
 Ditto, 1820, United Kingdom 
 
 George IV., 1825, ditto - 
 
 William IV., 1&30, ditto - 
 
 Ditto, 1835, ditto 
 
 Victoria, 1845, ditto • 
 
 SINCLAIR. 
 
 £800,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 450,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 600,0OL 
 
 895,819 
 
 1,517,247 
 
 1,800,0()0 
 
 2,001,855 
 
 3,892,205 
 
 5,691,803 
 
 6,762,643 
 
 8,522,540 
 
 15,572.971 
 
 65.599,570 
 
 62,871,300 
 
 55,431,317 
 
 50,494,732 
 
 51,067,856 
 
 REV/^NUE OF THE United States, The, is derived chiefly from customs and 
 s&.es of public lands. The aggregate revenue was, in 
 
 1790 . - #4,399,473 1825 - - $21,342,906 1840 - - $16,993,853 
 
 1795 . . . 5,926.216 1830 - - 24,280,888 1844 » - 28,504,519 
 
 1800 - • 10,624,997 1835 - • - 34,163,635 1845 - - - 29,769.134 
 
 1805 - . - 13,520,312 1836 - - 48,288,219 1846 - - '29,499,247 
 
 1810 - - 9,299,737 18-37 - - - 18,032,846 1847 - - - 26,:346,79C 
 
 .\815 - - - 15,411.634 1838 • - 19,372.984 i 1848 - - 35,436,750 
 
 1820 • - 16,779,331 1839 - - - 30,399;043 1 
 
 REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES. The first publication of the character of a re- 
 %iew was the '■'Journal des Savants,'^ established at Paris, in 1665, by Denis 
 de Sallo. It was at first published weekly, and contained analyses and cri- 
 tiques of new works, which were so severe as to give much offence. De 
 Sallo died in 1669, and the journal was afterwards edited by Gallois, De la 
 Roque, and Cousin. From 1715 to 1792, it was conducted" by a society of 
 learned men, and appeared in monthly numbers ; and the collection from 
 1665 to 1792 forms 111 volumes 4to. In 1792, it was discon;inued ; but in 
 1816, it was revived, and has had a number of eminent men among its con- 
 tributors, as De Sacy, Langl^s, Remusat, Eiot, Cuvier, &c. Numerous other 
 literary and scientific journals have been established at Paris within a few 
 years. 
 
 The Genileinan^s Magazine, which first appeared in 1731, and the MontMy 
 Review, in 1749, were the first works of fhe kind published in London, that 
 obtained any great degree of permanency or celebrity. Of the journals 
 which preceded tlie Gentleman's Magazine, the following are enumerated 
 byNicholsj viz. " Weekly Memorials, oran Account of Books lately set fortli,'' 
 
»06 THE world's TROGRESS. [ REV 
 
 1688-9 ; " Memoirs of Literature," 8 vols., 8vo., 1722; '■ New Memoirs oi 
 Literature," 6 vols., 1725 to 1727 ; " Present State of the Republic of Letters," 
 18 vols., 1728 to 1736 ; " Historia Literaria," 4 vols., 1730 to 1732. 
 
 The Gentlevian's Magazine was established in 1731, by Edward Cave, the 
 tirst editor, who died in 1754. leaving the work in the hands of his associate, 
 David Henry, who received as coadjutor John Nichols, in 1778, and died in 
 1792, having been connected with the management of the magazine more 
 than fifty years. Mr. Nichols, who was an eminent antiquary, and author 
 of "Literary Anecdotes," 9 vols., died in 1827, having been joint or sole 
 editor nearly half a century. These editors were all printers by profession ; 
 and the appellation assumed a.:id retained by the conductor of the work 
 from its commencement to the present time, is Sylvanus Urban. ITiis Mag- 
 azine is celebrated for the early connection of Dr. Johnson with the first edi- 
 tor, and in a notice of the life of Cave, revised in 1781, Dr. Johnson says of 
 this magazine, that its " scheme is known wherever the English language is 
 spoken,— -that it is one of the most successful and lucrative pamphlets which 
 literary history has upon record." A new series of this work was begun 
 January, 1834 ; the first series having been completed in 103 voluiues 
 
 The Monthly Review, the earliest regular work of the kind in England, was 
 established in 1749, by Ralph Griffiths, LL. D., who continued to conduct it 
 54 years, assisted by his son in the latter years of his life. This work Avas 
 continued until 1844, and had many able contributors. The first series, 
 from 1749 to 1789 inclusive, comprises 81 volumes ; Second Series, ending in 
 1825 108 volumes. 
 
 The Critical Review [London] was established in 1756, by Archibald Hamil- 
 ton, with the assistance of Dr. Smollett and other friends. From 1764 to 
 1785, the Rev. Joseph Robertson was a liberal contributor, having furnished 
 upwards of 2 620 articles. This work was discontinued several years since. 
 First Series, from 1756 to 1790, inclusive, 70 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1791 
 to 1803, inclusive. 39 volumes ; 3d Series, from 1804 to 1811, inclusive, 24 
 volumes ; 4th Series, from 1812 to 1814, inclusive, 6 volumes. A 5th Series 
 was begun in 1815. 
 
 The British Critic [London] was established in 1798 ; and its first editors were 
 the Rev. Messrs. Robert Nares and William Beloe : the latter of whom di'id 
 in 1817 ; and the former in 1829, having retained his connection with the 
 work till the completion of the 42d volume. It Avas at first published in 
 monthly numbers ; bi"* *>om 1827, it "appeared quarterly, under the title of 
 " The British Critic and Theological Review," until 1843, when a new work, 
 called the English Review, took its place. It was conducted by the mem- 
 bers of the ecclesiastical establishment ; and maintained Tory and High 
 Church principles. 
 
 The establishment of the Edinburgh Review, in 1802, formed an era in peri- 
 odical criticism ; as this work from its commencement took a wider range 
 and assumed a higher tone, both in literature and politics, than any preced- 
 ing publication of the kind. It has uniformly been a strenuous asserter of 
 Whig or reforming principles. Its editors have been the Rev. Sidney Smith 
 (the first year), Francis Jeffrey, and (now) Macvey Napier. Among its 
 principal writers, besides Sidney Smith and Jeffrey, are the distinguished 
 names of Playfair, Dugald Stewart, Mackintosh, Brown, Leslie, Brougham, 
 and Macaulay. This work soon gained a wide circulation ; and at one time, 
 upwards of 20,000 copies were published ; but in 1832, the number was some- 
 what less than 9000. 
 
 The Quarterly Review [London] was established in 1809, and, as early as 
 1812, it is said to have obtained a circulation little short of 6000 copies. It 
 may be regarded as a rival publication to the Edinburgh Review, maintain- 
 
aEV ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 507 
 
 ing, ii} a manner equally uncompromising, opposite or High Tory principles. 
 It was edited from its commencement till 1825 by William Gifford ; then by 
 H. N. Coleridge ; and now by J. G. Lockhart. Among its writers are num- 
 bered sir Walter Scott. Southey, and Croker. It has had many able and 
 learned contributors, some of whom are understood to have been connected 
 with the government. 
 
 The Eclectic Review [London], a monthly Journal, was commenced in 1805, 
 It is conducted by Protestant Dissenters, and maintains evangelical princi- 
 ples in religion, and liberal or reforming principles in politics. It has had 
 many able contributors, among whom are numbered Adam Clarke, Robert 
 Hall, and John Foster. — Present editor, Josiah Conder. — First Series, fron 
 1805 to 1813, inclusive, 10 volumes ; 2d Series, from 1814 to 1828, inclusive, 
 30 volumes. The 3d Series was begun in 1829, 
 
 The Christian Observer [London], a monthly journal, conducted by members 
 of the established church, was conamenced in 1802, and maintains what arc 
 commonly styled evangelical principles. It has had a number of able contri- 
 butors. The first editor, Zachary Macaulay ; the present, the Rev. Samuel 
 Charles Wilks. — Most of the volumes of this work have bevii republished 
 in this country. 
 
 Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine, a monthl}^ journal, was commenced in 1817. 
 It is edited by Professor John Wilson, and maintains High Tory politics. 
 The number of copies published, in 1832, was stated at upwards of 9000. 
 
 1 he Westmhister Revievj, established, in 1824, by the disciples of Jeremy Ben- 
 tham, is a strenuous advocate for radical reform in church, state, and legis- 
 lation. First editor, John Bowring, LL.D ; then succeeded by Mr. Mill, 
 and by W. E Hickson. The Foreign Quarterly was united with it in 1845. 
 
 The Foreign Qtiarterhj Revieio [London], established in 1827, devoted to 
 foreign literature, and conducted with ability, until 1845, when it was united 
 to the Westminster Review. — Amer. Almanac, &c. 
 
 REVOLUTION, Era of the. This memorable revolution took place in Eng- 
 land in 1688, and is styled by Voltaire as the era of Enghsh liberty. James 
 II. had rendered himself hateful to his subjects by his tyranny and oppres- 
 sion ; and soon after the landing of the prince of Orange at Torbay, Nov. 5, 
 1688, the throne was abdicated by James, who fled. The revolution was 
 consummated by William III. and his queen (Mary, daughter of James) 
 being proclaimed, Feb. 13, and crowned April 11, 1689. 
 
 REVOLUTIONS, Remarkable in Ancient History. The Assyrian empire de- 
 stroyed, and that of the Medes and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great, 
 536 B. c. The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction of the Per- 
 sian, on the defeat of Darius Codomanus, by Alexander the Great, 331 
 B. c. The Roman empire established on the ruins of the Macedonian, or 
 Greek monarchy, by Julius Csesar, 47 b. c. The Eastern empire, founded 
 by Constantine the Great, on the final overthrow of the Roman, a. d. 306. 
 The empire of the Western Franks began under Charlemagne, a. d. 802. 
 This empire underwent a new revolution, and became the German empire 
 under Rodolph of Hapsburgh, the head of the house of Austria, a. d. 1273, 
 from whom it is also called the Monarchy of the Austrians. The Easterr 
 empire passed into the hands of the Turks, about a. d. 1293. See also t^ 
 Revolutions of particular countries under their proper heads, as Rr 
 France, Portugal, &c. 
 
 REVOLUTIONS, the most celebrated I^r modern history. In Portugal, a. i, 
 1640. In England 1688. In Poland, 1704, 1795, and 1830. In Russia. 1730 
 and 1762. In Sweaen, 1772 and 1809. fn America, 1775. In France. 1789, 
 1830. and 1848. In Holland, 1795. In Venice, 1797. In Rome, 1798. In 
 the Netherlands, 1830. In Brunswick, 1830. In Brazil, 1831. In Rome, 
 
508 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 RIO 
 
 N. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 Y. Magazine and 
 
 17S7 
 1822 
 
 1824 
 
 Literary Repository, 
 
 (to 1792) 
 Literary Revieio, R. C. 
 
 Sands, &c. (to 1823) - 
 Atlantic Mag., Sands, 
 
 afterwards Neio York 
 
 Monthly Review. 
 Knickerbocker Mag. , C. 
 
 F. Hoffman, succeeded 
 bv Flint, and now L. 
 
 G. Clark • - 1832 
 Democratic Review (un- 
 til 1841 at Washington) 1837 
 
 American Monthly Ma- 
 gazine, N. Y.,(to 1838) 
 Herbert,Hoffman,Ben- 
 jamin - - '■ 
 
 N. Y. Review, (quar- 
 terly) J. G. Cogswell, 
 (to 1842) 
 
 American Review, G. 
 H. Colton 
 
 Hunt's Merchant's Ma- 
 gazine 
 
 Tuscany, Lombardy, Hungary, &c., 1848-9. These last were temporary only 
 — tlie former governments were restored, 1849. See these countries respec- 
 tively. 
 REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES in the UNITED STATES. Before the Ame- 
 rican Revolution various attempts were made to establish religious and lite- 
 rary journals 'i several places in this country, particularly Boston, New 
 York, and Philaaeiphia ; but no one of them obtained a liberal support or 
 had a long duration. The following are some of the leading literary and 
 religious reviews and magazines : 
 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
 Aitkin's Pennsylvania 
 Magazine was the 
 most popular before 
 the Revolution ; Thos. 
 Paine and Francis 
 Ilopkinson, editors 
 
 Amer. Museum, pub. by 
 Matthew Carey, (to 
 1792) - - - 1787 
 
 Literary Magazine and 
 American Register, C. 
 Brockden Brown, (to 
 1810) - - -18 6 
 
 Portfolio, pub. monthly 
 from 1809 by Jos. Den- 
 nie ; edited by Nicho- 
 las Biddle,] 812-16, and 
 1816-21 by .1. E. Hall 
 
 Analectic Mag., Mo.«?s 
 Thomas, (to 1820) 
 
 Amer. Quar. Revietv, 
 Robt. Walsh, (to 1837) 1827 
 
 Graham's Mccgazine - 
 
 Lady's Book, Mrs. Hale 
 
 Stryker's American Re- 
 gister, (quarterly) - 1847 
 
 BOSTON. Fou7ided. 
 
 American Monthly Ma- 
 gazine, (the first) es- 
 tablished by Jeremy 
 Gridley, continued 3 
 years, about - - 1745 
 
 Massachusetts Maga- 
 zine, (lasted to 1795) 1784 
 
 Monthly Anthology, Prf. 
 Ticknor, A. H. Eve- 
 rett, Buckminster, &c. 
 (to 1811) - - - 1803 
 
 General Repertory and 
 Review, (1st Amer. 
 quarterly,) edited at 
 Cambridge byAndi-ews 
 Norton - - 1812-13 
 
 North American Re- 
 vieio, commenced by 
 W. Tudor' - - 1815 
 
 Christian Examiner, 
 (quarterly) Channing, 
 Dewey, Ware, &c. - 1818 
 
 Ainerican Biblic. Repo- 
 sitory, founded by E. 
 Robinson, D.D., at An- 
 dover - - - 1831 
 
 Christian Review,iB3.^- 
 tist) quarterly - - 1835 
 
 Boston Quarterly Re- 
 view, (Brovrason) - 1837 
 
 New England Maga- 
 zine, Buckingham - 1833 
 
 American Quarterly Re- 
 gister, Edwards - 18 — 
 
 The Dial, (quarterly) 
 Emerson, to 1843 - 1841 
 
 Massachusetts Quarter- 
 ly, Theo. Parker, «fcc. 1846 
 
 1835 
 
 1837 
 1844 
 1839 
 
 NEW HAVEN. 
 
 Christian Observer - 182- 
 
 American Jotir7ial of 
 Science Sf Arts, (Silii- 
 man's) quarterly - 1818 
 
 Neio Englander, Theol. 
 (quarterly) - - 1843 
 
 Church Review (quar- 
 terly) - . - 1848 
 
 1801 
 \^13 
 
 Southern Quarterly Re- 
 vieiD, at Charleston, 
 (to 1833, recommenced 
 1842) - 
 
 Southern Lit. Messen- 
 ger, at Richmond, by 
 T. W. White - - 
 
 Biblical Repertory and 
 ■ Theological Review, 
 Princeton, N. J. 
 
 1834 
 
 18-- 
 
 RHEIMS. The principal church here was built before a, d. 406 ; it was rebuilt 
 in the twelfth centurj^, and is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy, 
 the archbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a magnificent shrine. 
 The kings of France have been successively crowned at Rheims ; probably, 
 becouseClovis. the founder of the French monarchy, when converted from 
 paganism, was baptized in the cathedral here, in the year 496. This city 
 was taken and retaken several times in the last months of the war of 1814, 
 
 KlIETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophanes of 
 Bj^zantium, 200 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at 
 Rome by Photius Gallus, 87 b. c. — Idem. " We are first to consider what is 
 to be said ; secondly, how : thirdly, in what words ; and lastly, how it is to 
 be ornamented." — Cicero. A rcgius professor of rhetoric was appointed in 
 Edinburgh, April 20, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first professor. 
 
 •Subsequent editors :—W. Phillips, 1817; E. T. Channinc, Dana, and Sparks, 1817; Edwara 
 Eyerett, 1819; Jared Sparlis, 1823; A. II. Everett, 1830; J. G'. Palfrey, 1833 ; F. Bowen, .S12. 
 
aOM ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 SOS 
 
 RHINE, CONFEDERATION of the. See article Confederation of ike Rhine. 
 
 EHODE ISLAND, one of the United States ; first settled by Roger Williams 
 and his associates, who left Massachvisetts to escape religions persecntion, 
 and founded the town of Providence, in 1686. Williams obtained a patent 
 from Plymouth Co. in 1644, including Providence Plantations and Rhode 
 Island, which had been settled 1638. New charter by Charles II., in 1663, 
 which has continued in force till recently, imchanged by the Re\'olution. 
 Dorr's attempt to change or overturn this constitution by armed force, in 
 June, 1842, defeated by the military force of the government. New consti» 
 tution adopted in convention, September 1842. Constitution of the United 
 States adopted May 29, 1790 ; this State being the last to accede to it. Pop- 
 ulation in 1790, 58,825 ; in 1810, 76,931 ; in 1830, 97,212 ; in 1840, 108,180. ' 
 
 RHODES. This city was peopled from Crete, as early as 916 b. c. The Rho- 
 dians were famous navigators, masters of the sea, and institutors of a mar- 
 itime code, which was afterwards adopted by the Romans. The republic not 
 completed till 480 b. c. The city built 432 b. c. Its famous Colossus 
 (which see) thrown down by an earthquake, 224 b. c, and finally destroj^ed 
 by the Saracen admiral Moavia, a. d. 672 — Priestley. 
 
 RIALTO, AT Venice, This renowned bridge is mentioned by Shakspeare in 
 his " Merchant of Venice." It was built in 1570, and consists of a single 
 arch, but a very noble one, of marble, built across the Grand Canal, near 
 the middle, where it is the narrowest : this celebrated arch is ninety feet 
 wide on the level of the canal, and twenty-four feet high. 
 
 RIGHTS, BILL of. The declaration made by the lords and commons of Eng- 
 land to the prince and princess of Orange, Feb. 13, 1689. See Bill of 
 Rights. 
 
 RIOTS. Some of the most noted in the United States : 
 
 At Baltimore, office of a Newspaper oppos- 
 ed to the war, demolished, .July, 1812. 
 
 At Providence, 4 persons killed by the mili- 
 tary, Sept. 24, 1831. 
 
 At Baltimore, about the bank of Md., several 
 killed and wounded. Aug. 8, 1835. 
 
 At New York, '• abolition riots," caused by 
 discussions on slavery, and supposed in- 
 tentions of abolitionists to promote " amal- 
 gamation" between whites and blacks, 
 July 10-12, 1834. 
 
 At Charlestown, Mass. , a Catholic seminary 
 or nunnery burnt, Aug. 11, 1834. 
 
 At Philadelphia, further " abolition" riots, 
 40 houses destroyed, Aug. 12, 1834. 
 
 At Utica, Boston, &c., same cause, 1835-6. 
 
 At Cincinnati, printing-press of Mr. Bur- 
 ney's "abolition" paper destroyed, July 
 30, 1836. 
 
 At New York, caused by the high price ot 
 flour ; several hundred barrels of flour des- 
 troyed, Feb. 13, 1837. 
 
 At Alton, 111., Rev. E. P. Lovejoy's anti-sla- 
 very newspaper destroyed, and he was 
 killed, Nov. 7. 18-37. 
 
 At Philadelphia, mob opposed to the anti- 
 slavery discussions, destroyed Pennsylva- 
 nia Hall, &c., May 17, 1838. 
 
 In the Pennsylvania legislature, two different 
 legislatures organized, the Senate expelled 
 from their Chamber by a mob. Militia 
 called out and the contest settled after 4 
 days, Dec. 8, 1838. 
 
 At Cincinnati, chiefly of Irishmen against 
 abolitionists and negroes, Sept. 4, 1841. 
 
 Disgracel'ul affray in Pennsylvania legisla- 
 ture ; a member stabbed by another, April 
 8, 1843. 
 
 Another in House of Representatives of U. 
 S.; rencontre between Weller and Shriver, 
 Jan. 25, 1844. 
 
 Riot at Philadelphia, between " native Ame- 
 ricans" and the Irish, 30 houses and 3 
 churches burned, fourteen persons killed, 
 forty wounded : finally put down by the 
 military, May 6-8, 1844. 
 
 The same renewed, and 40 to 50 killed and 
 wounded by the military: 5000 troops call- 
 ed out, July 7,1844. 
 
 Outrages of "Anti-Renters," in Rensselaer 
 County, N. Y. Commenced August 21, 
 1844 : renewed in December. 
 
 Delaware Co., N. Y., declared by governor 
 Wright to be in a state of insurrection. 
 Col lection of rents being resisted by rioters 
 disguised as Indians, and an under sherifl 
 murdered, Aug. 27, 1845. 
 
 Anti-Rent riot in Columbia Co. N. Y. March 
 25, 1847. 
 
 Riots at the Astor Place Opera House, N. Y. 
 against Mr. Macready, the English acU)r 
 21 killed ; May 10, 1849. 
 
 Disgraceful rencontre between Foote of Mis 
 sissippi and Benton of Missouri, in tha 
 Senate of the U. S., the first gross Irsultto 
 that assembly, May, 1850. 
 
 RIVER AND HARBOR CONVENTION, for promoting improvements, &c. ; as- 
 
310 THE world's progress. j RJM 
 
 sembled at Cliicago, 111., July 5, 18-17. House of Representatives votes 
 (112 to 53) that it is expedient and constitutional for the general govern- 
 ment to promote such improvements, July 1818. 
 ROBESPIERRE^S REIGN of TERROR. Maximilian Robespierre headed the 
 populace in the Cliamp de Mars, in Paris, demanding the dethronement of 
 the king, July 17, 1791. He was triumphant in 1793, and great numbers of 
 eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during his sanguinary administra- 
 tion. Billaud Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the tri- 
 bune, July 28, 1794. Cries of " Down with the tyrant !" resounded through 
 the hall; and so great was the abhorrence of the Convention of this wicked 
 minister, that he was immediately ordered to the place of execution and 
 suffered death, no man deeming himself safe while Robespierre lived. , 
 
 ROBIN HOOD. The celebrated captain of a notorious band of robbers, who 
 infested the forest of Sherwood in Nottinghamshire, and from thence made 
 excursions to many parts of England, in search of booty. Some historiajia 
 assert ti .at this was only a name assumed by the then earl of Huntingdon, 
 who was disgraced and banished the court by Richard I. at his accession. 
 Robin Hood, Little John his friend and second in command, with their nu- 
 merous followers, continued their depredations from about 1189 to 1217, 
 when he died. — Stowe's Chro7i. 
 
 ROCKETS, CONGREVE'S. War implements of very destructive power, were 
 invented by sir William Congreve, about 1803. The carcase rockets were 
 first Uhod at Boulogne, their powers having 'been previously demonstrated 
 in the presence of Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. See 
 article Boulogne FLotilla. 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLICS. The progress of Christianity during the life-time of 
 its divine foander was confined within narrow bounds : the Holy Land was 
 alone the scene of his labors, and of his life and death. The period of the 
 rise of the Roman Catholic religion may be dated from the establishment of 
 Christianity by Constantine, a. d. 323. See Rome. The foundation of the 
 papal power dates from a. d. 606, when Boniface III. assumed the title of 
 Universal Bishop. See Pope. Pepin, king of France, invested pope Ste- 
 phen II. with the temporal dominions of Rome and its territories, a. d. 756. 
 The tremendous power of the Roman pontifls was weakened by the Reform- 
 ation, and has since been gradually yielding to the influence of the reformed 
 doctrines, and the general diffusion, of knowledge among the nations of the 
 earth. Of 225 millions of Christians, about 160 millions are, or pass under 
 the denomination of, Roman Catholics. — M. Balbi. 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLICS in England. Laws were enacted against them iu 
 1539. They were forbidden the British court in 1673 ; but restored to favor 
 there in 1685. Disabled from holding offices of trust 1689 ; and excluded 
 from the British throne same year. Obliged to register their names and 
 estates 1717. Indulgences were granted to Roman Catholics by pai'liaraent 
 in 1778. They were permitted to purchase land, and take it by descent, 
 1780. The "no-popery" riots (Gordon's) 1780. Catholic Emancipation 
 Bill passed April 13, 1829, D. O'Connell being the first M. P. who took his 
 seat under the act. 
 
 ROMANCES. " Stories of love and arms, wherein abundance of enthusiastic 
 flights of the imagination are introduced, giving false images of life." — • 
 Pardon. As Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricea, in Thessaly, was the author 
 of Ethiop-lcs, in Greek, the first work in this species of writing, he is henca 
 styled the " Father of Romances." His work has a moral tendency, and 
 particularly inculcates the virtue of chastity. He flourished a. d. 398.-- 
 Huet de Or [gine Fabnl. Roman. 
 
ROS ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 51. 
 
 ROME. Once the mistress of the world, and §T5fe"seqnently the seat of the 
 most extensive ecclesiastical jurisdiction ever acknowledged by mankind. 
 Romulus is universally supposed to have laid the foundations of this cele- 
 brated city, on the 20th of April, according- to Varro, in the year 3961 of 
 the Julian period, 3251 years after the creation of the world, 753 before the 
 birth of Christ, 431 years after the Trojan war, and in the fourth year of 
 the sixth Olympiad. In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on 
 the summit of Mount Palatine ; and the founder, to give his followers the 
 appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standard 
 as a common asylum for every criminal, debtor, or murderer, who fled from 
 their native country to avoid the punishment which attended them. From 
 such an assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, and before the 
 death of the founder, the Romans had covered with their habitations, the 
 Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, Esquiline hills, with Mount Coelius, and 
 Quirinalis. Their numerous and successful wars led, in the course of ages, 
 to their mastery over all mankind, and to their conquest of neanj the 
 whole of the then known world. The Romans and the Albans, contesting 
 for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each part to decide it. 
 The three Huratit, Roman knights, and the three Cwiatii, Albans, having 
 been elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated com- 
 bat, which by the victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome, 667 b. c. — 
 Livy. See Tabular Views, p. 15 to p. 63. 
 
 &c. The pope refuses ; the people 
 753 attack the palace, and at 7 p. m. the 
 pope yields, and grants a liberal mi- 
 nistry - - - Nov. 16, 1848 
 The pope, after being a prisoner in his 
 476 palace for seven days, escapes from 
 Rome to Mo I a di Gaeta, in the dis- 
 537 guise of a servant - Nov. 24, 1848 
 517 Roman chambers dissolved, and a con- 
 stituent assembly convened - Dec. 29, 1848 
 553 I The Roman republic proclanned ; Maz- 
 606 I zini and two others triumvirs Feb. 9, 1849 
 
 j French armament against the republic 
 726 reaches Civita Vecchia - April 25, 1849 
 
 French repuli=ed under the walls of 
 756 Rome, with the loss of 600 - April 29, 1849 
 
 Rome surrendei's after an attack of 29 
 800 days, and false promises on the part 
 
 of the French - - July 2, 1849 
 
 Rome entered by the French under Ou- 
 dinot. and evacuated by Garibaldi 
 and his force of 3,000 men - July 3, 1849 
 Garibaldi escapes to the Adriatic, Aug.2, 1849 
 Oudinot surrenders the government 
 into the hands of three com missioners 
 of the pope, who begin the work of 
 reaction - - - Aug. 3, 1^9 
 
 Letter of the French pi'esident, dictat- 
 ing the basis of the restoration of the 
 pope's temporal power, viz. : general 
 amnesty, secularization of the admi- 
 nistration, code Napoleon, and a libe- 
 ral govei-nment - Aug. 18, 1849 
 Pope Pius IX. returned to Rome - Apr. 1850 
 
 Foundation of the city cemmenced by 
 Romulus - - - B.C. 
 
 Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, enters 
 Italy, takes Rome, and assumes the 
 title of king of Italy, which ends the 
 Western empire - - a. d. 
 
 Rome is recovered for Justinian, by 
 Belisarius .... 
 
 Retaken by the Goths 
 
 Narses, Justinian's general, again re- 
 conquers Rome 
 
 Papal power established 
 
 Rome revolts from the Greek emperors, 
 and becomes free 
 
 Pope Stephen II. inveisted with the tem- 
 poral dominion of Rome 
 
 Charlemagne acknowledged as emperor 
 of the West - - - • 
 
 Rienzi, the last of the tribunes, rules at 
 Rome 1347 
 
 [The popes continued in possession of 
 the city and territories. See article 
 Popes and Italy. ] 
 
 The recent struggles of Rome for free- 
 dom commenced in - - - 1848 
 
 Mazzini's first proclamation - Oct. 29, 1848 
 
 Count Rossi, the pope's prime minis- 
 ter, assassinated at the senate-house. 
 The populace march to the Quirinal, 
 and present their demands to the 
 pope, viz. : Italian nationality, con- 
 stituent assembly, a new ministry, 
 
 ROSARY". " We owe to Dominic de Gnzman, a canon of the order of St. Au- 
 gustin, two most important blessings," says a Spanish writer, the Rosary 
 and the Holy Office," a. d. 1202. Other authors mention the Rosary as 
 being said in 1093, 
 
 F?OSES, The WnrrE and Red. The intestine wars which so long devastated 
 England, were parried on under the symbols of the White and the Red Rose, 
 aiul were called the Avars of the Roses. The partisans of the bouse of Lan* 
 
512 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. [rOU 
 
 caster chose the icd roses as their mark of distinction, and tho&e of York 
 were denominated from the white. These wars originated with th(! descend- 
 ants of Edward III. That monarch was succeeded by his grandson, lli- 
 chard 11. , Avho being deposed, the duke of Lancaster was proclaimed king 
 by the title of Henry IV. in prejudice to the duke of York, the right heii 
 to the crown; he being descended from Lionel, the second son of Edwaid 
 III., whereas Ihe duke of Lancaster was the son of John of Gaunt, the^.iira 
 sou of king Edward. The accession of Henry occasioned several conspira 
 cies during his reign ; and the animosities which subsisted between his de- 
 scendants and those of the duke of York afterwards filled the kingdom 
 with civil commotions, and deluged its plains with blood, parf cularly ir 
 the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV, First battle fought, May 22 
 1455. See Albans, St. Union of the Roses in the marriage of Henry VII 
 with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., 1486 
 
 ROSICRUSIANS. A sect of hermetical philosophers, first appeared in Ger 
 many in 1302, and again early in the 1 7th century, They swore fidelity 
 promised secrecy, and wrote hieroglyphicall}'- ; and affirmed that the an 
 cient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of Persia, and Gymno 
 sophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine with themselves. 
 
 ROUND-HEADS. During the unhappy war which brought Charles I. of Eng- 
 land to the scaffold, the adherents of that monarch were first called Cava- 
 liers, and the friends of the parliament were called Round-heads. Thij 
 latter term arose from those persons who thus distinguished themselves 
 putting a round bowl or wooden dish upon their heads, and cutting theii 
 hair by the edges or brims of the bowl. See Cavaliers. 
 
 ROYAL ACADEMY of ARTS in England. Instituted 1768, under the patron- 
 age of George III. ; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was 
 appointed its first president. — Leigh. 
 
 ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY, London. This institution, for the recovery of 
 persons apparently drowned, was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, He- 
 berden, Towers, Lettsom, Hawes and Cogan, but principally by the exertions 
 of the last three gentlemen. The society has eighteen receiving-houses in the ' 
 metropolis, all of which are supplied with perfect and excellent apparatus, 
 and designated by conspicuous boards, announcing their object. 
 
 ROYAL INSTITUTION, London. This institution was formed in 1800, un- 
 der the patronage of George III., .and incorporated by royal charter as 
 " The Royal Institution of Great Britain," for diffusing the knowledge, and 
 facilitating the general introduction, of useful mechanical inventions and 
 improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical lectures and 
 experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life. 
 The investigations and the important discoveries of sir H. Davy, who lec- 
 tured on chemistry here, conferred no small degree of celebrity on thi» 
 establishment. A new professorship was created in 1833. 
 
 ROYAL SOCIETY. The origin of this learned body is ascribed to the hon. 
 Robert Boyle and sir Wm. Petty, who, together with the several doctors of 
 divinity and physic, Matthew Wren and Mr. Rook, frequently met in thd 
 apartments of Dr. Wilkins. in Wadham College, Oxford ; where the society 
 continued till 1658. Charles II., April 22, 1663, constituted them a body 
 politic and corporate, by the appellation of the " President, Council and 
 Fellows of the Royal Society of London, for improving Natural Knowledge.'' 
 
 RUMP PARLIAMENT. The parliament so designated at the period of the 
 civil war in England. Colonel Pride at the head of two regiments block- 
 aded the house of commons, and seized in the passage 41 members of the 
 Presbyterian party, whom he confined; above 160 more were excluded; 
 and none but the most determined of the Independents, about 60. were 
 
ILUS] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 513 
 
 permit fced to enter the house. This invasion of parliamentary rights was 
 called Pride's Purge, and the admitted members were called the Rump, 
 164:9.— GoldsmUL 
 
 RUSSIA. Anciently Sarmatia. It is conjectured that the aborigines of thi? 
 vast tract of country were the immediate progeny of Magog, second son 
 of Japhet ; and that they settled here very shortly after the dispersion 
 from Babel, where they were gradually divided into tribes, each distin- 
 guished by a particular name, but still retaining their ancient general ap- 
 pellation, until it was changed by the Romans into that of Scythians. 
 Rurick was grand-duke of Novogorod, a. d. 882, which is the earliest au- 
 thentic account of this country. In 981, Woladimer was the first CLristian 
 king. Audrey I. began his reign in 1156, and laid the foundation of Mos- 
 cow. About 1200, the Mongol Tartars conquered Russia, and held it in 
 subjection till 1540, when John Basilowitz restored it to independence. In 
 the middle of the sixteenth century the Russians discovered and conquered 
 Siberia. 
 
 The young prince, the rightful heir, till 
 now immured, put to death a. n. 1763 
 
 The dismemberment of Poland com- 
 menced by Catherine. (See Poland) 177'>- 
 
 This perfidious robbery completed - 1795 
 
 Catherine gives her subjects a new code 
 of laws; abolishes torture in punish- 
 ing criminals ; and dies - - 179G 
 
 Murder of the emperor Paul, who is 
 found dead in his chamber, March 23, 1801 
 
 Great defeat of Alexander, at Austerlitz, 
 by Napoleon - - Dec. 2, 1805 
 
 Alexander visits England - June 6, 1814 
 
 The grand-duke Constantine renounces 
 the right of succession - Jan. 26, 1822 
 
 The emperor Nicholas is ci'owned at 
 Mo&xow - - - Sept. 3, 1826 
 
 Russian war against Persia - Sept. 28, 1^ 
 
 Nicholas invested with the order of the 
 Garter - - - July 9, 1827 
 
 Peace concluded between Russia and 
 the Persians - - Feb" 22, 1828 
 
 War between Russia and the Ottoman 
 Porte declared - - April 26, 1823 
 
 [For the disastrous consequences to 
 Turkey of this war, see Turkey and 
 Battles. ^, 
 
 The war for the independence of Poland, 
 against Russia - - Nov. 29, 1830 
 
 This war closed with the capture of 
 Warsaw, and the total overtnrow of 
 the Poles. See Warsaw • Sept. 8, 1831 
 
 [For the events of this last war, see ar- 
 ticle Poland.] 
 
 Cracow, which had been erected irito a 
 republic, and its independence gua- 
 ranteed by the Congress of Vienna, in 
 1815, is occupied by a Russian and 
 Austrian army - Feb. 13, 1836 
 
 Failure of the Russian expedition a- 
 
 ^ D 
 
 The foundation of the present monarchy 
 
 laid A. D. 1474 
 
 Basil IV. carries his victorious arms in- 
 to the East, 1509 to .... 1534 
 
 Ivan Basilowitz takes the title of czar, 
 signifying great king, and drives the 
 Tartars clear out of his dominions, 
 1534 to 1550 
 
 The navigation from England first dis- 
 covered by Robert Chancellor - - 1554 
 
 The Tartars surprise Moscow, and slay 
 30,000 of the people - - - -1571 
 
 The Novogorodians having intrigued 
 with the Poles, Ivan orders the chief 
 inhabitants to be hewn into small pie- 
 ces before his eyes .... 1581 
 
 The race of Rurick, who had governed 
 Russia for 700 years, becomes extinct 1598 
 
 The imposition practised by Demetrius 
 See Impostors. 1606 
 
 The Poles place Ladislaus, son of their 
 own king, Sigisraund II., upon the 
 throne of Russia .... I6IO 
 
 Michael Fedorowitz, of the house of 
 Romanaov, ascends the throne - - 1613 
 
 Revolt from Polish tyranny - - ■ 1613 
 
 Finland ceded to Sweden - - - 1617 
 
 Reign of Peter I. or the Great - - 1682 
 
 He visited England^ and worked in the 
 dock-yard at Deptford - . . 1697 
 
 Ordei-s of St. Andrew, and of St. Alex- 
 ander Nevskoi, instituted about - 1698 
 
 The Russians begin their new year 
 from January 1 - - . 1700 
 
 Peter builds St. Petersburg - . 1703 
 
 Peter II. deposed, aad the crown given 
 to Anne of Courland - - . 1730 
 
 Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I. reigns, 
 in prejudice of Ivan VI., an infant, 
 who is imprisoned for life . . 1741 
 
 Peter III. dethroned and murdered ; sue- gainst Khiva 
 
 ceeded by Catherine his wife, . 1762 Treaty of London. 
 
 THE CZARS, OR EMPERORS OP RUSSIA. 
 
 1461 John m. 1606 Chousky 
 
 1504 Demetrius; murdered. 
 
 1504 Basil V. 
 
 1534 John IV. 
 
 1.584 Theodore I. 
 
 1598 Bo vise Godounove. 
 
 1605 Theodore 11. 
 
 J605 Demetrius II. , assassinated. 
 
 See Syria 
 
 Jan. 3. !84<i 
 July 15, ISIO 
 
 1616 Michael Fedorowitz. 
 
 1645 Alexis. 
 
 1676 Theodore III. 
 
 1682 Peter I., the Great, 
 
 1725 Catherine I. 
 
 1727 Peter II. 
 
 1730 Anne, a nun. 
 
 22* 
 
514 THE world's progress. [ S'^'J 
 
 RUSSIA, continued. 
 
 1740 John V. ; murdered, Ji ly 17. 1762. 
 
 1741 Elizabeth. 
 
 1762 Peter III. ; deposed, an idled scon af- 
 terwards. 
 
 1762 Catherine 11. 
 
 1796 Paul 1. ; murdered, Feb 25., Ii301. 
 
 lyOl Alexander. 
 
 1825 Micholas, December 1. 
 
 RYE-HOUSE PLOT. The real, or more probably pretended, conspiracy tft 
 assassinate Charles II. and his brother the duke of York (afterwards Jamea 
 II.) at a place called Rj^e-house, on the way to London from Newmarket. 
 This design was said to have been frustrated by the king's house at I^ew- 
 market accidentally taking fire, which hastened the royal party away eiglit 
 days before the plot v/as to take place, March 22, 1683. The plot was disco\-- 
 ered June 12, following. .The patriot Algernon Sidney, suffered death on a 
 false charge of being concerned in this conspiracy, Dec. 7, 168S. 
 
 R.YSWICK, Peace of, concluded between England, France, Spix,in, and Holland^ 
 signed Sept. 20, and by the emperor of Germany, Oct. 80^ 1&97. 
 
 S. 
 
 SABBATH, The. Ordained by the Almighty. The Jews observed the seventh 
 day in commemoration of the creation and their redemption from the bon- 
 dage of the Egyptians; the Christians observe the first day of the week in 
 commemoration of the resurrection of Christ from the dead, and the univer- 
 sal redemption of mankind. The sabbath-day, or Sunday, ordained to be 
 kept holy in England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon to Monday at 
 break-of-day, 4 Canon, Edgar, a. d. 960. Act of parliament levying one 
 shilling on every person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 1606. 
 Act restraining amusements, Charles I., 1626-. Act restraining the perform 
 ance of servile \vorks, and the sale of goods, except milk at certain hours, 
 meat in public houses, and works of necessity and charity, on forfeiture ol 
 five shillings, 29 Charles II. 1677. 
 
 SABBATIANS. Christians, who, professing to follow the example and precepts 
 of Christ, keep the ancient divine Sabbath of Saturday, instead of the mo- 
 dern Romish festival of Sunday, for which this sect allege that there is not 
 a tittle of Scriptural authority. They maintain that the Jewish Sabbath 
 was never abrogated, nor any other appointed or instituted, and consequently 
 that it ought to be as religiously observed by the Christians as by the 
 Jews, 1549. 
 
 SABBATICAL YEAR. A Jewish institution, 1444 b. c. Every seventh year, 
 during which time the very ground had rest, and was not tilled, and every 
 forty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates, 
 &c., that were before sold or mortgaged, returned to their original famiUes, 
 &c . — Jusephus. 
 
 SABINES. The people from whom the Romans, \mder Romulus, took away 
 their daughters by force for wives, having made and invited them to some 
 public sports or shows on purpose ; when the Sabines wei-e determined to 
 revenge this affront, the women became mediators to their fathers in behalf 
 of their husbands the Romans, and settled a regular and lasting peace be- 
 tween them, 750 b. c. 
 
 SACRED WAR. The first, concerning the temple at Delphi, took place 448 e. c. 
 The second Sacred War occurred on Delphi being attacked by the Phocoans, 
 356 B. c. This latter war was terminated by Philip of Macedon taking all 
 the cities of the Phoceans, 348 e.g. — Pkutarch. 
 
 SACRIFICE. The first religious sacrifice was offered to God by Abel; it con- 
 sisted of milk and the firstlings of his flock, 3875 b. c. — Josephus; Uskcr. 
 Sacrifices to the gods were fii st introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, king of 
 
ST. V ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. . 515 
 
 Argos, 1770 b. c. The offering of human sacrifices seems to have originated 
 with the Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into Greece, Persia, and 
 other eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God ceased with the sacri- 
 fice of the Redeemer, a. d. 33. 
 
 SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups, 
 which led to several maladies of the hips and legs. Saddles were in use in 
 the third century, and are mentioned as made of leather in >. d. 304. They 
 were known iii England about the year 600. Side-saddles for ladies were iu 
 use in 1888. Anne, the queen of Richard II., introduced them to the En- 
 glish ladies. — Stowe. 
 
 SA.DDUCEES. A sect among the Jews, said to have been founded by one 
 Sadoc, a scholar a" Antigonus, who, misinterpreting his master's doctrine, 
 taught there was neither heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit; that the soul 
 was mortal, and that there was no resurrection of the body from the dead. 
 As for their other opinions, the Sadducees agreed m general with the Sama- 
 ritans, excepting that they were partakers of all the Jewish sacrifices. This 
 sect began about 200 b. c. — Pardon. 
 
 SAFETY-LAMP. That of the illustrious sir Humphrey Davy, to prevent ac- 
 cidents which happen in coal and other mines, introduced in 1815 ; and im- 
 proved in 1817. The safety-lamp is founded on the principle that flame, in 
 passing through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat as not to be 
 capable of igniting inflammable substances around, while flame alone ig- 
 nites gas. It should be mentioned, that the father of all safety-lamps is 
 Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are 
 authenticated in the Transactiojis of the Society of Arts, for 1817, and in 
 T/iomson's Annals of Pldlosophy, same year. 
 
 SAGUNTUM, SiEGE of. The famous and dreadful siege of Saguntum (now 
 Morviedro in Valencia) was sustained 219 b. c. The heroic citizens, after 
 exerting incredible acts of valor for eight months, chose to be buried in the 
 ruins of their city rather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt them- 
 selves, with their houses and all their effects, and the conqueror became 
 master of a pile of ashes and of dead. 
 
 ST. SALVADOR. The first point of land discovered in the West Indies or 
 America by the illustrious Christopher Columbus. It was previously called 
 Guanahami, or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in acknowledgment to God for 
 his deliverance from the dangers to which he was exposed in his voyage of 
 discovery) named it St. Salvador, October 11, 1492. 
 
 ST. SEBASTIAN'S, Siege of, by the British and allied army under lord Wel- 
 lington. St. Sebastian, after a short siege, during which it sustained a most 
 heavy bombardment, and by which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, 
 was stormed by general (afterwards lord) Graham, and taken, August 31; 
 1813. 
 
 ST. SOPHIA, Church of. In Constantinople, a short distance from the Sub- 
 lime Porte, stands the ancient Christian church of St. Sophia, built by 
 Justinian ; and since the Mahometan conquest, in 1453, used as an impe- 
 rial mosque. It abounds in curiosities. Its length is 269 feet, and its 
 breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green jasper, from the Temple of 
 Diana, at Ephesus ; and eight of porphyry, from the Temple of the Sun, at 
 Rome. 
 
 ST. VINCENT, Battle of, between the Spanish and British fleets off tho 
 Cape. The latter was commanded by sir John Jervis (afterwards earl St. 
 Vincent), who took four line-of- battle shi])s, and considerably damaged thfl 
 rest of the Spanish fleet, February 14, 1797. 
 
516 THE WORLDS PR, EGRESS. [ SAl» 
 
 SALAMANCA, Batti.r of, between the British and allies commanded by lord 
 Wellington, and the French army under Marshal Marmont, fought July 22, 
 1812. In this great and memorable battle the illustrious WelHngton waa 
 victorious, though the loss of the allies was most severe, amounting in 
 killed, wounded, and missing, to nearly 6000 men ; but that of the enemy 
 was much greater. Marmont left in the victor's hands 7141 prisoners, 11 
 pieces of cannon, 6 stand of colors, and two eagles : 8000 men are believed 
 to have been killed and wounded. Marmont was the seventh French Mar- 
 shal whom lord Wellington had defeated in the course of four years. An 
 immediate consequence of this victory was the capture of Madrid with 2S00 
 more prisoners, and an immense quantity of stores. 
 
 SALAMIS, Battle of. The Persians defeated by the Greeks in this great sea- 
 fight, October 20, 480 b. c. Themistocles, the Greek commander, with only 
 366 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, of over 1000, at the least. After 
 this battle, Xerxes retired from Greece, leaving behind him Mardonius, 
 with 300 000 men, to carry on the war, and suffer more disasters. In his re- 
 treat, he found the bridge of boats he had, crossed over at the Hellespont, 
 now the Dardanelles, destroyed by a tempest. 
 
 SALIQUE, OR SALIC, LAW. By this law females are excluded from inherit- 
 ing the crown of France. It was instituted by Pharamond, a. d. 424. Rati- 
 fied in a council of state by Clovis I., the real founder of the French 
 monarchy, in 511. — HenauWs France. In order to give more authority to 
 the maxim that " the crown should never desbend to a female," it was usual 
 to derive it from a clause of the Salian code of the ancient Franks ; but 
 this clause, if strictly examined, carries only the appearance of favoring 
 the principle, and does not in reality bear the sense imposed upon it, 
 
 SALT AND SALT-MINES. Salt is either procured from rocks in the earth, from 
 salt-springs, or from sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitska, near 
 Cracow, in Poland, have been worked 600 years, and yet present, it has been 
 lately said, no appearance of being exhausted. Rock-salt was discovered 
 about A. D. 950. Saltpetre was first made in England about 1625. The fine 
 salt-mines of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670. 
 
 SAMARITANS. The Samaritans are often mentioned in the Scriptures. They 
 were the inhabitants of a province of which Samaria was the capital, and 
 were composed of heathens and rebellious Jews ; and on having a temple 
 built there after the form of that of Jerusalem, a lasting enmity arose be- 
 tween the people of Judea and Samaria, so that no intercourse took place 
 between the two countries, and the name of Samaritan became a word of re- 
 proach, and as if it were a curse. — Lempriere. 
 
 SANCTUARIES. They had their origin in the early ages. Rome was one 
 entire sanctuary from 751 b. c. In England, privileged places for the safety 
 of offenders were granted by king Lucius to our churches and their pre- 
 cincts. St. John's of Beverley was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons, 
 St. Burein's, in Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, a. d. 935; West- 
 minster, by Edward the Confessor ; St. Martin's-le-Grand, 1529. Sanc- 
 tuaries were abolished at the Reformation. Several places in Lond«m were 
 privileged against the arrest of persons for debt. These last were sup- 
 pressed in 1696. 
 
 SANDALS. The shoe or slipper worn especially by the eastern nations. At 
 first it was only a piece of leather like the sole of a shoe, to keep the foot 
 from the ground, but was in the course of time improved to a covering of 
 cloth, ornamented with all the delicacies of art, and made of the richest 
 materials, and worn by the high priests at great solemnities, and by kings, 
 princes, and great men as a mark of distinction. Sandals were also worn 
 by women, as appears from the story of Judith and Holofernes, where, 
 
£arJ dictionary of datfs. 517 
 
 among other decorations, she is said to have put on sandals, at the sight of 
 which he was ravished. It was usual for ladies to have slaves to carry 
 their sandals in cases, ready to adorn their feet on occasions of state. Sea 
 Slices. 
 
 SANDWICH ISLANDS. A group of eleven islands in the Pacific Ocean. They 
 were discc vered by captain Cook in 1778. Many voyagers report that the na- 
 tural capacity of the natives seems in no respect below the common standard 
 of mankind. It was in one of these islands that this illustrious circumna- 
 vigator fell a victim to the sudden resentment of the natives, Feb. 14, 1779. 
 Extraordinary progress in the civilization and improvement of the natives, 
 effected chiefly by the American missionaries. Tamehameha. chief of 
 Hawaii, becomes king of the group, 18 . Rihoriho, his son, succeeds 
 him, 1819. Idolatry abolished, 1819. Rihoriho and his queen died in Eng- 
 land, 1824. Kanikeaouli, 20 years of age, king, 1824. Mission established 
 by the American Board, 1820. In 1832 there were 900 schools and 50,000 
 pnpils in the Islands. Treaty with the French, made with admiral Dupetit- 
 Thouars, 1837. Another, enforcing the introduction of Catholic mission- 
 aries, &c., 1839. Tamehameha III. becomes king, Dr. G. P. Jidd, an Ame- 
 rican, prime-minister, 18 . In 1831 there were 14 ships, 2630 tons, belong- 
 ing to the Islands — which are important to the United States as a whaling 
 station. See Owhyhee. 
 
 SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council of the highest jiu'isdiction, of sev- 
 enty, or as some say, seventy-three members. They date this senate from 
 Numbers xi. 16. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus Christ, John 
 xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanhedrim was summoned by the emperor Napoleon 
 at Paris, July 23, 1806 ; and it assembled Jan. 20, 1807. 
 
 SAPPHIC VERSE. The verse invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mity- 
 lene. Sappho was equally celebrated for her poetry, her beauty, and her 
 amorous disposition. She conceived a hopeless passion for Phaon, a youth 
 of her native country, on which account she threw herself into the sea 
 from Mount Leucas, and was drowned. The Lesbians, after her death, ]3aid 
 her divine honors, and called her the tenth muse, 594 b. c. 
 
 SARACENS. A celebrated people from the deserts of Arabia, Sarra in their 
 language signifying a desert. They were the first disciples of Mahomet ; 
 and within 40 years after his death, in a. d. 631, they conquered a great part 
 of Asia, Africa, and Europe. They conquered Spain in 713 et seq. ; the 
 empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being taken by the Tartars, 1258. 
 — Blair. There are now no j)eople known by this name ; the descendanta 
 of those who subdued Spain are called Moors. 
 
 SARAGOSSA. Anciently Csesarea Augusta; whence, by corruption, its name. 
 Its church has been a place of great devotion. They tell us that the Virgin, 
 while yet living, appeared to St. James, who was preaching the gospel, and 
 left him her image, which was afterwards placed in the church, with a little 
 Jesus in its arms, ornamented with a profusion of gold and jewels, and il- 
 luminated by a multitude of lamps. In December 1778, four hundred of 
 the inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Saragossa taken by 
 the French, after a most heroic defence by general Palafox, during as re 
 no^vned a siege as is on record, February 13, 1809. 
 
 SARATOGA, Burgoyne's Surrender at. Here general Burgoyne, comman 
 der of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans ir 
 the war of independence (Oct. 7), being surrounded, surrendered to th( 
 American general Gates, when 5791 men laid down their arms, October 17 
 1777. 
 
 SARDANAPALTIS. The last king of Assyria. See Assyria. On(j of the mosj 
 
518 
 
 THE world's progress 
 
 SAl 
 
 infamous and sensual monarclis that ever lived. Having grown odious to 
 his subjects, and being surrounded by hostile armies, dreading to fall into 
 their hands, he shut himself up in his capital at Nineveh. Here he caused 
 a vast i)ile of wood to be raised in a court of his palace, and heaping upon 
 it all his gold, silver, jewels, precious and rare articles, the royal apparel, 
 and other treasures, and inclosing his concubines and eunuchs in an apart- 
 ment within the pile, he set all on fire, perishing himself in the flames. 
 This is the mightiest conflagration of wealth on record. The riches 
 thus destroyed were worth a thousand myriads oj talents of gold^ and te^ 
 TIMES as many talents of silver !! ! about 1,400,000,000/. sterling, — Athenaus. 
 
 SARDINIA. The first inhabitants of Piedmont, Savoy, &c., are supposed to 
 have been the Umbrians, Etrurians, Ligurians, and afterwards the Gauls 
 (when they established themselves in Italy, under Brennus, &c.,) from 
 whom this country was called Cisalpine Gaul (or Ganl on this side of the 
 Alps, with respect to Rome) : it afterwards became a part of Lombardy, 
 from whom it was taken by the Burgundians. The island of Sardinia has 
 been successively possessed by the Phoenicians and Greeks, the Carthagi- 
 nians, Romans, Saracens, and Spaniards. From settlers belonging to v, hich 
 various nations the present inhabitants derive their origin. 
 
 Subjugated by the Romans 
 
 B.C. 231 
 
 Taken by the Moors, about - - a.d. 728 
 
 Reduced by the Genoese - - - 1115 
 
 The pope grants Sardinia to thePisanese, 
 who are, however, too weak to expel 
 the Saracens 1132 
 
 Alphonsus IV. of Arragon, becomes 
 master of Sai-dinia - - - -1324 
 
 Taken from the Spaniards by the Eng- 
 lish naval forces - - - - 1708 
 
 Recovered by the Spaniards - - - 1717 
 
 They again lose possession • - - 1719 
 
 Ceded to the duke of Savoy, as an equi- 
 valent for Sicily .... 1720 
 
 Victor Amadeus, having the title of king" 
 abdicates in favor of his son - a.d^ 1730 
 
 Attempting to recover Sardinia, he is 
 taken, and dies in prison - - - 1732 
 
 [The court kept at Turin till 1706, when 
 these dominions were overrun by the 
 French arms, and shortly afterwards 
 annexed to the French empire.] 
 
 The king resigns his crown to his bro- 
 ther, duke of Aoust - . .June 4, 1802 
 
 Sardinia annexed to Italy, and Bona- 
 parte crowned king of the whole. 
 
 December 26, 1805 
 
 Restored to its rightful sovereign, with 
 Genoa added to it December 1814 
 
 King Charles Albert, having protested 
 against Austrian encroachments in 
 Italy, calls out an additional force of 
 25,000 men - - - Jan. 10 1848 
 
 I'roclaims the basis of a Constitutior: 
 
 Feb. 8, 1S48 
 
 KINGS OP SARDINIA. 
 
 B. 1720. Victor Amadeus, son of Charles Ema- | 1802. Victor Emanuel, 
 nuel duke of Savoy. 
 
 Declares war against Austria, enters 
 Milan with An army, to assist the po- 
 pular cause, and drives the Austrians 
 towards Mantua • - March 23, 
 
 Takes Lodi .... April 1, 
 
 Forces ' the Austrian line near Verona, 
 April 17, 
 
 Takes Peschiara - - . May 30, 
 
 Defeats the Austrians under Radetsky, 
 at Goito 
 
 Sardinian army driven from Vicenza, 
 Verona, the Adige, &.c., .lune-July - 
 
 Retreats to Ticino after capitulation of 
 Milan Aug. 4. 
 
 Followed by an armistice - - - 
 
 Rupture of the armistice - - March 
 
 Battle of Novara ; the Sardinians under 
 Charles Albert, totally defeated by 
 Radetsky 
 
 The king abdicates in favor of his son, 
 Victor Emanuel, count of Savoy, and 
 leaves the kingdom - March 23, 
 
 Insurection at Genoa against the new 
 king April 1, 
 
 Genoa invested by Marmora, April 5, 
 and fully reduced - - April 11, 
 
 Charles Albert late king, dies at Lis- 
 bon July 28, 
 
 Victor Emanuel opens the legislative 
 chamber with a moderate speech, and 
 is warmly greeted - Aug. 1. 
 
 Treaty with Austria - - Aug. 6, 
 
 The chamber votes 100,000 livres to re- 
 lieve the refugees fom various parts 
 of Italy - ' - . Aug. 30, 
 
 184^ 
 
 1848 
 
 1849 
 
 1730. Charles Emanuel 
 
 1773. Victor Amadeus Maria II. 
 
 1795. Charles Emanuel. 
 
 182). Charles Felix. 
 
 1831. Charies Albert, Apri. 27. 
 
 1848. Victor Emanuel 
 
 SATIRE. About a century after the introduction of comedy, satire made its 
 appearance at Rome in the writings of Lucilius, who was so celebrated in 
 this species of composition that he has been called the inventor of it, 116 
 
BAW ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 519 
 
 B. c. — Livy. Lncilius obtained praise lavished with too liberal a hand : we 
 may compare bira to a river which rolls upon its waters precious sand, aO" 
 companied with mire and dirt. — Horoxe. 
 
 SATURDAY. With us this is the last or seventh day of the week ; but with 
 the Jews it is the Sabbath. See Sabbath. It was so called from an idol 
 worshipped on this day by the old Saxons, and according- to Vertigern was 
 named by them Saterne's-day. — Pardon. It is more probably from Saturn, 
 dies Saturni. — Addison. 
 
 SATURN. Ascertained to be about 900 millions of miles distant from the 
 sun, and its diameter to be 89.170 miles. His satellites were discovered by 
 Gahleo and Simon Meyer, 1608-9-10 ; his belt, &c,, by Huygens in 1634 ; 
 his fifth satellite by the same in 1655 ; and his sixth and seventli by 
 Herschel in 1789. Cassini was also a discoverer of the satellites of the 
 planets. 
 
 SATURNALIA. Festivals in honor of Saturn. They were instituted long 
 before the foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the freedom and 
 equality which prevailed on earth in the golden reign of Saturn. Some, 
 however, suppose that the Saturnalia were first observed at Rome in »ho' 
 reign of Tullus Hostilius, after a victory obtained over the Sabines ; while 
 others support that Janus first instituted them in gratitude to Saturn, from 
 whom he had learned agriculture. Others suppose that they were first 
 celebrated after a victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Posthu- 
 mius. During- these festivals no business was allowed, amusements were 
 encouraged, distinctions ceased, and even slaves could say what thej" pleased 
 to their masters with impunity. — Lenglet. 
 
 SAYINGS BANKS, England. The benefit clubs among artisans, having- ac- 
 cumulated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, a plan was 
 adopted to identify these funds with the public debt of the country, and an 
 extra rate of interest was held out as an inducement; hence, savings banks 
 to receive small sums, returnable with interest, on demand, were formed. 
 Brought under parliamentary regulation in 1816. The number of savings 
 banks considerably increased up to 1846 ; and the number of depositors in 
 that year was, for the United Kingdom, 1,063,418 ; and the whole amount 
 deposited, 32 661,924Z. In the United States the first savings bank in Phi- 
 ladelphia, 1816 ; the next in Boston, 1817. They are now very numerous 
 throughout the United States. 
 
 SAVOY. It became a Roman province 118 b. c. The Alemans seized it in a. d. 
 395, and the Franks in 496. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 
 1040, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert, with the title 
 of earl. Amadous, earl of Savoy, solicited Sigismund to erect his domi- 
 nions into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, February 19, 1417. Victor 
 Amadous, duke of Savoy, obtained the kingdom of Sicily, by treaty, from 
 Spain, which he afterwards exchanged with the emperor for the island of 
 Sardinia, with the title of king, 1713-20. The French subdued this country 
 in 1792, and made it a department of France, under the name of Mont 
 Blanc, in 1800. 
 
 SAW. Invented by Daedalus. — Pliny. Invented by Talus. — ApoUodorus. Ta- 
 lus, it is said, having found the jaw-bone of a snake, he employed it to cut 
 through a piece of wood, and then formed an instrument of iron like it. 
 Beecher says saw-mills were invented in the seventeenth century ; but he 
 errs. Saw-mills were erected in Madeira in 1420; at Breslau, in 1427. 
 Norway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador 
 from Miry of England to the court of Rome, describes a saw-mill there, 
 1555. Il England saw-mills had at first the same fate with printing in Tur- 
 key, the crane in Strasburg, &c. The attempts to introduce them were 
 
520 THE world's rROGRESs. [ SUB 
 
 violently opposed ; and ono erected by a Dutchman in 1663 was forced to be 
 abandoned. 
 
 S.AXONY". The royal family of Saxony is of very ancient origin, and is allied 
 to all the royal houses in Europe. The sovereignty still continues in tho 
 same family, notwithstanding it encountered an interruption of more than 
 two hundred years, from 1180 to 1423. Saxony, which had been for many 
 centuries an electorate, was formed into a kingdom in 1806, when Frederick 
 Augustus became the first king. That sovereign was succeeded by his 
 brother, Anthony, May 5, 1827. The present sovereign is Frederick Au- 
 gustus II., who ascended the throne, 6th of June, 1886. Saxony became 
 the scene of the great struggle against Napoleon in 1813. Insurrection at 
 Dresden ; the king retires to Konigstern, May 3, 1849. Insurgents put 
 down by the Prussian troops. May 7, 1849, 
 
 SCANDALUM MAGNATUM. The name given to a special statute relating 
 to any wrong, by words or in writing, done to high personages of the land, 
 such as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in the state, and other 
 great public functionaries, by the circulation of scandalous statements, 
 false news, or horrible messages. This law was enacted 2 Richard 11,. 1378. 
 
 SCEPTIC. The ancient sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrlio, 334 b. c. 
 Pyrrho was in continual suspense of judgment; he doubted of everything, 
 never made any conclusions, and when he had carefully examined a subject, 
 and investigated all its parts, he concluded by still doubting of its evidence. 
 As he showed so much indifference in every thing, and declared that life 
 and death were the same thing, some of his 'disciples asked him, why he 
 did not hurry himself out of the world'? "Because," says he, "there 
 is no difference between life and death." Timon was one of the chief fol- 
 lowers of this sect, which was almost extinct in the time of Cicero. — 
 Strabo. 
 
 SCEPTRE. This is a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the 
 earlier ages of the world, the sceptres of kings were long walking-staves ; 
 they afterwards were carved, and made shorter. Tarquin the Elder was 
 the first who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, about 468 b. c. The 
 French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, a. d. 481. — Le 
 Gendre. 
 
 SCHOOLS. Charity schools were instituted in London to prevent the seduc- 
 tion of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — 
 Rafin. Charter schools were instituted in Ireland 1733. — Scidly. In Eng- 
 land there are now 18.642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) for the 
 education of the poor ; and the number of children is 998,431. The paro- 
 chial and endowed schools of Scotland are in number (exclusively of Sunday 
 schools) 4.836 ; and the number of children, 181,467. The number of 
 schools in Wales is 841, and the number of children 38,164 : in Ireland, 
 13 327 schools, and 774,000 children. In the United States the syst(?m of 
 public schools is very generally and effectively supported. The school- fund 
 in Maine amounts to $350:000 ; in Massachusetts, $850,000 ; in Connecticut, 
 S2 077.641; New York, $6,491,803; New Jersey, $869,278; Delaware, 
 $225,000 ; Virginia, $1 448.261 ; Georgia, $262,300 ; Alabama, $1,215,381 ; 
 Tennessee, $1346 068; Kentucky, $1,221,819; Ohio, $1,566,981; Michigan, 
 $500,000 ; Indiana, $2,195 149 ; Missouri, $575 668 ; Iowa, $132,909. Total 
 in 1849, $21,420 275. In the State of New York the number of District 
 School Libraries is about 11,000. See Editcation, Libro^ries, &c. 
 
 SCIENCE IN THR United States. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, 1752. 
 American Philosophical Society established, 1769. American Academy of 
 Arts and Sciences, 1780. First jourse of Chemical Lectures in the United 
 States, by Dr. S. L. Mitchill, N. Y., 1792. Botanic garden and Professor of 
 
SCr ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 521 
 
 Natural History established at Harvard College, 1805. American Associa- 
 tion for the Ad\iancement of Science, formed, 1845. 
 
 SCILLY ISLES. They held commerce with the Phoenicians. They are men- 
 tioned by Strabo as being ten in number. The memorable shipTi'reck 
 of the British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel occurred here. This 
 brave admiral returning from an expedition against Toulon, mistook these 
 rocks for land, and struck upon them. His ship, the Association, in which 
 were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank, and 800 brave men, went 
 instantly to the bottom. The Eagle, Captain Hancock, and the Romney and 
 Firebrand, were also lost. The rest of the fleet escaped, Oct. 22, 1707. Sir 
 Cloudesley's body, being found, was conveyed to London, and buried in 
 Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory. 
 
 SCOTLAND. See Caledonia. This important member of the British empire 
 was governed by a king before the Romans visited England, and continued 
 an independent kingdom till the death of the English queen Elizabeth, 
 when James VL of Scotland, the most immediate heir, was called to the 
 throne of England, and constantly resided in the latter ; he and his suc- 
 cessors calling themselves kings of England and Scotland, and each 
 country having a separate parliament, till the year 1707, in the reign of 
 queen Anne, when both kingdoms were united under the general name «..f 
 Great Britain. See England and Scotland, Tabular Views, p. 75., et seq. 
 
 SCREW, This instrument was known early to the Greeks. The pumping- 
 screw of Archimedes, or screw-cylinder for raising water, invented 236 b. c, 
 is still in use, and still bears that philosopher's name. The power of the 
 screw is astonishing ; it being calculated that if the distance between the 
 two spirals or threads of the screw be half an inch, and the length of each 
 handle twelve inches, the circle that they describe in going round will be 
 seventy-five inches, and consequently 150 times greater than half an inch, 
 the distance between the two spirals. Therefore one man can, with the 
 assistance of this screw, press down or raise up as much as 150 men could 
 do without it. This power increases in proportion to the closeness of the 
 spirals and the length of the handles. — Ch-eig. 
 
 f^CULPTURE. The origin of this art cannot be traced with any certainty. 
 The invention is given by some ancient writers to the Egyptians, and by 
 others to the Greeks. It is referred by some historians to 1020 b. c, and 
 sculpture in marble to 872 b. c. Pausanias refers the nearest approach 
 to perfection in the art to 560 b. c. According to sacred history, Bezalee' 
 and Aholiab, who built the tabernacle in the wilderness, and made all ^' 
 vessels and ornaments, were the first architects and sculptors of repute, 
 their excellence is recorded as the gift of God, Exodus xxxi, Dipcenuf- 
 Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a school at Sicyon. Pliny spea. 
 them as being the first who sculptured marble and polished it ; all st 
 before their time being of wood, 568 b. c. This, however, can only ' 
 so far as it relates to the western world ; for in the eastern countrie 
 was known long before. Alexander gave Lysippus the sole right c 
 his statues, 326 b. c. He left no less than 600 pieces, some of w 
 so highly valued in the age of Augustus, that they sold for theii 
 gold. Sculpture never found any very distinguished followers 
 Romans, and in the middle ages it fell into disuse. With th( 
 the sister art, painting, it revived also ; and Donate di Bar. 
 Florence, a. d. 1383, was the earliest professor among the moder 
 tare was revived, under the auspices of the Medici family, abc 
 Ahbi Lenglet. 
 FCYTHIA. The country situate on the most northern parts of E 
 Asia, from which circumstance it is generally denominated Eup 
 
522 
 
 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 
 
 [ SEM 
 
 Asiatic. The most northern parts of Scythia v/ere uninhabited, on account 
 of the extreme coldness of the chmate. The boundaries of Scythia were 
 unknown to the ancients, as no traveller had penetrated beyond the vast 
 tracts of lands which lay at the north, east, and west. The Scythians mado 
 several iiruptions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, especially b. c. 
 62-1 when they remained in possession of Asia Minor for twenty-eight 
 years ; and we find them at different periods extending their conqnests in 
 Europe, and penetrating as far as Egypt. In the first centuries after Christ 
 they invaded the Roman empire. 
 £EAS Sovereignty of the. The claim of England is of very ancient date. 
 Arthur was the first who assumed the sovereignty of the seas for Britain, 
 and Alfred afterwards supported this right. The sovereignty of England 
 over the British seas was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken 
 by government in consequence, 8 Charles 1. 1633. The Dutch, after the death 
 of Charles I., made some attempts to obtain it, but were roughly treated 
 by Blake and other admirals. Russia and other parts of the North, armed, 
 to avoid search, 1780 ; again 1800. See Armed Neutrality and Flag. 
 
 SECRETARY of STATE. The first in England was lord Cromwell, a. d. 1529. 
 Towards the close of Henry VIII.'s reign two secretaries were appointed ; 
 and upon the union with Scotland, Anne added a third, as secretary for 
 Scotch affairs : this appointment was afterwards laid aside : but in the 
 reign of George III. the number was again increased to three, one for the 
 American department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act of par- 
 liament ; and the appointments as at present subsequently took place, the 
 secretaries being now home, foreign, and colonies. The first Secretary of 
 State of the United States was Thomas Jefferson, appointed by "Washmgton, 
 Sept. 26, 1789. For his successors see Administrations. There is a Seci'e- 
 tary of State in each of the States, appointed by the executive or elected 
 by the people. 
 
 SECTS. See them severally through the volume. The great vicissitude of 
 things is the vicissitude of sects. True religion is built upon a rock ; all 
 others are tossed upon the waves of time. — Bacon. Assuming the popula- 
 tion of the globe to be one thousand and fifty millions, the following divi- 
 sion, with reference to their religious worship, will appear. — M. Balhi. 
 
 Jews 
 
 Christians 
 
 Mahometans 
 
 4,500.000 
 225,000,000 
 155,000,000 
 
 Idolaters, &c., not professing the 
 Jewish, Christian, or Malio- 
 metan worship - - 665,500,000 
 
 DAN CHAIRS. So called from Sedan, on the Meuse, in France. The first 
 ,een in England was in 1581. One was used in the reign of James I. by 
 'le duke of Buckingham, to the great indignation of the people, who ex- 
 aimed that he was employing his fellow-creatures to do the service of 
 'asts. Sedan chairs came into fashion in London in 1634, when sir Fran- 
 Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a number of 
 covered chairs for fourteen years. They became in very general use 
 
 :9. 
 
 'ON. For this offence the laws of England have provided no other 
 ment than a pecuniary satisfaction to the injured familj'. And 
 lis satisfaction is only obtained by one of the quaintest fictions in 
 Id ; the father bringing his action against the seducer for the loss 
 daughter's services during her pregnancy and nurturing. — Paleifs 
 Philosophy. A law for the punishment of seduction was passed by 
 islature of New York in 184 . 
 
 H. Ba'['T[.e of, between the Swiss and Leopold, duke of Austria. The 
 Swiss, after prodigies of valor, gained a great and memorable vie- 
 over the duke, who was slain, July 9, 1386. By this battle they es- 
 
SEX ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 52^ 
 
 tablishe 1 the liberty of their country ; and it is still annually commemo* 
 rated with great solemnity at Sempach. 
 
 SEPTEMBER. The ninth month of the year, reckoned from January, and the 
 seventh from March, whence its name, from septimus, seventh. It became 
 the ninth month when January and February were added to the year by 
 Numa, 713 b. c. The Roman senate would have given this month the name 
 of Tiberius, but that emperor opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his 
 own name, Germanicus ; the senate under Antoninus Pius gave it that of 
 Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his surname, Herculeus ; and the emperor 
 Tacitus his own name, Tacitus. But these appellations are all gone into 
 disuse. 
 
 SEPTUAGINT VERSION of the BIBLE, made 277 b. c. Seventy-two trans- 
 lators were shut up in thirty-six cells ; each pair translated the whole ; and 
 on subsequent comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or 
 letter. — Justin Markjr. St. Jerome affirms they translated only the Pen- 
 tateuch ; but St. Justin and others say they translated the whole. Pto- 
 lemy gave the Jews about a million sterling for a copy of the T?sta:.aent, 
 and seventy translators half a million more for the translation. — Josephus. 
 Finished in seventy-two days. — Hewlett. 
 
 SERINGAPATAM, Battles of, called also the battle of Arikera, in which the 
 British defeated Tippoo Saib, May 15, 1791. Battle, in which the redoubts 
 were stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Cornwallis, Feb. 6, 1792. 
 After this capture, preliminaries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed 
 to cede one-half of Mj^sore, and to pay 33,000,000 of rupees (about 
 o,300,000Z. sterling) to England, and to give up to lord Cornwallis his 
 two eldest sons as hostages. In a new war the Madras army arrived be- 
 fore Seringapaiam, April 5, 1799 ; it was joined by the Bombay army, April 
 14 ; and the place was stormed and carried by major-general Baird, May 4, 
 same year. In this engagement Tippoo was killed. See India. 
 
 SERPENTS. The largest, the record of which is in some degree satisfactorily 
 attested, was that which disputed the passage of the army led by Regulus 
 along the banks of the Bagrada. It was 120 feet long, and had killed many 
 of his soldiers. It was destroyed by a battering-ram ; and its skin was 
 afterwards seen by Pliny in the capitol at Rome.— Pliny. The American 
 papers have frequently chronicled the appearance of a sea-serpent on the 
 coast, but its existence has been generally 'doubted. Haydn quotes from 
 Phillips that a sea-serpent was cast on shore on the Orkney Islands, which 
 was fifty-five feet long, and the circumference equal to the girth of an 
 Orkney pony, 1808. 
 
 SERVANTS. In England, an act laying a duty on male servants was passed in 
 1775. This tax was augmented in 1781, et seq. A tax on female servants 
 was imposed in 1785 ; but this latter act was repealed in 1792. The tax on 
 servants yielded in 1830 about 250,000Z. per annum, but in 1840 the revenue 
 from it had fallen to 201,482Z. 
 
 SEVILLE. The capital of Spain until Philip II. finally established his court at 
 Madrid, a. d. 1563. This city is the Hispalis of the Phoenicians, and the 
 Julia of the Romans. The peace of Seville, between England, France, and 
 Spain, and also a defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed Nov. 
 9, 1729. Seville surrendered to the French, Feb. 1, 1810; and was taken by 
 assault by the British and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, Aug. 27, 
 1812. 
 
 SEXTANT. This instrument is used in the manner of a quadrant, and contains 
 
 . sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a circle. It is for taking the altitude of 
 
 the planetS; &.c. Invented by the celebrated Tycho Brahe, at Augsburgh, 
 
524 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [sin 
 
 in 1550.— Fmc6*s Astron. The Arabian astronomers under the Caliphs aro 
 said to have had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, about a. d. 
 
 ^^b—Ashe. 
 
 SHEEP. They were impoliticly exported from England to Spain, and, the breed 
 being thereby improved, produced the fine Spanish wool, which proved 
 detrimental to our woollen manufacture, 8 Edward lY. 1467. — Anderson. 
 Their exportation prohibited on pain of fine and imprisonment, 1522. The 
 number of sheep in the United Kingdom has been variously stated— by some 
 at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 60,000,000, in 1840, 
 
 SHERIFF. The office of sheriff is from shire-reve, governor of a shire oi 
 county. London had its sheriifs prior to Wilham I.^ reign ; but some say 
 that sheriffs were first nominated for every county in England by "William 
 in 1079. 
 
 SHERIFFMUIR, Battle of, between the royal army under the duke of Ar- 
 gyle, and the Scotch rebel forces who favored the Pretender (the chevalier 
 de St. George, son of James II.), commanded by the earl of Mar ; the insur- 
 gents were defeated, and several persons of rank were taken prisoners. The 
 battle was fought on the very day on which the rebel forces in the same 
 cause were defeated at Preston, Nov. 12, 1715. 
 
 SHIP-BUILDING. The art is attributed to the Egyptians, as the first inven- 
 tors ; the first ship (probably a galley) being brought from Egypt to Gree'ce 
 by Danaus, 1485 b. c. — Blair. The first double-decked ship was built by 
 the Tyrians, 786 b. c. — Lenglet. The first double-decked one built in Eng- 
 land was of 1000 tons burthen, by order of Henry VII. 1509 ; it was called 
 the Great Harry, and cost l^,{)^^l.—Stowe. Before this time 24-gun ships 
 Avere the largest in the navy, and these had no port-holes, the guns being 
 on the upper decks only. Port-holes and other improvements were invented 
 by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the reign of Louis XII., about 
 1500. Ship-building was first treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. A 74- 
 gun ship was put upon the stocks at Van Diemen's Land, to be sheathed 
 with India-rubber, 1829. For beautiful models and fast sailing, the shipping 
 of the United States — especially the packet ships and steamers sailing from 
 New York— are not surpassed, and probably not equalled, by any in the 
 world. See Navy and Steam Vessels. 
 
 SHIPPING OF Great Britain -and Ireland. Shipping was first registered in the 
 river Thames in 1786 ; and throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle 
 of the 18th century, the shipping of England was but half a million of tons 
 — less than London now. In 1840, the number of ships in the British em- 
 pire was 29,174 ; tonnage, 3,277,338 ; seamen, 205,904. These returns were 
 exclusive of ships and boats propelled by steam. See Steam Vessels. 
 
 SHIPPING OF 
 
 THE UNITED STATES. Tonnage at 
 
 . different periods. 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 1791 
 
 502,146 
 
 1805 
 
 • 1,203,735 
 
 1821 
 
 1,298,958 
 
 1835 
 
 1,824,940 
 
 1792 
 
 564,437 
 
 1S07 
 
 - 1,268,548 
 
 1822 
 
 1,324,699 
 
 1836 
 
 1,892,102 
 
 1793 
 
 491,780 
 
 1808 
 
 - 1,242,595 
 
 1823 
 
 1,336,565 
 
 1837 
 
 1,896,685 
 
 1794 
 
 628:817 
 
 1809 
 
 . 1,350,281 
 
 1824 
 
 1.389,163 
 
 1838 
 
 1,995,639 
 
 1795 
 
 747,964 
 
 1810 
 
 - 1,424,783 
 
 1825 
 
 1,423,112 
 
 1839 
 
 2,096,478 
 
 1796 
 
 831,900 
 
 L811 
 
 - 1,232,502 
 
 1826 
 
 1,534,190 
 
 1840 
 
 2,180,7W 
 
 1797 
 
 876,913 
 
 1812 
 
 - 1,269,997 
 
 1827 
 
 1,620,608 
 
 1841 
 
 2,130,741 
 
 1798 
 
 898,328 
 
 1813 
 
 - 1,666.628 
 
 1828 
 
 • 1,741,392 
 
 1842 
 
 2,092,390 
 
 1799 
 
 946,408 
 
 1814 
 
 ■ 1,1591209 
 
 1829 
 
 - 1,260,978 
 
 1843 
 
 2,158,602 
 
 1800 
 
 972,492 
 
 1815 
 
 - I,368;i27 
 
 1830 
 
 - 1,191,776 
 
 1844 
 
 2,280^95 
 
 1801 
 
 1,033,219 
 
 1816 
 
 - 1,372,218 
 
 1831 
 
 - 1,267,846 
 
 1845 
 
 2,417,002 
 
 1802 
 
 892,101 
 
 1S17 
 
 - 1,399,911 
 
 1832 
 
 - 1,439,450 
 
 1846 
 
 2,562,084 
 
 1803 
 
 949,147 
 
 1818 
 
 ■ 1,225,184 
 
 1833 
 
 - 1,601,150 
 
 1847 
 
 2,839, 34e 
 
 ■ 180-1 
 
 . 1,042,404 
 
 1819 
 
 . 1,260.751 
 
 1834 
 
 - 1,758,907 
 
 1848 
 
 3,15Q,5a/ 
 
 1805 
 
 1,140,369 
 
 1820 
 
 - 1.280,160 
 
 
 
 
 
SHR j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 526 
 
 SHIP-MONEY It was first levied a. d. 1007, and caused great commotions. 
 This impost being illegally levied by Charles I. in 1634, led to the revolu- 
 tion. He assessed London in seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men ; 
 Yorkshire in two ships, of 600 tons, or 12,000Z. ; Bristol in one ship of 100 
 tons ; Lancashire in one ship of 400 tons. The trial of the patriot Hamp- 
 den for refusing to pay the tax, which he at first solely opposed, took place 
 in 1638. Ship-money was included in a redress of grievances in 1641. 
 Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with prince Rupert, and died Juno 
 24, 1643. 
 
 SIHPWRECKS, AND DISASTERS AT SEA. See Wrecks of Shipping. 
 
 SHIRTS. This now almost universal garment is said to have been first gener- 
 ally worn in the west of Europe early in the eighth century. — Du Presnoy. 
 Woollen shirts were commonly worn in England until about the o8th of 
 Henry III., 1253, when linen, but of a coarse kind (fine coming at this period 
 from abroad), was first manufactured in England by Flemish artisans. — 
 tStowe. 
 
 SHOES. Among the Jews thej^ were made of leather, linen, rush, or 'wood. 
 Moons were worn as ornaments in their shoes by the Jewish women. — Isaiah 
 iii. 18. ■ Among the Greeks shoes were of various kinds. Pythagoras would 
 have his disciples wear shoes made of the bark of trees; probably, that 
 they might not wear what were made of the skins of animals, as they re- 
 frained from the use of every thing that had life. Sandals were worn by 
 women of distinction. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their 
 shoes ; and Caligula wore his enriched with precious stones. The Indians, 
 like the Egyptians, wore shoes made of the bark of the papyrus. In Eng- 
 land the people had an extravagant way of adorning their feet; they wore 
 the beaks or points of their shoes so long, that they encumbered themselves 
 in walking, and were forced to tie them up to their knees ; the fine gentlemen 
 fastened theirs with chains of silver, or silver gilt, and others with laces. 
 This custom was in vogue from a. d. 1462, but was prohibited, on the for- 
 feiture of 205. and on pain of being cursed by the clergy, 7 Edward IV. 1467. 
 See Dress. Shoes as at present worn were introduced about 1633. The 
 buckle was not used till 1668. — Stowe ; Mo7-timer, 
 
 SHOP-TAX, IN England. The act by which a tax was levied upon retail shops 
 was passed in 1785 ; but it caused so great a commotion, particularly in 
 London, that it was deemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute 
 whereby shop-lifting was made a felony, without benefit of clergy, was 
 passed 10 and 11 William III. 1699. This statute has been repealed. See 
 Acts. 
 
 SHREWSBURY, Battle of, between the royal army of Henry IV. and the 
 army of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed Hotspur), son of the duke of 
 Northumberland, who had conspired to dethrone Henry. Each army con- 
 sisted of about 12 000 men, and the engagement was most bloody. Henry 
 was seen every where in the thickest of the fight ; while his valliant son, 
 who was afterwards the renowned conqueror of France, fought by his side, 
 and though wounded in the face by an arrow, still kept the field, and per- 
 formed astonishing acts of valor. On the other side, the daring Hotspur 
 supported the renown he had acquired in many bloody engagements, and 
 every where sought out the king as a noble object of his vengeance. 2300 
 gentlemen were slain, and about 6000 private men. The death of Hotspur 
 by an unknown hand decided the fortune of the day, and gave the victory 
 to the king, July 21, 1403. — Hume. [See Shakspeare's Henry IV.] 
 
 SHROPSHIRE, Battle of, in which the Britons were completely subjugated, 
 and Caractacus, the renowned king of the Silures, became, through the 
 treachery of the queen of the Briganti, a prisoner of the Romans, a. d. 51 
 
526 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGllESS, 
 
 SIO 
 
 While Caractacus was being led through Rome, his eyes were dazzled by 
 the splendors that surrounded him. '• Alas !" he cried, " how is it possible 
 that a people possessed of such magnilicence at home could envy me an 
 humble cottage in Britain 7" The emperor was affected with the British 
 hero's misfortunes, and won b}' his address. He oi'dered him to be unchained 
 upon the spot, and set at liberty with the rest of the captives. — Goldsmith, 
 
 SHROVE TUESDAY. In the season of Lent, after the people had made con- 
 fession, according to the discipline of the ancient church, they were per- 
 mitted to indulge in festive amusements, although not allowed to partake 
 of any repast beyond the usual substitutes for flesh ; and hence arose the 
 custom yet preserved of eating pancakes and fritters at Shrovetide, the Greek 
 Christians eating eggs, milk, &c. during the first week in Lent. On these 
 days of authorized indulgence the most wanton recreations were tolerated, 
 j)rovided a due regard was paid to the abstinence commanded by the church ; 
 and from this origin sprang the Carnival. On Shrove Tuesday the peoi)le in 
 every parish throughout England formerly confessed their sins ; and the 
 parish bell for the purpose was rung at ten o'clock. In several ancient par- 
 ishes the custom yet prevails of ringing the bell, and obtains in London the 
 name of pancake-bell. Observed as a festival before 1430. 
 
 SIBYLS. The Sibyllas were certain women inspired by heaven, who flourished 
 in different parts of the world. Their number is unknown. Plato spe«iks 
 of one, others of two, Pliny of three, ^Elian of four, and Varro of t^a, an 
 opinion which is universally adopted by the learned. An Erythrean sibyl is 
 said to have offered to Tarquin II. nine books containing the Roman desti- 
 nies, demanding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied her, whereupon 
 the sibyl threw three of them into the fire, and asked the same price f(^r 
 the other six, which being still denied, she burned three more, and again 
 demanded the same sum for those that remained ; when Tarquin, conferring 
 with the pontiffs, was advised to buy them. Two magistrates were created 
 to consult them on all occasions, 531 e.g. 
 
 SICILY. See Naples. Tl>e ancient inhabitants of this island were the Sicani, 
 a people of Spain, and Etruscans, who came hither from Italy, 1294 b. c. A 
 second colony, under Siculus, arrived 80 years before the destruction of Troy, 
 12G4 B. c. — Lenglet. The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies here, 
 and at last the Carthaginians beca,me masters of the whole island, till they 
 were dispossessed of it by the Romans in the Punic wars. Some authors 
 suppose that Sicily was originallj^ joined to the continent, and that it was 
 separated from Italy by an earthquake, and that the sti'aits of the Charyb- 
 dis were formed. — Justin ; Livy. 
 
 Arrival of Ulysses. — Homer - - b.c. 
 
 He puts out tlie eye of Polyphemus 
 
 Syracuse founded. — Eusebius 
 
 Oela founded. — Thucydides 
 
 Arrival of the Messenians - 
 
 Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to 
 death. — See Brazen Bull 
 
 Hippocrates becomes tyrant of Gela 
 
 Law of Petal ism instituted 
 
 Keignof Dionysius - - - - 
 
 (J fended with the freedom of the philo- 
 sopher Plato, the tyrant sells him for a 
 slave. — Stanley . . . . 
 
 Plato ransomed by his friends - 
 
 Damon and Pythias flourish. — See Damon 
 and Pythias . . . . 
 
 The sway of Timoleon - - • - 
 
 Usiirpatiim of Agathocles - 
 
 Defeat of Hamilcar 
 
 Pillage of tlie temples of Lepari 
 
 1186 
 
 list) 
 
 732 
 
 713 
 
 668 
 
 552 
 496 
 466 
 405 
 
 386 
 386 
 
 386 
 346 
 317 
 309 
 301 
 
 The Romans arrive m Sicily - B. c. 264 
 
 Agrigentum taken by the Romans • 202 
 
 Palermo besieged by the Roman.3 - - 254 
 
 Archimedes flourishes - - - 236 
 The Romans take Syracuse, and make ail 
 
 Sicily a province - - - - 21^ 
 
 The servile war began. — Livy • • 135 
 
 Conquered by the Saracens - ad. 821 
 
 [They made Palermo the capital, and the 
 
 standard of Mahomet triumphed for 200 
 
 years. ] 
 They are driven out by a Norman \ rince, 
 
 Roger I., son of Tancred, who takes the 
 
 title of count of Sisily - - - 1030 
 
 Roger II., son of the above-named, unites 
 
 Sicily with Naples, and is crowned kmg 
 
 of tlie Two Sicilies - - - 1130 
 
 Charles of Anjou, brother to St. Louis, king 
 
 of France, .^onqucrs NajDles and Sicilyl 
 
6IE J 
 
 DICTIO]MAP.,Y OF DATES. 
 
 527 
 
 SICILY, conlinued. 
 depoBfes the Norman princes, and makes 
 himself king - - . a. d. 1266 
 
 Tne French becoming hated by the Sici- 
 lians, a general massacre of ihe invaders 
 takes place, one Frenchman only escap- 
 ing. — See Sicilian Vespers ■ - 1288 
 
 Li the same year Sicily is seized by a fleet 
 Bent by the kings of Arragon, in Spain ; 
 bin Naples remains to the house of An- 
 jou, which expires - - - 1382 
 
 Jgne, the late sovereign, having left her 
 crown to Louis, dukeof Anjou, his pre- 
 tensions are resisted by Charles Du- 
 raazo, cousin of Jane, who ascends the 
 throne - - - - - - 1386 
 
 Aiphonsus, king of Arragon, takes posses- 
 sion of Naples .... 1458 
 
 Thj kingdom of Naples and Sicily united 
 to the Spanish monarchy - - - 1504 
 
 The tyranny of the Spaniards causes an 
 insurrection, excited by Masaniello, a 
 fisherman, who, in fifteen days, raises 
 two hundred thousand men - - 1647 
 
 Henry duke of Guise, taking advantage of 
 tliese commotions, procures himself to 
 be proclaimed king ; but is, in a few 
 days, delivered up to the Spaniards by 
 his adherents - - - - - 1647 
 
 Ceded to Victor, duke of Savoy, by the 
 treaty of Utrecht - - a. d. 
 
 Ceded by liim to the emperor Charles VI., 
 Sardinia being given to him as an equi- 
 valent - - - - - 
 
 The Spaniards having made themselves 
 masters of both kingdoms, Charles, son 
 of the king of Spain, ascends tlie tnrone, 
 with the ancient title renewed, of king 
 of the Two Sicilies 
 
 Order of St. .Januarius instituted by king 
 Charles - - - - - 
 
 The throne of Spain becoming vacant, 
 Cliarles, who is heir, vacates the throne 
 of the two Sicilies in favor ol his brother 
 Ferdinand, agreeably to treaty 
 
 Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, 
 which destroys 40,000 pei'sons 
 
 Naples preserved from the power of tlic 
 Frencli by the British forces under admi- 
 ral Nelson . . . . 
 
 Violent earthquake in the ncigliborhood 
 of Naples . . . . 
 
 The French invade Naples, depose I 'ig 
 Ferdinand IV., and give the crown of .lie 
 Two Sicilies to Joseph Bona})arte, bro- 
 ther to the emperor of the French 
 For subsequent events, see Nujyles. 
 
 1713 
 1720 
 
 1734 
 
 1738 
 
 17 n 
 17G3 
 
 1799 
 
 3805 
 
 1806 
 
 KINGS OF THE TWO SICILIES. 
 
 A.D. 1713. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy ; he 
 resigned it to the emperor Charles 
 VI., in 1718, and got Sardinia in 
 lieu of it. 
 
 17] 8. Charles VI. emperor. 
 
 1734. Charles, second son to the king of 
 Spain, resigned in 1759. 
 
 1759. Ferdinand IV., third son of the former 
 king. 
 
 1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 1808. Joachim Murat: lie was shot, Octojer 13, 
 1815. 
 
 1815. Ferdinand J[. ; formerly Ferdinand IV. of 
 Naples, 'and intermediately Ferdinand 
 III. of Sicily ; now of the United King- 
 dom of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 1826. Francis I. 
 
 1830. Ferdinand II., Nov 8. 
 
 SICILIAN VESPERS. The memorable massacre of the French in Sicily, known 
 by this name, commenced at Palermo, March 30, 1282. The French had 
 become hateful to the Sicilians, and a conspiracy against Charles of Anjou 
 was already ripe, when the following occurrence led to develop and accom- 
 plish it. On Easter Monday, the chief conspirators had assembled at Pa- 
 lermo ; and while the French were engaged in festivities, a Sicilian bride 
 happened to pass by with her train. She was observed by one Drochet, a 
 Frenchman, who, advancing towards her, began to use her rudely, under 
 pretence of searching for arms. A j^oung Sicilian, exasperated at this af- 
 front, stabbed him with his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French 
 were instantly murdered. The enraged populace now ran through the city, 
 crying out "Let the French die !" and, without distinction of rank, age, 
 or sex, they slaughtered all of that nation they could find, to the number ol 
 8000. Even such as had fled to the churches found no sanctuary there — the 
 massacre became general throughout the island. 
 
 SIEGES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psammetichus the Powerful, held out 
 for nineteen years. — Usher. It held out for twenty-nine years. — Herodotus. 
 This was the longest siege recorded in the annals of antiquity. The siego 
 of Troy was the most celebrated, occupied ten j^earis, 1184 b. c. The fol- 
 lowing are the principal and most memorable sieges since the twelfth cen- 
 tnry :— 
 
 Algiers, 1681 ; Bomb-xesseh Almeida, August 27, 1810. 
 
 first used by a French en- Amiens, 1.597. 
 
 gineer named Renau, ]816 Ancona, 1798. 
 
 Alkmaer, 1573. Angouleme, 1?V5. 
 
 Acre, 1192, 1799, by Bona- 
 parie ; siege raised after 
 60 days, open trenches. 
 
 Aleesiras, 1341. 
 
528 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [sik 
 
 SIEGES, continued. 
 
 Antwerp, 1576. I se of in- 
 fernal machines 15Sj, 1535 
 1706, 1792, 1814. 
 
 Arras, 1414. 
 
 Ath, 1745. 
 
 Avisjnon, 1226. 
 
 Azoff, 1736. 
 
 Badajos, March 11, 1811. Ta- 
 ken by escalade on the 
 night of April 6, 1812. 
 
 Bagdad, 1248. 
 
 Bangalore, March 6, 1791. 
 
 Barcelona, 1697, 1714. 
 
 Bayonne, 1451. 
 
 Beauvais, 1472. 
 
 Belgrade, 1439, 1455, 1521, 
 1683, 1717, 1739, 1789, 
 
 Belle^arde, 1793, 1794. 
 
 Belle-Isle, April 7, 1761. 
 
 Bers;en-op-Zoom, 1583, 1622, 
 1747, 1814. 
 
 Berwick, 1293. 
 
 Besancon, 1668, 1674. 
 
 Bethune, 1710. 
 
 Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. 
 
 Bologna, 1512, 1796. 
 
 Bommel ; the invention of 
 the covert-way, 1794. 
 
 Bonifacio, 1553. 
 
 Bonn, 1587, 1689, 1703 
 
 Bordeaux, 1451, 1653. 
 
 Bouchain, 1676, 1711. 
 
 Boulogne, 1545. 
 
 Brannau. 1744, 1805. 
 
 Breda, 1590, 1625, 1793. 
 
 Brescia, 1512, 1796. 1799. 
 
 Breslau, ,Ian. 8, 1807. 
 
 Brisac, 16.38, 1703. 
 
 Bru.?sels, 1695, 1746. 
 
 Buda, 1526, 1S41, 1686. 
 
 Burgos, Sept. 19 to Oct. 22, 
 1812 ; raised. The French 
 in their retreat bleio up the 
 works., .Tune 13, 1813. 
 
 Cadiz, 1812. 
 
 Caen, 1346, 1450. 
 
 Calais, 1347, (British histo- 
 rians affirin that cannon 
 were used at Cressy, 1346, 
 and here in 1347. First 
 used here in 1-388. — Ry- 
 mer's F(ed.) 1558, 1596. 
 
 Calvi, 1794. 
 
 Campo-Mayor, Mar. 23, 1811. 
 
 Caadia ; the largest cannon 
 then known inEurope used 
 here by the Turks, 1667. 
 
 Capua, 1501. 
 
 Carthagena, 1706. 
 
 Castillon, 1452, 1586. 
 
 Ceuta, 1790. 
 
 Chalons, 1 199. 
 
 Charleroi, 1672, 1677, 1693, 
 17-36, 1794. 
 
 Chartres, 156S, 1591. 
 
 Chaves, March 25, 1809. 
 
 Cherbourg, 1450. 
 
 Chincilla, Oct. 30, 1812. 
 
 Ciudad Kodrigo, 170»}; July 
 ■ 10, 1810 ; Jan. 19, 1812. 
 
 Colberg, 1760, 1807. 
 
 Colchester, 1645. 
 
 Compijgne (Joan of Arc), 
 
 14-30. 
 Conde, 1676, 1792, 1794. 
 Coni, 1691, 1744. 
 Constantinople, 1453. 
 Copenhagen, 1700, 1801, 1807. 
 Corfu, 1715. 
 
 Courtray, 1302, et seq. 1794. 
 Cracow, 1772. 
 Cremona, 1702. 
 Danizic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813 
 
 to Jan. 12, 1814. 
 Dendermonde, 1667. 
 Dole, 1668, 1674. 
 Douay, 1710, 
 Dover, 1216. 
 Dresden, 1745, 1813. 
 Drogheda, 1649. 
 Dublin, 1500. 
 Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. 
 Edinburgh, 1093. 
 Figueras. Aug. 19, 1811. 
 Flushing; Aug. 15, 1809. 
 Fuutenoy, 1242. 
 Frederickshal ; Charles XII. 
 
 killed, 1718. 
 Frederickstein, August 13, 
 
 1814. 
 Fumes, 1675, 1744, 1793. 
 Gaeta, 1433, 1707, 1734, 1,799, 
 
 July, 1806, 181.5. 
 Genoa 1747, 1800. 
 Gerona, Dec. 10, 1809. 
 Ghent, 1576, 1708. 
 Gibraltar, 1704, 1779. (See 
 
 Gibraltar), 1782. 
 Glatz, 1742, 1807. 
 Gottingen, 1760. 
 Graves, 1602, 1674, 1794. 
 Gravel ines, 1644 
 Grenada. 1491, 1492. 
 Groningen, 1580, 1672, 1795. 
 Guastalla, 1702. 
 Gueldres, 1637, 1640, 1703. 
 Haerlem, 1-572, 1573. 
 Ham, 1411. 
 Harfleur, 1415, 1450. 
 Heidelberg, 1688. 
 Herat, June 28, 1838. 
 Huningen, 1815. 
 Ismael: tlie merciless Suwar- 
 
 row butchered 30,000 men, 
 
 the brave garrison, and 
 
 6000 wo-men, in cold blood, 
 
 Dec. 22, 1790. 
 Kehl, 1733, 1796. 
 Landau, 1702, et seq., 1713, 
 
 1792, and 1793. 
 Landrecis, 1543, 1712. 
 Laon, 991, 1594. 
 J^ipsic, 1637, et seq., 1813. 
 Lemberg, 1704. 
 Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1807. 
 Leyden, 1574. 
 Liese. 1468. 1702. 
 Lille, 1667, 1708, 1792. 
 Lilo, 1747. 
 
 Limerick, 1651. 1691. 
 Londonderry, 1689. 
 Louisbourg, 1758. 
 Lyons, 1793. 
 Maestricht. 1576, 1673. Vau- 
 
 ban first came iiita notte& 
 
 1676, 174-3, 1791. 
 Majidebourg, 1631, 1806. 
 Malaga, 1487. 
 Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. 
 Mantua, 17^1, 1797, 1799. 
 Marseilles, 1544. 
 Meniz, by Charles V., 155!i 
 
 1689, 1792 et seq., 1797. 
 Melon, 1420, 1-559. 
 Menin, 1706, 1744. 
 Mequinenza, June 8, 1810. 
 Messina, 1282, 1719. 
 Metz, 1552. 
 Mezieres, 1521. 
 Middleburgh, 1572. 
 Mons, 1572, 1691, 1709, 174& 
 
 1792, 1794. 
 Mentargis, 1427. 
 Moniauoan, 1621. 
 Montevideo, Jan. j808. 
 Mothe : theFrench, taught bj 
 
 a Mr. Muller, an English 
 
 engineer frst pyractised thi 
 
 art ofllirowing shells, 1634. 
 Murviedro, Oct. 25. 1811. 
 Namur, 1692, 1746, 1792. 
 Naples, i;381, 143-5, 1504, 15-57, 
 
 1792, 1799, 1806. 
 Nice, 1705. 
 Nieuport, 1745, 1794. 
 Olivenza, Jan. 22, 1811. 
 Olmutz, 1758. 
 Orleans, 14^3, 1563. 
 Ostend, 1701, 1706, 1745. 
 Oudenarde, 1708, 1745. 
 Padua, 1509. 
 
 Pampeiu.aa, Oct 31, 1813. 
 Paris, 1429. 1485, 159-4. 
 Parma 1248. 
 Pavja, 1525, 1655, 1796. 
 Perpignan, 1-542, 1642. 
 Philipville, 1-578. 
 Philipsburg, 1644, 1675, 1688, 
 first experiment of firing 
 
 artillery a-ricochet, 1734, 
 
 1795. 
 Plattsburg, Sept. 11, 1814. 
 Pondicherry, 1748, 1792. 
 Prague, 1741, 1743, 1744. 
 Puebla, (col. Child) 1847. 
 Q,uesnoy, 1794. 
 Rennes, 1357. 
 Rheims, 1359. 
 Rhodes, 1522. 
 Riga, 1700, 1710. 
 Rochelle, 1573, 1627. 
 Rome, 1.527, 1798. 
 Romorentin ; artillery firtt 
 
 used in sieges.-VoLTAiAS. 
 
 1256. 
 Rosas, 1645. 1795, 1808. 
 Rouen, 1449, 1562, 1591. 
 Roxburgh, 1460. 
 St. Sebastian, Sept. 8, 1813. 
 Salamanca, June 27 1812. 
 Salisbury, 13'19. 
 Saragossa, 1710, 1809. 
 Saveme, 1675. 
 Schweidnitz ; first expert- 
 
 ment to reduce aforlreai 
 
sil] 
 
 IICTIONARY 01 DATES, 
 
 529 
 
 Thorn, 1703. 
 
 Thouars, 1372, 1793. 
 
 Tortosa, Jan. 2, 1811, 
 
 Toulon, 1707, 1793, 
 
 Toulouse, 1217. 
 
 Toumay, 1340, 1352, 1581, 
 1667, 1709, (this was the 
 best defence ever drawn 
 from countermines), 1745, 
 1794. 
 
 Treves, 1675. 
 
 Tunis, 1270, 1535 
 
 Turin, 1640, 1706, 1799. 
 
 Urbino, 1799. 
 
 Valencia, Dec. 25, 1811. 
 
 Valencienes, 1677, 1794, 
 
 Vannes, 1343. 
 
 Venloo, 1702, 1794, 
 
 Verdun, 1792. 
 
 Vera Cruz, (gen. Scott) 1847. 
 
 Vienna, 1529, 1683. 
 
 Wakefield, 1460. 
 
 Warsaw, Sept, 8, 1831. 
 
 Xativa, 1707. 
 
 Xeres, 1262. 
 
 Ypres. 1648, 1744, 179'1. 
 
 Zurich, 1544. 
 
 Zutphen, 1572, 15S6. 
 
 SIKGES, continued. 
 
 by springing globes of com- 
 pression, 1762, 1807. 
 
 Scio (see Greece), 1822. 
 
 Seringapatam. 1799. 
 . Seville 1096, 1248. 
 
 Smolensko, 1611. 
 
 Soissons, 1414. 
 
 Stralsund ; the method of 
 throwing red hot balls first 
 practised with certainty, 
 1675^0213, 1807. 
 
 Tarifa, Dec. 20, 1811. 
 
 Tarragona, May 1813. 
 
 Temeswar, 1716. 
 
 Thionville, 1643, 1792. 
 
 SIERRA LEONE. Discovered in a. d, 1460. In 1786, London swarmed wilh 
 free negroes living in idleness and want ; and 400 of them, with 60 whites, 
 mostly women of bad character and in ill health, were sent out to Sierra 
 LeonO; at the charge of government, to form a settlement, December 9, 1786. 
 The settlement attacked by the French, September 1794 : by the natives, 
 February 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the colony, murder- 
 ed by the Ashantee chief, Jan. 21, 1824. 
 
 SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 325 b. c. Known at 
 Rome in Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate, prohibiting the 
 use of plate of massy gold, and also forbidding men to debase themselves 
 by wearing silk, fit only for women. Heliogabalus first wore a garment of 
 silk, A. D. 220. Silk was at first of the same value with gold, weight for 
 weight, and was thought to grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. 
 Silk-worms were brought from India to Europe in the sixth century. Char- 
 lemagne sent Offa, king of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, a. d. 780, 
 The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1130, 
 when the Sicilians not only bred the silk-worms, but spun and weaved the 
 silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the south 
 of France, a httle before the reign of Francis I,, about 1510 ; and Henry IV. 
 propagated mulberry-trees and silk- worms throughout the kingdom, 1589. 
 In England, silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at 
 Kenilworth Castle, 1286, Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1534. 
 Manufactured in England in 1604 ; and broad silk wove from raw silk in 
 1620, Brought to perfection by the Freneh refugees in London, at Spital- 
 fields, 1688. A silk-throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up at 
 Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the ori- 
 ginal mill then in the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 1714. 
 
 SILVER. It exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other 
 ores in various mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America 
 are far the richest, A mine was discovered in the district of La Paz in 
 1660, which was so rich that the silver of it was often cut with a chisel. 
 In 1749, one mass of silver, weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. From a 
 mine in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum 
 at Copenhagen, weighing 560 lbs,, and worth 1680Z, In England silver-plato 
 and vessels were first used by Wilfrid, a Northumberland bishop, a lofty 
 and ambitious man, a. d, 709. — TyrelVs W.st. of England. Silver knives, 
 spoons, and cups, were great luxuries in 1300. 
 
 SII^VER COIN, Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say; others, by 
 Phidon of Argos, 869 b. c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius I*ictor, 
 269 B. c. Used in Britain 25 b. c. The Saxons coined silver pennies, which 
 were 22^ grains weight. In 1302, the penny was yet the largest silver coin 
 in England. See Shillmgs, &c., and Coin. From 1816 to 1840 inclusive, 
 
 23 
 
530 THE world's trl gress. r sla 
 
 were coined at the Mint in London, 11,108,265Z. 155. in silver, being a yearly 
 average of 444,^30/. — Pa7-l. Ret. 
 
 SIMONIANS. An ancient sect of Christians, so called from their fovmder 
 Simon Magus, or the Magician. He was the first heretic, and went to Rome 
 about A. D. 41. His heresies were extravagant and presumptuous, yet he 
 had many followers, a. d. 57. A sect called St. Simonians sprung up in 
 France ; and lately attracted considerable attention in that country ; and 
 the doctrine of Simonianism has been advocated in England, and particu- 
 larly by Dr. Prati, who lectured upon it at a meeting in London, held Jan. 
 24, 1834. 
 
 SINGING. See Music. The singing of psalms was a very ancien; custom both 
 among the Jews and Christians. St. Paul mentions this practice, which 
 was continued in all succeeding ages, with some variations as to the mode 
 and circTimstance. During the persecution of the Orthodox Christians by the 
 empress Justina, mother of the then young Valentinian H. a. d. 386, eC'cle- 
 siastical music was introduced in favor of the Arians. " At this time it 
 was first ordered that hymns should be sung after the manner of Eastern 
 nations, that the devout might not languish and pine away with n. tedious 
 sorrow." The practice was imitated by almost all other congregations of 
 the world. — SL Augnstin. Pope Gregory the Great refined upon the churcl' 
 music, and made it more exact and harmonious ; and that it might be ge- 
 neral, he set uj) singing-schools in Rome, a. d. 602. 
 
 SIRNAMES, first came up in Greece and Egypt, and arose in great acts and 
 distinctions ; as Soter, from Saviour ; Nicatoi\ conqueror ; Euergetes, or Be- 
 nefactor ; Philopaler, lover of his father ; Philometer, lover of his mother. 
 &c. Strato was surnamed P/iysicus, from his deep study of nature ; Aris- 
 tides was called the Jmt ; Phocion the Good; Plato, the Athenian Bee; 
 Xenophon, the Attic Muse ; Aristotle, the Stagy rite ; Pythagoras, the Sa^nian 
 Sage ; Menedasmus, the Eretrian BiM ; Democritus, the Loyiighing Philoso- 
 ])her ; Virgil, the Manttcan Swain, &c. Sirnames were introduced into Eng- 
 land by the Normans, and were adopted by the nobilitj'-, a. d. 1100. The old 
 Normans used F\tz, which signifies son, as Fitzherbert. The Irish used O, 
 for grandson, as O'Neal, O'Donnel. The Scottish Highlanders employed 
 Mac, as MacdonakL son of Donald. The Saxons added the word son to the 
 father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common sirnames, such 
 as Johnson, Wilson, Dj^son, Nicholson, &c., were taken by Brabanters and 
 other Flemings, who were naturalized in the reign of Henry VI. 1435. — 
 Rijriier^s Fadera, vol. x, 
 
 SLAVERY. Slavery has existed from the earliest ages. With other abomi- 
 nable customs, the traffic in men spread from Chaldea into Egypt, Arabia, 
 and all over the East, and at length into every known region under heaven. 
 In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of war were treated as slaves. 
 The Lacedemonian youth, trained up in the practice of deceiving and 
 butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show their 
 proficiency in stratagem and massacre ; and once, for their amusement only, 
 they murdered 3000 in one night. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold 
 the whole people, men, women, and children, for slaves, 385 b. c. See 
 Helots. 
 
 SL.WERY IN ROME. In Rome slaves were often chained to the gate of a 
 great man's house, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast. 
 By one of the laws of the XTI. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent 
 debtors, and keep them in their houses till, by their services or labor, they 
 had discharged the sum they owed. C. Pollio threw such slaves as §;ave 
 him the slightest offence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his lampiey£> 42 b, c 
 Csecilius Isidorus loft to his heir 4116 slaves, 12 b. c. 
 
Bi.A J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 53 1 
 
 SLAVERY IN ENGLAND. Slavery was very early known; and laws respect- 
 ing the sale of slaves wai made by Alfred. The English peasantry were so 
 commonly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times, that children were 
 sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Manj^ were sent to Ire- 
 land, and others to Scotland. A statute was enacted by Edward VL that a 
 runaway, or any one who lived idly for three days, should be brought before 
 two justices of the peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the breast, and 
 adjudged the slave of him who brought him for two years. He was to take 
 the slave, and give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and 
 cause him to work by beating, chaining, or otherwise ; and if, within that 
 space, he absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked on the forehead 
 i or cheek, by a hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for ever — second 
 desertion was made felony. Lawful to put a ring of iron round his neck, 
 arm, or leg. A beggar's child might be put apprentice, and, on running 
 away, become a slave to his master, 1547. 
 
 SLAVE TRADE. The slave trade from Congo and Angola was begun by the 
 Portuguese in 1481. Volumes have been written, confined to facts alone, 
 describing the horrors of this traffic. The commerce in man has brutalized 
 a tract 15 degrees on each side the equator, and 40 degrees wide, or of four 
 millions of square miles ; and men and women have been bred for sale to the 
 Christian nations during the last 250 years, and wars carried on to make pri- 
 soners for the Christian market. The Abbe Raynal computes that, at the 
 time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans, 
 "Add 1,000,000 at least more, for it is about ten years since," says Mr. 
 Cooper, who published letters on this subject in 1787. In the year 1768. 
 the slaves taken from their own continent amounted to 104,100. In 1786, 
 the annual number was about 100,000 ; and in 1807 (the last year of the 
 English slave trade), it was shown by authentic documents, produced by 
 government, that from 1792 upwards of 3,500.000 Africans had been toru 
 from their countiy, and had either miserably perished on the passage, or been 
 sold in the West Indies.* — Butler. Bull of pope Gregory against the slave 
 trade, Dec. 1830. Quintuple treaty for the suppression of the slave trade, 
 allowing mutual right of search, signed at London, by the representatives 
 of Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, December 20, 1841. 
 King of Sweden abolishes slavery in the island of St. Bartholomew, Oct. 
 9, 1847. 
 
 SLAVE TRADE of ENGLAND. Captain, afterwards sir John Hawkins, was 
 the first Englishman, after the discovery of America, who made a traffic 
 of the human species. His first expedition with the object of procuring 
 negroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them for sale to the West 
 Indies, took place in October, 1563. ^ee Guinea. Queen Anne directed the 
 colonial government of New York to take care " that the Almighty should 
 
 ' European avarice has been glutted with the murder of 180,000,000 of our fellow-creatures, 
 rfccollecting that for every one slave procured, ten are slaughtered in their own land in war, ana 
 that a fifth die on the passage, and a third in the seasoning.— (.'coper's Letters on the Slavs 
 Trade. " But," says Butler, " this monstrous colossal crime has not been perpetrated with im- 
 puDiry. Not only its prosecution, but its etfects have in some measure called down upon us tha 
 frowns and the judgments of heaven. 
 
 " By foreign wealth are British morals changed, 
 And Afric's sons, and hidia's, smile avenged." 
 1:"»5 trade was abolished in Austria in 1782. By the French convention in 1794. By the TJnite<J 
 States in 1807. By England (.see above) in 1807. The Allies, at Vienna, declared against it, February 
 1815. Napoleon, in the hundred days, abolished the trade, March 29, 1815. Treaty with Spain, 
 1S17; v/itli the Neiherlands, May, ISIS ; with Brazil, Nov. 1S26. But this horrid traffic continue? 
 to be f nco iraged in several states. — Haydn. 
 
532 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [ i-SIV 
 
 be devoutly and duly served, according- to the rites of the Church of Eng- 
 land, and also that the Royal African Company should be encouraged, and 
 I/hat the colony should have a constant and sufficient supply of merchantahU 
 negroes at moderate rates." In the year 1786, England employed 130 ships, 
 and carried off 42, 000 slav^es ; Bristol and Liverpool were chiefly engaged in it ; 
 and such was the extent of British commerce in human flesh, that at the pe- 
 riod of slave emancipation in the British plantations in 1833, the number of 
 slaves, which had previously been considerably more, yet then amounted to 
 770,280. The slave-trade question was debated in the British parliament 
 in 1787. The debate for its abolition lasted two days in April 1791. The 
 motion of Mr. Wilberforce was lost by a majority of 88 to 83, April 3, 1798. 
 After several other efforts of humane and just m>.n, the question was 
 introduced under the auspices of lord Grenville and Mr, Fox, then minis- 
 ters. March 31. 1806 ; and the trade was finally abolished by parliament; 
 March 25, 1807. 
 
 SLA. VERY OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS in Europe. 
 
 Many of the early navigators to Ame- 
 rica, including Columbus himself, 
 carried considerable numljers of the 
 aborigines to Europe, where they 
 were sold into slavery. Queen Isa- 
 bella commanded the liberation of 
 Indians held in bondage in her pos- 
 sessions, in - - - - 1501 
 
 — ^but the next fear the slaverj of Ji- 
 dians was rei^ognized as lawful ; and 
 the practice of selling the natives of 
 North America into Tbreign bondage 
 continued for nearly two centuries. 
 The excellent Winthrop enumerates 
 Indians among liis bequests.— i3a»- 
 croft. , 
 
 SLAVERY IN THE UNITED STATES. See Slave' Trade. 
 
 The first negro slaves in the English 
 colonies of North America were 
 brought to Virginia in a Dutch vessel 
 of wa:r - - . - - 1620 
 
 Negroes " who had been fraudulently 
 brought from Guinea" to Massachu- 
 setts (the first in New England), were 
 sent home at the public expense by 
 the general court of that colony - 1646 
 
 Gorton and Roger Williams made a de- 
 cree against slavery in Rhode Island 1652 
 
 White slaves were sold in England, to 
 be transported to Virginia : average 
 price for 5 years' service, £5 — while 
 a negro was worth £25. — Bancroft - 1672 
 
 Virginia had one slave to 50 whites - ] 650 
 
 The Quakers abolished slavery among 
 themselves .... 1754 
 
 Resolutions against the slave trade 
 passed by the first congress of the 
 colonies .... 1774 
 
 Act against the external slave trade 
 passed by congress of the United 
 States 1789 
 
 [Slavery had been ali'eady prohibited 
 in most of the northern States in their 
 constitutions.] 
 Act of congress against fitting out ves- 
 sels for slave trade 
 Act forbidding any citizen of the Uni- 
 ted States from holding property in 
 foreign slave vessels. United States 
 vessels authorized to seize slavers 
 Act forbidding, under heavy penalties, 
 the introduction of slaves into the 
 United States - 
 Act declaring the slave trade piracy, 
 
 punishable with death 
 [Slavery has, however, been continued 
 in thirteen of the States. See Mis- 
 souri. ] 
 The number of slaves in the United 
 
 States in 1790 was . - - 697,697 
 In 1800 - - - - • - - 896,849 
 
 In ISIO 1,191,364 
 
 In 1820 1,538,004 
 
 In 1830 2,010,436 
 
 InlS40 2,487,365 
 
 1794 
 
 1801' 
 
 180 
 1820 
 
 fcl^AVES, Emancipation of. Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the 
 Britisli colonies, and for the promotion of industry among the manumitted 
 slaves, and for the compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to the ser- 
 vices of such slaves, by the grant from parliament of 20 OOO.OOOZ. sterling, 
 passed 3 and 4 William IV., Aug. 28, 1833. By the operation of this act, 
 slavery terminated in the British possessions on Aug. 1, 1834, and 770,280 
 slaves became free, 
 
 SLEEP. We are told that while Epimenides was at Athens, and was one day 
 attending his flocks, he entered a cave, and there fell asleep. His sleep con- 
 tinued, according to some writers, forty or forty-seven years ; Pliny says ho 
 slept fifty-seven years; and when he awoke, he found eveiy object so ah 
 tered he knew not where he was. It is supposed that he lived 289 years, 
 
SOD J DICTIONARY OF DATES, 533 
 
 596 B. c. We have many, and even very late, instances cf persons in 
 these countries sleeping continuously for weeks and months. 
 
 SMALL-POX. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inoculation for the 
 •> small-pox from Turkey, her own son having been inoculated with ])erfect 
 success at Adrianople, a. d. 1718. She was allowed, by way of experiment, 
 to inoculate seven capital convicts, who, on their recovery, were pardoned. 
 Inoculation for the small-pox was encouraged under the auspices of Dr. 
 Mead. A small-pox hospital was instituted in London, 1746, butthepie' 
 sent building was not opened till 1756. See Inoculation and VoxcinoMon, 
 
 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. Founded by will of James Smithson, a na^ 
 tural son of the duke of Northumberland, who died 1835, and left .£100,000 
 " to the United States of America, to found at Washington an institution 
 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." Act of Congress 
 accepting the bequest, and providing for the fulfilment of the trust, 1846. 
 Corner stone of the building laid. May 1, 1847. 
 
 S]\[OLENSKO, Battle of. One of the most memorable of the celebrated 
 Russian campaign of 1812, between the French and Russian armies. The 
 French in this most sanguinary engagement were three times repulsed, but 
 they ultimately succeeded, and, on entering Smolensk©, found the city, 
 which had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins. Barclay de Tolli, 
 the Russian commander-in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor 
 Alexander, because he retreated after the battle, and Kutusotf succeeded 
 to the command, Aug. 17, 1812. 
 
 SMUGGLERS in England. The customs duties were instituted originally to 
 enable the king to afford protection to trade against pirates ; and they af- 
 terwards became a branch of the public revenue. A severe penalty against 
 smuggling was enacted in 1736. 
 
 SNUFF-TAKING. This practice took its rise in England from the captures 
 made of vast quantities of snuff by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo 
 in 1702. The prize of the forces having been sent home and sold, the vice 
 soon obtained from which the revenue now draws, with tobacco, consider- 
 ably more than 3,000.0000Z. per annum. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1840, 
 there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 196,305 lbs. were 
 entered for home consumption ; the duty was 88.263/:. See Tobacco. 
 
 SOAP. This article was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express 
 mention of it occurs in Pliny and Galen ; and the former declares it to be 
 an invention of the Gauls, though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap. 
 In remote periods clothes were cleansed by being rubbed or stamped upon 
 in water. Nausicaa and her attendants. Homer tells us, washed theirs by 
 treading upon them with their feet in pits of water. — Odyssey, book vi. 
 The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524, before which time it 
 was supplied by Bristol at one penny per poimd. 
 
 SOB RAON, Battle OF ; India. The British army, 35,000 strong, under Sir 
 Hugh (now lord) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The ene- 
 my was dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ; 
 and in attempting the passage of a river by a floating bridge in their rear, 
 the weight of the masses that crowded upon it caused it to break down, and 
 more than 10,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or drowned. The British 
 loss was 2383 men ; fought Feb. 10, 1846. 
 
 SOCIETY ISLANDS seized by the French admiral, Dupetit Thenars, and 
 queen Pomare deposed, Nov. 9, 1843, but the transaction was disavowed by 
 the French government. 
 
 K)CIALTSM. This is the name given to the doctrine which teaches that all 
 men have common interests, and that society ought to be, accordingly, or* 
 
&S4 THE world's progress. I soa 
 
 gaiii'Ced on that principle. It has been tauglit, more or less distinctly, ic 
 all ages and nations : by Pythagoras b. c. 466, and Plato b. c. 422, amon/y 
 the Greeks ; by the sect of Essenes, in the time of our Saviour, among tho 
 Jews; by the first Christians a. d. 34; by several of the fathers of tho 
 Church ; by sir Thomas More, in his Utopia, a. d. 1515 ; by Campunella, 
 A. D. 1623 ; and by Babeau, in France, a. d. ; but the principal modern 
 
 teachers of it have been Chai'les Fourier, who was bornatBesangonin 1772; 
 and who published a variety of able works on the subject ; by Claude Henri 
 St. Simon, born also in France, at Paris, in a.d. 1760 ; and by Robert Owen, of 
 "England, who first taught it publicly in London in 1834. Through the instru 
 mentality of their writings it has been been spread over Germany, France, 
 England, and the United" States, where socialism, in different forms, has a 
 considerable number of disciples. In February, 1848, an attempt was made^ 
 by Louis Blanc, one of the Provisional Government of Paris, to organize 
 labor on socialist principles, but without success. A great many religious 
 sects, such as the Moravians, the Rappites, the Zoarites, and the Shakers, 
 adopt the doctrine of common property in their social arrangements. 
 
 SOCINIANS. So called from their founders, Faustus and La'b'us Socinus, 
 They taught that Jesus was a mere man, who had no existence before he 
 was conceived by the Virgin ; that the Holy Ghost was not a distinct per- 
 son ; and that the Father only is truly God. They maintained that Clirist 
 died only to give mankind a pattern of heroic virtue, and to seal his doc- 
 trines with his death. Original sin, grace, apd predestination they treated 
 as mere chimeras. Socinianism was propagated about a. d. 1560. — Pardon. 
 
 SODOM and GOMORRAH. These cities, with all their inhabitants, destroyed 
 by tire from heaven, 1897 b. c. — Bible, Blair, Usher. The offence of sodomy 
 was first sown in England by the Lombards. By an old English law, the cri- 
 minal was burnt to death, though Fleta says he should be buried alive. 
 The crime was subject to ecclesiastical censure only at the time of Henry 
 VIII., who made it felony without benefit of clergy, 1533. Confirmed by 
 statute 5 Elizabeth, 1562. 
 SOLAR SYSTEM. The system nearly as now accepted, after the investiga- 
 tions and discoveries of many enlightened centuries and ages, was taught 
 by Pythagoras of Samos, about 529 b. c. In his system of the universe he 
 placed the sun in the centre, and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits 
 round it — a doctrine deemed chimerical and improbable, till the deep in- 
 quiries of the philosophy of the sixteenth century proved it, by the most- 
 accurate calculations, to "be true and incontestable. The system of Pytha- 
 goras was revived by Copernicus, and it is hence called the Copernicau 
 system. Its truth was fully demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton, in 1695. 
 How truly the poet says — 
 
 " He who through vast immensity can pierce, 
 
 See worlds on worlds com})ose one universe, 
 
 Observe how system into system runs, 
 
 What other planets circle other suns, 
 
 What variecl beings people every star, 
 
 May tell why Heaven has made us what we are." — Pope. 
 
 SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. The foundation laid, 480 years after the deliverance 
 from Egypt, 1012 b. c. The temple solemnly dedicated, Friday, October 
 80, 1004 B. c, being 1000 years before the birth of the Redeemer. — ds'ier, 
 Lengiet. 
 
 SORCERERS and MAGICIANS. A law was enacted against their seductions. 
 33 Henry VIII. 1541 ; and another statute equally severe was passed 6 Eli- 
 zabeth, 1563. The pretension to sorcery and witchcraft and the conversing 
 with evil spirits was made capital, 1 James I., 1603. For shocking instam^es 
 of the punishment of sor( erers, see Witchcraft. 
 
SPA j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 535 
 
 SOUDAN OR S(>UJAH. The title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs, 
 which they went hy in their provinces or armies. These officers afterwards 
 made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of the forces of the Nora- 
 dine, king of Damascus, was the first that took upon him this title in Egypt, 
 A. D. 1165, after having killed the caliph Caym. 
 
 SOUND. Fewer than thirty vibrations in a second give no sound ; and when 
 the vibrations exceed 7520 in a second, the tones cease to be discriminated. 
 Robesval states the velocity of sound at the rate of 560 feet in a second ; 
 Gassendus, at 1473 ; Derham, at 1142 feet. At Paris, where cannon were 
 fired under many varieties of weather in 1738, it was found to be 1107 feet. 
 The fire of the British on landing in Egypt was distinctly heard 130 milca 
 on the sea. See Acoustics. 
 
 SOUNDINGS AT SEA. Captain Ross, of H. M. S. (Edipus, took extraordinary 
 soundings at sea. One of them was taken 900 miles west of St. Helena, 
 v/here it extended to the depth of 5000 fathoms. Another sounding was 
 made in latitude of 38 degrees S. and longitude 9 degrees W., about 300 
 mile froi/i the Cape of Good Hope, Avlien 2266 fathoms were sounded ; tho 
 weight employed amounted to 450 lbs., 1840. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. One of the United States ; first settlement was made 
 under Governor Sayle, at Port Royal, in 1670, and at Charleston 1671 ; re- 
 ceived a colony of French refugees, exiled by the revocation of the Edict 
 of Nantes, 1690 ; church of England established by law, 1703 ; proprietary 
 government in the two Carolinas superseded by one established by the peo- 
 ple in 1719 ; the country purchased of the proprietors by the English par- 
 liament in 1729, when the country was divided into North and South 
 Carolina ; received colonies of Swiss, Germans, and Irish at various times. 
 This State early resisted the claims of the mother country, and was active 
 in the revolutionary war. Charleston and a large part of the State taken by 
 the British in 1780 ; battle of Eutaw Springs, 1781 ; Federal Constitution 
 adopted May 23, 1788, by 149 to 73; "nullification ordinance" passed 
 Nov. 1832. Population in 1790 was 249.000 ; in 1810, 415,115 ; in 1830, 
 581,458; in 1840, 594,398, including 327,538 slaves. 
 
 SOUTH SEA BUBBLE. This destructive speculation was commenced in 
 1710 ; and the company incorporated by statute, 1716. The bubble, which 
 ruined thousands of families, exploded in 1720, and the directors' estates, 
 to the value of 2 014.000Z. were seized in 1721. Mr. Knight, the cashier, 
 absconded with lOO.OOOZ. ; but he compounded the fraud for 10,000^., and 
 returned to England in 1743. Almost all the wealthy persons in the king- 
 dom had become stock-jobbers and speculators in this fatal scheme. The 
 artifices of the directors had raised the shares, originally of lOOZ., to the 
 enormous price of lOOOZ. See Law's Bubble. 
 
 SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA. See Impostors, &c. 
 
 Si'AIN. The first settlers are supposed to have been the progeny of Tubal, 
 fifth sf,Ti of Japheth. The Phoenicians and Carthaginians successively 
 plantC'l colonies on the coasts ; and the Romans possessed the Avhole coun- 
 try. In the decline of the Roman empire, Spain was seized by the Vandals, 
 Alans, and Suevi ; afterwards subdued by the Visigoths, who laid the foua- 
 dation of the present monarchy. See Tabular Vietvs, p. 65, et scq. 
 
 The Vandals and Suevi wrest Spain Alphonsns 11. refusing to pay the Sara- 
 
 from the Romans - - a. d. 412 cens the annual tribute of 100 virgins, 
 
 The Visigoths enter Spain under their war is declared ; Alphonsus is victo- 
 
 leader, Euric - - . . 472 rious, and obtains tlie appellation of 
 
 The Saracens from Arabia invade the " the chaste" - - a. d, 791 st seg, 
 
 country - - - JVoetseq. Inigo, first kinp; of Navarre, &c. - 83C 
 
 Pelagius, a royal Visigoth, proclaimed Ferdinand I., count of Castile, tako.s the 
 
 kins of Asturiis - . - 713 title of king - - - URt' 
 
636 
 
 THE world's .•R0GRE5S. 
 
 SF4 
 
 SPAIN, continued. 
 
 Union of Navarre and Castile - a. d. 1031 
 The kingilom of Arragon commenced 
 
 under Ramirez I. - - - - 1035 
 
 Leon and Asturias united to Castile - 1037 
 Portugal taken from the Saracens by- 
 Henry of Bourbon - - - 1087 
 The Saracens, beset on all sides by the 
 Christians, call in the aid of the Moors 
 from Africa, who seize the dominions 
 they came to protect, and subdue ihe 
 Saracens - - - 1091 et seq 
 The Moors defeated in several battles 
 
 by Alphonsus I. of Navarre - -1118 
 
 Twelve Moorish kings overcome in one 
 
 great pitched battle - - -1135 
 
 University of Salamanca founded - 1200 
 Leon and Castile re-uniied - - - 1226 
 
 Cordova, the residence of the first Moor- 
 ish kmgs, taken by Ferdinand of Cas- 
 tile and Leon ... - 1236 
 The kingdom of Granada begun by the 
 Moors, their last refuge from the 
 power of the Christians - - 1238 
 Reign of Alphonsus the Wise - - 1252 
 The crown of Navarre passes to the 
 
 royal family of France - - 1276 
 
 200,000 MOOJ.-S invade Spam - - 1327 
 
 They are defeated by Alphonsus XL, 
 
 with great slaughter - - - 1340 
 
 The infant Don Henriquez, son of John 
 the First of Castiie, first had the title 
 of prince of Asturias - - -1388 
 
 Ferdinand II. of Arragon marries Isa- 
 bella of Castile ; andnearly the whole 
 Christian dominions of Spain are uni- 
 ted in one monarchy - - - 1474 
 Granada taken after a two years' siege ; 
 and the power of the Moors finally 
 extirpated by the valor of Ferdinand - 1492 
 Columbus is sent from Spain to explore 
 
 the western world - - - 1492 
 
 Ferdinand conquers the greater part of 
 
 the kingdom of Navarre - - 1512 
 
 Accession of the house of Austria to the 
 
 throne of Spain - - - 1516 
 
 Charles V. o( Spain and Germany re- 
 tires from the world . - - 1556 
 Philip I. commences his bloody perse- 
 cution of the Protestants - -1561 
 The Escurial began building - - 1562 
 Poi'tugal united to Spain - - - 1580 
 The invincible Spanish Armada de- 
 stroyed. See Armada, and Naval 
 Battles .... 1588 
 Philip III. banishes the Moors and their 
 descendants, to the number of 900,000, 
 from Spain - - - - 1610 
 Philip IV. loses Portugal - - 1640 
 Gibraltar taken by the English - - 1704 
 Philip V. invades Naples - - 1714 
 Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies, 
 
 succeeds to tlie crown - - 1759 
 
 Battle of Cape St. Vincent - Feb. 14, 1797 
 Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,- 
 000 dollars, seized by the English 
 
 Oct. 29, 1804 
 Battle of Trafalgar. See Trafalgar, 
 
 Battle of - - Oct. 31, 1505 
 
 Sway of the prince ol Peace - - 1806 
 
 Cimsi)iracy of the prmce of Asturias 
 
 asainsl his father - July 25, 1807 
 
 Tn-aiy of Fiintainebleau - Oct. 27, 1807 
 
 The French take Madric a. d. MstJi, 1808 
 The prince of Peace disn issed by he 
 
 king of Sjjain - March 18, 18l\8 
 
 Abdication of Charles IV. in favor of 
 
 Ferdinand - - March 19, 18a^ 
 
 And at Baycnne, in favor of his " friend 
 and ally,'"' Napoleon, when Ferdi- 
 nand relinquished the crown. May 1, 1809 
 The French are massacred at Madrid, 
 
 May 2, If^ 
 Napoleon assembles the notables at 
 
 Bayonne - - May 25, 1803 
 
 Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid, as 
 
 king of Spain - - July 12, 1808 
 
 He retires from the capital - July 29, 1808 
 Supreme Junta installed - Sept. 1808 
 Madrid retaken by the French, ar.d Jo- 
 seph restored - - Eec. 2, ISOS 
 The royal family of Spain imprisoned 
 in the palace of Chambery, in Savoy, 
 
 Dec. 5, 1308 
 [Spain now becomes the scene of the 
 struggle called the Peninsular War, 
 for the events of which see the arti- 
 cles severally.] 
 Constitution of the Cortes - May 8, 1812 
 Ferdinand VII. restored - May 14, 1814 
 Spanish revolution began • Jan. 1, 1820 
 Ferdinand swears to the constitution of 
 
 the dortes - - March 8, 182(: 
 
 Removal of the kins to Seville, and 
 
 thence to Cadiz "- March 20, 1823 
 
 The French enter Spain - April 7, 1823 
 They invest Cadiz - • June 25, 1823 
 Battle of the Trocadero - - Aug. 31, 1823 
 Despotism resumed ; the Cortes dis- 
 solved; executions - Oct. 1823 
 Riego put to death - Nov. 27, 1823 
 The French evacuate Cadiz - Sept. 21, 1828 
 Cadiz made a free port - Feb. 24, 1829 
 Salique law abolished - March 25, 1830 
 Queen of Spain appointed regent dur- 
 ing the king's indisposition, and a 
 complete change made in the minis- 
 try - - - Oct. 25, 1832 
 Don Carlos declares himself legitimate 
 successor to his brother's throne, 
 should the king die - April 29, 1S33 
 Death of Charles IV.. and his queen 
 assumes the title of governing queen, 
 until Isabella IL, her infant daughter, 
 attains her majority - Sept. 29, 1833 
 The royalist volunteers di;-'armed, with 
 
 some bloodshed, at Madrid - Oct. 27, 1833 
 Don Carlos lands at Portsmouth with 
 
 his family - - June 18, 1834 
 
 He suddenly appears among his ad- 
 herents in Spain - July 10, 1034 
 The peers vote the perpetual eii:clt.5ioii 
 of Don Carlos from the th rons, .lug. 30, lU3t 
 [Here commences the deBoJating crvil 
 war, in which British a iixiiiaries take 
 the side of the queen.] 
 Espartero gains the battle of Bilboa, 
 
 and is ennobled - - Dec. 25, 183fl 
 
 Genei'al Evans retires from the com- 
 mand of the auxiliary legion, and ar- 
 rives in London, after having achieved 
 various successes in Spain - June 20, iy.J7 
 Madrid is declared in a state of sieee. 
 
 Aug." 11, 18 J7 
 [Espartero and other Christino gt leral.s 
 
CA ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 say 
 
 SPAIN, continued. 
 
 engage with the Carlists, and nume- 
 rous conflicts take place with various 
 success. ] 
 
 Madrid is again declared in a state of 
 siege - - A. D. Oct. 30, 1838 
 
 The Spanish Cortes dissolved - June 1, 1839 
 
 The Carlists under Marota desert Don 
 Carlos - - - Aug. 25, 1839 
 
 Marota and Espartero conclude a treaty 
 of peace - - Aug. 29, 1839 
 
 Don Carlos seeks refuge in France 
 
 Sept. 13, 1839 
 
 Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to 
 maintain the wrar, enters France with 
 a body of his troops - July ''^ 1840 
 
 The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Se- 
 bastian and Passages - Aug. 25, 1840 
 
 Espartero makes his triumphal entry 
 into Madrid - - - Oct. 5, 1840 
 
 The queen regent appoints a new min- 
 istry, who are nominated by Espar- 
 tero .... Oct. 5. 1840 
 
 The abdication of the queen regent of 
 Spain - - - Oct. 12, 1840 
 
 [She subsequently leaves the kingdom ; 
 visits France ; next settles in Sicily ; 
 but returns to France.] 
 
 Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the 
 papal nuncio - - Dec. 29, 1840 
 
 The Spanish cortes declare Espartero 
 regent during the minority of the 
 young queen - - Apr. 12, 1841 
 
 Insurrection in favor of Christina is 
 commenced at Pampeluna by Gen. 
 O'Donnell's army - - Oct. 2, 1841 
 
 It spreads to Vittoria and other parts of 
 the kingdom - ■ Oct. 1841 
 
 Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at 
 Madrid, and his followers are repuls- 
 ed, and numbers of them slain by the 
 queen's guard - - Oct. 7, 1841 
 
 Don Diego Leon, having been seized, is 
 shot at Madrid - - Oct. 15, 1841 
 
 Zui'bano captures Bilboa - Oct. 21. 1841 
 
 Rodil, the constitutional general, enters 
 Vittoria - - - Oct. 21, 1841 
 
 Espartero decrees the suspension of 
 queen Christina's pension - Oct. 26, 1841 
 
 Espartero makes his triumphal entry 
 into Madrid - - Nov. 23, 1841 
 
 An insurrection breaks out at Barce- 
 lona ; the national guard joms the 
 populace - - Nov. 13, 1842 
 
 Battle in the streets between the national 
 guard and the troops ; the latter lose 
 500 in killed and wounded, and retreat 
 to the citadel - - Nov. 15, 1842 
 
 The troops evacuate the citadel, and 
 retire to Moutjuich - Nov. 17, 1843 
 
 The regent Espartero aiTives before 
 Barcelona, and demands its uncondi- 
 tional surrender - - Nov. 29, 1842 
 
 Bombardment of Barcelona - Dec. 2, 1842 
 
 It capitulates - - Dec. 4, 1842 
 
 The disturbances of Malaga - May 25, 1843 
 
 The revolutionary junta is re-establish- 
 ed *t Barcelona - - June 11, 1343 
 
 [Corui na, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, 
 and numerous other towns, shortly 
 afterwards " pronounce" against the 
 regent Espartero.] 
 
 Arrival of Gen. Narvaez at Madrid, 
 which surrenders - - July 15, 1843 
 
 Espartero bombards Seville • July 21, 1S13 
 
 The siege is raised - - July 27, 1843 
 
 [The revolution is completely success- 
 ful, and Espartero flies to Cadiz, and 
 embarks on board her Majesty's shio 
 Malabar. ] 
 
 The new government deprive Espartero 
 of his titles and rank - Aug. 16, 1843 
 
 Espartero and his suite and friends ar- 
 rive in London - - Aug. 23, 1843 
 
 Reaction against the new government 
 breaks out at Madrid - Aug. 29, 1843 
 
 The young queen Isabella 11., 13 years 
 old, is declared by the cortes to be of 
 age - - - Nov. 8, 1843 
 
 The queen-mother. Christina, returns to 
 Spain - '- - March 23, 1844 
 
 Don Carlos, from Bourges, formally re- 
 linquishes his right to the crown, in 
 favor of his son - - May 18, 1845 
 
 Narvaez and his ministry resign, Feb. 
 12; they return to power, March 17 ; 
 and again resign - - March 28, 1846 
 
 The queen is publicly affianced to her 
 cousin, don Francisco d'Assiz, duke 
 of Cadiz - - - Aug. 27, 1846 
 
 Escape of Don Carlos and others from 
 France - - - Sept. 14, 1846 
 
 Marriage of the queen ; and marriage 
 also of the infanta Louisa to the duke 
 de Montpensier - - Oct. 10, 1846 
 
 [The Montpensier marriage occasions 
 the displeasure of England, and dis- 
 turbs the friendly relations of the 
 French and English governments.] 
 
 Amnesty granted by the queen to po- 
 litical offenders - - Oct. 18, 1846 
 
 The queen has a son born, who dies the 
 same day - - • July Ij ISS3 
 
 KINGS OP SPAIN. 
 
 A.S. 406. Alaricl., king of the Goths; murdered. 
 411. Athalsus; murdered by his soldiers. 
 415. Wallia. 
 
 420. Theodoric L; killed in battle. 
 450. Torrisr*una , assassinated by his fa- 
 vorite. 
 452. Theodoric II. 
 466. Euric. 
 
 484. Alaric II. ; killed in battle. 
 507. Gcsalric ; killed in battle. 
 511. Aiaalaric; killed in battle. 
 Kil. Theodat; assassinated by a madman 
 
 23* 
 
 548. Theodisele ; murdered for female vio 
 
 lation. 
 
 549. Agila; taken prisoner and put to death. 
 554. Athanagild. 
 
 507. From this year to the year 687 s'vteel 
 
 kings reigned. 
 687. Egica or Egiza. 
 697. Vitizza. 
 741. Roderick; killed inlattlein714 
 
 An interregnum till 
 718. Pelagius. 
 736. Favila ; killed by a boar in hunting 
 
538 
 
 THE WOULD- S PROGIIESS. 
 
 |_S?A 
 
 SPAIN', coiitinuul. 
 
 738. Alpho.isus I. ; Calholic, 
 757. Froila I.; killed by his brother Aiire- 
 
 lius. 
 768. Aurelius. 
 774. Silo. 
 783. Mauregat. 
 789. Veremond. 
 
 .791. Alphonsus II. ; the chaste. 
 324. llamiro I. ; he put 70,000 Saracens to 
 
 the sword in one battle. 
 360. Ordogno I. 
 862. Alphonsus III. ; surnamed tlie great ; 
 
 deposed by hia son. 
 910. Garcias. 
 914. Ordogno II. 
 
 923. Froila II. 
 
 924. Alphonsus IV. ; abdicated. 
 931. llamiro II. , killed in battle, 
 950. Ordogno III. 
 a55. Ordogno IV. 
 956. Sancho I., the Fat; poisoned with an 
 
 apple 
 967. Ramiro III. 
 982. Verertiund 11. ; the Gouty. 
 999. Alphonsus V. ; killed at the siege of 
 
 Viscu. 
 1028. Veremund III. ; killed in battle. 
 1035. Ferdinand the Great, king of Leon and 
 
 Castile. 
 1065. Sancho II., the Strong, king of Castile ; 
 
 Alphonsus in Leon and Asturias ; and 
 
 Garcias in Galicia. 
 1072. Alphon.^us VI., the Valiant; in Castile 
 
 and Leon. 
 1109. Alphonsus VII. 
 1122. Alphonsus VIII. 
 
 1157. Sancho IlL, the Beloved, in Castile; 
 
 Ferdinand in Leon. 
 
 1158. Alphonsus IX., in Castile. 
 
 1214. Henry I. 
 
 1236. Ferdinand III. the Holy ; in him Cas- 
 tile and Leon were reunited, and per- 
 petually annexed. 
 
 1252. Alphonsus the Wise ; deposed. 
 
 1284, Sancho IV., the Brave; Peter III. in 
 
 Arragon. 
 1295. Ferdinand IV. 
 1312. Alphonsus X. ; John in Arragon. 
 
 1350. Peter the Cruel ; deposed. Reinstated 
 by Edward the Black Prince of Eng 
 land; afterwards beheaded by hij 
 subjects. 
 
 1368. Henry II., the Gracious; poison(!d b^ 
 a monk. 
 
 1379. John L ; he united Biscay to Castile. 
 
 1390. Henry III., the Sickly. 
 
 1406. John !1. 
 
 1454. Henry IV. the Impotent. 
 
 1474. Ferdinand V., the Catholic, in whom, 
 by his marriage with Isabella, tlie 
 kingdoms of Castile and Arragon 
 were united. 
 
 1504. Philip I. of Austria, and his qr.ep.p 
 Joan. 
 
 1506. Joan alone over both kingdoms. 
 
 1516. Charles I., and emperor of Germany, 
 resigned botli crowns, and retired to 
 a monastery. 
 
 1555. Philip IL, married Mary, queenreg- 
 nant of England. 
 
 1598. Philip III., son of the preceding; he 
 drove the Moors from Grenada and 
 the adjacent provinces. 
 
 1621. Philip IV., his son ; a reign of nearly 
 continuous and unfortunate wars witb 
 the Dutch and France. 
 
 1665.1 Charles II. 
 
 1700. Philip v., duke of Anjou, grandson to 
 Louis XIV. of France ; resigned. 
 
 1724. Lewis I. ; who reigned only a few 
 months. 
 
 1724. Philip V. ; again. 
 
 1745. Ferdinand Vi, surnamed the Wise ; he 
 distinguished his reign by acts o< 
 liberality and beneficence, 
 
 1759. Charles III., king of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 1788. Charles IV. ; abdicated in favor of hia 
 son and successor. 
 
 1808. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon, ol 
 of France, also forced to resign. 
 
 1808. Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napo- 
 leon ; deposed. 
 
 1814. Ferdinand VII. ; restored ; succeeded 
 by his daughter. 
 
 1833. Isabella II., Sept. 29 ; who came to the 
 throne when three years of age. 
 
 While nearly all the other nations of the world have been at peace, this coun- 
 try, for the last quarter of a century, has been a prey to the most deplor- 
 able commotions, and almost continuous and destructive civil war. From 
 the death of Ferdinand, the intrigues of Christina, the queen-mother, and 
 the parties in her interest, have led to successive revolutions in the state, 
 and caused, in 1840, her own abdication of the regency, and expulsion from 
 the kingdom. 
 
 SPANISH ARMADA against England. See article Armada. 
 
 SPARTA. The capital of Laconia, one of the most considerable republics of 
 the Peloponnesus, and the formidable rival of Athens. Though without 
 walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the valor of its citizens, for 
 eight centuries. The epoch of its foundation is much disputed. Lelex is 
 supposed to have been the first king, 1516 b. c. From Lacedsemon the fourth 
 king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of as the founders of the 
 city, it obtained the names by which it was most known. The history of 
 Lacedsemon may be divided into five eras, viz., 1st. Under the ancient kings, 
 from Lelex to the settlement of the Heraclidas, comprising about four hun- 
 
SP1_ DICTIONARY OF DATES. 539 
 
 dred and twelve years. 2d. Under the Heraclida} as ahsol ite monaiclis, I ill 
 Lycurgns instituted a senate, by which the people obtained a share in the 
 government, including about two hundred and twenty years. 3d. From the 
 establishment of the senate, to the introduction of ephori, or five inspectors 
 by Theopompus, about one hundred and twenty-four years. 4th. From the 
 appointment of the ephori, to the total abolition of royalty, about five hun- 
 dred and forty years. 5th. From the abolition of the monarchy, to the sub- 
 jugation of the country to the Roman power, a period of about seventy- 
 two years, 147 b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. See Tabular Views : Gi-eece, page 7, et 
 seq. See also Greece. The Lacedaemonians were a nation of soldiers. They 
 cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, nor agriculture. All their 
 laws, all their institutions, all their education, in a word, the verj^ constitu- 
 tion of their republic, were calculated to make them warriors. And never 
 were men brought into the field more capable of enduring fatigue. They 
 hardened their bodies by stripes, and by manly exercises, accustoming them- 
 selves to undergo hardships, and even to die without fear or regret. Ihe 
 women were as courageous as the men, and celebrated with festivals the fall 
 of their sons, when killed in battle, or coolly put them to death with their 
 own hands, if by a shameful flight, or the loss of their arms, tiiey brought 
 disgrace upon their country. — Abbe Lenglet. 
 
 SPECTACLES and READING-GLASSES. See Optics. Spectacles were un- 
 known to the ancients. They are generally supposed to have been invented 
 in the 13th century, by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, 
 about A. D. 1285. — Gen. Hist. They were invented by Roger Bacon, our own 
 illustrious countryman, according to Dr. Plott. The hint was certainly 
 given by Bacon about 1280. Some affirm that the real inventor Avas Salvi- 
 no ; and Mr. Manni gives proofs in favor of Salvino in his Treatise on Spec- 
 tacles. 
 
 i^FHERES. The celestial and terrestrial globes, and also sun-dials, were invent- 
 ed by Anaximander, 552 b. c. The armillary sphere is said to have been in- 
 - vented by Eratosthenes about 255 b. c. The planetai'ium was constructed 
 by Archimedes before 212 b. c. It "was maintained by Pythagoras that the 
 motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible to 
 the ears of mortals, which he called the music of the spheres. 
 
 SPINNING. The art of spinning was ascribed by the ancients to Minerva, the 
 goddess of wisdom, such was their veneration for it. Areas, king of Arca- 
 dia, taught his subjects the art of spinning about 1500 b. c. Lucretia with 
 her maids was found spinning, when her husband Collatiniis paid a visit to 
 her from the camp. The wife of Tarquin was an excellent spinner; and a 
 garment made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was preserved in the t<J5E5- 
 ple of Fortune. Augustus Ceesar usually wore no garments but such as 
 were made by his wife, sister, or daughter. The spinning-wheel was in- 
 vented at Brunswick, about a. d. 1530. Till 1767, the spinning of cotton 
 was performed by the hand-spinning-wheel, when Hargrave, an ingenious 
 mechanic, near Bliickburn, made a spinning-jenny, with eight spindles. 
 Hargrave also erected the first carding-machine, with cylinders. Arkwright's 
 machine for spinning by water vvas an extension of the principle of Har- 
 grave's ; but he also applied a large and small roller to expand the thread, 
 and. for this ingenious contrivance^ took out a patent in 1769. At first, he 
 worked his macliiuery by horses ; but in 1771 he built a mill on the stream 
 of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 1779, Crompton invented the mule, which 
 is a further and wonderful improvement of this art. — P dllips. 
 
 SPIRES. In ancient times the emperors held many diets at Spires, and it was 
 the seat of the imperial chamber till 1689. when the city was burnt by the 
 French, and not rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick in 1697. The diet to 
 
540 THE world's PROGRE'^S. [ STA 
 
 condemn the reformers was held at Spires, called there by the emperor 
 Charles V., 1529, This was the era of Protestantism. See Protestants. 
 
 SPIR[TS. Su-e DlstiUcdion. No human invention has ever tended more to cor- 
 rupt the morals, and ruin the character, constitution, and circumstances of 
 numbers of mankind, than distillation. In all nations spirituous liquors 
 have been considered as a proper subject of heavy taxation for the support 
 of the state. In 18i0; England made about ten millions of gallons of spirits, 
 Scotland made about seven millions of gallons, and Ireland about nine mil- 
 lions of gallons. In England, Ireland, and Scotland, duty was paid, in 1840, 
 on the following quantities of spirits, viz. — Rum, 2 830,263 gallons ; brandy, 
 1,107,756 gallons ; Geneva, 18,6i0 gallons ; on other foreign spirits, 8,758 
 gallons; and on British, Irish, and Scotch spirits, 25.190,843 gallons; mak- 
 ing in the whole nearly thirty millions of gallons, upon which the duty 
 amounted to about eight millions of pounds sterling ! — Pari. Returns. 
 
 SPITZBERGEN. Discovered in 1533, by sir Hugh Willoughby, who called it 
 Greenland, supposing it to be a part of the western continent. In 1595, it 
 was visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pretended to be 
 the original discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from 
 the many sharp-pointed and rocky mountains with which it abounds. 
 
 STAMP-DUTIES in England. The first institution of stamp-duties was by 
 statute 5 and 6 William and Mary, June 23, 1694, when a duty was imposed 
 upon paper, vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on newspapers was 
 commenced in 1713, and every year added to the list of articles upon which 
 stamp-duty was made payable. The American Stamp Act, a memorable 
 statute, one of those imposts levied by the parliament of Great Britain 
 which produced the American war, and led to the independence of the 
 United States, was passed March 22, 1765. Stamp-duties in Ireland com- 
 menced 1774. Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in 1782. The stamp- 
 duties produced in England, in 1800, the revenue of 3,126,535Z. ; and in 
 1840, for the United Kingdom, 6,726,817^. See Newspapers, &.c. 
 
 STANDARDS. See Banners, Flags, &c. The practice in the army of using the 
 cross on standards and shields arose in the miraculous appearance of a cross 
 to Constantine, previously to his battle with Maxentius : this fact rests on 
 the authority of Eusebius. who states that he had received it from the em- 
 peror himself, a. d. 312. For the celebrated French standard, see Lily. 
 Standard of Mahomet ; on this ensign no infidel dare look. It was car- 
 ried in procession about 1768. when several hundred Christians who igno- 
 rantly looked upon it, were massacred by the Turkish populace. The 
 Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower of London, and on Bed- 
 ford Tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the 
 kingdoms, Jan. 1, 1801. 
 
 Sl'AR-CHAMBER, Court of. So called haply from its roof being garnished 
 with stars. — Cojce. This court of justice, so tremendous in the Tudor and 
 part of the Stuart reigns, was called Star-chamber, not from the stars on its 
 roof (which were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), 
 but from the Starra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by order of Ri- 
 chard I. No Star was allowed to be valid except found in those reposito- 
 ries, and here they remained till the banishment of the Jews by Edward I. 
 The court was instituted 2 Henry VII. 1487, for trials by a committee of 
 the privy council. In Charles I.'s reign, it exercised its power, independent 
 of any law, upon several bold innovators in liberty, who only gloried in 
 theii sufferings, and contributed to render government odious and con- 
 temptible. — Goldsmith. \< was abolished 16 Charles I., 1641. There were 
 
STE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 541 
 
 from 26 to 42 judges, the lord-cliancellor having the casting -^oics.— • 
 Gibbon. 
 STARS. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about 1200 b. c 
 Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, and 
 that the earth moved round them (this is mentioned by Cicero, and probably 
 gave the first hint of this system to Copernicus), about 344 b. c. Job, He- 
 siod, and Homer, mention several of the constellations. The Royal Library 
 at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the heavens, made about 600 b. c, in 
 which 1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberration of the stars dis- 
 covered by Dr. Bradley, 1727. See Astronomy and Solar Sijstem, 
 
 STATES-GENERAL of FRANCE. An ancient assembly of France. Pre- 
 viously to the Revolution it had not met since a. d. 1614. The states con- 
 sisted of three orders, the nobility, clergy, and commons. They were con- 
 vened by Louis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, May 5, 1789. Here a 
 a contest arose, whether the three orders should make three distinct houses, 
 or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon the latter, and, assuming 
 the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were competent to 
 proceed to business, without the concurrence of the two other orders, if 
 they refused to join them. The nobility and clergy found it expedient to 
 concede the point, and they all met in one hall. See ISational Asseinbly. 
 
 STATIONERS. Books and paper were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the 
 dealers were called stationers. The company of stationers of London is of 
 great antiquity, and existed long before printing was invented ; yet it was 
 not incorporated until 3 Philip and Mary, 1555. Their old dwelling was in 
 Paternoster-row. — Mortimer. 
 
 STATUES. See Moulds, Sculpture, &c. Phidias, whose statue of Jupiter 
 passed for one of the wonders of the world, was the greatest statuary among 
 the ancients, 440 b. c. He had previously made a statue of Minerva at the 
 request of Pericles, which was placed in the Parthenon. It was made with 
 ivory and gold, and measured 89 feet in height. Acilius raised a golden 
 statue to his father, the first that appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the 
 art of taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he afterwards cast 
 models in wax, 326 b. c. Michael Angelo was the greatest artist among 
 the moderns. The first equestrian statute erected in Great Britain was that 
 of Charles I. in 1678. 
 
 STEAM ENGINE. This is the most important prime mover that the inge- 
 nuity of man has yet devised. The first idea of it was suggested by the 
 marquis of Worcester in his Ce^itury of Inventions, as "a way to drive up 
 water by fire," a. d. 1663. It does not, however, appear that the noble in- 
 ven^jor could ever interest the public in favor of this great discovery. 
 
 Watt's expansion engine - ... 1778 
 
 Double acting engines proposed by Dr. 
 Falck on Newcomen's principle - 1779 
 
 Watt's double engine, and his first pa- 
 tent for it granted . . . . 1781 
 
 The marquess JoufFroy constructed an 
 engine on the Sa6ne - - - 178J 
 
 Fitchs' experiments ia steam naviga- 
 tion on the Delaware, (See Smith's 
 im. Curios.) .... 178.3^ 
 
 Oliver Evans' experiments in the 
 same 1785-6 
 
 Rumsey's experiments in the same in 
 Virginia 1787 
 
 W. Symington made a passage on the 
 Forth and Clyde canal - - - - 17S9 
 
 First steam-engine erected in Dublin by 
 Henry Jackson 17'.U 
 
 Papin's digester invented - a. d. 1681 
 
 Captain Savery's engine constructed 
 for raising water - - - 1698 
 
 Papin's engine, exhibited to the Royal 
 Society, about - - - - 1699 
 
 Atmospheric engine by Savery and 
 Newcomen - . - . 1713 
 
 First idea of steam navigation set forth 
 in a patent obtained by Hulls - 1736 
 
 Watt's invention of performing conden- 
 sation in a separate vessel from the 
 cylinder .... 1765 
 
 His first patent - ... 1769 
 
 His engines upon a large scale erected 
 in manufactories, and his patent re- 
 newed by act of parliament - - 1775 
 
 Thomas Paine proposed the application 
 of steam in America - - - -1778 
 
 Engine made to give a rotary motion - 1778 ' JoufTroy's experiments in Fntace • • 17/* 
 
542 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 
 
 [ STB 
 
 S'i'EAM ENGINE, continued. 
 
 Chancellor Livingston builds a steamer 
 on the Hudson 1797 
 
 First experiment on the Thames - • 1801 
 
 The experiment of Mr. Symington re- 
 peated with success - - - - 1802 
 
 Treveihick's high-pressure engine - 1802 
 
 Oliver Evans' experiments m locomo- 
 tive engines in Penn. ... igoi 
 
 Woolfs ilouble cylinder expansion en- 
 gine constructed .... 1804 
 
 Manufactories warmed by steam - 1806 
 
 Fulton started a steam-boat on the river 
 Hudson, built by liimself, and named 
 "The North River;" engine by Boul- 
 ton and Watt ; passage to Albany in 33 
 hours : first steam navigation on 
 record - ... 1807 
 
 Tlie next three steam-boats in the world 
 were the Car of Neptune, - - 180S 
 
 The Paragon 1811 
 
 The Richmond 1812 
 
 all in New York. 
 
 Steam power to conrey coals on a rail- 
 way, employed by Blenkinsop - - 1811 
 
 Sieam vessels first commenced plying 
 on the Clyde (first in Europb) - 1812 
 
 Steam applied to printing in iaa Times 
 office. See Press .... 1814 
 
 There were five steam vessels in Scot- 
 land {Pari. Returns) in - - - 1813 
 
 First steam vessel on the Thames 
 brought by Mr. Dodd, from Glasgow ISlf 
 
 The first steamer built in England (,Parl. 
 Returns) 1815 
 
 The Savannah s'.eamer, of 350 tons, 
 went from New York to Liverpool 
 in 26 days - - - - July 1.5, 1819 
 
 First steamer in Ireland - - - 1820 
 
 Captain Johnson obtained 10,000Z. for 
 making the first steam voyage to In- 
 dia, in the Enterprise, which sailed 
 from Falmouth - - Aug. 16, 182S 
 
 Locomotive steam carriages on" rail- 
 ways, at Liverpool - - Oct. 1829 
 
 The Railway opened (see Liverpool) - 1830 
 
 The Great Western arrives from Bris- 
 tol at New York, and the Sirius from 
 Cork, same day, being their first voy- 
 age, in 18 days - - June 17, 1838 
 
 War steamers built in England - - 1833 
 
 First steamer of tlie Cunard line was 
 the Britannia to Boston ; after a pas- 
 sage of 14 ds. 8 hrs,, arrived July 18, 1840 
 
 STEAM BOATS in the UNITED STATES. In 1838 returns from 23 States 
 gave an aggregate of 700 vessels — whole tonnage, 153,600 tons; but these 
 returns were not complete. The mcrease from 1838 to 1850 was very great : 
 probably there are, in 1850, at least 1500 vessels, with an aggregate of 300.000 
 tons. The first American ocean steamer of any note was the Washington, 
 which made her first passage to Southampton in June 1847. The whole 
 number of steam-boats, locomotive and stationary engines, in the United 
 States, in 1838, was 3,010. 
 
 STEAM VESSELS of the BRITISH EMPIRE. 
 
 STEAM VESSELS BELONGING TO THE BRITISH EMPIRE AT THE FOLLOWING PERIODS ; 
 
 Year. 
 
 England. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Dependencies. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1814 - 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1815 
 
 - - 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 1820 - 
 
 17 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 43 
 
 1825 
 
 -112 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 168 
 
 1830 - 
 
 - 203 
 
 61 
 
 31 
 
 20 
 
 315 
 
 1835 
 
 -344 
 
 85 
 
 • 68 
 
 48 
 
 545 
 
 1845 - 
 
 • 694 
 
 139 
 
 79 
 
 89 
 
 1001 
 
 STEEL-YARD. A most ancient instrument, the same that is translated ba- 
 lance in the Pentateuci The Statera Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is men- 
 tioned in 315 B. c. 
 
 STENOGRAPHY. The art of writing in short-hand is said to have been prac- 
 tised by most of the ancient nations. It is said to have followed from the 
 hieroglyphics of the Egyptians. It is also attributed to the poet Ennius, 
 improved upon by Tyro, Cicero's freed-man, and still more by Sefieca. The 
 Ars Scribendl Charactcris, printed about a. d. 1412, is the oldest system ex- 
 tant. Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on stenography in 1590. 
 There are now numerous systems of it, many of them of easy acquirement 
 and great simplicity. 
 
 STEREOMETRY. The instrument by which is compassed the art of taking 
 the contents of vessels of liquids by gauging, invented about a. d. 1350. — 
 Anderson. 
 
 STEREOTYPE. See Prirting. It is said that stereotyping was known in 
 1711 ; but this is doubted. It is said to have been suggested by Wm. Ged 
 
gro J DICTION^\RY OF DATES. 543 
 
 of Edinburgh, 1735. — Nichols. This species of printing is ascribed by 
 others to Mr. Tilloch, 1779. The invention of it is also attributed to Fran- 
 cis Ambrose Didot, of Paris, about that year. — Fergn&on, But stereotype 
 printing was in use in Holland, in the last century ; and a quarto Bible and 
 Dutch folio Bible were printed there. — Phillips. Stereotyping was intro- 
 duced into London, by Wilson, in 1801. — Idem, 
 
 gTEREOTYPING. The foregoing is from Haydn. But this art is said to have 
 been invented by Cadwallader Golden of New York, who sent the details of hia 
 plan in 1 779 to Dr. Franklin, then in Paris. Franklin communicated the plan 
 to Didot, the famous printer, and Herbau, a German, who had been an assist- 
 ant of Didot, took it up in opposition to Didot. It is affirmed, on good au- 
 thority, that Herbau's method of stereotyping is precisely similar to that 
 which Golden invented. Stereotyping was first actually practised in New 
 York in 1813, when John Watts stereotyped the Larger Catechism. In 
 June 1815 the Bruces of New York stereotyped a duodecimo Bible. — Dr. 
 J. W. Francis. 
 
 STOCKINGS. Those of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1517. In 
 1560, queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stock- 
 ings, by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones 
 any more. — Howell. He adds, " Henry VIII. wore ordinarily cloth hose, 
 except there came from Spain, by great chance, a pain of silk stockings ; 
 for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward TI. was presented with 
 a pair of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham ; and 
 the present was then much taken notice of — Idem. Others relate that Wil- 
 liam Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of an Italian merchant, 
 a pair of knit worsted stockings from Mantua, ingeniously made a pair like 
 them, which he presented to the earl of Pembroke, the first of the kind 
 made in England, 1561. — Stowe. 
 
 STOCKS. The public funding system originated in Venice, and was introduced 
 into Florence in 1340. The English funding system may be said to have 
 had its rise in 1694. The number of stockholders in 1840 amounted to 
 337,481. By a return of the average price of the public funds by the com- 
 missioners for the reduction of the national debt, it appears that Consols 
 averaged in the year — 
 
 1780 - JE63 13 6 
 
 1795 
 
 - JE74 8 6 
 
 1810 
 
 - £67 16 3 
 
 1825 
 
 - jE90 8 
 
 1785 ■ - 68 6 6 
 
 1800 - 
 
 -66 3 3 
 
 1815 - 
 
 -58 13 9 
 
 1830 - 
 
 - 89 15 7 
 
 1790 71 2 6 
 
 1805 
 
 - 58 14 
 
 1820 
 
 - 68 12 
 
 1840 
 
 ■ 89 17 6 
 
 See PubU^ Debt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 STOICS. Disciples of Zeno, the cynic philosopher ; they obtained the name 
 of stoics because they listened to his instr actions and harangues in a porch 
 or portico at Athens, called in Greek Stoa. Zeno taught that man's su- 
 preme happiness consisted in living according and agreeable to nature and 
 reason, and that God was the soul of the world. The Pharisees affected 
 the same stiffness, patience, apathy, austerity, and insensibility, which this 
 sect is famous for. — Stanley. 
 
 STONE. Stone buildings were introduced into England, a. d. 670. A stone 
 bridge was built at Bow in 1087, and is accounted the first ; but a bridge 
 exists at Crowland, which is said to have been built in 860. See Bridges 
 The first stone building in Ireland was a castle, 1161. See Building. Stone 
 china-ware was made by Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statuea 
 was manufactrired by a Neapolitan, and introduced into England, 1776. 
 Stone paper was made in 1796. 
 
 STONEHENGE. Among the most celebrated monuments of British antiquity. 
 Said to have been erected on the counsel of Merlin by Aurelius Ambrosias^ 
 in memory of 460 Britons who were murdered by Himgist, the Saxon, a. i> 
 
544 
 
 THE world's TROGRESS. 
 
 [ STC 
 
 i'i5.--Geoffre]/ of JSlonmouth Erected as a sepulchral monument of Am- 
 brosius, a, d. b^).~Polydore Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, iu 
 which the Druids officiated.— Z)r. Stukeley. The Britons had annual meet- 
 ings at Abury and Stonehenge, where laws were made, and justice admiuis- 
 tered, and heinous crimes punished, by burning alive in wicker-baskets. 
 
 STORMS. The following are among the best authenticated and most memo- 
 rable. In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, a. d. 944 
 One in several parts of England, the sky being very dark, the wind coming 
 from the S.W. ; many churches were destroyed ; and in London 500 houses 
 fell, October 5, 1091. One on the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais, 
 and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist king John against 
 the barons, perished, 1215. — Holinshed. 
 
 It thundered 15 days successively, with tem- 
 pests of rain and wind, a.d. \2ii. 
 
 A storm with violent lightnings ; one flash 
 . passed through a chamber where Edward 
 I. and his queen were conversing, did them 
 no damage, but killed two of their attend- 
 ants: 128o. — Hoveden. 
 
 A violent storm of hail near Chartres, in 
 France, which fell on the army of Edward 
 III., then on its march. The hail was so 
 large that the, army and horses suffered 
 very much, and Edward was obliged to 
 conclude a peace, 1339. — Matt. Paris. 
 
 When Richard H.'s queen came from Bohe- 
 mia, on setting foot on shore an awful 
 storm arose, anil her ship and a number 
 of others were dashed to pieces in the har 
 bor, Jan. 1382. — Holinshed. 
 
 Richard's second queen also brought a storm 
 with her to the English coasts, in which 
 the king's baggage was lost, and many 
 ships cast away, 1389. — Idem. 
 
 A hurricane throughout Europe, which did 
 very considerable damage ; more remark- 
 ed in England, happening Sept. 3, 1658, the 
 day that Cromwell died. — Mortimer. 
 
 A storm on the eastern coasts of England ; 
 200 colliers and coasters lost, with most of 
 their crews, 1696. 
 
 The storm called the '■'■Great Storm," one of 
 the most terrible that ever raged in Eng- 
 land. The devastation on land was im- 
 mense ; and in the harbors, and on the 
 coasts, the loss in shipping and in lives 
 was still greater, Nov. 26, 1703.' 
 
 A snow storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, 
 it is said, perished upon the mountains, in 
 their march to attack Drontheim, a. d. 
 1719. 
 
 One in India, when many hundreds of ves- 
 sels were cast away, a fleet of Indiamen, 
 
 greatly damaged, and some ships lost, and 
 30,000 persons perished, Oct. 11, 1737. 
 
 A dreadful hurricane at the Havana ; many 
 public edifices and 4048 houses were de- 
 stroyed, and 1000 inhabitants perished, 
 Oct. 2-5, 1768. — Anmcal Register. 
 
 An awful storm in the north of England, in 
 which many vessels were destroyed, and 
 4 Dublin packets foundered, Oct. 29, 1775. 
 
 At Surat, in the East Indies ; destroyed 70UC 
 ol the inhabitants, April 22, 1782. 
 
 One hundred and thirty-one villages and 
 farms laid waste in France, 1785. 
 
 A dreadful hurricane, which ravaged the 
 Lee\\>-ard Islands, from 20th to 22d Sept. 
 1819. At the Island of St. Thomas alone, 
 104 vessels were lost. 
 
 At Gibraltar, where more than a hundred 
 vessels were destroyed, Feb. 18, 1828. 
 
 Awful hurricane on the western coast of 
 England, and in Ireland. The storm raged 
 through Cheshire, Staffordshire, and War- 
 wickshire ; 20 persons were killed in Li- 
 verpool, by the falling of buildings, and 
 100 were drowned in the neighborhood; 
 the coast and harbors were covered with 
 wrecks ; the value of two of the vessels 
 lost being nearly half a million sterling. In 
 Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other 
 places, moi-e than 200 houses were blown 
 down, and as many inore were burnt, the 
 wind spreading the fires. Dublin suffer- 
 ed dreadfully ; London and its neighbor- 
 hood scarcely sustained any damage, Jan. 
 6-7, 1839. 
 
 Hurricane at Havana, 92 vessels sunk, 1275 
 houses destroyed, and 1038 injured, Oct. 
 10-11, 1846. 
 
 Hurricane at Antigua, St. Thomas, &c. Aug. 
 21. 1848. 
 
 STOVES. The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German 
 stoves yet do. They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of 
 
 * The loss sustained in London alone was calculated at 2,000,000Z. sterling. The number of per- 
 sons drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in 
 ships bio wn from their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. Twelve 
 men-of-war, with more than 1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Trees 
 were torn up by the roots, 17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house was destroyed, 
 and in it the ingenious contriver of it, Winstanley, and the persons who were with him. The bi 
 chop ol Bath isnd Wells and his lady were killed in bed in their palace, in Somersetshire. Multi 
 lades of cattle were also lost; in one level 15,000 sheep were drowned. 
 
BUG J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 545 
 
 the room, the roof being open. Apartments were warmed too by port-, 
 able braziers. See Chinuieys. 
 
 STRASBURG. The attempt at insurrection in the city of Strasburg, ty Louis- 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the deceased emperor, aided by two oMi- 
 cers and some privates, which was instantly suppressed by the arrest of 
 the parties. The prince was afterwards shipped off to America by the 
 French government, Oct. 29, 1836. This enthusiast made another attempt, 
 by a descent at Boulogne, Aug. 6, 1840. See Prajice. 
 
 STRATTON-HILL, Battle of, in Devonshire, between the royal army and the 
 forces of the parliament, headed by the poet Waller ; in this battle the 
 victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed 
 and wounded, and Waller was obliged to fly to Bristol ; fought May 16, 
 1643. 
 
 STUCCO-WORK. The art was known to the ancients, and was much prized 
 by them, particularly by the Romans, who excelled in it. — Abbe Lengleb, 
 It Avas revived by D'Udine about a. d. 1550; and is now exquisitely per- 
 formed in Italy and France, and is advancing rapidly to perfection ra 
 England. 
 
 STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Caesar's ordering leap-j^ear to bo 
 but once in four years, and the month Sextillis to be called Augustus, 8 b.c. 
 Again at Rome, by taking twelve days off the calendar, a. d. 1582. See 
 Calendar. Introduced into most of the other states of Europe, 1710. Act 
 passed to change the style in England from the Julian to the Gregorian, 
 1751. It took effect Sept. 3, 1752. See New Style and Year. 
 
 STYLE. ROYAL, of the KINGS of ENGLAND. See articles Majesty and 
 Titles. 
 
 SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly granted in kind, par- 
 ticularly in wool ; 30.000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account of the 
 war with France, 1340. — Anderson. Subsidies raised upon the subjects of 
 England for the last time by James I., 1624, but they were contained in a 
 bill for the redress of grievances, 1639. England granted subsidies to fo- 
 reign powers in several wars, particularly in the war against the revolution- 
 ists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One of the most remarkable 
 of these latter was June 20, 1800, when a treaty of subsidies was ratified at 
 Vienna, between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should be 
 vigorously prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting 
 powers should enter into a separate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia, 
 Russia, the Porte, and other powers, were afterwards given by England, to 
 the amount of many tens of millions sterling. — Phillips. 
 
 ' MS-TREASURY. Bill providing for the safe keeping of the moneys belonging 
 to the United States, passed the Senate by 24 to 18, Jan. 23, 1840 ; repealed 
 Aug. 9, 1841, Re-enacted in a new form, 184-. 
 
 4JCCESSI0N, ACT of. The memorable act to exclude Roman Catholics 
 from ascending the throne of Great Britain was passed in 1689 ; and tho 
 crown of England was settled upon the present royal family by the act cf 
 June 12, 1701. 
 
 SUCCESSION, The WAR of. This celebrated war, ahke distinguished by 
 the glorious achievements of the duke of Marlborough and its barren and 
 unprofitable results, arose in the quesion whether an Austrian or a French 
 prince, grandson of Louis XIV. , should succeed to the throne of Spain. 
 Our court opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but the allies 
 withdrew, one after another, and the French prince succeeded ; 1702 tc 
 1713. See Ulrecfit, Peace of. 
 
 SUGAR, Sacchanim ojjicinarum. Sugar is supposed to have been known to the 
 
546 THE WOHLD*S TROGRESS. [ gUl 
 
 ancient Jev s. Found in the East Indies by Nearchiis, admiral of Alexander, 
 325 B. c. — Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance with Pompey used the 
 juice of the cane as a common beverage. — Lucan. The best sugar was 
 produced in India. — Pliny. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen. — 
 Encyclop. Brought into Europe from Asia, a. d. 625. In large quantities, 
 1150". It was attempted to be cultivated in Italy; but not succeeding, the 
 Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to America about 1^1^.— Robertson's 
 History of Charles F.* 
 
 SJGAR-REFINING. The art of refining sugar was made known to the Eu- 
 ropeans by a Venetian, a. d. 1503. It was first practised in England in 1G59, 
 though some authorities say that we had the art among us a few years 
 sooner. Sugar was first taxed by name, 1 James II., 1685. — Anderson; Mor- 
 timer. See Beet Root. 
 
 SUICIDE. The first instance of it (passing that of Samson) recorded in Jewish 
 history is that of Saul, 1055 b. c. — Apollodorus. The Greek and Roman 
 philosophers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from 
 the rest of the body. In the early part of the Roman history, the only in- 
 stance recorded occurs in the reign of Tarquin L, when the soldiers, think- 
 ing themselves disgraced by being ordered to make common sewers, des- 
 troyed themselves, 606 b. c. Instances afterwards occurred, however, of 
 illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 45 b. c. In the Catholic church, 
 in the sixth century, it was ordained that no commemoration should be 
 made in the Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This- ecclesias- 
 tical law continued till the Reformation, when it was admitted into the 
 statute law of England by the authority of parliament, with the confiscation 
 of land and goods. 
 
 A FEW OP THE MOST MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OP SUICIDE IN ENGLAND, &C. 
 
 Suicide of gen. Pichegru - April 7, 1804 
 Of marsharBerthier - - June 1, 1815 
 Of Samuel Whitbred, esq. - Sept. 6, 1815 
 Of sir Samuel Romilly - - Nov. 2, 1818 
 Of Christophe, king of Hayti Oct. 8, 1820 
 Of marquess of Londonderry Aug. 12, 1822 
 Of hon. colonel Stanhope - Jan. 26, 1825 
 
 There have been only three instances of self-destruction by fire ; that of 
 the philosopher Empedocles, who threw himself into the crater of Mount 
 Etna ; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threw himself, in 1820, 
 into the crater of Vesuvius ; and of an Englishman, who jumped into the 
 furnace of a forge about the year 1811. Plutarch relates that an unaccount- 
 able passion for su-'cide seized the Milesian virgins, from which they could 
 not be prevented by the tears and prayers of their friends; but a decree 
 being issued that the body of every young maid who did self-murder should 
 be drawn naked through the streets, a stop was soon put to the extraordi- 
 nary frenzy. In England, the body was buried in cross-roads, a stake being 
 previously driven through it, until the statute 4 George IV., 1823. 
 SULTAN. A Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifying king of kings, and 
 given to the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the 
 Turkish princes Angrolipex and Musgad, about a. d. 1055. — Vattier. It 
 
 * About the year 1138 the sugar-cane was ti-ansported from Tripoli and Syria to Sicily, thoncc 
 jO Madsira, and finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at what date su^j^r 
 was introduced into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. 
 Whittaker, in the History of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an earlier instance, in 1497. A manuscript 
 letter, from sir Edward Wotton to lord Cobham, dated Calais, 6t.h March, 1546, advertises him that 
 Fir Edward had taken up for his lordsliip, 25 sugar loaves at six shillings a loaf, " whiche is eighte 
 1 )enco a pouiide." In 1810, the imports of sugar into the United Kingdom were nearly 5,000,000 cwts., 
 «-f which nearly four millions were for home consumption; and the duty amounted to about five 
 lain ion.') and a half sterling. 
 
 Of Mr. Simpson, the traveller July 24, 1840 
 Of lord James Beresford • April 27, 1841 
 Of the earl of Munsver - March 20, 1842 
 Of Laman Blanchard • - Feb. 25j 1845 
 Of col. Gurwood - - Dec. 29, 1845 
 Of Haydon, the eminent painter 
 
 June 22, 1845 
 
E"? ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 547 
 
 was first given, according to others, to the emperor Mahmoud, in the fourth 
 century of the Hegira. 
 
 SUMMATRA, Island of. The Malays at Qualla Battoo having committee 
 piracies on American vessels, tlie town was destroyed by the United States 
 frigate Potomac, and 150 Malays killed, Feb. 6, 1832. 
 
 SUMPTUARY LAWS. Laws to restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c. 
 Those of Zaleucus ordained that no woman should go attended by more 
 than one maid in the street unless she were drunk ; and that she should 
 not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless she designed to act unchastely, 
 450 B. c. — Diog. Laert. This law checked luxury. The Lex Orchia among 
 the Romans limited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the 
 dishes at an entertainment ; and it also enforced that during supper, which 
 was the chief meal among the Romans, the doors of every house should be 
 left open. The English sumptuary laws were chiefly in the reigns of Ea- 
 ward III. and Henry VIII, See Dress, Luxury, &c. 
 
 SUN. Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve spheres, about 
 529 B. c. The relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated 
 geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the stability of the sun, 
 about 280 b. c. Numerous theories were ventured during fifteen centuries, 
 and astronomy lay neglected until about a. d. 1200, when it was brought 
 into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain. The Copernican system 
 was made known in 1530. See Copernican System and Solar System. Ga- 
 lileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. Maculas 
 were first discovered byChr. Scheiner, 1611. Transit of Mercury observed 
 by Gassendi. By the observations of Dr. Halley on a spot which darkened 
 the sun's disk in July and August, 1676, he established the certainty of its 
 motion round its own axis. Parallax of the sun. Dr. Halley, 1702. A mar 
 cula, three times the size of the earth, passed the sim's centre, April 21, 
 1766, and frequently since. Herschel measured two spots whose length 
 taken together exceeded 50,000 miles, April 19, 1779. 
 
 SUN-DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 b. c— Pliny, 1, 2. The first 
 erected at Rome was that by Papirius Cursor, when the time was divided 
 into hours, 293 b. g. Sun-dials were first set up in churches, a. d. 618.— 
 Abbe Lenglet. 
 
 SUNDAY, OR LORD'S D-\Y. Sunday was the day on which, anciently, di- 
 vine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among Christians it is called the 
 Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's rising from the dead on that 
 day, which, according to the Jewish account, was the next day after the 
 sabbath. The apostles transferred that religious rest observed by the Jews 
 on the sabbath to this day. The first civil law for its proper observance 
 was made by Constantino, a. d. 321. — Eusebius. The council of Orleans 
 prohibited country labor, 338. The Book of Innocent Sundanj Sports, au- 
 thorizing certain sports and pastimes after divine service on Sundays, pub- 
 lished in England 14 James I. in 1617, was violently opposed by the clergy 
 and puritans. Its sanction by the unfortunate Charles I. was a primary 
 cause of the civil war which ended in his death. This book was burnt by 
 the hangman, and the sports suppressed by order of parliament. — Rapin. 
 Sunday schools were established in England first by Mr. Raikes in 1780. 
 Act of parliament closing all the post-offices on Sunday passed May 1850. 
 
 SUPREMACY OVER the CHURCH. The supremacy of the king over the 
 ..hurch as well as sovereignty over the state, whereby the king was made 
 head of the church of England, was established in 1534, when Henry VHI. 
 shook off the yoke of Rome, and settled the supremacy in himself Out 
 kings have from that time had the title of supreme head of the church con- 
 ferred upon theuL by parliament. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and 
 
548 
 
 THE world's rUOGRESS. 
 
 SWE 
 
 tliG ex-lord chancellor (sir Thomas More) were, among numerous others, 
 beheaded for denying the king's supremacy, 1535, — Haydn. 
 
 SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made 
 a separate study from philosophy, &c., about 410 b. c. Hippocrates mentions 
 the avibe, the ancient instrument with which they reduced dislocated bones. 
 Celsus flourished about a. d. 17 ; Galen, 170 ; ^tius, 500 ; Paulus ^gineta 
 in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about 900 ; and in the 16th century 
 sprung up a new era in the science ; between these periods surgery was 
 conflned to ignorant priests or barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the 
 illustrious Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 1538. In England 
 surgeons and doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving on juries, 
 1513, at which period there were only thirteen in London. 
 
 SURGEONS, College of. The first charter for surgeons was* granted by Hen- 
 ry VIII., 1540. Formerly barbers and surgeons were united, until it was 
 enacted that "no person using any shaving or barbery in London shall 
 occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, excepting only the 
 drawing of teeth." The surgeons obtained another charter in 1745 ; and 
 a new charter in 1800. 
 
 SURPLICES. First worn by the Pagan priests. First used in churches, a. d, 
 316, and generally introduced by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister saying 
 public prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves, Can. 58. The 
 garb prescribed by Stat. 2 Edward VI., 1547 ; and again 1 Elizabeth, 1558 ; 
 and 13 and 14 Charles H., 1662. 
 
 SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The greatest and oldest in the world is in China, 
 near King-tung ; it is formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from 
 rocks to rocks, are also of Chinese origin. In these realms chain suspen- 
 sion bridges are of recent construction. The bridge over the Menai Strait 
 is the most surprising work, every way considered, of modern times. 
 
 SUTTEES, OR THE BURNING of WIDOWS. This custom began in India from 
 one of the wives of " Bramah, the son of God," sacrificing herself at his 
 death, that she might attend him in heaven. So many as seventeen widows 
 have burned themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone, 
 700 have thtis perished, until lately, in each year. Mr. Holwell was present 
 at many of these sacrifices. On February 4, 1743, he saw a young and 
 beautiful creature, only seventeen years of age, the mother of two children, 
 thus sacrifice herself, with a fortitude ?.nd courage that astonished every 
 witness of the scene. — Holwell. The English government in India have dis- 
 couraged these s.lf-immolations, while yet avoiding any undue interference 
 with the religion and prejudices of the natives. Suttees were abolished by 
 English colonial law, Dec. 7, 1829 ; but they have since occasionally, though 
 rarely, taken place. 
 
 SWEARING ON THE GOSPEL. First used a. n 528. Introduced in judicial 
 proceedings about 600. — Rapin. Frofane Swearing made punishable by 
 fine ; a laborer or servant forfeiting Is., others 2^. for the first offence ; for 
 the second offence, 4s. ; the third offence, 65. ; 6 William III., 1695. See 
 Oaths. 
 
 SWEDEN. The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modern inhabi- 
 tants of Finland, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory 
 on the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been 
 masters of the country. 
 
 Gylf reigns in Sweden - - - b.c. 
 
 ©uiiiig this reign, Odin, surnamed the 
 
 Divine, at the head of a swarm ol 
 
 57 
 
 barbarians, falls upon the Nort^ ■>. 
 Europe, making vasts conqucsi« 
 
s-.VE ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 649 
 
 SWEr>EN, co7itinucd. 
 
 Ynge, founder of the family of ihe Yn- 
 lingars, reigns - - - B.C. 32 
 
 [The" early history of the kingdom is 
 altogether involved in fables and ob- 
 scurity.] 
 
 * * « * « V 
 
 Olif the Infant is baptized, and intro- 
 duces Christianity among his people, 
 about - - - - AD. 1000 
 
 Gothland, so celebrated for its warlike 
 people and invasions of other coun- 
 tries, is annexed to Sweden - - 1132 
 Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Ru- 
 
 gen, and destroys the Pagan temples 1168 
 Stockholm founded - - - 1260 
 
 Magnus Ladelus establishes a regular 
 
 form of government - - - 1279 
 
 The crown of Sweden, which had been 
 hereditary, is made eleciive ; and 
 Steenchel Magnus, surnamed Smeek, 
 or the Foolish, king of Norway, is 
 
 elected 1318 
 
 Waldemar lays Gothland waste - - 1361 
 
 The crown made elective - - 1320 
 
 Albert of Mecklenburg reigns - -1365 
 
 Sweden united to the crown of Denmark 
 
 and Norway, under Margaret - 1394 
 University of Upsal founded - -1476 
 Christian II., " the Nero of the North," 
 massacres all the Swedish nobility, to 
 fix his despotism - - - 1520 
 
 The Swedes delivered from the Danish 
 
 yoke by the valor of Gustavus Vasa 1523 
 He makes the crown hereditary, and 
 
 introduces the refoi-med religion - 1544 
 The titles of ;ount and baron introduced 
 
 by Eric XIV. .... 1561 
 The conquests of Gustavus Adolphus, 
 
 between 1612 and - - - 1617 
 
 He is slain at Lutzen - - - 1633 
 
 Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark - 1648 
 Abdication of Christina - - -1654 
 
 Charles X. overruns Poland - - 1657 
 
 Arts and sciences begin to flourish - 1660 
 Charles XII., " the madman of the 
 
 North," begins his reign - - 1699 
 
 He makes himself absolute abolishes 
 the senate - - . « « * * 
 
 KINGS OF 
 
 ft. *' 825 Regnard Lobrock. 
 * * ' Reigns uncertain.] 
 
 966 Eric, the Victor. 
 
 994 Oiaf, or Olif Sckotkong. 
 1026 Edmund Jacobson. 
 1035 Edmund, or Amand III. 
 1041 Haquin. 
 
 10.56 Stenkell, or Steenchel. 
 1060 Ingo I. ; assassinated by his brother. 
 1064 Ilalstan. 
 J 080 Philip. 
 
 1100 Ingo II. ; died in a monastery. 
 11-30 Ragwald; murdered by the Visigoths. 
 1 1 .33 Magnus I. ; assassinated in Scania. 
 1144 Suercherll. 
 
 11.50 EricX. ; beheaded by rebels. 
 1162 Charles VII.; made prisoner by Ca- 
 nute, who reigns. 
 1168 Canute, son of Eric X. 
 1192 Suercher III., son of Charles; killed in 
 
 battle. 
 1211 Eric XL 
 1220 John I. 
 
 Battle of Pultowa, where Chailia is 
 defeated by the czar of Rissia. See 
 Pultowa - - - A.D. 170S 
 
 He escapes to Bender, where after three 
 years' protection, he is made prison- 
 er by the Turks - - - 1713 
 
 He is restored ; and after ruinous wars, 
 and fighting numei-ous battles, he is 
 at length killed at the siege of Frede- 
 rickshall - - - Dec. 11, 1718 
 
 Queen Ulrica Eleanor abolishes despot- 
 iv, government - - - - 1719 
 
 Royal Academy founded by Linne, af- 
 terwards called Linneeus - - 1741 
 
 Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Home, 
 who are beheaded - - - 1756 
 
 Despotism re-established • - 1772 
 
 Order of the Sword instituted - - 1772 
 
 Assassination of Gustavus III. by ount 
 Ankerstrom, at a ball, March 16 : he 
 expired the 29 th - - - 1792 
 
 The regicide was dreadfully scourged 
 with whips of iron thongs three suc- 
 cessive days ; his right hand was cut 
 off, then his head, and his body im- 
 paled - - - May IS, 1792 
 
 Gustavus IV. dethroned, and the go- 
 vernment assumed by his uncle, the 
 duke of Sudermania - March 13, 1809 
 
 Sweden cedes Finland to the czar of 
 Russia - - - Sept. 17, 1809 
 
 Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte 
 Corvo, is chosen the crown prince of 
 Sweden - - Aug. 21, 1810 
 
 Gustavus IV. arrived in London, 
 
 Nov. 12, 1810 
 
 Swedish Pomerania seized by Napo- 
 leon Bonaparte - - Jan. 9, 1812 
 
 Alliance with England - July 12, 1812 
 
 Sweden joins the grand alliance against 
 Napoleon - - March 13, 1813 
 
 Norway is ceded to Sweden by the trea- 
 ty of Kiel - - Jan. 14, 1814 
 
 Bernadotte ascends the throne of Swe- 
 den as Charles John XIV. - Feb. 5, 181S 
 
 Treaty of navigation between Great 
 Britain and Sweden - May 19, 1826 
 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 1223 Eric XII. 
 
 1250 Vi^aldemar. 
 
 1276 Magnus II. 
 
 1290 Birger II. 
 
 1318 Magnus III. ; dethroned by his subject* 
 
 1365 Albert. 
 
 1.397 Margaret. 
 
 1411 Eric XIII. ; abdicated. 
 
 1441 Christopher. 
 
 1448 Charles VIII. 
 
 1458 Christian I. 
 
 1497 John II. 
 
 1520 Christian II. 
 
 1528 Gustavus I., Vasa. 
 
 1556 Eric XIV. ; died in prison, 
 
 1569 John III. 
 
 1592 Sigismond I., kin^ i.i Poland 
 
 1606 Charles IX. 
 
 1611 Gustavus Adolphus II. 
 
 1632 Christina; resigned hev crown to 
 
 1654 Charles X., Gustavus duke of Deux- 
 
 Ponts. 
 1660 Charles XL 
 
650 
 
 THE WOULD S rROGIlESS. 
 
 i_ awtt 
 
 1771 GustavusIII., Adolphus. 
 
 1792 Gustavus Adolphus IV. 
 
 1SU9 Cliarles XIII. 
 
 1818 Charles John XIV., Beruailotte, Feb, S 
 
 1814 0.scar, his son, March 8. 
 
 SWEDEN, continued. 
 
 1699 Charles XII.; killed at the siege of 
 
 Frederickshall. 
 1718 Ulrica Eleaiiora ; resigned when her 
 
 husband was elected. 
 1720 Frederick, landgrave of Ilesse-Cassel. 
 1751 Adolphus Frederick, duke of Holstein. 
 
 SWEDENBORGIANS. A sect of mystics, so called from the learned but ec- 
 centric Emanuel Swedenborg, a Swedish nobleman. He considered the Nev 
 Jei'usaleni, foretold in the Apocalypse, to be a church now about to be es- 
 tablished, in which will be known the true nature of God and of man. of 
 the Word, of heaven and of hell — concerning all which subjects error and 
 ignorance now prevail, and in which churcli this knowledge will bear its 
 proper fruits — love to the Lord and to one's neighbor, and purit}^ of life. 
 His first work on theology was published in 1743 ; his sect rose about 1760, 
 but it did not spread in England until 1782. His doctrines have a conside- 
 rable number of respectable advocates in the United States. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. The ancient Helvetians were a Gaulish people, conquered 
 by Julius Ctesar, and afterwards subject to the Burgundians and Germans. 
 Many Franks also settled here in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz 
 was peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving their original habitation in 
 Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman general Marius ; 
 after which they fled into Helvetia, about 100 b. c. This canton has given 
 name to the whole confederacy. 
 
 612 
 
 909 
 1032 
 1179 
 
 1306 
 
 The Helvetian; converted to Cliristian- 
 ity by Irish missionaries - a. d. 
 Helvetia ravaged by the Huns - 
 Becomes subject to Germany 
 Fribourg built by Berthold IV. - 
 Tyranny of Geszler, which occasions 
 tlie memorable revolt under the pa- 
 triot William Tell. 
 Swiss independence - Nov. 7, 1307 
 
 A malignant fever carries off, in the can- 
 ton of Basle, 11,000 souls - -1314 
 Form of government made perpetual - 1315 
 Lucerne joins the confederacy - - 1335 
 The canton of Zurich joms, and be- 
 comes head of the league - - 1-350 
 Berne, Glaris, and Zug join - - 1351 
 The Grisons league (see Caddee) - 1400 
 Second league of the Grisons - - 1424 
 The third league of the Grisons - 14S6 
 Swiss soldiers first enter into tlie pay 
 
 of France, under Louis XI. - - 1480 
 
 Union of Fribourg and Soleure - 1481 
 
 Maximilian I. emperor, acnowledges 
 
 Swiss independence - - - 1499 
 
 Schaffhausen joins the union - - 1501 
 The Swiss confederacy acknowledged 
 
 by France and other powers ~ - 1516 
 Tire Reformation begins at Basle ; tlie 
 
 bisliop compelled to retire ■ - 1519 
 
 Tlic Grison leagues join the Swiss ,on- 
 
 federacy as allies - - - 1544 
 
 Appenzel joins the other cantons • 1597 
 Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts 
 Geneva by surprise, scales the walls, 
 and penetrates the town ; but in the 
 end is defeated - - - 1602 
 
 [This circumstance gives rise to an an- 
 nual festival commemorative of their 
 escape from tyranny.] 
 
 Independence of Switzerland recognized 
 by the treaty of Westphalia (see 
 Westphalia, Peace of) - a. d. 1648 
 
 [From this period until the French Re- 
 volution the canton enjoyed tranquil- 
 lity, disturbed only by the changes 
 arising out of their various constitu- 
 tions.] 
 
 Alliance with France - May 25, 1777 
 
 Domestic strife in Geneva, between the 
 aristocratic and democratic parties; 
 France interferes - - - 1781 
 
 1000 fugitive Genevans seek an asylum 
 in Ireland (see Ge?ieva) - - 1782 
 
 Swiss guards ordered to quit France - 1792 
 
 Helvetic confederation dissolved ; its 
 subjugation by France - - 1798 
 
 The number of cantons increased to 19 ; 
 the federal government restored ; and 
 a landamman appointed by France, 
 
 May 12, 1802 
 
 Uri, Schweitz, and Underwald separate 
 from the republic - July 13, 1.802 
 
 Switzerland joins France with 6,000 
 men - - - Aug. 24, 1811 
 
 The Allies entered Switzerland in the 
 spring of 1814. The number of can- 
 tons increased to 22, and the indepen- 
 dence of Switzerland secured by the 
 treaty of Vienna - - - 1815 
 
 Federal diet opened - Oct. 16, 1847 
 
 — passes resolves against the Sonder- 
 bund, and troops of Uri attack canton 
 Tessino - - Nov. 4, 1847 
 
 Forces of the diet attack Friburg, Nov 
 10, and take Lucerne - Nov. 24. 1847 
 
 Neufchatel declares independence, 
 
 Feb. 29, 1818 
 
 SWORDS'. They were formed of iron taken from a mountain by the Chinese, 
 1S79 B. c. — ilniv. Hist. The sword is one of the earliest implements 
 
»YR ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 551 
 
 of wai The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inches long. The broad- 
 sword and scimitar are of modern adoption. The sword of state carried at 
 an English king's coronation by a king of Scotland, 1194. Damascus steel 
 swords are the most prized ; and next, the sword of Ferrara steel, Tho 
 Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter from a celebrated 
 artificer, named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their Andrew 
 Ferraras. The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in 
 5724. 
 
 SYCAMORE-TREE. This tree is called by some the Egyptian Fig-tree. The 
 date of its being planted in England is not known, but it was A'ery early. 
 In Mrs. Jamieson's Memoirs of Female Sovereigns, we are told that Maj-y 
 queen of Scots brought over from France a little sycamore-tree, which she 
 planted in the gardens of Holyrood, and that from this little tree have- 
 sprung all the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. 
 
 SYDNEY, New South Wales. Founded bj^ governor Philip, on a cove of Port 
 Jackson, in 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally 
 intended for Botany Bay ; but now the principal seat of the government of 
 the colony. It was denominated Sydney in compliment to lord Sydney. 
 The town is now becoming considerable in extent and population ; and it 
 has a legislative council, v/hich was tirst held July 13, 1829. See New ii^oulh 
 Wales; Convicts, (f-c. 
 
 SYNAGOGUE. Authors are not agreed as to the time v/hen the Jews first had 
 synagogues. Some refer it to the time of the ceremonial law, and others 
 to the times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 480 syna- 
 gogues. There are in London six synagogues. 
 
 SYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by 
 Christian princes; but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his 
 legates usually presiding (see Councils). National, were those of one nation 
 only. The first of this kind held in England was at Hertford, a. d. 673 : the 
 last was held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but 
 by royal authority, 25 Henry VIIL, 1533. 
 
 i5YN0D OF DORT, The famous, or general assembly of Dort in Holland, to 
 which deputies were sent from England and all the reformed churches in 
 Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, 
 and Arminius, principally upon the points of justification and grace, 1618. 
 —Aitzevia. 
 
 SYRACUSE. Founded by Archias, 732 b. c. — Eusebius. 749 b. c. — Univ. Hist. 
 Taken by Marcellus, when Archimedes, the illustrious mathematician, was 
 slain, 212 b. c. (see SicUy). S^-racuse was destroyed by an earthquake, with 
 -lany thousands of its inhabitants, January 1693. Again nearly destroyed, 
 Aug. 6, 1757. 
 
 SYRIA. Of the early history of ancient Syria, a few particulars are gleaned 
 frcm Scripture ; and it otherwise affords nothing peculiar, being involved 
 in the histories of the Assj^rian, Babylonian, and Persian empires {vj.vich 
 see). The capital of Syria was originally Damascus ; but after the battle 
 of Ipsus, Seleucus (the chief of the Seleucidae) founded the celebrated city 
 of Antioch. 
 
 Seleucus, suniamed Nicator, i. e. Con- 
 queror, enters Babylon - - B.C. 312 
 
 .^ra of the Seleucidoe {ichich see) - 312 
 
 Great Battle of Ipsus, defeat and death 
 of Antigonus - - - - 301 
 
 City of Antioch foundiid - - 299 
 
 Antiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in. 
 love with his fathers' queen, Straton- 
 ice, he pines away nearly to death ; 
 but the secret being discovered, she 
 is divorced by the father and mavrier, 
 by tiie son.' - - - pp. 
 
 291 
 
 * This is related as one of the most strange events connected with the early history of pnysic. 
 Erasistratus, the illustrious lather of anatomy (jointly with Ilerophilus), had observed, than when 
 
552 
 
 THE world's TROGKESS. 
 
 [STK 
 
 SYRIA, contimied. 
 
 Battle of Cyrop23dion - -B.C. 
 
 Seleucus is ibully assassinated b}' Ce- 
 raunuLJ. — Lcnglet. 
 
 Artiochus defeats the Gauls, and takes 
 the name of Soter, or Saviour 
 
 Reign of Aniiochus II., surnamedby the 
 Milesians Theos, or God ! 
 
 Se.leucus II. makes a treaty of alliance 
 with S'nyma and Magnesia* - 
 
 Keign of SJeleucus III., surnamed Ce 
 raunus, or Thunder - 
 
 Battle of Raphia, in which Antiochus 
 ill. is signally defeated 
 
 Antiochus' conquest of Judea - 
 
 V^'ar with the Romans begins - 
 
 Rcign of Antiochus IV., who assumes 
 the title of Theos- Epiphanes, or the 
 Illustiious God ! - - - 
 
 He sends Appolonius into Judea; Jeru- 
 salem is taken; the temple pillaged; 
 40,000 inhabitants destroyed ; and 
 40.000 more sold as slaves 
 
 Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son 
 Seleucus with her own hand 
 
 Reign of her son Antiochus Grypus, 
 whom she attempts to poison ; but he 
 compels his mother to swallow the 
 deadly draught herself 
 
 Reign of Cyzicenus at Damascus, and 
 of Grypus at Antioch 
 
 Defeat of Tigranes by Pompey, who en- 
 ters Syria, and dethrones Antiochus 
 Asiatichus, about 
 
 281 
 
 280 
 
 275 
 
 261 
 
 243 
 
 - ^6 
 
 217 
 204 
 192 
 
 175 
 
 170 
 
 124 
 
 123 
 111 
 
 65 
 
 Conquest of Syria - - a.d. 970 
 
 [This conquest is made by the Fatimite 
 
 caliplis who rule in Egypt.] 
 Revolt of the emirs of Damascus - 10G7 
 The emirs of Aleppo revolt - - 1068 
 
 The Crusailes from Europe commence 
 
 (see article Crusades) - - 1095 
 
 [The Christians ultimately conquer that 
 
 part of Syria called the Holy Land. — 
 
 See Jerusalem] 
 
 Noureddin conquers Syria - a.d. 116(1 
 Saladin puts an end to the power ot the 
 
 Fatiraue dynasty - - - 1171 
 
 The Tartars "overrun all Syria - - 125? 
 
 Recovered by the sultans of Egypt, who 
 
 expel the Crusaders - - - 1291 
 
 Syria overrun by Tamerlane - - 140(1 
 
 Conquered by the Turks under Selim - 1517 
 
 After the conquest by Selim, Syria con- 
 tinued m possession of the Turks till 
 the invasion of Egypt by the French. 
 
 July i, 179a 
 
 Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes with 
 great loss - - - Aug. 6, 1798 
 
 He overruns the country, and takesGa- 
 za and Jaffa - . - . 179^ 
 
 Siege of Acre - March 6 to May 27, ITJ'J 
 
 Bonaparte returns to France from E- 
 gypt - - . . Aug. 23, 1799 
 
 Egypt is evacuated by the French army 
 
 Sept. 10, 1801 
 
 Mehemet Ali attacks and captures A "re, 
 and overruns the whole of Syria, i83i-32 
 
 Ibraham Facha, his son, defeats the ar- 
 my of the grand signior - July 30, 1832 
 
 [Numerous battles and conflicts follow 
 with various success] 
 
 Ibrahim Pacha defeats the Turkish ai-- 
 my, making 10,000 prisoners, June 25, 1839 
 
 The Turkish fleet arrives at Alexandria 
 and places itself at the disposal of 
 Mehemet Ali - - - July 14, 1839 
 
 The Five Powers propose to the Porte 
 to negotiate with Mehemet Ali, July 
 
 16, 1839 
 
 Death of the celebrated lady Hester 
 Stanhope - - - June 23, 1840 
 
 Treaty of London (not signed by offend- 
 ed France) - - July 15, 1840 
 
 Capture of Sidon • Sept. 27, 1S40 
 
 Fall of Beyrout (see Beyrout) Oct. 10 1840 
 
 Fall of Acre (see Acre) • Nov. 3, 1840 
 
 After much expostulation with the sultan, the four powers, England, Aus- 
 tria, Russia, and Prussia, prevail upon him to make the pr,chalic of Egypt 
 hereditary "n the family of Mehemet Ali, who surrenders to the Turkish 
 fleet, and whose troops evacuate Syria. A treaty to that eflfect signed at 
 London, between the representatives of those powers, July 13, 1841. This 
 result conciliates France, and promises peace in the East, and its C( otinu- 
 ance among the great powers of Europe. 
 
 ever the queen appeared, the young prince her stepson blushed, a tremor overspread his frama, 
 his pulse quickened, and his voice ^rew weak. She v/as of his own age, and of exceeding beauty. 
 On discovering the true cause of his patient's disorder, Erasistratus adopted an expedient which 
 was the foundation of his great fame. He informed the king that his heir must die, as he languished 
 under a hopeless passion. "Who," asked Seleucus, ■' is the object of his love?" ^^My tcife," 
 •T iswered the physician. "Then resign her to him," said the king. "But if," said Erasistratus 
 " ii were \\\equeen he loved, would you, Seleucus, yield up the idol of your afl^ections to another?' 
 " Yes,-' replied Seleucus, " I would readily relinquish both my queen and kingdom to savt 
 my son's life." "Then be at ease," Erasistratus rejoined, "for the object of his love is Stra 
 t'sriicc!" — Biog. Diet. 
 
 ' This treaty was engraved on a marble column, now in the court of the Theatre of Osibri I- 
 war, presented to Oxford by the earl of Arunde' in the reign of Charles II. 
 
rail] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 553 
 
 TAHrj'J. The I rench, or abbreviated name for Otaheite. See Olaheiie. 
 
 TALAVERA, Battle of, between the united British and Spanish armies undei 
 sir Arthur Wellesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and the French 
 army, amounting to 47,000, commanded by marslials Victor and Sebastiani, 
 July 27 and 28, 1809. 
 
 7 ALMUD. There are two books of the doctrine of the religion and morality 
 of the Jews, — the Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. Th« 
 one composed by the Rabbi Juda Hakkadosh, about the close of the second 
 century; the second, being commentaries, &c., by succeeding rabbis, were- 
 collected by Ben Eliezer, about the sixth century. Abridged by Maimoo- 
 ides in the twelfth century. 
 
 7 AMERLANE. The conqueror of Persia, India and Egypt, and plunderer of 
 Bagdad, Delhi, and Cairo. He subdued the renowned warrior Bajazet, sul- 
 tan of the Turks, whom he exposed in a large iron cage, the fate the latter 
 had destined for his adversary if he had been the victor. Bajazet dashed 
 his head against the bars of this prison, and killed himself, 1408. — Ckalcon- 
 dila's Hist. Turk. 
 
 TANNING. Was early practised by various nations. The use of tan was in- 
 troduced into these countries from Holland by William III. for raising 
 orange-trees. It was discontinued until about 1719. when ananas were first 
 brought into England. Since then, tan has been in general use in garden- 
 ing. Great improvements were made in tanning in 1795, et seq. 
 
 TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence 
 its original workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of 
 tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands. 
 — Guicciardiiii. Manufactured in France under Henry IV., by artists in- 
 vited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by William 
 Sheldon ; and the first manufactory of it was estabhshed at Mortlake by sir 
 Francis Crane, 17 James I., \%19.— Salmon. Under Louis XIV. the art of 
 tapestry was much improved in France. See Gobelin Tapestry. Very early 
 instances of making tapestry are mentioned by the ancient poets, and also 
 in Scripture ; so that the Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. For 
 the tapestry wrought by Matilda of England, see Bayeux Tapestry. 
 
 TARENTUM, War of. The war which the people of Tarentum suppoited 
 against the Romans, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and which is 
 greatly celebrated in history. This war, which had been undertaken b. g 
 281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults the Tarentines had offered to their 
 ships when near their harbors, was terminated after ten years ; 300,000 pri- 
 soners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome. 
 
 TARTARY. This name is given to several nations of the East. The Tartar 
 race was known and celebrated in antiquity under the name of Scythians. 
 It was during the decline of the Roman empire that these tribes began per- 
 manently to forsake their own plains, in search of more fertile regions ; and 
 the first of these ravagers whose terror and fame reached the frontier of 
 Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern race of Mongols. The 
 .first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous Jenghia 
 Khan, a, d. 1206. His empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all 
 Central Asia, became one of the most formidable ever established ; but it 
 was split into parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered 
 Persia, again broke the power of the Turks in Asia Minor, 1402, and 
 founded a dynasty in India, which formed the most splendid court in Asia, 
 till the close of the eighteenth century. 
 TAVERNS. In England, were places of entertainment, under various namea^ 
 
 24 
 
654 THE world's progress. [tea 
 
 in ancient times. Taverns, as so called, may be traced to tlie IStli century. 
 " In the raigne of king- Edward the Third only three taverns Avere allowed 
 in London : one in Chepe, one in Walbroke, and the other in Lombard- 
 street." — Sir Henry Spelman. The Boar's Head^ in Eastcheap, existed in 
 the reign of Henry IV., and was the rendezvons of prince Henry and his 
 dissolute companions. Shakspeare mentions it as the residence of Mrs. 
 Quickly, and the scene of sir John Falstafi''s merriment. — Sliakspearej 
 Henry IV. Of little less antiquity is the W7w/!e ^«rf, Bishopsgate, estab- 
 lished in 1480 : this house was rebuilt in 1829. Taverns were restrained by 
 an act of Edward \I., 1652, to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 
 in Westminster, 6 in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in 
 Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 3 in Hereford, 3 in 
 Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester, 
 3 in Oxford, 4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
 Taverns were licensed in 1752, 
 
 TAXES. The first levied on the people was by Solon, the first Athenian legis- 
 lator, 540 B. c. The first class of citizens paid an Attic talent of silver, 
 about 55Z. English money. The next Avas by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, 
 which was a land-tax by assessment, and deemed so odious that his subjects 
 styled him, by way of derision, Darius the Trader, 480 b. c. — D'Eon's His- 
 toire dcs Finances. Taxes in specie were first introduced into England by 
 William I., 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily; yet subsidies in kind, as 
 in wool, corn, leather, and other products of the country, continued till 
 the accession of Richard II., 1377. — Camden. First taxation of the British 
 colonies in America, 1764 ; produced active resistance, 1765 ; stamp act 
 repealed, 1766: re-enacted 1767. See Income, Revenue. Cost of Govern- 
 ment, &c. 
 
 TE DEUM. A kind of hymn or song of thanksgiving used in the churchy 
 beginning with the words Te Deum laudamus — We praise thee. O God. It 
 is generally supposed to be the composition of Augustin and Ambrose, 
 about A. D. 390 ; and is sung in the Romish church with extraordinary pomp 
 and solemnity on some happy event, such as a national thanksgiving for a 
 great victory or for a bounteous harvest. 
 
 TEA. First known in Europe, being brought from India by the Dutch, 1610. 
 Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and lord Arlington, from 
 Holland ; and being admired by persons of rank, it was imported from 
 thence, and generally sold for GO shillings per pound, till our East India 
 Company took up the trade. — And-erson'. Green tea began to be used in 1715 
 The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767. This tax occasioned the de- 
 struction of 17 chests at New York, and 340 at Boston, November 1773, 
 and was one of the causes of the Revolutionary war. 
 
 TEAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND OR CHARGED WITH DUTY IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 
 
 1726. - lbs. 700,000 I 1805. - lbs. 24,133,000 | 1825. - lbs. 27.803,663 
 I --- — ^ggg_ _ _ 30,544,40^ 
 
 1835. - - 44,360,550 
 
 1840. . - 38,068,555 
 
 1766. - - 7,000,000 1810. - - 25,414,000 
 1792. • - 13,185,000 1815. - - 26,368,000 
 
 1800. - - 23,723,000 | 1820. - - 25,662,474 
 
 In England, the duty derived on tea is now about 4,000,OOOZ, annually. 
 Millions of pounds weight of sloe, liquorice, and ash-tree leaves, are every 
 year mixed with Chinese teas in England. — Report of the House of Commons, 
 1818. The consumption of the whole civilized world, exclusively of Eng- 
 land, is about 22 000,000 of pounds, while the annual consumption in Great 
 Britain is 30 (iQQX)^^.— Evidence in the House of Commons, 1830. The first 
 tea-sale in London on the abolition of the exclusive privilege of the East 
 India Company, Aug. 19, 1834. The value of teas imported into the United 
 States for one year, ending Julv 1, 1847, was $4,278,463 ; while that of coffea 
 was SO, 102 872. 
 
TEM j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 055 
 
 TEA-TREE. Thea Bohea. Brought to England from China, abocit 1768. 
 The finest tea-plant known in England was raised in Kew Gardens ; but the 
 first that ever flourished in Europe was one belonging to the duke of Nor- 
 thumberland at Sion. 
 
 7'ELEGRAPHS. They were early in use. Polybius calls the different in- 
 struments used by the ancients for communicating information pyrs'^a, 
 because the signals were always made by fire. The most ingenious of the 
 moderns had not thought of such a machine as a telegraph until 1663, when 
 the plan was suggested by the marquis of Worcester. The first idea of a 
 telegraph on the modern construction was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684. 
 M. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs about 
 this period. It was not till 1793 that the instrument was applied to useful 
 purposes : M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French. 
 Two erected over the admiralty-office, London, 1796. The Semaphore was 
 erected there 1816. The naval signals, by telegraph, enable 400 previously- 
 concerted sentences to be transmitted from ship to ship, bv varying the 
 combinations of two revolving crosses; and also to spell any particular 
 words, letter by letter. See Electric THegraph. 
 
 TELESCOPES. This invention is noticed by Leonard Digges, about 1571. 
 Roger Bacon, about a. d. 1250, described telescopes and microscopes ex- 
 actly, and yet neither were made till one Metius, at Alkamaer, and Jansen, 
 of Middleburgh, made them about the same time ; the latter from an ac- 
 cidental discovery made by his children, 1590 — 1609. Galileo imitated 
 their invention by its description, and made three in succession, one of 
 which magnified a thousand times. With these he discovered Jupiter's 
 moons and the phases of Venus. Telescopes became very popular, and 
 v/ere improved by Zucchi, Huygens, Gregory, and Newton ; and finally by 
 Martin, Hall, Dolland, and Herschel. Achromatic telescopes were made by 
 More Hall, about 1723. A telescope was made in London for the observa- 
 tory of Madrid, which cost 11,000/. in 1802; but the Herschel telescope, 
 made 1789 — 1795, is superior : it has the great speculum 48 inches in dia- 
 meter, 3 J inches thick, weighs 2118 lbs., and magnifies 6400 times. See 
 Hcrs,chel Telescope. 
 
 TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. It is to the credit of the American people that 
 the first great public movement in behalf of temperance was made in this 
 country. Temperance societies began to be formed in 1825-6. One of the 
 most prominent of th(! first promoters of the reform was the Rev. Dr. Hewitt 
 of Connecticut, who was worthily styled the Apostle of Temperance. The 
 exertions of this and other energetic advocates of temperance and total 
 abstinence have effected a wonderful change for the better in the general 
 habits of the people. Several thousand temperance societies, under various 
 names, have been formed, and a large number of vessels now sail from 
 various ports of the United States, the crews of which are unsupplied with 
 spirituous liquors of any kind. The movement has spread to some extent 
 in Europe, but by far the most successful of its promoters has been the 
 Rev. Theobald Mathew, a Roman Catholic clergyman in Ireland, who has 
 administered the "total abstinence" pledge to about two millions of his 
 countrymen. He commenced his ministry in this cause in 1830. In Ger- 
 many there were 300 temperance societies in 1846. 
 
 TEJMPIiARS. The first military order of Knights Templars was founded in 
 A. D. 1118 by Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem. The temjilars were numerous 
 in several countries, and came to England in 1185. The order was sup- 
 pressed by the council of Vienna, and its revenues were bestowed upon 
 other orders in 1312. Numbers of the order were burnt alive and hanged, 
 and it suffered great persecutions throughout Europe, particularly in France 
 
556 THE world's progress. [ TE^f 
 
 In the reign of Philip of Valois, 1342. They were several times suppressed 
 in England, and finally in 1340. 
 
 TEMPLE, London. Thus called, because it was anciently the dwelling house 
 of the Knights Templars. At the suppression of that order, it was y;urchased 
 by the professors of the common law, and converted into inns. They are 
 called the Inner and Middle Temple. 
 
 TEMPLES. They originated in the sepulchres built for the dead. — Busebius. 
 The Egyptians were the first who erected temples to the gods. — Herodotus. 
 The first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. — Apollonius. For tem- 
 ple of Belus, see Babel. The temple of Jerusalem, built by Solomon, 1012 
 B. c. Fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Rebuilt, 536 b. c. Pillaged by 
 Antiochus, 170 b. c. Rebuilt by Herod, 18 b. c. Destroyed by Titus, a. d. 
 70. — The temple of Apollo, at Delphos, first a cottage with boughs, built 
 of stone by Trophorius, about 1200 b. c. Burnt by the Pisistratidre, 548 e.g. 
 A new temple raised by the family of the AlcniEeonidaa, about 513 b. c— 
 Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; planned by Ctesiphon, 544 
 B. c. Fired by Erostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 b. c. To rebuild it, 
 employed 220 years. Destroyed by the Goths, a. d. 260. — The Temple of 
 Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot where once a woman had fed w:ch 
 her milk her aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded 
 from all aliments. — Vol. Max. Temple of Theseus, built 480 years e.g., 
 is at this day the most perfect ancient edifice in the- world.— The heathen 
 temples were destroyed throughout the Rom^n empire by Constantine the 
 Great, a. d. 331. See Heathen Temples. 
 
 TENNESSEE. One of the United States ; was originally included in the char- 
 ter of North Carolina by Charles II. in 1664 ; first settlement on Wetanga 
 river, 1757 ; attacked, and 200 men, women, and children massacred by the 
 Indians in 1760 ; the Indians chastised next year, but continued frequent 
 contests with the colonists for several years. The territory ceded by North 
 Carolina to the United States in 1790 ; admitted into the Union as a State, 
 1796. Population in 1790, 35 691; in 1810, 261,727; in 1830, 681.904; in 
 1840, 829,210, including 183,059 slaves. 
 
 TEST ACT. The statute of Charles II., directing all officers, civil and mili- 
 tary, under government, to receive the sacrament according to the forms of 
 the Church of England, and to take the oaths against transubstantiation, 
 ifcc, was enacted March 1673 ; repealed, 1828. 
 
 TEUTONI, OR TEUTONES. A people of Germany, who with the Cimbri 
 made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies. They 
 were at last defeated by the consul Marius, and an infinite number made 
 prisoners, 101 b. g. See Cimbri. 
 
 TEUTONIC ORDER. The order of military knights estabhshed in the Holy 
 Land towards the close of the twelfth century. The institution arose in 
 the humanity of the Teutones to the sick and wounded of the Christian 
 array under the celebrated Guy of Lusignan when before Acre. The 
 order was confirmed by a bull of pope Cselestine III., a. d. 1191. See 
 Prussia, &c. 
 
 TEWKSBURY, Battle of, in which Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over 
 the Lancastrians. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI., and her son, 
 were taken prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, 
 where king Henry expired a few days after this fatal engagement ; being, 
 as is generally supposed, murdered by the duke of Gloucester, after- 
 wards Richard III. The queen was ransomed in 1475, by the French kmg, 
 Lewis XL, for 50,000 crowns. This was the last battle between the houses 
 of York and Lancaster, May 4, 1471. See Roses. 
 
the] dictionary of dates. 557 
 
 TEXAS. One of the United States ; first settled by the Spaniards at San Fran- 
 cisco in 1690 ; made one of the federal States of Mexico, in conjunction 
 with the adjacent State of Coahnila, on the formation of the Mexican re- 
 j)ublic — an unpopular Union to the Texans, and productive of the first dis- 
 agreement with the central government ; colonization of Texas by emigrant 
 from the United States, commenced 1821 ; war with Mexico for indepet 
 dence commenced 1833, and ended by the defeat and capture of the Mexican 
 president, Santa Anna, at San Jacinto, 21st April, 1836, which secured the 
 independence of Texas ; admitted into the Union as a State (the 28th), 
 after active opposition with reference to the exclusion of slavery, Feb. 20, 
 1845. Population at that time about 200,000. [The first treaty for its an« 
 nexation was rejected by the United States Senate, 35 to IG, June 8, 1844.] 
 
 THAMES TUNNEL. Projected by Mr, Brunei, to form a communication 
 between the two sides of the river, at Rotherhithe and Wapping, the most 
 extraordinary construction of ancient or modern times. The shaft was 
 begun in 1825. At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft the first irruption 
 took place. May 18, 1827. The second irruption, by which six workmen 
 perished, Jan. 12, 1828. The length of the tunnel is 1300 feet ; its width 
 is 35 feet; height, 20 feet ; clear width of each archway, including footpath, 
 about 14 feet ; thickness of earth beneath the crown of the tunnel and the 
 bed of the river, about 15 feet. The tunnel was opened throughout for foot 
 passengers, March 25, 1843. 
 
 THANE. A title much in use anciently, and which sometimes signified a 
 nobleman, sometimes a freeman, and sometimes a magistrate ; but most 
 properly, an officer under the king. The Saxons had a nobility called 
 thanes, and the Scots also. The title was abolished in England at the Con- 
 quest, upon the introduction of the feudal system. Abolished in Scotland 
 by king Malcolm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. 
 
 THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 b. c, was the 
 first erected. Marcellus' theatre at Rome was built about 80 b. c. Theatres 
 were afterwards numerous, and were erected in most cities of Italy, There 
 was a theatre at Pompeii where most of the inhabitants of the town were 
 assembled on the night of August 24, a. d. 79, when an eruption of Vesu- 
 vius covered Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into theatres, painted by 
 Balthazar Sienna, a, d. 1533. The first royal license for a theatre in England 
 was in 1574, to master Burbage and four others, servants of the earl of 
 Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, See Globe. But long before 
 that time, miracle plays were represented in the fields. The prices of ad- 
 mission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were, gallery, 2d. ; lords' room, Is. 
 — Dickens. The first play-bill was dated April 8, 1663, and issued frca 
 Drury-lane ; it runs thus : " By his Majestic, his company of Comedians at 
 the New Theatre in Drury Lane, will be acted a comedy called the Hwniov- 
 rovs Lievte7iant." After detailing the characters, it concludes thus : " The 
 play will begin at three o'clock exactly." Lincoln's-inn theatre was opened 
 in 1695. The first attempt at theatrical performances in the United States 
 was the acting of Otway's Orphan, in Boston, in 1750; but all such exhibi- 
 tions were immediately afterwards prohibited there. A strolling company 
 acted in a sail-loft in New York in 1758. The first regular theatre was in 
 New York in 1793 ; the second in Boston ; and the third in Philadelphia 
 soon after. Dunlap's History of the American Theatre was published in New 
 York, 1832. See Drama, Plays, &c. 
 
 niEBES. The ancient celebrated city of Thebais in Egypt, called also Heca- 
 tompylos, on account of its hundred gates, and Diospolis, as being sacred to 
 Jupiter. I'l the time of its splendor, it extended above twenty-three miles, 
 and upon s \j emergency could send into the field, by each of its hundred 
 
558 THE world's progress. [ TUB. 
 
 gates, 20 000 fighting men and 200 chariots. Thebes was ruined hy Cam, 
 byses. king of Persia, and few traces of it were seen in the age of Juvenal. 
 ■ — Plutarch. Also Tliebes, the capital of the country successiA'ely called 
 Aonia, Messapia. Ogygia, Hyantis, and Boeotia. See Boiotia. Thebes was 
 called Cadmeis, from Cadmus, the founder of the city. It rose to a cele- 
 brated republic, styled the Theban, about 820 b. c. It was dismantled by 
 the Romans, 145 b. c. — Lity ; Thucydidcs. 
 
 riTEFT. This offence was punished by heavy fines among the Jews. By death 
 at Athens, by the laws of Draco. See Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominal- 
 ly punished theft with death, if above \2d. value ; but the criminal could 
 redeem his life by a ransom. In the 9th of Henry I. this power of redemp- 
 tion was taken away, 1108. The laws against theft, until lately, were very 
 severe in England ; they were revised by Mr. (afterwards Sir Robert) Peel's: 
 acts, 9 and 10 George IV. 
 
 IHEISTS. The sect so called came in with the Restoration, about 1660. and 
 they taught a union with all men who believed in one God, but who reject- 
 ed public worship and exterior forms of religion. They maintained that 
 their religion was better because older and more simple than that which was 
 given by God to the Hebrews. 
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. The first in the United States was that at Ando- 
 ver, founded 1808. 
 
 THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to several 
 scientific person all about the same time. Ihvented by Drebbel of Alcmaer, 
 A. D. 1609. — Boerhaavc. Invented by Paulo Sarpi. 1609. — P'ldgentio. Invent- 
 ed by Sanctorio in 1610. — Borelli. Fahrenheit's thermometer was invented 
 about 1726 ; and the scale called Reaumur's soon after, 1730. The mode of 
 construction by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented some years 
 subsequently. 
 
 THERMOPYL^:, Battle of. Leonidas at the head of 300 Spartans, at the 
 defile of Thermopylae, withstands the whole force of the Persians during three 
 days, when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, perfidiously leading the enemy by a se- 
 cret path up the mountains, brings them to the rear of the Greeks, who, 
 thus placed between two assailants, devote themselves to the good of their 
 country, and perish gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. Of 300 
 heroes who engaged in this conflict with hundreds of thousands of the Per- 
 sians, one man only returned home, and he was received with reproaches and 
 insults for having fled from a battle in which his brave companions, with 
 their roj'al leader, had fallen. Twenty thousand Persians perished by the 
 hands of the Spartans, Aug. 7, 480 b. c.— -Vossius de GrcBc. Hist. 
 
 THESSALY. This country is much celebrated in classical history, as being 
 the seat of many of the adventures described by the poets. The first king 
 of whom we have any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion, from 
 whom his subjects were r'iilled Hellenists, a name afterwards extended to all 
 Greece. From Thessaly the most powerful tribes of Greece derived their 
 origin, as the Acha3ans, the ^tolians, the Dorians, the Hellenists, &c. The 
 two most remarkable events in the early history of this country, are the 
 deluge of Deucalion, 1503 b. c, and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263. 
 See them severally. 
 
 THRACE. So called from Thrax, the son of Mars. Conquered by Philip and 
 Alexander, and annexed to the Macedonian empire about 335 b. c. ; and it 
 so remained till the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 168 b. c. By- 
 zantium was the capital of Thrace, on the ruins of which Ccnstantinople 
 was built. The Turks took the country under Mahomet II., a. d 1453- - 
 PriedUy. 
 
TTM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 559 
 
 TilK ASHING -MACHINES. The flail was the only instrument formerly in u?e. 
 The Romans used a machine called the tribulum, a sledge loaded with stones 
 or iron, drawn over the corn-S"heaves by horses. The first machine attempted 
 in modern times was invented by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 
 1732 ; Miekles, in 1776. 
 
 THRASYMENUS, Battle of. A most bloody engagement between the Car- 
 thaginians under Hannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 b. c. No 
 less than 15,000 Romans were left dead on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken 
 prisoners ; or, according to Livy, 6000 ; or Polybius, 15,000. The loss of 
 Hannibal was about 1500 men. And about 10,000 Romans made their es- 
 cape, all covered with wounds. — Livy ; Polybius. 
 
 THUJNIB-SCREW. An inhuman instrument which was commonly used in the 
 first stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition. It was in use in England 
 also. The Rev. Wm. Carstairs was the last who suffered by it before the 
 privy council, to make him divulge secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly 
 resisted. After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was given him as a 
 present by the council King William expressed a desire to see it, and tried it 
 on. bidding the doctor to turn the screw ; but at the third turn he cried out, 
 " Hold ! hold! doctor; another turn would make me confess any thing." 
 
 THURSDAY. The fifth day of the week, derived from Thor, a deified hero 
 worshipped by the ancient inhabitants of the northern nations, particularly 
 by the Scandinavians and Celts. The authority of this deity extended over 
 the winds and seasons, and especially over thunder and lightning. He is 
 said to have been the most valiant of the sons of Odin. This daj^, which 
 w^as consecrated to Thor, still retains his name in the Danish, Swedish, and 
 Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the English. Thursday, or Thors-day, 
 has been rendered into Latin by dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day. 
 
 TtDES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posi- 
 donius of Apamea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, 
 about 79 B. c. ; and Cassar speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic 
 War. The theory of the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, 
 ■ A. D. 1598 ; but the honor of a complete explanation of them was reserved 
 for sir Isaac Newton, who laid hold of this class of phenomena to prove 
 universal gravitation, about 1683. 
 
 TILSIT, Peace of. The memorable treaty concluded between France and Rus- 
 sia, when Napoleon restored to the Prussian monarch one-half of his terri- 
 tories, and Russia recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and the ele- 
 vation of Napoleon's three brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones 
 of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Signed July 7, 1807, and ratified July 
 19 following. 
 
 TILTS AND TOURNAMENTS. Were greatly in vogue in England in the 
 eleventh and twelfth centuries. Notwithstanding many edicts against them, 
 and anathemas from Rome, they were not abolished till the reign of Henry 
 IV., about A. D. 1400. — Rapin. They first took their rise in Italy upon the 
 suppression of the gladiators in the fifth century. They were suppressed in 
 France in 1560. — Voltaire'' s Gen. Hist. 
 
 TLMBER. The annual demand of timber for the British navy, in war, is 60,000 
 loads, or 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each, of which thirty-five will stand 
 on an acre ; in peace, 32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. A seventj^-four gun ship 
 consumes 3000 loads, or 2000 tons of trees, the produce of fifty-seven acres 
 in a century. Hence the whole navy consumes 102,600 acres, and 1026 per 
 annum. — Allnut. England imports about 800.000 loads of timber annually, 
 exclusively of masts, yards, staves, lathwood, &c., together with about 8,000,« 
 000 of deals and deal-ends. — Pari. Pet. 
 
560 THE world's progress. [ TOS 
 
 TIME-MEASURE. That of Scipio Nasica was invented 159 b. .;. Early au- 
 thors inform us that Alfred's time-keeper was six large wax tapers, each 
 twelve inches long; but as the}' burnt unequally, owing to the wind, he in- 
 vented a lantern made of wood, and thin plates of ox-horns, glass being r 
 great rarity, a. d. 887. The ancients had three time-measures : hour-glasses, 
 sun-dials, and a vessel full of water with a hole in its bottom. See Clocks, 
 Watches, &c. 
 
 TIN. The Phoenicians traded with England for this article for more than 1100 
 years before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave thera 
 commercial importance in the ancient world. Under the Saxons, our tin- 
 mines appear to have been neglected ; but after the coming in of the Nor- 
 mans, they produced considerable revenues to the earls of Cornwall, par- 
 ticularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. ; a charter and various immuni- 
 ties were granted by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who also framed the 
 stannary laws, laying a duty on the tin, payable to the earls of Cornwall. 
 Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall 
 into a dukedom, with which he invested his son, Edward the Black Prince, 
 1535. Since that time, the heirs-apparent to the ciown of England, if eldest 
 sons, have enjoyed it successively. Tin-mines were discovered in Germany, 
 which lessened the value of those in England, till then the only tin-mines in 
 Europe, a. d. 1240. — Anderson. Discovered in Barbary 1640 ; in India, 1740 ; 
 in New Spain, 1782. England exports at present, on an average, 1500 tons 
 of unwrought tin, besides manufactured tin and tin-plates, of the value of 
 400,000Z. 
 
 TITHES AND TENTHS. Were first given by Moses to the tribe of Levi, 1490 
 B. c. — Josephus. For the first 800 years of the Christian church they were 
 given purely as alms, and were voluntary. — Wickliffe. " I will not put the 
 title of the clergy to tithes upon any divine right, though such a right 
 certainly commenced, and I believe as certainly ceased, with the Jewish the- 
 ocracy." — Blackstone. The first mention of them in any English written law, 
 is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly enjoining tithes, a. d. 786. 
 Offa, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of all his kingdom, to 
 expiate for the death of Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, whom he had 
 caused to be basely murdered, a. d. 794. — Burn's Eccles. Law. Tithes were 
 first granted to the English clergy in a general assembly held by Ethelwold, 
 A. D. 844. — Henry's Hist, of Eng. _ They were established in France by 
 Charlemagne, about 800. — Henault. ' Tenths were confirmed in the Lateran 
 councils, 1215. — Rainaldi. 
 
 TITLES, ROYAL. The following is the succession in which the royal titles 
 swelled in England. Henry IV. had the title of " Grace" and " My liege" 
 conferred upon him, 1399. The title of " Excellent Grace" was conferred 
 upon Henry VI., 1422. Edward IV. had that of " Most High and Mighty 
 Prince," 1461. Henry VII. had the title " Highness," 1485 ; and Henry VIII. 
 had the same title, and sometimes " Grace," 1509, et seq. But these two last 
 were absorbed in the title of " Majesty," being that with which Francis I. 
 of France addressed Henry at their memorable interview in 1520. — See Field 
 of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled 
 "Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to " Majesty" the present '■ Sacred " 
 or " Most ExcelTent Majesty." " Majesty" was the style of the emperors of 
 Germany ; the first king to whom it was given was Louis XL of France, 
 about 1463. 
 
 TOBACCO, Nicotiana T'abacum. This plant received its name from Tabacco, 
 a province of Yucatan, New Spain. Some say from the island of Tobago, 
 one of the Caribees ; others, from Tabasco, in the gulf of Florida. It was 
 first observed at St. Domingo, a. d. 1496 ; and was used freely by the Span- 
 
T* •] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 561 
 
 iards in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was first carried to England, 7 Elizabeth, 
 1565, by sir John Hawkins ; but sir Walter Raleigh and sir Francis Drake 
 are also mentioned as having first introduced it there. It was manufactured 
 only for exportation for some years. — SUnve's Chron. lu 1584 a proclama- 
 tion was issued against it. King James I, issued his famous Counter-Blast 
 against Tobacco in 16 . The star-chamber ordered the duties to be 65. 10^/. 
 per pound, 1614. Its cultivation was prohibited in England by Charles If. 
 An act laying a duty on the importation was passed, 1684. The cultivation 
 was allowed in Ireland 1779, The tax was increased, and put under the 
 excise, 1789. — Anderson; Ashe. Various statutes have passed relative to 
 tobacco. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of tobacco in Ire- 
 land passed 1831. Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be purchased 
 in order to its being destroyed, 1832. The quantitj^ consumed in England 
 •n 1791 was nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen 
 millions of jjounds. — Chan, of the Ex. In 1840, the quantity had reached 
 to forty millions of pounds. — Pari. Ret. In the United States, tobacco is 
 grown chiefly in Maryland and Virginia ; but to some extent in all fae 
 southern states. The value of the crop exported in 1848 was $7,551,122, 
 Tobacco is produced also in France, in India, &c. ; that of the United 
 States is considered the best in flavor, but that of Cuba is preferred fur 
 smoking. Several works have been published on the evil effects and bad 
 taste of this weed. 
 
 I BAGO. Settled by the Dutch, a. d. ,642. Taken by the English, 1672 ; re- 
 taken, 1674. In 1748 it was declared a neutral island ; but in 1763 it was 
 ceded to the English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grasse 
 in 1781, and confirmed to them in 1783. Again taken by the English, April 
 14, 1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, Oct. 6, 1802. The island was 
 once more taken by the British under general Grinfield, July 1, 1803, and 
 was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris in 1814. 
 
 TOLERATION ACT. To William III. is due the honor and wisdom of the 
 first toleration act known in the history of this country, passed in 1689. The 
 dissenters have ever since enjoyed the benefits of this act without interrup- 
 tion, though their liberties were greatly endangered in the latter end of 
 queen Anne's reign, 
 
 TOLLS. They were fii'st paid by vessels passing the Stade on the Elbe, a. d, 
 1109. They were first demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 
 1341, Toll-bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for 
 every wagon that passed through a certain manor. Toll-gates or turnpikes 
 were used in 1663, 
 
 TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE. An ancient duty levied on wine and other goods, 
 commenced in England about 21 Edward III.. 1346. The first granted to • 
 the kings of England for life, 6 Edward IV., 1465, Cumngham's Hist. 
 
 Taxes. 
 
 TONTINES. Loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, so 
 called from the inventor Laurence Tonti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on 
 foot at Paris to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's government, by 
 amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly rich, a. d. 1653. — Vol- 
 taire. The late celebrated Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a 
 lOOZ. share in a tontine company ; and being the last survivor of the share- 
 holders, his share produced him 3000Z. per anmom. He died worth 2,115,- 
 244/., aged 103 years, June 19, 1798.— Haydn. 
 
 rOPLITZ. Battle of, A battle was fought at Toplitz between the Austriana 
 and Prussians, in which the latter were defeated, 17G2, Battle of Toplitz, 
 August 30, 1813. Here the allied sovereigns had their head-quarters a 
 considerable time in this latter year. Treaty of Toplitz, being a triple 
 
 24* 
 
562 THE world's progress. I^Tur 
 
 alliance between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Sept, 9, 1813. Treaty ot 
 Toplitz, between Austria and Great Britain, Oct. 3, same year. 
 TORTURE. It has disgraced liumanity in the earliest ages in every countiy. 
 It was only i>erraitted by the Romans in the examination of slaves. It was 
 used early in the Catholic church against heretics. Occasionally vised in 
 England so late as the 1st Elizabeth, 1568 ; and in Scotland until 1690. 
 The trial by torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; in France, by order 
 of Louis XVI., in 1780, although it had not been practised there some tin^e 
 before. Ordered to be discontinued in Sweden by Gusta^r.js III., 1786. It 
 yet continues in other countries. 
 
 TORY. Various authors have differently described this terra. It is said to bo 
 derived from an Irish word, originally signifying a savage, or rather a col- 
 lector of tithes and taxes. — Encydop. The names of Cavaliers and Round- 
 heads, which existed in the time of Charles I. were changed, some tell us. 
 into those of Tories and Whigs. The Tories were those who vindicated 
 the divine right of kings, and held high notions of their prerogatives ; 
 while " the Whigs" denoted a friend to civil and religious liberty. — A&he. 
 The name of Tory was given by the country party to the court party, com- 
 paring them to Popish robbers ; and arose out of the Meal-tub plot (whick 
 see), in 1679. The terms are defined by extreme politicians, as of two par- 
 ties in the aristocracy: the Whigs, who would curb the power of the crown ; 
 and the Tories, who would curb the power of the people. — Phillips. In our 
 revolutionary war the term was applied to th'e royalists ; but, oddly enough, 
 at the time of president Jackson, it was given to the ultra democratic party, 
 while the other great party called themselves Whigs. See Whigs. 
 
 rOULON, France. In 1706 this town was bombarded by the allies, both by 
 land and sea, by which almost the whole town was reduced to a heap of 
 ruins, and several ships burned ; but they were at last obliged to raise 
 the siege. It surrendered, August 23, 1793, to the British admiral, lord 
 Hood, who took possession both of the town and shipping in the name of 
 Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist in restoring the French constitu- 
 tion of 1789. A conflict took place between the English and French 
 forces, when the latter were repulsed, Nov. 15, 1793. Toulon was evacuated 
 by the British, Dec. 19, same year, when great cruelties were exercised 
 towards inhabitants as were supposed to be favorable to the British. 
 
 TOULOUSE, France. Founded aboiit 615 b. c. A dreadful tribunal was es- 
 tablished here to extirpate heretics, a. d. 1229. The troubadours, or rheto- 
 ricians of Toulouse, bad their origin about a. d. 850, and consisted of a frater- 
 nity of poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, and gave rise to 
 the Italian and French poetry. See Troubadours. 
 
 'OULOUSE, Battle of. The final battle between the British Peninsular army 
 under lord Wellington and the French — one of the most bloody that had 
 been fought from the time lord Wellington had received the command of 
 tlje troops in Portugal. The French were commanded by marshal Soultj 
 whom the victorious British hero forced to retreat, after twelve hours fight-- 
 ing, from seven o'clock in the morning until seven at night, the British 
 forcing the French intrenched position before Toulouse. The loss of the 
 allies in killed and wounded was between four and five thousand men ; that 
 of the French exceeded 10,000. At the period of this battle Bonaparte 
 had abdicated the throne of France ; but neither of the commanders was 
 aware of that fact, or the close of the war at Paris. Fought April 10, 1814. 
 
 TOURNAMENTS or JOUSTS. Some authors refer them to Trojan origin, 
 such as Ascanius instituted among the Romans. The tournament is a mar- 
 tial sport or exercise which the ancient cavaliers used to perform, to show 
 
TOW "I DICTIONARY OF DATES. 563 
 
 their bravery and address. It is derived from the French word tourner, 
 " to turn round," because, to be expert in these exercises, much agility, 
 both of horse and man, was necessary. They were much practised a. d, 
 890; and were regulated and countenanced by Henry I., emperor, about 
 919. The Lateran council published an article against their continuance 
 in 1136. One was held in Smithfleld so late as the 12th century, when the 
 taste for them declined in England. Henry 11. of France, in a tilt with the 
 count de Montgomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused 
 tlie king's death in a few days, June 29, 1559. Tournaments were from 
 this event abolished in France, and with them " tbe age of chivalry is 
 tied." A magnificent and costly feast and S])lendid tournament took 
 l^lace at Eglinton castle, August 29, 1839, and the following week : many 
 of the visitors assumed the characters of ancient knights, lady Seymour 
 being the " Queen of Beauty," as fairest of the female throng. But this fes- 
 tivity is not likely to lead to a revival of the old tournament. 
 
 TOUKNAY. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria 
 by the treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were allowed to place a garrison 
 in it, as one of the barrier towns. It was taken by the French under ge- 
 neral Labourdonnaye, Nov. 11, 1792. Battle near Tournay, by the Austrians 
 and British on one side, and the French on the other, the former victorious, 
 May 8, 1793. Another battle was fought between the British and French, 
 when the latter were repulsed, at Rousalaer, losing 200 men and three field- 
 pieces, May 6, 1794. 
 
 TOURS, Battle of. One of the glorious victories of Charles Martel, and that 
 which most established his fame, gained over the Saracens near Tours, 
 and from which he acquired the name of Martel, signifying hammer. We 
 are told that but for this timely victory of Charles Martel, all Europe, as 
 well as Asia and Africa, must have become Mahomedan; October 10, 
 A. D. 732. 
 
 TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of 
 Shinar {Genesis xi.), 2247 b. c. See Babel. The Tower of the Winds at 
 Athens, built 550 b. c. The Tower of Pharos (see Pharos), 280 b. c. Tow- 
 ers were built early in England ; and the round towers in Ireland may be 
 reckoned among the most ancient curiosities. They were the only struc- 
 tures of stone found in Ireland before the first arrival of the English, 
 except some buildings in the maritime towns founded by the Danes. 
 These towers were tall, hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but narrowing 
 towards the top, pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, high above 
 the ground, and covered with conical roofs of the same materials. Of these 
 productions of old Irish masonry, fifty-six still remain, from 50 to 130 feet 
 high. 
 
 TOWER OF LONDON. Anciently a royal palace, and consisted of no more 
 than what is now called the White Tower, which appears to have been first 
 maiked out by William the Conqueror, a. d, 1076, commenced in 1078, and 
 completed by his son William Rufus, who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls, 
 and a broad, deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions to it, 
 and king Edward III. built the church. In 1638 the White Tower was re- 
 built; and since the restoration of king Charles II. it has been thoroughly 
 repaired, and a great number of additional buildings made to it. Here are 
 the Armory, Jewel-oflSce, and various other divisions and buildings of 
 peculiar interest ; and here were many executions of illustrious persons, 
 and many murders See England. 
 
 rOWTON, Battle of. This great battle is supposed to be the most fierce and 
 bloody that ever happened in any domestic war. It was fought between 
 the hous.;s of York (Edward IV.) am' Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the lattei 
 
564 THE world's progress. f TBA 
 
 of whom it Wcis fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 of his subjects 
 fell. Edward issued orders to give no quarter, and the most mercilesa 
 slaughter ensued. Henry was made prisoner and confined in the Tower • 
 his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders : fought March 29, 1461. 
 
 TRAFALGAR, Battle of, the greatest naval victory ever obtained by Eng* 
 land, fought by the British, under command of the immortal Nelson, against 
 the combined fleets of France and Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve 
 and two Spanish admirals. The enemy's force was eighteen French and 
 fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line ;. that of the British twenty-seven ships. 
 After a bloody and protracted fight, admiral Villeneuve and the other ad- 
 mirals Avere taken, and nineteen of their ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. 
 But the hero of England lost his life in this memorable battle ; and admiral 
 Collingwood succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and 
 his last signal on going into the engagement, was " England expects every 
 man to do his duty." Oct. 21, 1805. 
 
 TRAGEDY, That of Alcestis was the first represented by Thespis, the first 
 tragic poet at Athens, 536 b. c. — Arund. Marbles. Prizes instituted, and the 
 first gained by ,<Eschylus, 486 b. c. — Ibid. Another prize carried by Sopho- 
 cles, 470 B. c. — Ibid. Another by Euripides, 442 b. c, — Ibid. Another by 
 Astydamus, 377 b, c, — Ibid. See Drama; Plays; Theatres. 
 
 TRAJAN'S PILLAR. Erected a, d, 114, by the directions of the emperor 
 Trajan, and executed by Apollodorus, This column, which still exists at 
 Rome, was built in the large square called ithe Forum Romamim ; it is 
 140 feet high, of the Tuscan order, and commemorates the victories of the 
 emperor. 
 
 TRANSFUSION of the BLOOD, It began to be practised in the fifteenth 
 century, and was successful in France, where Louis XL, when dying, went 
 farther still, and drank the warm blood of infants, in the vaiu hope of pro- 
 longing life, A. D. 1483. — Renault. After trials of the efficacy of transfusion 
 upon animals, M, Denis revived the practice in Paris, where, out of fiv6 
 persons upon whom he operated, two died, and the magistracy prohibited 
 the experiment upon human bodies afterwards, 1668. Lower, an English 
 physician, who died in 1691. practised in this way. — Friend's Hist, of Phys. 
 Transfusion again attempted in France, in 1797 ; and recently in Great Bri- 
 tain, but seldom with success. See article Blood. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION op FELONS in ENGLAND. The first criminals were 
 ordered for transportation instead of execution, a. d. 1590 ; but banishment 
 for lighter offences than those adjudged death was much earlier. England 
 is reproached abroad for transporting persons whose offences are compara- 
 tively venial. John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to trans- 
 portation for stealing a few quires of paper, Nov. 1, 1771. — Phillips. More 
 recently, the reverend Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chesterfield, was 
 transported for forging a frank, (10(^/. postage) Sept. 9, 1818. The first 
 transportation of felons to Botany Bay was in May 1787 ; they arrived at the 
 settlement in January 1788. Returning from transportation was punished 
 with death until 1834, when an act passed making the offence punishable 
 by transportation for life. 
 
 TR ANSUBSTANTIATION, This doctrine was first introduced by a friar, about 
 A. D. 840, It became a confirmed article of Christian faith about 1000, It 
 was opposed in England about 1019 ; but the English church admitted the 
 doctrine before 1066, Belief in it as necessary to salvation was finally es- 
 tablished by the council of Placentia, 1095, The word " transubstantiation" 
 was first used by Peter of Blois about 1165, John Huss, in subsequent 
 times, was the first opposer of this doctrine ; he was burnt by order of tb* 
 council of Constance, a. d. 1415. — Caves Hist. Lit. 
 
TRE J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 565 
 
 TRAPPISTS, OR MONKS of LA TRAPPE. A French order in the depart- 
 ment of Orne, famed in the days of superstition for their austerity of dis- 
 cipline, and for keeping a perpetual silence. This order was charged with 
 rebellion and conspiracy in France, and 64 English and Irish Trappists were 
 shipped by the French government at Painboeuf Nov. 19, and were landed 
 from the Hebe French frigate at Cork, Nov. 30, 1831. They have established 
 themselves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford ; but do not maintain 
 there the extreme rigor of their order. 
 
 TRAVELLING ABROAD. See article Absentees. In order to discourage 
 liinglisli subjects from travelling to foreign countries and spending money 
 there, a tax was levied (but of very inadequate amount) by way of license 
 for going abroad, and paid to the crown, 10 Charles I., 1635. — Rapin. 
 
 TREAD- MILL, An invention of the Chinese, and used in China to raise 
 water for the irrigation of the fields. The 'read-mill lately introduced into 
 the prisons of Great Britain is of a more complicated construction. It is 
 the invention of Mr. Cubitt of Ipswich. The first was erected at Brixton 
 jail, 1817. This punishment has not been introduced in the United States. 
 
 See Hi2;h Treason. It wa« punished in Engiland only by banish- 
 after Henry I. — Bakers Chronicle. Ascertained by law, Edward 
 Trials regulated, and two witnesses required to convict, 1695. 
 treason are numerous, and formerly the punishment 
 was dreadful — hanging, quartering, beheading, &c., and even burning alive. 
 Mr. Martin brought in a bill for the abolition of burning alive for treason, 
 which passed both houses in 1788. Petty treason may happen three 
 ways : a wife's murder of her husband ; a servant's murder of his master ; 
 and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his prelate or other superior — so 
 declared by statute 25 Edward III., 1350. 
 
 TREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made by England with any 
 foreign nation was entered into a. d. 1217. The first commercial treaty Avas 
 with the Flemings, 1 Edward, 1272 ; the second with Portugal and Spain, 
 1308. — Anderson. The chief treaties of the principal civilized nations of 
 Europe will be found described in their respective places : the following 
 forms an index to them. See Conventions ; Coalitions ; Leagues, &c. 
 
 TREASON. 
 
 ment till 
 III., 1349, 
 The laws relating to 
 
 Abo, peace of 
 
 . 
 
 - 1743 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle 
 
 
 - - 1668 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, peace 
 
 of 
 
 - 1748 
 
 Akermann, peace of 
 
 
 - - 1826 
 
 Alt Radstadt 
 
 
 - 1706 
 
 America, peace with 
 
 
 - - 1783 
 
 Amiens, peace of 
 
 
 - 1802 
 
 Armed Neutrality - 
 
 
 - - 1800 
 
 Arras, treaty of 
 
 
 - 1435 
 
 Arras, ditto - 
 
 
 - - 1482 
 
 Augsburgh, league of 
 
 
 - 1686 
 
 Baden, peace of 
 
 
 - - 1714 
 
 Barrier treaty 
 
 
 • 1715 
 
 Basle, peace of 
 
 
 - - 1795 
 
 Bassein, India - 
 
 
 - 1802 
 
 Bayonne, treaty of - 
 
 
 - - 1808 
 
 Belgium, treaty of London 
 
 - 1839 
 
 Belgrade, peace of - 
 
 
 - - 1739 
 
 Berlin, peace of 
 
 • 
 
 - 1742 
 
 Berlin decree 
 
 
 • - 1806 
 
 Berlin convention 
 
 . 
 
 - 1808 
 
 Breda, peace of 
 
 
 • - 1667 
 
 Bretigny, peace of 
 
 . 
 
 - 1360 
 
 Bucharest, treaty of 
 
 
 - - 1812 
 
 Cambray, league of 
 
 . 
 
 - 1508 
 
 Cambray, peace of 
 
 
 - - 1529 
 
 Campo-Formio, treaty 
 
 of 
 
 - 1797 
 
 Carlowitz, peace of 
 
 
 ■ - 1699 
 
 Carlsbad, congress of - 
 
 - 181'. 
 
 Cateau-Cambresis, peace of 
 
 • - 1555 
 
 Chaumont, treaty of - 
 
 -1814 
 
 Chunar, India 
 
 . - 1781 
 
 Cintra, convention of - 
 
 ■ 1803 
 
 Closterseven, convention of 
 
 - - 1757 
 
 Coalition, first, against France 
 
 - 179S 
 
 Coalition, second, ditto 
 
 • - 1799 
 
 Coalition, third, ditto - 
 
 - 1805 
 
 Coalition, fourth, ditto 
 
 - .1806 
 
 Coalition, fifth, ditto 
 
 - 1809 
 
 Coalition, sixth, ditto 
 
 - - 1813 
 
 Concordat 
 
 - 1801 
 
 Conflans, treaty of 
 
 - - 1465 
 
 Constantinople, peace of 
 
 - 1712 
 
 Constantinople, treaty of - 
 
 . - 1833 
 
 Copenhagen, peace of 
 
 -1660 
 
 Cressy 
 
 . -1544 
 
 Dresden 
 
 - 1745 
 
 Family compact 
 
 - - 1761 
 
 Fontainebleau, peace of 
 
 - 1679 
 
 Fontainebleau, treaty of 
 
 . • 1785 
 
 Fontainebleau, concordat at ■ 
 
 - 1813 
 
 Friedwald, treaty of 
 
 . - 1551 
 
 Fuessen, peace of 
 
 - 1745 
 
 Ghent, pacification of 
 
 . - 1576 
 
 Ghent, peace o*" America) 
 
 -1814 
 
 Golden Bull 
 
 • - 135e 
 
566 
 
 THE world's progress 
 
 [TEI 
 
 TREATIES, continued. 
 
 Grand Alliance 
 
 Greece, treaty of London 
 
 Hague, treaty of the 
 
 Hague, treaty of the 
 
 Halle, treaty of 
 
 Hamburgh, peace of 
 
 Hanover treaty - 
 
 Holland, peace with 
 
 Holy Alliance 
 
 Hubertsberg, peace of 
 
 Interim - 
 
 Kiel, treaty of 
 
 Laybach, congress of • 
 
 liCague 
 
 Leipsic, alliance of 
 
 Leoben, peace of 
 
 Lisbon, peace of - - 
 
 liOndon, treaty of (Greece) 
 
 London, convention of (Turkey) 
 
 Lubeck, peace of 
 
 Luneville, peace of 
 
 Madrid, treaty of 
 
 Methuen treaty - 
 
 Milan decree 
 
 Munster, peace of 
 
 Nantes, edict of 
 
 Naumberg, treaty of 
 
 Nice, treaty of 
 
 Niraeguen, peace of 
 
 Noyon, ti'eaty of 
 
 Nuremberg, treaty of 
 
 Olivia, peace of 
 
 Paris, peace of (see Paris) 
 
 Paris, treaty of 
 
 Paris, peace of (Sweden) 
 
 Paris, capitulation of 
 
 Paris, treaty of - 
 
 Paris, peace of 
 
 Paris, treaty of • 
 
 Partition, first treaty 
 
 Partition, second treaty 
 
 Passarowitz, peace of 
 
 Passau, treaty of 
 
 Petersburgh, peace of 
 
 Petersburgh, treaty of 
 
 Petei'sburgh, treaty of 
 
 Petersburgh, treaty of 
 
 Peterswalden, convention of 
 
 Pilnitz, convention if 
 
 Poland, partition of • 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction 
 
 Prague, peace of 
 
 Presburg, peace of - 
 
 Public good, league for the 
 
 TREATIES OF the UNITED STATES 
 
 1689 Pyrenees, treaty of the 
 1829 Quadruple Alliance 
 
 1659 Radstadt, peace of - 
 1669 Radstadt, congress of - 
 1610 Ratisbon, peace of • 
 
 1762 Ratisbon, treaty of • • 
 1725 Religion, peace of - 
 1784 Rhine, Confederation of the 
 1815 Ryswick, peace of - 
 
 1763 St. Germain's, peace of 
 1548 St. Germain-en-Laye 
 1814 St. Ildefonso, alliance of Spain 
 1721 France .... 
 1-576 Seville, peace of • 
 1631 Siorod, peace of - 
 1797 Smalcald, league of - 
 1668 Spain, pacification of (London) 
 1829 Stettin, peace of - 
 1840 Stockholm 
 1629 Stockholm, peace of 
 1801 Stockholm, treaty of - 
 1526 Stockholm, treaty of 
 1703 Temeswar, truce of 
 1807 Teschen, peace of - 
 1648 Teusin, peace of 
 1598 Tilsit, peace of 
 1554 Tolentino, treaty of 
 1518 Toplitz, treaty of - 
 1678 Triple Alliance . 
 1516 Triple' Alliance of the Hague 
 1532 Troppau, congress of - 
 
 1660 Troyes, treaty of 
 1763 Turkmauchay, peace of 
 1796 Ulm, peace of 
 1810 Utretht, union of 
 1814 Utrecht, peace of - 
 
 1814 Valencay, treaty of 
 
 1815 Verona, congress of 
 1817 Versailles, peace of 
 1698 Vienna, treaty of 
 1700 Vienna, treaty of alliance 
 1718 Vienna, definitive peace 
 1552 Vienna, peace of 
 1762 Vienna, treaty of, March 23 
 1772 Vienna, treaty of, May 31 
 1805 Vienna, treaty of, June 4 - 
 1810 j Vossem, peace of 
 1813 Warsaw, treaty of - 
 1791 Warsaw, alliance of 
 1795 Westminster, peace of 
 1439 Westminster (with Holland) 
 1713 I Westphalia, peace of 
 1653 Wilna, treaty of - 
 1805 Worms, edict of 
 
 - 1464 Wurtzburg, treaty of - 
 
 Some of the most important 
 
 witi 
 
 Alliance with France - Feb. 6, 1779 
 
 Treaty of Paris (independence secured) 
 
 Sept. 3, 17a3 
 Treaty of commerce with Prussia - 1785 
 Treaty with Morocco . - - 1787 
 
 Treaty of commerce with Great Britain 
 
 (Jay's) 1794 
 
 Treaty with the Six Nations and other 
 
 Indian tribes .... 1794 
 Treaty with Spain, by Pinckney ; and 
 
 Algiers, by Humphries - - . 1795 
 
 Treaty with Tunis ; with Prussia (by 
 
 J. d. Adams) .... 1799 
 Treaty with F'-ance, by Ellsworth, Pa- 
 trick Henry &c. Sept. 30, 1800 
 
 Treaty with Great Britain, by Monroe 
 and Pinckney — rejected by the Ame- 
 rican government 
 
 Treaty of Ghent, with Great Britain, 
 signed by J. Q,. Adams, Gallatin, and 
 H. Clay, for the L '... ited States, clos- 
 ing the " war of 1812," tut leaving 
 the original dispute much as before - 
 
 Ratified by the United States, Feb. 17, 
 
 Treaty with the Choctaws and Chero 
 kees - - - . . 
 
 Treaty with the republic of Colombia - 
 
 Treaty with the Creeks, Osages, &c. . 
 
 Treaty with Great Britain, indemnify- 
 ing American citizens for spoliatiouB 
 
 1659 
 1718 
 
 1714 
 1797 
 1630 
 1806 
 1565 
 1806 
 1697 
 1570 
 1679 
 
 1795 
 1792 
 1613 
 1529 
 1834 
 1570 
 1630 
 1719 
 1724 
 1813 
 1664 
 1779 
 1595 
 1807 
 1793 
 1813 
 1717 
 1668 
 1820 
 1420 
 1828 
 1620 
 1579 
 1713 
 1813 
 1822 
 J783 
 1725 
 1731 
 1737 
 1809 
 1815 
 1815 
 1815 
 1673 
 1768 
 1683 
 1674 
 1716 
 1648 
 1561 
 1521 
 1610 
 
 2806 
 
 1S14 
 1S15 
 
 1816 
 1^23 
 1329 
 
TRI J 
 
 DICTIONARY OP DATES. 
 
 567 
 
 Cushing ; ratified by the se. ate 
 
 Jan. 16, 184S 
 
 Treaty cf peace with Mexico, signed at 
 Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2," 1848 ; 
 ratified by the senate (with modifica- 
 tions) ; ratified at Q,ueretaro by Ame- 
 rican commissioners Sevier and Clif- 
 ford, and Mexican minister Rosas 
 
 May 30, 1848 
 
 Treaty with Great Britain, respecting 
 Nicaragua, on the Isthmus between 
 North and South America ; signed 
 at Washington by Sir H. L. Bulwer 
 and J. M. Clayton - June, 1850 
 
 Elms, in Switzerland, 335 years, 
 
 Cedcus on Lebanon, 800 years. 
 
 Olives, in the Garden of Olives, Jerusalem, 
 800 years. 
 
 Banian, in Hindostan, 3,000 yeai-s. 
 
 Cypresses, at Grenada, 800 years. 
 
 [For proofs and details see the article re- 
 ferred to, ] 
 
 TREATIES, continued. 
 
 during the war with Napoleon 
 
 Nov. 13, 1828 
 
 Treaty with Brazil • March 18, 1829 
 
 Treaty with Turkey - May 7, 1830 
 
 Ti'eaty with Mexico (commercial) Ap.5, 1831 
 
 Treaty with do. - - April 5, 1832 
 
 . Treaty with Naples - Oct. 14, 1832 
 
 Treaty with Russia (commercial) 
 
 Dec. 18, 1832 
 
 Treaty with Great Britain, respecting 
 the N. E. boundary, signed at Wash- 
 ington by Lord Ashburton and Mr. 
 Webster ; ratified by the senate (39 
 to 9) - - - Aug. 20, 1842 
 
 Treaty with China, negotiated by C. 
 
 TREES, Age op. Among others mentioned in an article in the American Al- 
 manac for 1838, p. 102, are, 
 
 The Wallace oak at Ellerslie, Scotland, 
 
 700 years. 
 (Some oaks are supposd to have lived 1,500 
 
 years.) 
 Oak on estate of James Wadsworth, Geiie- 
 
 seo, New York, 500 years. 
 YeiD trees at Fountain's Abbey, England, 
 
 1,200 years- and in Scotland, said to be 
 
 2,500 yeara. 
 
 TRENT, Council of. This celebrated council is reckoned in the Catholic 
 church as the eighteenth or last general council. Its decisions are impli- 
 citly received as the standard of faith, morals, and discipline in that church. 
 The first council assembled a. d. 1545, and continued (but with interrup- 
 tions) under pope Paul III., Julius III., and Pius IV., to 1563, when the last 
 council was held. 
 
 TRIALS. Alfred is said to have been the contriver of trial by jury ; but there 
 is good evidence of such trials long before his time. In a cause tried at 
 Hawarden, nearly a hundred years before the reign of Alfred, we have a 
 list of the twelve jurors ; confirmed, too, by the fact that the descendants of 
 one of them, of the name of Corbyn. of the Gate, still preserve their name 
 and residence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate. — Phillips. 
 
 TRIBUNES OF THE PEOPLE. Tribuni Plebis. Magistrates of Rome, first 
 chosen from among the commons to represent the people, 492 b. c, at the 
 time the people, after a quarrel with the senators, had retired to Mons Sa- 
 cer. The first two were C. Licinius, and L. Albinus ; but their number was 
 soon after raised to five, and 37 years after to ten, which remained fixed. 
 Their office was annual, and as the first had been created on the 4th of the 
 ides of December, that day was ever after chosen for the election. 
 
 TRINIDAD. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was taken 
 from the Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; but the French took it 
 from the English in 1676. Taken by the British, with four ships of the 
 line, and a military force under command of sir Ralph Abercrombie, to whom 
 the island capitulated, Feb. 21, 1797; they captured two, and burnt three 
 Spanish ships of war in the harbor. This possession was confirmed to Eng- 
 land by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The insurrection of the negroes 
 occurred Jan. 4, 1832. See Colonies. 
 
 miNITY AND TRINITARIANS. The doctrine of the Trinity is received by 
 all Christian sects except those called Unitarians {lohich see). Theophilus, 
 bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the second century, the first who used 
 the term Trinity, to express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. His 
 Defence of CJiristianiiy was edited by Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546. — Watkins. 
 
568 THE WOFvLD's progress. I" TRQ 
 
 An order of the Trinity was founded, a. d. 1198, hy John de Matha and Felix 
 do Valois. The Trinity fraternity, originally of fifteen persons, was insti- 
 tuted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. An act to exempt from penal- 
 ties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity was passed in England in 
 1813. 
 
 TRIPLE ALLIANCE. This celebrated treaty of alliance was ratified between 
 the States-General and England, against France, for the protection of the 
 Spanish Netherlands; Sweden afterwards joining the league, it was known 
 as the Triple Alliance, Jan. 28, 1668. 
 
 lEIUMPHS. The triumph was a solemn honor done generals of armies after 
 they had won great victories, by receiving them into the town with great 
 magnificence and public acclamations. Among the Romans there were two 
 sorts — the great, that was called simply the triumph ; and the little, styled 
 the ovation. They also distinguish triumphs into land and sea triumphs, 
 accordingly as the battles were fought. See Ovation. 
 
 TRIUMVIRI. Three magistrates appointed equally to govern the Roman state 
 with absolute power. These officers gave a fatal blow to the expiring inde- 
 pendence of the Roman people, and became celebrated for their different 
 pursuits, their ambition, and their various fortunes. The first triumvirate, 
 B. c. 60, was in the hands of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who at the 
 expiration of their ofiice kindled a civil war. The second and last triumvi- 
 rate, B. c. 43, was under Augustus, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, through 
 whom the Romans totally lost their liberty. 'Augustus disagreed with his 
 colleagues, and after he had defeated them, he made himself absolute in 
 Rome. The triumvirate was in full force at Rome for about 12 years. See 
 Rome. 
 
 TROUBADOURS or JONGLEURS. They first appeared in the ninth century, 
 and were so encouraged by the patronage of the court of Poitou, and by 
 several powerful princes, that they spread in process of time throughout 
 Europe. They cultivated poetry and music, and refinement followed in 
 their steps, greatly improving the taste and temper of the times. To the 
 troubadours we owe Latin and French poetry. 
 
 TROY. The history of Troas, or Phrygia Minor, is at best but obscure, and 
 more particularly so in times prior to the reign of Dardanus, who came 
 hither from Italy (or Crete) about the year 1506 b. c, and married the 
 daughter of Teucer, prince of the country, whom he succeeded. Dardanus 
 built a city, and named it, after himself, Dardania : Troas, the second in 
 succession from Dardanus, changed the name to Troy ; and Ilus, his succes- 
 sor, converted it into Ilium. 
 
 Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia Mi- I War of Hercules and Laodemon B.C. 1224 
 
 nor. — BLuir - - b.c. 1546 | Reign of Priam or Podarces - - 1224 
 
 Teucer succeeds his father - 1502 i Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, 
 
 Dardanus succeeds Teucer, and builds 
 
 the city of Dardania ' - - 1480 
 
 Reign of Ericthonius • - - 1449 
 
 Reign of Troas, from whom the peo- 
 ple are called Trojans - - 1374 
 The rape of Ganymede - - 1341 
 Ilus, son of Troas, reigns - - 1314 
 Reign of Laomedon - ■ - 1260 
 Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia ; He- 
 sione delivered fi-om the sea-monster. 
 —Blair, Usher - - - 1225 
 
 son of Priam, 20 years before the 
 sacking of Troy. — Homer's Iliad, 
 book xxiv., line 964, Pope's edit. - 1204 
 
 Commencement of the invasion of the 
 Greeks to recover Helen - • 1193 
 
 Troy taken and burned in the night of 
 the llth of .Tune, i. e. 23d of the 
 month Thargelion. — Parian, Mar- 
 bles. 408 years before the first 
 Olympiad. — Apoltodorus - - 1184 
 
 iEneas arrives in Italy. — Lenglet - 1183 
 
 Some time after the destruction of old Troy, a new city was built, about 
 thirty stadia distant from the old site; but though it bore the same name^ 
 and received ample donations from Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expe- 
 
TUN J DICTIONARY OF DATES.. 569 
 
 dition, it never rose to mucli importance, and in the age of Strabo was 
 nearly in ruins. — Priestley. 
 
 TROY "WEIGHT. The Romans left their onnce, now our avoirdupois ounce, in 
 Britain. — Arbuthnot. The present ounce of this weight was brought from 
 Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time of the Crusades, a. d. 1095. It 
 was first adopted at Troyes, a city of France, whence the name ; and is used 
 to weigh gold, silver and precious stones. The troy weight, Scots, was es- 
 tabhshed by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618. 
 
 TJiOFES Treaty of, between England, France, and Burgundy, whereby it 
 was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of Charles 
 VI., be appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should 
 inherit the crown, May 24, 1420. The French were driven from Troyes by 
 the allied armies, Feb. 7 ; it was retaken by Napoleon, Feb. 23 ; and was 
 finally reoccupied by the allies, March 4, 1814. 
 
 TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historians ascribe the invention of the trum- 
 pet to the Tyrrhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the 
 time of Homer, but not at the time of the Trojan war. First torches, then 
 sliells of fish, sounded like trumpets, were the signals of primitive war,?. — • 
 Potter. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the 
 Great in 335 b. c. Trumpets were first sounded before the king in the time 
 of Olfa, king of Mercia, a. d. 790. Speaking-trumpets were improved by 
 Kircher in 1652. Made by Salland, 1654. Philosophically explained by 
 Moreland, 1671. 
 
 TUESDAY. The third day of the week, so called, as it is supposed, from Tu- 
 isco, or Tho, a Saxon deity, that was particularly worshipped on this day. 
 Tuesday, in Latin Dies Martis, was called the third day among the Jews. 
 See Week Days. 
 
 rUILERIES, Paris. One of the royal palaces of that city, commenced by 
 Catharine de Medici, after the plans of Philibert de Lorme, a. d. 1564 ; con- 
 tinued by Henry IV. ; and finished by Louis XIV. This palace was the 
 scene of great events during the three memorable revolutions, i)articularly 
 those of 1789 and 1848. 
 
 TULIPS. They came to England from Vienna, a. d. 1578, and have always 
 been among our most esteemed flowers. They became an object of com- 
 merce in the 16th centurj^ ; and it is recorded in the register of the city of 
 Alcmaer, in Holland, that in the year 1639, 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold 
 for 90,000 florins ; and in particular, that one of them, called the viceroy, 
 sold for 4203 guilders ! The States at last put a stop to this extravagant 
 and ruinous passion for flowers. The tulip-tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, was 
 carried to England from America, about 1663. 
 
 I'UNBRIDGE-WELLS. The celebrated springs here were first discovered by 
 Dudley lord North, who had retired into the neighborhood in the last stage 
 of consumption, and became perfectly restored to health by the use of its 
 waters, a. d. 1606. 
 
 1 UNIS AND TRIPOLI. The former stands near where Carthage was built. The 
 territories of both formed part of the celebrated Carthaginian state, and 
 were entirely destroyed by the Romans after the third Panic war, 148 b. c. 
 Besieged by Louis IX. of France, 1270. It remained under African kings 
 till taken by Barbarossa, under Solyman the Magnificent. Barbarossa was 
 expelled by Charles V. ; but the country was recovered by the Turks, under 
 Seljm IT. Taken, with great slaughter, by the emperor Charles V., when 
 10,000 Christian slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The bey of Tunis was 
 first appointed in 1570. Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the bey 
 refusing to deliver up the British captives, 1656. 
 
57C 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Tua 
 
 TURBAN. The head-dress of many of the Eastern nations, consisting of tw4 
 parts, a cap and a sash, the latter artfully wreathed about the head. The 
 sash of the Turk's turban is white linen ; that of the Persians, red woollen. 
 These are the distinguishing marks of their different religions, Sophi, king 
 of Persia, being of the sect of Ali, was the first who assumed the red color, 
 to distinguish himself from the Turks, who are of the sect of Omar. 
 
 TURIN. The French besieged this city in 1706 ; but prince Eugene defeated 
 their army, and compelled them to raise the siege. In 1798, the French 
 republican army took possession of Turin, seized ail the strong places and 
 arsenals of Piedmont, and obliged the king and his family to remove to the 
 island of Sardinia. In 1799, the French were driven out by the Austrians 
 and Russians ; but shortly afterwards the city and all Piedmont surrendered 
 to the French. In 1814, it was delivered up to the allies, when they restor- 
 ed it to the king of Sardinia. 
 
 TURKEY, The Turks themselves were originally a tribe of Tartars ; but by 
 reason of the number of people whom they conquered, and with whom they 
 became incorporated, the modern Turks must be regarded as a mixture of 
 many races of men. 
 
 Birth of Mahomet the prophet, at Mecca 
 
 (see Mecca) - - - a.d. .571 
 
 His imposture commenced (see MahO' 
 
 metanism) .... 604 
 The Koran written (see Koran) - 610 
 
 Flight to Medina (see Medina) - 622 
 
 jEra of the Hegira (see Hegira) - 622 
 
 Death of Mahomet - - - 631 
 
 Holy wars taegm (see Crusades) - 1095 
 
 Tlie Turkish empire first formed under 
 
 Othmaa at Bythinia - - - 1298 
 
 The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and 
 
 take Adrianople • - - 1360 
 
 Amurafh I. institutes the Janizaries, a 
 guard composed of Christian slaves 
 bred Mahometans - - - 1362 
 
 Bajazetl. overruns the provinces of the 
 
 Eastern empire - - 1389, et seq. 
 
 He lays siege to Constantinople ; but is 
 at length taken by Tamerlane (see 
 Tamerlane) ... - 1403 
 
 The Turks invading Hungary, ai'e re- 
 pelled by Huniades - - - 1450 
 Constantinople taken by the Turks un- 
 der Maliomet II., which ends the 
 Eastern Roman empire - - l453 
 Greece made subject to the Mahome- 
 tans (see Greece) - - - 1458 
 The Turks penetrate into Italy, and 
 take Otranto, which diffuses terror 
 throughout Europe - - - 1480 
 Selim I. raised to the throne by the .Ja- 
 nizaries; he murders his father, bro- 
 thers, and their sons - - - 1512 
 He takes the islands of the Archipelago 
 
 from the Christians - - - 1514 
 
 He overruns Syria - - - 1515 
 
 Adds Egypt to his empire • - 1516 
 
 Solyman II. takes Belgrade - - 1521 
 
 Rhodes taken from the knights of St. 
 
 John, who go to Malta - - 1522 
 
 Solyman II., with 250,000 men, is repuls- 
 ed before Vienna - - - 1529 
 Cyprus taken from the Venetians - 1571 
 Great battle ofLepanto, which puts an 
 end to the fears of Europe from Turk- 
 isli power (see Lepanto) - - 1571 
 Amurath 11. ascends the throne ; stran- 
 gles liis five brothers - - - 1574 
 
 [Dreadful persecutions of the Christians 
 
 during this reign] 
 The Turks driven out of Persia by the 
 
 famous Schah Abbas - - A. d, 1585 
 
 Bloody reign of Mahomet III. - -1595 
 
 Great fire in Constantinople - - 1606 
 
 Reign iof Amurath IV., who strangles 
 
 his father and four brothers - - 1624 
 
 The Turks defeat the Persians, and take 
 
 the city of Bagdad - - - 1639 
 
 The island of Candia, or Crete, taken 
 
 after a 25 years' siege - - 1669 
 
 Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV., but 
 
 relieved by John of Poland - - 1683 
 
 Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman - 1687 
 Peace of Carlovitz - - - 1699 
 
 Mustapha III. deposed - - ■ 1703 
 
 The Morea retaken by the Turks - 1715 
 Belgrade taken from Austria ; and Rus- 
 sia relinquishes Azofi" - - 1739 
 Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ; 
 the English and Russian fleets defeat 
 
 the Turkish 1770 
 
 The Crimea falls to Russia - Jan. 1783 
 [This ends the disastrous war with Rus- 
 sia and Austria (begun in 1787), the 
 Turks having lost more than 200,000 
 men. — Ashe.] 
 War against Russia - - Dee. 30, 180G 
 
 Passage and repassage of the Darda- 
 nelles effected by the British fleet, but 
 with great loss (see Dardanelles) 
 
 Feb. 19, 1807 
 The sultan Selim is deposed and mur- 
 dered, and Mustapha IV. called to 
 the throne - - May 29, 1807 
 
 Treaty of Bucharest {which see) May 
 
 28,-.8ia 
 
 A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, re- 
 turning fi-om Mecca, destroyed by a 
 pestilential wind in the deserts of 
 Arabia ; 20 only were saved Aug. 9, 1812 
 
 Subjection of the Wachabees - - 181S 
 
 Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares 
 himself independent - - - 1820 
 
 Insurrection of Moldavia and Wallachia 
 
 March 6, 1821 
 
 The Greek Patriarch put to death at 
 Constantinople • - Ajril 23, ^821 
 
ruR 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 571 
 
 rURKEr, continue i. 
 
 Horrible massa :j'e at Scio ; the most 
 dreadful in modern history (see note 
 to Greece) - - - April 23, 1822 
 
 Sea-fight near Mitylene - Oct. 6, 1824 
 
 New Mahometan army amiounced to be 
 organized - - - May 29, 1826 
 
 Insurrection of the Janizaries at Con- 
 stantinople - - - June 14, 1826 
 
 Firman of the s JLtan abolishing the Ja- 
 nizaries .... 1826 
 
 Fire at Consta iciuople ; 6000 houses re- 
 duced to ashes - . - August 30, 1826 
 
 Battle of Navarino ; the Turkish fleet 
 destroyed by the fleets of England, 
 France, and Russia (see Navarino) 
 
 Oct. 20, 1827 
 
 Banishment of 132 French, 120 English, 
 and 85 Russian settlers, from the 
 Turkish empire - January 5, 1828 
 
 War with Russia - - April 26, 1828 
 
 The emperor Nicholas takes the field 
 against the Turks - May 20, 1828 
 
 The Russian emperor arrives before 
 Varna .... Aug. 5, 1828 
 
 Battle of Akhalzic - - Aug. 24, 1828 
 
 Fortress of Bajazet taken - Sept. 9, 1828 
 
 The sultan leaves his capital for the 
 camp, bearing with him the sacred 
 standard - - - Sept. 26, 1828 
 
 Dardanelles blockaded ■ Oct. I, 1828 
 
 Smrender of Varna - • Oct. 15, 1828 
 
 Russians retreat from I efore Schurala, 
 
 October 16, 18!;:3 
 
 Surrender of the castle of the Morea to 
 the French - - - Oct. .'JO, 1828 
 
 Siege of Silistria raised by the Russians 
 
 Nov. 10, 1828 
 
 Victory of the Russians at Kulertsaa 
 near Schumla - - June 11, 1S29 
 
 Adrianople is entered by the Russian 
 troops - - - Aug. 20, 1829 
 
 Armistice between the Russian and 
 Turkish armies - - Aug. 29, 1819 
 
 Treaty of peace - - Sept. 14, 1829 
 
 Treaty with the U. States - May 7,' 1330 
 
 St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pa- 
 cha son of Mehemet Ali - July 2, 1832 
 
 He defeats the army of ti. e sultan in Sy- 
 ria, with great loss - - July 30, 1832 
 
 A series of successes brings the ar, ny oi 
 Ibrahim Pacha within eighty leagues 
 of Constantinople, and the sultan has 
 recourse to the aid of Russia - Jan. 1833 
 
 A Russian force enters the Turkish ca- 
 pital .... April 3, 1833 
 
 Treaty with Russia, offensive i.nd de- 
 fensive - - • July S, 1833 
 
 Office of grand vizier abolished by the 
 sultan - - - March 30, 1838 
 
 Insurrection in Wallachia June 18, 1848 
 
 Mehemet Ali dies at Alexandria Aug. 2, 1849 
 
 TITRKISH EMPERORS. 
 
 1296 Ossman, or Ottoman I. 
 1.325 Orcham, his youngest son. 
 1359 Amurath I., his son; assassinated. 
 i-388 Bajazet I., his son ; died in prison. 
 1397 Isa Belis ; killed by his brother. 
 1403 Solyman ; killed by his brother. 
 1410 Musa ; strangled by his brother. 
 1413 Mahomet 1. ; succeeded by his son. 
 1421 Amurath II. ; succeeded by his son. 
 1451 Mahomet 11. ; left the empire to his 
 
 twf> sons. 
 1481 C(? -tacus, his grandson ; succeeded by 
 
 his father. 
 1481 Xemin; obliged to abdicate in favor of 
 
 his brother. 
 1481 Bajazet 11. ; deposed by his son. 
 1-520 Solyman, the Magnificent. 
 1566 Selim II. ; succeeded by his son. 
 1512 Selim ; succeeded by his" son. 
 1574 Amurath III. ; succeeded by his son. 
 1595 Mahomet III. . succeeded by his son. 
 1604 Achmet; succeeded by his brother. 
 1617 Mustapha I.; succeeded by his nephew, 
 1617 Osman I. ; strangled by the Janizaries, 
 
 and his uncle restored. 
 
 1622 Mustapha I. j again deposed and suc- 
 
 ceeded by his grandson. 
 
 1623 Amurath IV., succeeded by his brother. 
 1640 Ibrahim, strangled by the Janizaries, 
 
 succeeded by his son. 
 
 1655 Mahomet IV., deposed; succeeded by 
 his brother. 
 
 1687 Solyman III. ; succeeded by his bio- 
 ther. 
 
 1691 Achmet II. ; succeeded by his nephew. 
 
 1695 Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet 
 IV., deposed and succeeded by hi'? 
 brother. 
 
 1703 Achmet III. ; deposed. 
 
 1730 Mahomet v.; succeeded by his brother. 
 
 1754 Osman II. ; succeeded by his brother. 
 
 1757 Mustapha III. ; succeeded by his bro- 
 ther. 
 
 1774 Abelhamet, or Achmet IV. . 
 
 1789 Selim III. 
 
 1807 Mustapha IV. 
 
 1808 Mah. Khan II. 
 
 1839 Abdul-Medjid, June 27. 
 
 rURKEYS AND GUINEA FOWLS. First brought to England a, d. 1524, and 
 to France in 1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were, consequent- 
 ly, unknown to the ancients. Mr. Pennant has established this fact by vari- 
 OU3 particulars in the history of these birds; evincing that they are natives 
 neither of Europe, Asia, nor Africa ; a circumstance since placed beyond 
 controversy, by the researches of Mr. Beckmann. Wild turkeys are met 
 with in flocks of some thousands in parts of the new world, and except be- 
 ing larger do not differ from ours. — Smyth. 
 
 TURNING. According to Pliny this art was known to the ancients, by whom 
 articles of wood, ivory, iron, and gold were formed, The precious vases 
 
572 THE world's progress. f TYU 
 
 enriched with figures in half relief, which at this day adorn the cabinets of 
 the antiquary and curious, were produced by turning. The lathes made for 
 turnery in England are, many of them, Avonderful in their machinery ; and 
 in some of our dock-yards, blocks and other materials for our ships of war 
 are now prodnced by almost instantaneous processes, from rough pieces ol 
 oak, by the machinery of Mr. Brunei. 
 
 1 IJENPIKES. See Tolls. Turnpike-gates for exacting tolls, which were other- 
 Avise previously collected, were set up in the reign of Charles IL, 1663,-- 
 Chalmers. The statutes relating to turnpike-roads are very numerous. 
 
 nrSCANY. This country was created into a dukedom, a. d. 1530. It came 
 into the Austrian family in 1737. It was seized by the French in March 
 1799. Ferdinand IV., the grand duke, was dispossessed by France, and his 
 dominions given to Louis, son of the king of Spain, with tl e title of king 
 of Etruria, February 26, 1801. He died June 30, 1803 ; and soon after- 
 wards this state was transformed into an appendage to the crown of Italy; 
 but was restored to Austria in 1814. The present grana- Iukc Leopold IT 
 (cousin to the emperor), ascended June 18, 1824. 
 
 Disturbances and revolutions of 1847-8 
 began at Leghorn - - Sept. 2, 1847 
 
 Grand-duke grants a national militia. 
 
 The grand-duke granted a liberal con- 
 stitution - - - - Feb. 1848 
 
 Insurrection at Leghorn - Sept. 5, 1848 
 
 The grand-duke flees from Florence 
 
 The chambers meet. 
 
 Provisional government proclaimed, 
 
 Feb. 9, 18-19 
 
 Leghorn attacked and carried by Tus- 
 can troops - - - May 10, 184) 
 
 The grand-duke re-enters Florence and 
 resumes his authority - July 27, 1849 
 
 TWELFTH-DAY. The church-festival called the Epiphany, or manifestation 
 of Christ to the Gentiles. See Epiphany. The custom of drawing king 
 and queen on this day was borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, who, on 
 the tabernacle, or Christmas festivals, drew lots for kings, by putting a piece 
 of money in the middle of a cake, which whoever found, was saluted as 
 king. 
 
 '•^YLER, WAT, HIS Insurrection. It arose in the opposition of the people to 
 the poll-tax, which was levied in 1378. Owing to the indecent rudeness o/ 
 one of the collectors to Tyler's daughter, with a view to prove her of suffi- 
 cient age (fifteen) to pay the tax (Tyler striking him dead for the offence), 
 the provoked populace gathered upon Blackheath to the number of 100,000 
 men. The king, Richard II. , invited Tyler to a parley at Smithfield, where 
 the latter addressed the king in a somewhat menacing manner, now and 
 again lifting up his sword. His insolence raised the indignation of the 
 mayor, Walworth, who stunned Tyler with a blow of his mace, and one of 
 the knights attending the king dispatched him. The death of their leader 
 awed the multitude, to whom Richard promised a charter, and they dis- 
 persed, 1381. 
 
 TYRE. This great city was first built by Agenor. Another city was built 
 1257 B. c. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 b. c, and they retired from 
 before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 b. c. Taken by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, 572 B. c, and the city demolished, when the Tyreans removed 
 to an opposite island, and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken 
 by Alexander with much difhculty, and only after he had joined the island 
 to the continent by a mole, after a siege of seven months, Aug. 20, 332 b. c. 
 — Strabo. Two of the most atrocious acts in the history of human crimes 
 were the v^iege and destruction of Tyre by Alexander, and of Jenisalem by 
 Titus. Histories which laud such monsters ought to be consigned to the 
 flames. — Phillips. 
 
 I'YRE, Era of. Began on the 19th of October, 125 b. c, with the month Hy- 
 perbereta3us. The month was the same as those used in the Grecian era, 
 and the year \h similar to the Julian year. To reduce this era to ours, sub 
 
PHI J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATiiS. 573 
 
 tract 124 ; and ii the given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and 
 the remainder will be the year before Christ. 
 
 U. 
 
 UBIQUARIANS. A sect of Lutherans which arose and spread through Ger- 
 many and other countries, and who believed the natural body of Christ to 
 be every where present. This sect arose under Brentius, about a. d. 1540, 
 
 UKRAINE. The name signifies a frontier. By a treaty between Russia ard 
 Poland, these states divided the Ukraine in 1693. Poland having the west 
 side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. But the whole country (the bor- 
 ders of Poland, Russia, and Little Tartary) was assigned to Russia by the 
 treaty of Partition in 1785. 
 
 ULM, Peace of, by which Fredrick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from 
 it previously), July 3, 1620. Ulra was taken by the French in 1776. Great 
 battle between the French and Austrians, in which the latter, under gen- 
 eral Mack, were defeated with dreadful loss, by marshal Ney, whose vic- 
 tory was consummated by the surrender of Ulm, and 36,000 men, the flower 
 of the Austrian army, Oct. 17, 19, 1805. From this time the ruin of the 
 confederates, and grandeur and power of Napoleon, had their date. 
 
 JMBRELLA. Described in early dictionaries as "a portable pent-house to 
 carry in a person's hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrel- 
 las are very ancient : it appears, by the carvings at Persepolis, that umbrel- 
 las were used at very remote periods by the Eastern princes. Niebuhr, who 
 visited the southern parts of Arabia, informs us that he saw a great prince 
 of tliat country returning from a mosque, preceded by some hundreds ot 
 soldiers, and that he and each of the princes of his numerous family caused 
 a large umbrella to be carried by his side. The old china-ware in our pan- 
 tries and cupboards show the Chinese shaded by an umbrella. It is said 
 that the first person who used an umbrella in the streets of London was 
 the benevolent Jonas Hanway, who died in 1786.* 
 
 UNCTION, EXTREME. Unction was frequent among the Jews. At their 
 feasts, and other times of rejoicing, they anointed sometimes their whole 
 body, and at other times their head or feet only : their kings and high 
 priests were anointed at their inauguration; they also anointed the vessels 
 of the temple to consecrate them. None of the emperors, it is said, were 
 anointed before Justinian, Aug. 1, a. d. 527. As a religious rite, extreme 
 unction was in common use, a. d. 550. St. Asaph was the first who received 
 unction from the pope, 590. — Baijle. It is administered in dying cases as 
 extreme unction. See Anoi7iting. 
 
 UNIFORMS. Militar} uniforms were first used in France, " in a regular man- 
 
 * For a long while it was not usual for men to carry them without incurring the brand of effe- 
 minacy. At fii-st, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for extraordinary 
 occasions — lent as a coach or chair in a heavy shower, but not commonly cari'ied by the walkers. 
 The Female Tattler advertises " The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house who, in 
 fear of rain, borrowed the umbrtllafrom Wilks's Coffee-house, shall the next time be welcome to 
 the maid's pattens'' As late as 1778, one John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, 
 informs us, that he had "a fine silk umbrella, which he brought from Spain; but he could not 
 with any comfort to himself use it, the people calling out 'Frenchman! why don't you get a 
 coach 7' " The fact was, the hackney-coachmen and chairmen, joining with the true esprit cle corps, 
 were clamorous against this portentous rival. The footman in 1778, gives us some farther 
 information. "At this time, there were no umbrellas worn in London, except in noblemen's and 
 gentlemen's l^ouses, where there was a large one hung in the hall to hold jver a lady if it rained, 
 between the door and her carriage." This man's sister was compelled to quit lis arm one day 
 from the abuse he drew down on himself and his mnbrella. But he adds, that "he persisted 
 for three months, till they took notice of this novelty. Foreigners bcgtm to use theirs, and then 
 the English. Now it is beco ^e a great trade in London."— New MuiUhly Magazine. 
 
574 THE world's progress. [ JNi 
 
 ner," by Louis XIV., 1668. In England the uniform was soon afterwards 
 adopted, 
 
 rWIFORMlTY, Act of. An Act of Uniformity passed 1 Elizabeth, 1559. But 
 the statute known as the Act of Uniformity was passed 13 and 14 Charles 
 [I., 1661, 2. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, and obliged all 
 clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, and use the same form of 
 worship, and same book of common prayer. This act caused upwards of 
 2000 conscientious ministers to quit the Church of England, and take their 
 lot among the dissenters, who thereby received so large an addition to their 
 numbers that they may be considered as the fathers of the dissenting interest. 
 
 UNION OF THE CROWNS. The crowns of England and Scotland were united 
 by the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March 
 24, 1603. The legislative union of the two kingdoms was attempted in 1604, 
 but the project failed. It was again attempted, but again failed, in 1670. In 
 the reign of Anne it was once more tried, and in the end with better suc- 
 cess. Commissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwith- 
 standing great opposition made by the Tories, every article in the union 
 was approved by a great majority, first in the House of Commons, and af- 
 terwards by the peers, July 22, 1706, and ratified by the Scottish parlia- 
 ment, Jan. 16, 1707. It became a law. May 1, same year. 
 
 UNION WITH IRELAND. The Union of Great Britain and Ireland, propos- 
 ed in the Irish parliament, Jan. 22, 1799. The act passed in the British 
 parliament, July 2, 1800. i 
 
 UNITARIANS. This sect began a. d. 1550. The Unitarians believe in aj-Kd 
 worship only one self-existent God, in opposition to those who, besides the 
 Father, worship his Son Jesus. They arose under Servetus. This learned 
 man, excited by the discussions of the reformers, began to read the Scrip- 
 tures, and conducted his researches with so free a spirit, that he printed a 
 tract in disparagement of the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity. Iii 1533, 
 proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin induced the magistrates to 
 arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and heresy : and refusing to retract 
 his opinions, he was condemned to the flames, which sentence was carried 
 into execution, October 27, 1553. Servetus is numbered among those ana- 
 tomists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine of the circulation 
 of the blood, before Harvey established that doctrine. In the United States, 
 especially in New England, the Unitarians form a large, intelligent, and in- 
 fluential portion of the community. The celebrated philanthropist and 
 eloquent writer. Dr. W. E. Channing, was a Unitarian. 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND. The British 
 realm was so named, on the union with Ireland, Jan. 1, 1801, when a new 
 imperial standard was hoisted on the Tower of London and Castle of Du]»- 
 lin. See Union. 
 
 ITVITED PROVINCES, the SEVEN. Established by throwing off the Span- 
 ish yoke, a. d. 1579. The revolted states, with William, prince of Orange, 
 at their head, after long deliberations at the Hague, published an edict ex- 
 cluding king Philip from any sovereignty, right, or authority over the Ne- 
 therlands. The deputies from the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, 
 Friesland, Groningen, Overyssell, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht, Jan. 23, 
 1579 ; signed a treaty for their mutual defence ; appointed the prince of 
 Orange as their stadtholder ; and formed the alliance ever since known as 
 the " Union of Utrecht," the basis of the commonwealth so renowned by 
 the ap[)ellation of the " Seven United Provinces." Their independence was 
 acknowledged in 1607. United to France in 1796. Louis Bonaparte was 
 crowned king bythe authority of Napoleon, June 5, 1806. Louis abdicated 
 
»JNI J 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 575 
 
 July 1, 1810. Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed 
 Nov. 18, 1813. Belgium separated from Holland, and Leopold of Saxe- 
 Coburg elected king, July 12, 1831. See Holland and Belgium. 
 
 UNITED STATES of AMER CA. See Avierica; and the separate States, 
 Maine, &c. The first colonial Congress, for the redress of grievances, con. 
 sisting of delegates from the several colonies, met at New York, June 7, 
 1765. The Continental Congress at Philadelphia adopts Declaration ef 
 Rights, 1774 ; revolutionary war commenced at Lexington, April 19, 1775. 
 See War. Declaration of Independence adopted by the Congress, July 4, 
 1776. The title of " United States'' adopted by Congress, Sept. 9, 1776. 
 Independence acknowledged by Great Britain in the Treaty of Paris, 
 Sept. 23, 1783. Constitution adopted Sept. 17, 1787. War against Great 
 Britain declared by Congress, June 19, 1812. Treaty of peace signed at 
 Ghent, Dec. 3, 1814. War with Mexico commenced April, 1846. Treaty 
 of peace signed May 30, 1848. See Wars of the United States, &.c. -, also 
 NacaX Battles ; q\%o Administrations, Exports, NaMonal Debt, Treaties, Po- 
 pulation, &c. [The various occurrences in the history of the United States 
 are given more at large under that head in the Tabular Views in this 
 vol., page 122, et. seq.] 
 
 UNIVERSALISTS. Those who believe in the final salvation of all men. Sects 
 of Universalists existed in various countries and ages. The learned and 
 celebrated Dr. Tillotson ajjpears from some of his sermons to have adopted 
 the opinion of this universal salvation. — Johnson. Certain it is, about 1691, 
 he entertained a design for forming a new book of homilies ; and a sermon 
 which he preached before the queen (Mary) against the absolute eternity 
 of hell torments, involved this doctrine, 
 
 UNIVERSITIES. They sprang from the convents of regular clergy, and from 
 the chapters of cathedrals in the church of Rome. Tlie most ancient uni- 
 versities in Europe are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, Salamanca, and 
 Bologna. The British universities were vested with the lands of ex-Catho- 
 lics, and permitted to send members to Parliament by James I. The fol- 
 lowing are the principal universities in Europe : 
 
 Aberdeen founded 
 
 Abo, Finland 
 
 Aix, 1409 ; re-established 
 
 Alba .Julia, Transylvania 
 
 Altorf, Franconia 
 
 Andrew's, St., Scotland 
 
 Angers, chiefly law 
 
 Anjou, 1349 ; enlarged 
 
 Avignon, France 
 
 Bamberg 
 
 Baale, Switzerland 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Besancon, Burgundy 
 
 Bologna, Italy 
 
 Bruges, French Flanders 
 
 Caen, Normandy 
 
 Cambridge, began, 626- 
 
 - 1494 
 
 - - 1640 
 
 - 1603 
 • - 1629 
 
 - 1581 
 
 - - 1411 
 
 - 1398 
 
 - - 1364 
 
 - 1383 
 
 - - 1585 
 
 - 1458 
 . - 1812 
 
 - 1540 
 
 - - 423 
 
 - 1665 
 
 - - 1417 
 according to 
 
 others, 900. See Cambridge. 
 
 Cambridge, New England, projected - 1630 
 
 Cologne, in Germany, re-l'o'mded - 1389 
 
 Compostella, Spain - - - 1517 
 
 Coimbra, Portugal - - - 1301 
 
 Copenhagen. 1497 ; enlarged - - 1539 
 
 Cordova, Spain - - - - 968 
 
 Cracow, Poland, 700 ; enlarged - - 1402 
 
 Dijon, France - . - • 1722 
 
 Dillindn, Swabia - - • - 1565 
 Pole, Burgundy .... 1426 
 
 Rouay, French Flanders - - - 1562 
 
 Bresden, S'xony • - - 1694 
 
 Dublin - 
 
 . 
 
 . 1591 
 
 Edinbursrh, founded by .lames VI. 
 
 - 1582 
 
 Erfurt, Thuringia ; enlar^ 
 
 ^ed 
 
 - 1390 
 
 Florence, Italy"; enlarged 
 
 
 - 1438 
 
 Frankfort-on-ihe-Oder 
 
 
 -1506 
 
 Fribourg, Germany 
 
 
 - 1460 
 
 Geneva 
 
 
 - 1365 
 
 Glasgow ... 
 
 
 -1450 
 
 Gottingen 
 
 
 -1734 
 
 Granada, Spain - 
 
 
 - 1537 
 
 Gripswald - 
 
 
 -1547 
 
 Groningen, Friesland - 
 
 
 -16J4 
 
 Halle, Saxony 
 
 
 . - 1694 
 
 Heidelberg 
 
 
 .i.:^6 
 
 Ingoldstadt, Bavaria 
 
 
 . - 1573 
 
 Jena, or Sala, Thuringia 
 
 
 - IMS 
 
 Kiel, Holstein 
 
 
 . - 1665 
 
 King's College, London 
 
 
 - 1829 
 
 Konigsherg, Prussia 
 
 
 . - 1544 
 
 Leipsic, Saxony - 
 
 
 -1409 
 
 Leyden, Holland 
 
 
 . - 1575 
 
 Lima, in Peru 
 
 
 - 1614 
 
 Lisbon, 1290; removed to Coimbr 
 
 s . 1391 
 
 London University 
 
 - 
 
 • 1826 
 
 Louvaine, Flanders, 926 ; 
 
 enlargec 
 
 I . U27 
 
 Lyons, France - 
 
 . 
 
 . 830 
 
 Mechlin, Flanders - 
 
 . 
 
 . - 1440 
 
 Mentz 
 
 . 
 
 • 1482 
 
 Montpelier - 
 
 . 
 
 -1196 
 
 Moscow - 
 
 • 
 
 -1751 
 
576 
 
 THE WORLD S TROGRESS. 
 
 [ inn 
 
 I.TNIVERS1TIES, continued 
 
 Munstcr 
 
 Naples . . 4 . 
 Orleans, France - 
 Oxford (see Oxford) 
 
 1491 
 1216 
 1312 
 
 886 
 
 Paderborn 1592 
 
 Padua, Italy 3179 
 
 Palenza, 1209 ; removed to Salamanca 1249 
 Paris. 792 ; renovated - - - -1100 
 
 Parma 1599 
 
 Pavia, 791 ; enlarged .... 1361 
 
 Perpignan 1349 
 
 Perugia, Italy 1307 
 
 Petersburg!! 1747 
 
 Pisa, 1339 ; enlarged .... 1552 
 
 Poictiers 1430 
 
 Prague 1348 
 
 Rheims, 1145; enlarged - - - -1560 
 
 Rome Sapienza 1303 
 
 Rostock, Mecklenburgh - • - - 1419 
 
 Salamanca 1240 
 
 Salerno 1233 
 
 Saltzburg 
 
 Saragossa, Arragon - 
 
 Seville - - - , 
 
 Sienna 
 
 Siguenza, Spain - 
 
 Sorbonne, Paris 
 
 Strasburg 
 
 Toledo, Spain • 
 
 Treves, Germany 
 
 Tubingen, Wirtemberg 
 
 lesa 
 
 • 1474 
 
 - 1531 
 
 • 1387 
 
 - 1517 
 
 • 1253 
 
 - 1538 
 -1518 
 -1473 
 
 - 1477 
 
 Turin - - - • - • - 1405 
 
 llpsal, Sweden 147/ 
 
 Utrecht, Holland 1636 
 
 Valence, Dauphine 1475 
 
 Valencia in the thirteenth century. 
 
 Valladolid 1346 
 
 Venice 1592 
 
 Vienna 1236 
 
 Wirtemberg - • ... 1S02 
 
 Wittenberg ... - . re02 
 
 Wurtzburg - . - - 1403 
 
 UNIVERSITIES in UNITED STATES. See Colleges. 
 
 UNKNOWN TONGUE. A disturbance in the Rev. Mr. Irving- s chapel, in 
 London, occasioned by a Miss Hall interrupting a discourse on prophecy, 
 by holding forth in what was denominated the " Unknown Tongue^ She 
 was removed to the vestry. On the same evening, a Mr. Taplin rose, and 
 commenced, with the permission of Mr. Irving, a violent harangue in the 
 same unknown language. A scene of most alarming confusion ensued, the 
 whole congregation rising from their seats in affright, and the females 
 screaming, while Mr. Irving listened with the most profound attention to 
 the ravings of the haspired teacher, October 16, 1831. From this period, 
 much of the same mummery, followed by a translation into English rhap- 
 sody, was played off; and large crowds assembled, not on Sundays only, but 
 as earl}?- as six o'clock on the mornings of week-days also, some to be edi- 
 fied by prophetic spirits, and some to laugh at the ravings of fanatics. — 
 Ami. Register. 
 
 ^^RANUS. This planet, with its satellites, was discovered by Herschel, by 
 whom it was called the Georgian planet, in honor of his majesty George III. 
 The name of Herschel is also given to it, in compliment to its illustrious 
 discoverer, by the astronomers of Great Britain ; but by foreigners it is 
 asually called Uranus. It is about -twice as distant from the sun as the 
 planet Saturn ; and was discovered on the 13th March, 1781. 
 
 USURY. Forbidden by parliament, 1341. Two shillings per week were given 
 for the loan of twenty, in 1260. This was at the rate of 43Z. 65. M. per 
 annum for lOOZ., which was restrained by an act, 1275, against the Jews, 
 Until the fifteenth century no Christians were allowed to receive interest 
 of money, and Jews were the only usiirers, and, therefore, often banished 
 and persecuted (see Jews). By the 37th of Henry VIII. , the rate of interest 
 was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. This statute confirmed by the 13th Eliza- 
 beth, 1570. Reduced to 8 per cent., 21 James I., 1623, when the word irt- 
 terest was first used for the word usury. Reduced to 5 per cent., 13 Anne, 
 1714. See Interest. 
 
 U .RECHT, Treaty of, &c. The Union of the Seven United Provinces began 
 here (see United Provinces), a. d. 15 '9. The celebrated Treaty of Utrecht, 
 which terminated the wars of queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of 
 Great Britain and France, as well as of all the other allies, except the minis- 
 ters of the empire. The most important stipulations of this treaty were 
 Uag security of the Protestant succession in England, the disuniting the 
 
fAL ] DICTIONAKY OF DATES. 577 
 
 French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement 
 of the British colonies and plantations in America, and a full satisfaction 
 for the claims of \he allies, A]3ril 11, 1713. Utrecht surrendered to the 
 Prussians, May 9, 1787 ; and was possessed by the French, Jan. 18, 1795. 
 
 TACCINE INOCULATION. Variola vaccina, discovered by Dr. Jenner. Ho 
 made the first experiment in vaccination, by transferring the p^is from 
 the pustule of a milk-maid, who had caught the cow-pox from the cows, to 
 a healthy child, in May 1796. Dr. .Tenner subsequently published the result 
 to the world, and the cure became general in 1799. The cure was intro- 
 duced Jan. 21, in that year. The genuine cow-pox appears, in the form of 
 vesicles, on the teats of the cow. Dr. Jenner received 10,000Z. for the dis- 
 covery from parliament in 1802 ; and the first national institution for the 
 promotion of the cure, called the Royal Jennerian Institution was founded 
 Jan. 19, 1803. Vaccination was practised throughout all Europe previously 
 to 1816. 
 
 VAGRANTS. After being Avhipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return 
 to the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years, 22 Henry 
 VIII. , 1530. A vagrant a second time convicted, to lose the upper part of 
 the gristle of his right ear, 27 Henry VIII., 1535 ; and a third time convicted, 
 death. By 1 Edward III., a vagabond to be marked with a V. and be a 
 slave for two years. Vagrants were punished by whipping, jailing, boring 
 the ears, and death for a second offence, 14 Elizabeth, 1571. The milder 
 statutes were those of 17 George II. ; 32, 35, and 59 George III. The laws 
 against vagrancy are still very severe in England, and operate unequally as 
 respects the character of the oflfender. 
 
 VALENCIA. Its university was founded, it is said, in the 13th century, and 
 was revived in 1470. Valencia was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 
 1705, but was soon lost again. It was taken from the Spaniards by the 
 French, under Suchet, with a garrison of more than 16,000 men, and im- 
 mense stores, Jan. 9, 1812. 
 
 VALENCIENNES, Siege of. This city was besieged from May 23 to July 14, 
 when the French garrison surrendered to the allies under the duke of York, 
 1793. It was retaken, together with Cond^, by the French, on capitulation, 
 the garrison and 1100 emigrants made prisoners, with immense stores, viz. 
 — 300 pieces of cannon, one million pounds of gunpowder, eight millions 
 of florins in specie, six millions of livres, 1000 head of cattle, and vast 
 quantities of other provisions, Aug. 30, 1794. 
 
 VALENCAY, Treaty of, between Napoleon of France and Ferdinand VIL 
 of Spain, whereby the latter was put in full possession of that kingdom, oq 
 agreeing to maintain its integrity. This celebrated treaty was signed De- 
 cember 8, 1813. 
 
 VALENTINE'S DAY. The practice of "choosing a Valentine," as it is 
 called, on this day, is too well known to need explanation. The origin of 
 the custom has been much controverted ; it is indisputably of very ancient 
 date. Valentine was a presbyter of the church, who suffered' martyr- 
 dom under Claudius 11. at Rome, a. d. 271. It is said that on this day 
 the birds choose their mates; whence, probably, came the custom of 
 young people choosing Valentines or particular friends on the feast of 
 Valentine. 
 
 VALENTINIANS. This sect of enthusiastics were followers of the opiniona 
 of one Valentine, a priest, who, upon being disappointed of a bishoprio, 
 
 25 
 
578 THE world's progress. , [ VETt 
 
 forsook the Christian faith, and published that there were thirty gods and 
 goddesses, fifteen of eacli sex, which he called ^ones, or Ages. He 
 taught in the second century, and published a gospel and })salnis ; to 
 these his followers added several other errors, declaring there was no ob- 
 ligation to suffer martyrdom ; some declared against baptism, and others 
 practised it in a peculiar manner, and all indulged themselves in licen- 
 tiousness. 
 
 VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipmaa 
 under captain Cook ; and a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence 
 of any navigable communication between the North Pacific and North 
 Atlantic oceans being determined on, he was appointed to command 
 it. He sailed in 1790, and returned September 24, 1795. He compiled an 
 account of this voyage of survey of the Northwest coast of America, and 
 died in 1798. 
 
 VANDALS. The Vandal nations began their ravages in Gern: my and Gaul, 
 A. D 406-414. Their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411. They invaded 
 and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, under Genseric, who took 
 Carthage, Oct. 24, 439. They were driven out, and attacked in turn by the 
 Saracen Moors. The Vandalii overran a vast portion of Europe and spread 
 devastation wherever they appeared. 
 
 VAN DIEMENS LAND. This country was discovered by Tasraan in 1633. 
 It was visited by Furneaux in 1773 ; by captain Cook in 1777 ; and was 
 deemed the south extremity of New Holland i^intil 1799. A British settle- 
 ment was established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Der- 
 went, and named Hobart Town, which is the seat of government, 1804. 
 
 VASSALAGE. See Feudal Laws and Villanage. Vassalage was introduced 
 by the Saxons, and its slavery increased under William I. Under the Nor- 
 man princes there were vassal boors and free boors ; those who were sold 
 with the land, and those who were free to choose an employer. To this day 
 the distinction prevails in some countries, and particularly in Russia, where 
 the vassal boors are divided into classes; as boors belonging to the sover- 
 eign ; mining boors, who are sold with the property; and private boors, who 
 belong to the nobility, and perform the labor on their estates. In England, 
 a vassal did homage to a lord on account of land, &c., held of him in fee. 
 Vassalage was abolished in Hungary in October 1785 ; in Holstein, in May 
 1797 ; and Courland, in Sept. 1818. 
 
 VATIC AN. The magnificent palace of the pope at Rome, adjoining St, Peter's, 
 said to contain 7000 rooms. In this palace, the library, founded a. d. 1448, 
 is noted for its collection of MSS., but the number of books is compara- 
 tively moderate. See Libraries. The phrase " thunders of the Vatican," 
 was first used by Voltaire, 1748. 
 
 VENEZUELA. When the Spaniards landed here in 1499, they observed some 
 huts built upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora, in order to raise them 
 above the stagnated water that covered the plain ; and this induced them to 
 give it the name of Venezuela, or Little Venice. This state declared in a 
 congressional assembly the sovereignty of its people, in July 1814. It sep- 
 arated from the federal union and declared itself sole and independent in 
 1830. See Colombia. 
 
 VENI, VIDI, VICI. — "I came, I saw, I conquered." This well-known sen- 
 tence formed the whole of Caesar's dispatch to the Roman senate when ho 
 vanquished Pharnaces. king of Cimmerian Bosphorus, 47 b. c. See Zela 
 Battle of. 
 
 TENICE. So called from the Venetii who inhabited its site, when it was made 
 a kingdom by the Gauls, who conquered it about 356 is. c. Marcellus con- 
 
V»:» t 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 579 
 
 qnered it for the Roman republic, and slew the Gaulish king, 221 b. c. The 
 islands on viiich the city is built began to be inhabited, a. d. 421, by Ital- 
 ians, who fled here as a place of safety from the Goths, and other barbar- 
 oua nations, when they ravaged Italy, The first house was erected on the 
 morass by Entinopus, by whom the people of Padua were assisted in build- 
 ing the eighty houses which first formed the city. — Priestley. Venice was 
 first governed by a doge (Anafesto Paululio), a. d. 697. The republic was 
 not completely founded until 803. The city reduced to ashes, 1101. The 
 ceremony of the doges of Venice marrying the Adriatic was instituted by 
 pope Alexander III. in 1173. Venice carried on a vast commerce until the 
 discovery of America, and a passage to the East Indies by the Cape, gave 
 it another direction, about 1500. By the treaty of Campo Formio, the ter- 
 ritory to the north and west of the Adige were ceded to Austria, and the 
 rest was annexed to what the French then styled the Cisalpine Republic, 
 1797. This disposition was altered by the treaty of Presburg, and the 
 whole country annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1805. Venice returned 
 under the power of Austria in 1814. The city declared a free port, Jan, 24, 
 1830. 
 
 Venice, after a gallant resistance, capi- 
 tulates to Marshal Radetzky, and is 
 again in the power of Austria, 
 
 Aug. 22, 1&49 
 
 Venice declares herself an independent 
 republic - - Aug. 18, 1848 
 
 Provisional government decrees an as- 
 sembly with full powers to be elected 
 by universal suffrage, 1 to every 1,500 
 inhabitants - - Dec. 29, 1848 
 
 VENTRILOQUISM. Persons who had this art were by the Latins called Ven- 
 triloqui, and by the Greeks, Engastrimythoi, i. e. people that speak out of 
 their bellies, or who have the art of throwing out the voice in an extraordi- 
 nary manner. Exhibitors of this kind have appeared in England in various 
 ages, but some of extraordinary capabilities in their art exhibited in the 
 last century. Mr. Thomas King is said to have been the first man whose 
 experimental philosophy, shown in this line, excited great wonder, about 
 1716. One of the most accomplished professors of ventriloquism that ever 
 appeared in France or England, was M. Alexandre, about 1822. 
 
 \TENUS. This planet's transit over the sun, it was ascertained by Horrox, in 
 1633, would take place Nov. 24, 1639. He was the first who predicted, or 
 rather calculated this passage, from which he deduced many useful obser- 
 vations. Maskelyne was sent to St. Helena to observe her transit, in Jan. 
 3761. Captain Cook made his first voyage, in the Endeavor, to Otaheita, 
 to observe a transit of Venus, in 1769. See note to article Cook's Voyages. 
 The diurnal rotation of Venus was discovered by Cassini in 1712. This 
 planet will not be again so brilliant as in 1769 to our globe until 1874. 
 
 VERMONT, one of the United States, first settled by colonists from Massachu- 
 setts, 1723. The territory was claimed by New Hampshire, from 1741 to 
 1764 : claimed also by New- York, and granted to that colony by parliament 
 in 1664 Owing to these conflicting claims, the state was not admitted into 
 the confederacy during the Revolution, but it still performed its part in 
 that struggle. The British defeated at Bennington by gen. Stark, in 1777. 
 Claims of New- York withdrawn on payment of $30,000, in 1790. The stat<3 
 admitted into the Union, 1791. Population in 1790, was 85,589 ; in 1810, 
 217,895 ; in 1830, 280,679; in 1840, 291,948, 
 
 VERSAILLES, Palace of. In the reign of Louis XIII., Versailles was only a 
 small village, in a forest thirty miles in circuit; and here this prince built a 
 hunting-seat in 1630. Louis XIV., in 1687, enlarged it into a magnificent 
 palace, which was finished in 1708, and was the usual residence of tbe kings 
 of France till 1789, when Louis XVI. and his family were removed from it 
 to Paris. Louis Philippe appropriated the whole of the immense building 
 
580 THE world's PROGRESS. [ V£i 
 
 to a grand national museum of paintings and statues, dedicated ds tous J^i 
 gluires de France ; and freely opened to the public. 
 
 VERSAILLES, Peace of. The definitive treaty of peace between Great Bri- 
 tain and the United States, signed at Paris ; when' the latter power was ad- 
 mitted to be sovereign and independent. On the same day, the definitive 
 treaty was signed at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and Spain, 
 Sept. 3, 1783. In pursuance of the treaty of Versailles, Pondicherry and 
 Carical, with the former possessions in Bengal, were restored to France. 
 Trincomalle at the same time restored to the Dutch. 
 
 VERSE, BLANK. Blank verse and the heroic couplet, now in general use for 
 grave or elevated themes, are both of comparatively modern date. Surrey 
 translated part of Virgil's JEneid into blank verse, which is the first composi - 
 tion of the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English language ; and the 
 other measure was but little affected till the reign of Charles II. The verse 
 ])reviously used in our grave compositions was the stanza of eight lines, the 
 oUava rima, as adopted with the addition of one line by Spenser (in his 
 Faery Qiceen), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso, the Italian 
 language being at that time in high repute. Boccaccio first introduced it into 
 Italy in his heroic poem La Teseide, having copied it from the old French 
 chansons. — Metropolitan. Vrissino is said to have been the first introducer of 
 blank verse among the moderns, about 1508. — Vossius. See Poetry. 
 
 VESTA. The planet Vesta (tha ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bre- 
 men, on March 28, 1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude. — 
 Annual Register. 
 
 VESTALS. Priestesses of the goddess Vesta, who took care of the perpetual 
 fire, consecrated to her worship. This office was very ancient, as the mother 
 of Romulus was one of the vestals, ^neas is supposed to have first chosen 
 the Vestals. Numa, in 710 b. c, first appointed four, to which number Tar- 
 quin added two. They were always chosen by the monarchs ; but after the 
 expulsion of the Tarquins, the high-priest was intrusted with the care 
 of them. As they were to be virgins, they were chosen j^oung, from 
 the age of six to. ten; and if there was not a sufficient number that 
 presented themselves as candidates for the office, twenty virgins were 
 selected; and they upon whom the lot fell were obliged to become priestesses. 
 The vestal Minutia was buried alive for violating her virgin vow, 337 b. c. 
 The vestal Sextilia was buried alive for incontinence, 274 b. c. ; and the ves- 
 tal Cornelia Maximiliana on the same charge, a. d. 92. — Bibliotheque Uni- 
 verselle. 
 
 VESUVIUS, MOUNT. The dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius, when it 
 emitted such a quantity of flame and smoke that the air was darkened, and 
 the cities of Pompeii and Hercula,neum were overwhelmed by the burning 
 lava, A. D. 79. More than 250,000 persons perished by the destruction of 
 those cities ; the sun's light was totally obscured for two days throughout 
 Naples ; great quantities of ashes and sulphureous smoke were carried not 
 only to Rome, but also beyond the Mediterranean into Africa ; birds were 
 suffocated in the air and fell dead upon the ground, and the fishes perished 
 in the neighboring waters, which were made hot and infected by it : this 
 eruption proved fatal to Pliny the naturalist. Herculaneum was discovered 
 in 1737, and many curious articles have been dug from the ruins since that 
 time ; but every thing combustible had the marks of having been burned by 
 fire. Numerous eruptions have occurred, causing great devastation and 
 loss of lives. In 1631 the town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 persons, and. 
 a great part of the surrounding country, were destroyed. One of the most 
 dreadful eruptions ever known took place suddenl}'-, Nov. 24, 1759. The 
 violent burst in 1767 was the thirty-fourth from the the time of Titus, whea 
 
VIE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 681 
 
 Pompeii was buried. One in 1794 was most destructive : the lava flowed 
 over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated lands, and the town oi 
 Torre del Greco was a second time burned ; the top of the mountain fell in, 
 and the crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. There have been 
 several eruptions since. 
 
 VETOES OF THE PRESIPENTS of the UNITED STATES. The power of can 
 celling- acts of Congress by executive veto, was exercised as follows : — by 
 Washington, tAvice ; Madison, four times ; Monroe, once ; Jackson, five 
 times ; Tyler, three times ; Polk, twice. Bill relating to steam-vessels in the 
 navy vetoed by president Tyler, and afterwards passed by vote of two thirds 
 of both houses, and became a law : the first instance of the kind, Fe])ruary 
 20, 1845. River and Harbor bill, vetoed by president Polk, August 3, 1846. 
 French Spoliation Indemnity bill, by the same, Aug. 8, 1846. 
 
 VIENNA. The former capital of the German empire, and from 1806 the ca- 
 pital of the Austrian dominions only. Vienna was made an imperial city 
 in 1136, and was walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for Richard I. 
 of England, 40,000Z., in 1194. Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the 
 Magnilicent, with an army of 300,000 men : but he was forced to raise the 
 siege with the loss of 70 000 of his best troops, 1529. Again besieged in 
 1683, when the siege was raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, who 
 totally defeated the Turkish army of 100,000, which had cannonaded the 
 city from July 24 to the beginning of November. Vienna was taken by 
 the French, under prince Murat, Nov. 14, 1805 ; and evacuated January 12, 
 following. They again captured it. May 13, 1809 ; but restored it once 
 more on the conclusion of peace between the two countries, Oct. 14, same 
 year. Conference of the ministers of the allies and France, September 28, 
 1814. Congress of sovereigns, Oct. 2, 1814. See Aiistria and Hungary. 
 See next articles. 
 
 VIENNA, Treaty of, with Spain, The celebrated treaty signed between the 
 emperor of Germany and the king of. Spain, by which they confirmed to 
 each other such parts of the Spanish dominions as they were respectively 
 possessed of, and by a private treaty the emperor engaged to employ a force 
 to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means for placing 
 the Pretender on the throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed the Prag- 
 matic Sanction, April 30, 1725. 
 
 VIENNiV, Treaty of Alliance, between the emperor of Germany, the king 
 of Great Britain, and Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction Avas gua- 
 ranteed, and the disputes as to the Spanish succession terminated (Spain 
 acceded to the treaty on the 22d of July) ; signed March 16, 1731. 
 
 VIENNA, Treaty of with France. A definitive treaty of peace between the 
 emperor of Germany and king of France, by which the latter power agreed 
 to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France ; 
 signed Nov. 18, 1738. 
 
 VIENNA, Peace op, between Napoleon of France and Francis (II. of Germany) 
 I. of Austria. By this treaty Austria ceded to France the Tyrol, Dalmatia, 
 and other territories, which were shortly afterwards declared to be united 
 to France under the title of the Illyrian Provinces, and engaging to adhere 
 to the prohibitory system adopted towards England by France and Russia 
 October 14, 1809. 
 
 VIENNA, Treaties of. The treaty of Vienna between Great Britain, Austria, 
 Russia, and Prussia, confirming the principles on which thev had acted by 
 the treaty of Chaumont, March 1, 1814; signed March 23, 1815. The 
 treaty of Vienna between the king of the Low Coim tries on the one part, 
 and Great Britain, Russia^ Austria, and Prussia, on the other, agreeing to 
 
682 THE world's progress. I" VIN 
 
 the enlargement of the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in tha 
 house of Orange, May 31, 1815. The treaty of Vienna : Denmark cedes 
 Swedish Pomcrania and Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg, 
 June 4, 1815. The federative constitution of Germany signed at Vienna, 
 June 8, 1815. 
 VILLAIN. The name of a vassal under the Norman princes, his hard labor 
 being the tenure by which he lived upon the land. Of and pertaining to 
 the vill or lordship; was a servant during life, and was devisable as chat^ 
 tels in the feudal times. Queen Elizabeth gave the principal blow to this 
 kind of severe service, by ordering her bondsmen of the western counties 
 to bo made free at easy rates, a, d. 1574. — Stowe's Chron. 
 
 VIMEIRA, Battle of,, between the British, under sir ArtliLr Wellesley, an(\ 
 the whole of the French and Spanish forces in Portugal, under marshail 
 Junot, duke of Abrantes, whom the British signally defeated, August 21, 
 1808. For this victory the British hero and the officers and soldiers under 
 his command were voted the thanks of parliament, the first of many si- 
 milar honors that marked sir Arthur's (now duke of Wellington's) triumph- 
 ant career. 
 
 VINCENTS, St, This Avas long a neutral island ; but at the peace of 1763. 
 the French agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English. 
 The latter, soon after, engaged in a war against the Caribs, on the windward 
 side of the island, who were obliged to consent to a peace, by which they 
 ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. The consequence of this 
 was, that in 1779 they greatly contributed to the reduction of this island 
 bj the French, who, however, restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French 
 landed some troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insurrection, which 
 was not subdued for several months. The great eruption of the Scouffriei 
 mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 1812. 
 
 VINE. The vine was known to Noah. A colony of vine-dressers from Phocea, 
 in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South Gauls in tillage, 
 vine-dressing, and commerce, about 600 b. c. Some think the vines are 
 aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and Sicily, and that they grew sponta- 
 neously on the Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The 
 vine was carried into Champagne, and part of Germany, a. d. 279. The 
 vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira in 1420. It was planted in 
 England in 1552 ; and in the gardens of Hampton-court palace is an old and 
 celebrated vine, said to surpass any known vine in Europe. See Grapes, 
 and Wine* 
 
 VINEGAR. Known nearly as soon as wine. The ancients had several kinds 
 of vinegar, which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accus- 
 tomed to take it in their marches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich ci- 
 tizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for his reapers, into which they 
 migiit dip their bread, and kindly inviting Ruth to share with them in their 
 repast : hence we maj^ infer that the harvesters, at that period, partook of 
 this liquid for their refreshment ; a custom still prevalent in Spain and Italy. 
 It is conjectured that the vinegar which the Roman soldiers offered to our 
 Saviour at his crucifixion was that which they used for their own drinking. 
 
 * T\sy following is a tradition in relation to the vine : — When Adam planted the first vine, ami 
 iBft it, Satan approached it, and said, " Lovely plant ! I will cherish thee ;" and thereupon taking 
 three animals, a lamb, a lion, and a hog, he slayed them at the root of the tree, and their blood has 
 been hnbibed by the fruit to this day. Thus, if you take one goblet of wine, you are cheei-ed by its 
 influence, yet are mild and docile as the lamb; if you take two goblets, you beco>r.e furious, and 
 rave and bellow like the lion; and if you drink of the third goblet, your reasor. sinks, and, like the 
 bog, you wallow in the mire. — Ashe. 
 
VIE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 583 
 
 There was, however, a kind of potent vinegar, which was not projier for 
 drinking till diluted. 
 VIOL AND VIOLIN. As the lyre of the Greeks was the harp of the moderns, 
 so the viol and vielle of the middle ages became the modern violin. The 
 viol was of various sizes formerly, as it is at present, and was anciently very 
 much in use for chamber airs and songs. That of three strings was intro- 
 duced into Europe by the jugglers of the thirteenth century. The violin 
 was invented towards the close of the same century. — Abbe LengLet. The 
 fiddle, however, is mentioned as early as a. d. 1200, in the legendary life of 
 St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, some say, by Charles II. 
 
 IT'lRtjrlN. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin 
 churches, in honor of the miraculous ascent of Mary into heaven, according 
 to their belief, August 15, a. d. 45. The Presentation of the Virgin, is a 
 feast celebrated November 21, said to have been instituted among the 
 Greeks in the eleventh century ; its institution in the West is ascribed to 
 (xregory XI., 1372. A distinguished writer says : " The Indian incarnate 
 god Chrishna. the Hindoos believe, had a virgin-mother of the royal race, 
 and was sought to be destroyed in his infancy, about 900 years b. c. It 
 appears that he passed his life in working miracles and preaching, and 
 was so humble as to wash his friends' feet ; at length dying, but rising 
 from the dead, he ascended into heaven in the presence of a multitude. 
 The Cingalese relate nearly the same things of their Budda." — Sir William 
 Jones. 
 
 VIRGINIA, daughter of the centurion L. Virginius. Appius Claudius, the 
 decemvir, became enamored of her, and attempted to remove her from the 
 place Avhere she resided. She was claimed by one of his favorites as the 
 daughter of a slave, and Appius, in the capacity and with the authority of 
 Judge, had pronounced the sentence, and delivered her into the hands of his 
 friend, when Virginius, informed of his violent proceedings, arrived from 
 the camp. The father demanded to see his daughter, and when this re- 
 quest was granted, he snatched a knife and plunged it into Virginia's breast, 
 exclaiming, " This is all, my daughter ! I can give thee, to preserve thee 
 from the lust of a tyrant." No sooner was the blow given than Virginius 
 ran to the camp with the bloody knife in his hand. The soldiers were as- 
 tonished and incensed, not against the murderer, but the tyrant, and they 
 immediately marched to Rome. Appius was seized, but he destroyed him- 
 self in prison, and prevented the execution of the law. Spurius Oppius, 
 another of the decemvirs, who had not opposed the tyrant's views, killed 
 himself also ; and Marcus Claudius, the favorite of Appius, was put to 
 death, and the decemviral power abolished, 449 b. c. 
 
 VIRGINIA. One of the United States; sometimes called the " Old Dominion," 
 having been settled, April, 1607, at Jamestown, on James river — the first 
 white settlement in the United States. Named Virginia in honor of queen 
 Elizabeth, who had granted the country to Sir Walter Raleigh. A settle- 
 ment attempted by Raleigh but failed, and the grant was vacated on his 
 attainder and execution. The country granted by James I. to two compa- 
 nies, the London and the Plymouth. Jamestown settled by the former, and 
 named in honor of their royal patron. The colony suffered much from the 
 Indians, and by various disasters ; proved loyal during the English revolu- 
 tion; was the first to proclaim Charles II. on his restoration; established 
 the Church of England by law, 1662 ; took an early and prominent part in 
 the struggle for independence. Surrender of the British army under Corn- 
 ■jvallis, at Yorktown. October 19, 1782. Constitution of the United States 
 adopted June 25, 1788, by 89 to 79. Virginia has given birth to six presi- 
 dents of the United States, viz : Washington. Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, 
 
584 THE world's progress. { »o 
 
 Harrison, and Taylor; and also, Patrick Henry, John Marshall, aud : .any 
 distinguished patriots. Population in 1790 was 747,610; in 1810, 974.622; 
 in 1830, 1,211,272 ; in 1840, 1,239,737, including 448,937 slaves. 
 
 VISIER OR VIZIER, GRAND. An officer of the Ottoman Porte, first appointed 
 in 1370. Formerly this officer governed the whole empire immediately 
 under the grand seignior ; he is sometimes called the grand seignior's lieu- 
 tenant, or vicar of the empire ; at his creation, the prince's seal is put into 
 his hand, upon which is engraven the emperor's name, which he places in 
 his bosom, and carries away with him. — Knolles. 
 
 VITTORIA, Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories recorded in tlm 
 annals of England, obtained by Wellington over the French array com- 
 manded by Jerome Bonaparte and marshal Jourdan, June 21, 1813, Mar- 
 shal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 wagons of ammunition, all his 
 baggage, provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a marshal of 
 France. Continuing the pursuit on the 25th, Wellington t-otX Jourdan's 
 only remaining gun ! 
 
 VOLCANOES. In diffiirent parts of the earth's surface, there are above 200 
 volcanoes, which have been active in modern times. The eruptions of 
 Mount Etna are recorded as early as 734 b. c. by authentic historians. See 
 Etna. The first eruption of Vesuvius was in a. d. 79. See Vesuvius. 
 The first eruption of Hecla is said to have occurred a. d. 1004. For an ac- 
 count of the awful eruption of this volcano in 1783. see Iceland. In Mexico, 
 a plain was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in height 
 by the burning lava from a volcano in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro 
 broke out, Sept. 13. 1777, which threw out an immense quantity of red 
 water, that discolored the sea for several leagues. A new volcano appeared 
 in one of the Azore islands. May 1, 1808, 
 
 VOLUNTEERS. This species of force armed in England, in apprehension of 
 the threatened invasion of revolutionary France, 1794. Besides their large 
 army, and 85,000 men voted for the sea, England subsidized 40.000 Germans, 
 raised the militia to 100,000 men, and armed the citizens as volunteers. 
 Between the years 1798 and 1804, when this force was of greatest amount, 
 it numbered 410,000 men, of which 70,000 were Irish. The English volun- 
 teers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 on Jan. 1, 1804, In the 
 United States, on the breaking out of the Mexican war, Congress authorized 
 the enlistment of 50,000 volunteers. A much larger number responded, 
 but less than 30,000 were actually needed or enrolled, 
 
 VOYAGES. The first great voyage, or voyage properly so called, w^as by order 
 of Necho, pharoah of Egypt, when some Phoenician pilots sailed from 
 Egypt down the Arabic Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of Good 
 Hope, entered the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along 
 the north of Africa, and at length arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of 
 about three years, 604 b. c. — Blair, Herodotus. The first voyage round the 
 world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been 
 under the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Phihppinc Is- 
 land in a skirmish) in 1519-20. The era of voyages of discovery was 
 the end of the eighteenth century. See Circu7}ind,vigators, and Nori^i- We.'^- 
 Passage. 
 
 W. 
 
 WAGES IN ENGLAND, The wages of sundry workmen in England were first 
 fixed by act of i)arliament, 25 Edward III., 1350. Haymakers ha<l but one 
 penny a da,y. Master carpenters, masons, tylers, and other coverers ot 
 houses, had not more than 3r/. per day (about 9d. of our money) ; and their 
 
WAL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 585 
 
 servants 1 ^d. — Vincr^s Slatntes. By tlie the 23d Henrj^ VI., 1441, the wageg 
 of a bailiff of husbandrj^ was 23s. 4:d. per annum, and clothing of the price 
 of 55. with meat and drink; chief hind, carter, or shepherd. 20^., clothiug 
 4s. ; common servant of husbandry, 15s., clothing 40^?. ; Avoman-servant, 10s,, 
 clothing 4s. By the 11th Henry VII. , 1495, there was a like rate of wages, 
 only with a little advance ; as, for instance, a free mason, master carpenter, 
 rough mason, bricklayer, master tyler, plumber, glazier, carver, or joiner, 
 was allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take 6d. a. day, without meat and 
 drink ; or with meat and drink 4^. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate 
 Id. A master having under him six men was allowed Id. a day extra. The 
 following were the 
 
 WAGES OF HARVEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 
 
 Yeai-. 
 
 
 s. d 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 a. 
 
 In 1350 
 
 per diem. 
 
 
 
 In 1688 
 
 per diem. 
 
 8 
 
 In 1788 
 
 per diem. 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 In 1460 
 
 ditto 
 
 k 
 
 In 1716 
 
 ditto 
 
 9 
 
 In 1794 
 
 ditto 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 In 1568 
 
 ditto 
 
 4 
 
 In 1740 
 
 ditto 
 
 10 
 
 In 1800 
 
 ditto 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 In 1632 
 
 ditto 
 
 6 
 
 In 1760 
 
 ditto 
 
 I 
 
 In 1840 
 
 ditto 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 VVAGRAM, Battle of, between the Austrian and French armies, in whiuh tho 
 latter was completely victorious, and the former entirely overthrown. The 
 slaughter on both sides was dreadful ; 20,000 Austrians were taken . y the 
 French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia, July 5, 1809. This 
 battle led to an armistice, signed on the 12th ; and on Oct. 24, to a treaty 
 of peace, by which Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France, and the 
 kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were enlarged at her expense. The em- 
 peror was obliged also to yield a part of his plunder of Poland in Gallicia 
 to Russia. The emperor also acknowledged Joseph Bonaparte as king of 
 Spain. 
 
 WAKEFIELD, Battle of, in England, between Margaret, the queen of Henry 
 VI., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists 
 fell upon the field. The death of the duke, who aspired to the crown, 
 seemed to fix the good fortune of Margaret; but the earl of Warwick es- 
 poused the cause of his son, the earl of March, aftervi^ards Edward IV,, and 
 the civil war that was continued from that time devastated all England. 
 This battle was fought December 31, 1460. 
 
 WAKES. Every church at its consecration received the name of some par- 
 ticular saint; this practice existed among the Romans and Britons, and 
 was continued among the Saxons. — WhUaker. Women were hired among 
 the ancient Romans to weep at funerals : they were called Carince. The 
 Irish howl originated from this Roman outcry at the decease of their 
 friends. They hoped thus to awaken the soul, which they supposed might 
 lie inactive. 
 
 W ALDENSES. The persecution of this sect in the beginning of the thirteenth 
 century led to the establishment of the Holy Office or Inquisition, Pope 
 Innocent IH. had commissioned some monks to preach against the heresies 
 of the Waldenses in Narbonne and Provence ; but the Catholic bishops 
 were at first jealous of this mission, armed as it was with great power, and 
 the feudal chiefs refused to obey the orders of the legates, a. d. 1203-4. 
 One of the monks, the first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf. having been as- 
 sassinated, the aspiring pontiff called on all the neighboring powers to 
 ma ch into the heretical district. All obstinate heretics were placed at 
 the disposal of Simon de Montfort, commander of this crusade, and the 
 whole race of the Waldenses and Albigenses were ordered to be pursued 
 with fire and sword. Neither sex, age, nor condition was spared ; the coun- 
 try became a wilderness, and the towns heaps of smoking ruins. Such was 
 the era of the Inquisition. Dominic de Guzman wa^ constituted first inqui- 
 sitor-general, 1208. 
 
 25* 
 
586 THE world's progress [ wab 
 
 WALES. After the Roman emperor Honorius quitted Britain, Vorti^ern was 
 elected king of South Britain, and he invited over the Saxons to defend his 
 country against the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons ixirfidiously sent for 
 reinforcemen-ts, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they 
 made themselves masters of South Britain, and most of the ancient Britons 
 retired to Wales, and defended themselves against the Saxons, in its inac- 
 cessible mountains, about a. d. 447. In this state Wales remained uncon- 
 quered till Henry Il.xsubdued South Wales in 1157 : and in 1282 Edward I. 
 entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to its independency by 
 the death of Llewellyn, the last prince. The Welsh, however, were not 
 entirely reconciled to this revolution, till the queen happening to be brought 
 to bed of a son at Carnarvon in 1284, Edward with great policy styled hinj 
 prince of Wales, Avhich title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has 
 borne almost ever since. Wales was united and incorporated with England 
 by act of parliament, 27 Henry VIIL 1535. See Britain. 
 
 WALES, PRINCE of. The first prince of this title was Edward, the son of 
 Edward I., who was born in Carnarvon castle on the 25th April. 1284., Im- 
 mediately after his birth he was presented by his father to the Welsh cnief 
 tains as their future sovereign, the king holding up the royal infant in his 
 arms, and saying, in the Welsh language, " Eich D]pi" literally in English, 
 "This is your man," but signifying, "This is your countryman and king." 
 These words were afterwards changed, or corrupted, as some historians 
 assert, to " Ich Dien" which is the motto attached to the arms of the prince 
 of Wales to this day. Owing to the premature death of his elder brother, this 
 prince succeeded to the throne of England, by the title of Edward II., in 
 1307. — Myvyrian Archaeology. Hist. Wales. For another and very different 
 account of the origin of the motto " Ich Dien," see the article under that 
 head. 
 
 WALLOONS. The people who fled to England from the persecution of the 
 cruel duke of Alva, the governor of the Low Countries for Philip II. of 
 Spain. On account of the duke's religious proscriptions, those countries 
 revolted from Philip, 1566. — Marmna's Hist, of Spain. The Walloons were 
 well received in England. A large Protestant church was given to them by 
 queen Elizabeth, at Canterbury, and many of their posterity still remain in 
 this part of England. — Pardon. 
 
 WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS." Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Robert, 
 and earl of Orford) became first lord of the treasury in 1715. He resigned, 
 on a disunion of the cabinet, in 1717, bringing in the sinking fund bill 
 on the day of his resignation. Resumed as head of the ministry, on 
 the earl of Sunderland retiring, in 1721 ; and continued as premier until 
 1742, when his administration was finally shaken by its unpopular endeavors 
 for some time previously to maintain peace with Spain. 
 
 WANDERING JEW. The following is the strange account given of this per- 
 sonage : — His original name was Calaphilus, Pontius Pilate's porter. When 
 they were dragging Jesus out of the door of the Judgment-hall, he struck 
 him on the back, saying, "Go faster, Jesus ! go faster; why dost thou lin- 
 ger V Upon which Jesus looked on him with a frown, and said, "I am in- 
 deed going ; but thou shalt tarry till I come." Soon after he was converted, 
 and took the name of Joseph. He lives for ever ; but at the end of every 
 hundred years falls into a fit or trance, upon which when he recovers, he 
 returns to the same state of youth he was in when our Saviour suffered, 
 being about thirty years of age. He always preserves the utmost gravity 
 of deportment. He was never seen to smile. He yjerfectly remembers the 
 ieath and resurrection of Christ. — Calmet's Hist, of the Bible, 
 
WAR ] 
 
 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 
 
 587 
 
 WARS. War is called by Erasmus " the malady of piinces." Scriptural wri- 
 ters date the first war as having been begun by the impious son of (vain 
 3563 B. c. Osymandyas of Egypt was the first warlike king ; he passed 
 into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 2100 b. c. — Usher. He is supposed 
 by some to be the Osiris of the priests. The most famous siege recorded 
 in the annals of antiquity was that of Troy, 1193 — 1184 b. c. The longest 
 siege was that of Azoth, 647 b. c. The most famous sortie was that of the 
 Plataeans from their city, 428 b. c. It is computed that from the beginning 
 of the world to the present time, no less than 6.860 000,000 of men have 
 perished in the field of battle, being about seven times as many of the hu- 
 man species as now inhabit our whole earth. 
 
 WARS, Civil, of Grkat Britain, The most remarkable civil wars of Great 
 Britain are the following : — That of a. d. 1215-16. The war of the barons 
 against Henry III., 1565; of the usurpation of Henry IV., 1400; of tho 
 White and Red Roses, or houses of York and Lancaster, from 1452 to 1471. 
 The war between Richard III. and Henry VIL, 1485. The war against 
 Charles I. from 1642 to 1651. The Scottish civil war under the Pretender, 
 1715-16 ; that under the Young Pretender, 1745. In Ireland, that under Ty 
 rone, 1599 ; under O'Neill, 1641 ; and that produced by the great rebellion, 
 1798. 
 
 WARS. Foreign, of Great Britain. The wars in France, in which England 
 was involved for nearly two centuries, arose from the dukes of Normandy 
 being kings of England. They held Normandy as a fief of the crown of 
 France ; and when William I. conquered England, it became an English 
 province, but was lost in the reign of king John, 1204. The wars with 
 France were many ; the English princes gained bloody victories at Cressy, 
 Poictiers. and Agincourt ; but they were finally driven out of France in the 
 reign of Henry VI., and lost Calais, by surprise, in the reign of Mary. It 
 was to the EngHsh people a fortunate loss ; but the rival policy and interests 
 of the two governments have, ever since then, caused half as many years 
 of war as peace. See the countries respectively, BaULes, &c. 
 
 FOREIGN WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN SINCE THE CONQUEST. 
 
 War with Scotland 
 
 10G8 
 
 Peace 
 
 1092 
 
 War with Scotland, 1542 Pe 
 
 ace. 1546 
 
 u 
 
 France, 
 
 1116 
 
 
 1118 
 
 
 Scotland, 1547 ' 
 
 ' 1550 
 
 IC 
 
 Scotland, 
 
 1138 
 
 
 1139 
 
 
 France, 1549 ' 
 
 ' 1550 
 
 u 
 
 France, 
 
 1161 
 
 
 1186 
 
 
 France, 1557 ' 
 
 ' 1559 
 
 k( 
 
 France, 
 
 1194 
 
 
 1195 
 
 
 Scotland, 1557 ' 
 
 ' 1560 
 
 « 
 
 France, 
 
 1201 
 
 
 1216 
 
 
 France, 1562 ' 
 
 ' 1.564 
 
 t' 
 
 France, 
 
 1234 
 
 
 1234 
 
 " 
 
 Spain, 1588 ' 
 
 ' 1604 
 
 (.' 
 
 France, 
 
 1294 
 
 
 1299 
 
 
 Spain, 1624 ' 
 
 ' 1629 
 
 (( 
 
 Scotland, 
 
 1296 
 
 
 1323 
 
 
 France, 1627 ' 
 
 ' 1629 
 
 a 
 
 Scotland, 
 
 1327 
 
 
 1328 
 
 
 Holland, 1651 ' 
 
 ' 1654 
 
 (4 
 
 France, 
 
 1339 
 
 
 1360 
 
 
 Spain, 1655 ' 
 
 ' 1660 
 
 n 
 
 France, 
 
 1368 
 
 
 1420 
 
 
 France, 1666 ' 
 
 ' 1668 
 
 u 
 
 France, 
 
 1422 
 
 
 1471 
 
 
 Denmark, 1666 ' 
 
 ' 1668 
 
 u 
 
 France, 
 
 1492 
 
 " same year 
 
 
 Holland, 1666 ' 
 
 ' 1668 
 
 u 
 
 France, 
 
 1512 
 
 
 1514 
 
 
 Algiers, 1669 ' 
 
 ' 1671 
 
 li 
 
 France, 
 
 1522 
 
 
 1527 
 
 
 Holland, 1672 ' 
 
 ' 1674 
 
 a 
 
 Scotland, 
 
 1522 
 
 
 1542 
 
 
 France, 1689 < 
 
 ' 1697 
 
 The general peace of Ryswick between England, Germany, Holland, France, 
 and Spain, was signed by the ministers of these powers, at the palace of 
 Ryswick, Sept. 20, 1697. It concluded this last war. 
 
 THE GREAT MODERN AND EXPENSIVE WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 War of the Succession, commenced May 4, 
 1702. Peace of Utrecht, March 13, 1713. 
 
 War with Spain, Dec. 16, 1718. Peace con- 
 cluded 1721. 
 
 War; the Spanish War, Oct. 23, 1739. 
 Peace of Aix-la-Chapeile, April 30, 1748. 
 
 War with France, March 31, 1744. Closed 
 
 also on April 30, 1748. 
 War ; the Seven years'' icar, June 9, 1756, 
 
 Peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. 
 War with Spain, Jan. 4, 1762. Gener«> 
 
 peace of Feb. 10, \'y<'^'^ 
 
58S 
 
 THE world's PROGHESS. 
 
 [ WAIl 
 
 WARS. Foreign, of Great Britain — continiied. 
 
 War with the United States, July 14, 1774. 
 
 Peace of Paris, Nov. 30. 1782. 
 War with France, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of 
 
 Paris. Jan. 20, 1783. 
 War with Spain, April 17, 1780. Closed 
 
 same time, Jan 20, 1783. 
 War with Holland, Dec. 21, 1780. Peace 
 
 signed Sept. 2, 1783. 
 
 War of the Revolution, Feb. 1, 1793. Peace 
 of Amiens, March 27, 1802. 
 
 War against Bonaparte, April 29, 1803. Fi- 
 nally closed, June 18, 1815. 
 
 War with the United States, June 18, 1612. 
 Peace of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814. 
 
 For the wars with India and China, see th:«» 
 countries respectively. 
 
 In the war against Bonaparte, the great powers of Europe leagued sometimes 
 with, and sometimes against Great Britain. England spent 65 years in war, 
 and 62 in peace, in the 127 years previous to the close of the last war in 
 1815. In the war of 1688, she spent 36 millions sterling ; in the war of the 
 Spanish Succession, 62 millions ; in the Spanish war, 54 millions ; in the 
 Seven Years' war, 112 millions ; in the American war, 136 millions ; in the 
 war of the French Revolution, 464 millions ; and in the war agai7ist Bona- 
 parte, 1159 millions ; thus forming a total expenditure for war, in 127 years 
 (from the Revolution in 1688 to the downfall of Napoleon in 1815), of 2023 
 millions of pounds sterling. M. de Pradt estimates the loss of life sustained 
 by the French forces in the six campaigns of the Peninsular war at six 
 hundred thousand men. The loss sustained by the Spaniards and their 
 allies was probably as great. During the war many districts of the Penin- 
 sula were from time to time laid waste by the contending armies, and the 
 inhabitants were victims to all the calamities and horrors thus produced. 
 The total destruction of human beings in this last war must have amounted 
 to one million two hundred thousand. 
 
 WAR; Revolutionary, ending in the independence of the United States, com- 
 menced by the battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775. See Battles. Ended 
 by the Treaty of Paris, 1783. This war cost $135193,700. 
 
 WAR, The, of 1812, between the United States and Great Britain: 
 
 First difficulty respecting the search of 
 American vessels - - - 1806 
 
 Chesapeake United States frigate fired 
 on 1807 
 
 Non-intercourse act passed - - 1809 
 
 United States frigate President, engag- 
 ed the British sioop-of-war Little Belt 
 
 May 16, 1811 
 
 President Madison's war message to 
 congress - - - June 1, 1812 
 
 War declared - - - Jime 19, 1812 
 
 Gen. H. Dearborn appointed comman- 
 der-in-chief. 
 [See Battles and Naval Battles.] 
 The war opposed in New England, and 
 levies of troops refused by Mass., 
 Conn., and R. I. 
 Treaty of peace ratified • Feb. 17, 1815 
 
 WAR AGAINST Algiers, to punish piracies, &c., declared by the United States, 
 1815. Commodores Decatur and Bainbridge captured two Algerine vessels 
 and " conquered a peace," July 4, 
 
 WAR between the UNITED STATES and MEXICO. [The annexation of 
 Texas to the United States having been completed by the vote of the senate 
 of Texas, Dec. 22, 1845.] 
 
 American army of occupation, (3500) 
 under Gen. Taylor took post on the 
 Rio Grande opposite Matamoras, 
 
 March 28, 1846 
 
 First collision — a reconnoitring party 
 of 70 from American army under Col. 
 Thornton, fired upon and taken pri- 
 soners by the Mexicans - April 24, 1846 
 
 Gen. Taylor defeats the Mexicans at 
 Palo Alto, loses 48 killed and 126 
 wounded. Mexicans, 262 killed and 
 355 wounded - - May 8-9, 1846 
 
 Bill passed both houses of Congress U. 
 3.. declaring that war with Mexico 
 
 already existed, by act of that power, 
 and authorizing 50,000 volunteers 
 
 May 12, 1846 
 Monterey taken by Com. Sloat, July 6, 1817 
 Santa Fe occupied by Gen. Kearney 
 
 Aug. 18, 1846 
 Mexican ports on the Pacific blockaded 
 
 by Com. Stockton • - Aug. 19, 1846 
 
 Battle of Monte^-ey, 4700 Americans 
 under Taylor, 10,000 Mexicans under 
 Ampudia. Monterey surrendered. A- 
 merican loss, 120 killed 368 wounded, 
 Mexican much greater - Sept. 21-23, 184€ 
 
WAR ] 
 
 DICTION Ail Y OF DATES. 
 
 589 
 
 WAR WITH MEXICO, co7itinued. 
 
 Stevenson's California regiment sailed 
 from New-York - - Sept. 26, 1846 
 
 Tobasco bombarded by com. Perry, 
 
 Oct. 25, 1846 
 
 Tampico occupied by com. Connor, 
 
 Nov. 14, 1846 
 
 Col. Doniphan with 450 Missouri volun- 
 teers defeated 1100 Mexicans at Bari- 
 to, the latter losing 63 killed and 150 
 wounded. American loss 6 wounded. 
 
 Gen. Kearney defeats the " revolted" 
 Californians, at San Gabriel, &c. 
 
 Jan. 8, 1847 
 
 MajoT Borland, Cassius M. Clay, Major 
 Gaines, and SO men, taken prisoners 
 by the Mexicans at Encarnacion, 
 
 Jan. 23, 1847 
 
 Revolt against Americans in N. Mex- 
 ico, American governor Bent and five 
 others murdered - - Jan 14, 1847 
 
 1500 N. Mexican Indians and Mexicans 
 defeated by col. Price - Jan. 24, 1847 
 
 Battle of Buena Vista : Americans 4759 
 mostly volunteers, under gen. Taylor 
 and gQXi. Wool ; and Mexicans 22,000 
 under Santa Anna; latter defeated and 
 loss 6000 killed and wounded ; Ameri- 
 can loss 267 killed and 456 wounded, 
 
 Feb. 22-23, 1847 
 
 Battle of Sacramento ; American col. 
 Doniphan, 924 men, defeated 4000 
 Mexicans under Herridea, latter loss 
 300 killed, 300 wounded and 40 pri- 
 soners; American loss, 1 killed and 8 
 woundfcd - - - Feb. 28, 1847 
 
 Vera Cruz surrendered to gen. Scott 
 and com. Perry; American loss 65 
 killed and wounded - March 29, 1847 
 
 Alvarado surrendered to lieut. Hunter, 
 
 April 2, 1847 
 
 Battle of Cerro-Gordo ; Americans 8500 
 under gen. Scott, defeat 12,000 Mex- 
 icans under Santa Anna, 5 generals 
 and 3000 men, taken prisoners by 
 Jscott: American loss 250, Mexican 
 350. 
 
 Taspan taken by com. Perry, April 18, 1847 
 
 Battles of Contreras and Churububco, 
 American gen. Smith drives the Mexi- 
 cans from these fortified posts towards 
 Mexico, losing 1066 killed and wound- 
 ed ; Mexican loss 6000 - Aug. 20, 184; 
 
 Armistice agreetl upon ; broken by the 
 Mexicans. Hostilities recommenced 
 
 Sept. 7, 184i 
 
 Battle of Molino del Rey ; American 
 gen. Worth carried the fortifications 
 defended by 14,000 Mexicans under 
 Santa Anna. American loss, 787 kil- 
 led and wounded ; Mexican loss 3000, 
 
 Sept. 8, 1&17 
 
 Battle of Chepultepec, a height near 
 Mexico, carried by American gene- 
 rals Worth, Quitman, and Pillow, 
 (under gen. Scott) after a loss of 862 
 
 Sept. 12-13, 1847 
 
 This was followed by the surrender of 
 the city of Mexico - - Sept. 14, 1847 
 
 Col. Childs with 400 men and 1800 
 sick in hospitals besieged 28 days at 
 Puebla, but compelled the Mexicans 
 to raise the siege - - Oct. 12, 1847 
 
 Contribution of $600,000 levied in Mex- 
 ico for protecting public property in 
 the city - - - Sept. 17, 1847 
 
 City of Huamantla captured by Ame- 
 rican gen. Lane, who defeats Santa 
 Anna. American loss, 24 killed and 
 wounded; Mexican loss 150, Oct. 9, 1847 
 
 Port of Guayamas bombarded and cap- 
 tured by American frigate Congress, 
 and sloop Portsmouth - Oct. 20, 1847 
 
 A tax levied upon the states of Mexico, 
 and duties &c. laid to the amount of 
 about $3,000,000 - - Dec. 31, 1847 
 
 Gen. Scott superseded by Gen. Butler, 
 
 Feb. 18, 1848 
 
 Treaty of peace ratified at Queretaro, 
 by the Hon. A. H. Sevier and N. 
 ClifTord, for the United States, and 
 the foreign Mexican minister, Signor 
 De la Rosa - - - May 30, 1848 
 
 American troops finally withdrawn 
 from the city of Mexico, - June 12, 1848 
 
 WARSAW. Late the metropolis of Poland. The diet was transferred to this 
 city from Cracow, in 1556. Warsaw surrendered to Charles XII. in 1703. 
 It has been a great prey to war of late years. In the beginning of 1794, the 
 empress of Russia put a garrison into this city, in order to compel the Poles 
 to acquiesce in the usurpations she had in view ; but this garrison was ex- 
 pelled by the citizens, with the loss of 2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 36 
 pieces of cannon, April 17, 1794. The king of Prussia besieged Warsaw in 
 July 1794, but was compelled to raise the siege in September, same year. 
 It was taken by the Russians in the November following. See next article. 
 Warsaw was constituted a duchy and annexed to the house of Saxony 
 in August, 1807; but the dnchy was overrun by the Russians in 1813, 
 and soon afterwards Warsaw again became the residence of a Russian vice- 
 roy. The late Polish revolution commenced here, November 29, 1830. See 
 Poland. 
 
 WARSAW, Battles of. The Poles suffered a great defeat in a battle -with 
 the Russians, Oct. 10, 12, 1794 ; and Suwarrow, the Russian general, after 
 the siege and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 30,000 Poles, of all 
 ages and conditions, m cold blood, Nov. 8, 1794. The battle preceding the 
 
THE world's TROGRESS. [ WAT 
 
 surrender was very bloody ; of 26.000 men, more tlian 10,000 were killed, 
 nearly 10,000 were made prisoners, and 2000 only escaped the fury of the 
 merciless conqueror. Battle of Growchow, near Warsaw, in which the Rus- 
 sians were defeated, and forced to retreat with the loss of 7000 men, Feb. 
 
 20, 18ol. Battle ©f Warsaw, when, after two days' hard fightins:, the city 
 capitulated, and was taken possession of by the Russians. Great part of 
 the Polish army retired towards Plock and Modlin. This last battle was 
 fought Sept. 7 and 8, 1831. 
 
 V^' ARSAW, Treaties of. The treaty of alliance of Warsaw, between Austria 
 and Poland, against Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski assisted 
 in raising the siege of Vienna (on the 18th of September following), signed 
 March 31, 1G83. Treaty of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland, February 
 
 21, 1768. 
 
 WASHINGTON. The capita, of the United States, founded in 1791, and first 
 made the seat of government in 1800. The house of representatives was 
 opened for the first time. May 30, 1808. Washington was taken in the late 
 war by the British forces under general Ross, when the Capitol and the 
 President's house were consumed by a general conflagration, the fe-oops not 
 sparing even the national library, August 24, 1814. General Ross was soon 
 afterwards killed in a desperate engagement at Baltimore, Sept. 12, follow- 
 ing. See United States. 
 
 WASHINGTON, GEORGE. Born Feb. 22, 173^ ; in the expedition of Brad- 
 dock against fort Du Quesne 1755 ; appointed commander-in-chief of the 
 American army 1775 ; elected president of Convention for forming Consti- 
 tution 1787 ; elected President of the United States 1789 ; again in 1793 ; 
 died 1799. Washington monument at New York, corner-stone laid, Oct. 19, 
 1847. National monument to Washington, corner-stone laid July 4, 1848 ; 
 oi-ation by Robt. C. Winthrop. Virginia monument to Washington, corner- 
 stone laid by President Taylor, Feb. 22, 1849. 
 
 WATCHES. They are said to have been first invented at Nuremberg, a. d. 
 1477 ; although it is affirmed that Robert, king of Scotland, had a watch 
 about A. D. 1310. Watches were first used in astronomical observations by 
 Purbach, 1500. Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was the first 
 who had anything that might be called a watch, though some call it a small 
 table-clock, 1530. Watches Avere first brought to England from Germany in 
 1577. — Hume. Spring pocket-watches (watches propei'ly so called) have 
 had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke by the English, and to M. Huy- 
 gens by the Dutcji," Dr. Derham, in his Artificial Clockmaker, says that Dr. 
 Hooke was the inventor ; and he appears certainlj'' to have produced v»^hat 
 is called the pendulum watch. The time of this invention was about 1658 ; 
 as is manifest, among other evidences, from an inscription on one of the 
 double-balance watches presented to Charles II., viz., " Rob. Hooke in- 
 ven. 1658. T. Tompion fecit, 1675." Repeating watches were invented 
 by Barlowe, 1676. Harrison's time-piece was invented in 1735 ; improved 
 1739, 1749, 1753. In 1759, he made the time-piece which procured him 
 the reward of 20,000Z., offered by the Board of Longitude, 1763. Watches 
 and clocks were taxed in 1797. The tax was repealed in 1798. See 
 Clocks. 
 
 WATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of the Ionic sect, looked upon water 
 (as also did Homer, and several of the ancient philosophers) as being the 
 original principle of every thing besides, about 594 b. c. — Stanley. It is the 
 universal drink of man. The ancients usually dilated their wines with 
 iBUch water ; and Hesiod prescribes thi'ee measures of water to one of wine 
 in sunin er. — Madame Dacier. In the Roman church water was first mixed 
 
WAT J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 591 
 
 with the sacramental wine, a. d. 122. — Lenght, " Honest water is too weak 
 to be a sinner; it never left a man in the mire." — Shakspeare. 
 
 WATER-CLOCKS. The first instruments used to measure the lapse of time 
 independently of the sunshine, were depsijdrcB or water-clocks. These wero 
 most probably vessels of water, with a small hole through the bottom 
 through this hole the water ran out in a certain time, possibly an hour , 
 after which the vessel was again filled to be emptied as before. This in- 
 vention was a manifest improvement on the old sun-dials, whose perpendi- 
 cular gnomon gave hours of different length at the various seasons of the 
 j'ear. Something similar to the hour-glass was occasionally used ; and 
 Alfred the Great, probably ignorant of these methods, adopted the burning 
 of a taper as a measure of time. 
 
 WATER-MILLS. Used for grinding corn, invented by Belisarius, the general 
 of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, a. d. 555. The ancients 
 parched their corn, and pounded it in mortars. Afterwards mills were in- 
 vented, which were turned by men and beasts with great labor ; and yet 
 Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. 
 
 WATER TOFANA, or Wives' Poison. See article Poisoning. The poisoti so 
 freely administered by Italians in the 17th century, called aq^ta tofana, from 
 the name of the woman Tofania. who made and sold it in small* flat vials. 
 She carried on this traffic for half a century, and eluded the police ; but on 
 being taken, confessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 people. 
 Numerous persons were implicated by her, and many of them were publicly 
 executed. All Italy was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some 
 persons of distinction, on conviction, were strangled in prison. It appeared 
 to have been chiefly used by married women who were tired of their hus- 
 bands. Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was not sudden, 
 and therefore not suspected. It was as clear as water, but the chemists 
 have not agreed about its real composition. A proclamation of the pope de- 
 scribed it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and others considered it as a 
 solution of crystallized arsenic. The secret of its preparation was conveyed 
 to Paris, where the marchioness de Brinvilliers poisoned her father and two 
 brothers ; and she with many others was executed, and the preparers burnt 
 alive. — Phillips, 
 
 WATERLOO, Battle of. The greatest victory ever won hj British arms, and 
 the most decisive and happy in its consequences. In this great battle the 
 French army, with Napoleon as its chief, was signally overthrown by the 
 British and allies under the duke of Wellington, June 18, 1815. Napoleon 
 attacked the British, whom he expected to overwhelm by superior num- 
 bers, but they maintained their ground, and repulsed the enemy from about 
 nine in the morning till seven at night, when the French line began to waver. 
 The commander then gave orders to charge ; a total rout ensued, and Blu- 
 cher, who opportunely came up at this juncture, joined in the pursuit. 
 On both sides the carnage was immense; but that of the French was double 
 the amount of the British. Napoleon quitted the wreck of his flying army, 
 and returned to Paris, where he attempted, after the destruction of three 
 great armies, to raise a fourth ; but finding this impossible, his abdication 
 followed. See Bonaparte and France. 
 
 \ ITER-SPOUT. Whirlwinds and water-spouts proceed from the same cause, 
 the only difference being that water-spouts pass over the water, and whirl- 
 winds over the land. — Dr. Franldin. Two water-spouts fell on the Glata 
 mountains in Germany, and caused dreadful devastation to Hautenbach, and 
 many other villages ; a prodigious number of houses were destroyed, and 
 many persons perished, July 13, 1827. A water-spout at Glanfleskj n'?ar Kil- 
 
592 THE world's progress. [ web 
 
 iarney, in Ireland, passed over a farm of Mr. John Macarth)', and destroyed 
 his cottage, two other farmhouses, and other buildings, of which not a ves- 
 tige remained. In this catastrophe seventeen persons perished. August 4, 
 1831. 
 WAX. This substance came into use for candles in the twelfth century; and 
 Avax candles were esteemed a luxury in 1300, being but little used. In China, 
 candles of vegetable wax have been in use for centuries. See Candleberry. 
 Wax candles are made very cheap in America, from the berry of a particu- 
 lar species of myrtle, which yields excellent wax, of a green color. Sealing- 
 wax was not brought into use 'in England until about 165G. The wax-tree, 
 Ligusirum lucidum, was brought from China before 1794. 
 
 WE. The common language of kings is we, which plural style was begun with 
 king John, a. d. 1199. — Coke's Instit. Before this time sovereigns used the 
 singular person in all their edicts. — Idem. The German emperors and French 
 kings used the plural about a. d. 1200. — HenauLt. It is now the style royal 
 of all monarchs. In the articles of public journals they also adopt the plu- 
 ral, indicating that what they write proceeds from a plurality of pens. 
 
 WEALTH. This is a relative term ; for as there is only a certain amount of 
 propert}'' in a country, so the possession of a large share by one man is the 
 poverty of others. The wealth of individuals is therefore no benefit to the 
 country, while as to others it is the cause of their poverty. The instances 
 of wealth in the early ages are many and most extraordinary. The mighti- 
 est conflagration of wealth on record is that qf Sardanapalus, where riches 
 amounting to one thousand four hundred millions sterling were destroyed. 
 — Athenceus. Caecilius Isidorus died at Rome possessed of 4116 slaves, 3600 
 oxen. 200 000 head of other cattle, and three millions of our money in coin, 
 8 B. c. — Univ. Hist. 
 
 WEAVING. The art of weaving appears to have been practised in China from 
 the earliest antiquity — more than a thousand years before it was known in 
 Europe or Asia. Poets assign the art to the spider. Women originally 
 spun, wove, and dyed ; and the origin of these arts is ascribed, by ancient 
 nations, to different women as women's arts. The Egyptians ascribed it to 
 Isis ; the Greeks, to Minerva ; and the Peruvians, to the wife of Manco Ca- 
 pac. In most easteri countries, the employment of weaving is stiU per- 
 formed by the women. Our Saviour's vest, or coat, had not any seam, being 
 woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. Perhaps, says Dr. Dodd- 
 ridge, this curious garment might be the work and present of some pious 
 women Avho attended him, and ministered unto him of their substance, Luke 
 viii. 3. The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may be seen in Calmefs 
 Dictionary, under the word Vestments. 
 
 WEAVING IN ENGLAND. Two weavers from Brabant settled at York, where 
 they manufactured woollens, which, says king Edward, "may prove o< 
 great benefit to us and our subjects," 1331. Flemish dyers, cloth-drapers, 
 linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c. settled at Canterbury, Norvvich, Colches- 
 ter, Southampton, and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's perse- 
 cution, 1567. 
 
 WEDGWOOD WARE. A fine species of pottery and porcelain, produced by 
 Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of Staffordshire, 1762. The manufactories for this 
 ware employed 10,000 families in England. Previously to 1763, most of the 
 super i( r kinds of earthenwares were imported from France. 
 
 WEDNESDAY. The fourth day of the week, so called from a Saxon idol, call- 
 ed Woden, supposed to be Mars, worshipped on this day. The name given 
 to our Wednesday by the Saxons was Woden's day, which was afterwards 
 corrupted to Wednesday. See next article. 
 
Saxon. 
 
 Presided over by 
 
 Saleme's day, 
 
 Saturn. 
 
 Sun's day, 
 
 The sun. 
 
 Moon's day, 
 
 The moon. 
 
 Tiw's day, 
 
 Mars. 
 
 Woden's day, 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Thor's day. 
 
 Jupiter. 
 
 Friga's day, 
 
 Venus. 
 
 WES ] DICTIONAllY OF DATES. 593 
 
 WEEK. The space of seren days, supposed to be first used among the Jews, 
 who observed the sabbath every seventh day ; they had three sorts of weeks, 
 tlie first the common one of seven days, the second of years, which was 
 seven years, the third of seven times seven years, at the end of which was 
 the jubilee. All the present English names are derived from the Saxon:— 
 
 Latin. English. 
 
 Dies Saturni, Saturday, 
 
 Dies Solis, Sunday, 
 
 Dies Lunae, Monday, 
 
 Dies Martis, Tuesday, 
 
 Dies Mercurii, Wednesday, 
 
 Dies .lovis, Thursday, 
 
 Dies Veneris, Friday, 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. These, and the stamping of gold and silver 
 money, were invented by Phydon, tyrant of Argos, 895 b. c. et seq. — Arunde- 
 lian Marbles. Weights were originally taken from grains of wheat, the 
 lowest being still called a grain. — Chalmers. The standard measure was 
 originally kept at Winchester by the law of king Edgar, ^ d. 972. Stand- 
 ards of weights and measures were provided for the whole kingdom of Eng- 
 land by the sheriffs of London, 8 Richard I., 1197. A public weighing- 
 machine was set up in London, and all commodities ordered to be weighed 
 by the city-officer, called the weigh-master, who was to do justice between 
 buyer and seller, statute 3d Edward XL. I'^^^.—Slowe. The first statute, 
 directing the use of avordupois weight, is that of 24 Henry VIH., 1532. — 
 Philosopkical Transactions, vol. 65, art. 3. The French adopt the metre of 
 3.28084. or the 10 millionth part of the distance from the Pole to the Equa- 
 tor, as the standard of measure; and the kilogramme, equal to 2,255 pounds 
 avoirdupois, as the standard of weight. 
 
 WESLEYAN METHODISTS. A large body of Christians, whose sect was 
 founded by an excellent and pious man, John Wesley. In 1730 he and his 
 brother, with a few other students, formed themselves into a small society 
 for the purpose of mutual edification in religious exercises. So singular an 
 association excited considerable notice, and among other names bestowed 
 upon the members, that of Methodists was applied to them. Mr. Wesley 
 went to Georgia in America, in 1735, with a view of converting the Indians. 
 On his return to England, he commenced itinerant preacher, and gathered 
 many followers; but the churches being shut against him, he built spacious 
 meeting-houses in London, Bristol, and other places. For some time he 
 was united with Mr. Whitefield ; but differences arising on account of the 
 doctrine of election, they separated, and the Methodists were denominated 
 according to their respective leaders. Mr. Wesley was indefatigable in his 
 labors, and almost continually engaged in travelling over England, Wales, 
 Scotland, and Ireland. His society was well organized, and he preserved his 
 influence over it to the last. He died in London in 1791. 
 
 WEST INDIES. Discovered by Columbus, St. Salvador being the first land he 
 made in the new world, and first seen by him in the night between the lltli 
 and 12th Oct., 1492. See the Islands respectively. 
 
 WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman empire was divided into Eastern and 
 Western by Valentinian and Valens, of whom the former had the western 
 portion, or Rome, properly so called, a. d. 364. Odoacer, a chief of the 
 Heruli, entered Italy, defeated Orestes, took Rome and Ravenna, deposed 
 Augustulus, and assumed the title of king of Italy, August 23, which ended 
 the Western empire, 507 years after the battle of Actium, a. d, 476. See 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 WESl^JMINSTER ABBEY. As regards this magnificent cathedral, the mirac« 
 lous stories of monkish writers and of ancient historians have been que.* 
 
694 THE world's rp.0GE.ESS. [ wm 
 
 lioned by sir Christopher Wren, who was emploj'ed to survey the present 
 edifice, and who, upon the nicest examination, found notliing to countenance 
 the general behef that it was erected on the ruins of a pagan temple. His- 
 torians, agreeably to the legend, have fixed the era of the first abbey in the 
 sixth century, and ascribed to Sebert the honor of erecting it. This church 
 becomiDg ruinous, it was splendidly rebuilt by Edward the Confessor, be- 
 tween A. D. 1055 and 1065 ; and he stored it with monks from Exeter. Pope 
 Nicholas II. about this time constituted it the place for the inauguration of 
 the kings of England. The church was once more built in a magnificent 
 and beautiful style by Henry III. In the reigns of Edward II., Edward III., 
 and Richard II., the great cloisters, abbot's house, and the principal mo- 
 nastic buildings were erected. The western parts of the nave and aisles 
 were rebuilt by successive monarchs, between the years 1340 and 1483. I'ho 
 west front and the great window w^ere built by those rival princes, Richard 
 HI. and Henry VII. ; and it was the latter monarch who commenced the 
 magnificent chapel which bears his name, and the first stone of which was 
 laid Jan. 24, 1502-3, The abbey was dissolved, and made a bishopric, 1541 ; 
 and was finally made a collegiate church by Elizabeth, 1560. 
 
 WESTMINSTER HALL. One of the most venerable remains of English ar- 
 chitecture, first built by William Rufus in 1097, for a banqueting-hall ; and 
 here in 1099, on his return from Normandy, " he ke])t his feast of Whit- 
 suntide very royally." Richard II. held his Christmas festival in 1397, when 
 the number of the guests each day the feast lasted was 10,000. — Slowe. 
 The courts of law were established here by king John. — Idem. Westmin- 
 ster-hall is universally allowed to be the largest room in Europe unsupported 
 by pillars : it is 270 feet in length, and 74 broad. The hall underwent a 
 general repair in 1802. 
 
 WESTPHALIA. This duchy belonged, in former times, to the duke of Sax- 
 ony. On the secularization of 1802, it was made over to Hesse Darmstadt ; 
 and in 1814. was ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom of 
 Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of Bonaparte, composed of 
 conquests from Prussia, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to 
 the west of the Elbe, created December 1, 1807, and Jerome appointed 
 king. Hanover was annexed March 1, 1810. This kingdom was overturned 
 in 1813. 
 
 WESTPHALIA, Peace of. signed at Munster and at Osnaburgh, between 
 France, the emperor, and Sweden; Spain continuing the war against 
 France. By this peace the principle of a balance of power in Europe was 
 first rec ^gnised : Alsace given to France, and part of Pomerania and some 
 other diisiricts to Sweden ; the Elector Palatine restored to the Lower Pala- 
 tinate ; the civil and political rights of the German States established ; and 
 the independence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by Germany, Oc- 
 tober 24, 1648. 
 
 WHALE FISHERY of the UNITED STATES. In 1845 this trade employed 
 650 vessels, aggregate tonnage 200,000 tons, — cost, $20,000,000 ; manned by 
 17,500 officers and seamen. " Commercial history furnishes no parallel to 
 this whaling fleet — it is larger than those of all other nations combined.' — 
 Speech of Mr. Grinnell. 
 
 WHEAT AND FLOUR. The amount exported by the United States, from 
 1790 to 1838, was 10.283,471 bushels, — average, 209,666 bushels per annum. 
 In 1845 the amount exported Avas valued at $-5,735,372 ; in 1846, $13,350,644. 
 This was exclusive of Corn, Rye, &c. The amount was greatly increased 
 by the scarcity in Europe, especially in Ireland. 
 
 WHITE FRIARS. Tlicse were an order of Carmelite mendicants, who took 
 
WIL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 595 
 
 their name from Mount Carmel, lying southwest of Mount Tabor, In thfl 
 Holy Land. They pretended that Elijah and Elisha were the founders of 
 their order, and that Pythagoras and the ancient Druids were professors of 
 it. At first they were very rigid in their discipline, but afterwards it was 
 moderated, and about the year 1540 divided into two sorts, one following 
 • and restoring the ancient severities, and the other the milder regimen. 
 They had numerous monasteries throughout England : and a precinct in 
 London without the Temple and west of Blackfriars, is called Whitefriars to 
 this day, after a community of their order, founded there in 1245. 
 
 WHITEHALL, London. Originally built by Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent, 
 before the middle of the 13th century. It afterwards devolved to the arch- 
 bishop of York, whence it received the name of York-place, and continued 
 to be the town residence of the archbishops till purchased by Henry VIII. of 
 cardinal Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became the residence of the 
 court. Queen Elizabeth, who died at Greenwich, was brought from thence 
 to Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. It was on this occasion, 
 Camden informs us, that the following quaint panegyric on her majesty was 
 written : — 
 
 " The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, 
 At every stroke the oars did tears let fall. 
 More clung about the barge ; fish under water 
 Wept outlheir eyes of pearl, and swam blind after. 
 I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, 
 Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes; 
 For howsoe'er, thus much my thoughts have scann'd, 
 She had come by water, had she come by land.'' 
 
 In 1697, the whole was destroyed by an accidental fire, except the banquet- 
 ing-house, which had been added to the palace of Whitehall by James I., 
 according to a design of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of Whitehall 
 Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649. George I. converted the hall into a 
 chapel, 1723-4. The exterior of this edifice underwent repair between 1829 
 and 1833. 
 
 WHITSUNTIDE. The festival of Whitsunday is appointed by the church to 
 commemorate the descent of the Holy Gho»t upon the apostles : in the pri- 
 mitive church, the newly-baptized persons, or catechumens,, used to wear 
 white garments on Whi 'Sunday. This feast is movable, and sometimes falls 
 in May and sometimes m June ; but is always exactly seven weeks after 
 Easter. Rogation week is the week before Whitsunday ; it is said to 
 have been first instituted by the bishop of Vienne in France, and called 
 Rogation week upon account of the many extraordinary prayers and pre- 
 paratory petitions made for the devotion of Holy Thursday for a blessing 
 on the fruits of the earth, and for averting the dismal effects of war and 
 other evils. 
 
 WICKLIFFITES. The followers of John Wickliffe, a professor of divinity 
 in the university of Oxford. He was the father of the Reformation of the 
 English church from popery, being the first who opposed the autho- 
 rity of the pope, the jurisdiction of the bishops, and the temporalities of 
 the church, in 1377. WickliflTe was protected by John of Gaunt, Edward's 
 son and Richard's uncle, yet virulently persecuted by the church, and res- 
 cued from martyrdom by a paralytic attack, which caused his death, Dec. 
 31, 1384, in his 60th year. — Mortimer. 
 
 WILDFIRE, An artificial fire, which burns under water. The French call it 
 feu Grecquois, because it was discovered by the Greeks, by whom it was 
 'first used, about a. d. 660. Its invention is ascribed to Callinicus of Helio 
 polis, — Nouv. Diet. See article Greek Fire. 
 
596 THE world's trogress. [ wnt 
 
 WILKES' NUMBER. The designation given to the 45th number of a paper 
 styled the North Briton; pubhshed by John Wilkes, an alderman of London. 
 He commenced a paper warfare against the earl of Bute and his adminis- 
 tration, and in this particular copy, printed April 23, 1763, made so free a 
 use of royalty itself, that a general warrant was issued against him by the 
 earl of Halifax, then secretary of state, and he was committed to the Towe?'. 
 His warfare not only deprived him of liberty, but exposed him to two duels* ; 
 but he obtained ,£1,000 damages and full costs of suit for the illegal seizure 
 of his papers. He further experienced the vengeance of the court of King's 
 Bench, and both houses of parliament, for the libel, and for his obscene 
 poem "An Essay on Woman;" and was expelled the commons and out- 
 lawed; he was, however, elected a fifth time for Middlesex in October 
 1774, and the -same year served the office of lord mayor ; but was over- 
 looked in a subsequent general election, and died in 1797. 
 
 WILLS, LAST, AND TESTAMENTS. Wills are of very high antiquity. See 
 Genesis, c. 48. Solon introduced them at Athens, 578 b. c. There art< 
 many regulations respecting wills in the Koran. The Romans had this 
 power, and so had the native Mexicans ; so that it prevailed at least in 
 three parts of the globe. Trebatius Testa, the civilian, was the first person 
 who introduced codicils to wills at Rome, 31 b. c. The power of bequeath- 
 ing lands by the last will or testament of the owner, was confirmed to En- 
 glish subjects, 1 Henry I., 1100 ; but with great restrictions and limitations 
 respecting the feudal system ; which were taken off by the statute of Henry 
 Vni, 1541. — BLackstone's Commentaries. The first will of a sovereign on 
 record is stated (but in error) to be that of Richard H., 1399. Edward the 
 Confessor made a will, 1066. 
 
 WIND-MILLS. They are of great antiquity, and some writers state them to 
 be of Roman invention ; but certainly we are indebted for the wind-mill to 
 the Saracens. They are said to have been originally introduced into Europe 
 by the knights of St. John, who took the hint from what they had seen in 
 the crusades. — Baker. Wind-mills were first known in Spain, France, and 
 Germany, in 1299. — Anderson. Wind saw-mills were invented by a Dutch- 
 man, in 1633. when one was erected near the Strand, in London. 
 
 WINDOWS. See Glass. There were windows in Pompeii, a. d. 79, as is evi- 
 dent from its ruins. It is certain that windows of some kind were glazed 
 so early as the third century, if not before, though the fashion was not in- 
 troduced until it was done by Benpet, a. d. 633. Windows of glass were 
 used in private houses, but the glass was imported 1177. — Anderson. In 
 England about 6000 houses now have fifty windows and upwards in each ; 
 about 275,000 have ten windows and upwards ; and 725,000 have seven win- 
 dows, or less than seven. The window-tax was first enacted in order to 
 defray the expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of gold, 7 William 
 III, 1695. 
 
 WINDSOR CASTLE. A royal residence of the British sovereigns, originally 
 built by William the Conqueror, but enlarged by Henry I. The monarchs 
 who succeeded him likewise resided in it, till Edward III., who was bom 
 here, caused the old building, with the exception of three towers at tho 
 west end, to be taken down, and re-erected the whole castle, under the di- 
 rection of William of Wykeham. He likewise built St. George's chapel. 
 Instead of alluring workmen by contracts and wages, Edward assessed 
 every county in England to send him so many masons, tilers, and carpen- 
 ters, as if he had been levying an army. Several additions were made to 
 this edifice by succeeding sovereigns ; the last by George IV. 
 
 WJNES. The invention of wine is given to Noah. — Abbe Lcngkt. Ihe art of 
 
wit] dictionary of dates. 59* 
 
 making wine from rice is ascribed by the Chinese to their king, Ching 
 Noiing, about 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hist. The art of making wine was brought 
 from India by Bacchus, as other authorities have it. Hosea speaks of the 
 wine of Lebanon as being very fragrant. — Hosea, xiv. 7. Our Saviour 
 changed water into wine at the marriage of Cana in Galilee. — John ii. 3, 10. 
 
 " riie conscious waters saw theii* God. and blush'd." — Addison. 
 
 No wine was produced in France in the time of the Romans. — Bossuet. 
 Spirits of wine were known to the alchymists. — Idem. Concerning the ac- 
 quaintance which our progenitors had with wine, it has been conjectured 
 that tlie Phoenicians might possibly have introduced a small quantity of it ; 
 but this liquor was veryiittle knowii in our island before it was conquered 
 by the Romans. Wine was sold in Englaud by apothecaries as a cordial in 
 A. D. 1300. and so continued for some thno after, although there is mention 
 of '■ wine for the king " so early as 1249 ; h,nd we are even sent to a much 
 earlier period for its introduction and use ic "Britain. In 1400 the price 
 was twelve shillings the pipe A hundred and fifty butts and pipes con- 
 demned for being adulterated, were staved and emptied into the channels 
 of the streets by Rainwell, mayor of London, in the 6th of Henry VI., 1427. 
 — Stowe's Chron. The first importation, of claret wine into Ireland was on 
 June 17. 1490. The first act for licensing sellers of wine in England passed 
 April 25, 1661. In 1800 England imported 3,307,460 gallons of all Mndg of 
 wine. In 1815, the United Kingdom imported 4,306 528 galJons. Irv 5^?^ 
 were imported 6,879,558 gallons ; and in the year ending Jan. 5, 1.840, wt"*i 
 imported 9,909,056 gallons, of which 7 000,486 were for home consumption. 
 —Pari. Ret. 
 
 WIRE. The invention of drawing wire is ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg, 
 A. D. 1410. Mills for thi^ purpose were first set up at Nuremberg in 1663. 
 The first wire-mill in Enj^';]and was erected at Mortlake in 1663. — Mortimer. 
 The astonishing ductility which is one of the distinguishing qualities of 
 gold, is no way more conspicuous than in gilt wire. A cylinder of 48 ounces 
 of silver, covered with a coat of gold weighing only one ounce, is usually 
 drawn into a wire two yards of which only weigh one grain ; so that 98 
 yards of the wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and one single grain of 
 gold covers the whole 98 yards ; and the thousandth part of a grain is above 
 one-eighth of an inch long. — Halley. Eight grains of gold covering a cy- 
 linder of silver are commonly drawn into a wire 13,000 feet long ; yet so 
 perfectly does it cover the silver, that even a microscope does not discover 
 any appearance of the silver underneath. — Boyle. 
 
 WIRTEMBERG. One of the most ancient states of Germany, and most popu- 
 lous for its extent. The dukes w^ere Protestant until 1772, when the reign- 
 ing prince became a Catholic. Wirtemberg has been repeatedly traversed 
 by hostile armies, particularly since the revolution of France. Moreau 
 made his celebrated retreat Oct. 23, 1796. The prince of Wirtemberg mar- 
 ried the princess royal of England, daughter of George III., May 17, 1797. 
 This state obtained new acquisitions in territory in 1802 and 1805. The 
 elector assumed the title of king Dec. 12, 1805, and was proclaimed Jan. 1, 
 1806. His majesty, as an ally of France, lost the flower of his army in Rus- 
 sia, in 1812. The kingdom obtained a free constitution in 1819. The king 
 granted liberty of the press, March 2, 1848. 
 
 WISCONSIN. One of the western United States was organized out of the 
 North West Territory, and received a territorial government in 1836 ; ad- 
 mitted into the Union as a state Feb. 9, 1847. Population in 1830, 30,945: 
 chiefly emigrants from the northe-n and middle states. 
 
 WITCHCRAFT. The punishment ol witchcraft was first countenanced by the 
 
598 THE world's TROGRESS. [ WIT 
 
 cliiirch of Rome ; and persons suspected of the crime have been subjectea 
 to the most cruel and unrelenting punishments. In tens of thousands of 
 cases, the victims, often innocent, were burnt alive, while others were 
 drowned by the test applied ; for if, on being thrown into a pond, they did 
 not sink, they were presumed witches, and either killed on the spot, or re 
 served for burning at the stake. Five hundred witches were burnt in Gene- 
 va, in three months, in 1515. One thousand were burnt in the diocese of 
 Como in a year. An incredible number in France, about 1520, when one 
 sorcerer confessed to having 1200 associates. Nine hundred were burnt in 
 Lorraine, between 1580 and 1595. One hundred and fiftj^-seven were burnt 
 at Wurtzburg, between 1627 and 1629, old and young, clerical, learned, and 
 ignorant. At Lindheim, thirty were burnt in four years, out of a popu.<ttion 
 of 600; and more than 100,000 perished, mostl}^ by the flames, in Germany. 
 Grandier, the parish priest of Loudun, was burnt on a charge of having be- 
 witched a whole convent of nuns, 1634. In Bretagne, twenty poor women* 
 were put to death as witches, 1654. Disturbances commenced on charges 
 of witchcraft in Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and persecutions raged dreadfully 
 in Pennsj'lvania in 1683. Maria Renata was burnt at Wartzburg in 1749. 
 At Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women were charged with having bevvitched, 
 and rendered unfruitful, the lands belonging to that palatinate, and were 
 burnt Jan. 17, 1775. — Ann. Reg. Five women were condemned to death by 
 the Bramins, at Patna, for sorcery, and executed Dec. 16, 1802. — Idem. 
 
 WITCHCRAFT and CONJURATION m ENGLAND. Absurd and wicked 
 laws were in force against them in Great Britain in former times, by which 
 death was the punishment, and thousands of persons suffered both by the 
 public executioners and the hands of the people. A statute was enacted 
 declaring all witchcraft and sorcery to be felony without benefit of clergy, 
 33 Henry VIII., 1541. Again, 5 Elizabeth, 1562, and 1 James. 1603. Bar- 
 rington estimates the judicial murders for witchcraft in England in 200 years 
 at 30,000. The English condemned and burnt the beautiful and heroic Joan 
 of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, as a sorceress, a. d. 1431. See Joan of Arc. 
 Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in 1664. Three thousand 
 were executed in England imder the long parliament. Northamptonshire 
 and Huntingdon preserved the superstition about witchcraft later than any 
 other counties. Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton in 
 1705, while "^he Spectator was in coarse of publication in London, and five 
 others seveu years afterwards. In 1716, Mrs. Hicks and her daughter, aged 
 nine, were hanged at Huntingdon. In Scotland, thousands of persons were 
 burnt in the period of about a hundred years. Among the victims were per- 
 sons of the highest rank, while all orders in the state concurred. James I. 
 even caused a whole assize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. This king pub- 
 lished his Dialogues of Dczmonologie first in Edinburgh, and afterwards in 
 London.* The last sufferer in Scotland was in 1722, at Dornoch. The laws 
 
 * All persons at court who sought the favor of James, praised his Dcumonologie ; and parlia- 
 ment, to flatter him, made its twelfth law against witchcraft in 1603. By this statute death ^was 
 inflicted on sorcerers in these words: "If any person shall use any invocation orconjurationof any 
 evil or wicked spirit — shall entertain, employ, feed, or reward any evil or cursed spirit — take up 
 Bny dead body to employ in witchcraft, sorcery, or enchantment — or shall practise, or shall exor- 
 cise, any sort of witchcraft, sorcery, &c., whereby any person shall be killed, wasted, consumed, 
 pined, or lamed." This being the law of the land, no person presumed to doubt the existence of 
 V? itchcraft ; hence Shakspeai e gave countenance to the error, and the learned bishop Hall mentions 
 a place where, he said, there were more witches than houses. Allaying of ghosts, driving out evil 
 spirits, and abjuring witches became in consequence, for a century, a profitable employment to tha 
 clerj y of all denominations. Witch-finders existed, too, as public officers ; and, besides the publij 
 executions, which disgraced every as-sizes, multitudes of accused were destroyed by popular re 
 Bentment. — Phitlijis. 
 
woo j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 599 
 
 against witchcraft had lain dormant for many years, when an ignorant person, 
 attempting to revive them, by finding a bill against a poor old woman in Sur- 
 rey for the practice of witchcraft, they were repealed, 10 George IL, 1736.— 
 
 Vt7ier^s Abridgment. 
 
 V\TrENA-MOT, or WITENA-GEMOT. Among onr Saxon ancestors, this waa 
 the term which was applied to their deliberations, and which literally sig- 
 nified the assembling of the wise men in the great council of the nation. A 
 witena-mot was called in London, a. d. 833, to consult on the proper means 
 to repel the Danes, This name was dropped about the period of the Norman 
 conquest, and that of parliament adopted. See Parliament. 
 
 WOLVES. These animals were very numerous in England. Their heads were 
 demanded as a tribute, particularly 300 yearly from Wales, by king Edgar, 
 A.D. 961, by which step they were totally destroyed. — Carle. Edward L 
 issued his mandate for the destruction of wolves in several counties of Eng- 
 land, A. D. 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for many centuries after 
 their extirpation in England ; for there are accounts of some being found 
 there so late as 1710, when the last presentment for killing waives was 
 made in the county of Cork. Wolves still infest France, in which kingdom 
 834 wolves and cubs were killed in 1828-9. When wolves cross a river, they 
 follow one another directly in a line, the second holding the tail of the first 
 in its mouth, the third that of the second, and so of the rest. This figure 
 was, on this account, chosen by the Greeks to denote the year, composed o/ 
 twelve months following one another, which they denominated Lycabas, that 
 is, the march of the wolves. — Abbe Pluche. 
 
 WOMAN. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, women seem to have been 
 considered merelj^ as objects of sensuality and domestic convenience, and 
 were commonly devoted to seclusion and obscurity ; it was not until the 
 northern nations had settled themselves in the provinces of the Roman em- 
 I)ire that the female character assumed new consequence. They brought 
 with them the respectful gallantry of the North, and a complaisance towards 
 females which inspired generous sentiments hitherto little known to the 
 j)olished nations of antiquity, and which ultimately led to the institution of 
 chivalry. England is called the paradise of women ; Spain, their purgatory ; 
 and Turkey, their hell. The following lines beautifully describe Adam's 
 f.rst sight of Eve : 
 
 " He laid him down and slept — and from his side 
 A woman in her magic beauty rose ; 
 Dazzled a.id charmed, he called that v/oman 'bride.' 
 And his first sleep became his last repose." — Besser, tramlated by Bowring. 
 
 The following distinguished men, though married, were unhappy in that 
 state: Aristotle, Socrates, Pittacus. Periander, Euripides, and Aristophane?. 
 Among the moderns : Boccaccio. Dante, Milton, Steele, Addison, Dryden, 
 Moliere, Racine, Sterne, Garrick, and lord Bacon. — Woman; as she is, ana 
 as she should-be. Among the most beautiful eulogies on woman is the fol- 
 lowing, addressed to a lovely Italian nun by an English nobleman : 
 
 " Die when you will, you need not wear, 
 At heaven's court, a form more fair 
 
 Than beauty at your birth has given ; 
 Keep but the lips, the eyes we see, 
 The voice we hear, and you will be 
 
 An angel ready-made for heaven !" — Lord Herbert. 
 
 WOOD-CUTS, OR WOOD-ENGRAVING. See article Engraviyig on Wood. 
 The invention is ascribed by some to a gun-smith of Florence ; by others, to 
 Reuss, a German, a.d. 1460; but it has an earlier origin, as shown in the 
 article referred to. Brought to perfection by Durer and Lucas. Bronghi 
 
600 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [ WOB 
 
 to great perfection by Bewick, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., in 1789-1799; and 
 more recently by Cruikshank, and others. 
 WOOL. Dr. Anderson, in a memorial subjoined to the "Report of the I'om- 
 raittee of the Highland Society." proves, from indisputable records, that 
 from the earliest times down to the reign of queen Elizabeth, the wool of 
 Gi-eat Britain was not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted the 
 finest in the universe ; and that even in the times of the Romans, a manu- 
 facture of woollen cloths was established at Winchester for the use of the 
 emperors. In later times, wool was manufactured in England, and is men- 
 tioned in A. D. 1185, but not in any quantity until 1331, when the weaving of 
 it was introduced by John Kempe and other artisans from Flanders. This 
 was the real origin of the English wool manufactures, Edward III., 1331. — 
 Rymer's Fadera. The exportation prohibited, 1337. The exportation of 
 English wool, and the importation of Irish wool into England^ prohibited, 
 1696. The non-exportation law repealed, 1824. 
 
 WOOLLEN CLOTH. The manufacture of cloth was known, it is supposed, in 
 all civilized countries, and in very remote ages, and probably of linen also. 
 Woollen cloths were made an article of commerce in the time of Julius Cae- 
 sar, and are familiarly alluded to by him. They were made in England be- 
 fore A. D. 1200, and the manufacture became extensive in the reign of Edwani 
 III., 1331. They were then called Kendal cloth, and Halifax cloth. See 
 preceding article. Blankets were first made in England about a. d. 1340. — 
 Camden. No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported into England, 
 1463. The art of dyeing brought into England,, 1608. See article Dyeitig. 
 Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made, 1614. Manufacture of fine cloth 
 begun at Sedan, in France, under the patronage of cardinal Mazarine, 1646. 
 British and Irish woollens prohibited in France, 1677. All persons obliged 
 to be buried in woollen, or the persons directing the burial otherwise to for- 
 feit 5Z., 29 Charles II., 1678, The manufacture of cloth greatly improved 
 in England by Flemish settlers. 1688. Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, 
 11 William III., 1098. The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, ex- 
 cept to certain ports of England, 1701. English manufacture encouraged 
 by 10 Anne, 1712, and 2 George 1., 1715. Greater in Yorkshire in 1785, 
 than in all England at the Revolution. — Chalmers. 
 
 aUANT .TY AND DECLARED VALUE OF CLOTHS EXPORTED FROM GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOL- 
 LOWING YEARS : — 
 
 Quantity. 
 Pieces 
 
 Yards - - 
 Declared value 
 
 1800. 
 1,022,838 
 4,213,677 
 j63,914,661 
 
 1825. 
 1,741,983 
 7,798,610 
 £6,194,926 
 
 1830. 
 1,747,036 
 5,561,877 
 JE4,608,592 
 
 1840. 
 2,143,796 
 8,170,642 
 je5,921,]16 
 
 WORCESTER, Battle of, in the Civil War, fought between the Royalist army 
 and the forces of the parliament, the latter commanded by Cromwell. A 
 large bod}'' of Scots had marched into England with a view to reinstate 
 Charles IL, but Cromwell signally defeated them; the streets of the city 
 were strewed with the dead, the whole Scots army having been either killed 
 or taken j)risoners. This famous battle afforded Cromwell what he called his 
 crowning mercy. Charles with difficulty escaped to France. Of 8000 pri- 
 soners, most were sent to bond-service in the American colonies. September 
 3. 1651. 
 
 IVORLD. According to Julius Africanus, as quoted by Gibbon, the world waa 
 created September 1, 5508 b. c. Most chronologers, however, mention tho 
 5ear 4004 b. c. as the period of its first existence. The Jews celebrate tho 
 19th of September as the day of the creation, and some suppose that it waa 
 created in spring. Its globular form was first suggested by Thales of Mile- 
 tus, about 640 b. c. The first geographical ta^ile and map of the world was 
 
WOR j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 601 
 
 made by Anaximander, about 560 b. c. — Pliny. Discoveries of Pythagoras 
 and bis system, about 539 b. c. — Stanley. Tlie magnitude of the earth cal- 
 culated by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The system of Copernicus promulgated 
 A. D. 1530. Map of the world on Mercator's projection, in which the earth 
 is taken as a plane, 1556. The notion of the magnetism of the earth started 
 by Gilberd, 1583. Magnitude of the earth determined by Picart, 1669. 
 WORMS, Diet of. The celebrated imperial diet before which Martin I^uthei' 
 was summoned, April 4, 1521, and by which he was proscribed. Luther 
 was met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a 
 league from Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause, 
 that when Spalatin sent a messenger to warn him of his danger, he answer- 
 ed, " If there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs 
 of its houses, I would go on." Before the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, 
 six electors, twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops and pre- 
 lates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther appeared, 
 April 17th. in the imperial diet, acknowledged all his writings and opinions, 
 and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. But Frederick the Wise advised him 
 to seclude himself to save his life, which he did for about ten months, and 
 his triumph was afterwards complete. 
 
 WORSHIP. Athotes, son of Menes, king of Upper Egypt, is said to have been 
 the author of religious worship: he is supposed to be the Co'pt of the 
 Egyptians, and the Totli or Hermes, of the Greeks; the Mercury of the 
 Latins, and the Tewtates of the Celts or Gauls, 2112 b, c, — Usher. Religious 
 worship had an origin in most tribes and nations, in their ignorance of the 
 causes of natural phenomena. Benefits were ascribed to a good spirit, and 
 evils to a bad one. This primary idea was enlarged and diversified by 
 dreaming during imperfect sleep, or thinking while the volition was torpid, 
 and hy illusions of the senses, which led to belief in ghosts, signs, and omens, 
 and these causes were augmented by enthusiasts. — Phillips. In all nations, 
 whether civilized or barbarous, worship prevails, but is purest in Protestant 
 states. — Sherlock. 
 
 WORSHIP IN ENGLAND. In England were many forms of worship at the 
 period of the Roman invasion. The first Saxons were idolaters, and de- 
 dicated to their gods groves of the tallest trees and thickest forests, and 
 there worshipped them without building any temples to them, or represent- 
 ing them by any figures or images. Our days of the week are named after 
 Saxon divinities — the Sun, Moon, Tuesco, Woden, Thor, Friga, and Saturn. 
 Easter is named from their goddess Eostre ; and Christmas was from their 
 great festival Geoli. Faul, or Fola, was their dreaded enemy ; and they be- 
 lieved in elves and fairies, sorcery and witchcraft. The Saxon religion was 
 afterwards mingled with the Christian ; but the former was in time wholly 
 superseded by the latter, and in the end, the Reformation introduced our 
 present pure and simple mode of worship. In Scotland, the benign influence 
 of the Reformation soon put aside all other forms. The following is a re- 
 markable document, given in M'Crie's Life of John Knox, (Blackwood, 
 Edinburgh, 1831,) relating to the removal of images from Catholic places 
 of worship in Scotland, at the period of the Reformation : — 
 
 and so committis yow to the protection of 
 
 " To our traistfriendis, the Lairds of Arn- 
 tilly and Kinvaid. 
 " Traist friends, after maist harty com- 
 mendacio7i, we pray you faill not to pans 
 incontinent to the kyrk of Dunkeld. and tak 
 doun the haill images thereof ayid bring 
 furth to the kyrkzard, and burn thaym op- 
 pinly. And siclyk cast down the aUaris, 
 and purge the kyrk of all kynd of monu- 
 vients ofidoh'trye. And this ye faill not to 
 do, as ze will io us singular empleseur ; 
 
 26 
 
 God. From Edinburgh, the xii of August 
 
 1560. 
 " Faill not, bot ze tak guid heyd that nei 
 
 ther the dasks, windocks, nor durris,be ony 
 
 ways hurt or broken either glassin wark 
 
 or iron wark. 
 
 " Ar. Ergyll, 
 "Jambs StewarI 
 
 " RUTHVEN." 
 
602 
 
 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 
 
 [ ^^* 
 
 WORSTED. A species of woollen fabric, being spun wool, which obtained its 
 name from having been first spun in a town called Worsted, in Norfolk, in 
 which the inventor lived, and where manufactures of worsted are still exten- 
 sively carried on, 14 Edward III., 1340. — Anderson. Worsted-stocking 
 knave is a term of reproach or contempt used by Shakspeare. 
 
 WRECKS OF SHIPPING. The wreckers of Cornwall are the inhabitants of a 
 few parishes, on the rocky coast, between Mount's Bay and the Lizard. 
 When a wreck takes place, thousands assemble with axes, hatchets, crow- 
 bars, &c. ; and many women and children fight, by habit, for the plunder, 
 utterly regardless of the sufferers. — PMUips. The loss of merchant and 
 other ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters in the open sea, 
 was estimated at Lloj^d's, in 1800, to be about an average of 365 ships a 
 year. In 1830, it appeared by Lloyd's List, that 677 British vessels were 
 totally lost, under various circumstances, in that year. The annual loss 
 varies ; but it is always many hundreds. 
 
 SOME OF THE MOST REMARKABLE SHIPWRECKS. 
 
 days afterwards, and has never since 
 been heard of - March 13, 1841 
 
 Of the Peacock, one of the United States 
 exploring expedition, at the mouth 
 of the Columbia river, Oregon, mid- 
 day and smooth water - July IS, 1841 
 
 Of the Missouri Vnhed States steam- 
 
 Of the Thunderer, 74 guns ; Stirling 
 Castle, 64 ; Phobnix, 44 ; La Blanche, 
 42 ; Laurel, 28 ; Androineda, 28 ; 
 Deal Castle, 24 ; Scarborough, 20 ; 
 Barbadoes, 14 ; Canieleon, 14 ; En- 
 deavour, 14 ; and Victor, 10 guns ; 
 British vessels of war, all lost in the 
 same storm, in the West Indies, in 
 
 October, 1780 
 
 Of the Royal George, capsized in Ports- 
 mouth harbor, England, v/hen 1,000 
 persons perished - June 23, 1782 
 
 Of the steamer Home, from New York 
 to Charleston; 100 hves lost, Oct. 9, 1837 
 
 Of the Forfarshire steamei", from Hull 
 to Dundee ; 38 persons drowaed. 
 Owing to the courage of Grace Dar- 
 ling and her fother, 15 persons were 
 saved. See Forfarshire - Sept. 5, 1838 
 
 Of the Pennsylvania, Oxford, and St. 
 AndreiD, packet ships, m a great gale 
 off Liverpool - - Jan. 6, 1839 
 
 Of the Poland from New York to 
 Havre, struck by lightning, May 16, 1840 
 
 Of the President steamer, from New 
 York to Liverpool, with fifty pas- . 
 sengers on board; sailed on March 
 11, encountered a terrific storm two 
 
 frigatOj by fire, at Gibraltar, Aug. 27, 1843 
 
 Of the United States schooner Shark, 
 wrecked at same place - Sept. 10, IS-IS 
 
 Of the Great Britai7i iron steam-ship. 
 This stupendous vessel grounded m 
 Dundrum bay, on tlie east coast of 
 Ireland - - Sept. 22, 1816 
 
 Of the United States sloop of war Bos- 
 ton, on the Bahamas - Nov. 16, 181G 
 
 Of the United States brig Soniers, cap- 
 sized in a squall, off Vera Cruz ; 39 
 drowned - - Dec. 8, 1846 
 
 Of the West India mail packet Tweed ; 
 about 90 souls perished - Feb. 19, 1847 
 
 Of the ship Ocean Monarch, of Boston, 
 burnt near Liverpool ; 17(3 lives lost, 
 
 Aug. 24, IS18 
 
 Of the barque Charles Bartlett, run 
 down at sea by steamer Europa ; 134 
 lives lost - - June 27, 1849 
 
 See Fires, and Steam Vessels. 
 It is estimated at Lloyd's that about 170 British registered vessels are annu- 
 ally lost; 360 are annually rendered unfit for service ; and 1100 experience 
 serious damage, requiring extensive repairs, exclusively of the ordinary 
 wear and tear. 
 
 WRITING. Pictures were undoubtedly the first essay towards writing. The 
 most ancient remains of writing which have been transmitted to us are upon 
 hard substances, such as stones and metals, used by the ancients for edicts, 
 and matters of public notoriet3^ Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have writ- 
 ten a history of the Egyptians, and to have been the author of hierogly- 
 phics, 2112 B. c. — Uslier. Writing is said to have been taught to the Latina 
 by Europa, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 1494 b.c. — ''rhucydid£S. 
 Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought the Phoenician letters 
 into Greece. — Vossius. The commandments were written on two tables of 
 stone, 1491 b. c. — Usher. The Greeks and Romans used waxed table-books, 
 and continued the use of them long after papyrus was known. See Papy- 
 rus, Parciwient, Paper. "I would check the petty vanity of those who 
 slight good penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, bj reminding 
 
x;erJ dictionary of dates. 603 
 
 tliem that Mr. Fox was distin^uislied by the clearness and firmness, Mr. 
 professor Porson by the correctness and eleg-ance, and sir William Jones bj 
 the ease and beauty, of the characters they respectively employed."— Dr. 
 Parr. 
 
 X. 
 
 XANTHUS, Siege of, by the Romans under Brutus. After a great struggle, 
 and the endurance of great privations, the inhabitants, being no longer able 
 - to sustain themselves against the enemy, and determined not to survive the 
 loss of their liberty, set tire to their city, destroyed their wives and chil- 
 dren, and then themselves perished in the conflagration. The conqueror 
 wished to spare them, but though he offered rewards to his soldiers if they 
 brought any of the Xanthians alive into his presence, only 150 were saved, 
 much against their will ; 42 b. c. — Plutarch 
 
 XENOPHON, Retreat of. Xenophon surnamed the Attic Muse, led in the 
 memorable retreat of the Greeks, one of the most celebrated events in 
 ancient history. The Greeks were mercenaries of the younger Cyrus, after 
 whose defeat and fall at the battle of Cunaxa, they were obliged to retreat; 
 but Xenophon kept them in a compact body, and retreated through Asia 
 into Thrace. The Greeks proceeded through various fierce and barbarous 
 nations, surmounted all the obstacles and dangers that arose at every step, 
 and accomplished their arduous enterprise, after repeated triumphs over 
 toils, fraud, and force. This retreat is esteemed the boldest and best-con- 
 ducted exploit on record; 401 b. c. — Vossius. 
 
 XERXES' CAMPAIGN in GREECE. Xerxes entered Greece in the springy 
 of 480 B. c. with an army, which, together with the numerous retinue of 
 servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted, according to some 
 historians, to 5,283.220 souls. But Herodotus states the armament to have 
 co.isisted of 3000 sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry, and the 
 mariners, and attendants of the camp. This multitude was stopped at 
 Thermopylae, by the valor of 300 Spartans under Leonidas. Xerxes, aston- 
 ished that such a handful of men should oppose his progress, ordered some 
 of his soldiers to bring them alive into his presence ; but for three succes- 
 sive days the most valiant of the Persian troops were defeated, and the 
 courage of the Spartans might perhaps have triumphed longer if a base 
 Trachinian, named Ephialtes, had not led a detachment to the top of the 
 mountain, and suddenly fallen upon the devoted band. The battle of Ther- 
 mopylae (which see) was the beginning of the disgrace of Xerxes, Aug. 7, 
 480 B. c. The more he advanced, the more he experienced new disasters. 
 His fleet was defeated at Artemisium and Saiamis, and he hastened back to 
 Persia, leaving Mardonius, the best of his generals, behind, with an army of 
 300,000 men. The rest that had survived the ravages of war, famine, and 
 pestilence, followed Xerxes on his route home. 
 
 XERXES' BRIDGE. The famous bridge of Xerxes across the Hellespont, 
 the strait which joins the Archipelago and the sea of Marmora. It was 
 formed by connecting together ships of different kinds, some long vessels ot 
 fifty oars, others three-banked galleys, to the number of 360 on the side 
 towards the sea, and 318 on that of the Archipelago ; the former were 
 placed tiansversely, but the latter, to diminish the strain on their cables, in 
 the direction of the current, all secured by anchors and cables of great 
 strength. On extended cables between the lines of shipping wfire laid fast- 
 bound rafters, over these a layer of unwrought wood, and over the latter 
 was thrown earth : on each side was a fence, to prevent the horses and 
 
604 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [yea 
 
 beasts of burthen from being terrified by the sea, in the passage from shore 
 to shore. This wonderful work was completed, it is said, in one week, 480 
 B. c. 
 
 yEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the 
 year. The Roman year was introduced by Romulus 738 b. c; and it was 
 corrected by Numa 713 b. c, and again by Julius C«sar, 45 b. c. See Calen- 
 dar. The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 365 days, 5 hours,^ 
 48 minutes, 51 seconds and 6 decimals, 265 b. c. The siderial year, or return 
 of the same star, is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 11 seconds. A consid- 
 erable variation prevailed generally among the nations of antiquity, and sti.'l 
 I.)artially prevails, with regard to the commencement of the year. The Jews 
 dated the beginning of the sacred year in the month of March ; the Athe« 
 nians in the month of June ; the Macedonians on the 24tli Sept. ; the Chris- 
 tians of Egypt and Ethiopia on the 29th or 30th of August ; and the Persians 
 and Armenians on the 11th of that month. Nearly all the nations of the 
 Christian w^orld now commence the year on the 1st of January. Charles IX. 
 of France, in 1654, published an arret, the last article of which ordered the 
 year for the time to come to be constantly and universally begun, and written 
 on and from January 1. See New Style, &c. 
 
 YEAR, LUNAR. This is the space of time which comprehends twelve lunar 
 months, or 454 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, and was in use among the Chal- 
 deans, Persians, and ancient Jews. Once in every three years was added 
 another lunar month, so as to make the solar and lunar year nearly agree. 
 But though the months were lunar, the year was solar ; that is, the first 
 month was of thirty days, and the second of twenty-nine, and so alternately ; 
 and the month added triennially was called the second Adar. The Jews 
 afterwards followed the Roman manner of computation. 
 
 YEAR OF OUR LORD. The first sovereign who adopted this distinction was 
 Charles IIL, emperor of Germany: he added "In the year of our Lord " to 
 his reign, a. d. 879. It was followed by the French kings, and afterwards by 
 the English ; and is the mode of designating the year from the birth of the 
 Redeemer in all Christian countries. See Eras. 
 
 YEAR, Platonic. The doctrine of the Platonic year was believed among the 
 Chaldeans, and in the earliest ages. It is that space of time at the end 
 whereof all the planets are to return to the same point from whence they 
 set out, and have the same aspects and configurations one upon another. 
 Some affirm this return to be in 15,000 common years, others in 36,000. The 
 ancient heathens were of opinion, that when this period was completed, the 
 world would be renewed again, and the departed souls re-enter their bodies 
 and go through a second course of being. 
 
 YEAR, Sabbatical-. This was every seventh year, among the Jews. In this 
 year the people were enjoined by the law to let the ground lie fallow and 
 have rest. Every seventh Sabbatical year, or every forty-iiinth year was 
 called the Jubilek Year, when was joy and rejoicing ; all debts were forgiven, 
 and slaves set at liberty, and it was usual to return to the original families 
 ^11 estates and property that had been sold or mortgaged. — Hist. Jews. 
 
 rEAR. Siberian, and in Lapland. The year in the northern regions of Siberia 
 and Lapland, is described in the following calendar, as given by a recent 
 traveller : — 
 
 June 23, Siiow melts. 
 July 1, Snow gone. 
 July 9, Field quite green. 
 July 17 Plants at full growth. 
 
 July 25, Plants '^ flower. 
 Aug. 2, Fruits ripe. 
 Aug. 10, Plants shed their seed. 
 Aug. 18, Snow. 
 
rOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 505 
 
 The snow thei continues upon the ground for about ten months, from Au- 
 gust 18th of one year, to June 23d of the year following, being 309 days out 
 of 365 ; so that while the three seasons of spring, summer, and autumn, are 
 together only fifty six days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks* 
 duration in these countries. 
 
 FEAR AND A DAY. A space of time, in law, that in many cases establishes 
 ana fixes a right, as in an estray, on proclamation being made, if the owner 
 does not claim it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in the 
 Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on another's land, if unclaim- 
 ed for a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise a 
 legal space of time. 
 
 YELLOW FEVER, the, visited the city of New York in the years 1741, 1742, 
 1791, 1795, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1803, 1805, 1819, and 1822. The deaths by that 
 disease were as follows : 732 in 1795 ; 2086 in 1798 (population, 55,000) ; 
 670 in 1803 ; 280 in 1805 ; 23 in 1819 ; 366 in 1822. In 1805, 37,000 of the 
 inhabitants (out of 76,000, the w^hole population) fled from the city. In 1804, 
 40 persons died with it at Brooklyn, but New York escaped. Philadelphia 
 was nearly desolated by it in 1793, and again in 1798. 4041 persons died in 
 1793, and 17,000 fled from the city (population, 50,000). In 1798, the morta- 
 lity was great, and 50 000, out of 70,000 inhabitants, fled. Several thousand 
 died, and the greatest number of deaths in one day was 117. Baltimore 
 suflered from this disease in 1798, 1819, and 1821. New Orleans and Ha- 
 vana have it annually. In several of the islands of the West Indies in 1732, 
 1739, and 1745. It broke out in Spain in Sept. 1803. The yellow fever was 
 very -violent at Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814; in the Mauritius, July 1815 ; at 
 Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with dreadful consequences at Cadiz, 
 and the Isle of St. Leon, in Sept. 1819. The yellow fever rages more or less 
 every year or two at Charleston, New Orleans, and other southern cities of 
 the United States. It first appeared at Rio Janeiro in 1849-50, where it 
 proved fatal to many thousands. 
 
 rOKE. The ceremony of making prisoners pass under it, was first practised 
 by the Samnites towards the Romans, 321 b. c. This disgrace was afterwards 
 inflicted by the Romans upon their vanquished enemies. — Abbe Lenglct, 
 Dufresnoy. 
 
 YORK. The Eboracum, of the Romans, and one of the most ancient cities of 
 England. Here Severus held an imperial court, a. d. 207 ; and here also 
 Constantius kept a court, and his son Constantine the Great was born, in 
 274. York was burnt by the Danes, and all the Normans slain, 1069. York 
 received its charter from Richard II., and the city is the only one in the 
 British kingdoms, besides London and Dublin, to whose mayors the prefix 
 of lord has been granted. 
 
 FORK, Archbishopric of, the most ancient metropolitan see in England, being, 
 it is said, so made by king Lucius, about a. d. 180, when Christianity 
 was first, although partially, established in England. But this establishment 
 was overturned by the Saxons driving out the Britons. When the former 
 were converted, pope Gregory determined that the same dignity should ho 
 restored to York, and Paulinus was made archbishop of this see, about a. n. 
 622. York and Durham were the only two sees in the north of England for 
 a large space of time, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at Carlisle, and 
 Henry VIII. another at Chester. York was the metropolitan see of the Scot- 
 tish bishops; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, 1464, they withdrew 
 their obedience, and had archbishops of their own. Much dispute arose 
 between the two English metropolitans about precedency, as, by pope (Jre- 
 gory's institutions, it Avas thought he meant, that which ever of them was 
 
606 THE world's progress. [ ZAtk 
 
 first confirnied, slionld be superior ; appeal was made to the coiut of Rome 
 by both parties, and it was determined in favor of Canterbury ; but York 
 was allowed to style himself primate of England, while Canterbury styles 
 himself primate of all England. York has yielded to the church of Rome 
 eight saints, and three cardinals; and to the civil state of England, twelve 
 lord chancellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents of the north. 
 It is rated in the king's books, 39 Henry VIIL, 1546, at 1609^. 19s. 2d. per 
 annum. — Beatson. 
 
 YORK CATHEDRAL, England. This majestic fabric M^as erected at different 
 periods, and on the site of former buildings, which have again and again 
 been destroyed by fire. Tlie first Christian church erected here, which ap- 
 pears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, was built by Edwin, kinf 
 of Northumbria, about the year 630. It was burnt for the third time in] 
 1137, along with St. Mary's Abby, and 39 parish churches in York. Arch- 
 bishop Roger began to build the choir in 1171, but it w'as by many hands, 
 and with the contributions of many families, and of multitudes who were 
 promised indulgences for their liberality, that this magnificent fabric was 
 completed, about 1361. It was set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, 
 and the roof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, Feb. 2, 1829 ; 
 the damage estimated at 60.000/., was repaired in 1832. 
 
 VORK AND LANCASTER, WARS of the HOUSES of. The first battle be- 
 tween these houses was that of St. Albans, fought May 22. 1455. The last 
 was that of Tewkesbury, fought May 4, 1471. ' In these battles the Yorkists, 
 or Willie Mosej, were victorious against the house of Lancaster, or the Bed 
 Roses. But in tlie sixteen years betw^een these two dates, more than thirty 
 great battles were fought with different success, and half the country was 
 depopulated, and nearly the whole of the nobility exterminated. See 
 Roses. 
 
 YORKTOWN. A village in Virginia, memorable for the surrender of the Bri- 
 tish army under lorti Cornwallis, consisting of 7000 men, to the Americans 
 and their allies under Washington and coimt Rochambeau, Oct. 19, 1781. 
 This event decided the contest for independence in favor of the Americans. 
 
 YUCATAN, adopted a constitution as a republic (having declared its indepen- 
 dence of Mexico), May 16, 1841. 
 
 Z. 
 
 ZAMA, BATTLfi OF, between the two greatest commanders in the world at the 
 time, Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. It was won by Scipio, and was deci- 
 sive of the fate of Carthage ; it led to an ignominious peace which waa 
 granted the year after, and closed the second Punic war. The Romans lost 
 but 2000 killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost, in killed 
 and prisoners, more than 40,000 ; some historians make the loss greater ; 
 B. c. 202. 
 
 ZANTE. This island, with the rest of the islands now forming the Ionian re- 
 public, was subject to Venice prior to the French Revolution ; but the whole 
 group were ceded to France by the treaty of Campo Formio {which see), 
 October 17, 1797. They were taken by a Russian and Turkish fleet, and 
 were erected into an independent republic by the name of the Seven Islands, 
 in 1799. They fell into ditierent hands in the course of the succeeding 
 year, and were surrendered to the French by the Russians, together with 
 Ragusa. August 14, 1807. They submitted to the British army, October 3, 
 1809. In the arrangements at the congress of Vienna, in 1815, they were 
 put under the protection of Great Britain. The treaty was ratilicd at 
 
ZIN ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 607 
 
 Paris for that, purpose, bet-ween Great Britain and Russia, November 5, 
 1815. The new constitution was ratified by the prince regent, February 
 22, 1817. 
 
 ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, under Zanzalee. a. d. 535 ; he taught 
 that water by baptism was of no efficacy, and that it was necessarj^ to be 
 baptized with fire, by the application of a red-hot iron. The sect was at 
 one time very numerous. — Ashe. 
 
 ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For ye, ijoii, and ijotirs. The letter z was retained in 
 Scotland, and was commonly written, for the letter y, so late as the reign of 
 queen Mary, up to which period many books in the Scottish language were 
 printed in Edinburgh with these words, a, d, 1543. 
 
 ZEALAND, NEW, in the Pacific, Discovered by Tasman in 1642. He tra- 
 . versed the eastern coast, and entered a strait where, being attacked by the 
 natives soon after he came to anchor, he did not go ashore. From the time 
 of Tasman, the whole country, except that part of the coast which was 
 seen by him, remained altogether unknown, and was by many supposed to 
 make part of a southern continent, till 1770. when it was circumnavigated 
 by captain Cook, who found it to consist of two large islands, separated by 
 the strait. The introduction of potatoes into New Zealand has saved many 
 lives, for the natives give this root a decided preference to human flesh, 
 under every circumstance, except that of wreaking vengeance on a chief of 
 the foe whom they have taken in battle. Captain Cook, in 1773, planted 
 several spots of g^'ound on this island with European garden-seeds ; and in 
 1777, he found a few fine potatoes, greatly improved by change of soil. 
 
 ZELA, Battle op, in which Julius CEesar defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, 
 son of Mithridates. C«sar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous 
 dispatch to the senate of Rcfme, in three words : '•'• Veni, vidi, vicV — "I 
 came, I saw, I conquered," so rapidly and easily was his triumph obtained. 
 This battle concluded the war : Pharnaces escaped into Bosphorus, where 
 he was slain by his lieutenant, Asander ; and Pontus was made a pr ' ■^ince 
 of Rome, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 b. c— 
 Sue. Cces. 
 
 ZELTCHOW, Battle of, between the Polish and Russian armies, one of the 
 most desperate and bloody battles fought by the Poles in their late struggle 
 for the freedom of their country. The Russians, who were commanded by 
 general Diebitch, were defeated, losing 12 000 men in killed, wounded, and 
 prisoners ; and Diebitch narrowly escaped being taken in the pursuit of his 
 flying army, April 6, 1831. 
 
 ZENO, Sect o - founded by Zeno. This sect also took the name of Stoic, from 
 a public portico, so called, from which the philosopher delivered his ha- 
 rangues. It was the most famous portico in Athens, and was called by way 
 of eminence, Lroa, the porch. See Stoics. In order to form his own school 
 of philosophy, and to collect materials for a new system, Zeno had attended 
 the schools of various masters, and among others he offered himself as a 
 disciple of Polemo. This philosopher, aware of Zeno's object, said, " I ara 
 no stranger, Zeno, to your Phoenician arts. I perceive that your design is 
 to creep slily into my garden, and steal away my fruit." He taught about 
 312 B. c. 
 
 ZINC. The discovery of this metal, so far as the fact is known, is due to the 
 - moderns. It is said to have been long known in China, however, and is no- 
 ticed by European writers as early as a. d: 1231; though the method of 
 extracting it from the ore was unknown for nearly five hundred years 
 after. A mine of zinc was discovered on lord Ribbledale's estate, Craven, 
 Yorkshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in London shortly after 
 
608 THE world's progress. [ zua 
 
 the invention of lithography became known in England, in 1817. See Ll^ 
 thography. 
 
 ZODIAC. The obliquity of the zodiac Avas discovered, its twelve signs named, 
 and their situations assigned them in the heavens, by Anaximander, about 
 560 B. c. The Greeks and Arabians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindooa 
 to whom it has been known from time immemorial. — Sir William Jones. 
 The invention of geographical maps, and of sun-dials, belongs also to Anax- 
 imander. — Pliiiy. 
 
 ZOE, Reign of. This extraordinary woman, daughter of the emperor Con- 
 stantino IX., married Romanus, who, in consequence, succeeded to tho 
 throne of the Eastern empire, a. d. 1028. Zoe, after intriguing with a Pa- 
 phlagonian money-lender, caused her husband Romanus to be poisoned, 
 and afterwards married her favorite, who ascended the throne under the 
 name of Michael IV., 1034. Zoe adopted for her son Michael the Fifth, 
 the trade of whose father (careening vessels) had procured him the surname 
 of Calaphates, 1041. Zoe and her sister, Theodora, were made sole em- 
 presses by the populace ; but after two months, Zoe, although she was sixty 
 years of age, took for her third husband Constantino X., who succeeded to 
 the empire in 1042. See Eastern Empire. 
 
 ZOOLOGY. The animal kingdom was divided by Linnaeus into six classes, 
 viz : — Mamvialia, which includes all animals that suckle their young ; Aves, 
 or birds ; Amphibia, or amphibious animals ; Pisces, or fishes ; Inseda, or 
 insects ; Vermes, or worms ; a. d. 1741. From this period the science of 
 zoology has had many distinguished professors, the most illustrious of whom 
 was the baron Cuvier, who died in Paris, May 13, 1832. The Zoological 
 Gardens of London were opened in April 1827 ; the society was charterec 
 March 27, 1829. 
 
 ZUINGLIANS. The followers of Ulricus Zuinglius. This zealous reformer, 
 while he officiated at Zurich, declaimed against the church of Rome and 
 its indulgences, and effected the same separation for Switzerland from the 
 papal dominion, which Luther had for^ Saxony. He procured two assem- 
 blies to be called ; by the first he was authorized to proceed, and by the 
 second the ceremonies of the Romish church were abolished, 1519. Zuin- 
 glius, who began as a preacher, died in arms as a soldier : he was slain in a 
 skirmish against the Popish opponents of his reformed doctrines, in 1531. 
 The reformers who adhered entirely to Zuinglius were called after his name 
 and also Sacramentarians. 
 
 ZURICH. It was admitted to be a member of the Swiss confederacy, of which 
 this canton was made the head, a. d. 1351. Cession of Utznach, 1436. This 
 was the first town in Switzerland that separated from the church of Rome, 
 in consequence of the opposition given by Zuinglius to a Franciscan monk 
 sent by Leo X., to publish indulgences here, 1519, et seq. A grave-digger 
 of Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which eight persons lost their 
 lives, and many others were grievously injured, Sept. 4, 1776. The French 
 were defeated here, losing 4000 men, June 4, 1799. The Imperialists were 
 defeated by Massena, the former losing 20,000 men in killed and wouttded, 
 Sept. 24, 1799. See Switzerland. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 [From the Companion to the British Almanac, with additions.^ 
 
 The following Chronological List of Authors is in extefision of the Catalogue 
 furnished in the Companion of 1831, differing from it by adding to the name 
 or each author the title of his most important production, or some word 
 ex})ressive of the nature of his works. 
 
 In order to show the various literary character of each age the catalogue is 
 divided into three columns : the first containing those authors who have drawn 
 chiefly from their own sources, as poets and novelists ; the second those who 
 treat on matters of fact, as history and geography ; and the third, the philo- 
 sophic and scientific writers. Where an author has written in different styles, 
 his Lame will be found in the column to which his most distinguished pro- 
 ductions appertain. The Hebrews having, almost without exception, treated 
 on speculative subjects, the triple division does not extend to them. 
 
 The dates of birth and death are appended to each name, where they could 
 be ascertained. In other cases, the situation of the name will show nearly the 
 time when each author has flourished. 
 
 HEBREW. 
 
 [The words in italics oetween parentheses are the familiar appellations of the preceding persons ; 
 tliey are formed from the first letters of each word composing their names. For example, tha 
 .Jews call Maimonides Rambam, from the four initial letters of his full name, Rabbi Moses ben 
 Maimon. J oa Tof, in like manner, is called Ritba, from the words Rabbi Yom Tof bar 
 Abraham,] 
 
 loOO' "Moses, 1572—1452. 
 
 Phinehas, supposed author of the book 
 Joshua. 
 1100 David, 1085—10815. 
 1000 Solomon, 1033—975. 
 POO Jonah, d. 761. 
 Amos. 
 Hosea. 
 Joel. 
 Obadiah. 
 Micah. 
 
 Isaiah, d, 681. 
 Nahum. 
 700 Habakkuk. 
 Zephaniah. 
 Jeremiah. 
 600 Baruch. 
 Ezekiei. 
 Daniel. 
 Zechariah. 
 Haiigai. 
 500 Ezra. 
 
 Nehemiah, d. 430 
 Malachi. 
 300 Jesus, son of Sirach. 
 
 26* 
 
 of 
 
 B. C. 
 
 100 
 
 A. D 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 Neehoniah ben Hakkanah, 'Sepher hab- 
 bahir,' the illustrious book. The most 
 ancient of Rabbinical books. Cabbalistic. 
 
 Jonathan, ' Targum,' or Chaldee paraphrase 
 of the Bible. 
 
 Onkelos, 'Targum.' 
 
 Josephus, b. 35. 
 
 Akiba, d. 120. The Mishna has been in. 
 correctly attributed to him. .^ 
 
 ShimeonbenJochai(i2as/tiO. The 'Zohar,' 
 a celebrated cabbalistic Commentary 
 on the Pentateuch is usually attributed 
 to him, but was composed by his dis- 
 ciples. 
 
 Jose ben Chilpheta, 'A History of the 
 World.' 
 
 Nathan of Babylon, ' Pirke aboth,' the say- 
 ings of the fathers. Ethics. 
 
 Elieser, 'Pirke Eliezer,' the sayings ol 
 Eliezer, a History of the World. 
 
 Judah Hakkadosh, ' Mishna,' the oral tradi- 
 tions of the Jews, which, with ths 
 (iemara or Commentary, constitutes tht 
 Babylonian Talmud. 
 
610 
 
 THE world's progress 
 
 Raf, supposed author of the 'Siphra,' a 
 commentary on Leviticus, and of the 
 'Siphre,' a commentary on Numbers 
 and Deuteronomy. 
 21X) Usliaya, ' Bereshiili Rabba,' a Commentary 
 on the Mishna. 
 
 Author of the *Mechi!ta,' a Commentary 
 on Exodus. 
 
 Jochanan, -Talmud of Jerusalem.' 
 300 Rabba bar Nachmon, ' Rabboth,' Commen- 
 taries on the Bible. 
 40C Rabaslia, began the ' Gemara,' a Commen- 
 tary on tlie Mishna. 
 
 Martemar, continued the 'Gemara.' 
 500 Abina, completed the ' Gemara.' 
 80*3 Simeon Hejara, ' Great decisions,' jurid. 
 
 Judah bar Nachman {Riban), Compendium 
 of the preceding. 
 &30 Saadia Gaon, ' Philosopher's Stone,' ' Book 
 of Faith,' ' Grammar,' &c. 
 
 Sherira, 'The Book of Answers,' l^story. 
 000 Samuel Haccohen, d. 1034. 
 
 Joseph Ching, Grammarian. 
 • Judah Barzelloni, ' Rights of Women,' ju- 
 ridic. 
 
 Joseph ben Gorion (Ribag), ' Compendium 
 of Hebrew History.' 
 
 Moses Aben Ezra, d. lOSO. Grammarian. 
 
 Isaac of Cordova, d. 1094. ' Chest of Spices.' 
 ■ lOOAlphes, d. 1103. 'Compendium of the 
 Talmud.' 
 ■Natlian, d. 1106. 'Talmudic and Chaldee 
 Lexicon.' 
 
 Solomon Jarchi (Rashiy, Grammarian, d. 
 1105. ' Tongue of the Learned.' 
 
 Joseph ben Meir {Ribam), d. 1141. ' Com- 
 mentary on Talmud.' 
 
 Juda the Levite, 'Sepher Cosri,' philoso- 
 phical. 
 
 A.braham Aben Ezra, very learned Com- 
 mentaries on the Bible. 
 
 Tam. d. 117. 'Sepher Hajashar,' the Book 
 of Righteousness. 
 
 Samuel "ben Meir (Ras/ibam), d. 1171. 
 ' Commentaiy on the Talmud.' 
 
 Benjamin of Tudela, d. 117.3. 'Travels.' 
 
 Samuel, ' Book of Piety,' Ethics and Theo- 
 logy. 
 
 Isaac'bar Abba, Grammai-ian. 
 
 Moses Kimhi, Grammarian. 
 
 David Kimhi (Radak), Grammarian. 
 
 Abrahain bar Dior ^Rabad), d. ] 199. Cab- 
 balist. 
 
 Abraham ben David {Rabad), Jurist. 
 
 Moses ben Maimon (^Rambam), 1131-1205. 
 
 'Yad Hazaka.' the -*.';ong hand, a very 
 celebrated Commen.ary on the Talmud, 
 &c. (This author is belter known by 
 his Latinized name, Maimonides.) 
 1200 Abraham bar Cha.'idai, Ethics. 
 
 Eliakim. Ceremonies. 
 
 Baruch Miggarmisa, Laws, Ceremonies. 
 
 Eliezer Miggarmisa, Ethics, Commentaries. 
 
 Asher, Compendia of Talmud. 
 
 Perez Haccohen (Haraph), Cabbalist 
 
 Moses ben Nachman {Ramban), d. 1260. 
 •Law of Man,' a celebrated book on 
 Ceremo lies, «&c. 
 
 Moses Mikkotsi, ' Great Book of Piuctpi^^ 
 ' Compendium of Talmud.' 
 
 Isaac ben Solomon, d. 1268. ' Proverbs an4 
 Fables.' 
 
 Nissim, d. 1268. ' Book of Homilies.' 
 
 Isaac ben Joseph, d. 1270. 'Book of Precepts.' 
 
 Moses Aben Tybon, Translator of Mathe- 
 matical and Philosophical works frojoi 
 the Greek and Arabic. 
 
 Solomon ben Adras {Rashba).^ Theology. 
 
 Meir, Meditations, on ' Maimonides.' 
 
 Menachem Rekanat, d. 1290. ' Reason iot 
 the enactment of the Laws of Moses ' 
 
 Bechai, ' Commentary on Pentateuch.' 
 1300 Shimson, d. 1312. ' Intro, to the Talmud.' 
 
 Isaac Israeli, 'Foundation of the Worid,- 
 History. 
 
 Judah, son of Benjamin, Rutal. 
 
 Mordechai, ' Compendium of Talmud.' 
 
 Isaac Dura, ' On Forbidden and Permitte<1 
 Food.' 
 
 Aaron Haccohen, ' The Way of Life.' 
 
 Jerucham, ' Book of Rectitude.' 
 
 Jacob ben Asher, ' The Four Orders,' a 
 Ritual of much authority. 
 
 David Abudraham, astronomy. 
 
 Levi ben Gerson (Ralbag^, d. 1370. ' Com- 
 moitary on the Law.' 
 
 Menachen Aben Serach, d. 1375. Ritual. 
 
 Isaat ben Sheshat (^Ribash), ' Questions 
 and Answers on Various Subjects.' 
 
 Moses Haccohen, 'Help of Faith.' 
 
 Isaac Sprot, 'Aben Bochan,' a polemic work 
 against Christianity. 
 
 Jom Tof bar Abraham (Ritba), Commen- 
 tary on Maimonides.' 
 
 Chasdai, d. 1396. 'Light of the Lord.' 
 Ethics and Theology. 
 
 Siineon bar Zemach, '"Shield of the Fathers.' 
 1400 Jacob Levi, d. 1427. A Ritual. 
 
 Joseph Albo, the Divine Philosopher, — 
 ' Foundation of Faith.' 
 
 Israel Germanus, ' Questions and Answerb 
 on the Law.' 
 
 Joshua Levita, ' Introd. to the Talmud.' 
 
 David Vital, ' Golden Verses.' 
 
 Samuel Sirsa, Grammar. 
 
 Isaac ben Arama, ' Com. on the Law.' 
 
 Elias Misrachi (Ram), Arithmetic. 
 
 Abarbinel, ' Commentary on the Bible.' 
 
 Isaac Abuhaf, Ethics. 
 1500 Abraham Seba, ' Bundle -of Myrrh,' a Com- 
 mentary. 
 
 Isaac iTarro, 'Explanations of the Bible.' 
 
 Elias Levi, Grammar. 
 
 Solomon ben Virga, 'History of the .Tews.' 
 
 Benjamin Zeef, ' Questions and Answers.' 
 
 Abraham Zaccoth, ' Juchasin,' Sacred and 
 Jewish History. 
 
 Moses Iserle, Astrology. 
 
 Joseph Karro, ' Com. on Maimonides.' 
 
 Azarias Edomseus, History and Philology. 
 
 Gadaliah, ' Cabbalistic Chain,' History and 
 Chronology. 
 
 Leo, d. 1592. ' Icon's Whelp,' Grammar. 
 
 David Gans, History. 
 1600 Moses of Trana, ' Book of God.' 
 1700 Moses Mendelssohn, 1729-1785, Philosophy 
 
 AUTHORS OF THE NEW-TESTAMENT. 
 
 . D. 
 
 St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, St. John, Evangelists. 
 St. Paul, St. Peter, St. James, St. Jude, Epistlers. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY GREEK. 
 
 611 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SClBNTIPia 
 
 B. C. 
 
 &X) Homer, ' Iliad,' « Odyssey,' 
 &c. 
 Ilesiod, ' Works and Days,' 
 &c. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 900 
 
 B. C. 
 
 900 
 
 700 Tyrtaeus, Elegies (fragm'ts.) 
 Archilochus, Satires, Ele- 
 gies (fragments). 
 
 700 
 
 700 
 
 eOO Aicceus, Lyrics (fragments). 
 
 Sappho, Lyrics (fragments). 
 
 Solon, d. 558. 
 
 Epimenides. 
 
 Stesichorus, G33-553 Lyrics 
 (fragments). 
 
 Mimnermus, Elegies (frag- 
 ments.) 
 
 Anacreon, Lyrics. 
 
 600 
 
 600 
 
 Pythagoras, Philosophy. 
 
 500 Simonides, 556-467, Lyrics, 
 ^schylus, 525-456, Trage- 
 dies. 
 Pindar, 518-439, Odes. 
 Baccliylides, Lyrics. 
 
 Sophocles, 495-405, Trage- 
 dies. 
 
 Euripides, 480-486, Trage- 
 dies. 
 
 Aristophanes, d. 338, Come- 
 dies. 
 
 500 
 
 Gorgias, Orations (frgts.) 
 
 Hecatgeus, Hist, (fragmn'ts.) 
 Herodotus, d. 484, History. 
 Thucydides, 471-391, Histo- 
 ry of Peloponnesian War. 
 Antiphon, Orations. 
 Andorides, Orations. 
 Lysias, 458-378, Orations. 
 
 500 Zeno of Elea, Philosohy. 
 Ocellus Lucanus, Philoso- 
 phy. 
 
 Anaxagoras, 500-428, Philo- 
 sophy. . 
 
 Socrates, 468-399, PhilosO" 
 phy. 
 
 400 
 
 Diphilus, Comedy (frgts.) 
 Menander, 242-291, Come- 
 dies (fragments.) 
 
 400 Ctesias, History (fragm'ts.) 
 Xenophon, 444-359, History, 
 
 Philosophy, &c. 
 IsEBUs, Orations. 
 
 Isocrat&s, 536-338, Orations. 
 Dinarchus, Orations. 
 Lycurgus, Orations. 
 Demosthenes, 382-322, Ora- 
 tions. 
 .S^schines, 389-314, Orations. 
 
 400 
 
 Hippocrates, 460-357, Medi- 
 cine. 
 
 Democritus, 450-357, Philo- 
 sophy. 
 
 Plato, 429-347, Philosophy. 
 
 Aristotle, 384-322, Philoso- 
 phy, Criticism. 
 
 TheoDhrastus,d. 288, Ethics, 
 
 Epicurus, 341-270, Philoso- 
 phy. 
 
 300 Bion, Idyls. 
 
 Moschus, Idyls. 
 
 Lycophron, ' Cassandra.' 
 
 Callimachus, Hymns and 
 Epigrams. 
 
 Theocritus, Idyls. 
 ■ Aratus, Poem on Astrono- 
 my. 
 
 Cleanthes, Hymns. 
 
 Apollonius Rhodius, Argo- 
 nautics.' 
 
 300 
 
 Manetho, History (fragm'ts.) 
 
 300 Euclid, Geometry. 
 
 Zento of Citium, d. 263, Phi- 
 losophy. 
 
 Apollonius, Conic Sectioiw. 
 
 Archimedes, d. 212, ' Spliers 
 
 and Cylinder,' &c. 
 Eratosthenes^ Philosophy. 
 
612 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIBNTIFia 
 
 200 Nicander, Theriaca. 
 
 200 Polybius, 206-124, Universal 
 HisLory. 
 ApoUodorus, ' Bibliotheca,' 
 Mythology. 
 
 200 
 
 100 Meleager, Epigrams. 
 
 100 Conon, Mythology. 
 
 Scymuus, Poetical Geogr. 
 
 Dionysius Halicarnassus, 
 'Roman Antiquities.' 
 
 Dionysius Periegetes, Ge- 
 ography 1 
 
 Diodorus Siculus, General 
 History. 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 Strabo, Geography. 
 
 Pausanias, Description of 
 
 Greece. 
 Plutarch, Biography, Morals 
 
 &c. 
 Dion Chrysostom, Orations. 
 
 
 Dioscorides, Botany and Me- 
 dicine. 
 
 Epictetus, ' Enchiridion,' 
 Philosophy. 
 
 A. D. 
 100 
 
 lamblichus, ' Rhodis and Si- 
 nonides, a novel. 
 
 Lucian, Dialogues. 
 Oppian, Poems on Hunting 
 
 and Fishing. 
 Athenaeus, d. 194, ' Deipno- 
 
 sophistae, anecdotes. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 100 ^lian, d. 140. Varieties. 
 Appian, History. ' 
 Ptolemy, Geog., Astron. 
 
 Arrian, ' Expedition of Alex- 
 ander.' 
 
 A. D. 
 
 100 
 
 Justin Martyr, d. 163, Theo- 
 logy. 
 Polycarp, d. 167, Theology. 
 Galen, 103-193, Medicine. 
 
 Athenagoras, d. 172, ' On the 
 Resurrection.' 
 
 Phavorinus, Lexicon. 
 
 Hermogenes, d. 161, Rlw- 
 toric. 
 
 Polyaenus, Strategy. 
 
 M. Aurelius Antoninus, Phi- 
 losophy. 
 
 Nephaestion, ' On Metres.' 
 
 Max. Tyrius, Pliilosophy. 
 
 Julius Pollux, 'Onomasti- 
 con,' Rhetoric. 
 
 200 
 
 200 Diogenes Laertius, d. "222, 
 ' Lives of Philosophers.' 
 
 Philostratus, d. 244, Life of 
 Apollonius. 
 
 Dion Cassius, History of 
 Rome. 
 
 Herodian, History of Rome. 
 
 Porphyrius, 23-3-304, Life of 
 Pythagoras, Philosophy. 
 
 200 
 
 Ammonius, Philos'iphy. 
 Origen, d. 254, Theology 
 Hesychius, Lexicon, 
 lamblichus. Philosophy. 
 Longinus, d. 273, 'On th« 
 Sublime.' 
 
 800 
 
 Achillea Tatius, ' Clitophon 
 and Leucippe,' novel. 
 
 Xenophon, 'Anthea and Ab- 
 rocome,' novel. 
 
 300 Eusebius, d. 340, Ecclesias- 
 tical History. 
 
 Liabanius, Orations and 
 Epistles. 
 
 300 
 
 Julian, d. 363, Philosophy. 
 
 Athanasius, 298-371, Theo- 
 logy. 
 
 Greg. Nazianzen, 318-335^ 
 Theology. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY. GREEK. 
 
 613 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 PACT. 
 
 SPBCUfi.ATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC 
 
 300 
 
 300 
 
 Eunapius, 'Lives of Philo- 
 sophers.' 
 
 Gregory Nyssseus, d. 396, 
 
 Theolosy. 
 Cyril, 315-386, Theology. 
 Diophantus, Mathematics. 
 
 30C Aristaeietus, 'Erotic Let- 
 ters.' 
 
 Heliodorus, ' Theagenes & 
 Chariclaea,' novel. 
 
 Chariton, ' Chsereus and 
 Calirrhoe,' novel. 
 
 300 
 
 300 
 
 Chrysostom, 354-407, Th* 
 ology. 
 
 400 Longus, ' Daphnis and 
 Chloe,' novel. 
 
 Nonnus, ' Conquest of India 
 by Bacchus.' 
 
 Stobseus, ' Literary Collec- 
 tions.' 
 
 Quintus Smyrnseus (com- 
 monly called) Calabar, 
 ' Contin. of Homer.' 
 
 Musseus, Poem of Hero and 
 Leander 1 
 
 Eumathius, 'Ismenasus & 
 Ismenaea,' novel, 
 
 Coluthus, Poem on ' Rape 
 
 of Helen.' 
 Tryphindorus, Poem on 
 
 ' Destruction of Troy.' 
 
 400 Synesius, Orations & Epis- 
 tles. 
 
 Zosimus, ' Hist, of Roman 
 Emperors.' 
 
 Socrates, 389-146, Ecclesi- 
 astical History. 
 
 Sozoraen, d. 450, Ecclesias- 
 tical History. 
 
 Theodoret, d. 450, Ecclesi- 
 astical History. 
 
 400 Nemesius, ' Nature of 
 Man,' Philosophy. 
 
 Cyril, d. 443, Homilies. 
 Procl'us, d. 445, Theology. 
 
 Proclus, d. 500, Platonist. 
 
 £00 
 
 50D Stephanus, Geography, 
 
 Procopius, ' Hist, of Reign 
 of .Tustinian.' 
 
 Olympiodorus, ' Hist, of 
 Honorius.' 
 • Cos. Indicopleustes, Topo- 
 graphy. 
 
 Evagrius, Ecclesiast. Hist 
 
 Agathias, Byzantine Hist. 
 
 500 Simplicius, ' Comments on 
 Aristotle.' 
 Tribonianus, Jurist. 
 
 600 
 
 600 Menan, Protector, Chron. 
 Theophanes, Byzant.Hist. 
 
 Theophylactus Simocatta, 
 Byzantine History. 
 
 600 
 
 Philoponus, GraramariaQ. 
 
 700 
 
 700 
 
 700 Damascenus, d 750, The- 
 ology. 
 
 800 
 
 800 Nicephorus, 758-828, Hist. 
 Syncellus, History, 
 
 John Mala] as. History. 
 
 800 Theodorus Studites, 75t>- 
 826, Sermons. 
 Photius, d. 891, 'Btblio- 
 theca.' 
 
 900 
 
 900 
 
 Leontius, History. 
 Genesius, History. 
 
 900 Leo VI., rf. 911, ' On Chris 
 tian Faith.' 
 
614 
 
 YHE world's progress. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 900 
 
 !000 
 
 lIOO 
 
 C. Theo. Prodromus, ' Rho- 
 danthe and Dosicles,' 
 novel. 
 
 1200 
 
 1300 Manuel Philes, 1275-1340, 
 Poems. 
 
 Maximus Planudes, Anth- 
 ology. 
 Leo Pilatus, Literature. 
 
 900 Const. Porphyrogenneta, 
 905-959, Hist. Selections. 
 Sim. Metaphrastes, Lives 
 of Saints. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIBHTISIft 
 
 900 
 
 1000 George Cedrenus, History. 
 
 John Xiphilinus, d. 1080, 
 
 Abridg. of Dion Cassias. 
 
 John Scylitza, History. 
 
 1000 
 
 1100 
 
 Theophylactus, Theology. 
 Michael Psellus, Mathema 
 tics. 
 
 Nicephorus Bryennius, d. 
 
 1137, Byzant. Affairs. 
 Anna Comnena, Reign of 
 
 her father Alexius. 
 
 Const. Manasses, History. 
 Zonaras, History of Ro- 
 mans, History of Jews. 
 
 Will, of Tyre, 1100-1184, 
 
 History. 
 John Tzetzes, History in 
 
 Verse. , 
 
 Cinnamus, History. 
 
 1200 Joel, History. 
 
 Michael Glycas, History. 
 George Acropolita, Hist. 
 Nicefas Acominatus, Hist. 
 George Pachymer, Hist. 
 
 1100 Euthymius Zygabenus, 
 Theology. 
 
 Suidas, Lexicon, 
 Eustathias, Commentarioa 
 on Homer. 
 
 Isaac Tzetzes,Commentary 
 on Lycophron. 
 
 1200 
 
 Nicephorus Blemmidas, 
 Theology. 
 
 1400 
 
 1300 Theod. Metochita, d. 1312, 1300 
 History. 'j 
 
 Callistus Xantopulus, Ec- 
 clesiastical History. 
 
 Niceph. Gregoras, History. 
 
 John Cantacuzenus, Hist. 
 George Codinus, Hist. 
 Michael Diicas, History. 
 
 1400 
 
 Demet. Pamperes, Tales. 
 Marullus Tarchoniota d. 
 1500, Poems. 
 
 L600 
 
 Theodore Gaza, d. 1478. 
 
 Origin of Turks. 
 Laonicus Chalcondyles, 
 
 History of Turks. 
 George Phranza, Histoiy. 
 
 1500 
 
 1400 Eman. Chrysolorus, d. 
 1415, Grammar. 
 
 Geo. Gemistius, or Pletho, 
 d. 1450, Philosophy. 
 
 Eman. Moscopulus, Notes 
 on Hesiod. 
 
 Bessarion, 1395-1472.. The- 
 ology. 
 
 Geo. of Trebizond, 139&- 
 1468, Aristotelian. 
 
 John Argyrophilus, Arista* 
 telian. 
 
 'l500 Demetrius Chalcondyles, 
 I 1453-1513, Philology. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN ARD ITALIAN. 
 
 (jU 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 
 
 [500 
 
 1600 
 
 1600 Panagioti, d. 1763, The- 
 ology. 
 
 1/00 Kal!inik«s,Poems, 
 
 Nicholas Caradza, Trans- 
 latioa of Voltaire. 
 
 1700 
 
 Alexander Maurocordato, 
 
 History of the Jews. 
 Meletius, Geography. 
 
 1700 Dorotheus, Aristotelian. 
 
 Marcus Tharboures, Me- 
 chanics. 
 
 1700 
 
 Riga, d. 1796, Lyrics, Nat- 
 ural Pliiloscphy. 
 
 1700 
 
 Ducas, Translation of Thu- 
 cydides. 
 
 1700 Bulgaris, Mathematic.6. 
 
 1800 N. Piccolo, Tragedy. 
 
 Christopiilus, Anacreon- 
 tics, Opei-a. 
 
 Calvos, Lyrics. 
 
 Ilarion, Ti-anslation of So- 
 phocles. 
 
 1800 D. Philippides, d. 1827, 
 Hist, of Wallachia, &c. 
 
 Paliuris, Hist, of Greece. 
 
 Perrevos, History of Suli 
 and Parga. 
 
 Gr. Demetrius, Geography. 
 
 1800 Psalidas, Metaphysics. 
 
 Coray, Commentaries, Lex- 
 icon. 
 Cumas, Dictionary. 
 Neophitus, Bamba, Ethics. 
 
 LATIN AND ITALIAN. 
 
 [The Latin ceased to be a spoken language about the sixth century, but was in almost universal 
 use throughout Europe as the language of composition until the thirteenth century, when the 
 modern languages began to appear. 
 
 As long as the literature of the West was almost exclusively confined to Italy we have arranged 
 all authors who wrote in Latin under the same head; but about the sixth century they wi[l be 
 found under those countries where their works were published, whatever the language in which 
 they wrote.] 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 PACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 200 M. A. Plautus, Comedies. 
 
 200 
 
 200 
 
 Q. Ennius, Epics (Fragts). 
 
 
 
 P. Terentius, Comedies. 
 
 
 M. P. Cato, De Re Rustica. 
 
 lOO 
 
 iOO T. Pomponius Atticus, 110- 
 
 100 Varro, 115-28, De Re Rustt 
 
 
 33, Letters. 
 
 ca Lingua Latina. 
 Vitruvius, Architecture. 
 Verrius Flaccus, d. 4, FaiTU 
 
 Capitolini. 
 
 T. Lucretius, b. 95, De Re- 
 
 M. T Cicero, 107-43, Orator 
 
 
 rum Natura. 
 
 and Philosopher. 
 
 
 Catullus, 86^0, Lyrics. 
 
 Julius Caesar, 98^6, Com- 
 mentaries. 
 
 Ilirtius Pansa, Gallic War. 
 
 C. Sallustius, 85-35, Jugur- 
 thine War. 
 
 Corn. Nepos, Biography. 
 
 
 P, Virgilius, 70-19, Eneid. 
 
 
 
 Q,. Horatius, 65-8, Odes, Sat- 
 
 
 
 ires. 
 
 
 
 Propertius, 59-16, Elegies. 
 
 T. Livius, 59 b. c— 19 a. d., 
 
 
 A. Tibullus, 43 b. c— 17 
 
 History of Rome. 
 
 
 A. D., Elegies. 
 
 
 
 Ovid, 43 B. c— 17 A. d., Me- 
 
 
 
 tamorph. Fasti. <fec. 
 
 
 
 Hyginus, Poeticon Astro- 
 
 
 
 nomicon. 
 
 
 
616 
 
 THE world's TROGRESS. 
 
 IMAGINATION, 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIEMVIBW 
 
 A.. D. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 
 
 Vel Paterculus, 19 b. c— 30 
 A. D., Hist, of Rome. 
 
 Pomp. Mela, Geography. 
 
 Valerius Maximus, Anec- 
 dotes of Great Men. 
 
 
 
 Phssdrus, Fables. 
 
 
 C. Celsus, De Medicina. 
 
 
 Quintus Curtius, History of 
 
 Columella, Agriculture. 
 
 
 Alexander. 
 
 
 Fersius. 34-6'i, Satirea, 
 
 
 L. A. Seneca, 12-65, Philo» 
 
 l.ucaa, 38-65, ' Pharsalia.' 
 
 
 opher. Tragic Poet. 
 
 I'etronius Arbiter, d. 67, Sa- 
 
 
 Pliny the Elder, 23-79, Nat 
 
 lyricon. 
 
 
 ral History. 
 
 Valerius Flaccus, Argonau- 
 
 
 Quintilian Criticism, 
 
 tics. 
 
 
 
 Silius Italicus, ' Punic 
 
 
 
 War.' 
 
 
 
 Sulpicia, Satires. &c. 
 
 
 
 Statius, d. 99, ' 'Thebais,' 
 
 
 
 ' Achilleis.' 
 
 
 
 Martial, 29-104, Epigrams. 
 
 
 
 Juvenal, 48-128, Satires. 
 
 
 
 riiny the Younger, 61-113, 
 
 
 
 Epistles. 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 100 Tacitus, History. 
 
 100 Valer, Probus, Grammar. 
 
 
 Suetonius, Biography. , 
 
 Frontinus, Strategy. 
 
 
 Florus, History of Rome. 
 
 Terentianus Maurus, De Ar- 
 
 
 Aulus Gellius, Noctes At- 
 
 te Metrica. 
 
 L. Apuleuis, Golden Ass. 
 
 ticas. 
 C. Jul. Solinus, Polyhistor. 
 
 
 • 
 
 Justin, History. 
 
 Pompei, Festus, Grammar. 
 
 200 
 
 200 
 
 200 Ulpian, d. 228, Law. 
 
 Tertullian, d. 220, ' Apology 
 
 for Christianity.' 
 Minutius Felix, Dialogue in 
 
 favor of Christianity. 
 Julius Obsequens, ' De Pro- 
 
 digiis.' 
 Censorinus, 'De Die Na- 
 
 tali.' 
 Cyprian, d. 258, Theology. 
 
 Nemp,sianus, Cynegetica. 
 
 
 
 Jul. Calpurraus, Eclogues. 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 300 El Spartianus, History. 
 
 300 Arnobius, • Adversus gen- 
 
 
 Jul. Capitolinus, History. 
 
 tes.' 
 
 
 Ml Lampridus, History. 
 
 Lactantius, d. 325, Defence 
 
 
 Vul. Gallicanus, History. 
 
 of Christianity.' 
 
 
 Trebellius, Pollio, History. 
 
 
 Aquilinus Juvencus, Gospel 
 
 F. Vopiscus, History. 
 
 ML Donatus, Grammar. 
 
 m Verse. 
 
 Aurelius Victor, History. 
 
 F. Maternus, Astronomy 
 Theology. 
 
 M. Victorinus, Hymns. 
 
 F. Eutropius, History of 
 
 Ambrosius, Theology. 
 
 Festus Avienus, Geographi- 
 
 Rome. 
 
 
 cal Poem. 
 
 Amm. Marcellinus, History 
 
 Jerom. 329 — 420, Version of 
 
 D, M. Ausonius, Idyls. 
 
 of Rome. 
 
 Bible. 
 
 Rufinus, d. 410, Ecclesiasti- 
 cal History. 
 
 T. Vegetius Renatus, De Re 
 Militari. 
 
 A. T. Macrobius, Satur- 
 
 
 Augustin, 354—430, Theol- 
 
 nalia. 
 
 
 ogy- 
 
 Symmachus, Epistles. 
 
 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AND ITALIAN. 
 
 617 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIESTlPIfl 
 
 300 C. Claudianus, Poems. 
 
 .300 
 
 300 
 
 A. Prudentius Clemens, 
 
 
 
 Christian Poems. 
 
 - 
 
 
 400 
 
 400 Vib. Sequester, Geography. 
 Sulpitius, Severus, d. 420, 
 Sacred History. 
 
 400 
 
 Sediilius, Poetical Life of 
 
 Orosius, Hist, of World. 
 
 
 Christ. 
 
 
 
 Martianus Capella, De Nup- 
 
 
 
 tius Phil, et Merc. 
 
 
 
 B^.ulin. Pretocorius, Poem, on 
 
 
 
 Martin of Tours. 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 Sidonius Apollinaris, d. 488, 
 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 Victorius, History of Church 
 in Africa. 
 
 
 Ennodius, d. 521, Christian 
 
 Idacius, Chronicles to 468. 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 
 
 500 Boethius, Poet and Philo- 
 
 500 Cassiodorus, 481-562, His- 
 
 500 Priscianus, Gramma f, 
 
 sopher. 
 
 tory. 
 
 Fulgentius, 468-533, The- 
 ology. 
 Dionysius Exiguus, d. 536, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Christian Era. 
 
 
 
 Non. Marcellus, Grammar. 
 
 Arator, 490-556, Acts of 
 
 
 
 Apostles in Verse. 
 
 Jornandes, Hist, of Goths. 
 Evagrius, Eccl. History. 
 
 
 600 
 
 600 Secundus, d. 615, History 
 of Lombards. 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 
 700 
 
 700 Cresconius, Collection 
 
 
 Paul Warnefrid, History 
 
 Canons, Verses. 
 
 
 of Lombards. 
 
 
 800 
 
 800 Erchempert, History of 
 Lombards. 
 Anastasius, Lives of Popes. 
 
 800 
 
 900 
 
 900 Luitprand, Histoiy of his 
 Times. 
 
 900 
 
 1000 
 
 1000 
 
 1000 Papias, Grammar. 
 
 Lanfranc, d. 1089, I'heol. 
 
 1100 Uonizo, Latin Poe'ry. 
 
 1100 
 
 1100 
 
 
 Falcandus, Hist, of Sicily. 
 
 Gratia n, Canonist. 
 Campanus, Mathematics. 
 
 CiuUod' Alcamo, Siciliar 
 
 
 
 Poetry. 
 
 
 
 I'JOO 
 
 1200 Pietro dalle Vigne, d. 1249, 
 
 1200 Accursius, 1182-1260, Law 
 
 Guido of Colonna, Poetry, 
 
 History. 
 
 Thomas Aquinas, 1224- 
 
 History. 
 
 
 1274, Theoloey. 
 
 Brunetto Latina, d. 1294, 
 
 
 Bonaventura. Scholastic, 
 
 ' 11 Tesora.' 
 
 
 
 Guido Cavalcanti, d. 1300, 
 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 Marco Polo, Travels. 
 
 
 John XXII., Poem on Me- 
 
 
 
 dicine. 
 
 
 G. Durand, Law. 
 
 
 G. de Voragine, d. 1298, 
 
 Pietro d'Albano, 1250-1 J ^ 
 
 
 Legends of Saints. 
 
 Astrology, Physics. 
 Torregiano Rustech»'IIi, 
 
 
 
 Cornmentanes. 
 
618 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 LMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECTJLiCTIVB AND BCIENTIFIO. 
 
 1300 Dante, 12G5-1321, La Di- 
 
 1300 Dino Compagni, 1265-1323, 
 
 1300 Mon, de Luzzi, Anatomy. 
 
 vina Commedia, Yita 
 
 Chronicles. 
 
 Arn. Villanovan, d. 1313, 
 
 Nova, Coiivito, &c. 
 
 Giovanni and M. Villani, 
 
 Alchem5^ 
 
 F. Barberino, 1264-134S, 
 
 Chronicles. 
 
 Cecco d'Ascoli, d. 1327, 
 
 Poenis. 
 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 Petrarca, 1304-137-1:, Son- 
 
 
 G. Andreas, d. 1348, Ca- 
 
 nets, Epic, Literature. 
 
 
 nons. 
 
 Boccacio, 1313-1375, '11- 
 
 
 Bartolus, Law. 
 
 Decamerone,' Poems and 
 
 
 Donienico Cavalca, Ascetic 
 
 various works in Latin 
 
 Ferreti, 1356-1429, History 
 
 and Translat. of Lives 
 
 and. Italian. 
 
 of his Times. 
 
 of Saints. 
 
 i400 
 
 1400 Leonardo Bruni, History 
 
 1400 Leonard of Pisa, Algebra. 
 
 
 of Florence. 
 
 Nicholas Tedeschi, Law. 
 
 A. Beccadelli, 1374-1471, 
 
 
 
 ' Hermaphroditus.' 
 
 Guarino, 1370-1460, Trans- 
 
 
 Poggio, 13S0-1459, Li^ra- 
 
 lation of Plutarch. 
 
 
 tare. 
 
 
 Mich. Savonarola, d. 1462, 
 
 Lorenzo Yalla, 1407-1457, 
 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 Literature. 
 
 B. Accolti, 1415-1466, His- 
 
 Bar. Montagnana, d. 1460. 
 
 D. Burcbiello, Sonnets. 
 
 tory of Holy War. 
 
 Baraterius, Law. 
 
 
 Flav. Blondus, 1388-1463, 
 
 Gianozzo, Manetti, 1396- 
 
 
 History of Venice, &c. 
 
 1479, Orientalist. 
 
 
 ^n. Sylvius, 1400-1464, 
 
 Paul Toscanello, d. 1482, 
 
 
 History, Poetry, &c. 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 
 Beccat, Panormita, 1393- 
 
 
 
 1471, Biography. 
 
 
 Pulci, 1432-1487, ' Mor- 
 
 Bart. Platina, 1421-1481, 
 
 
 gan te Maggiore.' 
 
 Lives of Popes. 
 
 
 Franc. Philelphus, 1398- 
 
 F. Buonaccorsi, 1437-1496, 
 
 
 1481, Poetry and Ethics. 
 
 Biography. 
 
 
 , Loren. de Medici, d. 1492, 
 
 Pomp. Lsetus, 1425-1495, 
 
 
 Poetry, Literature. 
 
 Lives of Ca3sars, &c. 
 
 
 Angelo Poliziano, 1454- 
 
 Franc. Berlinghieri, Geo- 
 
 
 1494, Poetry, Drama. 
 
 graphy. 
 
 Pico de Mirandola, 1463- 
 
 . Marsilius Ficinus, 1433- 
 
 G. Pontano, 1426-1563, 
 
 1494, Metaphysics. 
 
 1499, Translat, Plato. 
 
 Wars of Ferdinand I. 
 Bonfinius, d. 1502, History 
 of Hungary. 
 
 Luca di Burgo, Mathem. 
 
 1500 
 
 1500 E. Accolti, 1455-1532, His- 
 
 1500 Ant. della Torre, d. 1512, 
 
 
 tory. . 
 
 Anatomy. 
 L. da Vinci, 1452-1520, 
 
 G. Euccellai, 1475-1526, 
 
 
 'Treatise on Painting,' 
 
 ' Le Api.' 
 
 Giambullari, 1495 - 1555, 
 
 &c. 
 
 Alexander ab Alexandre, 
 
 History of Europe. 
 
 G. Abrosi, Astronomy. 
 
 1461-1523, Dies Geni- 
 
 
 A. Acchillini, 1472-1512, 
 
 tales. 
 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 M. Boiardo, 'Orlando In- 
 
 
 B. Castiglione, 1478-1529, 
 
 namorato.'' 
 
 
 'The Courtier.' 
 
 Sanazaro, 1458-1530, Ar- 
 
 
 
 cadia. 
 
 
 
 Berni, d, 1530, Satires, 
 
 
 
 Burlesque, and Orlando 
 
 
 
 Innamorato. 
 
 Machiavelli, 1482-1528,His- 
 
 
 Ariosto, 1474-1533, 'Or- 
 
 tory of Florence, &c. 
 
 
 lando Furioso,' Satires, 
 
 
 
 Comedies. 
 
 
 
 F. M. Molza, d. 1541, Po- 
 
 Guiceiardinl, 1482 - 1540, 
 
 G. Fracastoro, 14S3-1533, 
 
 ems. 
 
 History of Italy. 
 
 Medicine and Latin 
 
 
 Bembo, 1470-1547, History 
 
 Poems. 
 
 Trissino, 1478-1550, ' Italy 
 
 of Venice. 
 
 And. Alciato, 1492-1550, 
 
 Delivered,' Epic, Trage- 
 
 L. Alberti, d. 1552, History 
 
 Law. 
 
 tly. 
 
 of Bologna. 
 
 Nic. Tartaglia, Mathem. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY LATIN AND ITALIAN. 
 
 619 
 
 IMAGHSTATION. 
 
 1500 Hier. Vida, d. 1566, Latin 
 
 Poetiy. 
 Mic. Angelo Buonaroti, d. 
 
 1564, Poems. 
 Giovanni della Casa, 1503- 
 
 1556, II Galateo, &c. 
 G. Anguillara, &. 1517, Tra- 
 
 1500 
 
 8PECTTLATIVE AND 8CIKNTIFIC. 
 
 L. Dolce.. 150S-1568, Trage- 
 dy, Ep'c, History. 
 
 Bernardo Tasso, 1493-1575, 
 'Amadis,' Sonnets, and 
 Letters. 
 
 Greg. Giraldi, 1504-1573, 
 Tragedy. 
 
 A. F. Grazzini, d. 1583, 
 Comedies. 
 
 Torq. Tasso, 1544-1595, 
 ' Gerusalemme Liberata,' 
 Sonnets, Drama, &c. 
 
 G. Bagnioli, d. 1600, Tra- 
 gedy. 
 
 Guarini, 158S - 1613, 'II 
 Pastor Fido.' 
 
 Ottavio Einuccini, Opera. 
 
 F. Braccilolini, J 566-1605, 
 'La Croce Eacquistata.' 
 
 Oraz Vecchi, Comic Opera 
 
 G. B. Marini, 1569-1625, 
 Poems. 
 
 C. Achillini, 1577-1640 
 
 Poems. 
 A. Tassoni, 1561-1635, 
 
 'Sechchia Eapita.' 
 
 l€00 G. Chiabrera, 1552-1637, 
 Poems, Epic, Lyric, && 
 
 Zappi, 1667-1T19, Poems. 
 
 Laur.Lippi, 1606-1664, Co 
 
 mic Poems. 
 Salvator Eosa, 1615-1673, 
 
 Satires. 
 C. M. Maggi, 1630-1699 
 
 Poems. 
 Francisco de Lemene, 1639 
 
 -1704, Poems. 
 A. Guidi, 1650-1712, Lyric 
 
 Poems, 
 
 B. Cellini, 1500-1570, Auto- 
 biography. 
 
 B. Varchi, 1503-1566, His- 
 tory of bis Times. 
 
 Segne, 1499-1559, History 
 of Homer. 
 
 G. Vasari, 1514-1578, Lives 
 of Painters, &c. 
 
 Sperone Speroni,1500-15S8, 
 Orations. 
 
 S. Ammirato, 1531-1600, 
 History of Florence. 
 
 G. Adriani, 1511-1579, His- 
 tory of his Times. 
 
 B. Davanzati, 1529-1606 
 Hist. Eng. EeformatioD. 
 
 C. Barouius, 1533-1607, Ec 
 clesiastical Annals. 
 
 P. Paruta, 1540-1598, His- 
 tory of Yenice. 
 
 Possevini, 1533-1611, De 
 scription of Muscovy, 
 &c. 
 
 P. E. Sarpi, 1552-1633, His- 
 tory of Coun. of Trent, 
 
 E. C. Davila, 1576-1631 
 Hist. Civil Wars France. 
 
 1500 F. Commandido,1509-1575, 
 Mathematics. 
 Angelo Caninio, d. 1567, 
 Orientalist. 
 
 And. Vesalio, 1514-1561, 
 Anatomy. 
 
 Falopius, 1523-1563,Mcdi- 
 cine. 
 
 Eustachi, d. 1576, Do. 
 
 P. Manut Aldus, 1512- J 574, 
 Commentaries. 
 
 Cardano, 1501-1576, Ma- 
 thematics. 
 
 P. Lancelloti, 1511-1591, 
 • Law. 
 
 Andrea Csesalpino, 1519- 
 
 1603, Botany. 
 U. Aldrovandi, 1522-1605, 
 
 Natural History. 
 Orazio Torseliino, 1545- 
 
 1609, Grammar. 
 
 1600 G. Bentivoglio, 1579-1644, 
 History Civil Wars of 
 Flanders, and Letters. 
 
 D. Bartoli, History of the 
 Jesuits in the East In- 
 dies, &c., 1608-1685. 
 
 P. della Valle, 1586-1652, 
 Travels. 
 
 F. Strada, 1571-1649, Hist, 
 of Wars of Flanders. 
 
 G. B. Nani, 1615-1671, His- 
 tory of Venice. 
 
 Oderic Eainaldi, Ecclesias- 
 tical Annals. 
 
 1600 J. Fabricius, d. 1619, 
 Comparative Anatomy. 
 
 Bellarmino, 1542-1621, Po- 
 lemics. 
 
 Galileo,1564-1642, Astron. 
 
 T. A. Campanella, 1568- 
 1693, Philosophy. 
 
 L. Vanini, 1585-16 19, The- 
 ology. 
 
 B. Castelli, (Z. 1644, Ma- 
 thematics. 
 
 B. Cavalieri, d. 1647, Do. 
 
 Fabio Colonna, 1567-1647, 
 Botany, &c. 
 
 Forricelli, 1608-1647. 
 
 F. Eedi, 1626-1697, Nat 
 ural Hist. & Literature. 
 
 M. Malpighi, 1628-1694, 
 Anatomy. 
 
620 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SfECtJLATIVE AND SCIENTIFIQ 
 
 1600 Ben. Menzini, 1646-1704, 
 
 1600 Sforza Pallevicino, 1607- 
 
 1600 V. Viviani,1621-1703, Ma- 
 
 Art of Poetry, Satires. 
 
 1667, History of Coun- 
 
 thematics. 
 
 V. Filicaja, 1642-1707, Po- 
 
 cil of Trent, &c 
 
 A.Magliabecchi,1633-1714, 
 
 ems. 
 
 
 Literature. 
 P. Segner, 1624-1694, Aa- 
 ■ cetic and Sermona. 
 
 A. Marchetti, 1633-1714, 
 
 
 G. D. Cassini, 1625-1712, 
 
 Poems, Phiiosophy. 
 
 
 Mathematics, Astron. 
 D. Guglielmini, 1655-1710, 
 Mathematics. 
 
 1700 N. Forteguerra, 1674-1735, 
 
 1700 
 
 1700 G. Baglivi, 166S-1706, Me- 
 
 Eicciardetto. 
 
 
 dicine. 
 
 G. M. Crescembini, 1663- 
 
 
 G. Y. Gravina, 1664-1718, 
 
 1728, Poetry. 
 
 
 Law. 
 
 Apostolo Zcno, 1689-1750, 
 
 
 G. B. Vico, 1670-1744, 
 
 Operas. 
 
 L. Muratori, 1672-1750, 
 
 Philosophy of History. 
 
 S. Maffei, 1675-1755, Tra- 
 
 Annals of Itality. 
 
 
 gedy, Comedy, and An- 
 
 B. Giannone, 1680-1748, 
 
 
 tiquities. 
 
 History of Naples. 
 
 G. Cassini, 1677-1756, As- 
 tronomy. 
 
 G. Morgagni, 1681-1771, 
 Anatomy. 
 
 M. Metastasio, 1698-1782, 
 
 F. X. Quadrio, 1095-1756, 
 
 
 Dramas, Operas. 
 
 History of tbe ValteUne. 
 
 A. Genovesi, 1712-1769, 
 
 Metaphysics. 
 F. Algai-otti, 1712-1764, 
 
 ' Newtonianism.' 
 
 G. Baretti, 1716-1789, Mis- 
 
 B. Buonamici, 1710-1761, 
 
 G.E.Boscovvieh,1711-1787, 
 
 cellaneous. 
 
 History. 
 
 Mathematics, Philology. 
 
 C. Gozzi, Dramas, &c. 
 
 A. Fabroni, 1732-1802, Bio- 
 
 F. M. Zanotti, 1692-1777, 
 
 Philosophy. 
 C. Beceai-ia, 1720-1795, 
 
 'Crimes APunisbmenta.' 
 
 C. Goldoni, 1707-1772, Co- 
 
 gi-aphy. 
 G. Tiraboschi, 1731-1794, 
 
 
 medies. 
 
 L. Spallanzani, 1729-1799, 
 
 C. I. Frugoni, 1692-1768, 
 
 Hist, of Italian Litera- 
 
 Natural History. 
 
 Poems. 
 
 ture. 
 
 
 G. Gozzi, 1713-1786, Sa- 
 
 
 
 tires, Odes, but chiefly 
 
 * 
 
 L. Galvani, 1737-1798, 
 
 prose — L'Osservatore, 
 Venito, &c. 
 
 Denina, History of Italian 
 
 Galvanism. 
 
 Revolutions, and many 
 
 Volta, 1745-1827, Do. 
 
 V. Alfieri, 1749-1803, Tra- 
 
 other works, chiefly his- 
 
 G. Filangieri, 1751-1798, 
 
 gedies, &c. 
 
 oricaL 
 
 Legislation. 
 
 1800 Pindemonte, Poems. 
 
 1800 
 
 1800 
 
 Monti, Poems. 
 
 
 
 Ugo Foscolo, Drama, Po- 
 
 
 
 ems. 
 
 Botta, History of Italy,&c. 
 
 Scarpa, Anatomy. 
 
 I. da Ponte,Poeras, Operas. 
 
 
 M. Gioja, 1767-1839, Poli- 
 
 Maiizoni, Tragedies, Po- 
 
 
 tical Economy. 
 
 ems, and one novel — I 
 
 
 Eomagnosi,Polit. Science. 
 
 Promissi Sposi. 
 
 
 Galluppi, Metaphysics. 
 
 Silvio Pellico, Tragedies, 
 
 Colletta, History of Na- 
 
 Eosmini, Do. 
 
 &c. 
 
 ples. 
 
 Costa, Metaphysics, his 
 
 G. B. Niccolo, Tragedies, 
 
 Conti, Universal History, 
 
 torical and critical. 
 
 &c. 
 
 &c. 
 
 Cesari, Philology. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY ^BRITISH. 
 
 621 
 
 BRITISH, &c. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 A. I> 
 
 BOO 
 
 A. D. 
 
 500 Gildas, Conquest of Britain. 
 
 600 Caedmon, Saxon Poems. 
 
 Aldhelme, d. 709, Latin Po- 
 ems. 
 
 700 
 
 GOO Nemiius, Origin of Britons. 
 
 SPECULA riVE AND SCIBNTIFIC 
 
 A. D. 
 
 500 
 
 700 Bede, 673—735, Eccl. Histo- 
 ry of England, 
 
 900 Alfred, 849—901, Saxon Po- 
 ems, Translations, &c. 
 
 900 
 
 1000 
 
 1100 
 
 800 
 
 Asser, d. 909, Life of Alfred, 
 History of England. 
 
 900 Efhelwerd, History of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 1000 Ingulphus, 1030— 1109, His- 
 tory of Croyjand. 
 Eadmer, Chronicle. 
 
 Layamon, Saxon Poetry 
 Nigellus, Speculum Stulto- 
 
 ruiii. 
 Walter Mapes, Satires, 
 
 Soi.g^. 
 Jos. of Exeter, Troj. War, 
 
 War of Antioeh, Epics 
 
 laxj 
 
 1100 Order, Vitalis, 1075-1132, 
 History of England. 
 
 Florence of Worcester, d. 
 1118, Chron. of England. 
 
 Geoffry of Monmoutli^, His- 
 tory of Britain. 
 
 William of Malmsbury, d 
 1143, Hist, of Britain. 
 
 Henry of Huntingdon, 
 Chronicles of England. 
 
 Simeon of Dui'ham, Chron- 
 icles of England. 
 
 John of Salisbury, d. 1181, 
 ' Life of Becket,' &c. 
 
 G. Cambrensis, Conq. of 
 Ireland, Itin. of Wales. 
 
 Wm. of Newbury, b. 1136, 
 Chron, of England. 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 
 Alcuin, d. 804, Theology, 
 History, Poetry. 
 
 J. Scot Erigena, d. 88;?, ' Oi 
 the Nature ol Things.' 
 
 900 
 
 1000 
 
 1100 
 
 1200 Roger Hoveden, Chron. o>f 
 England. 
 Gervase of Canterbury, 
 History of England. 
 
 Roger of Wendover, Hist. 
 of England. 
 
 Matthew Paris, d. 1259, 
 History of England. 
 
 Robert Pulleyn, 
 Theology. 
 
 d 115(», 
 
 Richard of St. Victor, d. 
 1173, Theology. 
 
 Ralph Glanville, Collectio* 
 of Laws. 
 
 1200 
 
 Alex. Neckham, d. 1227, 
 Theology. 
 
 Robert Grostests, Natural 
 
 Philosophy. 
 Alexander Hales, d. 124^ 
 
 Aristotelian. 
 John Peckham, Theology. 
 John Holiwood, d. 1259^ 
 
 Astron., Mathematics. 
 
622 
 
 THE world's TROGRESS. 
 
 IMAGINATIOM. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SOIENTIPIC 
 
 Robert of Glocester, Chron- 
 
 William Rishanger, > His- 
 
 Roger Bacon, 1214—1292 
 
 icle in verse. 
 
 tory of England. 
 
 Chemistry, Optics, &c. 
 
 T. Lermont, the Rhymer, 
 
 
 Rich. Middleton, Theology. 
 
 Sir Tiisteni, Romance. 
 
 
 
 130(1 
 
 1300 
 
 1-300 Albricns. Theology. 
 
 Duns Scotus, d. 1308, Phil- 
 osophy. 
 
 Walter Burleigh, Philoso- 
 phy. 
 
 
 
 Gilb. Anglicus, Menicme. 
 
 Adam Davie, Metr. Ro- 
 
 Nicholas Triveth, d. 1328, 
 
 R. Aungervile, 1281— 1345v 
 
 mance, Life of Alex. 
 
 Hist. Physic, Theology. 
 Richard of Chichester, 
 
 Philobiblion. 
 
 Lawrence Minot, d. 1352, 
 
 Chron. of England. 
 
 J. Wicliffe, 1324—1384, 
 
 Historical Poems. 
 
 Ralph Higden, d. 1360, 
 
 Theology, Translation of 
 
 
 Chron. of England. 
 
 Bible. 
 
 
 Henry Knighton, d. 1370, 
 
 
 
 Chron. of England. 
 
 
 
 Matthew of Westminster, 
 
 
 John Barbour, 1326-1396, 
 
 ' Flowers of History.' 
 
 
 ' The Bruce.' 
 
 John Maundeville, d. 1372, 
 
 H. de Bracton, Law. 
 
 R. Langlandc, ' Pierce 
 
 Travels. 
 
 
 Plowman,' a Sa,tire. 
 
 John Fordun, Chron. of 
 
 
 Geof Chaucer, 1328-1400, 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 
 ' Canterbury Tales,' «&c. 
 
 
 
 John Gower, d. 1402, Ele- 
 
 * 
 
 
 gies, Romances. &c. 
 
 
 
 '400 
 
 1400 Andrew of Wyntoun, 
 Chron. of Scotland. 
 
 1400 
 
 John Lydgate, 1380-1440, 
 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 T. Walsingham, d. 1440, 
 History of Normandy. 
 
 
 James I. of Scotland, 1395- 
 
 
 John Fortescufe, Laws ol 
 
 1437, 'King's Quhair,' 
 &c. 
 Harry the Minstrel, 'Sir 
 
 
 England. 
 
 
 
 W. Wallace.' 
 
 John Hardyng, Chron. of 
 
 Thomas Littleton, d. 1487, 
 
 
 England. 
 
 Law. 
 
 
 Lord Berners, Trans, of 
 
 
 • 
 
 Froissart. 
 
 
 Stephen Hawes, ' Passe- 
 
 W. Caxton, ^Translations. 
 
 
 tyme of Pleasure.' 
 
 
 
 John Skelton, d. 1529, 
 
 Douglas of Glastonbury, 
 
 
 Satires, Odes. 
 
 Chron. of England. 
 
 
 1500 Wm. Dunbar, 1465-1530, 
 
 1500 R. Fabyan, d. 1512, Chron, 
 
 1500 Thos. Linacre, 1460-1524, 
 
 'Thistle and Rose.' 
 
 of England and France. 
 
 Philology, Medicine, 
 
 Gawin Douglas, 1475-1522, 
 
 
 
 Trans. Virgil. 
 
 
 
 Thomas More, 1480-1535, 
 
 
 Anth. Fitzherbert, Hus- 
 
 ' Utopia.' 
 
 
 bandry. 
 
 Thomas Wyatt, d. 1541, 
 
 
 
 Sonnets. 
 
 T. Halls, d. 1547, Hist, of 
 
 
 John Hey wood, d. 1565, 
 
 Houses of York and Lan- 
 
 Thomas Elyot, Philology. 
 
 Drama. 
 
 caster. 
 
 H. Latimer, 1475—1555, 
 
 Earl of Surrey, d. 1546-7, 
 
 John Leland, d. 1552, Eng- 
 
 Sermons. 
 
 Poems. 
 
 lish Antiquities. 
 
 
 Geo. Gascoigne,. d. 1577. 
 
 W. Cavendish, 1505—1557, 
 
 
 Drima. 
 
 'Life of Wolsey.' 
 
 
 
 J. Ball, 1495—1563, 'Lives 
 
 Roger Ascham, 1515— 156fc 
 
 
 of British Writers.' 
 
 ' The Schoolmaster.' 
 
 
 Ralph Hollingshed, d. 1581, 
 
 Thomas Wilson, d. 1581 
 
 
 Chronicles. 
 
 Logic and Rhetoric. 
 
 
 Geo. Buchanan, 1506-1582, 
 
 Thomas Tusser, d. 1580, 
 
 
 History of Scotland. 
 
 Husbandry 
 
LITERAP^Y CHRONOLOGY BRITISH. 
 
 S23 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 Philip Sidnoy, 1554—1586, 
 
 'Arcadia.' 
 Christ. Marlowe, d. 1593, 
 
 Drama. 
 Edm. Spenser, 1553—1598, 
 
 ' Faery Queen." 
 W. Shakspeare, 1564 — 
 
 1616, Drama. 
 Jolm Lylie, 1550—1600, 
 •'Euphues.' 
 
 John Fletcher, 1576—1625, 
 
 Drama. 
 F. Beaumont, 1586—1615, 
 
 Drama. 
 
 1600 John Owen, d. 1612, Latin 
 Epigrams. 
 Sir H. Wotton, 1568—1639, 
 Poet. 
 
 .]. Ford, h. 1586, Drama. 
 Ben .Jonson, 1574—1637, 
 
 Drama. 
 P. Massenger, 1585—1639. 
 
 Drama. 
 J. Harrington, 1561—1612, 
 
 Trans. Ariosto. 
 E. Fairfax, d. 1632,- Trans. 
 
 Tasso. 
 M. Drayton, 1563—1631, 
 
 Poems. 
 G. Sandys, 1577-1643, 
 
 Translations, Poems. 
 J. Daniel, 1562—1619, 
 
 Poems. 
 W. Drummond, 1585-1649, 
 
 Poems. 
 John Donne, 1573—1662, 
 
 Satires, Essays. 
 Geo. Wither, 1588—1667, 
 
 Satires. 
 James Shirley, 1594—1666, 
 
 Drama. 
 Sir J. Suckling, 1609—1641, 
 
 Poems. 
 John Denham, 1615—1668, 
 
 Tragedies, Cooper's Hill 
 Samuel Butler, 1612—1688, 
 
 Hudibras. 
 John Milton, 1608—1674,. 
 
 ' Paradise Lost.' 
 Edm. Waller, 1605—1687, 
 
 Poems. 
 A. Cowley, 1618—1667, 
 
 Poems. 
 A.Maxwell 1620—1678, 
 
 Poems. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND aCIEJTTlFIO 
 
 J. Fox, 1517—1587, Bock 
 
 
 of Martyrs. 
 
 
 
 J. Jewel, 1522-1570, Di- 
 
 N. Fitzherbert, 1550—1612, 
 
 viniiy, 
 R. Hooker, 1553— 1600, E> 
 
 Biography. 
 
 clesiastical Polity. 
 
 John Siowe, 1527—1605, 
 
 W. Gilbert, 1540—1603, 
 
 Chronicles, Topography. 
 
 ' On the Loadstone,' 
 
 Sir T. North, Translations 
 
 L. Andrews, 1565—1626. 
 
 of Plutarch. 
 
 Sermons. 
 
 1600 J. Pitts, 1560—1616, Biog. 
 
 1600 Edward Coke, . 550—1634, 
 
 of Kings, Bishops, &c. 
 
 Law. 
 
 Richard KnoUes. d. 1610, 
 
 John Napier, 1550—1617, 
 
 History of tlie Turks. 
 
 Logarithms. 
 
 Wm. Camden, 1551—1623, 
 
 
 Antiquities. 
 
 
 R. Hackluyt, 1553—1616, 
 
 
 Naval Histories. 
 
 
 W. Raleigh, 1552—1617, 
 
 
 History of the World. 
 
 
 Samuel Daniel, 1567—1619, 
 
 
 History of England. 
 
 
 John Hay ward, d. 1627, 
 
 
 English History. 
 
 
 J. Speed, 1555—1629, Hist. 
 
 
 of Great Britain. 
 
 Robert Buncr., 1576—1639, 
 
 Henry Spelman, 1562-1641, 
 
 ' Anat. of Melancholy.' 
 
 Antiquities. 
 
 Francis Bacon, 1560 — 1626, 
 
 R. B. Cotton, 1570—1631, 
 
 Pliilosophy, History. 
 
 Antiquities. 
 
 Wm. Harvey, 1578—1657, 
 
 S. Purchas, 1577-1628, 
 
 Circulation of Blood. 
 
 Collection of Voyages. 
 
 
 Thomas Roe, 1580—1641, 
 
 John Selden, 1584—1654, 
 
 Travels in the East. 
 
 Antiquities, Law, Hist. 
 
 E. (Lord) Herbert, 1581— 
 
 J. Harrington, 1611—1677, 
 
 1648, History of Henry 
 
 ' Oceana.' 
 
 vni. 
 
 James Usher, 1580—1656, 
 
 R. Baker, d. 1645, Chron. 
 
 Divinity, Sermons, Hist. 
 
 of England. 
 
 Thos. Hobbes, 1588—1679, 
 
 
 Metaphysics 
 
 
 W. Dugdale, 1605—1686, 
 
 Thomas Fuller, 1608—1661, 
 
 Antiquities, History. 
 
 History, Biography. 
 Clarendon, 1608 - 1673, His- 
 
 W. Chillingworth, 1602- 
 
 1644, Theology. 
 
 tory of Rebellion. 
 
 Isaac Barrow, 1630—1677, 
 
 Thomas May, d. 1650, His- 
 
 Divinity, Mathematics. 
 
 tory of Parliament. 
 
 J. Pearson, 1612—1686, 
 
 Izaak Walton, 1593—1683, 
 
 Divinity. 
 
 Biography. 
 B. Whitlocke, 1605—1676, 
 
 Brian Walton, 1600—1661, 
 
 . Polyglot Bible 
 
 History. 
 
 Jeremy Taylor, d. 1667, 
 
 Mrs. Hutchinson, Biogra- 
 
 Divinity. 
 
 phy. 
 
 Alger. Sydney, 1617—1683, 
 
 W. Prynne, 1660—1667, 
 
 ' Discourse on Govern- 
 
 History, Politics. 
 
 ment.' 
 
 
 Thos. Browne, 1605—1682 
 
 
 ' On Vulgar Errors.' 
 
 
 Edmund Castell, d. 1685 
 
 
 Lexicon Heptas'otton. 
 
 
 R. Cudworth, 1617— la^ 
 
 
 Metapl /sios.' 
 
624 
 
 THE WOPcLD's progress 
 
 1MAG1NATI0>J. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIEHTIPIO, 
 
 1600 
 
 1600 
 
 1600 J. Evelyn, 1620—1706, 
 
 ' Sylva.' 
 H. More, 1614—1687, The- 
 
 ology. 
 T. Sy.lenham, 1624-1689, 
 
 Rochester, 1648—1680, 
 
 V/m. Temple, 1629-1710, 
 
 Satires. 
 
 Memoirs, &c. 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 Roscommoa, 1633 — 1684, 
 
 
 W. Sherlock, d. 1689, Bi- 
 
 Poems. 
 
 
 vinity. 
 
 N. Lee, 1656—1691, Drama. 
 
 
 J. Tillotson, 1630—1694, 
 
 John Bunyaii, 1623—1688, 
 
 
 Sermons. 
 
 Pilgrim's Progress.' 
 
 
 Archbishop Leighton, 
 
 John Dry den, 1631—1701, 
 
 
 1613—1684, Divinity. 
 
 Tragedy, Satire, ' Virgil' 
 
 
 R. Baxter, 1615—1691, 
 
 Thos. Otway, 1651— 168&, 
 
 
 ' Saint's Everlasting 
 
 Tragedy. 
 
 R. Brady, d. 1700, History 
 
 Rest.' 
 
 
 of England. 
 
 R. Boyle, 1627—1691, 
 Theology, Chemistry. 
 
 1700 John Pomfret, 1667—1703, 
 
 1700 Thomas Rymer, d. 1713, 
 
 1700 
 
 ' The Choice.' 
 
 Foedera. 
 
 John Ray, 162b— 1705, Bot 
 any. Natural History. 
 
 John Locke, 1632—1704, 
 Metaphysics. 
 
 R. South, 1633—1716, Di- 
 vinity. 
 
 Fohn Philips, 1676— 1-08, 
 
 
 
 'Splendid Shilling.' 
 
 1 
 
 
 Thos. Parnell, 1679—1718, 
 
 S. Ockley, 1678—1720, 
 
 
 'The Hermit.' 
 
 Oriental History. 
 
 Isaac Newton, 1642—1719 
 
 Geo. Farquhar, 1678—1707, 
 
 Thos. Heame, 1678—1735, 
 
 ' Principia.' 
 
 Comedies. 
 
 History and Antiquities. 
 
 J. Flamsteed, 1642—1719, 
 
 
 John Strype, 1643—1737, 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 
 Eccl. History, Biog. 
 
 R. Hooke, 16.35—1702, Ph • 
 
 
 Gilbert Burnet, 1643—1715, 
 
 0;30phy. 
 
 
 'History of his Times.' 
 
 B. de Mandeville, 1670— 
 
 Matthew Prior, 1664—1721, 
 
 L. Echard, 1671—1730, 
 
 1733, ' Fab. of the Bc^es.' 
 
 Poems. 
 
 History of England. 
 
 Edm. Halley, 1656—1742, 
 
 R. Steele, d. 1729, Drama, 
 
 Thos. Carte, 1686—1754, 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 Essays. Politics. 
 
 History of England. 
 
 Hans Sloane, 1660—1753, 
 
 Daniel Defoe, 1660—1731, 
 
 John Potter, 1674—1747, 
 
 Natural History. 
 
 ' Robinson Crusoe.' k,G. 
 
 Antiquities. 
 
 
 Jgs. Addison, 1672—1719, 
 
 SirW. Petty, 1623-1682, 
 
 
 'Spectator,' ' Cato.' &c. 
 
 Statistics. 
 
 
 Nich. Rowe, 1673-1718, 
 
 
 
 Tragedy. 
 
 . 
 
 
 J. Vanbrugh, d. 1726, Com- 
 
 
 
 edy. 
 
 
 A. Clark, 1696—1742, Di- 
 
 W. Congreve, 1672—1728, 
 
 
 vinity, Philosophy. 
 
 Comedy. 
 
 
 D. Waterland, 1683—1740, 
 
 lohn Gay, 1688—1732, 
 
 
 Divinity. 
 
 ' Beggar's Opera,' Fab. 
 
 Nathanael Hooke, d. 1763, 
 
 R. Bentley, 1661—1740, 
 
 M. W. Montague, 1690— 
 
 History of Rome. 
 
 Divinity, Philology. 
 
 1762. Letters. 
 
 C. Middleton, 1683—1750, 
 
 A. Baxter, 1687—1750, MeV 
 
 Robert Blair, 1699—1746, 
 
 Life of Cicero, &c. 
 
 aphysics. 
 
 ' The Grave.' 
 
 
 Lord Bolingbroke, 1672— 
 
 S. Richardson, 1689—1761, 
 
 
 1751, Politics, Literaturft 
 
 ' Clarissa,' ' Pamela,' &c. 
 
 
 G. Berkeley, 1684—1753, ' 
 
 Metaphysics, Ethics. 
 . P. Doddridge, 1701—1751 
 
 Divinity. 
 Jas. Bradley, 1692—1762, 
 
 Astronomy. 
 F. Hutcheson, 1694—1747, 
 
 Moral Phil >sophy. 
 
 D. Garrick, 1716-1779, 
 
 
 T. Sherlock, [678—1701, 
 
 Drama. 
 
 
 Divinity. 
 
 3. Foote, 1720-1771, 
 
 
 C. Maclaurin, 1696— 174.:e, 
 
 Braraa. 
 
 
 Mathematics. 
 
LITERARY CHROxNTOLOGY BRITISH. 
 
 625 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 47U0 R. Rodsley, 1703—1764, 
 
 Drama. 
 Jona. Swift, 1667—1745, 
 
 Satires, Tales, &c.. 
 1. Watts, 1674—1748, 
 
 Hymns. 
 Edw. Young, 1681—1765, 
 
 ' Night Thoughts.' 
 Alf X. Pope, 1688—1744, 
 
 Toetry. 
 W. Somerville, 1692—1743, 
 
 ' The Chase.' 
 Allan Ramsay, 1696 —1758, 
 
 ' The Qer,tle Shepherd.' 
 Rich'd Savage, 1698—1743, 
 
 Poems. 
 Jas. Thomson, 1700—1748, 
 
 'Seasons.' 
 John Dyer, 1700—1758, 
 
 Poems. 
 H. Fielding, 1707—1754, 
 
 ' Tom Jones,' &c. 
 James Hammond, 1710 — 
 
 1742, Elegies. 
 Lawr. Sterne, 1713—1768, 
 
 ' Tristram Shandy.' 
 W. Shenstone, 1714—1763, 
 
 Pastorals, &c. 
 W. Collins, 1720—1756, 
 
 Odes. 
 H. Brooke, 1706—1783, 
 
 ' Fool of Quality.' 
 M. Akenside, 1721—1770, 
 
 'Pleasures of Imagina- 
 tion.' 
 Thos. Gray, 1716—1771, 
 
 Odes, Elegies. 
 T. Smollet, 1720—1771, 
 
 Novels. 
 R. Glover, 1712—1789, ' Le- 
 
 onidas.' 
 O. Goldsmith, 1731—1774, 
 
 ' Traveller,' ' Vicar of 
 
 Wakefield.' 
 W. Mason, 1725- -1797, Po- 
 ems, Biography. 
 T. Chatterton, 1752—1770, 
 
 Poems. 
 Ar. Murphy, 1727-1805, 
 
 Drama. 
 Wm. Cowper, 1731—1800, 
 
 Poems. 
 R.Cumberland, 1732—1811, 
 
 Drama. 
 Eras. Darwin, 1732—1802, 
 
 'Botanic Garden.' 
 J imes Beattie, 173-5—1803, 
 
 Poems. 
 R. Ferguson, 1750-1774, 
 
 Poems. 
 Geo. Colman, 1733—1794, 
 
 Comedies. 
 J, Wolcot (Peter Pindar), 
 
 1738— 1S19, Com. Po- 
 ems. 
 Jas. Macpherson, 1738 — 
 
 1796, ' Ossian's Poems.' 
 Robert Burns, 1759—1796, 
 
 Poems. 
 I, Home, d. 1808, Drama. 
 
 1700 
 
 John Swinton, 1703—1767, 
 History, Antiquity. 
 
 Lord LyttJeton, 1709—1778, 
 History, Poems, Divin- 
 ity. 
 
 James Granger, d. 1776, 
 Biog. Hist, of England. 
 
 Sam. Johnson, 1709—1784, 
 Lives of Poets, Diet., &c. 
 
 Jonas Hanway, 1712—1786, 
 Travels in the East. 
 
 John Blair, d. 1782, Chro- 
 nology. 
 
 David Hume, 1711—1776, 
 History of England, 
 Essays, &c. 
 
 W. Robertson, 1721—1793, 
 Hist, of Charles V., &c. 
 
 Thomas Warton, 1728— 
 1790, History of England 
 Poetry, Poems. 
 
 H. Walpole, d. 1797, 'His- 
 toric Doubts,' ' Royal 
 
 and Noble Authors.' 
 J. Moore, 1730—1802, 
 
 * Views of Society and 
 
 Manners.' 
 James Bruce, 1730-1794, 
 
 Travels. 
 W. Gilpin, 1724—1804, Bio 
 
 graphy, Divinity. 
 E. Gibbon, 1737—1794 
 
 Decline and Fall of Ro 
 
 man Empire. 
 J. Whitaker, 1735—1808 
 
 Hist, of Manchester, &c 
 EdiTid. Burke, 1730—1797 
 
 Oratory. 
 J. Boswell, 1740—1795, Bio 
 
 graphy. 
 J. Milner 1744—1797, 
 
 Church History. 
 Joseph Strutt, 1748-1802, 
 
 Chronology, Antiquities. 
 
 27 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 
 
 1700 Earl of Chesterfield, 1694— 
 
 1773, Letters. 
 Eph. Chambers, d. 1740, 
 
 Cyclopaedia. 
 B. Hoadley, 1676—1761, 
 
 Polemics 
 Bishop Butler, 1692—1762, 
 
 Divinitv. 
 
 J. Wesley, i703— 1791, 1 1- 
 
 vinity. 
 
 D. Hartley, 1704—1757, 
 ' Observations on Man ' 
 
 SoameJenyns, 1704— 1?87, 
 Theology. 
 
 W. Warburton, 1709—1779, 
 Theology, Criticirrn. 
 
 J. Jortin, 1698—17(0, Di- 
 vinity, Criticism, 
 
 LordKaime>, 1696-1782, 
 Elements of Cniicism. 
 
 R. Lowth. 1710—1787, Di- 
 vinity, Philology. 
 
 W. Blackstone, 17;'.3— 1780, 
 Laws of England. 
 "Junius." 
 
 Adam Smith, 1723-1790, 
 'Wealth of Nations.' 
 
 J. Harris, 1709— 1780, Phi- 
 lology. 
 
 John Hunter, 1728—1793, 
 Medicine. 
 
 F. Balguy, 1716-1795 Di- 
 vinity. 
 
 T. Reid, 1710—1796, Meta- 
 physics. 
 
 Sir J. Reynolds, 1723—1792, 
 Art. 
 
 S. Horsley, d. 1806, Theo- 
 logy. 
 
 Jos. Priestley, 1733—1804, 
 Metaphysics, Chemistry. 
 
 Hugh Blair, 1719—1800, 
 Sermons. 
 
 J. Home Tooke, 1736—1812 
 Philology. 
 
 Wm. Jones, 1747-1794, 
 Orientalist. 
 
 R. Price, 1723—1791, Meta- 
 physics, Divinity. 
 
 Wm. Paley, 1743—1805, 
 Theology. 
 
 Ricd. Porson, 1759—1808, 
 Philology. 
 
 Ths. Beddoes, 1760-18<J^ 
 Medicine. 
 
626 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 IMAGINATICN. 
 
 1700 
 
 Ricd. B. Sheridan, 1751 — 
 18i".6, Drama. 
 
 Ann Radcliffe, 1764—1823, 
 
 Novels. 
 
 1700 
 
 Charles Bumey, d. 1841, 
 ' History of Music. 
 
 laOL' Rob. Bloomfield, d. 1823, 
 ' Farmer's Boy.' 
 Mrs. Barbauld, . Poems. 
 Tales. 
 
 Lord Byron, 1788—1824, 
 
 Poems. 
 John Keats, Poems. 
 P. B. Shelley, d. 1822, 
 
 Poems. 
 R. C. Maturin, d. 1824, 
 
 Drama. 
 Miss Austin, Novels. 
 Wm. Godwin, 1755— 1S36, 
 
 Novels, Metaphysics. 
 Walter Scott, 1771—1832, 
 
 Novels, Poems. 
 
 Robt. Pollok, 1798—1827, 
 
 ' Course of Time.' 
 Geo. Crabbe, d. 1832, ' The 
 
 Borough,' &c. 
 Fanny B^urney, — 1840, 
 
 Novels. 
 Wm. Beckford, 1760—1844, 
 
 Novels. 
 Thos. Haines Baily, 1797— 
 
 1839. Lyrics. 
 Thos. Hamilton, 1789— 
 
 1842, Novels, Travels. 
 Felicia Hemans, 1794— 
 
 1835, Poems. 
 Barbara Hofland, Novels. 
 Jas. Hogg, —1835, Po- 
 ems and Tales. 
 Theo. E. Hook, 1788—1841, 
 
 Novels. 
 Thos. Hood, Poems, No- 
 
 Hannah More, 1744—1833, 
 
 Poems, Tales. • 
 Jane Porter, —1849, 
 
 Novels. 
 S. T. Coleridge, —1834, 
 
 Poems. 
 Wm. Wordsworth, — 
 
 1850, Poems. 
 Robt. Southey, —1843. 
 
 Poems. 
 Marg. Blessington — 
 
 18-19, Novels.' 
 Chas. Lamb, 1775—1834, 
 
 Poems, Essays. 
 Thos. H. Lister, 1801—1842, 
 
 Novels. 
 
 1800 J. Macdiarmid, 1779—1808, 
 Biography. 
 
 E. D. Clarke, d. 1822, 
 
 1 ravels. 
 C. J. Fox, d. 1806, History. 
 
 W. Mitford, History ol 
 Greece. 
 
 R. Heber, Travels, &c. 
 
 Major Rennel, Geography 
 Wm. Rosco, 1751—1831, 
 
 Life of Leo X., &c. 
 Walter Scott, —1832, 
 
 History, Biography, 
 
 SPECULATIVE j^D BClENTWia 
 
 N. Maskelyne d. 1811 
 
 Astronomy. 
 G. L. Staunton, d. 1801 
 
 Chinese Code. 
 W. Ilerschell, 1738— i822 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 Sir Jas. Mackintosh, 1766 — 
 1832. Hist, of England. 
 
 Geo. Chalmers, 1742—1825, 
 Political Annals. 
 
 Marsden, 1755—1836, Ori- 
 ental Hist, and Travels. 
 
 Jas. Mill, —1836, Hist. 
 British India. 
 
 Robt. Morrison, —1834, 
 Travels, Philology. 
 
 Jas. Grahame, History of 
 United States. 
 
 John Gillies, 1747—1836, 
 History of Greece. 
 
 Basil Hall, 1788—1844, 
 Travels and Voyages. 
 
 Wm. Hone, —1842, 
 
 Every Day Book. 
 
 R. & J. Lander, 1834, 
 Travels in Africa, 
 
 1800 Arthur Young, 1741-1820, 
 Agriculture. 
 
 •A. Rees, 1743—1825, Cyclo- 
 psedia. 
 
 Joseph Banks, 1743—1820,. 
 Natural Historv. 
 
 Dr. Parr, d. 1825, Philo- 
 logy, 
 
 D. Ricardo, d. 1823, Politi- 
 cal Econor^y. 
 
 C. Hutton, d. 1823, Mathe- 
 matics. 
 
 .John Playfair, (?. 1819. 
 P. Elmsley, Philology, 
 T. Wollaston, Chernistiy, 
 Thomas Young, Hierogljr- 
 
 T. Scott, d. 1821, Divinity. 
 
 D. Stewart, d. 1821, Meta- 
 physics. 
 
 Vicessimus Knox, 1752— 
 
 1821, Essays. 
 Malthus, Polit. Economy. 
 Wm. Hazlit, Critic and 
 
 Essayist. 
 Francis Jeffrey, 1773—1849, 
 
 Essays, Criticism. 
 Archbish. Magee, d. 1831, 
 
 Divinity. 
 Sir Humph. Davy, d. 1829, 
 
 Chemistry. 
 Jer. Bentham, d. 1832, 
 
 ' Principles of Legisla- 
 tion.' 
 Adam Clarke, 1763—1832, 
 
 Divinity, Criticism. 
 Arch. Alison, 1757—1839, 
 
 Essays on Taste. 
 Francis Baily, 1774—1844; 
 
 Astronomy, &c. 
 Bp. Burgess, 1756—1837, 
 
 Theology. 
 Herbert Marsh, 1750—1839, 
 
 Theolosy. 
 Thos. Mitchell, 1783—1845, 
 
 Classic. Critic. 
 Robert Mudie, 1777—1842, 
 
 Scient. Miscellanies. 
 Sir E. Brydges, 1762—1837, 
 
 Miscellanies. 
 Wrn. Cobbett, — 1&35, 
 
 Politics, «&c. 
 J. Dalton, - 1814, Che- 
 mist. 
 J. F. Daniell, —1845, 
 
 Chemist. 
 Sydney Smith, —1845, 
 
 Theology, Essays. 
 Chas. Bonnycastle, — 
 
 1840, Mathematics. 
 T.'ios. Chalmers, Theology 
 
 and Pol itical Economy, 
 
LITERARY ClIR-ONOLOGY GERMAN. 
 
 6^^7 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 
 
 1.800 S. T. Colerid-e, 1773-1834, 
 
 1800 
 
 1800 John Leslie, —1832. 
 
 Ethics. 
 
 
 Mathematician. 
 
 L. E. Landon Maclean, 
 
 Southey, 1774—1843, Bio- 
 
 J. C. Loudon, 1783— 184a 
 
 1804-18.38, Novels and 
 
 graphy. 
 
 Botany, AgricuL. Archit. 
 
 Poems. 
 
 Wm. Beckford, 1769—1844, 
 
 John Bell, 176.3—1825, 
 
 Wm. Maginn, 1793—1842, 
 
 Travels. 
 
 Anatomy & Physiology, 
 
 Poems, 
 
 Arch. Alison, History of 
 
 Olinthus Gregory, 1774— 
 
 Marryatt, —1847, Nov- 
 
 Europe. 
 
 1841, Mathematics and 
 
 els. 
 
 Thos. Arnold, 1795—1842, 
 
 Religion. 
 
 John Gait, 1779—1839, 
 
 History of Rome. 
 
 Robert Hall, 1764— 1S31, 
 
 Novels. 
 
 Thos. D. Fosbrooke, 1770— 
 
 Sermons. 
 
 Wm. H. Ireland, Shaks. 
 
 1842, Archaeology. 
 
 Sir Chas. Bell. 1781—1824, 
 
 Forgeries. 
 
 Thos. McCrie, 1772—1835, 
 
 Anatomy and Physio- 
 
 Lady Mo-rgan, — 184-, 
 
 Life of Knox. 
 
 !■ gy- 
 
 Novels. 
 
 Sir .John Malcohio, History 
 
 
 Jas. Morier, 1780— , 
 
 Persia and India. 
 
 
 Novels. 
 
 I. DTsraeli, 1766—1848, Cu- 
 
 
 Thos. Campbell, 1777— 
 
 riosities of Literature. 
 
 
 1844, Poems. 
 
 Basil Hall, 1788—1844, Voy- 
 
 
 Thos. Banim, 1800—1842, 
 
 ages and Travels. 
 
 
 Novels. 
 
 
 
 Hemy F. Gary, 1772—1844, 
 
 
 
 Trans. Dante, &c. 
 
 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 800 
 
 Walafrid Strabo, d. 840, 
 Poems, Theology. 
 
 Otfried, Harmony of Gos- 
 pels in rhyme. 
 
 91X) 
 
 Hroswitha, Let. Comedies. 
 Notger, Trans, of Psalms. 
 
 1000 
 
 Witpo, 'Praise of Hefliry 
 III.,' Biography. 
 
 Vf illeram, Francic Poems. 
 
 800 Eginhard, d. 839, Life of 
 Charlemagne, Annals. 
 
 Nithard, d. 853, History of 
 Wars of France. i 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 
 
 800 
 
 900 Regino, d. 915, Chronicles. 
 Witikind, Hist, of Saxons. 
 
 1100 
 
 Hem/ of Veldeck, Minne- 
 singBr. 
 
 1000 Dithmar, d. 1018, Chron. 
 of Saxon Emperors. 
 
 Hermannus Contractus, 
 Universal History. 
 
 Mar. Scotus, 1028—1086, 
 Chronicles. 
 
 Adam of Bremen, Ecclesi- 
 astical History. 
 
 Lambert, General History. 
 
 Sigebert, d. 1113, Chron. 
 
 Kosmas, 1045—1126, Histo- 
 ry of Bohemia. 
 
 1100 Berthold Cnnstantiensis, 
 Universal History. 
 
 Otto, d. 1158, Chronicle. 
 
 Heimold, d. 1170, Chron. 
 of Slavi. 
 
 Rabanus Maurus, 776—856, 
 Theology. 
 
 Gottschalk, d. 8S9, 'Or, 
 Predestination.' 
 
 900 
 
 Batherius, d. 974, Theolo- 
 gy, Grammar. 
 
 1000 
 
 1100 Mangold, Theoloff. 
 
628 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SOIEJMTIFIO 
 
 1200 Giinther, Poems. 
 
 1200 
 
 Arnold of Lubeck, Chro- 
 nicle of Slavi. 
 
 1200 
 
 Frederic n., 1196—1254, 
 
 
 Epko of Repgow, ' Saxot 
 
 'De Arte Venandi.' 
 
 
 Mirror,' (Law). 
 John Semeca, Law. 
 Alb. Magnus, 1193—1280. 
 
 Natural Philosophy. 
 
 Freydank, Poems. 
 
 
 
 !300 Rlidger of Manesse, Collec- 
 
 1300 
 
 1300 
 
 tion of Ballads. 
 
 . 
 
 
 Henry Frauenlob, Songs. 
 
 
 
 Boner, Fables. 
 
 Henrich von Rebdorf, 
 
 Chronicle. 
 Heinrich von Hervorden, 
 
 Chronicle. 
 Jacob von Konigshofen, 
 
 Chronicle. 
 
 John Tauler, Sermons. 
 
 
 John Schildberger, History 
 
 John Huss, 13S&— Mia 
 
 
 of Timour. 
 
 Theology. 
 
 1400 
 
 1400 Gobelin Persona, General 
 
 1400 
 
 Felix Hiimmerlein, Satires. 
 
 Histoiy. 
 
 
 
 Windeck, Life of Sigls- 
 
 John von Gmiinden, Astro- 
 
 
 mund. 
 
 nomy. 
 
 
 John Stadweg, Chronicle. 
 
 
 Hans von Rosenplut, 
 
 Peter von Andlo, de Im- 
 
 Geo. von. Peurbach, 1423- 
 
 Poems. 
 
 perio Romano. 
 
 1461, Theory of Planet*. 
 Regiomontanus, 1436— 147€ 
 
 Astron., Maihemat. 
 Nic. von Cuss, Mathemat 
 Thomas k Kempis, 1380— 
 
 Heinrich von Alkmaar. 
 
 
 1471, Theology. 
 
 ' Reinke de Voss.' 
 
 Mar. Behhaim. Geograpliy. 
 
 Gabriel Brie, d. 1495 The- 
 
 
 Breydenbach, Topogy. 
 
 ology. 
 
 
 Conrad Botho, Chronicle. 
 
 John Geyler, 1445—1510. 
 
 Conrad Celtes, 1459—1508. 
 
 
 Theology. 
 
 Latin Poems, History of 
 
 
 John Tnthemius, 1462— 
 
 Nuremburg. 
 
 
 1516, Nat. Philosophy. 
 
 Thos. Murner, 1475—1536, 
 
 
 Reuchlin, 1454-1522, Phil- 
 
 'Rogues' Guild.' 
 
 
 ology. 
 
 1500 
 
 1500 Maximilian, d. 1508, Auto- 
 
 1500 J. Wimpfelingen, 1452- 
 
 
 biography. 
 
 1528, Theol., Poems, 
 
 
 Griinbeck, Lives of Em- 
 
 
 
 perors. 
 
 
 Melc. Pfinzing, 1481—1535, 
 
 Albert Kranz, d. 1517, His- 
 
 Holoander, d. 1531, Law. 
 
 ' Theuerdank.' 
 
 tory of Saxons, &c. 
 
 Corn. Agrippa, 1486—1535, 
 
 
 B. Pirkheimer, 1480—1.530, 
 
 Physics, Theology. 
 
 
 History, Poetry. 
 
 M. Luther, 1483—1546, 
 
 
 John Aventin, 1466—1534, 
 
 Theology. 
 
 
 Anals of Bavaria. 
 
 Zwingle, 1484—1531, The- 
 ology. 
 
 Giareanus, (H. L.) 1488— 
 
 Con. Peutinger, 1465—1 547, 
 
 Melancthon, 1497—1560, 
 
 1563, Classics. 
 
 History and Geosraphv- 
 
 Theology. 
 
 
 John Carion, 1499—1538, 
 
 Paracelsus, 1493—1541, 
 
 
 Comp. of History. 
 
 Chemistry. 
 Joac. Camerarius, 1500— 
 1574, Philology. 
 
 
 John Sleidan, 1506—1556, 
 
 Conrad Gesner, 151&~1565| 
 
 
 Universal History. 
 
 Natural History. 
 
 Hans Sachs, 1494—1574, 
 
 G. Tschudi, d. 1572, Hel- 
 
 Basil Faber, 1520-1576, 
 
 Poems. 
 
 vetic Chronicle. 
 
 Thes. Erud. Schol. 
 
 John Fischart, 1511—1581, 
 
 Gerard Mercator, 1512 — 
 
 Mar. Chemnitz, 1522-1586 
 
 Satires. 
 
 1594, Geography. 
 
 Theology. 
 
LITE EAR Y CHRONOLOGY GERMAN, 
 
 62S 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 1500 G. Fabricius, 1516—1571, 
 Lat. Pms. Topography. 
 
 Rollenhagen, 1542—1609, 
 
 Froschmausler. 
 Fr. Taubman, 1565—1613, 
 
 Latin Poems. 
 
 1500 
 
 Martin Opitz, 1597—1639, 
 
 Poems. 
 James Balde, 1603—1668, 
 
 Poems. 
 A. Gryphius, 1616—1664, 
 
 Tragedies. 
 
 Paul Fleming, 1609—1640, 
 Poems. 
 
 Lohenstein, 1638—1683, 
 Poems. 
 
 1700 C. Gryphius, 1649—1706, 
 Poems, Hist., Philology. 
 
 Von Canitz, 1654—1699, 
 Poems. 
 
 1500 Simon Schard, 1535—1573, 
 Collec. German Hist. 
 
 John Pistorius, 1544—1607, 
 Collec. German Hist. 
 
 Marq. Freher, 1565—1614, 
 Hist. Germy. & France. 
 
 1600 
 
 P. Cluvier, 1580—1623, 
 
 Geoeraphy. 
 M. Goldast, 1576—1635, 
 
 History. 
 
 G. Calixtus, 1586—1656, 
 Ecclesiastical History. 
 
 Olearius, 1604—1685, 
 Travels. 
 
 S. von Puffendorf, 1631— 
 1694, History, Law. 
 
 D. G. MorhoiT, 1639—1691, 
 Biography, History. 
 
 SPECUIATIVB AND SCIENTIFIC. 
 
 15C0 Wm.Xylander, 1532—1576, 
 
 Philotogy. 
 Wesenbeck, 1531—1586, 
 
 Law. 
 Fred. Sylberg, 1531—1596 
 
 Philology. 
 Theod. Beza, 1519—1609, 
 
 Theology, Philology, 
 
 6' 
 C. Rittcrhuis, 1560—1613, 
 Law. 
 
 Gunther, 1695-1724, Poems. 
 
 Liscov, Satires. 
 
 J. C. Gottsched, 1700-1766, 
 
 Poems, Trag., Criticism. 
 Hagedorn, 1708—1754, 
 
 Fables. 
 Haller, 1708—1777, 'The 
 
 Alps.' 
 ■J. E. Schlegel, d. 1759, 
 
 Drama. 
 E. 0. Kleist, 1715—1759, 
 
 Idylls. 
 Gellert, 1715—1769, Fables. 
 Rabener, 1714—1770, Satir. 
 
 1600 C. Schwenkfeld, d. 1616, 
 Natural History. 
 
 J. Buxtorf, 1555—1621, 
 Philology. 
 
 John Kepler, 157i— ioSl, 
 Astronomy. 
 
 B. von Helmont, 1577— 
 1644, Chemistry. 
 
 C. Scioppius, 1576—1649, 
 Ars Critica. 
 
 John Bayer, Uranometria, 
 
 G. Barth, 1587-1658, Phil- 
 ology. 
 
 Sol. Glass, 1593—1656, 
 Philol. Sacra. 
 
 Otto Guerike, 1602—1686, 
 Air-Pump, &c. 
 
 Her. Conring, 1606—1681, 
 Antiquities. 
 
 Ez. Spanheim, 1629—1702, 
 Numismatology. 
 
 John Schiller, d. 1705, An- 
 tiquities. 
 
 1700 H. Meibomius, 1638— 1700,' 1700 Ludolph, 1649— 171 1 , Phil- 
 
 ology. 
 Leibnitz, 1646—1716, Ma- 
 
 thematics, Metaphysics, 
 C. Thomasius, 1655—1728, 
 
 Law. 
 
 F. Budaeus, 1667—1729, 
 Divinity. 
 
 G, E. Stahl, 1660—1734, 
 Chemistry, 
 
 F. Hoffman, 1660—1742, 
 Medicine. 
 
 J. Bemouilli, 1667—1747, 
 Mathematics. 
 
 B. Hederick, 1675—1748, 
 Philology. 
 
 History. 
 
 C. Cellarius, 1638—1707, 
 Geography, Antiq. 
 
 C. Frankenstein, 1661— 
 1717, History, Biog. 
 
 J. Arnold, 1665—1714, Ec- 
 clesiastical History. 
 
 J. G. von Eccard, 1670— 
 1730, General History. 
 
 J. A. Fabricius, 1668—1736, 
 Bibliography. 
 
 H. Freyer, Gen. History. 
 B. G. Struve, 1671—1738, 
 
 History of Germany. 
 J. L. Mosheim, 1695-1755, 
 
 Ecclesiastical History 
 
 A. F. Buschi..g, 1724—1793 
 Geography. | 
 
 J. M. Gessner, 1691— 17G1 
 
 Philology. 
 A. G. Baumgarfen, 1711— 
 
 1751, Ethics, Metarh. 
 J. J. Gessner, 1707- 17S7, 
 
 Numismatology. 
 G. F. Meyer, 1711—1777, 
 
 Philosophy. 
 F. W. von Gleicken, 1714- 
 
 1783, Nat. History. 
 J. Winkelmarjn, 1718—1768 
 
 Antiquity. 
 Leon. Euler, 1707—1783, 
 Mathematics. 
 
C30 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 1700 Gleira, d. 1803, Songs. 
 
 Klopstock, 1724— 1S03, 
 
 'Tiie Messiah.' 
 Zacharis, 1727—1777, 
 
 Comic Poems. 
 C. F. Weisse, Drama. 
 T. G. Zimmerman, 1728 — 
 
 1795, ' On SulitULle.' 
 Gotz, 1721-1781, Pastorals. 
 Ramler, 1725—1798. Odes. 
 Dusch. 1727—1738, Poems. 
 G. E. Lessing. 1729—1781, 
 
 Drama, Fables. 
 S. Gessner, 1730—1788, 
 
 'Death of Abel.' 
 Wieland, 1733—1813, Ro- 
 mances, Poems. 
 Pfeftel, 1736—1809, Fables. 
 G. A. Burger, 1748—1794, 
 
 Poems. 
 I. II. Voss, 1751—1826, 
 
 Novels. 
 F. Schiller, 1750—1805, 
 
 Drama. 
 Kotzebue, 1761—1819, 
 
 Drama. 
 Goethe, 1749-1832, Drama, 
 
 Tales, Poems. 
 
 1700 Frank, d. 1784, Chronol. 
 VValch, d. 1784, Ecclesias- 
 tical History. 
 
 1300 F. Schlegel, 1773—1829, 
 
 Novels, Poetry, Hist..&c. 
 Ernst Schultze," 1787— 1817, 
 
 Eiesies. 
 E. T. W. Hoffman, d. 1822, 
 
 Tales 
 A. G. H. Lafontaine, 1760— 
 
 -1831, Tales. 
 Koraer, Poems. 
 
 L. von Amim, — 1831, 
 Poems, Novels 
 
 Schopenhauer, 
 N:vels. 
 
 -1838, 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIEWTIFIO 
 
 1700 G. J. Zollikofer, 1730- 
 
 1780. Sermons. 
 J. A. E. Gotze, 1731—1786. 
 
 Entomology. 
 Im. Kant, 1731—1804. 
 
 Metaphysics. 
 
 C. Gatterer, d. 1799, Hist. 
 
 J. W. von Archenholz, 
 1745-1812, 'Seven Years' 
 War.' 
 
 Scurokh, d. 1808, Eccle 
 siastical History, i 
 
 Forster, d. 1798, Geogra- 
 phy. 
 
 A. L. von Scholzer, d. 1809, 
 History. 
 
 1800 J, von Miiller, d. 1809, Uni 
 . versal History. 
 J. G. Eichhom, d. 1827, 
 History. 
 
 Heeren, History. 
 
 Von Hammer, Orien. Hist. 
 B. G. Niebuhr, History. 
 
 Schcill, —1833, History. 
 
 C. O. Muller, —1840, 
 
 History, Archaeology. 
 
 F. Rotteck, —1849, His- 
 tory. 
 
 H. Hase, —1842, His- 
 tory, Antiquities. 
 
 Sernler, d. 1791, Theology 
 Piitter, Law of Nations. 
 
 Adelung, d. 1807, Phil- 
 ology. 
 
 Lavater 1741—1801, Phy- 
 siognomy. 
 
 Werner, Geology. 
 
 1800 Herder, 1741-1803, Philo- 
 sophy of History. 
 
 Fichie, d. 1819, Metaphy- 
 sics. 
 
 F. H Jacobi, d. 1819, Me- 
 taphysics. 
 
 Blumenbach, Physiology. 
 
 Schelling, Metaphysics. 
 
 Thaer, —1828, Agri- 
 
 culture. 
 
 Rosenmuller, — 1855, 
 
 Theology, Criticism. 
 
 Gail, —1829, Philology, 
 
 Griesbach, — 18L«,Phi. 
 lology. 
 
 Grotefend, —1836, Phi. 
 lology. 
 
 H. J. Klaproth, 1784—1835, 
 Philolosy. 
 
 F. Passow, —1833, Phi- 
 lology. 
 
 Hegel, —1831, Meta- 
 
 physics. 
 
 F. Accum, —1838, Che- 
 mistry. 
 
 Mohs, —1839, Minera- 
 logy. 
 
 G. A. FaiJt, —1841, Pii- 
 lology. 
 
 E. Bekker, Philology. 
 Buttmann, —1841, Pht 
 
 lology. 
 C. T. Follen, — 184(? 
 
 Theology, Essays. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY FREN JH. 
 
 631 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 1800 
 
 Tieck, Poems, Novels. 
 
 ISOO Augt. Neander, 1850, 
 
 Ecclesiastical History. 
 
 J. L. C. Heeren, —1842, 
 History. 
 
 H. Berghaus, Geography. 
 
 A. von Humboldt, Travels, 
 History. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC 
 
 1800 Olbers, 
 nomy. 
 
 -1840, As'-ro- 
 
 Hahnemann, — 1S43, 
 
 Homoeopathy. 
 A. W. Schlegel, —1845, 
 
 Criticism, Essays. 
 
 Humboldt, Science. 
 Liebig, Chemistry. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO. 
 
 oOt} Venan. fortunatus, Latin 
 Poetry. 
 
 500 
 
 Gregory of Tours, 554 — 595, 
 History. 
 
 500 
 
 600 
 
 600 Marculfe, ' Chartee Re- 
 gales,' &c. 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 
 700 Fredegaire, Chronicle. 
 800 
 
 Ado, d. 875, Chronicle. 
 
 700 
 
 800 Theodulph, d. 821, Hymns, 
 
 Theology. 
 
 Servatus Lupus, d. 862, 
 Epistles. 
 
 Hincraar, d. 882, Epistles. 
 Abbon, ' Siege of Paris.' 
 
 800 
 
 Agobard, d. 840, Theology 
 
 Paschasius Radbert, 'Tran* 
 substantiation.' 
 
 900 
 
 Adalberon, d. 10-30, PDetry. 
 
 900 Flodoard, 896—966, Chron. 
 Dudon, History of Norman 
 Conquest in France. 
 
 900 
 
 1000 
 
 Fulbert, d. 1029, Epiutles. 
 
 1000 Almoin, d. 1008, History of 
 France, 
 
 1000 Gerbert, d. 1003, Geometry, 
 Mathematics, &c. 
 Abon, d. 1004, Arithmetic, 
 and Astronomy. 
 
 Berengarius, d. 1088, Theo. 
 logy. 
 
 ;ioG 
 
 Wni. of Poictiers, 1071— 
 1126, First Troubadour. 
 
 Hildebert, 1067-1133, Po- 
 etry. 
 
 Bechada, Norman Poetry, 
 'Gestes de Godefroi.' 
 
 1100 Guibert. 1058—1124, Histo- 
 ry of First Crusade. 
 
 Pierre Theutbode, History 
 of Crusades. 
 
 Marbodaeus, d. 1123, Bio- 
 graphy. 
 
 Suger, 1082—1152, Life of 
 Louis le Gros. 
 
 1000 Anselm, 103^-1109, Scho- 
 lastic. 
 
 Pierre Abelard, 1079—1142, 
 Theology. 
 
 Bernard of Claimiut 
 1091-11 5o, Mystic. 
 
635 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 1100 
 
 Geoffroi Galmar, Anglo- 
 Norm. Chron. in verse. 
 
 Rob. Wace, 'Roman de 
 Rou.' 
 
 Fouque, a Troubadour. 
 Alexander of Bernai, Poet- 
 ry, Fables. 
 
 1200 
 
 John JEgidius, I'oem on 
 
 Medicine. 
 William le Breton, 'Deeds 
 
 of Philip,' in verse. 
 P. Gautier, 'Alexandrieda.' 
 
 William de Lorris, 'Roman 
 
 de la Rose.' 
 Jean de Meun, Contin. of 
 
 ' Roman de la Rose.' 
 Eslsve de Bezier, Last 
 
 Troubadour. 
 
 1300 Peter Langtoft, Anglo-Nor- 
 man Chronicles. 
 
 Philippe of Vitri, Transla- 
 tion of Ovid. 
 
 1400 
 
 Alain Chartier, d. 1458, 
 Poetry. 
 
 Corbeil, Satire. 
 
 D'Auvergne, d. 14.58, Po- 
 ems. 
 
 Clement Marot, 1463—1525, 
 Poems. 
 
 1100 Hugh de St.Victoire, 1097- 
 1140, Geography, Histo- 
 ry, and Theology. 
 
 1200 Pierre de Poictiers, Sacred 
 History. 
 Geoflrey de Villehardouin, 
 Conq. of Constantinople. 
 
 Phil. Mouskes, d. 1283, His- 
 tory of France in verse. 
 W. Rubruquis, Traveller. 
 
 Jean de Joinville, 1260 — 
 1318, Hist, of Louis IX. 
 
 1300 
 
 John Froissart, 1337—1402, 
 Chronicles. 
 
 1400 
 
 1500 
 
 F. Rabelais, 1483—1553, 
 
 Satires. 
 J. du Bellay, 1492—1560, 
 
 Poems. 
 
 Steph. Jodelle, 1532—1573, 
 Odes, Tragedies, «fec. 
 
 Philip de Comines, 1445 — 
 1509, Hist, of his Times. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SOIENTJPIO 
 
 1100 
 
 Peter Lombardus, d. 1161 
 Theology. 
 
 Alain de ITsle, d. 1202, 
 Theology, Ethics. 
 
 1200 
 
 Vincentius of Bt-jiuvaia^ 
 
 Encyclopaedia. 
 Rob. of Sorbonne, d. 1271, 
 
 Theology. 
 
 1300 Bernard Gordon, Medicine. 
 John of Paris, d. 1306, The- 
 
 ology. 
 W. Durand, d. 1333, Law. 
 W. Occam, d. 1347, Law. 
 
 1400 Peter d'Ailly, 1350—1425, 
 
 Astronomy. 
 John Gerson, 1363—1429, 
 
 Scholastic. 
 Raymund de Sebunda, d. 
 
 1432, Theology. 
 Henry of Balma, d 1439, 
 
 Mystic. 
 
 James Lefevie, 1436 — ^S37, 
 
 Theology. 
 Wm. Budaeus, 1467—1540, 
 
 Jurist. 
 
 1500 
 
 Guill. du Bellay, d. 1543, 
 History of his Times. 
 
 Jaques Amyot, 151 1—1593, 
 Translations. 
 
 150( J. C. Scaliger, 1484—1558, 
 Philology. 
 Du Bois, 1478—1555, Ai at. 
 
 Rob. Stephens, 1503—1559, 
 
 Philologv. 
 P.RamusJ515— 1572,Logic 
 Seb. Castellio, 1515- I563j 
 
 Phiioloey. 
 Jas. Cujacius, 1520—1590 
 
 Law. 
 Lambinus, 1516—1572, 
 
 Commentaries. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY FRENCH. 
 
 633 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 1500 M. A. Muret, 1526—1585, 
 Poems, Criticisms. 
 Mich, de Montaigne, 1533— 
 1592, Essays. 
 
 Fran. Malherbe,1556— 1628, 
 
 Odes. 
 
 1500 
 
 1600 M. Reignier, 1573—1613, 
 Satires. 
 
 J, Ohapelain, 1596—1674, 
 La Pucelle.' 
 
 P. Comeille, 1606—1684, 
 Drama. 
 
 St. Evremond, 1613-1703, 
 Literature. 
 
 Rochefoucault, 1603—1680, 
 
 Reflections. Memoirs. 
 Moliere, 1620-1673, Drama. 
 La Fontaine, 1621 — 1695, 
 
 Fables, Tales. 
 Segrais, 16^1—1701, Idyls. 
 T. Corneille, 1625—1709, 
 
 Drama. 
 M. de Sevign6, 1626—1694, 
 
 Letters. 
 J. Racine, 1639—1699, 
 
 Drama. 
 
 Boileau, 1636-1711, Satires. 
 
 J. J. Scaliger, 1540—1609, 
 History, Criticism, &c. 
 
 J. A. ae Thou, 155J— 1617, 
 History of France. 
 
 17 )0 Regnard, 1*l7— 1709, 
 Comedies. 
 Galland, 1646—1715, Tran. 
 of Arabian Nights. 
 
 Fenelon, 1651—1715, 'Tele- 
 
 machus,' &c. 
 Deshoulieres, 1638—1694, 
 
 Elegies. 
 
 1600 P. Matthieu, 1544—1621, 
 History of France. 
 An. Du. Chesne, 1584-1640, 
 Collections of Histories. 
 
 Bochart, 1599—1667, ' Geo- 
 
 graphia Sacra.' 
 Henry Spondanus, 1568 — 
 
 1643, History. 
 S. Guicheron, 1607—1664, 
 
 Hist, of House of Savoy. 
 Henri Valesius, 1603—1696, 
 
 Ecclesiastical History. 
 
 Adr. Valesius, 1607—1692, 
 ' Deeds of the Franks.' 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIEKTIPIC. 
 
 1500 Hen. Stephens, 1528—1590, 
 Philology. 
 
 F. Vieta, 1540—1603, Al- 
 gebra. 
 
 Pierre Charon, 1543—1603, 
 Theology. 
 
 Isaac Casaubon, 1559— 
 1604, Philology. 
 
 1600 
 
 L. Moreri, 1643—1680, 
 Historical Dictionary. 
 
 Till^mont, 1637—1698, Ec- 
 clesiastical History. 
 
 C. Salmasius, 1596—1652, 
 
 History and Criticism. 
 Dennis Petau, 1583—1652, 
 
 Ch^.riology. 
 P. Gassendr, 1592—1655, 
 
 Philosophy. 
 Oes Cartes, 1596 1650, 
 
 Metaphysics. Ma;hem. 
 
 B. Pascal, 1623—1662, 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 D'Herbelot, 1626—1695, 
 
 Orientalist. 
 Cassini, 1625-1712, Astron. 
 
 1700 
 
 J. MarsoUier, 1647—1724, 
 History, various. 
 
 Fleury, 1653-1723, Eccle- 
 siastical History. 
 
 G. Daniel, 1649—1728, His- 
 tory of France. 
 
 Vatincourt, 1663—1730, 
 Bioeraphy. 
 ~0^* 
 
 Huet, 1630-1721. Philos'phy 
 Bourdaloue, 1632-1704, 
 
 Sermons. 
 La Bruyeire, 1636-1696, 
 
 ' Characters.' 
 Malbranche, 1633-1715, 
 
 ' Search after Truth .' 
 
 1700 P. Bayle, 1647-1706, 
 
 Dictionary. 
 Hardouin, I&IO 1729, 
 
 Criticism. 
 A.nd. Dacier, 1651-1722, 
 
 Philology. 
 Anne Dacier, 1661-1720. 
 
 Philology. 
 
 Tournefort, 1656-1708, 
 
 Botany. 
 Fontenelle, 1657-1756, 
 
 ' Plurality of Worlds, 
 
 &c. 
 Montfaucon 1G55-1741, 
 
 Antiquities. 
 Massilloii, IGG3-1742, 
 
 Sermons. 
 
634 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 1700 
 
 J. B. Rousseau, 1571 — 1741, 
 
 Odes, 
 Crebilloii, 1674— 17G2, 
 
 Tragedies. 
 Ren. Le Sage, 1677—1747, 
 
 ' Gil Bias.' 
 P. N. De.stouches, 1680— 
 
 1754, Comedies. 
 J. B. Grecourt, 1683—1743, 
 
 Odes, Tales. &c. 
 Manvaux, 1638— 1763, 
 
 Novels. 
 Voltaire, 1695—1778, Tra- 
 gedy, Poetry, Hist., &c. 
 
 J. J. Rousseau, 1712—1778, 
 
 ' Emile,' ' Heloise,' «fec. 
 Diderot, 1713-1784, ' Eri- 
 
 cyelopedie,' Novels. 
 Bernis, 1715—1794, Poems. 
 Favart, d. 1762, Comic 
 
 Operas. 
 Louis Racine, d. 1763, 
 
 Poems. 
 J. J. Barthelemy, 1716-1795, 
 
 ' Anacharsis.' 
 Marmontel, 1719—1799, 
 
 Tales. 
 Gresset, d. 1777, Elegies. 
 Dorat, d. 1780, Novels. 
 
 Florian, 1755 -1794, Tales. 
 Beaumarchais, d. 1799, 
 Comedies. 
 
 J80() B. St. Pierre, 'Paul and 
 Virginia.' 
 Madme. de Genlis, Novels. 
 
 Mdme. Cottin, 1772-1807, 
 
 Tales. 
 DeliIIe,'<i. 1813, 'L'Homme 
 
 des Champs.' <tc. 
 Madame de Stael, 1768 — 
 
 1817, ' Corinne,' &c. 
 H. de Balzac, 1799-1850, 
 
 Novels. 
 J J. Boissaid, 1743-1831, 
 Fajles. 
 
 1700 Vertot, 1655—1735. History. 
 
 Paul Rapin, 1661—1725, 
 History of England. 
 
 Bossuet, 1662—1704, His- 
 tory, Sermons. 
 
 C. Rollin, 1661—1741, 
 Ancient History, Educa- 
 tion. 
 
 C. L F. H^nault, 1685-1770, 
 History. 
 
 C. Villaret, 1715—1766, 
 History of France. 
 
 L. P. Anquetil, 1723—1808;, 
 History. 
 
 Man. Bouquet, d. 1754, 
 Recueil d'Historiens. 
 
 A. Goguet d. 1758, ' Origia 
 of Laws, Arts, &c.' 
 
 I,aj-cber, 1726-1812, Trans, 
 of Herodotus. 
 
 Crevier, d. 1765, Ancient 
 History. 
 
 Guyot, d. 1771, Ecclesias- 
 tical History. 
 
 J DeGuignes, 1721—1800, 
 History of the Huns. 
 
 D 'Vnville, 1702—1782, 
 Geography. 
 
 G. Raynal, 1711-1796, Hist, 
 of East and West Indies. 
 
 C. F. X. Rlillot, 1726—1785. 
 History. 
 
 1800 Sismondi, History and 
 Political Science. 
 Barante, History. 
 August! n Thierry, History 
 Amedei Thierry, History. 
 Guizot, History. 
 Thiers, History. 
 
 Denon, d. 1825, Travels in 
 
 Esrypt. 
 J. P. F. Ancillon, 1767— 
 
 1837, History. 
 Louis E. Bignon, — 1841, 
 
 History. 
 J. J. Jacotot, 1770-1840 
 
 Edu'ition. 
 
 SPKCULATIVB AND BCIKNTIFI4 
 
 1700 
 
 Folard, 1669-1752, Stra 
 
 Saurin, 1677-1730, Sez- 
 mons. 
 
 Montesquieu, 1698—1755; 
 
 ' Esprit des Loix.' 
 Reaumur, 1683—1757, 
 
 Natural History. 
 Houbigant, 1686—1783, 
 
 Criticism, Philology. 
 Girard, d. 1748, 'Synoiiy- 
 
 ines.' 
 
 Buffon, 1707-1788, Naturai 
 
 History. 
 De Brosses, 1709—1777. 
 
 Philology, History. 
 
 Helvetius, 1715—1771, 
 
 'De I'Esprit.' 
 D'Aubemon, 1716—1799, 
 Natural History. 
 N. Vattel, d. 1770, 'Law 
 
 of Nations.' 
 D'AIembert, d. 1783, 'Eh- 
 
 cyctopedie.' 
 La Grange, Mathematics. 
 
 Bailly, 1736—1793, Hist., 
 
 Astronomy. 
 Lavoisier, 1743—1794, 
 
 Chemistry. 
 Montucla, 1725—1799, 
 
 Mathematics. 
 Turgot, Polit. Economy. 
 Mirabeau, Politics. 
 Fourcroi, d. 3809, Chem. 
 J. Lalande, d. 1807, Astron. 
 
 1800 Volney, 1755-1820, Travels, 
 
 Philology, &c. 
 HaUy, d. 1822, Crystallo 
 
 graphy. 
 La Place, d. 1827, Mathe- 
 
 matics 
 Guvton Morveau, Chem. 
 Cuvier, d. 1832, Nat. Hist. 
 Dumont, Legislation. 
 P. L. Courier, Politics. 
 J. F. Audoin, 1797—1841, 
 
 Zoology. 
 J. E. D. Esquirol, 1772— 
 
 1840, on Insanity. 
 Chas. Fourier, 1772—1837 
 
 Socialism. 
 
LITEEARY CHRONOLOGY SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 
 
 G35 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 1830 C. Delavigna, Tragedies, 
 
 and Poems. 
 Victor Hugo, Tragedies, 
 
 Poems, and Romances. 
 A. de Lamartine, Poems, 
 
 History, and Travels. 
 Mad. Dudevant (George 
 
 Sand), Novels. 
 A. Dumas, Poems, Plays, 
 
 and Romances, 
 
 1800 Mad. Junot, 1784-1839, 
 Biography. 
 
 A. L. G. Laborde, —1842, 
 Travels. 
 
 Las Cases, —1842, Biog- 
 raphy. 
 
 J. Michaud, —18-39, His- 
 tory. 
 
 Bourrienne, — 1834 ' Life 
 of Napoleon.' 
 
 A. Coiile, — 1&38, Voyage 
 a Teinbuctou, ifcc. 
 
 Champollion le Jeune, 
 1832, Antiq. Egypt. 
 
 J. P. A. Remusat, —1832, 
 Philology, Antiquities. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 
 
 1800 T. S. Jouffroy, 1796—1842, 
 Metaphysics 
 
 A. L. de J ussiou, 1748-1836, 
 iSotany. 
 
 S. F. Lacroix, UGS— 1843, 
 Mathematics. 
 
 Lamarck, — 1829, Natural 
 History. 
 
 Legenrh-e, 1753-1833, Ma- 
 thematics. 
 
 Louis, —1837, Surgery. 
 
 Bruussais, — 1838, Medi- 
 cine, Physiol. 
 
 Chaptal, —1S32, Chem- 
 istry. 
 
 Say, Polit. Economy. 
 
 SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 
 
 P. is prefixed for Portuguese. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 
 
 500 
 
 500 
 
 500 Anian, Law. 
 
 Fulgentius Ferrandus, 
 
 Canon Law. 
 Martin, d. 580, Ethics. 
 
 600 
 
 600 John of Biclair, d. 620 
 Chronicle. 
 Isidore, d. 636, Chron. de 
 Goth. 
 
 600 
 
 Ildefonso, d. 667, Polemics, 
 
 800 
 
 800 Eulogius, d. 859, Martyr- 
 ology. 
 Alvarez, Biog. of Eulogius. 
 
 800 
 
 p. itOO Egaz Monez, Songs. 
 P. Gonzalo Hermiguez, 
 
 Songs. 
 
 1100 
 
 1100 
 
 1200 
 
 Gonzala Berceo, Rhymes. 
 
 1200 Rodrigo Ximenez, d. 1245, 
 History of Spain. 
 
 1200 
 
 R. de Penafort, 1175— 127S, 
 
 Decretals. 
 Alphonso X., d. 1284, 
 
 Astronomy, Alchemy. 
 Raimund Lullo, 1236— 
 
 1315, Theology, Chem- 
 
 istry, &c. 
 
 1300 .Juan xManuel, d. 1362, Ro- 
 mances. 
 
 1300 
 
 1300 
 
 140() Villena, d. 1434, Trans. 
 
 Virgil and Dante. 
 E. de Villena, 1434, Moral 
 
 Drama. 
 Juan de Mena, 1412—1456 
 
 Poems. 
 L. de Mendoza, 1393—1458, 
 
 Poems. 
 
 1400 Diez de Games, Biography. 
 
 1400 
 
 J. de Torquemada, d. 140^ 
 Sermons, Criticism. 
 
636 
 
 THE WORLD'S PxlOGE-ESS. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 1400 Perez de Guzman, Lyrics. 
 
 Juan de la Enzina, Pastoral 
 Drama. 
 
 1500 Lope de Rueda, Comedies. 
 Torres Naliarro, Comedy. 
 Juan Boscan, d. 1544, Son- 
 nets. 
 P. Ber. Ribeyro, Eclogues. 
 Garcilaso de la Vega, 
 1503—1536, Poems. 
 P. San de Miranda, 1495—1558, 
 Lyrics. 
 Juan de la Cueva, Art of 
 Poetry. 
 P. Gil Vicente, d. 1557, 
 Comedy. 
 J. de Montemayor, 1520- 
 
 1561, Romance. 
 Ant. Ferreira, 1528—1569, 
 Elegies. 
 
 Diego de Mendoza, d. 1575, 
 
 Poems, History. 
 P. Camoens, 1524—1579, ' The 
 
 Lusiad.' 
 Luis de Leon, 1527—1591, 
 
 Lyric Poems. 
 Fern, de Herrera, d. 1578, 
 
 Classical Poems. 
 P. Rodriguez Lobo, Ro- 
 mances. Pastorals, «fcc. 
 P. P. de A. Caminha, d. 1595, 
 
 Epigrams, Pastorals. 
 C. de Castillejo, d. 1596, 
 
 Romantic Poems. 
 A. de Ercilla, 1533—1600, 
 
 ' Araucana.' 
 Geron. Bermudez, d. 1589, 
 
 Tragedy. 
 L. de Argensola, 1565— 
 
 1613, Tragedy, History. 
 P, Jeron. Cortereal, Poems. 
 Cervantes, 1549—1616, 
 
 'Don Quixote.' 
 
 SPECUI.ATIVE AND SCIKNTIFIQ. 
 
 1600 
 
 Bart, de Argensola, 1566 — 
 
 1631, Tragedy, History. 
 F. Quevedo, 1570—1645, 
 
 Tales, Satires. 
 L. Congora, 1585—1638, 
 
 Poems, 
 Lope de Vega^ 1562—1635, 
 
 Drama. 
 J. P. de Montalvan, d. 1639, 
 
 Tragedy. 
 M. de Madrigal, Romances. 
 Man. de Faria e Sousa, d. 
 
 1649, Pastoral Poems. 
 
 -1470, 
 
 1400 R. de Zamora. 1407- 
 History of Spain. 
 Fern, del Pulgas, B102 of 
 Ferdinand and Isabeua. 
 
 1500 
 
 P. Damian Goez, History, 
 Travels. 
 
 P. Joao de Barros, d. 1570, 
 
 ' Hist. Portugu. in India.' 
 
 A. Zarate, ' Discov. of 
 Peru.' 
 
 A. de Morales, 1513—1590, 
 History of Spain. 
 
 J. Acosta, 1547—1600, Hist. 
 
 of the West Indies. 
 Gonsalvo Illescas, d. 1580, 
 
 Lives of the Popes. 
 Luis Marmol, Description 
 
 of Africa 
 Jeron. Zurita, 1513—1580, ' 
 
 History of Arragon. 
 Estevan Garibay, History 
 
 of Spain.' 
 
 Juan Mariana, 1537—1624, 
 
 Hist., Chronology, &c. 
 Blanca, History of Spain. 
 
 J. G . de Mendoza, Hist, of 
 China. 
 
 1400 
 
 1600 Her. y Tordesillas, 1565— 
 
 1625, History of Spain. 
 P. A. de Meneses, d. 1617, 
 
 History of Augustines. 
 P. F. Andrada, Chronicle of 
 
 John III. 
 P. B. de Brito, 1.570-1617, 
 
 History of Portugal. 
 
 A. de Andrada, d. 1633, 
 Travels in Thibet and 
 Cathay. 
 Pru. de Sandoval, History 
 Jayme Bleda, History o( i 
 Moors in Spain. 1 
 
 Fras. Ximenez, 1437—1517, 
 Polyglot Bible. 
 
 1500 Perez de Oliva, d. 1533, 
 Ethics. 
 J. Luis Vives, 1492—1540, 
 Philosophy, Theology. 
 
 Ant. de Guevara, d. 1541, 
 Ethics, Epistles. 
 P. A. Govea, 1505—1565, Law. 
 
 Ant Agostino, 1516 — 15^, 
 Theology, Law. 
 
 S. des Brosses, 1523—1600, 
 G rammar. 
 P. D. de Andrada, 1.528—1535 
 Theology. 
 Luis Molina, 1535—1600, 
 Metaphysics. 
 
 J. Guevara, 1541—1633; 
 Publicist. 
 
 J. Vl verda, Anatomy. 
 
LITERARY CHRONCLOGY SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 
 
 6S7 
 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIBXTWIC. 
 
 1600 L. V. de Guevara, d. 1646, 
 
 160C 
 
 ) 
 
 1600 
 
 
 
 ' El Diablo Coxiielo.' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vic. Espinel, 1545—1634, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elegies. 
 
 P. 
 
 C. Acuna, 1597—1641, < De- 
 scrip, of River Amazon. 
 
 E. de Almeyda, d. 1646, 
 History of Ethiopia. 
 
 
 
 
 Calderon, 1601-1667, 
 
 P. 
 
 J. F. de Andrada, 1597— 
 
 
 
 
 Drama. 
 
 
 1657, Life of .John de 
 
 
 
 
 L. UUoa, d. 1660, Poems. 
 
 
 Castro, Comic Poetry. 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 A. B. Bacellar, d. 1663, 
 Sonnets. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?. 
 
 Matheo Ribeiro, Romance. 
 
 M. de Villegas, l.^^gS— 1669, 
 Anacreontics. 
 
 P. 
 
 Nic. Antonio, 1617—1672, 
 Bibliotheca Hispanica. 
 
 Alb. Coelho, d. 1658, 
 ' Wars of Brazil.' 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 F. de Vasconcellos, Poems. 
 
 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 R. de Macedo, d. 1682, 
 Poems. 
 
 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 Viol, do Ceo, 1601—1693, 
 Poems. 
 
 
 Ant. deSolis, 1611— 1686, 
 Hist, of Conq. Mexico. 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 F. da Castanheira, Novel. 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 P. 
 
 A. Nmihes da Sylva, Son- 
 nets. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1700 Fran. Candarno, d. 1709, 
 
 1700 
 
 .T. Ferreras, 1652—1735, 
 
 1700 
 
 
 
 Drama. 
 
 
 History of Spain. 
 
 
 
 
 Ant. de Zamora. Comedy. 
 
 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 Xav. de Meneses, 1673 — 
 1743,-'Henriqueide,' 
 Epic Poem. 
 
 Ignacio de Luzan, d. 1754, 
 
 
 
 
 Feyjoo, 1765, Ethics, Criti- 
 cism. 
 A. UUoa, 1716— 1795, Math. 
 
 
 Art of Poetry. 
 
 P. 
 P. 
 
 Barbosa Maehado, Diction- 
 ary of Learned Men. 
 
 Velasquez, d. Yn% Hist. 
 of Castilian Poetry. 
 
 Figoeireda, Eccl. History. 
 
 
 ematician. 
 
 
 Tomas de Yriarte, d. 1771, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fables, «fec. 
 
 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 A. de Barros Pereira, 
 Poems. 
 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 Manoel da Coste, Poems. 
 V. Garcia de la Huerta, 
 Tragedy. 
 
 
 Munoz, Hist, of America. 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 P. Correo Garcao I.yric 
 Poems. 
 
 
 
 
 Ruiz, Botany. 
 
 Pavon, Flora Peruvians. 
 
 
 Leon de Arroyal, Odes. 
 
 
 Cavanilles, Annals. 
 
 P. 
 
 J. H. Magalhaens, d. 1790, 
 
 P. 
 
 Paulino de Vasconcellos, 
 Sonnets. 
 
 
 
 
 Natural Philosophy. 
 Felix de Azareu, Zoology. 
 J. N.de Azara, 1731— latH,. 
 
 
 Mel. Valdez, Odes, Lyrics. 
 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 Cathar. de Sousa, Tragedy. 
 
 
 
 
 Antiquity. 
 
 1800 G. Jovellanos, 1744—1811, 
 
 1800 J. A. Llorente, History of 
 
 1800 
 
 
 
 ' Agrarian Law.' 
 
 
 Inquisition. 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 Tol. da Almeida, Satires. 
 
 Fern, de Moratin, d. 1828, 
 Comedies. 
 
 M. Garcia de Villanueva, 
 ' On the Theatre.' 
 
 J, H. Davila. General Lit- 
 erature. 
 
 
 Jose Antonio Conde, His- 
 tory of Moors in Spaia. 
 
 
 
638 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 DUTCH. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 120U J. Van Maerlant, 1235— 
 1300, Poems, ' Rymby- 
 bel.' 
 Melis Stoke, Poetic Chron. 
 
 1300 Jan van Helen, Poems, 
 Chronicles. 
 Heij. van Holland, Poems. 
 Claes Willems, Poems. 
 
 1400 J. Wilt, Trans. Boethius. 
 
 Dirk van Munster, ' Chris- 
 tian Mirror.' 
 
 Lambert, Goetman, ' Mir- 
 ror of Youth.' 
 
 I5ai 
 
 A. Byns, Religious Poems. 
 
 Jan. Fruitiers, Poems and 
 Prose. 
 
 J. Secundus, 1511 — 1536, 
 Amatoiy Poems. 
 
 Dirk Koornhert, 1522 — 
 1590, Transl. Homer. 
 
 P. van Marnix, Odes, 
 Songs. 
 
 R. Visscher, Epigrams. 
 
 Hendrick Spieghel, Didac- 
 tic Poems. 
 
 1200 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIEMTIVZa 
 
 1200 
 
 1300 
 
 1300 
 
 60() G. Brederode, 1585—1637, 
 
 Comedies, &c. 
 D. R. Kamphuizen, 1586 — 
 
 1626, Religious Poems. 
 Daniel Heins, 1580—1655, 
 
 Poems, Philology. 
 J. Cats, 1577—1660, Drama. 
 P. C. Hoolt, 1587—1647, 
 
 Tragedy, Odes, Hist, of 
 
 the Netherlands. 
 G. van Baerle (Barlaeus), 
 
 1584-1648, Latin Poems. 
 Just van Vondel, 1587 — 
 
 1679, Tragedies. 
 M. Visscher, Ti-ans. Tasso. 
 Jan van Heem=ikerk, 'Ar- 
 cadia.' 
 J. Westerbaen, 1599—1669, 
 
 Epigrams. 
 
 1400 Edmund Dinter, d. 1448, 
 Chronicles of Brabant. 
 p. vander Heyden, 1393 — 
 1473, Chronicles. 
 
 _G erard Groot, Theology. 
 
 1400 
 
 1500 
 
 S. Pighius, 1520—1604, 
 ' Roman Annals.' 
 
 A. Schott, 1552—1629, His- 
 tory of Spain. 
 
 1600 
 
 H. de Groot (Grotius), 
 1583—1645, Hist., Theol- 
 ogy, Poetry, &c. 
 
 J. W. Gransft. it, Theo. 
 
 Rud. Agricola, 1442— 14&5, 
 Philosophy, Hist., «&c. 
 
 1500 Erasmus, 1467—1536, The- 
 ology, Literature, &.<: 
 
 J. Heurnius, 1543—1601, 
 Medicine. 
 
 C. Kiliaan, d. 1607, Dic- 
 tionary. 
 
 Justus Lipsius, 1547— 1606^ 
 Philology. 
 
 Sim. Stevinus, d. 1633, 
 Hydrostatics, Mathem. 
 
 H. Erpenius, 1584—1624, 
 Orientalist. 
 
 1600 
 
 J. Golius, 1596—1667, On- 
 
 entalist. 
 Voetius, 1589—1676. 
 
 Polemics. 
 Beverwyk, 1594—1647, 
 
 Medicine. 
 Diemerbroek, 1609-1674, 
 
 Anatomy. 
 
LITEIIARY CHRONOLOGY DUTCH. 
 
 639 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 Cons. Huygens, 1595—1687, 
 Epifframs. 
 
 Jer. Decker, 1610—1066, 
 Elegies. 
 
 D. Joncktijs, d. 1654, Ama- 
 tory Poems. 
 
 Nicholas Heins, 1620—1681, 
 Poems, Philology. 
 
 Jan de Brune, ' Whetstone 
 of Wit.' 
 
 Jan Vos, Drama, Epi- 
 grams. 
 
 Reioier Anslo, 1622—1669, 
 ' Plague of Naples.' 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIPIC. 
 
 TOO p. Francius, 1645—1704, 
 Latin Poetry. 
 J. A. Vander Goes, 1647- 
 1648, Drama. 
 
 Eliz. Wolff, Novels. 
 Loosjes, Novels. 
 
 Bellamy, 1757—1786, Odes, 
 Klein, Lyrics. 
 Van Alphen, Odes. 
 
 1800 
 
 Hincopen, Odes. 
 Helmers, d. 1831, Poems 
 Nieuwland, Poema. 
 Borger, Odes. 
 
 Bildei'dyk, Diamas, Odes, 
 &c. 
 
 Ger. Brandt, 1626—1685, 
 
 Hist, of Reformation. 
 Cau, Collect, of Batavian 
 
 History. 
 J. G. Graevius, 1632—1703, 
 
 Roman Antiquities. 
 J. Perizonius, 1631—1715, 
 
 History. 
 
 J. F. Gronovius, 1611 — 
 
 1671, Philology. 
 J. Leusden, 1614—1699, 
 
 Philology. 
 
 F. Burman, 16^—1679, 
 
 Theology. 
 Chr. Huygens, 1629— 1€95, 
 
 Mathem., Mechanics. 
 B. Spinoza, 1632—1677, 
 
 Theology. 
 
 Swammerdam, 1637—1680, 
 
 Natural History. 
 A. Leuwenhoek, 1632 — 
 
 1723, Natural History. 
 
 1700 
 
 J. Gronovius, 1645—1716, 
 Greek Antiquities. 
 
 P Bondam, Collection of 
 Batavian Histoiy. 
 
 Simon Styl, History of 
 Netherlands. 
 
 1800 
 
 Te Water, History. 
 Engelberts, Ancient Hist. 
 o{ Netherlands. 
 
 1700 F. Ruysch, 1639—1731, 
 Anat. 
 
 G. Bidloo, 1649—1713, 
 Anat. 
 
 C. Vitringa, 1659—1722, 
 Theology. 
 
 Binkerschoek, 1663—1743, 
 
 Law. 
 H. Boerhaave, 1668—1738, 
 
 Medicine. 
 Hemsterhuis, 1685—1766, 
 
 Philology. 
 
 A. Schultens, 1686—1750, 
 Philology. 
 
 Gravesande, L688— 1742, 
 
 Mathematics. 
 Chr. Hecht, 1696-1748, 
 
 Philology. 
 
 B. S. Albinus, 1683—1771, 
 Anatomy. 
 
 Oudendorp, 1696—1761, 
 
 Philology. 
 W. Otto Reiz, 1702—1768, 
 
 Law. 
 
 D. Gaubius, 1705—1780, 
 Medicine. 
 
 Hoogeveen, 1712—1794, 
 
 Philology. 
 G. van Swieten, 1700- 
 
 1772, Medicine. 
 P. Camper, 17^—1789, 
 
 Anatomy. 
 D. Ruhnken, 1723—1798, 
 
 Philology. 
 Valckenaer, Philology. 
 
 1800 D. Wyttenbach, d. 1808, 
 Philology. 
 
 Van Kami len, Statistics 
 
640 
 
 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO, 
 
 ToUens, Poems. 
 
 Da Costa, Sacred Poems. 
 
 VVilderboschj Odes. 
 
 Kluits, Hist, of Holland. 
 Wesiendorp, History. 
 Ypey, Ecclesiastical Hist. 
 
 De Jongs, Antiquities. 
 Hamaker, Orientalist. 
 Vander Palm, Literature. 
 
 SWEDEN, DENMARK AND ICELAND. 
 
 S., Sweden; D., Denmark ; Ic, Iceland. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPEC 
 
 900 
 
 ULATIVB AND SCIENTIPia 
 
 Ic. 900 Hjalti, Poems. 
 
 900 
 
 
 Ic. 1100 Thorwald, Ballads. 
 
 1100 
 Ic. 
 
 Aro, d. 1148, Annals of Ice- 
 land. 
 
 IKKi 
 
 
 
 T). 
 
 Saxo, Grammaticus, d. 
 
 D. 
 
 Sunesen, Jurist. 
 
 
 
 1204, Hist, of Northern 
 
 D. 
 
 Axel, Theolosv. 
 
 
 
 Nations. , 
 
 
 
 Ic. Sffimunrt, b. 1156, The 
 
 D. 
 
 Sueno, Hist, of Denmark. 
 
 
 
 Elder Edda. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ic. 1200 Snor.Sturleson,d. 1341, 
 
 1200 
 
 
 1200 
 
 
 Younger Edda, Hist. 
 
 
 
 
 
 of Norway. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ic. Suerron, Tales. 
 
 D. 
 
 Sturla Thoridsen, History 
 of Norway. 
 
 
 
 1400 
 
 1400 
 
 
 1400 
 
 
 
 S. 
 
 Eric Olai, History of Goths 
 and Swedes. 
 
 S. 
 
 Bryn. Karlsson, d. 1430, 
 Instruction to Kings and 
 Princes. 
 
 1500 
 
 1500 
 S. 
 S. 
 S. 
 
 John Magnus, d. 1544, 
 
 Hist, of Sweden. 
 Olaus Magnus, Customs of 
 
 Northern Nations. 
 P. Lagerloof, 1538—1.599, 
 
 History North of Europe. 
 
 1500 
 
 
 
 Ic. 
 
 Arn. Jonas, 1545 — 1640, 
 Hist, of Iceland, «fec. 
 
 u. 
 
 D. 
 
 Tycho Brahe, 1546—1601,' 
 
 Astronomy. 
 Ursus, a. 1600, Astronomy. 
 
 160() 
 
 1600 
 
 
 1600 
 S. 
 
 D. 
 
 P. Kirsten, 1577—1640, 
 
 Orientalist. 
 G. Bartholine, 1585—1629. 
 
 D. Andei-s Arrebo, b. 1587, 
 
 
 
 
 Anatomy, Theology. 
 
 Religious Poetry. 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 Oie Worm, 1588—1654, Ai» 
 
 
 u. 
 
 J. J Pontanus, 1591—1640, 
 Danish Hist. 
 
 
 tiquities, Philo. 
 
 D. Anders Bording, b. 1619, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 
 
 
 
 8. Stiernhjclm, Epic Poem, 
 
 
 
 
 
 'Hercules.' 
 
 
 
 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY SWEDEN, DENMARK, AND ICE^^AND. 641 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 D. 1700 Thos. Kingo, b. 1634- 
 Hymns. 
 
 D L. Ilolberg, 1684—1754, 
 
 Drama, Satire, Hist. 
 
 D, Ch. Falster, 1690— 
 
 1752, Satirist. 
 
 S. OlofDalin, 1708— 1763, 
 
 Poetry, History. 
 
 D, Sneedorf, 1724—1764, 
 
 Poems, 
 
 D. Tullin, Lyrics. 
 
 D. John Ewald, 1743— 
 
 1781, Tragedy, Lyrics 
 
 D. J. H. Wessel, Humor- 
 
 ous Poems. 
 
 S. Bellerman, 1741—1796, 
 
 Lvrics. 
 
 D. H. Tode, 1736-1806, 
 
 Dramas, Fables. 
 
 D. Samsoe, 1759—1796, 
 
 Tragedies. 
 
 D, P. A. Heiberg, b. 1758, 
 
 Drama. 
 
 S. S. Elgstrom, d. 1810, 
 
 Poems. 
 
 Ic. Torfeus, 1639—1720, Hist. 
 of Norway. 
 
 1700 
 
 S. John Permgskiold, 1654 — 
 1720, History. 
 
 D. Arne Magnussen, b. 1663, 
 CoUec. Hist. 
 
 D. Albert Thura, Hist. 
 
 D. Hans Gram, d. 1748, His- 
 tory. 
 
 D. Langebek, d. 1775, Collec. 
 Danish History. 
 
 D. Pontoppidan, d. 1764, Ori- 
 gines Havnienses. 
 
 S. Lagerbring, d. 1781, His- 
 tory. 
 
 P. T. Suhin, 1720—1798, 
 Hist, of Denmark. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC 
 
 S. Ol. Rudbeck, 1630—1702, 
 Botany, Anat., &c. 
 
 1700 
 
 D. J. C. Sturm i us, 1635- 
 Phys., Mathem. - 
 
 L70a^ 
 
 S. 
 
 S. Wallerius, d. 1785, 
 
 Mineralogy. 
 D. Oeder, Flora Danica. 
 S. Ihre, Dictionary. 
 
 Ic, 1800 Thorlacksen, d. 1819, 
 
 Transl. Milton 
 D, C. L. Sander, Dramas. 
 
 D. 
 
 Jens. Baggesen, d. 
 
 
 1826, Lyrics. 
 
 D. 
 
 Oehlenschlager. 
 
 
 Poems. 
 
 D. 
 
 B. S. Ingermann, 
 
 
 Lyrics. 
 
 K 
 
 Atterbone, Poems. 
 
 S. 
 
 Tegner, Romances, «&c. 
 
 8. 
 
 F. Bremer Novels. 
 
 1800 
 
 D. Malte Brun, d. 1826, Geog- 
 raphy, in French. 
 
 S. Thorild Travels. 
 
 S. Afzelius, Iceland Records. 
 
 S. Hallenberg, History. 
 
 S. Granberg, Statistics. 
 
 S. Blexell, Topography, 
 
 Lirmseus, 1707—1778, 
 Botany. 
 
 1800 
 
 S. Berzelius, Chemistry. 
 
 D. Rask, Orientalist. 
 
 S. Wodderstadt, ' On Yellon 
 Fever.' 
 
 S. Liliegren, Northern An- 
 tiquities. 
 
 S. Norberg, Orientalist. 
 J. F. Blumenbach, 
 1840, Naturalist. 
 
542 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 POLISH. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND BCIEllTIFia 
 
 1200 
 
 1200 Vine. Kadlubek, d. 1226, 
 
 History of Poland. 
 Boguphalus, d. 1253, 
 
 Chronicle of Poland. 
 Martin Polonus, d. 1278, 
 
 Chronicle of Popes and 
 
 Emperors. 
 
 1200 
 
 Vitellio, Optics. 
 
 1400 
 
 1400 Dluglossus, 1415—1480, 
 History of Poland. 
 
 1400 
 
 1500 
 
 Kochanovvski, 1530—1584, 
 
 1500 
 
 Cawalezewski, Chronicles. 
 Bielski, Chronicles, 
 
 Stryjkowski, Chron. of Po- 
 land and Russia. 
 
 1500 
 
 N. Copernicus, 147^-1543, 
 
 Astronomy. 
 Lucas Gornicki, Ethics. 
 Rey of Naglowic, 1515 — 
 
 1568, Ethics. 
 
 1600 
 
 Sarbiewski, 1595—1640, 
 Latin Poetry. 
 
 1600 Ab. Bzovius, 1567—1637, 
 Ecclesiastical Annals. 
 
 Lubienetski, 1623—1675, 
 History of Reformation. 
 
 1600 
 
 John Maccov, d. 16'14, The- 
 ology. 
 
 Przipcov, 1590—1670, The- 
 ology. 
 
 1700 
 
 Naruszewicz, d. 1796, Po- 
 etiy and History. 
 
 1700 Dogiel, Coll. Hist. Poland. 
 Mizler, Do. 
 
 1700 
 
 ISOO Krasicki, Poems, Roman- 
 ces. 
 Boguslawski, Drama. 
 Bronikowski, Novels. 
 Bernatowicz, Novels. 
 Bulgarin, Novels. 
 Mickiewicz, Poems. 
 Odyniec, Drama. 
 
 1800 
 
 Lach Szmyrna, Travels. 
 Potocki, Travels. 
 
 1800 
 
 Linde, Leziccm. 
 
 RUSSIAN. 
 
 [The Russian has been in use as the language of literature scarcely more than a century. A (mart 
 c\\ books used in Russia were written in the ancient Sclavonic tongue, which does not greatly 
 differ from Russian, but more closely resembles the languages spoken in Servia, and in the 
 other provinces near the Save and Danube. The first printing-office in Russia was established 
 in 1553.] 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO 
 
 1000 
 
 1000 
 
 Nestorof Kiew, 1056—1115, 
 C ronicles of Russia. 
 
 1000 Yaroelaf, Code of Laws. 
 
LITERAP^Y CHRONOLOGY RUSSIAN. 
 
 643 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO. 
 
 1100 
 
 The Expedition of Ighor, a 
 celebrated Poem, author 
 Unknown. 
 
 1100 Theodosius,rf.ll20, Annals. 
 Sylvester, d. 1123, Chro- 
 nicles of Russia. 
 
 Simeon of Susdal, d. 1206, 
 Chronicles of Russia. 
 
 1100 
 
 J21I0 
 
 1200 John of Novgorod, History 
 of Russia. 
 
 1200 
 
 [The blank of nearly four centuries arises from the oppression of the Mongols, who held Russia 
 from 1223 to 1477. They destroyed almost all ancient books, and repressed the rising spirit oi 
 knowledge which a close connection with the Greeks was then introducing into Russia.] 
 
 1500 
 
 1600 
 
 Simeon of Polotsk, Poems, 
 Spiritual Dramas^ 
 
 1700 
 
 Cantemir, 1708—1744, Sati- 
 rical Poems. 
 
 Lomonosoff, 1711—1765, 
 Poetry, History, Science. 
 
 Tredianotfski, Poems. 
 
 Popofski, Transl. Pope. 
 
 Sumarokoff, 1718-1777, 
 Drama. 
 
 Kheraskoff, 1733—1807, 
 'The Russiad.' 
 
 KostrofF, d. 1796, Transl. 
 the Iliad. 
 
 Petroff, 1736—1799, Transl. 
 the Eneid. 
 
 Kniajnin, 1742—1794, 
 Drama. 
 
 J. Khemnitzer, 1744—1784, 
 Fables. 
 
 Klushin, Comedies. 
 
 Ephimieff, Comedies. 
 
 Ablesimoff, Operas. 
 
 G. R. Derjavin, 1743—1816, 
 Lyric Poetry. 
 
 H. Bogdanovitch, 1 743 — 
 1803,' Dushenka,' Poems. 
 
 Vizin, 1745—1792, Come- 
 dies, Tales. 
 
 NicolefF, Tragedies. 
 
 1500 
 
 1500 Sudebuek, Code of Laws. 
 
 1700 Khilkoff, History of Russia. 
 V. TatischefF, d. 1750, 
 Chronicles of Russia. 
 
 CherbatofF, History. 
 Golikoff, History. 
 
 1800 MaikofF, Comic Poems. 
 Dmitrieff, Lyrics. Fables. 
 Ozeroff, d. 1816. Tragedies. 
 P. Sumarokoff, Poems, 
 
 Tales 
 V. A. jukofski, b. 1783, 
 
 Poems. 
 Milonoff, d. 1821, Satires. 
 Batiushkoff, Transl. Tibul- 
 
 lus. 
 Gneditch, Transl. Iliad, 
 
 Odes. 
 Kryloff, Fables. 
 
 MuraviefF, 1757—1816, His 
 
 tory, Didactics. 
 Eugenius, History. 
 
 1600 Demetrius of Rostoff, The- 
 ology, Spiritual Dramas. 
 
 1700 Theophanes, Seimons. 
 
 Plato, 1737—1812, SermonB. 
 
 P. S. Pallas, 1741- 
 Natural History. 
 
 -1811, 
 
 1800 Karamsin, b. 1765, History 
 of Russia. 
 Kachenofski, History, 
 G. Glinka, History. 
 
 Kotzebue, Voyage of Dis- 
 covery. 
 
 Gretch, History of Russian 
 Literature. 
 
 Timkowski, Journey to 
 China. 
 
 1800 Shishkof, Criticism. 
 
 Augustin, Sermons. 
 
644 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. 
 p. Persian. T. Turkish. Those unmarked are Arabian. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 60C Mahomet, Koran. 
 
 Lebid, 622—757, Poems. 
 Zohair, Poems, 
 
 Kais E- Ameri, or Amrul- 
 ka is, Poems. 
 
 700 
 
 Abun Massab, Poems. 
 Abunowas,762— 810, Poems. 
 Rehashi, Poems. 
 A.u Obeid, d. 838, Fables. 
 
 600 
 
 800 
 
 700 
 
 Muham. ben Omar, History 
 
 A.Temain, 804—84.5, Poems. 
 
 Bochteri, 821—882, Anthol. 
 
 Abu Mohammed Abdallah 
 Literature. 
 
 SPECULATIVB AND aCJCXTIV a 
 
 600 
 
 Aharun, Medicine. 
 
 700 Jafar, Chemistry. 
 
 Abu Hanifah, 699—767, The- 
 ology. 
 
 Wahab, Travels. 
 Abuzeid, Travels. 
 I. Kotaibah, d. 889. History. 
 Abu Jafar, 838—922, Hist. 
 Honain ben Isaac, d. 874, 
 Translations from Greek. 
 
 800 Asmai, 740—830, Theology. 
 
 Kendi, Philosophy. 
 
 J. ben Serapion, Medicine. 
 
 Almamon, Astronomical 
 Tables. 
 
 Bahali, d. 835, Etymology. 
 
 Alfragan, Astronomy. 
 
 Nasir Khosru, Metaphys. 
 
 Albumazar, 805—885, Ma- 
 thematics, Astronomy. 
 
 Bochari, 810—870, ' The 
 Sahih,' Traditions. 
 
 Geber, Chemistry. 
 
 900 Ibn Doraid, d. 931, Poems. 
 
 Almotanabbi, d. "y^o, 
 Poems 
 
 900 
 
 P. KKM) Ferdusi, 932—1020, 
 
 'Shah Nameh,' Epic 
 Poem. 
 
 Abul Ola, 973—1057, 
 Poems. 
 
 Said ben Batrik, 876—937, 
 
 General History. 
 Eutychius, History. 
 Massudi, d. 957, History 
 
 and Geography. 
 
 Ibn Haukal, Geography. 
 
 1000 Ahnuyadad, History of 
 Saracfns in Sicily. 
 
 900 Albategnl, Astronomy. 
 Rases, d. 922, Medicine. 
 Ben Musa, Mathematics. 
 Azophi, Astronomy. 
 
 Alfarabi, d. 954, Aristo- 
 telian Philosophy. 
 
 Geuhari, d. 998, Aristo- 
 telian Philosophy. 
 
 1000 Achmet, Treatise on 
 Dreams. 
 Ibn Mesua, Medicine. 
 Avicenna, 930— 1038, 
 Philosophy, Medicine 
 
 Abulcasis, Medicine. 
 Jelaleddin, Correction of 
 
 Calendar. 
 Arzachel, Astronomy. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY ARABIAN, PERSIAN, AND TURKISH. 645 
 
 IMAaiNATION. 
 
 ''j*io ti.-'%tt«(i, rf. 1119, Poems. 
 
 '.c^'xi 10^^-1121, Moral 
 Poeuia. 
 
 p. Ffc!ek},i n^i, Poems, 
 P. k^akJns, d. i\86, Poems. 
 P. iLnwari, d. i?00. Poems, 
 j'aafar ebn 1'ofoil, d. 1198, 
 'Hai ben Yokt>-in,' a 
 Novel. 
 1. Elfaredh, d. 1234 Poems. 
 
 1100 
 
 1200 
 
 P. Saadi, 119S-1P.91 Sulis- 
 tan,' ' BosUn,' 
 
 Elfaiagi, Poet<i8. 
 
 13J0 
 
 Algazel, Antiquities, &c. 
 Ben Idris, b. 1099, Geog. 
 
 1200 Bohadin, Life of Saladin. 
 Abdollatif, Topography of 
 
 Egypt. 
 Abu Idem, d. 1244, History. 
 El Harawi, Travels. 
 
 Abulfarage, 1226—1288, 
 Universal History. 
 
 Elmacin, d. 1302, History 
 of Saracens. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIO, 
 
 1100 Gazali, 10.58—1112, Aristo 
 telian Philosophy. 
 
 Alhazin, Optics. 
 
 Tabriz!, d. 1136, Commen- 
 taries. 
 
 Alchabit, Optics, Astron. 
 A Zohar, d. 1168, Medic. 
 
 Aven-oes, d. 1206, Arists- 
 telian Philosophy. 
 
 P. 
 
 Fadlallah, History of Mo 
 guls. 
 
 Hafix, d 1.395, Q6^ 
 
 1400 
 
 Jami, d. 1486, Poems, 
 
 1300 Abulfeda, 1273—1333, 
 
 Geography, History. 
 Novairi, d. 1331, Universal 
 
 History. 
 Mohammed Ibn Batuta, 
 
 Travels. 
 Ibn al Wardi, d. 1358, 
 
 Geography. 
 Abu Shameh, b. 1299, Hist. 
 P. Turan Shah, d. 1377, Hist. 
 Jafei, d. 1368, Biography. 
 
 1400 All Yezdi Sherifeddin, 
 Life of Tamerlane. 
 Makrizi, 1367-1438, Hist. 
 
 Arabshah. d. 1450, Life of 
 Timur. 
 
 Baccai, d. 1480, Biography. 
 Khondemir, or Mirkhond, 
 Gen. Hist, to a. d. 1474. 
 T, Baber, d. 1530, Autobio- 
 graphy. 
 
 1200 A. Baca, d. 1219, Arithra. 
 
 Caswin, d. 1274, Natural 
 
 History. 
 Beithar, d. 1246, Botany, 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 P. Naaireddin, 1201—1273, 
 Astronomy. 
 
 1300 E. Hajan, d. 1344, Gran. 
 
 Firuzabadi, 1329- 
 ' The Camoos.' 
 
 -1414, 
 
 1400 Zeineddin Abulhassan, 
 Dictionary. 
 
 Ulug Beg, 1393-1444, 
 Astronomy, Chronologj 
 
 Babacushi, d. 1481, 
 Politics. 
 
 1500 Alhassan, Description of 
 Africa. 
 
 Al Jannabi, d. 1590, Uni- 
 versal History. 
 
 1500 
 
 Babacushi, d. 1566, Morals 
 
646 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGP^ESS. 
 
 IMAGINAT.DN. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIBNTIFia 
 
 ]fiOO 
 
 1600 Ferishta, Hist, of India. 
 Abulgazi, 16U5— 1663, Hist. 
 
 of Tartars. 
 T. Haji Khalifeh, d. 1675, 
 
 History. 
 
 P. 1600 Nured. Shirazi, Metaph. 
 Moham. Hossain, ' Borhani 
 Kata,' Dictionary. 
 
 iroc 
 
 P. 1700 Gholam Hussein, An- 
 nals of Hindostan. 
 
 1700 Gholam Ali, Grammar. 
 
 UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 FACT. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIBMTIPIC. 
 
 1600 
 
 1600 
 
 1600 Thomas Hooker, d. 1627, 
 Sermons, &c. 
 
 
 Wm. Hubbard, 1704, Hist. 
 
 John Cotton, d. 1652, Theol. 
 
 
 of Massachusetts. 
 
 Cotton Mather, 1662-1728, 
 Sermons, 'Magnalia,'&c. 
 
 1700 John Adams, 1705—1740, 
 
 1700 Inc. Mather, 1723, ' History 
 
 1700 Benj. Colman, d. 1747, 
 
 Poems. 
 
 of War with Indians.' 
 
 Theology. 
 
 Benj. Church, 1739—1776, 
 
 Thos. Prince, d. 1757, Hist. 
 
 Jona. Edwards, d. 1757, 
 
 Poems. 
 
 of New England. 
 
 Theology. 
 
 Wm. Livingston, 1723 — 
 
 
 Samuel Davies, d. 1761, 
 
 1790, Poems. 
 
 
 Sermons. 
 
 John Trumbull, 1750-1831, 
 
 
 John Clayton, d. 1773, 
 
 'McFinsal,' &c. 
 
 
 Botany. 
 
 Joel Barlow, 1755—1812, 
 
 Cadwallader Golden, 1688- 
 
 
 ' The Columbiad.' 
 
 1776, History of the Five 
 Nations of Indians. 
 
 
 John Blair Linn, 1777— 
 
 John Bartram, d. 1777^ 
 
 
 1804, Poems. 
 
 Botany, Travels. 
 
 
 
 Thos. Hutchinson, d. 1780, 
 
 Jos. Bellamy, d. 1790, 
 
 
 Hist, of Massachusetts. 
 
 Theology. 
 Benjamin Franklin, 1706— 
 
 T. Dwight, Conquest of Ca- 
 
 
 1790,Natural Philosophy, 
 
 naan, &c. 
 
 
 Politics, &c. 
 Jas. Otis, rf. 1783, Politics. 
 John Hancock, 1793, 
 
 Politics. 
 John Witherspoon,<?. 1794, 
 
 Theology, Politics. 
 Patrick Henry, d. 1796, 
 
 
 David Rittenhouse, d. 1796, 
 
 Politics. 
 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 Samuel Adams, 1803, 
 
 
 Jeremy Belknap, 1798, His- 
 
 Politics. 
 
 
 tory of N. Hampshire. 
 
 Samuel Hopkins, 1721— 
 
 
 Amer. Biog. &c. 
 
 1803, Theology. 
 
 
 Geo. R. Minot, 1802, ' Hist. 
 
 Fisher Ames, d. 1808, 
 
 
 of Massachusetts Bay.' 
 
 Politics. 
 
 
 Isaac Backus, 1806, Church 
 
 
 
 History of N. England. 
 
 
 1800 Clias. B. Brown, d. 1810, 
 
 1800 Jas. Sullivan, d. 1809, Hist. 
 
 1800 Thos. Paine, 1737-18'ja 
 Politics, 'Age of Reason,' 
 
 Novels. 
 
 of Maine. , 
 
 Robt. Treat Paine, 1773— 
 
 
 ' Rights of Man,' &c. 
 
 1811, 'Invention of Let- 
 
 David Ramsay, d. 1812, 
 
 Jos. S. Buckminster, d 
 
 ters,' 'The Ruling Pas- 
 
 ' Life of Washingtcn,' 
 
 1812, Theology. 
 
 sion, and other Poems. 
 
 'American Revolution,' 
 
 Alex. Hamilton, 1757— 
 
 
 ' Universal History.' 
 
 1801, Politics. 
 
LITERARY CHRONOLOGY U. S. OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 647 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 !80() Paul Allen, 1775—1826, 
 ' Noah,' (a poem,) [Hist. 
 of Am. Re vol.] 
 
 SPE( CLATIVB AND SCIENTIFIO 
 
 1800 Alexander Wilson, d.. 1813, 180C 
 'Anierican Ornithology.' 
 
 Hugh Williamson, d. 1818, 
 Hist, of N. Carolina. 
 
 Benj. S. Barton, d. 1815, 
 Botany. 
 
 J. G. C. Brainard, d. 1826, 
 
 •••-*% W]l•^ 1772—1834, 
 'British Spy.' 
 
 Robt.. C. Sands, d. 1832, 
 
 Poeuip. 
 J. Q. Adams, 1767—1847, 
 
 Poems. 
 Washington Allston, 1779- 
 
 1843, Painter, Poet, and 
 
 Novelist. 
 Timothy Flint, 1780—1840 
 
 Novels. 
 Jas. A. Hillhouse, 1789 
 
 1841, Poems. 
 Wm. Leggett, 1802—1840, 
 
 Poems, Miscellan., Polit. 
 R. H. Wilde, 1789—1847, 
 
 Poems, Researches on 
 
 Tas^o, &c. 
 
 E. A. Poe, 181M849.Poen-g, 
 
 Tales. 
 J. F. Cooper, 1TS9— 1851, 
 
 Novels, &c. 
 
 Wm. Bartram, d. 1823, 
 
 Botany, Travels. 
 Jedediah Morse, d. 1826, 
 
 Geog., Statistics, &c. 
 
 Nathl. H. Carter, 1788— 
 1830, 'Letters from Eu- 
 rope.' 
 
 Edmund D. Griffin, 1804— 
 1830, Travels in Europe, 
 Lectures on Literature. 
 &c. 
 
 John D. Godman, d. 1830, 
 Anatomy, Natural Hist., 
 &c. 
 
 John Marshall, 1755—1835, 
 Life of Washington, &c. 
 
 Jno. Armstrong, 1758-1S'13, 
 'War of 1812.' 
 
 Abiel Holmes, 1763—1837, 
 Annals of America. 
 
 Timothy Flint, 1780—1340, 
 Hist, of Mississ. Valley. 
 
 A. S. Mackenzie, — 1349, 
 Travels in Spain, &:. 
 
 Gouverneur Morris, I'ra— 
 
 1816, Politics. 
 Timothy D wight, 17;' i2- 
 
 1817, ' Theoiugy Explain- 
 ed and Defended.' 
 Levi Frisbie, 1784—1822, 
 
 Moral Philo=!ophy. 
 Wm. Pinckney, 1764-1822, 
 
 Law, Politics. 
 Jno. Marshall, 1755—1835, 
 
 Law 
 W. E. Channing, 1780— 
 
 1842, Sermons, Criticism. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, 1743— 
 
 1826, Potitics, Philos. 
 John Adams. 1735— 182r>, 
 
 Politics. 
 John M. Mason, D..1)., 
 
 1770—1829, Divinity, 
 
 Sermons, &c. 
 John H. Hobart, D. D., 
 1776-1830, Sermons. &c. 
 Jos. Story, 1779—1845, 
 
 Law. 
 Henry Wheaton, 1782- 
 
 1848, Law. History. 
 Edw. Livingston, 1764— 
 
 1836, Criminal Code, &.c. 
 David Hosack, 1769—1835, 
 
 Medicine. 
 Jas. Madison, 1751—1836, 
 Politics. 
 
 Alex. H. Everett, 1790- 
 
 1847, Essays. 
 R. Harlan, .796—184,3, 
 
 Natural History. 
 James Kent, 1763—1847, 
 
 Comment, on Am. Law, 
 Hugh S. Legare, 1797— 
 
 1843, Miscellanies. 
 Jas. Marsh, 1794-1842, Me- 
 taphysics. 
 Albert Gallatin, 1761-1849, 
 
 Etlinology, Philolrgy. 
 J. C. Calhoun, 1752-1850, 
 
 Politics, Speeches. 
 
HEATHEN DEITIES, AND OTHER FABULOUS PERSONS, 
 
 WITH THE 
 
 HEROES AND HEROINES OF ANTIUIJITY. 
 
 Ab'aris, a Scythian, priest of Apollo. 
 
 Abeo'na, a goddess of voyages, &c. 
 
 Abrela'nus, a surname of Jupiter. 
 
 A'bron, a very voluptuous Grecian. 
 
 Aby'la, a famous mountain in Africa. 
 
 Aca?i'tha, a nymph beloved by Apollo. 
 
 Acas'tiis, the name of a famous hunter. 
 
 Ace'lif3. one of the priests of Bacchus. 
 
 Achcb'menes, the first king of Persia. 
 
 Acha'tes, a trusty friend of ^Qeas. 
 
 Ach'eron, a son of Titan and Terra, changed into 
 a river of hell tor assisting the Titans in their 
 war against Jupiter. 
 
 Achil'les, son of Peleus, king of Thrace, and 
 Thetis, a goddess of the sea, wrho, being dip 
 ped by his mother in the river Styx, was in 
 vulnerable in every part except his right 
 heel, by which she held him ; after signaliz 
 ing himself at the siege of Troy, for his valor, 
 as well as cruelty, he was at length killed by 
 Paris with an arrow. 
 
 Acid'alia and Arma'ta, names of Venus. 
 
 Acida'lus, a famous fountain of Boeotia. 
 
 A'cis, a Sicilian shepherd, killed by Polyphemus, 
 because he rivalled him in the affections of 
 Galetea. 
 
 Ac'vion, a famous king of the Titans. 
 
 Ac'ratus, the genius of drunkards at Athens. 
 
 A Hcbon, a celebrated hunter, who, accidentally 
 discovering Diana bathing, was by her turned 
 into a stag, and devoured by his own hounds. 
 
 Ad7}ieHus a king of Thessaly. 
 
 Ado'nis, the incestuous offspring of Cinyras and 
 Myrrha, remarkably beautiful, beloved by 
 Venus and Proserpine., 
 
 AdrasHea, the goddess Nemesis. 
 
 jE'ncics, one oi' the infernal judges. 
 
 jE'ga, Jupiter's nurse, daughter of Olenus. 
 
 jEgehis, a king of Atdca, giving name to the 
 iEgean sea by drowning liimself in it. 
 
 JEgi'yia. a particular favorite of Jupiter. 
 
 JE'gis, a Gorgon, whom Pallas slew. 
 
 uE'gle'. one of the three Hesperides. 
 
 yE'gon, a wrestler famous for strength. 
 
 yEgyp'Uis, son of Neptune and Lybia. 
 
 Ail'lo, one of the three Harpies. 
 
 JEne'as^ son of Anchises and Venus. 
 
 t£!o'lus, the god of the winds 
 
 jEo'us, one of the four horses of th » boA. 
 
 JEsculahius, a Roman god of richfa. 
 
 ^scula'pius, the god of phy.'j^:^ 
 
 J^thal'ides, a son of mercury. 
 
 JE'thon, one of the four horses of the sun. 
 
 ^t'noius, a title of Vulcan. 
 
 jEto'los, a eon of Endymion aud Diana. 
 
 Agametninon, a brother of Menelans, cb^i^en 
 
 captain-general of the Greete ..ti. tli ..^ege 
 
 of Troy. 
 Aganip'pe, caughter of the river Permessus, 
 
 which flows from mount Helicon, 
 Age'nor^ the first king of Argos. 
 Ageno'ria, the goddess of industry. 
 Agelas'tus and Agesi'laus, names of Pluto. 
 Agla'ia, one of the three Graces. 
 AJjax, one of the most distinguished princef/ and 
 
 heroes at the siege of Troy. 
 Albu'nea, a famous sybil of Tripoli. 
 Alci'des, a title of Hercules. 
 Alci'nous, a king of Corcyra. 
 Alci'oneus, a giant slain by Hercules. 
 Alci'ope, a favorite mistress of Neptune. 
 Alcme'na, the wife of Amphitryon. 
 , Alec' to, one of the three Furies. 
 Alec'tryo7i, or Gal'lus, a favorite of Mars. 
 Al'mus, and Alum'nus, titles of Jupiter. 
 Alo'a, a festival of Bacchus and Ceres. 
 Alcbhis, a giant who warred with Jupiter. 
 Amalthcb'a, the goat that suckled Jupiter. 
 Aonbarva'le, a spring sacrifice to Ceres. 
 Ainbro'sia, the food of the gods. 
 ATn'mon, a title of Jupiter. 
 Amphiara'us, son of Apollo and Hypernmestra> 
 
 a very famous augur. 
 Amphime'don, one of the suitors of Penelope. 
 Amphi'on, a famous musician. 
 AmphitriHe, the wife of Neptune. 
 Amyntor, a king of Epirus. 
 Ana'tis, the goddess of prostitution. 
 Anccb'us, a king of Arcadia. 
 Andro'geus, the son of Minos. 
 Androm'ache, the wife of Hector. 
 Androm'eda, the daughter of Cepheus and Ca»- 
 
 siope,who, contending for the prize of beauty 
 
 with the Nereides, was by tliem bound to a 
 
 rock and exposed to be devoured by a sea 
 
 monster; but Perseus slew the monster, and 
 
 married her. 
 A/ige'ro}ia, the goddess of silence. 
 
HEATHEN DEITIES, Ei 
 
 049 
 
 An'na, the sister of Pygmalion and Dido. 
 
 Antcb'as, a giant son of Neptune and Terra ; he 
 was squeezed to deatli by Hercules. 
 
 An'teios, one of the names of Cupid. 
 
 Antevej-'ia, a goddess of women in labor. 
 
 An'thia, and Argi'va, titles of Juno. 
 
 An'ubis, an Egyptian god v/ith a dog's head. 
 
 Aon'ides, a natiie of the Muses. 
 
 Apatu'ria, and Aphrodi'tis, titles of Venus. 
 
 A'pis, son of Jupiter and Niobe, called also, 
 Serapis, and Osiris : he first taught the 
 Egyptians to sow corn and plant vines; 
 after his death they worshipped him in the 
 form of an ox, a symbol of husbandry. 
 
 A i uchhie, a Lydian princess, turned by Minerva 
 into a spider, for presuming to vie with her 
 at spinning. 
 
 Arethu'sa, the daughter of Nereus. 
 
 Argenti^nus, and jEscula'nus, gods of wealth. 
 
 A7''go, the siiip that conveyed Jason and his com- 
 panions to Colchis, and reported to have been 
 the first man-of-war. 
 
 Ar'gonauts, the companions of Jason. 
 
 Ar'gus, son of Aristor, said to have had a hun- 
 dred eyes ; also an architect, who built the 
 ship Argo. 
 
 Ariad'ne, daughter of Minos, who, from love, 
 gave Theseus a clue of thread to guide him 
 out of the Cretan labyrinth : bemg after- 
 wards deserted by him, she was married to 
 Bacchus, and made his priestess. 
 
 Arunas'pi, a warlike people of Scythia. 
 
 Arvon, a .yric poet of Methymna. 
 
 Aristcb'ixs, son of Apollo and Cyrene. 
 
 Aristome'nes, a cruel Titan. 
 
 Artstoph'anes, a comic poet, born at Lindus, a 
 town of Rhodes. 
 
 Arte'mis. ".he Delphic sybil ; also Diana. 
 
 Ascle'pia festivals of ^sculapius. 
 
 AscoUm, feasts of Bacchus, celebrated in Attica. 
 
 Asie'ria, daughter of Ceus. 
 
 Astrapcb'tis^ and Ataby'rus, Jupiter. 
 
 AstTCb'a, the goddess of j ustice. 
 
 Astrot'ogus, a title of Hercules. 
 
 Asty'anax, the only son of Hector. 
 
 Ast7/2JaJ(Jii'a, daughter of Phoenix. 
 
 A'te^ the goddess of revenge. 
 
 Atlan'ies, a savage people of Ethiopia. 
 
 AtHas, a king of Mauritania. 
 
 At'ropos, one of the three Fates. 
 
 Aver'nus. a lake on the borders of hei/ 
 
 Averrunc'us. a god of the Romans. 
 
 Auge'as, a king of Elis, whose stable oi 3000 
 oxen was not cleansed for 30 years, yet Her- 
 cules cleansed it in one day. 
 
 A'vistuper, a title of Priapus. 
 
 Au'rea, a name of Fortuna. 
 
 Auro'ra^ the goddess of morning. 
 
 Auto'lean, a general of the Crotonians. 
 
 Auhcm'nus, the god of fruits. 
 
 Bac'chus, the god of wine. 
 
 Bap'ta, the goddess of shame 
 
 BarbaHa., a title of Venus and Fortuna. 
 
 Bas'sareus. a title of Bacchus. 
 
 Bat'ius, a herdsman, turned by Mercury mto a 
 loadstone. 
 
 Bau'cis, an old woman, who, with her husband 
 Philemon, entertained Jupiter and Mercury, 
 travelling over Phrygia, when all others re- 
 fused. 
 
 Bellero'phon, son of Glauciis, ki.if of Ephyra, 
 who underwent numberless h; rdships for 
 refusing an intimacy with Sthenobcea, the 
 wife of PrcEtus, king of Argos. 
 
 Bello'na, the goddess of war. 
 
 Berecyn'thia MaHer^ a title of Cybele. 
 
 Bereni'cs, a Grecian lady, who was ths only 
 person of her sex permitted to see the Olym- 
 pic games. 
 
 Ber'gion, a giant, slain by Jupiter. 
 
 Bib'iia, the wife of Duillius, who first instiluUd 
 a triumph for naval victory. 
 
 Bi'ceps, and Bi'frons, names of Janus. 
 
 Bisul'tor, a name of Mars. 
 
 Bi'tho7i, a remarkably strong Grecian. 
 
 Boli'na, a nymph rendered imirortal for hei 
 modesty and resistance of Apoilo. 
 
 Bo'na De'a, a title of Cybele, and Fortuna. 
 
 Bo'nus Dcb'mon, a title of Priapus. 
 
 Bo'reas, son of .^streeus and Heribeia, generally 
 put for the north wind. 
 
 Bre'vis, a title of Fortuna. 
 
 Bri'areus, a monstrous giant, son of Titan and 
 Terra : the poets feign him to have had a 
 Irundred arms and fifty heads. 
 
 Bri'mo, and Bu'bastis, names of Hecate. 
 
 Brise'ls, daughter of B rises, priest of Jupiter, 
 given to Achilles upon the taking of Lyr- 
 nessus, a ciiy of Troas, by the Greeks. 
 
 Bron'tes-, a maker of Jupiter's thunder. 
 
 Bro'theus, a son of Vulcan, who threw himself 
 into mount ^tna, on account of his de- 
 formity. 
 
 Bruma'iia, feasts of Bacchus. 
 
 Bubo'na^ the goddess of oxen. 
 
 Busi'ris, a son of Neptune, and a most cruel 
 tyrant ; he was slain by Hercules. 
 
 Byb'iis, the daughter of Miletus. 
 
 Cabar'ni, priests of Ceres. 
 
 Cabi'ri, priests of Cybele. 
 
 Ca'brus, a god of the Phaselitse. 
 
 Ca'cus, a son of Vulcan. 
 
 Cad'mus, son of Agenor and Telephessa, Who, 
 searching in vain for his sister, built the city 
 of Thebes, and invented 16 letters of The 
 Greek alphabet. 
 
 Cadu'ceus, Mercury's golden rod or wand. 
 
 Ccb'ca^ and Conserva'trix, titles of Fortuna. 
 
 Coic'ulus, a robber, son of Vulcan. 
 
 Coi'neas, a title of Jupiter. 
 
 Cal'chas, a famous Greek soothsayer. 
 
 Calis'to, the daughter of Lycaon. 
 
 Calli'ope, the muse of heroic poetry, 
 
 Calyp'so, daughter of Oceanus and Thetis, wl.o 
 r&igned in the island of Ogygia, where slie 
 entertained and became enamored of Ulys- 
 ses, on his return from Troy. 
 
 Cam'bles, a gluttonous king of Lydia. 
 
 Camby'ses, the son of Cyrus, and king of the 
 Medes and Persians. 
 
 Canub'na, and Carna, goddess of infants. 
 
 Ca'nes, a title of the Furies. 
 
 Cano'pus, an Egyptian god. 
 
 Car'dua, a household goddess. 
 
 Carmen'ta, a name of Themis. 
 
 Car'na, a Roman goddess. . 
 
 Carya'tis, a title of Diana. 
 
 Cas'pii, a people of Hyrcania, who were said to 
 starve their parents to death when 70 years 
 old, and to t rain up dogs for war. 
 
650 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 Cassan'dra, a daughter of Priam and Hecuba, 
 endowed wiih the gift of prophecy by Apollo. 
 
 Costal' ides, llic Muses, from the fountain Cas- 
 talius, at the foot of Parnassus. 
 
 Cas'?or, son of .Jupiter and Leda, between whom 
 and his brother Pollux immortality was al- 
 ternately shared. 
 
 Ca'lius, a tutelar god to grown persons. 
 
 Ce'crojys, the first king of Athens. 
 
 Celcb'no, one of the three Harpies. 
 
 Cen'laurs, children of Ixion, half men, half 
 iiorses, inhabiting Thessaly. 
 
 CephaHus, the son of Mercury and Hersa. 
 
 Ce'pheus, a prince of Arcadia and Ethiopia. 
 
 \Jerau'nius, a title of Jupiter. 
 
 Cet'derus, a dog with three heads and necks, 
 who guarded the gites of hell. 
 
 Cejta'lia, festivals in honor of Ceres. 
 
 Ce'res, the goddest; of agriculture. 
 
 Ce'rus, or iSe'rus, the god of opportunity. 
 
 Chal'cea, festivals in honor of Vulcan. 
 
 Char'lies, a name of the Graces. 
 
 Cha'ron, the ferryman of hell. 
 
 Chi'mera, a strange monster of Lycia, which 
 was killed by Bellerophon. 
 
 Chi'ron, the preceptor of Achilles, 
 
 Chro'niis, a cruel son of Hercules 
 
 Chrysao'rius, a surname of Jupiter. 
 
 Chry'sis, a priestess of Juno and Argos. 
 
 Cir'ce, a famous enchantress. 
 
 Cir'rlia^ a cavern of Phocis, near Delphi, whence 
 the winds issued which caused a divine rage, 
 and produced oracular responses. 
 
 Cithcb'rides, a title of the Muses. 
 
 Clau'sina, a name of Venus. 
 
 Clau'sius, or Clu'sius, a name of Janus. 
 
 Cleo'medes, a famous wrestler. 
 
 Cii'o, the Muse presiding over history, and pa- 
 tro;iess of heroic poets. 
 
 Clo'iho, one of the three Fates. 
 
 Clytemnes'tra, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, 
 killed by her son, Orestes, on account of her 
 adu»!tery with jEgisthus. 
 
 Cocy'lusy a liver of hell, flowing from Styx. 
 
 CoUi'na, the goddess of hills. 
 
 Compita'lia, ga-mes of the household gods. 
 
 Co'mus, the god of festivals and merriment. 
 
 Concor'dia, the goddess of peace. 
 
 Conserva'tor, and Cus'tos, titles of J upiter. 
 
 Con'sus, a title of Neptune. 
 
 Corti'na, the covering of Apollo's tripos. 
 
 Coryban'tes, and Ctire'tes, "«riests o*^ r^bele. 
 
 Cre'o7i, a king of Thebes. 
 
 Cri'nis, a priest of Apollo. 
 
 Crmis'sus, a Trojan prince, who could change 
 himself into any shape. 
 
 Crca'sus, a rich king of Lydia. 
 
 Cro'nia, festivals in honor of Saturn. 
 
 Ctes'ibus, a famous Athenian parasite. 
 
 Cu'nia, the goddess of new-born infants. 
 
 Cuspid, son of Mars and Venus, the god of love, 
 smiles, «fec. 
 
 Cf/'clo^ys, Vulcan's workmen, with only one eye 
 in the middle of their forehead. 
 
 Cyb'ele, the wife of Saturn. 
 
 Cychius, a king of Liguria; also a son of Nep- 
 tune, who was invulnerable. 
 
 Cylle'nius, and CamU'lus, names of Mercury. 
 
 Cy7ioce2)h'ah, a people of India, said to have 
 heads resembling- those jf dogs. 
 
 Cyn'thia, and CynHhius, Diana, and Apollo. 
 
 Cyparissob'a, a title of Minerva. 
 
 Cyp'ria, Cylhere a, titles of Venus. 
 
 D 
 
 Dcbda'lion, the son ol ..ucifer. 
 
 Dmd'alus, an artificer of Athens, who formed tht 
 Cretan labyrinth, and invented the auger, 
 axe, glue, plumb-line, saw, and masts ana 
 sails for ships. 
 
 Dahnon, the sincere friend of Pythias. 
 
 Dcb'inon, Bohius, Dithyrani'bus, and Dionys'- 
 ius, titles of Bacchus. 
 
 Da'nae, the daughter ol' Acrisius, king of Argoa, 
 seduced by Jupiter in the form of a golden 
 shower. 
 
 Dana'ides, or BeHides, the fifty daughters ■){ 
 Danaus, king of Argos, all of whom, except 
 Hypermnesira, killed their husbands, the sons 
 of their uncle .^gyptus, on the marrixge 
 night : they were therefore condemned to 
 draw water out of a deep well with sieves, 
 so that their labor was without end or suc- 
 cess. 
 
 Daph'ne, a nymph beloved by Apollo. 
 
 Darda'niis, the founder of Troy. 
 
 Da'res, a very ancient historian who wrote an 
 account of the Trojan war. 
 
 De'a Syr'ia, a title of Venus. 
 
 Dec'inia, a title of Lachesis. 
 
 Deian'ira, the wife of Hercules. 
 
 Deida'mia, a daughter of Lycomedes, king oi 
 Scyros, by whom Achilles had Pyrrhus, 
 while he lay concealed in woman's apparel 
 in the coiirt of Lycomedes, to avoid going to 
 the Trojan war. 
 
 Deiape'a, a beautiful attendant on Juno. 
 
 Deiph'obe, the Cumean sybil. 
 
 Deiph'obus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. 
 
 De'lia, Del' ius, Diana and Apollo. 
 
 De'las, the island where Apollo was born. 
 
 DeVphi, a city of Phocis, famous for a temple 
 and an oracle of Apollo. 
 
 Del'phicus, Didymcb' us, titles of Apollo. 
 
 Dem'ades, an Athenian orator. 
 
 Der'bices, a people near the Caspian Sea, who 
 punished all crimes with death. 
 
 Deuca'lion, son of Prometheus, and king of Thes 
 saly, who, with his wife Pyrrha, was pre 
 served from the general deluge, and re-peo 
 pled the world. 
 
 Dever'ra, the goddess of breeding women. 
 
 Diag'oras, a Rhodian, who died for joy, because 
 his three sons had on the same day gained 
 prizes at the Olympic games. 
 
 Dia'na, the goddess of hunting, &c. 
 
 Di'do, daughter of Belus, the founder and queen 
 of Carthage, whom Virgil fables to have 
 burnt herself through despair, because iEne- 
 as left her. 
 
 Di'es, and Dies'piter, titles of Jupiter. 
 
 Din'dyme, Dindyme'ne, titles of Cybele. 
 
 JDiom'edes, a king of JStolia, who gained greal 
 reputation at Troy, and, accompanied by 
 Ulysses, carried oif the Palladium; also, • 
 tyrant of Thrace. 
 
 Di'one, one of Jupiter's mistresses. 
 
 Dionys'ia, feasts in honor of Bacchus. 
 
 Dioscu'ri, a title of Castor and Pollux. 
 
 Di'rcb, a title of the Furies. 
 
 Dis, a title of Pluto. 
 
 Discor'dia, the goddess of contention. 
 
 Domidu'ca, a title of Juno. 
 
 Domidu'cus, and Domihius, nuptial gods. 
 
 Do77i'ina, a title of Proserpine. 
 
 Dry'ades, nymphs of the woods and foreattk 
 
HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC 
 
 651 
 
 E 
 
 Echi'on, a companion of Cadmus, 
 
 Ec'ho, daughter of Aer and Tellus, who pined 
 
 away for love of Narcissus. 
 EdorJides, priestesses of Bacchus. 
 
 Edu'ca, a goddess of new born infants. 
 
 Ege'ria, a title af Juno ; also a goddess. 
 
 £iec'tra, the daughter of Agamemnon and Cly- 
 temnestra, who instigated Orestes to revenge 
 their father's death on their mother and her 
 adulterer iEgisthus. 
 
 .EHcus, and Eleuthe'rise, titles of Bacchus. 
 
 i^leusin'ia, feasts in honor of Ceres and Proser- 
 pine. 
 
 Elo'ides, nymphs of Bacchus. 
 
 Empu'scs,^ a name of the Gorgons. 
 
 Endyni'ion, a shepherd of Caria, who, for inso- 
 lently soliciting Juno, was condemned to a 
 sleep of 30 years ; Luna visited him by night 
 in a cave of mount Latmus. 
 
 Enia'lius, a title of Mars. 
 
 Eniyo, the same as Bellona. 
 
 Epe'us, the artist of the Trojan horse. 
 
 Epig'oties, the sons of the seven worthies who 
 besieged Thebes, a second time. 
 
 Epiloihiea, sacrifices to Bacchus. 
 
 Epistro'phia, and Ery'cina, titles of Venus. 
 
 Epizej)h'rii^ a people of Locris, who punished 
 those with death that drank more wine than 
 physicians prescribed. 
 
 Era'to, the muse of love-poetry. 
 
 Er'ebus, &n infernal deity, son of Chaos and Nox; 
 a river of hell. 
 
 Er'eane, a river whose waters inebriated 
 
 Eriotho'nius, a king of Athens, who, being lame 
 and very deformed in his feet, invented 
 coaches to conceal his lameness. 
 
 Erin'nys, a common name of the furies. 
 
 E'ros, one of the names of Cupid. 
 
 Eros' trains, the person who, to perpetuate his 
 name, set fire to the celebrated temple of 
 Diana at Ephesus. 
 
 Ete'odes, and Poly'nices, sons of OEdipus, who 
 violently hated, and at last killed each other. 
 
 Evad'ne, daughter of Mars and Thebe, who 
 threw herself on the funeral pile of her hus- 
 band Cataneus, from aifection. 
 
 Euc'rates, a person remarkable fa shuffling, du- 
 plicity, and dissimulation. 
 
 Eumen'ides, a nan.e oi'the Furies. 
 
 E mhros'yne, one of the three Graces. 
 
 E.iro'pa, the daughter of Agenor, who, it is said, 
 was carried by Jupiter, in the form of a white 
 bull, into Crete. 
 
 Eury'ale, one of the three Gorgons. 
 
 Euryd'ice, the wife of Orpheus. 
 
 Eurym'one, an infernal deity. 
 
 Euter'pe, the muse presiding over music. 
 
 Euthy'mus, a very famous wrestler. 
 
 F 
 
 Fab'ula^ the goddess of lies. 
 
 Eahulrnus, a god of infants. 
 
 Fa'ma, the goddess of report, &c. 
 
 Fds'cinum, a title of Priapus. 
 
 Fates, the three daughters of Nox and Erebus. 
 
 Clothos, Laches^is, and Atropos, intrusted 
 
 with the lives of mortals, &c. 
 Fau'na, and Fal'ua, names of Cybele. 
 Fauhius, the son of Mercury and Nox, and la- 
 
 thor of the Fauns, rural gods. 
 
 Feb'rua, Flor'ida, Fluo'nia, titles of Juno^ 
 
 Feh'rua, a goddess of purification. 
 
 Peb'ruus, a title of Pluto. 
 
 Feli'citas, the goddess of happiness. 
 
 Fer'culus, a household god. 
 
 Fere'tn'us, and Fulmina'tor, titles of Jupiter. 
 
 Fero'nia, a goddess of woods. 
 
 Fesso'nio, a goddess of wearied persons. 
 
 Fid'ius, the god of treaties. 
 
 Flam'ines, priests of Jupiter, Mars, &c. 
 
 Flo'ra, the goddess of flowers. 
 
 Fiuvia'les, or Pot amides, nymphs of rivers. 
 
 For'nax, the goddess of corn and bakers. 
 
 Fortu'na, or ForHune, the goddess of happiness), 
 &c.. said to be blind. 
 
 Fu'ries, or Eumen'ides, the three daii iJiters o< 
 Nox and Acheron, named Alecto, ^egrera, 
 and Tisiphone, with hair composed of snakes, 
 and armed with whips, chains, &c. 
 
 G 
 
 Galate'a, daughter of Nereus and Doris, passion- 
 ately beloved by Polyphemus. 
 
 Gal'ii, castrated priests of Cybele. 
 
 Gal'lus, or Alec'trion, a favorite of Mars, and 
 changed by him into a cock. 
 
 Game'lia, a title of Juno. 
 
 Gan'ges, a famous river of India. 
 
 Gany'mede, the cup-bearer of Jupiter. 
 
 Gelasi'nus, the god of mirth and smiles. 
 
 Gelo'ni, a people of Scythia, who used to paint 
 themselves in order to appear more terrible 
 to their enemies. 
 
 Ge'nii, guardian angels. 
 
 Ge'nius, a name of Priapus. 
 
 Ger'yon, a king of Spain, who fed his oxen with 
 human flesh, and was therefore killed by 
 Hercules. 
 
 Glauco'pis, a name of Minerva. 
 
 Glau'cus, a fisherman made a sea god by eating 
 a certain herb : also the son of Hippolochus, 
 who exchanged his arms of gold for the bra- 
 zen ones of Diomede. 
 
 Gnos'sis, a name of Ariadne. 
 
 Gor'dius, a husbandman, but afterwards king of 
 Phrygia, remarkable for tying a knot of cords 
 on which the empire of Asia depended, in so 
 very intricate a manner, that Alexander the 
 Great, unable to unravel it, cut it to pieces. 
 
 Gor'ffons, the three daughters of Phorcys and 
 Ceta, Medusa, Euryale, and Stheno, who 
 could change into stone those whom they 
 looked on ; Perseus slew Medusa, the prin- 
 cipal of them. 
 
 Gorgoph'orus, a title of Pallas. 
 
 Gra'ces, Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne, t'vo 
 daughters of Jupiter and Eurynomb; atte*:- 
 dants on Venus and the Muses. 
 
 Gradi'vus, a title of Mars. 
 
 Gy'ges, a Lydian, to whom Candaules, king of 
 Lydia, showed his queen naked, which so 
 incensed her that she slew Candaules, and 
 married Gyges; also a shepherd, who by 
 means of a ring could render himself invi- 
 sible. 
 
 H 
 
 Ha'des, a title of Pluto. 
 
 Hamaxo'bii, a people of Scythia, who lived in 
 
 carts, and removed from place to place afl 
 
 ner tssity required. 
 
652 
 
 THE world's rrcOGRESS 
 
 Harm)'nis, a famous artist of Troy. 
 
 HarpaVyca^ a very beautiful maid of Argos. 
 
 Harpies^ iliree monsters, Aello, Celoeno, and 
 Ocypeie, with tlie faces of virgins, bodies of 
 vultures, and iiands armed witli monstrous 
 claws. 
 
 Harpoc' rates, the Egyptian god of silence. 
 
 He'oe, the goddess ot youth. 
 
 Ht'hrus, a river in Thrace. 
 
 He' callus, a title given to Jupiter by Theseus. 
 
 Hec'ate, Diana's name in hell. 
 
 Hec'lor, a son of Priam and Hecuba, and the 
 most valiant of all the Trojans, 
 
 ITec'iiha, the wife of Priam. 
 
 Uege'sius, a philosopher of Cyrene, who de- 
 scribed the miseries of life with such a 
 gloomy eloquence, that many of his auditors 
 killed themselves through despair. 
 
 HeVana, the wife of Menelaus, the most beauti- 
 ful womaii in the world, who, running away 
 with Paris, occasioned the Trojan war. 
 
 Hel'enus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. 
 
 HeVicon, a famous mountain of Boeotia, dedi- 
 cated to Apollo and the Muses. 
 
 Hera'ia, sacrilices to Juno. 
 
 Her'ades, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, re- 
 markable for his numerous exploits and 
 dangerous enterprises. 
 
 Heribe'ia, the wife of Astreus. 
 
 Uer'mcb, statutes of Mercury. 
 
 Her'mes, a name of Mercury. 
 
 Henni'one, a daughter of Mars and Venus, mar- 
 ried to Cadmus; also a daughter of Mene- 
 laus and Helena, married to Pyrrhus. 
 
 tle'ro. a beautiful woman of Sestos, in Thrace, 
 priestess of Venus; Leander, of Abydos, 
 loved her so tenderly that he swam over the 
 Hellespont every night to see her ; but being 
 at length unfortunately drowned, she threw 
 herself into the sea, through despair. 
 
 Ilerod'oHis, a very famous historian of Halicar- 
 nassus. 
 
 Heroph'ila, the Erythraean sybil. 
 
 Hersili'a, the wife of Romulus. 
 
 Hes'perus, or Vesper, the evening star. 
 
 Hes'^ezzci'es, the daughters of Hesperus; iEgle, 
 Areihusa, and Hesperethusa, who had a gar- 
 den bearing golden apples, watched by a 
 dragon, which Hercules slew, and bore away 
 the fruit. 
 
 He'sus, a name of Mars among the Gauls. 
 
 Hip'pias, a philosopher of Elis. 
 
 Hippocam'jn, Neptune's horses. 
 
 Hipj'pocrene, a fountain at the botton" ">f mount 
 Helicon, dedicated to Apollo. 
 
 Hijypol'ytus, the son of Theseus and Aniiope or 
 Hyppolite, who refused intimacies with his 
 stepmother Phaedro. At the request of 
 Diana, iEsculapius restored him to life, 
 alter he had been thrown from his chariot, 
 and dragged through the woods till he was 
 tern in pfeces. 
 
 Hippo'na, the goddess of horses and stables. 
 
 HisU^ria', the goddess of history. 
 
 Hortin'sis, a name of Venus. 
 
 Hoh-'is, a title of the sun. 
 
 Hoslili'na, a goddess of corn. 
 
 Hy'ades, the seven daughters of Atlas and 
 jEthra; Ambrosia, Eudora, Coronis, Pasi- 
 thoe, Plexaris, Pytho, and Tyche. They 
 were changed by Jupiier into seven stars. 
 
 ily'blci,a. mountain in Sicily, universally famous 
 for its thyme and bees. 
 
 Hy'dra, a serpent, which had seven heads, or a» 
 some say nine, others fifty, killed by Ucrcu 
 les in the lake Lerna. 
 
 Hyge'ia, the goddess of health. 
 
 Hyl'lus, the son of Hercules and Dejanire. 
 
 Hy'men, the god of marriage. 
 
 Hype'rion, a son of Coelus and Terra. 
 
 Hypsip'yle, a queen of Lemnos, who was ban- 
 ished for preserving her father when all tha 
 othei' men of the island were murdered by 
 their kindred. 
 
 lac'chus, a name of Bacchus. 
 
 lanHhe, the beautiful wife of Iphis. 
 
 lape'tus, a son of Coelem and Tejra. 
 
 laribas, a cruel king of Mauritania. 
 
 Ica'rius, the son of Oebalus, who, >,avmg re- 
 ceived from Bacchus a bottle of wine, went 
 into Attica, to show men the use of it; but, 
 making some shepherds drunk, they thought 
 he had given them poison, and therefore 
 threw him into a well. 
 
 Ica'rus, the son of Daedalus, who, flying with hia 
 father out of Crete into Sicily, and soaring 
 too high, melted the wax of his wings, and 
 fell into the sea, thence called the Icarian 
 sea. 
 
 rda, a mountain near Troy. 
 
 Ideb'a Mater, a name of Cybele. 
 
 Idcb'i Dact'yli, a priest of Cybele. 
 
 IdaHia, a name of Venus. 
 
 Id'mon, a famous soothsayer. 
 
 Ido'thea, Jupiter's nurse. 
 
 ili'one, the eldest daughter of Priam. 
 
 llis'sus, a river in Attica. 
 
 I'lus, the son of Tros and Callirrhoe, from whom 
 Troy was called Ilium. 
 
 Impera'tor, a name of Jupiter. 
 
 In'achis and I'ses, names of lo. 
 
 I'no, daughter of Cadmus and Hermiones, and 
 wife of Athamas. 
 
 Intercido'na, a goddess of breeding women. 
 
 Interdu'ca, and Ju'ga, names of Juno. 
 
 In'uus, and Inc'ubus, names of Pan. 
 
 I'o, daughter of Inachus, transformed by Jupi- 
 ter into a white heifer ; but afterwards re- 
 suming her former shape, was worshipped 
 as a goddess by the Egyptians, under the 
 name of Isis. 
 
 Iph'iclus, the twin brother of Hercules. 
 
 Iphige'nia, daughter of Agamemnon and Cly- 
 temnestra, who, standing as a victim ready 
 to be sacrificed to appease the rage of Diana, 
 was, by that goddess, transformed into a 
 white hart, carried to Tauris, and made her 
 priestess. 
 
 I'phis, a prince of Cyprus, who hanged himself 
 for love ; also a daughter of Lygdas. 
 
 Iph'itus, son of Praxonides, who instituted 
 Olympic games to Hercules. 
 
 Pris, the daughter of Thaumas ; she was Juno'a 
 favorite companion, and her messenger on 
 affairs of discord, &c. 
 
 I'tys, the son of Tereus and Progne, murdered 
 and served up by his mother at a banquet 
 before Tereus, in revenge for hi'5 having vio- 
 lated her sister Philomela. 
 
 Ixi'on, the son of Phlegyas, who was fastened ia 
 hell to a wheel perpetually turning round, 
 for boasting that he had lain with Juno. 
 
HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 
 
 653 
 
 Janfitor, and Juno'nius, titles of Janus. 
 
 j'a'ntLs, the first king of Italy, son of Apollo and 
 Creusa. 
 
 Ja'son, a Th^ssalian prince, son of ^son, who 
 by Medea's help brought away the golden 
 fleece from Colchis. 
 
 lo'casta, the daughter of Creon, who unwittingly 
 married her own son, QEdipus. 
 
 Ju'no, the sister and wife of Jupiter. 
 
 Ju'710, Infei'na, a name of Proserpine. 
 
 Juno'ness, guardian angels of women. 
 
 Ju'piter, a son of Saturn and Ops — the supreme 
 deity of the heathen. 
 
 Ju'piter Secicn'dus, a name of Neptune. 
 
 Ju'piter TerHius, InJ'er'nus, or Siy'gius, seve- 
 ral appellations given to Pluto. 
 
 Juven'ta, a goddess of youth. 
 
 La'chcsis, one of the three Fates. 
 Lacin'ia, and LuciVia, titles of Juno. 
 Lactuh-a, or Lactuci'na^ a goddess of corn. 
 Lastrig'ones, cannibals of Italy, who roasted 
 
 and ate the companions of Ulysses. 
 La'ius, a king of Thebes, killed unwittingly by 
 
 his own son, Qt^dipus. 
 La'mioi, a name of the Gorgons. 
 Laoc'oon, a son of Priam and high-priest of 
 
 Apollo : he and his two sons were killed by 
 
 serpents for opposing the reception of the 
 
 wooden horse into Troy. 
 La/pis, or Lapid'eus, titles of Jupiter. 
 La'res, sons of Mercury and Lara, worshipped 
 
 as household gods. 
 Latera'nus, a household god. 
 Laver'na, a goddess of thieves. 
 Lean'der, see Hero. 
 Le'da, daughter of Thestias, and wife of Tyn- 
 
 darus, seduced by Jupiter in the shape of a 
 
 swan. 
 Lemoni'ades, nymphs of meadows, &c. 
 Le'ncn, priestesses of Bacchus. 
 Ler'na, a marsh of Argos, famous for a Hydra, 
 
 killed there by Hercules. 
 Le'the, a river of hell, whose waters caused a 
 
 total forgetfulness of things past. 
 Leva'na, a goddess of new born infants. 
 Lihiti'na, the goddess of funerals. 
 Li'nus, son of Apollo and Terpsichore. 
 Luben'tia, the goddess of pleasure. 
 Lu'cifer, son of Jupiter and Aurora, made the 
 
 morning star. 
 Lu'na, Diana's name in heaven. 
 Luper'calia^ feasts in honor of Pan. 
 Lyper'ci, priests of Pan. 
 Lyca'on, a king of Arcadia, turned by Jupiter 
 
 into a wolf 
 
 M 
 
 MaHa, loved by Jupiter, and by him turned into 
 
 a star to avoid Juno's rage. 
 Ma.Tiasenc'ta, a goddess of women in labor. 
 Mantu'ra, a goddess of corn. 
 Manttir^na, and Me'na, nuptial goddesses. 
 Mari'^na, Mel'anis, Mer'etrix, Migoni'tis, and 
 
 Mur'cia, titles of Venus. 
 Mars, the god of war. 
 
 Mauso'lus, a king of Caria, who had a most 
 magnificent tomb erected to him by his wife 
 Artemisia. 
 
 Mede'a, daughter of iEtes, king of Colchis, a 
 famous sorceress, who assisted Jason to ob 
 tain the golden fleece. 
 
 Meditri'na, a goddess of grown peieons. 
 
 Medu'sa, the chief of the three Gorgons. 
 
 Mbgcb'ra, one of the three Furies. 
 
 3Iegalen'sia, festivals in honor cf Cybele. 
 
 Megu'ra, the wife of Hercules. 
 
 Melanih'a, a name of Venus. 
 
 Me'licB, nymphs of the fields. 
 
 Me'lius^ a name of Hercules, 
 
 Melo'na, the goddess of honey. 
 
 Melpomiene, the muse of tragedy. 
 
 Mem'non. a king of Abydos. 
 
 Menala'us, a famous Centaur. 
 
 Menela'us, the husband of Helena. 
 
 Alen'tha, a mistress of Pluto. 
 
 Men'tor, the governor of Telemachus. 
 
 Mer'cury. the messenger of the gods, inventor ot 
 letters, and god of eloquence, merchandise, 
 and robbers. 
 
 Mero'pe, one of the seven Pleiades. 
 
 Mi'das, a king of Phrygia, who entertained Bac- 
 chus, or, as some say, Silenus, had the power 
 given him of turning whatever he touched 
 into gold. 
 
 Mi'lo, a wrestler of remarkable strength. 
 
 Miinal'lones, attendants on Bacchus. 
 
 Miner'va, the goddess of wisdom. 
 
 Mi'nos, a king of Crete, made, for his extraordi- 
 nary justice, a judge of hell. 
 
 Min'otaur, a monster, half man, half beast. 
 
 Min'ycB, a name of the Argonauts. 
 
 Mnemos'yne, the goddess of memory. 
 
 Mohnus, the god of raillery, wit, &c. 
 
 Mone'ta, a title of Juno. 
 
 Mor'pheus, the god of sleep, dreams, &c. 
 
 Mors, the goddess of death. 
 
 Midiciber, a title of Vulcan. 
 
 Mu'ses, nine daughters of Jupiter and Mnemo- 
 syne, born on mount Pierius, mistresses of 
 all the sciences, presidents of musicians and 
 poets, and governesses of the feasts of the 
 gods ; Calliope, Clio, Erato, Euterpe, Mel- 
 pomene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, Thalizi, 
 and Urania. 
 
 Mu'ta, the goddess of silence. 
 
 N 
 
 Ncznia, the goddess of funeral spngs. 
 Na'iades, nymphs of the rivers, «fec. 
 Narcis'sus, a very beautiful youthj who, fallmf 
 
 in love with his own shadow m the water, 
 
 pined away into a daflbdil. 
 Na'tio, and NundUna, goddess of infants. 
 Namch'a, a country of El is, famed for a terrible 
 
 lion killed there by Hercules. 
 Nem'esis, the goddess of revenge. 
 NepHune, the god of the sea. 
 Ne'reides, sea nymphs. 
 Ne'rio, the wife of Mars. 
 Niceph'orus, a title of Jupiter. 
 Ni'nus, ihe first king of the Assyrians. 
 Ni'obe, daughter of Tantalus, and wife of Am- 
 
 phion, who, preferring herself to Latona. 
 
 had her 14 children killed by Diana and 
 
 Apollo, and wept herself into a stati)«. 
 No'miiis, a name of Apollo. 
 
654 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 Nox, the most ancient ot the deities ; she was 
 even reckoned older than Chaos. 
 
 O 
 
 Ob'sequens, a title of Fortuna. 
 
 Occa'tor, the god of harrowing. 
 
 Oce'anua, an ancient sea god. 
 
 Ocyp'ele^ ci;e of the three Harpies. 
 
 (Ed'ipus, son of Laius and Jocasta, and king of 
 Tliebes, who solved the riddle of the Sphinx, 
 unwittingly killed his father, married his 
 mother, and at last ran mad, and tore out 
 his eyes. 
 
 Oin'phal'e, a queen of Lydia, with whom Her- 
 cules was so enamored, that she made him 
 submit to spinning and other unbecoming 
 offices. 
 
 O; tr'tus, a name of Pluto. 
 
 Opi'gena, a name of .luno. 
 
 Ops, a name of Cybele. 
 
 Orbuhia, a goddess of grown persons. 
 
 Ores'tes, the son of Agamemnon. 
 
 Ori'on, a great and mighty hunter. 
 
 Or'pheuSj son of Jupiter and Calliope, who had 
 great skill in music, and was torn in pieces 
 by the Maenades, for disliking the company 
 of women after the death of his wife Eury- 
 dice. 
 
 Oryihi'a, a queen of the Amazons. 
 
 Osih'is, see Apis. 
 
 Pac'folus, a river of Lydia, with golden sands 
 and medical waters. 
 
 Poi'an, and Phcz'bus, names of Apollo. 
 
 Pa'/es, the goddess of shepherds. 
 
 Palil'ia, feasts in honor of Pales. 
 
 Pallu'dhwi, a statue of Minerva, which the 
 Trojans imagined fell from heaven, and that 
 their city could not be taken whilst that re- 
 mained in it. 
 
 Pal'las, and Py'lotis, names of Minerva. 
 
 Pan, the god of shepherds. 
 
 Pando'rn. the first woman made by Vulcan, aiid 
 endowed with gifts by all the deities ; Jupi- 
 ter gave her a box containing all manner of 
 evils," war, famine, &c., with hope at the 
 bottom. 
 
 Pan'ope, one of the Nereids. 
 
 Pa'phia, a title of Venus. 
 
 Par'ca:, a name of the Fates. 
 
 ParUs, or Alexander, son of Priam and He- 
 culDa, a most beautiful youth, who ran away 
 with Helena, and occasioned tlie Trojan 
 war. 
 
 Par?ias'sus, a mountain of Phocis, famous for 
 a temple of Apollo, and being the favorite 
 residence of the Muses. 
 
 Pay'tunda, a nuptial goddess. 
 
 Pastoph'ori, priests of Isis. 
 
 PaVareus, a title of Apollo. 
 
 Pateii'na, a goddess of corn. 
 
 Patula'ciiis, a name of Janus. 
 
 Patule'ius, a name of Jupiter. 
 
 Paven'tia, and Poli'na, goddesses of infants. 
 
 Peg'asus, a winged horse belonging to Apollo 
 and the Muses. 
 
 PeUo'nia, a goddess of grown persons. 
 
 Pena'tea ^mall statues or household gods. 
 
 Pencl'ope, daughter of Icarus, celebraicd for her 
 chastity and fidelity during the long absencs 
 of Ulysses. 
 
 Per'seus, son of Jupiter ai>d Danae, who per- 
 fore^ed many extraordinary aexploits bf 
 means of Medusa's head. 
 
 Phcbcasia'ni, ancient gods of Greece. 
 
 Pha'eton, sou of Sol (Apollo) and Climene, who- 
 asked the giadance of his father's chariot 
 for one day, as a proof of his divine descent ; 
 but unable to manage the horses, set the 
 world on fire, and was theiefore struck by 
 Jupiter with a thunderbolt into the river Po. 
 
 Phal'lica, feasts of Bacchus. 
 
 Philam'mon, a skilful musician. ^ 
 
 Pailome'la, daughter of Pandion, king of Athens, 
 who was ravished by her brother-in-law, 
 Tereus, and was changed into a nightii- 
 gale. 
 
 Phin'eas, son of Agenor, and king of Paphla- 
 gonia, who had his eyes torn out by Boreas, 
 but was recompensed with the knowledge 
 of futurity ; also a king of Th.'-ace, turned 
 into a stone by Perseus, by the help of Me- 
 dusa's head. 
 
 Pldes'elhon, a boiling river of hell. 
 
 Phle^gon, one of the ibur horses of Sol. 
 
 Phleg'ycb, a people of Boeotia, destroyed by 
 Neptune, on account of their piracies and 
 other ca'imes. 
 
 Phcb'bas, the priestess of Apollo. 
 
 Phce-'bus. a title of Apollo. 
 
 PhcB'nix, son of Amyntor, who being falsely ac- 
 cused of having attempted the honor of one 
 of his father's concubines, was condemned 
 to have his eyes torn out ; but was cured by 
 Chiron, and went with Achilles to the siege 
 of Troy. 
 
 Picuni'nus, a rural god. 
 
 Pilum'nus, a god of breeding womeu 
 
 Pinfdus, a mountain in Thessaly. 
 
 P?'/Ao, a goddess of eloquence. 
 
 Ple'iades, the seven daughters of Atlas and 
 Pleione ; Mala, Electra, Taygete, Asterope, 
 Merope, Halcyone, andCeloeno; they were 
 changed into stars. 
 
 Plu'io, the god of hell. 
 
 Plu'tus, the god of riches. 
 
 Pol' lux. See Castor. 
 
 Polyd'amas, a famous wrestler. 
 
 Polyd'ius, a famous prophet and physician. 
 
 Polyhym'nia, the muse of rhetoric. 
 
 Polyphe'mus, a monstrous giant, son of Nep- 
 tune, with but one eye in the middle of his 
 forehead. 
 
 Pomo'na, the goddess of fruits and autumn, 
 
 Pose'ido7i, a name of Neptune. 
 
 Prcanesti'na, a name of Fortuna. 
 
 Prcbs'tes, a title of Jupiter and Minerva. 
 
 Praxit'eles, a famous statuary., 
 
 Pri'ajn, son of Laomedon, and father of Paris, 
 Hector, &c. ; he was the last king of Troy. 
 
 Prog'ne, wile of Tereus, king of Thrace, and 
 sister of Philomela; she was turned into a 
 swallow. 
 
 Prome'theus, son of lapetus, who animated a 
 man that he had formed of clay, with fire, 
 which, by tiie assistance of Minerva, he stole 
 from heaven, and was therefore chained by 
 Jupiter to mount Caucasus, with a vultura 
 continually preying upon his liver. 
 
 PropyHma, a name of Hecate. 
 
 PrQ^'erpine, the wife of Plu'o 
 
HEATHEN DEITIES, ETC. 
 
 655 
 
 Pro'teus, a sea god, who could transform himself 
 into any shape. 
 
 Psy'che, a goddess of pleasure. 
 
 Pyl'adcs, the constant friend of Orestes. 
 
 Pyr'amus, and This'be^ two lovers of Babylon, 
 who killed themselves with the same sword, 
 and occasioned the turning the berries of the 
 mulberry-tree, under which they died, from 
 white to red. 
 
 Pryoi'iis, one of the four horses of the sun. 
 
 Py7'rhus, son of Achilles, remarkable for his 
 cruelty at the siege of Troy. 
 
 Py'tkon, a huge serpent, produced from the mud 
 of the deluge, which Apollo killed, and in 
 memory thereof, instituted the Pythian games. 
 
 Pythonis'sa-) the priestess of Apollo. 
 
 Q,uoA'rifrons, a title of Janus. 
 Qui'ej, a goddess of grown persons. 
 Quiela'hs. and QuieHus^ names of Pluto. 
 Quinqua'tria, feasts of Pallas. 
 
 R 
 
 Meet' us, a litle of Bacchus. 
 
 Me'clux, and Re'gia, titles of Fortune. 
 
 Regi'na, a title of .luno. 
 
 RhadamanHhus, one of the three infernal 
 
 judges. 
 Rhe'a, a title of Cybele. 
 Rhe'a-syl'via. the mother of Romulus. 
 Robi'gus, a god of corn. 
 Rom'uLus, the first king of Rome. 
 RumVna. a goddess of new-born infants. 
 Runci'na, the goddess of weeding. 
 Rusi'na, a rural deity. 
 
 Saba'zia, feasts of Proserpine. 
 
 Sa'lii, the 12 frantic priests of Mars. 
 
 Salmonehcs, a king of Eiis, struck by a thunder- 
 bolt to hell for imitating Jupiter's thunder. 
 
 Sa'lus, the goddess of health 
 
 iSanc'us, a god of the Sabines 
 
 Saior, and Sorri'tor, rural gods. 
 
 Saturna'lia, feasts of Saturn. 
 
 Satur'nus, or Sat'urn, the son of Ccelus and 
 Terra. 
 
 Sat'yrs, the attendants of Bacchus, horned mon- 
 sters, half men, half goats. 
 
 Scy'ron, a famous robber of Attica. 
 
 Se'ia, and Sege'tia, goddesses of corn. 
 
 SeVIi, priests of Jupiter. 
 
 Sen'la, a goddess of married women. 
 
 Sera'pis. See Apis. 
 
 Sils'nus, the foster-father and companion of Bac- 
 chus, who lived in Arcadia, rode on an ass, 
 and was drunk every day. 
 
 tSi'mis, a famous robber, killed by Hercules. 
 
 Sis'y2:>hus, the son of jEolus, killed by Theseus, 
 a,nd doomed incessantly to roll a huge stone 
 wp a mountain in hell for his perfidy and 
 numerous robberies. 
 
 iSol, a name of Apollo. 
 
 Sonihius, the god of sleep. 
 
 Sphinx, a monster, born of Syphon, and Echidna, 
 who destroyed herself because CEdipus 
 solved the enigma she proposed. 
 
 Sta'ta, a goddess of grown persons. 
 
 Sten'tor, a Grecian, whose voice is reported to 
 
 have been as strong and as loud astheroices 
 
 of 50 men together. 
 Sthe'no, one of the three Gorgons. 
 Styx, a river of hell. 
 Sua'da, a nuptial goddess. 
 Sumvia'nus, a name of Pluto. 
 SyLva'nus, a god of woods and forests, 
 Sy'rens, sea monsters 
 
 T 
 
 Ta'cita, a goddess of silence. 
 
 TantaHits, a king of Paphlagonia, who, serT» 
 ing up to table the limbs of his son, Pelops, 
 to try the divinity of the gods, was plunged 
 to the chin in a lake of hell, and doomed to 
 everlasting thirst and hunger, as a punish- 
 ment for his barbarity and Impiety. 
 
 Tarta'rus, the place of the wicked in hell. 
 
 Tau'rus, the bull, under whose form Jupiter 
 carried away Europa. 
 
 Telchi'nes, priests of Cybele. 
 
 Telema'chus, the only son of Ulysses. 
 
 Tem'pe, a most beautiful valley in Thessaly, the 
 resort of the gods. 
 
 Ter'minus, the gotl of boundaries. 
 
 Terpsicho're, the muse of music, &c. 
 
 Ter'ror, the god of dread and fear. 
 
 Tha'lia, the muse of comedy. 
 
 Thehnis, the daughter of Ccelum and Terra, the 
 goddess of laws, oracles, &c. 
 
 Tkes'jris, the first tragic poet. 
 
 The' lis, daughter of Nereus and Doris, and god- 
 dess of the sea. 
 
 Thyr'siis, the rod of Bacchus. 
 
 Ti'phys, the pilot of the ship Argo. 
 
 Tisiph'one, one of the three Furies. 
 
 TV tan, son of Coelum and Terra, and the elder 
 brother of Saturnus, or Saturn. 
 
 Tma'rius, a title of Jupiter. 
 
 Tri'ton, Neptune's trumpeter. 
 
 Tri'tonia. a name of Minerva. 
 
 Ttd'Hus, a son of Priam and Hecuba. 
 
 Troy, a city of Phrygia, famous for holding out 
 a siege of ten years against the Greeks, but 
 they at last captured and destroyed it. 
 
 Tuteli'iia, a goddess of corn. 
 
 Ty'ro, one of the Nereids. 
 
 U 
 
 Ulys'ses, son of Laertes and Anticlea, and king 
 of I.haca, who, by his subtlety and eloquence, 
 was eminently serviceable to the Greeks U 
 the Trojan v/ar. 
 
 Unx'ia. a title of Juno. 
 
 Ura'nia, the muse of astronomy. 
 
 V 
 
 Vacu'na, the goddess of idle persons. 
 Vagita'nus, a god of little infants. 
 Vallo7ua, a goddess of valleys. 
 Veni'lia, a wife of Neptune. 
 Ve'nus, the goddess of love, and beauty. 
 Vergil/' (b, a name of the Pleiades. 
 Verticor'dia, a nam6 of Venus. 
 Vertuni'nus, the god of spring. 
 
656 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 Ves'la, me goddess of fire. 
 
 Via'les, deities of the highways. 
 
 Vibil'ia, the goddess of wanderers. 
 
 Vi7-g7nen'sis, a nuptial goddess. 
 
 Vii^go, a name of Astrea and Fortune. 
 
 Viri/is, and Visca'ta, titles of Fortune. 
 
 Viri'placa, an inferior nuptial goddess, who re- 
 conciled husbands to their wives ; a temple, 
 at Rome, was dedicated to her, whither the 
 married couple repaired after a quarrel, and 
 returned together friendly. 
 
 Vitu'la, the goddess of mirth. 
 
 Volu'sia, a goddess of corn. 
 
 Vul'can, the god of subterraneous fire. 
 
 JStm'thua, one of the horses of Achilles, bora of 
 
 the harpy CehEno, a river near Troy, called 
 also Scamander. 
 
 Za'greus, a title of Bacchus. 
 
 Zeph'yrus, son of ^olus and Aurora wuu pas 
 
 sicnately loved the goddess Flora, and is put 
 
 for the west wind. 
 Ze'tes, and Ca'lais, sons of Boreas and Orythia, 
 
 who accompanied the Argonauta, am I drore 
 
 the Harjides from Thrace. 
 Ze'tus, a son of Jupiter and Antiope, rery expsit 
 
 in music. 
 Ze'us, a title of Jupiter. 
 
THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 PAET I. 
 
 TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 
 
 I. Ancient Chronology — from the Creation to the Birth of Christ — 4004 years. 
 11. Modern Chronology — from the Birth of Christ to the present time — 1850 yeara 
 
 I. ANCIENT CHRONOLOaY. 
 DIVIDED INTO EIGHT PERIODS. 
 
 I. From the Creation, 
 to the Deluge, 
 
 B. C. 
 
 40(34 
 2348. 
 
 . . 1656 years The Antediluvian Period, 
 
 . . 427 years. ....... .The Dispersion Period. 
 
 . . 430 years The Patriarchal Period. 
 
 . . 396 years The Theocratic Period. 
 
 . . 507 years The Monarchical Period. 
 
 . . 258 years The Persian Period. 
 
 to the Subjugation of Greece, 146 184 years The Grecian Period. 
 
 . . 146 years The Roman Period. 
 
 2. From the Deluge, 
 
 to the Call of Abraham, 
 
 3. From the Call of Abraham, 
 
 to the Exode from Egypt, 
 
 4. From the Exode, 
 
 to the Kingdom of Saul, 
 
 5. From Saul, 
 
 to the Captivity of Israel, 
 
 6. From the Captivity, 
 
 to Alexander the Great, 
 
 7. From Alexander, 
 
 2348 
 1921. 
 
 1921 
 1491. 
 
 1491 
 1095. 
 
 1095 
 
 588. 
 
 588 
 330. 
 
 330 
 
 8 From the Subjugation of Greece, 146 
 to the Birth of Christ, 
 
 ' From the Creation to the Christian era, the dates are reckoned i. c- 
 BEFOllE CHRIST. Tkey are then chayiged to a. D.—the Year of our Lord. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 
 
 FIRST TE'RIOB— {the Antediluvian)— 1666 years. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 4004 
 
 ns75 
 
 8R74 
 3769 
 
 3679 
 8609 
 3544 
 83S2 
 3317 
 3130 
 30T4 
 3017 
 2948 
 2468 
 2348 
 
 THE CEEATION OF THE WOELD— (iTeSretc Pentateuch.)* 
 
 The fall of man and the promise of a Saviour. 
 
 The birth of Cain, the first-born of woman — a husbandman. 
 
 The death of Abel, the first subject of death. He was a shepherd. 
 
 Seth born, the third son of Adam. 
 Enos born. 
 
 Cainan born. 
 Mahalaleel born. 
 Jared " 
 
 Enoch " 
 
 Methuselah " (lived 969 years.) 
 Lamech " 
 
 Death of Adam, aged 930 years. 
 Enoch translated. 
 Noah born. 
 
 The building of the Ark commenced. 
 THE DELUGE. [Hales places it 3154 
 B. c] 
 
 Enoch born, the first son of Cain.t 
 
 Cain builds a city, which he calls Enoch, He in- 
 troduces the use of weights and measures. — e/b- 
 sephus. Tytler. 
 
 Irad. 
 
 Mehu jael. 
 
 MethusaeL 
 
 Lamech — polygamy introduced. 
 
 Jabal, 
 The first to 
 build a Tent 
 for habita- 
 tion, and to 
 use cattle for 
 purposes of 
 husbandry, 
 
 Jubal, 
 He invent- 
 ed the Rarp 
 and the Or- 
 gan, or wind 
 and stringed 
 instruments 
 of music. 
 
 Tubal-cain, 
 He discover, 
 ed the mode 
 of preparing 
 and using 
 iron, brassi 
 and other 
 Metals. 
 
 Naamah, 
 She intro- 
 duced the 
 arts of Spin- 
 ning and 
 Wea'oing. 
 
 * See alphabetical portion of this volume for the various dates of the chronologists. The Sa- 
 maritan Pentateuch places the Creation b. c. 4700 ; the Septuagint, 5872 ; Josephus, 4658 ; 
 the Talmudists, 5344 ; Scaliger, 3950 ; Petamus, 3984 ; and Dr. Rales, 5411. The last named 
 enumerates above 120 various opinions on this subject, the difference between the latest and re' 
 motcst date of which is no less than 3268. The Hebrew account is followed by Usher, and is 
 here adopted as the most generally received standard. 
 
 t No dates are assigned in Scripture to the names here placed in the right-hand column, 
 are, however, contemporary with those in the other column. 
 
 They 
 
 Remarks.— The Antediluvian Period was nearly as long as the whole period that has elapsed 
 since the birth of Christ. Of the progress of knowledge and the arts, during that period, notliing 
 is known beyond what is given above, except that ship-building, caulking, and the use of pitch, or 
 paint, of measures by cubit, etc., and of doors and wiadows, were known. They imply, in their 
 adaptation to the use of man, other arts, and a considerable advance in science and the mechan- 
 ical powers. 
 
 The Tabular Views are continued across two pages at the same time; so that 
 contemporary eyents in different nations mat be seen at a glance 
 
THE Vv'OK-LD S TROGKESS. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD— (7)i'5^ersio;i of Ma?ikina.y 
 
 SACRED HISTORY. 
 
 B.C 
 
 2347 
 
 iJai? 
 
 Progress of Society and the Arts, 
 
 Wine made by Noah from the grape. 
 
 Bricks made, and cement used to unite them. 
 Confusion of languages at Babel. 
 
 2jM Astronomical observations begun at Babylon. 
 
 2347. The descendants of Noah dispersed 
 through the earth : those of Shem probably 
 in Asia, of Ham in Africa, and of Ja[ het sa 
 Europe. 
 
 2347. The curse pronounced upon tht iesceiij^ 
 ants of Ham. 
 
 2247. The building of Babel.* 
 
 2245. BABYLON founded by Nimxod, son of 
 Cush, and Grandson of Ham. 
 
 NINEVEH founded by Ashur, son ol 
 Shem. 
 
 2122 Athotes (son of Menes) invents hieroglyphics. 
 
 2100 Sculpture and Painting employed to com- 
 memorate the exploits of Osymandyas. 
 
 2095 Pyramids and Canals in Egypt. The science 
 of Geometry begim- to be cultivated. 
 
 im 
 
 Ching Hong teaches the Chinese the art of 
 Husbandry, and the method of making 
 Bread from wheat, and wine from rice. 
 
 1996. Abraham bora. 
 
 11921. The call of Abraham. 
 
 * The cMronology here adopted is that of the Hebrew Pentateuch. The Samaritan piaceB 
 /iabel 581 years after the deluge. Our knowledge of Grecian chronology begins in 776 b. Ot 
 —the first recorded Olympiad. Till then we give the most approved mythological dates. 
 
THE WORLDS TROGRESS. 
 
 427 years. — The Deluge to Ahraha7n. 
 
 PROFANE HISTORY.— (Ira this -period traditional and uncertain.) 
 
 B.O, 
 
 Asia. 
 
 2207. CHIN A. The first imperial 
 dynasty of Hia begins. Fohi 
 (who is perhaps Noah him- 
 self) is mentioned as the first 
 Chinese monarch. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 EUROPB. 
 
 2124 
 
 2069 
 2059 
 
 2017 
 
 Belus reigns in BABYLON.— 
 
 [Some suppose Belus to be 
 the Nimrod of Scripture. If 
 so, there is a discrepancy of 
 121 years between the sacred 
 and profane chronologies.] 
 The origin of the kingdoms 
 of Babylon and Nineveh, and 
 of the Assyrian empire, is 
 variously stated by the chron- 
 ologists. See Sacred Hist.] 
 
 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns m 
 
 Nineveh. 
 He establishes the ASSYRIAN 
 
 EMPIRE. 
 
 Semiramis enlarges and embel 
 lishes Babylon, and makes it 
 the seat of empire. [By others 
 placed 2107 B.C.] 
 
 2188. Misraim (Menes), the son 
 of Ham, builds Memphis, in 
 EGYPT, and begins the E- 
 gyptian monarchy. 
 
 2111. THEBES founded by 
 Busiris. 
 
 2100. Osymandyas, the first 
 warlike king, passes into 
 Asia, and conquers Bactria. 
 
 2085. Egypt conquered by the 
 shepherd kings of Phenicia, 
 who hold it 260 years. 
 
 1 575 Semiramis invades Lybia,Ethi- 
 opia, and India. 
 
 1937 iThe Arabs seize Nineveh. (1) 
 
 2089. SICYON, the first king, 
 dom of GREECE, founded 
 by Egialus, or Inachus. 
 
 2048. A colony of Pheniciani 
 
 land in Ireland. (?) 
 2042. Uranus arrives in Greece^ 
 
 1938. Lake Moeris constructed. 
 
 Revolt of the Titan* 
 War of the Giantai 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 THIHD PERIOD— (T/^e Abrahamic or Patriarchal}^ 
 
 
 
 SACRED HISTORY. 
 
 B.C 
 
 Progress of Society and the Arts. 
 
 B. c. The Jews. 
 
 
 
 1921. Abraham called. 
 
 1920 
 
 Gold and silver first mentioned as money. 
 
 1920. — goes into Egypt. 
 
 1912. — delivers Lot from captivity, and re 
 
 ceivesthe blessing of Melchizedec. 
 1909. Ishmael born. 
 1897. Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed. 
 
 
 ft 
 
 God renews his covenant with Abraham. 
 1896. Isaac born. 
 
 1891 
 
 Letters first used in Egypt by Syphoas. 
 
 1871. Abraham commanded to offer Isaac in 
 
 sacrifice. 
 1856. Isaac married. 
 
 1836. Jacob and Esau born. 
 
 1824. Abraham dies, aged 172. 
 
 1822 
 
 Meniiion invents the Egyptian alphabet. 
 
 1759. Jacob marries Leah and Rachel. 
 
 
 « 
 
 1739. His name changed to Israel. 
 
 1729. Joseph sold into Egypt. 
 
 1715. Is made governor under Pharaoh. 
 
 1706. Jac'ob and his family settle in Egypt. 
 
 1702. End of the seven years' famine.'' 
 
 1699. Death of Jacob. 
 
 1635. Death of Joseph. 
 
 15S8 
 
 Atlas, the astronomer. 
 
 
 1582 
 
 The chronology of the Arundelian marbles 
 begins. 
 
 
 1580 
 
 The cymbal used at the feasts of Cyuele. 
 
 1577. Israelites persecuted in Egypt. 
 1574. Aaron born. 
 1571. Moses born. 
 
 1534 
 
 Dancing to rnusic introduced by Curetes. 
 Book of Job written about this time. (?) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1531. Moses flees into Midian. 
 
 
 
 1513. The supposed era of Job. 
 
 1506 
 
 The flute invented by Hyagnis, a Phiygian. 
 
 
 1497 
 
 Araphictyon gives interpretation to dreams 
 and draws prognostics from omens. 
 
 
 1494 
 
 Ericthoneus teaches the Athenians husbandry. 
 
 
 
 
 1491. God appears to Moses m a burning bush 
 at Horeb, and sends him to Egypt to delivei 
 the Israelites. 
 
 The Ten Plagues in Egypt. 
 
 Institution of the Passover. 
 
 
 
 The EXODUS of the Israelites nrom 
 
 
 Egypt. 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 Abraham to Moses. — (430 years.) 
 
 2. C 
 
 PROFANE BISTORY .—{Still fabulous or uncertain.) 
 
 Asia. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 766 
 
 China. The 2d Imperial dy- 
 nasty begins. 
 
 1618. Sesostris reigas in Egypt. 
 
 i556. Rameses-Miamuina reigas 
 in Egjpt. 
 
 3.896. Inachns, the Plieniciarv 
 plaats a coloay in ARGOS. 
 
 Arg^s, 
 
 i^igas Ki 
 
 1764. Ogyges reii'^Ka m Bceotia. 
 
 1707. Apis, kingol Argos. 
 
 1732. The Ogygeai Deluge in 
 Attica. 
 
 1711. The city of Argos built 
 by Argus, the son of Niobe. 
 
 1710. A coloay of iircftdiana 
 emigraie into Italy uridei 
 CEnotrus.— <Enotria after- 
 wards called Magna Grecia, 
 
 1641. Oiiasus succeedo h;t 
 father, Arg«s, 
 
 1556. ATHENS Ibiioded ly 
 Cecrops. 
 
 1552. Triopas, ki'ig of Argas 
 The khigdom divided, Poly, 
 caon reigning in Messenia. 
 
 1546. TROY Ibunded by Sc^' 
 mander. 
 
 1529. Deluge of Deucalion ii\ 
 Thessaly. 
 
 1520. Corinth founded. 
 
 1516. Sparta fottnded, and th« 
 kingdom of Ivaconia, or La- 
 cedemon. 
 
 1507. The Areopagus establish- 
 ed in Athens. 
 
 1506. Crotopas su-cceeds to tixA 
 throne of Argos. 
 
 1504. Deucalion arrives in Aif 
 tica. 
 
 The kmgdom of Mess* 
 niaconiinenced by Poly caon 
 
 1493. THEBES io Koeotia 
 founded by Cadmus, a Phe 
 nician, -who introducf"! the 
 alphabet int,i Greece. 
 
8 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD.— (T/^e Mosaic or TJieocratic)- 
 
 
 
 SACRED HISTORY. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Pkooress of Society and the Arts. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 
 
 1491. Departure of the Israelites from Egypt 
 
 
 
 The law given at Mount Sinai. 
 
 1490 
 
 Crockery made by the Egyptians and Greeks. 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 Ericthonius introduces the first chariot. 
 
 The fabulous or traditionary Hermes-Tris- 
 
 
 
 megistus placed about this period. 
 
 1471. Rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram 
 
 1453. Aaron dies. 
 
 1451. Moses writes the Pentateuch, and dies. 
 
 1451. Israelites enter Canaan uider Joshua. 
 
 
 Bacchus, god of wine. 
 
 
 1453 
 
 Olympic Games first celebrated m Greece. 
 Apollo, god of music and poetry. 
 
 1443. Joshua dies. 
 
 1405. Othniel judges Israel. 
 
 1390. The tribe of Benjamin J Imost exl net. 
 
 1370 
 
 Bucklers used in single combat invented by 
 Prcetus and Acrisius of Argos. 
 
 1 
 
 1356 
 
 Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumol- 
 pus. 
 
 1343. Eglon, king of Moab, enslaves Israel. 
 1325. Ehud kills Eglon, and delivers Israel. 
 
 
 
 1317. Shamgar kills 600 Philistines with ai 
 
 ox goad. 
 1305. Israel subdued by Jabin, king of Canaan. 
 1285. Deborah and Barak defeat the Canaaji- 
 
 jtes — Sisera killed by Jael. 
 
 1284 
 
 Orpheus at>d Linus, sous of Apollo, skilled 
 in music. 
 
 
 1263 
 
 The temple of Apollo at Delphi built by the 
 council of Ariiphictyons. 
 
 
 1263 
 
 Jason leads the Argonautic expedition; the 
 first naval expedition on record. 
 
 Muace,uaf a poet. 
 
 1252. Israel enslaved by the Midiantea, 
 
 1249. Gideon, with 300 men, defeats fiw Ml 
 
 dianites. 
 
 1240 
 
 The axe, wedge, icimble and lever, also masts 
 and sails for ships invented by Daedalus of 
 Athens. 
 
 
 2224 
 
 1 he game of Backgammon invented by Pala- 
 
 
 
 ra jdes of Greece 
 
 1209. Abimelcch judges Israel 
 1206. Tola judges Israel. 
 
 1183. Jair, judge of Israel 
 
THE world's progress, 
 
 396 years. — Moses to Saul. 
 
 PROFANE HISTORY.— (-SaZi uncertain.^ 
 
 Asia.. 
 
 1480 Dardanus, ki ig of Troy, builds 
 Dardaria. 
 
 Ericthonius reigns in Troy. 
 
 Cuehanrishathaim, kiiig of 
 Mesopotamia. (See Scrip- 
 ture.) 
 
 Teucer, king of Troy, 
 
 Troas, king of Troy. 
 Ilus, son of Troas, founder of 
 Ilium. 
 
 Laomedon, king of Troy. 
 Phenicia : TYRE founded. 
 
 Second Assyrian Dynasty : 
 
 Mithreaus or Ninus II. 
 Troy taken by the Argonauts. 
 
 Hercules arrives in Phrygia. 
 Argon, a descendant of Hercu- 
 les, first king of LYDIA. 
 Priam, king of Troy. 
 Tautanas, king of Assyria. 
 
 The TROJAN WAR begins. 
 Troy taken, 408 years before 
 
 the 1st Olympiad. 
 Teutaeus, king of Assyria. 
 Trojans migrate into Italy. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 1491. Pharaoh and his army 
 drowned in the Red Sea. 
 
 1485. Egyptus reigns, and 
 gives name to the country. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 1376. Sethoa reigns in Egypt, 
 
 1233. Cart. 
 Tyrians 
 
 ige foundeiby the 
 
 Sthenelus reigns in Argoa. 
 
 1474. Danaus usurps the king- 
 dom of Argos. 
 
 1463. Danmonii invade Ire- 
 land. 
 
 1457. The kingdom of Mycene 
 begins under Perseus, late 
 king of Argos. 
 
 1453. Olympic games first ce- 
 lebrated at Elis. 
 
 1438. Pandion begins to reign 
 at Athens. 
 
 1400. Minos reigns in Crete. 
 
 1397. CORINTH becomes a 
 kingdom under Sisyphus. 
 
 1383. Ceres arrives in Attica- 
 
 1376. The Isthmian games in- 
 stituted. 
 
 1356. Eleusinian mysteries in- 
 troduced. 
 
 1283. .^geus reigns in Attica. 
 
 1266. GEdipus,king of Thebes. 
 
 1263. The Argonautic Expe- 
 dition. 
 
 1257. Theseus unites the cities 
 of Attica under one govern- 
 ment. 
 
 1243. The Arcadians conducted 
 by Evander into Italy. — Mu- 
 sseus, a poet. 
 
 1239. Latinus reigns in Italy 
 
 1225. First Theban War.— 
 Euristhenes and Prockfl 
 kings of Lacedemon. 
 
 1222. Hercules celebiates the 
 Olympic Games. 
 
 1216. War of the Epigonii, or 
 2d Theban War. 
 
 1213. Helen carried off by 
 Theseus, is recovereJ by 
 Castor and Pollux, and mar- 
 ries Menelaus. 
 
 1204. Helen elopes wit^ Paris. 
 1182. iEneas lands in Italy. 
 1176. Salamis founded by 
 
 Tcuccr. 
 1170. Epirus : Pyrrhus Neop» 
 
 tolemus. 
 
10 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 Fourth Period. — [The Mosaic or T fieocratic.)- 
 
 1115 
 
 nor 
 
 Progress of Society and the Arts. 
 
 Mariner's compass said to be known in 
 China. (?) 
 
 A standard dictionary of the Chinese contain- 
 ing 40,000 characters, completed by Pa-out- 
 she. (7) 
 
 SACRED HISTORY. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 1161. Israel enslaved by the Philistines and 
 Ammonites. — Samson born. — Eli judges a 
 portion of Israel. 
 
 1143. Jephtha defeats the Ammonites, and 
 becomes judge of a part of Israel. 
 
 1136. Samson slays 1000 Philistines with tha 
 jawbone of an ass. 
 
 1117. Death of Samson and Eli. 
 1116. Samuel, the last judge of Israel. 
 
 1096. The Philistines defeated at Ebcnezer. 
 1095. Establishment of the HEBREW MO- 
 NARCHY. — Saul anointed king of IsraeL 
 
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 396 years. — (Continued.) — Moses to Saul. 
 
 l\ 
 
 PROFANE BISTOKY .—{Still fabulous or uncertain.) 
 
 Asia. 
 
 114] 
 1139 
 
 1122 
 
 1109 
 
 Temple of Ephesus burnt by 
 
 the Amazons, 
 rhinseus, king of Assyria. 
 
 China :— 3d dynasty; — Tchcoo. 
 
 Dercylus, king of Assyria. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 1152. Alba-Longa built bj 
 Ascanius. 
 
 1124. ^olian migration. 
 
 THEBES, the Capital oi 
 Bceotia, founded. 
 
 1104. Return of the Heraclidce. 
 —End of the kingdoia ol 
 Mycene. 
 
12 
 
 THE world's TE ogress. 
 
 FIFTH 'P^UIOJ).— (The Mo7tarchical.y 
 
 
 
 SACRED HISTORY. 
 
 B.C 
 
 Progress of Society and the Arts. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 
 
 1095. Saul, King of Israel. 
 
 
 
 1085. David born. 
 
 
 
 1062. David kills Goliath. 
 
 
 
 1055. Death of Saul. David reigns in Hebron 
 over Judah ; Ishbosheth reigning in Maha- 
 naim, over eleven tribes. 
 
 
 
 1048. Ishbosheth slain. David made king 
 over all Israel. 
 
 
 ' 
 
 1043. David subdues the Philistines, Moab- 
 ites, Syrians, and extends his dominions to 
 the Euphrates, on the East, the Red Sea, on 
 the South, and Lebanon, on the North. 
 
 
 
 1036. Solomon born. 
 
 
 
 1023 Revolt and death of Absalom. 
 
 
 
 1014. Conspiracy of Adonijah. 
 
 1015 
 
 Mmos gives his lates to Ciete. 
 
 1015. Solomon crowned in the presence of 
 
 David. 
 
 1016. David dies. 
 
 1012. Solomon lays the foundation of the 
 temple. 
 
 1004. DEDICATION OF SOLOMON'S 
 TEMPLE. 
 
 1000. Solomon extends his commerce, in con- 
 nection with Hiram, king of Tyre, to India^ 
 via Red Sea, and to the shores of the Atlan- 
 tic, via Straits of Gibraltar : builds Tad- 
 mor (Palmyra) in the desert, Baalbec, and 
 other cities. 
 
 985. He is seduced into idolatry by his wives. 
 975. —dies, and is succeeded by Rehoboam, 
 
 Judah. Israel. 
 
 975. Rehoboam, king. Jeroboam, king, 
 971. Shishak plunders 
 
 the temple. 
 958. Abijah, king. 
 955. Asa, king. 
 
 954. Nadab, king. 
 953 Baasha, king, 
 
THE world's progress. 13 
 
 507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. 
 
 PROFANE HISTORY. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 1044 
 
 9SG 
 
 971 
 
 The Ionian emigrants settle 
 in Asia Mnior. 
 
 AUlance between Solomon and 
 Hiram, king of Tyre. 
 
 Samos built 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 1088. End of the kingdom oil 
 
 Sicyon. 
 1070. Heremon, from Gallicia, 
 
 conquers Ireland. 
 1069. Codrus devotes himself 
 
 for Athens. 
 1060. Athens governed by 
 
 Archons, 
 
 Alliance between Solomon and 
 Pharaoh. 
 
 986. Utica built. 
 
 978. Sesac, (Shishak in Scrip- 
 ture, and supposed Sesos- 
 tris,) king of Egypt. 
 
 Shtshak plunders Jerusalem. 
 
 976. Capyf reigns in klba 
 Longa. 
 
14 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 Fifth Period. — (The Monarchical.) — . 
 
 Progrkss of Society and the Arts. 
 
 937 
 
 SACRED mSTORY. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 JUDAH. 
 
 942. Asa defeats Ze- 
 rah, king of Ethio- 
 pia, with a million 
 of men. 
 
 941. — makes a league 
 with Benhadad, king 
 
 Israel. 
 
 Breastplates invented by Jason. 
 
 of Syria. 
 
 930. Elah, king. 
 929. Zimri, king, 
 Omri, king. 
 918. A.iab, king. 
 
 914. Jehoshaphat, 
 king. 
 
 8. Jehoshaphat aS' 
 
 sists Ahab. 
 894. War with Moab. 
 839. Jehofam, king. 
 
 907. Benhadad, king ol 
 Syria, besieges Sa- 
 
 ■ maria, but is re- 
 pulsed. 
 
 884 
 869 
 
 886 Homer's poe77is brought into Greece. 
 
 800 
 786 
 
 776 
 772 
 
 721 
 
 710 
 
 685 
 680, 
 
 Lycurgus reforms the constitution of Sparta. 
 Gold and silver coined by Phidon^ tyrant of 
 Argos. 
 
 Prophecies of Jonah. 
 
 Carpets in use for tents. 
 
 The Corinthians em.ploy triremes or vessels 
 
 with three banks of oars. 
 First recorded Olympiad and beginning of 
 
 authentic chronology in Greece. 
 Sculpture first mentioned in profane history— 
 
 ail Egyptian art. 
 
 The first eclipse of the moon observed by the 
 <;;haldeans at Babylon. 
 
 The Buddha religion introduced by Gautama 
 into India. 
 
 Roman Calendar reformed. The year divided, 
 12 months instead of 10 as before. 
 
 Augurs instituted by Numa. 
 
 Iambic verse introduced by Archilocus, Tyr- 
 tmus, and Evander, poets. 
 
 Chess invented . I 
 
 897. Ahaziah, king. 
 896. Jehoram, kins. 
 895. Elijah translated. 
 
 '884. Ahaziah, kmg. 884. Jehu, king. 
 Athaliah, queen ; 
 usurps the throne. 856. Jehoahaz, king. 
 878. Jehoash, king. 
 
 The Prophet Jo. 
 nah. 
 839. Amaziah, king. 
 810. Azariah, king. 
 
 758. Jotham, king. 
 742. Ahaz, king. 
 
 841. Jehoash, king. 
 
 825. Jeroboam, king. 
 
 784. Interregnum.,. 
 
 773. Zachariah, king. 
 Shalium, king. 
 
 772. Menahem, king. 
 
 770. Pul invades Is- 
 rael, and is bribed 
 to depart with 1000 
 
 , talents. 
 
 762. Pekahiah, king. 
 
 759. Pekah, king. 
 Interregnum. 
 Hoshea, king. 
 
 721. CAPTIVITY OF 
 ISRAEL. 
 
 717. Hezekiah, king. 
 
 712. Sennacherib in- 
 vades Judah. 
 
 711. His army (185,- 
 000) destroyed by a 
 pestilence. 
 
 696. Manasseh, king. 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 15 
 
 507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. — (Continued.) 
 
 PROFANE HISTORY. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 97 1 Homer bom. (?) 
 
 m 
 
 8:20 
 797 
 
 771 
 
 767 
 
 761 
 
 747 
 
 744 
 736 
 
 735 
 721 
 
 7J ! 
 
 717 
 710 
 
 ro9 
 
 680 
 
 Jonah preaches to the Nine- 
 vites. 
 
 Arbaces, king of Assyria. — 
 
 Media revolts. 
 Arrlyssus, 1st king of LYDIA. 
 
 Pul, king of Nineveh. 
 
 SaA-danapalus, king of Nine- 
 veh. 
 
 Media subjected to Assyria. 
 
 Alyattes, king of Lydia. 
 
 ERA OF NABONAZZAR.— 
 Assyrian empire destroyed. 
 — Meles, king of Lydia. 
 
 Pharnaces, king of Cappado- 
 cia. 
 
 Tiglath-Pileser conquers Sy- 
 ria and part of Israel. 
 
 Candaules, king of Lydia. 
 
 Shalmanezer king of Nine- 
 veh, takes Samaria, and car- 
 ries the Ten Tribes into 
 captivity. 
 
 Gyges usurps the throne of 
 Lydia. 
 
 Sennacherib^ king of Nineveh. 
 
 MEDIA becomes a kingdom 
 under Dejoces. 
 
 Ecbatana founded by Dejoces. 
 
 Babylon and Nmeveh under 
 Esarhaddon. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 869. Dido arrives in Africa, 
 and builds Byrsa. 
 
 825. The dynasty of the Ta- 
 nites in Egypt ; begins with 
 Peterbastes. 
 
 781. The dynasty of the Saites 
 in Egypt. 
 
 737. Sebacon invades Egypt. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 935. Bacchus, king of Cifrinlh. 
 
 916. Calpetus, king of Alba. 
 
 903. Tiberinus, king of Alba. 
 
 895. Tiberinus drowned in tha 
 river Albula, which is thence 
 called the Tiber. 
 
 864. Romulus, king of Alba 
 Longa. 
 
 845. Aventinus, king of Alba. 
 
 814. The kingdom of MACE- 
 DON founded by Caranus. 
 808. Procas, king of Alba. 
 794. Numitor, " " 
 
 794. Amulius, " " 
 
 Olam Fodla, king in Ire- 
 land. (7) 
 
 769. Syracuse founded by 
 Archias of Corinth. 
 
 753. BUILDING OF ROME 
 
 Catania founded by a co- 
 lony from Chalcis. 
 
 747. Union of Romans and 
 Sabines. 
 
 743. 1st Messinian War. 
 
 716. Romulus murdered by th« 
 
 senators. 
 715. Numa Pompilius. 
 713. Gela in Sicily founded. 
 
 703. Corcyra built by the Co 
 rinthiaris. 
 
 685. 2d Messinian War. 
 
THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 
 
 Fifth Period. — [TJte Monarchical.)-^ 
 
 Progress of Society and the Arts. 
 
 Attempt to discover the primitive language of 
 mankind ; Interpreters instituted by Psam- 
 meticus ; children educated in the language 
 and manners of Greece. 
 
 Se-Matsien's history of China begins. 
 
 The Spherical form of the earth and the true 
 cause of lunar eclipses taught by Tholes, 
 who discovers the electricity of amber. 
 
 Periander encourages learning at Corinth. 
 
 Draco frames his bloody code of laws at 
 Athens. 
 
 Pharaoh-Necho begins a canal between the 
 Mediterranean and Red Sea. The lives oi' 
 120,000 men lost in the attempt. He sends 
 out a PhcEnician fleet which, sailing through 
 the Straits of Babelmandel, returned the 
 third year by the Straits of Gibraltar, thus 
 circumnavigating Africa. 
 
 Sappho, Alcceus, Pittacus, Bins, Chilo, My- 
 son, Anacharsis, ^sop, Ilychis, Theognis, 
 Stesichorus, Phocyliaes, and Cadmus (of 
 Miletus), flourish at this time. 
 
 Thales' prediction of a aolar eclipse accom- 
 plished. — (See Asia.) 
 
 Solon's legislation in Athens, supersedes that 
 
 of Draco. 
 The Pythian Games at Delphi. 
 
 SACRED HISTORY. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 677. Mai.asseh carried to Balylon, !■ iftor 
 wards restored. 
 
 640. AmmoB, king of Ju.iah. 
 
 641. Josiah. king of Judah. 
 
 cho. 
 
 Josiah killed at Megidco, oj Pharaoh Na 
 
 609. Jehoahaz, king, deposed and carriad lo 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Jehoiakim, king. 
 
 606. CONQUEST OF JERUSALEM l«j 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 598. Jehoiachin, king, reigns three luontiu, 
 and is carried captive to Bahylon. 
 Zedekiah, king. 
 591. Ezekiel begins to prophesy in Chaldea. 
 
 588. CAPTIVITY OF b UDAH conipieted. 
 JERUSALEM DESTROYED— the tem 
 
 pie burnt. 
 Obadiah prophesies. 
 
nE WORLDS PROGRESS. 
 
 17 
 
 507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. — (Continued.) 
 
 PROFANE HISTORY. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 «76 
 
 658 
 648 
 647 
 
 634 
 631 
 
 Ardysus 11., king of Lydia. 
 
 Holofernes, Assyrian general. 
 
 Phraortes, king of Media. 
 
 Saracus, king of Babylon and 
 
 Nineveh. 
 Phi-aortes conquers Persia, 
 
 Armenia, &c. 
 
 Cyaxares, king of Media. 
 Sadyattes, king of Lydia. 
 
 626 Nabopolassar revolts from Sa 
 racus. 
 
 624 The Scythians invade Lydia 
 and Media. 
 
 619 Alyattes II., king of Lydia. 
 
 612 Nineveh a second time destroy- 
 ed. 
 Nabopolassar, king of Baby 
 Ion. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 660. Psammeticus, king of 
 Egypt. — Memphis becomes 
 the capital of the kingdom. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 678. Argaeus, 1st king of Ma- 
 
 cedon. 
 672. Tulius Hostilius, king ol 
 
 Rome. 
 668. Messina in Sicily founded. 
 665. Alba destroyed. 
 664. Sea fight " between the 
 
 Corinthians and Corcyreans. 
 
 658. BYZANTIUM founded. 
 
 640. Ancus Martins. — The port 
 of Ostia built.— The Latina 
 conquered by the Romans. — 
 
 Philip, 1st king of Mace- 
 
 606 
 
 6D4 
 
 601 
 
 5i» 
 £96 
 
 Pharaoh-Necho defeated by 
 Nebuchadnezzar at Circe- 
 sium, on the Euphrates. 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar, king of Ba- 
 bylon, 
 
 Daniel interprets the king's 
 dream. 
 
 A solar eclipse predicted by 
 Thales — separates the Medes 
 and Lydians in battle. {New- 
 tons Chr on., 585.) 
 
 B '.rth of Cyrus. 
 
 Astyages of Media drives out 
 the Scythians. 
 
 610. Pharaoh-Necho, king of 
 Egypt. 
 
 don 
 
 629. Periander rules at 
 rinth. 
 
 Co= 
 
 616. Tarquinius Priscus, king 
 of Rome. 
 
 600. Psammis, king of Egypt. 
 
 594. Pharaoh-Hophra, ki ig of 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 602. ^ropus, king of jface^ 
 don, conquers Ulyrit*. 
 
 594. Solon, Archer »f Atliaiu 
 
18 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 SIXTH FEUlOD.—iT/ie Fersian.)^ 
 
 ».c Progress of Society. 
 
 Money coined at Rome by Ser- 
 vius TuUius- 
 
 Uepoenus and Scyllis open a 
 school of statuary at Athens. 
 
 Naucrates given to the Greeks 
 by Egypt as a factory. 
 
 Egypt possesses 20,000 inha- 
 bited cities. 
 
 First comedy acted at Athens 
 on a cart, by Susarion and 
 Dolon. 
 
 Dials invented by Anaximan- 
 der of Miletus. 
 
 Anaximenes, Cleobulus. 
 
 The Corinthian order of ar- 
 chitecture invented by Cali- 
 machus. 
 
 Zoroaster, the Persian Philo- 
 sopher. 
 
 Simonides, Anacreon, poets. 
 
 Jews. 
 
 Thespis performs the 
 trugedy at Alliens. 
 
 first 
 
 Learning encouraged at Ath 
 ens. — Firet public library 
 founded. 
 
 Confucius the Chinese philo- 
 sopher. 
 The Doric issued by Darius. 
 
 559. Handwriting on the wall 
 at Belshazzar's feast. 
 
 536. Edict of Cyrus for the Re- 
 turn of the Jew^s. 
 Joshua, Zerubbabel. 
 
 535. Rebuilding of the tem- 
 ple begins. 
 
 Zechariah, Haggai. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 582. Nebuchadnezzar invaaea 
 Elam — takes Susa. 
 
 572. Tyre taken by Ncbueia*!- 
 nezzar. 
 
 569. Nebuchadnezzar lusiri| 
 his reason is deposed. 
 New Tyre founded. 
 
 516. Dedication of the second 
 ternole. 
 
 562. Crossus, king ol Ly(Ua. 
 
 Solon and iEsop at his court. 
 561. Evil-Merodach, king ol 
 
 Babylon. 
 
 559. Neriglissar or Belshazzai 
 killed in the night. 
 
 Cyaxares II. (Darius) 
 king of Media. 
 
 Cyrus the Persian assists 
 him. 
 Asia Minor subjected to Crce 
 sus. 
 
 546. Sardis taken by Cyrus. — 
 Croesus made prisoner. — 
 The Lydian Kingdom end- 
 ed. 
 
 538. BABYLON TAKEN by 
 Cyrus. 
 
 536. PERSIAN EMPIRE 
 founded by CYRUS, com- 
 posed of Assyria, Media and 
 Persia. 
 
 529. Cambyses, king of Per- 
 sia. 
 
 522. Darius Hystaspcs, 
 of Persia. 
 
 ki&l 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 19 
 
 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander the G^'eat. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 581 
 
 571 
 569 
 
 536 
 
 525 
 
 Egypt invaded by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar. 
 
 Apries taken prisoner, and 
 strangled in his palace. 
 
 Amasis, king — connection be- 
 tween Greece and Egypt. 
 
 Pythagoras visits Egypt. 
 
 Psammenitus, last king of 
 Egypt. — Invasion of Cam- 
 bvses, who defeats the 
 ligyptians at Pelusium, and 
 takes Memphis. 
 
 Egypt becomes a Persian 
 Province. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 585. Death of Periander, tyrant 
 of Corinth. 
 
 582. Corinth becomes a repub- 
 lic. 
 
 560. Pisistratus, tyrant ol Ath- 
 ens. 
 
 549. Temple of Apollo at 
 Delphi burnt by the Pisis- 
 tratidae. 
 
 547. Amyntas, king of Mace- 
 don. 
 
 539. The Phocians emigrate to 
 Gaul and build Massilia 
 (now Marseilles). 
 
 527. Pisistratus dies. 
 
 522. Poly crates, tyrant of Sa- 
 
 mos. 
 514. Hipparchus killed. 
 
 510. The Pisistratidae expelled. 
 — Democracy established at 
 Athens — Statues erected to 
 Harmodius and Aristogiton, 
 leaders in the revolution. 
 
 Rome, etc. 
 
 578. Servius Tullius, kiog ct 
 Rome. 
 
 567. Conquest of ihe Etruriaxj 
 
 by Rome. 
 565. First census of Rome: 
 
 84,700 citizens. 
 
 534. Tarquinius Superbus, 
 king of Rome. 
 
 530. Cadiz built by the Car- 
 thaginians (near the ancient 
 Tarshish). 
 
20 
 
 THE WORLD .S FROGRESS. 
 
 Sixth Period. — {The Persian.)- 
 
 B. c. Frjgress of Society. 
 
 509 
 
 507 
 
 300 
 
 Abolition of the Regal Govern- 
 ment, and establishment of 
 Republic at Rome. 
 
 HeracUtus, Theano., Prota- 
 goras, Anaxagoras, philoso- 
 phers. — Corinna, pociess. 
 
 The Phoenician letters earned 
 to Ireland from Spain. 
 
 Pytliagoras teaches the doc- 
 trine of celestial motions. 
 
 The temple of Minerva built. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 483 The Etrurians excel in music, 
 the drama and architecture. 
 
 479 
 
 4*7 
 
 473 
 
 4T1 
 468 
 
 483. Joachim, High Priest. 
 
 460 
 
 ^schylus, Pindar, poets. 
 
 Simonides, of Cos, obtains the 
 prize at Olympia, for teach- 
 ing a system of Mnemonics, 
 which he had invented. 
 
 Empirics instituted by Acron, 
 of Agrigenium. 
 
 Thucydides born. 
 
 Sophocles, the tragic, and 
 Plato, the comic poet. 
 
 Voyage of the Carthaginians 
 to Britain for tin 
 
 Asia. 
 
 508. Darius conquers India 
 
 500. The lonians revolt from 
 Persia and burn Sardis. 
 
 490. Darius sends an army o( 
 500,000 :nenmto Greece. 
 
 487. Artabazes, king of Pon- 
 
 tus. 
 486. Xerxes, king of Persia. 
 
 481. The expedition of Xerxea 
 
 into Greece. 
 480. The family of Archean- 
 
 actes, from Mytilene, settle 
 
 in Bosphorus (now Circas- 
 
 sia.) 
 
 478. Death of Confucius.— 
 China distracted by internal 
 wars. 
 
 458. Esther. 
 
 457. Ezra goes to Jerusalem, 
 collects the Jewish Scrip- 
 tures : and 
 
 453. —writes the Chronicles. 
 
 466. Persians defeated by f*6a 
 
 and land. 
 465. Xerxes assassinated. 
 464. Artaxerxes I. (Longima' 
 
 nus,) king of Persia. 
 
THE world's progress 
 
 21 
 
 258 years. — Cyrus, to Alexander. — (Continued.) 
 
 Africa. 
 
 487 
 
 480 
 
 460 
 
 455 
 
 Egypt revolts— is subdued by 
 Xerxes. 
 
 Hamilcar killed in battle. 
 
 Egypt, under Inarus, revolts 
 from Persia. 
 
 All Egypt reduced by Megaby- 
 
 SU8. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 505. Lacedemonian War. 
 504. Lemnos taken by Milti- 
 ades. 
 
 497. Alexander 1st, king of 
 Macedoa. 
 
 Hippocrates, tyrant of 
 Gela. 
 
 490. Invasion of the Persians 
 under Datis and Artapher- 
 nes. 
 
 Battle of MARATHON. 
 
 489. Miltiades imprisoned. 
 484. Herodotus born. 
 483. Aristides banished. 
 
 480. Battle of Thermopylae. 
 Athens burnt by Xerxes. 
 Battle of Salamis. 
 479. Mardonius a second time 
 takes Athens. 
 
 Defeat of the Persians at 
 Platea and Mycale on the 
 same day. 
 
 (?) 
 476. Themistocles rebuilds 
 Athens. — The Piraeus built. 
 
 470. Cimon son of Miltiades. — 
 Themistocles banished. — 
 The kingdom of the Odrysae 
 extends over the most of 
 Thrace. 
 
 466. The Persians twice de- 
 feated at the Eurymedon by 
 Cimon. 
 
 465. 3d Messinian War. 
 
 46L Ostracism of Cimon. — 
 Pericles rises to great 
 power. 
 
 459. Athens assumes to be the 
 head of Greece. 
 
 456. Cimon recalled. 
 
 Rome and Italy. 
 
 509. The Tarquins expelled 
 
 fiom Rome. 
 Brutus and Collatinus 
 
 first Consuls oi' Rome. 
 
 507. Second census of Rome, 
 
 130,909 citizens. 
 The Capitol fip-shed.— War 
 
 against the Tarquins and 
 
 their ally Porst ina. 
 
 498. Titus Lartiw fiitrt. Dicta- 
 tor. 
 
 Tribunes of the people. 
 496. Posthumiua, Dictator. 
 
 491. Coriolanus ja»^lshed. 
 
 488. At the request of hia 
 mother, Coriolanus with- 
 draws the Volsci from Rome. 
 
 485. Gelon,tyrant of Syracuse. 
 
 483. Quasstors appointed. 
 
 480. The Carthaginians de- 
 feated by Gelon. 
 
 479. Syracuse governed hy 
 Hiero. 
 
 477. The 300 Fabii slain. 
 
 467. Thrasybulus succeeds 
 Hiero, and is expelled for 
 his cruelty. 
 
 Democracy in Syracuse, 
 
 461. Earthquake at Rome. 
 
 456. Cincinnatus Dit^ n 
 
22 
 
 THE world's TROGRESS 
 
 The Sixth Period.— {T lie Persian.) — 
 
 B.O PUOGRESS OF SOCIETY, ETC. 
 
 450 The Britons inflict punish- 
 ment of death by drowning 
 in a quagmire. 
 
 Ii5 
 
 411 
 
 434 
 
 432 
 
 EmppAoeles., Parmenides, 
 AHstippiis, and Antis- 
 thenefi, philosophers. — 
 PMdiaa the finest sculp- 
 tor of antiquity. — Em'i- 
 pides, gains the first prize 
 in tragedy. 
 
 The Battering Ram invented 
 by Artemones. 
 
 Aristophanes, prince of an- 
 cient comedy. 
 
 Melon begins his lunar cycle. 
 
 Socrates, the greatest of hea- 
 then moralists. 
 
 Hippocrates, of Cos, the father 
 ot medicine. 
 
 Thucydides, Ctesias, histo- 
 rians. 
 
 Democritus, the laughing phi- 
 losopher. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 445. Walls of Jerusalem built 
 by Nehemiah. 
 
 Sect of Samaritans. 
 
 414 
 
 <ia 
 
 An eclipse of the sun causes 
 the defeat of the Athenians 
 at Syracuse 
 
 Thucydides' history ends, and 
 Xenophon's begins. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 449. Persians defeated at Sft- 
 [amis in Cyprus. 
 Peace with Greece. 
 
 438. Sparlacus takes poB»6«. 
 sion of the BosphoruB. 
 
 425. Xerxes II. k. of Persia 
 424. Darius II. k. ul IVrsia. 
 
 404. ArtaxerxesII. (Ihuemxi.) 
 king of Persia. 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 
 
 23 
 
 I.e. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 414 
 
 i07 
 
 Amyrta3us, king of Egypt, 
 shakes off the yoke of Per- 
 sia. 
 
 Grrbge. 
 
 The Carthaginians send 300,- 
 000 men into Sicily. 
 
 454. Perdiccas, II. , king of Ma- 
 cedon. 
 
 449. Cimon dies. 
 
 448. First Sacred War. 
 447. Athenians defeated at Che- 
 ronoea. 
 
 440. Pericles takes Samos. 
 
 437. Amphipolis planted by 
 
 Athenians. 
 436. Corinth at war with Cor- 
 
 cyra. 
 
 432. Revolt of Potidaea from 
 the Athenian confederacy. 
 
 431. The Peloponnesian War. 
 Invasion of Attica. 
 
 430. The Plague at Athens. 
 
 429. Pericles dies, having gov- 
 erned Athens 40 years. 
 
 425. An earthquake sepai-ates 
 the peninsula of Euboea 
 from the main land. 
 
 424. Exile of Thucydides. 
 
 Campaign of Brasidas in 
 
 420. The 90th Olympiad. 
 
 , Alcibiades effects a treaty 
 
 laetween the Athenians and 
 
 Argives. 
 416. Nicias, general of the 
 
 Athenians. 
 
 War in Sicily . 
 413. The Athenians alarmed by 
 
 an eclipse. — Their army in 
 
 Sicily destroyed. 
 413. Archelaus, king of Mace- 
 don. 
 411. Athens governed by the 
 
 400.— Alliance of Sparta 
 
 with Persia. 
 411. Alcibiades at the court of 
 
 Tissaphemes. 
 410. Alcibiades defeats the 
 
 Spartans. 
 
 408. Captui'e of Byzantium. 
 
 405. Lysander defeats the 
 Athenians, 404.takes A I hens, 
 and establishes the SO ty- 
 rants 
 
 End of the Peloponnesian 
 War. 
 
 Death of Alcibiades. 
 
 Rome, etc. 
 
 451. Decemviri — the laws oi 
 the 12 tables. 
 
 Virginia killed by hei 
 father. 
 
 446. Syracuse reduces Agri- 
 gentum. 
 
 445. Military Tribunes. 
 
 444. Office of Censor insti- 
 tuted. 
 
 440. Famine in Rome. 
 
 437. The Veii defeated. 
 
 434. War with the Tuscans. 
 
 433. The temple of Apjllo <i«- 
 
 dicated. 
 431. The Equi and Voeci d» 
 
 fcated. 
 
24 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 The Sixth Period. — {TJie Persian.)-^ 
 
 B. e. Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 399 
 
 396 
 
 38S 
 
 380 
 
 377 
 
 368 
 
 360 
 
 CatapultcB invented by Diony- 
 sius. 
 
 Cynics, sect of philosophers 
 founded by Antisthenes. 
 
 Plato, the philosopher. 
 Philoxenes, the poet, 
 
 Treatise on conic sections by 
 Aristcbus. 
 
 Diogenes, the cynic ; Isocrates 
 and IscBUS, orators. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 A celestial globe brought into 
 Greece from Egypt. 
 
 Philippics of Demosthenes. 
 
 Commerce of Rhodes with 
 Africa ar.d Byzantium 
 
 366. Jeshua slain by Johan- 
 nan in the inner court of the 
 temple, for which a heavy 
 fine is laid on the daily sacri- 
 fices. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 401. Cyrus the younger de- 
 feated.— Retreat of the 10,000 
 under Xenophon. 
 
 400. The city cf Delhi founf3 
 ed. 
 
 387. The Greek cities of Asia 
 tributary to Persia. 
 
 383 BITHYNIA becomes a 
 kingdom. 
 
 Mithridates 1st, king o/ 
 PONTUS. 
 
 362. AriobarzaneskingofPon- 
 tus. — Revolt of the Persian 
 governor in Asia Minor. 
 
 361. Darius Ochus. or Arlax- 
 erxes III. king of Persia. 
 
 360. CAPPADOCIA beconiea 
 a kingdom under Ariaratltes I 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 25 
 
 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 
 
 Africa. 
 
 379 
 
 The Carthaginians land in 
 
 Italy, 
 
 362 
 
 960 
 
 Tachos, king of Egypt. 
 
 Agesilaus, the Spartan, 
 aids the Egyptians. 
 
 Voyages of the Carthaginians 
 under Hanno. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 401. Thrasybulus expels the 
 30 tyrants. 
 
 Death of Socrates. 
 
 399. Amyntas II., king of Ma- 
 cedon. 
 
 396. Agesilaus goes into Asia. 
 395. Corinthian War begun. — 
 Battle of Coronea. 
 
 382. Thebes taken by PhcEbi- 
 das. 
 
 30. Thebes delivered by Pelo- 
 pides and Epamikondas. 
 100th Olympiad. 
 
 377. Spartan fleet defeated at 
 Naxos. 
 
 372. Ellice and Bula in the Pe- 
 loponnesus, swallowed up 
 by an earthqualce. 
 
 371. Battle of Leuctra. 
 
 Alexander II., king of Ma- 
 cedon. 
 
 Predominance of Thubes. 
 
 370. Perdiccas III., king of 
 Macedon. 
 
 364. Pelopidas killed in-battle. 
 
 362. Battle of Mantinea, death 
 of Epaminondas. 
 
 Rome and Italy. 
 
 Decline 
 Republics. 
 
 OF Grecian 
 
 360. Philip II., king «f Mace- 
 don. defeats the Athenians 
 at Methone. 
 
 The Macedonian phalanx. 
 War of the allies against 
 Athens. 
 
 358. Philip takes Amphipolis 
 
 and loses his right eye by an 
 
 arrow from Astor. 
 357. The 2d Sacred War. 
 356. Philip conquers Thrace 
 
 and Illyria. 
 
 The Temple of Diana at 
 
 Ephesus burnt. 
 
 A L E X A N D E R " the 
 
 Great" born. 
 
 400. Siege of Veii begun. 
 
 397. Lake Alba drairei 
 
 391. Camillus, Dictator, takes 
 Veii, after a siege of ten 
 years. 
 
 390. Rome taken and burnt by 
 the Gauls, under Brennus 
 — The Capitol besieged. — 
 Camillus delivers his coun- 
 try. 
 
 3S6. Damon and Pythias. 
 
 384. M. Manlius Capilolinus 
 thrown J'rom the Tarpeian 
 rock. 
 
 379. The Volsci defeat the 
 Romans. 
 
 376. Lucius Sextus, first ple- 
 beian consul. 
 
 Ca?niUus, the fifth time 
 Dictator. 
 
 371. The curule magistrates 
 appointed. 
 
 362. Curtius leaps into a gnlf 
 in the Forum. 
 
 357. Dionysius, the youtigei 
 expelled from Syracuse. 
 
26 
 
 THE WOPv-LD's PPlOGRESS. 
 
 SEVENTH PERIOD.— (T/&e Qrecian.)- 
 
 B.c. Progress of Society, etc- 
 
 Ma 
 
 2AS. 
 
 Aristotle, the logiera!i and phi- 
 losopher, founder of the Pe- 
 ripatetics; JSackines, ora- 
 tor. 
 
 Demosthenes ; Jcetas, of Syra- 
 cuse. 
 
 The Lyceum built in Attica. 
 
 336 
 
 335 
 
 Alexander spares the house of 
 
 Pindar. 
 The revoluticm of eclipses first 
 
 calculated by Calippus, the 
 
 Athenian. 
 
 Caustic paintmg or the art 
 of burning colors into wood 
 or ivory, invented by Gau- 
 sias, a painter of Sicyoji. 
 
 328 
 
 320 
 
 The voyage of Nearchus from 
 
 the Indus to the Euphrates. 
 Apelles, the painter ; Calis- 
 
 thenes, philosopher. 
 Menander, the inventor of the 
 
 nev7 comedy. 
 Lysistratus invents moulds 
 
 from which to cast wax 
 
 figures. 
 
 First work on mechanics, writ- 
 ten by Aristotle. — Z)tvm^ 
 Bell first mentioned. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 Alexander enters Jerusa- 
 lem. — On seeing Jaddus, the 
 High Priest, clad in his 
 robes, he declares he had 
 seen him in a vision, invit- 
 ing him to Asia, and pro- 
 mising him the Persian em- 
 pire. He goes to the Tem- 
 ple, ofTers sacrifices to Jeho- 
 vah, and departs. 
 
 336. Mithridates II., kir^ 3l 
 Pontus. 
 
 334. Battle of the Granicus. 
 
 333. Battle of issMS.— Parthia, 
 Bactriaj Hyrcania,Sogdiana, 
 and Asia Minor, conquered 
 by Alexander. 
 
 332. Tyre subdued after seven 
 months' sie§». 
 
 Damascus taken. — Gaza 
 surrenders. 
 
 331. Battle of Arbela.— The 
 Persian army totally defeat- 
 ed. 
 
 330. CONQUEST of the PER- 
 SIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 329. Thalestris, queen of the 
 Amazons, visits Alexander, 
 with a train of 300 women. 
 
 328. Alexander extends his 
 
 I conquest to the Ganges. 
 
 323. Alexander dies at Baby- 
 Ion. 
 
 322. Perdiccas takes Cappa- 
 docia. 
 
 320. Ptolemy carries 100,000 
 Jews into Eypt. 
 Onias I, 
 
 320. Eumenea Jefcaled by Aj» 
 Ugonus. 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 27 
 
 184 years. -^Alexander to tJie Fall of Greece. 
 
 S.C. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 ^9 Darius Ochus conquers Egypt, 
 aiid pillages its temples. 
 
 SW 
 
 The Carthaginians defeated bv 
 Timoleon. 
 
 Greece — Macedon. 
 
 Rome, etc. 
 
 354. Dion put to death, and 
 353. The Pliocians defeated by Syracuse usurped by ty- 
 Philip. ' rants. 
 
 348. End of the Sacred War. 
 Philip takes Olynthus. 
 
 346. Philip admii.'ed to the 
 Amphictyonic Council. 
 
 345. Duras buried by an earth- 
 quake. 
 
 343. Thrace tributaiy to Mace- 
 don. 
 
 Aristotle appointed tutor 
 to Alexander. 
 
 ^2 
 
 323 
 
 Egypt conquered by Alexan- 
 
 de 
 
 Alexandria built. 
 
 Ptolemy 1, 
 
 £U&.) 
 
 (Soter, son of La- 
 
 341. Philip makes war upon 
 Athens. 
 
 ■340. — lays siege to Byzantium. 
 Timoleon recovers Syra- 
 cuse, expels Dionysius, the 
 tyrant, and defeats the Car- 
 thaginians at Agrigentum. 
 
 338. Philip defeats the Greeks 
 at Cheronea. 
 
 336. Philip is murdered by 
 Pausanias. 
 
 ALEXANDER III., sur- 
 named the Great. — Ke rava- 
 ges Greece, destroys Thebes, 
 sparing the house of Pindar. 
 
 335. — is chosen generalissimo 
 of Greece against Persia. 
 
 3-34. — invades Persia, and after 
 several great battles (see 
 '■'■Asia") subdues the Per- 
 sian empire and Egypt, and 
 marches into India. 
 
 345. Twelve cities ir Campa- 
 nia buried by an earth [uake. 
 
 343. Samnian War, whiilicisn- 
 tinues 53 years. 
 
 340. P. Decius &e votes him> 
 self for his country. 
 
 All Campania is sutdued. 
 
 330. jEschines, the orator, 
 banished. 
 
 325. Demosthenes banished. 
 
 323. Death of Alexander. — 
 The Grecian cities revolt 
 from Macedon. — Demosthe- 
 nes recalled. 
 
 322. The Greeks defeated by 
 sea and land near Cranon. 
 Death of Demosthenes. 
 
 321. Antipater, regent. 
 
 319. Polysperchon succeeds 
 Antipater, and proclaims 
 liberty to the Grecian cities- 
 
 332. The Caledonian mo- 
 narchy (Scotland) founded 
 by Fergus I. 
 
 325. Papirlus Cursor, Dictator. 
 
 321. The Samnites make thfl 
 Romans pass under the yokec 
 
 320. The Samnites defeated aJ 
 Luceria. 
 
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 The Seventh Period. — {The Grecian^- 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 317 
 
 Commerce of Macedon with 
 India, through Egypt. 
 
 
 
 312 
 310 
 
 The Appian Way constructed. 
 — The Gnomon invented to 
 measure altitudes. 
 
 Aqueducts and batfis in Rome. 
 
 311. Judea subject to Al-.tigo- 
 nus. 
 
 312. SYRIA. Seleucus, Nicator 
 
 311. Seleucus Nicator retakes 
 
 Babylon. 
 
 Era of the Seleucidce. 
 310. Eumeles usurps the 
 
 throne of Bosphorus, putting 
 
 to death all his brothers. 
 
 After a reign of six years, is 
 
 murdered. 
 
 30.5. War in India, against 
 Sandrocottus. 
 
 300 
 
 Euclid, of Alexandria, the 
 celebrated mathematician. — 
 Zeno, founder of the Stoics ; 
 — Pyrrho, of the Skeptics ; 
 Epicurus, of the Epicu- 
 reans. — Bion, of Borysthe- 
 nes, philosopher. 
 
 The great Chinese Wall built. 
 
 301. Judea under the domi- 
 nion of the Ptelemies. 
 
 301. Battle of Ipsus.—Antigo- 
 nus killed. 
 
 ALEXANDER'S EM- 
 PIRE DIVIDED in four 
 parts. ~ Ptolemy, Seleucus, 
 Cassander. Lysimachus. 
 
 Mithridates III., king of 
 Pontus, 
 
 293 
 
 The first sundial erected at 
 Rome by Papirius Cui'sor, 
 and the time first divided 
 into hours. 
 
 
 291. Seleucus founds Antioch 
 Edessa, and Laodicea. 
 
 290 
 
 Fabius introduces painting at 
 Rome. 
 
 Tiie Colossus of Rhodes 
 built by Chares, of Lindus. 
 
 
 
 285 
 
 Theocrites, the father of pas- 
 toral poetry. 
 
 Dionysius, the astronomer at 
 Alexandria, begins his era. 
 He found the solar year to 
 consi.st of 365 days, 5 hours, 
 and 49 minutes. 
 
 
 285. The Scythians it adt 
 Bosphorus. 
 
 2S4 
 
 The Septuagint translation of 
 the Old Testament, begun at 
 Alexandria, by order of Pto- 
 lemy Phil idelphus. 
 
 284. The sect of the Sadducees. 
 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 29 
 
 184 years. — (Continued.) 
 
 Africa. 
 
 307 
 
 306 
 
 Greece. 
 
 Agathocles is defeated by the 
 
 Carthaginians. 
 Peace between Sicily and Car- 
 
 thase. 
 
 318. Phocion put to death by 
 the Athenians. 
 
 317. Cassander assumes 
 the government of Macedon. 
 Demetrius Phalerius gov- 
 erns Athens. 
 
 315. Cassander rebuilds Thebes, 
 and founds Cassandria. 
 
 312. Epirus : P y r r h u s II., 
 
 the greatest hero of his time. 
 
 Rome, etc. 
 
 306. Democracy established at 
 Athens by Demetrius. 
 
 304. Athenians repulsed from 
 Rhodes. 
 
 303. Demetrius Poliorcetes, 
 general of the Grecian States. 
 
 300. Resfc^ratiori of Democracy 
 at Athens. 
 
 291. Death of Cassander. — 
 Alexander and Antipater 
 succeed. 
 
 296. Siege of Athens, by De- 
 metrius. 
 
 294. Demetrius murders Alex- 
 ander, and seizes the throne 
 of Macedon. 
 
 287. Athens revolts from De- 
 metrius. 
 
 i6. Pyrrhus expelled from 
 Macedon, 
 
 284. The Achaean Republic. 
 
 317. Syracuse and Sicily usurp 
 ed by Agathocles. 
 
 312. War with the Etruscans. 
 
 310. The Carthaginians defeat 
 Agathocles, and besiege Sy- 
 racuse. 
 
 308. Fabius Maximua 
 defeats the Samnites. 
 
 303. Establishment of tha 
 Tribus Urbance,. 
 
 300. First Plebeian High Priest. 
 
 290. End of the Samnite War. 
 
 36. Law of Hortensius, by 
 
 which the decrees of th« 
 people had the force of those 
 of the senate. 
 
THE world's PROGE.ESS. 
 
 The Seventh Period.— (The Gredan.)- 
 
 0. Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 aso 
 
 ,^1 
 
 The Pharos built at Alexan- 
 dria, the fii-st light-house on 
 record. 
 
 Phileicerns, of Pergamus, pa- 
 tron of the arts, especially 
 Architecture. 
 
 Alexandria, the resort of the 
 learned, and centre of trade. 
 
 Chariots armed with scythes, 
 a-tid fortified camps, in use. 
 
 276 
 
 First society of critics formed, 
 
 267 
 266 
 
 264 
 
 Ptolemy makes a :anal from 
 
 the Nile to the Red Sea. 
 Silver money first coined. 
 
 The Parian Chronicle com- 
 posed. 
 
 Gladiators first exhibited at 
 Rome. 
 
 256 Berosiis, the historian of Ba- 
 bylon. 
 
 855 The armillary sphere invented 
 by Erastosthenes. who made 
 the first attempt to determiie 
 the length of a degree. 
 
 Greece Instructs the Romans 
 in the arts and sciences. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 282. The kingdom of PER- 
 GAMUS founded by Pliile- 
 t&rus. 
 
 281. Lysimachus defeated and 
 killed by Seleucus.— Antic- 
 chus Soter succeeds Ssleu- 
 cus. 
 
 266. Ariobarzanes III., ki ^g t»f 
 
 Pontus. 
 
 262. Antiochus Soter def.ate^ 
 at Sardis. 
 
 256. Kingdom of PAR HIIA 
 
 founded by Arsaces. 
 255. The fourth imperia, dy 
 
 nasty of China begins 
 
 252. Mithridates IV., bes eged 
 in his capital by the G evils. 
 
 248. Onias II. high prie-t 
 
THE world's progress, 
 
 31 
 
 184 years. — (Continued.) 
 
 B.C. 
 
 283 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus king of 
 Egypt. 
 
 269 
 
 256 
 
 251 
 
 Egypt first seads ambassadors 
 to Rome. 
 
 Regulus invades Africa, and is 
 defeated by Xantippus, a 
 Spartan general. 
 
 Metellus defeats Asdrubal. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 283. Lysimachia destroyed by 
 an earthquake. 
 
 281. Lysimachws defeated an 
 slain by Seleucus. 
 
 The Achaean League of 
 12 states, under Aratus, of 
 Sicyon. 
 
 279. Irrruption of the Gauls 
 
 under Brennus. 
 278. — they are defeated near 
 
 Delphi. 
 277. Antigonus Gonatus, king 
 
 of Macedoii. 
 
 274. Pyrrhus invades Mace- 
 don, defeats Antigonus, and 
 is proclaimed king. 
 
 Rome, bto. 
 
 283. The Gauls and 
 ricms subdued. 
 
 Etrvf 
 
 281. The Tarentine War. 
 
 280. The Tarentines seek the 
 alliance of Pyrrhus, who 
 conquers the Romans at 
 Pandosia, and at 
 
 279 — Asculum. 
 
 278. Sicily conquered by Pyrr- 
 hus. 
 
 275. Curius defeats Pyrrhus, 
 and compels him to leave 
 Italy. 
 
 272. Pyrrhus besieges Sparta 272. Fall of Tarentum. 
 and Argos — is slain, and An- 
 tigonus is restored. 
 
 268. Athens taken by Antigo- 
 nus Gonatus. 
 
 Second incursion of the 
 Gauls into Macedon. 
 
 266. Rome mistress of all Italy : 
 census of the city 292,224. 
 
 264. The first PUNIC WAR. 
 — Appius Claudius drives 
 Hiero from Syracuse. 
 
 260. D u i 1 1 u s gains a vic- 
 tory over the Carthaginiaa 
 fleet. 
 
 256. Regulus gains ano- 
 ther victory. 
 
 255. The Lacedemonians as-- 
 sisting Carthage. — Xantip- 
 pus defeats Regulus, and 
 takes him prisoner. 
 
 254. Palermo besieged by tha 
 Romans. — About this tima 
 the Huns are first heard of, 
 governed by Teuman. 
 
 249. Naval fight at Drapanum, 
 
 255. Antigonus liberates 
 Athens. 
 
 Athens joins the Achaean 
 league. 
 
 251. Sicyon joins the Achaean 
 league. 
 
 250. The Romans begin to re- 
 sort to Greece for improve- 
 ment in knowledge. — Par- 
 thia revolts from Macedon. 
 
32 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 Tiie Seventh Period. — {The Grecian)— 
 
 ■^0 
 
 233 
 
 225 
 
 224 
 
 219 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Agi arianism attempted in 
 Spafla, but is put down. 
 
 ComecJies first acted at Rome, 
 those ofLivius Andronicus. 
 
 The orisirval MSS. of Mschtj- 
 lus, iluripides and Soj)ho- 
 cles, lent by the AtbeTiians 
 to Ptolenay, eav a pledge of 15 
 talents. 
 
 F'ahiws Fictor, the first Roman 
 historian. 
 
 Appollanius Rhoditts, poet. — 
 CbrysippiRj, Stoic jmiloso- 
 pher. 
 
 Archimedes-j the raathemati- 
 craii^ deinonstrates the pro- 
 perties of the lever, and 
 other mechanieal powers, 
 also the art of measuring 
 solids and surfaces, and conic 
 sections — constructs aiplam- 
 tarium. 
 
 The art of Surs-ery introdliced. 
 An eclipse of the moon ob- 
 serveo in Asis Minos. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 237. Simon II., High Priest. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 ai6. Antiochus II. poisoned by 
 his wife. 
 
 241. Attalus I., king of Piiga- 
 mus. 
 
 ^6. Seleucus HI., k. of Syria 
 
 224. The Colossus of Rhadei 
 thrown down. 
 
 213. Chi Hoig Ti destroys th* 
 records of tlie Chinese em- 
 pire. 
 
 211. Antiochus tht 
 Great, king of Syria. 
 
THE world's mOGRESS. 
 
 33 
 
 184 years. — (Continued.) 
 
 B.C. 
 
 247 
 216 
 
 2:^ 
 
 237 
 
 '£>:i 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Hamilcar Barcas, general of 
 
 the Carthaginians. 
 Ptolemy Eurgetes subdues Sy 
 
 ria. 
 
 End of the Libyan War. 
 Hamilcar with Hannibal, pass- 
 es into Spain. 
 
 Carthagena in Spain, built by 
 Asdrubal. 
 
 221 
 
 219 
 
 Ptolemv Philopater, king of 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Conquests of Hannibal, 
 the Carthaginian, i i Spain ; 
 He crosses the Alp?. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 243. Corinth taken by A ratus. 
 
 242. Demetrius H., of Mace- 
 don. 
 
 241. Agis, king of Sparta, put 
 to death for attempting to es- 
 tablish an Agrarian law. 
 
 240. Cleanihus, the Stoic, 
 starves himself. 
 
 232. Philip HI., of Macedon. 
 
 228. Roman ambassadors first 
 appear at Athens and Co- 
 rinth. 
 
 The fortress of the Athe- 
 naeum built. 
 
 226. Cleomenes, king of Spar- 
 ta, defeats the Acheeans. — 
 Lyscades killed. — The Agra- 
 rian law restored. 
 
 225. The Roznans send another 
 embassy to Greece. They 
 are admitted to a share in 
 the Isthmian games, and 
 granted the freedom of Ath- 
 ens. 
 
 223. Cleomenes takes Megalo- 
 polis. 
 222. Battle of Sellasia. 
 
 220. The SocialWai 
 — Philip, of Macedon, as- 
 sists the Achasans. — Cleome- 
 nes dies in Eyypt. — Agesi- 
 polis and Lycurgus elected 
 kings of Sparta. 
 
 218. Acanania ceded to Philip. 
 
 21.5. Aratus poisoned at 
 
 j3Egium. 
 214. First Macedonian War 
 
 21L Alliance of Philip with 
 Hannibal. 
 
 Rome, etc. 
 
 247. Hamilcar defeats the Ro- 
 mans at Liliboeum. 
 
 241. End of the first P-jmi« 
 War. 
 
 231. Sardinia and Corsica con- 
 quered by Rome. 
 
 225. The Gauls repulsed in 
 Italy. 
 
 224. The Romans first cross 
 
 the Po. 
 223. Colonies of P 1 a c e n - 
 
 t i a and Cremona. 
 222. Insubria (Milan) and Ligu- 
 
 ria (Genoa) conquered by 
 
 Rome. 
 
 219. Hannibal takes Sagun- 
 tum, and crosses the Alps. 
 
 218. The Second P u n i o 
 War .—The Romans de- 
 feated by Hannibal at T i - 
 c i n i s and T r e b i a . 
 
 217. F 1 a m i n i u s defeated 
 at Thrasymene. 
 
 216. Varro at C a n n ae to- 
 totally defeated by Hannibal. 
 Fabius Maximue, 
 Dictator. 
 
 212. Syracuse and Sicily con- 
 quered by Marcelius. 
 — Archimedes killed. 
 
 211. The Carthaginians drivei 
 from Capua. 
 
 2* 
 
34 
 
 THE WORLD S FR0GRE5S. 
 
 The Seventh Period. — ( The Grecian.)-^ 
 
 Progress of Societt, etc. 
 
 2i)7 Enniiis, of Calabria, poet: 
 Sotion, of Alexandria, a 
 grammarian. 
 
 200 
 
 202 
 
 200 
 
 198 
 
 Plautus, of Urnbria, the co- 
 mic poet; Appollonius, of 
 Perga, mathematician; Ze- 
 710, of Tarsus, the philoso- 
 pher. 
 
 Gold coined at Rome. 
 
 The art of printing in China. 
 
 Aristonymus 4th, librarian of 
 
 Alexandria. 
 Cams Leiiiis, the Roman 
 
 orator. 
 
 Books, with leaves of vellum, 
 introduced by Attains, king 
 of iPergamus, in lieu of rolls. 
 
 18S A total edips.", of the sun at 
 Rome. 
 Asiatic luxuries brought to 
 Rome. 
 
 1H3 
 
 180 
 
 A comet vi.iible 80 days. 
 Bion and Moschus, comic 
 poets. 
 
 Slatius Ccccilius, comic poet. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 203. .lUDEA CONdUERED ^Y 
 
 Antiochus the Great. 
 
 201. Onias III., High Priest. 
 
 200 .Je'sus, the son of Sirach, 
 
 writes Ecclesiasticus.\ 
 
 198. The Jews assist Antio- 
 chus in expelling Scopas and 
 the Egyptian troops from 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 First mention of a Senate or 
 Sanhedrim. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 206. The dynasty of H a a In 
 China. 
 
 197. Eumenes, king of Perga- 
 
 raus. 
 196. Hannibal joins Antiochus, 
 
 who seizes the Thracian 
 
 Chersonesa, 
 
 192. Syria at war with Rome. 
 190. Scipio Asiaticus defeats 
 Antiochus at Magnesia. 
 
 187. Antiochus killed in the 
 temple of Jupiter Belus.— 
 Syria becomes a 
 Roman province. 
 
 186. The city of Artaxala (in 
 Armenia) built. 
 
 18.5. Seleucus IV., king of Sy- 
 ria. 
 
 133. Phamacesl., king of Pon 
 tus, conquers S i n o f e . 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 35 
 
 184 years. — (Continued.) 
 
 204 
 
 202 
 
 198 
 
 193 
 
 180 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of 
 Egypt. 
 
 The Roman general Scipio be- 
 sieges Utica, and takes in 
 one day the camps of Asdru- 
 bal and Syphax. 
 
 Hannibal recalled.— Sophonis- 
 ba poisoned by Masinissa. 
 
 Hannibal defeated at Z a m a . 
 — End of the 2d Punic War. 
 
 Treaty of Carthage with Ma- 
 sinissa, king of Numidia. 
 
 Egypt loses her Syrian posses- 
 sions. 
 
 Masinissa harasses the Cartha- 
 ginians, and injures their 
 commerce. 
 
 Ptolemy PVilometer, king of 
 Egypt. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 38. Battleof Lamia, near Elis. 
 — Philip, of Macedon, de- 
 feats the jEtolians. 
 
 206. Battle of Mantinea : 
 Philopcemen, the Prae- 
 tor of Achaia, defeats the 
 Spartans. 
 
 200. The Rhodians defeat the 
 Macedonian fleet near Chios. 
 — Siege of Abydos. — Second 
 Macedonian War begins. 
 
 198. The Achreans and Spar- 
 tans join the Romans against 
 Macedon. 
 
 197. Philip III. defeated at Cy- 
 nocephalse by the Romans, 
 under Flaminius. 
 
 195. Flaminius, the Roman, 
 quarrels with Nabis, king of 
 Sparta. 
 
 189. Epirus declared free by 
 
 the Romans. 
 188. Philopffimen abrogates 
 
 che laws of Lycurgus in 
 
 Sparta. 
 
 183. Philopoemen defeated and 
 killed by Dinocrates, king of 
 Messinia, 
 
 Rome, etc. 
 
 210. Scipio takes New 
 Carthage, and conquers As- 
 drubal. 
 
 207. Nero and Livy defeat As- 
 drubal at Metaurus — Asdru- 
 bal killed. 
 
 206. The Carthaginians driven 
 out of Spain. 
 
 201. Scipio carries the 'Kai 
 into Africa. 
 
 201. Scipio carries Syphax in 
 triumph to Rome. 
 
 197. Flaminius victorious in 
 Macedon. 
 
 195. C a t o in Spain. 
 
 190. War with Antiochus, of 
 Syria, who is totally defeat- 
 ed by L. C. Scipio, and 
 
 188. Syria is made a Roman 
 province. 
 
 187. Scipio Africanus banish- 
 ed from Rome. 
 
 183. Cato,the elder, censor 
 181. Plague at Rome. 
 
 180. Death of Scipio kfnatr 
 
 nus. 
 179. Numa's books founi in a 
 
 stone coffin at Rome. 
 
36 
 
 THE WOE.LD S PROGRESS. 
 
 The Seventh Period. — (The Grecian. )- 
 
 N. o. PBoaRESs OF Society, etc. 
 
 17: 
 
 168 
 
 167 
 
 162 
 
 161 
 
 159 
 
 Paper invented in China. 
 
 Poli/bius, historian of Greece 
 and Rome. 
 
 The comedies of Terence per- 
 formed. 
 
 An eclipse of the moon, which 
 was predicted by Q. S Gal- 
 lus. 
 
 The first library opened at 
 Rome, consisting of books 
 brought from Macedon. 
 
 The Roman treasury is so rich 
 that the citizens pay no 
 taxes. 
 
 Hijyparchus of Nice fixes the 
 first degree of longitude and 
 latitude at Ferro, whose 
 most western point was 
 made the first general meri- 
 dian — lays the foundation of 
 Trigonometry. 
 
 Philosophers and rhetoriciaps 
 banished from Rome. 
 
 Tlie clepsydra or water clock 
 invented by Scipio Nascia. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 176. Heliodorus in Jerusalem. 
 
 175. Jason obtains the high 
 
 priesthood by corruption. 
 
 172. Jason defeated by Mene- 
 laus. 
 
 170. Jerusalem and the temple 
 plundered by Antiochus 
 Epiphanes, who attempts to 
 abolish the Jewish religion, 
 and commits great cruelties. 
 
 167. Matthias, High Priest. 
 
 165. Judas Maccabeus ex- 
 pels the Syrians, and puri- 
 fies the temple. ' 
 
 Asia. 
 
 172. Antiochus IV. (.Epipha- 
 nes) king of Syria. 
 
 171 — declares war against Pto- 
 lemy Philomater. 
 
 170. An irruption of TarUiM 
 into China. 
 
 150 
 
 Hipparchiis, of Rhodes, astro- 
 nomer. — Aristarchus, of 
 Alexandria, grammarian. 
 
 161. Judas kills Nicanor — is 
 succeeded by Jonathan. 
 
 First treaty with the Ro- 
 mans. 
 
 158. Jonathan compels the Bac- 
 chides to withdraw — is mur- 
 dered by Tryphon. 
 
 166. Prusias, kii ^ of i ithynia. 
 
 164. Antiochus Epiphanes 
 
 died. 
 162. Demetrius Soter, king o< 
 
 Syria. 
 
 Mithridates Philopater, 
 
 king of Cappadocia. 
 
 150. Jews ta je Jopfa. 
 
 157. Mithridates V., king (f. 
 Pontus. 
 
 153. Ariarathes VII., king o. 
 
 Cappadocia. 
 
 150. Alexander Bala kills De 
 metrius,and takes the throne, 
 
 149. Prusias, of Bithynia, kill 
 ed by his son NicomefiM 
 
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 iS4 years. — (Continued.) 
 
 27 
 
 Africa. 
 
 1 74 Cat"- e ambassy to Carthage. 
 
 155. Embassy of Diogenes, 
 Carniades, and Critolaus to 
 Rome. 
 
 152 JM issinissa defeats the Cartha- 152. Andriscus usxirping the 
 / ginians. government of Macedon, is 
 
 15J Joint reign of Philomater and conquered by Metellus, 
 Pliyscon in Egypt. 
 
 116 
 
 Greece. 
 
 RCiM'S, ETC. 
 
 178. Perseus, king of Mace- 
 don. 
 
 171. Third Macedonian War. 
 
 168. Perseus defeated at Pyd- 
 na, by Paulus Emilius.— 
 Macedon becomes a Ro- 
 han Province. 
 
 165. Romans enter Achaia. 
 
 170. Tibc rius and Caiua 
 Gracchua. 
 
 167. Census 327,033. 
 
 CARTHAGE TAKEN and 
 
 destroyed. 
 
 147. Metellus defeats the Acli- 
 seans in Greece. 
 
 146. Corinth tai<en and de- 
 stroyed by Mummius. — 
 GREECE becomes a RO- 
 MAN PROVINCE under 
 the name of Achaia. 
 
 155. Romans unsucces&ful la 
 Spain. 
 
 151. Defeat of Ga'ba. 
 
 49. Third Punic War. 
 
 Conquest of C-arthagcf and 
 of Corinth. 
 
 Greece annexed to the 
 Roman empire. 
 
36 
 
 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 
 
 EIGHTPI PERIOD.— (T/^e Roman.)- 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Progress of Society, etc, 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 146 
 
 Alexandria, the centre of com- 
 merce. 
 
 
 
 143 
 
 mpparchus begins his new 
 
 
 
 
 cycle of the moon. 
 
 L42. Simon, High Priest. 
 
 
 140 
 
 Toothed tchcals applied to the 
 clepsydra by Ctesibius. 
 
 
 
 137 
 
 Learning and learned men 
 
 
 137. Antiochus lV.,(Sidete9,) 
 
 
 liberally patronized by Ptol- 
 
 
 king of S^^ria. 
 
 
 emy Physcon. 
 
 
 
 
 Oiodorus and Satyrus, peri- 
 
 
 
 
 jiateiics ; Nicander. physi- 
 
 
 
 
 cian and poet ; Lucius Ac- 
 
 13.5. End of the Apocrypha. — 
 
 
 
 cius, tragic poet ; Aristobu- 
 
 Jerusalem besieged by An- 
 
 
 
 lus, the Jewish peripatetic. 
 
 tiochus IV. 
 
 134. Antiochus invades Judea. 
 
 J 33 
 
 Equestrian order, a distinct 
 class. 
 
 \ 
 
 
 130 
 
 Revival of learning- in China. 
 
 130. John Hyrcanus delivers 
 
 130. Antiochus IV. defeated 
 
 
 
 Judea from the Syrian yoke : 
 
 and killed in a war with Par- 
 
 
 
 — reduces Samaria and Idu- 
 
 thia. 
 
 
 
 mea. 
 
 129. Demetrius 11. (Nicator) 
 
 regains Syria. 
 123. Mithridates the Great, 
 
 120 
 
 The theory of eclipses known 
 to the Chinese. 
 
 
 kir;g of Pontus. 
 
 116 
 
 L. Caslius Antipater, histo- 
 rian ; Lucillius, tiie first 
 Roman satirist; Apollodo- 
 rus, of Athens, chronologist ; 
 Castor, of Rhodes, clifono- 
 logist; Antheinon, philoso- 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 piiier. 
 
 
 III. l\ftthridates conquers Bey- 
 
 110 
 
 Fira' sumptuary laic at Rome. 
 
 
 thia, Bo.?phorus, CoJ ihifc 
 
 
 
 108. Hyrcanus destroys Sama- 
 
 &c. 
 
 
 
 ria. 
 
 
 
 
 107. — succeeded by his son 
 
 
 
 
 Aristobulus, who first as- 
 
 
 
 
 sumes the title of king. 
 
 
 
 
 10.5. Alexander Janneus at 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 war with Egypt— takes Ga- 
 za. — Rebellion excited by 
 
 
 
 
 the Pharisees. 
 
 ' 
 
THE world's trogress. 
 1 46 years. — lAdl of Greece to Lite Christian Era. 
 
 39 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Commerce of the y>'orki cen- 
 tres at Alexandria. 
 
 Pio.i'my Fnysctni beconiea 
 soie king of Egypt by the 
 deaih ol" Fnnornaier. 
 
 Ptolemy Physcon driven Trom 
 his throne lor his cruelty. 
 
 Pestilence in Egypt. 
 
 Car.aage rebuilt. 
 
 Death of Micipsa, king of 
 ISdinidia, and ihe assassina- 
 ti' a of Jliempsal by Jugur- 
 tha. 
 
 Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of 
 E-ypt. 
 
 Jugurthme War. 
 
 Alexander I , king of Egypt. 
 
 Jugurtha is defeated andsur- 
 r( iiders Nuinidia to the r».o- 
 
 Roman Eivj^irs. 
 
 Ill tliP, East. 
 
 133. PiiRGAMUs, a Roman 
 Province. 
 
 118. Dalmatia, a Roman 
 Province. 
 
 hi Europe. 
 
 141. Numantian Wai*. 
 
 140. The Picts from the norlh 
 
 of England settle in thr south 
 
 of Scotland. 
 
 135. Servile varinSiLJf. 
 
 133. Numaniia destroyed by 
 Scipio : ISpain becomes a 
 Roman Pkovinck. 
 
 Death of Tiberius Grac- 
 chus. 
 
 123. Tribunate of a i u 8 
 Gracchus. 
 
 1 13. First great migration oj 
 iJie German nations . 
 
 109. War of the Teuton! and 
 Cimbri. 
 
 100. Nuinidia beamics a Ro- 
 man province by tiie di^ftat 
 of .Tu.giirtlia. 
 
 104 The Teuroni defeat SOIXX) 
 Romans on 'lie banks of t!.a 
 Rhone. 
 
 102. iNI a r i u s victorious 
 over ihe Teutoni and Ambro- 
 ' nes at A(iuee Sexife. 
 
 101. Marius and Catullus de- 
 feat the Cimbri. 
 
 100. Marius buys his sixth con- 
 sulate. 
 
 Banishment of Metellua 
 
40 
 
 THE WORLD S rilOGRESS. 
 
 TJte Eigldh Period . — [The Koman.)-^ 
 
 B.O 
 
 Progress of gooiKTY, iSTC, 
 
 The .Tews. 
 
 86 
 
 Libraries of Athens ?ent to 
 Rome by Syi la. 
 
 
 82 
 
 Decline of Agricu.Uure in 
 Italy ; corn supplied Irom 
 the provinces. 
 
 
 79 
 
 Posidonius calculates the 
 
 79. Alexandra, widow of .Tan- 
 
 
 height of the atmospliere to 
 
 neus, governs Judea. 
 
 
 be about 800 stadia. 
 
 
 7S 
 
 Zenn, ol'Sidon.the Epicurean ; 
 Apell?i:(in of Athens; Ales- 
 andnr Puli/j)/iistor,ihe gram- 
 marian ; Pkutius Gallus. 
 rhetorician ; Q. Valerius 
 Anlias^ Roman historian ; 
 Q. Hortensius, orator. 
 
 
 74 
 
 The dterrtj tree brought to 
 F^urnpe lYum Asia by Lu- 
 cuUus. — Teretitivs Varro 
 writes three books on agri- 
 culture. 
 
 The Romans possess gold 
 mine.s in Asia Minor. Mace- 
 doniii., Sardinia and (Jaul ; 
 and productive silcer mines 
 in Spain. 
 
 
 70 
 
 The tirst mater mill described 
 
 70. Hyrcanus II., High Priest, 
 
 
 near a dwelling of Mithri- 
 
 deposed by his brother Aris- 
 
 
 dates. 
 
 tobulus. 
 67. Aristobulus and Hyrcanus 
 
 m 
 
 Ehony introduced at Rome by 
 
 appeal to Pompey, who en- 
 
 
 Pompey. 
 
 ters Judea and takes Jerusa- 
 
 
 VikmuutdHiin kin? of Ozene, 
 
 lem, and restores Hyrcanus 
 
 
 in India, jiatron of literature 
 
 to the priesthood. 
 
 
 — at his court fliiiiri?h Ame- 
 
 
 
 ra i>i>ika, le.\-icogra|iher ; 
 
 
 
 Varcirvchi, grammairian • 
 
 
 
 Kalidasa^ poet. 
 
 63. JUDEA A ROMAN FRO- 
 VINCE. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 9S. China sti' eubmits to tha 
 
 11 a n dyna>-ty ; S e m a t • 
 
 z i n , Emperor. 
 97. Mithridates conquers Cap- 
 
 padocia. 
 95. Cappadocia declared frca 
 
 by Rome. — Ariobarzanaa 
 
 elected king. 
 94. AntiocJius, king of Syriaj 
 
 defeated ty Seleucus. 
 93. Tigranes, king of Arnie- 
 
 nia. 
 
 Pontus at war with Rome. 
 
 . Mithridates takes Bythi- 
 nia and several Roman'pro- 
 vinces. 
 83. Tigranes made king of 
 Syria. 
 
 75. By the death of Nicome- 
 des Bythinia becomes a 
 province. 
 
 70. Damascu-g possessed oy 
 
 the Romans. 
 69. Mitlu'idates and Tigranes 
 
 defeated by Lucullus. 
 66. Mithridates defeated by 
 
 Pompey. 
 
 65. Antiochus XII. defeated 
 by Pompey. — The race of 
 the Seleucidae becomes ex- 
 tinct. — Ariobarzanes II., 
 king of Oappadocia. — An 
 earthquake in Bosphonti 
 lays in ruins several town.s. 
 
 6*1. Dejotarus, king of Galai j-4, 
 seizes Armenia Minor. 
 
 53. Pharmaces, king of Pontu* 
 
THE WORLD'S TE OGRESS. 
 
 41 
 
 146 years. — (Continued.) 
 
 Africa. 
 
 97 By the death of Ptolemy 
 Apion, Cyrenb becomes a 
 Roman province. 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 In Asia and Africa. 
 
 97. Annexation of Cyrene. 
 
 66 
 
 Revolt in Upper Egypt.— 
 
 Thebas destroyed. 
 Alexander II., king of Egypt. 
 
 89. Milhridatic War; Sylla 
 commands the Roman army. 
 
 88. The Athenians seek as- 
 sistance from Mithridates 
 against Rome. 
 
 86. Athens, reduced by famine, 
 is taken by Sylla. 
 
 83. Second Mithridatic War. 
 82. Sylla plunders the temple 
 of Delphi. 
 
 In Europe. 
 
 99. Lusitania conquered 
 by Dolabella, and becomes 
 a Roman province. — Birth 
 of Julius Ceesar, 
 
 91. Social War in Italy. 
 
 88- Sylla defeating the 
 Marsi and Peligni, puts aa 
 end to the Social War. 
 
 Civil War between Ma- 
 rias and Sylla. 
 
 82. Sylla defeats Marius, and 
 is cxeaiedi perpetual dictator. 
 
 SO. JULIUS CESAR'S First 
 
 79. P m p e y defeats Dc- 1 Campaign. 
 mitius in Africa. 
 
 Ptolemy Aaletes, king 
 Egypt. 
 
 of 
 
 75. Bythinia a Roman 
 Province. 
 
 74. Third Mithridatic War 
 under Lucullus. 
 
 66. Metellus subdues Crete. 
 P n t u s becomes a 
 
 Roman Province. 
 65. Syria, a Roman 
 
 Province. 
 
 n. Sertorius revolts in Spam 
 and defeats MeteUus and 
 Pompey. 
 
 73. War of Spartacus, the gla 
 diator. 
 
 71. Spartacus defeated by Cras 
 sus. " ^ 
 
 70. Pompey and Cras 
 
 sus Consuls. 
 69. Census 450,090. 
 
 65. M. T. Cicero, Consul. 
 
 63. Cataline's Conspi- 
 racy detected and sup 
 pressed by Cicero. 
 
4'^ 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 The Eighth Pei-iod. — (The Roman.)- 
 
 B.C. Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 Magnificent houses of the 
 nobles; onarble theatre of 
 Scaurus, to hold 30,000 spec- 
 tators. 
 
 Cicero, statesman and orator ; 
 Sallust, historian; Lucre- 
 tius and Catullus, poets; 
 Apollonius, of Rhodes, rhe- 
 torician ; Aristojnedes, of 
 Crete, erammarian ; Andre- 
 nicus, of Rhodes, peripate- 
 tic philosopher. 
 
 Iron chain cables used by the 
 Veneti. 
 
 A water mill on the Tiber at 
 Rome. 
 
 The Alexandrian library (400,- 
 000 vols.) burnt. 
 
 The year of confusion — so 
 called because the calendar 
 was altered by Sosigenes. 
 
 C(Bsar reforms the Calendar, 
 by introducing the solar in- 
 stead of the lunar year. — 
 First Julian year. — Vitru- 
 vitis. the greatest Roman ar- 
 chitect. 
 
 Cornelius Nepos, historian ; 
 Dies lor us ^iculus, histo- 
 rian. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 53. Crassus plunders the tem- 
 ple of 10,000 talents. 
 
 3. Antipater, the Idumean, is 
 made lieutenant in Judea by 
 Csesar. 
 
 43. Judea oppressed by Cras- 
 sus. 
 
 Malichus poisons Ami- 
 pater. 
 
 40. Herod the Great, son of 
 Antipater, defeats his rival, 
 AUtigonus, and Parcorus, 
 the Parthian — takes Jerusa- 
 lem — marries Mariamne — i? 
 made king by the Romans. 
 
 53. Parthian War.— The To- 
 mans defeated. — CrasPi<« 
 slain. 
 
 49. The era of Antioch. 
 
 47. Battle of Zela.— Phartr 
 conquered by Caesar. 
 
 44. A comet seen in China. 
 
 39. The Parthians, under Pai 
 corns, defeated by Venti 
 dius. 
 
 Darius, king of Pontus. 
 38. Ariobarzanes dethroned by 
 Marc Antony. 
 
THE WOKLDS PROGRESS. 
 
 146 y-j,a7s. — (Continued.) 
 
 43 
 
 B.a 
 
 Africa. 
 
 68 
 
 46 
 
 45 
 
 Ptujemy goes to Rome, Bere- 
 lice reigns in his absence. 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 East. 
 
 TL'3 African War. — Scipio 
 aM* Juba defeated at Thap- 
 si:s — Catn kills liimself at 
 Injca. — Ptolemy Dionysius 
 ufowneri in the Nile. 
 
 Caesar rebuilds Carthage. 
 
 43 Clfjpatra jjoisons her brother 
 a' J reigns alone 
 
 53. Crassus defeated a.id killed 
 in Parthia. 
 
 48. Thessaly becomes the seat 
 of war. — The Athenians de- 
 clare for Caesar against Pom- 
 pey. 
 
 Battle of Pharsalia: — Pom- 
 pey, defeated by Caesar, flees 
 into Egypt, and is slain there. 
 
 47. Caesar takes Alexandria, 
 and conquers Egypt. — Cae- 
 sar victorious at Zela, in 
 Asia. 
 
 45. Corinth rebuilt by Caesar. 
 
 West. 
 
 60. First Triummrate : — 
 Pompey, Crassus, and Julius 
 Caesar. 
 
 Sciold, first king of Den- 
 mark. — Boh, a fierce son 
 of Odin. 
 
 58. Clodius procures the ban 
 ishment of Cicero. — The 
 Helvetii defeated by Julius 
 Caesar. 
 
 57. Cicero recallec. — S a 1 - 
 lust expelled from the 
 senate.— Gylf, king of Swe- 
 den. 
 
 55. Caesar passes the 
 Rhine, defeats the Ger- 
 mans and Gauls, and In 
 VADES Britain. 
 
 54. Caesar's second invasion 
 of Britain. 
 
 52. Pompey, sole consul. 
 
 51. Caesar completes the con- 
 quest of Gaul, which be- 
 comes a Roman province. 
 
 49. Cagsar passes the 
 Rubicon, and in sixty 
 days makes himself master 
 of Italy — marches into Spain 
 and forces Pompey's troopa 
 to surrender. 
 
 48. Battle of Dyrrhachium. 
 
 45. Caesar perpetual 
 dictator — he subdues 
 the two sons of Pompey, and 
 acquires the sole power. 
 
 44. Caesar assassinated in the 
 Senate House. 
 
 43. Second Triumvirate: — 
 Octavius Caesar, Marc An- 
 tony, and Lepidus. — Cicero 
 proscribed and murdered. 
 
 42. The Battle of Philippi :— 
 Antony and Octavius defeal 
 Brutus and Cassius. 
 
44. 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 T/ie Eighth Period. — {7'he Roma?!.)-' 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 Prooress of Society, etc. 
 
 Golden age of Roman litera- 
 ture. 
 
 The revenue of the empire 
 amounts to about 40 milhons 
 sterling. — First standiiig ar- 
 7ny in Rome. — Direct trade 
 of Rome with India. — Silk 
 and linen 'manufactories 
 in the empire. 
 
 Temple of Janus at Rome 
 closed— there being now a 
 general peace. 
 
 Treasures of Egyptian art 
 brought to Rome. — The Pan- 
 theon built. 
 
 Horace, Virgil, Tibullus, 
 Propertius, poets ; Varrus 
 and Tucca, critics ; Livy., 
 historian ; Mcucenas, minis- 
 ter of Augustus, patron of 
 literature;" Strabo, geogra 
 pher; JBinilius Macer., of 
 Verona, poet ; Agrippa, war- 
 rior, and patron of the arts. 
 
 Worship of Isis at Rome. 
 
 Pant07niinic dances intro- 
 duced on the Roman stage. 
 
 Aqueducts constructed by 
 Agrippa. 
 
 Dedications of byiks first in- 
 troduced. 
 
 The Jews. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 30. Herod kills Mariamne. 
 
 19. The Temple rebuilt by 
 Herod— he also builds Cy- 
 pron, Antipatris, Pharsaelis 
 and the to'wer of Phasael in 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 34. Antony takes possession 
 of Armenia, which liecomes 
 a Roman province — leads 
 an inglorious experJitiop 
 against Parthia. 
 
 29. E p h e s u s , next to 
 Alexandria, the chief place 
 of trade in the Roman em- 
 pire. 
 
 The legions distributed over 
 the provinces in fixed camps, 
 which soon grew into cities 
 — among them were Bonn 
 and Mayence. 
 
 The calenda" corrected by 
 
 Augustus. 
 Dionysius, of Halicarnassus. 
 historian ; and Dionysius. 
 geographer. ' 
 
 BIRTH OF OUR SAVIOUR, JESUS CHRIST, 4 years be- 
 I fore the Vulgar Era. 
 « 3. Archelaus succeeds Herod 
 
 with the title ol' Etlinarch. 
 
 Cyrenius (axes Judea. 
 
 20. Porus, king of India, soli- 
 cits an alliance with Rome. 
 Parthians defeated by Ti- 
 berius. 
 
 14. Polemon conquers 
 porus. 
 
THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. 
 
 45 
 
 146 years. — (Continued.) 
 
 18. C. 
 
 se 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 30 Alexandria taken by Octavius. 
 — Antony and Cleopatra de- 
 stroy themselves. 
 Egypt becomes % Ro- 
 man proviHiCe. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Cleoi. atra obtains from An- 
 tony a grant of Phcenicia, 
 Cyrene and Cyprus. 
 
 — receives all Asia from the 
 Mediterranean to the Indus. 
 
 Cj.eopatra and Marc Antony 
 deleated by Octavius, at 
 Actlum. 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 East. 
 
 21. Athens finally subjected to 
 
 Rome. 
 20. CXCth Olympiad. 
 
 8. Tiberius at Rhodes. 
 
 5. Q,. Varrirs appointed gcv- 
 emor of Syria, and Cyre- 
 nius governor of Judea. 
 
 West. 
 
 36. Sextus Pompey defeated 
 in Sicily. 
 
 32. Antony quarrels with Oc- 
 tavius. 
 
 31. By the BATTLE OF AC- 
 TIUM Octavius acquiieg 
 the empire. 
 
 30. THE REPUBLIC BE 
 COMES A MONARCHY. 
 
 29. OctaviuS) s3 days triumph 
 at Rome. 
 
 Temple of Janus shut. 
 Rome contains 4,101,017 
 citizens. 
 27. The titles of Augustus and 
 Emperor conferred on Octa- 
 vius for 10 years. 
 
 23. Agrippa in Spain. 
 
 22. Conspiracy of Mureena. 
 
 21. Augustus visits Greece 
 and Asia. 
 
 16. LoUius defeated by the 
 Germans. 
 
 15. Cantabria, Austria, Rhoe- 
 bia, Vindelencia and Moesia 
 become Roman provinces — 
 being conquered by Dru- 
 sus. 
 
 13. Augustus assumes the 
 title of Pontifex Maximus. 
 
 12. Pannonia, conquered by 
 Tiberius, becomes a Ro- 
 man province. 
 
 11. Germany subdued r>' Ger 
 manicus. 
 
 4. Cym'^eUne, king of Britain, 
 
PAKT II. 
 
 MODERN CHRONOLOGY, 
 
 PROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 Epochas or Periods. 
 
 I. From the Christian Era ) Period of the Ten Peraecutiona a 
 
 to the Reign of Constantine the Great, A. D. 306 \ Christians. 
 
 « Extinction of the Western Empire, « 476 ( " Northern Invasions. 
 
 III } 
 
 « Flight of Mahomet, • « G'^i " Justinian and Belisariua. 
 
 IV } 
 
 " CrowningofCharlemagneatRome, « 800 ^ " ^o.^'^'^^^ ^^i^^- 
 
 " Battle of Hastings, « 1066 \ " ^^"^ Western Empire. 
 
 VI. 
 
 " Foundmg of the Turkish Empire, « 1299' 
 
 " The Crusades. 
 
 VII. ? 
 
 « Taking of Constantinople, " H.'jS ^ " Tamerlane^Wickliffe.andHma. 
 
 vill 
 
 J" The Reformation; Discoveriea 
 and Inventions. 
 
 '-^ „ ^ , ^ i " The English Co?nmomce&lfh 
 
 • *' Death of Charles XII. of Sweden, « 1718 J and Wars of Louis XIV. 
 
 ^ „ „ , , ? " American and French Revolu- 
 
 " Battle of Waterloo, « 1815$ tions. 
 
 *• . < " European Revolutions, l/ittrt^ 
 
 •* present time (1865.) \ ture and the Arts. 
 
48 THE world's progress. 
 
 MODERN CHRONOLOGY.— PERIOD 1st.— (T7ie Ten Persecutions.)— 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Celsus the physician ; Pheedrua, the fabu- 
 list ; VeHius Paterculus, Roinaa histo- 
 rian. 
 
 Sacred. 
 
 The BIRTH OF CHRIST :— (see j9. 44.) 
 Herod Antipas being at this time tetrarch 
 of Galilee. 
 
 8. Christ reasons with the doctors. 
 
 48 
 
 fiO 
 
 The Druids in Germany. 
 
 Philo, Alexandrian Jew, disciple of Plato. 
 Seneca^ moral philosopher. 
 
 Valerius Maximus, historian. 
 
 Appion, of Alexandria, grammarian, called 
 the "Trumpet of the World." 
 
 A census being taken by Claudius, the em- 
 peror and censor, the inhabitants of Rome 
 are found to amount to 6,900,000.— ( C/wiv. 
 B'ist.)—[Mo\-e than three times the number 
 of London at present. 1 
 
 Columella, born in Spai:i ; left twelve books 
 on h\)sbandry. 
 
 25. Pontius Pilate, governor of Judea. 
 
 26. John the Baptist begins h'is ministry. 
 
 27. Chris^ baptized by John 
 
 28. — at the marriage in Cana. — Matthew 
 called. 
 
 29. Twelve disciples sent abroad, " two and 
 two." 
 
 30. CRUCIFIXION of our SAVIOUR, Fri- 
 day, April 3, at 3 P. M. ; Resurrection, 
 Sunday, April 5; Ascension, Thursday, 
 May 4. 
 
 33. St. Peter baptizes Cornelius. 
 
 34. St. Paul converted to Christianity. 
 
 39. St. Matthew writes his gospel. 
 
 40. The disciples first called Christians at 
 Antioch. 
 
 41. Herod's persecution ; St. Peter imprisoned 
 
 44. St. Mark writes his gospel. — Death of 
 St. James. 
 
 45. Barnabas and Paul preach in Cyprus. 
 
 50 Paul preaches in the Areopagus, at Athens 
 52. Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem. , 
 55. Paul preaches at Ephesus, and at Cassa- 
 
 57. — pleads before Felix. 
 59, —pleads before Festus, and app'^als tfl 
 Oasar. 
 
THE world's progress. 
 
 49 
 
 308 years. — Prom the Christian Era to the reign of Constanttne. 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 East. 
 Caius Caesar makes peace with the Parthiaos. 
 
 26 
 
 Germanicus conquers Cappadocia. 
 Germanicus poisoaed at Antioch. 
 
 Thrace becomes a Roman province. 
 
 West. 
 
 Tiberius returns to Rome. 
 
 3. Cinna's conspiracy detected. 
 
 — Caius Caesar dies. 
 6. Q,. Varrus encamped on the Weser, gov- 
 erns Lower Germany like a Roman pro- 
 vince. 
 9. The Germans, under Arrninizis, defeat and 
 kill Varrus. 
 Ovid is banished to Tomos. 
 14 Augustus dies at Nola, aged 76, and is 
 succeeded bv 
 
 Tiberius. " 
 
 (noted for his profligacy and folly,) 
 !4L Caligula assassinated by Chereas. 
 Claudius' 
 
 19. The Jews banished from Rome. — The 
 
 M;ircomauni conquered by Drusus. 
 21 . The theatre of Pompey destroyed by 5re. 
 
 26. Tiberius retires to Gaprsea, 
 
 31. Sejanus disgraced amd put tKj (featiu 
 
 33. Conquest of Mauritania. 
 
 ~. Tiberius dies, aged 78. 
 
 -C a 1 i g u 1 
 
 succeeds to the throae. 
 43. — invades Britain v/ith his general, Plaa- 
 tius. 
 
 45. Vespasian, general in Britain. 
 48. Census of 'the citj, 6,900,000. 
 
 5L CaractacBs, the chief of tlie Biitons, con- 
 quered and brought to Rome. 
 
 54. 
 
 N e r o ,^ 
 
 a profligate and bloody tyrant. 
 55. — poisons Britanicus, 
 56 Rotterdam built. 
 
 59. Nero's mother, Agr3ppina,put to ffeath by 
 his order. 
 
50 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [Modem : Period I. — 306 yean. 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Nsro's golden palace built; of great extent, 
 inclosing fields, &c. The buildings in 
 Rome more regular after the fire. 
 
 Pliny, the elder, author of the first natural 
 history ; Quintius Curtius, historian ; Per- 
 sius, satirist. 
 
 /osephus, the Jewish historian. 
 
 The Coliseum of Vespasian. 
 
 78 The Capitol rebuilt. 
 
 Circumnavigation of Scotland. 
 Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. 
 
 Very beautiful paintings in the BaiLs of 
 Titus ; the group of the Laocoon. 
 
 Qumtillicm, orator ; Valerius Flaccus, poet ; 
 Martial, Epigrammatist ; Apollonius, Vj- 
 thagoiean philosopher; Epictetus, stoic; 
 Dio Chrysostom, Greek rhetorician and phi- 
 losopher ; Philo ByHius ; Ignatius and Pa- 
 pias, two of the fathers of the church. 
 
 Sacred and Ecclesiastical. 
 
 59. Paul is shipwrecked on the leias'l of 
 Meliia (Malta). 
 
 60. Paul imprisoned at Rome 
 
 63. Paul set at liberty. 
 
 64. The first persecution of Christiana b^ 
 
 Nero. 
 
 63 to 66. Paul visits Jerusalem, and travela 
 through the greater part of the known 
 world. 
 
 66. Pope Linus.* 
 
 The Jews at war with the Romans, and 
 Paul beheaded. 
 St. Peter crucified. 
 
 67. The Jews massacred by Florus. — ^Josephus, 
 governor of Galilee. 
 
 Pope St. Clement.— Gamaliel 
 
 68. Vespasian invades Judea. 
 
 70. The destruction of Jerusalem, by T-4ua. 
 
 77. Pope St. Cletus 
 
 96 
 
 IS 
 
 Tacitus, historian ; Juvenal, satirist ; <S'/a- 
 tius, poet ; Aul. Gellius, Latin gramma- 
 rian ; Plutarch, moralist and biographer ; 
 ihe younger Pliny. 
 
 T he Ulpian library ; Public schools in all 
 the provinces ; Jurisprudence flourishes ; 
 the city adorned with the Forum ; Pillar 
 of Trajan, and baths; bridge built over 
 the Danube. 
 
 83. Pope Anaclelua. 
 
 95. Second persecution of the Cliiistiam by 
 
 Domitian. 
 
 St. John writes his Gospel and Apoca> 
 lypse, and is banished to the isle of Patsnos. 
 
 96. Pope Evaristus. 
 
 97. Timothy stoned. 
 
 St. John returns from exile. 
 
 98. Christian assemblies prohibited by Tiajan. 
 
 * The word Pope is used in accordanca 
 with the Roman Catholic usage, though th« 
 name was not adopted by their Poiitifls tiH 
 several centuries after. 
 
— Christian Era to Constantine.] 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 East. 
 
 Corbul") subdues Armenia. 
 
 Tiridates placed on the tlirone of Armenia by 
 Nero. 
 
 Judea subdued and Jerusalem destroyed by 
 
 Tiius. 
 Vespasian conquers Lycia, Rhodes, Thrace, 
 
 Cilicia, Byzantium and Samos. 
 Revolt of the Parthians. 
 
 West. 
 
 61. Revolt of the Britons under queen Boa- 
 dicea ; they burn London. The queen, de- 
 feated by &'uet.07iius, poisons herself. 
 
 64. Nero sets Rome on fire, and accuses tha 
 Christians of (he crime. 
 
 — persecutes the Cliristians — Seneca, ,2<tt* 
 cian, and others put to death. 
 
 08. 
 
 G a 1 b a , ^ 
 
 reigns 9 months, and is put to death by 
 
 69.- 
 
 O t h o , 
 
 (2 months) defeated and killed by 
 
 • V i t e 1 1 i us , 
 
 70.- 
 
 who is defeated by the army of 
 Vespasian. ^^ 
 
 77. A great plague at Rome, 10,000 dying in 
 one day. 
 
 79. 
 
 T i t u s , ^ . 
 
 (beneficent.) 
 Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed 
 by an irruption of Vesuvius. 
 80. Julius Agricola^ conqueror and governoT 
 of Britain, reduces Wales, enters Caledonia. 
 
 81. 
 
 • D o m i t i a n 
 
 ( a cruel tyrant.) 
 
 86. Dercebal, leader of the German hordes, 
 defeats Domitian, and compels him to pay a 
 yearly tribute. 
 
 88! Capitoline and secular games. ■ 
 War with Dacia 15 years. 
 
 96. Domitian put to death by Stephanus. 
 
 N e r V a , 
 
 (well intentioned but enfeebled by age.) 
 
 93.- 
 
 •Trajan,* 
 
 (a great sovereign and a warrior.) 
 The Roman Empire at its greatest extent. 
 J. Severus, general in Britain. 
 
52 
 
 THE WORLD S rROGPtESS. 
 
 [Modern : Period I — 306 years. 
 
 197 
 
 I2t 
 
 132 
 
 16 
 
 169 
 
 190 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Thi fljst credible historian among the 
 Chinese. 
 
 The great buildings of Pahnyra.- 
 
 the Sun at Baalbec. 
 The Roman inosaics. 
 
 ■ Temple of 
 
 Jurisprudence improved by the publishment 
 of Adrian's perpetual code. 
 
 Ptolemy., the celebi-ated Egyptian astronomer 
 and geographer — Arrian, Appian, Maxi- 
 m,tis, Lysius and Pausanius, Greek histo 
 rians ; Lucian, a satirical writer ; Hermo- 
 genes^ rhetorician of Tarsus. 
 
 Tschang Heng, the Chinese astronomer 
 
 Cfalen, Greek physician ; Athcbmus, a gram- 
 marian; Diogenes Laertius.^ Greek histo- 
 rian. 
 
 The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 100. St. John dies at Ephesus, aet. 9-1. 
 
 107. Third persecution of the Christiana by 
 
 Trajan. 
 10:^. St. Ignatms devoured by wild beasts. 
 Pope Alexa'nder I. 
 
 118. Fourth persecution of the Christiar.g by 
 Adrian. 
 
 119. Pope Sixtus I. 
 
 126. Quadi-attis, bishop of Athena. 
 
 127. Pope Telesphorus. 
 
 130. Heresy of Prodicus, chief of the Ada- 
 unites. 
 
 134. Heresy of Marcion, who acknowledges 
 
 three Gods. 
 13.5. Polycarp and Aristides, Christian fathers 
 
 139. Pope Hygenus. 
 
 142. Pope Pius I. 
 
 Heresy of Valentine. 
 
 150. Pope Anicetus. 
 
 Canon of Scripture fixed about this time 
 
 154. Justin Martyr publishes his apology fo 
 the Christians. 
 
 162. PopeSoter. 
 
 167. Polycarp and Pionices martyred in Asia 
 
 171. Pope Eleutherus. 
 177. The Christians persecuted at Ljt u. 
 Theophilus, Tatian, and Montanaa. 
 
 135. Pope Victor I. 
 St. IrencBua. 
 
■Cliristlan Era to Conskmtiae.j 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS, 
 
 53 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 East. 
 
 Pliny, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan his 
 account of the Christians. — Great victories 
 of Trajan. 
 
 Trajan's expeditioi against the Parihians. 
 
 Seizure of Ctesiphon. 
 
 Armenia Major again governed by its own 
 kings dependent upon Rome. 
 
 Nicomedia and other cities destroyed by an 
 earthquake. 
 
 Adrian in Asia Minor for seven years. 
 
 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, under the name of 
 
 ^iia Capitolina, and erects there a temple 
 
 to Jupiter. 
 The rebellion of the Jews crushed after a war 
 
 of five years. — The Jews banished from 
 
 Judea. 
 
 Embassy sent by Antoninus to China, 
 
 War with the Parthiaiis, lasts 3 years. 
 
 100. The Huns emigrate westwari. 
 
 101. Trajan reduces Dacia. 
 
 115. Massacre of the Greeks and Romaaai by 
 the Jews of Cyrene. 
 
 117.- 
 
 Adrian 
 
 120. — makes £ progress through all the 
 
 121. provinces -visits Britain, builds there 
 a wall from the Tyne to Solway Frith. — A 
 wall built from the Rhine to the Danube. 
 
 138. — Antoninus. Pius, ^M 
 
 (eminent for his virtues and love ot peace.) 
 
 140. liOllius Urbicus extends the Roman do- 
 minion in Britain, and erects a second ram- 
 part, called the Wall of Antoninus. 
 
 145. Antoninus defeats the Moors, Germans, 
 and Dacians. 
 
 146. — introduces the worship of Serapis into 
 Rome. 
 
 152. — stops the persecution of the Christiana. 
 
 161. — Marcus Aurelius, 
 ninus,) 
 (the stoic philosopher.) 
 Escape of the thundering legion. 
 158. Plague over the whole known world. 
 
 (Anf ^• 
 
 169. The Marcomanni at war with Rome. 
 
 180. The emperor dies at Sirmium: suc- 
 ceeded by 
 
 Commodus, 
 
 (profligate and cruel ;) makes peace 
 
 with the Germans. 
 GOTHS in Dacia. 
 
54 
 
 THE world's TE-OGRESS. 
 
 [Modern: Period I.— SOQ ijean, 
 
 208 
 
 215 
 
 235 
 
 ai2 
 
 240 
 250 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Papinian, the greatest civil lawyer of anu- 
 quity — Julius Africanus, chronologer. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 197. Pope Zephyi'inus. 
 
 202. Fifth persecution of the Christiana iindel 
 Severus. — Tertullian, an able defender o( 
 Christianity. — Clemens, of Alexandria, and 
 Minutius Felix, C. F.* 
 
 Caracalla grants the right of Roman citizen- 
 ship to all the provinces, that they may be- 
 come liable to the taxes, inheritances, &c. 
 
 Ammontus, founder of a new school of Pla- 
 tonic philosophy at Alexandria. 
 Dio Cassius. Greek historian. 
 
 Censorius, a critic and grammarian. 
 
 Herodian, Greek historian. 
 Longinus, philosopher and U'itic 
 
 217. Pope Calixtus I. 
 
 The Septuagint found in a cask. 
 
 228. Pope Urban I. 
 
 234. Pope Pontianus. 
 
 235. ■ Anterus. 
 
 Origen, C. F. 
 
 Sixth persecution of the Christians, under 
 Maximinus, in which Leonidas, IreicRua, 
 Victor, Perpetua, and Felicilas are mar- 
 tyred. 
 
 244. Gregory Thaumalurgus, and Dionyiim 
 of Alexandria, C. F. 
 
 250. Pope St. Cornelius. 
 
 Seventh persecution of the Chrtstiaoa, 
 
 * Christian Father, 
 
— Christian Era to Constardine.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 55 
 
 189 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 East. 
 The SARACENS defeat the Romans. 
 
 223 
 
 226 
 
 2i2 
 
 PERSIA ; the new kingdom begun by Artax 
 erxes ; (the dynasty of the Sassasidae). 
 
 Parthia tributary to Persia. 
 
 Qordliaii iefeats the Persians under Sapor 
 
 West. 
 
 \ 189. The Capitol of Rome destroyed by light- 
 ning. 
 
 191. Rome nearly destroyed by fire. 
 
 192. Commodus assassinated by Martia and 
 Laetus. 
 
 193. 
 
 Pertinax, 
 
 proclainaed by the Prsstonan guards — 
 murdered after a reign of 3 monihs. — 'flie 
 eaipire bought by Didiice Julianus, who 
 is put to death by order of the senate. 
 
 — Septimus Severias ,^^ 
 
 (governs mth vigor.) 
 — defeats his coay^etitors, Niger and Albi- 
 n«s. 
 
 : 194. — besieges Byaaatium. 
 202. — ^iiersecutes the Christianas. 
 203 — .his sons CarEbcalla and Gea go to Bri- 
 tain, wheve 50,000 Roman trc/ops died ol 
 plague. 
 
 The wall of Severas between th« Forth 
 and the Clyde built. 
 
 211. Sev^rus dies at York, in Britain. 
 
 Caraicalla and Geta. ^^ 
 
 Caracaila murders Geta. 
 
 212. — visits the proviijcesalong the Danube 
 — Wars with the Catti and Ateaianni. 
 
 217. Caracalla is assassinated. 
 
 M a« r iau s , 
 
 218. 
 
 put to death by the soldiers. 
 Heliogabalus, 
 
 (a monster of vice and cruelty.) 
 
 222.- Alexander Severus ,^g 
 
 (a beneficent and enlightened prince.) 
 The Romans agree to pay an annual tri- 
 bute to the Goths, to prevent them from 
 nx)lesting the empire. 
 226. The victory of Severus over the Persians 
 at Tadfflor. 
 
 235. Severus murdered in a mutiny of the 
 
 army ; succeeded by 
 M a X i m i n u s , ^A. 
 
 who defeats the Dacians andaarmatians, 
 
 236. Maximinus assassinated by his troopa 
 near Aquilea. 
 
 — Balbiaus and Gordian, ^§ — 
 241. The FRANKS first mentioned in his- 
 tory ; they invade Gaul. 
 244. —are repulsed at Moguntiacum. 
 Gordian put to death by 
 
 •Philip ,^g (the Arabian,''- 
 
 who makes makes peace with Sapor. 
 247. The secular games restored. 
 
 tM9.- 
 
 D e c 1 u s 
 
 persecutes the Christians. 
 250. —slain by the Goths, who Livada the 
 empire by crossing the Danube. 
 
56 
 
 THE WOE.Ld's PROGP.ess. [Modern : Period L—B(Mi years. 
 
 251 
 
 268 
 
 270 
 
 274 
 
 276 
 277 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Plotiyius. 
 
 Odin in Scandinavia. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Paulus, a Roman poet. 
 
 Longiniis at the court of Zenobia. 
 
 Rome suiTouncled with a wall. 
 Lonstinus dies. 
 
 Porphyri/, the Greek philosopher and opposei* 
 
 ol' Christianity. 
 Extraordinary naval expedition of the Thra- 
 
 cian Franks in t-^ Mediterranean and 
 
 Northern Seas. 
 
 284 
 
 Diocletian's Oritinlalfunn of government — 
 the monarchy considered hereditary — nomi- 
 nation of Caesars as co-rulers. 
 
 Diocletian's baths, containing 3,000 benches 
 of white marble, while the walls were 
 adorned with paintings. 
 
 251. St Cijprian, bishop of Carthage. — Mo- 
 nastic life originates about tins lime. 
 
 Dispute between the churches of Roma 
 and Africa about baptism. 
 
 2.59. Pope Dionysius. 
 
 262. PawZ, bishop of Samosatiaj de: ies tha 
 divinity of Jesus Christ 
 
 269. Pope Felix I. 
 
 272. Ninth persecution under Aurelian. 
 
 274. Pope Eutychianes. 
 
 Manes originates the heresy of the Mani- 
 chaeans — rejects all the sacraments ; refuses 
 allegiance to temporal sovereigns, <fec. 
 
 283. Pope Caius. 
 
 The Jewish Talmud and Targum com- 
 posed. 
 Paul, the Theban, the first hermit.— Reli 
 gious ceremonies multiplied. — Pagan rites 
 imitated by the Christians. 
 
 2.S6. Ilierax, chief of the Hieraxians ; asserts 
 that Melchizedec was the Holy Ghost, and 
 denies the resurrection. 
 
•Ckristian Era to ConstanCiJie.] 
 
 THE IVORLD'S progress. 
 
 ;)/ 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 East. 
 
 IIUNS o>i tlie Caspian Sea. 
 
 251.- 
 
 West. 
 
 G a 1 I u s 
 
 purchases a peace with the Goths. — Con- 
 federacy of the Franks between the Rhine 
 and Elbe. 
 
 — a great piestilence prevails in the empire. 
 
 The Persians victorious in Asia Minor. 
 Persia : — Sapor's victory over the Roman 
 
 arms. 
 The temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. 
 Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus and 
 
 Caesarea. 
 
 Odenatus, king of Palmyra — he is succeeded 
 
 by his wife. 
 Z e n b i a, who reigns with the titles of 
 
 'Augusta,' and ' Queen of the East.' 
 
 Zenobia conquers Egypt, a part of Ai-menia, 
 
 and Asia Minor. 
 Zenobia defeated at Edessa, by Aurelian, who 
 
 destroys her magnificent capital, and carries 
 
 her to Rome. 
 
 The Persians defeated by Probus 
 
 253.- 
 254.- 
 
 Emilia r. u 3 
 Valerian. 
 
 — is successful against the Germans and 
 
 Goths. 
 256-69. Four great piratical expeditions if the 
 
 Goths into Asia Minor and Greece. 
 259. Valerian defeated and taken prisoner and 
 
 flayed alive by the Persians. 
 
 G a 1 1 i e n u s . 
 
 Period of the 30 tyrants. 
 The Persians penetrate to Ravenna. 
 264. Alliance with Odenatus. 
 
 267. Cleodamus and Athenius defeat the Goths 
 and Scythians. 
 
 268. Gallienus killed at Milan. 
 
 Claudius II. ^P . 
 
 defeats an army of 320,00U Goths. 
 269. — dies at Sirmium. 
 
 270.- 
 
 Aurelian, 
 
 (a great warrior.) 
 271. —defeats the Goths and Alemanni. 
 
 273 — reduces Palmyra after an heroic resist- 
 ance, and takes queen Zenobia prisoner. 
 
 274. France, SiDain, and Britain reduced to 
 obedience. 
 
 The Temple of the Sun at Rome burnt. — 
 Dacia given up to the barbarians. 
 
 275. Aurelian killed near Byzantium. 
 An interregnum of 6 months. 
 
 Tacitus, 
 
 (a desce . 1ant of the historian,) 
 reigns vvith wisdom 6 months. 
 
 277. 
 
 Probus 
 
 (a warlike prince.) 
 — obtains several victories over the barba- 
 rians. — The Franks permitted by Probus to 
 settle in Gaul. 
 282. Probus slain by his soldiers. 
 
 C a r u s 
 
 killed by lightning. 
 
 Carinus and Numerianus, 
 
 (effeminate and cruel.) 
 288. Fingal, king of Morven, dies. 
 
 284. 
 
 Diocletian 
 
 sends ambassadors to China. 
 " The Era of Diocletian," or of " the 
 martyrs," Aueust29. 
 287. Britain usurped by Carausius, who reigns 
 7 years. The empire attacked by the north- 
 ern barbarians, and several provmcea 
 usurped by tyrants,— Maximianus, a col- 
 league of the Emperor. 
 
 q* 
 
58 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Modern : Period /.— 306 years. 
 
 290 
 
 304 
 
 D12 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 The Gregorian code. 
 
 Gregory and Hermogenes, lawyers ; Elius, 
 Spartia7ius, and Vopiscus, historians ; 3Ve- 
 bellius Polio. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 296. Monks in Spain and Egypt. 
 Pope Marcellinus 
 
 303. Tenth Persecution of the Christians. 
 30-1. Arnobius, of Africa, C. F., converteJ 
 'rom idolatry. 
 
 The prcbtorian guard broken up by Constan- 
 tine. 
 
 MODERN: PERIOD SECOND— 170 years -^ 
 
 306. Persecution of the Christians stopped by 
 Constant! us. 
 
 310. Pope Eusebius. 
 Arius excommunicated. 
 
 311. Pope Malchiades. 
 
 323 Foundation of Cons^an^mopZe by Constantine 
 the Great.— Celebrated dome of St Sophia : 
 the splendor of the court so great that it 
 cost more than the legions. 
 
 330 Constantinople becomes the seat of art and 
 literature. 
 
 340 
 
 357 
 
 Ossian, the Caledonian bard, supposed to 
 have flourished about this time. 
 
 Eutropius and Marcelbnus, historians ; Ja^n- 
 blicus and Eunapius, Greek historian. 
 
 314. Pope Sylvester I. 
 
 319. Toleration of Christianity by Constantino 
 the Great. 
 
 •325. The Council of Nice (from June 19th, 
 325 to August 25th) consisting of 318 bishops, 
 who condemn Arianism.—^MseAms, bishop 
 of Cai'sarea, C. F., and ecclesiastical histo- 
 rian. — Lactantius, Athanasius, Arius, 
 Ephraim and Basil, C. F., flourish in the 
 reign of Constantine. 
 
 336. Pope Marcus. 
 
 337. Pope Julius. 
 
 Eleventh persecution. — Saints invoked, 
 the cross reverenced, and incense used by 
 the Christians. 
 
 341. Christianity propagated in Ethiopia by 
 Frumaintius. 
 
 356. Pope Felix II. 
 
 St. Hilary and Gregory Nazianzen, of 
 Constantinople, an eminent writer, C. F. — 
 Elius Donatus, bishop of Cartha|?o.— 
 Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem,— Monasteries ia 
 Thebais, 
 
— Ckrlstian Era to ConsLantine.\ 
 
 THE world's progress 
 
 59 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 294 
 
 296 
 301 
 
 East. 
 
 Narses, king of Pefsia, loses Armenia, Meso- 
 potamia, and Assyria. 
 
 Alexandria taken by Diocletian. 
 
 Hormisdas, II., king of Persia, builds Ormus. 
 
 Prom Constantine to Odoacer. 
 
 325 
 
 328 
 
 333 
 334 
 
 33? 
 
 340 
 350 
 354 
 
 36] 
 
 331. Constantine orders all the heathen tem- 
 ples to be destroyed. 
 
 The first general council a Nice. 
 
 The seat of government removed to Constan- 
 tinople, which was solemnly dedicated on 
 May 11th, 330. 
 
 Great famine and pestilence in Syria. 
 Revolt of Sarmatian slaves, 300,000 are dis- 
 persed over the empire. 
 Death of Constantine, and the accession of his three sons, 
 
 Constantius, Constans,and Constantine 
 
 West. 
 
 291. The Franks make themselves masters of 
 
 Batavia and Flanders. 
 293. The Franks expelled from Batavia. 
 
 296. Britain restored to the emperor. 
 
 304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the Em 
 pire to 
 
 Constantius and Galerius. 
 
 306.— Constantine the Great, ^^ 
 
 (first Christian emperor.) 
 Licinius.1 Maxiinian, and Maxentius, hia 
 three colleagues. 
 Constantine defeats the Franks. 
 312. Maxentius defeated and killed. 
 314. Civil war with Licinius. 
 319. Constantine favors and tolerates Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 321. — appoints the observance of Sunday. 
 
 322. — defeats and banishes Licinius, and be- 
 comes sole emperor. 
 
 325. — abolishes the combats of gladiators and 
 assemblies. 
 
 1.50 Greek and Asiatic cities destroyed by an 
 
 earthquake. 
 Hermanric, king of the Ostrogoths, founds an 
 
 extensive empire. 
 Gallus put to death by Constantius. 
 
 Constantius dies at Tarsus. 
 
 A disadvantageous peace with the Persians. 
 
 EASTERN EMPIRE 
 
 extending from the lower Danube to the con- 
 fines of Persia. 
 
 340. Constantine, the younger, defeated and 
 
 killed by Constans at Aqullea. 
 350. Constans killed in Spain by Magnentius, 
 
 357. Six German kings defeated by Julian at 
 Strasburg. 
 
 .361. — Julian, the Apostate, ^m 
 
 — attempts in vain to rebuild the temple 
 at Jerusalem. 
 363. —is slain in a war with the Persians. 
 
 Jovian 
 
 364. Death of Jovian, and the accession oi 
 Valentinian and Valens, under whom the 
 EMPIRE is DIVIDED : 
 
 WESTERN EMPIRE, 
 
 extending from the Caledonian rampart* 
 to the foe of Mount Atlas. 
 
60 
 
 THE world's PROGKESS. 
 
 [Modern: Period //.— 170 yean.. 
 
 PuoGRKSs OF Society, etc. 
 
 380 
 
 392 
 
 4)2 
 
 i25 
 
 Aurelius Victor., author of lives of celebfated 
 Romans. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Prudentius and Ausonius, Latin poets; 
 Pappus and Theon, of Alexandria, matlie- 
 maticians. 
 
 Claudian, Latin poet. 
 
 Macrubius, Platonic philosopher. 
 
 Theodosiua establishes public schools, and at- 
 tempts the restoration of learning. 
 
 135 
 
 Tile Thcodosian code published 
 
 373. The Bible translatea into the Gothic Ian 
 
 guage. 
 
 379. The prerogatives of the Roman See much 
 enlarged. 
 
 381. The second general Council of Constan- 
 tinople. 
 
 384. Symachus pleads in the Roman Senate 
 
 for Paganism against St. Ambrose. 
 335. Pope Syricius, 
 
 392. St. Chrysostom, patriarch of Constan 
 tinople"; St. ^m6rose, aixhbishop of Milan ; 
 St. Jerome, St. Marii7i, and St. Augustine, 
 ' Christian Fathers.' 
 
 Image worship. — The Christian hier- 
 archy begins. 
 
 101. Pope Innocent I. 
 
 412. C?/n7, bishop of Alexandria ; Isidore anA 
 Socrates, ecclesiastical historians ; Oiosiug, 
 a Spanish disciple of St. Augustine; and 
 Pelagius, a British monk, who denied origi- 
 nal sin, &c. 
 
 i 16. The Pelagian heresy condemned by the 
 African bishops. 
 
 417. Pope Zozimus. 
 
 418. Pope Boniface I. 
 
 422. Pope Celestine I. 
 
 429. Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, ao 
 knowledges two persons in Jesus Christ. 
 
 431. Third general Council at Ephesus. 
 
 432. Pope Sixtus III. 
 
 St. Patrick preaches the Gospel in Ire 
 land. 
 435. Nestorianism prevails in the East. 
 
 440. Pope Leo I. (the Great). 
 
 443. The Manichczan books bumed at Roma 
 415. Flavian., patriarch of Constantinople- 
 
— From Constantino to Odoc^cer.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 Gl 
 
 364 
 
 376 
 
 378 
 
 379 
 
 388 
 392 
 394 
 
 395 
 
 103 
 
 »14 
 420 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 V a 1 e n s . 
 
 HUNGARY, (ancient Pannonia,) invaded by 
 the Huns, from whom it is named. — The 
 Goths expelled by the Huns, are allowed by 
 Valens to settle in Thrace. 
 
 Valens defeated and slain by the Goths near 
 Adrianople. 
 
 T h e o d o s i u.s the Great, ^^ 
 
 a zealous supporter of Christianity. 
 
 Theodosius defeats Maximus, the tyrant of the 
 western empire. 
 
 Western Empire. 
 
 3G4.- 
 
 Valentinian 1, 
 elected by the army. 
 
 368. The Saxons invade Britain, but are de- 
 feated by Theodosius. 
 
 375. 
 
 G r a t i a n 
 
 gams a victory over the Germans; suC' 
 ceeds to the eastern empire on the death ol 
 Valens ; Maximus is proclaimed emperor. 
 — Gratian killed at Lvons. 
 
 379. The LOMBARDS first leave Scandina- 
 via, and defeat the Vandals. 
 
 383. 
 
 Valentinian II. 
 
 — is dispossessed by Maximus, but is re- 
 stoied by Theodosius; makes Treves his 
 capital. 
 384. —is strangled at Vienna by Arbogastes, a 
 Gaul, commander of the army. 
 
 Theodo sius 
 
 becomes sole emperor of the East and West. 
 
 Complete down fall of Paganism. 
 
 Theodosius defeats Eugenius, the usur per of the West, and Arbogastes, the Gaul. 
 
 Final division of the empire be tween the sons of Theodosius. 
 
 A r c a d i u s 
 
 431 
 433 
 
 i37 
 
 -Theodosius II .^m — 
 a child ; Athenius, minister. 
 
 Regency of the emperor's sister, Pulcheria. 
 
 Persian War. 
 
 Armenia divided between the Persians and 
 
 Romans. 
 A great part of Constantinople destrrye 1 by 
 
 fire. 
 
 Pannonia, Dal matia and Noricum gained 'rom 
 the western empire. 
 
 H n o r i u s 
 
 401. Europe overrun by the VISIGOTHS. 
 
 403. Alaric defeated by Stillicho. 
 
 406. The Vandals permitted to settle in Spain, 
 
 Gaul, &c. 
 410. Rome sacked and burned by the Gotha 
 
 under Alaric. 
 412 Beginning of the Vandal power in Spain. 
 
 413. Burgundian kingdom begun in Alsace. 
 
 414. The'Visigoths plant themselves in Tou- 
 louse. 
 
 417. The Alani defeated and extirpated by 
 
 the Goths. 
 420. FRANKS : — Pharamond, their 
 
 first king, on the lower Rhine. 
 
 424.— Valentinian III 
 
 426. Britain evacuated by the Romans. 
 
 427. Pannonia recovered from the Huns. 
 
 428. ^tius, the Roman general, defeated b; 
 the Franks and Goths. 
 
 Franks :— Clodion, king, extends his con 
 quests to the river Somme. 
 
 433. A 1 1 i 1 a , " The scourge of God," fornw 
 an immense empire from China to the At- 
 lantic. 
 
 437. ^tius defeats the Goths. 
 
 439. The kingdom of the Vandals in 
 Africa, under G e n s e r i c , who 
 takes Carthage and plunders Italy. 
 
 441. The Roman territories invaded by the 
 ITuns, Persians and Saxons. 
 
 445. The famous embassy from Britain, soli- 
 citing aid against the Picts. 
 
G2 
 
 THE Wor.Lu's PROGRESS. [Modem : Period IL~170 yean. 
 
 A.D 
 
 460 
 
 PiiooRESs OF Society, Ere. 
 
 Zozimus and O.'ymjjiodorus, Greek histo- 
 rians. 
 
 468 
 
 476 
 
 The principle established that every accused 
 person shall be t7-ied by his peers, or equals. 
 
 Legislation of the Visigoths in Spain — Eric 
 being king, and founder of the Gothic mo- 
 narchy. 
 
 The tottering empire of the west was finally 
 overthrown by Odoacer's sack of Rome, the 
 great event which precedes the middle or 
 '■'•dark ages." The form of the old 
 Roman government remained — the senate, 
 the consuls, &c. — but Italy, ravaged by a 
 succession of wars, plagues, famines, and 
 every form of public tyran^'v and domestic 
 slavery, was nearly a desert 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 447. Eutychps asserts the existence of only 
 one nature in Jesus Christ. 
 
 449. Ibus, bi^'hop of Edessa ; and Eusebius, 
 
 bishop of Doryleum, deposed. 
 4-50. Sozomen and Theudoret, ecclesiastical 
 
 historians. 
 451. The fourth general Council at Chalcedon, 
 
 at which Eutycheanism and Nestorianism 
 
 are solemnly condemned. 
 
 461. Pope Hilarius. 
 465. Pope Simplicius. 
 
 Oligarchy of the bishops of Rome, Coa' 
 stantinople, Alexandria. Antiocli, and Jeru- 
 salem — all striving for the supremacy.— 
 The church now begins to assume a pouts' 
 cal aspect. 
 
— Prom Constantine to Odoaccr.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 G3 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 iGO 
 
 157 
 
 M a r c i a n 
 
 a Tliracian, refuses to pay the annual 
 tribute to the 11 uns. 
 
 — Leo I . , (the Thracian,) 
 
 Western Empire. 
 
 448. Franks :— Merovoeus 1st, king of the Me- 
 rovinsi.ins. 
 
 JEiius defeats the Huns. 
 
 451. The arrival of the Saxoni 
 in Britain, under Hengist and Horst. 
 
 452. The city of VENICE founded. 
 455. Valentinian assassinated by 
 
 Petronius Maximus. ^§ ■ 
 
 A V i t u s . ^P 
 
 457, 
 
 first emperor ever crowned by the patriarch. 458, 
 War with the Goths. 
 
 ■ M a j o r 1 a n . 
 
 461 Peace with the Goths; Theodoric is received 
 from thenn as a hostage. 
 
 474 
 
 475 
 
 Z e n o 
 
 a turbulent reign : debaucheries and conspi- 
 racies. 
 Theodoric becomes chief of the Ostrogoths, 
 
 and invades ih^ empire. He ravages 
 
 Thrace. 
 
 Franks : — Childeric 1., conquers as far 
 as the Loire and takes Paris. 
 
 461. 
 
 S e V e r u s 
 
 467.- 
 
 A t h e n 1 u s 
 
 (The last three emperors slain by 
 Ricimer.) 
 468- Spain : — The Visigoths, under Eric, esia 
 blish their kingdom. 
 
 472.- 
 
 O I V b i u s 
 
 Eruption of Vesuvius, seen at Constan- 
 tinople. 
 
 473. G 1 y c e r i u s .^ 
 
 474. Julius Nepos. 
 
 475. — Romulus Augustulus. ^^§ 
 476. ROME taken by ODOACER, kiog o/ 
 the Herulii : 
 
 END of the WESTERN EMPIRE, 
 1228 years after the building of Rome ; and 
 commencement of the kingdom cf Italy un- 
 der Odoacer. 
 
64 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 MODERN : PERIOu IH.— 146 ii^.ars 
 
 4.O. 
 
 45 J6 
 
 493 
 
 408 
 501 
 
 511 
 
 513 
 514 
 
 616 
 
 629 
 
 530 
 531 
 
 5a? 
 
 533 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Rise of the feudal system in France^ under 
 Clovis. 
 
 Theodoric introduces the architecture of 
 Greece to improve the buildings of Italy. 
 
 Publication of the Gemara or Talmud of Ba- 
 bylon. 
 
 Burgundian laics published, being a collec- 
 tion of the rights and customs of the Bur- 
 gundians. 
 
 The Salic law established in France. 
 
 Boetkius, the Roman poet and philosopher. 
 
 Use of burning glass in warfare at Constan- 
 tinople. 
 
 The Christian Era proposed a7id introduced 
 by Diunysius^ a monk. 
 
 The schools of Athens suppressed. 
 
 The fables of Pilpay translated into Pere an. 
 Chess introduced into Persia from India. 
 
 Justinian's pandects and code of laws. 
 
 Architecture: the church of St Sophij luih 
 
 at Constantinople. 
 Proclus, a learned Platonist. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 483. Pope Felix III. 
 
 —excommunicated by Acarius, jishop of 
 
 Constaniino{)!e. 
 4S4. Christians persecuted by Iluneric, kii.g 
 of the Vandals. 
 
 492. Pope Ge.asius I. 
 
 494. The Roman Pontiff maMrta hia supre 
 
 macy. 
 496. Christianity introduced into France. 
 
 513. Christianity embraced by the P'raias 
 
 king, Carbades. 
 
 514. Pope Hormisdaa. 
 
 519. The orthodoxT)ishops restored by Justin 
 
 523. Pope .lohn I. 
 
 525. The Arian bishops deposed. 
 
 526. Pope Felix IV. 
 
 Extreme Unction introduced. 
 
 .529. The Order of Benedictine monki it 
 
 stituted at Monte Cassino, near Naples. 
 530. Pope Boniface II. 
 
 533. Pope John II. 
 
 535. Pope Agapetus. 
 
 536. » Sylvester I. 
 
 Separation of the Armenians fr^m the (Jif r* 
 
 church. 
 53S. Pof e Vigilius. 
 
THE WORLD'S TROGRESS. 65 
 
 'Odtaccr t& Maliomet. [The " Middle or Dark Ages'' begin here.] 
 
 A..D. 
 
 4S0 
 481 
 
 49 L 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 An earthquake, lasting 40 days, destroys ilie 
 
 greater part of Constantinople. 
 Zeno makes Theodoric geiieral and consul. 
 
 Anastasius I 
 
 502 
 
 507 
 
 511 
 
 514 
 
 518 
 
 518- 
 565 
 
 527 
 
 529 
 
 532 
 
 5S4 
 535 
 536 
 
 537 
 638 
 
 Tlie Green and Blue factions. 
 
 The emperor's persecution of tlie Oatho 
 lies, ana j)rotection of the Manichfeans, oc 
 casions a rebellion headed by Vitalianus. 
 
 The empire ravaged and the imperial army 
 destroyed by Carbades, king of Persia. 
 
 Long walls built to protect Constantinople 
 from the Bulgarians. 
 
 A great insurrection in Constantinople, 10,000 
 killed. 
 
 Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whose 
 fleet is .consumed "by the burning glass of 
 Proclus. 
 
 Europe, generally. 
 
 481. FRANCE :— C 1 o v i s I . ,^ foundei 
 of the French monarchy. 
 
 484. Alaric II., king of the Visigoths in Spain. 
 
 485. France :— Battle of SoissonB 
 gained by Clovis. 
 
 487. Britain :— The Saxons defeated by Prints 
 
 Arthur and Ambrosius. 
 490 : — Italy : — ravaged by the barbarians. 
 
 Britain : — kinsdom of Sussex. 
 491. France :— Clovis subdues Thuringia. 
 
 493. Italy :— c onquered by Theo- 
 d o r i c , king of the Ostrogoths.— Odoa- 
 cer put to death. 
 
 499. France : — Clovis concludes a peace with 
 Theodoric in Italy. 
 
 500. Burgundy becomes his tributary. 
 
 507. Clovis defeats Alaric near Poictiers. 
 
 510. France : — Clovis makes Paris his capital. 
 
 511. France : — Clovis dies. 
 
 Anastasius killed by lightning. 
 — J u s t i n I . , W 
 
 a peasant of Dalmatia. 
 Brilliant period of the Byzantine empire 
 
 Justinian I 
 
 celebrated fo-r his code of laws and the 
 
 victories of his generals, Belisarius 
 
 and Narses. 
 
 Belisarius defeats the Persians under Chos- 
 
 — quells a conspiracy in Constantinople. 
 
 — defeats the Vandals in Africa. 
 — subdues Sicily. 
 — takes Naples. 
 
 — takes Rome, defeats the Ostrofroths in 
 
 Italy. 
 — the Huns in Thrace, and 
 
 -C h i 1 d ebe rt 
 
 512. The HERULIl settle in Thj ace. 
 
 516. The Christian Era adopted. 
 
 517". Getee ravages Il.lyricum, Macedon, &c. 
 
 519. Britain: — Prince Arthur defeated a1 
 Charford by Cerdic, who begins the third 
 Saxon kingdom of Wessex. 
 
 522. Spain :— Amalaric, the first Gothic kirg, 
 who establishes his court in Spain — his capi- 
 tal, Seville. 
 
 530. Britain : — kingdom of Essex. 
 
 531. Spain: — Theudis succeeds Amalaric 
 
 532. Burgundy conquered by Childeber. 
 
 536. Vitiges, king of the Ostogroths, surren 
 ders his possessions in Gaul to the FrerH» 
 king. 
 
 537. Italy conquered by Belisarius. 
 
66 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Modern : Period III. — 146 years. 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 The man ifacture of silk introduced from 
 China by the monks. 
 
 Procopius, a Roman historian — the last of the 
 classic writers. 
 
 The Saxon laws ; the king's authority limit- 
 ed by the Wittenagetnot. 
 
 Three orders ; the noble, the free, and the 
 servile. — lYial by ordeal. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Christianity introduced among the Picts by 
 Columbi. 
 
 The old Roman municipal system in Italy 
 overthrown by the invasion of the Lombards 
 — and the feudal system established. 
 
 Written lains compiled among the nations of 
 German origin— first by the Visigoths in 
 Spain. 
 
 Semi-circular arches introduced in the archi- 
 tecture of churches, with much grotesque 
 sculpture. 
 
 The Latin language ceases to be spoken in 
 Italy, while it supersedes the Gothic in 
 Spain. 
 
 The origin oi fiefs. 
 
 The Roman Catholic faith established in 
 Spani. 
 
 Gregory of Tours, the father of French his- 
 tory. 
 
 Bretwalda, king of England, converted to 
 Christianity. 
 
 Asatlius, a Grecian historian. 
 
 Glldas, the first British histoi-ian. 
 
 Evagrias, ecclesiastical historian. — Cassiodo- 
 rus, the historian of Ravenna, tutor to 
 Theodoric. 
 
 The Saxons, having conquered England, it 
 relapsed, in a great measure, into the state 
 of barbarism, from which it had been par- 
 ti dly raised by the Romans. 
 
 540. The Monothelit.es, who acknowledged 
 but one will in Jesus Christ. 
 
 552. The Fifth general Council at Constanti 
 
 nople. 
 555. Pope Pelagius I. 
 
 557. The church of St. Germain de Pres, built 
 at Paris. 
 
 560. Pope.Iohnin. 
 
 The Tritheists acknowledge three Goda^ 
 and deny the resurrection. 
 
 573. Pope Benedict I, 
 
 575. The first monastery founded in Bararla. 
 Great increase of miracles. 
 
 .578. Pope Pelagius II. 
 
 590. Pope Gregory I. called The Great. 
 
 The doctrine of purgatory first taught. 
 
 Mass introduced. 
 
 598. St. Augustine, first archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, introduces Christianity into Britain. 
 
 604. Pope Sabianus, or Sabinian. 
 
 606. Pope Boniface III. made supreme head 
 of the church by Phocas.— The title of Uni- 
 versal Bishop assumed. 
 
 The Waldenses refuse submission to 
 Rome 
 
-From, Odoacer to Mahomet. 1 
 
 THE world's PHOGRESS. 
 
 67 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Vitiges at Ravenna. —North Africa, Cor- 
 sica and Sardinia, annexed to the Eastern 
 empire. 
 
 Plague at Constantinople — during three 
 months from 5,000 to 10,000 die daily. 
 
 The Lombards settle in Pannonia. — The 
 Turkish monarchy founded in Asia. 
 
 Siege of Petra. 
 
 Narses defeats and kills Totila. 
 Italy governed by Greek exarchs. 
 
 A plague extending over Europe and Asia, 
 and lasting nearly 50 years. 
 
 Europe, generally. 
 
 Belisarius disgraced by Justinian. 
 
 " restored: — he quells a conspiracy. 
 Great fire in Constantinople — the city nearly 
 
 destroyed. 
 Justinian dies. 
 
 — '■ Justin II. 1 
 
 Belisarius dies in prison. 
 
 The TURKS first mentioned in history.— 
 They send embassies to Justin, and form 
 an alliance. 
 
 Tiberius associated with Justin in the gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 Justin defeats Chosroes, king of Persia. 
 
 ■Tiberius II 
 
 Maurice, the Cappadocian, king; under his 
 reign the empire extends to the Araxes, and 
 almost to the Caspian Sea. 
 
 The Avars flourish under Baian — invade the 
 Eastern empire, and spread" over Hungary, 
 Poland, and Prussia. 
 
 — P h o c a s, ^§ — a centurion, elected kinj 
 The empire invadoi by the Persians. 
 
 539. Italy : War, famine, and pestilence. 
 
 The City of Milan ravaged by the Goths. 
 
 542. Britain :— Prince Arthur murdered in 
 Cornwall. 
 
 550. POLAND a dukedom— Lech, its first 
 duke and legislator. His brother, Zech, 
 first duke of Bohemia. 
 
 The Greeks form settlements on tba 
 Spanish coast, from the Straits to Valencia. 
 
 556. Civil wars in France. 
 
 558. France :— C 1 o t a i r e I . ^ 
 
 559. Britain :— the Saxon Heptar- 
 cliy commences. 
 
 560. Britain :— the kingdom of Northumbria, 
 formed by the union of Bernicia and Deira. 
 — Ethelbert, king of Kent, subdues mcst of 
 the Saxon kingsr 
 
 561. France :— C h a r i b e r t I . @ 
 
 565. Europe ravaged by a pestilence. 
 
 568. Italy conquered by the Lombards, undei 
 Alboin. He fixes his capital at Pavia. 
 
 571. Britain :— Bretwalda II., king of Wessex. 
 
 575. " East Anglia formed into a king- 
 dom, and called Angle-land, whence the ori- 
 gin of the name England. 
 
 5a3. Spain :— the Suevi subdued by the Visi- 
 goths. 
 
 France :— C 1 o t a i r e II. ^5 
 
 586. Britain :— the kingdom of Mercia founded. 
 Spain :— Recared, king. 
 
 588. The city of Paris destroyed by fire. 
 
 589. Rome inundated by the Tiber. 
 
 591. Britain :— Ethelbert, king of Kent, gains 
 the pre-eminence, and becomes Bretwalda 
 III. , , . 
 
 Italy : — the Lombards, under Authans, 
 successful asainst the Greeks and Franks. 
 
 595. Istria, Bohemia, and Poland invaded by 
 the Sclavonians. 
 
 596. France :— Thierry II., king of Burgimdy. 
 
 597. Britain :— Christianity introduced by St. 
 Augustine. 
 
 600. Italy ravaged by the Sclavonians. 
 
 607. Britain :— Supremacy of the Pope ae 
 
 knowledged. 
 
(38 
 
 THE world's progress. [Modcr7i : Period ///.— 146 years 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 The aristocracy acquire great power in 
 France, somewhat restrained by the mayors 
 of the palace. 
 
 Rites awA sii'perstitions increase in all Europe. 
 — Relics sought for, and worshipped. — Lita- 
 nies addressed to the Virgin. — The burning 
 of cand'es liy day. — Exorcisms, &c. 
 
 Hereditary fiefs. — Aristocratic class. 
 
 615 Sccundus, historian of the Lombards. 
 617 El helbert publishes the ,^rsf code of laws in 
 England. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Isodorus, historian of Spain, grammarian and 
 philosopher. 
 
 Islamism, and the power of the Caliphs esta- 
 blished in the East. In the Caliphs were 
 united the highest spiritual and regal autho- 
 rity. 
 
 Christianity introduced into China. 
 
 In England, some improvement in ecclesiasti- 
 cal architecture ; circular arches intro- 
 duced; churches built at Canterbury, Glas- 
 tonbury, St. Albans, Winchester, &c. 
 
 In civil architecture, forts and casiles — Conis- 
 borough Castle in Yorkshire ; Castletown 
 in Derbyshire, &c. 
 
 University of Cambridge founded. 
 
 Some of the monasteries of Europe continue 
 to be the repositories of learning and the 
 a'^ts. 
 
 Cel hacy of the clergy enjoined. 
 
 606. Pope Boniface III. 
 
 607. Pope Boniface IV. 
 
 The Pantheon at Rome dedicated to Goo, 
 the Vii-gin, and the Saints. 
 609. The Christians massacred by the Jewe %\ 
 Antioch. 
 
 618. Pope Boniface V. 
 
 MODERN: PERIOD IV.— 178 i/ears. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 625. Pope Honorius I. He had a taste for 
 splendid cathedrals and processions. 
 Monks 'and monasteries increase. 
 
 Africa and Asia, with the churches of 
 JerusKlem, Alexandria, and Antioch lost to 
 the Christia,: world by the progress of Mo- 
 hammedanism. 
 
 10. Pope Severinu?, 
 640. Pope John IV. 
 
 642. Pope Theodorus. He assumes the title 
 
 of "Sovereign Pontiff." 
 644. Pope Martin I. He ordains celibacy of 
 
 the clergy. 
 
 Separation between the Greek and 
 
 Roman churches. 
 
 654. Pope Eugenius. 
 
 657. Pope Vitalian. He established the UJii- 
 vei'sal use of the Latin language ir tht 
 service of the church. 
 
 672. Pope Adeoilatua. 
 
—h^rom Odoacer to Makomct.\ 
 
 THE world's progress 
 
 69 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Europe, generally. 
 
 
 
 604. Britain :— St. Paul's Church founded by 
 
 
 
 Ethelbert, king of Kent. 
 
 610 
 
 Ileraclius takes Constantinople, kills Phocas, 
 and makes himself king. 
 
 
 C12 
 
 MAHOMET publisheo his Koran. 
 
 612. Britain :—Ethelfrith, king of Northum- 
 
 
 Svvia ravaged by the Arabs. 
 
 bria, defeats the Britons, and destroys the 
 
 C14 
 
 Jerusalem taken by the Persians. 
 
 monastery of Bangor. 
 615. War between Lbmbardy and Ravenna. 
 617. Britain : — St. Peter's (now Westminste 
 
 618 
 
 Constantinople taken and pillaged by the 
 
 Abbey) founded by Sabert, king of Kent. 
 
 
 Avari. 
 
 Britain :— Bretwald IV. 
 
 
 
 
 -From Mahomet to Charlemasne. 
 
 [Dark Ages, co7itinued.\ 
 
 r22 
 
 632 
 
 633 
 634 
 
 636 
 
 641 
 642 
 
 647 
 
 653 
 
 059 
 6€1 
 
 668 
 670 
 
 Eastern Empire, Asia, &c. 
 
 The HEGIRA ; or Mahomet's Flight from 
 
 Mecca to Medina. 
 Era of the Mahometans. 
 Heraclius defeats the Persians under Chos- 
 
 Death of Mahomet. 
 
 Abubeker succeeds him as caliph of the 
 Saracens. 
 
 Omar, caliph. 
 
 " takes .lerusalem, which is held 
 
 by the Saracens 463 years. 
 Omar takes Alexandria, and destroys 
 
 another famous library. 
 
 Constantine III 
 
 C onstans II. ,^^ 
 
 (11 years of age.) 
 
 The Saracens become masters of Africa and 
 Cyprus. 
 
 The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the 
 
 Colossus. 
 Persia becomes a part of the empire of the 
 
 Caliphs. 
 
 The Saracens obtain peace from Constans, by 
 agreeing to pay him 100,000 crowns yearly. 
 
 Constans goes to Rome, and plunders the 
 Treasury. 
 
 Mjawiah, caliph, makes Damascus his capi- 
 tal. 
 
 Constantine IV. ^g invades Sicily. 
 
 Grand Cairo founded. 
 
 Siege of Constantinople by the Saracens, 
 whose fleet is destroyed by the Greek fire of 
 Callinicus. The caliph compelled to pur- 
 chase a peace of thirty years, by paying a 
 yearly tribute. 
 
 Europe, generally. 
 
 628. France :--Dagobert I. ^M He 
 
 builds the church of St. Deny, the burial 
 
 place of the French kings. 
 631. Samo, a merchant of France, makes 
 
 himself king of Bohemia. 
 633. Britain : — Bretwald V. ; he embraces 
 
 Christianity. 
 
 634. Britain :— Bretwald VI. 
 
 638. France — C 1 o v i s II .^^5 years old. 
 The kingdom divided, Sigebert, (18 years 
 old,) being king of Austrasia. 
 
 642. Britain :— Bretwald VII. 
 
 644. Britain : — The University of Cambridga 
 founded by Sigebert, king of E. Anglia. 
 
 650. Britain : — Mercia converted to Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 656. France : — C lotaire III. ^M 
 
 660. France :— C h 1 1 d e ri c II 
 
 663. Lombardy conquered by Grimoald, duke 
 of Beneventura. 
 
 672. The Saracens driven from Spain, bf 
 Wamba king of the Goths. 
 
70 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Mjdern : Period IV. 178 tjears. 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 674 Slone buildings and glass come into use in 
 England. 
 
 The abbey of Whitby, and the monastery of 
 Gilliug I'ouiv-led. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxons advance in civilization 
 and power, by the introduction of Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 In France, the Teuto7iic language supersedes 
 the Latin. — National assemblies established, 
 though confined to the aristocracy. 
 
 La Persia, the Magian religion gives way to 
 
 the Mohammedan. 
 Severe persecution of the Jews in Spain. 
 
 Julian, of Toledo, historian and moralist. 
 The venerable Bede, Ecc. historian. 
 
 A king first elected in Poland. 
 
 Adhelm, the first British writer in prose and 
 
 verse. 
 Sclavonian republics in Bohemia. 
 
 Christianity greatly extended among the Ger- 
 man nations and other people in the north 
 of Europe; but almost exterminated in 
 Africa, by the progress of Mohammedan- 
 ism. 
 
 The art of malting paper brought from Sa- 
 
 marcand by the Arab.s. 
 George Syncellus, a Grecian chronologist. 
 Glastonbury Abbey rebuilt by Ina. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 676. Pope Domnus. 
 
 The popes become indeper ient of tha 
 Greek emperor. 
 
 679. Pope Agatho. 
 
 680. The sixth general Council at Constantino- 
 pie, called by the emperor Constantine, who 
 presides. 
 
 682. Pope Leo II. He usurps the right of in- 
 vestiture. 
 684. Pope Benedict II. 
 
 685. 
 
 u 
 
 John V. 
 
 686. 
 
 (C 
 
 Conon. 
 
 687. 
 
 (( 
 
 Sergius 
 
 701. Pope John VI. 
 
 704. The first province jjiven to the pope. 
 
 705. Pope John VII. 
 
 708. " Sissinius (20 days). 
 708. " Constantine. 
 
 71L Custom of kissing the Pope's foot introi 
 
 duced. 
 
 714. Pope Gregory IL 
 
 Leo (Eastern Emperor) attempts io pr<v 
 cure the assassination of the Pope. Th« 
 Romans defend him. 
 
— From Mahomet to Charlemagne. 1 
 
 THE world's progress 
 
 71 
 
 Eastern Empire, Asia, «fec. 
 
 The kingdom of Bulgaria founded. 
 Yezid, caliph of ihe Saracens. 
 
 Moawiah II., caliph. 
 Abdallah, caliph. 
 
 Justinian II 
 
 Abdulmelek, caliph. He discouiinues the 
 tribute to the Greek emperor 
 
 .Justinian II. deposed, and his nt-se cut off by 
 
 Leonitius, who is also deposed by 
 
 Absimerus Tiberius. 
 
 Armenia and the provinces between the Black 
 and Caspian Seas subdued by Caliph Abdul- 
 melek. 
 
 Carthage rased, and the north coast of Africa 
 completely subjugated. 
 
 Justinian II. restored. 
 
 Syria recovered, 200,000 Saracens slain. 
 
 Africa subdued by the Saracena. 
 
 Justinian put to death by Philip Bardanes, 
 who reigns under the name of Philippicus. 
 
 -Anastasius II 
 
 Theodosius III. 
 
 _. pro- 
 claimed by the revolted army ol Anastasius. 
 
 1 e o III., (the Isaurian.) 
 
 of a shoemaker. 
 
 Europe, generally. 
 
 673. France :— T h i e r r y I . ^ 
 
 675. Spain : — Wamba gains a naval victory 
 over the Arabs, who attempt to invade hia 
 ' kingdom. 
 
 682. Spain: — Wamba abdicates and turofl 
 monk. 
 
 690. France :— P epin d'Heriste] ,^^ 
 mayor of the Palace and duke of Austrasiaj 
 Qcfeats Thierry, and becomes king. 
 
 691. France :— C 1 o v i s III .^ 
 
 695. " — Childebert II .^ ■ 
 
 698. Poland : — Cracow founded. — An elective 
 monarchy established. 
 
 Venice : — Luc Anafetto, first Doge, 
 
 700. Britain : — Anglo-Saxon Octarchy. 
 
 France : — Aquitaine, Burgundy and Pro- 
 vence become separate dukedoms. 
 
 705. Britain : — Alfred the Wise, in North* 
 umbria. 
 
 710. Spain : — Roderic, 
 last of the Goths.) 
 
 king. 
 
 (the 
 
 711. France :— D aeobert II. 
 
 713. Spain conquered by the 
 Saracens under Muca. By the mar- 
 riage of Abdallah, the Moor, with the widow 
 of the Gothic king, the two nations are 
 united in interest. 
 
 714. France : — Charles Martel, duke of Aus- 
 trasia. 
 
 715. France :— C h i 1 d e r i c II. ^g 
 
 716. Britain :— Ethelbald, king of Mercia. 
 
 718. Spain :— Pelagius founds the kiogdoia of 
 
 Asturias. 
 
 720. Framee :— T h i e r r y II 
 
l-i 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Modern: Period IV. — 178 year$ 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Increasing 
 
 Dark 
 
 power, 
 
 period 
 
 spiritual 
 
 of 
 
 and 
 
 European 
 
 temporal 
 
 literature. 
 
 of the 
 
 
 Popes. 
 
 
 Winifred^ an Anglo-Saxon, preaches the gos- 
 •pel to the Prisons. 
 
 The venerable Bade dies— a grammarian, phi- 
 losopher, historian, and theulogian. 
 
 The Abassidae, caliphs of the Saracens, en- 
 courage learning. 
 
 Fredegaire, a French historian. 
 
 Virgilius,a. priest, is condemned as a heretic, 
 for believing in the existence of antipodes. 
 
 An organ sent by Constantine to France. 
 
 John of Damascus, a founder of the scholas- 
 tic philosophy. 
 
 Fredegaire continues the history of Gregory 
 of Tours. 
 
 The scliools of Bagdad, Cufa, Alexandria, 
 Fez, and Cordova, promoted by the Abas- 
 Bidae caliphs. 
 
 Ignorance, proiligacy, and misery, character- 
 ized the age preceding Charlemagne. 
 
 The first palm-tree planted in Spain. 
 
 Golden period of learning in Arabia, under the 
 caliph Harounal Raschid. 
 
 Pleadings in courts of justice first practised. 
 Foundation of schools in monasteries and 
 
 cathedrals, by Charlemagne. 
 The Gregorian chant. 
 The Synod of Frankfort. 
 George, the m-«nk. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 726. Image worship being forbidden by th« 
 emperor Leo, causes great disturbance. 
 
 727. Peter's pence first collected in England. 
 
 728. Leo orders the pope to be seized. 
 
 730. Gregory excommunicates the emperor. 
 The Iconoclasts, or image breakers. 
 
 731. Pope Gregory III. 
 
 736. The images throughout the empire de- 
 stroyed by order of the emperor. 
 Monks persecuted. 
 741. Pope Zachary 
 
 752. The Pope dethrones Childeric, king ol 
 France, by a papal decree. 
 
 752. Pope Stephen III. at war with the Lom- 
 bards, assisted by Pepin. 
 
 754. —he journeys to Pepin to implore his 
 protection. 
 
 755. Commencement of the Pope's 
 temporal power under the auspices 
 of Pepin, who bestows on Stephen the ex- 
 archate of Ravenna. 
 
 757. Pope Paul I. 
 
 768.- 
 
 Stephen IV. 
 
 769. Council of the Lateran. 
 
 770. The Eastern monasteries dissolved by the 
 emperor. 
 
 ,772. Pope Adrian I., on whom the Ecclesias- 
 tical state is conferred by Charlemagne. 
 
 770. Imposition of Tithes enforced by Char- 
 lemagne, for the support of the clergy, 
 churches, schools, and the poor. 
 
 785. Forcible conversion of the Saxons by 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 787. The seventh general Council at Nice, m 
 which the doctrine of the Iconoclasts waa 
 condemned. 
 
 794. Pope Leo III. sends to Charlemagne for 
 confirmation. 
 
 Masses said for money. 
 
'-From Mahomet to Charlemagne.] 
 
 THE world's progress 
 
 741 
 74C 
 
 Eastern Empire, Asia, <fec. 
 
 ?62 
 
 766 
 
 774 
 776 
 
 781 
 785 
 786 
 
 788 
 793 
 
 The Arabs invest Coastantiiiople by land with 
 r^OjOOO men, and by sea with ISOO ships. 
 The city is saved by the Greek fire — the 
 Arab fleet being almost entirely destroyed. 
 
 Leo confiscates Calabria and Sicily. 
 
 The Greek possessions in Italy are lost ir cor- 
 sequence of the edict i irbiddmg image wor- 
 shij). 
 
 Constantine V. (.Copronymus). 
 
 The Arabs defeated by Constantine.— Rhodes, 
 Cyprus, and Antioch captured. 
 
 Europe, generally. 
 
 725. France : — Charles Mariel crosses the 
 Rhine, and subdues Bavaria. 
 
 727. Britain :— Ina, king of Wessex, begins th« 
 tax called Peter's pence, to support a col- 
 lege at Rome. 
 
 732. France :— Charles Martel gains a great 
 victory over the Saracens near Tours. 
 
 740. Spoletto taken by the Normans, but re- 
 covered by the Pope. 
 
 742. France :— C h i ! d c r i c III. ^^ 
 
 752. France :— End of the Merovingian line 
 of French kings. 
 
 -Pepin le Bref,^^ 
 
 Almanzor, caliph ; builds Bagdad and makes 
 
 it his capital. 
 Asia Minor ravaged by the Turks. 
 
 Great victory over the Bulgarians. 
 L 6 o I r . W 
 
 Constantine VI. (Forphyrogenetus).^g 
 Irene (Queen mother) restores image worship. 
 The empire is invaded by Haroun al 
 
 R a s c h i d , caliph of Bagdad. 
 Constantine imprisor^ his K?.ot!;er, Irene, for 
 
 her cruelty. 
 
 Irene 
 
 and assumes the s)le power. 
 
 proposes to marry Charlemagne 
 — is dethroned by Nicephoi us. " 
 Tlxe Saracens ravage Thrace. 
 
 puts him to death, 
 
 first of the Carlovingian line. 
 753. Pepin le Bref aids the Pope with a larga 
 army against the Lombards. 
 Italy : — Ravenna a dukedom. 
 
 756. Spain :— Separated from the Caliphate 
 A b d e r h a m a . 
 
 76L Spain :— Froila, grandson of Pelagius, 
 builds Oviedo, and makes it the seat of hia 
 kingdom. 
 
 768. France :— CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles 
 
 the Great, reigns with his brother. Carlo- 
 man, until 771. 
 
 774. Charlemagne invades Italy; defeats 
 Didier, king of Loinbardy, and annexes 
 Italy to his empire. 
 
 End of the Lombard king- 
 dom. 
 
 778. A part of Charlemagne's army defeated 
 at Roncesvalles. 
 
 779 Charlemagne conquers Navarre, Sardinia, 
 and the Saxons. 
 
 Charlemagne conquers the Avari. 
 — attempts to unite the Rhine and the 
 Danube. 
 
 787. Britain :— First recorded invasion of t}i« 
 Danes :— The Sea Kings and Vikings. 
 
 794. Charlemagne extirpates the Huns. 
 Sweden conquered by Iva Viafamo. 
 
74 
 
 TUE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 PERIOD. N.~Tlie Middle Ages.— 1'^^' years 
 
 PR03REas OF Society. 
 
 800 
 
 801 
 
 80!^ 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 804 
 
 813 
 
 Agricultvre and horticul- 
 ture encouraged by Charle- 
 magne ; both fluurisb in 
 Spain under the caliphs. 
 
 Gold mines worked in Spain. 
 
 Paul Ware/redus (Diaconus) 
 liie historian. 
 
 Ilaroun al Raschid, courting 
 his alliance, presents Charle- 
 magne wiih a. striking clock. 
 ThTs clock was adorned with 
 automaton tigures, which 
 moved and played on va- 
 rious musical instruments. 
 
 Fine Arabian breed of horses 
 introduced into Spain. 
 
 Alcuin, of York, a pupil of 
 Uede, forms schools at ''rours 
 — patronized by Charle- 
 magne. 
 
 Transient revival of learning 
 under Charlemagne. 
 
 Egi7ihard, historian, secre- 
 tary to Charlemagne. 
 
 The reign of Mamun (caliph) 
 is regarded as the Augustine 
 age of Arabian literature. 
 
 800. T'he Pope separates from 
 the Eastern Empire., and 
 becomes supreme Bishop of 
 the Western. 
 
 Charlemagne reforms the 
 church. 
 
 Many bishoprics founded. 
 — Great increase of monastic 
 institutions. 
 
 813 Insurrection at 
 against the pope. 
 
 Rome 
 
 New Western Empire. 
 
 800. NEW EMPIRE of iha 
 WEST founded by Charle- 
 magne, who is crowned at 
 Rome, by the pope, king of 
 Italy, Germany, and France 
 
 802. Charlemagne receives ar, 
 embassy from Nicephorus 
 and from Haroun al Ras- 
 chid. 
 
 St. Mark's Church at Venice 
 
 , built. 
 
 829 Turpin, archbishop, to whom 
 
 is attributed the famous 
 
 " De Vila Caro'i Magni et 
 
 Rolandi." 
 
 816. Pope Stephen V. 
 
 817. " Paschal I. 
 
 The College of Cardinals 
 foimded. 
 
 S24. Pope Eugenius 11. 
 
 Christianity in Denmark 
 and Sweden. 
 
 827. Pope Valentine. 
 
 828. " Gregory IV. 
 Missionaries sent from 
 
 France to Sweden. 
 
 831. Paschasius Radbertus, a 
 monk of Corbey, father of 
 the doctrine of transub- 
 stantiation. This doctrine 
 disowned by the English 
 Church. 
 
 Ratramus and Scotus Eri- 
 gena, theologians, holding 
 much the same opinions as 
 Luther. 
 
 896. Charlemagne di- 
 vides the empirebe- 
 tween his three sons. 
 
 808. First descent of the NOR- 
 MANS upon France. 
 
 813. Charlemagne dies, Jan. 
 28. 
 
 814. 1> u i s I . ^M • 
 
 (Debonaire) an inglorious 
 and turbulent reign. 
 
 817. Louis divides the empire 
 
 between his three sons. 
 820. Livasion of the Normans. 
 
 833. Lothaire, a fourth son of 
 Louis, associated m the gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 340. — L o t h a i r e .^m — 
 811. —defeated by his brothers, 
 
 Louis and Charles, in the 
 
 battle of Fontenoy. 
 
 Division of the empire. 
 
 France:— Charles I.^§ 
 (the Bald). 
 
 Ger. : — L o u i s I . 
 surnamed the 
 
 Ger- 
 
 Italv:— Lothaire ^S 
 with imperial dignity. 
 
 The Normans plunder 
 Rouen, and advance to Paris. 
 
THE world's TROGRESS. 
 (a. D. 800-105Q.)—CharI<smag7ie to William the Conqueror. 
 
 75 
 
 802 
 803 
 
 811 
 
 813 
 816 
 
 821 
 
 822 
 
 829 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 — N icephorus .^^-— 
 
 The Saracens ravage Asia 
 
 3Iinor. capture Cyprus, and 
 
 compel Nicephorus to pay a 
 
 tribute. 
 
 — Michael I . ^^ 
 
 (Caropaltes) ; at war with 
 the Bulgari. 
 
 ■<the 
 
 842 
 
 Leo V 
 
 Armenian). 
 
 Earthquakes, famine, fire, &c. 
 ravage the empire. 
 
 M i c h a e 1 II .^S 
 
 (Balbus or the Stammerer). 
 
 Constantinople besieged by 
 the Saracens. The Bulga- 
 rians raise the siege. The 
 Saracens obtain possession 
 of Crete, and name it Can- 
 dia. 
 
 — ^T heophilus. ^^ — 
 
 England. 
 
 813. Egbert, king of Wessex, 
 defeats the Britons. 
 
 < -Michael III, 
 (the Drunkard). 
 
 827. The seven king- 
 doms of the Hep- 
 tarchy united by Eg- 
 bert, king of Wessex, 
 under the name of ENG- 
 LAND, or the Lajid of the 
 Angles. 
 
 E g b e r t . ^§ 
 
 Invasion of the Danes. 
 
 838. — E t h e 1 w 1 f , @— 
 a weak prince. 
 
 Scotland : — Kenneth, king 
 of the Scots, defeats and ex- 
 tirpates the Picts, and be- 
 comes sole monarch. 
 
 The Danes return, and 
 ravage the country unmo- 
 lested, and burn the city of 
 London. 
 
 Ethelwolf makes a pilgri- 
 mage to Rome. 
 
 The World, elsewhere 
 
 801. DENMARK becom* a 
 kingdom under Gotricua 
 
 818. Al Mamun (caliph) a pa- 
 tron of learning. 
 
 820. First dismemberment of 
 the Arabian monarchy. The 
 dynasty of the Taherites 
 founded at Khorassan. 
 
 826. The Danish prince, Ha- 
 rold, is baptized at Ingel- 
 heim. 
 
 8-33. Motassim, caliph. Ha 
 builds Saumora, which he 
 makes the seat ^f gorer;*' 
 ment. 
 
76 THE world's progress. [Period F.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. 
 
 A.O. 
 
 Progress of Society. 
 
 The aristocratic Feudal sys- 
 tem in ail its power. Here- 
 ditary nubility, wliich, with 
 the clergy, was the domi- 
 nant order in the slate. 
 
 The barons independent of 
 the king. Gradual intro- 
 duction of the Roman and 
 z:3mmon law. 
 
 First inciosure of lands at 
 Spalding, where Richard de 
 Rules does much to improve 
 agriculture. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 France, Spain, Germany. 
 
 814. Pope Sergius III. (Bucca 
 Porci). 
 
 Ignatius, patriarch of 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Persecution of the Chris- 
 tians in Spain. 
 847. Pope Leo IV. 
 
 850. Christianity propagated 
 by Auscharius in Denmark 
 and Sweden. 
 
 855. Pope Benedict IIL 
 
 872 Clocks brought to Constanti- 
 nople from Venice. 
 
 rhe Faroe Isles, and Iceland 
 discovered in this century. 
 
 858. Pope Nicholas I. 
 
 First coronation of a pope. 
 
 859. Eulogius, archbishop of 
 Cordova, martyred. 
 
 860. The schism of the Greeks 
 begins. 
 
 864. The Bible translated into 
 Slavonian 
 
 867. Pope Adrian II. 
 
 8th Council at Constan- 
 tinople. — Photius, patriarch 
 of Constantinople, deposed. 
 
 855. Lothario retires to a mo 
 nastery and dies. 
 
 New division of the em- 
 pire at Mersen. 
 
 856. Germ. :—L o u i s Il.^g 
 has Italy with the im- 
 perial dignity. 
 
 — establishes his court at 
 Pavia. 
 858. France invaded by Louia 
 the German, who is finally 
 compelled to retire. 
 
 872. Pope John VIII. 
 
 882. Pope Martin II. 
 834. " Adrian III. 
 
 SS5. " Stephen VL 
 
 38. Lorraine annexed to 
 France. 
 
 877. Fr.:— Louis II. 
 (the Stammerer). 
 
 879. 
 
 -Louis III. and 
 
 Carlo man 
 reign jointly. 
 
 884. France :— C h a r 1 e s^ 
 the Fat, an usurper. 
 
 885. Pans besieged by the 
 Normans; gallantly defend- 
 ed by archbishop Goslin. 
 
 886. Charles makes a disgrace- 
 ful peace with the Normans. 
 
 887. Germany : — A mold, 
 
 -(the im- 
 
 emperor.^g 
 
 pedal dignity transferred 
 
 from France to Germany). 
 
 888. France :— E u d e 9 ^— 
 
■Charlemagne to William I.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 77 
 
 »44 
 
 661 
 
 867 
 868 
 
 886 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Decline of the Caliphate be- 
 gins. — Jews and Christians 
 persecuted. — Frequent wars 
 between the Greeks and Sa- 
 racens. 
 
 Bazil I . '^ 
 
 (the Macedonian), defeats 
 the Saracens. 
 
 Crete and the Sicilies reco 
 vered from the Arabs. 
 
 England. 
 
 Basil commences the Mace- 
 donian dynasty. 
 Publication of the Basilica. 
 
 Leo VI 
 
 (the philosophet 
 
 849. Alfred the Great, born. 
 
 852. Ethelwolf defeats the 
 Danes in the Isle of Thanet. 
 
 857. E t h e I b a I d and E t h e 1- 
 
 b e r t ^^ — reign jointly : — 
 increase the influence of the 
 clergy. 
 
 866. — E t h e 1 r e d .^ 
 
 867. The Danes conquer Nor- 
 thumberland. 
 
 872. Alfred the Great' 
 defeats the Danes. 
 
 879. Alfred abandoned by his 
 subjects, retires to the Isle of 
 Athelney, but soon draws 
 together his friends and con- 
 quers the Danes. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 845. The Normans plunder 
 Hamburg, and penetrate into 
 Germany. 
 
 846. The Saracens destroy the 
 Venetian fleet, and besiege 
 Rome. 
 
 849. —defeated by the Pope's 
 allies. 
 
 851. Sardinia and Corsica ra- 
 vaged by the Saracens. 
 
 856. The coasts of Holland 
 plundered by the Normans. 
 
 860. Gorm the Elder, (descend- 
 ed from Odin.) unites Jut- 
 land and the Danish Isles, 
 and becomes king of Den- 
 mark. 
 
 861. Iceland discovered by the 
 Normans. 
 
 862. RUSSIA: — Ruric, first 
 grand Prince, builds the city 
 of Lagoda. 
 
 868. Egypt throws off its de- 
 pendence on the caliphs, un- 
 der Ahmed. 
 
 874. Iceland, a republic, found 
 ed by the Normans. 
 
 875. NORWAY : — Harold 
 Harfrage, first king. 
 
 886. The Scythians seiaa Vn- 
 atia. 
 
 89. Hungary: — Arpad lays 
 the foundation of the king- 
 dom. 
 
78 THE world's progress. [Period v.— {a. j:).800-10m.)—26G years. 
 
 A.D. Progress of Society. 
 
 Oxford University found- 
 ed. — All'red the Great esta- 
 blishes a regular onilitia 
 and navy, ami ihe mode of 
 trial by jury ; \\\smu{&sfairs 
 and markets. — Johannes 
 Scotus JDrigenu, a learned 
 philosophical wriier. 
 
 England divided into coun- 
 ties, hundreds, and tithings. 
 Tlie county courts, held 
 monthly, become the great 
 safeguard of the civil rights 
 of Englishmen. 
 
 Hired troops substituted for 
 the feudal. 
 
 The University of 
 bridge founded. 
 
 Cam- 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon monarchy 
 rises into importance. 
 
 Azophi, Arabian astronomer. 
 
 Printing invented among the 
 Chinese (?) 
 
 Cordova, in Spain, becomes 
 the seat of Arab learning, 
 science, industry, and com- 
 merce. Its celebrated schools 
 of geometry.astronomy, che- 
 mistry and medicine, toge- 
 ther with its equally cele- 
 brated poets and philoso- 
 phers, render it famous 
 throughout the world. 
 
 liuitprand, the historian. 
 
 Mints established in Kent or 
 Wessei. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 891. Pope Formosus. 
 896. " Boniface VI. 
 " Stephen VII. 
 iS. " John IX. 
 
 Veneration for saints and 
 a passion for relics prevail. 
 
 900. Pope Benedict IV. 
 903. " Leo V. 
 905. " Sergius III. 
 
 912. The Normans in France 
 embrace Christianity. 
 
 914. Pope John X. 
 
 021. The Bohemians embrace 
 Christianity. 
 
 928. Pope Leo VI 
 
 929. " Stephen VIII. 
 Eudes, n'lonk: of Cluni. 
 
 931. Pope John XI. 
 
 Mere children elevated to 
 the highest offices in the 
 church. 
 
 936. Pope Leo VII. 
 
 939. 
 
 Siephen IX. 
 
 943. Pope Martin III. 
 
 France. Germany, &c. 
 
 890. Arnold, emperor of Ger- 
 many, takes Home. 
 
 898. Fr. :— C h a r 1 e s 1 1 1 . ^ 
 (the Simple). 
 
 899. Ger.:— Louis III.^ 
 Invasion of the Hunga- 
 rians. 
 
 Contests between the no- 
 bles and bishops 
 
 912. France :— R o b e r t , duke 
 of Normandy. 
 
 The Normans, under 
 R o 1 1 o , establish them- 
 selves in Normandy. 
 
 Ger.: — Conrad I.^^ 
 
 (the empire becomes 
 
 elective). 
 
 the 
 
 de- 
 his 
 
 919 Ger. :— Henry I.^ 
 (the Fowler), fii-st of 
 Saxon line. 
 
 921. France :— Robert I. 
 feated and killed by 
 brother at Soissons. 
 
 923. France : — Rudolph elect- 
 ed duke. 
 
 Italy: — Hugo, count of 
 Provence, oppresses the aris- 
 tocracy, who call to their aid 
 Berenger. 
 
 France : — Civil wars. 
 
 929. " —Charles dies a 
 prisoner at Peronne. 
 
 936. Ger. :— O t h o 
 (the Great). 
 
 Fr. : — L o u i 3 
 
 (the Stranger). 
 
 IV 
 
 940. Burgundy, a fief the 
 empire. 
 
— Charkr'iagne to William /.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 79 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Southern Italy subject to the 
 
 Greek empire. 
 War with ihe Bulgarians, 
 
 Lombards, and Saracens — 
 
 the latter take the island of 
 
 Samos. 
 
 904 Russian expedition under 
 Oleg, against Constantino- 
 ple. 
 
 ■Constantine VII.^^- 
 asoociates his four sons, so 
 that there are five emperors. 
 
 Constantinople besieged by the 
 Bulgarians. 
 
 Romanus, general of the fleet, 
 usurps the empire, with his 
 three sons, Christopher, Ste- 
 phen, and 
 
 -Constantine Vlll.^g- 
 
 England. 
 
 891. Invasion of the Danes. 
 The first land tax. 
 
 901. 
 
 -Edward! 
 
 (the Elder), the first who 
 takes the title of " Rex An- 
 ;lorum." 
 
 War with the Danes. 
 
 The Woeli), elsewhere. 
 
 900. Scotland : — Constantine 
 III. 
 
 901. Italy :—Th« republics 
 of Venice and Genoa 
 founded. 
 
 908. The race of Fatimites in 
 Egypt. 
 
 910. Spain :— Kingdom of Leon 
 founded by Garcia. 
 
 912. Spain :— Abderrahman III. 
 the greatest Arab prince of 
 Spain— builds the splendid 
 city and palace of Zehra. 
 
 914. Spain :— Ordogno II., king 
 of Oviedo, makes Leon his 
 capital. 
 
 Commencement of the 
 heroic age in Spain. 
 
 924. —A t h e I s t a n . W— 
 
 Romanus gains a naval victory 
 over the Russians, who, led 
 by Igor, enter the Black 
 Sea with 10,000 ships or ca- 
 
 942 
 945 
 
 934. —by the victory of Bru- 
 nanbursh, he becomes king 
 of all Britain. 
 
 92L Poland: 
 
 -Lesko IV. 
 -Zemormysl. 
 
 923. Spain :—Fruela, king of 
 Leon. 
 
 924. " — Alphonzo IV. 
 927. " — Ramiro 11. 
 
 930. Denmark :— Harold VL, 
 firs- Christian king. 
 
 932. A.rnolf of Bavaria, de- 
 feated near Verona. 
 
 933. Norway:— Eric, king— 
 his cruelty leads the people 
 to revolt. 
 
 Naples annexed to the empire. 
 
 The empress Helen usurps the i 
 throne, I 
 
 940. — E d m u n d I . 
 brother of Athelstan. 
 
 940. Spain :— Ramiro, king of 
 Leon, defeats the Moors, UDr 
 der Abderrahman, in the baV 
 tie of Sima ficus. 
 
80 THE world's progress. [Pc/m-/ r.— (a. d. 800-100(5.)— 266 ycfl'n. 
 
 A.D. Pjiogress of Society. 
 
 94] 
 
 96] 
 
 The mercantile character 
 raised by a law of Athelstan, 
 that a merchant who made 
 three voyages over the high 
 seas with a ship and cargo 
 of his own, should enjoy the 
 rank and privileges of a 
 thane. 
 
 The figures of arithmetic 
 brought into Europe l»y the 
 Siracens. 
 
 ?ilver mines in the Hartz 
 Mountains. 
 
 Manufactories of linens and 
 icooUens in Flanders, which 
 becomes the sea: of western 
 commerce. 
 
 378 
 
 Geber, Arabian astronomer. 
 Suidas, grammarian and lexi- 
 cographer. 
 Rhazes, Arabian physician. 
 
 The Saxon fleet, consisting of 
 360 sail, in three squadron: 
 makes the circuit of the 
 island, under the command 
 of king Edgar. 
 
 Ecclesiastical 
 
 France, Germany, &c. 
 
 946. Pope Agapetus II. 
 
 955 Baptism of Olga, and con 
 version of Russia to Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 956. Pope John XII. 
 
 Quarrel with the emper- 
 ors respecting investiture. 
 
 959. St. Dunstan, archbishop 
 of Canterbury, attempts to 
 reform the church— enforc- 
 ing clerical celibacy. 
 
 'The influence of \ the 
 monks greatly increased. 
 
 963. Pope I.eo VIII. elected by 
 Roman citizens. 
 
 964. Benedict V. elected by a 
 council. 
 
 965. John XIII. 
 
 Poland receives Christianity 
 under Miecislus. 
 
 972. Pope Benedict VI. 
 
 973. Boniface VII. : deposed 
 and banished for his crimes. 
 
 974. Domnus II. 
 
 975. Benedict VII. 
 
 950. Germany :— Bohemia bo- 
 comes tributary to Otho. 
 
 953. The Hungarians sub- 
 dued. 
 
 954. Fr. :— Lothaiie I.^ 
 — confers the dukfidoois of 
 Burgundy and Aquitaine on 
 Hugh the Great. 
 
 957. Germany :— Otho defesii 
 the Slavonians in Saxony 
 
 Abbo, monk and astronomer. 
 
 961 Albirunius, Arabian geogra- 
 pher. 
 
 902 Greenland discovered by the 
 Norweaians. 
 
 Aimoin, historian. 
 
 Dublin much frequented for 
 trade, also many places on 
 the Baltic. 
 
 984. Pope John XIV. 
 986. " John XV. 
 
 989. Christianity propagated 
 in Russia by Waldimir— 
 they hold to the Greek 
 church. 
 
 964. Italy united to the empiro 
 of Germany. 
 
 Tuscany becomes a duke- 
 dom. 
 
 97-3. Ger. :— Otho 11.^ 
 subdues the Bohemians. 
 
 979. Otho at war with Lo 
 thaire. 
 
 983. —Otho III. 
 (3 years of age). 
 
 986. Fr. :— L o u i s V . ,^_ 
 ("the Slothful,") last of tha 
 Carlovingian race. 
 
 988. Fr. : Hugh Capet,^ 
 —founder of the third ct 
 (japetian line of Frenck 
 kings. 
 
• — Chailemagne to WilHam I.\ 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 81 
 
 Eastern Empire, 
 
 Constantine III. retires into a 
 cloister. 
 
 959 
 963 
 
 9G7 
 
 969 
 
 975 
 
 98C 
 
 — R omanus II. ^^ — 
 poisoned by his wife, Theo- 
 phano. 
 
 — N icephoru? II. ^^ — 
 
 — he recovers Cyprus and An- 
 tioch from the Saracens. 
 
 — is murdered by 
 
 —John Zimisces.^P — 
 
 Basil and Constantine 
 VIII. W 
 
 Apulia and Calabria recover- 
 ed and united to the empire. 
 
 England, &.c. 
 
 946. E 1 d r e d^ 
 
 governed by Dunstan, abbot 
 of Glastonbury. 
 
 952. Scotland : — Malcolm I. , 
 king. 
 
 955. Scotland :—Indulf, king. 
 
 955. E d w y W 
 
 insulted by Dunstan, and 
 deposed — his queen, Elgiva, 
 put to death. 
 
 959. E d g a r ^ 
 
 marries the beautiful El- 
 
 Thb World, elsewhere. 
 
 frida, after the violent death 
 of Athelwold, her lover. 
 960. Scotland :— Duff, king. 
 Wolves expelled from 
 England and Wales, in con- 
 sequence of a reward being 
 offered for the purpose by 
 the king. 
 
 Violent disputes between 
 the monks ana the clergy. 
 
 975. 
 
 -Edward^ 
 
 (the martyr), murdered by 
 his stepmother, Elfrida. 
 
 973. — E t h e 1 r e d II. ,^- 
 (" the Unready.")— Dunstan 
 still minister.— The people 
 become discontented. 
 
 985. Danish invasion, under 
 Sweyn. 
 
 The king purchases their 
 retreat. 
 
 950. Spain :— Ordono III., king 
 of Leon. 
 
 955. Spain :—Sancho I., king 
 of Leon. 
 
 958. Italy ;-- War between tht 
 Normans and Saracens. 
 
 961. Candia recovered from 
 the Saracens. 
 
 962. Poland .-—Miecislas esta- 
 blishes Christianity. 
 
 967. Spain: — Ramiro III., king 
 of Leon. 
 
 968. The Northmen devastate 
 Galicia, but are defeated and 
 almost exterminated. 
 
 973. Hungary:— St. Stephen, 
 first hereditary king, extends 
 the kingdom eastward ; gives 
 it a constitution and written 
 laws 
 
 976. Spain : — Hixem, caliph 
 of Cordova. 
 
 Almansor, regent, obtains 
 many victories over the 
 Christians. 
 
 980. Russia : — Waldimir I ; 
 marries Anna, sister of the 
 emperor Basil II. 
 
 983. Italy : — Venice distracted 
 by violent commotions. 
 
 985. Sweyn L, or Sweno, kmg 
 of Denmark, invades Eng- 
 land. 
 
82 TiiE world's phogress. [P,rwd F-(a. d. 80(>-1066.)-266 years. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 9^7 
 
 Progress of Society. 
 
 1002 
 
 1024 
 
 Venice and Genoa carry on a 
 flourishing trade between 
 Asia ^aid Western Europe, 
 
 Siephcj, duke of Hunga- 
 ry, propagates Christianity 
 among his subjects. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 91)3. First 
 saints. 
 
 canonization of 
 
 Paper made of cotton rags. 
 
 Spain, the seat of Arabian and 
 Jewish learning. 
 
 Churches first built in the 
 Gothic style. 
 
 Foundation of the House of 
 Wisdom at Cairo. 
 
 The French language first be- 
 gins to be written. 
 
 Leo., the grammarian. 
 
 The arts faintly revive in Italy 
 — paintings in fresco and 
 mosaic. 
 
 Literature, the arts and sci- 
 ences,and commerce flourish 
 at Ghizni. 
 
 Musical scale, consisting of six 
 notes, invented by Guido 
 Aretino. 
 
 Avicejina., a famous Arabian 
 chemist and physician. 
 
 Glaber Rod, historian. 
 
 Campanes, of Navarro, astro- 
 nomer. 
 
 liermaniius Contractu s ,monk 
 and mathematician. 
 
 996. Pope Greffory V. 
 
 997, " John XVI. 
 
 999. Pope Sylvester IL 
 
 Hungary a fief of the 
 Romish church. 
 
 1003. Pope John XVIII. 
 
 1009. Pope Sergms. 
 1012. " Benedict VIII. 
 
 Persecution of the Albi^ 
 genses in Languedoc. 
 
 France, Germany, &c. 
 
 1024. Pope John XIX. He 
 gained his election by bribe- 
 ry. He was not of the clergy, 
 but consul and senator of 
 Rome. 
 
 1033. Pope Benedict IX., (ten 
 years old). 
 
 " Peace of God," pub- 
 lished by the bishops. 
 
 995. Fr. : -Robert 11.,^ 
 — (the Wise,) succeeds hia 
 father Hugh. 
 
 998. — is excommunicated by 
 the pope for marrying hi's 
 cousin Bertha. 
 
 1002. Ger. :— H e n r y 1 1 . ,^ 
 — (duke of Bavaria). 
 
 Italy : — Ardoin, margrave 
 of Ivrea, elected king. 
 
 1004. Italy :— Henry invited by 
 the German party — Ardoin 
 loses most of Italy and re- 
 signs. — Pavia burnt in a 
 quarrel between the troops 
 and people. 
 
 1015. Germany : — The empe- 
 ror receives an annual tri- 
 bute from Poland. 
 
 1024. Ger. :-Conrad II.W 
 — (the Salic,) first of tna 
 Franconian line. 
 
 1025. Expedition into Italy. 
 
 1029. War with the Poles. 
 1031. Fr.:— Henry I.^- 
 
 1032. Burgundy annexed 
 the empire. 
 
 l« 
 
— Charlemagne to William /.] 
 
 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 
 
 83 
 
 Eastern Empirk. 
 
 *0OCj Basil drives the Bulgarians 
 from I'hessaly. 
 
 10 IS 
 
 1328 
 
 1031 
 
 1034 
 
 Bulgaria again redurad to a 
 Grecian province. 
 
 — Rom an us IIL.^g — 
 (Argyrus). 
 
 — expels the Saracens from 
 
 Syria, 
 —poisoned by his wife Zoe. 
 
 - M i c h a e 1 IV. W — 
 
 England, &c. 
 
 994. Scotland : — Constantine 
 IV. slain by 
 
 995. Kenneth IV., (the Grim). 
 
 1002. Dreadful massacre of 
 all the Danes in England — 
 upon which Sweyn lands a 
 large armament, and brings 
 war and all its m.iseries upon 
 the country. 
 
 1003. Scotland:— Malcolm II., 
 an able, renowned prince. 
 
 1012. An annual tribute pro- 
 mised to the Danes. 
 
 1013. The Danes, under Sweyn, 
 become masters of England. 
 
 1016.— Edmund II.,W— 
 (Ironsides.) fights six battles 
 with Canute, king of Den- 
 mark, with whom he finally 
 divides the kingdom. 
 
 1016. 
 
 Canute 
 
 the Great, patronizes litera- 
 ture and the church. 
 
 1027. Ireland : — Brian Boru, 
 sole monarch. 
 
 1031. Canute penetrates into 
 Scotland— subdues Malcolm. 
 
 1032. — performs a pilgrimage 
 to Rome. 
 
 1034. Scotl'd :— Duncan, king. 
 
 1035. — H a r o 1 d I . ,W— 
 (Harefootr) cruel ana un- 
 popular — ruled by Earl 
 Godwin. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 995. Norway :—01af I. 
 
 Christianity introduced. 
 
 997. Drontheim founded. 
 Mahmud Sultan of Ghia- 
 
 ni, adds Transoxiania, Ca- 
 bul, and part of India to his 
 dominions; patronizes litera- 
 ture. 
 
 998. Spain : — Division of the 
 Mohammedan kingdom of 
 Cordova. 
 
 1000. Sancho III., (the Great,) 
 king of Navarre, takes the 
 title of emperor. 
 
 1000. Savoy : — independent un- 
 der Bervald, its first count. 
 
 Poland : — Boleslas I., 
 (the Lion-hearted). 
 
 1006. Pestilence in Europe for 
 three years. 
 
 1012. Spain: — Suleiman, ca- 
 liph. 
 
 1014. Denmark :— Harold III., 
 king. 
 
 1015. Norway :— Olaf II. 
 
 1016. Denmark: — Canute II., 
 (the Great). 
 
 1019. Norway conquered by 
 
 Canute. 
 
 Venice, Genoa, and Pisa 
 
 rise into importance. 
 1025. Poland :— Miecislas II. 
 
 1035. Spain :— Ramiro I king 
 of Arragon. 
 
 1037. Ferdinand I., of Castile, 
 in right of his wife succeeds 
 to Leon ; successful against 
 the Mohammedans. 
 
 1036. Denmark : — Hardica* 
 nute III. 
 
 1037. Norway :— Magnus I^ 
 (the Good). 
 
>j4 THE world's nt-OGilESS. [Pdriod v.— (a. -D ^00-lOm.)— 2m ycar:>. 
 
 A.D. Progress op Societv, etc. 
 
 IG55 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Michael Psellus, a celebrated 
 Greek pHilosopher and his- 
 torian. 
 
 English parents prohibited by 
 law from selling their chil- 
 dren. 
 
 First age of scholastic philoso- 
 
 'phy. 
 
 1038. The Pope, for his scan- 
 dalous conduct, driven from 
 Rome, but re-established by 
 the emperor, Conrad. 
 
 Fe dusi, the Persian Homer. , 
 Franco, mathematician. 
 George Cedrenus, historian 
 
 1044. —again driven from the 
 throne, and succeeded by 
 Sylvester III. After three 
 months Benedict is restored 
 by the Counts of Tusculum. 
 But finding the people will 
 not tolerate his crimes, he 
 sells the papal chair to Gre- 
 gory. 
 
 — deposed for simony, by 
 a council called by Henry 
 HI. 
 
 1046. Pope Clement H. 
 
 1048. Damascus II., 23 days. 
 " Leo IX., the first who 
 kept a regular army. 
 
 1053. — is defeated and taken 
 prisoner by the Normans. 
 
 1054. The papal chair vacant 
 one year. 
 
 Excommunication ofthe 
 Pati-iarch of Constantinople, 
 and the Greeks. 
 
 1055. Pope Victor II. 
 
 Hildebrand, the real 
 head ofthe church from the 
 time of Leo IX. The church 
 improving in piety and dis- 
 cipline. 
 
 1057. Pope Stephen IX. 
 
 1058. Nicholas II. 
 Benedict X., (antipope). 
 The election of pope 
 
 transfenred to a conclave of 
 cardinals. 
 
 1059. Quarrel between the 
 popes and the German em- 
 peroi-s. respecting investi- 
 tures and nomination to the 
 Holy See. 
 
 1061. Pope Alexander II. 
 
 1062. Berenger, a celebrated 
 French ecclesiastic. 
 
 Alexander forbids the 
 massacre of the Jews. 
 
 1066. Alexander deposes Ha- 
 rold, and gives England to 
 William the Conqueror, 
 duke of Normandy. 
 
 France, Germany. &;c. 
 
 1039. Ger. :-II e n r y III .^ 
 — defeats the Bohemians 
 and Hungarians — claims ihft 
 right of nominating to the 
 papal chair. 
 
 1046. France :— Dispute be- 
 tween William the Con- 
 queror and William of 
 Arques, for the duchy ol 
 
 Normandy. 
 
 1053. Germany: — Henry III. 
 causes his son, Henry, to be 
 proclaimed king of the Ro- 
 mans. This tiile was a|>- 
 plied, for several centuries, 
 to the king's eldest son. 
 
 Ger. .--Henry IV. ^ 
 — (the Great), aged six years, 
 under the tutelage of his 
 mother. 
 1058. Roger, duke of Apulia, 
 becomes a vassal of the 
 pope. 
 
 1060. Fr. :--Philip I 
 
•Charlemagnt to William /,] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 85 
 
 lft.38 
 
 1011 
 
 1042 
 1012 
 
 JW3 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 1054 
 105-1 
 1056 
 1057 
 
 Earthquakes and famine at 
 Constantinople. 
 
 M i c h a e 1 ) 
 
 (Calaphales). 
 
 — Z oe&Theodora, 
 
 — C onstantine X., 
 
 (Monomarchus). 
 First invasion of the Seljuk 
 
 Turks. 
 The Russians invade Thrace 
 
 with 100,000 men, and are 
 
 repeatedly defeated by the 
 
 Greeks. 
 
 England, &c. 
 
 Theodora,! 
 
 069 
 
 the last of Macedonian dy- 
 nasty. 
 The Greek church becories 
 independent. 
 
 — Michael VI.,^ 
 
 (Stra iotichus). 
 
 1 s a a c^^ — • 
 
 (Comnenus). 
 
 —C onstantine XI.,1 
 — (Ducas). 
 
 1039. -II ardicanute .^^- 
 Scot'd. : — Macbeth mur- 
 ders Duncan, and usurps the 
 throne. 
 
 The Saxon line restored 
 under s^ 
 
 1042. E d w a r d^ 
 
 (the Confessor). The coun- 
 try prospers under his mild 
 sway. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 God- 
 
 1051. Rebellion of Earl 
 win and his sons. 
 
 William, duke of Nor- 
 mandy, visits Edward. 
 
 1053. The Dane-gelt abolished. 
 
 Earl Godwin dies 
 The Welch and the Irish 
 several times invade Eng- 
 land, but are repressed by 
 Harold, son of Godwin. 
 
 1054. Macbeth defeated and 
 killed at Langfanan, by 
 Siward, earl of Northum- 
 berland. 
 
 1057. Scotland :— Malcolm III. 
 
 1066. —Harold II., ^— 
 elected king ; killed at the 
 BATTLE of HASTINGS. 
 
 — WILLIAM I ,W — 
 
 duke of Normandy, styled 
 " the Conqueror." 
 
 End of the Anglo- 
 Saxon dynasty. 
 
 Edgar Atheling flies to 
 Scotland. 
 
 1042. Denmark : — Magnus, 
 (the Good,) of Norway, king. 
 
 1047. Denmark : — Sweyn Ea- 
 tritson, or Suenon Ii. 
 
 1050. The Pisans and Genoese 
 take Sardinia and Corsica 
 from the Saracens. 
 
 1055. The Turks reduce Hag- 
 dad, and overturn the em- 
 pire of the caliphs. 
 
 1059. Sweden: — Ingeldus or 
 Ingo I., the first Christian 
 king. 
 
 1060. Robert Guiscard, the 
 Norman, is created by the 
 pope, duke of Apulia. 
 
 1062. 70,000 Europeans are 
 killed, or made prisor.ers by 
 the Turks in Palestine. 
 
 1065. Jerusalem taken by th« 
 Saracens. 
 
 1065. Castile and Leon:— AV 
 phonzo, king. 
 
86 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 PERIOD. VI.— 71k Middle ^^es.— (Continued.)- 
 
 U«^ 
 
 10. J 
 
 lOSl 
 
 i(m 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Feudal System introduced in 
 England by the Normans. 
 
 Surnames first used among 
 the Englisii nobility. 
 
 Knights errant in Spain. 
 
 Ihgulphus, historian, secre- 
 taiy to WiUiam the Con- 
 aueror. 
 
 Marianus Scotus. 
 Booksellers first heard of. 
 
 London Bodgft and Westmin- 
 ster HjilJ t^viiii 
 
 Lanfranc, archbhtrttp uf Can- 
 terbury. 
 
 Doomsday Book r orapJItd by 
 order of WilliaiiA .t\»i Con- 
 queror. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Popery at the height 
 of its power, claiming 
 supreme dominion, tem- 
 poral and spiritual, over 
 all the states of Christen- 
 dom. 
 
 France, Germany, & Spain. 
 
 1066. William. Uuke of Nor- 
 mandy, claims the crown of 
 England, and makes war 
 upon Harold to obtain it 
 
 1071. Philip engages in a 
 war with Robert, count of 
 Holland. 
 
 1072. Henry IV. of Germany, 
 summoned bef(ire the pope, 
 for selling the investiture oj 
 bishops. Treats the man- 
 date with contempt. 
 
 1073. — summoned again by 
 Gregory VII. 
 
 1090 
 1092 
 
 William of Spires, malhev>.B- 
 
 tician. 
 A rigid police established ii 
 
 England. — The curfeic. 
 Norman French taught in aJ! 
 
 the schools, and made use of 
 
 in all legal proceedings. 
 Literature patronized in the 
 
 East by Melek Shah. 
 
 Fortress of Newcastle and of 
 Carlisle built. 
 
 1073. Pope Gregory VII., 
 (Hildebrand,) who attempts 
 to free all the clergy from 
 the civil jurisdiction. Ho 
 quarrels with the emperor. 
 
 1074. Simony and celibacy 
 forbidden. 
 
 1075. The pope sends legates 
 to the various courts of Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 1076. — sends an ambassador to 
 to depose the pope — is excom municated by Gregory. Goes 
 barefoot to his holiness, makes humble submission, and kisses 
 his feet. 
 
 1076. Tuscany and Genoa he queathed to the Holy See by 
 the Empress Matilda. 
 
 1076. Spain:— The Old. 
 
 1078. The pope sets up Ru dolph, of Bavaria, as anti- 
 emperor. Rudolph dies in 
 1080. Ger. :— Henry IV. de- 
 grades Gregory for his in trigues against him, and makes 
 an expedition into Italy, and procures another pope to be 
 elected. The war continues till 
 
 1084, when Henry triumphs 
 over Gregory, who flees to Sa lerno, and dies in exile in 11)85. 
 
 lOri. The order of the Carthu- 
 k'-ans instituted by Bruno. 
 
 lOSC Pope Victor III. 
 
 1088. " Urban II. 
 
 1085. Spain :— Toledo taker\ 
 from the Moors, by Don 
 Rodrigo, the Cid, assisted by 
 Raymond, count -of Tou- 
 louse. 
 
 1086. Spain:— The battle of 
 Zalaca. 
 
 1087. France : — War with 
 England : Robert, duke of 
 Normandy, opposes Wil- 
 liam Rufus. 
 
THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 1066-1299. — WlUlani the Conqueror to Olhman I. 
 
 87 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Eudocia.^^ — 
 
 Sli8 marries 
 
 — - Romanus III., ^f 
 
 (Diogenes.) He valiantly 
 but vainly opposes the 
 Turks — is defeated and 
 taken prisoner by Alp Ars- 
 laii, Emir of Omrah. 
 
 -Michael VII., 
 
 (Parapinaces). 
 Andronicus I. 
 
 -Constantine XII. ^ 
 
 Syria and Palestine su';Klued 
 by Melek Shah. 
 
 Nicephorus, ^^ 
 
 (Botoniates). 
 
 — Alexius I.^^ CCom- 
 
 nenus). The empire in- 
 vaded by Robert Guiscard, 
 the Norman, who defeats 
 Alexius at Durazzo. 
 
 After the capture of Jerusa- 
 lem, b)^ the Turks, the Cliris- 
 tian pilgrims are insulted, 
 robbed and oppressed, which 
 gives rise to the crusades. 
 — Great struggle between 
 Christianity and Mohamme- 
 danism. 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 1066. —William I.,W- 
 
 " THE CONaUEROR," lirst Of 
 
 the Norman line. 
 
 1068. Edgar Atheling, heir of 
 the Saxon line, takes refuge 
 in Scotland. His sister, 
 Margaret, marries Malcolm 
 III. 
 
 1070. The feudal system in- 
 troduced by the king All 
 the offices of the government 
 placed in the hands of Nor- 
 mans. The Norman lan- 
 guage introduced. 
 
 Malcolm III. of Sco*Jand, 
 ravages Durham. 
 
 1072. Peace between the Nor- 
 mans and the Scots 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1076. Robert, the king's son, 
 raises a rebellion in Nor- 
 mandy. 
 
 1087. William invades France, 
 and is killed at Mantes. 
 
 1037. —William 11.,^ 
 (Rufus). 
 
 Revolt of the Norman 
 nobles. 
 
 1067. Poland : — Boleslas II,, 
 — he conquers Russia, 
 
 1068. Poland :— Romanus Dio 
 genes. 
 
 1070. Norway : —Bergen built. 
 
 1074. Syria: — Melek Shah, 
 (Emir,) extends his doniia- 
 ions from ihe Jaxartes to the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 1076. Denmark :— Harold IV. 
 
 Palestine invaded and 
 subdued by Melek Shah.— 
 Jerusalem taken. 
 
 1077. Hungary: — Ladislas I. 
 
 1079. Poland :— Stanislas, bi- 
 shop of Cracow, murdered. 
 The king excommunicated 
 and dethroned. 
 
 1079. Poland :— Uladislas I. 
 
 1083. Italy : — Rome taken 
 after a siege of two years, 
 by Henry IV. 
 
 1084. BOHEMIA erected into 
 a kingdom by the empcreor 
 Henrv IV. 
 
 1090. Sicily conquered by 
 Roger the Norman, after'a 
 war of thirty years will itf 
 masters, the Saracens. 
 
88 THE world's rr>.OGK,ESS. 
 
 [Period VI.— The Middle Agcs.- 
 
 1095 
 
 iU96 
 
 1099 
 
 IKX) 
 
 Progress of Societv, etc. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 France. Germany & Spain, 
 
 1093. Conrad, son of the em 
 peror, rebels. 
 
 The popes continue to struggle against the empire. 
 
 1094. Spain :— Pedro I., k. 
 — of Navarre and Arragon. 
 
 The Crusades :— Peter, the Hermit, preaches against the Turks in all the countriea ol 
 Christendom. i i 
 
 The Council of Clermont. 
 
 The FIRST CRUSADE ;— P e t e r the Hermit, 
 out with a vast rabble, 30O, 000 of whom perish before the 
 
 The chieftains of the 
 
 Nathan Ben Jechiel, learned 
 Jew. 
 
 Knights of St. John insti- 
 tuted. 
 
 Anna Coinnena, daughter of 
 Alexius I., Eastern emperor, 
 historian. 
 
 William of Poitou, first trou- 
 badour. 
 
 1099. Pope Paschal H. 
 
 and Walter, the Pennyless, set 
 warriors are ready to start. 
 
 first crusade were, 
 
 1. Godfrey of Bcuillor 
 or Boulogne. 
 
 2. Hugh of Vermandois. 
 
 3. R o b e r t of Normandy 
 
 4. Robert of Flanders. 
 
 5. Stephen of Chartres. 
 
 6. Raymond of Toulouse. 
 
 7. Bohemorid. 
 
 8. Tancred. 
 
 600,000 warriors, 100,000 
 cavalry. 
 
 Ahelard, Fi'ench scholastic. 
 Jeffrey of Monmouth, histo- 
 rian. 
 
 1118 
 
 ivx 
 
 The Knights Templars. 
 
 Tograi, Hairi, and Abdallah 
 Sharfaddin, Arabian poets. 
 
 Scholastic Philosophy attains 
 its highest pomt by the 
 writings o\' Peter Abelurd. 
 
 Peter, the Lombard, (master 
 of sentences). 
 
 1118. Pope Gelasius II. 
 
 1119. " CalistusII. 
 
 1123. First Lateran, or ninth 
 general council. 
 
 1124. Honorius II. 
 
 1104, Spain :— Alfonzo I., king 
 of Navarre and Arragon. 
 
 1106. Ger.:— Henry V .^ 
 — maintains the right of ni- 
 vestiture. 
 
 1108.Fr.:— Louis VI., ^ 
 — Le Gros. Abbe Sugar, 
 minister. 
 
 1109. Germany :— Henry en- 
 ters Italy, takes the pope 
 prisoner, and compels him 
 to crown him. 
 
 1114. Henry V. marries Ma 
 tilda, of England. 
 
 1118. Spain:— A^nso I. cap- 
 tures Saragossa. 
 
 1120. Rivalry between Eng- 
 land and France com- 
 mences. 
 
 1125. Germany :— L 1 h a i r a 
 
 II-^s opposed by Fre- 
 deric, and Conrad, duke ol 
 Suabia. 
 
 / 
 
1066-1229 —C ontinu ed. ] 
 
 THE V/ORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 89 
 
 L.J>. 
 
 1099 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 1104 
 
 1109 
 111] 
 
 U18 
 
 Order, learning, iind com 
 merce revive. 
 
 By the courage and talents of 
 the Comneni, the empire is 
 feared or re.=!pected by the 
 nations of Asia and Europe. 
 
 Invasion by the crusaders : 
 great numbers pass through 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Battle of Dorylseurn, which 
 secures the march of the 
 ci'usaders through Asia Mi- 
 nor. 
 
 Acre taken by the crusaders. 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 Tripolis taken by crusaders. 
 
 Berytus and Sidon taken by the 
 crusaders. 
 
 — John I.. ^^ (Comne- 
 
 nus),a noble prince : reforms 
 the manners of his people. 
 
 ryre taken by the crusaders. 
 
 1093. Scotland :— Malcolm III. 
 invades England, and is 
 slain near Alnwick Castle by 
 Roger de Mowbray. 
 
 1094. Scot. :— Donald Bane, 
 king. 
 
 William again invades 
 Normandy. 
 
 Sct'd. : — Duncan usurps 
 the crown. 
 
 William quarrels with 
 Anselm, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury. 
 
 1098. Scotland :— Edgar puts 
 out Donald's eyes and de- 
 thrones him. 
 
 1100. William II. accidentally 
 shot by Sir Walter Tyrel. ' 
 
 — H e n r y I . ,^P — 
 (Beauclerc.) grants the Eng- 
 lish a charter, and marries 
 Maud, a Saxon, thus uniting 
 the Norman and Saxon in- 
 
 tGl'GStS 
 
 1101. Robert, duke of Nor- 
 mandy, invades England. 
 
 1106. Henry invades Norman- 
 dy; takes Robert prisoner 
 at the battle of Tinchebrai. 
 
 Scotland : — Alexander I. 
 
 1107. Henry quarrels with An- 
 selm. 
 
 1120. Shipwreck and death of 
 Prince William and 140 no- 
 blemen. 
 
 1124. Insurrection in Norman- 
 dy suppressed. 
 
 Scotland :— David I. pro- 
 motes civilization. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1095. Hungary :— Coloman. 
 
 1096. Egypt : — Mustali, the 
 eighth Fatimite caliph. Ha 
 takes .Jerusalem. 
 
 1097. Baldwin founds the 
 principality of Edessa. 
 
 1099. Jerusalem taken by the 
 crusaders, under Godfrey 
 who is elected king. 
 
 1102. Poland :—Boleslas III. 
 
 1 105. Denmark : — Nicholas 
 
 1106. Italy : — Venice, Genoa, 
 and Pisa greatly enriched 
 by the crusades. 
 
 1109. Norway :—Segurd's ex- 
 pedition to Palestine. 
 
 1117. Persia: — Sanjar subdues 
 Khorasan and Samarkand. 
 
 1119. War between Pisa and 
 Genoa. 
 
 1120. Italy: — Rise of th« 
 house of Guelph. 
 
 Zengi, governor of M 
 sul, a great prince 
 
90 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period VI.— The Middle Ages.-- 
 
 A.D. Progress OF Society, etc. Ecclesiastical. France, Germany & Spain, 
 
 AristoUe's logic comes into 
 repute. 
 
 Pandects of the Roman law, 
 (Justinian,) discovered at 
 Amalfi, and the study of the 
 civil law revived. 
 
 Gratian collects the canon law. 
 
 WiUinm of Malmsbwy, Eng- 
 lish historian. 
 
 Vacarius teaches civil law at 
 Oxford. 
 
 Otho, bishop of Friesengen, 
 historian, introduces the pe- 
 ripatetic philosophy into 
 Germany. 
 
 Benjamin of Tudela, a Jew, 
 travels from Spain to India, 
 by Constantinople, and re- 
 turns through Egypt. 
 
 The m.agnetic needle known 
 
 in Italy. 
 Su.idas, lexicographer. 
 jEben Ezra, of Toledo, Jewish 
 
 historian. 
 
 Arnold, of Brescia, condemn- 
 ed and burnt. 
 
 Eustaihius, cn'pmentator on 
 Homer and Dionysius Per. 
 
 Ban} of Vinice established. — 
 flairs at Leipsic. 
 
 London contains 40,000 inha- 
 bitants 
 
 Poem of the Cid. 
 
 College? of theology, philoso- 
 phy and law at Paris. 
 
 English commerce confined to 
 the exportation of wool. — A 
 woollen manufactoi-y esta- 
 blished at Woi-sted, and soon 
 after at Norwich. 
 
 1127. — makes war against 
 Roger, king of Sicily. 
 
 1130. Innocent II. and Anacle- 
 tus, rival popes. 
 
 1137. A pretended Messiah in 
 France. 
 
 1138. — another in Persia. 
 
 1139. Second Late ran, or tenth 
 general council. 
 
 1143. Pope Celestin II. 
 
 1 144. " Lucius II. 
 U45. " Eugenius III. 
 
 1112. Spain- — Alfonzo VIL, 
 kins, Leon and Castile. 
 
 1134. Spain :— Garcia IV.. king 
 of Navarre. 
 
 Ramiro II., king of Arra- 
 
 fon. 
 5. Lothaire in Italy — cap- 
 ture of Amalfi. 
 
 1137. Fr. :— Louis VII-W 
 — (le Jeune). 
 
 1138. Germany : — House 
 of S u a b i a : 
 
 — Conrad I.^g 
 
 1139. Portugal becomes a king- 
 dom. — Henry of Besancon, 
 king. 
 
 1141. "Germany and Italy.— 
 Dissensions of the G u e J f s 
 and Ghibelines. 
 
 1147.TheSecondCrusade excited by St. Bernard, 
 and joined by the emperor Conrad and his nephew Fre- 
 deric Barbarossa, and Louis VII. of France. 
 
 1149. France : — Louis divorces 
 his queen, Eleanor, who 
 marries Henry of Anjou. af- 
 terwards king of England ; 
 thus Guienne and Poitou are 
 lost to France. 
 
 11-50. Spain :— Sancho V., king 
 of Navarre. 
 
 1152. Germany and Italy : — 
 
 1 1.53. Pope Anastasius IV. 
 
 1154. Pope Adrian IV. (an Eng- 
 lishman, Nicholas Breaks- 
 peare). 
 
 1159, Pope Alexander III. 
 Victor IV., antipope. 
 
 1160. Order of the Carmelites 
 instituted. 
 
 The Waldenses and 
 Albigenses begin to ap- 
 peal* 
 1164. Pascal III., antipope. 
 
 1167. Rome taken by Frederic BaMrossa. 
 
 1168. yalistus III., antipops. 
 
 Frederic I. 
 (Barbarossa). 
 
 11.57. Spain : — Castile and 
 Leon divided under Ferdi- 
 nand II. and Sancho II. 
 
 1158. Germany .-—The empe- 
 ror Frederic receives the 
 title of king of Bohemia at 
 the diet of Ratisbon : — con- 
 quers Poland, and makes it 
 tributary. 
 
 1162. Frederic destroys Mi'an. 
 Spain : — Alfonzc 11^ 
 king of Arragon. 
 
1066-1229.— Continued.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 91 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 1143 
 
 114S 
 
 Kelso, Melrose, and Holy- 
 rood house founded. 
 1127. Matilda, the king's 
 daughter, marries Geoffrey 
 Plaiitagenet. 
 
 1135. Stephen! 
 
 of Blois. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1155 
 1156 
 
 —Manuel Coinmenus. 
 
 Edessa being retaken by the 
 Turks, gives rise to the 
 second crusade. 
 
 The Normans, under Roger, 
 arrive before Constantino- 
 ple ; are repulsed by Manuel. 
 
 1136. Matilda asserts her right 
 
 CO the throne ; 
 
 David, king of Scotland, 
 
 assists her. 
 1138. -is defeated in the " bat 
 
 tie of the Standard." 
 
 1141. Stephen made pi-isoner 
 at the battle of Lincoln. 
 
 Civil war: Stephen and 
 Matilda. 
 
 1149. Henry Plantagenet in 
 vades England. 
 
 1 130. Sweden :— Ragwald I. 
 1133. " Magnus I. 
 
 1139, PORTUGAL becomes a 
 
 kingdom, under Alfonso I.^§ 
 
 Sweden :— Suercher II. 
 
 1147. Russia: — the city of 
 Moscow founded. 
 
 1154. —Henry II. 
 (Plantagenet), 
 
 The Greeks reduce Apulia 
 and Calabria. 
 
 Manuel forms the design of 
 conquering Italy and the 
 western empire, but fails. 
 
 11.58' Thomas a Becket intro- 
 duced to the king's notice by 
 Theoboid, archbishop of 
 Canterbury — becomes chan- 
 cellor and pi'eceptor of the 
 prince. 
 
 1159. Becket sent as ambassa- 
 dor to Fjance. 
 
 1162. — made archbishop of 
 
 Canterbury — opposes the 
 
 king. 
 1164. — re?/sts the constitutions 
 
 of Clarendon — flies io 
 
 France. 
 1166. Scotland :— William. 
 
 1150. Denmark :— The coasts 
 
 infested with pirates. 
 1150. Sweden:— Eric X 
 
 1157. Denmark: WaldemarL 
 
 1158. Venice a great maritims 
 power. 
 
 1162. Sweden :— Charles VIL 
 
 1167. Italy:— League of the 
 Italian cities to preserrt 
 their liberties. 
 
92 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 IPetiod VI.— The Middle Ages.— 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Foundation of the military 
 order of Santiago. 
 
 Circuit Judges appointed in 
 England. 
 
 1178. Innocent III., antipope. 
 
 The pope Alexander, by a special act, relieves the clergy 
 of Berkshire from keeping the archdeacon's dogs and hawks 
 during his visitation. 
 
 The Waldenses spread over the valley of Piedmont. They 
 circulated the Sacred Scrip tures. They were the fore- 
 runners of Protestantism. Con demned by the Eleventh Gene- 
 ral Council, and severely per secuted. 
 
 1179. Third Lateran, or Ele- 
 venth General Council. 
 
 Robert Wace, first French 
 poet. Translation of his 
 Hist, des Rois d'Angleterre, 
 by Layamon, the first Eng- 
 lish composition. 
 
 John Tzetes, Greek gramma- 
 rian. 
 
 Maimonides, of Cordova, one 
 of the most learned of the 
 Jews. 
 
 Henry, of Huntington^ and 
 William, of Newbury, his- 
 torians. 
 
 Rainulph de Glanville makes 
 a digest of laws and customs 
 of England. 
 
 Dreadful massacre of the Jews 
 at the coronation of Richard 
 I. 
 
 Teutonic order instituted. 
 
 Boahoddi Ibu Shadad, author 
 of a J.ife of Saladin, in Ara- 
 bic. 
 
 The Jews become the princi- 
 pal bankers of the world. 
 
 Order of the Holy Trinity in- 
 stituted in Germany. 
 
 USl. Pope Lucius IIL 
 
 1185. Pope Urban III. 
 
 1187. Pope Gregory VIII. 
 1187. ^' Clement III. 
 
 France, Germany, & Spain. 
 
 1170. France:— The Walden- 
 ses. They derived theii 
 name from Peter Waldo, i 
 merchant of Lyons. 
 
 1171. Frederick's fourth expe 
 dition into Italy. 
 
 1176. Frederick defeated at th« 
 
 battle of Legnano. 
 
 1178. Henry, the Lion, d\ik« 
 of Saxony, deposed, anO 
 Saxony divided. 
 
 1180. Fr.:— Philip II. ,W 
 (Auguste). 
 
 IIS-S. The Peace of Constance 
 re-establishes the independ- 
 ence of Italian republics. 
 
 1188. Spain : — Alfonzo IX. 
 king of Leon. 
 
 1190. Third C r u s a d e led by Philip Augustus, of 
 France, and Richard, of Eng land, and Frederick Barba- 
 rossa. 
 
 1 190. Ger. :— H e n r y V I .^ 
 emperor and king of luily 
 
 1191. Pope Celestine III. and the Sicilies. 
 
 1196. Richard Coeur de Lion 
 seized and retained in cap 
 tivity. 
 
 1198. Pope Innocent IIL 1198. Philip, of Suabia, and 
 
 Oiho, of Saxony, dispute the 
 crown; the former sup' 
 ported by the Ghibelines, 
 and the latter by the Gutlfa 
 
10G8 -1299— Continued.] 
 
 THE world's progress 
 
 93 
 
 1180 
 
 1133 
 
 1185 
 
 1190 
 
 U95 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 -Alexius II. 
 
 Andronicus I. 
 
 -Isaac II. 
 
 (Angelus), 
 
 The empire invaded by the 
 Bulgarians. 
 
 Iconiuni taken by Frederick 
 Barbarossa, bu' afterwards 
 restored. 
 
 — Alexius Angelus, 
 usurper and tyrant. 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 1 170. Backet returns to Eng- 
 land, and is murdered at the 
 altar. 
 
 1172. Henry conquers 
 Ireland. 
 
 1174. Treaty of Falaise, in 
 which William agrees to do 
 homage tor Scotland. 
 
 Henry makes a pilgri- 
 mage to the shrine of Becket. 
 
 1189.— Richard I. 
 (Cceur de Lion) 
 
 ^ _ _ He en- 
 gages in the third crusade. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1171. Egypt: — Saladin, sul 
 lan. 
 
 — He extends his d mi- 
 nions in Egypt, and con- 
 quers Syria, Assyria, Meso- 
 potamia, and Arabia. 
 
 1174. Poland :— Miecislaus III. 
 
 1175. Portugal— a fief of tbs 
 Holy See. 
 
 1178. Poland :"Casimir, (the 
 Just 
 
 1182. Denmark :— Canute. 
 
 1183. Saladin takes Aleppo, 
 and deposes the sultan of 
 Mosul. 
 
 1185. Portugal :—Sancho I. 
 
 1186. Saladin directs ail hia 
 efforts against the crusaders. 
 
 1187. —gains the victory of 
 Tiberias, and takes Jerusa- 
 lem, which leads to 
 
 1190. The third crusade. 
 
 1191, Kingdom of Cyprus 
 founded. 
 
 1191. Acre taken by the cru- 
 saders. 
 
 1193. Richard defeats Saladin in the battle of Ascalon; but, 
 abandoned by his associates, concludes a truce of thue 
 
 years. 
 
 1193. John attempts to seize 
 the crown in the absence of 
 Richard. 
 
 1193. Saladin dies. 
 
94 THE world's PilOGIlESS. 
 
 [Period VI.— Tfie Middle Ages.-- 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 France. Germany & Spaih 
 
 Tlie power of the pope supre me — Rome mistiess of the world, and kiiige '?er vassals 
 
 1200 
 
 12C3 
 
 1206 
 
 1209 
 
 1222 
 
 The University of Bologna 
 contains 10,000 students. 
 
 Ville Hardouin, historian. 
 Saxo Grammaticus, histona.n. 
 
 University of Paris founded. 
 
 The order of Franciscan fri ars instituted. 
 
 1200. The pope excommunica tes Philip of France. 
 
 1202. The fourth crusade by the French, Germans, and 
 Venetians under the Marquis of Monserrat. They tak« 
 Constantinople. 
 
 1204. The Inquisition in Fran ce 
 
 The works of Aristotle, im- 
 ported from Constantinople, 
 condemned by the council 
 of Paris. 
 
 Period of the Troubadours in 
 France ; the Minstrels in 
 England ; and the Minne- 
 singers in Germany. 
 
 IJnriiersi/y of Padua (Qunded. 
 
 Stephen Langton. archbishop 
 of Canterbury. 
 
 Bitter persecution of the 
 Albigenses. 
 
 The doctnne of transub- 
 stantiation and auricular 
 confession established. 
 
 1215. Fourth Lateran, and 
 twelfth General Council 
 against th^ Albigenses, and 
 all heretics. 
 
 1216. Pope Honorius III. 
 
 1217. The fifth crusade by 
 Andrew II., king of Hun- 
 gary. 
 
 1227. Pope Gregory IX, 
 
 1229. The Inquisition at Tou- 
 louse. 
 
 The Scriptures forbid- 
 den to all laymen. 
 
 Normandy reunited to 
 France. 
 
 1210. Germany :— Otho placed 
 under the ban of the pope. 
 
 1212. — F rederickll. 
 
 Spain :— The Christiana 
 
 gain the battle of Navas de 
 Tolosa. 
 
 1215. Otho loses the battle of 
 Bovines. 
 
 1217. Spam •— Ferdir,and, king 
 of Castile. 
 
 1223. Fr.: Louis V. -I-W 
 
 (The Lion). 
 
 Crusade against the Al- 
 bigenses. 
 
 1226. Fr. : Louis IX. ^ 
 
 (Saint). 
 
 1227. Gennany : — Crusade of 
 the emperor after being ox- 
 communicated. 
 
 1230. Spain : — Castile ami 
 Leon united by Ferdinand 
 III., who tal-es Cordova Se- 
 ville, fddiz, &c. from the 
 Moors. 
 
X066-1299.— Continued.] 
 
 THE world's progress 
 
 95 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 1104 
 
 1506 
 
 -Alexius IV. 
 
 The crusaders plunder Con- 
 stantinople. 
 Baldwin, count of Flanders. 
 
 Henry II. ^§ 
 
 1216 
 
 1!^1 
 
 i228 
 
 1237 
 
 Peter 
 
 Robert ^m 
 
 — John of Brienne,^^ 
 
 king of Jerusalem, and em- 
 peror. 
 
 -Baldwin II. 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 Richard, returning home 
 in disguise, through Ger- 
 many, is imprisoned. Is 
 ransomed by his subjects for 
 10,000 marks. 
 
 — declares war against 
 France. 
 1199. Richard dies. 
 
 1200. John, 
 
 (Lackland.) 
 
 1201. Prince Arthur supported 
 by France. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1207. The kingdom laid under 
 an interdict. 
 
 1208. John excommunicated. 
 London obtains the right 
 
 to elect its own Lord Mayor. 
 
 1213. The pope declares John 
 a usurper. John submits to 
 hold his crown as a vassal of 
 the pope. 
 
 1214. Scotland :— Alexander II. 
 
 1215. Magna Charta signed at 
 Runnymede. 
 
 1216. —Henry III.^ 
 (4th Plantagenet.) 
 
 Eai'l of Pembroke, 
 lector. 
 
 pro- 
 
 1224. Henry's province of 
 Poitou seized by the king of 
 France. 
 
 1229. First expedition of Henry 
 into France for the recovery 
 of his estates. 
 
 1233. First discovery of coal 
 at Newcastle. 
 
 1202. Denmark : — Waldemat 
 II. 
 
 Poland : — Lesco, (tha 
 white). 
 
 Livonia : — Institution oi 
 the order of short swords to 
 conquer the Prussians. 
 
 1206. Genghis Khan 
 subdues the north of China 
 
 1210. Italy :— First war of Ve- 
 nice and Genoa. 
 
 1213. Russia:— Jurje II. 
 
 1214. Frederick cedes to Den- 
 mark all the provinces be- 
 yond the Elbe and Eiser. 
 
 1216. Tartary :— Overrun by 
 the hordes of Genghis Khan. 
 
 1217. Norway :—Haco V. 
 
 1222. Two Greek kingdoms in 
 Asia, Nice and Trebizond. 
 
 Jolin Ducas, emperor of 
 Nice. 
 
 Hungary : — Charter of 
 Andrew ll. Foundation oi 
 the national liberty. 
 
 1234. Italy :— War of the Lom- 
 bard cities with Frederick ot 
 Germany. 
 
 1236. Dreadful invasion oi 
 Europe by the Mongol'?, \:n 
 der Eatu Khan. 
 
96 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Period Vl.— Thc Middle Ages- 
 
 A.D. PnOGRESS OF SOCLETY, etC. 
 
 Robert, of Gloucester, the first 
 English writer in riiyme. 
 
 First war fleet in Spain at the 
 conquest of Seville. 
 
 Foundation of the Alhambra 
 near Granada. 
 
 St. Edmund, of Canterbury, 
 dies. 
 
 The University of Salaman- 
 ca founded. 
 
 Silk manufactory in Lucca ; 
 woollen in Milan and Tus- 
 cany. 
 
 Peter, of Albano, astrologer, 
 physician, and naturalist, 
 
 Rubruquis travels among the 
 Mongols. 
 
 Private war and judicial com- 
 bats suppressed in France 
 by the laws of St. Louis. 
 
 Parliament in England. 
 
 The monastic orders, by their 
 wealth, rigid discipline, 
 and popular influence, be- 
 come powerful aids to pon- 
 tifical ambition. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 124L Pope Celestine IV. 
 
 12-13. Pop« Innocent IV. 
 
 Continual struggles with 
 the emperor Frederic. 
 
 Sect of the Flagellants. 
 
 1254. Pope Alexander IV. 
 
 The Jews every vfhere 
 persecuted. 
 
 1261. Pope Urban IV. 
 
 The popes claim the 
 right of presenting to every 
 benefice in the world. 
 
 France, Germany dcSrAiN. 
 
 123S. Germany : — Frederic 
 again excommunicated. 
 
 1243. The Hanseatic 
 1 e a g u e — the chief towns 
 are Lubec, Cologne, Bruns- 
 wick, and Dantzic. 
 
 1246. Henry of Thuringia set 
 up for emperor by the pope, 
 and 
 
 1247. William, of Holland. 
 
 1248. France : — Louis sets out 
 on tlie seventh crusade. 
 
 1250. Germany: 
 
 Conrad IV. ^ — 
 
 1252. Spain : — Al fonso X. 
 king of Castile and Leon. 
 
 1261. France :— Burgundy fallf 
 to the crown. 
 
 1265.' The pope succeeds in his long struggle for the do- 
 minion of Italy, and places CharlesofAnjou on the throne 
 
 of Naples. 
 
 1265. Pope Clement IV. 
 
 1266. Henry of Castile, a Roman senator. 
 
 1268. Pragmatic sanction- 
 foundation of the liberties ol 
 the Gallican church. 
 
 1268. No pope for about three 
 years. 
 
 1271. Pope Gregory X. 
 
 1270. France : — Louis IX. seta 
 out on the eighth and last 
 crusade, and dies before 
 Timis — succeeded by 
 
 — Philip III. ft— 
 (The Hardy). 
 
1066-1299.— Continued.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 97 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 1260 
 1261 
 
 — Michael Palaeologus.^^ 
 — recovers Constantinople. 
 
 The Mongols in Asia Minor. 
 
 1X8 
 
 1240. Pvichard, earl of Corn- 
 wall, heads the sixth cru- 
 sade, and redeems Jerusa- 
 lem. 
 
 1242. Second expedition into 
 France — defeated and com- 
 pelled to miake peace. 
 
 1246. Henry marries Eleanor, 
 of Pi-ovence. 
 
 1249. Scot. : Alexander Y. I. 
 
 — Repulses Haco, kins 
 of Norway — obtains the 
 Scottish Isles. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1258. Famous parliament at 
 
 Oxford. Simon d e 
 
 M o n t f o r t . 
 
 1259. Peace with France. 
 
 1265. First regular parlia- 
 ment. — Civil war — the king 
 made prisoner at Lewes — is 
 released, and gains the bat- 
 tle of Evesham. 
 
 The Mongols take Antiocb. ' 
 
 1270. Prince Edward joins the 
 eighth crusade. 
 
 1241. Denmark .—Eric VI 
 
 1249. The Hans€ towns cap- 
 ture Copenhagen. 
 
 12.50. Egypt :— the M a m e - 
 1 u k e s rule —take Damas- 
 cus and Aleppo. 
 
 1255. Nice:--Theodore Lasca- 
 ris, emperor. 
 
 1256. Hulaku enters Persia, 
 becomes sultan — takes Bag- 
 dad, and puts an end to 
 the caliphate. 
 
 1258. Italy : — Dreadful naval 
 war between Venice and 
 Genoa. 
 
 1259. China :—Kublai Khan 
 builds Pekin, and makes it 
 his capital. 
 
 1261. Norway : — Iceland sub- 
 jected. 
 
 Italy : — Charles I. 
 
 1262. — becomes a papal fief. 
 
 Greenland tributary to 
 
 Norway. 
 
 Norway : ■ 
 
 Magnus II. ^§ - 
 
 1265. Abaka Khan of Persia. 
 
 1266 Magnus, af Norway, 
 cedes to Scot'and the lis 
 brides and the Isle :rf JIari. 
 
 1270. Hungary :- 
 
 --Stephen V ^^§ ■ 
 
98 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period VI. — The Middle Ages. — 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 1272 
 
 1273 
 
 1276 
 
 1279 
 
 285 
 
 Marco Polo travels in the 
 East as far as Pekin. 
 
 Fir^ patent of nobility grant- 
 ed to his goldsmith by the 
 kii.'g of France. This was 
 desjjrneil as an attack upon 
 the feudal barons, and all 
 the landed and hereditary 
 aristocracy. 
 
 Literature and science flourish 
 in Spain, under Alfonzo, the 
 learned. 
 
 Chivalry and the tournaments 
 introduced into Sweden. 
 
 University of Lisbon focinded. 
 
 Roger Bacon., of Oxford, the 
 most learned man of the 
 middle ages. 
 
 Institution of the three great 
 courts of law in England. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 France, Germany, & Spaim 
 
 1272. Languedoc falls to ths 
 crown. 
 
 1273. Ger. :— R o d o 1 p h . ^ 
 
 founds the house o { 
 Hapsburg. 
 
 1274. I4th General Council at Lyons ; first re-union oJ 
 the Eastern and Western Churches. 
 
 1276. Pope Inn-ocent V., 4 mos. 
 " Adrian V., 1 mo. 
 '■ John XXL, 8 mos. 
 
 1277. Nicholas III., enriching 
 Ins family at the expense of 
 the church — he introduces' 
 
 Nepotism. ' 
 
 1281. Pope Martin IV. 
 
 1276 France at war with Ci 
 
 tile. 
 
 1285. Pope Honorius IV, 
 
 1288. Pope Nicholas IV. 
 
 Nicholas IV. patronizes civil and religious literature, aaa 
 improves and embellishes Rome. 
 
 Albert, the mathematician, and 
 Pre venial poet. 
 
 1283. Germany Rode -pis 
 
 makes his son, Albert, duk# 
 of Austria. 
 
 1285. Fr.:— Philip IV, 
 (the Fair.) 
 
 1286. Spain :— Alfonzo III. 
 
 king of Arragoo, 
 
1066-1299.— Continued.] 
 
 THE WOULD S PROGRESS. 
 
 9$ 
 
 A.n. Eastern Empire. 
 
 1273 
 
 1274 
 
 AndronicLis, 
 
 (the Elder.) 
 
 Union with the Latin church. 
 
 :277 
 
 •281 
 
 Persecution of the Greeks. 
 
 Ocliman establishes an inde- 
 pendent rule, as chief of 
 400 families, in the north of 
 A.^'la Minor. 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 1272. — Edward I.^ 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1272 Hungary: 
 
 1276. War between England 
 and Wales. 
 
 12S3. Edward has a son born 
 at Caernarvon, from which 
 the title. Prince of Wales, 
 descends to the eldest son of 
 the king. 
 
 Scotland :— Robert Bruce and 
 Jolio Balliol contend for the 
 crown. 
 
 -Vladislas VI. W — ■ 
 
 to the pope. 
 
 1276. Sweden : — Magnua I. 
 
 Russia : — Hanseatic set- 
 tlement at Novogorod. 
 
 1279. China:— Kublia Khan 
 subdues the souihern king- 
 dom, and becomes the Great 
 Khan. 
 
 China visited by Marco 
 
 Polo- ^ 
 
 1279. Poland :— Lesco II.^-. 
 
 1279. Portugal :— Dennis,^ 
 the father of his coun- 
 try- 
 
 1280. Norway :— Eric II.®— 
 
 1282. Si cilian vespers . 
 1282. benmavk :— Parliament 
 at Wurtemburg. 
 First Handveste. 
 
 1286. Denmark :— Eric VI. 
 
 1289. Last payment of Uibjite 1289. The Mongols invade 
 
 Hungary and Poland. 
 1290. Hungary : —Andrew III 
 
 the Venetian. • 
 
 Poland : Wencesla?), 
 
 king of Bohemia, takes Cra- 
 cow, and becomes duke o 
 Lesser Poland. 
 
00 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period VI.— rite Middle Ages.-- 
 
 Progress of Societit, etc. 
 
 Petei; of Albano, astrologer, 
 physician, and naturalist. 
 
 John Holy wood, uf England 
 aatrononier. 
 
 Richard Middleton. 
 
 Cimabue, the first of modern 
 painters at Florence. 
 
 Ariiolf di Lapo^ the father of 
 modern Italian architecture. 
 
 The Inf luenc e of the 
 crusades lous great 
 
 expanding the 
 
 mind of Eur op e — r e ■ 
 fining the general 
 manner s — e xc iti ng 
 a spirit of geogra- 
 phical research and 
 adventur e — a nd pro- 
 Tnoiing i mp r ovement 
 in the arts and sci- 
 ences — thus under 
 
 First letters of marque grant- 
 ed by Edward III. against 
 the Portuguese. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 1292. Celestine V.— he abdi- 
 cates. 
 
 1292. The papal chair vacant 
 two years and three months. 
 Institution of the order 
 of the Celestines. 
 
 1294. Pope Boniface VIII. 
 
 1296. Struegles with France. 
 
 1297. Canonization of Louis 
 IX. 
 
 inining instead of 
 strengthening the 
 poto er ofp apal Home, 
 by advancing libe- 
 ral ideas and fr e e - 
 dom of thought . 
 
 France. Germany & Spain. 
 
 1291. Germany: — 
 
 — Adojphusj^ 
 of Nassau. 
 
 Spain :- -James II. k. of 
 Arragon. 
 
 1295. Spain : - Ferdinand IV. 
 in Castile a,: d Leon. 
 
 Philip successfully 
 vades Flanders. 
 
 1298. Germany : — Adolphus 
 deposed by a Diet, which 
 elects 
 
 — Albert I.W — 
 son of Rodolph.— Adolphua 
 slain in the struggle wbich 
 ensues. 
 
1066-1299— Continued.J 
 
 THE WOPcLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 1291 
 
 1292 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Capture of Acre by the Ma- 
 meluke? — end of ibe king- 
 dom of Jerusalem. 
 
 Tile Mongols drive the last 
 sultan of Iconium from his 
 throne. 
 
 The Genoese obtain the trade 
 of the Black Sea, and rise to 
 great power 
 
 England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere. 
 
 m) 
 
 Othman mvades Nicomedia, 
 and establishes the Ottoman 
 empire. 
 
 1291. Edward decides the 
 Scottish dispute in favor of 
 Baliol. 
 
 1292. A piratical warfare be- 
 tween England and France. 
 — Philip gets possession of 
 Guienne. 
 
 1292. Hungary:— The pope 
 sets up Charles Martel, 
 crown prince ot Naples, aa 
 king. 
 
 1294. China:— Tymui E'iiaa, 
 
 1295. Poland: 
 
 1296. Ball 1 defeated; sub- 
 mits to Edward. 
 
 1297. Scotland :— S i r Wil- 
 liam Wallace . — S i r 
 William Douglas, 
 Robert Bruce, and 
 other chiefs head a rebellion 
 against the English. 
 
 1299. — they are defeated at 
 Falkirk by king Edward I. 
 
 — PremJslaa II. 
 
 1296. Poland :— Less 11.^ 
 
 \299. Foundation of tha 
 OTTOMAN or TURKISH 
 EMPIRE m Bythinia, us- 
 der Othman I. 
 
D2 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 PERIOD Yll.— The Middle ^l^es.— 1299 to 1453.— 
 
 kD. Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 Djiiversity at Lyons founded. 
 — Rapid advances in civili- 
 zation. — Revival of ancient 
 learning. — Improvements in 
 the arts and sciences — and 
 progress of liberty. 
 
 The Mariner's Com- 
 pass invented at Naples, 
 by Gioia. native of AmaM. 
 
 Univei-sity at Avignon. 
 
 Dante ,{he father of modern 
 Italian poetry, flourishes. 
 
 Amid the struggles of the 
 Guelfs and Ghibelines, 
 Italy becomes the cradle of 
 modern literature and itn 
 proving civilization. 
 
 University at Orleans. 
 
 University at Perugia. 
 
 University at Coimbra. 
 
 Knights of Si. John at 
 Rhodes. 
 
 Order of Knights Templar 
 abolished.— The barons in 
 England extort from Ed- 
 ward II. a reformation of 
 abuses. Parliaments are to 
 be held every year, and to 
 appoint to all imfwrtunt 
 offices. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 France, Germany, & Spain 
 
 1302. First convocation of the 
 States-general in France. 
 
 Guienne restored to Eng- 
 land. 
 
 1304. France at war with 
 Flanders. 
 
 Germany: — The Swiss 
 towns rise into importance 
 — oppressed by the House of 
 Hapsburg. 
 
 1303. Pope Boniface VIII. 
 
 Council of Paris. 
 
 Bull unam sanctum. 
 
 Pope Benedict XI. 
 
 Vacancy in the papal 
 chair nearly eleven months. 
 
 — The papal power de- 
 clines. 
 
 1305. Pope Clement V. 
 
 Seat of the popes transferred to Avig- 
 non. 
 1306. Persecution of the Jews 
 in France. 
 
 Germany • — Rudolf 
 
 1311. General Council at Vien- 
 na. 
 
 Another vacancy in the 
 papal chair of more than 
 two years. 
 
 1316. Pope .John XXIL 
 
 Taxes imposed upon all 
 the countries of Europe, to 
 enrich the treasury ol the 
 church. 
 
 of Austria-^ 
 
 the 
 
 1307. Persecution of 
 Knights Temp'ar. 
 
 Ger. : — William Tell 
 shoots Gesler. 
 
 1308- Germany : H e n r y 
 
 of Luxemburg. ^^ 
 
 General insurrection in 
 Switzerland. 
 1309. Spain:— Ferdinand IV, 
 takes Gibraltar. 
 
 1311. Lyons united to France. 
 
 1312. Spain :— Alfonzo XL 
 of Castile and Leon. 
 
 1314. Fr. :— Louis X.^- 
 (Huiin.) 
 
 Ger. : — Louis of Bava- 
 ria, and Frederick of Au3 
 tria, contend for the crown. 
 
 1315. Fr. :— Edict for the en- 
 franchisement of slaves. 
 
 Battle of Morgarten— the 
 Austria ns defeated by tha 
 Swiss. 
 
 1316. Fr. :-Philip V.W-^ 
 (the Long.) He succeeisby 
 virtue of the Salique .aw 
 now first established. 
 
THE world's progress. 
 15 i years.— OtJwmn to the Fall of the Eastern Empire. 
 
 103 
 
 1303 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 War of the Catalans, under 
 Roger de Flor. 
 
 Othman increases his posses- 
 sions ; abandons the pasto- 
 ral life, and fortifies towns 
 and castles. 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 1303. Edward invades Scot- 
 land. Wallace betrayed 
 
 and beheaded. — Scotland 
 submits. 
 
 Edward recovers Gui- 
 enne. 
 
 130e. Scotland : — R o b e r t 
 Bruce proclaimed king 
 — is obliged to flee; but, 
 Edward dying, resumes his 
 positioG. 
 
 1307. Eag. : Edward II.® 
 Scot. : — Brace strength- 
 ens himself by repeated ad- 
 va.i*ages and prudent con- 
 du v.. 
 
 1310 
 
 The Knights of St. John of 
 Jerusalem, established at 
 Rhides. 
 
 1314. Edward invades Scot- 
 land, and is defeated at the 
 Battle of Banno-ck- 
 b u r n 
 
 The Scots invade Eng- 
 land and Ireland. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1301. Hungary : — AndreWj the 
 
 Venetian . ^^ 
 
 Extinction of ths house 
 of Arpad. 
 
 — Wenceslas III. of Bo 
 
 hernia.' 
 
 1304. — Otto v.. of Bava 
 
 1305. Polai ri :— Vladislas IV., 
 in Little Poland, and 
 
 Duke Henry, of Glogau, 
 in Great Poland. 
 
 Russia subject to the 
 Khain of Tartaiy. 
 
 1307. Switzerland: 
 
 W m . Tell escapes from 
 Gesler : 
 
 SWISS Republics 
 founded, Nov. 7. 
 
 1-308. Hungary :— Carobert, of 
 
 Anjou,^^ 
 
 1309. Poland united into one 
 monarchy under Viadislaa 
 IV. 
 
 Naples : — Robert, the 
 Good. He aspires to the 
 dominion (if Italy. 
 
 1310. Italy :— The Council of 
 Ten established at Venice. 
 
 1313. Italy ;—Matteo Visco.'ili. 
 
 1314. Tunis made tributary to 
 Spain. 
 
 1316. Italy :— Castruccio, Lord 
 of Lucca and Pisa. 
 
 1317. Robert, the Good, a sena- 
 tor of Rome, and 
 
 1318. —lord of Genoa. 
 
 J 319. Final establishmea' of 
 thie oligarchy at Venice 
 
.04 
 
 THE world's niOGilESS. [Period VII.— Tke Middle AgCA. 
 
 PROGRESS OF Society, etc. 
 
 ,.1 
 
 Dan.'e, dies. 
 
 Jolm de 3Iuris iatro.luces 
 notes of ditFereiic length into 
 music — and the method of 
 distinguishing them. 
 
 Romance poetry of the middle 
 ages Jiouiishes. 
 
 ilayronis commences tlie cele- 
 brated disputations in liie 
 Sorbonr.o. 
 
 Obck coiistructetl on mathe- 
 matical principles, by Rich- 
 ard Valigl'ort. 
 
 Linna, a monk, and astrono- 
 mer of Oxford, con'structs a 
 map of the northern seas. 
 
 ThomaSjOfBradwardine, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. 
 
 Giotto, a shepherd boy, the 
 first who drew portraits 
 from lile. 
 
 Greek lilerature revises. — 
 Barlaani teaches PrJrarch. 
 — Leontius lectures on Ho- 
 mer at Florence. 
 
 First comet, wliose course lias 
 been accurately described. 
 
 GUNPOWDER in use at 
 
 the battle of Cressy. 
 Lippo Memmi Giotino, Flo- 
 rentine painter. 
 
 First ba?ik at Genoa. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 1324. Contest of the popes 
 with Louis of Bavaria. 
 
 1328. Crusade preached agains. 
 Louis, who sets up Nicholas 
 V. as ami- pope. 
 
 I33i. Pope Benedict XIL 
 
 i-339. Su-uggles in Rome be- 
 tween the Colonna and the 
 Ursini. 
 
 1342. Pope Clement VL 
 
 Democracy at Rome, under Rienzi, the last of the Tri- 
 bunes. 
 
 Manufactures improve in 
 England. — Comni'i-rce in- 
 creases. 
 
 Barlolus and Baldcos, cele- 
 brateil jurists 
 
 Merino sheep introduced into 
 Spain, by Peter IV. of Ara- 
 gon. 
 
 Sir Jolni Mmuleville^ s Tra- 
 vels, the tirst English book 
 in proie. 
 
 1352. Pope Innocent VI. 
 
 1354. Rienzi killed. — Albernoz, 
 cardinal legate, restores the 
 papal dominion. 
 
 France, Germany, jt Spain. 
 
 1322. France : — C h a r 1 e 
 
 I V.^— (the Fair.) 
 
 Germany : — Frederic, of 
 A jstria defeated and uiken 
 prisoner. 
 1324. Germany : — Louis ax- 
 communicated by John XII. 
 — appeals to a aeijeral coun- 
 cil. 
 
 1328. France :— P h i 1 i p VI 
 of Valois.^^ — 
 
 1332. France :— The Flemings 
 revolt and ackno\v)edge Ed- 
 ward III. as king oi France. 
 
 1338. France :- War with Els- 
 land. 
 
 Germany : — Declaration 
 of the Diet of Frankfort, 
 that the pope had no tempo- 
 ral power in the empire. 
 
 Louis sides with the 
 English against France. 
 
 1346. France: — Normandy 
 overrun by Edward, with 
 his son, the Black Prince. — 
 French defeated at Cressy. 
 
 Germany : — C h a r 1 e s 
 IV., king of Bohemia. 
 
 The empire offered to 
 Edward III , who declines. 
 
 1350. France :— J o h n ,^a — 
 (the Good.) 
 
 1355. Germany : — Promulga- 
 tion of the golden BaU. 
 
 1356. France : — King John de- 
 feated and taken prisoner at 
 PMtiers. — Charles the dau- 
 phin regent. 
 
 Insurrection in Pans. 
 
 1360. France :— John regains 
 his liberty— cedes mucli ter- 
 ritory to England 
 
129U-1153— 15Jt 7/£;a/-.s-.— Continued.] THE world's monRESS. 
 
 10: 
 
 1320 
 
 1326 
 
 1328 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Disputes and civil war be 
 tweeii the emperor and iiis 
 son, Michael. 
 
 13il 
 
 l3iS 
 
 Orkhan, sultan of the Turks 
 makes Prusa his capital. 
 
 ■Andronicus, ^^ 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 1322. Lancaster executed. 
 
 1323. Conspiracy ap;ainst the 
 k'no. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1320. Russia : — The grand 
 duchy of Wladimir confer- 
 red on Ivan Danilovitsch. 
 
 (the younger.) 
 
 — John Cantacuzene. 
 
 War with the Genoese, defeat 
 of tile Greeks and Venetians. 
 
 -John Palaeujo^us. 
 
 1360 
 
 1327. Peace between Scotland 
 and England. — The inde- 
 pendence of Scotland ac- 
 
 knov^ledged. 
 
 — E DWARD III .^^ — 
 
 1329. Scotland :— David H. 
 
 13-32. Edward invades Scot- 
 land. — Balliol crowned, but 
 soon expelled. 
 
 1333. Battle of Halidon Hill. 
 — Balliol restored — does ho- 
 mage to Edward 
 
 1338. Struggle for the French 
 crown, which lasts 120 years. 
 
 1340. The victory of Helvoet 
 Sluys — gives spirit to the 
 English navy. 
 
 David, of Scotland, in- 
 vades England. 
 
 1346. Battle ofCressy. 
 
 1M7. Siege and capture of 
 ."Jalais. 
 
 1350. Victory over the Spanish 
 fleet. — Parliament divided 
 into two chambers, lords 
 spiritual and temporal. 
 
 13.56. Edward, the 
 Black Prince, 
 gains the battle of 
 Poitiers. — John made 
 prisoner.— Two years' truce. 
 — Edward again invades 
 Scotland — is obliged to re- 
 treat. 
 
 1358. — again invades France. 
 
 Amurath I., Sultan of the 136t*, Peace of Bretigni. 
 Turks. I 
 
 1326. Taitarv — Tamer- 
 lane born at Kesh. 
 
 1327. Italy :— Invaded by Louis, 
 emperor of Germany. 
 
 1333. Poland : — Casimir che 
 Great. ^^ 
 
 1339. Italy :— Simon Bocane- 
 gra, doge of Genoa. 
 
 1340. Denmark : — Waldemar 
 IV. restorer of the kingdom 
 
 1342. Hungary : — Louis the 
 Great. 
 
 1343. Italy : Commercial 
 
 treaty between Venice and 
 the sultan of Egypt and 
 Syria. 
 
 1347. Italy :— R i e n z i , the 
 last of the Tribunes, rules 
 at Rome. 
 
 1350. Italy : — Naval war be- 
 tween Venice and Genoa. 
 
 1-353. Establishment of the Ot- 
 tomans in Europe. 
 
 1354. Italy :— Rienzi killed— 
 papal power restored. 
 
 1356. First war between Hun- 
 gary and Venice. 
 
 1359. Hungary :— Conquest of 
 the principalities lying en 
 the Danube. 
 
 5* 
 
/0( 
 
 THE WORLDS TP^OGRESS. 
 
 [Pcrloil VII.— The Middle Ages.— 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Petrarch and Boccacio. 
 
 Charles V. founds a college of 
 ■medichie and astrology al 
 Paris. 
 
 Foundaiion of the University 
 of Vienna. 
 
 Geof. Chaucer, father 
 of English poetry. 
 
 Mysteries played in France. 
 
 Wickliffc's translation of the 
 Bible. 
 
 University of Heidelberg 
 
 founded. 
 FroissarV & Chronicles. 
 John Van Eyck., invented oil 
 
 painting — founder of the 
 
 Flemish school. 
 
 The first mill in Germany for 
 the manufacture of linen 
 paper. 
 
 Chaucer's Astrolabe written. 
 
 Revival of Greek literature in 
 Italy. 
 
 Chancer dies. 
 
 John Gower, English poet. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 i.3o2. Pope Urban V. at Avig- 
 non — beautifies the city of 
 Rome — presents the right 
 arm of Thotnas Aquinas to 
 Charles V. of France, as an 
 object of worship. 
 
 1370. Pope Gregory IX. 
 
 1378. " Schism of the Wes( ;" 
 Pope Urban VI. ac- 
 knowledged in the empire 
 and England. 
 
 Clement VII. acknow- 
 ledged in France, Spain, and 
 Scotland. 
 
 1389. Pope Boniface IX. at 
 Rome. 
 
 1391. The English clergy for- 
 bidden to cross the sea for 
 benefices. 
 
 1394 ?ope Benedict XIII. 
 
 France. Germany & Spain. 
 
 1364. Fr. :— Charles V, 
 (the Wise.) 
 
 L365. War with Navarre- bat- 
 tle of Amoy. 
 
 1378. Germany :— We nces- 
 las, (king of Bohemia), 
 emperor. 
 
 1380. Fr. : CharlesVI.^ 
 (the Maniac). 
 
 1382. Battle of Rosbecq— the 
 Flemings defeated — Arte- 
 velde killed. 
 
 1386. France : — Fruitless at- 
 tempt to invade England. 
 
 1392. — Charles seized with 
 
 madness. 
 
 1394. G.ermany :— The emf er- 
 or imprisoned by the people 
 of Prague. 
 
 1400. Ger.:— Robert,' 
 (Count Palatine). 
 
1299-1453.— 15i years.— Continued.] the world's progress. 
 
 107 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 1373 
 
 1389 
 1391 
 
 1396 
 
 Treaty with Murad, the Otto- 
 man emperor. 
 
 Bajazet 1., sultan of the Turks. 
 
 Manuel 11.^ 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 \402 
 
 1362. The Black Prince aids 
 Peter the Cruel, of Castile, 
 to recover his throne. 
 
 1369. A new war with France • 
 unsuccessful. 
 
 1371. Scotland :— Robert II.— 
 
 the House of Siuavt. 
 1376. Death of the Black 
 
 Prince. 
 
 1377.— Richard II. ^— 
 
 First Speaker of the House 
 of Commons. 
 
 1378. Fruitless invasion of 
 France. 
 
 Insurrection of Wat Ty- 
 ler. 
 
 1382. The king marries Anne, 
 daughter of Charles IV. 
 
 1384. The Scots, assisted by 
 France, invade England. 
 
 1385. The English bum Edin- 
 burgh. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 emperor. 
 
 Victory of Nicopolis.— Sigis- 
 mond, of Hungary, defeated 
 by Bajazot I. 
 
 Bajazet defeated and made 
 prisoner by Tamerlane, at 
 the battle of Angora. 
 
 1362. Italy: — War between; 
 Pisa and Florence. 
 
 1369. Tartary : — Tamedane 
 makes Samarcand the capi- 
 tal of his new empire. 
 
 1370. Poland :— Extinction o( 
 the royal race of Piastf. 
 
 1388. Battle of Otterbourne. 
 
 1390, Scotland : Robert III. 
 Persecution of the Wick- 
 .\fites. 
 
 1398. Henry, of Lancaster, 
 banished. 
 
 House of Lancas- 
 
 1399. -Henry IV.^ — 
 Richard II. deposed. 
 
 1401. Rebellion of Owen Glen- 
 dower, and 
 
 1403. of the Percys, who are 
 defeated at the battle of 
 Shrewsbury. 
 
 1378. Italy :— Silvester de Me- 
 dici, gonfaloniere of Flo- 
 
 1380. Russia: — Dimitri Ivano- 
 vitsch victorious over the 
 Tartars, near the Don. 
 
 1382. The Tartars sack Mos- 
 cow. 
 
 1384. Persia : — Invaded by 
 Tamerlane ; Ispahan takeii. 
 — Pyramids of human heads. 
 
 1385. War between Austria 
 and Switzerland. 
 
 1386. Battle of Sempach :— 
 the Austrians defeated. 
 
 1387. Denmark &, Norway :— 
 
 Margaret, ^J the Semi- 
 
 ramis of the north. 
 1391. Italy:— Pisa falls under 
 the yoke of the Visconli. 
 
 1395. Tamerlane overruns 
 Kipchak and Russia 
 
 1397. Union of Calmar, form- 
 ing Denmark, Sweden, and 
 Norway into a single mo- 
 narchy. 
 
 1399. Invasion of India by 
 Tamerlane. 
 
103 THE world's Progress. [Palod VII. -'r.le Middle A^::s.~ 
 
 AD. 
 
 1409 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 ECCLKSIASTICAL. 
 
 Rodrigo, of Zamora, Spanish 
 historian. 
 
 University of 'Ltipsic round- 
 ed. 
 
 'riiGinas a Kenipis. 
 John Hush. 
 Jerome, of Prague. 
 
 1420 
 
 142;} 
 
 1425 
 
 L430 
 
 U31 
 
 140 L Pope Innocent VII. 
 1406. '• Giegory XII. 
 
 1409. Tl;e council of Pisa de- 
 fjoses Gregory and bene- 
 dict, and elects Alexander 
 V. ; — neither will yield, so 
 that there are three popes at 
 on'ce. 
 
 1410. Pope John XXIIl. 
 
 First Portuguese colonies on 
 the coast of Africa, Madei- 
 ra, (iSC. . 
 
 George of Peurbuch, astrono- 
 mer at Vienna. 
 
 Peter d'Aillij, theologian. 
 
 The arts promoted in Italy by 
 Cosmo de Medici. 
 
 England increases her trade 
 with the Mediterranean. 
 
 Michael \Valhgen>iUh, Ger- 
 man paint(>r, (teacher of 
 Dtsrer). 
 
 Fra. Filippo Lipjii, painter. 
 
 INVENTION OF PRINT- 
 ING at Mayence. 
 
 John Midler Regiomontanus, 
 German astronomer and 
 mathematician. 
 
 1414. Council of Constance. 
 
 1416. John IIuss. and Jerome, 
 of Prague, burnt by the 
 Council of Constance. 
 
 1417. Pope Martin V. 
 
 1429. Pope Clement VIII. at 
 Avignon, resigns, and ends 
 the "Schism of the West.'' 
 
 1431. Pope Eiigenius IV. 
 Council of Basle. 
 
 France, Germany. & Spain. 
 
 1407. France : — Murder at 
 Louis, Duke of Orleans. 
 
 Sparin; — John II., king 
 of Castile. 
 
 1410. Spain :— Ferdinand, icing 
 of Arragon. — Yus^ef III., 
 king of Granada. 
 
 1410. Fr. :— Civil war between 
 the parties of Orleans and 
 Burgundy. 
 
 Germany : — Death of 
 Robert. 
 
 1411. S i g i s m u n d , (kinp 
 
 of Plungary),^^ empe- 
 ror. 
 141.3. France: — The French 
 defeated by Henry V., o< 
 England, at Agincourt. 
 
 1416. Spain :— Alfonzo V., kinr 
 of Arragon and Sicily. 
 
 1419. Sigismund succeeds to 
 the Bohemian crown. 
 
 1422. France :— Death of Char- 
 les VI — Henry VI. pro- 
 claimed at Paris king of 
 France and England. 
 
 — C h a r 1 e 3 VII. ^ — 
 at Poitiers. 
 
 1427. Orleans besieged by th« 
 English. 
 
 1429."— saved by J o a n ol 
 Arc. 
 
 Charles crowned at 
 Rheims ; makes a vain at- 
 terxipt to gain Paris. 
 
 1431. Joan of Arc taken pri- 
 soner and burnt as a witch. 
 
 1431. Germany : — Sigismund 
 visits Italy, "and is crowned 
 emperor by Pope Eugeniua 
 IV. 
 
 14-3.5. Peace of Arras, betwepa 
 France and Burgundy. 
 
 1436. France :— Recovery o( 
 Paris. 
 
 1438. Pragmatic sanction of Bruges, estab'ishea the liber 
 ties of the French church. 
 
/29D-115:3;— 151 7/6W/-5.— Continued] THE world's progress. 
 
 109 
 
 1403 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Solyinan I., Sultan of the 
 Turks. 
 
 England & Scotland. 
 
 1406. Scoilaud ;— Jaaies I. 
 
 A:i 
 
 \i-^\ 
 
 14:25 
 
 - 1138 
 
 Moliammeu I., Sultan of the 
 
 Turks, 
 
 Amurath II., Sultan of the 
 
 Turks. 
 
 John VII. 
 
 fere: 
 
 The emperor visits Italy to 
 obtain help against the 
 Turks — submits to the pope. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 MOO. Italy; — Pi.-a c(rquere-i 
 by Florence. — Subjugation 
 of Padua and Verona by 
 Venice. 
 
 1413. —II e n r y V .^ — 
 
 1414. — claims the French 
 crown. 
 
 1415. — gains the battle 
 of Agin court. 
 
 1420. Treaty of Troy es.-Henry 
 marries Catharine, daughter 
 of Charles VI., and is de 
 clared heir to the French 
 crown. 
 
 1422. Death of Henry V. 
 
 —Henry V 1 .4— 
 
 1424. The Duke of Bedford 
 defeats the French at Ver- 
 neuil. 
 
 1427. — besieges Orleans. 
 
 1429. The siege raised by the 
 Maid of Orleans. 
 
 1431. — she is taken prisoner 
 and burnt. 
 
 1435. Death of the Duke of 
 Bed/ord, followed by ihe 
 loss of all the English pos- 
 sessions in France, except 
 Calais. 
 
 1436. War with Scotland. 
 
 1437. Scotland :— James II. 
 
 1412. Italy :—SHck of Rome 
 by Ladislas, king of Naples. 
 Denmark, Norway, &c. : 
 
 Eric VII., of Pomerania.^^ 
 1415. Conquest of Ceuta, by 
 
 the Portuguese. 
 1419. Bohernia : — Hussite war. 
 
 1420. Discovery of Madeira 
 by the Portuguese. 
 
 1424. Bohemia :-Death of John 
 Ziska, the Hussite leader. 
 
 Italy : — War of the Duke 
 of Milan against Florence. 
 
 1429. Florence :— C o s m o d i 
 Medici, patron of the 
 arts and sciences. 
 
 1431. Italy : — Second war of 
 Venice and Milan. 
 
 1434. Poland :-Vladislas III. 
 
 1436. Italy :— Third war be- 
 tween Venice and Milan. 
 
 1437. Portugal : — Expedition 
 into Africa. 
 
 1438. Portugal :— Alfonso V^ 
 
ilO 
 
 THE WOK-ILDS PK-OGRESS. 
 
 [Period VII.— The Middle Ages. -^ 
 
 U14 
 
 H46 
 
 il47 
 
 U48 
 
 1460 
 
 Progsress of SociETy, etc. 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci, sculptor, 
 architect, and painter — dis- 
 covers perspective. 
 
 Pet. Perugino, founder of the 
 Roman school of painting, 
 teacher of Raphael. 
 
 Library of the Vatican, found- 
 ed. 
 
 The Azores discovered. 
 Alain Chartica, French poet. 
 
 Flourishing period of Plun- 
 ders' trade. — All European 
 nations have warehouses at 
 Bruges and Ghent. — Book 
 trade at Mo'/ence. 
 
 let. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 France, Germany <fe Spain. 
 
 1447. Pope Nicholas V. 
 
 1448. Concordat of Aschaffen- 
 berg, by which the liberties 
 of the German church are 
 compromised. 
 
 1438. Germany : —House 
 of Austria: 
 
 — Albert 11.^ — 
 (king of Bohemia and Hun- 
 gary.) 
 
 1440. Ger. :-F r e d e r i c Til, 
 
 France :— The dauphin, 
 (Louis XL), rebels— but is 
 pardoned. 
 
 1444. — establishment of the 
 companies of Archers, the 
 first national standing army. 
 
 1446. Germany:— War with 
 Hungary, for refusing to 
 give up the young prince, 
 Vladislas. 
 
 1451. Expedition of Frederic 
 to Rome. 
 
 1453. Austria made an hersdi- 
 tary duchy by Frederic. 
 
 End of the French Mid 
 English wars. 
 
1299-1453— 154 T/^^rs— Continued.] the world's progress. . . ] 
 
 1443 
 
 1444 
 
 Eastern Empire. 
 
 Insurrectiai of Scandeberg — 
 victory over tho Turks near 
 Nissa. 
 
 Battle of Vama — Vladislas, 
 king of Poland, defeated and 
 killed by the 'J 'arks. 
 
 '.Ub 
 
 ubi 
 
 1453 
 
 — Constantine XII. ^^ 
 
 (Palaeologus,) the last of the 
 Greek emperors. 
 
 Mohammed II., Sultan of the 
 Turks. 
 
 Siege and capture 
 of Constantinople 
 by the Turks: 
 
 END OF THE EAST- 
 ERN EMPIRE. 
 
 England «fe Scotland. 
 
 1444. Truce with France.— 
 Marriage of Henry to Mar- 
 garet, of Anjou. 
 
 1447. Gloucester arrested for 
 treason— dies suddenly. 
 
 1450. Insurrection of Jack 
 C'ac^e— calling himself Mor- 
 timer. 
 
 Civil Wars of 
 ''the Roses:'' 
 
 Richard, duke of York 
 claims the throne. 
 
 Scotland :— Struggles be- 
 tween the king and aristo- 
 cracy for power. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1440. Hungary : 
 chosen kmg.W 
 
 • '^Tadislai 
 
 1441. Italy :— Peace of Marli- 
 
 nego. 
 1443. Alfonso V., of Arraeon, 
 
 unites the crown o< ihe Two 
 
 Sicilies. 
 
 1445. Poland : Casimir IV. ^g 
 
 1446. Tartary : — Ulugh Beg, 
 patron of astronomy and 
 geography. 
 
 1448. Denmark :— Christian I. 
 of Odenburg.^^ 
 
 Sweden :— Charles VIII.^ . 
 
 1450. Italy : — Francesco Sfor-- 
 za, duke of Milan. 
 
 Norway : Christian 
 
 crowned at Drontheim.^^ 
 
 Delhi :— Behol Lodi en- 
 larses iJie kingdom. 
 1453 " Poland : — Confir/nation 
 of the national libeftr in th€ 
 Diet of Petri kan. 
 
rr2 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 PERIOD Vlll.— 1453-1598. 
 
 Pr jGREfrjs OF Society, etc. 
 
 Philip de Comines, French 
 historian. 
 
 Wood engraving invented. 
 
 Post- Offices in France and 
 Ensrland. 
 
 F'aust dies at Paris, whither 
 A-i journeys twice to sell his 
 Latin Bible. 
 
 Beerhard invents the pedal to 
 the organ. 
 
 Printing in England —Cax- 
 ton. 
 
 Printed musical notes. 
 
 Hungary: — Mathias patroni- 
 zes literature and the arts. 
 
 Large library at O Ten— 300 
 copyists of manuscripts. 
 
 German ballads— war songs of 
 Veit Weber. 
 
 Watches first made at Nurem- 
 
 burg. 
 Mikrolid and Rondemir, great 
 
 Persian historians. 
 
 Lady Juliana Bei'ners, one of 
 the earliest female writers 
 of England. 
 
 Hans Holbein, painter 
 
 Franchino Gafurid, teacher in 
 the first public school of 
 music at Milan. 
 
 Josquin de Prez, greatest mu- 
 sical genius of his age 
 
 England. 
 
 1455. Battle of 
 St. Albanj. 
 
 House 
 of York: 
 1461. — Ed- 
 ward IV, 
 
 ^^ — gains 
 the battle of 
 Towton. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 1460. 
 III. 
 
 limes 
 
 l469.Warwick 
 banished. 
 
 1471. Battle of 
 
 Barnet : 
 
 Warwick 
 slain. — Hen- 
 ry VI. dies in 
 the Tower. 
 
 14a3. Ed 
 
 ward V 
 
 Richard, 
 Protector. — 
 The king & 
 his brother 
 murdered in 
 the Tower. 
 
 — R i c h - 
 a r (1 III. 
 
 1485. -Henry, 
 earl of Rich- 
 mond, lands 
 at Mil ford 
 Haven. 
 
 Battle 
 o f B 8 
 worth 
 Field: 
 
 Richard 
 
 defeated and 
 slain. 
 
 France. 
 
 1479. War with 
 
 England . — 
 Conspiracy 
 of the no- 
 bles ; — they 
 lake the king 
 prisoner. 
 
 1461. Louis 
 
 Civil war.— 
 — Peace of 
 Conflans. 
 
 1175. War be- 
 tween Louis 
 and Charles 
 of Burgun- 
 dy, 
 
 1476. — who is 
 defeated at 
 Granson and 
 Morat, and 
 
 1477. —slain at 
 
 Nancy. 
 
 Artois and 
 B urgundy 
 united to the 
 
 French 
 crown. 
 
 1483.— Char 
 les Vlfl 
 
 Spain ani» 
 Portugal. 
 
 1154. Spain :- 
 Henry IV. o( 
 
 Castile. ^M 
 
 1460. Marriage 
 ofFerdi;<iand, 
 of Arragon, 
 with Isabel- 
 la, of Cas- 
 tile. 
 
 1479. Union 
 o f Cas ti 1 e 
 and Arra- 
 gon under 
 
 Ferdinand 
 1 1 . and Isa- 
 bella. 
 
 1480. The In- 
 q u isi tion . 
 
 — X i m e 
 n e s , bishoj. 
 of Toledo. 
 
 1481. Port. :— 
 
 John n.^ 
 
 1484. First au 
 da-fe at Se 
 ville. 
 
THE world's PP>.0'l'RESS. 
 
 113 
 
 Othman to the Edict of Nantes. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1162 
 
 The emperor besieged in his 
 court at Vienna — delivered 
 by G. Podiebrad, ol" Bohe- 
 mia. 
 
 146y 
 
 1472 
 
 .477 
 
 Invasions of the Turks. 
 
 University of Ingoidstodt. 
 
 Marriage of Maximilian and 
 Maria of Burgundy. 
 
 1454. Struggle 
 between Cos- 
 mod da Me- 
 dici and the 
 aristocracy. 
 
 1458. The 
 French rule 
 in Genoa. 
 
 Pope Pi- 
 us 11. 
 
 1463. War of 
 Venice with 
 
 1464. Pietro de 
 Medici at 
 Florence. 
 
 Pope Paul 
 II. 
 
 1466. Galeaz- 
 zo, duke of 
 Milan. 
 
 1469. Loren- 
 zo d e Me- 
 dici, suc- 
 ceeds Pietro. 
 
 1471. Sixtus 
 IV. pope. 
 
 Power of 
 the Medici 
 increases. 
 
 Learning 
 flourishes. 
 
 1478. Conspi- 
 racy of the 
 Pazzi at Flo- 
 rence. —Giu- 
 lio, brother 
 of Lorenzo 
 de Medici, 
 slain. 
 
 Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 1455. Turks, re- 
 pulsed at Bel- 
 grade. 
 
 1484. Innocent 
 VIII., pope. 
 
 the Turks. 
 
 1464. War with 
 Hungary. 
 
 of Burs:u \ 
 
 1479. Fruitless 
 attempt upon 
 Rhodes. 
 
 1480. -capture 
 and destroy 
 Of ran to. 
 
 1481. Bajazet 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1454. Poland :— War with the 
 Teutonic Order. 
 
 1458. Hungary : Mathia? 
 
 -.nakes his 
 
 Corvin,^^- 
 
 country formidable to her 
 
 neighbors. 
 
 1462. Russia:— Ivan I.^^ — 
 the Great — takes the title »f 
 Czar. 
 
 1466. Peace of Thorn.— East 
 Prussia a fief of Poland. — 
 West Prussia ceded to Po- 
 land. 
 
 1468. TJzun Hasan, master of 
 all Persia. 
 
 1470. — forms an alliance with 
 the Venetians and the duke 
 
 dy against the Turks— con- 
 quers Bagdad. 
 
 1472. Russia ; — Ivan marries 
 Sophia, niece of the Greek 
 emperor. 
 
 1474. —shakes afF the Tartai 
 yoke, and captures Novo- 
 gorod. 
 
 1477. Hungary — V^^'ar with 
 Frederic III. 
 
 1481. Denmark :— John,^^ — 
 partially acknowledged in 
 Sweden. 
 
 1488. Hungary : Mathias 
 
 takes Vienna. 
 
il4 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period VIII.-^ 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Martini Behaim, (Nurem- 
 burg,) publishes a map of 
 the world. 
 
 DISCO VE R Y 
 AMERICA. 
 
 OF 
 
 First printing press at Copen- 
 hagen. 
 
 The second voyage of Colum- 
 bus—A Spanish colony at 
 Hispaniola. 
 
 The discoveries of John and 
 Sebastian Cabot. 
 
 Third voyage of Columbus. 
 He discovers Trinidad and 
 the Continent. 
 
 Lisbon, the great seat of trade. 
 — Venice declines. 
 
 Maritime enterprises greatly 
 extended. 
 
 Sir Thomas Mare's Utopia, 
 published. 
 
 Nicholas Mackiavelli, states- 
 man and historian. 
 
 Amerigo Vespucius's voyage. 
 
 Fourth voyage of Columbus. 
 
 Raphael' Michael Angela, Ti- 
 tian, Corregio, painters. 
 
 St. Petei's, and other magni- 
 ficent churches built. 
 
 The cele' rated tapestry, after 
 Raphael ;— Cartoons woven 
 in the Netherlands. 
 
 LUT HE i2 , E r a s m u s , 
 
 Melancthoa , and other 
 reformers. 
 
 Roger Ascham, tutor of queen 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 Hans Sachs, founder of Ger- 
 man drama. 
 
 Copernicus, discovers 
 the true system of the Uni- 
 verse — his great work, De 
 Orbium Coelestium Revolu- 
 tionibus. 
 
 First complete circumnavi- 
 gation of the globe, by Ma- 
 gellan 
 
 England. 
 
 House of 
 Tudor: — 
 — H e n r V VII. 
 
 I486. Imposture of 
 Lambert Symnel. 
 The Star Cham- 
 ber established. 
 
 1493. Perkin War- 
 beck, pretends to 
 be Richard, duke 
 of York — defeated 
 on Blackheath. 
 
 1497. Cabot makes 
 discoveries in A- 
 merica. 
 
 of 
 
 1499. Earl o i 
 Warwick, last 
 of the Plantage- 
 nets, executed. 
 
 Scot- 
 land. 
 
 1509. H e n r y 
 
 viii.w 
 
 joins the League 
 of Cambray. 
 
 1513. Invasion of the 
 Scots. — Battle of 
 Fiodden— the king 
 and chief Scots 
 killed. 
 
 1515. W I s e y , 
 chancellor and car- 
 dinal. 
 
 1520. The Emperor 
 visits England. — 
 Meeting of Henry 
 and Francis at the 
 "'Field of the Cloth 
 of Gold." 
 
 1521. The Reformed 
 doctrines opposed 
 by Henry, in his 
 book m the Seven 
 SacraMcnts — he 
 receives the title 
 of " Defender of 
 the Faith." 
 
 1487 :- 
 
 James 
 
 IV. 
 
 1503.: — 
 James 
 marries 
 Marga- 
 ret, of 
 Eng- 
 land. 
 
 1.51.3. : - 
 James 
 
 V. 
 
 France. 
 
 1491. Bretag- 
 ne united to 
 the crown 
 by the king's 
 marriage 
 with Anne. 
 
 1494. Invasion 
 of Italy. 
 
 1499. in- 
 vades Italy 
 — conquers 
 the Milanese 
 Duchy. 
 
 1500. Treaty 
 with Ferdi- 
 nand, of Ara- 
 gon, for the 
 conquest and 
 partition of 
 Naples. 
 
 1510. The 
 Council of 
 Tours, to 
 support the 
 king against 
 the Holy 
 League. 
 
 1515. — Fran - 
 
 cis I.^^ — 
 — invades 
 
 Italy— victory 
 of Marigna- 
 no — Genoa 
 and Milan 
 submit. 
 
 1516. Concor- 
 dat with the 
 pope, instead 
 of pragma- 
 tic sanction. 
 
 1521. First war 
 with Char- 
 les V, 
 
 Spain ano 
 
 PORTtTGAL. 
 
 1492. C rj - 
 quest o 
 Granada, 
 by Gonzalo 
 de Cordova. 
 
 Discovery 
 ofAmeri- 
 ca, by C 0- 
 1 um b us . 
 
 1498. Vasco 
 d 6 G a m a 
 doubles the 
 Cape of 
 Good Hope, 
 and reaches 
 India. 
 
 1506. Colurr- 
 bus dies at 
 Valladolid. 
 
 1507. Cardinal 
 Ximenes. 
 
 Board of 
 American 
 trade at Se- 
 ville. 
 
 1516.— Char 
 
 king oi all 
 Spain, and 
 the Nether- 
 lands. 
 1519. Con- 
 quest of 
 Mexico 
 by C o T t e a . 
 
1453-1598.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 115 
 
 — M a X 1 m i 1 i a n I 
 
 University of Wittenburg. 
 
 Maximilian enters Italy to be 
 crowned by the pope. 
 
 — ^joins the League of Cam- 
 bray. 
 
 divides the empire into ten 
 circles. 
 
 Commencement of 
 THE Reformation. 
 
 Luther summoned before the 
 diet of Augsburg. 
 
 — Charles V .^M — 
 of Spain. 
 
 The archduke Ferdinand, mar- 
 ries Anne, sister of Louis — 
 whence the accession of 
 Bohemia and Hungary to 
 the House of Hapsburg. 
 
 Diet nf Worms. 
 
 ) 
 
 1492. Pietro II. 
 succeeds his 
 father, Lo- 
 renzo, in Flo- 
 rence. 
 
 Pope Alex- 
 ander VI., 
 (Borgia.) 
 
 1494. Expedi- 
 tion of Char- 
 les VIII. in- 
 to Italy. 
 
 1499. Amerigo 
 Vespucius's 
 voyage to 
 America. 
 
 150U. Partition 
 of Naples 
 between 
 France and 
 Spain. 
 
 1502. Florence ; 
 Alachiavelli, 
 Secretary ol 
 State. 
 
 1503. Naples 
 annexed to 
 the Spanish 
 Crown. 
 
 Pope Pius 
 III. 
 
 Pope Ju- 
 lius II. 
 1508. ■ League 
 of Cambray 
 against Ve- 
 nice. 
 
 1510. Holy 
 League to 
 expel the 
 French. 
 
 1511. Council 
 of Pisa. 
 
 1513. Pope 
 Leo X . 
 (de Medici.) 
 patron of li- 
 terature and 
 arts. 
 
 The build- 
 ing of St. 
 Peter's com- 
 menced. 
 
 1519. Cardinal 
 de Medici 
 holds rule in 
 Florence. 
 
 1522. Pope 
 Adrian VI. 
 
 Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 1493. Wars 
 with Egypt, 
 Hungary, 
 and Venice. 
 
 1503. Peace 
 with Venice. 
 
 1505. War with 
 Persia. 
 
 1512. Selim L, 
 
 thrones and 
 puts to death 
 his father. 
 
 1514. The Per- 
 sians defeat- 
 ed at Kalde- 
 roon. — Me- 
 sopotamia 
 and Kurdis- 
 tan added to 
 the empire. 
 
 1516. Cairo 
 taken by 
 storm. — Ma- 
 meluke do- 
 minions an- 
 nexed to the 
 empire. 
 
 1520. Soliman, 
 
 Ma^mificent.) 
 1521.'Belgrade 
 
 taksn by 
 
 storm. 
 1522. Rhodes 
 
 capitulates. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1438. India : — Sekander Lodi, 
 
 king of Delhi. 
 1492. Poland:— John Albert. 
 
 AMERICA discovered ay Co- 
 lumbus. 
 
 1493. Spanish colony xt His 
 paniola. 
 
 1499. Voyage of Amerigo Ves- 
 pucius. — South American 
 coast explored. 
 
 1501. Poland : — Aiexanuer." 
 
 ] 502. Ismail Shah Soofi makes 
 himself sole sovereign of 
 Persia. 
 
 1506. Poland :— Sigismund I. 
 ^S (the Great.) 
 
 1509. Bohemia : — Louis,^^ — 
 3 years old. 
 
 1510. America : — Settlement 
 at Darien. 
 
 1511. America : — Cuba con- 
 quered. 
 
 1512. America : — Florida 
 discovered. 
 
 1513. South Sea first reached 
 by Balboa. 
 
 1516. Hungary and Bohemia : 
 
 — Louis II. ° 
 
 Lodi, 
 
 1517. India :— Ibrahim 
 king of Delhi 
 
 1517. America: — First patent 
 for importing Negroes — 
 granted by Spain. 
 
 1518. Corsairs in Algiers. 
 
 1519. MEXICO conquered by 
 the Spaniarr^s, under Coifc 
 tes. 
 
116 
 
 THE world's PPv-OGRESS. 
 
 [1 eriod VIIL— 
 
 1527 
 
 153U 
 
 1533 
 
 1535 
 
 1537 
 
 1538 
 
 idd'J 
 
 J 54-2 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 Xavier plants Christianity in 
 India. 
 
 Ariosto^ Italian poet. 
 
 Albert Barer. 
 
 F.rst work on military archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 Jijrgens invents the spinning 
 
 wheel Air spinning flax. 
 Rabelais, French humorist. 
 
 Botanic Gardens at Padua. 
 
 Ignatius Loyola founds the 
 order of the Jesuits. 
 
 Papal bull declaring the Ame- 
 rican natives to be rational 
 beings. 
 
 The diving bell invented. 
 
 Calvin founds the Univer- 
 sity of Geneva. 
 
 Pins first used by Catharine 
 Howard, queer, of England. 
 
 John Kno.v, Scottish Refor- 
 mer. 
 
 A comtnercial treaty between 
 Portugal and Japan. 
 
 1545 Needles first made. 
 
 Vasalius's work on Anatomy. 
 
 1547 
 
 154S 
 
 Revival of Stoicism, by Justus 
 
 Lipsius. 
 Palestrina, founder of Italian 
 
 church music. 
 
 Giacomo Carisimi. 
 
 Orange trees introduced into 
 Europe. 
 
 England. 
 
 1529. Sir Thomas 
 More, Lord Chan- 
 cellor. — Rise of 
 Crannier, archbi- 
 shop of Canter- 
 bury. 
 
 1532. The king mar- 
 ries Anne Boleyn. 
 
 1535. Bishop Fisher 
 and Sir Thomas 
 More beheaded. 
 
 Henry excom- 
 municated by the 
 Pope 
 
 1.536. — marries Jane 
 Seymour. — Sup- 
 pression of the 
 smaller monaste- 
 ries. 
 
 1543 Henry invades 
 
 France takes 
 
 Baulosne. 
 
 1544. French fleet 
 gain a vijtiryover 
 the English, off" 
 the Isle of Wight. 
 
 1547. — Edward 
 
 Smnerset invades 
 Scotland — defents 
 the Scots at Pin- 
 kie. 
 
 Formal e.<ta- 
 blishment of Pro- 
 testantism. 
 
 Scot- 
 land. 
 
 France. 
 
 1525. Francis 
 defeated and 
 taken pri- 
 soner at Pa- 
 via. 
 
 1527. Second 
 war with 
 Charles V. 
 
 1529. Treaty of 
 Cambray. — 
 Great en- 
 couragement 
 given to arts 
 and sciences. 
 —The Lou- 
 vre com- 
 menced. 
 
 1532. Calvin 
 preaches. 
 Third 
 French war. 
 — Siege of 
 Marseilles. 
 
 1538. Truce of 
 Nice— for 10 
 years. 
 
 Attempt to 
 recover pow- 
 er in Italy ; 
 hence the 
 
 1542. Fourth 
 French war. 
 
 1514. Peace of 
 Crespy. 
 France gives 
 up Italy. 
 
 1547. Henry 
 
 The fa- 
 mous Catha- 
 rine d e 
 ]M e d i c i , 
 queen. 
 
 aPAIN ANI* 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 1536. Accvjsi- 
 tion of Ali- 
 lan. 
 
 1540. Portu- 
 gal : — Lis- 
 bon,themar 
 ket of thj 
 world. 
 
 1542. Com- 
 mercial trea- 
 ty between 
 Portugal and 
 Japan. 
 
1463-1598.J 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 11? 
 
 i525 
 
 1526 
 
 1^-29 
 
 1538 
 
 General insurrections of the 
 peasantry, under Tlmmas 
 MUnzer. 
 
 Charles marries Isabella, of 
 
 Portugal. 
 Death of Frederic, of Saxony. 
 
 The Turks invade Germany. 
 — Diet of Spires. — Luther- 
 ans first called Protestants. 
 
 League of Smalcald. 
 
 1M3 
 
 1545 
 
 l&i6 
 
 1547 
 
 Congress of Nice between the 
 Emperor, the Pope, and the 
 king of France, 
 
 War m ai'ian"e with England 
 against France. 
 
 Diet of Worms. 
 
 War of the Smalcaldista. 
 
 Duke Maurice, elector of Saxo- 
 
 1523. Clement 
 VII., pope. 
 
 1525. Spain ac- 
 quires the 
 ascendency 
 by the victo- 
 ry of Pavia. 
 
 1527. The Me- 
 dici expelled 
 from Flo- 
 rence. 
 
 1530. Medici 
 restored. — 
 Charles V. 
 crowned at 
 Bologna. 
 
 1534. Paul III., 
 pope. 
 
 1537. Cosmo 
 de Medici, 
 duke of Tus- 
 cany. 
 
 1540. Investi- 
 ture of Mi- 
 lan confer- 
 red by Char- 
 ?.es V. on 
 Philip. 
 
 1545. Council 
 of Trent. 
 
 Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 1526. Invasion 
 of Hungary. 
 
 1529. Invasion 
 of Germany. 
 — Siege of 
 Vienna. 
 
 The Otto- 
 man navy 
 formidable 
 under the 
 command of 
 Barbarossa 
 
 1535. — who 
 seizes Tu- 
 nis. — The 
 emperor, 
 Charles V., 
 restores the 
 Moorish 
 kins. 
 
 1541. Destruc- 
 tion of an ar- 
 mament, led 
 by Charles 
 V. against 
 Algiers. 
 
 1547. The 
 Turks in- 
 vade Persia, 
 and capture 
 Ispahan. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1523. Sweden : — Revolt under 
 Gustavus Vasa . — The 
 Danes expelled. — Union oi 
 Calmar dissolved. 
 
 Denmark and Norway : 
 
 —Frederic I.^§ 
 
 1525. Albert, duke of Prussia. 
 
 1530. Malta give^c to tJia 
 knights of Rhodes 
 
 1532. Union of Norway and 
 Denmark. 
 
 1533. Conquest of Pe- 
 ru, by Cortes. 
 
 Russia : — Ivan IV., (the 
 Terrible). 
 
 1536. Cortes discovers Califor- 
 nia. 
 
 1543. First standing army in 
 Sweden. 
 
 1545. South America :—Mmea 
 of Potosi discovered. 
 
 1548. Poland:— SigisEiui.dn^ 
 ^S. ^iA. Jgustus). 
 
118 
 
 THE world's PROGPcESS. 
 
 [Period VJIL- 
 
 Pkogress of Society, etc. 
 
 Scaliger., Philologist. 
 Monim'gne, French Essayist. 
 
 England. 
 
 i5-'i8 
 
 1559 
 
 1560 
 
 Cardan, Italian philosopher. 
 
 Sealing icax comes into use 
 in Europe. 
 
 Foundation of Jesuit Colleges 
 ill opposition to Protestant 
 Schools. The first at Co- 
 imbra, in Portugal. 
 
 Only two carriages in Paris — 
 horses and litters generally 
 used. 
 
 Snuff first brought into France. 
 —Knives first made in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 1549. The English 
 Liturgy comple- 
 ted and establish- 
 ed by act of Par- 
 liament. 
 
 1553. Northumber- 
 land intrigues to 
 settle the crown on 
 Lady .Tane Grey, 
 his daughter-in- 
 law. 
 
 — Mary .^^ — 
 
 Catholicism re- 
 stored. 
 
 1554. The queen 
 marries Philip, of 
 
 Spain. — Lord Dud- 
 ley and Lady .Tane 
 Grey executed. 
 
 1555. Bloody perse- 
 cution of Protes- 
 tants. 
 
 1557. War with 
 France to support 
 Spain. — Calais 
 lost. 
 
 1558. — Eliza- 
 
 Cecil, Lord 
 Burleigh, Secreta- 
 tary of'State. 
 
 Protestantism 
 established. 
 
 The Puritans 
 begin to rise. 
 
 Torquato Tasso Guarini, 
 poets. 
 
 Oainoens, Portuguese poet. 
 
 Tkomas Tallis, English mu- 
 ' siciaii. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 LAND. 
 
 France. 
 
 1552. Fifth war 
 with Char- 
 les V. 
 
 1560. Ca- 
 tholic- 
 ism abo- 
 Ushed 
 by par- 
 liament. 
 1565. : — 
 Mary 
 marries 
 Lord 
 Darn- 
 ley. 
 
 1565. : — 
 Revolt 
 of Pro- 
 testants . 
 1567. : — 
 Darnley 
 murder- 
 ed — the 
 queen 
 marries 
 earl of 
 Both- 
 well — is 
 dethron- 
 ed and 
 impri- 
 soned at 
 Lochle- 
 ven. 
 
 Spain anp 
 Portugal. 
 
 1554. CcTCan, 
 in India, lost. 
 1556. Charles 
 abdicates — 
 
 1.568. —Mary, queen 
 of Scots, lakes re- 
 fuge in England— 
 and is imprisoned. 
 
 1570. Civil wars of 
 the Desmonds in 
 in Ireland. 
 
 James 
 
 1557. The 
 
 French defeat- 
 ed at St. 
 
 Quentin. 
 
 1558. — at Gra- 
 velines. 
 
 1559. Peace of 
 
 Chateau — 
 
 Cambresis. 
 
 — -F r a n c 1 s 
 
 Duke of 
 Guise, min- 
 ister. 
 1560.— Char- 
 
 lesIX.W 
 
 1562. Religious 
 liberty grant' 
 ed 10 the Hu 
 guenots. 
 
 First civil 
 religious war 
 —Huguenots 
 supported by 
 England -de 
 
 feated at 
 Dreux. 
 
 1567. The se- 
 cond war. — 
 Huguenots 
 defeated at 
 St. Denys. 
 
 Philip 
 
 1557. 
 gal: 
 
 Portu- 
 — Seba*' 
 
 1.570. :— 
 Lennox , 
 regent. 
 
 1569. —routed 
 at Jarnac. — 
 C o n d e 
 killed. 
 
 1564. Acquisi- 
 tion of the 
 Philippines. 
 
 1567. Duke o( 
 Alva, gover- 
 nor of the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 i:i70. War 
 with the 
 Turks.— Na- 
 val, victory 
 at Lcpaata 
 
l453-1698.] 
 
 THE WOPcLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 119 
 
 4.D. 
 
 1551 
 
 1558 
 
 1558 
 
 1&64 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Treaty of Passau secures reli- 
 gious liberty to the Protes- 
 tants. 
 
 Fruitless siege of Mentz. 
 
 Charles abdicates. 
 
 — F erdinand I .^m — 
 king of Hungary and Bohe- 
 mia. 
 
 Coronation by the pope relin- 
 quished. 
 
 — M aximilian II. ^M~ 
 
 Italy. 
 
 1550. .Julius 
 III., pope. 
 
 1555. Marcel- 
 lusII.,pope. 
 Paul IV., 
 (CarafFa) 
 pope. 
 
 Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 1551. Tripoli 
 taken fiom 
 the Maltese 
 knights. 
 
 1552. Invasion 
 of Hungary. 
 
 155-3. War with 
 Persia. 
 
 Building of 
 the mosque 
 of Solyman- 
 yah, at Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1553. New Mexico discbTfitad 
 by the Spaniards. 
 
 1559. Pius IV 
 (Medici) 
 pope. 
 
 Peace of 
 
 Chateau — 
 Cambresis 
 terminates 
 the French 
 wars in Italy. 
 Tranquil- 
 lity for 66 
 years. 
 1562. Council 
 of Trent re- 
 assembled. 
 
 1566. Pius v., 
 pope. 
 
 1569. Florence, 
 a grand du- 
 chy. 
 
 Cosmo 
 d e Medi- 
 c i , declared 
 grand duke 
 of Tuscany, 
 by Pius V. 
 
 1570. War of Venice with 
 
 the Porte. 
 
 1571. Cyprus reduced by the 
 
 , Turks. 
 I Battle of 
 
 Lepanto. 
 
 1559. Naval 
 victoiy of 
 Galves, gain- 
 ed by Dra- 
 gut. 
 
 Military 
 power of 
 the Turks at 
 its greatest 
 height, un 
 derSoliman. 
 
 1565. Unsuc- 
 cessful siege 
 of Malta. 
 
 1566. Death of 
 Soliman at 
 the siege of 
 Sigeth. 
 
 Selim II. 
 
 1456. India:— Jelaleddin Ak- 
 bar, a patron of science and 
 literature, aided by his min- 
 isters, Abu Fazl and Sheikh 
 Faizi. 
 
 — raises the Mogul em- 
 pire to its greatest splendor. 
 
 1559. Denmark and Noriray • 
 
 — Frederic II. ^§ 
 
 Decrease of the influence 
 of the Hanse towns. 
 
 1560. Sweden :— Eric XfV.^ 
 
 1562. War with Russia and 
 Poland.— An Faglish am- 
 bassador in PeTBia. 
 
 1564. Coligny aends a colony 
 of HuguenotB to Florida — 
 destroyed by the Spaniards. 
 
 1563. Prussia: -Albert Frede- 
 
 Sweden:- John VL^M •• 
 
 1270, Peace of gtetin, between 
 
 Denmark, Norway, and 
 
 Sweden. 
 1571 Russia devastated by the 
 
 khan of Crim Tartary.— 
 
 Moscow burnt. 
 
t20 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [PeHod VIII.-- 
 
 1573 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Cervantes, author of Don 
 
 Quixotie. 
 Titian, and Paolo Veronese, 
 
 painters. 
 
 1577 
 
 1582 
 
 1585 
 
 1586 
 
 1588 
 
 England. 
 
 Sir Francis Drake's voyage 
 round the world. 
 
 Sir Philip Sydney's Arcadia. 
 
 Gregorian Reformation of the 
 Calendar. 
 
 Greenland discovered by Sir 
 Francis Drake. 
 
 Tobacco first brought to Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 First newspaper in England. 
 
 1590 
 
 Telescopes invented by Jan- 
 sen, a German. 
 
 Tasso, Italian poet. 
 The Carracci, celebrated pain- 
 ters. 
 
 In England -.Spenser, 
 Shakspeare, Beau- 
 mont & Fletcher, Ben Jon- 
 son.— Napier invents loga- 
 rithms. 
 
 Scot- 
 land. 
 
 Lord Bacon, celebrated phi- 
 losopher. 
 
 Lope de Vega, dramas and 
 novels. 
 
 Kepler, Tycho Brahe, astro- 
 nomers. 
 
 1578. The queen 
 sends help to the 
 revolted Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 1583. Levant Com- 
 pany chartered. 
 
 1584. Raleigh's co- 
 lony in Virginia. 
 
 1585. War with 
 Spain. 
 
 1586. Sir Philip 
 Sidney killed at 
 Zutphen. 
 
 1587. The Queen of 
 Scots beheaded. 
 
 1588. The Spanish 
 armada destroyed. 
 
 1589. Alliance with 
 Henry IL in aid 
 of Protestantism. 
 — Troops sent to 
 France. 
 
 1593. Act for reli- 
 gious conformity. 
 
 1594. Sir John Haw- 
 kins's Voyages. 
 
 1596. Cadiz taken, 
 and the Spanish 
 fleet burnt, by the 
 earl of Essex. 
 
 Sir Robert Cecil, 
 minister. 
 
 1581. :— 
 Gow- 
 rie's 
 conspi- 
 racy 
 against 
 the king. 
 
 Fran .ub. 
 
 1572. Massacre 
 of St. Bar- 
 tholomew. 
 
 1573. Peace of 
 Rochelle. 
 
 1574. — H e n - 
 
 rylll.^ 
 Filth war 
 
 with the Hu- 
 guenots. 
 
 1576. The Ca- 
 tholic 
 League. 
 
 1.577. Sixth re- 
 ligious war. 
 
 1590. :— 
 The 
 king 
 marries 
 Anne, of 
 Den- 
 mark. 
 
 1599. Troubles in 
 Ireland : — Revolt 
 of O'Neill, earl of 
 Tyrone. 
 
 Spain and 
 Portugal. 
 
 (578. Port, r^ 
 
 Henry.^g- 
 
 1.580. Portugal 
 falls under 
 Spanish do- 
 minioa. 
 
 1588. Revolt of 
 Paris. 
 
 1589. House 
 of Bour- 
 bon: 
 
 — H B N R Y 
 
 1590. Siege of 
 Paris, raised 
 by the Spa- 
 niards. 
 
 1593. Henry 
 abjures Pro- 
 testantism. 
 
 1594. Jesuits 
 banished. 
 
 1595. War with 
 Spain con- 
 tinued. 
 
 1598. Peace of 
 Vervius. 
 
 Ministry of 
 Sully: — 
 restoration 
 of ordei". 
 Edict of 
 Nantes 
 — granting 
 toleration to 
 Protestants, 
 
 1588. Defeat c! 
 the Spanish 
 armada. 
 
 1589. English 
 volunteers 
 under Drake 
 and Norris, 
 repulsed 
 from Lisbon. 
 
 1598. PhJ p 
 
1153-1598.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 121 
 
 }676 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Rodolph II.W — 
 
 king of Bohemia and Hun- 
 gary, 
 
 i&34 
 
 The imperial authority disre- 
 garded by the princes of the 
 empire, who wage war 
 among the nselves. 
 
 Union of Protestants at Heil- 
 bronn. 
 
 1672. Gregory 
 XIII., pope. 
 
 1573. Cyprus 
 yielded to 
 the Porte ; 
 1574 Florence: 
 — Frances Ma- 
 ria succeeds 
 Cosmo. 
 
 1580. Charles 
 Emmanuel, 
 duke of Sa- 
 voy. 
 
 1585. Sixtus 
 v., pope, 
 active and 
 energetic — 
 corrects 
 abuses in 
 the church ; 
 restores the 
 Vatican li- 
 brary. 
 
 1590. Urban 
 VII., pope. 
 
 Gregory 
 XIV., pope. 
 
 1591. Innocent 
 IX., pope, 
 two months. 
 
 Clement 
 VIII., pope. 
 
 1592. The Ri- 
 al to and Pi- 
 azza di San 
 Marco built 
 at Venice. 
 
 Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 peace with Ve- 
 nice. 
 1574. — Murad 
 
 1576. War with 
 Persia. 
 
 1580. War with 
 the Druses 
 in Syria. 
 
 1583. First 
 trade with 
 
 England. 
 
 15S9. Predato- 
 ry incur- 
 sions of the 
 Cossacks. 
 
 Revolt of 
 the Janiza- 
 ries. 
 
 1593. War with 
 the Empire 
 in Hungary. 
 
 1594. The 
 Grand Vi- 
 zier takes 
 Raab. 
 
 1595. Moham- 
 
 med III.^ 
 Turkish 
 power in 
 Hungary de- 
 clines ; de- 
 feated at 
 Gran — re- 
 voU of Wal- 
 lac.hia. 
 1597. Moham- 
 med leads his 
 troops, and 
 defeats the 
 Germans at 
 Agria. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1574 Poland :— Henry, of Va 
 
 1575 Poland :— Stephen Ba- 
 ihori.^P — 
 
 1578. Alliance of Sweden and 
 Poumd against Russia. 
 
 iy79. Commencement 
 o f t h e Republic of 
 HOLLAND, by the union 
 at Utrecht : 
 
 William, Prince 
 of Orange, stadtliol- 
 der. 
 
 1584. North America: 
 — First English colony found- 
 ed in Virginia, by Sir W. 
 Raleigh. 
 
 1585. Persia acquires power 
 under Abbas the Great. 
 
 Holland : — Maurice, of 
 Orange, stadtholder. 
 
 1586. Battle of Zutphen: death 
 of Sir Philip Sidney. 
 
 1588. Denmark 
 
 -Christian 
 
 1592. Sweden : — Sigismund, 
 king of Poland. 
 
 India: — Mizam Shah, re- 
 pulsed from Choul, by the 
 Portuguese. 
 
 1594. The Falkland Isles dif- 
 covered by Hawkins. 
 
 1595. The Dutch first in Indii. 
 Sweden : — The regent as- 
 sumes independent autho- 
 rity. 
 
 1598. Russia: —Boris God'> 
 
 nov,^^ begins a n>;w 
 
 dynasty. 
 
 Sigismund lands in Swe 
 den, to re-establish his pow- 
 er — but is defeated, and r* 
 turns to Poland. 
 
122 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 PERIOD IX —120 ije&TS. 
 
 AD. 
 
 1602 
 
 1603 
 1604 
 
 1606 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 English East India Compa- 
 nf Ibunded. 
 
 Erpovtation (>f English wool 
 piohibited. 
 
 Conference at Hampton Court. 
 
 New Tr itislalLcrn uf the Bi- 
 ble begun: (publislied 1611). 
 
 Dr. Gilberi discovers the pow- 
 er of electricity, and of con- 
 ductors and non-conductors. 
 
 kClO 
 
 1615 
 1616 
 
 1618 
 1620 
 
 1G24 
 Io2o 
 luilU 
 
 iS'iT 
 
 1630 
 
 Telescopes invented by Gali- 
 leo. 
 
 Coffee at Venice. 
 Tobacco in Virginia. 
 
 Bacon's Inductive Philoso- 
 phy. 
 
 Harvey discovers the circvJxt- 
 tion of the blood. 
 
 Thermometers invented by 
 Drebel. 
 
 Inigo Jones., celebrated archi- 
 tect. 
 
 Martin Opitz, German poet. 
 
 Negro Slavery co yimenced in 
 Virginia. 
 
 America. 
 
 Peter Paul Rubens, painter. 
 
 Massinger, the dramatist. 
 
 Kepler's " Astrononiia Nova 
 Celestis." 
 
 TorricelU invents the barome- 
 ter. 
 
 The Parian marbles brought 
 to England by the earl of 
 At indei. 
 
 Gazettes first published in 
 
 Venice. 
 
 1604. — Acadia co- 
 lonized by the 
 French. 
 
 1605. — Discovery 
 of Hudson's Bay. 
 
 1607.— E n g 1 i s h 
 settlement at 
 Jamestown, 
 (1st permanent 
 one in N. Ame- 
 rica.) 
 
 1608. —Quebec 
 founded. 
 
 1609. — Jesuit mis- 
 sions in Para- 
 guay. 
 
 1616.— The Tobac- 
 co plant introdu- 
 ced into Virgi- 
 nia. 
 
 1620.— Negro 
 slaves first im- 
 ported to Virgi- 
 nia. 
 
 Emigra- 
 tion of Pu- 
 ritans to 
 New Eng- 
 land. 
 
 1621. —John Car- 
 ver, 1st Gover- 
 nor of N. E. 
 
 1624. New Am- 
 sterdam set- 
 ' led by the Dutch. 
 
 England. 
 
 Franjb. 
 
 1601. Earl of Essex be- 
 headed. 
 
 1603.— James I.@— 
 Union of the 
 English and 
 Scotch crowns. 
 
 1605. The Gunpowder 
 Plot. 
 
 1627. Boston found- 
 ed. 
 
 1629. Wouter Van 
 Twiller, gover- 
 nor of New Am- 
 sterdam. 
 
 1612. English factories at 
 Surat. 
 
 1616. Ministry of Villiers, 
 duke of Buckingham. 
 
 1617. Sir Francis Bacon, 
 lord chancellor. 
 
 1618. Sir Walter Ra- 
 leigh's unsuccessful 
 voyage to America — 
 he is beheaded on his 
 return. 
 
 1625.— C h a r 1 e s 1.^ 
 
 Buckingham, prime 
 minister. 
 
 1610. Assass* 
 nation of 
 Henry IV., 
 by Ravail- 
 lac. 
 
 Louis 
 
 XIII, -W 
 (9 years old). 
 Mary de Me- 
 dici, regent. 
 
 1614. Last as- 
 sembly of the 
 
 States-gene- 
 ral. 
 
 1615. The king 
 marries 
 Anne, of 
 
 Austria. • 
 
 Civil war : — ■ 
 C o n d e 
 heads the 
 Hugue- 
 nots. 
 
 1624. Ministry 
 of Cardinal 
 Riche- 
 lieu. 
 
 1627. War with France, in support of 
 the llugfjti- 
 nots. 
 
 I^ochclla 
 
 1629. No parliament for reduced by 
 eleven years. famine — a(- 
 
 1630. Peace with France. ter a siege of 
 ten mo VI* ha. 
 
THE world's progress. 
 1698-1718. — Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII., of Sweden. 
 
 123 
 
 Germany. 
 
 IGOl) 
 
 1613 
 
 Expul- 
 sion of 
 
 the 
 Moors. 
 
 of 
 
 1G21 
 
 1G25 
 
 1625 
 
 1630 
 
 War 
 the 
 Moiit- 
 ferrat 
 succes- 
 sion in 
 Italy. 
 
 Dutch 
 war. — 
 Spain 
 sup- 
 ports 
 Austria 
 Philip 
 
 Defeat 
 of Span- 
 fleet off 
 Linja, 
 hy the 
 Dutch. 
 Na vai 
 war 
 with 
 Eng- 
 land. 
 Peace 
 with 
 Eng- 
 land. 
 
 1605. Truce of Co- 
 rnorra, for twenty 
 years, with the 
 Porte. 
 
 1608. Protestant 
 union, under Fre- 
 deric, the elector 
 palatine. 
 
 1610. Tlie Catholic 
 League, under the 
 duke, of Bavaria 
 
 1612. Matthias 
 
 1615. Truce of Co- 
 morra confirmed 
 
 1618. The Thirty 
 Years' War 
 begins. 
 
 1619. — Fer dina nd 
 
 1620. Victory of the 
 White Mountain, 
 
 near Prague. 
 
 Massacre of 
 Prague.— The Pro- 
 testant religion to- 
 tally suppressed. 
 
 1626.VictoryofTil- 
 1 y over Christian 
 IV., of Denmark, 
 at Lutter. 
 
 1628. W a 1 1 e n s t e i n 
 recovers all the 
 shores of the Bal- 
 tic, except Stral- 
 sund. 
 
 IG29. Gustavus Adol- 
 phus lands in Ger- 
 many. — Diet of 
 Ratisbon. — Wal- 
 lenstein dismissed, 
 succeeded by Til- 
 ly- 
 
 Ottoman 
 
 Empire. 
 
 1605. Leo XI., 
 pope. 
 
 Paul v., 
 pope. 
 
 1609.Tuscany ; 
 — Cosmo II. 
 
 Leghorn, 
 the empori- 
 um of the 
 Levant trade. 
 
 1618. Conspi: 
 racy of Bed- 
 mar, the 
 Spanish en- 
 voy, to re- 
 duce Venice 
 under sub- 
 jection to 
 Spain. 
 
 1621. Gregory 
 XV., pope. 
 Tuscany : — 
 Ferdinand II. 
 
 1623. The fa- 
 mous library 
 of the Pala- 
 tine at Hei- 
 delberg, sent 
 to Rome. 
 
 1628. General 
 Italian war 
 on the death 
 of the duke 
 ofMantua. 
 
 160.5. RevoUin 
 Syria and 
 Caramania, 
 under the 
 pasha of 
 Aleppo. 
 
 1606. Com- 
 mercial 
 treaty with 
 France and 
 Holland. 
 
 Tobacco 
 first brought 
 to Turkey 
 
 1617. — Musta- 
 pha I.^§— 
 
 1618. — Osman 
 
 Great Per- 
 sian victory 
 at Shibli. 
 1620 War with 
 Poland, and 
 unsuccess- 
 ful nivasion 
 of Poland. 
 
 1623. Murad 
 
 restores tran- 
 quillity. 
 
 1625. Truce 
 with the em- 
 pire renew- 
 ed. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1604. Sweden : Charles IX. ^ 
 
 1605. India : — Jehangir, shI- 
 tan. 
 
 1609. India : — Arrival of Haw- 
 kins, first English envoy 
 from the East India Com- 
 pany. 
 Sweden : — G u s t a v u 3 
 
 A d o 1 p h u s . ^m. 
 
 1611. Sweden : — War with 
 Denmark. — Calmar and Ris- 
 by lost.— Axel Oxenstiern, 
 minister. — Russia devasta- 
 ted by Poles and Tartars. 
 
 Russia : — Michael Ro- 
 manoff, czar. 
 
 1615. Denmark: — First stand 
 ing army 
 
 1616. India :— Sir Thomas Roc 
 ambassador from James I. 
 of England. 
 
 Sweden predominates in 
 the north. 
 1618. The Synod of Dorl- 
 Arminius condemned. 
 
 Settlement of Tanquebar, 
 in Coromandel. 
 
 1621. Dutch West India Com- 
 pany incorporated. 
 
 1622. Persia : — Ormuz gained 
 from the Portuguese by .ha 
 help of the English. 
 
 1625. Netherlands : — Hei.<ry 
 Frederic. — Breda, taken by 
 Spincla. 
 
 1627. Persia :— Shah Soofi I. 
 1629. Peace of Lubeck. 
 
124 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Period /Jr.— 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1G30 
 1631 
 
 Frogress of Society, etc. 
 
 Lotteries for money first men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Calico first imf orled into Eng- 
 land. 
 
 1636 
 
 1638 
 1639 
 1640 
 
 1641 
 
 Edward Cokb, the great ju- 
 rist. 
 
 Pedro Calderon de la Barca, 
 Spanish dramatist. 
 
 Flourishing period of Jlower 
 trade in lire Dutch cities. 
 
 Rembrandt, Van Dyke, pain- 
 ters. 
 
 The Jansenists, founded by 
 Jansenius, bishop of Ypres. 
 Printing in America. 
 
 First Swedish manufactoi-ies. 
 Persin, Caspar, JDaghet, and 
 
 Claude Lorraine, French 
 
 painters. 
 
 Coffee brought to England by 
 Nat. Conopius. 
 
 America. 
 
 The Dutch sole 
 masters of Bi'a- 
 zil. 
 1632. Maryland 
 settled by a colo- 
 ny under Lord 
 Baltimore. 
 
 1635. Connecticut 
 settled. — Guada- 
 loupe and Mar- 
 tinique, by the 
 French. 
 
 1637. Maine and 
 New Ilanipshire 
 colonized. 
 
 Harvard Col- 
 lege founded. 
 
 1639. First print- 
 ing office in Ame- 
 rica, at Cam 
 bridge, by Sam 
 Green. 
 
 1640. Whole num 
 ber of emigrants 
 to New England 
 previous to this, 
 21,000. 
 
 \643 
 
 Conde and Turenne, the great- 
 es'^ generals of the age. 
 
 England. 
 
 1630. Wentworlh, earl of 
 
 Strafford, minister. 
 Laud, archbishop of 
 
 Canterbury. 
 1633. The king visits 
 
 Scotland — is crowned 
 
 at Edinburgh. 
 
 1643. Confedera- 
 tion of the colo- 
 nies of New 
 England, for 
 mutual defence. 
 
 France. 
 
 1637. Trebles in Scot- 
 land, caused by Char- 
 les's plan to overlhrow 
 the Scotch presbyterian 
 church, and enforce 
 episcopacy. 
 
 L639. War with Scotland. 
 
 1640.> Parliament assem- 
 bled — dissolved with- 
 out effecting any thing. 
 The Scotch invade 
 England— take posses- 
 sion of Newcastle. 
 
 The Long Parlia- 
 ment, Nov. 3. 
 Impeachment of Straf- 
 ford and Laud. 
 
 1641. Strafford beheaded 
 — Courts of Star Cham- 
 ber and High Commis- 
 sion abolished. — Rebel- 
 lion of Roger Moore in 
 Ireland. — Massacre ol 
 Protestants by Irish Ca- 
 tholics. 
 
 1642._ Civil W a 1 and 
 
 Revolution . 
 
 Rise of Roundheads 
 and Cavaliers, toth of 
 the popular party. — 
 Battle of Edgehill, inde- 
 cisive. 
 
 1643. Royalists victorious 
 at Carlsgrane — defeated 
 at Newbury. — Solemn 
 league and covenant be- 
 tween the Scotch and 
 English parliaments. 
 
 1G31. Treaty 
 with Swo. 
 den and the 
 popular prin- 
 ces against 
 the emper- 
 or. 
 
 1635. Alliance 
 with Holland 
 
 against Spain, 
 for the par- 
 tition of the 
 Austrian Ne- 
 therlands. 
 
 1636. Alliance 
 with Swedei:-. 
 against Aus- 
 tria. 
 
 Invasion of 
 Gascony by 
 the Span- 
 iards, and of 
 Picardy, hy 
 the Impe- 
 rialists, who 
 threaten Pa- 
 ris. 
 [638. Invasion 
 of Spain, 
 siege ol Fon- 
 tarabva. 
 
 1640. Turin ta- 
 ken by the 
 French. 
 
 The first 
 Louis d'ors 
 struck. 
 
 1641. Alliance 
 with Portu- 
 gal against 
 Spain. — Ca- 
 talonia and 
 Rousillon re- 
 volt, and sub- 
 mit to France. 
 
 1642. Cinq 
 Mars and de 
 Thou be- 
 headed. 
 
 1643. Louis 
 
 XIV. ^— 
 (the Great.) 
 
 Aline, of 
 Austria, re- 
 gent. 
 
 Victory ol 
 Roscroi ovel 
 the Span- 
 iards, by 
 Conde. 
 
 Ministry o 
 Cardinal Ma 
 zarine. 
 
1598-1718.] 
 
 THE world's progress^ 
 
 25 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Spain 
 
 AND 
 
 Portu- 
 gal. 
 
 1609 
 
 1040 
 
 Loss of 
 the Ja- 
 panese 
 trade. 
 
 Portu- 
 gal re- 
 gait s 
 her in- 
 depen- 
 dence, 
 under 
 John IV. 
 duke ol 
 Bragan- 
 
 Gbrmany. 
 
 1631. Sack of Mag- 
 deburg, by Tilly. 
 — Gustavus Adol- 
 phus lakes May- 
 
 1632. Defeat and 
 death of Tilly, at 
 Lech. — Gustavus 
 takes Munich. — 
 Wallenstein again 
 in command. — Bat- 
 tle of Lutzen. — 
 Victory and death 
 of Gustavus Adol- 
 phus. 
 
 1635. Peace of Prague 
 with Saxony. 
 
 1636. Swedes victo- 
 rious at Wittstock. 
 
 1637.— Ferdinand 
 
 Galas successful 
 against the Swedes. 
 
 163'8. Bernhard, of 
 Saxe Weimar, de- 
 feats the Imperial- 
 ists at Bheinfield — 
 takes Brisac. 
 
 16-39. Battles of Ol- 
 niiz and Brandiez, 
 gained by the Swe- 
 dish general, Bau- 
 ner. 
 
 164U. Prussia- — Fre- 
 deric William. 
 
 1642. The Swedes de- 
 feat the Austrians 
 at Leipsic. 
 
 1643. —invade Hol- 
 stein, and compel 
 the Dares to desert 
 Austria, 
 
 Italy. 
 
 1631. Peace of 
 Chierasco. — 
 The influ- 
 
 ence'of France 
 increases. 
 
 Ottoman 
 
 Empire. 
 
 The WoRiD, elsewhere. 
 
 1634.Muradir 
 vades Pei - 
 sia — take's 
 Falreeze. ' 
 
 16-36. Peace 
 with Poland 
 renewed- 
 
 1637. Troubles 
 on the Tar- 
 tar frontier; 
 Azoph taken 
 by the Cos- 
 sacks., 
 
 Bagdad ta- 
 ken by the 
 Turks. 
 All the con- 
 quests of Ab- 
 bas recover- 
 ed. 
 
 1640. Ibrahim. 
 
 1642. Recap- 
 ture of Azoph 
 from the Cos- 
 sacks. 
 
 :632. Sweden '. — Christma, 
 
 queen ^^'^ — 
 
 1632. Sweden-':— 7- OxenstienOj 
 regent. i^ '. 
 
 Ilussia:— War with Po- 
 land ; twc vears' siege of 
 
 \ Smolensko.- Rusptap. grJiry 
 
 \capitulates, and the Polish 
 
 king advances to Moscow. 
 
 1634,. Peace of Wiasma, disad- 
 vafitageous to Russia. 
 
 ■< 
 
 1639. Holland. —Great na lal 
 victory by Van Tromp, c ver 
 the Spanish fleet in the 
 Downs. 
 
 1640. India: — Madras fo 
 by the Engli-sh 
 
126 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Peiiod IX.— 120 ijeai s.-^ 
 
 Des Cartes., French philoso- 
 pher. 
 
 Air guns invented. 
 
 Engraving in 7nezzotinto, inr.- 
 proved by Prince Rupert. 
 
 Railroads with wooden rails, 
 near Newcastle. 
 
 Jeremy Taylor, Alger. Sid- 
 ney, English writers. 
 
 Le Seur and Le Brun, French 
 painters. 
 
 Air pumps invented. 
 
 About this time flourish Mo- 
 litre, La Fontaine, Cor- 
 neille, Madame de klevig- 
 ne, Rochefoucault, Racine, 
 Boileau, and Pascal, in 
 France. 
 
 Velasquez and Murillo, Spart- 
 ish painters. 
 
 1646. Thomas 
 Mayhew, preach- 
 er to the Indians, 
 shipwrecked. 
 
 1647. Peter Stuy- 
 vesant, governor 
 of New Amster- 
 dam. 
 
 1645, Cambridge 
 platform adopt- 
 ed. 
 
 1649. J. Winthrop, 
 governor of Con- 
 necticut. 
 
 1650. Settlement of 
 North Carolina 
 
 1652. John Cotton 
 died. 
 
 1655. E. Winslow 
 died. 
 
 1644. Battle of Marston 
 Moor — royalists defeat- 
 ed. 
 
 1645. Battle (ifNaseby. 
 
 1646. The king seeks re- 
 fuge in the Scottish 
 camp. 
 
 1647. — is delivered up to 
 parliament for je400.0(X). 
 
 1648. Cromwell routs the 
 Scotch, under Hamil- 
 ton. The Presbyte- 
 rians expelled from 
 parliament, which re- 
 ceives the name of " the 
 Ruinp." 
 
 1649. Trial and execution 
 of the king. 
 
 The Commonwealth. 
 
 1650. Cromwell subdues 
 Ireland. 
 
 The Scots proclaim 
 Charles II. He 
 
 1651. enters England — is 
 defeated at Worcester, 
 and escapes to France. 
 
 1652. Naval war with 
 
 Holland, B lake, 
 
 A s c o u g h , and 
 
 P e a n , English ad- 
 mirals. 
 
 1653. Long parliament 
 dissolved by Crom- 
 well. — " Barebone's par- 
 liament" summoned. 
 
 Oliver Crom- 
 well, Lord Pro- 
 tector. 
 
 Milton, private secre- 
 tary to Cromwell. 
 
 1654. Peace of Westmin- 
 ster. Alliance with 
 
 Holland. 
 
 1655. War with Spain. — 
 Jamaica conquered by 
 Penn. 
 
 1658. Death of Cromwell. 
 — R i c h a r d Crom- 
 well, Protector. 
 
 1645. : — Mar. 
 shalTurennu 
 takes Trevss. 
 
 1648. Factions 
 of the Fron 
 de ; dissen- 
 sions foment- 
 ed by Cardi- 
 nal d e R e t z . 
 
 1649. Court re- 
 moves to St. 
 Cermains.- 
 Siege 01 Pa- 
 ris. 
 
 16.50. C n d 6 , 
 C o n t i , ancl 
 L o n g u e - 
 V ill e , im- 
 prisoned. — 
 Turenoe 
 flees to the 
 Spaniards. 
 
 1652. Maza- 
 rine retires 
 lu Sedan. 
 Conde flies 
 to Spain. 
 
 1653. Mazarine 
 enters Paris 
 in triumph. 
 
 1659. Peace of 
 the Pyre- 
 nees. — Mar- 
 riage of Lou- 
 is XIV. to 
 Maria The- 
 resa, of Spain. 
 
1508 4718.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 127 
 
 j Spain 
 
 
 
 
 
 AND 
 
 
 
 Ottoman 
 
 
 A.D. 
 
 PORTtJ- 
 GAL. 
 
 GliRMANY. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Empire. 
 
 The W orld, elsewhere. 
 
 
 
 1644. Invasion of 
 
 1644. Innocent 
 
 
 1644. Naval victory of the 
 
 
 
 Hungary, by Ra- 
 
 X., pope. 
 
 
 Swedes over the Danish 
 
 
 
 coezi— the empe- 
 
 
 
 fleet. 
 
 
 
 ror forced to yield 
 
 
 1645. War with 
 
 1645. Sweden :— Peace of 
 
 
 
 to the demands of 
 
 
 Venice. 
 
 Bromsebro with Demnark. 
 
 - 
 
 
 the proiestants. 
 
 1646. Revolt of 
 Naples, un- 
 der M a s - 
 sanielio. 
 
 Candia, the 
 theatre of 
 war. 
 
 1647. Netherlands :— William 
 11. 
 
 China: — The Tartars 
 place a prince of their own 
 on the throne— the first o/ 
 the present dynasty ofTsing. 
 
 
 
 1648. Peace op 
 
 
 1648. Moham- 
 
 1648. Poland:— The Ukraine 
 
 
 
 Westpha- 
 
 
 med IV, 
 
 Cossacks revolt, and cut the 
 
 
 
 lia, signed at 
 
 
 
 Polish army to pieces. 
 
 
 
 Munster, between 
 
 
 
 f$^- 
 
 
 
 France, the em- 
 
 
 
 — ^John Cassimir.'^f — - 
 
 
 
 pire, and Sweden. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — The principle of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a balance of pow- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 er in Euro'pe first 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 recognized. 
 
 
 1650. Moham- 
 med Riopri- 
 li, grand vi- 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 zier. 
 
 1653.Naval de- 
 feat by the 
 Venetians in 
 the Archipe- 
 lago. 
 
 1653. Holland : — J o h n do 
 Witt, Grand Pensionary ; 
 D e R u y t e 1 , admiral. 
 
 1654. Defeat and death' of 
 
 1654 
 
 Brazil 
 recover- 
 ed frOlT; 
 
 tlie 
 
 
 
 
 Tromp. 
 
 Sweden :— Christina re- 
 signs.— Charles X., 1st oi 
 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 
 1655, Alexan- 
 
 
 the House of Deux Ponts.^^ 
 
 1655 
 
 War 
 
 
 der Vll., 
 
 
 Poland :— War with Rus- 
 
 
 with 
 
 1657.— Leo p Did 
 
 pope. 
 
 1657. War with 
 
 sia. 
 
 
 Eng- 
 
 *^ 
 
 Racoezi, for 
 
 1657. Denmark :— War againa'. 
 
 
 land. 
 
 
 
 aiding Swe- 
 den against 
 Poland: 
 
 the Swedes, who overrur. 
 Denmark, and menace Cc- 
 penhagen. 
 1658. Denmark : — Naval vie 
 tory over the Swedes. 
 
 Denmark :— Peace of Ros 
 kilde. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
1 28 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Period /A.— 123 y...rs.-^ 
 
 PiioaRESs OF Society, etc. 
 
 1662 
 
 Logwood first cut in the bay 
 ol" llonduias. 
 
 Salvator Rosa, landscape 
 painter. 
 
 America. 
 
 1663. Canada niade 
 a royal colony. 
 
 IG65 
 1G66 
 1C6G 
 
 1663. EilioVs In- 
 dian Bible prin- 
 Huygens. Dutch astronomer. ^ed. 
 
 •'^ 1664. N e w Y r k 
 
 Pernecutioa of Juyisenists in 
 
 France. 
 Chain shot invented by De 
 
 Witt. 
 Canal of Languedoc, from the 
 
 Mediterranean to the Atian- 
 
 tic. 
 
 1667 I Gobelin tapestry manufactory 
 1 in Paris. 
 
 iC70 
 1671 
 
 1575 
 
 Eayoneis invented at Bay- 
 onne. 
 
 Orrery invented. 
 
 Foundaiion of the Academy 
 of Architecture, and the 
 JJotel des Invalides, at Pa- 
 
 Cassini, Italian astronomer 
 and mathematician. 
 
 D' Her helot, Pascal, Bour- 
 daloue. La Bruyre, Mai- 
 branche, French writers. 
 
 Christopher Wren, architect, 
 CDniiiiences St Paul's. 
 
 Ruysdael, celebrated Dutch 
 painter. 
 
 Willium Temple, historian. 
 
 Butler, Waller, an i Dryclen, 
 English poets; Henry 
 More, Leighton, Baxter, 
 Boyle. 
 
 Matisart, architect ; Girudon, 
 sculptor, of France. 
 
 occupied by the 
 English. 
 
 1667. — cedel to 
 them by the 
 peace of Breda 
 
 167i). Conclusion of 
 the ' American 
 treat} ' between 
 England and 
 Suain. 
 
 England. 
 
 1675. King Phi 
 lip's War ir 
 New Ensland. 
 
 1677. Maine pur- 
 chased by Massa- 
 chusetts. 
 
 1659. Richard resigns. — 
 Rump parliament call- 
 ed, but soon expelled. 
 
 Restoration o I 
 the Stuarts. 
 
 1660— CharlesII.^ 
 Hyde, earl ui 
 Clarendon, chancellor 
 and prime minister. 
 
 1661. New parliament. — 
 Alliance wiih Portugal. 
 
 1662. Marriage with Ca- 
 therine, 'iT Portugal. 
 
 Act ot Uniformity. 
 Dunkirk sold to 
 France. 
 
 1664. War with Holland. 
 
 1665. Naval victory by the 
 duke of York. 
 
 Great Plsgue in 
 London. 
 
 1666. Great Fire in Lon- 
 don. 
 
 1 
 
 1667. Peace of Breda. — 
 New York cedeU to 
 England. 
 
 Banishment of the 
 earl of Clarendon. 
 
 1668. Triple league — Eng- 
 land, Sweden, and Hol- 
 land, against France. 
 
 1670. The Cabal min- 
 istry. — Secret treaty 
 with France. 
 
 1672. War with Holland 
 in conjunction with 
 France. 
 
 1673. Ministry of Danby. 
 Test Act passed. 
 
 1674. Peace with Holland. 
 
 1678. The Popish Plot, 
 
 France. 
 
 1661. Death ol 
 Mazarine. 
 
 Colbert, 
 comptroller- 
 general of 
 finance. 
 
 Lvonr.e, 
 Le TeUier. 
 
 1662. Disputes 
 with the pope. 
 
 —6000 troops 
 sent against 
 the Turks in 
 Hungary. 
 1664. French 
 Ea.st Inilia 
 Company. 
 
 1666. Acade' 
 mie des Sci 
 
 encesLouvois 
 
 1667. War with 
 Spain. Lou- 
 is claims 
 Spanish Ne- 
 therlands for 
 his wife— in- 
 vades. Bel- 
 gium. 
 
 1668. Peace o 
 Aix la Cha 
 pelle with 
 Spain. 
 
 1672. War with 
 Holland. 
 
 1673. French 
 ambassador 
 at Ispahan. 
 
 1674. The 
 Dutch de- 
 feated at the 
 battles of 
 Sinsheim 
 andMulhau- 
 sen. — Tu- 
 renne rava- 
 ges the Pala- 
 tinate. 
 
 1675. Death of 
 Turenne ac 
 Sasbach. 
 
 Influence 
 of Pere la 
 Chaise, the 
 king's con- 
 lessor. 
 
 1677. Victory 
 over the 
 Prince of 
 Orange at 
 Moiit-Cassel. 
 
 1678. Peace 
 of N i m e • 
 guen ^'iili 
 Holland and 
 Spain — re- 
 stores tia^ 
 quillity to 
 Europe. 
 
1598-1718.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 129 
 
 Spain 
 
 AND 
 
 Portu- 
 gal. 
 
 Invasion 
 of Por- 
 [usual. 
 
 Victory 
 of the 
 Poriu- 
 giiese 
 I'ver the 
 Span- 
 iards at 
 Est re- 
 mas. 
 Spain : - 
 Cliarles 
 
 Germany. 
 
 166.3. The Diet per- 
 manent at Ratis- 
 bon. 
 
 1664. Montecuculi 
 victorious over the 
 Turks at St. Go- 
 tharJ. 
 
 1665. The Tyrol uni- 
 ted to Austria. 
 
 1673. War of Austria 
 r\r\d France. 
 
 167-5. Turenne and 
 Montecuculi op- 
 posed on the 
 Rhine. — Victory 
 of Consarbruck 
 over the French, 
 under Crequi. — 
 Treves taken. 
 
 1676. General revolt 
 of Hungarians un- 
 der Emeri':. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 1667. 
 IX 
 1669. Candia 
 
 Clement 
 pope. 
 
 Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 1661. War 
 with Aus- 
 tria. 
 
 1662. Invasion 
 of Hungary. 
 
 taken from Ve- 
 nice by Kio- 
 prili. 
 
 Peace with the Porte. 
 
 1670. Cosmo 
 III., grand 
 duke of Tus- 
 cany. — War 
 between Ge- 
 noa and Sa- 
 voy. 
 Clement X., 
 
 pope. 
 
 1674. Revolt of 
 Messina in 
 favor of 
 France. 
 
 1676. Messina 
 blockaded by 
 the Dutch 
 and Spanish 
 fleets. 
 
 Death of De 
 Ruyter. 
 Innocent XL 
 pope. 
 
 Death of the 
 atheist, Spi- 
 noza 
 
 1672. The Sul- 
 tan invades 
 Poland. 
 
 1673. —defeat- 
 ed by Zo- 
 briski, at 
 Choezim, 
 
 1676. Peace of 
 Zurawno 
 with Poland. 
 
 1678. First war 
 with Russia, 
 on account 
 of tlie Cos- 
 sacks. 
 
 The World, elsewhere 
 
 1660. Demark :— Peace of Co 
 penhagen. — The Swedea 
 restore Bornholm, and Dron- 
 theim. 
 Revolution in Cenmark. 
 
 Sweden :— Charles XI. ^g 
 
 Peace of Oiiva. 
 
 Prussia acknowledged in- 
 dependent. 
 1660. Poland :— Great victory 
 of Marshal John So 
 b i e s t i over the Tartars 
 
 1667. Holland :— Peace of Bre- 
 da : loss of New Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 1668. First embassie.s from 
 ■ Russia to France and Spain. 
 
 India :— Rise of the Mah- 
 ratta power.— Sevajee takea 
 and sacks Surat. 
 
 1670 Den. :— Christian V. W 
 
 1672. Sea fight between the 
 Dutch fleet, under De Witt 
 and De Ruyter, and the 
 English and l''rench fleets- 
 Dutch defeated. 
 
 Den. :— William III.® 
 
 1674. Poland:— Johr Sobies. 
 
 167,5. The Swede? invade 
 
 Brandenburg. 
 1677. Battle of the T.vnA, ly^ 
 
 tween the Swedes an'l Pane* 
 
 «•= 
 
130 
 
 THI:] WORLD S TR-OGRESS. 
 
 [Period IX.— 120 years.— 
 
 Progress op Society, etc. 
 
 Bernini, Iiali.m sculptor. 
 
 Mtiseuin for Natural History, 
 at London. 
 
 Jardin des Planles, at Paris. 
 
 Pc7iny post establi;3lied in Lon- 
 don. 
 
 Kempfefs travels in Japan. 
 
 John, Banyan, '' Pilgrim's 
 Progress." 
 
 Otto Von Guericka, Inven- 
 tor of the air-pump and 
 electrical machine, died. 
 
 Telegraphs invented. 
 
 Newton's Frincipia, publish- 
 ed. 
 
 G. Batt. Lully, ftom Flo- 
 rence, founder of French 
 opera music. 
 
 Arch. Corelli, celebrated vio- 
 linist and composer at Rome. 
 
 White paper first made in 
 England. 
 
 Leibnitz, German philoso- 
 pher, founds the Academy of 
 Sciences a( Berlin. 
 
 First opera in London. 
 
 Purcell, English musician. 
 
 Bank of England. 
 
 Telescopes, first reflecting 
 one made on the principles 
 of Sir Isaac Newton. ' 
 
 America. 
 
 1636. Sir Edmund 
 Andros, governor 
 of New England. 
 
 1683- General sup- 
 pression of char- 
 ter governments. 
 
 168-3. Montreal de- 
 stroyed by the 
 Five nations. 
 
 Leisler usurps the 
 government of 
 New York. 
 
 1690. The English 
 settlenients of 
 Schenectady, N. 
 York,Casco, Me. 
 
 and Salmon Falls, 
 N. H., destroyed 
 by a party of 
 French. 
 
 Port Royal. No- 
 va Scotia, redu- 
 ced by Sir Wil- 
 liam Pliipps.— 
 Expedition against 
 Canada, unsuc- 
 cessful. 
 
 1691. Schuyler 
 defeats the French 
 
 at La Prairie. 
 
 Witchcraft superstition in New-Ejiglarid. 
 
 John Locke and Sir Isaac 
 
 Neicton in England. 
 Boileau, Fenelon, and Bayle, 
 
 in France. 
 Bank of England. 
 
 Phckjihnrus diiscovered 
 
 1692. New Hamp- 
 shire purchased 
 by Allen. 
 
 N. York : Leis- 
 ler executed. 
 
 1693. N. York :— 
 Episcopacy in- 
 troduced. 
 
 William and 
 Mary's College 
 founded. 
 1697. KidJ's pira- 
 cies. 
 
 1699. French colo- 
 ny in Louisiana. 
 — Gold mines in 
 Brazil. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 France. 
 
 Rise of the names ol 
 Wliigs and Tories. 
 
 1683. "RyehousePlot." 
 Execution of Lord 
 Russel and Algernon 
 Sydney. 
 
 In this reign the Roy- 
 al Society of London 
 was instituted by Wil- 
 kins, bishop of Chester. 
 — Bombay ceded to 
 England. 
 
 1685. — James 11.^^ 
 
 Rebellion of Mon- 
 mouth, in England, and 
 Argyle, in Scoiland, 
 both defeated and exe- 
 cuted. 
 .Judge .JefTries. 
 
 1686. The king favors the 
 Catholics. 
 
 1687, — re-establishes the 
 Court of High Com- 
 mission. 
 
 1683. "Revolution 
 OP 1688."— The Whigs 
 and Tories unite in ap- 
 plying to the Prince of 
 Orange, who lajids in 
 England with I5,0UU 
 men — the king flees to 
 France. 
 
 16S9.— William III. 
 
 and Mary II .^^— 
 War with France. 
 James II. lands in 
 Ireland— besieges Lon- 
 donderry. 
 
 1690. William in Ireland. 
 — Battle of the Boyne. 
 James defeated, returns 
 to France. 
 
 1691. Limerick taken, and 
 William acknowledged. 
 
 1692. Invasion of Eng- 
 land undertaken by the 
 French in favor of 
 James. — Naval victory 
 by the Dutch and Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 1693. Bank of England in- 
 corporated. 
 
 1694. Death of queen 
 Mary. 
 
 1697. General peace 
 
 1698. First partition treaty, 
 between France, Eng 
 land, and the Empire to 
 dispose of the crown of 
 Spain. 
 
 1699. Visit of Peter the 
 Great. 
 
 France, the 
 most formi- 
 dable power 
 in Europe. 
 
 1683. Invasion 
 of the Span- 
 ish Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 1684. Truce of 
 Ratisbon for 
 Ivventy years 
 with Spain. 
 
 1685. Revo- 
 cation of 
 the Edict 
 
 of Nantes. 
 
 16^S8. War ol 
 Si)ain — the 
 Empire, Hol- 
 land, Savoy, 
 and Englan 1 
 against 
 France. 
 
 1639. Grand al- 
 liance against 
 France, head- 
 ed by Wil- 
 liam III. 
 
 1690. Naval 
 victory over 
 the Dutch 
 and Engli--h 
 off Dieppe. 
 Victory of 
 Luxemburg, 
 at Fleurus. 
 
 1692. Marshal 
 Luxem- 
 burg de- 
 feats William 
 
 at Steenkirk. 
 and 
 
 1693. —at Ne- 
 uvinden. 
 Institution c( 
 the order ol 
 St. I.ouis. 
 
 ofRyswick 
 — between 
 France ana 
 tlie allies. 
 
598-1718.J 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 131 
 
 Spain 
 
 AND 
 
 Portu- 
 gal. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1680. Great part of 
 Alsace seized by 
 France. 
 
 1683. Turkish war, 
 siege of Vienna by 
 the Turks — victory 
 of th'3 Germans 
 and Poles, under 
 Charles, of Lor- 
 raine, and John 
 Sobieski. 
 
 Treaty of the 
 Hague against 
 France. 
 
 1689 Revolt 
 of Cata- 
 lonia in 
 favor of 
 France. 
 
 1691 
 
 1697 
 
 1686. League of 
 Augsburg against 
 France. 
 
 1686. Buda taken af- 
 ter being held by 
 the Turks 145 
 years. 
 
 1687. Decisive victo- 
 ry of Mohaez : 
 Croatia and Tran- 
 sylvania subdued. 
 
 Joseph I. crowd- 
 ed king of Hun- 
 gary. 
 1689. Grand alliance 
 ratified at Vienna. 
 The Palatinate 
 desolated by the 
 French. 
 
 1690 Joseph I. elect- 
 ed king of the Ro- 
 mans by the Diet 
 of Augsburg. — 
 Victories over the 
 Turks. 
 
 Incur- 
 sion of 
 
 the 
 French 
 
 into 
 Aragon. 
 
 Peaceof Ryswick. 
 
 In- 
 
 tiigues 1697. Victory over 
 for the the Sultan Musta 
 succes- pha at Zenta, by 
 sion. the Prince Eugene 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Ottoman 
 Empire. 
 
 1682. War with 
 Austria. 
 
 1683. Total 
 rout before 
 Vienna. 
 
 1684. Alliance of Venice with 
 Poland, and the Empire 
 against the Porte. 
 
 1689. Alexan- 
 der Vlll., 
 pope. 
 
 1691. Innocent 
 XII., pope. 
 
 1693. Battle of 
 Marsaglia — 
 the allies in 
 Italy defeat- 
 ed by the 
 Marshal Ca- 
 tinat. 
 
 1686. Russia 
 declares war. 
 
 1687. Revolu- 
 tion in Con- 
 stantinople, 
 Mohammed 
 dethroned. 
 
 Solyman 
 
 1689. Defeat at 
 Nisa. 
 
 1690. Musta- 
 pha Kiopri- 
 li drives the 
 Austrians 
 across the 
 Danube — re- 
 covers Bel- 
 grade. 
 
 1691. Ahmud 
 
 Defeat and 
 death ofKio- 
 prili. 
 
 1694. Chio ta- 
 ken by the 
 Venetians. 
 
 1695. Musta- 
 
 pha II. W— 
 
 1696. — leads 
 his own ar- 
 my. — Victo- 
 ry of Olach. 
 
 1099. Peace of 
 Carlowitz. 
 
 The Otto- 
 man power 
 broken. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1680. Sweden:— Diet of Stock 
 holm. 
 
 1682. Russia:— Ivan and Pe- 
 ter, ^^ their sister. So 
 
 phia, regent. 
 
 1633. Denmark :— The Code o 
 king Christian publishe'\ 
 
 1686. India :— The Deickin cork 
 quered. 
 Golconda and Besapore. 
 
 1687. —The English factories 
 in Bengal suppressed— after- 
 wards restored. 
 
 1688. Prussia :— Frederic III 
 
 R ussia : — Ivan resigns — 
 Sophia is confined in a con- 
 vent : 
 1689. Peter the 
 
 Great .^§ 
 
 1692. Russia; — First trade 
 with China. 
 
 India : — Height of tl>e Mo- 
 gul power, annual revenue 
 jE;32,000,000. . 
 
 China: — Great influence 
 of Jesuits. 
 
 1693. Sweden :— The king de- 
 clared absolute. 
 
 1695. Holland : Bombard- 
 ment of Brussels by the 
 French, under Villeroi. 
 
 1696. Poland :— Death oi So- 
 bieski — succeeded by 
 
 1697. — Frederic Augustus I. 
 Sweden ; — C h a r l e s 
 
 XII 
 
 -(15 years old.) 
 
 Russia :— Introduction oi 
 various manufactures — 
 equipment of a fleet, etc. 
 
 ik 
 
 1699. Den. :— Frederic IV. ^ 
 
 Alliance of Denmark, Rus- 
 sia, and Poland, againsf 
 Charles XII. of Sweden. 
 
132 
 
 THE WORLD S mOGRLSS. 
 
 [Period IX.~120 years.-- 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 First manufactories in Russia 
 and Denmark 
 
 Fenelon, Bossuei, Masilion, 
 in France. 
 
 National Deb. of England 
 commenced. 
 
 Godfrey Knellcr, English 
 painter. 
 
 First Russian newspaper. — 
 St. Petersburgh founded. 
 
 Flourishing period of French 
 literature. — Great spiendor 
 m the French court. 
 
 A newspaper in America. 
 
 Incorporation of the United 
 British East India Com- 
 pany. 
 
 Prussic acid discovered by 
 Diesbach. 
 
 A post-office in America. 
 
 The famous bull " Unigeni- 
 tus " against the French Jan- 
 seiiists. 
 
 Rise of commerce in Austria ; 
 first manufactories. 
 
 Law's bank at Paris. 
 
 The monastery of Mafra, ' the 
 wonder of Portugal,' built. 
 
 Prior, Steele, De Foe, Addi- 
 son, flourish in England. 
 
 First standing army in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 The coffee tree brought from 
 •'ava to Surmain. 
 
 America 
 
 1701. Yale College 
 founded. 
 
 1702. Rice intro- 
 duced into Caro- 
 lina from Mada- 
 gascar. 
 
 1703. Apalachian 
 Indians subdued 
 
 Maine ravaged 
 by French and 
 Indians. 
 1701. Captain 
 Church's expe- 
 diiii)n against the 
 Indians. 
 
 Boston Neics- 
 Letter, first Ame- 
 rican periodical. 
 1706. Carolina in- 
 vaded by the 
 French and Span- 
 ish. 
 
 1707. Unsuccessful 
 expedition against 
 Port Royal. 
 
 l708.The Sayhrook 
 platform, form- 
 ed. 
 
 1709. First paper 
 money in New- 
 .Jersey. 
 
 1710. First post- 
 office at New 
 York. 
 
 Fruitless expe- 
 dition against Ca- 
 nada. 
 1713. "Queen 
 Anne's War " 
 closed by the 
 treaty of Utrecht. 
 
 171.5. Indian war in 
 South Carolina. 
 
 1717. New- Orleans 
 settled by the 
 French. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1700. A Britisli fleet sent 
 to assist Cliarles Xli. 
 of Sweden. 
 
 Foundation of the 
 national debt in this 
 reign. 
 
 1701. War of the Spanish succession. 
 
 1702. The French invade Holland, ai- 
 der Boufilers — re])ul&ed by Marl- 
 borough. 
 
 France. 
 
 Anne, 
 
 1703. Methuen ueaty of 
 commerce with Portu- 
 gal. 
 
 1704. Marlborough enters 
 gains the- battle of 
 
 Gibraltar taken by 
 Rooke. 
 1706.T reaty ofunion 
 with Scotland. 
 
 Battle of llamiUies, 
 feated. 
 1707. Victory of Almanza 
 lisir and Portuguese. 
 
 The f i r s t United 
 Parliament of 
 Great Britain 
 meets. 
 
 1705. Battle of Oudenarde, 
 feated. 
 
 Sardinia and Minor 
 the English. 
 
 Unsuccessful attempt 
 of the Pretender to land 
 in Scotland. 
 1710. Victory of Vendome 
 Dr. Sachevereli's trial. 
 — Collision of Whig 
 and Tory principles. 
 
 1713. Peace of U t 
 Perpetual separation 
 
 of France and Spain — 
 quires Newfoundland, 
 Hudson's Bay, also Mi 
 braltar. The Rhine is 
 between Germany and 
 
 1714. Factions at court — 
 disgrace of Harley, 
 chancellor of the exche- 
 quer. 
 
 Death of the queen. 
 — H o u s e of Hano- 
 ver : — 
 
 George I .'^g — 
 
 Robert Walpole, pre- 
 mier. 
 
 1715. Insurrection of Ja- 
 cobites. — Battles of She- 
 
 riff"muir and Preston. 
 War against Sweden. 
 
 1718. Quadruple al 
 Emperor, England, Ho 
 France against 'he desi 
 
 1702. Revolt o,' 
 the Hugue- 
 nots suppress- 
 ed by Mar- 
 shal Villars. 
 Germany, 
 Blenheim. 
 
 Villeroi de- 
 over the Eng- 
 
 — French ile- 
 ca captured by 
 
 alVillaviciostf 
 
 r e c h t . 
 of the crowi> 
 England ac 
 AcaJ'ia, and 
 norca and Gi 
 the boundarT 
 France. 
 
 1714. Peace o 
 Radstadt : tha 
 
 Emperor ac 
 knowledges 
 Philip on 
 the cession 
 of Lombar- 
 dy, Naplea^ 
 and Sardinia. 
 
 1715. Louis 
 
 Duke o( 
 Orleans re- 
 gent. — Du- 
 bois, minis- 
 ter. 
 1 i a n c e : lh« 
 Hand, and 
 gns of Spain- 
 
159S-1T18.J 
 
 THE WORLDS TROGRESS. 
 
 33 
 
 1700 Death of 
 i the king, 
 who 
 names 
 the duke 
 ofAnjou 
 
 his 
 success- 
 or. 
 Philip 
 
 1701 
 
 1704 
 
 I7(b 
 
 1706 
 
 17 11 
 
 The 
 arch- 
 duke 
 Charles 
 lands at 
 Lisbon, 
 and- en- 
 ters 
 Spain. 
 liarcelo- 
 na taken 
 by the 
 allies. 
 Port. :— 
 John V. 
 
 English 
 and Por 
 tuguese 
 enter 
 Madrid. 
 
 Charles 
 leaves 
 Spain 0" 
 becom 
 ing Em- 
 peror. 
 
 170L Grand alliance 
 between England, 
 the Empire, to pre 
 of France and Spa 
 
 1702. Battles of Stol- 
 hafen, Hochstedi. 
 and Spires, gained 
 by the French. 
 
 1705. —Joseph 
 
 of the Hague, 
 Holland, and 
 vent the union 
 in. 
 
 1702. Victory 
 of Luzzace 
 gained by the 
 French over 
 the Impe- 
 rialists. 
 
 17H 
 
 Barcelo- 
 na taken 
 by Ber- 
 wick. 
 Albero- 
 
 ni, 
 prime 
 minis- 
 Iter of 
 j Spain. 
 
 1710. Treaty of the 
 Hague between 
 England. Holland, 
 and the Empire. 
 
 1711. — Charles 
 
 Minisiry of Count 
 Linzendorf. 
 
 1713. Pragmatic 
 sanctioii^ vesting 
 the succession to 
 Austria in the 
 daughters of Char- 
 les. 
 
 1714. Peace of Ras- 
 tadt and Bailen 
 with France. 
 
 1706. French 
 driven from 
 Italy by 
 prince Eu- 
 gene. 
 
 1707. All the 
 Spanish pos- 
 sessions in 
 Italy aban- 
 doned to the 
 allies. 
 
 1703. 
 111. 
 
 Ahmed 
 
 1709. Charles 
 XII. takes 
 refuge at 
 Bender — 
 hence war 
 with Russia. 
 
 1714. War oi 
 the Porte. 
 
 1715. Corinth 
 Turks — the 
 Venice — sie 
 raised on the 
 
 Venice with 
 
 1718. Quadru- 
 ple alliance 
 against Spain. 
 
 1718. Peace of 
 between the 
 and Hunga 
 
 taken by the 
 Emperor joins 
 ge of Corlu 
 news of their 
 
 1716. defeat at 
 the battle of 
 Peterwar- 
 den. 
 
 1717. Defeat of 
 Crusca — loss 
 of Belgrade. 
 
 Passarowitz, 
 Porte, Venice, 
 ry. 
 
 1700. Russia :— Peter the Great 
 invades Ingria — defeated bj 
 ChailesXII., at Narva. 
 
 War ol the ISorthera 
 Powers. 
 
 1701. PRUSSIA erected i.'itoa 
 kingdom under 
 
 Frederic I.^^~ 
 
 Charles XII. invades Po- 
 land—is victorious at Riga. 
 
 1702. -enters Warsaw— takea 
 Cracow. 
 
 1703. Victory of Pultusk ~ 
 Poland:— The throne cs- 
 
 clared vacant, and 
 
 1704. Stanislas LeetzinskJ 
 
 elected king.^^ 
 
 1706. The Swedes victorious 
 over the Saxons and Rus- 
 sians at Traverstadt. 
 
 1707. Russia :— Revolt of the 
 Cossack Mazeppa. 
 
 1708. Charles invades Russia, 
 crosses the Dnieper, and ia 
 
 1709. defeated at Pultowa. 
 Sweden at war with Den- 
 mark. 
 
 Poland :— Frederic Augus- 
 tus re-ascends the throne. 
 
 1712. Victory of the Swedes at 
 Gadebusche. 
 
 1713. Prussia :— Frederic. Wil 
 
 liam I.^S 
 
 1714. Russia:— Naval victory 
 over the Swedes.— Aland and 
 Finland conquered. 
 
 1715. Netherlands Barrier 
 
 treaty of Antwerp with Aus- 
 tria. 
 
 Sweden :— Return of Char- 
 les—Prussia and EnglamJ 
 join the alliance ag-ainst him. 
 
 1718. Charles XII. invadei 
 Norway ; is killed at the 
 siege oi Fredericshall. 
 
 Sweden:— Ulrica Eleo 
 
134 
 
 THE WORLD S PHOGRESS. 
 
 PERIOD X.— 97 years." 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Cotton Mather^ " Magnalia,'" 
 and Increase Mather, Hist, 
 of War with Indians. 
 
 Inoculation introduced by 
 Lady Montague. The same 
 year introduced into Boston 
 by Dr. Boylsion. 
 
 Academy of Sciences at Peters- 
 burs. 
 
 The " Appellants," in France, 
 headed by the Cardinal de 
 Noailles, appeal from the 
 bull "Unigenitus," to a ge- 
 neral council; but without 
 effect. 
 
 Behring's Strait discovered. 
 
 Balloons invented by Gusmac. 
 
 In England : \ In France : 
 
 Pope, Swift, J. B. Roics- 
 Young, seau, Le 
 
 Thompson, Sage, Rollin, 
 Watts, Lord Montesquieu. 
 Bnlin^ hroke, 
 Doddridge, 
 Chesterfield. 
 
 Halley, astronomer. 
 
 First Lodge of Freemasons in 
 
 Irtcth linen manufactories, 
 and English steel and cutlery 
 flourish. 
 
 L. Holberg, Danish drama- 
 tist. 
 
 America. 
 
 1719. First Philadelphia news- 
 paper. 
 
 1721. First New-York news- 
 paper. 
 
 1723. Vermont settled. 
 
 Increase Mather, died. 
 
 1724. Trenton, N. J., founded. 
 
 1727. Great earthquake 
 New-England. 
 
 1728. Cotton Mather, died. 
 
 Discovery of diamond 
 mines in Brazil. 
 
 1729. The Carolinas separated. 
 
 17.32. Birth of Washington. 
 1733. Savannah founded. 
 
 America, at Boston. 
 
 1740. Tennessee first explored. 
 
 1742. Invasion of Florida by 
 Indians and Spaniards— re- 
 pulsed. 
 
 England. 
 
 1719. Unsuccessful attempt to 
 invade Scotland by the Span- 
 iards. 
 
 "The South Sea Scheme." 
 
 1720. " Bursting of the South 
 ■ Sea bubble." 
 
 1721. Sir Robert Walp-^le'a 
 ministry continues. 
 
 1725. Lea|i e of Herrenhauser., 
 
 1727. George L dies at Osna- 
 burg. 
 
 George 1 1 .^^ — - 
 
 1728. Pe»3e of Pardo witii 
 Spain 
 
 1729. Treaty of Seville, be 
 
 1731. Treaty of Vienna with 
 Holland and the Empire. 
 
 1739. War with fepatn. 
 
 1740 Porto Bello taken by Ad- 
 miral Vernon. — Anson's voy- 
 age I'ound the world, and 
 capture of the Manilla g«J 
 leon. 
 
THE WORLD S PE.OGRESS. 
 
 135 
 
 l118-181G.—Deal/i of Charles XII. to Battle of Waterloo. 
 
 I iho governmerit. 
 'Dui'e de Bouvbon, 
 micister. 
 
 1724 
 
 J7>6 
 
 Congress of Cam- 
 bray 
 
 between Fngland, 
 Franc?, Pyussia, 
 and IlGlland. 
 
 Miniotry oi" Cardi- 
 nal F il e u r y . 
 
 }7'?B Congress of Sols- 
 rio;is dissoived, 
 j without, effecting 
 I any ihing. 
 
 I ween England, 
 France, and Hol- 
 land. 
 
 I 
 
 733 War of the Polish 
 succession : 
 France, Spain, 
 and Sardi lia. 
 
 .7^1 Conquest of Lor- 
 raine. 
 
 1710 War of the Aus- 
 trian succession 
 —Marshals Belle 
 isle and Broglio : 
 
 \r^:. 
 
 -defe::t<}d 
 r-.ll'63 at 
 gca. 
 
 by the 
 Dettin- 
 
 Spain 
 
 AND 
 
 Portu- 
 gal. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1725. :- 
 
 Alliance 
 1731. ;— 
 Con- 
 quest of 
 Nr.p:^3 
 and Sici- 
 \v by 
 D>^n 
 Carlo:^. 
 
 of Vienna, Spam, 
 rtnd Austria. 
 
 1739. :— 
 War 
 with 
 Ens- 
 land, for 
 infrac- 
 tions of 
 the Asi- 
 ento 
 treaty. 
 
 1^3.3. War of the Po- 
 lish succession ; 
 Austria, Russia, 
 and Denmarlc. 
 
 1735. Preliminaries 
 of Vienna- not con- 
 cluded till 173S 
 
 1740. War of the Aus- 
 trian succession. 
 
 Maria The- 
 resa succeeds to 
 the hereditary 
 States. 
 
 1741. The French, 
 Saxons, and Bava- 
 rians, overrun Aus- 
 tria, take Prague, 
 and crown Charles 
 
 VI. emperor. ^^ 
 Treaty of Bres- 
 lau with Austria. 
 1743. The French 
 driven across the 
 Rhine. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1719. Italy :— Sicily invaded by iha 
 
 Spanish. 
 l7'.iU. Peace of Stockliolm.— Tranquillity 
 
 restored in tlie n.vth 
 
 Sweden :— The qureri abdicates in 
 
 favor of her husband. 
 1721. Italy :— Innocent Xlll., pope. 
 
 Frederic. '^g 
 
 Peace of Nystadt wnn Russia. 
 Russia: — Peter assumes the title 
 "Emperor of all the Russias." 
 1721. Turkey :— Mahommed Effendi, am- 
 bassador to Paris. 
 1723. China:— Christians expelled. 
 1723 Italy :— John Gaston, (de Medici), 
 grand duke of Tuscany. 
 
 1723. Turkey :— The Turks and Russians 
 attempt to dismember Persia. 
 
 1724. Italy :— Benedict XIII., pope. 
 
 1725. Russia:— Catharine I., widow of 
 
 Peter. ^^ 
 
 1725. Turkey :— Partition treaty for seiz- 
 ing the north and west provinces of 
 Persia. 
 
 1726. Russia :— Alliance with Austria. 
 
 1726. Turkey :— First printing press 
 brought from Paris to Turkey. 
 
 1727. Russia :— Treaty with China. 
 
 Peter II. ^g 
 
 1727. Turkey :— Peace of Bagdad. 
 
 1728. Denmark :— Fire at Copenhagen, 
 destroys the public library. 
 
 —colony of Danes in Greenland. 
 
 1730. Denmark :— Christian VI.^^ 
 
 1730. Italy — Clement XIL, pope. 
 
 Russia :— Anne.^§ 
 
 1733. Poland :— Frederic Augustus 11.^ 
 The diet elect Stanislaus, but ar« 
 
 compelled by the Russian army to eleC. 
 Freiieric. 
 
 1734. Stanislaus besieged in Dantzic, es- 
 capes to Eonin^sherg. 
 
 17-34. Turkey :— Turks driven from Per- 
 sia by Nailir Shah. 
 
 1736. —war with Russia and Austria. 
 
 1737. Italy :— Francis, of Lorraine, gram 
 duke of Tuscany. 
 
 1739. India :— Invaded by Nsdir Shah 
 who takes and plunders Delhi. 
 
 1739. Turkey :— Turks defeated nea 
 Choezim. 
 
 1740. Italy :— Benedict XIV., pope 
 Turkey :— The Turks invade Pers> 
 
 —are repulsed by Ashraf 
 -peace of Bels'rade. 
 
136 
 
 THE world's FROGREfeb. 
 
 [Period X. — 07 years. 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 America. 
 
 Frederic the Great makes 
 great iinpruveineius in mili- 
 tunj tactics — imroduces^y- 
 iri,g horse artillery. 
 
 Durante and Leo. celebrated 
 iimsicians. 
 
 Handel, and »S'e6. Bach, musi- 
 cal comj,)oser3. 
 
 ladigo tirst produced in Caro- 
 lina. 
 
 1748 
 '750 
 17ui; 
 1753 
 
 Mosheim, ecclesiastical histo- 
 
 lian. 
 Dr. Franklin' s discoveries in 
 
 electricity. 
 Eui^lauil iniroduces the " New 
 
 Style " Calendar. 
 British Museum founded. 
 
 British. 
 
 A Ian Ram- 
 say, 
 Shenstune, 
 Gray, 
 Collins, 
 Ake?iside, 
 Churchill. 
 
 Helvetius, Fr. 
 Racine, Fr. 
 Gellert., Ger. 
 Winckle- 
 ?nan7i, Ger- 
 
 ITDJ 
 
 1761 
 1766 
 
 ,rohn Ryjbrach, sculptor. 
 Hogarth, Wilson, ^ Joshua 
 
 Reijnolds, painters. 
 Potatoes first planted in 
 
 France, by Turgot. 
 Niebuhr's travels in Arabia. 
 
 Wesley Sf Whitefield preach. 
 Philadelphia Medical School, 
 
 first in America. 
 Waliis and Carteret's voyage 
 
 of discovery in the South 
 
 Seas. 
 
 1745. Louisburg and Cape 
 Breton taken from France 
 by the English. 
 
 1747. David Brainerd and 
 Benjamin Coleinan, died. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1744. Naval victory over tho 
 French and Spanish fleets in 
 the bHy of Hieres 
 
 17-i5. Scotch rebellion — Char- 
 les Edward lands in Scot* 
 land. 
 
 1746 he is defeated at, Cul- 
 loden. 
 
 1747. Victories over the French 
 off Belle-isle and Cape 
 Finisterre. 
 
 1749. English settlement 
 Nova Scotia. 
 
 1752. Hosiilities between Eng 
 
 1754. Washington's mission to 
 the French. 
 
 1755. Defeat of Braddock. 
 
 1756. Oswego and Ft. Granby 
 taken by the French. 
 
 1757. Fort Wm. Henry cap- 
 tured. 
 
 1758. Repulse of Abercrombie 
 at Ticonderoga. 
 
 Fort Du Quesne taken. 
 1759 Invasion of Canada — 
 death of Wolfe — Quebec 
 taken. 
 
 Capture of Niagara, 
 Crown Point, and Ticonde- 
 roga. 
 
 1763. End of the " Old French 
 
 War." 
 1765. " American Stamp Act " 
 
 resisted in Massachusetts 
 
 anfl Virginia. 
 First Colonial Congress at 
 
 New- York. 
 
 1748. Peace ofAix la 
 mufual restitution of co»i 
 
 1752. The new style intro- 
 duced : the ye-ar hereafter 
 commences Jan. 1. 
 
 land and France on the boun 
 
 1756 "Seven Years' 
 Subsidiary alliance wiih 
 Prussia. 
 
 Ministry of W i 1 1 i a m 
 Pitt, the elder. 
 17.37. Victory of Plassey, ic 
 India. 
 
 1759. Naval victories over the 
 Lagros, and off Brest. 
 
 Surat, in India, taken 
 from the Dutcli. 
 
 1760.— G eorge HI.^— 
 
 1761. Earl of Bute, premier. 
 
 1762. War with Spain. 
 Conquest of Havana, 
 
 Trinidad, and Manilla. 
 
 1763. Peace of Parii 
 
 1765. Bengal ceded to the Ca.s« 
 India Company ly iui 
 treaty of A!laha!'2,..l, ' 
 
1718-1815.J 
 
 TK13 WORLDS PROGRESS. 
 
 1 o* 
 
 France, 
 
 1744 
 
 1745 
 1746 
 
 1 747 
 
 War declared 
 against England 
 and Austria. 
 
 Battle of Fontenoy , 
 allies defeated. 
 
 The French victo- 
 rious by land, 
 but unsuccessful 
 by sea. 
 
 War with Holland. 
 
 Spain 
 
 AND 
 
 PORTtr- 
 
 GAL. 
 
 GER3IANY. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1745. Charles dies at 
 Munich. 
 
 House of 
 Lorraine: 
 
 — F r a n c i s I . ^^ 
 husband of Maria 
 Theresa. 
 
 C h a p e 1 ] e 
 quests. 
 
 daries of Nova Sco- 
 tia. 
 
 j;53 Influence of Ma- 
 dame de Pompa- 
 dour. 
 
 War." 
 
 Capture of Minor- 
 ca from the Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 1757 Invasion of Hano- 
 ver. 
 
 1758 Defeat at Crefeldt. 
 on the Rhine. 
 
 French ofT Cape 
 Attempt to invade 
 Ireland. 
 
 1760 Loss of all Canada. 
 
 1761 The Bourbon Fa- 
 mily Compact. 
 
 Siege and capture 
 of Belleisle, by 
 the English. 
 
 between France, 
 Spain and Eng- 
 , land. 
 1764 Expulsion of the 
 I Jesuits. 
 
 1748 
 pelle; 
 the on 
 
 Peace of Aix la Cha- 
 Spain, and Prussia 
 ly gainers by the 
 
 war. 
 17.%. Seven Years' 
 War of Austria 
 and Prussia. 
 
 Invasion and 
 conquest of Saxo- 
 ny, by Frederic II. 
 Alliance with 
 France. 
 
 1757. Prussians vic- 
 torious at Prague, 
 Rossbach, Lessa, 
 and Breslau. 
 
 The French take 
 Verdun and Bre- 
 men. 
 
 1758. French defeated 
 at Crefeldt, 
 
 1759. and at Minden 
 Victory at Max- 
 en over the Prus- 
 sians. — Dresden re- 
 taken. 
 
 176U. Great victory 
 at Torgan, by Fre- 
 deiic. 
 
 l762.Prus!iians victo- 
 rious at Freiburg. 
 
 1763. Peace of Hu- 
 bertstrug. 
 
 1765. Joseph II. 
 
 1740. Prussia :— F rbderic II .^^ 
 (the Great.) Prussia increases in ii» 
 portance. — War with Austria. 
 
 Russia : — Ivan V. 
 
 1741. Sv/eden : — War wiih Russia. 
 Swedes driven out of Finland, 
 
 Russia :— Elizabeth. ^J 
 
 1743. — Peace of Abo with S'weden. 
 
 1743. Turkey:— War with Persia. 
 — Defeat near Erivan. 
 
 1744. India:— Hostilities between FrencW 
 and English. 
 
 1744. Italy :— Savoy occupied by French, 
 and Spaniards, who take 
 
 1745. — Parma, Milan, and Placentia. 
 
 — Genoa bombarded by the English. 
 1716. —French and Spaniards driven fro'B 
 Lombardy. 
 
 1746. Denmark: — Frederic V.^J 
 
 1747. Netherlands:— William IV. 
 Persia: — Revolution: Nadir. 
 Shah murdered. 
 
 1751. Holland:— William V. stadthnlder. 
 Denmark: — Mniistry of Count Bera- 
 stortf. 
 
 Sweden : — House of Holstein Got- 
 torp : — 
 
 Adolphus Frederic. ^^ 
 
 1754. Italy : — The Corsicans, under Paoli, 
 revolt against Genoa. 
 
 1754. Turkey :— Othman IIL 
 
 1755. First Prussian embassy to Constan- 
 tinople. 
 
 1756. India:— Calcutta taken by the Na- 
 bob of Bengal. 
 
 1757. Turkey T—Mustapha III. 
 
 1757. Prussia : — Russian invasion. 
 
 1758. — victory of Londorf 
 
 1758. Italy :— Clement XIII., pope. 
 
 17.59. Prus.Ma :— The king defeated a( 
 
 Kunnersdorf. 
 1760. — Battle of Liesnitz.— Berlin taken. 
 India: -Shah Alim II. 
 Siege and capture of Pondicherry, 
 by the English. 
 
 Kingdom of Mysore founded by 
 H y d e r A 1 i . 
 
 1762. Russia: Peter III. 
 
 months). 
 
 C atharine II .^ 
 
 1764. Poland : — Stanislaus Poniatowski. 
 
 1765. India ,— Treaty of Adahabad. 
 —Establishment of a British empire 
 
 1765. Italy :— Peter Leopold, grand duks 
 ol' Tuscany. ^,^ 
 
 1766. Denmark:— Christian VII. ^ 
 
 1766. Power of the Mamelukes in Egyp< 
 
 revived under Rodvan and All Dey. 
 
t38 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 [Peiiod -ST.— 97 years." 
 
 Prosress of Society, etc. 
 
 First ijfinning machine in England. 
 
 Cook's first voyage of discovery. 
 
 Bruce discovers the source of tlie Nile. 
 
 Royal Academy of Arts in England ; Josiiua 
 Reynolds, first president. 
 
 Letters of Junius. 
 
 Whiteneld dies at Newhuryport. 
 
 Captain Cook discovers New California. 
 
 The Spinning- JENNY, invented by Robert 
 Arkwright. 
 
 The Improved Steam Engine, by Watt 
 and Bolton. 
 
 In England. 
 
 Goldsmith, 
 
 Warburton, 
 
 .Tohnsf)n, 
 
 Littleton, 
 
 Lowth, 
 
 Rarrick, 
 
 Hume, 
 
 Robertson, 
 
 Hlackstone. 
 
 Adam Smith, 
 
 Home Tookc. 
 
 Priestley, 
 
 Horsley, 
 
 Burke, 
 
 Pitt, 
 
 Fi)x, 
 
 Cooper, 
 
 Sheridan, 
 
 McPherson, 
 
 Burns. 
 
 Kaimes, 
 
 Held. 
 
 France. 
 Voltaire, 
 Rousseau, 
 Diderot, 
 Condi I lac, 
 Jussien, 
 Lavoisier, 
 -La Harpe, 
 Uarthf le ny, 
 BufTo , 
 
 Ger. Mosh- 
 
 eim, 
 Zimmerman, 
 Kant, 
 
 Klopstock, 
 Lessing, 
 Wieland, 
 Herder, 
 Goethe, 
 Schiller, 
 Sio. Linnaeus, 
 It. Metastasio. 
 Rus. Kheras- 
 
 kov, 
 Kostrov. 
 Deerhavin, 
 Bogdanovich, 
 Khemnitzee. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1768. Boston occupied 
 by the British troops. 
 
 1769. Daniel Boone ex- 
 plores Kentucky. 
 
 1772. Hancock, S. 
 Adams, and P a - 
 trick Henry, 
 promote the revolu- 
 tion. 
 
 1773. Tea 'destroyed at 
 Boston. 
 
 1774. Continental Con- 
 gress at Philadelphia. 
 
 177.5. AMERICAN 
 WAR: 
 
 April 19, Skirmish at 
 Lexington. 
 
 .June 17, Battle of Bun- 
 ker's Hil] 
 
 Prescott, Put- 
 nam , & W a r r e n . 
 WASHINGTON, 
 commander-in-chief. 
 M o n t g o m e r y 
 Montreal, and falls at 
 
 1776, The British troops 
 evacuate Boston. 
 
 Moultrie de 
 Sullivan's Island. 
 
 DECLARA- 
 TION OF IN- 
 DEPENDENCE, 
 .July 4. 
 
 Americans (S u 1 li- 
 van) defeated at 
 Flatbush. Au2. 
 
 Battle of' White 
 Plams. 
 
 Battle of Trenton, 
 Dec. 26-7. 
 1777. Arrival of Lafay- 
 ette. 
 Capture of Ticon 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 1766. American Stamp 
 Act repealed — NeW 
 ministry under ika 
 Earl of C h a t h a nf. . 
 
 1767. First virar witb 
 Hyder Ali in My- 
 sore. 
 
 177G. Lord N o r t h , 
 prime minister. 
 
 1771. The Falkland 
 Islands ceded by 
 Spain to Great Bri- 
 tain. 
 
 1774. The Boston Port 
 Bill passed. 
 
 1774. Warren Hastings, 
 governor general ol 
 India. 
 
 REVOLUTIONARY 
 
 1775. Lord North's 
 " conciliatory mea- 
 sures " rejected by 
 the colonies. 
 
 takes St. Johns and 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 1776. The city of Lon- 
 don remonstrates 
 against 'he American 
 war. 
 
 feats the English at 
 
 The British army 
 takes possession o/ 
 New-York. 
 
 Hessians hired foi' 
 service in America. 
 
 deroga by the Bitthhj 
 July 5. 
 
17J8..1815.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 139 
 
 i.D. 
 
 France. 
 
 1768 
 
 1769 
 770 
 
 1773 
 
 1774 
 
 1776 
 
 Genoa ce>les Corsica to France. 
 
 Ministry of Due d'Aiquillon. 
 
 Mai'riage of the dauphin with 
 Marie Antoinette. 
 
 Madame du Barri rules the 
 king. 
 
 L u i s XVI .^ 
 
 Marie Antoinette, queen :— 
 Maurepas, prim^ muiiKter. 
 
 N e c k e r , comptroller-gene- 
 ral 1. 
 Franklin in Paris. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1772. Joseph 
 II. with the 
 Emperors of 
 Russia and 
 Prussia, dis- 
 member Po- 
 land, divid- 
 ing it be 
 tween them- 
 selves. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 Discipline of the Ottoman troops im 
 pi'oved by Baron de Tott. 
 
 1767. Spain : — .Jesuits expelled. 
 
 India:— Hyder Ali resists the Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 1768. War between Russia and the Ottomaii 
 Empire. 
 
 1769. Pope Clement XIV. 
 
 The Russian army occupies WiJachia 
 and Moldavia. 
 
 1771. Sweden :—Gustavus lll-^S 
 
 1772. First PartitionofPolau'i. 
 
 1773. Ottoman Empire :— The Russians cross- 
 ing the Danube, are repulsed by Ghazi 
 Hassan. 
 
 Pope Clement abolishes the order o/ 
 Jesuits. 
 
 1774. India — Warren Hastings, first British 
 governor-general. 
 
 Russia": — Revolt of the Cossack Pugat- 
 scheff, calling himself Czar Peter. 
 
 Ottoman Empire :— Abdul Hamid.^g — 
 
 1775. Pope Pius VI. 
 
 Spain :— Abie ministry of Florida Blan- 
 ca. 
 
 1776. Bassora surrendered to the Persians. 
 
 East Indies :— Lord Pigot, governor-ge- 
 neral, imprisoned by his own council. 
 
 1777. Portugal :— Maria, qreeft. 
 
no 
 
 THE WOE-LD'S progress. 
 
 [Period JC. — 97 years.—' 
 
 A.D. i PUOGIIESS OF SOCIETY, etC. 
 
 I73i 
 
 178;^ 
 1783 
 
 178i 
 
 1785 
 
 J78() 
 
 1787 
 
 IlerscheVs discovery of the 
 Georgium Sidus. 
 
 Prussic acid obtained in a se- 
 parate state, by Scheele. 
 
 Air balloon of Montguluer. 
 
 First American vessel in 
 
 China. 
 Institution for the deaf and 
 
 dumb at Paris, by the Abbe 
 
 de i'Epee. 
 Sunday schools established in 
 
 England, by Robert Raikes. 
 Ilerscliel's Telescopes. 
 
 Stenography, by Taylor. 
 
 Panoramas in London. 
 First spinjiiiig machine in 
 France. 
 
 Talma,, Ihe celet rated trage- 
 dian. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Battles of Bennington, 
 1 1, and Su 11 water. 
 
 Philadelphia taken by 
 
 lis. Battle of German 
 
 ceives B u r g o y n e ' s 
 Articles of confederation, 
 adopted Nov. 1.5. 
 
 1778. Alliance with France. 
 Batile of Monmouth, 
 
 Washington victorious, June 
 23. 
 
 Arrival of the French 
 floet under D'Estaing. 
 Massacre of Wyoming. 
 Savannah taken by the 
 English. 
 
 1779. Wayne recovers 
 Stoney Point. 
 
 Paul .Jones's Victory off 
 
 1780. Battle near Camden : 
 D e K a 1 b killed. 
 
 Treason of Arnold. 
 
 1781. Battle of Cowpens, gain- 
 ed by Morgan. 
 
 Surrender of Co 
 t o w n , Oct. 17. 
 
 Aug. 16; Brandy wine, Sept. 
 
 the English, under Cornwal 
 town, Oct. 4. — G a t e s re- 
 surrender, Oct. 17. 
 
 1778. Capture of PondicheiTjr, 
 in hidia. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 1780. War with Hyder Ah in 
 India. 
 
 War with Holland. 
 
 rnwallis at York- 
 
 1781. Victory off the Doggei- 
 bank. 
 
 1782. Treaty with Holland, by 
 J. Adams, .Jay, Frank 
 1 i n , and Laurens. 
 
 1783. PEACE OF VERSA ILLES : 
 
 INDEPENDENCE of the UNITED STATES ac 
 
 knowledged by Great Bd- 
 
 tam. 
 1784. New- York Chamber 
 Commerce founded. 
 
 c< 
 
 1785. John A d a m s , 1st 
 States of America to Great 
 Britain. " 
 
 1786. Siiay's insurrection in 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 1787. General Convention at 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Federal Con- 
 stitution of the 
 United States, adopted. 
 178S. Cotton planted in Geor- 
 gia. 
 178.). George Wash- 
 ington, tirst Presi- 
 dent : 
 
 Jefferson, Ha- 
 milton, K n o X , II a n - 
 d I p h , and Jay, (brm 
 the cabinet. 
 
 1791. First United States Bank. 
 
 1792. Kentucky ad-aitted 
 to the ITnioQ. 
 
 Un ted Stales Mm' esta- 
 blirhe ;. 
 
 1784. Pitt, the younger, 
 premier. 
 
 Peace with Tippoo Saib. 
 
 aribrtssador from the United 
 1735. Pitt's Sinking Fund. 
 
 1788. The k'.ng insane. — Deatn 
 of Charles Edward, the last 
 pretenict. 
 
 Trial of Warren Hast- 
 ings. 
 
 1792. Provision fat the f : xtlya. 
 abolition of the '3i»T % f* '* 
 
 1 
 
1718-1815.J 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 lU 
 
 1778 
 
 France. 
 
 A'liance wit!' America. 
 
 1779 Sclieme to invade England 
 from Normandy. 
 
 1781 Rocharabeau sent to 
 aid the Americans. 
 
 1781 
 178-2 
 
 1783 
 
 Necker resigns. 
 
 Defeat of De Grasse in the 
 West Indies, by Rodney. 
 
 Peace 
 
 lea. 
 
 of V e r s a i 1 
 
 1787 
 
 I73'j 
 
 179. 
 
 17?2 
 
 La Perouse's voyage of disco- 
 very. 
 
 Financial difficulties — New 
 taxation : Colonne, Bnenne, 
 and Necker, ministers suc- 
 cessively. 
 
 FRENCH REVOLUTION 
 
 begins. — Bastile taken and 
 razed, July 14. — Lafay- 
 ette, commander of the 
 national guards. — M i r a 
 beau, leading orator. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1778. War of the Bavarian 
 succession. — Bavaria seized 
 by Germany. 
 
 1779. Congress and Peace of 
 Teschen. 
 
 1782. Punishment of death 
 abolished. 
 
 The Pope visits the em- 
 peror, to dissuade him from 
 hostilities asainst the church. 
 
 1785. 2,000 religious houses 
 suppressed by the emperor. 
 
 1788. The emperor attempts 
 to control the Universities. 
 
 1790. Leopold II .^— 
 Congress of Reichenbach. 
 
 1791. Conference of Pilnitz. 
 
 Flight of the king to Varen- 
 nes. — Lafayette resigns. 
 
 1792.— Francis 11.^— 
 War with Germany : — The French take Spires, Mentz, 
 
 and Longwy — Lafay&tte im- 
 France declared a prLsoned at Olmutz. 
 
 republic. 
 Girondists and 3Ionntainists. 
 
 1780. Declaration of the annea 
 neutrality — to protect neu- 
 tral flags from the riglit ol 
 search claimed by Britain. 
 
 1782. Italy : — Pontine maiihea 
 drained. 
 
 India:— Rise of Sindia — 
 Tippoo, Sultan. 
 
 1783. — alliance with tbo 
 French. 
 
 1786. Prussia — Frederic W>I- 
 liam II. 
 
 1787. Russia:— War wi'h the 
 Porte. 
 
 1788. Spain :— Charles IV. 
 
 1789. Ottoman Empire, -Se- 
 lim II. 
 
 1790. Tuscany: — Fer4iaand 
 III. 
 
 1792. Sweden:— Gustav'is IV 
 
142 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 [PcriGd X. — 97 years..—' 
 
 A 0. 
 
 Progress of Sooietv, etc. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1793. Washington re-elected. 
 Neutrality in regard to 
 France. 
 
 
 Tom Paine, 
 
 Alferi, Italian 
 
 
 
 Fislier Ames. 
 
 poet. 
 
 1 
 1791. Co7nmercial treaty with 
 
 
 HannahMore, 
 
 Gluck, 
 
 Commencement 
 
 
 Gainsboro\ 
 
 Haydn, 
 
 of the n av y—0 fri- 
 
 
 Moreland. 
 
 Mozart, 
 Albrechtsber- 
 
 gates built. 
 
 
 BognslaiDski, 
 
 ffen, 
 
 
 
 Krasiki, Pu- [Beethoven. 
 
 
 
 lish poets, i 
 
 1796. Washington resigns. 
 
 
 1797. .John Adams, 2d 
 
 
 
 president. 
 
 
 
 Difficulties with France. 
 
 
 
 1798. Regular army organized, 
 
 
 
 Washington commander-in- 
 
 
 
 chief. 
 
 1799 
 
 Pestalozzi, system of elemen- 
 
 1799. Death of Washington. 
 
 
 tary education. 
 
 Tennessee becomes 
 
 
 Mango Park's travels in 
 
 a State. 
 
 
 Africa, published. 
 
 1800. Seat of government 
 translerred to Washington, 
 
 
 
 
 Iron railways in England. 
 
 D 0. 
 
 1301 
 
 1801. Thomas .Jeffer- 
 
 
 Polytechnic school in Paris. 
 
 son, 3d President. 
 
 Exports of United States, 
 
 1JG2 
 
 First book-fair in New- York. 
 
 $9.3,GU0,U00. 
 1802. Ohio joins the Union ; 
 it has 76,000 inhabitants. 
 
 1303. Purchase of Louisi- 
 ana, for $15,000,000. 
 
 U. States frigate Philadel- 
 phia, taken by the Tripoli- 
 tans. 
 
 <9t)4 
 
 First Locomotive Steam En- 
 
 1804:. Decatur recaptures 
 
 
 gine used on the Merthyn 
 
 the Philadelphia. 
 
 
 I'ydvil road in Wales. 
 
 Preble bombards Tri- 
 poli. 
 
 Burr kills Hamilton. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1805. Jefferson re-elected Pre- 
 
 
 
 sident : G e r g e Clin- 
 
 
 
 ton, of New- York, Vice- 
 
 
 
 
 President. 
 
 Grhat Britain. 
 
 1793. First coalition against 
 France, directed by Eng- 
 land — all Europe, except 
 Sweden. Denmark, and Tur- 
 key. 
 
 Biitish army defeated 
 near Dunkirk. 
 
 1795. War with Holland. 
 
 1793. Second coalition agam.st 
 France. — Irish rebellion. — 
 Nelson's victory at 
 the Battle of the 
 Nile. 
 
 Wilberforce's motion to 
 abolish the slave trade, lost, 
 87 to 83. 
 
 1800. Union 
 land and 
 — Malta taken. 
 
 of E n g " 
 Ireland, 
 
 1801. Battle of Alexandria.— 
 Pitt resigns, succeeiied by 
 Addington. 
 
 1802. Peace of Amiens. 
 
 1803. Successful war in ludia. 
 
 1804. Pitt again premier. 
 
 1805. Nelson defeats the 
 French and Spanish fleet* 
 off Trafalgar. 
 
1718-1815.] 
 
 THE world's PROGRES 
 
 14; 
 
 V.U.I 
 
 France. 
 
 1793 The king and queen beheaded. 
 Rei^n of Terror. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1793. Firsi Coalition 
 against France. 
 
 Marat assassinated by Char- 
 lotte Coruay. 
 
 Victories of P i c h e g r u and J o u r d a n —the allies 
 every where driven back. 
 
 Revolmion of the yth Thermi- 
 dor. 
 
 Robespiere guillotined. 
 
 NAPOLEON BONA- 
 PARTE, commander of 
 the army ; quells an insur- 
 recti. 'n in Paris. 
 
 War in Italy. 
 Battle of Lodi. 
 
 Bonaparte's AustrianCampaig n— H o c h e 
 
 and M r e a u ' s cele- 
 brated passage of the Rhine. 
 
 Peace of Carapo Formio. 
 
 Bonaparte's expedition to 
 Egypt is defeated by Nelson 
 at Aboukir, Aug. 1. 
 
 The French enter Switzerland 
 under B e r n a d o 1 1 e and 
 .Jourdan. — Return of Bona- 
 parte. — R evolution of 
 the 18th B r u m a i r e 
 — B onaparte, first 
 consul. 
 
 Battle of Marengo. 
 
 1798. Second Coalition against 
 France. 
 
 -M r e a u ' s victory 
 H h 6 n 1 i n d e n . 
 
 of 
 
 Peace of Lunevile. 
 
 Bonaparte elected preside».t of 
 
 the Italian republic. 
 Peace of Amiens. 
 Legion of Honor instituted. 
 
 War with Er^'and. 
 Bank of France. 
 
 DukcD'Enghien shot. 
 
 Bonaparte crowned as NA- 
 POLEON L, Emperor of 
 the French. 
 
 Marshals Soult, Murat, 
 N e y , &c. 
 
 Austrian Campaign, 
 
 Peace of 
 Napoleon Protector of the 
 
 1804. The emperor of Ger- 
 many assumes the title of 
 emperor of AUSTRIA. 
 
 Batttle of Auster- 
 1 i I z . 
 
 Presburg. 
 
 Confederation of the Rhine. 
 
 The World, clsev/hcve. 
 
 1793. Second Partition of Po- 
 land by Russia and Prussia. 
 
 H a y t i independent ie- 
 public, under T o u s s a i u t 
 L'Ouverture. 
 
 1794. Poland :— Revolt at Cra- 
 cow. — K osciusko, ge- 
 neral-in-chief—Russians de- 
 feated at Warsaw. 
 
 1795. Final partition 
 of Poland — extinction 
 of the kingdom. 
 
 Batavian Republic :— Shi- 
 melpennink. 
 
 1796. Russia :— Paul I. 
 
 1797. Switzerland :— General 
 Revolution — The French 
 invade Berne — Helvetian 
 Republic. 
 
 Prussia : — Frederic Wil- 
 liam III.^ 
 
 1798. India :— Marquis Welles- 
 ley, governoi'-generaJ. 
 
 1799. Russians, under S u - 
 w a r r o w , defeated neaij 
 Milan. 
 
 1800. Armed neutrality of tha 
 north. 
 
 Pope Pius VII. 
 Ionian Republic founded. 
 
 1801. Russia: Alexander. ^^ 
 
 1802. Italian Republic— Bona- 
 parte president. 
 
 1803. India :— Great Maiiratta 
 War. 
 
 1804. Russia: 
 sia. 
 
 -WirwithPw 
 
144 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Feriod X. — 97 i/dirs.- 
 
 Pr.oGiiEss OF Society, etc. 
 
 Planet Juno discovered. 
 Lewis 4* Clark's expedition 
 to the Rockij Mountains. 
 
 Fulton's first 
 ful trial o; 
 boats. 
 
 SUCCESS- 
 
 Steam- 
 
 General Unirersity established 
 by Napoleon, to superintend 
 national educatioa. 
 
 Lithography inventod. 
 
 In England : 
 Flax-man^ 
 Westmacott, 
 Chantrey. 
 sculptors. 
 
 I Frar.ce : 
 
 'La Grange, 
 
 \ Mange, 
 
 iHauy, 
 
 iBiot, 
 
 \B. St. Pierre, 
 
 1 poet. 
 
 First steamboat built in Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 American Board of Com- 
 missioners for Foreign Mis- 
 sions, founded. 
 
 1614 Steam carriages in England. 
 Gas used for ligtuing the 
 streets of London. 
 
 Safety lamp invented by Sir 
 Humphrey Davy. 
 
 In England : 
 
 H. K. V/hite, 
 Keats, 
 Reg. Heber, 
 
 Shelley, 
 
 Crabbe, 
 
 Sir W. Scott, 
 
 Byron, 
 
 Coleridge, 
 
 Lamb, 
 
 Montgomery, 
 
 Ucgg. 
 
 France : 
 Mad. de Stael, 
 Mad. deGenlis, 
 Chateaubriand 
 (Juvier. 
 
 Melendez Val- 
 dez, Spanish 
 poet. 
 
 Bilderdyk, 
 Dutch. 
 
 German : 
 W, Schlegel, 
 F Sclilegel, 
 Richier, 
 Koizebue : 
 Weber and 
 Spohr, musi- 
 cal compo- 
 sers. 
 
 Russia : 
 Karamsin, 
 Somorokor, 
 Dmitriev, 
 Krilov. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1807. Embargo on all the 
 ports of the United States. 
 
 Trial of Aaron Burr for 
 treason. 
 
 Slave trade abolished. 
 
 1809. James Madison, 
 4th President. 
 
 Embargo repealed ; the 
 non-intercourse act passed. 
 
 181 1. Engagement between 
 the ' President ' and the 
 ' Little Belt.' 
 
 Indians on the Wabash, 
 defeated by Gov. Harrison. 
 Population of the United 
 States, 7,239,903. 
 
 Gueat Britain. 
 
 1806. Fourth Coaliiion agaiasi 
 France. 
 
 1807. Bill for the a.jolition of 
 
 the blave trade, passed. 
 
 1808. The English, under 
 W e 1 1 e s le y , enter Spain 
 as allies. 
 
 1809. Fifth Coalition. 
 
 Walcheren expedition. 
 
 1810. War with Sweden. 
 
 1811 George, Prince of Wales, 
 Prince Regent, (the king be- 
 ing insane). 
 
 Population of Great Bri- 
 tain, 12,552,144. 
 
 1812. 
 
 War with Great Britain. 
 
 Invasion of Canada under Gen. Hull. 
 
 Gen. Hull surrenders Detroit to the British. 
 The Constitution captures the Guer 
 r i e r e : 
 
 (First check of Briti.sh 
 naval supremacy.) 
 
 Lord 
 premier. 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Wool victorious at Queenstown, Oct. 12. 
 Captain Jones, in the Wasp, captures the Frol 
 Oct. 18. 
 
 The -'United States," 
 
 The Constitution, Captain 
 
 Louisiana admitted into 
 the Union. 
 
 1813. P e r r y ' s victory 
 on Lake Erie. 
 
 Battle of the Thames : 
 Tecumseh killed. 
 
 1814. City of Washington 
 burnt by tlie Bi''*'sh. 
 
 Captain Decatur, captures the 
 British frigate Macedonian. 
 
 Bainbridge. captures the Bri 
 tisii frigate Java. 
 
 1813. Sixth Coalition against 
 Fj'ance — Prussia, Russia, 
 Sweden, Great Britain, and 
 Au^itria. 
 
 1814. Treaty of ChaumorJ be- 
 tween Austria, Prussia, Rus- 
 sia, and Great Britain. 
 
 Peace of Ghent, signed Dec. 3. 
 
 1815. Battle of New-Orleans ; 
 British defeated by General 
 Jackson, Jan. 8. 
 
 War against Algiers de- 
 clared. 
 
 1815. Candy and Almora cap- 
 tured. 
 
 Wellington vie 
 torious at Waterloo. June 18 
 
/718-1815.J 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 145^ 
 
 France. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Victcry of Jena over the Prussians. 
 Berlin decree. 
 
 War with Russia. 
 
 Battle ofFnedland.— P e a c e 
 of Tilsit. 
 
 Invasion of Portu- 
 gal. 
 
 French Id Spain defeated at 
 Vienna, by Sir Arthur Wel- 
 lesley. 
 
 attle of Wagram- 
 
 Napoleon marries Maria Lou- 
 ise. — (Continental peace ex- 
 cept with Spain. 
 
 Birth of the emperor's son; 
 created king of Rome. 
 
 Soult victorious in Spain — 
 takes Badajos ; is defeated 
 by the English at Albuesa. 
 
 Russian Campaign. 
 
 Battles of Smolensko and Bo- 
 rodino, 
 
 Moscow entered by Napoleon's 
 army — and bun ?d by the 
 Russians. 
 
 Peace of Vienna. 
 
 M e 1 1 e r n i c h , minis- 
 ter. 
 
 Victories of L u t z e n , 
 Bautzen, and Dres- 
 den, over the allies. 
 
 Battle of Leipsic — 
 
 The allies enter Paris. 
 
 Napoleon abdicates, 
 and retires to Elba. 
 
 House of Bourl)on 
 restored: 
 
 Louis XVIII. . 
 
 Bonaparte returns from Elba. 
 
 The hundred days. 
 
 Napoleon victorious at Lisny. 
 
 BATTLE OF WATERLOO. 
 
 The allies enter Paris. 
 
 llonaparte banish- 
 ed to St Helena. 
 
 1812. Austria in alliance with 
 France against Russia. 
 
 1813. War of German inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 Austria joins the Coali- 
 tion. 
 
 Bonaparte driven to the 
 Rhine, loses his whole army. 
 
 1815. German League. 
 
 Congress of Vien- 
 na. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1806. Holland .-—Louis Napo- 
 
 leon, king. 
 Prussia at war wiih Frane« 
 
 in allidi^ce v/iih Russ-ia. 
 18U7. Ottoman Empire :— Mu* 
 
 tapha IV. 
 
 1808. Spain :— Ferdinand VII. 
 
 " Joseph Napoleon. 
 
 Naples:— Mu rat. 
 
 Denmark :— Frederic VI. 
 
 Ottoman Empire : — Mah- 
 
 moud II. 
 
 809. Sweden : — Charles XIU. 
 
 1810. South America:— VE- 
 NEZUELA declared inde- 
 pendent. 
 
 1811. NEW GRENADA de- 
 clared independent. 
 
 iS12. Invasion of Russia 
 by Napoleon.— BURNING 
 OF MOSCOW. 
 
 K u t o s o f f pursues 
 the retreating French. 
 
 Poland :— Diet ol" War- 
 saw: the Poles declared a 
 nation by Napoleou. 
 
 1813. South America:— Bo 
 1 i V a r drives the Span 
 iards from Garaccas 
 
 1814. Union of Holland anJ 
 Belgium. — Peace of Kiel 
 Sweden, and Ensland. 
 
 Union of Sweden and 
 Norway as two kingdoms 
 under one monarch. 
 
 1815. Netherlands ;— William 
 
 The "Holy t 
 I i a n c e ' '- -Russia, T th» 
 eia. and Austria. 
 
I4G' 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 PERIOD XI.- -50 yean. 
 
 1815 
 
 1816 
 1317 
 
 1818 
 
 1819 
 
 1821 
 1822 
 
 1323 
 1824 
 l82o 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 New corn law in England. 
 
 Polytechnic institution at Vi- 
 enna. 
 
 Man u fact oiirs introduced into 
 Poland. 
 
 The lair.ily of Rothschilds 
 conies into notice at Frank- 
 fort. 
 
 Abolition of the slave trade by 
 the congress of Vienna. 
 
 Second United States Bank 
 ehanered for 20 years, capi- 
 tal ^.5,UO0,UO0. 
 
 Public schools established 
 
 throughout Russia. 
 Belzoni penetrates the second 
 
 pyramid of Gheza. 
 
 Abolition of predial bondage 
 in Bavana and Wirtemberg. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1816. United States Bank in- 
 corporated. 
 
 Indiana admitted. 
 
 1817. .lames Monroe, 
 5th President. 
 
 Mississippi ad- 
 mitted. 
 
 1818. Illinois admitted. 
 War with the Seminoles. 
 
 First passage of the Atlantic by steam, hy the Sav'annah- 
 
 New-York to Liverpool. 
 
 Rise of mechanic institutions 
 in England. 
 
 Hieroglyphics deciphered : — 
 ChampoUion. — Sir William 
 Herschel died. 
 
 Huskisson's free trade system 
 
 in England. 
 First manufactory in Egypt, 
 
 established by Mehemet All. 
 
 Inland navigation of the 
 United States : the great 
 Erie Canal opened. 
 
 Mail-posts in Prussia. — 
 
 Steam navigation on the 
 
 Rhine. 
 General financial panic in 
 
 England. 
 Vast increase of periodical 
 literature in England, France, 
 
 Germany, America, &c. 
 
 iSiit' Alexander Volta dies, disco- 
 '■ Tcrer of the Voltaic battery. 
 
 1820. Maine admitted. 
 
 1821. Monroe re-elected. 
 Missouri admitted. 
 Slavery compromise. 
 
 1824. Lafa.yette's visit. 
 Erie canal opened. 
 Protective tariff. 
 
 1825. J. Q. Adams, 6th 
 President. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1816. Bombardment of A Igiera. 
 — The Dey compelled to 
 make peace and abolish 
 slavery. 
 
 1317. Lord Exmouth's expe- 
 dition to Algiers 
 
 1820.- -3eorge I V . W— 
 
 182.3. Canning ministry. 
 The Ashantees in Afiic« 
 defeated. 
 
 1825. Commercial treaty with 
 Prussia. 
 
 1827. Treaty of London tar 
 favor of Greece. 
 
 1828. Wellington ministry 
 Disturbances in ireUDd 
 
THE world's progress 
 
 14" 
 
 18.15-1865 
 
 lag 
 
 1821 
 
 1S24 
 
 France. 
 
 Congress of Aix la Chapelle. 
 — France joins ihe " Holy 
 Alliance." 
 
 Death of Napoleon at St. He- 
 lena. 
 
 Austria, &c. 
 
 -Charles X 
 
 tB2i 
 
 Fleet sent to Algiers. 
 
 1821. Congress of monarchs 
 at Lay bach. — Insurrection 
 in Moklavia and Wallachia. 
 — Alexander Ypsilanti de- 
 feated and carried prisoner 
 to Austria. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1816. Portuga, ^JohnVI.^ 
 in Brazi. 
 
 Union of Naples and 
 Sicily. 
 
 1817. Republic of the Ionian 
 Islands. 
 
 India : — The cholera com- 
 mences its ra vases. 
 
 1818. Sweden :— Charles XIV, 
 (Bernadotle.) 
 
 India:— The Mahrafta 
 power completely over- 
 thrown, arid the British suc- 
 ceeds. 
 
 1819. South America: — Re- 
 public of COLOMBIA:— 
 Bolivar, President. 
 
 1821 Hayti :— B oyer, em- 
 peror. 
 
 South America:— PERU 
 and GUATEIMALA inde- 
 pendent. 
 1822. BRAZIL declared inde. 
 pendent. 
 
 Mexico: — Iturbide, em- 
 peror. 
 
 Greek Revolu- 
 tion. 
 
 Declaration of Indepen- 
 dence. 
 
 Massacre of Scio. 
 182.3. Italy :— I-eo XII., pope, 
 1824. Death of Lord Byron at 
 
 Missolonghi. 
 182.5. Russia : — N i c h o 1 a >? 
 
 182G. —War with Persia. 
 
 Greece : — Mis.=olonglii 
 taken by the Turks. 
 
 1827. Treaty between Russj 
 and the Porte respectir.^ 
 Greece. 
 
 Greece : — B a 1 1 1 e of 
 N a V a r i n o . 
 
 Portugal :— Maria de Glo- 
 ria, queen. ^^ 
 
 — Rebellion in favor of 
 Don Miguel as regent. 
 
 1828. War between Russia 
 and the Porte. 
 
THE world's progress 
 
 [Period XI. — 50 ytais.-^ 
 
 la England : France : 
 
 Jeremy Ben- 
 
 tlUDIi. 
 
 Thomas Chal- 
 mers, 
 
 Thomas Dick, 
 
 W. Kirby, 
 
 Halluin, 
 
 Lingarrl, 
 
 Wordsworth, 
 
 Southey, 
 
 Campbell, 
 
 Moore, 
 
 Leigh Hunt, 
 
 Mrs. Hemans, 
 
 Bulicer, 
 
 '■ Barry Corn- 
 wail." 
 
 Russia : 
 Karamsin, 
 Somorukoo, 
 Dmietriev, 
 Krilov. 
 
 U. 1 
 A''. Webster, 
 Irving, 
 Gu/iper, 
 Flint, 
 Wirt, 
 Marshall, 
 
 Cuvier, 
 Talma, trag 
 
 ciian, 
 S'egur, 
 La Place, 
 Beranger, 
 Lamartine. 
 
 Germany ; 
 
 Spohr, 
 
 Mayerbeer, 
 
 Kotzebue., 
 
 Gall, 
 
 Sparzheim. 
 
 Sweden : 
 Tegnsr, 
 Dahlyren. 
 
 Italy : 
 Rossini, 
 Paganini. 
 
 ?. A. 
 
 Wheaton, 
 
 Kent, 
 
 Story, 
 
 Gallatin, 
 
 Livingston, 
 
 Channing. 
 
 1836 
 
 Liverpool and Manchester 
 Railroad opened. 
 
 The two Landers succeed in 
 tracing tlie Niger from Lake 
 Tchad to the ocean. 
 
 The lirst newspaper in Con- 
 stantinople. — The Factory 
 Bill in England, limiting the 
 hours ol labor for children. 
 
 Reform Bill in England : — 
 f.vtension of Suffrage. 
 
 Trade unions in England, 
 France, Germany, Switzer- 
 land, &c. 
 
 Girard College, at Philadel- 
 phia, and the University ol 
 New-York, commenced. 
 
 De To crjuevi lie's History of 
 Democracy in America. 
 
 Inquisition abolished in 
 Spain. 
 
 Slavery abolished in the 
 British colonies. 
 
 Boston and Lowell Railroad 
 completed. 
 
 James Smithson, of London, 
 bequeaihes £100,000 to the 
 United States lor the esta- 
 blishment of an Inetitutio7i 
 '•'■for the increase and diffu- 
 sion of knowledge among 
 men." 
 
 The. Luxor obelisk erected at 
 Paris. 
 
 1829. General Jack- 
 son, 7th President of the 
 United States. 
 
 1830. Treaty between the 
 United States and the Porte. 
 
 1827. Treaty of Londou ua 
 favor of Greece. 
 
 1828. The Wellington minis- 
 try. — Disturbances in Ire- 
 land. 
 
 1829. Catholic emancipation. 
 Capiain Ross' voyage to 
 di.scover a North West pas- 
 sage. 
 
 1831. The king of the Nether 
 North Eastern Boundary, be 
 
 1832. War with the Winneba- 
 goes and other Indian tribes. 
 —Cholera in New- York. — 
 Nullification in South Caro- 
 lina. — General Jackson's ce- 
 lebrateil proclamation. 
 
 1833. General Jackson re-elect- 
 ed to the Presidency. 
 
 Removal of the Depo- 
 sites of the United States 
 from the U. S Bank. 
 
 1834. The President censured 
 by the Senate for removing 
 the Deposites. 
 
 1835. Great Fire in New- York. 
 
 1836. The national debt of the 
 United States being paid, the 
 surplus revenue is divided 
 among the States. 
 
 Treaty with Morocco. 
 
 1837. The independence of 
 Texas acknowledged. 
 
 Martin Van Buren, 
 8dr President. 
 
 1830. —William I V,^ 
 Earl Grey, minister. 
 Difficulties with China. 
 
 1831. Lord John R u s - 
 s e I ' s Reform Bill intro- 
 duced. 
 
 Cholera first appears in 
 England. 
 
 lands makes his award on the 
 tween the United States and 
 the British provinces. 
 
 1832. Reform Bill passed. 
 
 1833. Captain Ross returna 
 Irom his voyage of disco- 
 very. 
 
 1834. Sir Robert Peel, 
 Premier. — Difficulties in 
 Canada. 
 
 1837. 
 
 -V i 3 1 r i a 
 
1815-1865.J 
 
 THE WORLD S PllOGllESS. 
 
 149' 
 
 France. 
 
 1S27 
 
 A Freach fleet cent to Algiers. 
 
 1829 Algiers taken. 
 
 \830 
 
 1832 
 
 It«5 
 
 I83!j 
 
 Iliree Days' Revo- 
 lution, J uly 27, 28, and 
 29. 
 
 Lalkyelte, commander of ihe 
 National Guard. 
 
 Cl'.arles X abdicates. 
 
 — L ouis Philippe I. 
 
 (House of OrIeans.)^§ 
 
 Ministry of Marshal S o u 1 1 . 
 
 Death oi Lafayette. 
 
 Insurrection attempted by 
 Louis Napoleon at Stras- 
 t/urg. 
 
 Austria, &c. 
 
 1833. The Em- 
 peror of Rus- 
 sia visits the 
 Emperor of 
 Austria. 
 
 Fe rd i 
 
 nan d l.^m 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 f829. Italy :— IMus VIIL, pope. 
 
 Algiers taken by the French. 
 
 VENEZUELA independent, General 
 P a e z , President. 
 
 1S30. BELGIUM revolts from Holland, and 
 is declared independent in August. 
 
 1830. Polish struggle for nation- 
 ality, begins November 19. 
 
 Brazil : — Revolution ; Don Pedro 11.^^ 
 
 !831. Belgium :—L e p o 1 d I .^§ ■ 
 
 The Poles victorious at Prayo. 
 lialy:— Gregory XVI., pope. 
 Poland:^ Warsaw capitulates to Rus- 
 sia. 
 
 1832. The kingdom of GREECE founded : 
 
 O t h o I .^ 
 
 Poland. — The Insurrection crushed; 
 5000 families sent to Siberia. 
 
 — University of Warsaw abolished. 
 
 1833. Spain :— Isabella.^ 
 
 — Don Carlos claims the throne. 
 Portugal : — A constiintional monarchy. 
 Egypt ".—Mehenjet Ali acknowledged by 
 the Sill tan. 
 
 Mexico : — Santa Anna, President. 
 
 1834. Quadruple alliance— England, France, 
 Spain, ami Portugal, against Don Miguel 
 and Don Carlos. 
 
 18:35. The Plague in Egypt. 
 
 1836 Spain :— The Queen Regent adopts tha 
 constitution. 
 
 Texas :— Battle of San Jacinto, Sant« 
 Anna taken prisoner. 
 
 China:— A decree to expel all Britisii 
 and other barbarian merchants. 
 
150^ 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Poiod Jl7.— 50 ycars.^ 
 
 h..D. Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 1337 
 
 1935 
 
 1840 
 
 iS12 
 
 1844 
 
 1Mb 
 
 ld45 
 1816 
 
 S- F. B. MoasE takes 
 out a patent for his IClec- 
 t r o - m a g n e t i c Tele- 
 graph, (invented 1832 ) 
 
 Suspension of specie payments 
 by the Banks in the 'United 
 States, in May. 
 
 The Daguerreotype 
 
 invented in Paris. 
 Improvement of the condition 
 
 of the Jews in Russia. 
 An Antarctic Continent disco 
 
 Fenny postage system in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Persecution of the Jews at 
 Damascus. 
 
 Wheatstone^s Electric Tele- 
 graph patented in England. 
 
 The Crct in Aqueduct in New- 
 York completed. 
 
 Bain'fi electro-magnetic Tele- 
 grajjh patented in London. 
 
 Anti-rentism '* o.oached in 
 the State of New-Yurk. 
 
 A great defecii'm from tlie Ro- 
 mish cliurch. under the 
 preaching o( Rouge, in Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Lord Rosse's Telescope. 
 
 Gutta Percha in use. 
 
 Conipletion of the Thames 
 Tunnel. March 2.5. 
 
 The Planet Nej>tune, pre- 
 dicted by Le Verrier, dis- 
 covered by Dr. Galle, of 
 Berlin, Sept. 23. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1838. The Exploring 
 tion sails. 
 
 Expedi- 
 
 183y. Disturbances on the 
 " disputed territory," be- 
 tween Maine and New- 
 Brunswick. 
 
 vered by the United States 
 Exploring Expedition. 
 
 1841. W. H. Harrison, 
 9th President. 
 
 He dies April 4, just one 
 month after his inaugura- 
 tion. 
 
 John Tyler, sue. 
 ceedshim, as 10th President. 
 
 Congress meets in extra 
 session, May 31. 
 
 Sub-Treasury Act re- 
 pealed, Aug. 9. 
 
 Bankrupt Act passed, 
 August 18. 
 
 1842. The Dorr Insurrection 
 in lyhode Island. 
 
 Treaty between the Uni 
 
 Great Buita.n. 
 
 1839. The British take poaaa* 
 sion of Ghuzne. 
 
 1840. The uniform Pennif 
 Postage system csta. lisheu 
 
 Marriage f Queen Vic- 
 toria to Prince Albert ol 
 Saxe Cobourg. 
 
 War with Chi; a, to en- 
 force the opium trade. 
 
 War in Syria: — Great 
 Britain taking part with 
 Austria and Turkey. Lord 
 P a 1 m e r s t o n ' s foreign 
 policy excites the ill-will of 
 France. 
 
 1841. The war with China 
 ended : $6,000,000 received 
 as a ransom for Canton 
 
 1844. Texas annexed to 
 the United States. 
 
 Anti-rent riots in New- 
 York. 
 
 1845. Treaty with China. 
 James K. Polk, 
 
 llth President. 
 
 1846. War with M e x i - 
 c : 
 
 Hostilities commence on 
 the Rio Grande, April 24. 
 
 Brittle of Palo Alto, 
 May 8. 
 
 Battle of Resaca de la 
 Palma, May 9. 
 
 ted States and England, settling 
 the north-eastern boundary. 
 
 Treaty of peace 
 China. 
 
 with 
 
 1843. Great "Repeal" 
 agitation in Ireland. 
 
 The Bri'ishgain posses- 
 sion of Scinde. 
 
 1844. Daniel O'Connell's trial 
 and in prisonment — the sen- 
 tence reversed by the House 
 of Lords. 
 
 1845. Sir John Franklin sail* 
 in search of the noith wea! 
 passage . 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 151^ 
 
 1838 
 
 IS40 
 
 i8i2 
 
 um 
 
 lete 
 
 France. 
 
 Talleyrand dies. 
 Difficulty with Mexico : cap- 
 tare ol Sail Juan d'Uiloa. 
 
 FTince Louis Napoleon at- 
 tempts a hostile descent on 
 the coast of France, near 
 Boulogne — is taken prisoner, 
 and imprisoned at Ham. 
 
 G u i z e t., minister for fo- 
 reiga affairs. 
 
 The remains of Napoleon 
 removed from St. Helena, 
 and deposited with great 
 honors at the Livalides, in 
 Paris. 
 
 The duke of Orleans, heir to 
 the throne, killed by a fall 
 from his carriage. 
 
 The Duke de Nemours a|> 
 poiate<i Regent, in the event 
 of the king's death. 
 
 Louis Napoleon escapes ft 3m 
 Him, May 26. 
 
 Austria, &c. 
 
 1838. New 
 Treaty of 
 commerce 
 with Eng- 
 land, July 3. 
 
 Ferdinand 
 crowned at 
 Milan, Sep- 
 tember 6. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1838. Mexico :— The Castle of San Juan 
 d'Uiloa taken by the French. 
 
 1839. Peace between France and Mexico. 
 China :— The Opium trade forbidden. 
 Turkey at war with Egvot. 
 
 India :— Ghuznetakeaby tie British. 
 
 1840. China : — Canton blockaded by the Eng- 
 lish, to compel the renewal of the opium 
 trade. 
 
 Holland :— William I. abdicates : 
 
 William H.^ 
 
 Syria: — St. Jean d'Aere taker, by the 
 English, Austrians, and Turks 
 
 1841. China :—CanlGin capitulates, $6,000,003 
 paid in one week, as a ransom for the city. 
 
 Mexico : — Santa Anna enters the capi- 
 tal, and places himself at the head of iha 
 govei'nment. 
 
 1842. India : — Insurrectioa la Affghanistaii. 
 
 1843 Temporaiy surrender of the Sa ndwich 
 Islands to Great Britain, compelled by Lord 
 Geo. Paulet. 
 
 Greece : — King Otho compelled to ac- 
 cept a constitution, Sept. 15. 
 
 The Society Islands seized by a French 
 squa(h-on — r?sioi-ed by the govprnment. 
 
 India: — Scinde annexed to the Britiab 
 empire, 
 1846. Poland :— A powerful, but unsuccessful 
 insurrection at Cracow, Feb. 23. 
 
 Rome :— Pius IX., pope ; elected Juiie l& 
 
 Poland : — Cracow deprived of its in<I©- 
 
 pendence, Ncv. 16. 
 
152* 
 
 TUS WOn,LD's PROGRESS 
 
 [Period XI. — 50 ijr.ai-<.— 
 
 pjioouiiss OF Society, etc. 
 
 The cultivatioi of the Tea 
 commenced by J. Smith, 
 
 Suspenaivn Bridge at Nia- 
 gara Falls, opened July 29. 
 
 United States. 
 
 IS4G. The Oregon Trea 
 iliiig tlie North- Western Bo 
 
 Commodore Sloat takes 
 possession of California. 
 Julys. 
 
 New Tariff bill passed, 
 establishing ad vatorem du- 
 ties. 
 
 Battle of Monterey, Sep- 
 tember 2.3. 
 
 Tampico occupied, No- 
 vember 14. 
 
 1847. Battle of Buena Vista. 
 Feb. 22. 
 
 Battle of Sacramento, 
 Feb. 26. 
 
 Vera Cruz surrenders, 
 March 29. 
 
 Battle of Cerro Gordo, 
 April 18. 
 
 Battle of Contreras, Au- 
 gust 20. 
 
 Armistice, Aug. 24. 
 Hostilities renewed, Sep- 
 tember 7. 
 
 Battle of Molino del Rey, 
 Sept. 8. I 
 
 Battle of Chepultepec, 
 Sep, 12. 
 
 Mexico surren- 
 ders, Sept. 14. 
 
 1848. Treaty of Peace with 
 Mexico, signed at Guada- 
 loupe Hidalgo, Feb. 22. 
 
 plant in the United States, 
 near Greenfield, South Caro- 
 lina. } 
 Postal convention betw 
 
 First deposit of Califor- 
 nia gold in the mint, Dec. 8. 
 
 Great Buitain. 
 
 t y with Great Britain, .set 
 undary, signed at London, 
 June 18. 
 
 1847. Severe famine in Ire- 
 land. Large suppliiti o{ 
 food sent from the United 
 States. 
 
 The Bogue forts in China 
 taken and destroyed, April 
 26. 
 
 Emigration from Europe to America during hia year, 
 
 3oo,oyo. 
 
 1818. Civil war in Ireland. 
 
 John Mitchell, tried and 
 condemned to transporta- 
 tion, May 26. 
 
 een the United States and 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Habeas Corpus Act sua 
 pended in Ireland, July 25, 
 
 Smith O'Brien arrestfd 
 and condemned, Aug. 5. 
 
 Return of Uoas's 6ip« 
 dition. Nov. 
 
1515-1865.] 
 
 THE world's PR0GR,ESS. 
 
 158* 
 
 France. 
 
 Reform Banquets in S'ras- 
 burg, Chartres, &c. 
 
 Michelet's Leclures interrupt- 
 ed by the ministers, Dec. 
 
 Abil-el-Kader captured, Dec. 
 22. 
 
 Debate on tiie Reforrf' iiill, 
 Feb 8. 
 
 Proposed Banquet ai Paris, 
 abandoned, Feb ^L. 
 
 Revolutio> com- 
 menced, Feo. 22. 
 
 Barricades erected, Feb. 23. 
 
 Louis Philippe abdicates and 
 liies, Feb. 24. 
 
 Provisional government esta- 
 blished. 
 
 L a m a r t i n e , Provisional 
 President, Feb. 24. 
 
 French Republic proclaimed, 
 Feb. 26. 
 
 Mealing of the National As- 
 sembly, May 4. 
 
 Bloody Insurrection in Paris, 
 June 23-25. 
 
 Cavaignac, military dictator, 
 June 24. 
 
 Paris in a state of siege. 
 
 New^ Constitution adopted. 
 Nov. 4. 
 
 liOuis Napoleon Bo- 
 naparte, elected Pre- 
 ss U at. Dec. 10. 
 
 Austria, &c. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1847. Austria 1847. Pru.ssia :— Frederic William gran'.a n 
 
 takes posses- constitution, Feb. S. 
 sion of Cra 
 
 cow. Hayti :— Soulouque, President, March 2. 
 
 Algiers — Abd-el-Kadei made a prisoner 
 to France, Dec. 22. 
 
 1848. Sardinia: — Charles Albert protesta 
 against the encroachment of Austria, and calls out an 
 army of 25,O0U men, Jan 10. 
 
 Naples : — Rebellion at Palermn, ..Tan. 12. 
 Sardinia: — Charles Albert proclaims a 
 constitution, Feb. 8. 
 
 Bavaria : — Disturbances on account o/ 
 Lola Monies — the king abdicates in favor of 
 his son, 
 
 -Maximilian II. 
 
 March 22. 
 
 Charles Albert 
 
 The Ban Jella- 
 chich ap- 
 pointed gov- 
 ernor of 
 Hungary, 
 Oct. 3. 
 
 Insurrection at 
 Vienna, Oct. 
 6. 
 
 1848. The Em- 
 pei"or leaves 
 the city. The 
 Hungarian 
 army advan- 
 cfts within 6 
 miles of Vi- 
 enna, Oct. 11. 
 
 Wintliisch- 
 graiz ap- 
 pointed com- 
 mander of 
 tlie imperial 
 army. 
 
 enters Milan, March 23. 
 
 Denmark : — Revolt of Schleswig-Hol- 
 stein, March 26. 
 
 Sicily declared independent, April 3. 
 Holland receives a constituti.'n, April 17. 
 
 Poland :— Unsuccessful revolt at Cra- 
 cow, April 2.5. 
 
 Sicily : — The Duke of Genoa elected 
 king, July 10. 
 
 India : — Insurrection in Ceylon. Aug. 16. 
 
 Armi.'^tice signed between Denmark 
 Prussia and Sweden, Aug. 26. 
 
 India: — The British make an unsuc« 
 cessful attempt on INIoultan. 
 
 Sicily : — Messina bombarded and taken, 
 Sept. 2. 
 
 Hungary :— K o s s u t h appointed Pr& 
 sidentol'the Defence Committee, aa i Dicta 
 tor, Oct. 
 
1:54^ 
 
 THE WORLDS PllOGRESK. 
 
 \ Period JV/. — 50 yean — 
 
 A.D. Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 IS43 A new planet, discovered by 
 GaniKiris, at Napless. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1SJ9. Zachary Taylor, 
 12th President. 
 
 Magnetic Telegraph lines in u.=!e in the United States in 
 
 ISiO, 10,000 miles. 
 
 Tubular Bridge in Anglesea, 
 En^lanil. 
 
 Mag7ietic Clock., invented by 
 Dr. Locke, at Cincinnati. 
 
 Rail Roads 6.000 " 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1849. Moyltan, in India, tak-^a 
 •Jan. 3. 
 
 Emigration from Europe to America, during this year, at 
 
 the rate of 1000 a day. 
 
 Great agiraiion on the Slavery 
 Quesiion in the United 
 States Congress. 
 
 Tile Pekin Monitor, a new 
 paper, printed in China. 
 
 The Sultan of Turkey, grants 
 permission to the Jews to 
 biiild a temple on Mount 
 Ziun. 
 
 A University founded at Syd- 
 ney, New South Wales. 
 
 Deaths in 1850 : 
 
 U. S. A. 1 EUROPE. 
 
 .4. Jiidson, 'Wordsworth, 
 iS M- Fuller, Jeffrey, 
 M L Davis. iNeander, 
 IZschokke, 
 iBerzelias, 
 'Balzac. 
 
 1850. John C. Calhoun died at 
 Washington. 
 
 Attempted invasion of 
 Cuba :— 600 adventurers un- 
 der Lopez, repulsed at Car- 
 denas, May. 
 
 Death of Gen. Taylor, 
 July 9. 
 
 ]\I i 1 1 a r d Fillmore, 
 13th President. 
 
 Call f o r n i a ad- 
 mitted, 31,st State. 
 
 Texas boundary settled, 
 by the payment of 10,000,000 
 dollars to Texas. 
 
 New- Mexico and Utah 
 admitted as Territories. 
 
 Bill for the arrest of 
 fugitive slaves passed by Con- 
 gress. 
 Slave trade in the District of 
 Columbia abolished. 
 
 1850. The war in Lahore firi- 
 ished, and th , PunjauL an- 
 nexed to the British crjwn. 
 
 A British fleet blockades 
 the ports of Greece, to en- 
 force the alleged claia^.s ol 
 British subjects. 
 
 Sir Robert Peel dies 
 July 2. 
 
 Haynau. "the Austriatj 
 butcher," chastised by tha 
 draymen in London, i?«j"t, 
 
1510-18S5.J 
 
 THE world's TROGRESS. 
 
 155* 
 
 France. 
 
 The Emperor 
 issues a pro- 
 clamatioa 
 against the 
 
 city- ™, 
 
 Kossutii with -draws his army from Vienna, Oct. 27. 
 
 Austria, &( 
 
 The World, tlsewhere. 
 
 The Imperial- 
 ists lake pos- 
 session of Vi- 
 entia, Nov. 
 2. 
 
 Ferdinand ab- 
 dicates, Dec. 
 2, 
 
 — Francis 
 
 J os-ep h ^g 
 
 1849. A new 
 Constitution 
 promulgated 
 March 4. 
 
 Brescia taken 
 by Haynau, 
 March 3U. 
 
 Rome :— M a z z i n i ' s proclamaticn, 
 Oct. 29. 
 
 Prus.sia:— The king prorogues the As- 
 sembly, Nov. 9. 
 
 —The Burgher <Juard of S<-lin'>refuse to 
 give up their arms. The city in a state o( 
 s-iege, Nov. 12. 
 
 Rome :— Count K.o.ssi. the Pope's prime- 
 minister, assassinated, Nov. 16. 
 
 India:— Great battle near Ramnuggur, 
 Nov. 22. ^. . 
 
 Rome :— The Pope escapes in disguise, 
 Nov. 24. 
 
 Hungary declared independent, Dec. 
 1849. India :—Moultan taken by the British, 
 Jan 3. „ 
 
 Iialy:— The Grand Duke of Tuscany 
 flies. Provisional Government proclaimed, 
 Feb. 9. 
 
 Rome :— Republic proclaimed, Feb. 9. 
 
 gjciiy ;— A new Constitution conceded 
 by Naples, March 6. 
 
 Sardinia :— Charles Albert defeated by 
 Radetsky, March 21— again totally defeated 
 at Novarra, March 23, he abdicates the 
 throne ia favor of his son, 
 
 -Victor Emanuel. 
 
 I.ouis Philippe dies in Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Iddia :— The Punjaub annexed to tne 
 British Empire, March 29. 
 
 Italy :— Insurrection in Genoa, April 1, 
 
 Russia comes to the aid of Austria against Hungaiy, April 
 2S. 
 
 Rome :— The French armj^ arrives un- 
 der the walls of Rome, April 29. 
 
 Haynau takes command of the Austrian army in Hungary, 
 June. , T , o 
 
 Rome surrenders^to the French, July i. 
 Garibaldi leaves the city, July 3. 
 
 Rome :— The government placed in tna 
 hands of the Pope's commissioners, Aug. 3. 
 
 Gorgey traitor-ously surrenders to the Russians, Aug. 11. 
 Kossuth escapes into Turkey. 
 Venice capitulates to Radetsky, Aug. 22. 
 1850. Rome :— The Pope returns, Ajiril. 
 
 Greece disputes the claims of Grea« 
 Britain for losses of British subjects: is 
 forced to submit. 
 
 China:— The Emperor Tau-Kwang, 
 dies: 
 
 Sze-hing @ s loceeds. 
 
156* 
 
 IHE WORLDS PROGRESS. 
 
 l^Period XL- ^Q years - 
 
 LS50 
 
 Proghess of SocTETr, etc. 
 
 On the subject of tlio Mobbing 
 of Marbha! Ha/nau duri.ig 
 a visit to aLori'lon bTcwery, 
 notes pass between Austria 
 and Great Britain, termi- 
 nating in a threat of retalia- 
 tion on the part of the latter, 
 Sept. — Nov. 
 
 United States. 
 
 A Memorial for the annexa- 
 tion of Canada to the U. S. 
 received in five hours the 
 signatures of 300 merchants, 
 landowners, and profes- 
 sional men, in Montreal, 
 Oct. 10. 
 
 Womaii's Rights Con- 
 vention, held at Worcestei, 
 Mass., Oct. 2S. 
 
 North- West Passage discov- 
 ered by Capt. McOlure (Br. 
 Navy) in the Investigator, 
 Oct. 26. 
 
 The British Consul at Charles- 
 ton calls the attention of 
 the Governor of South Ca- 
 rolina to a law of that State, 
 under which British sea- 
 men (colored) are impris- 
 oned when they enter her 
 ports for trade or in dis- 
 tress, Dec. 
 
 Deaths in 1850 : 
 
 IT. 8, A. 
 
 J. C. Galhoun, Senator, U. S. 
 
 Sam. Miller, I).D. 
 
 Z. Taylor, President, TJ. 8. A. 
 
 1850. Califoenia admitted as 
 a State, Sept. 
 
 Fugitive Slave Bill 
 passed, Sept. 
 
 DisunionMeeUng?, held at 
 Natchez (many present op- 
 posed to disunion); at Yazoo 
 City (resolutions proposed 
 voted down), Oct. 7; at 
 Nashville (this convention 
 passed resolutions recom- 
 mending a congress of 
 slavebolding States), Nov. 
 19. 
 
 Union Meetings held at 
 Mobile, Dayton, and New 
 York, in Oct. ; at ll'hiladel- 
 phia. and Manchester, N. 
 II., in Nov.; and at Bath, 
 Me., in Dec. > 
 
 The Advance and Eescue, 
 American vessels in search 
 of Sir J. Franklin, com- 
 pletely fastened in the ice, 
 Sept. 13. In their northerly 
 irift reach lat. 75° 23', Oct. 1. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Conventions held to 
 amend the Constitutions of 
 theStatesof Indiana (Oct. 7), 
 Virginia (Oct. 14), Maryland 
 (Nov. 4), New Hampshire 
 (Nov. 6). 
 
 Lopez and others tried at 
 New Orleans for engaging 
 in an expedition against 
 Cuba, Dec. 17. 
 
 "Webster replies to Hiilse- 
 mann on the rights rf neu- 
 tral nations, Dec. 21. 
 
 1850. Great excitement and 
 agitation in England resjiect 
 ing a dispute on doctrine be 
 tween the Bislutj) of Ereter 
 and the liev. Dr. Gorham, 
 one of his clergy. The Privy 
 Council's decision in favor 
 of the latter afterwards rati- 
 fied by the Courts. 
 
 Searches for Sir J. Frank- 
 lin — the North Star returns 
 to Spithead unsuccessfnl, 
 Sept. 2S. The Prince Albert 
 arrives at zVberdeen with the 
 intelligence that traces of 
 his party had been found at 
 Cape Eeilly and Beechy 
 Island, at the entrance to 
 Wellington Channel, Oct. 1. 
 
 Appointment by the 
 Pope of several Eoman Ca- 
 tholic bishops and arch- 
 bishops in England, causes 
 great excitement, and an 
 indignant letter from Lord 
 J. Eusscll, the premier, 
 Nov. 
 
 English forces defoateJ 
 by the Caffres in • South 
 Africa, with considerable 
 loss, and obliged to retreat 
 to their fort, Dec. 29, 
 
1815-1865.J 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 157^ 
 
 F«.ANCK. 
 
 1850 President creates his uncle 
 Jerome a Marshal of France, 
 Jan. 1. 
 
 SOO Soldiers drowned at An- 
 glers by fall of a bridge, 
 Apr. 15. 
 
 French Ambassador recalled 
 from London, in conse- 
 quence c f a difficulty con- 
 nected with an English 
 claim on Greece, May 16. 
 
 New Electoral Law, restrict- 
 ing the right of suifragc, 
 passed. May 31. 
 
 Arrangement with England 
 on the Greek dispute, June 
 21. 
 
 Dotation Bill, giving the Pre- 
 sident 2,160,000 francs 
 ($405,000) per annum, 
 passed, Juno 24. 
 
 1S50. Prussia:— The King takes 
 the oath required by the Con- 
 stitution, Feb. 6. Attempt to 
 assassinate bim, May 22. 
 
 Treaty signed at Munich 
 between Austria, Bavaria, Sax- 
 ony, and Wurtemburg. to main- 
 tain the German Union, Feb. 27. 
 
 Wurtemburg denounces the 
 insidious ambition of the King 
 of Prussia, and announces a 
 league between Wurtemburg, 
 Bavaria, and Saxony, under the 
 sanction ot Austria, March 15. 
 
 Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws 
 from the Prussian league, June 
 30. 
 Treaty of Peace between Prussia and Denmark, July 2 
 
 A Congress of Deputies from 
 the States included in the Prus- 
 sian Zollverein opened at Cas- 
 sel, July 12. 
 
 The World, elsewfcere. 
 
 Prussia refuses to join the 
 restricted Diet of Frankfort, 
 Aug. 25. 
 
 Difficulties occurring in 
 Hesse-Cassel, between the Elec- 
 tor and his people, in regard to 
 the mode of taxation, Austria 
 and Prussia respectively send 
 armies to the Electorate, to take 
 opposite parts in the struggle, 
 Sept.— Nov. 
 
 Austrian ultimatum deliv- 
 ered at Berlin, directing that 
 Prussia evacuate Hesse in eight 
 days, dissolve theErfurtLeague, 
 and recognize the Diet, etc., re- 
 plied to by the Prussian King's 
 signing the order calling out the 
 whole military force of the mo- 
 narchy, Nov. '6. 
 
 The Eussian Ambassador at 
 Yienna announces that the Czar 
 " would consider the continu- 
 ance of the Prussian policy in 
 the Electorate as a casus teUi^'' 
 Nov. 11. 
 
 Treaty of Amnesty an- 
 nounced at Berlin. Dec. 3. 
 
 France protests, and Great 
 Britain remonstrates, at Vienna, 
 against the proposed extension 
 of the Germanic Confederation 
 beyond the Alps, Dec. 
 
 1S50. Denmark : Bloody 
 but indecisive battle of 
 Idstedt, between the 
 Danes and Schleswig 
 Holsteiners, July 25 
 
 Yucatan : — Battle, 
 near close of the year, 
 between the Whites 
 and Indians; latter vic- 
 torious; 300 Whites 
 killed. 
 
158* 
 
 THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 
 
 [Period XL — 50 years. — ^ 
 
 Progress of SociETy, 3tc. 
 
 Jas. Richardson, the African 
 traveller, dies at the village 
 of Unqurta, six days distant 
 from Kouka, the capital of 
 Bornou, March 4 
 
 A Company of Gipsies from 
 England arrive in Cecil 
 county, Maryland, U. S., 
 bringing with them all their 
 wandering habits and pecu- 
 liarities, March, 
 
 According to the evidence 
 of Mr. Baines before a Com- 
 mittee of the House of Com- 
 mons, there were in Great 
 Britain 13,193 places of wor 
 ship dissenting from the 
 tenets of the Establislied 
 Church, to which may be 
 added Roman Catholic Cha- 
 pels, 597, minor sects and 
 Jews, 550; total noneou 
 formist cliurches, 14,340. 
 
 Exhibition of the Works 
 of Industry of all Nations 
 inaugurated by Queen Vic- 
 toria, May 1. 
 
 "Wyld's monster globe 
 erected in London ; em- 
 ployed 300 men nearly 31 
 days in fitting up the inte 
 rior. 
 
 Daguerre, the discoverer of 
 the Daguerrean or PJioto- 
 graphio Art, dies, aged 61, 
 July 10. 
 
 The Oath of Abjuration (Jew) 
 Bill passes the British 
 House of Commons, with 
 only verbal protests from 
 the objecting minority, July 
 8; but is refused a second 
 reading in the House of 
 Lords, July 17. 
 
 Unfted States. 
 
 1S51. General Quitman of 
 Mississippi arrested for al- 
 leged violation of the neu- 
 trality lavv of 1818, by set- 
 ting on foot a military ex- 
 pedition against Cuba. He 
 resigns his office of Gover- 
 nor, Feb. 3. 
 
 Erie Canal Enlargement 
 Bill defeated in the N. T. 
 Senate by the withdrawal or 
 resignation of 12 democratic 
 members, Apr. 16 ; but 
 afterwards passed by a new 
 Legislature. 
 
 Minot's Ledge Light- 
 house, Boston Harbor, car- 
 ried away. It was last seen 
 standing about 3 o'clock, 
 P.M., April 16. 
 
 Arrest of a notorious 
 band of desperadoes in Mi- 
 chigan, Apr. 21. 
 
 Initial point of the Boun- 
 dary between the United 
 States and Mexico establish 
 ed on the right bank of the 
 Eio Grande del Norte, in 32 
 22 north latitude, and 2)9.4 
 meters from the center of 
 the bed of the river, by the 
 American and Mexican 
 Commissioners, and a mon- 
 ument erected recording 
 the same, April 24. 
 
 President issues a procla 
 mation, warning all persons 
 within the jurisdiction of 
 the United States not to aid 
 or engage in any exp»edition 
 against the Island of Cuba, 
 Apr. 25. 
 
 Convention of Delegates 
 from the. Southern Eights 
 Associations of South Caro 
 Una meets at Charleston, 
 May 5; and adjourns after 
 resolving that, "with or 
 without cooperation, they 
 are for a dissolution of the 
 Union," May 8. 
 
 Erie railroad opened 
 from New York city to 
 Dunkirk, 469 miles, by 
 Presi<lent Fillmore, Daniel 
 Webster, etc.. May 15. 
 
 Eiot, Avith loss of life, 
 at Hoboken, N. J., between 
 Germans and "short-boy" 
 rowdies from New York, 
 May 26, 
 
 Serious confla;»rations in 
 California. San Francisco 
 alone suffers by them in 
 May and June to t ^le amount 
 of $12,000,000, 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1851. A strong force of Caff res 
 attacks Fort White, Ca[)e of 
 Good Hope— repulsed, loss 
 20 killed. The Caffrc chief, 
 Hermanns, with a body of 
 Caffres and Hottentots, at- 
 tacks Fort Beaufort, but is 
 repulsed, he and his son 
 killed, his band completely 
 routed. 3,000 Caffres attack 
 the Colonists and their allies 
 near Fort Hare ; driven 
 back with the loss of 100 
 killed, Jan. . Col. Somer- 
 set captures and burns Fort 
 Armstrong, 9,) Caffres killed, 
 230 taken prisoners, Feb. 
 23. The Hottentots of the 
 Theopolis Mission Station 
 in Lower Albany, join in 
 the insurrection. May 31, 
 They are defeated in actions 
 witli the English troops on 
 the 3d and 5th of June. 
 
 The Eussell Ministry re- 
 sign, Feb. 22; but after- 
 wards resume office, the 
 Earl of Derby not having 
 succeeded in foi-ming a 
 Cabinet. 
 
 The Prohibited Affinity 
 Marriage Bill lost in the 
 House of Lords, Fob. 25; 
 Lord Campbell and the Ec- 
 clesiastical Bench voting 
 aga,inst it. 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRES.S. 
 
 159* 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1851 
 
 Fkance. 
 
 Ministry lesign, Jan.. 3. 
 
 Presidential Dotation Bill, 
 proposing an additional 
 grant of 1,800,000 francs, 
 rejected in the Assembly, 
 Feb. 18. 
 
 The Sub-Committee of the 
 Assembly appointed by the 
 Committee of Revision to 
 authenticate petitions, re- 
 ports, that up to July 1, the 
 petitions had been signed 
 by 1,123,165 persons, thus 
 classified : For revision. 
 741,011 ; for revision and 
 prolongation of powers, 
 370,511 ; for prolongation of 
 powers, 12,1U3— July 5. 
 
 The question of revision of 
 the Constitution again ta- 
 ken in the Assembly, when 
 a minority was declared 97 
 less than the three-fourths 
 required by the Constitu- 
 tion, July 19. 
 
 AtrsTKiA, etc. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 LS5I. Denmark: — The Government of 
 Schleswig-Holstein yields to the Com 
 missloners of the Germanic Confedera 
 tion, Jan. 10. 
 
 The Austvians complete their mili- 
 tary possession of Hamburg Jan. 31 ; 
 and the new government issues its pro- 
 clamation, declaring its resumption of 
 the seignorial rule of the King of Den- 
 mark, Feb. 2. 
 
 Danish mining operations in Green- 
 land produce large quantities of coi>per 
 ore, yielding about 60 per cent. 
 The Austrian Government and the Ottoman I'orte come to 
 the following settlement respecting the Hungarian Refu- 
 gees: Full and entire amnesty conditioned on their not 
 attempting to enter Hungary. Eight excepted, among 
 them Kossuth and Bathyany, Feb. U. 
 
 Charles L. 
 Brace, an Am 
 erican , arrested 
 andimprisoned 
 in Hungary, on 
 a charge of 
 "beingam.em 
 ber of the de 
 mocratic com 
 mittee, an 
 agent of Uj- 
 hazy and Cretz, 
 and of travel- 
 ing -with revo- 
 lutionary writ- 
 ings, to spread 
 revolutionary 
 movements," 
 May 23. 
 
 Inauguration 
 of Eauch's co- 
 lossal statue of 
 Frederick the 
 Great at Ber 
 lin, May 31. 
 
 The Ger- 
 manic Diet, in 
 answer to Lord 
 Palmerston's 
 protest against 
 annexing the 
 non-Germanic 
 provinces of 
 Austria to the 
 Germanic Fe- 
 deration, says, 
 " That no fo- 
 reign interfe- 
 rence should be 
 allowed in a 
 purely German 
 question."July 
 IT. 
 
 Australia: — Discovery of large gold 
 fields near Bathurst, Feb. 
 
 East Indies :— Fort of the celebrated 
 pirate Sultan of Soloo destroyed by the 
 Spanish Government of Manilla, Feb. 
 28. 
 
 Hawaii : — The difiiculties between 
 the Hawaiian and French Governmeiits 
 are arranged according to the terras of a 
 "mutual declaration," published at Ho- 
 nolulu, signed by the minister of foreign 
 relations and M. Perrin, the French 
 commissioner. March 25. 
 
 New Granada: — Congress adjourns. 
 It pa.ssed a law abolishing slavery in 
 the republic, to take elfect January 1, 
 1852. May 29. 
 
 Italy : — An earthquake destroys Mel 
 fi, a city of 10,000 inhabitants, about 100 
 miles S. E. of Naples; and other towns 
 in its vicinity. Seven shocks occurred 
 within 24 hours. Melfl was sepaiated 
 by a ravine from Mount Volture, ujion 
 which are many extinct craters. Not 
 less than 3,000 persons are said to have 
 perished. July 14. 
 
 Ecuador : — Gen. Diego Novoa, Presi- 
 dent of the Republic, seized and put 
 on board a government vessel by Gen. 
 Urbina. who assumes the admin stra 
 tion of the Government. July 17. 
 
160* 
 
 THE world's progress. IPeriod XI. — '50 i/eafS. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1851 
 
 Pkogress of Society, etc. 
 
 The lord mayor of London, 
 with several of the alder- 
 men and common council 
 men, the royal commission- 
 ers of the Exposition of In- 
 dustry, etc., and the execu- 
 tive committee of the royal 
 commissioners, leave Eng- 
 land for France, by invita- 
 tion of the prefect of the 
 Seine. They are entertained 
 with dinners, balls, sham 
 fights, and reviews of troops 
 1. 
 
 The inauguration of the rail- 
 way between St. Peters- 
 burg and Moscow, in Rus- 
 sia, takes place Sept. 1. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1851. " Yigilance committee " 
 at San Francisco hang a 
 man for stealing, June 10, 
 and anotlier, July 11. 
 
 Gov. McDougal of Cali- 
 fornia issues his proclama- 
 tion, warning the citizens of 
 the State against " vigi- 
 lance committees," and 
 calls upon all persons to aid 
 in sustaining the law, July 
 21. 
 
 Nicaragua route, be- 
 tween New York and San 
 Francisco, opened, Aug. 12. 
 
 The people of Litchfield 
 county, Connecticut, cele- 
 brate the 2l)0th anniversary 
 of its settlement, Aug. 13 
 and 14. 
 
 Great riot in New Or- 
 leans, growing out of the 
 Cuban expedition. Houses 
 of Spanish residents at- 
 tacked. The Spanish con- 
 sul is obliged to ask protec- 
 tion, and is placed in t;he 
 city prison for safety, Aug. 
 21. 
 
 Eiot, with loss of life, at 
 Christiana, Pa., upon an at- 
 tempt to arrest a fugitive 
 slave, Sept. 11. 
 
 U. S. brig Dolphin sails 
 on an expedition to run a 
 line of soundings for tele- 
 graphic purposes across the 
 Atlantic, Oct. 
 
 Cotton-planters' conven- 
 tion (300 . members) meets 
 at Macon, Ga. Its object 
 being to prevent fluctua- 
 tions in the price of cotton. 
 Little harmony of views or 
 concord of action luanifest- 
 ed. Oct. 
 
 U. S. steam frigate Mis- 
 sissippi sent to Turkey for 
 Kossuth, receives him on 
 board in the Dardanelles. 
 The French government re- 
 fuses to allow Kossuth to 
 pass through France. The 
 Mississippi proceeds on her 
 voyage with Kossuth's com- 
 panions, reaching New 
 York Nov. 10. 
 
 Kossuth arrives at New 
 York in December. Ova- 
 tions are offered him in the 
 principal cities of the Union. 
 He has an interview with 
 the President, Sept. to Deo. 
 
 Great Biutain. 
 
 1851. " The great aggregate 
 meeting" of Eoman Catho- 
 lics, from all parts of tlie 
 United Kingdom, for the 
 inauguration of the Catho- 
 lic defense association, is 
 held at Dublin, Aug. 19. 
 
 The American yacht 
 " Amei'ica," at the regatta 
 at Cowes, wins " The cup of 
 all nations," Aug. 22. 
 
 Kossuth arrives by Eng 
 lish steamer from Gibraltar, 
 at Southampton, Eng. Ova- 
 tions are offered him in va. 
 rious parts of the country 
 He leaves for the United 
 States, Nov. 
 
 The submarine tele- 
 graph between Dover and 
 Calais completed, Oct. 17. 
 Opened for public use Nov, 
 13. 
 
 A fourth presidency 
 contemplated for British 
 India, and a proposal made 
 to remove the seat of go- 
 vernment from Calcutta 
 to Lahore, Nov. 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 lor 
 
 Feance. 
 
 Austria, etc. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1851 
 
 Revohttion: L. N. Bonaparte 
 by a covjJ) d'etat seizes the 
 reins of government; dis- 
 solves the national assem- 
 bly; declares a state of 
 siege ; arrests the principal 
 red-republicans and social- 
 ists ; constitutes an entire 
 new ministry. The Presi- 
 dent orders an Instant 
 restoration of universal suf- 
 frage; an immediate elec- 
 tion by people and army of 
 a President to hold office 
 for ten years, to be sup- 
 ported by a Council of State 
 and two houses of Legisla- 
 ture. The revolution" cre- 
 ates an intense excitement. 
 The vote of the army shows 
 a large majority for L. N. 
 Bonaparte. Resistance to 
 the usurpation is shown in 
 various parts of France, but 
 the overwhelming power of 
 the army, and a " state of 
 siege" in 33 departments, 
 crushes all opposition. The 
 election, under various con- 
 trolling influences, results 
 in the confirmation of L. N. 
 Bonaparte as President for 
 ten years, by a vote of about 
 seven out of eight millions. 
 Doc. 1-20. 
 
 1851. Marshal Ra- 
 detzky, by pro- 
 clamation from 
 Monga declares 
 the Lombardo- 
 Yenetian king- 
 dom to be in a 
 state of siege, 
 July 19. 
 
 By cabinet 
 letterSjtlie Em- 
 peror ofAustria 
 declares that 
 his ministers 
 " are responsi- 
 ble to no other 
 political au- 
 thority than 
 the throne," 
 that "the 
 Reichstadtisto 
 be considered 
 as the council 
 of the throne," 
 and the minis- 
 ter president is 
 to take " into 
 ripe and seri- 
 ous considera- 
 tion the possi- 
 bility of carry- 
 ing out the 
 Constitution 
 of March 4, 
 1849." Aug. 20. 
 
 Louis Kos- 
 sutli and 35 of 
 his country- 
 men sentenced 
 to death in 
 contumaciam^ 
 at Pesth, for 
 not appearing 
 after citation, 
 Sept. 22. 
 
 The ques- 
 tion of the ad- 
 mission of 
 Jews to judi- 
 cial office in 
 Prussia, 
 brought to a 
 partial termi- 
 nation by their 
 permission to 
 study law. Oct. 
 
 1S51. Russia: — Her troops rei>eatedly cci 
 feated by the Circassians. June. 
 
 Nicaragua :— Gen. Munoz, ox-minis- 
 ter of war, deposes President Pineda, 
 and sends him and most of his cabinet 
 prisoners to Tigre Islands and elects 
 Albaunaz President. The Senate aeeem- 
 bles at Grenada, and elects Montenegro 
 President. Aug. 4. 
 
 West Indies : — Volcanic erniitions 
 from eight craters in the mountains of 
 Martinique, Aug. 5. 
 
 Cuba: — Expedition against Cuba un- 
 der General Lopez, 500 strong, sails from 
 New Orleans Aug. 3, and Key West 
 10th ; effects a landing at Cubanos, 11th ; 
 is routed on the 20th. Lopez is taken, 
 29th, and publiclj'- garoted, Sep. 1. His 
 followers shot or condemned to ton 
 years' labor in Spain. The funeral obse- 
 quies of the Spaniards and Cubans who 
 fell in the contest with Lopez, are cele- 
 brated with great pomp at the Cathedral 
 in Havana. "$70,000 are subscribed by 
 the inhabitants of Havana, for the bone- 
 fit of their widows and children, Sept. 9 
 
 Mexico : — General Mariana Arista 
 inaugurated President, Jan. 15 ; Canales, 
 Carvajal, and others, issue pronuncia- 
 'mentos against the general govern- 
 ment. Some fighting follows, with 
 varied success, Sept. — Oct. — Nov. 
 
 Greece :— Lord Palmerston's note to 
 the Greek government produces a great 
 sensation at Athens. Nov. 
 
 Chili :— Earthquake at Valparaiso — 
 the most violent since that of 1822, few 
 lives lost, but great destruction of pro- 
 perty, April 2. Insurrection at Santiago, 
 suppressed after two hours' streot-llglit' 
 ing, April 20. Rebels under Cruz de- 
 feated bv Bulnes at Longorailla, De<;. & 
 
102* 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 \ Period XL — 50 year^ 
 
 k.T). 
 
 1851 
 
 t852 
 
 Pkogkess of SociiiTf, etc. 
 
 The town of Lagos, on the 
 coast of Africa, destroyed 
 by an Englisli force, with a 
 loss of thirty killed, and 69 
 wounded, because the na- 
 tive chief refused to sign a 
 treaty for the effectual sup- 
 pression of the slave trade 
 in his dominions. The chief 
 is deposed, and another sub- 
 stituted in his place, Dec. 
 26-27. 
 
 Deaths in 1851. 
 
 U. S. EUKOPK. 
 
 «/". tT. Audu- 
 bon, 
 
 S. OHn, 
 
 J. F. Cooper, 
 
 T. H. Gallau- 
 det, 
 
 S. Q. Morton, 
 
 J. Pye Smith, 
 
 Bexley, 
 
 JoannaBaillie, 
 
 Codrington, 
 
 Shell, 
 
 Lingard, 
 
 Daguerre, 
 
 Soult, 
 
 Oersted, 
 
 Jacobi. 
 
 Immigration into California, 
 U. S., from Asia is so large 
 as to require special Legis- 
 lation—April. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Extensive fires in the Antilles, 
 March 2; California, U. S., 
 June 17 and Nov. 2 (nearly 
 destroying two cities ;) 
 Canada, (at Montreal) July- 
 s' 
 
 1851. Principal room of the 
 library of Congress destroy- 
 ed by fire, together with 
 paintings, statuary, models, 
 and about 35,000 volumes 
 of books, Dec. 24. 
 
 By joint resolution, the 
 Governor of Georgia is 
 authorised and requested to 
 withdraw the block of mar- 
 ble contributed to theWash- 
 ingtdn monument by the 
 resolution of the General 
 Assembly of Febr'y, 1850, 
 with the inscription, " The 
 Constitution as it is ; the 
 Union as it was," and to 
 cause another to be pre- 
 pared of Georgia marble, 
 ■with the State arms thereon, 
 and to be sent to the monu- 
 ment, Dec. 81. 
 
 Immigration, June 1, 
 1850, to^ Dec. 31, 1851, 
 558,000. ' 
 
 1852. Deputations from the 
 various States, in behalf of 
 the Irish exiles, wait upon 
 President Filmore — Jan. 23. 
 
 The Ohio State House 
 entirely consumed by fire, 
 Some of the papers saved, 
 but a large mass of docu- 
 ments destroyed — Feb. 1. 
 
 Seiior Laborde, the 
 Spanish Consul at New 
 Orleans at the time of the 
 Cuban riots, and vrlio fled 
 the city from fear of vio- 
 lence, arrives at New Or- 
 leans, is 'saluted, and re- 
 sumes his duties as consul — 
 Feb. 9. 
 
 Gold Medal presented 
 to Henry Clay by citizens of 
 New York. Feb. 10. 
 
 Memoria»l presented to 
 House of Representatives 
 of California, from 1,218 cit- 
 izens of South Carolina and 
 Florida, asking permission 
 " to colonize a rural district 
 with a population of not 
 less than 2,000 slaves." Feb. 
 10. 
 
 Hamceopathic College 
 at Cleveland, Ohio, mobbed 
 and interior destroyed, in 
 consequence of remains of 
 subjects, taken from the 
 burial-ground, being dis- 
 covered near the College. 
 I Feb. 16. 
 
 Great Bbitaim. 
 
 1852. Lord Granville, by hia 
 note to the American mi- 
 nister, in relation to the 
 firing into the Ajierican 
 steamer Prometheus by the 
 British man-of-war E.\'- 
 press, states to Mr. Law- 
 rence, for the information 
 of his government, that 
 her majesty's government 
 entirely disavow the act, 
 and has no hesitation in 
 offering ample apology for 
 that whicli they consider 
 to have been an infraction 
 of treaty engagements. Jan. 
 10. 
 
 Dr. Eac returns unsuc- 
 cessful from his searcli for 
 Sir John Franklin, down 
 the McKenzie river, and 
 from its mouth eastward, 
 500 miles. He was sent out 
 in the spring of 1851 by tha 
 Hudson's Bay Company. 
 Feb. 
 
18] 5-1865.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 163* 
 
 1851 
 
 Fbanoe. 
 
 1852 
 
 President Bonaparte orders 
 the confiscation of the Or- 
 leans property, Jan. 22, 
 
 AtrsTEiA, etc. 
 
 1852. The Empe- 
 ror of Eussla 
 visits the Em- 
 peror of Aus- 
 tria at Yienna, 
 May 8. 
 
 The "World, elsewhere. 
 
 1851. China: — Imperial court seriously 
 alarmed at the progress of the disturb- 
 
 . ance in the Southern provinces. June. 
 A large portion of the Chinese [>art of 
 Hong-Kong destroyed by fire : ft-orn 470 
 to 500 houses destroyed, including all 
 the printing offices and the finest edi- 
 fices and public buildings. Many lives 
 lost. Dec. 26-28. 
 
 1852. Argentine Confederation :— General 
 Urquiza, Commander of the liberating 
 army, completes the passage of the 
 Parana with 28,000 men, 50,000 horse, 
 and 50 pieces of artillery, and i)repares 
 to approach Buenos Ayres, Jan. 8. Bat- 
 tle of Santos Lugares, (10 miles from 
 Buenos Ayres,) between TJrquiza with 
 30,000 men and 50 cannon, and the troops 
 of Eosas, 25,000 men and 90 cannon ; re- 
 sults in the total defeat of Eosas and his 
 fiight to England. During the night, the 
 city is saved from pillage by detach- 
 ments from the various ships of war of 
 all nations in the harbor, Feb. 3. The 
 allied army enters Buenos Aj'res Feb. 18. 
 
 — Urquiza, Director of the Argentine 
 Confederation, deposed, ^ept. 10. 
 
 — The Chamber of Eepresentatives 
 of Buenos Ayres declares the rivei 
 Parana open to the. navigation of all na- 
 tions, Oct. 13. 
 
 Belgium: — Formation of a new mi- 
 nistry at Brussels, of the moderate party 
 under M. de Brouckere, Nov. 1. The 
 law against the liberty of tlie press is 
 adopted in the Chamber of Eepresenta- 
 tives, Dec. 1. 
 
 Cuba: — The police of Havana disco- 
 ver and capture the press of the paper, 
 " The Voice of the People," with the 
 materials and forms for the fourth num- 
 ber. The proprietors and employes are 
 arrested, Aug. 23. The barque Cornelia, 
 having cleared at Havana, is brought to 
 and boarded at the mouth of the liarbor, 
 and the mail-bags rifled, Sept. 23. A few 
 days after, the IJnited States mail steam- 
 ship Crescent City is refused permission 
 to land her passengers and mails at Ha- 
 vana, and ordered to quit the port — 
 Captain-General Caiiedo objecting to t!ie 
 purser of the vessel, Mr. Smith, alleged 
 to be the reporter of false news to the 
 New York papers. On Oct. 14, the Cres- 
 cent City again enters Havana harbor, 
 with Mr. Srnith as purser. Gov. Canedo 
 refuses to allow passensers or mails to bo 
 landed, and forbids all intercourse be- 
 tween the ship and shore. The Captain 
 protests to the American Consul, and 
 leaves the harbor. 
 
1G4^ 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 [Period XL — 50 \jears.^\ 
 
 A..D. 
 
 1852 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Great floorls in the United 
 States, March, April, Sept., 
 and Dec. ; in England, Nov. 
 and Dec; on the conti- 
 nent of Europe, Sept. 
 
 Telegraphs across the Eng- 
 lisli Cliannel. 
 
 Earthquakes in Cuba August 
 2 and Nov. 26 ; in Manilla 
 and adjacent parts, Sept. 16, 
 Oct. 18; at Acapuico, Dec. 
 4; in the Eastern Archipe- 
 lago, Nov. 27 and Dec. 21. 
 
 At Stafford House, in London, 
 some English ladies, headed 
 by the Duchess of Suther- 
 land, adopt an address to 
 the women of America on 
 the subject of negro slavery. 
 It subsequently receives 
 576,000 signatures. Nov. 
 26. 
 
 Punishment of Death 
 stored in Tuscany. 
 
 Fall in England of the protec- 
 tionist ministry of Lord 
 Derby and Mr. D'Israeli. 
 after an existence of nine 
 months — Dec. 20. 
 
 Deaths in 1852. 
 U. S. Europe. 
 
 n. Glay, 
 8. Nott, 
 M. Stibart, 
 D. Drake, 
 J. II. Paine, 
 II. Oreenough, 
 Amos Law- 
 rence, 
 MUledoler, 
 J. Vanderlyn, 
 D. Webster, 
 J.L, Kingsley, 
 J. P. Norton. 
 
 Thos. Moore, 
 Schwartzen- 
 
 berg, 
 Pradier, 
 "Wellington, 
 Dr. Mantell, 
 D'Orsay, 
 Lee. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Bhitain. 
 
 1852. Southern Rights conven- 
 tion at Montgomery, Ala., 
 passes resolutions against 
 making resistance to the 
 compromise measures an 
 issue of their party, and 
 against intervention, March 
 5. 
 
 Riot during election at 
 St. Louis, April 5. 
 
 First national agricultu- 
 ral convention assembles at 
 AVashington, D. C, consist- 
 ing of 151 members, repre- 
 senting 22 States, and the 
 District of Columbia, orga- 
 nised by the choice of 
 Marshal P. Wilder, of Mass., 
 president. June 24. 
 
 Convention for revising 
 the Constitution of Louisi- 
 ana, July 5. 
 
 Kossuth continues to be 
 feted in different cities, and" 
 finally quits the country 
 under the name of Alexan- 
 der Smith, July 16. ' 
 
 Henry Clay dies, June 
 29. Obsequies celebrated 
 at New York with great 
 pomp and magnificence, 
 July 20. 
 
 Great Britain insists upon the convention of 1818, re- 
 specting North American fisheries, being carried out by 
 the United States, and sends armed vessels to the coast 
 of New Brunswick, etc. The United States government 
 disi)atches the war steamer Mississif)pi, with Commodore 
 Perry on board, to the disputed fishing grounds ; some 
 sixty fishing vessels are boarded, and furnished with in- 
 formation and advice. July — Aug. 
 
 Commodore McCauley, 
 commander of the United 
 States naval forces in the 
 Pacific, by proclamation, 
 withdraws his protection 
 from American vessels pro- 
 ceeding to the Lobos Is- 
 lands for guano, Oct. 18. 
 This difficulty with Peru 
 settled by the withdrawal 
 of American pretensions, 
 Nov. 15. 
 
 1852. Submarine telegraph 
 wires coated with "gutta 
 percha, laid across St 
 George's Channel from Ho- 
 lyhead, a distance of eigiity 
 miles, completing the com- 
 munication between Lon- 
 don and Dublin. June 1. 
 
 Queen Victoria issues 
 her proclamation agairist 
 " Roman Catholic ecclesias- 
 tics' wearing the habit of 
 their order, exercising the 
 rites and ceremonies of tiie 
 Roman Catholic religion in 
 highways and places of 
 public resort." June 15. 
 
 Daniel Webster dies, 
 Oct. 24. Funeral solemni- 
 ties celebrated at Boston 
 with much state, ;^ov. 15. 
 
 The United States de- 
 clines the tri-partite con- 
 vention respecting Cuba 
 proposed by England and 
 France, Dec. 1. 
 
 Immigration, 375,000. 
 
 Duke of Wellington dies, 
 Sept. 14. His funeral obse- 
 quies take place in London 
 with great pomp, Nov. IS. 
 
 Fall of the Protectionist 
 ministry of Lord Derby and 
 Mr. DTsraeli, after an exist- 
 ence of nine months, Dec. 
 20. 
 
 By a decree of the Go- 
 vernor Ueneral of British 
 India, tha province of Pe 
 gu is ann ^i ■^,J to the Eiitisb 
 dominion"-^ Dec, 20. 
 
1315-1865.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 165« 
 
 FSANCE. 
 
 President Bonaparte com- 
 mences his tour through 
 Southern France, Sept. 16. 
 Visits tlie Chateau D'Am- 
 boise, and releases Abd-el- 
 Kader, who had been a 
 prisoner for five years, Oct. 
 10. Eeturns to Paris, ma- 
 king a pompous entry into 
 the city, Oct. 16. 
 
 A decree of the President 
 convokes the Senate for 
 Nov. 4, for tlie purpose of 
 deliberating on the restora- 
 tion of the empire. Oct. 19. 
 
 The Senate decrees the re- 
 establishment of the em 
 pire, subject to the ratifica- 
 tion of tiie people, Nov. 7. 
 The vote is taken through- 
 out France and Algeria. 
 Nov. 21 and 22; result- 
 7,824.189 in favor of reestab 
 lishing the empire, against 
 253,145 negative, and 63,826 
 void ballots. 
 
 The Senate goes in a body to 
 St. Cloud, to announce ofii- 
 cially the result of the elec- 
 tion to Louis Napoleon, and 
 hail him Emperor, Dec. 1. 
 
 At the Hotel de Ville, in Paris, 
 Louis Napoleon is publicly 
 proclaimed Empekok of 
 THE Fkench, under the 
 name of Napoleon III, 
 Dec. 2. 
 
 AireTKiA, etc. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1852. Greece: — Signing of a convention in 
 London by the five powers, England, 
 France, Prussia, Bavaria and Greece, in 
 reference to the affairs of Greece. None 
 but a prince of the Greek religion is 
 hereafter to ascend tlie throne of Greece. 
 Nov. 18. 
 
 Hawaii: — Eruption of Mauna Loo; 
 lasts several weeks. Feb. 
 
 India:— The Burmese evacuate and 
 burn Prome, Sept. 10. The British un- 
 der Godwin take it with a loss of 38 men, 
 Nov. 21. 
 
 Italy : — The Grand Duke of Tuscany, 
 refuses to give audience to an English 
 Protestant deputation in favor of Eosa 
 and Francisco Madiai, Oct. 25. 
 
 — The punishment of death is rees- 
 tablished in Tuscany, for treason, criniea 
 against religion, murder, and robbery 
 with violence, Nov. 10. 
 
 — The Pope addresses a letter to tlie 
 King of Sardinia, strongly adverse to 
 the bill under consideration in the Pied- 
 montese parliament, permitting mar- 
 riages without religious ceremonies; it 
 is consequently withdrawn by the mi- 
 nistry, Dec. 20. 
 
 — At Eome, Bishop Ives, of North 
 Carolina, U. S , formerly an Episcopa- 
 lian, is received into the Catholic 
 Church by the Pope, Dec. 26. 
 
 Liberia :— Preside,nt Eoberts attacks 
 and gains possession of the native chief 
 Boyer's principal town, Jan 15. 
 A treaty of peace between the courts of Vienna and 
 Eome is ratified, stipulating tliat the former shall main- 
 tain in the territories of tlie Pope, 12,000 infantry and 
 1,400 cavalry, for whom $18,000 monthly are to be paid 
 by the Papal government. Nov. 10. 
 
 Mexico: — Carvajal attacks Cainargo 
 and is defeated, Feb. 21. 
 
 The French Coimt Boulban de Ea- 
 ousset, who led an enterprise upon So- 
 nora, is defeated at Hermosillo, and liia 
 expedition com.pletely overthrown, Nov. 
 1. 
 
 Spain: — A priest, aged 63, attacks 
 with a dagger, and wounds the Queen 
 of Spain, on'her return from celebrating 
 at the cathedral a Te Beum for the 
 birth of her child, Feb. 2. He is tried, 
 convicted, degraded from his priestly 
 office, and suffers death from the garote, 
 7th. 
 
 — Ninety-five Americans belonging 
 to the Lopez expedition, who had been 
 sent to Spain, arrive at New York, 
 March 13, having been liberated by the 
 Queen. 
 
 — The Cortes dissolved by royal de- 
 cree, for having elected De la Rosa, thfl 
 anti-ministerial candidate, their presi* 
 dent, Dec. 2. 
 
 1852. The Empe- 
 ror of Austria 
 visits the King 
 of Prussia at 
 Berlin, Dec. 17, 
 
 Prussia : — 
 The bill for bi- 
 ennial parlia- 
 ments becomes 
 a law, Dec. 2-3. 
 
166* 
 
 THE world's progress. \_Period XL — 50 yea vs. 
 
 ]'jioGRESS OF Society, etc. 
 
 Firmans accorded to all sub- 
 jects of the Porte (not Mus- 
 sulmans) confirming their 
 religious rights, June 22. 
 
 United States. 
 
 The first Norwegian railway 
 opeaed July 4. 
 
 The American expedition un- 
 der Com. Perry arrives at 
 Japan, July 8. On the 14th 
 he lands and delivers to the 
 Imperial commissioners the 
 letter from the American 
 President ; a few days after 
 leaves the island, to return 
 in the spring. 
 
 Over C0,000 pilgrims enter 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, to visit the 
 exhibition of the relics, Ju- 
 ly 17. 
 
 Gkea-t Britain. 
 
 1853. Caloric ship Ericsson 
 makes her trial trip to the 
 Potomac, Jan. 11. 
 
 Adverse decision of Na- 
 poleon, arbiter between the 
 United States and Portugal, 
 in case of the General Arm- 
 strong, read at Washington, 
 Jan. 17. 
 
 Franklin Pierce and 
 William E. King declared 
 duly elected President and 
 Vice-President for four 
 years from 4th March next, 
 Feb. 9. 
 
 W. E. King sworn in -as 
 Yice- President, at Cumbre, 
 Island of Cuba, Consul 
 Sharkey administering the 
 oath, March 24. 
 
 Second American Arctic 
 expedition' leaves New 
 York, May 31. 
 
 Important amendments 
 to the city charter of New 
 York, restraining the power 
 of municipal oflicers in 
 money matters, adopted by 
 a vote of 86,672 in favor, 
 3,351 against, June 7. 
 
 Crystal Palace at New 
 York opened in presence of 
 the President of the United 
 States, etc., July 14. 
 
 1853. Mr. Ingersol, American 
 envoy, feted at Liverpool 
 and Manchester, Jan. 4-T. 
 
 Sandilli and other Caffre 
 chiefs send in their submis- 
 sion to General Cathcart, 
 thereby closing tlie war, 
 Feb. 10. Peace concluded, 
 March 9. 
 
 Doncaster chiirch, built 
 in 1070, destroyed by fire, 
 Feb. 28. 
 
 Warlike stores, supposed 
 to be for Kossuth, seized, 
 April 14. 
 
 Mrs. H. B. Stowe, au- 
 thoress of " Uncle Tom's 
 Cabin," received at Staftord 
 House by many of the no- 
 bility and statesmen ol 
 England, May 7. 
 
 Dublin Industrial Exhi 
 bition opened. May 12. 
 
 The "strike" at Stock- 
 port ceases, and 20,000 men 
 resume labor, having ac- 
 complished their object, an 
 advance of ten per cent, in 
 their wages, August S. Si- 
 milar strikes occur at Leeds, 
 Kidderminster, and otliei 
 cities. 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 1G7^ 
 
 ▲.D. 
 
 1858 
 
 Feance. 
 
 The Pantheon at Paris re- 
 ofened as the Church of 
 St. Genevieve, Jan. 3. 
 
 Russia, Austria, and Prussia, 
 at last acknowledge Napo- 
 leon III. Emperor of the 
 French, Jan. 11. 
 
 Marriage of the Emperor and 
 Eugenie de Montijo, Count- 
 ess de Teba, celebrated at 
 Cathedral of Notre Dame, 
 Paris. Amnesty ^'anted 
 to 4,312 political prisoners 
 and exiles, Jan. 30. 
 
 •General St. Priest, and many 
 other legitimists, secretly 
 arrested in Paris, on the 
 charge of political commu- 
 nication with the Count of 
 Chambord, and some of 
 having sent false intelli- 
 gence to foreign journals, 
 Feb. 5. 
 
 Application is made by the 
 French government to the 
 English for Napoleon's 
 will, Feb. 17. Subsequent- 
 ly gi'anted. 
 
 Funeral of Mme. Easpail at 
 Paris, the occasion of a 
 formidable socialist demon- 
 stration. 40,000 persons 
 march in procession to Pere 
 la Chaise, March 13. 
 
 Fleet sent to Turkish waters, 
 March 20. 
 
 A peace address, signed by 
 4,000 English merchants, 
 bankers and traders, is pre- 
 sented to Napoleon III. at 
 the Tuilleries, by English- 
 men, March 28. 
 
 A bill restoring capital pun- 
 ishment for attempts on the 
 life of the Emperor, or to 
 subvert the Imperial go- 
 vernment, is passed, May 
 28. 
 
 AusTEiA, etc. 
 
 1853. Austria of- 
 fers herself as 
 a mediator be- 
 tween the 
 Turks and 
 Montenegrins, 
 Feb. 1. 
 
 Attempt on 
 the life of Em- 
 peror of Aus- 
 tria at the ram- 
 parts of Vien- 
 na, Feb. IS. 
 
 Baden: — 
 Prof. Gervinus 
 tried for high 
 treason,in pub- 
 lishing his "In- 
 troduction to 
 the History of 
 19th century." 
 Sentence, ten 
 months' im- 
 prisonment, 
 and book to be 
 destroyed, 
 March 5. 
 
 Prussia : — 
 Democratic 
 conspiracy dis- 
 covered at Ber- 
 lin, March 29. 
 
 Austria re- 
 cals her mi/iis- 
 tcr from Berne, 
 May 20. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1852. Switzerland : — The Canton cf Ticino 
 suppresses the order of Capuchin monks, 
 and expels all of that order under 65 
 years of age, Nov. 25. 
 
 Turkey : — War breaks out between 
 the Turks and Montenegrins, Dec. J 5. 
 
 1853. Belgium: — A maritime congress as- 
 sembles at Brussels, Aug. 23. 
 
 — Marriage of the Duke of Brabant, 
 heir-apparent of the throne, and the 
 Arch-Duchess Maria, Aug. 23. 
 
 Canada and New Brunswick : — Ga- 
 vazzi lectures at Quebec and Montreal ; 
 riots ensue; military called out; June 
 6-9. 
 
 — The first sod of the European and 
 North American Railroad turned at St. 
 Johns, by Lady Head, assisted by the 
 Lieutenant-Governor, in presence of 
 25,000 persons, Sept. 14. 
 
 China : — Nankin taken by the rebels ; 
 Tartar garrison (20,000) massacred: 
 March 19. Amoy captured, May 19. 
 
 Denmark:— Parliament prorogued, 
 and a " fundamental" law issued, by 
 which the government becomes hereaf- 
 ter an absolute one, July 19. 
 
 Hawaii: — Small-i)ox rages, having 
 carried ofi" since May 1,805 out of a po- 
 pulation of 60,000 persons, Aug. 31. 
 
 Holland : — The first chamber adopts 
 the much-disputed law on religious li- 
 berty, Sept. S. 
 
 India: — Battle of Donabew, in Bur- 
 mah : Sir J. Cheape defeats Mea Toon, 
 March 19. 
 
 Italy : — An insurrection breaks out 
 at Milan, but is vigorously suppressed 
 by Eadetsky, Feb. "6. Tlie property of 
 the Lombardo- Venetian refugees seques- 
 tered till they can prove tliey are not 
 implicated in this outbreak, and 10,000 
 Ticinese expelled from Austrian Italy, 
 Feb. 26. Protracted diplomatic contro- 
 versies between Austria and botli Sar- 
 dinia and Switzerland, follow — Sardinia 
 solemnly protesting. April 16. 
 
 — The Pope prohibits the circulation 
 of "Uncle Tom's Cabin" in his domini- 
 ons. May 10. 
 
 Guerazzi tried at Florence for high 
 treason, and found guilty, June 11. 
 
 — Conspiracy in Rome, 146 arrests, 
 Aug. 15. 
 
 — Order signed for immediate release 
 of Miss Cunnmgham at Lucca, Oct. 9. 
 
 — New cliurch, built for the Wal- 
 denses, opened and consecrated at Turin, 
 Dec. 15. 
 
 Mexico : — New revolution ; Arista 
 resigns the presidency, Jan^ 5. 
 
 — Santa Anna having been elected 
 President, is received in Mexico with 
 great enthusiasm, April IT. 
 
108* 
 
 THE world's progress. [Period XL— 50 years.- 
 
 IS58 
 
 A great national horse-sliow 
 at Springfield, Mass., U. S., 
 Oct 19-21.. 
 
 The first Presbyterian Chinese 
 church organized at San 
 Francisco, U. 8., Nov. 6. 
 
 Duel between Soule and 
 De Turgot, American and 
 French ministers to Spain, 
 Dec. 18. 
 
 Cholera prevails in Europe. 
 
 Several new asteroids discov- 
 ered, raising the number to 
 27, between the planets 
 Mars a. id Jupiter. 
 
 Deaths in 1853 : 
 
 U. S. EUEOPB. 
 
 0. B. Adams, 
 
 Juniwi Smith. 
 W. B. King, 
 B. Bates, 
 Sim. OreeTir 
 leaf. 
 
 Arago, 
 Von Buch, 
 D acres, 
 Mrs. Opie, 
 
 "Wardlaw. 
 
 1853. Great heat throughout 
 the country — thermometer 
 every wliere 1(W Fah. 
 Deaths from it in New 
 York city in four days, 400, 
 Aug. 11-14. 
 
 Eemaining portion of 
 "Table Rock," at the Falls 
 of Niagara, breaks off, Sept 
 9. 
 
 "Great Republic," ves- 
 sel of 4,000 tuns, largest 
 merchantman in the world, 
 launched at East Boston, 
 Mass., Oct 4. 
 
 Captain Gunnison and 
 party massacred by the 
 Indians in Utah, Oct. 26. 
 
 Inauguration of the 
 Washington aqueduct. 
 President Pierce turns the 
 first tuif, Nov. 9. 
 
 A mob of men and wo 
 men demolish the railroad 
 track near Erie, Penn., Dec 
 9, and repeat the outrage. 
 Dec. 27. 
 
 Yellow fever epidemic 
 in the States bordering on 
 Gulf of Mexico, carries off 
 from 12,000 to 15,000 per 
 sons. 
 
 Bedini, the Papal Nun- 
 cio, tries to influence the 
 Roman Catholic laity to give 
 up their church property to 
 the Bishops, but does not 
 succeed. He quits the 
 country ignominiously. 
 
 Immigration, 368,000. 
 
 1853. Naval Review at Spit- 
 head, in presence of the 
 Queen, Aug. 11. 
 
 Queen Victoria visits 
 Ireland, Aug. 29. 
 
 Deputation from tho 
 Protestant Alliance, iieaded 
 by the Earl of Shaftesbury, 
 waits upon Lord Clarendon, 
 to state the case of Miss 
 Cunningham, arrested at 
 Lucca for distributing Ita- 
 lian Bibles, etc., and to 
 urge the government to 
 procure her immediate li- 
 beration, Sept 28. A depu- 
 tation of clergymen and 
 others, headed by Sir Cul- 
 ling Eardley, wait upon 
 Lord Clarendon and thank 
 him and the government 
 for the exertions which had 
 been made, Oct. 27. 
 
 Bronze statue of Sir Ro- 
 bert Peel erected in front 
 of the Royal Infirmary at 
 Manchester, Oct. 3. 
 
 Captain Inglefield, of tlio 
 Phoenix, arrives from the 
 Arctic regions, with the 
 news of the discovery of 
 the North-west Passage, on 
 Oct 26, 1850, by Captain 
 McClure of the Investiga- 
 tor, Oct. 7. 
 
 The first stone of a Ro- 
 man Catholic cathedral 
 laid at Shrewsbury, by 
 Bishop Brown— the young 
 Earl of Shrewsbury giving 
 £15,000 towards its erection 
 —Dec. 12. 
 
 The Dublin Exhibition 
 building is formally opened 
 as a winter garden, by the 
 Lord Lieutenant and the 
 Countess St Germaini^ 
 Dec. 15. 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 169* 
 
 1853 
 
 France. 
 
 Plot to assassinate the Empe- 
 ror, wbile on his way to the 
 Opera Comique, discovered 
 at Paris, J uly 7. 
 
 A Roman circus of great size 
 discovered at Tours, Aug. 
 81. 
 
 The Duke de Nemours, on 
 behalf of the entire Orleans 
 House, eflfects a reconcilia- 
 tion with the Count de 
 Cbambord, Nov. 17. 
 
 Inauguration of the statue of 
 Marshal Ney, on the spot 
 where he was shot, and the 
 anaiversary of his execu- 
 tion, Dec. 7. 
 
 Austria, etc. 
 
 TnE WoELD, elsewhere. 
 
 1S53. Persia: — Earthquakes destroy Slii- 
 raz, (12,(100 lives lost,) May 9 ; and Tehe- 
 ran, July 11. 
 
 Peru : — Difficulty at Chincha Islands 
 between Peruvian commandant and 
 American shipmasters, Aug. 17. 
 
 Portugal : — Maria (Queen) dies, Nov. 
 
 1S53, AnAustrian 
 war vessel in 
 the port of 
 Smyrna, seizes 
 and attempts 
 to carry off 
 Martin Koszta, 
 a Hungarian 
 refugee, travel- 
 ing under an 
 American pass- 
 port, who 
 claims protec- 
 tion of Ameri- 
 can flag. An 
 American fri- 
 gate' places the 
 Austrian un- 
 der her guns, 
 and Koszta's 
 release is impe- 
 ratively de- 
 manded, June 
 21. 
 
 Austrian go- 
 vernment pro 
 tests against 
 proceedings of 
 Captain Ingra- 
 ham at Smyr- 
 na, in a circu 
 lar addressed 
 to the Europe- 
 an courts, Aug. 
 1, and through 
 Its envoy ad- 
 dresses a note 
 to the Ameri- 
 can govern- 
 ment on the 
 same subject, 
 Aug. 29. ■ 
 
 Eastern Affairs. — "War betwekn Turkey and 
 RirssiA. — Prince Menschikoff sent by the Emperor of Eus- 
 sia with demands which are rejected by the Porte, May '21, 
 June 15. The Russians cross the Pruth, 120,000 /strong, 
 June 21-28. — The Porte addresses a protest to tlio Rus.sian 
 cabinet against the occupation of the Principalities, July 
 14. The Conference of Vienna draw up the celebrated 
 " Yienna note," for the joint acceptance of Russia and 
 Turkey, July 26. Russia at once accepts; Turkey re- 
 quires modifications, Aug. 20; which Russia will not ac- 
 cede to, Sept. 14. Military congress at 01m utz, Sept. 20. 
 The note is dropped, Sept. 30. Turkey declares war 
 against Russia, Oct. 3. Hostilities commenced on the 
 Danube, Oct. 30. Turks capture Fort St. Nicholas in tlie 
 Black Sea, Oct. 31. Turks defeat Russians at Oltenitza, 
 Nov. 4. Russia declares war against Turkey, Nov. 11. 
 The Anglo-French fleet enters the Dardanelles, Oct. 4, 
 and the'Bosphorus, Nov. 16. Turks beaten and massa- 
 cred at Sinope by Russians, Nov. 30. The Vienna Con- 
 ference continues its efforts to effect an arrangement be- 
 tween the belligerents, Dec. Decided manifestation of 
 tlie people of Constantinople in fevor of war, Dec. 21. 
 Russians uniformly victorious in As''-i. Tlie religious fana^- 
 ticisra of botli parties is aroused. 
 
 10. 
 
 Spain : — New and stringent law 
 against liberty of the x>ress publisUt'd, 
 Jan. 2. Queen Isabella, in commemo- 
 ration of her birth-day, orders tlu'ee 
 screw-frigates to be constructed, to be 
 called after the three queens from whom 
 she derives the crowns of Castile, Arra- 
 gon, and Navarre, Oct. 10. 
 
 Switzerland : — Insurrection in Fri- 
 burg by the Jesuit party speedily sup- 
 pressed, April 22. 
 
 Venezuela : — Earthquake atCumana; 
 600 persons killed, July 15. 
 
170* 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 l^Period XL — ^50 yearn, 
 
 A.I>. 
 
 IS54 
 
 PKoaEESS OF Society, etc 
 
 Deputation of " Friends" pre- 
 sents to tlae Emperor of 
 Russia a peace memorial, 
 Feb. 10. 
 
 Complete equality before the 
 law secured to all subjects 
 of the Porte, without dis- 
 tinction of creed, by treaty, 
 March 12. 
 
 Commercial treaty concluded 
 between the United States 
 and Japan, March 23. 
 
 In Turkey, the possessions of 
 the Mosques to be declared 
 the property of the State 
 from March 27. 
 
 The first railway ia opened 
 in Brazil^ the Emperor and 
 Empress being present at 
 the inauguration, April SO. 
 
 The changes introduced in the 
 Ottoman Empire by the in- 
 fluence of the Allied Pow- 
 ers, amount to a revolution 
 in its social condition. 
 
 Marked increase in the num 
 bers and prosperity of 
 Christians in Turkey ; MO' 
 hammedan population, eX' 
 cept in Bosnia, rapidly dy^ 
 ing out. 
 
 Cross raised in a Catholic 
 burying ground belonging 
 to the French, in Turkey. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1854. The steamer San Fran- 
 cisco founders iit sea; 240 
 U. S. troops washed over- 
 board ; the rest of 700 res- 
 cued by the Three Bells, 
 Kilby, and Antarctic, Jan. 
 5. 
 
 Astor Library opened 
 for use of the public, in New 
 York city, Jan. 9. 
 
 Outrages on the railroad 
 near Erie, Pa., renewed by 
 mobs of women, Jan. 17, 31. 
 
 Skirmishes between U. 
 S. troops and Apache and 
 Utah Indians, March 5, 30. 
 
 Certain sections of the 
 " Maine Liquor Law" deci- 
 ded to be unconstitutional 
 iu Massachusetts, March IS. 
 
 Miss Di^'s bill for ame- 
 liorating the condition of 
 the indigent insane, vetoed, 
 April 20. 
 
 Great flood in the Con- 
 necticut river, hundreds 
 driven from their dwel- 
 lings. May 1. 
 
 Mass meetings at Bos- 
 ton, Feb. 23 ; New Market, 
 N. H., i'eb. 27; New York, 
 May 13, against the Ne- 
 braska bilf, which, how- 
 ever, becomes a law, May 
 30. 
 
 Eiots in Michigan, April 
 17; at Boston, (attempt to 
 rescue a fugitive slave,) 
 May 26 ; at New York and' 
 Brooklyn, (papist interfe- 
 rence with street-preach- 
 ing,) May 28, June 4, 11. 
 
 San Juan, Nicaragua^ 
 bombarded and burnt by 
 the U. S. sloop-of-war, Cy- 
 ano, July 13. 
 
 Great Beitain. 
 
 1S54. Parliament opened by 
 Queen, who expresses a de- 
 sire that exertions for an 
 amicable settlement of the 
 Eastern difficulties should 
 be persevered in, Jan. 31. 
 
 The Queen reviews tb« 
 fleet on its departure fo? 
 the Baltic, March 11. 
 
 A day of humiliation 
 and prayer observed, April 
 26. 
 
 Launch of the "Eoyal 
 Albert," the Queen chris- 
 tening the vessel, !\Iay 13. 
 
 Crystal Palace at 8 
 denham opened by 
 Queen, June 10. 
 
 da 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS, 
 
 i7r 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Feance. 
 
 JB54 
 
 The Emperor and Empress 
 attend the first agricultural 
 exhibition ever held in Pa- 
 ris, June 9. 
 
 The Emperor reviews a dl 
 vision of troops about to 
 proceed to the Baltic, July 
 12. 
 
 AirsTEiA, etc. 
 
 1S54. Alliance, 
 oflPensive and 
 defensive, be 
 tween Austria 
 and Prussia, 
 signed April 
 20. 
 
 The Wokld, elsew'here. 
 
 1854. Brazil : — San Salvador destroyed by 
 an earthquake, causing a loss, in less 
 than one minute, of 200 lives, and 
 $4,000,000 of i)r()pcrty, April 16. 
 
 Canada:— Parliament House at Que- 
 bec burnt, including government library 
 and philosophical apparatus, Feb. 1. 
 
 India: — The Ganges Canal, a work 
 of vast magnitude opened, April 8. 
 
 — Day of humiliation and prayer for 
 success of the British arms, observed at 
 Bombay and all over India, by the na- 
 tives, as well as the Europeans, July 16. 
 
 Italy: — Shocks of earthquake in the 
 country between Florence and Eome, 
 May. 
 
 — Eailway from Lusa to Turin inau- 
 gurated in presence of King and Queen 
 of Sardinia, etc., May 22. 
 
 Mexico : — Battle of Guyamas, be 
 tween some Frenchmen under , Count 
 Eaousset de Boulbon and the Mexicans, 
 July 13. The Count is defeated, taken 
 prisoner, and, Aug. 12, shot. 
 
 Eussia : — An imperial ukase calls out 
 nine men in 1,000 souls in eastern por- 
 tion of the Empire, May 9. 
 
 Spain : — ^Earthquake at Fiana, crum- 
 bling down the greatest part of the Al- 
 cazaba, an ancient castle of the Moors, 
 and causing large chasms in nearly all 
 the streets, Jan. 13. 
 
 — Strike at Barcelona; 15,000 arti- 
 zans demand of the municipal authorities 
 that the price of provisions be reduced, 
 and wages increased, March 81. 
 
 — The insurrection of the people 
 at Madrid (July 17) triumphs, and tho 
 Eivas ministry resign, July 19. Espar- 
 tero enters the city, and is received 
 with gi-eat enthusiasm, July 29. 3,000 
 defenders of the barricades defile before 
 the Queen's palace, her Majesty present- 
 ing herself on the balcony, July 31. 
 
 — Dona Maria Christina, the Queen 
 Mother, leaves Madrid for Portugal, un- 
 der escort of troops, but against the will 
 of the people. Slie was indebted to the 
 State 71,000,000 reals, Aug. 28. 
 
 Turkey : — Fire at Constantinople , 
 400 houses destroyed, Jan. 1. 
 
 — Fire at Salonica, destroys 600 build- 
 ings, April 8. 
 
 — Banquet given by the Sultan to 
 Prince Napoleon, May 8. 
 
 — Fire at Yarn a, destroys ISO houses 
 and vast quantities of military stores, 
 Aug. 10. 
 
TO* 
 
 172' 
 
 THE world's progress. [Period XL — 50 r/ear«.— 
 
 1854 
 
 1865 
 
 Peogress of Society, etc. 
 
 The Sultan issues a firman for 
 the construction of a church 
 at Scutari, Sept. 
 
 Deaths in 1854. 
 
 U.S. 
 
 If. B. Blunt, 
 Jaooh Bur- 
 nett, 
 John Davis, 
 Com. Downes, 
 J. Harring- 
 ton, last sur- 
 vivor of bat- 
 tle of Lex- 
 ington. 
 Mrs. E. Jud- 
 
 son. 
 Bishop Wain- 
 Wright, 
 
 Etteope, 
 
 Anglesea, 
 
 Bodisco, 
 
 Cockburn, 
 
 Forbes, 
 
 Jameson, 
 
 Maitland, 
 
 Melloui, 
 
 Montgomery, 
 
 Paixhans, 
 
 Pellico, 
 
 PJunkett, 
 
 Eubini, 
 
 Schelling, 
 
 Mme. Sontag, 
 
 Mrs. C. South- 
 
 Talfourd, 
 Wilson, 
 St. Arnaud, 
 Denman, 
 Lockhart. 
 
 '•Immaculate Conception of 
 the Yirgin" proclaimed as a 
 dogma by the pope, Dec. 8. 
 
 1855. Panama railroad com- 
 pleted, first train on it Jan. 
 28. 
 
 Financial «a?iic in CsJifornia, 
 Feb. 
 
 Suspension Bridge at Niaga- 
 ra first crossed, March li 
 
 Difficulty in Phila. about 
 slaves of J. H. Wheeler of 
 N. Carolina, July 18. 
 
 Election riot at Louisville, 
 Ky., between Americans 
 and foreigners, Aug. 6. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Passmore Williamson re- 
 leased from jail (where he 
 had been three months in 
 the Wheeler slave ca^3), 
 Nov. 3. 
 
 1854. Grisi and Mario, the two 
 most renowned lyric ar- 
 tists of the old world, arrive 
 at New York, Aug. 19. 
 
 Extensive drought pre- 
 vails several weeks. 
 
 Cholera prevails, June- 
 No v. ; yellow fever prevails, 
 
 Aug. -Nov. 
 
 Immigration, about 500,000. 
 
 "Ostend Conference" be- 
 tween Buchanan, Mason. 
 Soule, Oct. 10, 11. 
 
 1855. Southern Commercial 
 Convention at New Orleans, 
 Jan. 8. 
 
 Soul6 quits Madrid Jan. 
 31. 
 
 U. S. S. Waterwitch fired 
 on, on th^ Paraguay, Feb. 1, 
 
 U. S. Dist. Court in Wis- 
 consin pronounces the Fu- 
 gitive Slave Law unconsti- 
 tutional, Feb. 3. 
 
 Convention at Lawrence, 
 Kansas, Aug. 14. 
 
 Walker (filibuster) takes 
 possession of Granada, Oct. 
 16. 
 
 Kansas : Convention at 
 Topeka, Oct 23. 
 
 Gee at Bkitais. 
 
 Law passed for the en- 
 listment of foreign e.r8 in the 
 British service, Dec. 22. 
 
 1855. Yisit of the Emperor 
 and Empress of France, 
 April 16. 
 
 Death of Lord Eaglan, 
 Commander-in-chief at Se- 
 bastopol, June 28. 
 
 The Queen and Prince 
 Albert visit the Emperor 
 Louis Napoleon at Paris, 
 
 Aug. 18. 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 1V3« 
 
 Fbance. 
 
 Austria, etc. 
 
 The Woeld, elsewhere. 
 
 1854. Venezuela : — Slaves 
 April 25. 
 
 emancipated, 
 
 1856. Subscriptions to the 
 French loan of 500 millions 
 of francs amount to 2,000 
 millions of francs, offered 
 by 171,000 persons. 
 
 Death of Don Carlos, 
 claimant of the Spanish 
 throne, March 10. 
 
 Indust'l Exhibition open- 
 ed at Paris, May 15. 
 
 1854. Saxony :— 
 The King 
 thrown from 
 his carriage at 
 Innspruck, and 
 killed, Aug. 10. 
 
 Eastern Affairs.— The Anglo-French fleet enters 
 the Black Sea, Jan. 4. Turks defeat Eussians at Citate, 
 Jan. 6. Negotiations for peace continue througli the Vi- 
 enna Conference, Jan. Eussian ambassadors quit Lon- 
 don, Feb. 6, Paris, Feb. 7. English and Frencli ambassa- 
 dors dismissed St. Petersburg, Feb. 16. England and 
 France resolve to summon Russia to evacuatethe Prin- 
 cipalities by the 30th April, Feb. 28. Eussians cross the 
 Danube, March. Treaty of alliance concluded between 
 England, France, and the Porte, March 12. Anglo-French 
 ultimatum forwarded to St. Petersburg. Eussia refuses 
 a reply. England and France declare war against Eussia, 
 March 28. Counter declaration of war by Eussia against 
 England and France, April 12. Convention between 
 England and France, April 18. Odessa bombarded, April 
 22. Anglo-French fleet scours the Baltic, May, June. 
 Austro-Turkish Convention, June 4. Eussians raise the 
 siege of Silistria, June 23, and re-cross the Danube, July 
 7. Russians defeated by Turks at Eutschuk, July 12 and 
 13. Are compelled to evacuate the Principalities and re- 
 cross the Pruth, Aug. 16. Bomarsund capitulates to the 
 Allied fleet and French army, Aug. 16. Austrian armies 
 enter the Principalities, Aug. 20. Allies land in the Cri- 
 mea, Sept. 14. Defeat the Eussians at the Alma, Sept 
 20. Commence the siege of Sebastopol, Sept. 28. Fira 
 opened, Oct. 17. Battle of Balaklava, Eussians repulsed, 
 Oct. 25. Battle of Inkermann, Eussians again rt pulsed, 
 Nov. 5. Siege of Sebastopol progresses, Dec. 31. 
 
 1855. Eussia : Death of the Emperor Nicholas I., March 2. 
 
 — The allies take possession of Kertch and the Sea of 
 Azoph, May 24. 
 
 — The allies repulsed in an assault on the outposts of 
 Sebastopol, June 18. 
 
 — Kars invested by the Eussians, June 23. 
 
 FALL OF SEBASTOPOL— 
 The Malakhoff carried by the 
 French, Sep. 8. 
 
 Terrific attack of the Eus- 
 sians on K^rs repulsed, Sep. 20. 
 
 Mexico : Santa Anna 
 abdicates. Aug. 9. Car- 
 rara chosen to succeed 
 him. 
 
IW 
 
 v'-l 
 
 THE AVORLD S PROGRESS. [Period XL— 5Q years.— 
 
 1855 
 
 185 6 
 
 Deaths in 1855 : 
 U. S. Europe. 
 
 S. H. Cone, 
 
 Abbott Law- 
 rence, 
 
 John C. Spen- 
 cer, 
 
 T. E. Beck. 
 
 Sir H. Bishop, 
 Silk Bucking- 
 ham, 
 Jos. Hume, 
 Miss Mitford, 
 Nicholas I, 
 "Currer Bell.'" 
 Sir W.E. Par- 
 ly- 
 Lord Eaglan, 
 Saml. Eogers, 
 Ans. Eoths- 
 
 child. 
 Lord Truro. 
 
 Launch of the stm, Adriatic 
 i^the largest yet afloat) at 
 N. Y., April 7. 
 
 Personal Assault on Senator 
 Sumner of Mass., in the U. 
 S. Senate by Brooks of S. 
 Ca., May 22. 
 
 Sutmarine Telegraph cable 
 laid from Cape Breton to 
 Newfoundland. July 12. 
 
 Burlinghame's acceptance of 
 Brooks's challenge, July 
 
 Brooks and Keitt re-elected 
 to Congress from S. C, July 
 28. 
 
 Dudley Observatory inaug. 
 at Albany. Aug. 28. 
 
 Preston S. Brooks, the as- 
 saulter of Sumner, publicly 
 welcomed and presented 
 with a cane, at Columbia, 
 S. C, Aug. 29. 
 
 Charles Sumner received in 
 Boston with public hon- 
 ors, Nov. 8. 
 
 N. Y. and N&wfoundland 
 Telegraph lines 1715 miles, 
 opened to St. John's, Nov 
 10. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1855. Proclamation against _filiMt,s- 
 terism by President Pierce, Dec. 
 
 8. 
 
 British Arctic yessel Eesolute 
 found and brought to New London 
 by an American whaler, Dec. 23. 
 
 1856. N. P. Banks, jr., of Mass., elect- 
 ed Speaker of House of Eepresent. 
 of II. S., after a contest of 9 weeks, 
 by plurality of 3 votes, Feb. 2. 
 
 Gubernatorial contest in Wiscon- 
 sin, Jan. — Feb. 
 
 Mr. Fillmore nominated for Pres't 
 by Amer. Con. at Phila., Feb. 22. 
 
 Free State Legisl. at Topeka, 
 Kansas, elect Eeeder and Lane as 
 delegates to Congress, Feb. 8. 
 
 Kansas Investigation Committee 
 appointed, March 19. 
 
 Padre Vigil recognised as Minist. 
 fi-om Nicaragua, May 14. 
 
 President's message announcing 
 difficulty with Brit. Gov. on enlist- 
 ments in the U. S._, May 29. 
 
 Buchanan nominated for Pres't 
 by Dem. Con. at Cincinati, June 7. 
 
 Fremont nominated for Pres't by 
 Eepub. Conven. at Phila., June 17. 
 
 II. Eepres. U. S. pass a bill ad- 
 mitting Kansas under Topeka Con., 
 July 3. 
 
 Topeka legislature dispersed by 
 U. S. troops under Col, Sumner, 
 July 4. 
 
 J ohu "W. Geary confirmed as Gov. 
 of Kansas, July 31. 
 
 Whiteficld and Eeeder both re- 
 jected by H. Eepres. as delegates 
 from Kansas, Aug. 1. 
 
 Extra session ""of Congress ad- 
 journed Aug. 30. 
 
 Municipal electior riot at Balti 
 mure, 9 /fc., Oct. 8. 
 
 U. S. troops in Kaasas arrest and 
 disarm parties of emigrants from N 
 E., Oct. 10. 
 
 Buchanan elected Pres. N')'^'. 4 
 
 Gkeat Britain. 
 
 1855. Yisit of the 
 King of Sardinia to 
 England. Nov. 30. 
 
 Captain McClure 
 receives the re- 
 ward of £5,000 for 
 discovery of " tJie 
 IsT. W. passage^'''' 
 and is knight-jj 
 Nov. 
 
 Brit, fleet bom- 
 bard and partially 
 destroy Canton, 
 China, Oct. 23. 
 
1815-1865.1 
 
 THE woeld's Progress. 
 
 France. 
 
 1855 
 
 Europe, elsewhere. 
 
 1856 
 
 Peace Conference at Paris 
 
 opened Feb. 25. 
 Birth of an heir to the throne, 
 
 March 16. 
 Treaty of Peace with Bvssiar 
 
 signed at Paris, March 30. 
 
 1855'. Omar Pasha defeats 
 the Eussiansat the Ingour, 
 Nov. 5. 
 
 Explosion of 100,000 lbs. 
 of powder at Sebastopol, 
 Nov. 15. 
 
 Surrender of Kars to the 
 Russians after a famous de 
 fence by Gen. "Williams,: 
 Nov. 25. 
 
 TiiH World, elsewhere. 
 
 1855. Meodco : — Alvarez re- 
 signs the presidency, and ia 
 succeeded by Comonforl^ 
 Dec. 
 
 1856. Preliminaries of Peace 
 signed at Vienna, Fe:h. 1. 
 
 Destructive floods near Ly- 
 ons, &c., whole villages de 
 stroyed, June. 
 
 The Crimea wholly eva^ 
 cnated by the Allies, July 
 12. 
 
 Eussia : — ^Alexander II. 
 crowned emperor, Sept. 7. 
 
 — Railways of 2600 
 miles contracted for by 
 Government. Capital, 1000 
 millions of francs, Oct. 28. 
 
 Naples : — French and 
 English ministers leave. 
 Oct. 28. 
 
 1856. Costa Eieat— Schlessin- 
 ger and Walker's invasion 
 defeated, March 20. 
 
 — Walk-er defeats 8,000 
 Costa Eicans at Eivas, Aj>. 
 11. 
 
 Panama : — Eiot on the 
 Panama E.E., 30 passengers 
 killed, April 15, 
 
 Gunpowder explosion at 
 Salonica, Turkey, 700 k. 
 and «o., July 17. 
 
 Earthquake in Egypt, 
 Syria, and isles of Med. 
 About 1200 lives lost, and 
 many thousand buildings 
 destroyed, Oct. 12. 
 
 Granada, city of, de- 
 stroyed by Walker, Nov 
 20-25. 
 
IIQ* 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. \reriod XI.— 50 years.-^ 
 
 Peogeess of Society, etc. 
 
 United States. 
 
 British Empike. 
 
 1856 
 
 Revival of the Affican Slave 
 Trade recommended by 
 Gov. Adams in S. Ca. 
 
 Arctic discovery shii) Reso- 
 lute presented to Queen 
 Victoria by Lient. Hart- 
 stene for the U. S. Govern- 
 ment, Dec. 30. 
 
 Deaths in 1856 : 
 
 1856. Barrier Forts, near Can- 
 ton, China, destroyed by 
 U. S. squadron, for an at- 
 tack on an American boat, 
 Dec. 6. 
 
 Eesolntion against the 
 Slave Trade passed by H. 
 of Reps. U. S., Dec. 15. 
 
 U. 8. 
 
 J. ]\T. Berrien. 
 
 Ogden Hoff- 
 man. 
 
 Com Morris. 
 
 J.G.Perceval. 
 
 Jno. C. War- 
 ren. 
 
 J. M. Clayton, 
 U. S. S. 
 
 George Steers, 
 naval archi- 
 tect. 
 
 T. Crawford, 
 sculptor. 
 
 Louis M-Lane. 
 
 ECTKOPE. 
 
 Jno. Braham, 
 vocalist. 
 
 Sir W. Hamil- 
 ton, meta- 
 physician. 
 
 Von Biela, as- 
 tronomer. 
 
 L'd HardJnge 
 
 Father Mat- 
 thew. 
 
 Hugli Miller. 
 
 Sir Jno. Ross, 
 
 "Westmacott. 
 
 Yarrell. 
 
 PI. Delaroche. 
 
 1857jGeo. Peabody gives $300,000 
 to establish a free Literary 
 and Scieniifie Institute at 
 Baltimore, Feb. 12. 
 
 The Chief-Jnstice of the U. 
 S. proclaims that negroes 
 have no rights which white 
 men are bound to respect, 
 March 6. 
 
 J)red Scot decision,'''' de- 
 nounced by the Leeislatore 
 of N. Hampshire, June 25. 
 
 The Atlantic Telegraph Ca- 
 Me first joined at sea by 
 the Niagara and Agamem- 
 non, Aug. 5, but breaks 
 Aug. 11. 
 
 Loss of the Central America 
 and 450 lives, Sept. 8. 
 
 Ma?s meetingaof unemployed 
 workmen in N. Y., Nov. 2 
 and 10. 
 
 Stin. Adriatic starts on first 
 voyage to Liverpool, Nov 
 23. 
 
 1857. Four members of H. 
 of Representatives of U. S. 
 from N. Y. and Conn, ex- 
 pelled for corrupt conduct, 
 Feb. 19. 
 
 Buchanan inaugurated 
 President, March 4. 
 
 Lord Napier recognised 
 as British minister, March 
 18. 
 
 The Deed Scot Deci- 
 sion delivered by Chief- 
 Justice Taney, March 6. 
 
 R. J. Walker accepts ap- 
 pointment as Goveinor of 
 Kansas, Mjirch 26. 
 
 Attempt to arrest Mayor 
 Wood in N. Y. for an as- 
 sault on the Street Com- 
 missioner, June 16. 
 
 General Financial Pa 
 nic begins with suspension 
 ot Ohio Life and Trust Co 
 Aug. 24. 
 
 Lecompton Convention, 
 Kansas, meets Sept. 7. 
 
 Suspension of Philad. 
 banks, Sept. 25 and 26, fol- 
 lowed by general suspen. of 
 banks in Pa., Md,, D. C, 
 R. I 
 
 Suspension of N. Y. city 
 banks, Oct. 13-14, and Mas- 
 sachusetts banks same day. 
 
 Pavments resumed, Dec. 
 12. ' 
 
 1857. Treaty of Peace with 
 
 Persia signed March 5. 
 
 Palraerston Ministry out- 
 voted on the Chinese ques- 
 tion, March 5. 
 
 New septennial Parlia- 
 ment meets, April 30. 
 
 The Manchester Art Ex- 
 hibition opened. May 5. 
 
 Behellion in India begins 
 May 9 ; King of Delhi pro- 
 claimed sovereign of India. 
 
 Havelock defeats the re-, 
 bels under Nena Sahib, and 
 recaptures Cawnpore, July 
 13. 
 
 The Emp. and Empress 
 toria, Aug. 6. 
 
 Sir Colin Campbell, the 
 new com. -in-chief, arrives 
 at Calcutta, Aug. 14. 
 
 Delhi taken after an as» 
 sault of 6 days, Sept. 14. 
 
1815-1865,] 
 
 THE world's PEOGRESS. 
 
 177* 
 
 Fkanck. 
 
 Europe, elsewhere. 
 
 World, elsewhere. 
 
 of the Freoch vieit Queen Vic- 
 
 185T. Austria: — Amnesty to 
 political oflfenders in Lorn 
 bardy, &c,, Jan. 25. 
 
 1857. Mexico: New constitu- 
 tion promulgated, March 11. 
 
 Costa Eica : — Walker sur- 
 renders Eivas, and agrees to 
 leaye Nicaragua, May 1. 
 
 Sweden and Norway: — 
 Charles Louis, Prince- 
 Royal, made Regent. Sep. 
 26. 
 
 Emperors of France and Russia meet at Stuttgart, 
 Sept. 25. 
 
 Nicaragua : — Walker 
 and his men surrender to 
 U. 8, ship Wabash, Com. 
 Paulding, Dec. 8. 
 
ns^^ 
 
 THE V/OELD'S PEOGKESS. [Period IX.— 50 years.^- 
 
 A.D. Progeess op Society, etc. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1857 
 
 1858 
 
 DeatM in 1857. 
 
 U. S. I EtJEOPE. 
 
 C. Colton. Beranger 
 
 E. K. Kane. C. Bonaparte. 
 W. L. Marcy. J. W. Croker. 
 Thos. J. Eusk. Thos. Dick. 
 Eli Smith. Marshall Hall. 
 
 Earl of Elles- 
 mere. 
 
 Douglas Jer- 
 rold. 
 
 W. Scoresby. 
 
 Eugene Sue. 
 
 And. Ure. 
 
 Cavaignac. 
 
 Aug. Compte. 
 
 Havelock. 
 
 Chris. Eauch, 
 sculptor. 
 
 Commercial failures in one 
 year, ending Dec. 25, 1857, 
 amount to 5,123: liabilities, 
 $291,750,000. 
 
 Launch of the monster steam- 
 er Great Eastern at Lon- 
 don, Jan. 81. 
 
 Crawford's Monument to 
 Washington., at Eichmond, 
 inaugurated, Feb. 22. 
 
 Extensive and remarkable r-^' 
 Ugious " revival" through, 
 out the U. S. in February, 
 March, &c. 
 
 Gold mine excitement in 
 Washington and Oregon 
 territory. 
 
 New " Divorce Court'''' open 
 ed in London, May 10. 
 
 Donati's Comet seen in June 
 and July. 
 
 Vigilance Committee" in 
 N. Orleans, June 2. 
 
 New Prohibitory Liquor 
 Law voted in Maine, June 
 7. 
 
 Turkish Admiral, Mehemet 
 Pacha, and suite leave Bos- 
 ton, after an extended visit 
 in the U. States, July 14. 
 
 A Jenjo in Brit. Parliam,ent, 
 July 26. 
 
 Atlantic Telegraph. 
 
 National Teachers' Associa- 
 tion — 1st Ann. Convention 
 at Cincinnati. Aug. 11. 
 
 1S57. " Lecompton Constitu- 
 tion" adopted by Conven- 
 tion, Nov. 9. 
 
 "Walker resigns as Go- 
 vernor of Kansas, Dec. 15. 
 
 W. Walker reaches N. Y. 
 "on parole," and surren- 
 ders to U. S. marshal, Dec. 
 
 28. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1857. English and French 
 ture the city, Dec. 28-30. 
 
 1858. Mr. Buchanan's " Kan- 
 sas Message" to H. Eeps., 
 with Lecompton Constitu- 
 tion, Feb. 2. , 
 
 " A'nti-Lecom.pton De- 
 mocratic " meetings in 
 Phila., N. Y., &c., Feb. and 
 March. 
 
 Bill to admit Kansas as a 
 State, under Lecompton 
 Const., passes the Senate, 
 March 23, 
 
 The House passes another 
 bill. 
 
 New Free State Conven- 
 tion of Kansas, at Leaven 
 worth, March 25. 
 
 The " English Kansas 
 bill" passed both Houses of 
 Congress, April 30. 
 
 Minnesota State Govern- 
 ment orgamized at St. Paul, 
 May 23. 
 
 Atlantic Telegraph ^etet 
 land, June 10. 
 
 The President sends a 
 message announcing peace- 
 able settlement of trouble 
 in TJtali, June 10. 
 
 Treaty of Peace and Ami- 
 ty with China, signed at 
 Tien-Tsin, June 13 
 
 1858. French and English 
 the Governor, Yeh, Jan. 5. 
 
 The Princess-Eoyal of 
 England married to the 
 Prince of Prussia, Jan. 25. 
 
 Steamer Great Eastern 
 first floated, Jan. 31. 
 
 Eesignation of Palmer- 
 ston's Ministry, and acces- 
 sion of Lord Derby, Feb. 20. 
 
 sails from Plymouth, Eng- 
 
 Eng. steam. Cyclops bom- 
 bards Jeddah, July 25-26. 
 
 Baron Eothschild takes 
 his seat in H. of Commons 
 July 26. 
 
 Queen Victoria and Pr. 
 bourg, Aug. 4. 
 
 News of the completion of Atlantic Telegraph re 
 ceived with joyful demonstrations, Aug. 5. 
 Magnificent celebration 
 
 at New York, Sept. 1. 
 
 The English bill voted 
 on by the people of Kan- 
 sas and rejected, August 
 9. 
 
 Queen Victoria's message to president Buchanan sent and received, August 16. 
 Slaver Echi^ captured and carrried to Charleston, Au-I 
 ust 27. I 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE WORLD S PKOGEESS. 
 
 1'79^' 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Fkan :e. 
 
 fleets bombard Canton, and cap- 
 
 EuKOPE, elsewhere. 
 
 1857. Naples : Terrible earth- 
 quake,14,000 persons kUled. 
 
 troops enter Canton and capture 
 
 Attempt by Orsini and 
 others to assassinate the 
 Emperor with a hand gre- 
 nade : 8 persons k. and 156 
 wounded, Jan. 14. 
 
 Albert visit the Emperor at Cher- 
 
 The Woeld, ©laewher*. 
 
 1858. Mexico : — Revolution , 
 Comonfort gives up the GTo- 
 vernment to Juarez; Zulo- 
 aga proclaimed president by 
 a H. of Eepresentativ^s. 
 
 Turkey : — Massacre of 
 Christians at Jeddah— 4S 
 killed, June ISi. 
 
\ 80^ 
 
 THE WOELD'S rEOGKESS. [Ptriod IX.— 53 ijears.— 
 
 185S 
 
 Pkogkess op Society-, &c. 
 
 United States. 
 
 1S59 
 
 The K Y. State quarantine 
 
 buildings at Staten Island 
 
 destroyed by the citizens 
 
 as a nuisance, Sept. 1. 
 First overland mail for Ca- 
 lifornia leaves St. Louis, 
 
 Sept. 16. 
 Boston Public (Free) Library 
 
 opened, costing $450,000, 
 
 Sept. 17. 
 The " General Admiral" stm. 
 
 frigate, built for Russian 
 
 government, launched at 
 
 N. Y., Sept. 21. 
 Crystal Palace, N. Y., burnt, 
 
 Oct. 5. 
 The yacht Wanderer lands 300 Africans near Brunswick, 
 
 Ga.. Nov. 23. 
 The Graud Jury at Columbia. S. C, refuse to indict the 
 
 slaver " Echo," Nov. 80. 
 First railroad in Egypt. 
 
 Deaths in 1858. 
 
 1858. U. St. stm. Niagara 
 sails from Charleston for 
 Liberia, with rescued slaves 
 of the " Echo," Sept. 20. 
 
 U. S. 
 
 T. TL Benton. 
 
 Rob. Hare. 
 
 H.W. Herbert. 
 
 Freem'nHunt. 
 
 Com. Periy. 
 
 Gen, Quitman 
 
 Gen. P. F. 
 Smith. 
 
 N. W. Tavlor. 
 
 B. F. Butler. 
 
 Parker Cleve- 
 land. 
 
 Wm. Jay. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 E. Brown, bo- 
 tanist. 
 
 Geo. Combe. 
 
 " Eachel." 
 
 Marshall Hall. 
 
 Duchess of 
 Orleans. 
 
 Reschid Pa- 
 cha. 
 
 I'adetsky. 
 
 Ary Scheffer. 
 
 Robt. Owen. 
 
 Sir W. Eeid. 
 
 Foresti. 
 
 U". S. Agricultural Conven- 
 tion at Washington, D. C, 
 Jan. 8. 
 
 Geeat Beitain. 
 
 1858. The East India Com- 
 pany ceases to exist, and 
 its vast possessions pass 
 into the hands of the Brit. 
 Government, Sept. 1. 
 
 1859. New Hall of the U. S, 
 Senate first' occupied, Jan, 
 4. 
 
 Siideirsbill, giving $30,000,000 to facilitate the acquisition 
 of Cuba, introduced Jan. 10, 
 
 Mr. McLane recognises the 
 Juai-ez government in Mex- 
 ico, April 4. 
 
 Sickles kills Key at Washing 
 
 ton, for seduction of his 
 
 wife, Feb. 27 ; he is tried 
 
 and acquitted, April 26. 
 Southern Convention at Vicksburgh discusses the openin 
 
 of the Slave Trade. May 11. 
 Great fire at Key West, 110 
 
 houso; loss $3,750,000, 
 
 May 16- 
 
 Telegrams — India to Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Several slavers captured by 
 U. S. vessels. 
 
 1859. D'Israeli introduces a 
 new Eeform Bill, Feb. 28. 
 
 Lord Lyons, new British 
 minister at Washington, re- 
 ceived, April 12. 
 
 England protests against 
 Austrian menaces of Sardi- 
 nia, April 21. 
 
 English court in mourn- 
 ing for the tyrant king of 
 Naples (May). 
 
 New Parliament meets, 
 May 30. J. E. Denuison 
 elected speaker. 
 
 Telegrams to India acce- 
 lerated seven days by cable 
 on the Red Sea, June 8 
 
J815-1865.] 
 
 THE world's PKOGEESS. 
 
 181* 
 
 A.1). 
 
 Fkakcb. 
 
 EtTEOPio, elsewhere. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1858 
 
 1859 
 
 The Emperor's Kew-Tear's 
 speech to Hubner, Austrian 
 minister, causes a war sen- 
 sation, Jan. 1. 
 
 Prince Napoleon marries 
 the Princess Clothilde, Jan. 
 29. 
 
 French troops reach Turin and Genoa, April 26-30. 
 
 1858. Egypt: — First train 
 on the Suez Eailroad crosses 
 the isthmus in eleven hours, 
 from Suez to Alexandria, 
 Dec. 5. 
 
 Ilayti : — Eevolution — 
 Faustin banished — G-eneral 
 Jetfrard proclaimed Presi- 
 dent, Dec. 21. 
 
 1859. Austria demands that 
 Sardinia shall disarm, 
 Ap. 23. England protests 
 against this menace. 
 
 Sardinian army on a war 
 footing. 
 
 War declared, in alliance 
 with Sardinia, against Aus- 
 tria, May 3 
 
 Subscriptions for loan of 
 500 million francs exceed 
 four times that sum, from 
 525.000 persons. 
 
 Tuscany : — Grand Duke 
 abdicates; his troops fra- 
 ternize with revolutionists, 
 April 27. 
 
 Austria declares WAE 
 AGAINST SAEDINIA. 
 and her troojis cross the 
 Ticino, April ^. 
 The Emperor L. Napoleon arrives at Genoa, May 12. 
 Empress made Eegent. | 
 Battle of Montehello : Austrians defeated. May 20. 
 
 I Garibaldi enters Como, 
 
 I May 27. 
 
 Battle of Palestro : Austrians defeated, May 30. 
 
 Battle of Magenta : Allies victorious, June 4; and enter 
 
 M ilan, June 8. 
 
 1859. Mexico. — ^Miramon ap- 
 pears before Yera Cruz, 
 March 18-27. 
 
 Perio : — Earthquake de- 
 stroys part of Quito, March 
 29. 
 
 Naples :— Death of Ferdi- 
 nand II., and accession ol 
 Francis II , May 22. 
 
182' 
 
 THE world's progress. [Period XZ-— 50 years.-^ 
 
 Progress of Society, etc. 
 
 Remarkable religious revi- 
 val in Ireland, June, July, 
 etc. 
 
 Excessive heat iu California 
 and in Europe, June-July. 
 
 Wise travels 1200 miles in a 
 balloon from St. Louis to IST. 
 York state, July 1. 
 
 G-old images found in Indian 
 graves at Chiriqui, July. 
 
 Cosmopolitan celebration of 
 100th birthday of Schiller, 
 Nov. 10. 
 
 Brilliant meteor seen in IST. Y. 
 and N. England, Nov. 15. 
 
 DeatJis in 1859: 
 U. S. Europe. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 French and English in 
 the forts of the Peiho, June 
 Com. Tatnall. 
 
 1859. Gen. Harney takes possession of the island of San 
 Juan (now Vancouver's island) July 9. 
 
 IP to 
 
 J. W. Alexan- 
 der. 
 
 W. C. Bond, 
 
 Eufus Choate. 
 
 Bp. Doane. 
 
 HoR. Manx. 
 
 Den. Olmsted. 
 
 W. H. Pres- 
 cott. 
 
 Rich. Rush. 
 
 Geo. Bush. 
 
 J. Y. Mason. 
 
 Theo. Sedge- 
 ■v\'ick. 
 
 Linn Boyd. 
 
 Washington 
 Irving. 
 
 Dr. Abbott. 
 
 T. K. Hervey. 
 
 HUMBOLDT 
 
 Leigh Hunt. 
 
 Jejeebhoy. 
 
 D. Lardner. 
 
 C. E. Leslie. 
 
 Lady Morgan. 
 
 Jos. Sturge. 
 
 De Toc'que- 
 ville. 
 
 Metternich. 
 
 De Quincey. 
 
 J. A. James. 
 
 J. P. Nichol. 
 
 Thos. jSTuttall. 
 
 I. K. Brunei. 
 
 Carl Ritter. 
 
 Louis Spohr. 
 
 Sir J.Stephen. 
 
 Macaulay. 
 
 Robert Ste- 
 phenson. 
 
 Law passed in Arkansas, Jan. 
 1, to banish free negroes 
 from the state. 
 
 Decree by the Emperor of 
 Austria in favor of rirhts 
 of the Jews, Jan. 10. 
 
 Kansas Const. Conven 
 tion meets at Wyandote, 
 July 5. 
 
 Gen. Harney proclaims 
 possession of the island of 
 San Juan for the U. States, 
 July 27. 
 
 Mr. Ward, U. S. minis- 
 ter, reaches Pekin, July 3U, 
 
 Treaty with China rati- 
 fied, Aug. 16. 
 
 J. Y. Mason, U. S. mi 
 Ulster to France, dies at 
 Paris, Oct. 3 
 
 John Brown's Raid for 
 the liberation of slaves, at 
 Harper's Perry, Va,, Oct, 
 17. 12 of hi.s men and 1 
 marine killed. 2 of his men 
 hung. Dec. 16; and 2 more 
 March 16, 1860. 
 
 Congress a'^embles, Dec. 
 
 1880. Pennington of N. Jer- 
 sey elected speaker of the 
 House of Representatives, 
 after a balloting for nearly 
 two months, Feb. 1. 
 
 Builders' strike begins in 
 London, July 25. 
 
 Captain McClintock re- 
 turns, bringing relics of 
 Franklin's expedition, Sej). 
 21. 
 
 Steamer Royal Charter 
 wrecked in British Chan- 
 nel ; 445 persons lost, and 
 £1,000,000 in gold, 
 
 Death of Lord Macsulay, 
 Dec. 28. 
 
 1860. Lord Clyde proclaims 
 the rebellion in India as 
 subdued, Jan. 7. 
 
 Commercial Treaty with 
 den and Lord Cowley and 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE WOELD'S PEOGEESS. 
 
 183^ 
 
 A.D. 
 
 Feance. 
 
 Etjkope, elsewhere. 
 
 Treaty with Japan, ratified 
 at Jeddo, Sept. 22. 
 
 1859 Perneia sacked by papal troops, June 20, 
 
 Battle of Solferino, June 24. Austrians under the Empe 
 ror in person defeated by the allies : great loss on both 
 sides. 
 China repulsed in an attack on 
 25. They are aided by American 
 
 I Treaty of Peace signed by the Emperors of France and 
 
 Austria, at Villafranca, July 11. 
 
 Tlie Emperor returns to St.|1859. Tuscany : — Council of 
 
 Cioud, July 27. State votes in favour of 
 
 Entrancki of "the Army of annexation to Sardinia, 
 
 Italy" into Paris, Aug. 14. July 12. 
 Political amnesty, Aug. IT. Confi^rence at Zurich 
 
 opened, August 8. 
 
 Sardinia : — Cavour dis- 
 missed from the ministry, 
 July 13. 
 
 Tudcany :— The Nation. 
 Assem. decrees the perma- 
 nent exclusion of the Aus- 
 trian dynasty, Aug. 16. 
 
 Mode?) a : — Farini dicta- 
 tor, o])ens tlie Nat. Assem- 
 bly, Aug. 16, and assumes, 
 government of Farma. 
 Aug. 18. 
 
 Rome : — Concordat be- 
 tween the Pope and Spain, 
 Aug. 26. 
 
 Russia : — Schamj'l taken 
 prisoner in Caucasia, Sept. 
 6. I 
 
 Bologna: — Assemb. Nat. 
 under pros, of Minghetti 
 decree independence from 
 the Pope. Sept. 7. 
 
 Sardinia : — The king 
 receives deputations from 
 Modena and Parma, ten- 
 dering annexation to Sar- 
 dinia, Sept. 15. 
 
 Romagna : — Decree of 
 annexation to Sardinia, 
 Oct. 7. 
 
 Spain declares war 
 against Morocco^ Oct. 22. 
 O'Donnell named com.-in- 
 chief of Spanish army. 
 
 Sardinia .•—Prince Ca- 
 rignan made regent of Eo- 
 mugna, Parma, etc., Nov. 6, 
 but declines in favor of 
 Buoncompagni 
 
 The Emperor advises Victor 
 Emanuel a programme for 
 the Regeneration of Italy ^ 
 Oct. 20. 
 
 Exchange of ratifications of 
 the Treaty of Zurich, Nov. 
 21. 
 
 The Emperor's letter to the Pope, advising cession of 
 Eomagna, Dec. 31. 
 
 1860 
 
 Treaty with Nicaragua rati- 
 fied. Jan. 11. 
 
 France, signed at Paris by E. Cob- 
 tho French ministers. Jan. 23. 
 
 1860. Spain:— The Moors 
 defeated at Castellejor, Jan. 
 
 Rome : — The Pope re- 
 plies to the Emperor, refus- 
 ing to cede the Legations, 
 Jan. 8. 
 
 Sardinia : — Cavour re- 
 called to the premiership, 
 Jau. 15. 
 
 The Wokld, elsewhere. 
 
 1859. Mexico : — Juarez de- 
 crees the confiscation o) 
 church property, July 12.' 
 
 Veneztoela : — Ci v i 1 \\:\y\ 
 downfall of Castro, the Prv!- 
 sident, July. 
 
 Costa Rica .-—E evolution 
 — fall of Mora, Ang. 14. 
 
 Buenos Ayres : — Battle 
 with the troops of Argen- 
 tine Confederation, Oct. '28. 
 
184^ 
 
 THE WORLD'S mOGllESS. [Period /X— 50 years.— 
 
 A.B. 
 
 Peogkess of Society, etc. 
 
 1860 
 
 United States. 
 
 First " Pony Express" reaches Carson Valley in eight and 
 a half days from Missouri ; and news thence by telegraph 
 reaches San Francisco in nine days from New York. 
 
 1860. The "Covode Com- 
 mittee" (House of Kepre- 
 sentatives) appointed to ex- 
 amine alleged corruption 
 of the governonent., March 
 5. 
 
 U. S. corvette Saratoga 
 captures Miramon's vessels 
 at Vera Cruz, March 7. 
 Japanese Embassy arrives at San Francisco, March 28; 
 at Washington, May 14; at Baltimore, June 8; at Phila- 
 delphia, June 9 ; at New York, June 16. Sails for Ja- 
 pan, in the U. S. frigate Niagara, June 30, 
 
 Universal Suffrage in Cen- 
 tral Italy. 
 
 Papal bull against agitators 
 
 and reformers. 
 Fight of Heenan and Sayers 
 
 for the cham'pionsldp of 
 
 England, April 17. 
 
 Great Beitain. 
 
 1860. French treaty ratified 
 by 116 majority in the Com- 
 mons, Feb. 24. 
 
 Lord J. Eussell proposes a 
 new Eeform Bill, March 2, 
 but abandons it, June 11. 
 
 Ministers defeated on a 
 bill for repeal of paper duty 
 — passed by the Commons 
 but rejected (89 majority) 
 by the Lords, May 21. 
 
 Eeview of 18,000 volun- 
 teers by the Queen in Hyde 
 Park, June 23. 
 
 Democratic Convention 
 at Charleston, April 23. 
 
 Mr. McLane's treaty with 
 Mexico (Juarrez) rejected 
 by the Senate, May 81. 
 
 National Eepub. Conven- 
 tion at Chicago meets May 
 16, and nominates Abraham 
 Lincoln for President, and 
 Hannibal Hamlin for Vice- 
 President of U. S. , 
 
 Law of Maryland prohibiting the manumission ofslavesl 
 takes effect, June 1. 
 
 Tornado in Iowa and Il- 
 linois destroys whole vil- 
 lages, June 3. 
 
 Nat. Democratic Oonven-; 
 tion (adjourned) at Balti- 
 more, June 18, nominates! 
 Douglas and Fitzpatrick:! 
 a seceding Convention no-) 
 minate Breckenridge andj 
 Lane, respectively for Pre- 
 sident andV.-Pres. of U. S.' 
 
 The Great Eastern arrives at New York, from Southampton, June 28. 
 
 Dr. Hayes's Arctic Expedition from Boston, sails July 7. i 
 
 Eemarkable meteor in various northern states, July 20. I 
 
 Visit of the Prince of Wales to British North Ame- 
 rica and the United States. He lar ds at St. John's, July 
 24; arrives at Quebec, August 18; Montreal, 24th; 
 Ottawa, August 31; Niagara, September 14; Detroit, 
 Sept. 20; Washington, Oct.| 
 3; Philadelphia, Oct. 9; 
 New York, Oct. 11 ; Bos- 
 ton, 17th; Portland, 2Uth ; 
 Plymouth, England, Nov. 
 15. 
 
 Lincoln and Hamlin 
 elected Pres. and V.-Pres. 
 ot the U. S. by the votes of 
 all the northern states ex- 
 cept New Jersey, which 
 chose 4 elect' )rs for Douglas- 
 and 3 for Lincoln, Nov. 6. 
 
 This election is made the 
 pretext for rebellion and 
 " Secession" of the cotton 
 states— S. Carolina leading, 
 aid adofiting in Convention 
 an orili nance of secession 
 from iho U. S., Dec. 20. 
 
 Deaths in 1860. 
 
 U. S. 
 
 J. A. Alexan- 
 der. 
 
 W. B. Burton. 
 
 C. A. Good- 
 rich. 
 
 S. G. Good- 
 rich. 
 
 Thoo. Parker. 
 
 J. K. Pauld- 
 ing. 
 
 W. C. Preston. -I. H. Wilson. 
 
 EtTKOPE. 
 
 Sir 0. Barry. 
 
 Lady Noel 
 Byron. 
 
 G.P. E.James. 
 
 Anna Jame- 
 son. 
 
 Julllen. 
 
 SirW. Niipier. 
 
 Had en x cw 
 
1815-186].] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 IS 
 
 f,^ 
 
 France. 
 
 
 l!^6) 
 
 Europe, elsewhere. 
 
 Thouveiiel foreign minister, 
 
 Jan. 24. 
 " L"" Univers^'''' ultra-montane 
 
 journal, suppressed, Jan. 29. 
 
 Diplomat'o correspondence of 
 Antonelli, Feb. — March. 
 
 Negotiations respecting an 
 nexdtion of J^'ice and S<i 
 voy. Treaty for cession to 
 France signed at Turin, 
 March 24; but Switzerland 
 ])roteslS. 
 
 nice votes for annexation to 
 France 24,448 /or, and 160 
 against. 
 
 Savoy gives 131,744 for and 
 233 against. 
 
 The Emperor refuses an ap- 
 plication from Naples to 
 act as mediator, June 7. 
 
 Fr."'.nch troops sent to Syria 
 to punish the murderers of 
 Christians, Aug. 5. 
 
 ! A French fleet placed before 
 i G-aeta; for which side is 
 not proclaimed. 
 
 18G0. Spain: — Decisive vic- 
 tory over the Moors at Te- 
 touan, Feb. 4. 
 
 Sardinia : — The army 
 raised to 50,000, Feb. 26. 
 
 Thouvenel with Cavour and 
 
 Buoncompagni resigns as 
 g(wernor of Centi al Italy ^ 
 March 3. 
 
 Tuscany : — Eesnlt of vot- 
 ing on annexation to Sardi- 
 nia pub., viz: i^o?'. 306,571 ; 
 against., 14,925 (for sejia- 
 rate kingdom) 
 
 Austria advertises for 
 new loan, March 24. and 
 protests against Sardinian 
 occupation of Tuscany, &c. 
 
 jSj^ain : — Peace with Mo- 
 rocco ratified, March 29. 
 
 Borne : — Papal Indl 
 asaiiist revolutionists. Mar. 
 29. 
 
 Resolution in Sicily be- 
 gins at Palermo, Messina, 
 and Catania, April 4. 
 
 Rome:— Antonelli pro- 
 tests against Sardinian an- 
 nexation of Komagna 
 
 Sicily: — OariTjaldi lands 
 at Marsala, with 2,00(> 
 men, fiom Genoa, May 10 
 Proclaims himself dictator 
 on behalf of Victor Ema- 
 nuel, 14th. 
 
 TSTaples: — Concessions pro- 
 claimed to the people, Maj' 
 19. 
 
 — Garibaldi takes Pa- 
 lermo, May 27. 
 
 — A liberal ministry 
 formed at Naples, June 28. 
 The King grants new con- 
 stitution and amnesty, J'ne 
 25. 
 
 Garibaldi's victory at Me- 
 lazzo, July 20-21. 
 
 Sicily (excepting the ci- 
 tadel of Messina) evacuated 
 by the Neapolitans, July 
 30. 
 
 Garibaldi's troops land in 
 Calabria, Aug. 8. 
 
 — Enteis Naples. 
 
 The King of Naples re- 
 tires to Gaeta, Sept. , and 
 is besieged there by the 
 troops of Garibaldi and 
 Victor Emanuel. 
 
 Garibaldi resiofus his 
 power to Victor Emanuel, 
 and retires to Caprera. 
 
 The World, elsewhere. 
 
 1S60. Argentine Confed. D^r 
 qui president, Feb. 5. 
 
 Mexico : — Mirarnon at- 
 tacks Vera Cruz, March 7- 
 13. 
 
 Japan : — The Regent 
 w^ounded in a riotous at- 
 tack. 
 
 Mexico : — Zuloaga pro- 
 claims himself presideiit, 
 and denounces Mirarnon, 
 May 1. 
 
 Asia 3finor: — Horrible 
 massacre of the Christians 
 and Maronites, May. 3.000 
 killed at Damascus, July 9. 
 
 Honduras: -W. Walker 
 the "filibuster," taken pri- 
 soner and shot, Sept. 12. 
 
 Syria : — Fuad Pasha sent 
 against the Druses, Auir. 5. 
 167 Moslems implicated in 
 the massacres are executed 
 at Damascus, Aug. 20. 
 
180^ 
 
 THE world's moGRESS- {PeHod XL — 50 years.^ 
 
 PitOGKESS OF SOCIETV. 
 
 Heresy Of "SECES- 
 SION " or Treason 
 in the United States. 
 
 D:n!hs in 1861 : Prince 
 A :bert, Mrs.Erown 
 ing-, Count Cavour, 
 Czri.^ryski, Dr. J. 
 W. franuis, Geof. 
 St.HiJaire, Pr. Gort- 
 ehakotf, Nathaniel 
 Lyon, Eng'e Scribe. 
 
 United States. 
 
 British Empire 
 
 July— Eirst War Loan 
 of the United States 
 Government, $250- 
 000,000. 
 
 Oct. 1. Commercial 
 treaty bet'n France, 
 England and Bel- 
 gitun in force. 
 
 Nov. 1. Telrgrai^h be- 
 tween Malta and 
 Alexandria opened. 
 
 May 1. International 
 Exhibition at Lon- 
 don. 
 
 1861. This example followed by Mississippi, 
 Jan. 9, Alabama, Jan. 11, Florida, Jan. 12, 
 Georgia, Jan. 19, Louisiana, Jan. 26. 
 
 Attempt to parry Virginia, Kentucky, Ten- 
 nessee, N. Carolina, Missouri, and Arkan- 
 sas for secession defeated, Jan. — March, 
 1861. Texas carried for secession, but a 
 strong reaction for union follows. Gen. 
 Twiggs surrenders the U. S forces in Tex- 
 as, and the military stores, to the state, 
 Feb. 
 
 Inauguration op Lincoln, (Repub.) Presi- 
 dent U. S., March 4. 
 
 WAR of REBELS against U. S. 
 
 April 13. Fort Sumter surrenders to rebels. 
 
 April 15. 75,000 men called for by proclama- 
 tion. 
 
 April 15. Great meeting in New York to 
 support the Government. 
 
 April 19. Attack on Massachusetts troops 
 in Baltimore. 
 
 April 21. Harper's Ferry arsenal burned by 
 its garrison. 
 
 April 25. Virginia secedes. 
 
 May 6. Arkansas secedes. 
 
 May 20. North Carolina seced^es. 
 
 May 21. Tennessee secedes. 
 
 June 8. The Savannah privateer captured. 
 
 June 10. Big Bethel defeat. 
 
 July 4. Congress meets. 
 
 July 11. Rich Mountain victory. 
 
 July 21. Bull Run defeat. 
 
 Aug. 29. Fort Hatteras taken. 
 
 Oct. 21. Ball's Bluif disaster. 
 
 Nov. 1. McClellan Commander-in-Chief. 
 
 Nov. 7. Port Royal forts taken. 
 
 Nov. 8. "Wilkes seizes Slideli and Mason. 
 
 Nov. 30. Jelf. Davis elected President of the 
 Confederate States. 
 
 Dec. 2. Union armies have 660,971 men. 
 
 1862. 
 
 Jan. 1. Mason and Slideli released. 
 
 Jan. 19. Mill Springs defeat. 
 
 Feb. 6. Fort Henry .taken. 
 
 Feb. 7. Roanoke taken by Bumside. 
 
 Feb. 16. Fort Donelson taken. 
 
 Feb. 23. NasliArille taken. 
 
 March 9. The Cumberland and Congress lost 
 at Hampton Roads. 
 
 March 10. Manassas found evacuated by 
 Rebels and is occupied by Union troops. 
 
 March 11. McClellan takes command of 
 Army of Potomac. 
 
 March 14. Newborn taken b5^ Bumside. 
 
 April 1. Beaufort taken by Burnside. 
 
 April 4. Slavery abolished in D. Columbia. 
 
 April 5. McClellan " besieges " Yorktown. 
 
 April 6. Shiloh defeat — A. S. Johnson killed. 
 
 April 11, Fort Pulaski taken. 
 
 April "^6. New Orleans taken. 
 
 May 5. Yorktown occupi 3d by McClellan — 
 Action at Williamsbuigli. 
 
 May 10. Norfolk taken— the Merrimac 
 burnt— Fakragut asf>ends the Mississippi 
 —Little Rock taken. 
 
 May 13. Queen's 
 proclamation of 
 " neutrality " in. 
 the American con- 
 flict. 
 
 Nov. 8. Excitement 
 about seizure of 
 Mason and Slideli 
 in British steamer 
 Trent. 
 
 Dec. 23. Death o^ 
 Prince Albert. 
 
 April 7. Treaty with 
 U. S. to suppress 
 slave trade. 
 
 May 1. Internation- 
 al Exhibition 
 opened at Lon- 
 don. 
 
1815-1865.] 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 187* 
 
 France. 
 
 IdGl 
 
 1862 
 
 June 10. " Neiatrality " m 
 American conflict pro 
 claimed by the Emperor. 
 
 Oct. 31. Convention with 
 England and Spain for in- 
 tervention in Mexico. 
 
 Jan. 7. French army lands 
 at Vera Cruz. 
 
 March 28. French victories 
 in Cochin China — six pro- 
 vinces ceded to France. 
 
 April 16. "War against Mexi- 
 co declared. 
 
 EuKOPE, elsewhere. 
 
 1861. Gaeta surrenders to 
 Victor Emanuel's troops, 
 Feb. 13— The King of Na 
 pies escapes on board a 
 French frigate. 
 
 End of Bourbon Bttle 
 in Italy. 
 
 The Italian Parliament 
 declares Victor Emanuel 
 KING OF ITALY, Feb. 
 1861. 
 
 " Italy " recognized by Eng- 
 land, March 31, and by 
 France, June 24 
 
 WoELD, elsewhere. 
 
 Oct. IS. "William I. crowned 
 King of Prussia. 
 
 Feb. 13. Military revolt in 
 Greece. 
 
 Oct. 2 . Canton restored t« 
 the Chinese by the French 
 and English. 
 
188^ 
 
 THE world's progress. [Period XL — 50 years. — 
 
 a.dJPkogeess of Society. 
 
 1862 
 
 Deaths in 1862 : Brodie 
 (surgeon), M. Van 
 Buren, T. Hartwell 
 Home, Sam. Hous- 
 ton 
 A. 
 
 United States. 
 
 May 27. Hanover C. H., Va., taken. 
 May 31. Fair Oaks battle— indecisive. Co- 
 rinth taken. 
 
 June 6. Mempliis taken. 
 
 T. J. Jackson, I June 27. Pope takes command of U.S. forces 
 Sid. Jolmson,! in N. Virginia 
 
 Phil. Kearney, Du-I June 25-30. McClellan's skirmishes on Pen 
 chess of Kent, J. I ins^ila 
 
 Sher. Knowles, Sir 
 James Ross, Joseph 
 Wolff. 
 
 1S6S 
 
 September — Internal 
 Rev e n u e Tax en 
 forced in the U. S. 
 
 Jan. 2. Abolition of 
 Slaveby in the U 
 S., by proclamation 
 of the Commander 
 in-Chief. 
 
 Feb. 9. The Geo. Gris 
 woldjWith. food given 
 by New Yorkers for 
 Lancashire opera 
 tives, a,rrives at Li 
 verpool. 
 
 Mar. 4. JVat. Academy 
 of Arts and Sciences 
 founded by Congress 
 
 June — G rant and 
 Speke arrive in Eng- 
 land from Source of 
 the Xile. 
 
 July 13-16. Irish anti 
 negro and anti-draft 
 riots at New York. 
 
 D aths in 1863 : E.Hil- 
 dreth. Mar. Lans 
 downe, Mulready, 
 Mrs.Trollope, Arch 
 bishop Whateley. 
 
 Sept. — Eussian squad- 
 ron entertained at 
 New York. 
 
 Dec. 24. Thackeray 
 dies. 
 
 June 26-July 1. Seven days' battles on the 
 
 Jhickahominy. 
 July— Tariff duties raised— 300,000 more 
 
 volunteers called for. 
 
 xiy 17. Emancipation and Confiscation Act 
 
 signed by the President. 
 July 26. Halleek (Jommander-in-Chief. 
 
 U. S. debt $1,222,000,000. 
 Aug. 9. Banks defeated at Ced&,r Mountain. 
 Aug. 16. McClellan retreats frcm Harrison's 
 
 Landing. 
 Aug. 30. Second defeat at Bull Eun. 
 Sept. 5. McClellan again Commander-in' 
 
 c;hiet. 
 Sept. 17. Antietam victory. 
 Sept. 18. Harper's Ferry lost. 
 Sept. 22. Lincola's Emancipation Proclama' 
 
 tion issued. 
 Sept. 25. Habeas Corpus suspencied. 
 Oct. — Premium on gold, 29. 
 Oct.— Piracies of the Alabama. 
 Nov. 4. Democratic victory in New York 
 
 elections. 
 Nov. 7. Burnside supersedes McClellan. 
 Dec. 10-13. Defeat at Fredericksburgh. 
 1863. 
 Jan. 1. Murfreesboro' victory (Eosecrantz 
 
 over Bragg). 
 Jan. 2. Proclamation of Emancipation is 
 
 sued. 
 Jan. 26. Hooker supersedes Burnside. 
 April 7. Monitors repulsed at Charleston— 
 
 the Keokuk lost. 
 May 2-4. Chancellorsville defeat— Jackson 
 
 killed. 
 May 18. Vicksburgh invested by Grant. 
 June 14. Maryland and Pennsylvania in 
 
 vaded by Lee. 
 June 27. Meade supersedes Hooker. 
 July 1-3. Gettysbukgh victory. 
 July 4. VicKSBUBGH occupied. 
 July 8. Port Hudson taken. 
 July 13-16. Riots at New York. 
 Aug. 7. Sioux war ended by Gen. Pope. 
 Aug. 20. Chickamauga defeat. 
 Aug. 21. Fort Sumter bombarded. 
 Oct. 19. Grant, Thomas and Sherman su 
 
 persede Eosecrantz in Tennessee. 
 Oct. 17. President calls for 300,000 more 
 
 volunteers. 
 Nov. 23. Chattanooga victory by Sherman 
 
 and Thomas. 
 
 1864. 
 
 Feb. 1. Draft for 500 000 men ordered. 
 Feb. 20. Olustee (Fla.) defeat. 
 Feb. 27-March 1. Kilpatrick and .Dalgliren's 
 raid on Eichmond. 
 
 British Empire. 
 
 Mar. 10. Marriage of 
 Prince of Wales 
 to Alexandra of 
 Denmark. 
 
 Oct. 31. Steam rams 
 built by Laird for 
 U. S. Rebels seized 
 by Government. 
 
 Oct. — British Con- 
 suls dismissed 
 from Eebel State3 
 of U. S. 
 
L815-1865.J 
 
 THE world's rilOGIlESS. 
 
 189* 
 
 1862 
 
 i'KANCE. 
 
 1863 
 
 Oct. 15. Drouy-Q de L'lmys, 
 roreign Minister. 
 
 Oct. 30. Mediation proposed 
 in Amer. conflict declined 
 by Russia and Grt. Britain. 
 
 Jan. 9. Mediation of France 
 again offered to "C . S. 
 
 EunoPE, elsewhere. 
 
 Jul' 7. Greece: Insurrec- 
 ti ., spreads. 
 
 Avg. 19. Gariba.ldi in Sicily, 
 I)rockiims a Provisional 
 Government. 
 
 Aug. 29. He is wounded and 
 taken prisoner by the 
 king's troops. 
 
 Sept. 30. Bismarck, Premier 
 of Prussia. 
 
 Oct. 5. GaribaMi and his fol- 
 lowers released under 
 general amnesty, and the 
 state of siege in Sicily 
 abolished. 
 
 Jan. 18. Egypt : Ismail; 
 Viceroy ; succeeds S&xv 
 Pasha. 
 
 March 30. Greece . George I 
 of Schleswig-Hol stein pro- 
 claimed Kin g — England 
 agreeing to give up Ionian 
 Isles to Greece. 
 
 July -In CO me -Tax Bill 
 passed in Italy. 
 
 Ar.c^. lo. Conc^ress of Ger- 
 man iri^overeigns at Frank- 
 fort—" Oae Federal State" 
 proposed — Russia dissents. 
 
 JSTov. 15. Denmark : Chris- 
 tian IX. succeeds Freder- 
 ick YII. 
 
 1864. 
 
 Jan. 21. "War of Austria and 
 Prussia against Denmark 
 about Schleswig-Holstein 
 — German troops enter 
 Holstein. 
 
 World, elsewhere. 
 
190* 
 
 THE WOKLD'S PE-GRESS. 
 
 [Perloc 
 
 -oO years.— 
 
 18G4 
 
 Pbogkess of Society. 
 
 Feb. 29. Peabody fund 
 —Dwellings for the 
 2)nor in London — 
 First block opened 
 
 April 3. Garibaldi's 
 visit to England. 
 
 May 16. Convention 
 between France, 
 Brazil, Italy, Portu- 
 g'al, and Spam, for 
 telegraph to America. 
 
 June — Oct. — Cattle 
 plague in England. 
 
 Aug. — Abd-el-Kader's 
 visit to England. 
 
 Deaths in \&Q^: Frank. 
 Baohe, J osli'a Bates, 
 W. J. Fox, T. C. 
 Grattan, Nathaaie: 
 Hawthorne, Edw. 
 Hitchcock, Leonard 
 Horner, Archbishoi^ 
 Hughes, Jasmin 
 (poet),C.M.Kirkland, 
 Vv^. ttavage Laador, 
 John Leech, J. B,. 
 Maeculloch, Meyer- 
 beer, "W. Curtis 
 Noyes, Pellisier, Jo- 
 siah Quincy, Edw. 
 Robinson, H, K. 
 Schoolcraft, R. B. 
 Taney, J. G. Totten. 
 
 Slavery Abolished 
 in the U. States. 
 
 Feb. 22. Rebel Con- 
 gress decrees tho 
 armiag of slaves. 
 
 April 2. X)eaiii or Rich- 
 ard Cobden. 
 
 Dza'lis in 1865 : Bishop 
 Brownell, Adm. Du- 
 pont, Val. Mott, 
 Edw. Everett, Mrs. 
 Gaskell, Sir W. J. 
 Hooker, Kiss 
 (sculpt.), Leopold I. 
 Ab. Lincoln, Dr 
 Li udley. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Bbitish EAiPjKi:. 
 
 March 2. Grant succeeds Halleck as Com 
 
 mander-in-Chief. 
 May 5-6. Battle of the 'Wildemess. 
 May 11-12. Battle of Spottsyivania. 
 June 15. Grant before Peters' ,rgh. 
 June 19. Kearsage sinks the Alabama. 
 Jtily i-i3. Maryland again invaded by a 
 
 Pi-ebel raid. 
 Jiiiy 20-28. Sherman's victories at Atlanta, 
 
 C-fa. 
 July 30. Chambersburgh, Pa., burnt by Re- 
 bels. 
 J-'ily 30. Grant's mine at Peteraburgh., Va., 
 
 exploded. 
 July SO. Secretary Chase resigns— Fessenden 
 
 Secretary of the Treasury. 
 Aug. S. Farrtigut's victory in Mobile Bay. 
 Septv -McGlellaa nominated lor President. 
 
 Sy Dem-ocratic Convention at (.'hicago. 
 Sept. 2. Atliinta captured by Sherman. 
 Sept. 19. Shendan's victory at Winchester. 
 Oct. 19. Cedar Creek defeat made a victory 
 
 by Bhoridan. 
 Oct. 21. liebel raid at St. Albans, Vt. 
 NcT. &. I/iuGoln re-elected President — Mc- 
 
 Oeibia resigns his command in army. 
 Nov. 30. Thomas repulses Hoqd at iS'ash- 
 
 villc. 
 Dtc. "5-16. And again totally defeats him 
 
 thrro. 
 Dec. 13. Fort McAllister stormed, and 
 Dee. 21. Savannah occupied by Sherman. 
 Dec. 24-5. Butler and Porter repulsed at 
 
 Wiim.ington. 
 18G6. 
 Feb. 1. Congress abolishes slavery by an 
 
 vinejidinent to the Constitution. 
 Fer>. 3. Lincoln and Seward's interview with 
 
 ?d(-beLs at Fort Monroe. 
 Feb. 18. Lee takes command Rebel armies, 
 
 and ui-g^LS arming of negroes. 
 Feb. 22. Wilmington captured by Schofield. 
 Feb. 22. Charlestoi.1 1 faouatcd by Rebels. 
 April 1. New and higher taritf comes in 
 
 force. 
 April 2. Richmond and Petersburgh occupied 
 
 bj^ U. S. fox-ces, after three days' fighting. 
 April 6. Grant's victory at Farmville. 
 April 9. Surrender of Lee with his whole 
 
 army. 
 April 12. Mobile taken. 
 April 14. Fort Sumter 03cupiel. 
 April 14. Assassination of President Lin- 
 coln and attack on Sewaixl. 
 April 15. Andrew Johnson sworn in as 
 
 President. 
 April 18. Sherman's convention with John- 
 ston. 
 Ai)ril 25. Johnston's surrender. 
 April 26. Sooth, the assassin, shot. 
 May 4. Gen. Dick Taylor surrenders. 
 May 10. Jetf. Davis ciiptured. 
 May 26. Kirby Smith surrenders in 'i'e::as. 
 
 END OF THE REBELLION. 
 
 April 24. European 
 conference at Lon- 
 don on Schleswig- 
 Holstein question. 
 
 July 10. Palmerstou 
 sustained in the 
 general electi'; o.. 
 
 Aug. 15. English 
 fleet visits Cher- 
 bourg. 
 
 Aug. 30. French fleet 
 visits Portsmouth. 
 
 Oct. 18. Death of 
 Lord Palmerston. 
 
 March— Fenian out- 
 breaks in Ireland. 
 
 May 6. Reform 
 League meeting 
 in Hyde Park in 
 defiance of Go- 
 vernment. 
 
1815-1835.] 
 
 THE WOPvLD S PROGRESS. 
 
 191' 
 
 Feance. 
 
 1864 
 
 Europe, elsewhere. 
 
 World, elsewhere. 
 
 May 22. Death of Marshal 
 
 Pellisier. 
 May 20. Convention hetween 
 
 France and Japan signed 
 
 1864, 
 
 March 10. Lotiis II., King 
 
 of Bavaria. 
 April 18. Duppel taken by 
 
 Prussians. 
 
 Jane 1. Ionian Isles made 
 
 over to Greece. 
 July 8. Prussians take Al- 
 
 sen. 
 
 Sept. 15. Franco-Italian Con- 
 vention signed — French 
 troops to quit Home in 
 two years. 
 
 Florence made the capital 
 of Italy — Riots at Turin 
 in consequence, Sept. 21- 
 22. 
 
 Oct. 30. Peace between Den- 
 mark and the Allies, to 
 whom Sehleswig and Hol- 
 stein are surrendered, 
 Prussia retaining posses- 
 sion of them. 
 
 July 18. China : I^ankin taken 
 (" a heap of ruins") by Goi'- 
 don for the Imperialists. 
 
 March 31. Valparaiso bom- 
 barded by Spanish fleet. 
 
 Famine in Bengal and Madras, 
 
 1865. 
 
 May 7. Hayti: Military in- 
 surrection against Geiirard. 
 
192^ 
 
 THE world's PROGRE»i». 
 
 United States. 
 
 Aug. — Treaty of Com- 
 merce between Italy 
 and Japan. 
 
 Sept. — Several Soxitli- 
 ern States pass ordi- 
 nances annulling Se- 
 cession, abolishing 
 slavery, &c. 
 
 Rinder-pest or cattle- 
 plague in England, 
 July, 1865, to Feb., 
 1866. 
 
 Cholera prevails in 
 France, Spain, and 
 Naples. 
 
 Jan. 27. Death of Gib- 
 son, Eng. sculptor. 
 
 July 28. Atlantic 
 Telegraph success- 
 fully completed ; 
 cable landed at New- 
 foundland and re- 
 portsPEACE between 
 Prussia andAustria. 
 
 Deaths in 1866 : Mar 
 quis D'Azeglio, 
 Jared Sparks, Wm 
 Whevrell. 
 
 1867. 
 
 April 1. Opening of 
 the Great Exposition 
 of Industry of all 
 nations at Paris. 
 
 July 1. Awards of the 
 juries in the Great 
 Exposition. 
 
 July — 1800th anniver- 
 sary of St. Peter's 
 martyrdom. cele- 
 brated at E-ome. 
 
 May 22. Proclamation opening Southern 
 ports and exceptional amnesty. 
 
 June 1. National Fast. 
 
 June 29. Trial of assassins ended. 
 
 Juiy 7. They are hung. 
 
 July 29. Prisoners of war released on oath of 
 allegiance. 
 
 July 31. IT. S. debt $2,757,253,000. 
 
 August— Eebel privateer Shenandoah de- 
 stroyed about thirty vessels. 
 
 Nov. 2. National thanksgiving. 
 
 Nov. 9. Slienandoah at Liverpool — crew re- 
 leased. 
 
 Nov. 10. Wirz executed for cruelty to IT. S. 
 prisoners. 
 
 1866. 
 
 May 3. Colorado bill vetoed. 
 
 May 29. Death of Winfield Scott. 
 
 June — Eesignation of Speed, Att. Gen. ; 
 Dennison, P. M. Gen. ; and Harlan, Sec. 
 Int. 
 
 July 28. Congress adjourns, having passed 
 Freedmen's Bureau (continuation) bill 
 Civil Eights bill ; Pacific Eaiiway (supp. 
 bill; Army bill, and other important 
 measures. 
 
 July — Gkant appointed General-in-Chief ; 
 Sherman, Lient.-General ; Farragut, Ad- 
 miral ; Porter, Vice- Admiral. 
 
 Aug. 14. " National Union Convention " at 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Sept. 3. Southern Loyalist Convention at 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Sept. 6. Corner stone of Douglas Monument 
 laid at Chicago by President Johnson. 
 
 Oct. 6. Elections in Pennsylvania, Ohio, In 
 diana, and Iowa result in increased Re- 
 publican majorities. 
 
 Nov. — Eepublicans also victorious in Mass 
 N. H., N. Y., N. J., Mich., Minn., Nevada, 
 and Mo. In Delaw. and Md. the Demo 
 crats are successf al. 
 
 Dec. 13. Suffrage given to colored men in 
 Dist. Columbia, by act of Congress. 
 
 1867. 
 
 Feb. 9. Nebraska admitted into the Union 
 as a State. 
 
 March 2. " Tenure of OflB.ce " bill passed. 
 
 Marcli 2. Mili'ary government for the South — 
 bill passed over the President's veto by 135 
 to 48 in the House, and 38 to 10 in the 
 Senate. 
 
 March 4. 40i!/i Congress meets. 
 March 23. Supplementary Bill on Military 
 Government of the South, passed over 
 President's veto — Senate, 40 to 7 ; House, 
 114 to 25. 
 Southern States divided into five military 
 
 districts, under 
 Gen. Schofield, at Eichmond; Sickles, at 
 Columbia, <fec. ; Pope, at Montgomery 
 Ord, at Vicksburgh ; Sheridan, at New 
 Orleans. 
 April 10. Treaty for purchase of Eussian 
 America approved by the Senate. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 British and French 
 Governments re- 
 scind their recog- 
 nition ofAnierican 
 "Confederates." 
 
 October 18. Death of 
 Lord Palmerston. 
 
 Oct. — Movenients of 
 Fenians at Now 
 York, Phila., &c. 
 
 October 7. Eiots m 
 Jamaica ; Gordon, 
 a Baptist minis- 
 ter, hanged by 
 Governor Eyre as 
 a rioter. 
 
 November 27. Trial 
 of Fenians at Dub- 
 lin. 
 
 1866. 
 
 Jan. 6. Gov. Syre 
 in Jamaica super- 
 seded by Storks ; 
 hot discussions in 
 England as to his 
 conduct in liie 
 riot. 
 
 1867. 
 
 May 9. Conference 
 at London on the 
 question of Lux- 
 emburg. Ti <?aty 
 signed making the 
 Duchy neuiral 
 terr itor y ^for tresa 
 to be razed, 
 
 July — The' Viceroy 
 of Egypt and the 
 Sultan of Turkey 
 visit London. 
 
1P65-1867.] 
 
 THE WOELD'S mOGRESS. 
 
 193* 
 
 ,s.T).j 
 
 l^O*^! 
 
 ^B.:::c' 
 
 EuaoPE, elsewhere. 
 
 Sept. 7. 
 ciere. 
 
 Death of Lamori-- 
 
 1867 
 
 January — Railway between 
 Boulogne and Calais 
 opened. 
 
 Jan. 19. Emperor decrees 
 greater freedom of discus- 
 sion in Legislature and the 
 Press. 
 
 1866. 
 
 Jan. 15. Death of D'Azeglio, tfce: 
 
 patriot. 
 June 18. Prussia and Italy declare 
 
 Was. against AUSTEIA. 
 June 24. Italians defeated at Cus-i 
 
 tozza. 
 June 27-29, Austrians defeated by 
 
 Prussians in three battles won by 
 
 needle gwns. 
 July 3. Great Battle of SADOWA ; 
 
 250,000 on each side. Prussians 
 
 victorious ; Austrians lose 44,000 
 
 K and W., and 100 guns. 
 Austria cedes Venetia to France 
 July 11. Prussians defeat Bavarians 
 
 at Eassengen. 
 July 14. Prussians occupy Prank 
 
 fort. 
 July 18. Italian fleet defeated off 
 
 Lizza. 
 July 26. Preliminai'y treaty of peace 
 
 Prussia requires Hanover, Hesse, 
 
 Nassau and Frankfort- 
 October 3. Treaty of Peace betweea 
 
 Austria and Italy, signed at 
 
 Vienna. 
 Nov. 5. Venetia proclaimed to be 
 
 part of Kingdom of Italy. 
 Nov. 7. K. Victor Emanuel's public 
 
 entry ijito Venice. 
 Feb. 18. Hungarian Constitution' 
 
 restored by Austrian Emperor. 
 Feb. 24. First parliament of the 
 
 German Confederation opened by 
 
 K. of^Prussia. 
 War in Crete continued with 
 
 vainous fortunes. 
 April 4. New ministry in Italy. ; 
 
 "WoKLi), elsewhere. 
 
 Sept. 18. Brazil : Uru- 
 
 guayano suKrenders 
 
 to the allies. 
 Sept. — Greeks im Ci;ete 
 
 rise in revolt ajgainst 
 
 the Turks. 
 Oct. 7. Jamaica riots. 
 
 j April 1. Great Exposition 
 
 opened by the Emperor. 
 
 Waleswski resigns as Pres. 
 
 of Coiys Legis. 
 I May. 18. Emperor signs 
 
 Luxemburg treaty. 
 I June 6. Attempt on life of the Czar, while riding with the Eqi- 
 
 peror, in Paris. 
 JThe Sultan, Viceroy of Egypt, King of Prussia, Prince of "Wales, 
 
 and other notables, also visit the Great Exposition in Paris in 
 
 June and July. 
 
 1867. 
 
 Feb. 5. Mexico: The 
 City ot Mexico 
 evacuated by the 
 French troops. 
 
 May 15. Mexico: 
 Maximilian and his 
 generals captured at 
 Queretaro. 
 
 Egypt declared by the 
 Sultan to be a se- 
 pai'ate sovereignty 
 after June 11, 1867, 
 
 July 1. Execution of 
 Maximilian in 
 Mexico. 
 
 July 1. Cuba: Decree 
 of the Queen of 
 Spain freeing all 
 children of slave 
 parents born after 
 this date. 
 
194* 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 1S67 
 
 July — England -visited 
 by the Sultan : first 
 time in history. 
 
 Reform in England. 
 
 DeaLbs in 1867 : Vict. 
 C ou sin, Charles 
 Aiithon, 
 
 Pkogress of Society. 
 
 TFnited Sr»TES. 
 
 May 13. Jeff. Davis released on hail. 
 
 July 1. Congress meets in extra special ses- 
 sion, and enacts, over President's veto, a 
 hill to confirm and strength' n the Mili- 
 tary Government bill passed in March. 
 
 Bkitish Empire. 
 
 July 15. Passage oi 
 New E. E F c Ti J« 
 Bill, nomii^illy 
 D'Israeli's, r- a,l]y 
 Gladstone's ] 
 
1865-1867.J 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 195^ 
 
 Fkance. 
 
 ExjKOPE, elsewhere. 
 
 3 367 July— Great excitement in Europe respecting the death of Maxi- 
 milian in Mexico, 
 jjuly 1. The Emperor dis-' Russian America sold to the U, 
 
 I tributes maials of honor 
 j at the Greai Exposition 
 
 States. 
 
 WoKi.r, elsewhere. 
 
 July 1. Great assem- 
 blage of Prelates of 
 R. C. Church at 
 Rome, 
 
BIOGEAPHIOAL I]N'DEX 
 
 TO 
 
 UNIYEESAL HISTORY. 
 
 N. B. This list of remarkable persons, from the earliest period, is not, of course, intended 
 to include every name mentioned in history, but merely the most important in their 
 several departments. The names of Sovereigns are referred to occasionally only, as full 
 lists are given in their proper place. 
 
 This list may be useful in two ways, viz. . 
 
 Eirst, as an Index to the names mentioned in the Chronological Tables in the " World'a 
 Progress ; " and 
 
 Secondly, to indicate, by reference to those tables, the chief political events and con- 
 temporary public characters during the life of each person in the list. 
 
 Tlius : Socrates, the Greek philosopher, was born 470, and died 400 b. c. The tables 
 on page 20 to 24 show who lived, and what happened, during the seventy years of Socrates' 
 life. 
 
 Milton was bom a. d. 1608, one year after the first settlement at Jamestown, Virginia ; 
 six years after the East India Company was founded ; five years after James I. ascended 
 the throne ; the same year that the Protestant Union was formed in G-ermany ; one year 
 before Gustavus Adolphus became king of Sweden; two years before Louis XIII. became 
 king of France. He was 12 years old when the Puritans first landed at Plymouth ; he 
 was 17 when Charles L succeeded James, and he was 41 years old when Charles was be- 
 headed. Among his contemporaries wei'e Loi'd Bacon, Inigo Jones, Jeremy Taylor, 
 Algernon Sydney, Sir C. Wren, Butler, Waller, Drydeu, Henry More, Baxter, and Boyle, in 
 England ; Peter Stuyvesant, Winthrop, Cotton,and Eliot, in America; Richelieu, Mazarine, 
 Colt^ert, Eubens, Kepler, Descartes, Molicre, Cornel le, Racine, Pascal, on the Continent. 
 He died a. d. 1674, nine years after the great plague in London, 14 years after Charles II. 
 was restored, and 7 years after New York was ceded to the English. 
 
 And thus, of any person mentioned in the Index, a great variety of particulars may be 
 found at a glance, on referring to the tables. 
 
 Abbreviations. — See list in the Introduction, Bar. {Barbarian) includes several different 
 nations, some not entirely civilized, f. is used for flourished. Tlie dates hefore Christ 
 are indicated by b. c; all others are k, d. In some cases tlie dates are necessarily left 
 blank, 
 
 nation. namb and pkofession. 
 
 Dan. Aagesend, Svind, historian .... 
 
 Jew. Aaron, the first high-priest .. . • . 
 
 Gr. Aaron, of Alexandria, physician 
 
 Egypt. Abbas, pasha, viceroy of Egypt (grandson of Mehemet-Ali) 
 
 Eng. Abbot, George, archbishop of Canterbury and author . 
 
 Anier. Abbott, Benjamin, distinguished educationist 
 
 Arner. Abbott Jacob, author of biographical and religious works . 
 
 Amer. Abbott, Jno. S. C, historian and biographer . 
 
 Arab. Abd'el Kader, distinguished warrior . , 
 
 Turk. Abdul Medjid, sultan of Turkey . , , 
 
 Eng. A'Becket, Gilbert A., comic writer , , , 
 
 Amer. Abeel, David, missionary and author of travels • 
 
 Nor. Abel, Nicholas H., mathematician . , , 
 
 1 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 f. 1188 
 
 
 c. 1570 
 
 1453 
 
 f. 022 
 
 
 1813 
 
 1854 
 
 1562 
 
 1623 
 
 1763 
 
 1849 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1806 
 
 1866 
 
 1822 
 
 
 1810 
 
 1856 
 
 1804 
 
 1846 
 
 1802 
 
 
THE WORLD'S PEOGHESS. 
 
 >;a.t(OK. 
 
 Sp. 
 
 Eag. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Jew. 
 
 Er. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Ara. 
 
 Syr. 
 
 Itom. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 G«r. 
 
 Pruss. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ire. 
 
 llom. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 BORN. 
 1119 
 
 1784 
 1781 
 1738 
 1764 
 1606 
 
 DIED 
 
 1174 
 
 1860 
 1844 
 1801 
 1831 
 1664 
 
 B. c. 1995 B. c. 1821 
 
 Abenezra, an astronomer, philosopher, poet, philologist, &c. 
 Aberdeen, Earl of, statesman and antiquary , 
 
 Abercronibie, John, author of ' Intellectual Powers' , 
 Abeicromby, Sir Ralph, military commander 
 Aberuetliy, John, eminent physician and uiedicu] writer 
 Ablancourt, N. P. D., translator of the Classics 
 About, Edmoiid, novelist, traYeller, &c. . . 
 
 Abraham, the great progenitor of the Jewish nation 
 
 Abrantes, duchess d', biograplier .... 1784 1838 
 
 Absalom (real name Axcel) archbishop of Den., Sw., and Nor. 1128 1203 
 
 Abubeker, father-in-law and successor of Mahomet . . 561 S24 
 
 Abulfeda, the geographer .... 1273 1345 
 
 Acciup, or Attius, a tragic poet (works not extant) , b. c. 171 
 
 Accursius, or Accorso, an eminent critic . . . 1229 
 
 Accum, Bred., operative chemist (in England) . . . 1769 1838 
 
 Ackerman, Rudolph, introduced gas-lighting and lithog. in London 1764 1834 
 
 Achilles, one of the leaders in the Trojan war . f. b. c. 1100 
 
 Achilles Tatius (of Alexandria), Christian bishop and author 3d cent. 
 
 Achilli, Giovanni G., protestant preacher . . . 1803 
 
 Acropolita, of Constantinople, statesman and historian 1220 12d2 
 
 Adam. Alexander, schoolmaster and author " . , 1741 1809 
 
 Adam, Robert, an architectural author . ^ , , 1728 17^4 
 
 AdamB, John, patriot and statesman, 2d Pres. U. S. , . 1735 1826 
 
 _„_j John Quincy, diplomatist, poet, Pres. U. S. . 1767 1848 
 
 , Samuel, one of the patriotic founders of the republic . 1726 1808 
 
 Add' son Joseph, one of the ornaments of English literature 1672 1719 
 
 Adelung, John C, philologist and lexicographer , , 1732 1SC6 
 
 Adolphus, .John, author of history of England, &c. . , 1766 1845 
 
 Adrain, Robirt, mathematician (at New York, «&c.) . . 1775 .843 
 
 Adrian, the 15th emp. (born in Spain) . . . 76 1£8 
 
 ^Ifric, archbishop of Canterbury, author of Anglo-Saxon works 10C5 
 
 JSiian, the historian and rhetorician . . 
 ^neas, son of Priam, king of Troy . . . f. b. c, 
 ^schines, of Athens, philosophier, disciple of Socrates . 
 . , orator . . , 
 
 160 
 llt3 
 
 ^sop, of Phrygia, the prince of fabulisfs . 
 ^bius, military commai.der (defeated Attila) 
 Africanus, Julius, historian 
 
 B. 
 f. B. 
 
 Sp.Moor- 
 
 Leo, author of travels in Africa 
 
 393 
 600 
 
 1487 
 
 Gr. Agamemnon, " the king of kings" . . , 
 
 Gr. Agathius, historian and poet , , , , f. 
 
 Swiss. Agassiz, Louis, naturalist .... 1807 
 
 Gr. Agesilaus II., king of Sparta (defeats the Per., Egypt., and Greeks) 
 
 Scot. Aginhard or Eginhard, Hist, of Charlemagne . . 771 
 
 Gr. Agis IV., the greatest of the Spartan kings . , ♦ 
 
 Eng. Aglionby, one of the translators of the Bible . , 
 
 Rom. Agricola, Cneius Julius, military commander , . ,40 
 
 Ger. Agricola, John, a divine, founder of the Antinomiana . , 1490 
 
 Rom. Agrlppa, military commander, governor of Judea , ,40 
 
 Fr. , Cornelius, philosopher, «fcc. . . , , - 1486 
 
 E. Jew Aguilar, Grace, novelist ..... 1816 
 
 Pers. Ah asuer us, king of Persia (Artaxerxes Long.) . , f. 
 
 B. c. 323 
 
 4a 
 
 232 
 
 I52e 
 
 B. c. 90i 
 
 565 
 
 B. 0, 
 
 . 361 
 
 839 
 
 251 
 
 1610 
 
 93 
 
 1566 
 
 94 
 
 1535 
 
 1847 
 
 456 
 
 / 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDE: 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PEOFBSSION. 
 
 Eng. Aikin, John, M. D., an elegant writer, editor of poets, &c. 
 
 . , Lucj', biographer and historian . • 
 
 Aime-MartiD, Louis, writer ou education 
 Ainsworth, Robert, grammarian and lexicographer 
 
 . , Wm. Praucis, traveller, geologist, &o. 
 
 , VVm. Harrison, novelist . 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Swe. 
 Bar. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Bar, 
 
 ital. 
 
 Port. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 ufing. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer- 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Bar. 
 
 Rus. 
 
 Hue. 
 
 ;3,us. 
 
 ^r- 
 
 ital. 
 
 ISng, 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Bar. 
 
 Bar. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Sect. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Sar. 
 
 Airy, Geo. B., astronomer-royal . 
 
 Tartar. Akbar, Mohammed, a great Mogul sovereign • 
 
 Eng. Akenside, Mark, a popular poet 
 
 Akenblad, philologist . • • 
 
 Alai-icl., king of the Visigoths . . 
 
 Alberoni, Julius, cardinal statesman 
 
 Albert Edward, Prince ofWales, heir to the British throne 
 Albert, Prince, husband of the Queen of England 
 Alberti, an eminent writer, painter, sculptor, &c. . 
 Albertufe-Magnus, philosophic writer, tutor of Aquinas 
 Alboii), the Lombard conqueror . . . 
 
 Alboni, Marietta, eminent contralto singer . . 
 
 Albuquerque (the great) military commander . 
 
 Alcaeus, of Lesbos, a lyric poet . . , 
 
 Aiciati, of Milan, an eminent civilian and author 
 Alcibiades, a famous Athenia;: general and statesman , 
 Alciphron, author of Letters, &c, 
 
 Aicott, A. Bronson, philosopher and educationist . 
 
 • , Wm. A., writer on education and. phiilosopher 
 
 Alcuinus, founder of schools at Paris, «fcc. • 
 
 Alden, John, one of the first Plymouth Colony . 
 Aldhelm, St., an eminent scholar and poet . • 
 
 Aldus, see Manulius .... 
 Alembert, John Le Rond d', math., hist., and philosopher 
 Alexander, A. H., claiming to be Earl of Stirling 
 
 , Archibald, theologian and author . 
 
 , J. Addison, theologian and commentator 
 
 , James W., theologian . . . 
 
 . , Seveius, emperor 
 
 ■ the Great, founder of the Macedonian Empire 
 
 , Nevskoi, a saint and hero ; def. of the Tartars, 
 
 , I., emperor (coalition against Napoleon) 
 
 -, II., (became emperor 1855) 
 
 Alexius Commenus, emperor of the East . 
 Alfieri, an eminent tragic poet . . 
 
 Alfred, justly called the Great, king 
 Algarotti, a general, scholar, and critic . 
 
 Ali Bey, gov. of Egypt, revolted against the Turks 
 Ali Tepeliui, pasha of Jaunina . . 
 
 Alison, Archibald, rev., ' Essays on Taste' 
 — , Archibald, sir, ' History of Europe,' 
 
 Allen, Ethan, an intrepid ofiicer in the Revolution . 
 
 , Wm., author of Amer. Biog. Dictionary 
 
 AUfeyn, Edward, actor and manager (temp. Shakspeare) 
 Allston, "Washington, painter and poet . 
 
 Almamon, caliph, patron of learning . . 
 
 BOUN. 
 
 747 
 
 1660 
 1807 
 1805 
 1801 
 1555 
 1721 
 
 1661 
 lri41 
 1819 
 1398 
 1203 
 
 1826 
 
 1452 
 
 f. B. C. 606 
 
 1492 
 
 c. 450 
 
 f. 170 
 
 1799 
 
 1798 
 
 732 
 
 1698 
 
 B. 
 
 1717 
 17S3 
 1772 
 1809 
 1804 
 209 
 B. C. 356 
 &c. . 1218 
 1777 
 1818 
 1048 
 1749 
 849 
 1712 
 1728 
 1744 
 1757 
 • 
 
 1737 
 1784 
 1566 
 1779 
 
 VIED. 
 
 l!i2S 
 
 1846 
 1743 
 
 160{> 
 
 1770 
 
 1819 
 
 411 
 
 1752 
 
 1861 
 
 1490 
 
 1280 
 
 574 
 
 1515 
 
 1550 
 C. 404 
 
 804 
 
 1687 
 
 709 
 
 1783 
 
 1851 
 1860 
 1859 
 «35 
 C. 323 
 1262 
 1825 
 
 1118 
 
 1803 
 900 
 1769 
 1773 
 1822 
 1839 
 1867 
 1789 
 
 162« 
 
 1843 
 
 833 
 
4 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 NA.TIOW. NAME AND PKOPE3SION. 
 
 Sax. Almansor, caliph, patron of learning , , 
 
 Eng. Almon, Jolm, political writer . . • • 
 
 Mex. Almonte, Juanet, general and statesman . ', 
 
 Span. Alphonso X., king- of Castile, Leon, and author . • 
 
 Port, A'pho. so I., Hcnric^ueri, founder of the Portuguese monarchy 
 
 Amer. Alsop, Ricliard, poet and linguist 
 
 Eng. Althorp, Viscount, statesman and book collector 
 
 Span. Alva, duke of, celebrated and barbarous military commander 
 
 Mex. Alvarez, Juan, leader of Mexican Revolution . . 
 
 Ger. Amalie. duchess of Saxony, dramatic poet • • 
 
 Jew. Amaziah, king of Judali ...» 
 
 Ital. Ambrose, St., bishop of Milan, author ' . , , 
 
 Ital. Araerieus Vespucius (of Florence), explored the S. American 
 coast ...... 
 
 Amer. Ames, Fisher, a statesman and orator . . 
 
 Amer. , Nathan P., machinist and bronze founder • 
 
 Eng. Amherst, Jeffrey, lord, mil. com, in America, &c. • 
 
 Rom, Ammianus, Marcellinus, historian . . , 
 
 Ger. Ammon, Christ. F, von, Protestant theologian • 
 
 Gr. Amraonius, a peripatetic philosopher . • 
 
 Eng. Amory, Thomas, humorous writer, ' Juo. Buncle' 
 
 Fr. Ampei'e, Jean J., traveller and essayist . . 
 
 Fr. , Jean Marie, mathematician and nat. philosopher 
 
 Fr. Amyot, James, bishop of Auxerre, translator of Plutarch 
 
 Bar, ^^nacharsis, a Scythian philosopher and disciple of Solon 
 
 Gr. A nacreon, a celebrated poet * . • 
 
 Gr. Anastasius I., emx^eror of the East . . 
 
 Gr. Anaxagoras, a philosopher .... 
 
 Gr, Anixarchus, a philosopher, companion of Alexander the Great b 
 
 Gr. Anaxlmauder, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher 
 
 Gr, Anaximenes, of Miletus, an Ionic philosopher • 
 
 Fr. Ancelot, J. A. P. F., poet and novelist . • 
 
 Pruss. Ancillon. J. P. F., historiaii and statesman • , 
 
 Dan. Andersen, Hans Christian, poet and novelist . 
 
 ^cotv.h, Anderson, Adam, commercial writer , • . 
 
 Eng. ■ , Sir Edmund, a judge and author . 
 
 Swe. Andersson., Chas. John, explorer in Africa . • 
 
 Fr, Andi-al, G. A., writer on anatomy and medicine . 
 
 Eng. Andre, John, British officer in American war . • 
 
 Eng. Andrews, Lancelot, bishop of "Winchester . 
 
 Gr. Andronicus, of Rhodes, a peripatetic philosopher,- , 
 
 Amer. Angell, Jos. K., author of legal works 
 
 Kig. Anglesey, Henry "W., marquis of, general at Waterloo . 
 
 Fr. Angoulerae, duchess d', daughter of Louis XVI. 
 
 Ital, Aiiielo, Thomas (commonly called Masanielo;, a fisherman of 
 
 Naples, who rose to gTeat power . 
 
 Gr, Anna Commena, daughter of the Emperor Alexis I., historian 
 
 Aust, Anne of Austria, wife of Louis XIII. of France . 
 
 "Sng. Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII. , • 
 
 iiing. Annet, Peter, a deistical wiiter . . , 
 
 Car. Annibal, or Hannibal, a celebrated Carthaginifln general . 
 
 Fr. Anquetil du Perron, a classical scholar and author 
 
 
 BORN, 
 
 DlEDl 
 
 • 
 
 712 
 
 775 
 
 
 1738 
 
 1805 
 
 £ 
 
 bt. 1800 
 
 
 
 1203 
 
 1284 
 
 • 
 
 1094 
 
 1185 
 
 
 1761 
 
 1815 
 
 . 
 
 1758 
 
 1834 
 
 
 1508 
 
 1582 
 
 • 
 
 1790 
 1794 
 
 
 • 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 809 
 
 
 340 
 
 387 
 
 n 
 
 1451 
 
 1517 
 
 
 1750 
 
 1808 
 
 • 
 
 1803 
 
 1847 
 
 
 1717 
 
 1797 
 
 • 
 
 
 30' 
 
 
 1766 
 
 185/ 
 
 • 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 24 
 
 
 1719 
 
 1789 
 
 t 
 
 1800 
 
 1864 
 
 
 1775 
 
 1836 
 
 , 
 
 1513 
 
 1593 
 
 B, 
 
 c. 592 
 
 
 • 
 
 E. 
 
 C. 474 
 518 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 500 B. 
 
 C. 428 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 840 
 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 611 B. 
 
 c. 547 
 
 , 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 5a4 
 
 
 1794 
 
 
 • 
 
 1767 
 
 1837 
 
 
 1805 
 
 
 • 
 
 1692 
 
 1765 
 1605 
 1856 
 
 
 1797 
 
 
 • 
 
 1751 
 
 1780 
 
 
 1555 
 
 16:6 
 
 '. I 
 
 . c. 63 
 
 
 
 1794 
 
 1857 
 
 • 
 
 1768 
 
 185^1 
 
 p 
 
 1778 
 
 1851 
 
 . 
 
 1623 
 
 lfi46 
 
 
 1083 
 
 1148 
 
 • 
 
 1604 
 
 1CC5 
 
 
 1500 
 
 1536 
 
 • 
 
 1703 
 
 1778 
 
 B, 
 
 c. 247 B. 
 
 c. 183 
 
 
 173:. 
 
 18L- 
 
EIOGKAPHICAl, INDEX. 
 
 KATION, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Mace. 
 
 Mace. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Bom. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Pers. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Scotch. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 It.l. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Pruss. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Scotch. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Max. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION, BOKN. 
 
 Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, a learned divino • 1033 
 
 Anson, Gt^orge, lord) celebrated naval commander • , 1697 
 
 Anspach, Eliz., margravine of, author of memoirs . • 1750 
 
 Ai^ter, Jno., translator of ' Faust ' . . , , 17&3 
 
 Anthon, Charles, classical scholar and author , . 1797 
 
 Anthony, St., the founder of monastic institutions , . 251 
 
 , of Padua, a divine . . . , 'xl95 
 
 Antigonus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great , 
 
 Antipater, one of the generals of Alexander the Great . , 
 
 Antisthenes, a philos., founder of the sect of Cynics , b. c. 423 
 
 Antonelli, Giacomo, cardinal, premier of Pius IX. . ' , 1806 
 
 Antoninus Pius, emperor .... 86 
 
 , Marcus Aurelius, emperor, 8urnax„ei the philosopher 121 
 
 Antony, Mark, military commander and statesman « b. c. 86 
 
 Anveri, a celebrated poet • . • • , 
 
 Anville, Jean B. d', geographer . , , 
 
 Apicius, the name of three Roman epicures • , 
 
 Apiou, a grammarian and bitter enemy of the Jews 
 
 ApoUodorus, the name of several writers and statesmen 
 
 ApoUonius, surnamed Rhodius, a poet . . , 
 
 , Pergamensis, a geometrician , , 
 
 , Tyaneus, a Pythagorean philosopher , 
 
 Appian, au historian . . . , , f. 143 
 
 Appleton, Jesse, president of Bowdoin College and theologian . 1772 
 Apulcius, a Platonic philosopher and writer . , a. d. 
 
 Aquinas, St. Tliomas, a celebrated theologian . , 1224 
 
 Arago, Dom. Fr. Jean, astronomer and statesman , « 1786 
 
 Aram, Eugene, a learned schoolmaster, executed for m.urder . 1705 
 Aratus, of Sicyon, mil. com. and statesman , . b. c. 273 
 
 Arbuthnot, John, Dr., apoet . . • • . 
 
 Archelaus, Ionic philosopher • , , 
 
 Archius, a poet . . • . , 
 
 Archilochus, a poet . . • • 
 
 Archidemes, a celebrated mathematician , . 
 
 Archytas, a mathematician • . • • 
 
 Aretino, Guide, inventor of the gamut of music . 
 
 , Leonard, an historian . . , . 
 
 , Peter, a satirist .... 
 
 Argall, Samuel, early colonist and deputy-governor of Virginia 
 Argelander, F. W. A., astronomer . . , 
 Argensola, Lupercio, historian and poet , , 
 , Bartholomew, historian . • , 
 
 DIED. 
 1109 
 
 1762 
 
 1828 
 
 1867 
 S5G 
 
 1231 
 B. c. 301 
 B. c. 319 
 
 161 
 
 180 
 
 B. c. 30 
 
 1201 
 
 1782 
 
 1st cent. 
 
 1697 
 
 . A. D. 
 
 f. .0 
 
 B. c. 5th to 2d cent. 
 
 B. c. 194 
 f. B. c. 242 
 
 1819 
 2d cent. 
 1274 
 1853 
 1759 
 
 B. c, 21'> 
 1735 
 
 f, B. c. 
 
 f. B. C. 
 f. B. C. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 Argyle, duke of, chief of clan Campbell, statesman , 
 Ariosto, Lewis, a celebrated poet . . 
 
 Arista, Mariano, general under Santa Anna . , 
 
 Aristarchus, of Samos, mathematician and philosopher 
 
 , grammarian and critic . . , 
 
 Aristides, an Athenian statesman . , , , bo. 
 
 , JElius, an orator and sophist , 
 
 , one of the fathers of the church . . 
 
 Aristippus, of Cyrene, philosopher, founder of the CyreniacB f. b» c. 392 
 Aiietomenes, a warrior and patriot . . . f. b. c. 662 
 
 450 
 
 719 
 
 685 
 
 287 
 
 408 
 
 995 
 
 1369 
 
 1492 
 
 1572 
 
 1779 
 
 1566 
 
 1566 
 
 1678 
 
 1474 
 
 1802 
 
 f. B. c. 280 
 
 B. 0. 160 
 
 129 
 f. 127 
 
 B. c. 212 
 
 B. p. 360 
 
 14 '4 
 1555 
 :.?39 
 
 1613 
 1631 
 1743 
 
 Ia '■ 3 
 IS65 
 
 4-7 
 
THE WORLD S PEOGEESS. 
 
 KATIOK. 
 
 Gr. 
 Gr. 
 Gr. 
 
 Span. 
 
 £ng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 :tai. 
 
 >'r. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Pru88. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bcjt. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bar. 
 
 Bar. 
 
 Bar. 
 
 Flem 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bar. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer,. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 Bar. 
 
 -*-' - J* 
 
 7?.oiu. 
 F.. 
 
 NAME AND PKOFESSION. 
 
 Aristophanes, an Athenian comic poet . . • B. 
 
 Aristotle, philosopher, founder of the Peripatetics • B. 
 
 Arius, of Alexandria, the founder of the Arian sect 
 
 ^ Montanue, Benedict, orientalist 
 
 Arkwright, Sir Richard, inventor of spinning jennies 
 Ariinoourt, Victor, vicomte d', novelist 
 Arminius, the deliverer of Germany 
 
 , James, a celebrated divine, founder of a sect 
 
 ArmstrDig, John, M D., poet 
 
 , John, general, statesman, and historian 
 
 Arnaud, Daniel, troubadour . 
 
 , Francis Biiculard, dramatist and poet . 
 
 Arne, Thomas Augustus, musical composer , 
 Arnobius, a defender of Christianity . . 
 
 Arnim, L. A., poet and novelist 
 Arnold, Benedict, major-general, the traitor to hie country 
 
 , of Brescia, a learned monk, disciple of Abelard 
 
 , M atthew, poet, professor of poetry, Oxon. 
 
 , Thomas, D. D., theologian, historian, and philologi 
 
 , Thomas K., author of classical test-hooks . 
 
 Arnott, i^iel, popular scientific writer . 
 Arrian, historian, disciple of Epictetus 
 Arrowsmith, Aaron, constructor of maps and charts 
 Arsaces I., the founder of the Parthian monarchy . 
 Artaxerxes I., king of Persia 
 
 , founder of the new Persian kingdom . 
 
 Aitevel'Ie, Philip van, revolutionary popular leader • 
 
 Arthur, a prince celebrated in fable . . . 
 
 Arthur. Timothy S., author of tales and essays 
 
 Arundel, Ihos. H., earl of, importer of the Arundelian marbles 
 
 Asbury, Francis, first Methodist bishop in the United States 
 
 Ascham, '.^.oger, a learned writer . 
 
 Asdrubal, a Carthaginian general . . . 
 
 Ashbiirton, Alex. Baring, lord, statesman . . 
 
 Ashmnn, John K., jurist, professor of law . • 
 
 Askew, Anne, protestant, burned at Smithfield • 
 
 Aspasia, the accomplished wife (?) of Pericles . • 
 
 Asse/, John, historian .... 
 
 Ast, George A. F., philologist, ' Lexicon Platonicum' . 
 
 Astor, John Jacob, wealthy merchant at New York 
 
 A'chison, David. i., senator, United States, from Missouri 
 
 AthanafiuB, St., oie of the fathers of the church 
 
 Athenagoras, philoss-opher 
 
 Athenaie, Empress o^ the "West and authoress, called also Ea 
 
 doxia ..... 
 
 Athenseus, a celebrates grammarian, the Greek Varro . 
 Attalus, founder of thi monarchy of Pergamus, inventor of 
 
 parchment .... 
 
 -, Ehodiue, mathematician 
 
 Atterbury, Francis, bishop of Rochester, exiled for conspiracy 
 Atticus, a knight and author (works lost) 
 Auber, D. F. E., famous musical composer 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 c. 389 
 0. 384 
 
 1527 
 1732 
 1789 
 
 1560 
 1709 
 1758 
 
 1718 
 1710 
 f. 303 
 1781 
 1740 
 
 1822 
 1795 
 1800 
 1788 
 f. 140 
 
 ;. c. 250 
 
 472 
 1809 
 
 1745 
 1515 
 
 1774 
 1800 
 
 1778 
 
 1763 
 
 1807 
 
 296 
 
 f. 177 
 
 f. 190 
 
 . C. 173 
 
 1662 
 
 C. 109 
 
 1784 
 
 436 
 1598 
 1792 
 1856 
 20 
 1610 
 1779 
 1843 
 1220 
 1805 
 1778 
 
 1831 
 1801 
 1555 
 
 1842 
 1853 
 
 1823 
 
 B. c. 425 
 
 1832 
 542 
 
 1646 
 1816 
 1568 
 B.C. 220 
 1848 
 1833 
 
 is-r. 
 
 £>09 
 
 ni 
 
 1848 
 
 371 
 
 B. C. 1j* 
 
 1731 
 B. C. 32 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 HATIOW. 
 
 Swiss. 
 Eng. 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 G. Jew. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Aiiblgne J. H. Merle d', historian of Eefonnation 
 Auckland, William, lord, statesman • 
 
 Audoin, J. F. zoologist . . . 
 
 Augereau, Castiglione, duke of, miL com . 
 
 Auerbach, Berthold, novelist 
 Augustine, St,, a celebrated father of the church 
 
 , the Apostle of the English— 1st archbishop of Cante.-b.iry 
 
 Rom. Augustulus Eomulus, the last emperor of the West 
 
 Eom. Augustus, Caius Julius Csesar Octavius— 1st emperor , 
 
 Aurungzebe, last Mogul em.peror in India . , 
 
 Rom. Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, poet , , • , 
 
 Eng. Austen, Jane, novelist . . , , 
 
 Eng. , Sarah, essayist and trans' ator , (abt) 
 
 Amer. Austin, Stephen F., founder of first American colony in Texas . 
 
 Fr. Auvergne, Theophilus — republican— military commander . 
 
 Ara. Averroes, philosopher, physician, and author . . , 
 
 Ital. Avezzana, Joseph, patriot soldier, refugee in New York • 
 
 Ara. Avicenna, philosopher, physic' an ar.d author ... 
 
 Eug. Ayscough, Samuel, compiler of Index to Shakespeare, &c. • 
 
 Scot. Aytoun, Wm. E., professor, poet, and essayist . , 
 
 Fr. Azais, Pierre H. philosophic -writer . , , 
 
 Ital. Azeglio, Massimo T. marquis d', statesman and author . 
 
 BORN. 
 
 l.ih;c. 
 
 1794 
 
 
 
 IfcH 
 
 1797 
 
 1841. 
 
 1757 
 
 1816 
 
 1S12 
 
 
 354 
 
 430 
 
 ^'TJ 
 
 604 
 
 
 476 
 
 C. 63 
 
 14 
 
 -.iClS 
 
 1707 
 
 
 3ii 
 
 1775 
 
 1817 
 
 ) isno 
 
 
 
 1836 
 
 17^3 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1197 
 
 1797 
 
 
 &80 
 
 1037 
 
 
 1804 
 
 1813 
 
 1865 
 
 17^6 
 
 1845 
 
 l'.'*-'" 
 
 1866 
 
 B 
 
 Eng. Babbage, Charles, mathematician and machinist 
 
 Fr. Babeuf, Franc. N, agrarian and socialist author 
 
 Port. Baccellar, a civilian, historian, and lyric poet . 
 
 Gr. Bacchylides, lyric poet 
 
 Amer. Bache, Alex. D. scientific engineer and writer 
 
 Amer. Bachman, John, naturalist and theologian 
 
 Eng. Back, Geo. Capt. R. N., Polar navigator and author 
 
 Amer. Backus, Isaac, a divine and historian . 
 
 Amer. Bacon, Delia, writer on Shakespeare . . 
 
 Amer. Bacon, Leonard, theological writer and preacher 
 
 Eng. , Roger, a monk celebrated for his scientific knowledge 
 
 Eng. , Francis, Lord Verulam, the celebrated philosopher and t 
 
 man ...... 
 
 Dan. Baden, James, one of the founders of Danish literature • 
 
 Eng. Baifin, Wm., navigator, discoverer of Baffin's Bay 
 
 Ger. Bahr, John C. F., classical philologist . . • 
 
 Amer. Bailey, Jacob W., professor of chemistry, botany, &c. , 
 
 Eng. , Nathan, a gram'narian and lexicographer , . 
 
 Eng. , Philip James, poet, author of Festus . , 
 
 Er.g. , Samuel, metaphysician and political essayist . . 
 
 Fr. Baillet, a learned theologian, historian, and miscellaneous writer 
 
 Eng. Baillie, Joanna, poet and novelist . . 
 
 So t. , Matthew, physician and anatomist . 
 
 Fr. Bailly, John Silvain, a learned author, and a leader in the revo 
 
 lution . . 
 
 En?. Baily, Francis, astronomer and mathematician 
 
 Amer. Bainbridge, William, naval commander , (Princeton) 
 
 . 1710 
 
 
 17o4 
 
 1797 
 
 1724 
 
 1806 
 
 :? r. 450 
 
 
 . ' 1806 
 
 1867 
 
 17S0 
 
 
 1796 
 
 
 1724 
 
 1806 
 
 • 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1214 
 
 1292 
 
 'to> 
 
 
 1561 
 
 1626 
 
 1735 
 
 1804 
 
 1584 
 
 1622 
 
 179? 
 
 
 . IcU 
 
 1857 
 
 
 1742 
 
 • 
 
 1787 
 
 
 r 1649 
 
 1706 
 
 1762 
 
 1851 
 
 1761 
 
 1823 
 
 • 
 
 1736 
 
 1793 
 
 1774 
 
 1344 
 
 on) 1774 
 
 u33 
 
THE world's PROGKESS. 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 1798 
 . 1757 
 
 (Ball's Bluflf) 1811 
 
 1782 
 
 t'AliON. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Amer. Baird, Robert, D. D., author of travels . 
 
 S.C/t. . , Sir David, military commander • 
 
 Turk, Baja"-et, sultan— conquered by Tamtrlaae . 
 
 Am3r. Ijaker, Edward D., U S. senator and general . 
 
 Teal. Ball'i, Adrian, geographer and ethnographer 
 
 Span. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, early navigator to South America . 
 
 Er. Baldwin, who became emperor of the East • • 
 
 Irish. Balfe, ">/m. Michael, musical composer • . • 1808 
 
 Scot. Baliol, iutriguiug rival of Robert Bruce . . • 1259 
 
 Scgt. Ballantyne, Jas., printer, publisher for Sir Walter Scott • 
 
 Amer. Ballou, Hosea, universalist minister and author . . 1771 
 
 Eng, Baltimore, G-eo. Calvert, 1st lord, founder of Maryland • 1582 
 
 Fr. Baltic, Jean de la, cardinal, premier of Louis XL . • 
 
 Fv. Balzac, Houore de, novelist ... 1799 
 
 Amer. Bancroft, George, historian of the TJ. S., secretary of navy, &c. . 1800 
 
 Swe. Banier or Banner, a celebrated military commander . . 1596 
 
 Irish. Banim, John, novelist . . . . • 1800 
 
 Amer. Bangs, ISlathan, D. D., minister of Methodist church and author 1778 
 
 Amer. Banks, Nath. P., speaker of House of Rep., U. S., gov. of Mass. 1816 
 
 Eng Banks, Sir Joseph, navigator, president Rf)yal Society . 1743 
 
 Fr. Baraguay d' Hilliers, AcMlle, marshal of France , . 1795 
 
 Fr. Barante, A. G. P. B., baron, historian . ' . • 1782 
 
 Pruss. Baratier, a Hebrew lexicographer before ten years of age > 1721 
 
 Eng. Barbauld, Anna Letitia, a popular miscellaneous writer , 1743 
 
 Turk. Batbarossa, the celebrated coi'sair, usurper of Algiers . . 
 
 Amer. Barber, Francis, officer in revolutionary army • • 1751 
 
 Fr. Barbej-rac, John, miscellaHeous writer • • • 1674 
 
 Amer. Barbour, James, statesman and diplomatist . • Va. 1775 
 
 Amer. Barbour, P. P., statesman and judge of Supreme Coui't . Va. 17S3 
 
 Eng. Barclay, Robert, the celebrated vindicator of the Quakers . 1648 
 
 Ital. Baretti, Jcseph, lexicographer— author of Travels, &c. • 1716 
 
 Eng. Baiham, Richard Henry, humorist — ' Ingoldsby Legends' 1788 
 
 Anjer. Barker, Joseph, noted financier . . . • 1779 
 
 Amer. Barlow, Joel, a statesman and poet . . ■ 1756 
 
 Amer. Barnard, Henrj', distinguished educator • • . 1811 
 
 ^vmer, Barnes, Albert, theologian and commentator ,. • 1798 
 
 Ung. , Joshua, an eminent Greek scholar . . • 1654 
 
 Amer. , Daniel H. a distinguished conchologist . • 
 
 Dutch. Barneveldt, John, statesman, (beheaded) . , . 1547 
 
 Amer. Barney, Joshua, a distinguished naval commander . 1759 
 
 Fr. Barras, Paul, count de, mem. of the direct, in the Revolution . 1755 
 
 Eng. Barre, Isaac, colonel, M. P., friend of America . . 1726 
 
 Irish. Barrington, Sir Jonah, lawyer and author . . . 1767 
 
 .^mer. Barron, James, commodore (in the affair of the Chesapeake) . 1768 
 
 Eng. , Isaac, a divine and mathematician . . 1630 
 
 Eng. , Sir John, traveller, author, secretary to Admiralty . 1764 
 
 r.ish. Barry, John, the first American commodore ... 1745 
 
 Eng. , Sir Charles, architect ot houses of parliament , 1795 
 
 Amer. , W. T., statesman and diplomatist, . , Va, 1785 
 
 Ger. Barth, Henry, traveller in Africa . . , 1821 
 
 Fr. Barthelemy, John James, author of ' Anacharsis,' &o. . . 1716 
 
 Amer. Bartlctt, John R., author of explorations, &c , , 1805 
 
 DIED 
 
 1862 
 1829 
 1413 
 1861 
 
 1517 
 1206 
 
 1314 
 
 1833 
 1852 
 1632 
 
 1850 
 
 1641 
 1842 
 1862 
 
 1820 
 
 1740 
 1825 
 1518 
 1783 
 
 1728 
 1842 
 1841 
 1690 
 1789 
 1845 
 
 1812 
 
 ]7!2 
 1818 
 1619 
 1818 
 1829 
 1802 
 1834 
 1851 
 1667 
 184S 
 1803 
 1860 
 1835 
 
 1795 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PEOrESSION. 
 
 Amer. Barilett, Josiah, etatesman,' gov, ]S". II., &c. , , 
 
 Mug. , Wm. H., artist and author . . , 
 
 Amer. Barton, Benj. Smith, M. D., a learned physician and botanist 
 
 Eug. , Bei-nard, the Quaker poet . . . 
 
 Amer. Eartram, John, an eminent botanist . . , 
 
 Gr. Basil, St., a celebrated father of the Greek church . • 
 
 Eiig. Baskerville. John, eminent printer and publisher • 
 
 Fr. Basnage, de Beauval, James, histt)rian - . , 
 
 Fr. Bassano, H. B. M., duke of, political writer and statesman 
 
 Fr. Bastiat, Frederick, political economist . . . 
 
 Amer. Bates, Edward, statesman and jurist . . • 
 
 Amer. Bates, Joshua, banker, (Baring Bros.) in England, , 
 
 Eng. Bath, "William Pulteney, earl of, statesman . , 
 
 Eng. Bathurst, earl of, etatesman, friend of Pope, &c. . , 
 
 Fr. Batteux, Charles, rhetorician and miscellaneous writer 
 
 Ilung. Batthyani, Kasimir, count, statet;man . . , 
 
 Hung. , Lajos, statesman, (shot by Haynau) • 
 
 Ger. Bauer, Bruno, an audacious opposer of Christianity . 
 
 Ger. Eaur, Ferd. Christ., professor of theology and author . 
 
 Eng. Baxter, Richard, an eminent divine and author . , 
 
 Fr. Bayard, Peter, military commander . . ■ . 
 
 Amer. , James A., a distinguished statesman and lawyer , 
 
 Ger. Bayer, John, astronomer .... 
 
 Ger. , Theophilus, chronologist and historian 
 
 Fr. Bayle, Peter, an eminent philosopher and critic, (' Bayle's D 
 
 tionary') ..... 
 
 Eng. Bayly, Thos. Haines, poet . • • . 
 
 Eng. Beattie, James, L.L.D., poet . , , 
 
 Fr. Beauharnais, Hortense, ex-queen of Holland 
 
 Fr. , Eugene, son of the Empress Josephine, mil. com 
 
 viceroy of Italy, &c. .... 
 
 Fr. Beaumarchais, P. A. C. de, an eminent dramatist . . 
 
 Fr. Beaumont; E'ie de, mineralogist and geologist , • 
 
 Eng. , Francis, dramatic writer . . . 
 
 Fr. Beauzee, Nicholas, an eminent gxammarian . . 
 
 Ital. Beccaria, John Baptist, an ecclesiastic and philosopher 
 
 Ital. ) Marquis, professor of political economy and author 
 
 Amer. Beck, Lewis C, chemist and mineralogist . . 
 
 Amer. , Theo. Roraeyn, author of medical jurisprudence . 
 
 Eng. Becket, Thomas a, celebrated prelate and statesman . 
 
 Eng. Beckford, Wm., traveller and novelist (' Vathek') • 
 
 Ger. Beckmann, Johann, ' History of Inventions,' &c. . , 
 
 Fr. Becquerel, An toine Caesar, natural philosopher 
 
 Brit. Bede, styled the Venerable, a learned Saxon monk and historian 
 
 Amer. Bedell, Gregory T., D. D., eloquent pulpit orator . 
 
 Eng. Bedford, John, duke of, military commander • 
 
 Amer. Beecher, Edward, theologian, (sun of Lyman) . . 
 
 Amer. , Henry Ward, theologian and politician . 
 
 Amer. , Lyman, theologian and preacher . , 
 
 Eng. Beechey, Frederick "W., admiral, Arctic voyager . , 
 
 Pruss. Beer, Michael, dramatic poet, (brother of Meyerbeer) 
 
 Ger. Beetlioven, Ludwig von, celebrated musical composer 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1729 
 
 1795 
 
 1809 
 
 1854 
 
 1766 
 
 1815 
 
 17^4 
 
 1849 
 
 i';vi 
 
 1777 
 
 326 
 
 379 
 
 . 1706 
 
 1775 
 
 1653 
 
 1723 
 
 17S8 
 
 18S9 
 
 i-a 
 
 1850 
 
 1790 
 
 
 17 -<8 
 
 1864 
 
 1682 
 
 1764 
 
 1684 
 
 1775 
 
 1713 
 
 1780 
 
 i-'m 
 
 1854 
 
 180;) 
 
 1849 
 
 ISO'; 
 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1615 
 
 1691 
 
 1476 
 
 1524 
 
 1767 
 
 1815 
 
 
 1627 
 
 1694 
 
 17-38 
 
 >ic- 
 
 
 1647 
 
 1706 
 
 1797 
 
 1839 
 
 1735 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1837 
 
 17 
 
 1824 
 
 1733 
 
 1799 
 
 I'.aS 
 
 
 1^55 
 
 1616 
 
 1'(..4 
 
 17«9 
 
 1716 
 
 17rfl 
 
 1735 
 
 ITiiS 
 
 1800 
 
 1858 
 
 1791 
 
 1855 
 
 1119 
 
 1170 
 
 1760 
 
 1844 
 
 1739 
 
 1811 
 
 1788 
 
 
 n 672 
 
 7C-5 
 
 1793 
 
 183 4 
 
 
 143.^ 
 
 
 1863 
 
 1796 
 
 1856 
 
 1800 
 
 1833 
 
 1770 
 
 1627 
 
10 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Ger. Bohaim, or Behem, navigator and geographer • • 
 
 Fr.g. Behn, Aphra, dramatic writer . . . • . 
 
 Rues. Behring, Vitus, Arctic navigator . • • 
 
 Gcr. Bekker, Emmanuel, philologist . . • 
 
 E'.ig. Belcher, Sir Edward, admiral, Arctic navigator • 
 
 Rem. Belisarius, a celebrated general and conqueror . 
 
 Ital. Belgiojoso, Christina, princess of, accomplished & philanthropii 
 
 Amer. Belknap, Jeremy, D. D., historian of New Hampshire . 
 
 Scot. Bell, Ht-nry, first successful steam navigator in Europe . 
 
 Amer. , John, statesman . . . • 
 
 feco., , John, surgeon, anatomist, and physiologist • • 
 
 Scot. , Sir Charles, anatomist and physiologist . • 
 
 Amer. Bellamy, Joseph, D. D., a learned divine and author 
 
 Ita.. Bellarmin, cardinal, the champion of the Roman Catholic church 
 
 Fr. Bellau, Remi, poet ..... 
 
 Fr. Beileisle, count de, military commander . . , 
 
 Ej7g. Bellingham, Richard, royal governor of Massachusetts . 
 
 Ital. Be'lini, Vincenzo, musical composer . . • 
 
 Amer. Bellows, Henry W., Uiiitarian clergyman and author . 
 
 Eng. Beloe, Wm., a divine and critic, translator of Herodotus, &c., 
 
 Fr. Belcn, William, naturalist and traveller . 
 
 Eng. Belst im, William, historical, political and miscellaneous ■writer 
 
 Ital. Balzoni, the celebrated traveller in Egypt . . 
 
 Pol. Bern, Josef, general in Hungarian war against Austria • 
 
 Itah Bern, o, cardinal, one of the restorers of literature • 
 
 Eng. Eerab 7, John, a gallant admiral .... 
 
 Ital. Benecict, St., one of the originators of monasteries • 
 
 Ital. , XIII., pope, theological writer . . . 
 
 Ital. — , XIV., " » " . . 
 
 Fr. Beneiet, Antony, philanthropist and historian, (died in America) 
 
 Ger. Bengel, Johann A., Lutheran theologian and philologist 
 
 Eng. Bengar, Elizabeth Ogilvy, author of historical memoirs . 
 
 Amer. Benjamin, Park, poet, lecturer and journalist . , 
 
 Sp. Jew , of Tudela, rabbi, traveller in the East • • 
 
 Bar. Bent adad, king of Syria . ,' . . 
 
 Scotch. Bennett, James Gordon, journalist • • . 
 
 Fr. Benserade, Isaac, a wit and poet . . . 
 
 Eng. Bentham, Jeremy, a political and philosophical writer , 
 
 Eng. Bentley, Richard, an eminent critic and scholar . 
 
 Amer. Benton, Thomas Hart, statesman and historian • • 
 
 Fr. Beranger, Pierre Jean de, lyrical poet . • 
 
 Fr. Berenger, A. M. M. F., statesman and jurist . 
 
 Egypt. Berenice, the name of seven different queens of Egypt and Syria 
 
 frer. Perghauis, Henry, mathematician and geographer , 
 
 Swe. Bergman, professor of chemistry at Upsal . , 
 
 Bel. Beriot, Charles A. de, violinist and composer . . 
 
 Irisr.. Berkley, George, bishop, an eminent prelate and philosopher 
 
 Amer. , William, governor of Virginia . . . 
 
 Br, Berlioz, Hector, musical composer 
 
 Fr. Bernadotte, J. B. J., elected king of Sweden, as Charles XIV. 
 
 Eng. Bernard, Edward, divine, astronomer and author , . 
 
 Amer. , Francis, governor of MassacLueetts . • 
 
 BORN. 
 
 1459 
 1640 
 16S0 
 1785 
 1799 
 
 1808 
 1744 
 1767 
 1797 
 1763 
 1781 
 1719 
 1542 
 1528 
 1684 
 1624 
 1808 
 1814 
 1756 
 1518 
 1752 
 1778 
 1795 
 1470 
 1650 
 480 
 1649 
 1675 
 1713 
 1687 
 1778 
 1809 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1506 
 1689 
 1741 
 
 56h 
 
 1798 
 1830 
 
 1825 
 1842 
 1793 
 1626 
 1577 
 17-1 
 1"72 
 1 35 
 
 1817 
 1564 
 1827 
 1823 
 1^50 
 1542 
 17C2 
 547 
 1728 
 1758 
 17*^4 
 1752 
 1827 
 1864 
 1173 
 c. S95 
 
 B 
 
 1800 
 
 1612 
 . 1742 
 
 1662 
 
 1782 
 
 178i 
 
 1(85 
 , c. Ist to od cent 
 
 1797 
 
 1786 
 
 1802 
 
 1684 
 
 1691 
 1832 
 1742 
 1858 
 1857 
 
 17S4 
 
 ". •03 
 * 34 
 1633 
 
 1753 
 16G7 
 
 1344 
 1897 
 1779 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 li 
 
 RATION. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ainer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 JFr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ainer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ens-. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Fr. 
 Iri^h. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 NAME ANB PROFESSION. 
 
 Bernard, John Frederick, bookseller, editor and author 
 
 , St., preacher of Crusades and author , 
 
 , Simon, engineer and military commander 
 
 Berrien, John McPherson, TJ. S. Senator from Georgia . 
 
 Berruyer, a Jesuit, author of a ' History of the People of God,' 
 
 in 11 vols. 4to . . 
 
 Berry, Charles F., duke of, 2d eon of Charles XL, (assassinated) 
 ■ , Duchess of (wife of the above), intriguing politician 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 1091 
 1779 
 1781 
 
 1681 
 
 1778 
 1798 
 
 Hiram George, general, war against secession (from Maine) 1814 
 
 Berryer, Pierre A., statesman 
 
 Berthier, Alexander, a distinguished military commander 
 Bertholett, Claude Louis, an eminent chemist 
 Bertrand, Henri G., general in Napoleon's army . 
 
 Berwick, duke of, military commander (killed at Philllpsburg) 
 Berzelius, John James, chemist ...» 
 Bessel, Frederick William, astronomer 
 Bessieres, duke of Istria, military commander, (killed atliUtzen) 
 Bethune, George W., D. D., theologian and poet , 
 
 Betterton, Thomas, famous actor . . , 
 
 Bettinelli, Xavier, an elegant miscellaneous writer 
 Betty, William Henry W., actor, the 'Young Roscius' 
 Bewick, Thomas, naturalist and wood engraver , 
 
 Beza, Theodore, an eminent reformer . , 
 
 Bezout, mathematician . . , , 
 
 Bianchini, Francis, mathematician and author , 
 Bias, one of the seven sages . , . , 
 
 B.chat, an eminent anatomist and physiologist • 
 Bickerstaff, Isaac, dramatist • . , , 
 
 Bickersteth, Edward, theological writer 
 
 f 
 
 Amer. Biddle, James, a commodore in the United States Navy 
 
 -, John, au eminent Socinian writer . 
 
 -, Nicholas, a captain in the United States Navy 
 
 -, " , financier and liiterateur . 
 
 Eng. - 
 Amer. - 
 Amer. - 
 
 Biela, William, baron von, astronomer 
 Amer. Bigelow, John, medical writer . , 
 
 Fr. Bignon, Louis E,, historian . , 
 
 Gr. Bion, pastoral poet . . . 
 
 Gr. , of Borysthenes, philosopher, (Cyreniac) 
 
 Fir. Blot, Jean B., mathematician .... 
 
 Eng. Birbeck, George, M. D., founder of mechanics' institutions 
 
 Amer. Bkd, Boberfc M., M. D., novelist .... 
 
 Amer. Birnav, James G., anti-slavery politician 
 
 Fr. Biro:., uke of, military commander, (beheaded for conspiracy) 
 
 Eng. Bieh i , Sir Henry E., musical composer 
 
 Amer. Bissell, "William H,, governor of Illinois, volunteer in Mexico 
 
 Scot. Bisset, Robert, historian and biographer 
 
 Fr. Bissot, John, a I'evolutionist and author . . 
 
 S^an. Bivar, Don Rodrigo, known in history and romance under the 
 
 name of tho Cid • . . . . 
 
 Scot. Black, Adam, publisher M. P. provost of Edinburgh . 
 In.Am. Blac', Hawk, Indian Chief . , 
 
 Eig. Blaekstoue, I3ir "William, an eminent lawyer and author 
 
 1790 
 1753 
 1748 
 1778 
 1670 
 1776 
 1784 
 176.> 
 1805 
 17S5 
 1''18 
 1791 
 175S 
 
 173C 
 
 1862. 
 
 c 606 
 
 1771 
 1733 
 r,786 
 :'.783 
 
 :.6t5 
 
 1750 
 1786 
 ..782 
 
 1774 
 1776 
 1803 
 1792 
 1561 
 1775 
 1811 
 175P 
 1757 
 
 1040 
 1784 
 1768? 
 1723 
 
 X>IEI>j 
 
 1151 
 ll'S 
 
 ■"^51 
 
 1820 
 
 186? 
 
12 
 
 THE WORLD S PKOGEESS. 
 
 KATION. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Pru6. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Swe» 
 
 Brit. 
 
 Ital 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Fr, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Co'.om. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 Fr, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Blackwell, Eliz., first female M. D. in the United States • 
 Blair, Dr. Hugh, a divine and rhetorician , , 
 
 , Francis P., journalist and politician , , • 
 
 , Francis P., jr., leader of Missouri free-soilers . 
 
 , Robert, a divine and poet . . • • 
 
 Blalie, John L. Rev. author of Dictionary, «&c. , 
 
 Blake, Robert, a celebiated admiral . c • 
 
 Blauchard, Laman, essayist and journalist , . 
 
 Bleecker, Ann Eliza, poet and essayist 
 
 Blessington, Marguerite, countess, novelist and litterateur 
 Bloomfield, E. v., classical scholar . . • 
 
 , Robert, a poet . . • • 
 
 Blucher, a celebrated military commander • > 
 
 Blum, Robert H , publicist and politician • • 
 
 Blumenback, John Fred., naturahst • • • 
 
 Boadicea, the warlike queen of the Iceni . 
 
 Boccacio, one of the great classic writers of modern Italy . 
 Boccalina, a satirist .... 
 
 Bochart, Samuel, an eminent divine and orientalist • 
 
 Bodin, John, a lawyer and author . . • 
 
 Sodley, Sir Thos., founder of library • ^ » 
 
 Boehmen, Jacob, a fanatic and author • • 
 
 Boekh, Augustus, classical philologist 
 
 Boerhaave, one of the most eminent of modern physicians • 
 Boethi us, a statesman and philosopher 
 
 Bogatzky, Chas. Henry theologian, (' Golden Treasury') . 
 Boliemond, a Norman adventurer . . , 
 
 Bohn, Henry G., publisher and editor . . • 
 
 Bojardo, Mathew M., poet, (' Orlando Innamorato') • 
 Boileau, Nicholas, an eminent poet . • • 
 
 Boissard, Jean J., fabulist . • • • 
 
 Boissy, Louis de, author of comedies . , , 
 
 , d'Anglas, F. A., count of, statesman and revolutionist 
 
 Boleyn, Anne, wife of Henry VIII., 
 
 Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, poet and deistical writer • 
 
 Bolivar, the heroic deliverer of his country . • 
 
 Bonaparte, Jerome, ex-king of Westphalia « • 
 
 , Joseph, ex-king of Naples and Spain • 
 
 , Louis, ex-king of Holland . . 
 
 , Louis Napoleon, 1st president republic of France i 
 
 emperor ..... 
 
 -, Lucien, Prince of Canino , . 
 
 . , Maria Letitia, mother of Napoleon , , 
 
 -, Napoleon, emperor of France 
 
 Bond, William C, astronomer 
 Bonner, bishop, the persecutor of Protestants 
 Bonnet, Chnrles, a celebrated naturalist 
 Bonnycastle, Charles, mathematician , 
 
 , John, " 
 
 Bonpland, Aime, traveller and botanist « 
 
 Booth, Junius Brutus, tragedian . 
 
 Boone, Daniel, the first settler in Kentucky 
 
 BORN. 
 
 die:;^. 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1718 
 
 180O 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1699 
 
 1777 
 
 1788 
 
 1857 
 
 1599 
 
 1657 
 
 1803 
 
 184-5 
 
 1757 
 
 178.^ 
 
 1789 
 
 1840 
 
 1788 
 
 1846 
 
 1766 
 
 1823 
 
 1742 
 
 1819 
 
 1807 
 
 1848 
 
 1752 
 
 1840 
 
 
 61. 
 
 1313 
 
 1373 
 
 1556 
 
 161? 
 
 1509 
 
 1567 
 
 1530 
 
 1596 
 
 1544 
 
 1612 
 
 1575 
 
 1624 
 
 1668 
 
 1738 
 
 455 
 
 526 
 
 1690 
 
 1744 
 
 
 1111 
 
 14S4 
 
 1494 
 
 1636 
 
 1711 
 
 1743 
 
 1831 
 
 1694 
 
 1758 
 
 1756 
 
 1826 
 
 1507 
 
 15S6 
 
 1678 
 
 1751 
 
 1785 
 
 1831 
 
 1784 
 
 1859 
 
 1768 
 
 1844 
 
 1778 
 
 1845 
 
 jHu. 
 
 1808 
 
 
 1775 
 
 1840 
 
 1750 
 
 18S6 
 
 1769 
 
 1821 
 
 1789 
 
 1859 
 
 
 1569 
 
 1720 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1840 
 
 
 1821. 
 
 
 1840 
 
 1796 
 
 1852 
 
 1730 
 
 1823 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 1^ 
 
 KATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSIOX. 
 
 Ger. Bopp, Francis, Sanscrit scholar . • • 
 
 Ita]. Bregli, pliilosoplier and matbematician • • 
 
 Ital. Borghesi, Bartolomeo, count, antiquarian , 
 
 Ital. Borgi, Giovanni, originator of ragged schools 
 
 Ita!. Borgia, Ciesar, son of the infamous Pope Alexander VL 
 
 Ital. , Lucrezia, infamous daughter of Pope Alexander VI. 
 
 Ital. Borromeo, Cardinal, theological writer . , 
 
 Eng. Borrow, George, author of ' Gipsies of Spain' • 
 
 Fr. Bosc, Louis A W., naturalist . , « 
 
 Eng. Boscawen, Edward, brave and skilful admiral , 
 
 Ital. Boscovitch, mathematical and philosophical writer • 
 
 Fr. Bossuet, Marie Jos., marshal of France , , 
 
 Fr. Bossuet, James B., a divine and historian • • 
 
 Fr. Bossut, Charles, mathematician . , 
 
 Scot. Boston, Thomas, a divine and author . , , 
 
 Eng. Bus well, James, the biographer of Dr. Johnson , 
 
 Eng. Boswoi th, Joseph, D. D., Anglo-Saxon lexicographer • 
 
 Ital. Botta, Carlo G. G., historian . . . 
 
 Ital. Bottigcr, archaeologist and antiquarian . , 
 
 Amer. Botts, elohn Alinor, politician . . 
 
 Gr. Bozzaris, Marco, a gallant leader in the new revolution 
 
 Amer. Boudi not, Elias, a statesman and philanthropist 
 
 Fr. Bougainville, Louis A., military commander and author 
 
 Fr. Boufflers, Duke of, military commander • 
 
 Fr. Bjulainvilliers, Henry, count of, historian • 
 
 Eng. Boulton, Matthew, an eminent engineer . • 
 
 Fr. Boui'cet, Peter J. de, an officer and topographer 
 
 Irish. Boucicault, Dion, dramatist ... 
 
 Fr. Bourdaloue, a noted preacher , , 
 
 Fr, Bourdon, Pierre L. M. mathematician , • 
 
 Fr. Bourignon, Aiitoinette, a fanatical author . 
 
 Fr. Bourmont, L. A. V., count of, marshal of France 
 
 Fr, Bourne, Vincent, an elegant Latin poet , 
 
 Fr. Bourrienne, biographer of Napoleon • , 
 
 Fr. Bousmard, M, de, a military engineer • 
 
 Fr. Boussingault, Jean B. V. D., chemist , , 
 
 GttT. Bouterwek, Fred., ' Hist. Spanish Literature' 
 
 Amer. Bouvier, John, jurist and legal author . , 
 
 Amer. Bowditch, Nath., astronomer, mathematician, <fco. 
 
 Eng. Bowdler, Thomas, editor Shakespeare, &c. 
 
 Amer. Bowdbln, James. LL. D., philosopher and statesman 
 
 Amer. , John, (son of the last), ambassador to Spain 
 
 Amer. Bowen, Francis, biographical and metaphysical author 
 
 .'ilGg. Bowles, William Lisle, poet 
 
 Eng. Bf "vring, James, statesman, poet and linguist 
 
 Scot. Boyd, Mark Alexander, a pot't . . « 
 
 Eng. Boydell, John, alderman, art publisher « 
 
 Fr. Boyer, Abel, lexicographer 
 
 Fr. , Jean Pierre, president of Hayti (died at Paris) 
 
 Ii-ish. Boyle, Robert, an eminent philosopher . , 
 
 Amer. Boylston, Zabdiel, an eminent physician , 
 
 £mer. Bozman, John Leeds, historian and jurist . . 
 
 BORN, 
 
 DISS, 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1507 
 
 
 1781 
 
 
 1736 
 
 1302 
 
 1608 
 
 1679 
 
 15th Cent. 
 
 1538 
 
 1584 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1759 
 
 1828 
 
 1711 
 
 1761 
 
 1711 
 
 1787 
 
 1810 
 
 186- 
 
 1627 
 
 x704 
 
 1730 
 
 ■„814 
 
 1676 
 
 1732 
 
 1710 
 
 1795 
 
 1788 
 
 
 1766 
 
 1837 
 
 
 1835 
 
 1802 
 
 
 178C 
 
 1823 
 
 1740 
 
 1821 
 
 ■•.729 
 
 1811 
 
 1344 
 
 1711 
 
 1658 
 
 1752 
 
 1728 
 
 1809 
 
 1700 
 
 1780 
 
 1822 
 
 
 1632 
 
 1704 
 
 1799 
 
 1864 
 
 IGIG 
 
 1680 
 
 ,1773 
 
 1846 
 
 
 1747 
 
 
 1834 
 
 
 1807 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1766 
 
 1823 
 
 1787 
 
 1851 
 
 177S 
 
 1838 
 
 1754 
 
 1825 
 
 1727 
 
 1790 
 
 1752 
 
 1811 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1762 
 
 1850 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1562 
 
 1601 
 
 1719 
 
 1804 
 
 1667 
 
 1729 
 
 1776 
 
 1850 
 
 1626 
 
 1691 
 
 1680 
 
 1776 
 
 1757 
 
 1828 
 
14 
 
 THE WORLD'S PE OGRESS. 
 
 Ill no N. 
 
 Anier. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 ^mer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 .Dau. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 N.A.In 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Meu. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Bar. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eiig. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amei'. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 IJrace, Charles Loring, philanthropist and traveller 
 Bi-Qckenridge, Henry M., jm'ist and diplomatist 
 Braddock, Edward, general, defeated and killed in Virginia 
 Bradford, Alden, author of History of Massachusetts ' 
 
 . , Andrew, printer and publisher of first newspaper in Phila. 1686 
 
 , William, attorney-general of the U. S. 
 
 , William, first printer in Pennsylvania , 
 
 , William, second governor of Plymouth eolouy 
 
 Bradley, Dr. James, astronomer and mathematic'an 
 Eraditreet, Anne, poetess, daughter of Governor Dudley 
 Bradwardiue, m;ithematician and theologian . . 
 
 Brady, Robert, physician and historian , , 
 
 Brahe, Tycho, a celchrated astronomer . • 
 
 Brainard, David, misionary to the Indians • 
 
 , J. G. C, a poet . . . • 
 
 .Brant, Joseph (Thayendauega), a Mohawk chief , 
 Braiitome, Pierre de B., biographer and chronicler • 
 
 Bravo, Leonardo, a revolutionary patriot . . 
 
 Bray, Ann Eliza, novelist . . . 
 
 Bi'eckinridge, John, D. D., theolcgan . . 
 
 , John C, Vice-President 11,8.. . 
 
 — , Robert J., D. D., Presbj'terian theologian 
 
 Breitk' .cpf, John G. E.., an eminent printer and type-found 
 Bremer, Fredrica, novelist . . , 
 
 Brennus, the leader of the Gauls . . • 
 
 Brewster, Sir Divid, natural philosopher . , 
 
 , William, elder of the Plymouth Pilgrims , 
 
 Bridgewater, ."'. ukeof, introducer of canals in England 
 
 — , .'rancis H. E., duke of, founder of 'Treatiser' 
 
 Briggs, Charlgs P., novelist and journalist 
 
 , E'en' y, math tmatician . . , 
 
 Br;gham, A.iiaT\ah, writer on insanity and philanthropist 
 Bright, John, reform politician and M. P. , , 
 
 BrinviMiers, Marie, marchioness of, poisoner . 
 
 Bris? )n, Mathurin James, naturalist ... 
 Brittan, John, architectural and antiquarian writer 
 Brockhaus, Fried. A, founder of the publishing house . 
 Brodhead, Johu E., author of ' His^tory of New York' 
 Brodie, Sir Benj. C, F. R. S., surgeon and surgical author 
 Broglio, due de, statesman .... 
 Bronte, Anne, 'Acton Bell.' novelist . 
 
 , Charlotte, novelist . . ,' 
 
 -, Emily Jane, ' Ellis Bell,' novelist 
 
 Brooke, Henry, miscellaneous writer . • 
 
 , Sir J:imef=, rajah of Sarawak, and author 
 
 BrookS; Charles T., author of ' Translations from German ' 
 
 , Erastus, journalist and politician. . 
 
 , James, journalist and politician . 
 
 , John, LL.D., governor of Massachuse' ta 
 
 — ' , Maria, poet, (' Maria del Occidente ') . 
 
 Brotier, G., a Jesuit, editor of ' Tacitus ' 
 Brougham, Henry, lord, statesman and jurist 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIES 
 
 
 1826 
 1786 
 
 
 I . 
 
 1715 
 
 1753 
 
 
 1715 
 
 1753 
 
 in Phila 
 
 1686 
 
 1742 
 
 
 1755 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1659 
 
 1752 
 
 
 1588 
 
 1057 
 
 
 1692 
 
 1762 
 
 
 1612 
 
 1672 
 
 
 1709 
 
 1349 
 
 
 1546 
 
 1661 
 
 
 1718 
 
 1747 
 
 
 1697 
 
 1826 
 
 
 1742 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1540 
 
 1614 
 
 
 1692 
 
 1854 
 
 . (aht.) 
 
 1800 
 
 
 
 1797 
 
 1841 
 
 
 1821 
 1800 
 
 
 er . 
 
 1710 
 
 1794 
 
 
 1S02 
 
 1865 
 
 . f. B. 
 
 c. 390 
 1785 
 
 
 
 1560 
 
 16:4 
 
 
 1736 
 
 lu03 
 
 
 1756 
 
 1829 
 
 
 1536 
 
 1630 
 
 
 179a 
 
 1849 
 
 
 loll 
 
 1676 
 
 
 1723 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1771 
 
 :'857 
 
 
 1772' 
 1814 
 
 ic23 
 
 
 1783 
 
 1862 
 
 
 1785 
 
 
 
 "1820 
 
 1«49 
 
 
 1816 
 
 1855 
 
 
 1818 
 
 184o 
 
 
 1706 
 1803 
 
 17s:* 
 
 
 1813 
 1815 
 
 
 
 1810 
 
 
 
 1752 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1795 
 
 1845 
 
 
 1723 
 
 178S 
 
 
 1779 
 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 KATICX. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ir.Am. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Bcot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amor. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Erg. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Suot. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Bubs. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Horn. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Eng. 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Brougham, John, actor and author . • 
 
 Brougniart, Alexander, mineralogist and geologist • 
 
 , Adoljjhe T., hotanist, . . , 
 
 Broussais, F. J. V., medical and physiological writer 
 
 Brown, Alex., father of the eminent merchants 'Browa Brothers' 
 
 , Arthur, a distinguished scholar and barrister 
 
 , (Blackwell), Antoinette L., preacher and philanthropist 
 
 , Charles Brockden, a novelist . , , 
 
 — , Captain John, abolitionist and martyr 
 — , Dr. Thomas, metaphysician and poet 
 — , Goold, grammarian, 
 — , Henry Kirk, sculptor . . 
 
 — , James, senator, minister to France 
 
 , James, eminent publisher (Boston) . . , 
 
 , John, D. D., a miscellaneous writer . . 
 
 , John, a divine and author .... 
 
 , Major-General Jacob, general in war of 1812 • 
 
 , Nicholas, principal patron Brown University • 
 
 , Robert, eminent botanist . . • 
 
 , Samuel, chemist and poet . • • 
 
 , Thomas, satirist, . . , , , 
 
 , Thomas, metaphysician . . , 
 
 Browne, George, count de, an oficer in the Russian service 
 
 , Sir Thomas, a physician, and philosophic writer 
 
 , "WilliaTU George, a traveller in Africa, &c. 
 
 Brownell, Thomas C, Prot. Episcopal Bishop of Connecticut 
 Bro-miing, Elizabeth Barrett, poet, • • , 
 
 , Robert, poet, . . , , , 
 
 Brownson, Orestes A., metaphysical writer • • 
 
 Bruce, James, a celebrated traveller , , , - 
 
 , Robert, the deliverer of his country • • 
 
 Brueys, Francis Paul, admiral . , , 
 Brumraell, George Bryan, ' Beau Brummell' , • 
 Brumoy, Peter, a Jesuit and author . . , 
 Brune, William Mary Ann, marshal and revolutionist 
 Brunei, Isambard K., engineer of Great Eastern, &a. • 
 Brunei, Sir M. I., engineer of Thames tunnel, &c. . 
 Brunet, Jacques Charles, 'Bibliographer's Manual' • 
 Bruno, St., founder of the Chartusian order , , 
 Brunnow, Baron, diplomatist ...» 
 Brunswick, Ferdinand, duke of, military commander . 
 , Luneburg, Charles Wm. Fer., duke of, military com- 
 mander ...... 
 
 Brunton, Mary B., novelist, ' Discipline, ' &c. 
 
 Brutus, Lucius Junius, founder of the republican government 
 
 , Marcus Junius, conspirator against Caesar . , 
 
 Bruy^re, John de la, a celebrated writer . • 
 
 Bruyn, Cornelius de, traveller . . , , 
 
 Bryan, Michael, ' Dictionary of Painters' • , 
 
 Bryant, Jacob, a philologist and antiquary , , 
 
 , "William Cullen, poet, traveller , , 
 
 Bri'dges, Sir Egerton, eccentric litterateur , 
 
 BORN. 
 
 BIKIV 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1770 
 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1772 
 
 1830 
 
 rs' 1764 
 
 
 
 1805 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1771 
 
 1810 
 
 1800 
 
 1859 
 
 1777 
 
 1820 
 
 . 1791 
 
 1857 
 
 1814 
 
 
 1766 
 
 1835 
 
 1800 
 
 1855 
 
 1715 
 
 1766 
 
 1722 
 
 1787 
 
 
 1828 
 
 1769 
 
 I'iil 
 
 1781 
 
 1858 
 
 1817 
 
 .1856 
 
 1663 
 
 1704 
 
 1778 
 
 1820 
 
 1698 
 
 1792 
 
 1605 
 
 1682 
 
 
 1814 
 
 1779 
 
 1865 
 
 1809 
 
 1860 
 
 1812 
 
 
 l^CS 
 
 
 1730 
 
 179C 
 
 
 1329 
 
 :.750 
 
 1798 
 
 1778 
 
 1840 
 
 168 < 
 
 1742 
 
 1762 
 
 1815 
 
 180' 
 
 1S59 
 
 . 176£ 
 
 1845 
 
 1377 
 
 1144 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1721 
 
 1792 
 
 L- 
 
 1735 
 
 ld03 
 
 1778 
 
 1818 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 505 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 4?. 
 
 1644 
 
 169'. 
 
 1652 
 
 
 1757 
 
 '859 
 
 1715 
 
 1804 
 
 1794 
 
 
 1762 
 
 1837 
 
w 
 
 THE WORLD^S PROGRESS. 
 
 KoTIOS. ■ NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Fr. Buat Kanpay, Louis G., count de, a learned writer • 
 
 Fr. Bucer. Martin, one of tlie fathers of the Reformation 
 
 Q-er. Buch, Leopold von, geologist . . • 
 
 Scoi . Buchan, V,''illiam, a physician and author . • 
 
 Sect. Buchfaian, Claudius, a divine . . • 
 
 Scot. , George, an eminent writer . . 
 
 Amer. , James, 15th president of the United States . 
 
 J3ng. liuckinghiim, George Viliiers, duke of, statesman . 
 
 'Eng, , George Villiers, son of the former , 
 
 ^iig. , James S Ik, traveller anJ'author . 
 
 Amer. , Joseph T., journalist and author , • 
 
 jdng. Buckland, Wm., D. D., geologist. . • 
 
 Amer. Buckminster, Joseph, D. D., theologian . • 
 
 Amer. , Joseph S., author of ' Sermons,' &c.. 
 
 Eng. Buckstone, John B., actor and playwright . • 
 
 Arner. Buel, Jesse, agricultural writer . . , 
 
 Polish. Buffier, Claude, a Jesuit and miscellaneous writer . 
 
 i?r. Buifon, George Leclerc, count of, celebrated naturalist 
 
 Fr. Bageaud, T. R., marshal of France . . , 
 
 Ger. Buhle, J. G., ' History of Philosophy,' &c. 
 
 Eng. Bull, Geo., Greek scholar and dramatist . • 
 
 Eng. , Geo., Bishop of St. David's, theological writer 
 
 ^or. , Ole, famous violinist .... 
 
 Swl..s. Bullinger, reformer and author 
 
 Amer. Bullions, Peter, D. D., author of educational works . . 
 
 Fng. Bulwer, Sir Henry L. diplomatist and political writer 
 
 Eng. , (now Sir Edward Lytton), novelist and dramatist 
 
 Eng. , Lady Bulwer Lytton, novelist 
 
 Aust. Buol-Schauenstein, K. F., count of, statesman . 
 
 Russ. Bu;c on, C. C. J., chevalier de, diplomatist and historian 
 
 Eng. Bunyan, John, author of ' Pilgrim'H Progress' 
 
 Ger. Baickhardt, John Charles, mathematician . , 
 
 g^igg -J John Louis, oriental traveller , 
 
 Scot. Am. Burden, Henry, inventor and mechanic , 
 
 Eng. Burdett, Sir Francis, politician . , , 
 
 Ger. B: iger, G. A., poet . '. . , 
 
 Eng. i urges, Geo., G-reek scholar and dramatist « , 
 
 Amer. Burges, Tristram, statesman and orator 
 
 Eng. Burgess, Thomas, Bp. of Salisbury, classical and theological 
 
 Eng. Burgh, James, author ' Dignity Human Nature' 
 
 Eng. Burgoyne, John, military commander and author 
 
 Irish. Burke, Edmund, a great statesman and writer • 
 
 Swiss. Burlamaqui, John James, writer on civil law . 
 
 Eng. Burleigh, William Cecil, lord, eminent statesman , 
 
 Dutsh. Burman, Peter, critic ar.d editor 
 
 y>e.. Burmeister, He: man, naturalist . . , 
 
 Am^r. Burnap, George W., clergyman and author , 
 
 toot. Biirnts, Sir Alex., 'Travels in Bokhara, Cabool,' &c. 
 
 Scot. Burnet, Gilbert, a divine and historian. Bishop of Salisbury 
 
 Amer. , Jacob, pioneer of Cincinnati and author . 
 
 Eng. , John, engraver, painter, and critic , 
 
 tng. Burney, Charles, a doctor of music . , 
 
 BORN. 
 
 1191 
 
 1551 
 
 1774 
 
 1853 
 
 1729 
 
 1791 
 
 1766 
 
 1805 
 
 1506 
 
 1582 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1592 
 
 1628 
 
 . 1627 
 
 1688 
 
 1784 
 
 1855 
 
 . 1779 
 
 
 1784 
 
 1856 
 
 . 1751 
 
 1812 
 
 1784 
 
 1812 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1778 
 
 1839 
 
 1661 
 
 1737 
 
 1707 
 
 1788 
 
 1784 
 
 1849 
 
 1763 
 
 
 1786 
 
 1864 
 
 1634 
 
 1710 
 
 , 1810 
 
 
 1504 
 
 1575 
 
 . 1791 
 
 1864 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1791 
 
 1860 
 
 1628 
 
 1688 
 
 1773 
 
 1815 
 
 . 1784 
 
 1S15 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1770 
 
 1844 
 
 1748 
 
 1794 
 
 1786 
 
 1SG4 
 
 1770 
 
 1853 
 
 il author 1756 
 
 1837 
 
 1714 
 
 1775 
 
 , 
 
 1792 
 
 1T30 
 
 1797 
 
 1694 
 
 174S 
 
 1520 
 
 1598 
 
 1668 
 
 1741 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1802 
 
 1859 
 
 1805 
 
 1841 
 
 y . 1643 
 
 1725 
 
 1776 
 
 1858 
 
 , 1784 
 
 
 1726 
 
 1814 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 17 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PEOFESSSON. 
 
 Eng. Bumey, Frances, (see Mme. d'Arblny), novelist • 
 
 E g. , James, adnairal and author . • • 
 
 Scot. Barns, a popular and national poet . . . 
 
 Amer. Burr, Cul, Aaron, vice-president U. S. . . . 
 
 Amer. Burritt, Eliliu, ' the learned blacksmith ' and philanthropist 
 Amt'r. Bun-oughs, Stephen, notorious adventurer . . 
 
 Eng. Burton, Robert, author of tlie ' Anatomy of Melancholy' 
 
 Eng. , Wm. E., actor and author 
 
 Ger. Buschiug, Aiithon Frederick, philosopher and geological writei 
 Amer. Busti, George, D.D., theological and philosophical writer . 
 Amer. Bushnell, Horace, D.D., theological and metaphysical author 
 Mex. Bustamente, Anastasio, president of Mexico . . 
 
 Eng. Bute, John Stuart, earl of, statesman, premier . 
 
 Irish. Butler, Alban, ' Lives of Saints' 
 
 Amer. , Andrew P., United States senator from South Carolina 
 
 Amer. , Benj, F., statesman and jurist, attorney-general U. S. 
 
 Amer. , Benj. P., major-general U. S. army in war for Union 
 
 Eng. , Charles, Catholic historian and jurist 
 
 Eng. , Joseph, bishop, an eminent prelate and author 
 
 Eng. , Samuel, bishop of Litchfield, editor of "uEschylus," &c, 
 
 Eng. , Samuel, a humorous poet 
 
 Amer. , Richard, colonel, an officer in. the Revolution 
 
 Amer. , "Wm. Allen, poet 
 
 Amer. , Wm. O., statesman and general , • 
 
 Ger. Buttman, Philip C, philologist . . 
 
 Eng Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, legisl. and philanth. , 
 Ger. Buxtorf, John, a Hebrew and Chaldaic lexicographer 
 
 Ger. , John, (son of the preceding,) lexicographer 
 
 Amer. Byles, Mather, clergyman and author . 
 
 Eng. BjTig, Honorable John, admiral ... 
 Eng. Byron, George Gordon, lord, a popular poet . 
 
 Eng. , Honorable John, admiral . . • 
 
 Eng. , Lady Noel, wife of the poet . . 
 
 jiOEN. 
 
 DIED, 
 
 1752 
 
 1840 
 
 1739 
 
 1820 
 
 :759 
 
 1796 
 
 1756 
 
 1836 
 
 r.811 
 
 
 1765 
 
 1840 
 
 1576 
 
 1639 
 
 1804 
 
 1S6D 
 
 1721 
 
 1893 
 
 1796 
 
 1859 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1782 
 
 1851 
 
 r.^ss 
 
 1792 
 
 1710 
 
 1773 
 
 1798 
 
 1857 
 
 
 1858 
 
 1750 
 
 183-7 
 
 1692 
 
 1751, 
 
 1774 
 
 184;' 
 
 1612 
 
 168j 
 
 
 1791 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1764 
 
 1829 
 
 1786 
 
 1845 
 
 1564 
 
 1629 
 
 1599 
 
 1644 
 
 1706 
 
 ,1788 
 
 1704 
 
 1757 
 
 1788 
 
 182 i 
 
 1723 
 
 1786 
 
 1793 
 
 1860 
 
 ۥ 
 
 Fr. Cabet, Etienne, communist . • • . 
 
 Eng. Cabot, John, navigator and discoverer of North America 
 
 Eng. , Sebastian (son of Jdhn), navigator 
 
 Port. Cabral, Pedro Alvarez, navigator . . 
 
 Span. Cabrera, Don Ramon, military commander for Don Carlos 
 
 Ital. Cadamosta, Louis da, navigator . 
 
 Eng. Cade, the noted rebel, ' Jack Cade ' . 
 
 Scot. Cadell, Thomas, publisher of Scott's works, &c. 
 
 Fr. Cadet de Grassicourt, Charles D., chemist and philosopher 
 
 Cadmon, Anglo-Saxon poet 
 
 Amer. Cadwallader, John, officer in the Revolution . . 
 
 Rom. Caesar, Cains Julius, warrior, statesman, and author 
 
 Ital. Caglioetro, Alex., count, swindling adventurer . 
 
 Fr. Cailliaud, Frederic, traveller . . • 
 
 Fr. Cfjlla, Kene, ' Voyage a Timboucto,' &o. . • 
 
 2 
 
 . x<oo 
 
 1477 
 
 xouo 
 1557 
 
 1500 
 
 
 1810 
 
 
 f. 1456 
 
 
 
 1450 
 
 1742 
 
 1803 
 
 1769 
 
 1821 
 
 
 680 
 
 1743 
 
 1786 
 
 B C. 100 B. 
 
 c. 44 
 
 1743 
 
 1795 
 
 1787 
 
 
 
 1838 
 
18 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGEESS. 
 
 NATION, 
 
 Ital. 
 Gr. 
 
 Bug. 
 
 Span, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Koni. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gcr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 ¥r. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 IBs. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 3'r. 
 
 Sng. 
 
 Pers. 
 
 i-Cng. 
 
 Scot, 
 
 Scot. 
 
 rort. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. ' 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Sf.ot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eiig. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Brit. 
 
 Brit. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Er.g. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 (^ajetan, '/urdinal, diplomatist and author , 
 
 C:ilaber, o/iintus . . > . • 
 
 Calainy, Elmund, Presbyterian divine arid author , 
 Calderou c.e la Barca, Don Pedro, dramatist . , 
 
 Caldwell, Charles, eminent i^hysician and author 
 
 , Rev. James, revolutionary patriot . , 
 
 Calepino. Ambrose, author of a lexicon in 11 lang-uages 
 Calh( un, John C, senator of the United States * 
 
 Caligula, Roman Emperor . . . 
 
 Calippin, astronomer and mathematician . • 
 
 CalixLus, Geo., Lutheran theologian . • 
 
 Calliiiachus, a poet . . • • 
 
 Callinihenes, philosopher and historian . , " 
 
 Ca'mst, Augustine, an erudite divine and author • 
 
 Ctr.ogera, Angelo, a learned monk and author 
 Calonne, Charles Alexander de, minister of state . 
 
 Calvin, John, of the Apostles of the Reformation • 
 Calvert, George Henry, belle-lettres author . . 
 
 , Leonard, first governor of Maryland (see Baltimore) 
 
 Cambaceres, John J. A., distinguished revolutionist . 
 Cambridge, Duke of, sixth son of George III. 
 Cambyses, second king of Persia 
 
 Camden, William, an eminent antiquary and'historian 
 Cameron, Richard, ' Covenanter,' founder of Cameronians 
 
 , Sir Evan, lord of Lochiel . . , 
 
 Camoens, Louis, the most eminent poet of his country 
 Campan, Jeanne L. H. J., educationist and author . 
 
 Campbell, Alex., founder of a religious sect 
 
 , George, a divine and author . . 
 
 — , John, a multifarious writer, 'Admiral,' &o. 
 
 , John, 2d duke of Argyle and Greenwich 
 
 , John, lord chancellor, jurist, ' Lives of Chancelloi 
 
 , Sir Colin, British com. in India, &c., Lord Clyde 
 
 ■ , Thomas, poet, ' Life of Petrarch,' &c. 
 
 Camper, Peter, an eminent naturalist . . . 
 
 Campiston, John G. de, dramatist ' . • 
 
 Cange, Charles Dufresne, sieur du, historian , . 
 
 Canning, George, statesman, orator, and poet . 
 
 Canrobcrt, Franc. C, general in Crimea . , 
 
 Cantu, Cesare, historian, poet, and philosopher 
 Canute, King of Denmark and of England, ' (he Great ' 
 Carefigue, A, H. A., historian 
 
 Capell, Edward, editor of Shakespeare . • 
 
 Capmany, Don Antonio, historian . . 
 
 Capo d' Istria, president of Greece, 1S27 -31 . • 
 
 Caracalla, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor . 
 Caraccioli, Neopolitan admiral, hanged by Nelson . 
 Caractacus, prince of the SiUires, a brave Avarrior. 
 Carausius, usurper of Empire in Britain . . 
 
 Cardan, Jerome, philosopher, mathematician and physician 
 Cardigan, J, P. B., earl of, general of cavalry at Balaklava 
 Cardonne, Dennis D., an eminent orientalist 
 
 BORN. 
 
 1510 
 
 1600 
 1600 
 1772 
 1734 
 1435 
 1782 
 12 
 C. 330 
 1586 
 f. B. C. 150 
 
 1672 
 1699 
 1734 
 1509 
 
 1803 
 
 f. B. 
 
 1753 
 1774 
 
 1551 
 
 1517 
 1752 
 1792 
 1709 
 1708 
 1678 
 1778 
 1791 
 1777 
 1722 
 1656 
 1610 
 1770 
 1809 
 1805 
 
 995 
 1799 
 1713 
 1754 
 1776 
 
 188 
 1770 
 (abt.) 100 
 
 250 
 1501 
 1797 
 1720 
 
 DIRS 
 
 1593 
 250 
 1666 
 1087 
 1853 
 1781 
 1511 
 1850 
 41 
 
 165G 
 
 B. 0. 328 
 
 1757 
 1763 
 1802 
 1623 
 
 1676 
 1824 
 1850 
 B. c. 521 
 16:3 
 1660 
 1719 
 1579 
 1822 
 
 1795 
 1775 
 1743 
 1861 
 1863 
 1844 
 1789 
 1723 
 1688 
 1827 
 
 1035 
 
 1781 
 1810 
 1831 
 217 
 1799 
 
 293 
 1576 
 
 1783 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 7Q 
 
 NATION. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Ii'ish. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Gua. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 'lom. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Port. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 lius. 
 
 Rus. 
 
 Span.E. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 It. Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Careme, Mark Antony, famous cook • 
 
 Carew, Bamfylde Moore, 'king of the beggars' 
 CareWj Thomas, poet . . • 
 
 Carey, Alice, author of poems and tales 
 
 , Henry, earl of Monmouth, translator . 
 
 , Henrj' C, p;)litical economist 
 
 , Matthew, ])hilanthi'opist, publisher, &c. 
 
 -, William, missionary to India 
 
 Car'esimi, Jam.es, musical composer . • , 
 
 Carleton, Wm., novelist . . , 
 
 , Sir Guy, military commander, and governor of Canada 
 
 Carli, John Rinaldo, count de, author 
 
 Carlisle, G. W. F., 7th earl of, statesman and author • 
 
 , Sir Anthony, physician and medical writer 
 
 Carlos, Don, son of Philip II., (hero of Schiller's tragedy; 
 
 • , Don Maria Isidor, pretender to the throne . 
 
 Carlotta, wife of Maximilian, emperor of Mexico . 
 
 Carlyle, Rev. Alex, D. D., ' Memoirs of his Times' . 
 
 , Thomas, historian and metaj)hysician . 
 
 Carneades, philosopher, founder of the 3d Academy 
 Carnot, Lazarus Nicholas, revolutionist . . 
 
 Carpenter, Laut, Unitarian minister and author • 
 
 , Wm. B., physiologist . . . 
 
 Carri'l, Armand, histoiian and metaphysician . 
 
 Carrera, Rafael, ruler of Guatemala . . , 
 
 Carroll, Chas,, last surviving signer of the Dec. of Indep. 
 Carter, Elizabeth, a learned translator 
 
 , Nathaniel H., a scholar and traveller . 
 
 Cartwright, Thomas, puritan divine . . , 
 
 Cariis, C. G., writer on anatomy and physiology , 
 Carver, John, 1st gov. Plymouth colony , , 
 
 , Jonathan, traveller and author . . 
 
 Cary, Henry F., poet, translator of ' Dante' . 
 Casas, Bartholomew de las, philanthropist and historian 
 Cass, Lewis, fctatesman and diplomatist . , 
 
 Cat^sin, John, ornithologist . . . 
 
 Cassini, John Dominic, astronomer . . . 
 
 Cassiodorus, Marcus Aur. statesman and historian 
 Cassius, Longinus Caius, conspirator against Csesar . 
 Castell, Edmund, divine and lexicographer , 
 
 Castiglione, Balthasar, statesman and author . . 
 
 Castro, Inez de, wife of Pedro, king of Portugal , 
 Catalini, Madame, eminent vocalist . . , 
 
 Catesby, Mark, naturalist . , , 
 
 Catherine I., wife of Peter the Great , , 
 
 II., empress the " Great " and the vicious 
 
 , of Arragon, wife of Henry VIII. . 
 
 , of Braganza, queen of Charles II. of England 
 
 Howard, queen of Henry VIII. 
 
 de Medici, wife of Henry 11. of France . 
 
 — , Parr, 6th and last wife of Henry VIII. , 
 
 Catiline, Lucius Sergius, patrician conspirator . 
 
 BORN. 
 
 'ilED, 
 
 178^ 
 
 1335 
 
 16f.3 
 
 1770 
 
 1589? 
 
 1639 
 
 1822 
 
 
 1596 
 
 leei 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1760 
 
 1^.39 
 
 1761 
 
 1822 
 
 1600 
 
 167:^ 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1724 
 
 1808 
 
 1720 
 
 1795 
 
 1802 
 
 1864 
 
 1763 
 
 1840 
 
 1545 
 
 1568 
 
 1788 
 
 1S5& 
 
 18— 
 
 
 1721 
 
 1805 
 
 1795 
 
 
 ;. 218 B. 
 
 c. 128 
 
 1753 
 
 1823 
 
 1780 
 
 1840 
 
 18— 
 
 
 1800 
 
 1836 
 
 1814 
 
 
 1737 
 
 1832 
 
 1717 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1830 
 
 1535 
 
 1603 
 
 1789 
 
 
 1732 
 
 1780 
 
 
 1621 
 
 1772 
 
 1840 
 
 1474 
 
 1554 
 
 1782 
 
 1866 
 
 1813 
 
 
 1625 
 
 1712 
 
 470 
 
 516 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 42 
 
 1606 
 
 16S5 
 
 1468 
 
 1525 
 
 
 1355 
 
 1782 
 
 1849 
 
 1680 
 
 1749 
 
 1682 
 
 1727 
 
 1729 
 
 1796 
 
 1483 
 
 1536 
 
 1G38 
 
 1703 
 
 1521 
 
 1542 
 
 1519 
 
 1589 
 
 
 1548 
 
 B, 
 
 c. 6S 
 
20 
 
 THE W0KL1> S PKOGKESS. 
 
 NATION. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amei'. 
 Rom. 
 Eom. 
 Rom. 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. E. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Ital. 
 Eng. 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Rom. 
 Gr. 
 Ital. 
 Rom. 
 Gr. 
 Ital. 
 Ilom. 
 Irish. 
 Span. 
 Ital. 
 Ital. 
 Eng. 
 Scot. 
 Scot. 
 Scot. 
 Eng. 
 Scot. 
 Fr. 
 Ger. 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 Amer. 
 Amer. 
 ' Eng. 
 Amer. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Fi-. 
 Fr 
 Ger, 
 Swe. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Catinaf, Nicliolas, military commander . • 
 
 Catlin, George, artist and traveller among Indians . 
 Cato, Mar JUS Portiuis, the censor, statesman and author 
 
 , Marcus Porcius, of Utica, statesman . 
 
 Catullus, Caius Valerius, poet . . . • 
 
 Cauch}-, Aug. Louis, mathematician . , 
 
 Caulaincourt, A. A., Duke of Vicenza, diplomatist • 
 
 Caussin, Nicholas, a Jesuit, author of the * Holy Court ' 
 Cavaignac, Louis E., general-in-chief of the republic, 1848 
 Carallo, Tiberius, electrician, author Natural Philos. 
 Cave, Edward, printer, bookseller and author . • 
 
 Cavendish, Sir William, courtier and writer • 
 
 , Thomas, navigator . ' . . 
 
 Cavour, Camilla di, count, Sardinian statesman- 
 Caxton, William, the introducer of printing into England 
 Caylus, A. C. P., count de, miscellaneous writer . 
 Cazales, James A. M. de, an eloquent orator . • 
 
 Cecil, Rev. R., religious writer . . . 
 
 , Robt., earl of Salisbury, statesman • • 
 
 , Wm., Lord Burleigh, statesman . . 
 
 BORN. 
 
 1637 
 
 B. C. 
 B. C. 
 B. C. 
 
 232 
 95 
 86 
 1780 
 1773 
 1583 
 1802 
 1749 
 1691 
 1505 
 1564 
 1809 
 1410 
 1720 
 1752 
 1748 
 (abt.) 1550 
 
 1520 
 Cecilia, a saint in the Roman Catholic Church, patron of music 2d cent. 
 
 DIBD. 
 
 1712 
 
 B. c. 147 
 B. c. 46 
 
 1857 
 1807 
 1651 
 1857 
 1809 
 1754 
 1557 
 1591 
 1861 
 1492 
 1765 
 1805 
 1810 
 1612 
 1598 
 
 Cecrops, 1st king of Athens * . . 
 
 Cellini, Benvenuto, artist, jeweller, patron of music • 
 Celsus, Aurelius Cornelius, a celebrattd physician . 
 
 , an Epicurean pliilospher . . • 
 
 Cenci, Beati-icc, Roman maiden, tragically famed . . 
 
 Ct-nsoriu?, a critic and gramxnarian . . • 
 
 Centlivre. Susanna, a dramatic writer . . . 
 
 Cervantes-Saavcdra, Michael, author of ' Bon Quixote' 
 Cesare, Giuseppe, cavaliere de, historian . • 
 
 Cesarotte, Melchior, a voluminous author . . , 
 
 Chalmers, Alex., ' General B ographical Dictionary,' &c. , 
 
 • , George, miscellaneous writer . 
 
 , Thomas, D. D., theologian and political economist • 
 
 Chambers, Robert, publisher and author • , 
 
 , Sir William, an architect ' . . • 
 
 , William, publisher and author 
 
 Chambord, H., count of, last scion of the house of Bourbon . 
 Chamisso, A. von, author of ' Peter Schleraihl,' &c. 
 ChampoUion, the younger, ' Monuments de I'Egypte,' &c. 
 
 , Figeac, historian and antiquary . 
 
 Channing, Edward T., essayist and reviewer 
 
 , William Ellery, D. D., theologian and philanthropist 
 
 , William Henry, Unitarian minister and author . 
 
 Chantry, Sir Francis, sculptor 
 
 Chapin, Edwin H., eloquent clergyman and orator 
 Chapman, George, poetical translator . • 
 
 Chapone, Hester, miscellaneous writer . • 
 
 Chaptal, J. A. C, chemist .... 
 Charlemagne, emperor of the West and King of France 
 Charles V. the Great, see Prescott's History, &c. . 
 
 Charles XII., king, a celebrated warrior . 
 
 (abt.) B. 
 1500 
 f. 30 
 f. 50 
 
 240 
 1667 
 1547 
 1783 
 1730 
 1759 
 1744 
 1770 
 1802 
 1726 
 1800 
 1820 
 1781 
 1790 
 1779 
 1790 
 1780 
 1810 
 1781 
 1814 
 1557 
 1727 
 1756 
 
 742 
 1500 
 1682 
 
 0. 1500 
 1570 
 
 1599 
 
 1723 
 1616 
 1856 
 1808 
 1854 
 1825 
 1846 
 
 1796 
 
 1832 
 
 1856 
 1842 
 
 1841 
 
 1634 
 1801 
 1832 
 814 
 158» 
 176j 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 21 
 
 NATl iV. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Enr;. Charles Edward, grandson of James II. and Pretender . 
 
 Fr. , J. A. C, naturalpliilosopher . . , 
 
 Er. Chai'levoix, Peter F. X., a Jesuit historian . . 
 
 Amer. Chase, Philander, bis: op of Prot. Kpis. Church, Ohio . 
 
 Amer. , Sa niou P., senator of United States and governor of Ohio 
 
 Er. Chasles, V. E. Philarete, miscellaneous wiiter . 
 
 Dutch. Chass6, David II., baron, military commander 
 
 Fr. Chastelet, Gabrielle, marchioness, scientific author , , 
 
 Er. Chasteilux, F. J., marquis de, general and author 
 
 Fr. Chateaubriand, F. R., vicomte de, poet, statesman and traveller 
 
 Fr. Chatel. Abbe, Fer. F., theological reformer . , 
 
 Fr. Chatele':, l:aul du Hay, loid of, (Bertrand Duguesclin) . 
 
 Eng. Ohathan^, Wm. Pitt, earl of, statesman . . , 
 
 Eng. ChattertoD, Thomas, famed for precocious learning . 
 
 Eng. Chaucer, Geofirey, the father of English poetry . , 
 
 Amer. Chaunoey, Charles D. D., president of Harvard College 
 
 Amei'. , Commodore Isaac, naval commander . « 
 
 Amer. Chesebro, Caroline, novelist and essayist . , 
 
 Amer Cheever, Geo. B., congregational clergyman and author • 
 
 Eug. Cheselden, William, an eminent anatomist 
 
 Ei!g. Cht sterfield, Philip D. Stanhope, earl of, statesman and writer 
 
 Ital. Ch.cTubini, M. L. C, musical composer 
 
 Fr. Chevalier, Michael, engineer, traveller and statesman . 
 
 Fr. Chevreul, M. E., chemist . . . , 
 
 Acer. Child, Lydia Maria, author of various works . • 
 
 Eho. Cliilling worth, Wni., theologian and author . , 
 
 ♦ r. Chiio, Euphorus of Sparta, one of the seven wise men , f, 
 
 . \.jier. Chipman, Nathaniel, jurist and statesman . . 
 
 Eng. Chitty, Joseph, author of numerous works on law . . 
 
 Pol. Chlopicki, J., military commander, dictator of Poland . 
 
 .-.mer. Choate, Rufus, advocate, jurist and senator 
 
 li'r. Choiseul-Stainville C. A. G., duke of, statesman and author 
 
 Eng. Chouhs, John Overton, J). D., Baptist minister and author 
 
 fciwe. Chrstii.a, queen, {daughter of G-. Adolphus) . 
 
 Afr.c. Cinistophe, a slave, afterwards King of Hayti • 
 
 'jrr. Chrysiphus, a stoic philosopher . . , B. c 
 
 Or. Chrysostom, Johm, Christian father and orator . 
 
 Amer. Church, Benj., military commander and author • 
 
 Eng. Churchill, Charles, a satirical poet . , • 
 
 Eng. Cibber, Colley, tragic and comic actor and poet 
 
 Rom. Cicero, Marcus TuUius, one of the greatest of orators . B. 
 
 IlaL Cimarosa, Dominic, dramatic and music composer • 
 
 Gr. Cimon, an Athenian general .... 
 
 Rom. Cincinnatus, Lucius Quintius, the patriot . , f. B. 
 
 Eom. Cinna, Lucius, Cornelius, partisan of Marius . f. b 
 
 Ital. CiriliO, Dominic, a botanist and physician 
 
 Amer. Clair, Arthur St., a distinguished officer in the revolution . 
 
 Fr. Clairaut, Alexis Claude, geometrician 
 
 Amer. Clap, Thomas, president of Yale College • • 
 
 Scot. Clapperton, Hugh, traveller in Africa . , 
 
 Eng. Clare, John, poet ... . 
 
 Eng. Clarendon, G. W. F., Villiers, earl of, statesman . 
 
 c. 
 
 BORN. 
 
 1720 
 1746 
 1682 
 1775 
 1S08 
 17&9 
 1765 
 1706 
 1734 
 1769 
 1795 
 1593 
 1708 
 1752 
 1328 
 
 1807 
 1688 
 1694 
 1760 
 1806 
 1783 
 1802 
 1602 
 598 
 1752 
 1776 
 1772 
 1799 
 1762 
 
 iso: 
 
 169.1 
 176'. 
 
 280 
 
 84i 
 16r.£ 
 17S1 
 1671 
 
 105 
 1754 
 1 
 
 456 
 
 GV 
 
 1734 
 
 1713 
 1703 
 
 1788 
 1793 
 1800 
 
 DIED 
 
 178f. 
 1821 
 1761 
 iS5a 
 
 1S49 
 1749 
 1783 
 1848 
 1857 
 "636 
 1778 
 1770 
 14GG 
 1671 
 l''?40 
 
 1752 
 17T3 
 1840 
 
 1C44 
 
 1843 
 1841 
 
 1854 
 1859 
 
 185« 
 
 1689 
 
 182C 
 
 2(7 
 
 407 
 
 1718 
 
 1764 
 
 175T 
 
 ;. c. 43 
 
 1801 
 
 c. M« 
 
 1799 
 
 1818 
 176) 
 17^7 
 182; 
 
22 
 
 THE world's TKOGRESS, 
 
 NATIOW. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 AiRt*r. 
 
 Amf,r. 
 
 Ecg. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eiif.-, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Tlor:„ 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Gr. 
 Gr. 
 Gr. 
 
 Hal. 
 Egypt. 
 Swiss. 
 Pr. Am 
 Amer, 
 Amer. 
 Amer, 
 Eiig. 
 Pr. 
 Pr. 
 
 Amer. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Pr. 
 
 Amer. 
 Amer. 
 '^mer. 
 Amer. 
 
 HAME AND PROFESSION, 
 
 Clark, Lonis Gaylord, editor of ' Knickerbocker* • • 
 
 , "Willis Gaylord, poet and essayist . 
 
 , Wm., general, explorer of Rocky Mountains 
 
 Clarke, Dr. Adam, a celebrated theologian and commeDtator 
 
 , Di: Edward Daniel, traveller and miieralogist 
 
 Clarke, James Freeman, clergyman and author 
 
 , Mary Cowden, author of ' Concordance to Shakespeare/ 
 
 , McDonald ' the crazy poet,' 
 
 , Rev. Samuel, 'Annotations on the Bible' . 
 
 , Samuel D., theologian and philosopher • 
 
 — J Sir Jame.-5, medical author 
 
 Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist . • 
 
 Claudius, Appius, decemvir ... . 
 
 Ciaverhouse, John Graham of, Viscount Dundee 
 Clavigero, Francis X,, historian of Mexico . • 
 
 day, Casriius M., anti-slavery politician 
 
 , Clement C, ex-senator of TJ. 8. from Alabama . 
 
 , Henry, statesman and diplomatist . . 
 
 Clayton, John, an eminent physician and botanist • 
 
 Clayton, John M., senator and secretary of state • 
 Cleanthes, a stoic philosopher . . • 
 
 Cleaveland, Parker, mineralogist and chemist . 
 
 Clemens, Jeremiah,!!. S. senator from Alabama • 
 
 Clement, the name of 14 popes and 3 antipopes 
 
 , of Alexandria, a ' father of the church ' . 
 
 Clementi, Muz'o, nixisical composer , 
 
 Cleobolus, one of the seven wise men . ; 
 
 Cleon, an Athenian politician and demagogue • 
 
 Cleopatra, a voluptuous queen , . 
 
 Clerc, Jean le, theological writer 
 
 , , Tjaurent, the oldest living teacher of deaf mutes . 
 
 Clinton, Dewitt, governor and benefactor of New York 
 
 . James, general Amer. Rev. . . 
 
 , George, governor of New York and vice-president of U 
 
 '. 'live, Robert, lord, military commander 
 CloQuet, Hyppolite, (brother of Jul(S), anatomist . 
 Clot, or Clot-Bey, snrgeon and medical writer in Egypt 
 CoV)b, Lyman, lexicographer and author ... 
 Cobbett, William, political writer . • . 
 
 Cobden, Richard, statesman and reformer • • 
 
 (lobham, Sir Jno. Oldcastle, lord, martyr . • 
 
 Cochrane, Earl Dundonald, naval commander , • 
 
 Oodriugton, Sir Edward, vice-admiral . , 
 
 Collin, Sir Isaac, admiral, (b. in Nantucket) , , 
 
 Coiran, Tliomas, physician and miscellaneous writer • 
 Coke, Sir Edward, a learned judge . • . , 
 
 Colbert, John Baptist, an eminent statesman . • 
 
 Coiburn, Warren, mathematician, arithmetician, &e. . 
 
 , Zerah, precocious arithmetician . . 
 
 Golden, Cadwallader, an eminent botanist, astronomer, &c. 
 
 , Cadwallader D., statesman, biographer of Fulton, &c. 
 
 Coleridge, U^artley, author and poet 
 
 BOKN. 
 
 riiBi., 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1810 
 
 1341 
 
 1770 
 
 1838 
 
 1760 
 
 1832 
 
 1767 
 
 1821 
 
 1810 
 
 
 ; &c. 1809 
 
 
 1798 
 
 1842 
 
 1627 
 
 1701 
 
 1675 
 
 lT2a 
 
 1761 
 
 1845 
 
 
 B. c. 450 
 
 1627 
 
 1701 
 
 1720 
 
 1793 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1789 
 
 
 1777 
 
 185a 
 
 , 17'.5 
 
 1773 
 
 1796 
 
 1R5«» 
 
 . f. 260 
 
 
 1780 
 
 1-5S 
 
 . 1814 
 
 
 
 220 
 
 
 1832 
 
 . f. 559 
 
 
 
 B. c 442 
 
 
 B. c. 30 
 
 1656 
 
 17£6 
 
 1785 
 
 
 1769 
 
 18-^, 
 
 1736 
 
 1812 
 
 '. S. 1739 
 
 ■•SJ'i 
 
 1725 
 
 ini 
 
 1787 
 
 
 1795 
 
 
 
 186S 
 
 1762 
 
 1835 
 
 1804 
 
 1865 
 
 1360 
 
 1417 
 
 1775 
 
 1860 
 
 1770 
 
 1851 
 
 1759 
 
 1839 
 
 1736 
 
 1818 
 
 1549 
 
 1634 
 
 1619 
 
 1683 
 
 , 1793 
 
 1823 
 
 1804 
 
 1840 
 
 1688 
 
 1776 
 
 1769 
 
 1834 
 
 1797 
 
 1849 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 23 
 
 KAIIOS, NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 
 
 Eiig. Coleridge, Henry Nelson, litterateur . . (abt.) 1800 
 
 Eng. , Sarah, daughter of yamuel T., author • . 1803 
 
 Eng. , Samuel T., poet and metaphysician , . 177" 
 
 Fr- Coligni, Gaspard de, admiral . . • . 1-lV 
 
 Eng. Collingwood, Cuthbert, lord, admiral . . • 174S 
 
 Eiig. Collins, William, a popular poet . . . • 1720 
 
 Eng. Coleman, Benjamin, a learned divine, (in Boston) , . 1673 
 
 Eng. , George, dramatic writer .... 1733 
 
 Eng. , George, (the younger), dramatist , . 1762 
 
 Fr. Colombat, de I'lsere, medical writer . . • (aht.) 1800 
 
 Amer. Colton, Calvin, clergyman and political writer . . 1789 
 
 Eng. , 0. C, author of 'Lacon' .... 
 
 Amer. , George H., author of ' Tecumseh,' &e. , , 
 
 Amer. , Walter, Rev. author of voyages and travels . . 
 
 Ital. Columbus, Christopher, the discoverer of America , 
 
 Scot. Comhe, Andrew, medical and physiological writer . . 
 
 Scot. — , George, phrenologist and philosopher . . 
 
 Fr. Comines, Philip de, statesman and historian . • . 
 
 Mex. Comonfort, Ygnacio, President of Mexico . . 
 
 Amer. Comstock, John L., author of popular school-books . • 
 
 Fr. Compte, Auguste, metaphysician, founder of " Positiveism " 
 
 Amer. Oonant, Thomas J., D. D., biblical scholar and critic . , 
 
 Span. Concha, Jose de la, capta n-general of Cuba . , 
 
 Fr. Conde, Louis II. of Bourbon .... 
 
 Fr. Condillac, Stephen Bonnet de, metaphysical writer , 
 
 Fr. Condorcet, M. J. A. N., Marquis of, metaphysician • . 
 
 Amer. Cone, Spencer Houghton, baptist clergyman . , 
 
 Chin. Confucius, a celebrated philosopher . . b, 
 
 Eng. Congreve, Sir William, inventor of the ' Congreve rocket ' 
 
 Gr. Conon, an Athenian general . . , . 
 
 Amer. Conrad, Robert T., judge, politician and poet • . . 
 
 Fr. Considerant, Victor, socialist philosopler . . 
 
 Scot. Constable, Archibald, publisher of Scotfs poems, miscellany, &c. 
 
 Fr. Constant, Benjamin, statesman and metaphysician 
 
 Gr, Constantino, (the Great), the first Christian emperor 
 
 Qy. • ) VII., (Porphyrogenitus) emperor and author 
 
 G-1-. , XII. (Paleologus), the last of the Greek emperors 
 
 Jr. Am. Conway, Thomas, maj. gen. in Revolution a ' cabaler,' &c. . (abt. 
 
 Eng. Conybeare, William D., clergyman and geologist . 1787 
 
 Eng. ■ — — ) William G. (son of the above), author of ' Life of St. Paul' 
 
 Eng. Cook, Eliza, poetess ..... 1818 
 
 Eng. , James, a celebrated circumnavigator . . 1728 
 
 Eng. Cooke, George F., an eminent actor • • . 1756 
 
 Eng. — ) George Musgrove, ' History of Party' . • 1814 
 
 Amer. , John Esten, novelist and poet , . , 1830 
 
 Amer. , Philip P., poet ..... 1816 
 
 j^ng. , T. P., actor . ..... 1786 
 
 Eng. Cooper, Bramsley, surgeon and author . . , 1792 
 
 ^i-^er^ , James Fenimore, novelist, traveller and historian , 1789 
 
 ^^er. , Peter, merchant and philanthropist founder of Institiit.3 1791 
 
 Amer. , Samuel, D. D., a divine and political writer . . 1725 
 
 Eng. ' Sir Astley Paxton, physician and medice'. w:''^i^T , 176S 
 
 1T73 
 
 1818 
 1797 
 1441 
 1797 
 1778 
 1445 
 1812 
 1789 
 1798 
 1802 
 1800 
 1621 
 1715 
 1743 
 1785 
 c. 550 
 1772 
 
 1811 
 
 i8or 
 
 1776 
 
 1767 
 
 274 
 
 905 
 
 1403 
 
 IflBD. 
 
 1843 
 1852 
 1834 
 1572 
 1810 
 1756 
 1717 
 1784 
 1839 
 
 :1857 
 1833 
 1847 
 1851 
 1506 
 1847 
 1858 
 ■'509 
 
 •:858 
 
 1857 
 
 1686 
 1780 
 •'794 
 1S55 
 
 1828 
 
 ;. 390 
 
 1858 
 
 •182? 
 a830 
 337 
 959 
 1453 
 1778 
 1857 
 1857 
 
 1776 
 1812 
 
 ise?- 
 
 1830 
 
 1864 
 1853 
 1851 
 
 1783 
 1841 
 
24 
 
 THE world's PEOGEES&w 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PBOFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Cooper, Tlir>mas, chemist, jurist, and politician (in Amer.) 
 
 Eng. , Thomas A., actor .... 
 
 Irisli. Coote, Sir Eyre, commander in India 
 
 Pruse. Copfnicus, Nicholas, a celebrated astronomer, the reviver of the 
 .Pythagorean system of the universe 
 Copley, John Singleton, Lord Lynahurst (born in Boston, U.S.) 
 Corday d'Armans, M. Charlotte de, guillotined in Revolution 
 Corinna, a poetess, flourished in the fifteenth centiiry before Christ 
 Coriolanus, Caius Marcius, a warrior . 
 Cormenin, L. M. de la Haye, vicompte de, political writer 
 Cornaro, Louis, a noble author of a book on temperance 
 Cornbury, Ed. Hyde, lord, governor of New York 
 Corneille, Peter, an eminent dramatic writer . 
 
 , Thomas (lirother of Peter), poet and dramatist 
 
 Cornelli, Mark Vincent, a Venetian geographer and historian 
 Cornwallis, Charles, marquis, military com. in Amer. and India 
 Cortez, Eernando, the brutal conqueror of Mexico 
 
 Eng. 
 Fr. 
 G-er. 
 Rom. 
 Fr. 
 Ital. 
 Eng. 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 Eng. 
 Span 
 
 Amer. Corwin, Thomas, statesman, sec. of treasury, gov. of Ohio 
 Ital. 
 Itai. 
 Ital. 
 ItaL 
 Eng. 
 Irish. 
 Dutch. 
 ~Ger. 
 Eng. 
 Fr. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Amer. 
 Eng. 
 Fr. 
 
 Cosmo I. de Medici, grand duke of Tuscany . . 
 
 tt jj (( (( « ^ 
 
 " in. « « « 
 
 Costa, Paolo, litterateur . . » \ • 
 
 Costello, Dudley, author and journ.-^list • , 
 
 , Louisa Stuart, author of memoirs 
 
 Coster, John Lawrence, one of the supposed inventors of printing 
 Cotta, Baron F., publisher and statesman . . 
 Cottenham, C. J. Pepys, lord chancellor • 
 Cottin, Sophie, Madame, a novelist . • . 
 Cottle, Amos, versifier .... 
 •, Jos., publisher ' Recollections cf Coleridge * . 
 
 Couton, Charles, humorist and poet . . 
 
 , John (of Boston), a learned divine 
 
 , Sir Stapleton, Viscount Combermere, general 
 
 Coulomb, Charles Augustine de, philosopher . , 
 
 Fr. Eng. Courayer, P. Francis le, Roman Catholic theologian 
 Fr. Courier, Paul Louis, poet and satirist . 
 
 Fr. , Paul Louis, political writer 
 
 Fr. Court de Oebelin, Anthony, an antiquarian and author 
 Fr. Cousin, Louis, historian .... 
 
 -pr. , Victor, statesman and metaphysician . 
 
 Eng. Ooverdale, Miles, Bishop of Exeter, trans. Bible • 
 Eng. Cowley, Abraham, poet . . . 
 
 Sng. Cowper, William, lord chancellor . • 
 
 Eng. > William, poet . . 
 
 Amer. Coxe, Arthur Cleveland, episcopal bishop and poet . 
 
 ^,^^ej., , Samuel H., presbyterian author and clergyman 
 
 Amer. Coxe, Tench, writer on political economy . 
 
 Eng. , William, traveller and historian • 
 
 Amer. Cozzens, Fred S., author of essays and poems . 
 
 Eng. Crabb, George, philologist, author of synonyms 
 Eng. Crabbe, Rev. George, poet • . • 
 
 €5cr. Cramer, John Andrew, miscellaneous writer * 
 
 OSN. 
 
 1759 
 1776 
 1726 
 
 1473 
 1772 
 1768 
 
 1788 
 1467 
 
 1606 
 1625 
 
 1738 
 1485 
 1794 
 1519 
 1590 
 1643 
 1771 
 1803 
 1815 
 1370 
 1764 
 1781 
 1773 
 
 1770 
 
 1630 
 
 1585 
 
 1773 
 
 1736 
 
 1681 
 
 1772 
 
 1774 
 
 1725 
 
 1627 
 
 1792 
 
 1485 
 
 1618 
 
 1664 
 
 1731 
 
 1818 
 
 1793 
 
 1756 
 
 1747 
 
 1818 
 
 1778 
 
 1754 
 
 1728 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1840 
 1849 
 
 1783 
 
 1543 
 1863 
 1793 
 
 B. 0. 488 
 
 1565 
 1723 
 1684 
 1709 
 1718 
 1805 
 1564 
 
 1594 
 1621 
 1723 
 1836 
 1865 
 
 1440 
 1832 
 1851 
 
 18:,7 
 
 1800 
 1853 
 1687 
 1652 
 1865 
 1806 
 1776 
 1S25 
 1825 
 1784 
 1707 
 1867 
 1565 
 1067 
 1723 
 1800 
 
 1824 
 1828 
 
 1854 
 1832 
 1788 
 
EIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 25 
 
 NATIOIT. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Cramer, J. Baptist, musical composer • • • 
 
 Eng. -, rrancis, " " . . , 
 
 Am?r. Crancli, Wm jurist, judge IT. S. District Court D. C. . 
 
 Eng. Cranmer, Thomas, a celebrated reformer . . 
 
 Eng'. Crasbaw, Richard, poet and divine . . • 
 
 Rom. Crassus, Marcus Luciniue, (the rich) military commander 
 Amer, Crawford, William H., statesman and jurist , • 
 
 Fr Crebillon, Prosper Jolyot de, tragic poet . . 
 
 Ger. Creuzer, Geo. Fred., philologist and antiquary • . 
 
 Fr. Crevier, John Baptist Lewis, historian , • 
 
 Croesus, King of Lydia, famed for riches . • . 
 
 E ig. Croft, Wm., musical doctor and composer , . 
 
 Irish, Croker, John "Wilson, statesman and author . • 
 
 Irish. , Thos. Crofton, author of 'Fairy Legends,' &o. 
 
 Eng. Croly, Rev. George, poet and novelist . . . 
 
 Eng. Cromweli, Oliver, military commander and statesman . 
 
 Eng. , Thomas, earl'of Essex, successor to Wolsey • 
 
 Eng. Crowe, Catherine, author of 'Nightside of l^ature' , 
 Eng. Cruikshank, George, ai-tist, chiefly caricature . , 
 
 Eng. , Robert, humorous artist 
 
 Scot. Cruden, Alexander, author of a 'Concordance to the Bible' 
 Eng. Cudworth, R,alph, philosopher ... 
 
 Amer. Cuftee, Paul, philanthropic sea-captain • • • 
 
 Scot. CuUen, William, an eminent physician . , 
 
 Eng. Cumberland, Richard, a multifarious writer . . 
 
 Eng. , William Augustus, duke of, military commander 
 
 Scot. Cumming, John, popular preacher and theological author . 
 
 Scot. , Rouallyn "W. G., sportsman, traveller, and author 
 
 Scot. Cunningham, Allan, poet, biographer, &c. . . 
 
 Iiish. Curran, John Philpot, a celebrated barrister and orator 
 Amer. Curtis, Benj. R., jurist and judge of Supreme Court TJ. S. 
 
 Amer. • , Geo. Tickuor, political writer and jurist . . 
 
 Amer. , Geo. Wm., essayist, traveller, and critic . 
 
 Rom. Curtius, Rufus Quintus, historian. ... 
 
 Amer. Cushing, Caleb, statesman and jurist . • 
 
 Amer. Cutjhman, Charlotte S., actress .... 
 
 E. Am. , Robert, one of the founders of Plymouth • 
 
 Amer. Castis, Geo. W. Parke, adopted son of Washington • 
 
 Fr. Cuvier, George, baron, one of the greatest of naturalists 
 Er. , Fred., (brother of the baron) naturalist 
 
 Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, an eminent father of the church 
 
 Cyril, of Alexandria, saint and patriarch, and theol. wiiter . 
 
 • , of Jerusalem, saint and archbishop, and author . 
 
 , St., the apostle of the Sclavi . . , 
 
 Pers. Cyrus, the Elder, founder of the Persian empii'e 
 
 Pers. , the Younger, (son of Darius Nothus) king of Persia . 
 
 Pol. Czartoryski, Adam, prince, head of the Polish nation . 
 
 Fr. Dacier, Anne, a celebrated classical scholar , • 
 
 Fr. Dagijerre, Louis J. M., inventor of daguerreotyping , 
 Amer. Dahlgren, John A., naval officer and author , • 
 
 BORN. 
 
 7)ib:"), 
 
 nn 
 
 185h 
 
 1772 
 
 184?- 
 
 1779 
 
 1855 
 
 1489 
 
 1556 
 
 
 1650 
 
 . B. 
 
 c. 53 
 
 1772 
 
 1834 
 
 1674 
 
 1762 
 
 1771 
 
 1858 
 
 1693 
 
 1765 
 
 B. c. 6th Cent. 
 
 1657 
 
 1727 
 
 1780 
 
 1857 
 
 1798 
 
 1854 
 
 1780 
 
 1860 
 
 1599 
 
 1658 
 
 1490 
 
 ^.540 
 
 1780 
 
 
 1794 
 
 1856 
 
 1701 
 
 1770 
 
 1617 
 
 16£8 
 
 1759 
 
 1818 
 
 . 1712 
 
 17S0 
 
 1732 
 
 1811 
 
 1721 
 
 1765 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1768 
 
 1842 
 
 1750 
 
 isn 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1812 
 
 
 1824 
 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1816 
 
 
 1580 
 
 ini5 
 
 17S1 
 
 1857 
 
 1769 
 
 1832 
 
 1773 
 
 1838 
 
 
 258 
 
 376 
 
 444 
 
 315 
 
 3S0 
 
 
 822 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 559 
 
 L. 
 
 c. 400 
 
 1770 
 
 1S60 
 
 1651 
 
 1720 
 
 1789 
 
 185] 
 
26 
 
 THE WORLD'S PKOGKESS. 
 
 --'■ 
 
 NATION. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amcr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 E g. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 AnitT. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Venet. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Aust. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ital. 
 Amer. 
 Amer. 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer 
 
 Ame:, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Da]ilgt.en, Col. Ulric, mil it. oflScer . . 
 
 Dahlman, Fred C, historian . , 
 
 Dale, Richard, commodore in Revol. war 
 Dalin, Claus von, the father of Swedish poetry 
 Dallas, Commodore A. J., naval commander . 
 
 , Geo., M., vice-pres. U. S. and diplomatist 
 
 , John Alexander, secretary treasury U. S. 
 
 Dalton, John, chemist and mathematician . 
 Damm, Christian Tobias, Greek lexicographer 
 Dampier, William, an eminent na\igator 
 Dana, James D., mineralogist, geologist, &c. • 
 
 , Hichard H., poet and essayist 
 
 , Richard H. Jr., advocate and traveller 
 
 , Samuel L., agricultural chemist , 
 
 Dandolo, Enrico, doge of Venice . • 
 
 Dane, Nathan, jurist and legal author . 
 
 Daniell, John F., chemist .... 
 
 ' — , W., R. A., author of pictorial works on India 
 
 Dannecker, sculptor (' Ariadne,' &c.) . . 
 
 Dante Alighieri, the sublimest of the Italian poets 
 Danton, Geo. Jacques, leading revolutionist . , 
 
 Da Ponte, Lorenzo, poet and dramatist (d. at IS". Y.) 
 D'Arblay, Madame, (Fanny Burney) novelist . 
 Darling, Grace, famed for rescue of nine persons wrecked 
 Darlington, "Wm., botanist and politician . 
 Daubeny, Chas. J. B., natural philos. and geologist 
 Daun, Leopold Joseph Mary count de, military commander 
 Daunou, P. C. F., statesman and litterateur 
 Davenant, Sir Wm., dramatist 
 
 Davidson, Lucretia M., a youthful poetess of uncommon genius 
 Davidson, Margaret Miller (sister of above), poet . 
 
 Davies, Charles, mathematician . 
 
 , Samuel, president of Princeton College, theol. writer 
 
 Davila, Henry Catharine, an historian 
 
 Davis, Andrew J., clairvoyant and w-riter on spiritualism 
 
 , Charles H., mathematician and naval oficer 
 
 , Jefferson, general and U. S. senator from Mississippi 
 
 , John, a navigator, discoverer of Davis Straits 
 
 , Matthew L., biographer of Burr, &c. 
 
 Davoust, Louis N., one of Bonaparte's generals . 
 
 Davy, Sir Humphrey, eminent chemist . . 
 
 Day, Stephen, the first printer in New England . 
 Dayton, Wm. Lewis, jurist and statesman . . 
 
 Deane, Silas, minister of the U. S. to France 
 
 Dearborn, Henry, a distinguished otficer of the two American wars 1751 
 De Bow, J. D. B., journalist and statistician 
 Debruce, William Francis, a bookseller and bibliographer 
 Decaudolle, A. P., botanist 
 
 Decatur, Stephen, a gallant commodore in the U. S. navy 
 Decker. Thomas, dramatic poet . . . 
 
 Dee, John, mathematician and astrologer 
 Defoe, Daniel, miscellaneous writer . 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1842 
 
 1864 
 
 1785 
 
 
 1756 
 
 182- 
 
 1708 
 
 1753 
 
 1791 
 
 1844 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1759 
 
 1817 
 
 176G 
 
 1844 
 
 1699 
 
 1778 
 
 1652 
 
 1711 
 
 1813 
 
 
 1787 
 
 
 1815 
 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1110 
 
 1205 
 
 1752 
 
 1835 
 
 1790 
 
 1845 
 
 
 1837 
 
 1758 
 
 1841 
 
 1265 
 
 1321 
 
 1759 
 
 1794 
 
 1749 
 
 1838 
 
 1752 
 
 1840 
 
 1815 
 
 1842 
 
 1782 
 
 
 1705 
 
 1766 
 
 1761 
 
 1840 
 
 1605 
 
 1688 
 
 1808 
 
 1840 
 
 1823 
 
 1833 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1724 
 
 1761 
 
 1576 
 
 1631 
 
 1826 
 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1808 
 
 
 
 1605 
 
 1766 
 
 1850 
 
 1770 
 
 1S23 
 
 1778 
 
 1829 
 
 1611 
 
 1G6S 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1758 
 
 1789 
 
 s 1751 
 
 1829 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1731 
 
 . 1782 
 
 1778 
 
 1841 
 
 1779 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1638 
 
 1527 
 
 1618 
 
 1661 
 
 1731 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 27 
 
 KATIOW, NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 G. Am, DcKalb, John, 'baron, inaj.-gen. in Arru revoL army 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Am^T. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Swisz. 
 
 PoL 
 
 Gv. 
 
 Maced, 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Anaer, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Rusa 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Afric, 
 
 Span. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 De la Beche, Six Henry T., geologist 
 
 Delambre, John Baptist Joseph, astronomer . . 
 
 Delaneey, William H-, Epis. Bishop West New York 
 
 Dclavigue, Casimir, dramatist 
 
 Delille, James, a celebrated poet ... 
 
 Delisle, Joseph Nicholas, an eminent astronomer . 
 
 Delolme, Jean L., author of a work on the English Constitution 
 
 Deluc, Jean Andr6, natural philosopher 
 
 Dembinski, Henry K., general ia Hungarian revolt 
 
 Dem.etriu.s Phalereus, Athenian orator and statesman . 
 
 , Poliorcetes, one of the successors of Alex, the Great 
 
 Democritus, a celebrated, philosopher 
 
 De Morgan, Augustus, mathematician . . , 
 
 Demosthenes, one of the greatest of orators . . 
 
 Denham, Lieut.-Col. Dixon, an enterprising traveller • 
 
 Denina, Charles John Maria, an historian . , 
 
 Denman, Thomas, lord chief justice of England • • 
 
 Dennie, author and editor of ' Portfolio,' &g. • 
 
 Dennis, John., critic, embalmed in ' Dunciad' . • 
 
 D'Eon, Chevalier, equen-y to Louis XV. • , 
 
 DeQuincy, Thomas, essayist and critic . . • 
 
 Derby, Edw. G. S. Stanley, fourteenth earl of, statesmar. 
 Derzhavine, Gabriel K., a poet and statesman . . 
 
 Desais, Louis Charles Anthony, military commander . 
 Descartes, Bene, an eminent philosopher . . • 
 
 Desmoulins, Camille, revolutionist and author • 
 
 Dessalines, John James, Emperor of Hayti , , 
 
 De Soto, Fernando, discoverer of the Mississippi , 
 
 Destoucbes, Philip Nericault, dramatic writer . . 
 
 Dutch. Deurboff, William, founder of a sect, and an author 
 Dan. Am. De Vere, Maximilian Scheie, philologist and essayist . 
 Eng. Devereux, Robert, third Earl of Essex, parliamentary generV. 
 Fr. pe Vigiiy, Alfred, count, poet and novelist 
 
 Amer. Dewees, W. P., med.ical writer 
 
 Ger. De Wette, William M. L., theologian and biblical critic , 
 Amer. Dewey, Orville, Unitarian divine and essayist 
 Dutch- De Witt, John, an eminent statesman . . • 
 
 Port. Diaz, Bartholomew, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope 
 
 gpan, , del Castillo, Bernal, adventurer and chronicler y 
 
 Eng. Dibdin, Charles, a di'amatic and musical composer . 
 
 jj^g.^ J Thomas (son of Charles), dramatist and song writer 
 
 j^Qg_ , Thomas Frognall, bibliographer . . . 
 
 Scot. Dick, Thomas, author of ' Christian Philosopher' . 
 
 Eng. Dickens, Charles, novelist .... 
 
 Amer- Dickinson, Daniel S., statesman . . • 
 
 ^Yner. , John, author of ' Farmer's Letters ' . . 
 
 Er. Diderot, Denis, first editor of ' Encyclopedic Methodique' 
 Fr. Didot, Francis A., a celebrated printer and type-founder • 
 
 •pr. , Firmin, publisher and member of Deputies 
 
 yr. , Amb. Firmin, publisher and traveller . . 
 
 Egypt. Didymus, who wrote from 3,000 to 6,000 works 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1732 
 
 1780 
 
 1796 
 
 1856 
 
 1749 
 
 1822 
 
 1797 
 
 186- 
 
 1794 
 
 1843 
 
 1738 
 
 1813 
 
 1688 
 
 1768 
 
 n 1740 
 
 1806 
 
 1727 
 
 1817 
 
 1791 
 
 1864 
 
 B. c. 345 
 
 B. c. 28'i 
 
 t 
 
 B- c. 283 
 
 . B. c- 460 
 
 
 1806 
 
 
 . B- c. 581 
 
 :3. C. S22 
 
 1786 
 
 1828 
 
 . :.73-. 
 
 1813 
 
 :.v''iJ 
 
 1854 
 
 . -.ms 
 
 1812 
 
 1757 
 
 1783 
 
 1728 
 
 1810 
 
 1786 
 
 1869 
 
 1799 
 
 
 1743 
 
 1816 
 
 1768 
 
 1800 
 
 1596 
 
 1(J50 
 
 1762 
 
 1794 
 
 1760 
 
 1886 
 
 1500 
 
 1542 
 
 1680 
 
 1754 
 
 1650 
 
 1717 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1592 
 
 1646 
 
 1799 
 
 1863 
 
 1768 
 
 1841 
 
 iTiiii 
 
 1849 
 
 1794 
 
 
 1625 
 
 1672 
 
 , 
 
 1500 
 
 :abt ) 1560 
 
 
 1748 
 
 1814 
 
 1771 
 
 1841 
 
 1770 
 
 1847 
 
 1772 
 
 2869 
 
 1812 
 
 
 ISOO 
 
 1865 
 
 1732 
 
 1808 
 
 1713 
 
 1784 
 
 173U 
 
 1804 
 
 1764 
 
 im 
 
 :i.79v 
 
 
 f. 3. C. .^'9 
 
 
28 
 
 THE world's PROGEESS. 
 
 NATION. NAME AKD PBOFESSIOK. 
 
 Pruss. Diebitscli-Za'balkansky, count, military commander • 
 
 Ger. Diffenbach, John Fred., surgeon and surgical author , 
 
 Span. Diez, John Martin, a patriotic military commander 
 
 Eng. Dilke, Charles W., journalist, editor of ' Athenaeum' • 
 
 Ger. D'.ndorf, William, philologist . . • 
 
 Maced. Dinocrates, an architect; built Alexandria, &c. . . 
 
 Rom. Diocletian, Valerius, emperor . . . 
 
 Gr. Dio-Chrysostom, a rhetorician and philosopher . • 
 
 Swiss. Diodati, Giovanni, theologian, translator of Bible • 
 
 Gr. Diodorus Siculus, a historian . , . 
 
 Gr. Diogenes, the cynic, philosopher . . . 
 
 Gr. , Laertius, biographer . . . 
 
 Gr. Dit)n-Ca88ius, author of ' Roman History ' . 
 
 Gr Dionysius, a geogr.apher .... 
 
 G-r. , of Alexandria, saint and bishop of the Church . 
 
 Gr. , the Areopagite, learned Athenian Christian 
 
 Gi'. — , the eldei-, tyrant of Syracuse 
 
 Gr. • , of Halicarnassus, critic and historian . 
 
 Gr. , the younger, tyrant of Syracuse • . 
 
 Eng. Disraeli, Isaac, ' Curiosities of Literature' . . 
 
 Amer. Dix, D^r thea L., philanthropist, founder of asylums . 
 
 Amer. , John Adams, U. S. senator from New York, &c. 
 
 Eng. Dixon, Y 'Uiam Fepworth, author and critic ' 
 
 Amer. Doane, ieo. W., Prot. Epis. Bishop of New Jersey, poet, &c, 
 
 Eng. Dobell, S; dtiey, poet ..... 
 
 Eng. Dodd, r»r. >■ illiam, miscellaneous writer (executed for forgery) 
 
 Eng. Doddridge, thlMp, a gifted and pious divine and wi'iter 
 
 Eng. Dodsley, i-^(.bert, publisher and author . , 
 
 Ger. Doebereime-"., 7 W., chemist 
 
 Span. Dominic De juzman, foimder of preaching friars . 
 
 Rom. Domitian, e^nperor . . . . 
 
 Scot. Don, Pavid, ootanist .... 
 
 Ital. Donatallo (/cneto di BeHodi Bardi) sculptor , 
 
 Ital. Donizetti, Gaetano, musical composer . . 
 
 Eng- Donne, John, poet and theologian . • ■ 
 
 Eng. Donovisn, Edward, writer on natural history . . 
 
 Ital. Doria, Andrew, the deliverer of his country, (Genoa) 
 
 Amer. Dorr, Tl r-mas "W., politician, elected (?) governor of Rhode Island 
 
 Er. En. D'Or^ay, Coui:t Alfred, author, artist, and ' beau' . 
 
 Hind. Dost-MohE mmed, emir of Caboo 
 
 Eng. Douce, Pirn cis, antiquarian and author . . • 
 
 Scot. Douglas, Gawin, a poet and translator . « 
 
 Amer. . Frederick, abolitionist, politician and editor . 
 
 ggQt. Sir Howard, general, military and naval author 
 
 Amer. , Stepher. Arnold, Uiiited States senator from Illinois 
 
 Atner. Dow, Lorenzo, an eccentxic preacher . 
 
 Amer. Downes, John, commodore in the United States navy . 
 
 Amer. Down'ng, Andrew J., author of works on landscape gardening 
 
 and horticulture ..... 
 
 Amer. Dowse, Thomas, a leather dresser, collector of a rare library 
 
 Gr. Draco, an Athenian legislator . , . 
 
 Eng. Drake, Dr. Nathan, physician and essayist • . 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 DlKDt 
 
 17S5 
 
 1831 
 
 1792 
 
 1847 
 
 . 1775 
 
 1825 
 
 1810 
 
 1864 
 
 1802 
 
 
 B. 0. 350 
 
 
 245 
 
 313 
 
 f. B. c. 30 
 
 
 1576 
 
 1649 
 
 f. B. c. 10 
 
 
 B. c. 413 
 
 B. c. 323 
 
 ' 
 
 155 
 
 f. 140 
 
 
 265 
 
 
 A. D. 1st 
 
 cent. 
 
 B. c. 430 
 
 B. c. 367 
 
 , 
 
 52 
 
 B. C. 367 
 
 B. c. 343 
 
 1767 
 
 1818 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1799 
 
 18C9 
 
 1824 
 
 
 > 1729 
 
 1777 
 
 1702 
 
 1756 
 
 1703 
 
 1764 
 
 1780 
 
 
 1170 
 
 1221 
 
 52 
 
 96 
 
 1800 
 
 1840 
 
 1383 
 
 1466 
 
 1797 
 
 1848 
 
 1573 
 
 1631 
 
 1798 
 
 1837 
 
 1468 
 
 1560 
 
 d 1805 
 
 1854 
 
 1798 
 
 18r;2 
 
 1785 
 
 1863 
 
 1762 
 
 1834 
 
 1474 
 
 1521 
 
 1817 
 
 
 - 1776 
 
 1861 
 
 1813 
 
 1861 
 
 1777 
 
 1834 
 
 1786 
 
 or 
 
 1S55 
 
 S 
 
 1815 
 
 1852 
 
 1772 
 
 1856 
 
 . f. 623 
 
 
 1766 
 
 183« 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 2^ 
 
 KATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Amer. Drake, JosepTi Rodman , poet 
 
 Amer. , Samuel Gr., liistorian of the Indians, Boston, &o 
 
 Eng. , Sir Prancis, a celebrated circmnnavigator . 
 
 E. Am. Draper, John "W., chemist and physiologist . , 
 
 iSng. Drayton, Michael, poet, 'Poly-olbion' 
 
 Dutch. Drebbel, Cornelius van, inventor of the thermometer . 
 
 Eng. Drew, Samuel, methodist divine and theological author 
 
 Fr. Drouyn de I'Huys, Edward, statesman 
 
 Er. Droz, Joseph, historical and political writer 
 
 Scot. Drummond, Captain Thomas, inventor of Drummond lights 
 
 Eng. ' , Sir WiLiam, scholar, author and diplomatist 
 
 Scot. , William, poet .... 
 
 Rom. Drusus, Claudius Nero, general in G-aul and Germany 
 
 Eng, Dryden, John, an emineiit j)oet . 
 
 Amer. Duane, William, politician and author of ' Aurora ' . 
 
 Fr. Ducange, Charles Dufresne, historian and philologist 
 
 Fr. Ducas, Michael, Byzantine historian . . , 
 
 Fr. Duchatel, C. M. T., count, statesman and author . 
 
 Fr. Duchesne, Andrew, a historian , . , 
 
 Fr. Duclos, Charles Fineau, an historian 
 
 Amer. Duganne, Augustine J. H., poet, novelist and politician 
 
 Eng. Dugdale, Sir "William, antiquarian author . , 
 
 Fr. Duguesclin, Bertrand, military commander . . 
 
 Fr. Duhalde, Jean B., geographer . , , 
 
 Fr. Dumas, Alexandre, novelist, traveller, &c 
 
 Fr. , Alexandre, (the younger), novelist and dramatist 
 
 Fr. , J. B., chemist . . ■ . 
 
 Fr, Dumont d'Urville, J. S. C, circumnavigator , 
 
 Fr, Dumoiit, John, traveller and political writer . , 
 
 Swiss. , P. S, L., writer on legislation . . 
 
 Fr. Domouriez, Charles Francis Duperier, military commander 
 
 Scot. Dunbar, George, professor at Edinburgh, 'Greek Lexicon' 
 
 Scot. , William, poet .... 
 
 Scot. Duncan, Adam, viscount, successful admiral . , 
 
 Scot. , William, logician and translator • , 
 
 Scot. Dundas, Henry, Viscount Melville, statesman 
 
 .Scot. Dundonald, Earl of, (' Lord Cochrane ') admiral , 
 
 Amer. Duiiglisson, Robley, M. D., medical author . . 
 
 Amer. Dunlap, William, painter and historian 
 
 Eng. Dunning, John, Lord Ashburton, lawyer . . 
 
 Scot. Duns Scotus, John, scholastic theologian . 
 
 Eng. Duustan, Saint, ahhot of Glastonbury and politician . 
 
 Fr. Dupin, A. M. J. J., jurist and statesman . 
 
 Fr. , Charles, baron, jurist and statesman . . 
 
 Fr. , Louis Elie, an ecclesiastical historian 
 
 Fr. Duponceau, P. S., philologist, jurist, «&c., (at Philadelphia) 
 
 Amer. Dnpout, Samuel Francis, admiral. , . 
 
 Fr. Dupuytren, surgeon and anatomist . , , 
 
 Fr. Duquesne, Abraham, a gallant admiral . , 
 
 Araer. Durand, Asher Brown, painter and engraver . , 
 
 Amer. Durbin, John P., methodist divine and author 
 
 Ger. Durer, Albert, painter and engtaver . , 
 
 BORN. 
 
 .ITE-? 
 
 1795 
 
 182(; 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1545 
 
 iftsa 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1563 
 
 16?i 
 
 1572 
 
 1634 
 
 1765 
 
 ft on* 
 
 J out 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1773 
 
 185C 
 
 1797 
 
 1S40 
 
 1760 
 
 1835 
 
 1585 
 
 1649 
 
 B. c, 38 
 
 £ 
 
 1631 
 
 1700 
 
 1760 
 
 1835 
 
 1610 
 
 1688 
 
 
 th cent. 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1584 
 
 1640 
 
 1704 
 
 1722 
 
 1823 
 
 
 1605 
 
 1686 
 
 1314 
 
 1380 
 
 1674 
 
 1743 
 
 1S03 
 
 
 1824 
 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1790 
 
 1842 
 
 
 1726 
 
 1759 
 
 1829 
 
 1T3U 
 
 1823 
 
 1774 
 
 1851 
 
 3465 
 
 1535 
 
 1731 
 
 1804 
 
 1714 
 
 1760 
 
 1741 
 
 1811 
 
 1775 
 
 1860 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1766 
 
 1839 
 
 1731 
 
 1783 
 
 1274 
 
 1308 
 
 925 
 
 988 
 
 1783 
 
 1865 
 
 1784 
 
 
 1637 
 
 1719 
 
 1760 
 
 1844 
 
 1803 
 
 1865 
 
 1778 
 
 1835 
 
 1610 
 
 1688 
 
 1796 
 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1471 
 
 li'28 
 
60 
 
 THE WOKLD'S PKOGKSSS. 
 
 KATJON. NAME AND PBOFESSION. 
 
 Amer. Durfee, Jot, priest and author . . • 
 
 Eng. Darfey, Thomas, dramatic author 
 
 Eng. Diu-ham, J. G., Lambton, earl of, governor-general of Canada 
 
 Fr. Duroc, Michael, Duke of Priuli, military commauder 
 
 AnuT. Dwight, Dr. Timothy, an eminent divine and writer 
 
 A-2ier. , Thee, author and journalist 
 
 Amer, , Theo., (son of the above), ethnologist and historian 
 
 Amer. Duyckiiick, Evert Aug., author and critic . 
 
 Amer. , Geo. Long, author and critic . , 
 
 Scot. Dye 3, Alex., author and critic . - , 
 
 Eng. Dyer, John, poet, ' The Fleece ' . . , 
 
 Eng. Dymond, Jona, writer on ethics and philanthropist 
 
 Amer. Eastburu, Manton, Episcopal Bishop of Maes. . 
 
 Eng. Eastlake, Sir Charles L., painter and art-critio • 
 
 Amer. Eaton, Amos, botanist .... 
 
 Amer. , Wm., military officer and consul in Africa • 
 
 Ger. Eckeman, John Peter, litterateur 
 
 Amer. Eckford, 'lenry, eminent shipbuilder . . , 
 
 Ger. Eckhard, John George, an antiquary and historian. 
 
 Irish. Edge-worth, Maria, novelist . . 1, , 
 
 Eng. Edward, the Black Prince, a warrior 
 
 Amer. , Ida B., theologian and miscellaneous author . 
 
 Eng. Edwards, 3^yan, an histoi-ian 
 
 Amer. j .Vohn W., jurist and writer on spiritualism , 
 
 Amer. , Jonathan, an able divine and metaphysician 
 
 , Milne, (son of W. F.,) naturalist 
 
 , "^/V. ]?., anatomist and physiologist (born at Jamaica) 
 
 Ger. Eginhard, ^.n historian, biographer of Charlemagne . 
 
 Flem. Egmont, J amoral, count, patriot and martyr 
 
 Ger. Ehrenberg, C. J., naturalist . 
 
 Ger. Eichborn, F C, theologian and jurist , 
 
 Eng. Eldon, L.ii, lord chancellor of England 
 
 Scot. Elgin, T., .Sruce, earl of, diplomatist — remover of 'Elgin' marbles 
 
 Eng. Elizabeth, queen ...... 
 
 Amer. Eliot, Samael, author of ' History of Liberty' 
 
 Eng. EUenboro-:gh, Edw. Law, lord chief-justice 
 
 Eng. , Edw. L., earl of, governor-general of India 
 
 Amer. E'lery, Wm., signer of Declaration of Independence 
 
 Eng. Ellesoere. Fr., Egerton, earl of, statesman and author 
 
 Amer. EUct, Eliza F., biographer and critic 
 
 Amer. EiUot, John, 'the apostle to the Indians' . . 
 
 Eng. EUiotson, John, physician and physiologist , . (abt.) 
 
 Amer. Elliott, Charles Loring, portrait painter 
 
 Amer. Charles Wyllys, author of ' History of New England 
 
 Eng. , Ebenezer, poet ' Goi-n Law Rhymes' 
 
 Amer. , J. D., commodore '\-2. American .navy 
 
 Amer. , Stephen, naturalist 
 
 Amer. .»illis, Geo. E.. Unitarian clergyman and autnor 
 Eng. 
 
 '— • Sir Honry- antiq'iary and author 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1790 
 
 1847 
 
 1628 
 
 1723 
 
 1792 
 
 1840 
 
 1772 
 
 1813 
 
 1752 
 
 1817 
 
 1765 
 
 1846 
 
 
 1866 
 
 1816 
 
 
 1823 
 
 1863 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1700 
 
 1758 
 
 1796 
 
 1720 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1793 
 
 
 ]776 
 
 1842 
 
 1764 
 
 1811 
 
 1792 
 
 1852 
 
 1775 
 
 1832 
 
 1674 
 
 1730 
 
 1767 
 
 1849 
 
 1330 
 
 1376 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1743 
 
 1800 
 
 1799 
 
 
 1703 
 
 1757 
 
 1777 
 
 
 7T1 
 
 840 
 
 1552 
 
 1508 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1781 
 
 1854 
 
 1750 
 
 1838 
 
 1771 
 
 1841 
 
 1533 
 
 1603 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1750 
 
 1818 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1727 
 
 1820 
 
 1800 
 
 1857 
 
 1604 
 
 1G9U 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1812 
 
 
 1817 
 
 
 1781 
 
 
 1785 
 
 1845 
 
 1771 
 
 1836 
 
 1815 
 
 
 1777 
 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 31 
 
 KATIOir. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Ellis, "Wm. Rev., missionary and author , • (abt, 
 
 Eng. Elliston, Robert W., actor .... 
 
 Amer. Ellsworth, Elmer E., military ofB.cer in Union army . 
 
 Amer. , Oliver, a distinguished chief-justice of the TJ. S. 
 
 Eng. Elmes, James, architect and author . . , 
 
 Scot. Elphinstone, Mount Stuart, history of India , , 
 
 Fr. Elssler, Fanny, ^anseuse .... 
 
 Dutch. Elzevir, Louis M. Gr. B., and A., printers I6th and 17th centuries 
 
 Amer. Embury, Emma E., poet .... 
 
 Amer. Emerson, G.eo. B., educator and author , • * 
 
 Amer. , Ralph Waldo, poet and essayist . • 
 
 Eng. "William, a distinguished mathematician . , , 
 
 Irish. Emmet, Robert, ' United Irishman' (executed) 
 
 Irish. , Thomas Addis, an eminent lawyer and orator • 
 
 Amer. Emmons, Eben, geologist and author 
 
 Amer. , Nathaniel, D. D., theologian and author . • 
 
 Gr. Empedoeles, a Pythagorean philosopher . • 
 
 Encke, John Francis, astronomer . • • 
 
 Amer. Endicott, John" governor of Massachusetts • • 
 
 Ger. Endlicher, Stephen L., botanist and linguist • . 
 
 Eng. Enfield, William, miscellaneous writer . . 
 
 Fr. Enghien, Louis H. de Bourbon, duke of, (executed) 
 
 Fr. Eondu Beaumont, chevalier, an eccentric writer and ^claier 
 
 Gr. Epaminondas, an illustrious Theban general . . 
 
 Gr. Epictetus, a stoic philosopher 
 
 Gr. Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean sect of phi^oi'pt.iiS . i 
 
 Dutch. Erasmus, Desiderius, a celebrated scholar and ^utL'.r . 
 
 Ger. Erastus, Thomas, founder of ' Erastianism' thecogy . 
 
 Gr. Eratosthenes, astronomer, geologist, poet and philcdoaher i 
 
 Span. Ercilla, Don Alonzo, a poet . . , , 
 
 Span. Ericcira, Ferdinand, a statesman and historian • 
 
 S. Am. Ericsson, John, inventor and engineer in America . , 
 
 Eng. Erigenus, John, a learned writer of the ninth century . 
 
 Pruss. Erman, A. G., ' Travels in Siberia,' &c. ... 
 
 Ger. Emesti, John Augustus, an eminent critic • • 
 
 Scot. firskine, Ebenezer, theologian .... 
 
 Scot. , Ralph, divine, ' Gospel Sonnets' . , 
 
 Scot. , Thomas, lord, a celebrated forensic orator , 
 
 Assj-r. Esarhaddon, son and successor to Sennacherib, kin ct A." 'yria 
 
 Span. Escobar y Mendoza, Anthony, a celebrated casuist 
 
 Span. Espartero, J. B., Duke of Vittoria, statesman and soldier 
 
 Amer.^ Espy, James P., meteorologist and author . • , 
 
 Fr. Esquirol, J. E. D., writer on insanity . • , 
 
 Ger. Ess, L. Van, theological writer . . • • 
 
 Eng. Essex, Robert Devereux, earl of, a warrior . • 
 
 Fr. Estaing, Charles H., count d', naval commander , , 
 
 Aust. Esterhazy, Prince Paul, wealthy statesman . , 
 
 Eng. Etheredge, Sir George, comic author and dramatist • 
 
 Afric. Euclid, an eminent geometrician . , , f. 
 
 Fr. Eugene-Francis, prince, a great warrior in the German service 
 
 Span. Eugenie, Marie de Gusman, Empress of France 
 
 Swiss. Euler, Leonard, an eminent mathematician , , 
 
 BOEN. 
 
 Piil?, 
 
 )t.) 1.795 
 
 
 i774 
 
 1831 
 
 1837 
 
 1861 
 
 1745 
 
 1807 
 
 1782 
 
 
 1778 
 
 1859 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1806 
 
 1833 
 
 179T 
 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1701 
 
 1782 
 
 1780 
 
 1803 
 
 1764 
 
 1827 
 
 1798 
 
 1863 
 
 174S 
 
 1840 
 
 1791 
 
 1865 
 
 1589 
 
 1665 
 
 1804 
 
 1849 
 
 . 1741 
 
 1797 
 
 1772 
 
 1804 
 
 1728 
 
 1810 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 363 
 
 . f. 40 
 
 
 i. C. 342 B. 
 
 c. 371 
 
 1467 
 
 1536 
 
 1524 
 
 15P>3 
 
 J. c. 276 B. 
 
 c. 198 
 
 1525 
 
 1595 
 
 1614 
 
 1(J39 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1707 
 
 1781 
 
 1680 
 
 1756 
 
 1685 
 
 1752 
 
 1750 
 
 1823 
 
 B. c. 7th cent. 
 
 1589 
 
 1669 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1785 
 
 1860 
 
 1772 
 
 1640 
 
 1776 
 
 1847 
 
 1567 
 
 16Q1 
 
 1729 
 
 1794 
 
 1636 
 
 1694 
 
 B. 0. 300 
 
 
 166S 
 
 1736 
 
 1826 
 
 
 1707 
 
 17^ 
 
32 
 
 THE WORLD'S PKOGEESS. 
 
 i^ATlON. NAME ANB PROFESSION. 
 
 Q-r. Euripides, a celebrated tragic poet . . . b 
 
 Gr. Euf,eV:us, bishop of Caesarea, a learned father of the church, and 
 
 ecclesiastical historian , . . 
 
 Rom. Eutropias, an historian . . • • 
 
 Rom. Eutyches, an ecclesiastic, founder of a sect • 
 
 Amer. Evanc, Oliver, inventor and engineer . , . 
 
 Amei\ Evarts, Jeremiah, (see Amer. B. C. for Miss! ons) . , 
 
 '.■ ig. Evelyn, John, miscellaneous writer . . . 
 
 J.raer. Everett, Alex. H., essayist and diplomatist . 
 
 Amer. , Edward, statesman, diplomatist, and author . 
 
 «.'!er. E-vr^ld, Geo. H. A. von, orientalist and theologian . 
 >'.n.Am. Ewbank, Thos., writer on practical mechanics . 
 
 Amer. Ewing, Thos., statesman and jurist . . 
 
 Eng. Exmouth, ' 1w. Pellew, viscount, admiral • . 
 
 F 
 
 Eng. Faber, G-eo/^^e Stanley, theological writer . . 
 
 Eng. , Frederick "Wm., Roman Catholic priest and theoJogical 
 
 author ..... 
 
 Rom. Fabiu^, Quintus M. V., a skilful warrior . . 
 
 ■ jer. Fabricius. John Albert, a critic and bibliographer 
 
 Ital. , Jotn Ohristian, a celebrated entomoldgist 
 
 Ital. Fabroni, Angelo, a learned biographer . . 
 
 Eng. Fabyan, Robort, chior-i^ler . . • 
 
 Ital. Facciolato, oi FaccioL.ti. Jac, philologist . . 
 
 Pruss. F.ahrenheit, Gioriel Daniel, an experimental philosopher 
 
 Eng. Fairfax, Edwrod, poet, trar.slator of Tasso 
 
 j^ncr. , Thon.as, lori, a general in the civil war . 
 
 :Ksig. Faleonpr, "WL'liam, a poet ...» 
 
 Ital. Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice, (beheaded) 
 
 •Eng. Falkland, Lucl'ir '"lar/, viscount, polilician and author 
 
 Eng. Fanshawe, Sir Kionara, poet a-id diplomatist 
 
 Irish. Faraday, Michael, chemist .... 
 
 Port. F:>ria y Sonza, Manuel, an historian and poet . 
 
 Eng. Farmer, Hugh, the logian 
 
 Amer. Farnham, Mrs. Eli/.a W., traveller and philanthropist 
 
 Irish. Farquhar, George, g, dramatist 
 
 Amer. Farrnr, John, matbc :.atician and author , . 
 
 Fr. Fimcher, Leon political economipt . . , 
 
 Tr. Fauiiel, Claude, historian and belles-lettres author 
 
 (i-er. Faust, John, one of the inventors of printing , 
 
 yr. Favre, J. C. Jules, lawyer and politician , , 
 
 Eng. Fawkes, Francis, a poet andjtranslator • 
 
 An>iM*. Fay, Theo. S., author and diplomatist 
 
 Fr. Fayette, Mary M., countess of, miscellaneous writer . 
 
 Eng. Fellows, Sir Charles, traveller in the East 
 
 Amer. Felton, Cornelius C, scholar and critic, president of Harvard 
 
 College ..... 
 
 Fi. I<endion, Francis dc Salignac de la Motto de, an able writer and 
 
 cne of the most virtuous of men . . • 
 
 Bwc. Ferber, John James, an eminent mineralogist , 
 
 BORN. DIEA 
 
 C. 480 B. 0. 40(1 
 
 343 
 
 f. 360 
 
 1755 
 
 1819 
 
 1781 
 
 1831 
 
 1620 
 
 1651 
 
 1790 
 
 1847 
 
 1794 
 
 1865 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1789 
 
 
 1757 
 
 1833 
 
 1773 
 
 1815 
 
 1854 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 204 
 
 166S 
 
 1736 
 
 1742 
 
 1807 
 
 1732 
 
 1803 
 
 1450 
 
 1515 
 
 1684 
 
 1760 
 
 1686 
 
 1736 
 
 
 1633 
 
 1611 
 
 1671 
 
 1730 
 
 1769 
 
 
 1355 
 
 1610 
 
 1643 
 
 1608 
 
 1636 
 
 1790 
 
 1867 
 
 1588 
 
 1647 
 
 171^ 
 
 1787 
 
 1815 
 
 1864 
 
 1678 
 
 1707 
 
 1779 
 
 1853 
 
 1803 
 
 1854 
 
 1772 
 
 1844 
 
 
 1466 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1632 
 
 1693 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1632 
 
 1693 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1807 
 
 1651 
 1743 
 
 1863 
 
 1715 
 179C 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 33 
 
 KATION, NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Scot. Fergucon, Adam, an historian and moral philosoplier 
 
 Scot. , James, a self-educated astronomer, pliilosoph.er, &a, 
 
 Scot. Fergusson, James, architect and writer on art 
 
 Span. Ferreras, John de, a celebrated historian . 
 
 Scot. Ferrier, Mar}', novelist .... 
 
 Fr. Fesch, Joseph, senior, priest, cardinal, archhishop of Lyons 
 
 Amer. Fessenden, Thos. Green, author and journalist 
 
 Amer. , Wm. Pitt, IT. S. senator from Maine, ex sec. treas, 
 
 Ger. Feuerhach, Ludwig, philosopher and author 
 
 Ger. Feurbach, Paul John A. von, statesman ai.d jurist , 
 
 Span. Feyjoo y Montenegro, an able miscellaneous writer 
 
 Ger. Fichte, John G,, philosopher . . , 
 
 Ital, Fici no, Marsilius, a Platonic philosopher . , 
 
 Amer. Field, Cyrus W., promoter of Atlantic telegTaph , 
 
 Amer. Field, David Dudley, jurist and advocate 
 
 Amer. , Henry Martyn, clergyman, journalist, and author 
 
 Eng. Fielding, Copley Vandyke, painter in water colors 
 
 Eng. , Henry, a humorous novelist and dramatist 
 
 Ital. Fiesco, John Louis, the conspirator against Doria , 
 
 Amer. Fillmore, Millard, 13th president U. S. . . 
 
 Amer. Finney, Charles G., preacher and theological writer • 
 
 Pers. Firdusi or Ferdusi, poet, author of 60,000 verses 
 
 Amer. Fisk, Wilbur, president Wesleyan University, ' Travels,' &c, 
 
 Amer. Fitch, John, inventor, pioneer of steam navigation . 
 
 Rom. Fiaminius, Titus Quintus, general and consul . 
 
 Pom. , Caius, general, consul, and censor of tribune 
 
 Eng. Flamsteed, John, first astronomer royal 
 
 Eng. Flatnian, Thomas, poet .... 
 
 Eng. Flavel, J(jhn, an eminent non-conformist divine • 
 
 Fr. Fiecliier, Esprit, a celebrated prelate . , 
 
 Ger. Fleischer, H. L., orientalist . , , , 
 
 Scot. Fleming, John, naturalist 
 
 Scot. Fletcher, Andrew, of Saltoun, statesman and author , 
 
 Eng. , Giles, poet .... 
 
 Eng. , John, a dramatist . * . , 
 
 Eng. , Phineas, poet .... 
 
 Fr. Floury, Andrew Hercules de, a cardinal and statesman 
 
 Ir. ' , Claude, a divine and historian 
 
 Araer. Flint, Pev. Timothy, novelist and historian . , 
 
 Fr. Florian, John Peter Claris de, miscellaneous writer 
 
 Ger. Fliigel, G. L., philologist and historian . , 
 
 Ger. , John G., lexicographer 
 
 Ger. Pollen, C. T. C, theologian and philologist (in TJ. S.) . 
 
 Fr. Fonblanque, J. S. M., jurisprudence 
 
 Fr, Fontenelle, Bernard le Bouvier de, miscellaneous writer 
 Amer. Foote, Andrew Hull, admiral and author , , 
 
 Erg. , Samuel, a comic writer and actor , , 
 
 Eng. Forbes, Edwai'd, naturalist and author . . 
 
 Eng. , John, M. D., medical writer . , , ' 
 
 Amer. Force, Peter, journalist and historian . , 
 
 Ital. Forcelliiii, Giles, a Latin lexicographer , , 
 
 Eng. Ford, John, an early dramatic author , , 
 
 3 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DTEi). 
 
 1724 
 
 xsie 
 
 1710 
 
 1.76 
 
 1S08 
 
 
 1652 
 
 1735 
 
 1782 
 
 1854 
 
 1763 
 
 1839 
 
 1771 
 
 1837 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1804 
 
 
 1775 
 
 1833 
 
 1701 
 
 1764 
 
 1762 
 
 1814 
 
 1433 
 
 1499 
 
 1819 
 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1822 
 
 
 1787 
 
 1855 
 
 1707 
 
 1754 
 
 
 1547 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1792 
 
 
 940 
 
 1020 
 
 1792 
 
 1839 
 
 1743 
 
 ■"798 
 
 C. 230 B. 
 
 C. 17 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 17 
 
 1646 
 
 71& 
 
 1633 
 
 16S8 
 
 1627 
 
 16.1 
 
 1632 
 
 1710 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1785 
 
 1857 
 
 1658 
 
 1716 
 
 1580 
 
 1627 
 
 1576 
 
 1625 
 
 1584 
 
 1650 
 
 1653 
 
 1743 
 
 1640 
 
 1722 
 
 1780 
 
 1840 
 
 1755 
 
 1794 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1788 
 
 1855 
 
 1796 
 
 1846 
 
 1787 
 
 1865 
 
 1657 
 
 1757 
 
 1806 
 
 1863 
 
 1721 
 
 1771 
 
 1815 
 
 1864 
 
 - 1787 
 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1688 
 
 
 1586 
 
 164C 
 
34 
 
 THE WOELD'S PEOGKESS. 
 
 >'iTrON. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Ford, Eichard, author of works on Spaiu • , 
 
 Ital Foresti, E. Felice, patriot and litterateur , • 
 
 Avcer. Forrest, Edwin, actor . . • • 
 
 En^. Forster, John, journalist and author • • 
 
 'jer, , John R., traveller and naturalist , , 
 
 Amer. Forsyth, John, diplomatist and statesman . . 
 
 Eng. Fosbrooke, Rev. T. D., archaeologist (Ency. Aiitiq.) • 
 Ttal. Foscari, Francesco, 45th doge of Venice 
 Ital. Foscolo, Nicol ITgo, poet and musical author . 
 Eng. Foster, John, essayist .... 
 ¥\: Fouch6, Joseph, Duke of Otranto, a brutal revolutionist 
 8-er. Fonque, Fried H. L. de la Motte, author of ' Undine,' &c. 
 Fr. Foxirier, Charles, founder of the ' social ' system . 
 
 Fr. , Franc: s M. C, writer on social science 
 
 Amer. Fowler, Orson S., phrenologist 
 
 Eng. Fox, Charles James, one of the greatest of statesmen and orators 
 
 Eng. , Q-eorge, the founder of the society of Friends or Quakers 
 
 Eng. , John, a divine, author of the ' Book of Martyrs ' . 
 
 Eng. , Sir Charles, engineer, huilder of Crystal Palace . 
 
 Ital, Fra Diavolo (Michael Pezza), Neapolitan bandit . • 
 
 Francia, Jos6 Gr. R., dictator of Paraguay • * 
 
 Ame^. Francis, John W., physician and author • • 
 
 Ital. , Saint, founder of ' Franciscans ' > , • 
 
 Savcy. ■ , de Sales, saint and bishop . . • 
 
 Irish. , Sir Philij), political writer 
 
 Amer. Franklin, Benjamin, a celebrated philosopher and statesman 
 
 En£. , Sir John, admiral and Arctic explorer . . , 
 
 Scot. Frazer, Simon, Lord Lovat, Jacobite leader, beheaded . 
 Piuss. Frederick II., the Great, King, an able general and aiithor . 
 Amer. Freeman, James, D.D., first Unitarian minister in U. 8. 
 Amer. Freliiighuysen, Theo., statesman ...» 
 Amer. Fremont, John Charles, explorer and statesman . 
 
 Amer. Freneau, Philip, poet and journalist . . , 
 
 Eng, Frere, John Hookman, poet and diplomatist . . 
 
 Ger. Freytag, G. W. F., ' Arabic Dictionary,' &c. • , 
 
 Eng. Frobisher, Sir Martin, a celebrated navigator , . 
 
 Fer. Froebel, Julius, traveller and author . • . 
 
 Fr. Froissart, John, a chronicler and poet . . 
 
 Amer. Frothinghara, Richard, Jr., historian and journalist • 
 
 Eng. Fry, Elizabeth, philanthropist . . , 
 
 Amer. — , Wm. Henry, composer and journalist . . . 
 
 Eng. Fuller, Andrew, an eminent Baptist minister . , 
 
 Amer. , Richai-il, D. D., Baptist preacher and author 
 
 Amer. , Sarah Margaret, Marchioness d'Ossoli, litterateur , 
 
 Eng. , Thomas, a divine and historian , , 
 
 Eng. Fullerton, Lady Georgiana, novelist . , . 
 
 Fr. Fureti^re, Anthony, a philosopher 
 
 Amer. Furness, William Henry, D. D., Unitarian preacher and author 
 Ger. Furst, 'Julius, orientalist and philologist • , 
 
 Bwiss. Fuseli, Henry, painter and writer on art • • 
 
 BOBN 
 
 vrK» 
 
 1796 
 
 185« 
 
 1793 
 
 1858 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1812 
 
 
 1729 
 
 1798 
 
 1780 
 
 1841 
 
 • 1770 
 
 1843 
 
 1372 
 
 1451 
 
 1777 
 
 1821 
 
 1770 
 
 184^ 
 
 1763 
 
 182» 
 
 1777 
 
 184S 
 
 1772 
 
 1386 
 
 1772 
 
 . 183? 
 
 1809 
 
 
 ors 1748 
 
 i8oe 
 
 1624 
 
 1690 
 
 1517 
 
 1587 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1769 
 
 1806 
 
 1757 
 
 1840 
 
 1789 
 
 1861 
 
 1182 
 
 1226 
 
 1567 
 
 1623 
 
 1740 
 
 1808 
 
 1706 
 
 1790 
 
 1786 
 
 1847 
 
 1667 
 
 1747 
 
 1712 
 
 1786 
 
 1759 
 
 1835 
 
 1787 
 
 1862 
 
 1813 
 
 
 1752 
 
 1832 
 
 1769 
 
 1846 
 
 1778 
 
 
 
 1594 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1333 
 
 1400 
 
 1812 
 
 
 . 1780 
 
 1845 
 
 1815 
 
 1864 
 
 1754 
 
 1815 
 
 1808 
 
 
 1810 
 
 1850 
 
 1608 
 
 1661 
 
 1812 
 
 
 1620 
 
 1683 
 
 )r 1802 
 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1741 
 
 182f 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 35 
 
 a 
 
 HATIOK. NAME ANB PROFESSION. 
 
 Amer. Gadsden, Christopher, revolutiouary statesman , • 
 
 Amer. -, James, statesman and negotiator . • 
 
 Eng. Gage, Thomas, last royal governor of Massachusetts . , 
 
 Fr. G-agnier, John, an orientalist and author . . • 
 
 Fr. Gail, J. B., philologist ..... 
 
 Fr. Gaillard, Gabriel Henry, misceKaneous writer and historian 
 
 Amer. Gaines, Major-General E. P., military commander • . 
 
 Rom. Gains, or Cains, jurist and legal writer . . • 
 
 Gr. Galen, Claudius, a celebrated physic'an . • • 
 
 En.Am. Gales, Joseph, founder of ' National Intelligencer ' . 
 
 Ital. Galileo, an illustrious philosopher and astronomer 
 Ger. Gall, John Joseph, a celebrated physiologist, and founder of the 
 
 science of phrenology .... 
 
 Amer. Gallagher, William D., journalist and poet 
 
 S. Am. Gallatin, Albert, statesman, diplomatist, philologist, and ethnol. 
 Amer. Gallaudet, Thomas H., founder of the first American asylum for 
 
 deaf and dumb ..... 
 
 Kuss. Gallitzin, the name of several distinguished princes • . 
 
 Kuss. , Demetrius Aug., a noble missionary priest . 
 
 Scot. Gait, John, novelist . . . . . , 
 
 ItaU Galvani, Louis, a physician and experimental philosopher, dio- 
 
 coverer of galvanic electricity .... 
 Port. Gama, Vasco, navigator, first who doubled the Cape of Good Hope 
 Jew. Gamaliel, a Pharisee, doctor of the law . 
 
 Ger. Gans, Edwai'd, jurist . . . • . 
 
 Span. G arc' a, Manuel, musical composer . . . • 
 
 Span. Garcias-Lasso de la Vega, the prince of Spanish poetry . 
 Span. Garcilas£0 de la Vega, one of the conquerors of Peru , , 
 
 Eng. Gardiner, Stephen, Roman Catholic prelate . . 
 
 Ital. Garibalii, Giuseppe, patriotic general and leader . . 
 
 Pr. Garnier, Count Gernaain, jurist . . • • 
 
 Eng. Garrick, David, a celebrated actor and dramatist , . 
 
 Amer Garrison, William Lloyd, abolitionist politician . . 
 
 Eng. Garth, Sir Samuel, physician and puet 
 Eng. Gascoigne, Sir William, the judge who imprisoned Henry, Prince 
 
 of Wales, for a misdemeanor .... 
 Eng. Gaskell, Eii;i;abeth C, novelist . . . • , 
 
 Fr. Gassendi, i'eter, a celebrated philosopher . . . 
 
 Gaston de ]i'oix, duke of Nemours, general, 
 Amer. Gates, Hoi.-atio, a distinguished officer in the Revolution 
 Fr. " Gavarni," real name Sulpice Paul Chevalier, caricaturist . 
 
 Eng. Gay, John, a popular poet ..... 
 Fr. Gay-Lusss.c, N. F. chemist . . . , 
 
 Span. Gayangos, J'ascal de, Oriental scholar and historian . . 
 
 Amer. Gayarre, 'Miarles A., historian .... 
 Eng. Gell, Sir Vi'illiam, scholar and antiquary (Pompeii and Rome) 
 Ger. Ge'lert, Chrisiian Furchtegoit, a ]>oet and miscellaneous writer 
 *lc»m. Gellius, Aulius, grammarian .... 
 
 Fr. Genest, c: (^enet, Edwara C, djplom&ikt . . 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED 
 
 1724 
 
 180S 
 
 1788 
 
 1858 
 
 
 1787 
 
 1670 
 
 174G 
 
 1755 
 
 1829 
 
 r9.« 
 
 1806 
 
 177^ 
 
 1849 
 
 
 1st cent. 
 
 131 
 
 
 1786 
 
 
 1564 
 
 1642 
 
 1758 
 
 18QS 
 
 1808 
 
 
 17G1 
 
 1849 
 
 1787 
 
 1851 
 
 16th to 17th cent. 
 
 1770 
 
 1840 
 
 1779 
 
 lB?<i 
 
 1737 
 
 .'T&f 
 
 
 i52-! 
 
 
 8«^ 
 
 1798 
 
 ".84"' 
 
 1779 
 
 xS3? 
 
 1503 
 
 153'1 
 
 
 155 'i 
 
 1483 
 
 1555 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1754 
 
 1821 
 
 1716 
 
 1779 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1718 
 
 
 1350 
 
 1413 
 
 1820 
 
 18c5 
 
 1592 
 
 1655 
 
 1489 
 
 1512 
 
 1728 
 
 1806 
 
 IBOl 
 
 
 1588 
 
 1732 
 
 1778 
 
 1850 
 
 1B09 
 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1777 
 
 1836 
 
 1715 
 
 1769 
 
 A. D; 
 
 2(i cent. 
 
 1765 
 
 1834 
 
so 
 
 THE W0E1.D'S ritOGKEflt. 
 
 Kill TOK, 
 
 Dat. 
 Kr. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Fv. 
 Fr. 
 Rom. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ame:- 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Boot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Genghiii K.han, a celeljrated conqueror 
 
 Geulie, Stephania Felicite, Countess de, miscellaneous writer 
 Geoffrey of Monmouth, an historian of tlie 12ili century 
 Geoiiroy-Saint IlilaireEtienne, zoologist . . , 
 
 Geriindo, Baron de, writer on education, &c. . « 
 
 Gerard, Etienne Maurice, count, marshal of France , 
 
 Gsrmanicus, Tiberius Drusus Cajsar, military commander 
 Gerry, Elbridge, a distinguished patriot, vice-president U. S. 
 Gnrson, John Chaiiier de, an ecclesiastic and author 
 Gerstacker, Fried, novelist and traveller 
 fjervinus, George Gottfried, historian and politician 
 Gesenius, Fred. Hein. William, orientalist and biblical critic 
 Gessner, Conrad, an eminent naturalist . . . 
 
 , John Matthias, a philologist , 
 
 Giannone, Peter, an historian .... 
 Gibbes, Robert Wilson, physician and author 
 Gibbon, Edward, one of the greatest of England's historians 
 Gibbs, Josiah "W"., philologist .... 
 Gibson, Colonel John and Col. George, both oflicers in the Revo 
 lution 
 
 , Thomas Milner, statesman • • 
 
 Giddings, Joshua Reed, statesman . . 
 
 Giftbrd, William, a critic and poet . > . 
 
 , John, an historical and j)olitical writer 
 
 Gieseler, John K. L., church historian 
 Gilbert, James W., writer on banking 
 
 , Sir Humphrey, one of the earliest adventurers in Amer. 
 
 Gil fillan, George, clergyman and author 
 
 Gill, John, a divine, oriental scholar and author 
 
 Gillespie, Wm. M., professor and author on engineering 
 
 Gillies, John, ' History of Greece,' &c. 
 
 Gilman, John T., noted governor of New Hampshire 
 
 ■ , Samuel, Unitarian clergyman and author . 
 
 Gilpin, Bernard, ' apostle of the North ' 
 , Wm., writer on the picturesque 
 
 Gilray, James, engraver and caricaturist 
 
 G'oberti, Vincenzo, philosopher, priest, and statesman 
 
 Gioja, Melchior, writer on economical sciences 
 
 Sw. Am. Girard, Charles, naturalist 
 
 Fr.Am. , Stephen, merchant, banker, millionaire 
 
 Fr. Girardin, Emil de, journalist . . . 
 
 Eng. Gladstone, Wm. Ewart, statesman and author 
 
 Eng. Glanvill, Joseph, divine, philosopher, and author . 
 
 Eng. Gleig, Geo. Robt., clergyman and author 
 
 Welsh Glendower, Owen, chieftain . . • 
 
 Eng. Gliddon, Geo. Robins, Egyptologist and author 
 
 Ger. Gluck, Cluistop W. von, musical compoeer 
 
 Ewe. Gmelin, John Frederick, chemist 
 
 Fr. Godfrey, of Bouillon, or Boulogne, a celebrated leader in the 
 
 Crusades .... 
 
 Amer. Godman, John, M. D., a distinguished naturalist, «&o. 
 
 Eug. Godolphin, Sidney, earl of, statesman 
 
 BORN. 
 
 1164 
 1746 
 
 1772 
 1770 
 1773 
 
 1814 
 1363 
 1816 
 1805 
 1786 
 1516 
 1691 
 1676 
 1809 
 1737 
 1790 
 
 1807 
 1795 
 1757 
 1758 
 1792 
 1794 
 
 1813 
 1697 
 1816 
 1747 
 1T59 
 17)1 
 15 7 
 1724 
 1757 
 1801 
 17^7 
 1822 
 1750 
 1802 
 1809 
 1636 
 1796 
 1349 
 1809 
 1714 
 1748 
 
 1794 
 1640 
 
 1227 
 1830 
 
 1844 
 
 1842 
 
 1852 
 
 19 
 
 1429 
 
 1842 
 1565 
 1761 
 1758 
 
 1794 
 
 1860 
 1826 
 1818 
 1854 
 1863 
 1583 
 
 1771 
 
 1836 
 1828 
 1853 
 1583 
 1804 
 1815 
 1852 
 1829 
 
 1831 
 
 16S0 
 
 1415 
 
 1857 
 
 1787 
 1805 
 
 1108 
 1830 
 1712 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 
 
 37 
 
 KATIOH. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Hung. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Russ>. 
 
 Russ. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 En. Am. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Scot, 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Dutch. 
 Amer. 
 Amer. 
 Eng. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Godoy, Manuel de, statesman, ' prince of the peace' • 
 
 Godwin, Parke, journalist and historian . , 
 
 , 'William, novelist and metaphysician . . 
 
 Goethe, John Wolfgang, poet and novelist 
 Goldoni, Charles, the Italian Moliere . . . 
 
 Goldsmith, Oliver, celebrated poet and miscellaneous writer 
 Golius, James, orientalist and lexicographer . . 
 
 Gonsalvo, of Cordova, a celebrated warrior , , 
 
 Good, John Mason, physician and author . , , 
 
 Goodrich, Channcey A., scholar and divine . , 
 
 , Frank B., (son of Samuel G.,) author , 
 
 -, Samuel Griswold, ' Peter Parley,' voluminous author 
 
 Goodyear, Charles, inventor and India-rubber patentee . 
 
 Gordon, ' lord George,' political agitator . , 
 
 , Wm , author of History of the United States , 
 
 Gore, Catharine G., novelist . . , 
 
 Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, ' lord proprietor of Maine' . 
 
 Gorgey, Arthur, general in the Revolution, (supposed traitor) 
 Gorgias, an orator and sophist .... 
 Goi'tchakoflf, Michael, prince, general in Crimea, &c. . 
 
 , Alexander, prince, dip'omati^t . . 
 
 Gorton, Samuel, enthusiast and author • . 
 
 Go ugh, John B., lecturer on temperance . , . 
 
 , Hugh, viscount, general in India. &c. . . 
 
 Gould, Augustus A., naturalist and physician . , 
 
 , Hannah F., poet . . . . ( 
 
 , John, naturalist and author . , • 
 
 Gourgaud, Gaspard, baron, one of Napoleon's generals 
 Gower, John, one of the earliest English poets . , 
 
 Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, a celebrated democrat 
 
 , Caius Sempronius .... 
 
 Graefe, or Graevius, an erudite classic writer . . 
 
 Graliame, John, viscount of Dundee, lord Grahame of Claver 
 
 house, general ..... 
 , James, a poet .... 
 
 , James, author of ' History of the United States ' 
 
 Grammont, Count Philibert, licentious author of Memoirs' 
 Grandville, J. S. G., caricatiirist and artist . . 
 
 Grauier, Adolphe, journalist and historian . 
 
 Grant, Anne, (of Laggan,) novelist, essayist, &c. • 
 
 , James, journalist and author . , , 
 
 , James, novelist .... 
 
 Granvelle, Ant. Pierre, cardinal de, statesman , , 
 
 Granville, G. G. Leweson Gower, 2d earl of, statesman . 
 
 , John Carteret, earl, statesman . , 
 
 Gratian, a monk, compiler of the canon law . , 
 
 Grattan, Henry, a distinguished orator and statesman . 
 
 , Thomas Colley, novelist . , , 
 
 Gravesande, "Wm. Jacob, a geometrician and philosopher 
 Gray, Asa, botanist, prof, in Harvard, author of ' Flora,' &c. 
 
 , Henry Peters, painter. ... 
 
 , John Edward, naturalist .... 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIKIJ. 
 
 17o7 
 
 1851 
 
 1816 
 
 
 1755 
 
 1S36 
 
 1749 
 
 1831 
 
 1707 
 
 1793 
 
 3731 
 
 1774 
 
 1596 
 
 1667 
 
 1443 
 
 1515 
 
 1764 
 
 1827 
 
 1790 
 
 1860 
 
 1826 
 
 
 1793 
 
 1860 
 
 1800 
 
 1850 
 
 1750 
 
 1793 
 
 1730 
 
 1807 
 
 1799 
 
 
 
 1647 
 
 1818 
 
 
 f. B. c. 
 
 5th cent 
 
 1792 
 
 1861 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1600 
 
 1677 
 
 1817 
 
 
 1779 
 
 
 1805 
 
 
 abt.) 1800 
 
 1865 
 
 1804 
 
 
 1783 
 
 1852 
 
 
 14ii2 
 
 
 B. c. 133 
 
 
 B. C. 121 
 
 1632 
 
 1703 
 
 1643 
 
 1689 
 
 1765 
 
 1811 
 
 . »770 
 
 1842 
 
 1621 
 
 1707 
 
 1803 
 
 1847 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1755 
 
 1838 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1822 
 
 
 1517 
 
 1588 
 
 1816 
 
 
 1690 
 
 1703 
 
 f. 12th cent. 
 
 . 1750 
 
 1821 
 
 1796 
 
 1864 
 
 1688 
 
 17U 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1819 
 
 
 abt.) 1800 
 
 
38 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Arasr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Er. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 jrr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Gray, Thomas, poet ..... 
 Gi-aydon, Alex., author of ' Bevolutionary Memoirs * • 
 
 Greeley, Horace, journalist and politician . . 
 
 Gregory I., the Great, pope, author 
 
 , VII., the Great, pope Hildebrand, celebratevt despot 
 
 ■ , David, philosopher and mathematician . . 
 
 , George, D. D., miscellaneous writer . . 
 
 , James, philosopher and mathematician , • 
 
 , Nazianzen, St. Christian, writer . • 
 
 of Nyssa, St. Christian, writer . . • 
 
 , Olinthus, mathematician and religious writer 
 
 of Tours, historian . . . • 
 
 Green, Ashbel D. D., clergyman and author . • 
 
 , Horace, physician, author of medical works • 
 
 Greene, Chas. G., journalist and politician . . 
 
 , Geo. Washington, scholar and critic . . 
 
 , Matthew, poet .... 
 
 , Nathaniel, maj. gen., distinguished in the Revolution 
 
 , Nathaniel, author and journalist . . 
 
 ■ , Robt., dramatist . . • • 
 
 Greenhow, Robert, historical writer , . • 
 
 Greenleaf, Simon, jurist and author . . 
 
 Greenough, Horatio, sculptor and author 
 Greville, Sir Fulke, (Lord Brooke), statesman and author 
 Grey, Earl, statesman, whig premier for William IV. 
 
 —, liady Jane, the accomplished victim of another's ambition 
 
 Griesbach, John James, an eminent theologian and philologist 
 Griiiin, Edward D., D. D., theologian , 
 
 , Gerald, novelist . • • . 
 
 Grimke, Thomas S., jurist . . # • 
 
 Grimm, J. M. C, miscellaneous writer . • 
 
 Griscom, John, educator, philanthropist . . . 
 
 GrisAvold, Alex, V., bishop Prot. Epis. Church, New England 
 
 , Rufus Wilmot, author and critic 
 
 Gronovius, James, an erudite critic . . • 
 
 Grose, Francis, antiquary and author " . ., . 
 
 Gros:?, Samuel D., physician, surgeon, and author 
 
 Grote, George, author of History of Greece . • 
 
 Grotefend, G. F., philologist . . , 
 
 Grotius or DeGroot, Hugh, an eminent scholar , . 
 
 Grouchy, Emanuel, count, marshal of France . 
 
 Grundy, Felix, senator of the U. S. . . 
 
 Gryph, Andrew, a dramatist , . • 
 
 Guarini, John Baptist, a poet .... 
 
 Guericke, Otto, experimental philos., inventor of the air-pump 
 
 Guerrazi, Francesco D., autiior and politician 
 
 Guiccardini, Francis, an historian 
 
 Guillotin, Joseph T.. benevolent physician, inventor of the guillotine 1738 
 
 Guise, Chai'les of, cardinal, a bigoted and ambitious statesman 1525 
 
 ■ , Francis of Lorraine, duke of, celebrated warrior . 1519 
 
 , Henry of Lorraine, duke of, an ambitious warrior . 1550 
 
 Guizot, Francis, statesman, historian, and metaphysician . 1787 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 1716 
 
 1752 
 
 1811 
 
 544 
 
 1661 
 1754 
 1648 
 328 
 331 
 1774 
 544 
 1762 
 1802 
 1804 
 1811 
 1696 
 1741 
 1797 
 1560 
 1800 
 ■ 1783 
 1805 
 1554 
 1764 
 1537 
 1745 
 1770 
 1803 
 1786 
 1785 
 1774 
 1766 
 1815 
 1645 
 1731 
 1805 
 1794 
 1775 
 1583 
 1776 
 (Tenn.) 1777 
 1616 
 1537 
 1602 
 1805 
 1482 
 
 SIEB, 
 
 1771 
 
 1818 
 
 604 
 1085 
 1710 
 1808 
 1685 
 
 389 
 
 396 
 1841 
 
 593 
 1848 
 1866 
 
 1737 
 1786 
 
 1592 
 1854 
 1858 
 1853 
 1628 
 1845 
 1554 
 1812 
 1837 
 1840 
 1834 
 1S63 
 1852 
 1843 
 1857 
 1716 
 1791 
 
 1836 
 1645 
 
 1847 
 1840 
 1664 
 1612 
 1686 
 
 1540 
 1814 
 1574 
 1563 
 15S8 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX, 
 
 39 
 
 HATION, 
 
 Nor. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Pol. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Swe 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Pruss. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 NAME AND PKOFESSION. 
 
 Guiscard, Kobert, a Norman warrior 
 
 Gunter, Edmund, a mathematician, inventor of the Gnnter scale 
 
 Gurney, Joseph John, philanthropist . (Soc. 
 
 Gurowsky, Adam de, count, publicist and. author 
 
 Garwood, John, Col, editor of Wellington's Despatches 
 
 Giistavus 1., (Gustavus Vasa) king of Sweden 
 
 II., Adolphus, king of Sweden ; able warrior 
 
 III., king of Sweden . . , 
 
 IV., Adolphus, king of Sweden . . 
 
 Guthrie, James, secretary of the treasury to Pierce 
 
 , William, author of a history of England, Scotland, &c, 
 
 Guttenberg, John, one of the inventors of printing 
 Gutzlaft", Charles, traveller and historian of China 
 Guy on, Jeanne M, B., de la Molte, mystical teacher and writer 
 , Richard D., general in the service of Hungary, &c. 
 
 Sw.Am.Guyot, Arnold H., writer on physical geography 
 Eng. Gwynn, Eleanor, (' Nell Gwynn ') mistress of Charles II. 
 Hg. Au.Gyulai, Francis, count, commander of Austrian army in Italy 
 Eng. Habington, Wm., poet .... 
 
 Hackett, Horatio B., biblical critic . • • 
 , James H., actor . . , • 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Pers, 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Pr, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Hafiz, Mohammed, the Anacreon of Persia » 
 
 Hagenbach, Karl L., ecclesiastical historian • • 
 
 Hahn, August, theological writer . . • 
 
 , Simon Prederick, an historian . . • 
 
 Hahneman, founder of ' Homeopalhy ' in medicine 
 
 Hahn- Hahn, Ida, countess of, traveller and novelist 
 
 Hakluyt, Pi chard, author of voyages, &c., of the English 
 
 Haldane, Robert, philanthropist and theologian 
 
 Haldeman, S. S., naturalist and philologist . • 
 
 Hale, Benj., D.D., educator and author 
 
 —, David, journalist, founder of N. Y. Journal of Commerce 
 
 , Nathan, revolutionary patriot, executed as a spy . 
 
 , Nathan, journalist, Boston Daily Advertiser 
 
 , Sarah J., poet and prose writer . . • 
 
 , Sir Matthew, eminent and incorruptible judge • 
 
 Halevy, J. F. C, musical composer . . • 
 
 llalford, Sir Henry, physician and medical writer . 
 Haliburton, Thos. C, humorous writer, ' Sam Siick* . 
 
 Hall, Capt. Basil, author of Travels, &c. . , 
 
 • , Gordon, first American missionary in Bombay , 
 
 , James, jurist and author . . • 
 
 , James, geologist and palaeontologist . . . 
 
 , Joseph, bishop of Norwich, theological author • 
 
 , Pev. Robert, theologian and pulpit orator . • 
 
 Hallam, Henry, historian . . , , 
 
 Halleck, Fitz Greene, poet . . , 
 
 Haller, Albert von, miscellaneous writer . . 
 
 H alley, Edmund, an eminent astronomer and mathematician 
 Halliwell, James Orchard, archaeologist and author . 
 Halyburton, Thomas, theological writer . • , 
 
 Carth. Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian general . , 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1015 
 
 1085 
 
 e 1581 
 
 1619 
 
 nds) 1788 
 
 1S47 
 
 1805 
 
 186Q 
 
 1791 
 
 1845 
 
 1496 
 
 1560 
 
 1594 
 
 1633 
 
 1746 
 
 1792 
 
 1778 
 
 1837 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1708 
 
 1770 
 
 1400 
 
 1468 
 
 1803 
 
 1851 
 
 1648 
 
 1717 
 
 1813 
 
 1856 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1650 
 
 1687 
 
 1798 
 
 1866 
 
 1605 
 
 1645 
 
 1808 
 
 
 1800 
 
 
 
 1389 
 
 1801 
 
 
 3807 
 
 1857 
 
 1692 
 
 1T29 
 
 1755 
 
 1843 
 
 ]805 
 
 
 1553 
 
 1616 
 
 1764 
 
 1842 
 
 1832 
 
 
 1797 
 
 
 ;e 1791 
 
 1849 
 
 1758 
 
 1776 
 
 1784 
 
 1863 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1609 
 
 1676 
 
 1799 
 
 1862 
 
 1766 
 
 1844 
 
 1803 
 
 1865 
 
 1788 
 
 1844 
 
 1784 
 
 1826 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1574 
 
 1656 
 
 1764 
 
 1831 
 
 . 1777 
 
 1859 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1708 
 
 1777 
 
 1656 
 
 1741 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1674 
 
 1712 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 22S 
 
40 
 
 THE WOELD's PE ogress. 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIED. 
 
 Araer. Hamilton, Alexander, statesman, first secretary of treaeui-y, U. S. 1757 1801 
 
 Ii-islj, , Elizabeth, a talented miscellaneous writer . 1758 1816 
 
 _A.mfr. , James, statesman, U. S. senator from South Carolina 1786 1857 
 
 Scot. , Sir "Wm., diplomatist and antiquary , . 1730 1803 
 
 Scot. , Sir Wm., metaphysician .... 1788 1856 
 
 li'ish. , Sir Wm. Eowan, mathematician and philosopher 1805 
 
 gcot. , Thos., Oapt., novelist, ' Men and Manners in America' 1789 1842 
 
 Eng. , William Richard, archaeologist . . . 1777 1859 
 
 Ger. Hammer, Baron von, historian and orientalist . . . 1774 1856 
 
 Eig. Hammond, James, poet . . . . • 1710 1742 
 
 Amer. , James H., U. S. senator from South Carolina . , 1807 
 
 Eng. Hampden, John, a celebrated patriotic statesman . 1594 1643 
 
 Amer. Hampton, Wade, general in revolution . . . 1755 1835 
 
 Amer. Hancock, John, a distinguished patriot, president of Congress 1737 1793 
 
 Ger. Handel, Geo. Frederick, one of the greatest musical composers . 1684 1758 
 
 Carth. Hannibal, or Annibal, general against Rome . , b. c. 247 b. c. 183 
 
 Carth. Hanno, navigator . . . . . . b. c. 5th cent. 
 
 , the Great, general and statesman . . . b. c. 202 
 
 Nor. Hanstein, G., mathematician and astronomer • • . 1784 
 
 Amer. Harbaugh, Henry, author of religious works • . 1.817 
 
 Ger. Hardenbergh, Karl A. von, statesman . . .1750 1822 
 
 Amer. Harding, Chester, portrait painter . . . 1792 1863 
 
 'Eng. , James D., artist and author on art , ' . . 1798 1863 
 
 Eng. Hardinge, Henry, viscount, general and governor-general of India 1785 1856 
 
 Eng. Hardwicke, Charles, theological writer . . . 1821 1859 
 
 Eng. Hare, Julius Charles, archdeacon, theological writer . . 1795 1855 
 
 T,ng. , Robert, chemist and physicist . , • 1781 1858 
 
 Amer. Harlan, Richard, M. D., naturalist .... 1796 1843 
 
 Eng. Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, celebrated statesman • 1661 1724 
 
 Sar. Haroun Al Raschid, caliph, a patron of learning . . 808 
 
 Amer. Harper, James, John, J. Wesley, and Fletcher, publishers, born 1795, '7, 1801 ,'4 
 
 Eng. Harrington, James, political writer . . . . 1611 1677 
 
 Eng. Harriott, Thos., mathematician and voyager to Virginia , 1560 1621 
 
 Eng. Harris, James, compiler of the first Cyclopedia, &c. . , 1670 1719 
 
 Eng. , John, theological writer .... 1804 1856 
 
 ^mer. , Thaddeus Wm., naturalist j . . . 1795 1856 
 
 Amer Harrison, Gen. Wm. H., military commander and president U. S. 1773 1841 
 
 Amer. Harvard, John, founder of Harvard College . . . 1688 
 
 Eng. Harvey, William, discoverer of the circulation of the blood 1569 1658 
 
 Ger. Hase, Henry, classical antiquary .... 1789 1842 
 
 Ger. , Karl Aug., theological author . . . 1800 
 
 Ger. Hassenclever, John Peter, painter (Dusseldorf school) . . 1810 1853 
 
 Eng. Haslam, John, writer on insanity . . . . 1764 1844 
 
 Eng. Hastings, marquis of, military commander . . . 1754 1825 
 
 Exig, — , Warren, governor-general of British India , 1733 1818 
 
 Ger. Hauser, Casper, a mysterious " wild boy " . • . 1833 
 
 Fr.. Haussez, Baron, minister of Charles X., traveller , . 1778 
 
 Eng. Hatton, Sir Christopher, lord chancellor . • . 1591 
 
 Fr. Hauy. Rene Just, mineralogist . • • • 1742 1822 
 
 Eng. Havelock, Henry, general in India . • • 1795 1857 
 
 Amer. Haven, Alice B., author of juvenile books . . . 1828 1866 
 
 En. X, Haviland, John, architect .... 1792 1852 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 41 
 
 KATIOlf. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Amer. Hawes, Joel, Congregational clergyman and author , , 
 
 Eng. Hawke, Edward, lord, a brave and successful admiral • 
 
 Eng. Hawksworth, Dr. John, miscellaneous writer . . , 
 
 Eng, Hawkins, Sir John, a navigator, 0)iginator of the slave trade 
 
 Eng. , Sir John, author of ' History of Music,' &c. . , 
 
 Amer. Hawks, Francis Lister, Episcopal divine and historian , 
 
 Amer. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, novelist . . • , 
 
 Ger. Haydn, Joseph, a celebrated musical composer . • 
 
 Eng. Haydon, Beig. A,, hietorica. painter . • , . 
 
 Amer. Hayes, Isaac, Arctic navigator and author , , 
 
 Eng. Hayley, "William, a poet and miscellaneous writer 
 
 Amer. Haj'ne, Eobert Y., governor of South Carolina and senator U. S. 
 
 A.mer. Haynes, Lemuel, colored preacher and patriot , 
 
 Eng. HayAvood, Abraham, translator of 'Paust' , . 
 
 Eng. Hazlitt, William, essayist and critic . . • . 
 
 Eng. Head, Sir Francis B., author of Travels, &c. . , 
 
 Eng. , Sir George, author of ' Rome,' &c. . , , 
 
 Amer. Headley, Joel T., author of biographies and histories 
 
 Amer. Heath, Wm., major-general in the revolution, author of Memoirs 
 
 Eng. Heber, Reginald, a divine and poet . . , 
 
 Eng. , Richard, bibliomaniac and book collector • • 
 
 Ger. Hecker, Fred. K. P., politician . , . , 
 
 Amer. , Isaac F., Roman Catholic clergyman and author . 
 
 Eng. Heckwelder, John, Moravian missionary and author , 
 
 Ger. Hederick, Benjamin, a lexicographer . • , 
 
 Amer. Hedge, Fred. H., clergyman and author ... 
 
 Ger. Hcdwig, John, a physician and botanist . , 
 
 Ger. Heeren, A. H. L., historian , , , , 
 
 Ger. Hegel, G. W. F., metaphysician • • , , 
 
 Ger. Heine, Henry, poet and litlera.'eur • , , 
 
 Ger. Heineccius, Jno. G.. juridical author , 
 
 Rom. Helena, St., wife of Constantius Chlorus, emperor . , 
 
 Gr. Heliodorus (of Emessa) the first romance writer . fl. 
 
 Fr. Heloise, abbess of the Paraclete, famed for intrigue with Abelard 
 
 Eng. Helps, Arthur, essayist and dramatist , 
 
 Fr. Helve tins, Claude A., philosopher • . . 
 
 Ger. Helvicus, Christopher, a chronologist , , 
 
 Eng. Hemans, Felicia D., poetess . , , , 
 
 Eng. Henfey, Arthur, botanist . . » . . 
 
 Ger. Hengstenberg, E. W., metaphysician, antiquary and theologian 
 
 Eng. Henley, John, clergyman and author, ' orator Henley' 
 
 Flem. Hennepin, Louis, missionary and explorer of N. A. , 
 
 Eng. Heniiingsen, Chas. Fred., author and soldier , , 
 
 Fr. Henry IV., an able and popular monarch . , , 
 
 Amer. , Caleb S , clergyman and author ... 
 
 Amer. , Joseph, physicist, director of Smithsonian Institute 
 
 Amer. , Matthew, author of ' <!Jomment. on the Bible' . . 
 
 Port. • , the Navigator, prince, 3d son of John I. 
 
 Scot. , Robert, an historian • . . , 
 
 Amer. , Patrick, an orator and patriot . , , 
 
 Amer. Hentz, Caroline Lee, novelist • • . . 
 
 Rom. Heraclius (born in Cappadocia). emperor of the East . 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DiEa 
 
 1789 
 
 1867 
 
 1713 
 
 1781 
 
 1715 
 
 1773 
 
 1520 
 
 1595 
 
 1719 
 
 1789 
 
 1798 
 
 1866 
 
 1804 
 
 1862 
 
 1732 
 
 1809 
 
 1786 
 
 1846 
 
 1T45 
 
 1820 
 
 1791 
 
 1835 
 
 1758 
 
 1834 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1778 
 
 1830 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1782 
 
 1855 
 
 1814 
 
 
 1737 
 
 1814 
 
 1783 
 
 1826 
 
 1773 
 
 1833 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1819 
 
 
 1743 
 
 1823 
 
 1675 
 
 1748 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1730 
 
 1799 
 
 1760 
 
 1842 
 
 1770 
 
 1831 
 
 1799 
 
 1856 
 
 1681 
 
 1741 
 
 247 
 
 S27 
 
 4t.h cent. 
 
 
 1101 
 
 1164 
 
 1817 
 
 
 1715 
 
 1771 
 
 1581 
 
 J617 
 
 1794 
 
 1835 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1692 
 
 1756 
 
 1640 
 
 1699 
 
 1815 
 
 
 1553 
 
 1610 
 
 1804 
 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1662 
 
 1714 
 
 1394 
 
 1463 
 
 1718 
 
 1790 
 
 1736 
 
 1799 
 
 
 1858 
 
 575 
 
 641 
 
42 
 
 THE WORLD^b PEOGRESS. 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Grr. Heraclitus, a ijliilosopher . . . , f. b. 
 
 Eng. Herbert, Edward, Lord of Chcrburj', diplomatist and philosopher 
 Ei!g. Herbert, George, c.lirg3man and poet 
 
 Eng.Am , Henry Wm. novelist and miscellaneous author 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 , Sidi.ey, statesman 
 
 , Wm., (3rd Earl of Pembroke) poet 
 
 Wm., dean of Manchester, poet and philosopher 
 
 Gr. 
 Gr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Mex. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Jew. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Russ. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Jew. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr, 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Herder, John Godfrey, a philosophical writer 
 Ileriot, George, goldsmith, founder of school 
 Hermann, Ch. F., philologist, ' History of Philosophy' «fec. 
 
 , J. G. J., philologist 
 
 Hermogenes, a rhetorician .... 
 
 Herndon, Wm. L., naval commander and explorer 
 
 Ilerud, Agrippa I, King of Judea, (grandson of Herod the Great) b 
 
 , the Great, King of the Jews 
 
 Herodian, an historian 
 Herodotus, the earliest of the Greek historians whose works are 
 extant . . . . . . b. c. 484 
 
 Herold, L. G. F., musical composer ... 179-3 
 
 Herrera, Anthony, an historian . • . , , 1659 
 
 , Jose J. de, president of Mexico 
 
 Herrick, Robert, poet ..... 1591 
 
 Herschel, Caroline L., astronomer . ' . , 1750 
 
 , Sir William, one of the greatest of astronomers . 1738 
 
 Herschell, Dr. Solomon, chief rabbi of the Jews in England 1760 
 , Sir J. F. "W., astronomer and natural philosopher . 
 
 Hervey, James, a pious and amiable divine and writer 
 
 , Thomas K., poet and prose writer . • 
 
 Herzen, Alexander, publicist, editor and author . 
 Hesiod, a poet, contemporary of Homer . , 
 
 Heyne, C. G., a learned critic and writer . » . 
 Heywood, Thomas, humorist and dramatist , , 
 
 liickes, George, a theologian and philologist . 
 
 Hickok, Laurens P., metaphysical author . . 
 
 Hicks, Ellas, preacher of the Society of Friends 
 riildreth, Richard, author of History of the United States 
 Hilaire, Geoli'. St., naturalist . , 
 
 Hill, Rowland, author of cheap postage in England , 
 Hill, Rowland, Rev., eccentric clergyman . 
 
 , Rowland, viscount, general in Spain and at "Waterloo 
 
 , Sir John, a botanist and multifarious writer , 
 
 Hillard, George S., author and joiirnaiist . . 
 
 Hillel, the elder, compiler of the Talmud . . 
 
 Hillhouse, James A., poet .... 
 Hind, John Russell, astronomer 
 
 Hinton, John Howard, author of History of United States 
 Hipparchus, astronomer .... 
 Hippocrates, the father of medicine , . . 
 
 11 'ppolytus. Saint, ecclesiastical writer . . 
 
 Hitchcock, Edward, D. D., theologian and geologist , 
 
 , Roswell D., theologian, orator, and patriot 
 
 lloadley, William, a celebratod prelate and author . 
 
 pORN. 
 
 c. 504 
 
 1581 
 1593 
 1807 
 1810 
 1580 
 1778 
 1744 
 1563 
 1804 
 1772 
 f. 180 
 1813 
 c. 7 
 c. 71 
 f. 230 
 
 1713 
 
 1799 
 1812 
 f. B. c. 907 
 1729 
 1650 
 1642 
 1798 
 1748 
 1807 
 . 1772 
 1795 
 1744 
 1772 
 1716 
 1808 
 B. c. 112 
 1789 
 1823 
 1800 
 
 B. C. 
 
 B. c. 460 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1793 
 . 1676 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1648 
 1632 
 1858 
 
 1630 
 1847 
 1803 
 1624 
 
 1848 
 
 1859 
 
 A. D. 44 
 
 4 
 
 1833 
 1625 
 1851 
 1674 
 1S48 
 1822 
 1842 
 
 1758 
 1859 
 
 1812 
 
 1715 
 
 1830 
 1863 
 1844 
 
 1833 
 1842 
 1775 
 
 1S41 
 
 2d cent. 
 8d cent, 
 
 1761 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 43 
 
 NATIOM 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Frf 
 
 Ainer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Hung. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eiig. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. ■ 
 
 Amer. • 
 
 Amer. ■ 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Horn, 
 
 NAME AND PKOFESSION. 
 
 Hobart, John Henry, bishop of New York 
 
 Hobbes, Thomas, a philosopher and translator. 
 
 Hobhouse, John Cam., Lord Broughton, author and statesman 
 
 Iloche, Lazarus, a military commander 
 
 Hodge, Charles. Rev., theological writer . • 
 
 Hoe, Richard M., an inventor of printing presses • 
 
 Hofer, Andrew, a Tyrolian patriot . . • 
 
 Hofland, Barbara, novelist . • , 
 
 Hoft'maii, David, lawyer and author . • , 
 
 Hoffman, Charles Fenno, poet and novelist , 
 
 Hogg, James, ' the Ettrick Shepherd,' poet 
 
 Hohenlohe, prince of, prelate, and alleged miracle worker 
 
 Holberg, Louis, baron de, an historian 
 
 Ilolbrook, John E., naturalist 
 
 Holcroft, Thomas, a dramatist and miscellaneous writer 
 
 Hole, Matthew, writer on the Liturgy 
 
 Holingshed, chronicler .... 
 
 Holland, JosiahG., journalist, poet and essayist . 
 
 , Lord, statesman and litterateur , , 
 
 , Philt mon, a translator . . , 
 
 HoUis, Thomas, benefactor of Harvard College . 
 
 , Thomas, philanthropist (life, 2 vols., 4to) • 
 
 Holman, James, a blind traveller and author . , 
 
 Holmes, Abiel, D. D., ' Annals of America' ■ 
 
 , Oliver Wendell, physician, poet and essayist , 
 
 Holt, Sir John, lord chief justice 
 
 Holyoke, Edward Aug., physician and naturalist , 
 
 Home, Henry, Lord Kaimes, ' Criticism' , 
 
 , John, a divine, dramatist and historian 
 
 Homer, the greatest of poets, supposed to have flourished 
 Hone, Wm., author of ' Every Day Book,' and political works 
 Hood, Samuel, viscount, a naval oflSlcer 
 
 , Thomas, poet and humorist 
 
 Hoogvliet, Arnold, a poet , , , 
 
 Hook, Robt'rt, a mathematician , , 
 
 , Theo. E., novelist and humorist . , 
 
 Hooke, Nathaniel, author of a Roman history 
 Hooker, Joseph D., physician and botanist , 
 
 , Richard, an eminent divine . , 
 
 -, Sir W. J., botanist . , , 
 
 Hoole, John, a poet and translator . . 
 
 Hooper, John, one of the first Protestant martyrs . 
 Hope, Thomas, a miscellaneous writer, "Anastaslus" 
 Hopital, Michel de 1', chancellor of France 
 Hopkins, Ezek., first commodore U. S. Navy 
 
 , John H., protestant episcopal bishop of Vt. and author 
 
 , Mark, clergyman and author 
 
 , Samuel, an eminent divine and author 
 
 Stephen, signer of the Declaration of Independence 
 
 Hopkinson, Francis, signer of the Dec. of Independence and author 1737 
 
 , Joseph, jurist and statesman 
 
 Horace, Qnintus Flaccus, eminent poet 
 
 BOEN. 
 
 1776 
 
 1588 
 1786 
 1768 
 1797 
 1812 
 1765 
 1770 
 1784 
 1806 
 1772 
 1793 
 1685 
 1795 
 1744 
 1640 
 
 1819 
 1773 
 1551 
 1659 
 1720 
 1787 
 1763 
 1809 
 1642 
 1728 
 1696 
 1724 
 0. 907 
 1779 
 1724 
 1798 
 1687 
 1635 
 1788 
 1690 
 1816 
 1553 
 1785 
 1717 
 1495 
 1770 
 1505 
 1718 
 1792 
 1802 
 1721 
 1707 
 
 1770 
 c. 65 
 
 DIEiQ, 
 
 1830 
 1797 
 
 1797 
 
 1810 
 1844 
 1S54 
 
 1835 
 18i9 
 1754 
 
 1809 
 1730 
 1582 
 
 1840 
 1636 
 1731 
 1774 
 
 1857 
 1837 
 
 1709 
 1829 
 1782 
 1808 
 
 1842 
 1876 
 1845 
 1763 
 1702 
 1841 
 1763 
 
 1600 
 3865 
 1803 
 1555 
 1831 
 1573 
 1802 
 
 1803 
 1785 
 w91 
 1842 
 0. 8 
 
44 
 
 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PEOFESSION. 
 
 Fleni, Florn, Philip de Mont, count of, soldier and statesman 
 Home, George, a learned prelate, bishop of Norwich 
 
 , Richard H., poet and essayist 
 
 , Thomas Hartwell, biblical critic and historian 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Anier 
 
 Heb. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Horner, Francis, statesman and essayist , 
 , Leonard, geological writer 
 
 Horsley, Samuel, a prelate and mathematician , 
 
 Hortensius, Quintus, orator . . . 
 
 Hosack, David, M. D., medical and scientific writer 
 Hosea, prophet ..... 
 Houdin, Robert, conjurer . . • * 
 
 Houdon, Jean Antoine, sculptor . . , 
 
 Houssaye, Ars^iie, miscellaneous writer . . 
 
 Amer. House, Samuel G., physician and philanthropist 
 Amer. Houston, Sam., general, goven.or, and ex-governor of Teias 
 Eng. Howard, John, a celebrated philanthiopist . . 
 
 Amer. — , John Eager, i evolutionary soldier and statesman 
 
 Amer. Howe, Elias, jr., inventor of sewing machines 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Swiss, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 , Geo. Aug., general in colonial war 
 -, R chard, lord, earl, admiral . 
 
 , Sir Wm., commander-in-chief in America 
 
 Howell, James, author of « Letters' . . , 
 Howitt, Mary (wife of "Wm.), novelist and poet 
 , "William, traveller, essayist, &c. 
 
 Howley, "William, arch bis! op of Ca terbury 
 
 Hoyle, Edmund, writer on games . • 
 
 Huber, Francis, naturalist 
 
 Hue, Evariste R., Catholic missionary and author 
 
 Hudson, Henry, discoverer of Hudson river 
 
 Huet, Peter Daniel, aJ erudite pielato a.d author 
 
 Hufeland, Chris. W., medicid author 
 
 Hugh Capet, founder of the Capetian line of French kings 
 Irish-Am. Hughes, Johi, Catholic Archbishop N. Y. 
 Fr, Hugo, "Victor M., novehst, poet, and s'atesman 
 Amer. Hull, Commodore Isaac, naval commander (Const, and Guer, 
 _^raer. , "Wm., general in War of 1812 . 
 
 Humboldt, Karl "Wilhel n, baron, statesman and author 
 
 . , F. H. A., baron, traveller, geographer, and nat. phil 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Pruss, 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Hume, David, an hislorian and philosopher 
 , Jos., statesman and reformer 
 
 Humphrey, Heman, theologian and author . 
 
 Humphreys, David, poet and diplomatist . , 
 
 Hung. Hunniades, John, a celebrated warrior 
 Amer. Hunt, Freeman, author ai d journalist . . 
 
 , James Henry Leigh, poet and essayist . 
 
 , Leigh, poet anl essayist . . . 
 
 , Thomas S., chemist and geologist , 
 
 Hunter, John, surgeon and medical author 
 
 , Robert M. T., U. S. senator from Virginia 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Huntington, Selina, countess of, patron of Methodists 
 
 , "Wm., Antinomian preacher . 
 
 , Jeded. Y., poet and novelist . , 
 
 ),& 
 
 BOEN. 
 
 1522 
 1730 
 1803 
 1780 
 1778 
 1785 
 173G 
 , c. 114 B. 
 1769 
 
 8th cent, 
 1805 
 1741 
 1815 
 1801 
 1793 
 1726 
 1752 
 1819 
 1724 
 1725 
 
 1596 
 1804 
 1795 
 1765 
 1672 
 1750 
 1813 
 
 1630 
 
 1762 
 946 
 1798 
 1802 
 1775 
 1753 
 1767 
 1769 
 1711 
 1777 
 177!* 
 1753 
 1400 
 1804 
 1784 
 1785 
 1826 
 1728 
 1809 
 1707 
 1744 
 1815 
 
 DIED, 
 
 1568 
 1792 
 
 18C2 
 1817 
 1864 
 1806 
 c. 50 
 1335 
 B. c. 
 
 1828 
 
 1862 
 1790 
 1827 
 
 1758 
 1599 
 1814 
 1GG6 
 
 1848 
 1769 
 1831 
 18C0 
 1611 
 1721 
 1S36 
 996 
 1864 
 
 1S45 
 1825 
 1SC5 
 1859 
 1776 
 1855 
 1859 
 1818 
 1456 
 1S58 
 1859 
 1859 
 
 1792 
 
 1791 
 1813 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 45 
 
 IIATIOH. NAME AND PROFESSION, 
 
 Amer, Huntington, Fred. D., clergyman and author , , 
 
 Eng. Hurd, Richard, bishop of Worcester, &c. • 
 
 Eng. Huskisson, Rohon Wilham, able statesman • , 
 
 Ger. Huss, John, the great Bohemian reformer , 
 
 Irieh. Hatcheson, Francis, a philosophical writer . , 
 
 Amer. Hutchinson, Anne, founder of N. E. Antinomians . 
 
 Eng. , John, Colonel (Life by his widow) 
 
 Amer. , Thomas, a distinguished gov. of Mass. and historian 
 
 G-er. Hutten, ITlrich von, scholar and reformer , , 
 
 Eng. Hutton, Charles, an eminent mathematician , 
 
 Scot, , James, a geologist and philosopher , , 
 
 Dutch. Huygens, Christian, a scientific author . , 
 
 Er. Hyde de Neuville, F. Gr., baron de, politician . , 
 
 Ind. Hyder Ali, a celebrated warrior , , 
 
 Crr. Hypatia, Neo, Platonic philosopher • , , 
 
 Jew. Hyrcanus I. and XL, high priests • , 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1819 
 
 
 1720 
 
 180S 
 
 1769 
 
 1830 
 
 1376 
 
 1416 
 
 1694 
 
 1747 
 
 
 16 4:^ 
 
 1617 
 
 1664 
 
 n 1711 
 
 1780 
 
 1488 
 
 1523 
 
 1737 
 
 1823 
 
 1726 
 
 1797 
 
 1629 
 
 1705 
 
 . ' 1776 
 
 1857 
 
 1717 
 
 1782 
 
 370 
 
 415 
 
 1st and 2d cent. 
 
 lamblichus, Neo, Platonic philosopher , , , 
 
 Turk. Ibrahim Pasha, viceroy of Egypt , • , 
 
 Gr. Ibycus, a lyric poet . . , . f. b. c. 
 
 Span, Ignatius de Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits , • 
 
 , Saint, primitive father of the church • , 
 
 , St., patriarch of Constantinople . , , 
 
 Eng. Inchbald, Elizabeth, dramatist and novelist » • . 
 
 Port. Inez de Castro, queen of Portugal . , , 
 
 Amer. Ingersoll, Cbarles J., statesman and historian , , 
 
 Amer. , Joseph R., statesman and lawyer • . 
 
 Scot. Inglis, Henry D., traveller and author • , , 
 
 Eng. Ingram, Rev. Dr. James, Saxon scholar . , , 
 
 Amer. Inman, Henry, portrait and landscape painter . . 
 
 Amer. , John, journalist and lit/erateur • • • 
 
 Innocent, the name of thirteen popes . • , , 
 
 Irenasus, saint, a Gallic bishop, and author . . 
 
 Eng. Ireland, Samuel ' Picturesque Tour ' . . . , 
 
 Eng. ■ , W. H., author of tlie ' Shakespeare Forgeries' , 
 
 Gr. Irene, a Byzantine empress . . . . , 
 
 Eng. Ireton, Henry, son-in-law of Cromwell, and one of bis generals 
 
 Amer. Irving, John Treat, author of travels and novels , 
 
 Amer. , Petei-, author (brother of Washington) , , 
 
 Scot. , Rev. Edward, theological wi'iter . • , 
 
 Amer. , Theodore, author of Conquest of I'lorida' , 
 
 Amer. , Washington, historian and essayist . . , 
 
 Amer. , William, one of the authors of Salmagundi . . 
 
 Span. Isabella, the Catholic, queen of Spain, patron of Columbus 
 
 Span. IL, queen of Spain • . , , 
 
 Gr. Isaens, an orator , , , , , b. 
 
 Heb. Isaiah, the greatest of the Hebrew prophets • • 
 
 Fr. Isambert, Franc A., politician and jurist , • , 
 
 Gr. Isocrates, an orator . . . , • B. 
 
 Span. Ituibide, emperor of Mexico • • • . 
 
 A. D. 
 
 4th cent. 
 
 17t^9 
 
 
 1848 
 
 550 
 
 
 
 1491 
 
 
 1556 
 107 
 
 779 
 
 
 877 
 
 1756 
 
 
 1821 
 
 1355 
 
 17S2 
 
 
 1862 
 
 1736 
 
 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1835 
 
 1774 
 
 
 1850 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1846 
 1850 
 
 402 
 
 to 
 
 1687 
 
 2d cent. 
 
 1750 
 
 
 1800 
 
 1777 
 
 
 1835 
 
 752 
 
 
 803 
 
 1610 
 
 
 1651 
 
 1810 
 
 
 
 1771 
 
 
 1838 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1834 
 
 1809 
 
 
 
 1783 
 
 
 1859 
 
 17C6 
 
 
 1821 
 
 1451 
 
 
 1504 
 
 1830 
 
 
 
 c. 418 
 
 
 
 B. c. (abt] 
 
 800 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1857 
 
 C.436 
 
 
 
 1784 
 
 
 1824 
 
46 
 
 THE world's PEOGRESS. 
 
 NATIOH. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Amer. Ives, Levi S., ex-protestant episcopal bisllop of North Carolina 
 Amer. Izard, Ralph, statesman (of South Carolina) • • 
 
 BOEN. 
 
 1797 
 1742 
 
 ItTB'.i, 
 
 1804 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Heb. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Tr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Scot, 
 
 Pors,. 
 
 S.ot. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Hind. 
 
 An St. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng., 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Heb. 
 
 Jackson, Charles T., chemist, mineralogist, geologist. . • 
 
 , James, eminent physician . , . 
 
 , Gen. Andrew, military commander, president TJ. S. 
 
 , Patrick T., eminent merchant 
 
 ■ — > Thomas Jonathan (' Stonewall '), rebel general 
 
 , William (' of Exeter ') musical composer , 
 
 Jacob, the Patriarch .... 
 
 Jacobi, Fred. H,, philosopher, novelist, «&o. . . 
 
 Jacobs, Fred., classical phiilologiBt . . 
 
 Jacotot, Jean J., educational writer . . • 
 
 Jacqxiard, Joe. M., inventor of the Jacquard loom . 
 Jacquemont, Victor, traveller and naturalist . • 
 
 Jacquin, Nicholas Joseph, a botanist . . 
 
 Jalm, John, an eminent oriental scholar • . 
 
 James, G, P, R., novelist and historian . . 
 
 , Henry, philosophical writer 
 
 , John Angell, congregational clergyman ^and author 
 
 , St., the Elder, apostle 
 
 . , St., the Less, "... 
 
 Jameson, Anne, essayist and writer on art 
 
 , Robert, naturalist and author . . 
 
 Jam', or Djami, poet .... 
 
 Jaioiesou, John, D. D., miscellaneoTis author . 
 
 Jauin, Juletr, UiUratmr .... 
 
 Jansen, Cornelius, founder of a sect • . . 
 
 Januarius, patron saint of Naples . . . 
 
 Jarves, James J., traveller and author . . 
 
 Jarvis, Samuel F., D. D., historian and theologist , 
 
 Jasmin, Jaques, barber-poet 
 Jasper, "William, heroic soldier of the Revolution 
 
 , John, a distinguished patriot and statesman 
 
 Jay, William, judge, anti-slavery philanthropist . 
 
 , Wiliam, D. D., religious writer . . 
 
 Jeanne d'Arc, ' Maid of Orleans,' heroine . . 
 
 Jean, Paul, see Richter, novelist and metaphysician 
 Jebb, John, Bishop of Limerick, theological writer 
 Jefferson, Tiiomas, a patriotic statet^man, 3d pres, of the 17. 
 Jeffrey, Francis, lord, essayist and critic 
 Jeffreys, George, infamous judge 
 
 Jejeebhoy, Sir Jamsetjee, Parsee merchant and philanthrop 
 Jellachich, de Buzim, baron, ban of Croatia 
 Jenkinson, B. B., earl of Liverpool, premier . . 
 
 Jenkyns, William, non-conformist (' on Jude ') 
 Jenner, Edward, introducer of the vaccine innoculation 
 Jenyns, Soame, poet and miscellaneous writer . 
 
 Jerdan, "William, journalist .... 
 Jeremiah, prophet . . • • 
 
 St 
 
 fl.B 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1777 
 
 
 1767 
 
 1845 
 
 1780 
 
 1847 
 
 1826 
 
 1863 
 
 1730 
 
 1803 
 
 C. 1836 B. 
 
 c. 1689 
 
 174.5 
 
 1819 
 
 1764 
 
 1847 
 
 1770 
 
 1840 
 
 1752 
 
 1834 
 
 1801 
 
 1832 
 
 1727 
 
 1817 
 
 1750 
 
 1817 
 
 1801 
 
 1860 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1785 
 
 1859 
 
 
 44? 
 
 
 G3? 
 
 1797 
 
 1860 
 
 1774 
 
 1854 
 
 1414 
 
 1492 
 
 1759 
 
 1838 
 
 1804 
 
 
 1585 
 
 1638 
 
 272 
 
 305 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1786 
 
 1851 
 
 1798 
 
 1864 
 
 1750 
 
 1779 
 
 1745 
 
 1829 
 
 1779 
 
 1858 
 
 1769 
 
 1853 
 
 1412 
 
 1431 
 
 1763 
 
 1825 
 
 173G 
 
 1775 
 
 1743 
 
 1826 
 
 1773 
 
 1850 
 
 1648 
 
 1689 
 
 1783 
 
 1859 
 
 1801 
 
 1859 
 
 1770 
 
 1828 
 
 1612 
 
 1685 
 
 1749 
 
 1823 
 
 1704 
 
 1787 
 
 1782 
 
 
 1. C, 678 
 
 674 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 47 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Jerome, St., one of the fathers of the church 
 
 Ger. , of Prague, reformer, companion of Hubs , 
 
 Eng. Jerrold, Douglas, essayist 
 
 Eng Jervis, sir John, earl St. Vincent, admiral . , 
 
 Eng. Jewell John, learned prelate and author • 
 
 Eng. Jewshur^', Maria J., essayist . , ■ • 
 
 Er. Joan of Arc, ' the greatest of heroines' , 
 
 Ital. Joanna, queen of Naples . . , 
 
 Heb. Joel, the prophet .... 
 Hoi. Johannes Secundus (Johannes Everard;, poet . 
 
 Fr. Johannot, Tony, artist and designer . . 
 
 Heb. John, the Evangelist .... 
 
 Eng. , of Gaunt (or Ghent), duke of Lancaster 
 
 Ger. , king of Saxonj' and author . • 
 
 Pol. , III., Sobieski, king of Poland, and general 
 
 Eng. ■ , Edward, historian of N. England . 
 
 Eng. Johnson, Samuel, a divine and writer 1^ the cause of liberty 
 
 Eng. , Samuel, ' the Colossus of English literature' 
 
 Amer. , Alex. B., philologist and miscellaneous writer 
 
 Araer. , Andrew, president IJ. S. . . . , 
 
 Amer. , Reverdy, jurist and statesman . , 
 
 Amer. -. , Richard M., general and statesman, vice-president U. S, 
 
 Amer. , Samuel, fii'st president Columbia College and author 
 
 Amer. , Walter R.. physicist .... 
 
 Tr. Amer. Johnson, Sir William, general and governor in North America 
 Amer. Johnston, Albert Sydney, rebel general . , 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 , Alex. K., geographer . • , 
 
 , George, "writer and naturalist 
 
 , James F. W., chronicler and agricultural author 
 
 Joinville, Jean, sire de, chronicler 
 
 , Erangois, prince de, third son of Louis Philippe 
 
 Fr.Am. Jolliet, Louis, one of the discoverers of the Mississippi 
 
 Ital. Jomelli, Nicholas, dramatic and musical composer 
 
 Swis?. Jomini, Henry, baron de, military writer . 
 
 Heb. Jonah, the prophet . . - . 
 
 Amer. Jones, Anson, last president of the republic of Texas 
 
 Eng. , Inigo, an eminent architect ... 
 
 Amer. , Jacob, commodore in the U. S. navy 
 
 Scot. , John Paul, captain in the navy of the United States 
 
 Eng. , Owen, architect and decorator 
 
 Eng. , Thomas Rymer, writer on anatomy and physiology 
 
 Eng. ■ , Sir William, an eminent poet, scholar, and lawyer 
 
 Kng. , Rev. William, ' of Nayland,' Hutchinsonian divine 
 
 Eng. ' , William, divine and author . , 
 
 Eng. Jonson, Benjamin, celebrated poet and dramatist , 
 
 Icel. Jonsson, Finnur, Icelandic historian . , 
 
 Irish. Jordan, Dorothy, actress, mistress of William IV. , 
 
 Dan. Jorgenson, Jorgen, adventurer and author , 
 
 Eng. Jortin, Dr. John, learned theologian and author , 
 
 Fr. Josephine, empress of tb.e French (born in Martinico) 
 
 JtTT. Josephus, celebrated historian and warrior . , 
 
 Heb. Joshua, successor of Moses as leader of the Israelites 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 
 42a 
 
 
 1416 
 
 1782 
 
 1857 
 
 1774 
 
 1823 
 
 1522 
 
 1571 
 
 
 1833 
 
 1410 
 
 1431 
 
 B. c. 800 
 
 
 1511 
 
 1536 
 
 1833 
 
 1852 
 
 
 100 
 
 1340 
 
 1399 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1629 
 
 1696 
 
 1600 
 
 1672 
 
 1649 
 
 1703 
 
 1709 
 
 1784 
 
 1786 
 
 
 1808 
 
 
 1796 
 
 
 3. 1780 
 
 1850 
 
 1696 
 
 1772 
 
 1794 
 
 1852 
 
 ja 1715 
 
 1744 
 
 1803 
 
 1862 
 
 1804 
 
 
 1798 
 
 1855 
 
 1796 
 
 1855 
 
 1224 
 
 1319 
 
 1818 
 
 
 
 1730 
 
 17i4 
 
 1744 
 
 1775 
 
 
 f. B 
 
 . c. 862 
 
 1798 
 
 1858 
 
 1572 
 
 1652 
 
 1770 
 
 1850 
 
 1736 
 
 1792 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1746 
 
 1794 
 
 1728 
 
 1800 
 
 1726 
 
 1800 
 
 1574 
 
 1637 
 
 1704 
 
 1789 
 
 1762 
 
 1814 
 
 1779 
 
 1830 
 
 1698 
 
 1770 
 
 1761 
 
 1.-14 
 
 37 
 
 95 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 150? 
 
48 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Heb. Josiah, 17th king of Judah . , . 
 
 Heb. Jotham, king of Judali . , . • 
 
 Fr. Jouifroy, Theo. S., metaphysician and stateeman 
 Fr. Jourdan J. B., marshal of France . , 
 
 Jovianus, Flavius C, emperor . , 
 
 Ger. Juan, or John, of Austria, don, -warrior , , 
 
 Mex. Juarez, Benito, statesman and president , 
 
 Juba, king of Numidia ...» 
 
 , king of Mauritania and historian . 
 
 Jew. Judah, Hakkadosch, famous rabbi and Talmudist . 
 Heb. Judas Maccabeus, patriot . . . 
 
 Amer. Judd, Sylvester, author of * Margaret ' . , 
 
 Amer. Judson, Adoniram, missionary in India 
 
 Amer. , Ann Hazeltine, first wife of the above . 
 
 Amer. , Emily Chubbuck, third wife of above, and anthor 
 
 (' Fanny Forester ') . 
 
 Amer. , Sarah Boardman, second wife of above 
 
 Dan. Juel, Nicholas, celebrated admiral 
 
 Jugurtha, Numidian king 
 Eom. Julian, Flavius Claudius, Roman emperor and author, ' Apos 
 
 tate' ..... 
 Fr. Julien, A. J,, orientalist . . . 
 
 Swiss. Jullien, Louis G., musical composer, &c. i 
 
 Hind. Jung-Bahadoor, prime minister of Nepanl . • 
 
 Ger. Junge, Joachim, philosopher . . 
 
 Ger. Jung-Stilling, John H., mystic author , , . 
 
 Dutch. Junius, Adrian, volurainons writer 
 Fr. Junot, Andoche, duke d'Abrantes, military officer 
 
 Fr. , Madame, duchess d'Abrantes, biography, &c. 
 
 Fr. Jussieu, A. L. de, botanist 
 
 Gr. Justin Flavius, A. J. ' the Elder,' Byzantine emperor 
 
 Rom. , Latin historian .... 
 
 Gr. , Martyr, one of the fathers of the church 
 
 Gr. Justinian, Flavius A. J., ' the Byzantine ' emperor 
 Rom. Juvenal, Dccius Junius, the moat vehement of satirists 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 B. c. 641 
 
 B. C. 609 
 
 B. c. 783 
 
 B. c. 742 
 
 1796 
 
 1842 
 
 1762 
 
 1833 
 
 
 364 
 
 3546 
 
 1578 
 
 1807 
 
 
 
 B. c. 46 
 
 
 B. 0. 18 
 
 129 
 
 194 
 
 
 B, C. 160 
 
 1813 
 
 1853 
 
 1788 
 
 1850 
 
 1789 
 
 1826 
 
 1817 
 
 1854 
 
 1803 
 
 1845 
 
 1629 
 
 1697 
 
 
 B. C. 1C4 
 
 331 
 
 363 
 
 1799 
 
 
 1812 
 
 1860 
 
 1816 
 
 
 1587 
 
 1657 
 
 1740 
 
 1817 
 
 1512 
 
 1575 
 
 1771 
 
 1813 
 
 1784 
 
 1839 
 
 1748 
 
 1836 
 
 450 
 
 527 
 
 B. c. 200 
 
 
 91 
 
 165 
 
 482 
 
 565 
 
 
 128 
 
 Ger. 
 Ger. 
 Fr. 
 Bwe. 
 
 Scot, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Russ. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Kaempfer, naturalist, traveller and historian . . 
 
 Kaestner, Abraham Gothelf, mathematician and astronomer . 
 Kalb, baion de, who generously aided the American cause 
 Kalm, Peter, traveller and botanist .... 
 Kamehameha (or Famehameha) I. first king of the Sandwich 
 
 Islands . . ... 
 
 — , II, king, introduced Christianity 
 
 , III. introduced Constitution . , 
 
 , IV. (Alex. Liholiho) 
 
 Kames, Henry Home, lord, judge and author . 
 
 Kane, Elisha Kent, arctic explorer and author . 
 Kant, Emanuel, metaphysician . . . 
 
 Karasmin, Nicholas M. historiographer of the empire 
 Karr, J. B. Alphonse, miscellaneous author 
 
 (abt) 
 
 1651 
 
 1716 
 
 1719 
 
 1799 
 
 1717 
 
 1780 
 
 1715 
 
 1779 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1824 
 
 
 1817 
 
 1854 
 
 1834 
 
 
 1596 
 
 1827 
 
 1820 
 
 1857 
 
 1724 
 
 1804 
 
 1765 
 
 1828 
 
 1808 
 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 
 
 49 
 
 NATIOK. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Kater, Henry, mathematician . • , 
 
 Irish. Kavanagh, Julia, novelist • , , , 
 
 Eng. Keaii, Charles Jolin, actor • • • 
 
 Eng, , Edmund, tragedian . , , , 
 
 Eng. , Ellen Tree, wife of C. J. Kean, actress 
 
 Amer. Kearny, Philip, Union general in war against rebellion 
 
 Eiig. Keats, Jolin, a poet .... 
 
 Eng. Keble, John, divine and poet . . , • 
 
 Irish. Keightley, Thos., miscellaneous author • • 
 
 Keith, Geo. K, Elphinston, admiral . , 
 
 Scot. , James, an oflicer in the Russian and Prussian service 
 
 , Thos., mathematician, (' Use of Globes ') . 
 
 Fr. Kellerman, Frank C, duke of Valmy, general ^ 
 
 Fr. , Franc Etienne, son of above, general • 
 
 Irish. Kelly, Michael, composer and singer , • 
 
 Eng. Kembie, Charles, actor ...» 
 
 Eng. , Frances Anne, actress and author • 
 
 Eng. , John M., scholar and historian , • 
 
 Eng. , John Philip, celebrated tragedian , 
 
 Ger. Kemfelen, "Wolfgang, baron, author of the automaton chess-playei 
 
 Eng. Kempis, Thomas a, supposed author of the 'Imitation of Christ' 
 
 Eng. Ken, Thos., bishop of Bath and Wells, theological writer 
 
 Amer. Kendall, Amos, statesman and author . . 
 
 Amer. , George W., journalist and author . • 
 
 Amer. Kendrick Asahel C, Greek scholar and author . 
 
 Scot. Kennedy, Grace, writer, (Father Clement) . . 
 
 Amer. Kennedy, John Pendleton, statesman and novelist . 
 
 Eng. Kennet, White, learned prelate and author . , 
 
 Eng. Kennioott, Benjamin, a divine and Biblical critic . 
 Ir.-x\m.Kenrick, Francis P., Catholic prelate and author 
 
 Kent, Edward, Aug., duke of, father of Queen Victoria 
 
 Amer. , James, jurist, chancellor of New York . • 
 
 Amer. , William, judge, esteemed jurist . , 
 
 Eng. Kenyon, Lloyd, lord, jurist . , , , 
 
 Eng. , John, poet . . • . 
 
 Ger. Kepler, John, eminent astronomer • • • 
 
 Eng. Keppel, Aug., viscount, admiral . . , 
 
 Scot. Kerr, Robert, miscellaneous Avriter . 
 
 Amer. Key, Francis S., author of 'Star Spangled Banner' 
 
 Eng. Kidd, "Wm., noted pirate, executed . . , 
 
 Eng. Killigrew, Henry, dramatist . . , 
 
 Scot. Kilmainock, Wm. 4th, earl, Jacobite, beheaded . 
 
 Amer. Kimball, Richard B., author , , , 
 
 Amer. King, John A., ex-governor of New Xork - , 
 
 Amer. , Rufus, statesman and diplomatist . , 
 
 Amer. , Thomas Starr, author .... 
 
 Amer. , William R., diplomatist, senator, and vice-president 
 
 Eng. Kinglake, Alex. Wm., M. P., author of 'Eothen' 
 
 Irish. Kingsborough, Lord, patron of great work on Mexican antiquities 
 
 Eng, Kingsley, Charles, clergyman, novelist and poet , 
 
 Amer. Kip, Wm. Ingraham, Prot. Epis. bishop and author 
 
 Amer. Kirkland, Caroline M., author of travels and essays , 
 
 BORN. 
 
 1777 
 1824 
 1811 
 1787 
 1805 
 1815 
 1796 
 1790 
 1800 
 1746 
 1696 
 1759 
 1735 
 ]770 
 1762 
 1775 
 1811 
 1807 
 1757 
 1754 
 1380 
 1637 
 1789 
 1810 
 1809 
 1782 
 1795 
 1660 
 1718 
 1797 
 1767 
 1763 
 
 1732 
 1783 
 1571 
 1726 
 
 1779 
 
 1612 
 1702 
 1818 
 1789 
 1755 
 1824 
 1786 
 1802 
 1795 
 1819 
 1811 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1835 
 
 1833 
 
 1862 
 1820 
 
 1820 
 1758 
 1824 
 1820 
 1835 
 1826 
 1854 
 
 1857 
 
 1823 
 1806 
 1471 
 1711 
 
 1825 
 
 1728 
 1783 
 1863 
 1820 
 1847 
 1861 
 1802 
 18£.6 
 1630 
 1786 
 1814 
 1S43 
 1701 
 1693 
 1746 
 
 1857 
 1827 
 1F64 
 185«i 
 
 1837 
 
 18G4 
 
THE WORLD'S PEOGRESS. 
 
 NAT: ox, 
 
 E:ig. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Hung. 
 
 rrtifcS. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 <JCY. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eiig- 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Foi. 
 
 Hung. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Hung. 
 
 Pol. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 RusB. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Rubs. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Rom. 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 Fr. 
 
 KAME AND PEOFESSION. 
 
 Kitcliine,William, -writer on Cookery . , 
 
 Kitto, John, biblical scholar and author , 
 
 Klapka, George, patriot, soldier and author • 
 
 Klaprotli, Henry J., philologist atd ethnologist 
 Kleber, John Baptist, military officer . • 
 
 Klopstock, the ' Milton of Germany ' • 
 
 Kuapp, Geo., Christ, theologian . • 
 
 , Samuel L., miseellarieous writer . 
 
 Knight, (Charles, publisher, editor, and author . 
 
 ■ , Richard Payne, miscellaneous writer . 
 
 Knowli s, Jas. Sheridan, dramatic author and actor 
 Knox, Dr. Vicesimus, divine and mLiscellaneous author 
 
 , Henry, military officer and statesman . 
 
 Knyphausen, baron, general in British service . 
 
 Koch, Christopher William, historian . , 
 
 Koci<, Charles Paul de, novelist and dramatist 
 
 Kohl, Johann George, traveller and author . • 
 
 Koppen, Adolph Louis, historical writer and lecturer 
 
 Korner, or Koerner, Charles T., poet 
 
 Kosciusko, Thaddeus, warrior and patriot, served in the Ameri 
 
 can army during the Revolution 
 Kossuth, Lajos (Louis), late governor of Hungary 
 Kotzebue, Augustus Frederick Fer. von, historian, &c. • 
 Kraitsir, Charles, philologist 
 
 KrasinsM, Valerian, count, author . , . 
 
 Krummacher, Fred. Adolph., poet and theologian . 
 
 ^— , Fred. William, religious writer , . 
 
 Krusenstern, Adam Jean, navigator . 
 Kugler, Franz Theodore, writer on. art, &c. . 
 
 Kuhnoel, Christ. F., critic .... 
 Kunth, Charles S., botanist . ... 
 
 KutUBoff, Michael L. G., field-marshal . . 
 
 Labat, Jean B., missionary and historian . . 
 
 Lablache, Luigi, renowned vocalist • . . . 
 
 Labouchere, Henry, Baron Taunton, statesman 
 Laborde, A. L. G., comte de, traveller, &c. . . 
 
 Labruy^re, see Brwjire .... 
 
 Lacepdde, Bernard G. S. Delaville, count de, naturalist 
 Lacordaire, Jean B. H., Catholic theologian and author 
 Lacretelle, Charles, traveller and litterateur 
 Lacroix, Sylvestre P., mathematician 
 
 Lactantius, a father of the Church styled the Christian Cicero 
 Laelius, Caius, publicist, tribune, praetor and consul 
 Laennel, an eminent physician .... 
 Lafarge, Marie C, notorious as a poisoner 
 La Fayette, G. M., marquis, &c., military commander and stateS' 
 man ..... 
 
 , George "W"., statesman • . 
 
 Lafltte, Jacques, wealthy banker and statesman 
 f Jean, corsa'-r, privateer, or pirate . 
 
 BOEN. 
 
 DIBS 
 
 
 1821 
 
 1804 
 
 1864 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1784 
 
 1835 
 
 1754 
 
 1800 
 
 1724 
 
 1803 
 
 1753 
 
 1825 
 
 1784 
 
 1S38 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1750 
 
 1824 
 
 1784 
 
 1862 
 
 1752 
 
 1821 
 
 1750 
 
 1806 
 
 1730 
 
 1789 
 
 1737 
 
 181? 
 
 1794 
 
 
 1808" 
 
 
 1804 
 
 
 1791 
 
 1813 
 
 1746 
 
 1817 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1761 
 
 1819 
 
 1804 
 
 1860 
 
 1780 
 
 1855 
 
 1768 
 
 1845 
 
 1770 
 
 1846 
 
 1808 
 
 1858 
 
 1768 
 
 1811 
 
 1788 
 
 
 1745 
 
 1813 
 
 1663 
 
 1738 
 
 1794 
 
 1858 
 
 1708 
 
 
 1774 
 
 1842 
 
 1756 
 
 1825 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1766 
 
 1817 
 
 1765 
 
 1833 
 
 
 325 
 
 C. 186 B. 
 
 c. 115 
 
 1782 
 
 1826 
 
 1816 
 
 1852 
 
 1757 
 
 1834 
 
 1768 1844 
 1780 ? 182? 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX, 
 
 51 
 
 NATIOSf. NAME AND PEOFESSION, 
 
 Gfir, La Fontaine, Aug. J. H., author of 200 volumes miscellaneous 
 
 Fr. Lafontaine, Jean de, an inimitable fabulist . , 
 
 Ital- Lagrange, Joseph Louis, able mathematician . , 
 
 Fr. La Gueronniei-e, I.ouis E. A., viscount de, publicist , 
 
 Fr. Laharpe, John Francis de, dramatist, critic, &c. , 
 
 Scot. Laing, Malcolm, historian . . . , 
 
 Fr. Lalande, Joseph J, le Francis de, astronomer , 
 
 Amer. Lamar, Mirabeau E,, second president of the republic of Texas 
 
 Fr. Lamarck, J. B. A. P., naturalist . , . 
 
 Fr. Lamarque, Maxim., general of the revolution of 1789 
 
 Fr. Lamai-tinCj Alphonse de, jjoet, historian, traveller, and states- 
 man . . , . , 
 
 Eng. Lamb, Charles, poet and essayist . 
 
 Eng. , Lady Caroline, novelist . ' . , 
 
 Ital. Lamballe, Marie, princess of, victim of the revolution 
 
 Eng, Lambert, A. B., botanist .... 
 
 Eng, , Daniel, noted for corpulency, 789 pounds 
 
 Fr. Laanmenais, F. R., abbe de, theological and political writer 
 
 Fr. Lamoriciere, Christ. L. J. de, general 
 
 Fr. Lamotte Fouqu6, Fred., baron de, novelist * Undine' 
 
 Eng, Lancaster, Joseph, founder of system of education . 
 
 Amer. Lander, Fred. W., military officer (k. at Ball's Bluff ) • 
 
 Eng, ^, Hichard and John, travellers in Africa 
 
 Fr, Landon, C. P., author of works on the fine arts • 
 
 Eng- -, (Maclean), Letitia E., poet and novelist , 
 
 Eng. Landor, Walter Savage, poet and essayist . , 
 
 Eng. Landseer, John, engraver and author 
 
 Eng, Lane, Edw. Wm.j orientalist, author of ' Modern Egyptians,' &c, 
 
 Amer. , James, general, U. S. senator for Oregon . 
 
 Ger. Lange, commentator on scripture . , , 
 
 Amer. Langdon, gov. New Hampshire, U. S. senator . 
 
 Ital. Langfranc, learned ai'chbishop of Canterbury . , 
 
 Eiig. Langhorne, John, miscellaneous author 
 
 Eng. Langton, Stephen, cardinal and archbishop of Canterbury 
 
 Fr. Lames, Jean, duke of Montebello, marshal of France 
 
 Eng. Lansdowne, Henry Petty, marquis o:^ president of Council 
 
 Eng, , William Petty, marquis of, premier 
 
 Ital. Lanzi, Luigi, writer on art .... 
 
 Fr. La Perouse, Jean F., count, navigator 
 
 Fr. Laplace, Peter Simon, marquis of, eminent astronomer and geo- 
 metrician . • , . . 
 Lappenberg, Johann M., historian 
 
 Irish. Lardner, Dionysius, writer on physical science . 
 
 jiiig. , Nathaniel, a learned dissenting divine , 
 
 Fr. Larr«y, Dominique J., baron, surgeon and author . 
 
 Fr. La Salle, Robt. C, sieur de, navigator and author . 
 
 Span. Las Casas, Earth de, missionary and historian . , 
 
 yr. , biographer of Napoleon, &c. 
 
 Nor. Lassen, Chris., oriental philologist and historian , 
 
 Eng. Latimer, Hugh, a prelate, martyred for being a reformer 
 
 Eng. Latham, John, ornithologist .... 
 
 ■£,ng, , Robert Q., philologist and ethnologist 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1756 
 
 1831 
 
 1621 
 
 1695 
 
 1736 
 
 1813 
 
 1816 
 
 
 1739 
 
 1793 
 
 1762 
 
 1818 
 
 1732 
 
 1807 
 
 1798 
 
 1859 
 
 1732 
 
 1807 
 
 1770 
 
 1832 
 
 1B02 
 
 
 1776 
 
 1834 
 
 1785 
 
 1828 
 
 1748 
 
 1792 
 
 1761 
 
 1842 
 
 1770 
 
 1809 
 
 1782 
 
 1854 
 
 1806 
 
 1866 
 
 1777 
 
 1843 
 
 1771 
 
 1839 
 
 1822 
 
 1862 
 
 
 1834 
 
 
 1826 
 
 1802 
 
 1839 
 
 1775 
 
 1864 
 
 1769 
 
 1852 
 
 1801 
 
 1867 
 
 1739 
 
 1819 
 
 1605 
 
 1689 
 
 1735 
 
 17- 
 
 
 1228 
 
 1T69 
 
 1809 
 
 1780 
 
 1863 
 
 1737 
 
 1805 
 
 1732 
 
 1810 
 
 1741 
 
 1789 
 
 1749 
 
 1827 
 
 1794 
 
 
 1793 
 
 1859 
 
 1684 
 
 1768 
 
 1760 
 
 1842 
 
 1635 
 
 1687 
 
 1474 
 
 i5e« 
 
 1762 
 
 1843 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1470 
 
 1555 
 
 1740 
 
 1857 
 
 1812 
 
 
52 
 
 THE WORLD'S PEOGRESS. 
 
 NATIOS. NAME AND PKOFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Land, William, prelate, famed for his tyranny and superstition 
 
 Soot. Lauder, Sir Thos. Dick, writer on Natural History • 
 
 Amer. Laurens, John, lieutenant colonel in Revolutionary war 
 
 Amer. , Henry, patriot and statesman . • . 
 
 Fr. Lavalette, M. C, count de, mililary commander • 
 
 Fr. La Valliere, F. L., duchesse de, mistress of Louis XIV . 
 
 Bwirts. Lavater, John Caspar, celebrated physiognomist • 
 
 Fr. Lavoisier, Anthony L., celebrated chemist . . 
 
 Scot. Law, John, financier of the 'Mississippi Bubble' • 
 
 Eng. , "Wm., religious and mystical author . • . 
 
 Amer. Lawrence, Abbott, merchant and diplomatist . . 
 
 Amer. , Amos, merchant and philanthropist • . 
 
 Amer. , James, captain in U. S. Navy . . 
 
 Eng. Layard, Austen H., traveller and explorer of Nineveh. , 
 
 Amer. Lea, Isaac, naturalist and publisher . . • 
 
 Eng. Leake, Wm. M., traveller and philhellenist , , 
 
 Amer. Lear, Tobias, secretary to Washington, diplomatist . 
 
 Fr. Lebrun, Pontius D. E., poet . • ■ • 
 
 Swiss. Leclerc, John, eminent critic . , • . 
 
 Amer. Le Coute, John, naturalist . . . • 
 
 Amer. , John L. M. D., naturalist, (son of preceding) 
 
 Amer. , John, M. D., naturalist, (Greorgia) . . 
 
 Fi*. Ledru-Rollin, Alex A., jurist and politician . . • 
 
 Amer. Ledyard, John, intrepid and enterprising statesman . 
 
 Amer. Lee, Arthur, M.D., statesman . . . 
 
 Amer. , Charles, officer in the Revolution . • . 
 
 Amer. , Eliza B., miscellaneous writer . • , < 
 
 Amer. , Francis Lightfoot, signer Dec. Independence . . 
 
 Eng. , Harriet, Miss, (sister of Sophia), novelist , • 
 
 Amer. , Henry, general in Revolutionary War , , 
 
 Amer. , Robert E., commander in chief of rebel armies • 
 
 Amer. , Richard Henry, pres. of Congress . • • 
 
 Eng. , Samuel, D. D., oriental scholar ... 
 
 Eng. , Sophia, Miss, novelist .... 
 
 Eng. Leech, John, humorous artist in Punch, &c. , . 
 
 Fr. Lefebvre, Franco's Joseph, duke of I^antzick, marshal of France 
 
 Ame'r. Legare, Hugh S., jurist, statesman and litterateur . 
 
 Fr. Legendre, Adrian M., mathematician . . • 
 
 Amer. Leggett, "William, political and miscellaneous writer 
 
 Ger. Leibnitz, Godfrey William, al:)le and learned philosopher . 
 
 Eng. Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of, favorite of Queen Elizabeth 
 
 Eng. Leicester, T. W. Coke, earl of, agriculturist . . 
 
 Scotch. Leigbton, Robert, able prelate . . , ' , 
 
 Amer. Leisler, Jacob, political adventurer ... 
 
 Amer. Leland, Charles G., essayist and humorist . . 
 
 Eng. , John, eminent divine and author ... 
 
 Irish. , Thomas, eminent divine and author . . 
 
 Pol. Lelewel, Joachim, historian .... 
 
 Fr. Lemaitre, Fred., actor .... 
 
 Eng. Lemon, Mark, humorist, editor of 'Punch ' . • 
 
 Eng. Lempriere, John, biographer and lexicographer • 
 
 Fr. Ij'Enclos, Ninon de, noted courtezan . . , 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED 
 
 1573 
 
 164S 
 
 1784 
 
 1848 
 
 1756 
 
 1782 
 
 1724 
 
 1792 
 
 . 1769 
 
 1830 
 
 1644 
 
 1710 
 
 . 1741 
 
 1801 
 
 1743 
 
 1794 
 
 1671 
 
 1729 
 
 1686 
 
 1761 
 
 1792 
 
 1855 
 
 1786 
 
 1852 
 
 1781 
 
 1813 
 
 18.7 
 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1777 
 
 1860 
 
 1760 
 
 1826 
 
 1729 
 
 1807 
 
 1657 
 
 1736 
 
 1784 
 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1808 
 
 
 1751 
 
 1788 
 
 1740 
 
 1782 
 
 1730 (?) 
 
 1782 
 
 abt.) 1800 
 
 
 1724 
 
 1797 
 
 1T50 
 
 1824 
 
 1756 
 
 1816 
 
 1808 
 
 
 1732 
 
 1794 
 
 1783 
 
 1852 
 
 1750 
 
 1824 
 
 1817 
 
 1864 
 
 e 1755 
 
 1820 
 
 1797 
 
 1843 
 
 1753 
 
 1833 
 
 1802 
 
 1840 
 
 1646 
 
 1716 
 
 1532 
 
 1588 
 
 1752 
 
 1842 
 
 1613 
 
 1684 
 
 
 1691 
 
 „ 1824 
 
 
 1691 
 
 1T66 
 
 177-.2 
 
 1TS5 
 
 1786 
 
 
 . 1798 
 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1824 
 
 
 1615 
 
 1685 
 
MATION, 
 
 Dutcli. 
 Dutch. 
 Eng. 
 Fr. 
 
 ItaL 
 Ger. 
 Gr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Horn. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Euss. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot, 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Er. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Irisli. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Er. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eag. 
 
 Araer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Rubs, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Dutch 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Lennep, David J. van, jurist and poet , , 
 
 , Jan van, poet and novelist . , 
 
 Lennox, Charlotte, authoress, (born in 'N. Y.) . , 
 
 Lenormand, Marie A., fortune-teller and biographer 
 
 Leo, the name of twelve popes and six Byzantine emperors 
 
 Leo X, pope (John de Medici), a patron of injustice and the arts 
 
 Leo, Henry, historian . . . 
 
 Leonidas I., king of Sparta, the hero of Thermopylae , f. 
 
 Leopold I, king of the Belgians . , 
 
 I, emperor of Germany . , , . 
 
 TT « a 
 
 — -'■■'-J • • . , 
 
 Lepidus, noted Roman family ... 
 
 Lepsius, Karl Rich., traveller and Egyptologist , , 
 
 Lermontoff, Michael, poet .... 
 
 Leroux, Pierre, philosopher and socialist . , 
 
 Leroy de St. Arnaud, J. A., marshal of France, general in chief 
 
 Lesage, Alain Rene, novelist and dramatist, ' Gil Bias' 
 
 Leslie, Charles Robt., artist and author . . , 
 
 , John, bishop, theological writer . , 
 
 , John, mathematician and natural philosopher , 
 
 Lesseps, Ferdinand de, diplomatist . , , 
 
 Lessing, Qotthold E., critic and author , , , 
 
 Lester, Charles E., miscellaneous author , , 
 
 L'Estrange, Sir Roger, political writer , , , 
 
 Lsuret, Francis, anatomist .... 
 
 Le Vaillant, Franc, traveller and ornithologist , 
 
 Lever Chas. Jas., novelist , , , , 
 
 Leverett, Fred. P., classical scholar and author , , 
 
 Leverrier, Urbain J. J., astronomer . , , 
 
 Le Vert, Octavia W., authoress .... 
 
 Levizac, Sir John, mathematician and natural philosopher 
 
 Lewes, George Henry, miscellaneous author 
 
 Lewis. Francis, signer of the Declaration of Independence 
 
 , Major-Gen. Morgan, military commander, jurist, &c. 
 
 -, Matthew Gregory, miscellaneous writer. Monk Lewis 
 -, Meriwether, soldier, explorer, and author . 
 -, Samuel, educationist . . , 
 
 -, Sir George Cornwall, author and statesman , 
 
 -, Taylor, classical scholar and author 
 
 Leyden, John, author . . . , , 
 
 L'Hopital, Michel de, chancellor of France 
 
 Lichtenberg, George C, experimental philosopher 
 
 Lieber, Francis, publicist, political philosopher (born in Berlin) 
 
 Liebig, Justus, baron, chemist . , . 
 
 Li even, Dorothea, princess of, diplomatist , , 
 
 Lightfoot, John, learned divine and author . , 
 
 Ligne, Charles Joseph, military ofHcer and author , 
 
 Liguori, Alfons M. de, saint and theological writer , 
 
 Lilly, George, dramatist . . , , , 
 
 , John, the Euphuist dramatic writer , , 
 
 , William, astrologer .... 
 
 
 6'S 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DI>;i>. 
 
 1774 
 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1710 
 
 1804 
 
 1772 
 
 liJ43 
 
 ts. 1475 
 
 1521 
 
 1799 
 
 
 . B. c. 491 
 
 
 1790 
 
 186- 
 
 1640 
 
 1705 
 
 . 1747 
 
 i't9a 
 
 1797 
 
 
 B. c. 200 
 
 36 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1811 
 
 1841 
 
 1798 
 
 
 f 1801 
 
 1854 
 
 1668 
 
 1717 
 
 1794 
 
 1859 
 
 1570 
 
 1671 
 
 1766 
 
 1832 
 
 18C5 
 
 
 1729 
 
 1781 
 
 1815 
 
 
 1616 
 
 1704 
 
 1797 
 
 1851 
 
 1753 
 
 1824 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1803 
 
 1886 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1820 
 
 
 
 1813 
 
 1817 
 
 
 1713 
 
 1803 
 
 3754 
 
 1832 
 
 1773 
 
 1818 
 
 1774 
 
 
 1799 
 
 1854 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1775 
 
 1811 
 
 1504 
 
 1573 
 
 1742 
 
 1790 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1784 
 
 1857 
 
 . 1735 
 
 1814 
 
 1735 
 
 1814 
 
 1696 
 
 1787 
 
 1693 
 
 1739 
 
 1653 
 
 1600 
 
 1602 
 
 16SX 
 
54 
 
 THE world's PEOGUESS. 
 
 NATION, NAME AND PK0FE6SI0N. BOBN. 
 
 Dutcb. Limborcli, Philip, theologian and autboi . . . 1633 
 
 Anier. Lincoln, Abraham, stated-man, 16th president of the U. S. . ]809 
 
 Amer. , Benjamin, majoi-general iu the Revolutionary War , 1733 
 
 Amer. , Levi, attorney-general of the U. S. (from Mass.) . 1749 
 
 Amer. , Levi, governoi of Massachusetts . . , 1782 
 
 Swe. Liud, (Goldschmidt) Jenny, vocalist . . . 1821 
 
 Eng. Lindley, John, botanist ..... 1799 
 
 Eug. Lindsay, Alexander W. Crawford, lord, author of Travels, &c 1812 
 
 Scot. , Sit David, poet .... (abt) 1490 
 
 Swe. Ling, Peler E., physiologist and poet . . . 1776 
 
 Eng. Lingard, John, author of ' History of England' . , 17-71 
 
 Er. Linguet Simon N. H., political writer and historian . , 1736 
 
 Swe. Linnaeus, Charles von, tbe most celebrated of naturalists , 1707 
 
 Lipsius, Justus, critic . . . . • 1547 
 
 Eng. Lister, Thomas Henry, novelist and biographer of Clarendon 1801 
 
 Eng. Liston, John, comic actor . . . . . 1776 
 
 Hung. Liszt, Francis, performer on piano ... 1811 
 
 Eng. Littleton, Sir Thomas, jurist 
 
 Ger. Littrow, John J., writer on mathematics and astronomy 1781 
 
 Amer Livermcre, Abicl A., clergyman, journalist and author , 1811 
 
 ELig. Liverpool, Robert Banks J eniiinson, earl of, premier • 1770 
 
 Amer. Livingston, Erockliolst, soldier and jurist .' . , 1757 
 
 ^mer. , Edward, jurist, diplomatist, and statesman . 1764 
 
 Amer. , Philip, signer of the Declaration of Independence • 1716 
 
 Amer. , Robert R., statesman and jurist . . 1747 
 
 Amer. , William, governor of New Jersey and poet • 1723 
 
 Scot. Livingstone, David, traveller and missionary in Africa . 1815 
 
 Rom. Livius, or Livy, Titus, celebrated iiistorian . . , B. c. 59 
 
 Span. Llorente, Don Juan, antiquary, historian, &c. . • 1756 
 
 Eng. Lloyd, Henry, soldier and author .... 1729 
 
 Fr. Lobau, count, marshal of France . . . 1770 
 
 Eng. Locke, John, eminent philosopher and metaphysician . . 1632 
 
 Scot.- Lockhart, J. G., critic and novelist, editor of Quarterly' , 1794 
 
 Eng. Lodge, Edmund, herald and antiquary, ' Portraits' . . 1756 
 
 Ind. Logan, English name of a famous Lidian chief 
 
 Amer. , James, colonial statesman and author 
 
 Amer. , John A, major-general in Sherman's campaign, M. C. 
 
 Eng. Lofft, Capel, author .... 
 
 Irish. Lola-Montez. Maria, countess of Lansfeldt, adventurer 
 
 Lollard, Walter, Protestant martyr at Cologne 
 
 Russ. Lomonozoff, Michael V., poet and historian 
 
 Irish. Londonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of, statesman 
 
 Amer. Long, Stephen H., engineer, traveller, and author 
 
 Amer. Longfellow, Henry W., poet and novelist 
 
 G-r. Longitnus, Dionysius Cassius, critic and philosopher 
 
 Eng. Longman, Thomas, founder of the publishing house 
 
 Amer. Longstreet, Aug. B., jurist and author . • 
 
 Amer. , James, rebel general . . 
 
 Fr. Longueville, Anne G., duchess, politician . . 
 
 Amer. Longworth, Nicholas, extensive wine manufacturer 
 
 Amer. Loomis, Elias, physicist, astronomer 
 
 Span. Lope de Vega, Ca;rpio Felix, poet and dramatist 
 
 1674 
 
 1751 
 
 1824 
 
 1711 
 1769 
 1784 
 1807 
 B. c. 250 
 1699 
 1790 
 
 1619 
 1782 
 1811 
 1562 
 
 DIED, 
 1712 
 
 1865 
 1810 
 1820 
 
 1565 
 1839 
 1851 
 1794 
 1778 
 1606 
 1S42 
 1846 
 
 1481 
 1840 
 
 1828 
 1823 
 1836 
 1778 
 1813 
 1790 
 1866 
 I). 17 
 1823 
 1783 
 1838 
 1704 
 1854 
 1839 
 1780 
 1751 
 
 1824 
 1861 
 1522 
 1765 
 ir22 
 
 1755 
 
 1679 
 1865 
 
 16SS 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX, 
 
 55 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Fr. Lorraine), Charles de, cardinal and politician 
 Amer. Lossing, Benson J., historian and artist . 
 
 Scot. Loudon, J. C, voluminous -writer on horticulture 
 and architecture . . . 
 
 Eng. , Mrs. Jane W., horticultural writer . 
 
 FrcnchJiOTJIS, the name of eighteen kings of France 
 
 Louis L, the Deionnaire . . • 
 
 « IX., Saint 
 
 " XI., ethofhouseof Valois 
 - " XIL, 8th " « . 
 
 « XIII., 2d Bourbon . , 
 
 " XIV., 3d » . . 
 
 « XV., 4th «... 
 « XVT. 
 
 " XVIL .... 
 
 " XVIIL .... 
 Louis, haron, eminent surgeon . . . 
 
 Philippe, king of the French . . 
 
 Napoleon. See Bonaparte. 
 
 Lovat, Simon Fraser, lord, executed for treason 
 Lovejoy, Owen, statesman and abolitionist . 
 
 , Rev. E. P., abolitionist journalist 
 
 Lover, Samuel, novelist and song writer . 
 
 Lowe, Sir Hudson, general, jailor of Napoleon 
 Lowell, Charles, clergyman and author . 
 
 , James Russell, poet and critic . 
 
 , John, lawyer and philanthropist , 
 
 Fr. 
 Ft. 
 Fr. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Ame.r. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 ling. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Span 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 G-er. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 — , John, jr., founder of Lowell Institute 
 
 — , Mary, Mrs. Putnam, of Boston, learned writer 
 
 Lowndes, Rawlins, statesman, opposed the Union 
 
 , "William J , statesman . , 
 
 , "William Thomas, 'Biblio- Manual' , 
 
 Lowth, Robert, eminent divine and author 
 Loyola, Saint Ignatius de, founder of the Jesuits 
 Lucan, G. C. Bingham, earl of, general in Crimea 
 
 , Marcus Annseus, Latin poet . . 
 
 Lucian, celebrated writer . . 
 
 Lucilius, the eai-liest Roman satirist . . 
 
 Lucke, Gott C. F,, theologian . , 
 
 Lucretius, Caius Titus, eminent poet . 
 
 Lucullus, wealthy warrior . . 
 
 Ludlow, Edmund, republican judge of Charles L 
 
 LuUy, Rairaond, ' the enlightened doctor' 
 
 Lundy, Benjamin, abolitionist . . 
 
 Lunt, George, poet, essayist, and journalist 
 
 Luther, Martin, the parent of the Protestant reformation 
 
 Luttrell, Henry, poet . . , 
 
 Luxemburg, duke of, military officer . 
 
 Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator . 
 
 Lydgate, John, poet (Benedictine monk) 
 
 Lyell, Sir Charles, geologist and traveller 
 
 Lynch, Thomas J., signer of the Declaration of Independence 
 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 
 1524 
 1813 
 
 1574 
 
 , agriculture, 
 
 
 
 
 1783 
 
 1813 
 
 . . 
 
 1800 
 
 1858 
 
 . • 
 
 778 
 
 840 
 
 
 1215 
 
 1270 
 
 . . 
 
 1423 
 
 1483 
 
 
 1462 
 
 1515 
 
 . . 
 
 1601 
 
 1643 
 
 
 1638 
 
 1715 
 
 . • 
 
 1710 
 
 1T74 
 
 
 1754 
 
 1793 
 
 . o 
 
 1785 
 
 1795 
 
 . • 
 
 1755 
 
 1824 
 
 1837 
 
 
 1773 
 
 1850 
 
 
 1667 
 
 1747 
 
 . • 
 
 1811 
 
 1864 
 
 . • 
 
 1802 
 1797 
 
 1837 
 
 
 1769 
 
 1844 
 
 • . 
 
 1782 
 
 1861 
 
 
 1819 
 
 
 • • 
 
 1769 
 
 1840 
 
 iter . . 
 
 1799 
 1810 
 
 1836 
 
 
 1722 
 
 1800 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 1782 
 
 1861 
 1843 
 
 • • 
 
 1710 
 
 1787 
 
 • • 
 
 1491 
 
 1556 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 1800 
 
 37 
 
 • • 
 
 120 
 
 210 
 
 B 
 
 C. 148 
 
 B. c. 191 
 
 • • 
 
 1792 
 
 1855 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 95 
 
 
 • • B. 
 
 c. 115 
 
 B, c. 49 
 
 • • 
 
 1620 
 
 1693 
 
 
 1235 
 
 1315 
 
 • • 
 
 1789 
 
 1839 
 
 • • 
 
 Qation . 
 
 1484 
 
 1546 
 
 • • 
 
 
 1851 
 
 • • 
 
 1628 
 
 1695 
 
 • • B. 
 
 0. 898 
 
 
 . . 
 
 1375 
 
 1461 
 
 • . 
 
 1797 
 
 
 Lependence . 
 
 1749 
 
 1779 
 
56 
 
 THE WOKLD S PEOGRESS. 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. DIEH. 
 
 Amer. Lynch, William P., captain TJ. S. navy, author of ' Dead Sea,' &c. 1805 
 Eng. Lyndhurst, lord, Btatesman and jurist (born in Boston) . 1772 
 
 Amer. Lyon, Mary, teacher and philanthropist . . . 1797 1849 
 
 Amer. , Matthew, politician ..... 1746 1822 
 
 Amer. , Nathaniel, Union general, fell at "Wilson's Creek . 1819 1861 
 
 Gr. Lysander, famous Spartan general . . . . b. c. 395 
 Gr, Lysias, orator . . . . • . b. c. 459 
 
 Gr. Lysimachue, one of Alexander's generals . • b. c. 360 b. o. 281 
 
 Eng. Lyttleton, George, lord, poet and historian • • 1709 1763 
 
 m, 
 
 Fr. Mahillon, Jean, ecclesiastical author . 
 
 Scot. Macadam, John, originator of Macadamized roads . 
 
 Irish. Macartney, Geo., earl of, diplomatist . 
 
 Eng. Macaulay, T., Babington, essayist, historian, critic and statesman 
 
 Eng. Macaulay, Zachary, anti-slavery statesman . . 
 
 Eiig. Macauley, Catherine, miscellaneous writer • 
 
 Scot. Macbeth, chieftain of the 11th century . . 
 
 Irish. MacClintock, Sir F. L., Arctic navigator . . 
 
 Irish. MacClure, Sir R. J., discoverer of North-west pa,ssage 
 
 Amer. Macconnell, John L., novelist . . . 
 
 Amer. Maccorst, David J., political writer 
 
 Scot. Maccosh, James, clergyman and author 
 
 Scot. Macculloch, J. R., political economist and statistician 
 
 Amer. McClellan, Geo. B., commander-in-chief Union armies . 
 
 Amer. McCook, father and three sons from Ohio, generals in Union 
 
 Eng. McCulloch, John, M. D., geologist, &c. 
 
 Scot. Macdiarmid, John, author . . • 
 
 Scot. Macdonald, Flora, adventurous heroine . « 
 
 Pr. Macdonald, S. T. A., marshal of France 
 
 Amer. Macdonough, Thos., commodore in U. S. Navy, victor on Lake 
 
 Champlain .... 
 
 Amer. McDowell, Irwin, commander Union Army 
 
 Amer. Macduffie, Geo., U. S. senator from Sotith Carolina . 
 
 Scot. Macgillivray. "Wm., naturalist . . . 
 
 Scot. Macgregor, John, statistical and political author . 
 
 Ital. Machiavel, Nicholas, celebrated writer on politics . 
 
 Scot. Mackay, Charles, poet and miscellaneous writer 
 
 Amer. Mackean, Thos., jurist, statesman, signer of Dec. of Ind. 
 
 Amer, Mackenzie, A. Slidell, naval commander, author of travels 
 
 Scot. Mackenzie, Henry, the Addison of the North . . 
 
 Irish. Mackenzie, Robt. S., journalist, &c. . 
 
 Amer. Mackintosh, Maria J., novelist 
 
 Scot. Mackintosh, Sir James, celebrated literary character . 
 
 Irish. Macklin, Charles, actor and dramatist . , 
 
 Scot. Macknight, James, divine and author . . • 
 
 Aust. Mack \on Liebenich, Karl, baron, general , 
 
 Amer. MacLane, Louis, statesman and diplomatist . . 
 
 Scot. Maclaurin, Colin, mathematician . 
 
 Amer. Maclean, John, statesman, judge of U. S. Supreme Court 
 
 Eng. MacLean, L. E. L., (Miss Landon), poet and novelist 
 
 1632 
 
 1707 
 
 1756 
 
 1836 
 
 . 1737 
 
 1806 
 
 jsman 1800 
 
 1859 
 
 1768 
 
 1838 
 
 1733 
 
 1791 
 
 . 1819 
 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1826 
 
 
 1797 
 
 1855 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1789 
 
 1864 
 
 1826 
 
 
 u Army 
 
 
 1773 
 
 1835 
 
 . 1779 
 
 1808 
 
 1720 
 
 1790 
 
 . 1765 
 
 1840 
 
 Lake 
 
 1783 
 
 1825 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1788 
 
 1851 
 
 1796 
 
 1852 
 
 1797 
 
 1857 
 
 1469 
 
 1527 
 
 1812 
 
 
 1734 
 
 1817 
 
 1803 
 
 1849 
 
 . 1745 
 
 1831 
 
 1809 
 
 
 (abt.) 1810 
 
 
 . 1766 
 
 1832 
 
 1690 
 
 1796 
 
 1721 
 
 1800 
 
 1752 
 
 1828 
 
 1786 
 
 1857 
 
 1698 
 
 174* 
 
 1785 
 
 
 1804 
 
 103% 
 
BIOGKAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 57 
 
 KATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. I 
 
 Irish.. MaCiise, Daniel, historical painter . . « . 
 
 Amer. Macleod, Alex., clergyman and author . . , 
 
 Amor. Macleod, Xavier Donald, miscellaneous writer . , , 
 
 Scot. Maclure, William, geologist, &c ...» 
 
 Fr. MacMahon, M. E. P., duke of Magenta, marshal , . 
 
 Scot. MacNab, Sir Allan, Canadian ytatcsraan . 
 
 Irish. MacNeven, Wm. J., patriot and physician, (died at N. T.) , 
 
 Amer. Macomb, Major-General Aiex., military comiiiander 
 
 Anr.er. Macon, Nathaniel, member of Congress for N, Carolina 37 years 
 
 Scot. Macpherson, James, miscellaneous writer . 
 
 Amer. Macpherson, Jas. B., Union general in rebellion , . 
 
 Eng. Macready, Wm. Chas., tragedian .... 
 
 Scot. Macrie, Thomas, D.D., clergyman and author, biographer of Knox 
 
 Eng. Madden, Sir Ered., antiquarian author . . , 
 
 Ger. Maddlex, Johann Henry, astronomer . . , , 
 
 Amer. Madison, James, 4th president of United States . . 
 
 "Welsh. Madoc, prince, said to have discovered America 
 
 Span. Madoz, Pascuale, statesman and author 
 
 Rom. Maecenas, Caiua C, minister of Augustus and patron of literature 
 
 Ital. Maffei, Franc S., marquis, author of 21 vols. 
 
 Amer. MafB.tt, John Newland, noted Methodist preacher . • 
 
 Irish. Magee,'W"m., arcnbishop Dublin, (on Atonement) , • 
 
 Port. Magellan, Ferdinand, celebrated navigator . , 
 
 Fr. Mageiidie, Francis, physiologist .... 
 
 Irish. Maginn, "William, classical and miscellaneous writer and critic 
 
 Fr. Magnan, Bernard Pierre, marshal of France 
 
 Amer. Magoon, Elisha L., clergyman and author 
 
 Sar. Mahomet, or Mohammed, founder of the religion which bears his 
 name ...... 
 
 Turk. Mahomet II., 7th Turkish Sultan, conqueror of Constantinople 
 
 Fr. Maimbourg, Louis, historian . , . • 
 
 Jew. Ma'monider^, Moaes, celebrated rabbi . . . 
 
 Fr. Maiutenon, Frances d'Aubigne, queen 
 
 Ital. Maio, Angelo. discoverer and editor of Latin classics . 
 
 Ital. Maistre, Joseph de, statesman and author . • • 
 
 Eng. Maittaire, Michael, bibliographer, &c. . . . 
 
 Heb. Malachi, the prophet ..... 
 
 Swiss. Malan, Caesar H. A., theologian and author 
 
 Amer. Malcom, Howard, clergyman and author . . 
 
 Scot. Malcolm, Sir John, ' History of Persia and India' . 
 
 Fr. Malebranche, J^icholas, metaphysician ... 
 
 Fr. Malesherbes, C. G. de, statesman, (executed) • , 
 
 ItaL Malibran, M. F., Madame, vocalist .... 
 
 Fr. Malherbe, Franc de, poet .... 
 
 Scot. Mallet, David, miscellaneous writer . ... . 
 
 Swiss. Mallet, Paul Henri, historian . . , • 
 
 Erg. Malmesbury, Jas. Harris, earl of, diplomatist . . . 
 
 Eng. , Jas. H. H., (son of above), statesman . • 
 
 Eng. , William of, historian .... 
 
 Eng. Malone, Edward, dramatic commentator . • • 
 
 Ital. Malphighl, Marcellus, naturalist and anatomist . • 
 
 Eng. Maltby, Edw., bishop of Durham, philologist • . 
 
 ORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1774 
 
 18^3 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1763 
 
 1840 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1763 
 
 1841 
 
 1782 
 
 1841 
 
 1757 
 
 1837 
 
 1738 
 
 1798 
 
 18i8 
 
 1864 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1772 
 
 1835 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1794 
 
 
 1751 
 
 1836 
 
 12th cent. 
 
 1806 
 
 
 
 B. c. 9 
 
 1675 
 
 1755 
 
 1794 
 
 1850 
 
 1765 
 
 1831 
 
 
 1521 
 
 1783 
 
 1855 
 
 1793 
 
 1842 
 
 1791 
 
 1864 
 
 1810 
 
 
 569 
 
 632 
 
 1430 
 
 1480 
 
 1610 
 
 1686 
 
 1131 
 
 1204 
 
 1635 
 
 1719 
 
 1753 
 
 1821 
 
 1668 
 
 1747 
 
 B. C. 
 
 5th cent. 
 
 1787 
 
 1864 
 
 1799 
 
 
 1769 
 
 1833 
 
 1638 
 
 1715 
 
 1721 
 
 1794 
 
 1808 
 
 1836 
 
 1555 
 
 1628 
 
 1702 
 
 1765 
 
 1730 
 
 1807 
 
 1746 
 
 1820 
 
 1807 
 
 
 
 1143 
 
 1741 
 
 1812 
 
 1628 
 
 1694 
 
 1770 
 
 185S 
 
58 
 
 THE world's PEOGKESS. 
 
 NATIOH. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Pers. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Horn. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Pers. 
 
 Er. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Aust. 
 
 Span, 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Kom. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Malte Brun, Conrad, poet and geographer • 
 
 , M., geographer . . , 
 
 Malthus, T. R., political economist . . 
 
 Mamiani, Terenze, count, statesman and anther . 
 Mandeville, Sir John, traveller and author 
 Manes, or Manichaeus, founder of the Manichsean sect 
 Manfred, prince of Tarentura, king of Two Sicilies 
 M^tnin, Daniele, Venetian statesman . , 
 
 Mann, Horace, statesman and educiitionist . , 
 
 Manning, Henry E., clergyman and author 
 Mansel, Henry L., metaphybician and theologian , 
 Mansfeld, Ernest of, warrior . 
 Mansfield, Jos. K., Union general . 
 
 , "Wm. Murray, Earl of, jurist and statesman 
 
 Mantell, G. A., geologist . . . 
 Manutius Aldus, celebrated printer and author 
 , the Younger, printer and author . 
 
 Paulus, (son of Manutius), printer 
 
 BOBK. 
 
 . 1775 
 
 1766 
 1799 
 1300 
 239 
 (abt.) 1231 
 1804 
 1798 
 1812 
 1815 
 1585 
 1803 
 1705 
 1790 
 1447 
 1547 
 1512 
 1784 
 I7r;4 
 B. C. 237 
 1256 
 1786 
 
 1492 
 1 29 
 
 Manzoni, author of T. Promessi Sposi . , 
 
 Marat, John Paul, infamous revolutionist • 
 
 Marcellus, Marcus Claudius, general • . 
 
 Marco Polo, Venetian traveller . • 
 
 Marcy, "Wm. Learned, statesman . • • 
 
 Mardonlus, Persian general in Greece . 
 
 Margaret of Angouleme, queen of Navarre 
 
 Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry VI. of England 
 
 Margaret of Austria, daughter of Maximil. I. and Mary of Burgundy 1480 
 
 1353 
 1552 
 1787 
 1806 
 1574 
 1537 
 1717 
 1782 
 1755 
 1821 
 1810 
 
 Margaret, queen of Denmark, «fec,, ' Semiramis of the North ' 
 Margaret of Valois, queen of Henry IV. of France . 
 Maria Louisa, empress of France, afterwards Duchess of Parma 
 Maria Christina, queen dowager of Spain, (born at Naples) 
 Maria de Medici, queen of Henry IV. of France . . 
 
 Mariana, John, celebrated historian . . . . 
 
 Mfiria Theresa, empress of Gei-many . . • 
 
 Marie- Amelie, queen of the French, (Louis Philippe) . , 
 
 Marie Antoinette, queen of France, (Louis XVI) . 
 Mariette, Aug. E., Egyptologist and explorer . , . 
 
 Mario, Giuseppe, marquis of Candia, vocalist . . 
 
 Marion, Francis, distinguished officer in the Revolution 
 Marius, Caius, famous general and demagogue . . i 
 
 Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, able warrior 
 Marmont, A. F. V., duke of Ragusa, marshal of France and 
 traveller ...... 
 
 Marmontel, John Francis, celebrated writer . . • 
 
 Marlowe, Christ, or Kit, dramatic poet . • . 
 
 Mapes, James J., agriculturist . . . • 
 
 Marquette, Jacques, early explorer of the Mississippi • 
 
 Marrast, Armand, journalist and politician . • . 
 
 Mars, Mademoiselle, actress . . . • 
 
 Marsden, oriental traveller and historian . . 
 
 Marsh, Anne, novelist .... 
 
 Marsh, Geo. Perkins, philologist and diplomatist 
 
 c. 153 
 1650 
 
 1773 
 1723 
 1564 
 
 1637 
 
 1800 
 1778 
 1755 
 (abt.) 1800 
 1801 
 
 DIBD, 
 
 1828 
 
 183- 
 
 1372 
 27 
 
 1857 
 1859 
 
 1629 
 1862 
 1793 
 185- 
 1517 
 1597 
 1574 
 
 1793 
 . c. 208 
 1323 
 1857 
 c. 479 
 1549 
 1481 
 1530 
 1412 
 1612 
 1847 
 
 1642 
 1624 
 1780 
 
 1793 
 
 1795 
 
 B. c. 86 
 
 1722 
 
 1852 
 1799 
 1593 
 1865 
 1375 
 1852 
 1847 
 1838 
 
BIOGKAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 59 
 
 NATION. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Prus. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Aioer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 lud. 
 
 Er. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Am^r. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Hoi. 
 
 . NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN. 
 
 Marsh, Herbert, bishop of Peterborough, theological writer 1758 
 
 Marsh, James, metaphysician .... 1794 
 
 Marshall, John, chief-justice of U. S., biographer . . 1755 
 
 Marshman, Joshua, missionary in India, and author • 1767 
 Marston, John, poet and dramatist . . . (abt.) 1570 
 
 Martial, Marcus Valerius, epigrammatist . , . 40 
 
 Martin, Benj., optician and autbor . • • 1704 
 
 Martin, Bon Louis Henry, historian . . • . 1704 
 
 Martin, Francis Xavier, jurist and historian • • 1810 
 
 Martineau, Harriet, miscellaneons authoress . . . 1764 
 
 , James, (brother of Harriet), clergyman and author 1800 
 
 Martos, Ivan P., sculptor .... 1753 
 
 Martinez de la Rosa, don Franc, statesman and litterateur . 1786 
 Martius, C. F. P. von, botanist and traveller , • 
 
 Martyn, Henry, missionary in India and Persia • , 1781 
 
 Martyr, Justin, Christian apologist « • . 103? 
 
 ■ , Peter, reformer and theologian • • • 1500 
 
 Marvell, Andrew, autbor and statesman ... 1621 
 
 Mary I., first queen regnant of England . . , 1515 
 
 , II., queen regnant with "Wm. of Orange . . 1662 
 
 Stuart, queen of Scots ..... 1542 
 
 Marryatt, Captain, novelist and traveller . . , 1792 
 
 Maseres, Francis, 'bax'on,' mathematician • • . 1731 
 
 Maskeleyne, Nevil, astronomer . . . ' . 1732 
 Mason, George, statesman ..... 1726 
 
 , Jeremiah, lawyer and statesman . . . 1768 
 
 , John, maj. gen. Connecticut colonial forces . . 1600 
 
 , John, divine and author .... 1706 
 
 , John M., eminent divine .... 1770 
 
 , John, M., senator from Virginia, rebel . . 
 
 , John Y., statesman and minister to France , , 1795 
 
 , Lowell, musical teacher and composer . , 1792 
 
 , William, divine and poet .... 1725 
 
 Massasoit, sachem of the Wampanoags 
 
 Massena, Andrew, one of the ablest of Napoleon's marshals . 1758 
 Maesey, Gerald, poet ..... 1828 
 
 Ma?sillon, John Baptist, eloquent divine . . . 1663 
 Massinissa, king of Numidia .... (abt) b. c. 2iO b 
 
 Masson, David, biographer and essayist . , . 1823 
 
 Maunder, Samuel 'Treasury of Knowledge' . , . 1790 
 
 Mather, Cotton, divine and author . . . 1663 
 
 , Increase, clergyman and autlu r . . . 1639 
 
 Mathew, Theobald, ' Apostle of Temperance ' . . 1790 
 
 Mathias, Thomas, author of ' Pursuits of Literature' . . 1750 
 
 Matthew of Westminster, historian . . , l3th c 
 
 Matthews, Charles, actor and hunaorist . . , 1776 
 
 ' Matthias' (Eobert Matthews), religious impostor . . (abt) 1790 
 
 Matter, Jacques, philosopher and historian . , . 1791 
 
 Maturin, Charles Roberc, divine, dramatist and poet . 1782 
 
 Maundrell,E.ev. Henry, traveller in the East . , . 1650? 
 
 Maupertuis, Peter L. M., geometrician and astronomer. . 1698 
 
 Maurice, Count of Nassau, and Prince of Orange, stadtholder . 1567 
 
 SOD. 
 1839 
 184T 
 1835 
 1837 
 1634 
 100 
 1782 
 1782 
 
 1846 
 
 1835 
 
 1812 
 1671 
 1561 
 1678 
 1558 
 1694 
 1587 
 1848 
 1824 
 1811 
 1792 
 1848 
 1672 
 1763 
 1829 
 
 1859 
 
 1797 
 1661 
 1817 
 
 1742 
 c. 143 
 
 1849 
 1728 
 1723 
 1856 
 1835 
 ent. 
 1835 
 183- 
 
 1825 
 1710 
 1759 
 1625 
 
60 
 
 THE WORLD'S PEOGEESS. 
 
 NATIOJf. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Maurice, Jno. Fred. D., clergyman and author , 
 
 Eng. , Thos. Rev., history of Hindostan, &c. « 
 
 Mauricius, Flavius Tib., Byzantine emperor 
 
 Maury, Matthew F., uaval Qlficer, astronomer, rebel, «fcc. 
 
 , John Sitt'rein, cardinal and statesman 
 
 Amer. 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 Fr. 
 
 Mavor, Rev. Wm., writer and compiler, voyages, &c. . 
 Mavrocordato, statesman . . . 
 
 Mawe, Joseph, mineralogist and conchologist . • 
 
 Maximilian I., emperor of Gfrmar.y . . 
 
 . , prince, emperor of Mexico , • 
 
 Maximinus, Cains J. V., emperor of Rome • 
 
 Maxwell, Wm. E., 'Life of Wellington,' «fec. . . 
 
 Mayer, Brantz, lawyer and historical writer , 
 
 Mayer, Johann T., astronomer 
 Mayhew, Henry, Edward, Thomas, and Hoi'ace, brothers 
 
 morons and miscellaneous writers 
 ■ , Jonathan, clergyman and author . • 
 
 (shot) 
 
 hu 
 (abt) 
 
 Mazarin, Julius, cardinal, able statesman . , 
 
 Mazeppa, John, prince of the Cossacks 
 Ital. Mazzini, Giuseppe, democratic politician (Genoa) • 
 Amer. Meade, Geo. G., commander army of Potomac 
 
 Amer. ■ , Wm., episcopal bishop of Virginia and author 
 
 L Amer. Meagher, Thos. F., gen, in Union armies, gov. Idaho 
 
 Eng. 
 Ital. 
 Ital. ■ 
 Ital. ■ 
 Ital. • 
 Ital. - 
 Turk. 
 Ger. 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Port. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 RU73. 
 
 Buss. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Medhurst, "Walter H., oriental scholar and missionary 
 Medici, Hippolytus, cardinal . 
 
 ■ , Cosmo de, the Great, first Gd Duke Tuscany 
 
 . ,' pater patriae,' Florence 
 
 -, Lorenzo de, poet, gov of Florence, and patron of ar 
 -, Pietro, successor of Cosmo, patron of arts . 
 
 Mehemet-Ali, pasha of Egypt 
 
 Meiners, Christopher, historian . . • 
 
 Melanchthon, Philip, celebrated reformer . , 
 
 Melbourne, Wm. Lamb, Viscount de, statesman . . 
 Mellen, Grenville, poet .... 
 Melmoth, "Wm., 'Letters,' translation qf Cicero, &c. , 
 
 , ' Religious Life ' . 
 
 Melville, Andrew, religious reformer . , • 
 
 , Herman, author of travels, romances . 
 
 , Sir Jas., soldier, statesman, and author • 
 
 Menander, comic poet .... 
 Mendelssohn, Bartholdy Felix, musical composer , 
 
 . . , Moses, Jewish scholar and philosopher 
 
 Mendez-Pinto, Fernam, adventurer, unjustly famed for lying 
 Mendoza, Diego H. de, scholar, author, and statesman 
 Mengs, Anton Rafael, painter and writer on art 
 Meninski, Francis M., learned orientalist . 
 Mentchikoff, Alex., prince, statesman . . 
 
 , Alex., S., admiral 
 
 Menno-Simonis, reformer, founder of ' Mennonites' . 
 Menzel, Wolfgang, critic and historian 
 , Mercator, Gerard, geographer 
 Mercer, Hugh, general in the Revolutionary war 
 
 ts 
 
 BOUN. 
 
 DIED 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1755 
 
 1821 
 
 539 
 
 602 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1746 
 
 1817 
 
 1758 
 
 1837 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1755 
 
 1829 
 
 1459 
 
 1519 
 
 ) 1834 
 
 1867 
 
 
 233 
 
 1795 
 
 1851 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1723 
 
 1762 
 
 ) 1812 
 
 
 1720 
 
 1766 
 
 1602 
 
 1661 
 
 
 1709 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1815 
 
 
 1789 
 
 
 
 1867 
 
 1796 
 
 1857 
 
 1511 
 
 1535 
 
 1519 
 
 1574 
 
 1389 
 
 1464 
 
 1448 
 
 1492 
 
 
 1469 
 
 1769 
 
 1849 
 
 1747 
 
 1810 
 
 1497 
 
 1560 
 
 1779 
 
 1848 
 
 1799 
 
 1841 
 
 1710 
 
 1799 
 
 1666 
 
 1743 
 
 1545 
 
 1622 
 
 1819 
 
 
 1535 
 
 1607 
 
 C 342 
 
 B. c. 290 
 
 1809 
 
 1847 
 
 1729 
 
 1786 
 
 1510 
 
 1580 
 
 1503 
 
 1575 
 
 1728 
 
 1779 
 
 1623 
 
 1698 
 
 1672 
 
 1769 
 
 1789 
 
 
 , 
 
 1561 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1512 
 
 1594 
 
 1720 
 
 1777 
 
BIOGKAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 61 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PEOFESSIOW, 
 
 Amer. Meigs, Return J., revol, officer . • 
 
 Amer. Meriam, Ehen, statistician and meteorologist 
 
 Fr. Merimee, Prosper, novelist . . • 
 
 Eng. Merivale, Cliarles, historian • • • 
 
 Eng. , Jolm Herman, poet . , 
 
 Swiss. Merle d'Aubigne, J. H., D. D., historian , • 
 
 ^r. Merovseus, founder Merovingian dynasty , 
 
 Fr. Mery, Joseph, poet and novelist . . • 
 
 Ger. Mesmer, Fred. A., founder of 'Mesmerism' 
 
 Ital. Metastasio, Peter B., celebrated poet 
 
 Eng. Metcalfe, Charles T., baron, gov. in India and Canada 
 
 Eom. Metellus, the name of several famous plebeians 
 
 Aust. Metternich, Prince, statesman, and diplomatist 
 
 Dutch. Meursius, John, erudite critic . . , 
 
 Ger. Meyerbeer, musical composer . . , 
 
 Eng. Meyrick, Sir Saml. E., antiquarian author • 
 
 Fr. Mezerai, Francis de, historian . • 
 
 Ital. Mezzofanti, Cardinal, celebrated linguist . , 
 
 Gr. Miaulis, naval commander . . « 
 
 Heb. Micah, the Prophet . • , , 
 
 Ital. Micai-i, Guiseppe, historian . . , 
 
 Ger. Michaelis, John David, learned orientalist and critic 
 
 Fr. Michaud, Joseph, historian - . • • 
 
 Fr. Michaux, Andre, botanist, (' Sylva Americana ') . 
 
 Fr. Michel, Francisque, archaBologist • . , 
 
 Fr. Michelet, Jules, historian .... 
 
 Ger. Michelet, Karl Ludwig, philosophical writer . , 
 
 Pol. M'.ckiewicz. Adam, poet .... 
 
 Eng. Mickle, William J. poet, translator of ' Lusiad,' &c. 
 
 Eng. Middleton, Con vers, divine and elegant writer 
 
 Amer. , Arthur, patriot and statesman . , 
 
 Eng. , Thomas, dramatist 
 
 Amer. Mifldin, Thomas, general in Revolutionary war , 
 
 Fr. Mignet, F. A., historian ..... 
 
 Port. Miguel Don, rival of Don Carlos to the throne of Portugal 
 
 Amer. Milburn, William Henry, 'blind preacher ' and author 
 
 Scot. Mill, James, historian of British India and political economist 
 
 Eng. , John Stuart, political philosopher . . . 
 
 Eng. Millais, John Everett, ' pre-Raphaelite ' painter 
 
 Amer. Miller, James, general at Chippewa, &c., (' I'll try, sir') 
 
 Eng. , Joseph, comic actor, putative parent of jests 
 
 Scot. , Hugh, geologist ...... 
 
 Amer. , William, founder of the ' Millerites,' or second adventists 
 
 Fr. Milleroye, Charles Hubert, poet ..... 
 
 Fr. Millin, Aubin Louis, naturalist, &c . . , , 
 
 Eng. Millman, Henry Hart, Rev., poet and historian , . , 
 
 Fr. Millot, Claude Francis Xavier, historian ' . , , 
 
 Eng. Mills, Charles, historian ■...,,. 
 
 Fr. Milne-Edward, Henri, naturalist . . • • 
 
 Eng. Milnes, Richard Monckton, poet and statesman . • • 
 
 Eng. Mi Iner, Joseph, author of 'Church History ' . , 
 
 Amer. Milnor, James, D. D., episcopal clergyman . • 
 
 c. 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 DiEn. 
 
 1740 
 
 1823 
 
 1794 
 
 1861 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1779 
 
 1844 
 
 1794 
 
 
 411 
 
 457 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1734 
 
 1815 
 
 1698 
 
 1782 
 
 1785 
 
 1846 
 
 . 250 
 
 69 
 
 1773 
 
 1859 
 
 1579 
 
 16g9 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1783 
 
 1848 
 
 1610 
 
 1682 
 
 1774 
 
 1849 
 
 1772 
 
 1835 
 
 f.B 
 
 c. 750 
 
 
 1839 
 
 1717 
 
 1791 
 
 1767 
 
 1839 
 
 1746 
 
 1802 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1798 
 
 1855 
 
 1734 
 
 1788 
 
 1683 
 
 1750 
 
 1743 
 
 1787 
 
 
 1627 
 
 1744 
 
 1800 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1823 
 
 
 1775 
 
 1836 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1829 
 
 
 1776 
 
 1851 
 
 1684 
 
 1738 
 
 1802 
 
 1856 
 
 1781 
 
 1849 
 
 1782 
 
 1816 
 
 1759 
 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1726 
 
 1785 
 
 1788 
 
 1826 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1744 
 
 1797 
 
 1773 
 
 1844 
 
62 
 
 THE WOELD's PEOGPvESS. 
 
 NATIOS. NAME AND PKOFESSION. 
 
 Gr, MiltiadeB, illustrioue Athenian general , • 
 
 Eng. Milton, John, the Homer of Britain. . , , 
 
 Fr. Minie, Claude E., inventor of the Mini6 rifle-bullet • 
 
 Amer. Minot, George R., historian . . . . , 
 
 Rom. Miuutius-Felix, Marcus, christian writer . • 
 
 Mex. Miramoa, Miguel, military leader . . . 
 
 Span. Miranda, Francis, revolutionary general 
 
 Fr. Miraheau, H. G. Riquetti, count de, celebrated character in the 
 
 Revolution and author .... 
 
 Fr. Mirbelj Charles F. B. de, naturalist . . , 
 
 Amer. Mitchel, Ormsby M., astronomer and patriotic general 
 
 Amer. Mitchell, Donald G., essayist 
 
 Amer. , Maria, astronomer .... 
 
 ^rner. , Samuel L., celebrated physician and naturalist 
 
 'Eng, , Thomas, classical scholar and critic . 
 
 Eng. Mitford, Mary Russell, novelist and essayist *• , 
 
 Eng. , Rev. John, editor of poets, . . • 
 
 Eng. , William, historian and philologist . 
 
 Mithridates, king of Pontus, warrior . • . 
 
 Ger. Mitscherlich, E., chemist . . . - , 
 
 Ger. Mi ttermaier, Karl J. A., jurist and statesman 
 
 Turk. Mohamtned-Ali, Pasha of Egypt, (See Mahomet and Mehemet) 
 
 gar. Ben Abd Al Wab, sheik, founder sect Wahabites 
 
 Ger. Mohler, Johann Adam E., catholic theologian , 
 
 Ger. Mohs, Frederick, mineralogist .... 
 
 Scot. Moir, David Macbeth, miscellaneous writer . 
 
 Fr. Molle, M. L., comte, statesman . . • , 
 
 Hoi. Moleschott, Jacob, physiologist and naturalist • 
 
 Eng. Molesworth, Sir William, statfsman ar.d author 
 
 Fr. Moleville, Anthony F. de Bertrand, count de, historian 
 
 Fr. Moliere, John Baptist, celebrated dramatist 
 
 Span. Molina, Luis, Jesuit theologian and author . . 
 
 Scot. Monboddo, lord, judge and philologist 
 
 Eng. Montfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester, statesman . 
 
 Eng. Monk, George, duke of Albemarle, military oflB.cer 
 
 Swiss Monod, Adolphe, * reformed pastor' arid author , 
 
 g-^^riss. , Dr. Frederick, 'reformed pastor 'at Paris . 
 
 Amer. Monroe, James, statesman, 5th president United States 
 
 Ger. Mouse, Gaspar, eminent geometrician , , 
 
 Fr. Monstrelet, Enguerrand de, chronicler , . 
 
 Eng. Montagu, Basil, lawyer and author 
 
 -JExig, , Elizabeth, author of ' dialogues,' &c. . 
 
 jjjjg^ , Lady Mary Wortley, elegant writer 
 
 Eng. Montague, Charles, earl of Halifax, stntesman and poet 
 
 Fr. Montaigne, Michel de, eminent essayist 
 
 Fr. Montalembert, Charles F, count, statesman and author 
 
 Fr. Montcalm, Louis, marquis de, general in Canada 
 
 Fr. Montebello, John Lannes, duke of, marshal . , 
 
 Ger. Montecuculi, Raimond, warrior 
 
 Fr. Montespan, Franc, marquise de, mistress Louis XIV. 
 
 It. Montesqieu, Charles baron de, able writer 
 
 Montez, Lola, female adventurer . • • 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 489 
 
 1608 
 
 1674 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1758 
 
 1802 
 
 3d cent 
 
 
 (abt.) 1830 
 
 1867 
 
 1760 
 
 1816 
 
 in the 
 
 
 1749 
 
 1791 
 
 1776 
 
 1854 
 
 1810 
 
 186- 
 
 1822 
 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1763 
 
 1831 
 
 1783 
 
 1845 
 
 1786 
 
 1855 
 
 1781 
 
 1859 
 
 1734 
 
 1827 
 
 B, C 123 B 
 
 C. 64 
 
 1794 
 
 1863 
 
 1787 
 
 
 ) 1769 
 
 1850 
 
 s f. 1650 
 
 
 1796 
 
 
 1774 
 
 1889 
 
 1798 
 
 1851 
 
 1781 
 
 1855 
 
 1822 
 
 
 1810 
 
 1855 
 
 1754 
 
 1817 
 
 1622 
 
 1673 
 
 1585 
 
 1600 
 
 1714 
 
 1799 
 
 
 1265 
 
 . 1608 
 
 1670 
 
 1802 
 
 1856 
 
 1794 
 
 1863 
 
 1759 
 
 1831 
 
 1746 
 
 1818 
 
 1390 
 
 1453 
 
 1770 
 
 1851 
 
 1720 
 
 1802 
 
 1690 
 
 1762 
 
 1661 
 
 1715 
 
 1533 
 
 1592 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1712 
 
 1759 
 
 1769 
 
 1809 
 
 , 1609 
 
 1681 
 
 1641 
 
 1707 
 
 . 1689 
 
 1755 
 
 . 1824 
 
 1861 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 63 
 
 NAIIOBT. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 M'^x. Montezuma I, the greatest of Mexican sovereigns , 
 
 M ex. II, last Atzec eroperor . . • 
 
 Fi-. Montfaucon, Bern, de, archseologist and authar , 
 
 Eiig. Montgomery, James, poet . . , , 
 
 Amtr. , Richard, intrepid military oflB.cer 
 
 Eng. , Robert, poet .... 
 
 Tr. Montholon, comte, secretary and biographer of Napoleon 
 
 Fr. Montmoienci, Anne de, constable of France . 
 
 Ital. Monte, Vincent, poet .... 
 
 Fr. Montmorency, noble family of France . . , 
 
 Fr. Monlpensir, Mada,me, author of Memoirs &o 
 
 Scot. Montrose, Jas. Grahame, marquis of, military leader • 
 
 Amer. Moore, Geo. H., author .... 
 
 Amer. , Frank H , author . . • • 
 
 Amer. , Clement C, ■writer of verses, &c. , • 
 
 Amer. , Jacob E'ailey, journalist and author . . 
 
 Scot. , John, miscellaneous author 
 
 Scot. , Sir John (son of above,) general, killed at Corunna 
 
 Ital. Morata, Olympia, Prot. writer 
 
 Eag. More, Hannah, poet, essayist and moralist, . • 
 
 Eug. , Henry, mystical divine and philosopher 
 
 Fj?. Moreau, John Victor, celebrated general . , 
 
 Amer. Morfit, Campbell, chemist and author . . 
 
 Amer. Morgan, Daniel, brig, gen., in I'evolutionary war • 
 
 Amer. , Jno. H»3nry, rebel fillibuster general . 
 
 Eng. , Lady Charles, author of novels, travels «fcc. . 
 
 Eng. — , Sir Henry J., buccaneer 
 
 Eng. Morier, James, novelist, 'HajjiBaba' &c. 
 
 Eng. Mornington, G. Wellesley, earl of, musical composer 
 
 Fr. Morny, Chas. A. count of^ minister of Napoleon III. , 
 
 Amer. Morphy, Paul Charles, famous chess-player 
 
 Eng. MorrelJ, Thos., lexicographer and classical writer . 
 
 Amer. Morris, Geo, P., poet and journalist 
 
 Amer. ■ , Gouverneur, distinguished statesman . . 
 
 Amer. , Lewis, signer of the Declaration of Independence 
 
 Amer. , Robert, signer Declaration Independence and financier 
 
 Eng. Morrison, Robert, Chinese traveller and philologist 
 
 Eug. -J Robert D. D., missionary and philologist 
 
 Amer. Morse, Jedediah, geogxapher and statistical writer 
 
 Amer. , Samuel F. B., artist and inventor of telegraph 
 
 Amer. , Sidney E., journalist and geographer , 
 
 Fii. Mortier, marsbal of France, killed by Fieschi . 
 
 Scot. Morton, Jas. Douglas, earl of, regent 
 
 Amer. , John, signer of Declaration of Independence 
 
 Amer. , Samuel Geo., anatomist and ethnologist 
 
 Amer. , Wm. T. G. dentist, discoverer of the use of ether (?) 
 
 Ileb. Moses, lawgiver of the Jews 
 
 Ger. Mosheim, John Lawrence, ecclesiastical historian . 
 
 Scot. Motherwell, William, poet 
 
 Amer. Motley, John Lothrop, historian 
 
 Amer. Mott, Lucretia, minister of ' Friends' and philanthropist 
 
 Amer. , Valentine, surgeon and author , , 
 
 BOEN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 
 1471 
 
 1480 
 
 1520 
 
 . 1655 
 
 1741 
 
 1771 
 
 1854 
 
 173? 
 
 1775 
 
 1807 
 
 1855 
 
 1783 
 
 1853 
 
 1493 
 
 1567 
 
 1753 
 
 1828 
 
 10th to 19th 
 
 century 
 
 1627 
 
 1693 
 
 1612 
 
 1651 
 
 1779 
 
 1863 
 
 1797 
 
 1853 
 
 1728 
 
 1802 
 
 1761 
 
 1809 
 
 1526 
 
 1555 
 
 1744 
 
 1833 
 
 1614 
 
 1687 
 
 1763 
 
 1813 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1736 
 
 1802 
 
 1780 
 
 1859 
 
 1637 
 
 1690 
 
 1780 
 
 1849 
 
 1720 
 
 17S4 
 
 1811 
 
 1855 
 
 1837 
 
 
 1703 
 
 1784 
 
 1802 
 
 1864 
 
 1752 
 
 1816 
 
 1726 
 
 1798 
 
 icier 1703 
 
 1806 
 
 1782 
 
 1834 
 
 1782 
 
 1834 
 
 1761 
 
 1827 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1794 
 
 
 1768 
 
 1835 
 
 1530 
 
 1581 
 
 (Penn) 1724 
 
 1777 
 
 1799 
 
 1851 
 
 ?) . 1819 
 
 
 . B. C. 1571 B 
 
 c. 1451 
 
 1695 
 
 1755 
 
 1797 
 
 1835 
 
 1814 
 
 
 1793 
 
 
 1785 
 
 186S 
 
64 
 
 THE WORLD'S PEOGKESS. 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Fr. Motte, Cadillac, Ant de la, founder of Detroit , , 
 
 Ger. Moschus, bucolic poet . . . , f. B. 
 
 Amer. Moultrie, Wm., general and stateeman , • 
 
 Mouradgea, D'Ohason, Armenian historian . , 
 
 Amer. Mowatt (Eitchie), Anna Cora, actress and authoress . (a 
 
 Ger. Mozart, C. W. T., eminent composer 
 
 Eng. Mudie, Robert, author of various works on NaturalHistorj', &c, 
 
 Ger. MuUer, C. O., historian, archzeologist classical scholar . 
 
 (Swiss. MuUer, John von, celebrated historian, ' Universal History ' 
 
 Ger. , John, physiologist . . . . 
 
 Ger. Munchhausen, J. C. P,, proverbial for 'stories' . , 
 
 Eng. Mdnden, Jos. S., comedian . . . , 
 
 Fr. Murat, Joachim, intrepid marshal and king of isaples , 
 
 Ital. Muratori, Louis Anthony, historian . , , 
 
 Irish. Murphy, Arthur, dramatist and translator 
 
 Scot. Murray, Alex., self-taught linguist . ■ 
 
 Scot. , Hugh, geographer (Encyclo) 
 
 Scot. , or Moray, Jas. Stuart, earl of, regent . 
 
 Eng. , John, the elder, eminent publisher 
 
 Amer. , Lindley, grammarian . , 
 
 Amer. , Wm., Vans, statesman , • 
 
 Gr. Musaeus, Athenian poet , , , 
 
 Fr, Musset, Louis C. A. de, poet , . 
 
 BOKV. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1660 
 
 1717 
 
 C. 160 
 
 
 1731 
 
 1805 
 
 1740 
 
 1807 
 
 bt) 1826 
 
 
 1756 
 
 1792 
 
 1777 
 
 1842 
 
 1797 
 
 1840 
 
 1752 
 
 1809 
 
 1801 
 
 1858 
 
 1720 
 
 1797 
 
 . 1758 
 
 1832 
 
 1771 
 
 1815 
 
 1672 
 
 1750 
 
 1727 
 
 1805 
 
 . 1775 
 
 1813 
 
 1779 
 
 1846 
 
 1531 
 
 1570 
 
 1778 
 
 1843 
 
 . 1745 
 
 1826 
 
 1761 
 
 1803 
 
 0. 1243 
 
 
 1810 
 
 1857 
 
 N. 
 
 Assyr. 
 
 Assyr, 
 
 Pers. 
 
 Heb. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Pers. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Pera. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Chald. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Kabonassar, first king of the Chaldeans , 
 
 Nabopolassar, king of Babylon 
 
 Nadir Shah, or Thamas Kouli Kahn, warrior and king 
 Nahum, prophet .... 
 
 Napier, Chas. Jas., general in India, &c. 
 
 , John, baron, inventor of logarithms • 
 
 , Sir Charles, admiral . . . 
 
 Napoleon I., (Bonaparte) . . • 
 
 , II., king of Rome, (see Bonaparte) . 
 
 , III., (Louis Napoleon), emperor . . 
 
 Nares, James, musical docto^*, composer . 
 
 , Rev. Edmund, ' Thinks I to m3-self ' 
 
 Narses, warrior in the service of Justinian I., the emperor 
 Narvaez, don Ramon, duke of Valentia, statesman . 
 Nash, Richard, styled ' Beau Nash' . . , 
 
 Nassau, prince Maurice of, able general . , 
 
 Nassir Eddyn, celebrated astronomer . . . 
 
 Navarrete, Martin F. de, ' Collect of Voyages' 
 Neal, Daniel, author of the ' History of the Puritans,' &o 
 
 , John, novelist .... 
 
 , Joseph C, litterateur .... 
 
 Neander, J. W. Augustus, ecclesiastical historian . 
 Neatclius, admiral and voyager . . • 
 Nebuchadnezzar, king of B^ibylon . . • 
 Necker, James, eminent financier and statesman , 
 ^-, Madame J. O., wife of James, essayist • 
 
 fl. B. c. 747 
 
 
 . fl. B. c. 626 
 
 
 1688 
 
 1747 
 
 f. B. C. 
 
 7th cent. 
 
 1782 
 
 1853 
 
 1550 
 
 1617 
 
 1786 
 
 1860 
 
 1769 
 
 1821 
 
 1811 
 
 1832 
 
 1808 
 
 
 1715 
 
 1783 
 
 1762 
 
 1841 
 
 
 567 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1674 
 
 1761 
 
 1567 
 
 1625 
 
 1201 
 
 1274 
 
 1765 
 
 1844 
 
 1678 
 
 1743 
 
 1794 
 
 
 1807 
 
 1848 
 
 1789 
 
 1850 
 
 • B. C. 
 
 4th cent. 
 
 
 B. c. 462 
 
 1732 
 
 1804 
 
 1739 
 
 1794 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 65 
 
 KATIOK. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Heb. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Kom. 
 
 Horn. 
 
 Eom. 
 
 Buss. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Russ. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng.. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Pol. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Er. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Neele, Henry, poet and miftcellaneous writer . • • 
 
 Neff, Felix, apostle of the Alps . . • • 
 
 Nehemiah, governor of Judea . . • , f. b. 
 
 Nelson, Horatio, viscount, celebrated admiral , . 
 
 Nepos, Cornelius, historian . . • • 
 
 Nero, infamous emperor , . • • 
 
 Nerva, emperor ..... 
 
 Nesselrode, Charles R., count, statesman and diplomatist . 
 Nestorius, patriarch af Constantinople, founder of Nestorians 
 Neukomm, Sig.em. chevalier, composer 
 Neuwied, Maximilian, prince of, traveller in North America, &c, 
 Newton, John, Calvinistic divine and writer 
 
 , Sir Isaac, the greatest of philosophers . 
 
 , Thomas, learned prelate, (ou Prophecies) . . 
 
 Ney, Michael, marshal, ' the bravest of the brave * . 
 
 Nicephorus, Greg., Byzantiue historian . . . 
 
 Nicholas 1., emperor, (1825-55) . . . 
 
 Nichols, John Bowyer, printer and archaeologist , . 
 
 Nicholson, Peter, architect and political mechanic 
 
 , William, writer on natural philosophy and chemistry 
 
 Nicklin, P. H., bookseller and miscellaneous writer . 
 Nicolai, Chris. Fred., bookseller and author . . 
 Nicolas, Sir Harris, antiquary . • . • 
 Niebhur, B. G., statesman and historian , , 
 , Carsten, celebrated traveller . . , 
 
 Niemcewiez, Julius U., military commander and author 
 
 Nightingale, Florence, practical philanthropist . . 
 
 NJles, Hezeki ah, journalist 'Register' . . 
 
 Nilston, Sven, zoologist ..... 
 
 Noah, Mordecai M., journa'.ist, politician and author . 
 
 Noehden, G. H., grammarian and miscellaneous writer . 
 
 Nodier, Charles, novelist .... 
 
 Ger. Am. Nordheimer, Hebrew scholar and author 
 Eng. Normanby, C. G. Phipps, marquis of, novelist and statesman 
 Eng. North, Francis, 1st lord Guilford, 'lord keeper' . . 
 
 Eng. — , Frederick, lord, prime minister of George III. . 
 
 Eng. Northcote, James, artist and biographer . , . 
 
 Amer, Norton, Andrews theological. Unitarian authcar . 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Eng. 
 Fr. 
 
 — , Hon. Mrs., poetess 
 
 Nott, Abner Kingman, remarkable Baptist preacher . 
 
 , Ellphalet, D. D., president of Union College and author 
 
 , John, poet and translator 
 
 Novalis, or Fred, von Hardenberg, author . . 
 
 Novello, Vincent, musician (life by Mrs. Clarke) 
 
 Noyes, Wm. Curtis, jurist and patriot . . , 
 
 Nugent, lord, author of ' Life of Hampden,' &c. 
 
 Numa Pompilius, second king of Rome . . f. 
 
 Nunez, Alva C. de Vaca, explorer . . . 
 
 O. 
 
 Gates, Titus, infamous pretender of the ' Popish plot' , 
 Oberlin, John Fred., philanthropist . , . 
 
 5 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1798 
 
 1828 
 
 1798 
 
 1829 
 
 c. 444 
 
 
 1758 
 
 1808 
 
 
 B, 0. 3C 
 
 37 
 
 68 
 
 32 
 
 98 
 
 1780 
 
 1862 
 
 
 489 
 
 1778 
 
 1857 
 
 1782 
 
 
 1725 
 
 1807 
 
 1642 
 
 1727 
 
 1704 
 
 1782 
 
 1769 
 
 1815 
 
 14th cent. 
 
 1796 
 
 1855 
 
 1807 
 
 1863 
 
 1753 
 
 1815 
 
 178-6 
 
 1842 
 
 1733 
 
 1811 
 
 1799 
 
 1848 
 
 1776 
 
 1830 
 
 1733 
 
 1815 
 
 1756 
 
 1841 
 
 1777 
 
 1839 
 
 1787 
 
 
 
 185 L 
 
 1770 
 
 1826 
 
 1783 
 
 1844 
 
 1797 
 
 1863 
 
 1637 
 
 1685 
 
 1732 
 
 1792 
 
 1746 
 
 1837 
 
 1790 
 
 1835 
 
 1834 
 
 1859 
 
 1773 
 
 1866 
 
 1751 
 
 1826 
 
 1772 
 
 1801 
 
 1781 
 
 1861 
 
 1805 
 
 1864 
 
 
 1850 
 
 c. 714 
 
 1619 
 1740 
 
 1564 
 
 1705 
 182€ 
 
66 
 
 THE WOKLD's progress. 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Irish. O'Brien, Fitz-James, poet . . • « 
 
 liish. , Wm. Smith, political agitator • , 
 
 Irish. O'Connell, Daniel, political agitator . , , 
 
 Irish. O'Connor, FergUf=, chariist orator . , • 
 
 Eng. Ockley, Simon, orientalist . , , , 
 
 Arab. Odenatus, warrior, husband of Zenobia . , 
 
 Fr. Odilon-Barrot, C. H., statesman . • • 
 
 Bar. Odoacer, Gothic king of Italy 
 
 Dan. Oersted, Hans Ch., discoverer of electro-magnetism . 
 Eng. Oglethorpe, J. E., founder of Georgia . • 
 
 Irish. O'Keefe, John, dramatist . . • 
 
 Ger. Oken, Louis, naturalist . • • • 
 
 Ger. Olbers, H. W. M., astronomer ... 
 Eng. Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobham . . . 
 
 Amer. Olin, Stephen, D. D., Methodist theologian and author 
 Span. Olivan, don Aless., publicist .... 
 
 Amer. O'msted, Denison, professoi-, astronomer, &c. , 
 
 Ger. Olshausen, Hermann, protestant theologian , . 
 
 Arab. Omar I., caliph, captor of Jerusalem . , 
 
 Irish. O'Meara, Barry, surgeon to Napoleon and author • 
 
 Eng. Onslow, Arthur, speaker House Commons 
 Eng. Opie, Mrs. Amelia, writer on morals and educat|ion . 
 Gr. Oppian, poet ...... 
 
 Dutch. Orange, William I., of Nassau, prince of, founder of Dutch republic 1533 
 
 Dutch. ■, William II., prince of, stadtholder . 
 
 Dutch. , William III., prince of, stadtholder, and king of England 1650 
 
 Span. Orfila, M. J. B., chemist and toxicologist . . 
 
 Origen, one of the fathers of the church . • 
 
 Fr. Orleans, L. J. P., duke of ' Egalite,' guillotined . . 
 
 Fr. , Eer. P. L., duke of, heir of Louis Philippe • 
 
 Euss. Orlofl', Gregory, count, favorite Catherine II. . , 
 
 Eng. Orme, Robert, historian of India .... 
 Eng. Ormond, James Butler, duke of, statesman . . 
 
 Gr. Orpheus, poet, sometimes styled the 'father of poetry' • 
 Irish. Orrery, Charles, 4th earl of, natural philosophy 
 
 Irish. , Roger Boyle, 1st earl of, statesman and author • 
 
 Eng. Orton, Job, dissenting divine and author . , 
 
 Amer. Osgood. Frances, poetess .... 
 
 Amer. } Samuel, D. D., Unitarian divine and author 
 
 Port. Osorio, Jerome, philosopher, historian, and theological writer 
 Scot. Ossian, Gaelic bard, supposed to have lived in the 3d century 
 Egypt. Osymandias, king of Egypt .... 
 
 Amer. Otis, James, patriot and statef^man . . . 
 
 Amer. , Han-ieon Gray, stateemim and jurist . . . 
 
 Ger. Otho I., king of Greece (born in Bavaria) , • 
 
 Eng. Ottley, "Wm. Young, writer on art . , . 
 
 Eng. Otwaj7, celebrated dramatist, ' Venice Preserved' 
 
 Fr. Oudinot, Charles N., marshal of France ... 
 
 Eng, Ouscley, Sir Gore, diplomatist ... 
 
 Ger. Overbcck, Fied., founder of modern religious school of art 
 
 Enif. Overbury, Sir Thos., (poisoned in the Tower) . 
 
 Rom. Ovid, Publius N iso, poet .... 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 
 1862 
 
 1806 
 
 186- 
 
 1775 
 
 1847 
 
 1795 
 
 1855 
 
 1678 
 
 1720 
 
 
 267 
 
 1791 
 
 
 
 493 
 
 1777 
 
 1851 
 
 1698 
 
 1785 
 
 1748 
 
 1833 
 
 1778 
 
 1851 
 
 
 1S40 
 
 1360 
 
 1417 
 
 1797 
 
 1851 
 
 1791 
 
 1859 
 
 1796 
 
 1839 
 
 581 
 
 644 
 
 1778 
 
 1836 
 
 1691 
 
 1768 
 
 1771 
 
 1853 
 
 f. 150 
 
 
 iblio 1533 
 
 15S4 
 
 1626 
 
 1650 
 
 md 1650 
 
 1702 
 
 1787 
 
 
 185 
 
 253 
 
 1747 
 
 1793 
 
 1810 
 
 1842 
 
 1734 
 
 1783 
 
 1728 
 
 1801 
 
 1610 
 
 16S8 
 
 1676 
 
 1731 
 
 1621 
 
 1679 
 
 1717 
 
 1783 
 
 1812 
 
 1850 
 
 . 1812 
 
 
 1502 
 
 1580 
 
 abt.) 1500 
 
 
 1725 
 
 1772 
 
 1767 
 
 1848 
 
 1815 
 
 1867 
 
 17T1 
 
 1836 
 
 1651 
 
 1685 
 
 1767 
 
 1847 
 
 1769 
 
 1844 
 
 1780 
 
 
 1581 
 
 1613 
 
 B. c. 43 
 
 n 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 Q1 
 
 NATION, 
 
 Span. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Welsh. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amor. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Yen. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eag. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital, 
 
 Pruss. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Can. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Russ. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. BORH. 
 
 Oviedo, J. Gr., bishop of, author of ' Voyages in the West Indies ' 
 Owen, David Dale, geologist .... 1807 
 
 , John, independent theologian . • • 1616 
 
 , Richard, surgeon and naturalist . . • 
 
 -, Robert, political theorist 
 
 -, Robert Dale, statesman and author 
 
 Oxford, Horace Walpole, earl of, author • 
 
 P. 
 
 Paine, Elijah, jurist . . • . • 
 
 , Elijah (son of above), jurist . . . 
 
 , John Howard, dramatist, ' Home, Sweet Home ' 
 
 , Robert Ti-eat, lawyer and patriot . . . 
 
 , Robert Treat, son, poet, ... 
 
 , Thomas, political and deistical writer . . 
 
 Paixhim. general, inventor of guns bearing his name . 
 Paez, military commander and president Venezuela . 
 
 Paganini, Nicolo, famous Violinist . , . 
 
 Paley, William, eminent divine and author • . 
 
 Palgrave, Sir Francis, antiquarian author • . 
 
 Palisset de Montenoy, Charles, satirist • . • 
 
 Palissy, Bernard, ' the Potter' . , • 
 
 Palladio. Andrew, architect .... 
 
 Pallas, Peter Simon, traveller and naturalist . . 
 
 Palmerston, Henry Temple, viscount, statesman . , 
 
 Panzer, G. W. F., bibliographer . . . 
 
 Paoli, Pascal, Corsican patriot and general , . 
 
 Papineau, L. J , politician and patriot • • 
 
 Papinian, ^milius, civil lawyer . . , , 
 
 Paracelsus, A. P. T. B. de II., alchemist . . 
 
 Pardoe, Julia, Miss, novelist .... 
 
 Paris, count of, Louis Ph. Al., grandson of Louis Philippe 
 
 , Matthew, liistorian .... 
 
 Park, Mungo, celebrated traveller 
 
 Parlier, Theodore, Unitarian preacher and oriental scholar . 
 
 Parkes, Samuel, chemist a-nd author . 
 
 Parma, Alexender Farnese, duke of, regent of the Netherlands 
 
 Parnell, Thos., poet and divine . . 
 
 Parr, Samuel, learned divine and philologist . . 
 
 , Thomas, lived 152 years . . 
 
 Parry, Capt. Edward, Arctic navigator . . • 
 
 Parsons, Theophilus, jurist .... 
 
 , Theophilus (son), jurist .... 
 
 Parton, James, biographer, historian, and essajist . 
 
 , Mrs. Sarah, 'Fanny Fern,' authoress . • 
 
 Pascal, Blaise, eminent geometrician and writer , 
 
 Paskewitscb, Ivan F., prince of Wai-saw, general . • 
 
 Pasley, Gen. Sir Chas. W., engineer . . , 
 
 Pasquier, Etienne D., count, chancellor of France . 
 Passow, Francis L. C. F., philologist and lexicographer (Greek lex.) 
 Paterculus, Caius Velleius, historian . , (abt.) b. c. 
 
 1771 
 
 1717 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1540 
 1860 
 1683 
 
 1860 
 
 179T 
 
 1757 
 
 1842 
 
 1796 
 
 1853 
 
 1791 
 
 1851 
 
 1731 
 
 1814 
 
 1773 
 
 1811 
 
 1736 
 
 1809 
 
 1782 
 
 1854 
 
 1787 
 
 
 1784 
 
 1835 
 
 1745 
 
 1805 
 
 1788 
 
 1861 
 
 1730 
 
 1815 
 
 1510 
 
 1590 
 
 1518 
 
 1580 
 
 1741 
 
 1811 
 
 1784 
 
 1865 
 
 1729 
 
 1812 
 
 1726 
 
 1806 
 
 1789 
 
 
 145 
 
 212 
 
 1493 
 
 1541 
 
 1812 
 
 1862 
 
 1838 
 
 
 
 1259 
 
 1771 
 
 1804 
 
 1810 
 
 1860 
 
 1759 
 
 1829 
 
 1.546 
 
 1592 
 
 1679 
 
 1717 
 
 1746 
 
 1825 
 
 1483 
 
 1635 
 
 1790 ■ 
 
 1855 
 
 1750 
 
 1813 
 
 1811 
 
 
 1623 
 
 1662 
 
 1782 
 
 1856 
 
 1781 
 
 1861 
 
 1767 
 
 1862 
 
 1786 
 
 1833 
 
 20 
 
 
68 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Patmore, Coventry, poet ...» 
 
 Irish. Patrick, St., apostle of Ireland 
 
 Eng. , Simon, bishop of CMch.ester, Bible commentary 
 
 Paul, Father, (see Sarpi) 
 
 Heb. , St., Apostle to the Gentiles . . , 
 
 Fr. , St. Vincent de, Catholic missionary . 
 
 Amer. Paulding, James Kirke, novelist and essayist . . 
 
 Rom. Paulus-^miliuB, Lucius, fell at Cannae . . 
 
 Gr. Pausiinias, spartan commander . , 
 
 Gr. , toi ographical writer . . , 
 
 Eng. Paxton, Sir Joseph, horticulturist and architect , 
 
 Eng. Payne, Roger, noted book-binder ... , . 
 
 Amer. Payson, Edward, D. D., congregational divine , 
 
 Amer. Peabody, Eliz P., educational writer • , 
 
 Amer. , O. W. B., reviewer and biographer , 
 
 Eng. Peacock, George, dean of Ely, mathematician . 
 
 Eng. Pearson, John, bishop of Ches^ter, ' On the Creed ' 
 
 Port. Pedro, V., king of Portugal, (son of Donna Maria II.) 
 
 Port. • , don, claimant to the throne of Portugal 
 
 Eng. Peel, Sir liobert, It^t baronet, cotton manufacturer . 
 
 Eng, , Sir Robert, 3d baronet, statesman . 
 
 Eng. Peele, George, poet, (Life by Dyce) . 
 
 Brit. Pelagous, monk, founder of a sect . 
 
 Span. Pelayo, first king of Asturias 
 
 Fr. Pelissier, A, J. J., duke of Malakoff, marshal 
 
 Ital. Pellico, Silvio, poet and patriot 
 
 Gr. Pelopidas, illustrious Theban general , 
 
 Fr. Pelouze, Theodore Jules, chemist , 
 
 Eng. Pembroke, Mary Sidney, countess of . 
 
 Eny. Peim, Granville, author 
 
 Eng. ' , William, admiral, father of founder of Pennsylvania 
 
 Eng. , William, founder and legislator of Pennsylvania 
 
 Eng. Pennant, Thomas, naturalist and antiquary 
 
 Ital. Pepi', William Florestan, general . , 
 
 Amer. Pepperell, Sir William, general • , , 
 
 Ital. Pepoli, Charles, litterateur . ' . . • 
 
 Eng. Pepys, Samuel, secretary to Admiralty, author of ' Diary' 
 
 Eng. Perceval, Spencer, prime minister, assassinated . . 
 
 Amer. Percival, James Gates, poet, geologist and critic 
 
 Eng. Percy, Thomas, bishop of Dromore, 'Religious Ant, Poetry' 
 
 Fr. P6refixe, Hardouin de Beaum(mt de, historian 
 
 Eng. Pereirea, Jonathan, M. D., 'Materia Medica' . , 
 
 Ital. Pergolese, John B., musical composer • , 
 
 Gr. Pericles, able Athenian orator and statesman , • 
 
 Amer. Perit, Pelatiah, merchant and philanthropist 
 
 Eng. Perkins, Hugh, eccentric preacher and roundhead (executed) 
 
 Amer. , Jacob, inventor of steam-gun, «&:c. 
 
 Eng. , Thomas H., eminent merchant and philanthropist 
 
 Fr. Perouse, John F. Galanp, circumnavigator • • 
 
 Fr. Perrier, M. Casimir, statesman . . , 
 
 Amer. Perry, Matthew G., commodore, ('Japan') , , 
 
 Amer. , Oliver Hazard, commodore U. S. navy • 
 
 BORN. 
 
 SIEB. 
 
 1823 
 
 
 372 
 
 493 
 
 1G26 
 
 1707 
 
 1552 
 
 1623 
 
 
 65? 
 
 1576 
 
 1609 
 
 . 1779 
 
 1860 
 
 B 
 
 C. 216 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 470 
 
 f. (abt.) 120 
 
 1802 
 
 1865 
 
 1739 
 
 1797 
 
 1783 
 
 1827 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1799 
 
 1848 
 
 
 1858 
 
 1613 
 
 1686 
 
 1837 
 
 1^6- 
 
 
 1834 
 
 1750 
 
 1830 
 
 
 1850 
 
 1552 
 
 1598 
 
 854 
 
 
 
 757 
 
 1794 
 
 1864 
 
 1789 
 
 1854 
 
 B 
 
 c. 364 
 
 1807 
 
 
 
 1621 
 
 1761 
 
 1844 
 
 1621 
 
 1670 
 
 1644 
 
 1718 
 
 1726 
 
 1798 
 
 1780 
 
 1855 
 
 1697 
 
 1759 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1632 
 
 1703 
 
 1762 
 
 1812 
 
 1795 
 
 1857 
 
 1728 
 
 1811 
 
 1605 
 
 1670 
 
 1804 
 
 1853 
 
 1710 
 
 1730 
 
 B. 0. 490 B. c. 4r.9 
 
 1785 
 
 1804 
 
 1599 
 
 1680 
 
 1766 
 
 1849 
 
 1764 
 
 1854 
 
 1741 
 
 1788 
 
 . 1777 
 
 1832 
 
 1795 
 
 1858 
 
 1785 
 
 181f 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 69 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Persigny, Jean Gr. V., politician and diplomatist , , 
 
 Persius, FJaccus Aulua, satirist . - • 
 
 Pertlies, Christian Fredericli, bookseller, (life by son) , 
 
 Pertinax, emperor ..... 
 Pestalozzi, Henry, introducer of a new system of education 
 Peter I., the great, statesman and warrior 
 
 the Hermit, first mover of the crusades , < 
 
 Peters, Hugh, ' fanatic ' . . . , 
 
 Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, earl of, warrior . , 
 
 Petermann, August H., geographer . . • 
 
 Petigrew, James Louis, of S. C, Union statesman . , 
 
 Potion, Alexander, mulatto, president Hayti 
 
 Petrarch, Francis, one of the four greatest of Italian poets 
 
 Peyronnet, Pierre D., count de, minister of Charles X. and historian 1778 
 
 Pfeiffer, Ida, travellei- and author 
 
 Phaedrus, fabulist . . . , • 
 
 Phi]idor,«Andrew, writer on chess . • . 
 
 Philip II., king of Macedon, warrior . , . 
 
 St., of ISTeri, founder of the Oratoiy • • 
 
 Phillimore, JohnGr., author on law , . 
 
 Phillips, Ambrose, poet and dramatist ... 
 
 ' , John, poet ' Splendid Shilling' , , 
 
 , Sir Richard, bookseller and compiler . • 
 
 Philo-Judseus, learned Jewish writer of Alexandria . 
 Philopoemen, celebrated general . . , 
 
 Phipps, Sir William, colonial governor Massachusetts 
 Phocion, eminent Athenian general . . • 
 
 Photius, learned patriarch of Constantinople • 
 
 Physic, Philip Syng, M. D, 
 
 Piazzi, Joseph, astronomer , . , 
 
 Picard, Louis Benedict, dramatist and novelist • • 
 
 Pichegru, Charles, eminent general . . , 
 
 Pickering, Timothy, distinguished statesman . 
 
 , John, philologist . . • , 
 
 Pietet, Benedict, theological and historical writer . 
 
 Pictou, Sir Thomas, general . . , 
 
 Pierce, Franklin, general, 14th. president U. S. • . 
 
 Pilate, Pontius, Roman governor of Judea 
 Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, general and diplomatist . 
 
 , William, distinguished orator and diplomatist 
 
 Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets . . . 
 
 Pinkerton, John, fertile and eccentric author . 
 
 Pinzon, Vincent Yanez, navigator, d".^overed Brazil 
 Piozzi, Hester L., miscellaneous writer, friend of Dr. Johnson 
 Piron, Alexis, poet dramatist, and wit . . . 
 
 Fisistratus, tyrant of Athens . . , , 
 
 Pitkin, Timothy, histerian and statistician , , 
 
 Pitt, Christopher, poet and translator , , 
 
 , William, 1st earl of Chatham, statesman . , 
 
 , William, celebrated statesman, son of Lord Chatham 
 
 Pittacus, of Mitylene, one of the seven sages . , 
 
 Pius IX., pope, (Giov. Mastai Ferretti) , , 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1808 
 
 
 S4 
 
 62 
 
 1772 
 
 1843 
 
 126 
 
 193 
 
 1745 
 
 1827 
 
 1672 
 
 1725 
 
 1050? 
 
 1115 
 
 1599 
 
 1660 
 
 1658 
 
 1735 
 
 1789 
 
 1863 
 
 1770 
 
 1818 
 
 1304 
 
 1374 
 
 fian 1778 
 
 1854 
 
 1795 
 
 1858 
 
 , f. 30 
 
 
 1726 
 
 1795 
 
 B. C. 383 B. 
 
 c. 336 
 
 1515 
 
 1595 
 
 1809 
 
 1885 
 
 
 1749 
 
 1676 
 
 1708 
 
 1768 
 
 1840 
 
 f. A. 
 
 D. 40 
 
 . B. c. 253 B. 
 
 C, 183 
 
 1651 
 
 1695 
 
 B. C. 400 B. 
 
 C. 318 
 
 815 
 
 891 
 
 1768 
 
 1837 
 
 1746 
 
 1826 
 
 1769 
 
 1824 
 
 1761 
 
 1804 
 
 1746 
 
 1829 
 
 1772 
 
 1846 
 
 1655 
 
 1724 
 
 
 1815 
 
 1804 
 
 
 
 38? 
 
 
 1825 
 
 1765 
 
 1822 
 
 B. c. 522 B. 
 
 c. 442 
 
 1758 
 
 1826 
 
 f. 1500 
 
 
 1789 
 
 1821 
 
 1689 
 
 1773 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 527 
 
 1765 
 
 1847 
 
 1699 
 
 J 748 
 
 1708 
 
 1778 
 
 1759 
 
 1806 
 
 B, C. 650 B, 
 
 . C 570 
 
 1792 
 
 
70 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Span. PIzarro, Francis, conqueror of Peru . , 
 
 Eng. Platoclie, James R., dramatist aud miscellaaeons writer 
 
 Gr. Plato, illustrious philosoplier, founder of the Academic sect 
 
 Rom. Plautus, comic poet .... 
 
 Eng. Playfair, John, eminent mathematician and natural philosopher 
 
 Eng. , Lyon, chemist, (born in Bengal) . . 
 
 Eom. Plinj", the elder, or C. P. Secundus, author of natujral history 
 
 Rom. , the younger, warrior and author 
 
 Egypt. Plotinus, Platonic philosopher . . . • 
 
 Irish. Plunki't, W. C, lord chancellor of Ireland • • 
 
 Gr. Plutarch, celebrated biographer . • • 
 
 Ind. Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan, of Va. , • 
 
 Eng. Pocock, D. E., learned critic and commentator . • 
 
 Eng. ■ — , D. R., learned prelate and traveller . , 
 
 Amer. Poe, Edgar A., poet, critic and novelist . . • 
 
 Ger. Poggendorf, John Chris., physicist and chemist . 
 
 Amer. Poinsett, Joel R., statesman, diplomatist, and author • 
 
 Fr, Poisson, D. S,., mathematician . . . 
 
 Eng. Pole, Reginald, cardinal archbishop of Canterbury , 
 
 Fr. Polignac, J. A. M., prince, minister of Charles X. • 
 
 Fr. r — , Melchior de, cardinal and statesman , • 
 
 Amer. Polk, Jas. Knox, president U. S. . ' . • 
 
 Amer. : Leonidas, Bp. of La., and rebel general . , 
 
 Eng. PoUok, Robt., poet, ' Course of Time ' . , 
 
 Ital. Polo, Marco, celebrated Venetian traveller . , 
 
 Gr. Polybius, eminent historian 
 
 Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, Christian martyr and author . 
 
 Port. Pombal, Seb., marquis of, statesmaa . 
 
 Eng. Pomfret, John, poet . . . . 
 
 Fr. Pompadour, J. A. P., Marchioness of . 
 
 Rom. Pompey, Cneus, statesman and wan-ior . (' The Great.') 
 
 Span. Ponce de Leon, discoverer of America 
 
 Pol. Poniatowski, Joseph, prince, general, marshal of France , 
 
 Pol. , Stanislaus Aug., last king of Poland. 
 
 Ind. Pontiac, Indian chief . . . . • 
 
 Eng. Poole, John, author of ' Paul Pry,' &c. . , 
 
 Eng. , Matthew, able divine and author . . . 
 
 Eng. Pope, Alexander, celebrated poet 
 
 Amer. , John, Union general, com. army Potomac aud 4th mil. dist, 
 
 Porphyry, Platonic philosopher . . . 
 
 Eng. Porson, Richard, eminent hellenist and critic • 
 
 Ital. Porta, John Baptist, natural philosopher . , 
 
 Eng. Porter, Anna Maria, novelist . . , 
 
 Amer. , David, commodore, U. S. Navy • • 
 
 Amer. ■ , David D., rear-admiral . . , 
 
 Eng. > Jane, novelist, .... 
 
 ■Eng. , Sir Robert Kei-, author of ' Travels,' &c. « 
 
 Eng. Porteus, Beilby, eminent prelate 
 
 Amer. Potter, Alonzo, D. D., epis. bp. of Pennsylvania,, and educa^ 
 
 tional author .... 
 
 ^mer. ■■ Horatio, D. D., episc. bishop of New York • 
 
 Eng. , John, archbishop of Canterbury, ' Gr. Antiq.» 
 
 BOKN. 
 
 3>IKI\ 
 
 1475 
 
 1541 
 
 1796 
 
 
 B. 0. 4S0 
 
 B. c. 317 
 
 B. c. 227 
 
 B. c. 184 
 
 3r 1749 
 
 1819 
 
 1819 
 
 
 23 
 
 79 
 
 61 
 
 115 
 
 203 
 
 270 
 
 1765 
 
 1854 
 
 50 
 
 120 
 
 
 1617 
 
 1604 
 
 1691 
 
 1704 
 
 1765 
 
 1811 
 
 1856 
 
 1796 
 
 
 • 1778 
 
 18.51 
 
 1781 
 
 1840 
 
 1500 
 
 1558 
 
 1780 
 
 1817 
 
 1611 
 
 1741 
 
 1795 
 
 1849 
 
 1806 
 
 1864 
 
 . ■ 1799 
 
 1827 
 
 1250 
 
 1323 
 
 B, c. 205 
 
 B. c. 123 
 
 
 169 
 
 1699 
 
 1782 
 
 1667 
 
 1703 
 
 1772 
 
 1764 
 
 B. 0. 106 
 
 B. c. 48 
 
 1460 
 
 1521 
 
 1763 
 
 1813 
 
 1782 
 
 1798 
 
 1712 
 
 1769 
 
 1624 
 
 1779 
 
 1688 
 
 1744 
 
 t. 1823 
 
 
 233 
 
 304 
 
 1759 
 
 1808 
 
 1540 
 
 16)6 
 
 1781 
 
 1832 
 
 1780 
 
 1843 
 
 1776 
 
 1850 
 
 1780 
 
 1842 
 
 1731 
 
 18G8 
 
 1800 
 
 1863 
 
 • 
 
 1674 
 
 1747 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 KATION. NAME AND PKOFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Potter, Robert, divine, poet, and translator , 
 
 Eng. Pottcnger, Sir Henry, diplomatist . . ;'•[— 
 
 Irish. Power, Tyrone, comic actor . , , • . 
 
 Euss. Pozzo di Borgo, diplomatist , , , i -"" 
 
 Eng. Praedj Winthrop Mackworth, poet ... 
 
 Amei'. Pr;\dt, Abbe Dominique de, political -writer . . ^ 
 
 Amer. Preble, Edward, commodore in tbe U. S. Navy 
 
 Amer. Prentiss, Sargent 8 , lawyer and politician, famed for eloquenc 
 
 Amer. Prescott, Wm. Hickling, historian . . . '\/> 
 
 Amer. Preston, Wm. C, U. S. senator for South Carolina 
 
 Eng. Price, Dr. R., writer on civil liberty 
 
 Eng. , Sir Uvedaie, writer on the Picturesque 
 
 Eng. Prideaux, Humphrey, learned divine. . 
 
 Ger. Priessnitz, Vincent, founder of Hydropathy 
 
 Eng. Priestley, Joseph, eminent philosopher and writer 
 
 Amer. Prince, Rev. Thos., historian of IST. England 
 
 Eng. Pringle, Thos., poet and traveller . , 
 
 Eng. Prinsep, Chas. R., political economist . 
 
 Eng, Prior, Mathew, poet and statesman . . , 
 
 Eng. Pritchard, J, C, ethnologist, 'Natural History of Man' . 
 
 Rom. Probus, Marcus Aurelius, emperor 
 
 Ital. Procida, John of, patriot . • . . 
 
 G-r. Proclus, a Platonic philosopher • • . 
 
 ProcopiuB, historian . . . • • 
 
 Rom. , Anthemius, emperor . • , 
 
 Eng. Proctor, Miss Adelaide A., poetess . . • 
 
 Eng. , B-ryan "W. (' Barry Cornwall '), poet and critic 
 
 Rom. Propertius, Sextus Aureliue, poet . . . 
 
 Pr. Proudhon, Pierre Jos., political theorist and socialist . 
 
 Eng. Prynne, learned lawyer, political writer, and antiquary , 
 
 Fr. Psalmanazar, G-eorge, literary impostor 
 
 Egypt, Ptolemy, Claudius, eminent astronomer and geographer . 
 
 Ger. Puckler-Muskau, H. L. H., prince of, author of Travels, «Sz;c, 
 
 Ger. Puffendorf, Samuel, baron de, publicist and historian 
 
 Eng. Pugin, Augs. "Welby, architectural writer . , 
 
 Pole. Pulaski, Casimir, count, genl. in the U. S. service , . 
 
 Ital. Piilci, Louis, poet ..... 
 
 Hung. Pulszky, Franz, politician and author ' . . , 
 
 Eng. Purcell, Henry, musical composer . • . 
 
 Eng. , Thos., musical composer . " . . . 
 
 Eng. Pnrchas, divine, editor of Voyages and Pilgrimage • 
 
 Amer. Pureh, Fred., botanist . . . . , 
 
 Eng. Pusey, Edward Bour, D.D., fotinder of ' Puseyites ' 
 
 Amer. Putnam, Israel, distinguished officer in the Revolution . 
 
 Amer. , Rufus, pioneer settler of Ohio 
 
 Eng. Puttenham, George, poet and critic, 'Art of Eng. Poesie' . 
 
 Eng. Pye, Henry James, poet laureate . . . 
 
 Eng. Pym, John, republican politician . . , , 
 
 Amer. Pynchon,"W"m., founder of Springfield, Ma^B. , 
 
 Gr. Pyrrho, philosopher, founder of Sceptic Sect , 
 
 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus . . • • 
 
 Gr. Pythagoras, celebrated philosopher ■ , , . b. o. 586 
 
 /DIEI> V 
 
 B.C. 12 
 
 1865 
 1669 
 1763 
 
 1794 
 1852 
 1779 
 1487 
 
12 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 NAliON. 
 
 Eng-. 
 Eng. 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Belg. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 Fr 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Aust. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Hind. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Heb. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 PrusB. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 NAME AND PKOFESSION. 
 
 Quain, Jones, M. D., anatoraiBt . . 
 
 Quarles, Francis, poet, author of 'Emblems' . 
 
 Quatremere, E. M., orientalist . • 
 
 Quekett, John, microscopist . • • 
 
 Quesne, Abraham du, admiral , , , 
 
 Quesnel, Peter, 'History of Jesuits' . • 
 
 Quetelet, L. A., mathematician and statistician , 
 
 Quevedo de Villegas, Francis, poet . . 
 
 Quin, James, actor . . . . • 
 
 Quinault, Philip, lyrical dramatist 
 Qaincy, Josiah ex-pres. Harvard Univ., and author 
 
 , Josiah, Jr., ex-mayor of Boston, and financier 
 
 Quinet, Edgar, litterateur 
 
 Quintana, Jose Manuel de, poet and historian . 
 
 Quintilian, Marcus Fabius, celebrated orator 
 Quintus-Curtius, historian . 
 
 f. time Vespasian 
 
 Quitman, John A., general and gov. of Mississsipi . 
 
 R 
 
 Rabelais, Francis, wit and satirist . • ■ 
 
 Racine, John, eminent dramiitist , , 
 
 Rachel, Eliza Raciiel Felix, actress . . 
 
 Radcliffe, Anne, romance writer, ' Mysteries of TJdolpho' 
 Radetzky, Joseph, count, commander m Italy 
 Raffles, Rev. Thos., independent minister and collector 
 
 , Sir Thos. Stamford, author of ' History of Java,'' &c 
 
 Eafinesque, S. C. J., botanist 
 
 Rafn, C. C, historian and antiquary . 
 
 Raglan, J. H.F^ilzroy Somerset, lord, general in Crimea 
 
 Raguet, Condy, political economist . 
 
 Raikes, Robt, printer, founder of ' Sunday schools » 
 
 Raleigh or Ralegh, Sir "Walter, ' a man illustrious in arms 
 
 literature' ... 
 Rammohun, Roy, philanthropist • . 
 
 Ramsay, Allan, poet . *. • 
 
 — , David, historian . . • 
 
 Eamus'o, John Bapt, ' Collect, of Voyages' 
 Randolph, John, of Roanoke, eccentric statesman 
 
 , Peyton, first president of Congress 
 
 Ranke, Leopold, historian . . . 
 
 Raoul, Rochette, archseologist and traveller 
 Raphall, Morris J., learned rabbi and preacher 
 Rapin de Thoyras, author of ' History of England 
 Rapp, Geo., founder of ' Sect of Harmonists . 
 Rask, E. C, philologist and lexicographer 
 Raspail, F. V., chemist and radical statesman 
 Ranch, Fred. A., metaphysician 
 Raumer, Fred. L. G. von, historian . • 
 
 Rawle, William, jurist . . . 
 
 and 
 
 BOEN. 
 
 1592 
 
 3 78-2 
 1815 
 1610 
 1699 
 1796 
 1580 
 1693 
 1635 
 1772 
 1802 
 1803 
 1772 
 42 
 
 1799 
 
 1483 
 1589 
 1820 
 
 1764 
 1766 
 1788 
 1781 
 1784 
 1795 
 1788 
 1784 
 1785 
 
 1552 
 1776 
 1685 
 1749 
 1485 
 1773 
 1723 
 1795 
 1790 
 1798 
 1661 
 1770 
 1784 
 1794 
 1806 
 1781 
 1759 
 
 DIED. 
 
 186& 
 1644 
 1857 
 1861 
 1688 
 1774 
 
 1645 
 1766 
 
 1668 
 1S64 
 
 1857 
 
 122 
 
 1st Cent. 
 
 1858 
 
 1553 
 1699 
 
 1858 
 1823 
 
 1858 
 1863 
 1826 
 1842 
 
 1855 
 1842 
 1811 
 
 1618 
 1833 
 1758 
 1812 
 1557 
 1833 
 1775 
 
 1725 
 1847 
 1832 
 
 1841 
 
 1836 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 73 
 
 KATION, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 IrislL 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bcot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Turk. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eiig. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Span,: 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Rawllnson, Sir Henry C, geographer and orientalist . 
 Eay, John, naturalist and author . . . 
 
 Raynal, 'WiUiam Thomas Francis, historian and philosopher 
 Reach, Angus B., journalist and author . • , 
 
 Read, Geo. Campbell, admiral . • . 
 
 Reade, Charles, novelist . . , , , 
 
 Recamier, Mme Jane F. A. . . , • 
 
 Redding, Cyrus, journalist and author . • . 
 
 Redfield, William C., meteorologist . , , 
 
 Red Jacket, Thaj^endanega, Indian Chief . , . 
 
 Reed, Henry, metaphysician and essayist . . 
 
 , Isaac, critic and editor .... 
 
 -, Joseph, general in revolution ... 
 
 , "Wm.B., politician and author • . • 
 
 Rees, Dr. Abraham, editor of an encyclopaedia &g, . 
 Reeve, Clara, novelist, 'Old English Baron' * . 
 
 , John, comic actor . . ■ • 
 
 , Lovell A., conchologist and publisher , • 
 
 Eegnard, John Francis, comic writer • • 
 
 Regnault, Henry Vict., chemist . . . . 
 
 Reichenbach, Charles, baron de, naturalist . . 
 
 Reid, Capt. Mayne, novelist .... 
 
 , Col., Sir Wm., engineer andmetereologist, ' Use of Storms 
 
 , Samuel 0., naval commander . . . 
 
 , Thomas, celebrated metaphysician ... 
 
 Reinhard, Francis Y., (founder of Christ.) . , 
 
 Remu&at, J. P. A., historian and linguist . , • 
 
 Rene, duke of Anjou, king of Sicily . , . 
 
 Rennel, Major J., geographer and traveller • , 
 
 Rennie, John, eminent engineer and architect • 
 
 Reno, Jesse L., general in Union army . , , 
 
 Repton, Humphrey, landscape gardener . , 
 
 Reschid Pasha, statesman, premier of Turkey . . 
 
 Retz, John F. P., de Gondi, cardinal de, minister of Louis XV. 
 Retzsch, Fred., A. M., printer and designer . , 
 
 Reynolds, John F., Union general, killed at Gettysburg 
 Ricardo, David, writer on political economy and finance . 
 
 , Joseph Lewis, (on International law) • 
 
 Ricaut, Sir Paul, traveller and historian . * , 
 Rich, Obadiah, bibliographer . , • 
 
 Richard I, Coeur de Lion, king of England • • 
 
 Ill, king, killed at Bosworth • 
 
 Richardson, Charles, philologist (Ens:. Diet.) . . 
 
 , James, traveller in Africa . , 
 
 , Samuel, emineut novelist . , , 
 
 -, Sir John, naturalist and Arctic explorer 
 
 Richelien, A. J., du Plessis, cardinal and duke, statesman 
 Richter, John Paul Frederick, novelist &c. , 
 
 Ridley, Nicholas, bishop and prot. martyr , , 
 
 Riego y Nunez, Raphael de, patriot . • , 
 
 Rienzi, Nicholas Gabrino de, political reformer • 
 
 Ristori, Adelaide, actress . . • ; 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1628 
 
 1705 
 
 1713 
 
 1796 
 
 1821 
 
 
 
 1862 
 
 1777 
 
 1849 
 
 1785 
 
 
 1789 
 
 1857 
 
 1759? 
 
 1830 
 
 1808 
 
 1854 
 
 1742 
 
 1807 
 
 1748 
 
 1785 
 
 1743 
 
 1825 
 
 1723 
 
 1803 
 
 1799 
 
 1838 
 
 1814 
 
 1865 
 
 1647 
 
 1709 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1788 
 
 
 1818 
 
 
 i' 1791 
 
 1858 
 
 1783 
 
 1861 
 
 1710 
 
 1796 
 
 1753 
 
 1812 
 
 1788 
 
 1832 
 
 1409 
 
 14S0 
 
 1742 
 
 1830 
 
 1761 
 
 1821 
 
 1825 
 
 1862 
 
 1752 
 
 1818 
 
 1802 
 
 1858 
 
 1614 
 
 1679 
 
 1779 
 
 1859 
 
 1820 
 
 1863 
 
 1772 
 
 1823 
 
 1812 
 
 1862 
 
 
 170) 
 
 
 1850 
 
 1157 
 
 1199 
 
 1450 
 
 1485 
 
 1775 
 
 18fi5 
 
 
 1851 
 
 1689 
 
 1761 
 
 1787 
 
 1805 
 
 1585 
 
 1642 
 
 1763 
 
 1825 
 
 1500 
 
 1555 
 
 1783 
 
 1825 
 
 1313 
 
 135 i 
 
 1821 
 
 
u 
 
 THE world's PEOGRESS. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Amor. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Bcot. 
 
 Scot 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Er. 
 
 Er . 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Er. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ital. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 Ital. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Ritchie, lieitch, journalist and author . • 
 
 Ritchie, Thomas, journalist, ♦ Richmond Enquirer ' • 
 
 Ritson, Joseph, lawyer, antiquary and critic . • 
 
 Rittenhouse, David, philosopher and astronomer . • 
 
 Ritter, Aug, H., 'History of Philosophy' . • 
 
 , Charlesj geographer . . . • 
 
 Rivae, Angel de Saavedra, duke of, soldier, statesman, poet 
 Rives, M, C. (of Va.) statesman and diplomatist 
 Rives, John C, journalist, ' Washington Glohe ' . 
 Riviugton, Jas., royalist printer /of N. Y. • • 
 Roberts, David, landscape painter and author . 
 Kobertson, William, celebrated historian . . 
 Robespierre, F. M. J. L., ' the terrorist' of the revolution 
 Robinson, Edward D. D., biblical geographer and philologist 
 Rob Roy (Robert Macgregor) highland freebooter . (abt) 
 Rochambeau. J. B. D., count de, marshal , 
 Rochefoucauld-Li ancourt, F. A. F., duke de la • 
 Rochejacquelin, H. de la, royalist leader . • 
 Rodgers, John, commodore U. S. navy . • 
 Rodney, Geo. Brydges, lord, able admiral • 
 Roebuck, John Arthur, statesman . . , 
 Rogers, Henry, theologian and critic . . 
 , Henry DarAvin, naturalist, professor in Glasgow 
 
 —, Samuel, poet 
 
 Roget, Peter Mark, physiologist and philologist 
 Roland de la Platriere, J. M., revolutionist and author 
 
 , M.J. P., Madame, martyr of the revolution . 
 
 Rollin, Charles, celebrated historian _ . , 
 
 Romaine, "William, divine and author . • • 
 
 Romilly, Sir Samuel, jurist and statesman • 
 
 Romulus, founder and first king of Rome , • 
 
 Ronge, Johannes, educational and religious reformer 
 
 RooJie, Sir George, admiral .... 
 
 Rosa, don Francisco Martinez de la, statesman, poet, historian &c. 
 
 Rosas, don Juan, Manuel de, ruler of Buenos Ayres . 
 
 Roscius Quintus, actor of proverbial talent 
 
 Roscoe, Henry, biographer . ' . . . 
 
 , William, biographer and miscellaneous writer 
 
 Roscommon, Dillon Wentworth, earl of, poet . , 
 
 Rose, Gustavo, chemist .... 
 
 , Hugh James, ' Biograph. Diet.' . 
 
 , Wm. Stuart, translator of Ariosto . . 
 
 Rosellini, Hypolito, author of ' Monuments of Egypt,' &c, 
 
 Rosecrans, W. S., gen. in Union army . 
 
 Rosenkranz, Jonas K. F., metaphysician and professor of phil 
 
 osophy ..... 
 
 RosenmuUer, E. F. C, orientalist . . , 
 
 Rosetti, Gabriele, poet, artist and critic . • 
 
 Ross, Admiral Sir John, Arctic navigator • • 
 
 , Sir James Clark, Arctic explorer . , 
 
 Rosse, Wm. Parsons, earl of, astronomer • • 
 
 Rossini, Joachim, musical composer • • 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 . 1800 
 
 1865 
 
 1778 
 
 1854 
 
 1752 
 
 1803 
 
 1731 
 
 1796 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1779 
 
 1859 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1796 
 
 1864 
 
 1724 
 
 1802 
 
 1796 
 
 1864 
 
 1721 
 
 1793 
 
 1759 
 
 1794 
 
 1794 
 
 1864 
 
 
 1763 
 
 1725 
 
 1807 
 
 1747 
 
 1827 
 
 1773 
 
 1794 
 
 1771 
 
 1838 
 
 1717 
 
 1792 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1806 
 
 
 1763 
 
 1855 
 
 1779 
 
 
 1733 
 
 1793 
 
 1754 
 
 1793 
 
 1661 
 
 1741 
 
 . 1714 
 
 1795 
 
 "1757 
 
 1818 
 
 • B 
 
 c. 716 
 
 1813 
 
 
 1650 
 
 1708 
 
 .0. 1789 
 
 
 1793 
 
 
 B. 
 
 C. CI 
 
 1800 
 
 1836 
 
 1751 
 
 1831 
 
 1C33 
 
 1684 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1795 
 
 1838 
 
 1775 
 
 1843 
 
 1800 
 
 1843 
 
 1819 
 1 
 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1768 
 
 1835 
 
 1783 
 
 1854 
 
 . 1777 
 
 1856 
 
 1800 
 
 1862 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1792 
 
 
BIOGEAPHICAi INDEX. *I& 
 
 KATIOIT. KAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Ger.Jw.Eothschild, Meyer Anselm, founder of the great banking-house 
 
 — , Anselm at Fraiikfort, Nathan at London (d 1S36) and 
 
 Solomon, sons of Mej'er Anselm Eothschild . , 
 
 Qer. Rotteck, Ohas. "W. E.. von, historian .... 
 
 Fv. Rousseau, John Baptist, poet , . , , 
 
 Fr. , John James, eloquent and paradoxical writer • 
 
 Eijg. Rowe, Nicholas, poet laureate and dramatist . , 
 
 Itah Rubini, Jno, Bajitist, tenor vocalist . , , , 
 
 Ger. Ruckert, Frederick, poet .... 
 
 Amer. Rumfoi'd, Benjamin Thompson, couiit,ofB.cer (in foreign service) and 
 
 philosopher . . « . . 
 
 Amer. Rumsey, James, inventor • • . . , 
 
 Ger. Ruper»t, prince, warrior . • , . . 
 
 Amer. Euschenberger, W. S. W., author of voyages and scientific works 
 
 Amer. Rush, Richard, diplomatist , . • , 
 
 Eng. Rushworth J"ohn, 'Historical Collections ' • • • 
 
 Amer. Rusk, Thos, J-, U. S. senator from Texas • • , 
 
 Eng. Buskin, John, writer on art ..... 
 
 Eng. Eussel, Lady Rachel (wife of lord Wm.), author of ' Letters* 
 
 Eng. , Lord "Williani, one of the m.artyrfl of liberty . , 
 
 Scot. Russell, John Scott, engineer, builder of ' Great Eastern ' . 
 
 Eng. , Lord John, now Earl Russell, statesman and author , 
 
 Scot. , William, historian of modern Europe . • 
 
 Irish. ■ , William H., Times correspondent and author • • 
 
 Amer. Rut ledge, IFJdvvai-d, statesman . . , , 
 
 Amer. , John (brother of above), statesman . • , 
 
 Dutch. Ruyter, M. A. de, admiral . • • • 
 
 Eng. Bymer, Thomas, antiquary, * Federa ' • • • 
 
 S. 
 
 Eng. Sabine, Major-General Edward, physicist • • . 
 
 Eng. Sacheverell, Henry, tory divine, impeached for sedition « 
 
 Fr. Sacy, Louis Isaac, Jansenist, translator of Bible . • 
 
 Fr. , Sylvester, baron de, orientalist . . • 
 
 Pers. Sadi, or Saadi, poet ...,,, 
 
 Eng. Sadler, Sir Ralph, diplomatist and historian • . 
 
 Turk. Said Pasha Mohammed, viceroy of Egypt • • , 
 
 Fr. Saint- Arnaud, J. A. Leroy de, marshal , • , 
 
 Amer. St, Clair, Arthur, general in Revolution , , , 
 
 Fi% St. Hilaire,. Auguste de, botanist . . , , 
 
 Fr. , Geoff. S., naturalist and anatomist . • 
 
 Fr. St. Pierre, Bernardin de, author of 'Paul and Virginia,' &c. 
 
 ItaL St. Real, Caesar Vichard abbi de, historian . . . 
 
 Fr. St. Simon, Claudius, count de, philosopher , , 
 
 Eng. St. Vincent, John Jervis, earl of, admiral • • . 
 
 Fr. Saintine, Xavier B., writer of tales . , • 
 
 Eng. Sala, Geo. Augustus, journalist and author , . . 
 
 8ar. Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria, celebrated warrior • 
 
 Eng. Sales, George, historian and translator of the Koran . . 
 
 Eng. Salisbury, Robert Cecil, earl of, statesman • • 
 
 Bom. Sallust, Caius Crispus, historian • , , f. b. c. 86 b. c. 25 
 
 CRN. 
 
 HIKTK 
 
 1780 
 
 1821 
 
 177S 
 
 1840 
 
 1670 
 
 1741 
 
 1712 
 
 1778 
 
 1673 
 
 1718 
 
 1795 
 
 1854 
 
 1789 
 1 
 
 
 L 
 
 1763 
 
 1814 
 
 1743 
 
 1792 
 
 1613 
 
 1682 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1780 
 
 
 1607 
 
 1690 
 
 1803 
 
 1857 
 
 1819 
 
 
 1636 
 
 1723 
 
 1641 
 
 1683 
 
 1808 
 
 
 1792 
 
 
 1746 
 
 1794 
 
 1821 
 
 
 1749 
 
 1800 
 
 1739 
 
 1800 
 
 1607 
 
 1679 
 
 1713 
 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1672 
 
 1724 
 
 1613 
 
 1684 
 
 1758 
 
 183S 
 
 1175 
 
 1296 
 
 1567 
 
 1587 
 
 1822 
 
 1863 
 
 1798 
 
 1854 
 
 1735 
 
 1813 
 
 1799 
 
 1861 
 
 1772 
 
 1844 
 
 1736 
 
 1814 
 
 1639 
 
 16S3 
 
 1760 
 
 1823 
 
 1734 
 
 1823 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1827 
 
 
 1137 
 
 1193 
 
 1680 
 
 1736 
 
 1550 
 
 1613 
 
76 
 
 THE WORLD'S PEOGKESS- 
 
 NA'^ION. HAME AND PROFESSION, 
 
 Fr, Salmaeius, Claudius, scholar and author • • 
 
 Fr. Sal van dy, N, A., comfce de, statesman . , , 
 
 Fr. Salvcrte, miscellaneous writer . , • 
 
 Heb. Samson, judge of Israel . . • • 
 
 Heb. Samuel, last judge of Israel . • * 
 
 Phce, Sanconi.itho, philosopher and historian . • 
 
 Fr. Sand, George (Madame Dudevant), novelist • 
 
 Amer. Sanderson, John, litterateur . . , ■, 
 
 Amex'. Sands, Robt. C, poet and litterateur . . 
 
 Eng. Sandwich, Edward Montague, earl of, naval officer . 
 
 Fr. Sanson, Nicholas, geographer and engineer 
 
 Mex. Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, general and ex-president 
 
 Gr. Sappho, poetess . . . , 
 
 Chald. Sardanapalus, king of Nineveh 
 
 Ital. Sarpi, Peter, better known as Father Paul, patriot and historian 
 
 Heb. Saul, 1st king of Israel .... 
 
 Fr. Sauley, Louis F, J., count de, antiquarian , 
 
 Fr. Saumarez, James, lord de, admiral . . • 
 
 Fr. Saurin, divine and sermon-writer . . . 
 
 Fr. Saussure, H. B. de, naturalist and traveller . , 
 
 Fr. , Nich. Theo. de, chemist, geologist, «fcc. , 
 
 Eng. Savage, Richard, poet .... 
 
 Fr. Savary, Nicholas, 'Life of Mahomet,' ' Letters lOn Egypt' 
 
 Ger, Savigny, Fred. C. von, historian of Roman law 
 
 Ital. Savonarola, Jerome, monk, faraed for zeal and eloquence 
 
 Pole-Fr. Saxe, Maurice, count de, celebrated general in the French service 
 
 Ger. Saxe-Weimar, Bernard, duke of, warrior 
 
 Dan. Saxo-Grammaticus, historian . . 
 
 Fr. Say, Horace Emile, political economist, son of J. B. Say 
 
 Fr. — , Jean Baptiste, writer on political economy , 
 
 Amer. — , Thomas, naturalist .... 
 
 ItaL Scaliger, Joseph Justus, critic and historian 
 
 Ital. , Julius Caesar, learned critic . 
 
 Scandenl^erg (real name Geo. Castriot), Albanian prince and warrior 1404 
 
 Ger. Scapula, John, lexicographer . . . 
 
 Eng. Scarlett, James, Ist lord Abinger, jtjrist . , 
 
 Fr. Scarron, P., comic poet and satirist . , , 
 
 Ger. Schadow, Julien Gottfried, sculptor . , 
 
 Swe. Scheele, Charles Wm., eminent chemist . • 
 
 Ger. Schelling, Fred. Aiigs., novelist . . , 
 
 Ger. , Fred. W. J., philosopher . . . 
 
 Amer. Schenck, Robert C. statesman and general, (Ohio) . 
 
 Pruss. Schill, Ferdinand von, intrepid and patriotic officer 
 
 Ger. Schiller, John Fredeiic C.,- eminent historian and dramatist 
 
 Schimmelpenninck, Mary A., ' Mem, Port Royal' 
 
 Ger. Schlegel, A. W. vor., ciitic and essayist 
 
 Ger. , Fred. C. W. von, critic and historian 
 
 Ger. Schliermacher, F. D. E., classical philologist and theologian 
 
 Ger. Scblosser, M. S. F., historian . . . 
 
 Ger. Schmidt, Michael Ignatius, historian . • , 
 
 Amer. Schofield, major-general and governor Virginia • • 
 
 Ger. Soholl, historian . . . . , , 1766 
 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 • 
 
 1588 
 
 1653 
 
 • 
 
 1795 
 
 1858 
 
 • 
 
 1771 
 
 1839 
 
 , 
 
 B. c. 12th Cent. 
 
 • 
 
 B. c. nth 
 
 Cent. 
 
 , 
 
 f. B. c 
 
 . 760 
 
 • 
 
 1804 
 
 
 . 
 
 1785 
 
 1844 
 
 , 
 
 1790 
 
 1832 
 
 • 
 
 1623 
 
 1672 
 
 , 
 
 1600 
 
 1667 
 
 • 
 
 1798 
 
 
 f. B. 
 
 C. 606 
 
 
 , 
 
 B. C. 
 
 876? 
 
 orian 
 
 1522 
 
 1623 
 
 • • 
 
 B. C 
 
 1807 
 
 . 1055 
 
 , 
 
 1757 
 
 1836 
 
 • 
 
 1677 
 
 .1730 
 
 . 
 
 1740 
 
 1799 
 
 , 
 
 1767 
 
 1845 
 
 • 
 
 1697 
 
 1743 
 
 , 
 
 1750 
 
 1788 
 
 , 
 
 1779 
 
 1861 
 
 . 
 
 1452 
 
 1498 
 
 service 1696 
 
 1750 
 
 . 
 
 1600 
 
 1639 
 
 „ 
 
 1134 
 
 12C8 
 
 . 
 
 1794 
 
 
 . 
 
 1767 
 
 1832 
 
 . 
 
 1787 
 
 18i4 
 
 . 
 
 1540 
 
 1C09 
 
 . 
 
 1484 
 
 1558 
 
 warrior 1404 
 
 1467 
 
 . 
 
 1540 
 
 1600 
 
 . 
 
 1769 
 
 1844 
 
 • 
 
 1610 
 
 1660 
 
 • 
 
 1764 
 
 
 , 
 
 1742 
 
 1786 
 
 . 
 
 1763 
 
 1839 
 
 • 
 
 1775 
 
 1854 
 
 . 
 
 1773 
 
 1809 
 
 
 1759 
 
 1805 
 
 . 
 
 1778 
 
 1856 
 
 . 
 
 1767 
 
 1845 
 
 . 
 
 1772 
 
 1829 
 
 
 176S 
 
 1834 
 
 . 
 
 1776 
 
 1861 
 
 , 
 
 1736 
 
 1794 
 
 ISSS 
 
BIOGKAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 n 
 
 ITATIOK. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eom. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Dutch.- 
 
 Am.er. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Soot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Chald. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Kng. 
 
 NAME AND PKOFESSION. BOKN. DIED. 
 
 fechomherg, Armand Frederick, -warrior . • . 1619 1690 
 
 Schomburgk, Sir Robert H., naturalist and traveller . 1801 1865 
 
 Schoolcraft, Henry R., traveller and historian of the Indians 1793 1864 
 
 Schopenhauer, J. F., novelist .... 1770 1838 
 
 Schrevelius, Cornelius, lexicographer . , . 1615 1667 
 
 SchuUembourg, John Matthias, warrior • , . 1661 1747 
 
 Schumacher, H. C, astronomer . , , , 1780 1850 
 Schutz, C. G., critic and litierateur . . , . 1747 
 
 Schuyler, Philip, general officer in Revolution , . 1-731 1804 
 
 Schwartzenberg, Chas. Ph., prince, general . , . 1771 1820 
 
 , prince F., premier of Austria . . 1800 1852 
 
 Scioppius, Gaspar, philologist and grammarian , . 1576 1649 
 Sclpio, uEmilianus Puhlius, able warrior, (minor) . b. c. 128 
 
 , Publius Cornelius, eumamed Africanus, able warrior, (major) b. c. 189 
 
 Scott, Michael, philosopher, supposed magician • • 1291 
 
 , Thomas, divine and bible commentator , . , 1747 1821 
 
 , Sir "Walter, one of the most eminent, voluminous and popular 
 
 writers of modern times .... 1771 1832 
 
 , "Winfield, lieutenant general commander-in-chief U. S. army 1786 1866 
 
 Scribe, Eugene, dramatist . . , . 179L 1861 
 
 1775 1851 
 
 1693 1768 
 
 1511 1536 
 
 1790 1867 
 
 1815 1864 
 
 1780 1839 
 
 1811 1859 
 
 1639 1701 
 
 1753 1830 
 
 1584 1654 
 1723 
 
 Sebastian, count Horate, marshal of France, statesman 
 Seeker, Thomas, eminent prelate , , , 
 
 Secundus, John, Latin poet • . . 
 
 Sedgewick, Catharine M., Miss, novelist and philanthropist 
 
 , John, (of Conn.) Union general 
 
 , Theodore, statesman and political economist 
 
 , Theodore, (son) lawyer and writer , 
 
 Sedley, Sir Charles, poet • . . . 
 
 Segur, count Louis de, diplomatist and writer , 
 
 Selden, John, antiquary and historian . • , 
 
 Selkirk, Alexander, seaman and adventurer , 
 
 Selwyn, George Augustus, (Life by Jesse) , 
 
 Semiramis, queen of Assyria . • . 
 
 Seneca, Lucius Annseus, philosopher, statesman and moralist 
 Senior, Nassau W., political economist 
 Sennefelder, Aloys, of Munich, inventor of lithography 
 Sepulveda, John Ginez de, historian , , 
 
 Sergeant, John, jurist and statesman . , 
 
 Sertorus, Quintus, warrior and naval commander , 
 
 Servetus, Michael, polemical writer against Calvin 
 Sesostris, king of Egypt ...» 
 
 Sevign6, Mary de, marchioness of, epistolary writer 
 Seward, Anna, poetess, (Letters) , 
 
 f . B. C, 1250 
 
 B. c. 2 
 
 1790 
 
 1771 
 
 1490 
 1779 
 
 1509 
 
 f. B. c. 1500 
 
 1627 
 
 1747 
 
 -, William H., statesman, U. S. senator from N. Y., sec of state 1801 
 
 Shadwell, T., poet laureate 
 
 Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, statesman 
 
 , Anthony A. Cooper, 3d ear!, < Characteristics ' 
 
 Shakespeare, John, orientalist . . ; 
 
 -, William, the greatest of dramatic poets 
 
 Sharp, Granville, philanthropist . ' , , 
 
 , James, archt. St. Andrews, assassinated , 
 
 Shaw, George, naturalist . , , , 
 
 1640 
 1621 
 3671 
 1774 
 1664 
 1734 
 1618 
 1751 
 
 65 
 
 1864 
 1834 
 1572 
 1852 
 B. c. 73 
 1553 
 
 1696 
 1809 
 
 1692 
 1688 
 1713 
 1858 
 1616 
 1813 
 1679 
 1818 
 
78 
 
 THE WOKLD's PEOGKESS. 
 
 NATION. 
 
 Amer. 
 Amer. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 /Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Hind. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Shays, Daniel, leader in Shay's rebellion . , 
 
 Shedd, W. G., D. D., theologian, historian, and critic 
 Sheepshanks, John, founder of picture gallery . • 
 
 Shelley, Mary W. widow of P, B., the poet, novelist • 
 
 , Percy Byeshe, eminent poet and atheist « , 
 
 Shenstone, William, poet .... 
 Sheridan, Philip H. general, and governor military department 
 
 , Richard Brinsiey, dramatist and orator , 
 
 -, Thomas, actor, and author . . • 
 
 Sherlock, Thomas, bishop of London . , 
 
 Sherman, Roger, patriot and self-taught statesman . • • 
 
 , John, U. S senator from Ohio . • , 
 
 , ■\Villiam. T., general . • , 
 
 Sherwood Mrs., novelist . . . • 
 
 Shiel, Richard Lalor, statesman and dramatist , . 
 
 Shirley, James, dramatist . . • • 
 
 Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, able naval ofScer • • 
 
 Shuhrick, John Templar, naval officer • • 
 
 , "William B., rear admiral , 
 
 Shuckford, Rev. Samuel, ' Connect. Oldand New Tesament' 
 Sihbes, Richard, theologian^ 'Bruised Reed' 
 Siddons, Sarah, the most eminent of tragic actresses • 
 
 Sidmouthj viscount, (H. Addington) statesman \ « 
 
 Sidney, Algernon, martj-r of liberty and author . • 
 
 , Sir Philip, accomplished officer and author , 
 
 Siebold, Ph. F. Von, naturalist and botanist . , 
 
 Sigel, Franz, general in Union arm}', vpar 1861-65 • 
 
 Sigouriiey, Lydia H., poet and essayist . . , 
 
 Silliman, Benjamin, chemist and geologist . • 
 
 , Benjamin (son), chemist and geologist . 
 
 Simeon, Rev. Charles, theological writer and editor • 
 
 , Simon Stylites, Syrian Ascetic . . 
 
 Simms, William Gilmore, novelist and poet , . 
 
 Simonides, of Amorgus, Iambic poet . • 
 
 -, of Eos, lyric poet . . • • 
 
 Simpson, Robert, mathematician ,, • • 
 
 , Thomas, " ... 
 
 Sinclair, Catharine, authoress , . , 
 
 Sing, M, rajah Runjeet, chief of Lahore and Cashmere . 
 Sismondi, J. C. L., historian . . • 
 
 Skelton, John, poet laureate to Henry VIII . . 
 
 Sleidan John Philipson, historian . . . 
 
 Sioane, Sir Hans, eminent naturalist 
 Smith, Adam, celebrated writer on morals and political economy 
 
 , Alex, poet ..... 
 
 , Charlotte, poet .... 
 
 , General Samuel, military commander and statesman 
 
 — , Horace, poet, ' Rejected Addresses,' &c. 
 — , James, poet, " " 
 
 — , John, • History Viglnia' , 
 
 — , John Pye, theological writer . 
 
 — , Joseph, Mormon prophet . , 
 
 BOKN. 
 
 DIED, 
 
 1740 
 
 1825 
 
 1787 
 
 1863 
 
 1798 
 
 1851 
 
 1792 
 
 1822 
 
 1714 
 
 1763 
 
 1751 
 
 1816 
 
 1722, 
 
 1788 
 
 1678 
 
 1761 
 
 1721 
 
 1793 
 
 . 1775 
 
 1852 
 
 1792 
 
 1851 
 
 1594 
 
 1666 
 
 1650 
 
 1705 
 
 . 1778 
 
 1815 
 
 
 1754 
 
 1577 
 
 1635 
 
 1755 
 
 1831 
 
 1757 
 
 1844 
 
 1620 
 
 1683 
 
 1554 
 
 158G 
 
 1796 
 
 
 1824 
 
 
 1791 
 
 1865 
 
 1779 
 
 18e4 
 
 1759 
 
 1836 
 
 392? 
 
 461? 
 
 1806 
 
 
 B. c. 660 ? 
 
 
 550? 
 
 
 1687 
 
 1768 
 
 1710 
 
 1761 
 
 1800 
 
 1864 
 
 1779 
 
 1839 
 
 1773 
 
 1842 
 
 1450? 
 
 1529 
 
 1506 
 
 1556 
 
 1660 
 
 1752 
 
 y 1723 
 
 1790 
 
 1830 
 
 
 1749 
 
 1806 
 
 1752 
 
 1839 
 
 1779 
 
 1849 
 
 1775 
 
 1839 
 
 1579 
 
 1631 
 
 1774 
 
 1851 
 
 1805 
 
 1844 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 ^9 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PKOFKSSION. 
 
 Eng. Smith, Rev. Sidney, essayist, critic and moralist • 
 
 Eng. , Sir James E., botanist and naturalist . • 
 
 Eng. — J Sir William Sidney, military commander • 
 
 Eng. ■ , T. South-worth, writer on sanitary reform 
 
 Eng. , WiUiam, classical scholar and author 
 
 Eng. Smithson, James, founder of the Smithsonian Institute (U. 
 
 Scot. Smollett, Dr. Tobias, novelist and historian 
 
 Eng. Smyth, Wm., Pr. of History at Cambridge, author, lecturer 
 
 Eng. , Wm. Henry, admiral, scientific writer 
 
 Eng. Soane, Sir John, architect and virtuoso . . 
 
 Pol. Sobieski, John III., king of Poland, -wariior . 
 
 Ital. Socinus, Faustus, founder of the'Socinian sect • 
 
 Gr. Socrates, one of the greatest of ancient philosophers 
 
 Gr. , ecclesiastical historian . . • 
 
 Span. Soils, Antonio de, historian of Mexico . • 
 
 Heb. Solomon, king of Israel and author of Proverbs • 
 
 Gr. Solon, the illustrious legislator of Athens . , 
 
 Eng. Somers, Lord John, chancellor and political writer • 
 
 Eng. Somerville, Mrs. Mary, astronomer , . 
 
 Eng. , Wm., poet, 'The Chase' . 
 
 Ger. Sontag, Henrietta, countess de Eossi, vocalist . 
 
 Gr. Sophocles, eminent tragic poet 
 
 Ft. Sorbonne, R. de, theologian, founder of the S. College at Paris. 
 
 Amer. Soule, Pierre, TJ. S. senator from Louisiana, and diplomatist 
 
 Fr. Souli6, Frederick, novelist and dramatist . 
 
 Soulouque, Faustin, ex-empei'or of Hayti 
 
 Fr. Soult, Nicholas J. de D., duke of Dalmatia, marshal of Fn 
 
 and statesman .... 
 
 Eng. South, Robert, eminent divine 
 
 Amer, Southard, Samuel L., sec. navy, and senator TJ. S., N. Y. 
 
 Eng. Southcott, Joanna, fanatic, (her sect not yet extinct) • 
 
 Eng. Southerne, J., dramatic writer and poet . . 
 
 Eng. Southey, Mrs. Robt., (Caroline Bowles), poet . , 
 
 Eng. , Robert, poet, historian, biographer • 
 
 Fr. Souvestre, Emile, essayist .... 
 
 Fr. Soyer, Alexis, famous cook and writer on Cookery . 
 
 Gr. Sozomen, ecclesiastical hitrtorian . . • . 
 
 Amer. Sparks, Jared, historian and biographer . . . (abt.) 1794 
 
 Eng. Speke, Capt. John H., explorer, discov. source of Nile . . 1827 
 
 Eng. Spelman, Sir Henry, historian and antiquary . , 1561 
 
 Eng. Spence, "Wm., entomologist . . . • . 1783 
 
 Amer. Spencer, Ambrose, chief-justice of New York • • 1765 
 
 Eng. , earl of, statesman . . . • . 1758 
 
 Amer. , John C, jurist and sec. navy . • • 1788 
 
 Eng. , "Wm. R., translator . . • • . 1770 
 
 Eng. Spenser, Edmund, eminent poet . • • • 1553 
 
 Span. Spinola, Ambrose, marquis de, warrior • • • 1571 
 
 Dutch. Spinoza, Bened., metaphysician, (atheist?) . • . 1633 
 
 Ger. Spohr, Louis, musical composer . • • • 1783 
 
 Amer. Spoon er, Shearjashnb, (Die< o/" Painters) . • 
 
 Ger. Sprengel, Kent, botanist ..... 1766 
 
 Eng. Spurgeouj Rev. Charles, popular Baptist clergyman 1834 
 
 BORN. 
 
 1768 
 1759 
 1764 
 1790 
 1814 
 
 1721 
 
 1764 
 1788 
 1753 
 1629 
 1539 
 B. C. 470 B, 
 5th cent. 
 1610 
 
 B. 
 f. B. 
 
 1650 
 1790 
 1692 
 1804 
 3. c. 495 B, 
 1201 
 
 1800 
 1789 
 
 1769 
 1638 
 1787 
 1750 
 1662 
 1787 
 1775 
 1806 
 1800 
 
 DIED. 
 
 184S 
 1828 
 1840 
 1861 
 
 1835 
 1771 
 
 1849 
 1865 
 18o7 
 1696 
 1594 
 . c. 400 
 
 ,, A. D. 
 
 1686 
 C. 975 
 c. 598 
 
 1716 
 
 1743 
 
 1854 
 
 C.404 
 
 1274 
 
 1847 
 
 1851 
 1716 
 
 1842 
 1814 
 1746 
 18J^4 
 1843 
 1854 
 1868 
 450 
 1866 
 1864 
 1643 
 1860 
 1848 
 1835 
 1855 
 1834 
 1598 
 1631! 
 1677 
 
 1833 
 
iBO 
 
 THE WOELD'S PKOGKESS. 
 
 16tTi 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. BORN, 
 
 G-er. Spurzheim, Dr., celebrated phrenologist, (died at Boston) . 1776 
 
 Amer. Si)rague, Charles, poet ..... 1791 
 
 Amer. , Wm. B,, D. D., Presbyterian clergyman and historian . 1795 
 
 Amer. Squier, E. Geo,, traveller and antiquary . . . 1820 
 
 Eng. Stackhouse, Thomas, divine and author, ' Hist, Bible ' . . 1680 
 
 Fr. Stael-Holstein, Anne L. G., baroness de, authoress . 1766 
 
 Fr. , Madame, talented writer . . • . 1693 
 
 Eng. Standish, Miles, military leader Pilgrims in N. E. . • 1584? 
 
 Eng Staiifield, Clarkson, marine painter . . • . 1798 
 
 Eng, Stanhope, Charles, earl, politician and inventor . . 1753 
 
 Eng. Stanhope, Lady Esther, eccentric traveller . . . 1776 
 
 Eng. , Phil., Hon., earl of, known as Lord Mahon, historian 1805 
 
 Amer. Stanton, Edwin M., secretary of war . . 
 
 Amer. Stark, John, distinguished officer in the Hevolution . _ 1728 
 
 Rom. Statins, Publius Pepinus, poet .... 61? 
 
 Eng. Staunton, Sir Geo. L. 'Embassy to China' . . . 1737 
 
 Irish. Steele, S:r Richard, essayist and dramatist . . . 1671 
 
 Eng. Steevens, Geo., ' Comment, on Shakespeare' . . 1736 
 
 Eng. Stephen, Henry, Prof, Hist,, statesman and author . . 1789 
 
 Fr. Stephens, Anthony, Charles, Robert and Henry, printers 
 
 Amer. , John L., traveller and author . . 
 
 Eng, Stephenson, George, engineer . . • 
 
 Eng. , Robert, »* . . ,' 
 
 Scot, Sterling, "Wm., M. P., bibliographer and critic • 
 
 ■ Ger. Sternberg, Alex., baron von, miscellaneous author . 
 
 Irish, Sterne, Lawrence, miscellaneous writer 
 Eng. Sternh old, Th OS., versilier of Psalms . 
 Pruss. Steuben, Fred, W. A , baron, who generously aided the American 
 
 cause ...... 
 
 Amer, Stevens, Robt. Livingston, inventor 
 
 Amer. Stevenson, Andrew, of Va., minister to England 
 
 Amer. Stewart, Charles S., Rev., chaplain in the U. S. Navy and author 
 
 Scot. jDugald, eminent philosopher and writer 
 
 Amer. Stiles, Ezra, theologian and historian 
 
 Eng. Stiliingfleet, Dr. E,, bishop of "Worcester and author 
 
 Amer, Stone, Wm, L., historian of ' Six Nations,' ' Brandt,' and ' Red 
 
 Jacket' . . ... • 
 
 Russ. Storch, Henry F., political economist . . 
 
 Amer. Story, Joseph, jurist and writer on jurisprudence . 
 Eng, Stow, John, antiquary and historian . 
 Amer, Stowe, Calvin E,, biblical critic . . . 
 
 Amer. , Harriet Beecher, Mrs., novelist • 
 
 Eng. Stowell, lord, jurist . . , , 
 
 Gr. Strabo, eminent geogi-apher . . . 
 
 Eng. Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, statesman . 
 Eng. Stratford de Redcliffe, viscount, diplomatist . 
 Ger. Strauss, Dav. Fred., author of sceptical * Life of Jesus' 
 
 Ger. , Ger. Fred. Alb., prof, of theology and author 
 
 Eng. Strickland, Agnes, historian of ' Queens of England' 
 Eng. Strype, John, theologian, biographer and historian 
 Russ. Struve, Fred. Geo. "Wm., astronomer , • 
 
 Scot. Stuart, Gilbert, historian . . . 
 
 1805 
 1788 
 1803 
 1806 
 1806 
 1713 
 
 1749 
 1784 
 1798 
 1753 
 1727 
 1633 
 
 1793 
 1766 
 1779 
 1525 
 
 1814 
 
 1746 
 
 19 
 
 1693 
 
 1788 
 1808 
 1786 
 1806 
 1643 
 1793 
 1742 
 
 1832 
 
 1752 
 
 1817 
 1750 
 1656 
 1867 
 1816 
 1839 
 
 1822 
 96? 
 1801 
 1729 
 1800 
 1859 
 cent. 
 1!!52 
 1&48 
 1859 
 1S44 
 
 1768 
 1549 
 
 1794 
 
 J 838 
 1857 
 
 1828 
 1795 
 1699 
 
 1844 
 1835 
 1845 
 1605 
 
 1836 
 1641 
 
 1737 
 1864 
 1788 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 81 
 
 RATION. KAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Stuart, James, architect and author . , 
 
 Ainer. , James E. B., Confederate general , 
 
 Amer. , Moses, theologian and pliilologist . , 
 
 Eng. St urge, Joseph, philanthroxjist 
 
 Ger. Sturm, Christopher C, theol. writer, ' Reflections,' &c. 
 Dutch-Amer. Stuyvesant, Peter, last Dutch gov. N. Netherlands 
 Fr. Suchet, Louis Gahiiel, celebrated marshal , , 
 
 Eng. Suckling, Sir John, poet and dramatist , , 
 
 Fr. Sue, Eugene, novelist .... 
 Eom. Suetonius, Paulinus, warrior . . , • 
 
 liom. , Tranquillus Caius, historian • , 
 
 Dan. Suhm, Peter Fred., eminent historian • , 
 
 Gr. Suidas, Greek lexicographer . • , 
 
 Amer. Sullivan, Jas., gov. Mass., political writer • . 
 
 Amer. , John, revolutionary general . , 
 
 Amer. , Wm. LL. D., political writer 
 
 Fr. Sully, MaximiUan de Bethune, duke of warrior and statesman 
 
 Amer. , Thomas, portrait painter 
 
 Amor. Summex-field, John, eloquent Methodist preacher 
 
 Amer. Samner, Charles, U. S. sen. from Mass., orator and philanthropist 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Russ. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Afric. 
 
 Eom. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Swe. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 — Edwin Vose, Union general . 
 
 John Bird, archbishop of Canterbury and author 
 
 Sumter, Thomas, Revolutionary gen. of S. C, 
 Sunderland, Robt, Spencer, 2d earl, statesman 
 Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of, poet , 
 Surtees, Robt., antiquary aud poet 
 Sussex, Aug. Fred., duke of, son of Geo. III. 
 Suttcm, Chas. Manners, arch, of Canterbury 
 
 Suvarofl", or Suwarow, prince Alexander, celebrated and cruel war- 
 rior .... , , 
 Swain, Charles, poet , . . « 
 Swnmraerdam, John, naturalist and anatomist . , 
 Swedeuborg, Emanuel, founder of a sect , , 
 Swift, Jonathan, celebrated satirist . , • 
 Swinburne, Algernon, poet 
 
 Swinton, Wm., critic and historian, ' Army of Potomac' 
 Sydenham, C. W. Poulett, lord, gov. gen, of Canada, &c. 
 Sylla, Lucius Cornelius, warrior and brutal usurper 
 Syms, Michael Col., ' Embassy to A va' , . • 
 
 Syphax, Numidian prince . , , , 
 
 T 
 Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, eminent historian • 
 
 . Marcus Claudius, emperor . . • 
 
 Taglioni, Marie, dansiiese . . . 
 
 Talbot, Jno., 3st earl of Shrewsbury, gen. in France . 
 
 , Silas, mil. and naval officer in Revolution . 
 
 Talfourd, Thomas Noon, jurist, dramatist, and essayist 
 Talleyrand, prince, statesman, aud diplomatist 
 Tallis, Thos., musical composer . . , 
 
 Tallraadge, Benj., RevoL officer . . . 
 
 Talma, Francis Joseph, one of the greatest of actors . 
 6 
 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIKD. 
 
 
 1713 
 
 1788 
 
 
 1832 ? 
 
 1864 
 
 
 1780 
 
 1851 
 
 
 
 1S59 
 
 
 1740 
 
 1786 
 
 
 1602 
 
 1682 
 
 
 1772 
 
 1826 
 
 
 1613 
 
 1641 
 
 
 1808 
 
 1857 
 
 
 37 
 f. 100 
 
 
 
 1728 
 
 1798 
 
 f. abt. 1000 
 
 
 
 1744 
 
 180& 
 
 . 
 
 1740 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1774 
 
 1839 
 
 \n 
 
 1560 
 
 1641 
 
 
 1783 
 
 
 
 1798 
 
 1825 
 
 opist 
 
 1811 
 
 
 
 1796 
 
 1863 
 
 . 
 
 1780 
 
 1862 
 
 
 1734 
 
 1832 
 
 • 
 
 1641 
 
 1702 
 
 
 1515 
 
 1547 
 
 • 
 
 1779 
 
 1834 
 
 
 1773 
 
 1843 
 
 . 
 
 1755 
 
 1828 
 
 ruel war- 
 
 
 
 1730 
 
 1800 
 
 • 
 
 1803 
 
 
 
 1637 
 
 1681 
 
 • 
 
 1689 
 
 1772 
 
 • 
 
 1667 
 
 1745 
 
 • 
 
 1793 
 
 1841 
 
 B. 
 
 C. 137 B. 
 
 c. 78 
 1809 
 
 
 B. 
 
 0. 201 
 
 • 
 
 56 
 
 135 
 
 • 
 
 200 ? 
 
 1804 
 
 276 
 
 
 1373 
 
 1453 
 
 
 1750 
 
 1813 
 
 
 1795 
 
 1854 
 
 , 
 
 1754 
 
 1838 
 
 
 1529 
 
 1585 
 
 , 
 
 1754 
 
 1835 
 
 
 1763 
 
 1326 
 
82 
 
 THE WOELD S PEOGEESS. 
 
 NATION 
 
 Tartar. 
 
 Amcr. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Span. 
 
 ■Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Eom. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr.. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Tamerlane, Timur Beg or Timoor, celebrated Tartar prince 
 and conqueror . • , . 
 
 Taney, Roger B., chief-justice U. S. . • . 
 
 Tannahill, Robt., poet . . • • • 
 
 Tapia, Eugenio, miscellaneous writer . • 
 
 Tarleton, Bannastre, royalist officer in America , , 
 
 Tasso, Bernardo, poet, author of Amadis de Gaul , 
 
 , Torquato, one of the greatest of Italian jDoets • 
 
 Tauchnitz, Bernard, publisher at Leipsic . • 
 
 , Karl, eminent publisher at Leipsic . • 
 
 Taylor, Bayard, traveller, poet, and lecturer • . 
 
 , Isaac, essayist ..... 
 
 , Jeremjf, prelate and eloquent writer • • 
 
 , John, ' the Water Poet ' . . « • 
 
 -, Sir Robert, sculptor and architect . • 
 
 -, Thomas, editor of Plato and other classics . 
 
 -, Tom, dramatist . , - . 
 
 -, Wm., miscellaneous writer. . . 
 
 -, Zachary, major-general U. S. Army, victor in MesicO; 
 
 . ■ 1777 
 
 1864 
 
 1774 
 
 1810 
 
 1754 
 
 1833 
 
 1493 
 
 1569 
 
 1544 
 
 159£ 
 
 
 1836 
 
 1825 
 
 
 1787 
 
 1865 
 
 1613 
 
 1667 
 
 1580 
 
 1654 
 
 1714 
 
 1788 
 
 1758 
 
 1835 
 
 1817 
 
 
 1800 
 
 1849 
 
 1784 
 
 1850 
 
 
 1813 
 
 1757 
 
 1834 
 
 
 1354 
 
 1628 
 
 1698 
 
 1703 
 
 1764 
 
 1705 
 
 1777 
 
 1804 
 
 
 1761 
 
 1819 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1762 
 
 1832 
 
 B. 0. 192 
 
 
 pres. F. S. 
 Tecumseh, Indian chief (k. at Tippecanoe) . . 
 
 Telford, Thomas, civil engineer . . . 
 
 Tell, William, one of the champions of Swiss liberty , 
 Temple, Sir William, statesman and writer . 
 
 Tennent, Gilbert, clergyman and writer . • 
 
 , Rev. Wm., famous for 'France' . • 
 
 , Sir Jas. Emerson, statesman and writer • 
 
 Teunyman, William T., ' Hist, of Philosophy' • 
 Tennyson, Alfted, poet laureate . . . 
 
 Tenterden, Chas. Abbott, lord, jurist, chief-justice K. B. 
 'i'erenoe, or Terrentius, comic writer . 
 Tertullian, Q. S. F., one of the most learned of the Fathers of 
 
 the Church ..... 
 
 Terry, Alfred K., of Ct., Union general, victor at Fort Fisher . 
 Thackeray, Wm. Makepeace, writer and essayist . , 
 
 Thaer, Albert, writer on agriculture .... 
 Tlialberg, Sigismund, pianist .... 
 Thales, one of the seven sages, founder of the Tonic school of 
 
 Philosophy . . , , • B. 
 Themistocles, eminent Athenian . • . • b, 
 Thenard, chemist and statesman . • • . 
 Theocritus, pastoral poet . . . . . f. b. 0. 285 
 Theobald, Lewis, comment, on Shakspeare ... 
 Theodoret, ecclesiastical historian . . . 383 
 Theodosius, Flavius, Roman emperor and warrior , . 346 
 Theophrastus, celebrated philosopher . , . b. c. 371 
 Theresa, St., Carmelite nun and mystical writer , , 1515 
 Thesiger, Sir Fred., attorney-general of England . . 1794 
 Thespis, poet, said to be the inventor of tragedy . b. c. 576 
 Thibaudeau, A. C, count, historian .... 
 Thierry, Jas. Nich. Augustine, historian • • • 1795 
 , Amedee S, D., historian . • • . 1797 
 
 160 
 
 1811 
 1752 
 1812 
 
 c. 639 B. 
 0. 535 B.. 
 
 245 
 
 1863 
 
 1828 
 
 513 
 
 470 
 
 1744 
 
 457 
 395 
 
 1582 
 
 1858 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL 'INDEX, 
 
 83 
 
 NATION. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Dan. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eom. 
 
 Eom. 
 
 Eiig. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eug, 
 
 Ger. 
 Gr. 
 Tart. 
 HiiKl. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Rom. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Euss. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Irit*li. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Thiers, Adoiphe, historian and statesman . • 
 
 "i'liierscli, F. "W"., Qreeli philologist, &o. 
 
 Thirwall, Dr. Conop, bishop of St. David's, historian 
 
 Tholuck, Fred. Aug., theologian 
 
 Thompson, Benj. See Rumford . 
 
 , Col. Thos. Peyronuet, political reformer and author 
 
 Thomson, Anthony T., medical and misc. writer 
 
 , Chas., president of Congress . • 
 
 , Dr. Thomas, chemist . , 
 
 Amor. 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 Kom, 
 
 , James, popular poet - , . 
 
 Thoreau, Henry D., naturalist, geologist and essayist . 
 Thorwaldsen, Albert, sculptor ... 
 Thrasybulus, Athenian general ... 
 
 Thucydides, historian . . . . , 
 
 Thurlow, Edward, lord, lord chancellor . . 
 
 Tiberius, Claudius Drusus K^ero, warrior and emperor , 
 Tibullus, Aulus Albius, elegiac poet , . , 
 
 Tickell, Thomas, poet and essayist in Spectator . 
 Ticknor, George, historian of Spanish literature . 
 
 Tieok, Ludwig, poet and essayist . 
 Tighe, Mrs. Mary, poetess, 'Psyche' . . 
 
 Tillotson. John, eminent prelate and archb. Canterbury 
 Tilly, John F., count de, military commander . . 
 
 Timoleon, of Corinth, liberator of Syracuse , , 
 
 Timour Beg. See Tamerlane . . , 
 
 Tippoo-Saib, sultan of Mysore, Indian warrior . 
 
 Tissot, Simon A., medical writer 
 
 Titus, Sabinus Vespasianus Flavins, emperor, father of his 
 Tobin, John, dramatist, ' Honey Moon ' . , 
 
 Tocqneville, Alexis de, publicist and statesman . 
 
 Todd, Robt. B., ' Medical OyclopEedia ' &c. 
 Todleben, Fr. Edw., gen. of engineers . , 
 
 Tumline, Geo., prelate and writer, bishop ofWinchester 
 Tompkins, Daniel D., vice-pres. U. S. 
 Tone, Theobald Wolfe, gen. in Irish rebellion , 
 
 Tooke, John Home, politician and philologist . , 
 
 . Thos., 'History of Prices' . , 
 
 , Wm., miscellaneous writer ... 
 
 Toplady, Augustus M., eminent divine . , 
 
 Torquemada, Thos. de, Inquisitor general . , 
 
 Torrens, colonel, novelist and political economist 
 Torrey, John, botanist and chemist . . . 
 
 Torricelli, Evangelista, mathematician, inv. of barometer 
 Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, captor of Rome . 
 Totten, Joseph G., military engineer , . 
 
 Touro, Judah, Hebrew philanthropist . , 
 
 Toussaint I'Ouverture, negro, pres. of Hayti 
 Townsend, Geo., prebendary, ' Comment, on Bible ' 
 Tracy, A. L. C Dectutt, comte de, writer on Education and 
 
 lo^ophy ..... 
 Traill, Thos. J., editor 'Encyclo. Britannlca' . . 
 
 Trajan, Marcus U. C, able emperor and warrior , 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1798 
 
 
 . 1784 
 
 1860 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1799 
 
 
 • 
 
 athor 1783 
 
 
 . 1778 
 
 1849 
 
 1729 
 
 1824 
 
 . 1773 
 
 1852 
 
 1700 
 
 17i8 
 
 1817 
 
 1862 
 
 1771 
 
 18U 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 389 
 
 B. C. 469 B 
 
 c. 400 
 
 1732 
 
 1806 
 
 B. c. 84 
 
 37 
 
 f. B. c. 30 
 
 
 1686 
 
 1740 
 
 1791 
 
 
 1773 
 
 1853 
 
 1774 
 
 1810 
 
 1630 
 
 1694 
 
 15o9 
 
 1632 
 
 . B. 
 
 c. 337 
 
 1739 
 
 1799 
 
 1728 
 
 1797 
 
 people 40 
 
 81 
 
 1770 
 
 1804 
 
 1805 
 
 1859 
 
 1810 
 
 1866 
 
 1818 
 
 
 1750 
 
 1787 
 
 . 1774 
 
 1825 
 
 1763 
 
 1798 
 
 1736 
 
 1812 
 
 1774 
 
 1858 
 
 1744 
 
 1820 
 
 1740 
 
 1778 
 
 
 1498 
 
 1783 
 
 1840 
 
 1608 
 
 1647 
 
 • 
 
 352 
 
 1788 
 
 
 . 1776 
 
 1854 
 
 1745 
 
 1803 
 
 
 1857 
 
 Fhi- 
 
 
 1754 
 
 1836 
 
 1781 
 
 1862 
 
 52 
 
 117 
 
84 
 
 THE woeld's Progress. 
 
 KATION, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 Amer. 
 Eng. 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Scot. 
 Scot. 
 (Scot. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Eng. 
 Amer. 
 Scot. 
 Irish. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Treclgold, Thos., civil engineer and author 
 
 Trench, Rev. Rich. Chenevix, poet, philologist and theologian 
 
 Trenck, Fred., baron de, celebrated for his adventures . 
 
 Trimmer, Mrs. Sarah, misc. writer 
 
 Tristan, I'Hfrmite, Francis, poet . . , 
 
 TroUope, Mrs. Frances, noveJist and traveller , 
 
 Tromp, Martin H. van, celebrated admiral . , 
 
 Troost, Gerard, chemist and geologist . . 
 
 Trumbull. Col. John, stateemau and hist, painter , 
 
 ■ , licnj., historian of Connecticut . 
 
 , Jonathan, statesman, gov. Connecticut . 
 
 — — , John, poet, born in Ct. . . 
 
 Truro, Thos. , baron (Sir T. Wilde), ex-lord-chancellor . 
 Truxtoi), Thos., naval commander . , 
 
 Tucker, Abraham, metaphysical writer . , 
 
 , Beverley, lawyer and novelist . . 
 
 Tuckerman, Henry T., critic and essayist , , 
 
 , Jos., writer and philanthropist , 
 
 Tudor, "Wm., editor Is . Amer. Rev. and biographer . 
 
 Tupper, Martin Farquhar, poet and essayist , 
 
 Turenne, Viscount de, eminent warrior . . 
 
 Turgot, Anne Robt. Jas., statesman . • 
 
 Turner, Dawson, botanist and antiquary , ' . 
 
 , Edward, 'Elements of Chemistry' , 
 
 ■ , Samuel H., Rev., theologian and critic . 
 
 , SI I aron, 'History of England' . . 
 
 ~, "Wm. W., printer and philologist 
 
 Turret'.n, Benedict, theologian, (Prof, at Geneva) . 
 
 , Francis, (son) " " " . 
 
 , John A. (son) " " » 
 
 Tusser, Thos., author of ' 500 points of Good Husbandry' 
 
 Twiggs, David E., rebel general . 
 
 Twining, Rev. Thos., translator of Aristotle , . 
 
 Tylei-, John, ex-pres. XJ. S., and lebel 
 
 Tyndale, Wm., reformer and first translator of the Bible into 
 
 English 
 Tyng, Stephen H., D. D., epis. divine and author , • 
 
 Tyrrell, James, historian . . . . 
 
 Tyrtseus, poet . . . . . 
 
 Tytler, Alex. Fraser, historical and misc. writer 
 
 ■ , Patrick Fraser, historian, ' Life Mary Queen of Scots' 
 
 i , "Wm., historical and misc. writer • • 
 
 U 
 
 Uhland, Ludwig, poet . . . . 
 
 XJlloa, Don Anthony de, navigator and author . • 
 
 Uncas, North American Indian chief (Mohegans) • 
 
 Upcott, William, autograph collector and histoiian . 
 
 Upt^hur, Abel P., of "Va., judge and secretary of state . 
 Uie, Andrew, M. D., chemist and author . • 
 
 Usher, James, learned divine and historian . 
 
 BORN. 
 
 1788 
 1807 
 1726 
 1741 
 1601 
 1778 
 1597 
 1776 
 1756 
 1735 
 1740 
 1750 
 1782 
 1755 
 1705 
 1784 
 
 1778 
 1779 
 1810 
 1611 
 1727 
 
 1798 
 1791 
 1768 
 1810 
 1588 
 1623 
 1671 
 1500 
 1790 
 1734 
 1790 
 
 1500 
 1800 
 1642 
 . c. 668 
 1747 
 1790 
 1711 
 
 DIEll 
 
 1829 
 
 1794 
 1810 
 1655 
 1863 
 1652 
 1850 
 1843 
 1820 
 1809 
 1831 
 1853 
 1822 
 1774 
 1851 
 
 1840 
 1830 
 
 1675 
 
 17S1 
 1858 
 1839 
 1861 
 1847 
 1859 
 1631 
 1687 
 1737 
 1536 
 1863 
 1804 
 l!r62 
 
 1536 
 
 1718 
 
 1813 
 1849 
 1792 
 
 1787 
 
 
 1716 
 
 1795 
 
 1680 
 
 
 1779 
 
 1845 
 
 
 1844 
 
 1778 
 
 1857 
 
 1580 
 
 1656 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDliii, 
 
 85 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Fr. Vailliant, Scbastijit, eminent botanist . , ~ 
 
 Dutch. Valcknenaer, Louis Gra3]Dar, able philologist and critic , 
 
 Fr. Valdo, Peter, founder of the sect of Waldenses • 
 
 Valentia, George A., viscount, ' Voyages and Travels ' 
 
 Eom. Valerian, emperor . . , , • 
 
 Kom. Valerius Flaccus, poet . • • • 
 
 Rom. Maximus, historian . « • • 
 
 Ital. Valla, Laurence, eminent philologist . • 
 
 Amer. Van Buren, Martin, president of the United States • 
 
 Eng. Vancouver, George, navigator . . , 
 
 Eng. VandenhoflP, John, actor . , , • 
 
 Anier. Vanderlyn, John, historical painter . , , 
 
 Dutch. Van Diemen, Anthony, governor of India • • 
 
 Amer. Van Dorn, Earl, confederate general . . 
 
 Eng. Vane, Sir Henry, advocate of republicanism • . 
 
 Amer. Van Ness, Cornelius P., jurist and diplomatist , 
 
 Amer. Van Rensselaer, Stephen, ' thePatroon' . • 
 
 Rom. Varro, Marcus T., the most learned of the Romans . 
 
 Ital. Vasari, George, architect and biog., ' Lives of the Painters ' 
 
 Ger. Vater, John Severinus, eminent physiologist . , 
 
 Fr. Vattel, F. de, jurist, author of Law of Nations « 
 
 Fr. Vaughan, S. le P. de, marshal, military engineer 
 
 Eng. Vauban, Rev. Robert, D. D., ' dissenting' divine and historian 
 
 Span. Vega, Garcilapso de, poet ... « 
 
 Span. , Lopez de, dramatic poet * . . 
 
 Fr. Velpeau, Alfred A. L. M., eminent surgeon . . 
 
 Fr. Vendome, Louis Joseph, duke of, warrior . 
 
 Eng. Venn, Rev. Henry, 'Whole Duty of Man' . , 
 
 Ital. Verdi, Giuseppe, musical composer . • , 
 
 Eng. Vere, Sir Aubrey de, dramatic poet , . . 
 
 Fr. Vernet, Horace, historical painter ... 
 
 Eng. Vernon, Edward, admiral .... 
 
 Eng. , Robert, founder of Vernon Q-allery . 
 
 Fr. Veron, Louis D6sire, author and journalisi) . 
 
 Amer. Verplanck, Gulian C, scholar and critic , . 
 
 Fr. Veriot, Rene Hubert, abbe de, historian . . 
 
 Eng. Vertue, Geoi-ge, engi-aver and antiquary . , 
 
 Rom. Vespasian, Titus Flavins, warrior and emperor . . 
 
 Ital. Vespucius, Americus, navigator, whose name was unjustly given 
 
 to the new world .... 
 
 Eng. Vestris, Madame (Mrs. Mathews), actress • 
 
 Ital. Victor Emanuel II., king of Italy . , . 
 
 Eng. Victoria Alexandrinn, queen of Great Britain , 
 
 Eng. Vicars, Hedley H., capt. • . . , 
 
 Ital. Vida, Mark Jerome, Latin poet . . , 
 
 Fr. Vidocq, Eugene, French chief detective police , 
 
 Fr. Vieuxtemps, Henri, violinist , , , 
 
 Fr. Vigny, Alfred, count de, poet and critic , , 
 
 Fr. VilLirs, Louis Hector, duke of, able general . 
 
 Fr. Villemain, Abel, Fr. nolitician and author , , 
 
 tOfiN. 
 
 DI¥D 
 
 1669 
 
 1722 
 
 1715 
 
 1785 
 
 f. 12th cent. 
 
 1770 
 
 1844 
 
 
 260? 
 
 
 88? 
 
 f. 30 
 
 
 1406 
 
 1457 
 
 1782 
 
 1864 
 
 1750 
 
 1798 
 
 1790 
 
 
 1776 
 
 1852 
 
 1593 
 
 1645 
 
 1823 
 
 1863 
 
 1612 
 
 1662 
 
 1781 
 
 185i 
 
 1764 
 
 1839 
 
 B.C. 116 
 
 B. c. 27 
 
 1512 
 
 1574 
 
 1771 
 
 1826 
 
 1714 
 
 1767 
 
 1633 
 
 1707 
 
 1503 
 
 1536 
 
 1562 
 
 1635 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1654 
 
 1712 
 
 1725 
 
 1797 
 
 . 1814 
 
 
 
 1846 
 
 1789 
 
 1864 
 
 1684 
 
 1759 
 
 1774 
 
 1849 
 
 1798 
 
 
 1655 
 
 1735 
 
 1684 
 
 1756 
 
 
 79 
 
 n 
 
 1451 
 
 1516 
 
 1797 
 
 1858 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1819 
 
 
 1826 
 
 1855 
 
 1490 
 
 1566 
 
 1775 
 
 1850 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1799 
 
 
 16o3 
 
 1784 
 
 1791 
 
 
86 
 
 THE WOEIJ)'S PKOGEESS. 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Vince, Samuel, eminent mathematician and astronomer 
 
 Fr. Vinet, Alex. E.., theologian 
 
 Rom. Virgi 1, or Publius Virgilius Maro, the greatest of Roman poets 
 
 Ital. Visconti, Phil. Am-., antiquary 
 
 Ital. Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus, architect . i 
 
 Ital. Vittoria Colonna, scholar . • 
 
 Russ. Vladimir the G-reat, grand duke • • 
 
 Dutch. Voet, John, jurist at Leyden • • 
 
 Dutch. , Paul, jurist at Utrecht • • 
 
 Gcr. Vogel, Dr. Edward, botanist • , 
 
 Fr. Volney, count, celebrated writer . » 
 
 Ital, Volta, Alexander, natural philosopher (Battery) 
 
 Fr. Voltaire, Francis Marie Arouet, celebrated poet, 
 
 and historian • , • . 
 
 Ger. Voss, J. G., historical painter • • 
 
 
 
 
 BOEN. 
 
 DIED 
 
 )mer 
 
 
 
 
 " 1821 
 
 . 
 
 , 
 
 
 1797 
 
 1847 
 
 Oman poets 
 
 
 B. 
 
 c. 70 
 
 B. c. 19 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 
 1831 
 
 • 
 
 f. 
 
 B 
 
 c. 27 
 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 1490 
 
 1547 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 1015 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 1647 
 
 1714 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 1619 
 
 1667 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 1829 
 
 1856 
 
 , 
 
 , 
 
 
 1757 
 
 1820 
 
 . , 
 
 
 
 1745 
 
 1826 
 
 philosopher 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 1694 
 
 1778 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 1577 
 
 1649 
 
 Ger. Waagen, Gustave Fried., art critic . , 
 
 Amer. Wadsworth, James, wealthy philanthropist , 
 
 Amer. , Janies S. (son), patriotic general , 
 
 Ger. "Wagner, Rudolph, physiologist 
 
 Amer. Wainwright, Jon. M., epis. bishop of New York i . 
 
 Eng. "Wakefield, Edward Gibbon, political economist 
 
 Eng. , Gilbert, scholar and critic , , 
 
 Amer. "Waldo, Daniel, rev., centenarian . • 
 
 Fr. "Walewski, Florian, count, statesman . • 
 
 Eng. Walker, John, lexicographer . , 
 
 Amer. , Robert J., politician, ex-secretary of treasury 
 
 Amer. , "William, ' filibustering' adventurer 
 
 Amer. "Wallace, Horace Binney, scholar and essayist 
 
 Scot. , "WiUiam, patriot and hero . , 
 
 Irish. ■ , "William Vincent, musical composer . 
 
 Ger. Wallenstein, A. E. V., celebrated general • 
 
 Eng. Waller, Edward, elegant poet 
 
 Eng. , Sir William, parliamentary general • 
 
 Eng. Walpole, Horace, earl of Oxford, author . 
 
 Eng. , Robert, earl of Oxford, statesman • 
 
 Amer. "Walsh, Robert, author and journalist . , 
 
 Eng. "Walsingham, Sir Francis, statesman . 
 
 Amer. "Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of New York 
 
 Eng. Walton, Brian, divine and orientalist . . 
 
 Eng. , Izaak, angler and biographer 
 
 Amer. Walworth, Reuben H., jurist, ex-chancellor of N. Y. 
 
 Eng. Warburton, William, eminent prelate and writer . 
 
 Amer. Ward, Artemas, oflicer in the Revolution , 
 
 Scot'. Wardlaw, Rev. Ralph, theologian 
 
 Amer. Ware, Henry, rev., Unitarian theologian and author 
 
 Amer. - — — , Henry, rev., jr., Unitarian theologian and author 
 
 Amer. , William, novelist, ' Zenobia,' &c. 
 
 Amer. Warren, John Collins, emment surgeon 
 
 Amer. , Joseph, patriotic general, fell at Bunker Hill 
 
 1794 
 
 
 176S 
 
 1844 
 
 1807 
 
 1864 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1792 
 
 1854 
 
 1796 
 
 1862 
 
 1756 
 
 1801 
 
 1762 
 
 1864 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1732 
 
 1807 
 
 1801 
 
 
 1824 
 
 1860 
 
 1817 
 
 1852 
 
 1276 
 
 1305 
 
 1815 
 
 1865 
 
 1583 
 
 1634 
 
 1603 
 
 1617 
 
 1597 
 
 1688 
 
 1718 
 
 1797 
 
 1676 
 
 1745 
 
 1784 
 
 1858 
 
 1536 
 
 1590 
 
 1815 
 
 1865 
 
 1600 
 
 1661 
 
 1593 
 
 16S3 
 
 1789 
 
 
 1C98 
 
 1779 
 
 1748 
 
 1800 
 
 1780 
 
 1853 
 
 1764 
 
 1845 
 
 1794 
 
 1843 
 
 1797 
 
 1852 
 
 1778 
 
 1856 
 
 1741 
 
 1775 
 
BIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 SI 
 
 NATION. 
 
 En..-. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. "Warwick, R. Neville, earl of, general and statesman, ' king-maker' 
 
 Amer. Washington, Bushrod, justice of supreme court of U. S. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 "Wanen, Mrs. Mercy, historian, ' American Beview* 
 — - — , Samuel, jurist and novelist, ' 10,000 a Tear' 
 Sir John Borlase, naval oflS.cer , . . 
 "War ton, Joseph, poet and critic 
 , Thomas, poet and critic 
 
 Amer. 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eag. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 -, George, ihe father of his country 
 -, "Wm. Aug. officer in the Revolution 
 
 Waterland, Rev. Dr., theological and polemical writer • 
 
 "Watson, Elkanah, merchant, agriculturist, and historian . 
 
 Robert, historian .... 
 
 , Richard, eminent prelate and writer . . • 
 
 Watt, James, celebrated natural philosopher and engineer . 
 
 , Robert, bibliographer .... 
 
 Watts, Alaric Alex., poet and journalist . . , 
 
 Dr. Isaac, divine, poet, and miscellaneous writer 
 
 Wayland, Francis, D. D., metaphysician, theol. and polit. econ. 
 Wayne, Anthony, distinguished officer in Revolution , 
 
 Weale, John, publisher and editor, engineering, &c. • 
 
 Webber, Charles W., naturalist and author , . 
 
 Weber, Carl Maria \ on, eminent composer , , 
 
 Weber, Henry William, antiquary and critic • , 
 
 Webster, John, dramatic poet . « • . 
 
 , Daniel, statesman . . , , 
 
 , Noah, author of English Dictionary , , 
 
 Wedderburn, Alex., earl Rosslyn, lord chancellor . , 
 
 Wedgewood, J., scientific manufacturer of porcelain , , 
 
 Weems, Rev. Mason L., author of school biographies • 
 
 Welby, Amelia B., of Kentucky, poetess . 
 
 "Wellesley, marquis of, governor-general of India, and lord-lieut. 
 oflrelaud ... . . 
 
 Wellington, Arthur "Wellesley, duke of, mil. com. and statesman 
 "Wells, David A., editor, statistician, and author . 
 
 , Edward, theologian and scholar . , 
 
 , Horace, dentist, discoverer of anaesthesia . . 
 
 "Welsh, David, D. D., founder of North British Review . 
 
 Eng- Am. "Wentworth, Sir John, gov. of N. H.amp., also gov. of Nova Scotia 1736 
 
 Eng. , Sir Thomas, Earl of Stafford 
 
 Ger. Werner, Abraham Theophilus, mineralogist , • 
 
 Ger. , Fred. L. Z., poet and dramatist ... 
 
 Eng. "Wesley, Rev. Charles, ' Hymns ' ... 
 
 Eng. , John, founder of Methodist society , . . 
 
 Eng. "Westall, Richard, historical painter . . , 
 
 Eng. Whateley, Richard, archbishop of Dublin, theological and edu- 
 cational writer ...... 
 
 Amer. Wheatley, Phillis, negro poetess .... 
 
 Eng. ■ > Rev. Charles, on ' Book of Common Prayer' , 
 
 Amer. Wheaton, Henry, jurist, diplomatist and law commentator . 
 Eng. Wheatstoue, Charles, electrician .... 
 Amer. "Wheelock, Eleazar, D. D. founder of Dartmouth College . 
 Eng, Whewell, Rev. William, theol., scientific and educational writer 
 
 BORN, 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1728 
 
 1814 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1754 
 
 1822 
 
 1720 
 
 180O 
 
 1728 
 
 1790 
 
 I 
 
 1471 
 
 1759 
 
 1829 
 
 1732 
 
 1799 
 
 1752 
 
 1810 
 
 1683 
 
 1740 
 
 1758 
 
 1842 
 
 1730 
 
 1780 
 
 1737 
 
 1816 
 
 1736 
 
 1819 
 
 1774 
 
 1819 
 
 1799 
 
 1864 
 
 1674 
 
 1748 
 
 1796 
 
 1865 
 
 1745 
 
 1796 
 
 1792 
 
 1862 
 
 ]8:9 
 
 1856 
 
 1786 
 
 1826 
 
 1783 
 
 1813 
 
 17th cent. 
 
 1782 
 
 1852 
 
 1768 
 
 1843 
 
 1733 
 
 1805 
 
 1731 
 
 1795 
 
 
 1825 
 
 1821 
 
 1852 
 
 1760 
 
 1842 
 
 1769 
 
 1852 
 
 1663 
 
 1727 
 
 1815 
 
 1848 
 
 1794 
 
 1845 
 
 a 1736 
 
 1820 
 
 1593 
 
 1641 
 
 1750 
 
 1817 
 
 1768 
 
 1823 
 
 1708 
 
 1788 
 
 1703 
 
 1791 
 
 1765 
 
 1837 
 
 1787 
 
 1863 
 
 1753 
 
 1794 
 
 1686 
 
 1742 
 
 1785 
 
 1818 
 
 1802 
 
 
 1711 
 
 1773 
 
 1795 
 
 1866 
 
88 
 
 THE WOELD's PEOGEESS. 
 
 NATION. 
 
 Amer. 
 Amer. 
 
 jCng. 
 Eng. 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 En Am. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Aust. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Cfer. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 En. Am 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 En .Am, 
 
 £n.Am. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Whipple, Edwin P., critic and essayist . • 
 
 Whistler, George Wm., engineer of Prussian railways • 
 
 Whiston, Wm., divine, mathematician and translator . 
 "Whitby, David, learned divine, commentator of New Testament 
 White, He:iry Kirke, poet .... 
 
 , Eev. Joseph Blanco, priest and English author 
 
 , William, one of the two first bishops of the P. E. church 
 
 in United States .... 
 
 Whitefield, George, founder of the Calvanistio Methodists . 
 Whitney, Eli, inventor of cotton gin . . . 
 
 Whittier, John Greenleaf, poet and essayist 
 Whittingham, Wm. E., epis. bp. of Maryland and author 
 Whittington, Sir Eichard, lord mayor of London . 
 Wickliffe, or Wicklif, John, the morning star of the Eeformation 
 Wieland, Christopher, able and fertile writer . . 
 
 Wiffen, J. H., poet and historian . . • 
 
 Wilberforce, Samuel, hp. of Oxford and author . • 
 
 -, William, statesman and philanthropist • 
 
 Wilde, Richard Henry, poet and ZiZiera^ewr* . • 
 
 "Wilkes, John, celebrated political character . • 
 
 Wilkie, Sir David, historical painter 
 Wilkins, John, bp. of Chester, mathematician and theologian 
 
 , Sir Charles, oriental philologist < . . 
 
 Wilkinson, James, general in Eevolution and author • 
 
 , Sir John Gardner, Egyptologist . • 
 
 Williams of Wykeham, arch-ecclesiast and statesman 
 Williams, Eleazar, rev., alleged to be Louis XVIL • 
 
 , Helen Maria, miscellaneous writer . • 
 
 , John, missionary and author . • • 
 
 , Major-gen. Sir Fen wick, defender of Kars • 
 
 , Otho H., general .... 
 
 , — , Eoger, colonizer of Ehode Island 
 
 Williamson, Hugh, physician and historian of N. Carolina . 
 Willis, Nath. Parker, poet, novelist, essayist, critic and jour 
 
 nalist ...... 
 
 Wilson, Alex., celebrated naturalist ■ . • 
 
 , Daniel, bishop of Calcutta . . , 
 
 , Horace H., orientalist, professor of Sanscrit 
 
 , John (Christopher North), poet, critic and essayist 
 
 , Mrs. Cornwall Barron, author 
 
 Winckelman, John Joachim, ' History of Art ' 
 Windischgratz, Charles Alfred, prince de, generalissimo 
 Windham, William, statesman . . . 
 
 Winer, George Bened., prot. theologian . • 
 
 Winkelried, Arnold von, patiiot . . • 
 
 . Winslow, Edward, governor of Plymouth colony . 
 
 , Forbes, physician and writer on insanity . 
 
 , Hubbard, D. D., editor and author 
 
 , Miron, D. D., missionary and orientalist 
 
 Winterhalter, Franz Xavier, ' court painter ' 
 Winthrop, John, governor of colony of Mass. . 
 , John (.son), governor of Connecticut . 
 
 BORN. 
 
 I>IG& 
 
 • 1819 
 
 
 1800 
 
 1849 
 
 1667 
 
 1752 
 
 1638 
 
 1726 
 
 1785 
 
 1806 
 
 1775 
 
 1841 
 
 . 1747 
 
 1836 
 
 1714 
 
 1770 
 
 1765 
 
 1825 
 
 1808 
 
 
 1805 
 
 
 
 1419 
 
 )n 1824 
 
 1384 
 
 1733 
 
 1813 
 
 1792 
 
 1836 
 
 1805 
 
 
 1759 
 
 1853 
 
 1789 
 
 1847 
 
 . 1717 
 
 1797 
 
 1785 
 
 1841 
 
 1614 
 
 1672 
 
 
 1836 
 
 1757 
 
 1825 
 
 1797 
 
 
 1324 
 
 1404 
 
 1787? 
 
 1858 
 
 1762 
 
 1827 
 
 1796 
 
 1839 
 
 1800 
 
 
 1748 
 
 1794 
 
 1606 
 
 1683 
 
 1735 
 
 1819 
 
 > 
 
 1807 
 
 1867 
 
 1766 
 
 1813 
 
 1778 
 
 1858 
 
 1808 
 
 1860 
 
 1785 
 
 1854 
 
 
 1846 
 
 . 1717 
 
 1768 
 
 1787 
 
 1862 
 
 1750 
 
 1810 
 
 1789 
 
 1858 
 
 
 1386 
 
 1595 
 
 1655 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1800 
 
 1864 
 
 1789 
 
 1864 
 
 
 1803 
 
 ]o88 
 
 1649 
 
 1606 
 
 1676 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 RATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Winthrop, Major Theodore, novelist and patriot 
 
 Amer. Wirt, William, attorney -general U. S. and biographer 
 
 Eng. Wiseman, Nicholas, cardinal, Roman catholic theol. and author 
 
 Amer. Wistar, Caspar, eminent physician and anatomist , 
 
 Eng. Withers, George, poet .... 
 
 Amer. "Witherspoon, John, able divine and patriot . , 
 
 Dutch. Witzius, Herman, theologian . • , , . 
 
 Scot. Wodrow, Robert, ecclesiastical historian . , 
 
 Irish. Woffington, Margaret (Peg W.), actress . • • 
 
 Eng. Wolcott, Jo'.in, known as Peter Pindar, poet . 
 
 Amer. , Oliver, patriot, signer of Declaration of Independence 
 
 Amor. , Roger, colonial governor of Conn. , 
 
 Eng. Jew. Wolf, Dr. Joseph, missionary and traveller , , 
 
 Ger. , Fred. Aug., classical author and critic . . 
 
 Eng. Wolfe, James, distinguished general . , , 
 
 Eng. , Rev. Charles, poet, ' Sir Juhn Moore ' . . 
 
 Ger. Wolff, John Christian, philosopher aud mathematician . 
 
 Eng. Woliaston, William Hyde, experimental philos. , 
 
 Eng. "Wolsey, Thomas, cardinal, celebrated statesman . . 
 
 Eng. WoUstonecroft, Mary (Mrs. Godwin), author . . 
 
 Eng. Wood, Anthony, antiquary and biographer , , 
 
 Eng. , Robert, archaeologist and secretary of state . 
 
 Amer. Woodbury, Levi, statesman and jurist . , , 
 
 Eng. Woodfall, "William, newspaper publisher (Junius) , 
 
 Eng. Woodhouse, Robert, mathematician and astronomer • 
 
 Scot. Woodhouselee, Alex. Fraser Tytler iseeTytler) historian 
 
 Amer. Woods, Leonard, theologian • . , , 
 
 Eng. Woodville, Elizabeth, queen of Edward IV. . « 
 
 Amer. Woodworth, Samuel, poet, ' Oaken Bucket ' . , 
 
 Amer. Wool, John E., major-general U. S, army • , 
 
 Amer. Woolman, John (Quaker), philnnthropist , , 
 
 Amer Wooster, David, Revolutionary general , , 
 
 Eng. Worcester, Edward J., marquis of, ' Century of Inventions ' 
 
 Eng. , Joseph E., geographer and lexicographer • 
 
 Eng. Words-\^ orth, Rev. Christ., ' Ancient Greece ' , , 
 
 Eng. , William, poet laureate . . , 
 
 Amer. Worth, William J., major-general U. S. army . , 
 
 Eng. Wortley, Lady Emeline O. E., traveller and author 
 
 Eng. Wotton, Sir Heniy, statesman and poet . , , 
 
 Eng. Wraxall, Sir Nathaniel W., traveller and historian . 
 
 Eng. Wren, Sir Christopher, celebrated architect . , 
 
 Eng. Wright, Fanny (Madame Darusmont), ' Social Eefoi-mer' 
 
 Amer. , Silas, governor of New York and senator IT. S. . 
 
 Eng. , Thomas, antiquarian author . , 
 
 Aust. Wurmser, D. S., lield-marshal in Austrian army , , 
 
 Eng. Wyatt, Matthew Digby, architect and author , 
 
 Eng. , Sir Thomas, poet and statesman . , , 
 
 Eng. Wycherley, William, dramatic poet . . , 
 
 Eng. WycliflPe, see Wicklife, reformer . , , 
 
 Eng. Wykeham, M., bishop of Winchester, statesman and philanth. 
 
 Eng„ Wyndham, Sir William, statesman . . , 
 
 BORN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1828 
 
 1861 
 
 1772 
 
 1835 
 
 r 1802 
 
 1865 
 
 1761 
 
 1818 
 
 1590 
 
 1667 
 
 1722 
 
 1794 
 
 1636 
 
 1708 
 
 1679 
 
 1734 
 
 1T19 
 
 1760 
 
 1738 
 
 1818 
 
 1727 
 
 1797 
 
 16-79 
 
 1767 
 
 1T95 
 
 1862 
 
 1759 
 
 1824 
 
 1726 
 
 1759 
 
 1791 
 
 1823 
 
 1679 
 
 1754 
 
 1766 
 
 1828 
 
 1471 
 
 1530 
 
 1759 
 
 1797 
 
 1632 
 
 1695 
 
 1716 
 
 17T1 
 
 1789 
 
 1851 
 
 1745 
 
 1822 
 
 1773 
 
 1827 
 
 1747 
 
 1813 
 
 1770 
 
 1851 
 
 
 1486? 
 
 1785 
 
 1842 
 
 1789 
 
 
 1720 
 
 1773 
 
 1710 
 
 1777 
 
 
 1667 
 
 1784 
 
 1865 
 
 1770 
 
 1850 
 
 1770 
 
 1850 
 
 1794 
 
 1849 
 
 1806 
 
 1855 
 
 1568 
 
 1689 
 
 1751 
 
 1831 
 
 1632 
 
 1723 
 
 1796 
 
 1853 
 
 1795 
 
 1847 
 
 1810 
 
 
 1717 
 
 17w7 
 
 1820 
 
 
 1503 
 
 1540 
 
 1640 
 
 1715 
 
 1324 
 
 1404 
 
 1324 
 
 1404 
 
 1687 
 
 1749 
 
90 
 
 THE WOELD S PEOGEESS. 
 
 NATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Eng. Wyso, Sir Thomas, M. P., writer on education • 
 
 Arccr. Wytte, George, eminent lawyer, statesman and patriot 
 
 l}ti<.i> 
 
 1806 
 
 Fr. Xavier, St, Francie, 'Apostle to the Indies' . 
 
 Gr. Xenocrates, philosopher . . . , B. 
 
 Gr. Xenophanes, philosopher, founder of the Eleatics . f. b. 
 
 Gr. Xeuophon, celebrated philosopher, historian and genex'al . B. 
 
 Pers. Xerxes I., king of Persia 
 
 Pers. II., king of Persia . . • 
 
 Span. Ximenes,. Francis, cardinal, eminent statesman 
 
 Amer. Tale, Elihu, early patron of Tale College . 
 
 Eiig. Tarrell, 'WiUiam, naturalist and author. • 
 
 Eng. Touatt, William, author of works on the horse 
 
 Amer. Toung, Alex., D. D., historian of Pilgrims • 
 
 Eng. , Arthur, agricultural writer . , 
 
 Amer. , Brigham, leader of the Mormons , . 
 
 Eng. , Charles, actor 
 
 Eng. , Edward, poet and miscellaneous writer i . 
 
 Eng. , Thomas, physician and philosopher 
 
 Gr. Tpsilanti, prince Alexander, leader in the Greek modern rev. 
 
 Span. T riarte, don Thomas de, eminent poet 
 
 Z 
 
 Ital. Zaccaria, Francis A., voluminous writer • 
 
 Heh. Zechariah, the prophet . . , • , f. b. 
 
 Ital. Zeno, Apostolo, eminent wnter . • • . 
 
 Gr. Zeno of Elea, philosopher . , . • B. 
 
 Gr. , founder of the sect of Stoics . . . b. 
 
 Zenobia, Septimia, queen of Palmyra, conqueror, and patroness of 
 the arts .... 
 
 Heb. Zephaniah, the prophet . . ' , 
 
 Ger. Zimmerman, E. A. W. von, naturalist 
 
 g^jgg. , John George, miscellaneous writer . 
 
 Ger. Zinzendori', N. L„ count, chief of the Moravians 
 Swiss. Zolikofer, G. J., theologian 
 
 Zoroaster, famous Eastern philosopher 
 Eng. Zouch, Thomas, theologian and biographer 
 Gr. Zozimus, historian . . . 
 
 Ger. Zschokke, John Henry D., miscellaneous writer, ' Tales 
 Swiss. Zuinglius, Ulric, enlightened reformer 
 G«T. Zvrapt, Karl, author of Latin Grammar • • 
 
 1506 
 c. 406 
 c. 540 
 c. 446 B. c 
 
 1552 
 c. 314 
 
 1457 
 
 1648 
 1784 
 1777 
 1800 
 1741 
 1801 
 1777 
 1681 
 1774 
 1792 
 1750 
 
 360 
 
 b c. 465 
 
 B. c. 425 
 
 1517 
 
 1721 
 1856 
 
 1847 
 1854 
 1820 
 
 1856 
 1765 
 
 1829 
 1828 
 1790 
 
 1714 
 C. 520 
 
 1668 
 C. 463 
 0. 362 b, 
 
 c. 520 
 1743 
 1728 
 1700 
 1730 
 
 1737 
 
 f. 400 
 1771 
 1484 
 1792 
 
 1795 
 
 1750 
 
 c. 264 
 
 300 
 
 1815 
 1795 
 1760 
 1788 
 
 1815 
 
 1848 
 1531 
 1858 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. AETISTS, 
 
 91 
 
 ARTISTS. 
 
 PAINTEES— ENGEAVEES— SCULPTOES— AECHITECTS. 
 
 NATION. 
 
 G-1-. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Agatharcus, inventor of perspective scenery in theatres. Painter. 
 Ageldas ..... Sculptor. 
 
 Agesander, sculptor of ' Laocoon and his Children ' Sculptor. 
 Albano, Francis, ' the painter of the Graces ' . Painter. 
 
 Alberti, Leo Baptist, a Florentine . Pa., Sc, and Archit. 
 
 Albertinelli, Mariotto .... Painter. 
 Alcarmenes (pupil of Phidias) , • Sculptor. 
 
 Allan, Sir William .... Painter. 
 
 Allston, Washington . . Port, and Histor. Painter. 
 
 Andrea del Sarto 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Angelo, Michael (Buonarotti), a pre-eminent Pa., Sc, and Arch. 
 Angelo, Michael (Caravaggio) . . . Painter. 
 
 Apeiles, the most celebrated of ancient painters . Painter. 
 Apollodorus, an Athenian . , . . Painter. 
 
 Appiani, of Milan .... Painter. 
 
 Aristides, of Thebes .... Painter. 
 
 Audran, Gerard, celebrated . . Histor. Engraver. 
 
 (Eight painters and engravers named Audran nearly contemporary.) 
 
 BORN. 
 
 f. B. C. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 1578 
 1400 
 
 f. 
 1781 
 1779 
 1488 
 1474 
 1569 
 
 f. 
 
 f. 
 1754 
 
 f. 
 1640 
 
 DIED* 
 
 B. C. 480 
 
 5th Cent. 
 
 5th Cent. 
 
 1660 
 
 1490 
 
 1520 
 
 B. c. 450 
 
 1850 
 
 1843 
 
 1530 
 
 1563 
 
 1609 
 
 B. 0. 330 
 
 B. c. 408 
 
 1817 
 
 B. c. 240 
 
 1703 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Baccio-Della Porta, known as San Marco (Fra Bartolo- 
 
 
 
 
 meo) . . 
 
 • 
 
 . . . Painter. 
 
 1469 
 
 1517 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bacon, John . • 
 
 • 
 
 , Sculptor. 
 
 1740 
 
 1799 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Baker, Geo. A. (N. Y.) 
 
 . 
 
 • Port. Painter. 
 
 
 
 Flem. 
 
 Balen, Henry van . 
 
 • 
 
 • . Painter. 
 
 1560 
 
 1P32 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Bandinelli, Baccio . • 
 
 • 
 
 • Sculptor. 
 
 1489 
 
 1559 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Banks, Thomas . 
 
 . 
 
 • . Sculptor. 
 
 1745 
 
 1805 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Barents, Dietrich . . 
 
 , 
 
 Histor. Painter. 
 
 1534 
 
 1582 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Barker, Bobert, inventor of panoramas 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1740 
 
 18C6 
 
 Irish. 
 
 Barry, James 
 
 • 
 
 • Painter. 
 
 1741 
 
 1805 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Barry, Sir Chas. 
 
 . 
 
 , . Architect. 
 
 1795 
 
 1860 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Bartolini, Lorenzo , 
 
 • 
 
 • Sculptor. 
 
 1777 
 
 1850 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Bartolozzi, Francesco . 
 
 • 
 
 , Engraver. 
 
 1730 
 
 1813 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Bartolomeo, Fra di San Marco 
 
 . 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1469 
 
 1517 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Bassanio, Jas., Fran., Jerome, John, and Leander Painters. 
 
 16th Century. 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Batoni, Pompey . 
 
 . 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1708 
 
 1787 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Bauer, Ferdinand . . 
 
 • 
 
 Botanical Painter. 
 
 
 1823 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Beechy, Sir William . 
 
 • 
 
 . Landscape Painter. 
 
 1753 
 
 1839 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Beard, Wm. H. (N. Y.) 
 
 • 
 
 • Painter. 
 
 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Beaumont, Sir George H. 
 
 • 
 
 . . Painter. 
 
 1753 
 
 1827 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Bella, Stefano Delia, Florentine 
 
 • 
 
 • Engraver. 
 
 1610 
 
 1684 
 
n 
 
 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 
 
 NATION 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 BOBN. 
 
 DIED. 
 
 Iial. 
 
 Bellini, Giov., founder of the Ve 
 
 netian school . Painter. 
 
 1462 
 
 1512 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Bellini, Gentine . 
 
 Portrait Painter. 
 
 1421 
 
 1501 
 
 Jtal. 
 
 Btnini, Giovanni L. 
 
 Painter, Sculp'r, and Arch't. 
 
 1598 
 
 1680 
 
 Plem. 
 
 Berchem, Nicholas 
 
 Engraver. 
 
 1624 
 
 1689 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bewick, John, publisher of various works with, wood- 
 
 
 
 
 cuts 
 
 Wood Engraver. 
 
 1760 
 
 1795 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Bierstadt, Albert (N. Y.) 
 
 Landscape Painter. 
 
 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Bird, Edward 
 
 • , . Painter. 
 
 1772 
 
 1819 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Blake, William 
 
 , Painter and Engraver. 
 
 1757 
 
 1826 
 
 Flem. 
 
 Bologna, John of (in Italy) 
 
 . Scvdptor and Architect. 
 
 1524 
 
 1608 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Bone, Henry . , 
 
 , Enamel Painter. 
 
 1755 
 
 1834 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Bordone, Paris . 
 
 . • • Painter. 
 
 1503 
 
 1588 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Both, John and Andrew • 
 
 . . Painters. 
 
 1610 
 
 1650, '56 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Bourdon, Sebastian 
 
 • Painter and Engraver. 
 
 1616 
 
 1671 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Bourgeoise, Sir Francis (born in 
 
 London). . Painter. 
 
 1756 
 
 1811 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Boydell, Jno. (printseller and lord mayor of London) Engraver. 
 
 1719 
 
 1804 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Brentel, Francis , 
 
 . . . Painter. 
 
 f. 1635 
 
 
 Ital, 
 
 Bramante D'Urbino, Francis I 
 
 ., (1st of St. Peter's 
 
 
 
 
 Church) 
 
 . . Architect. 
 
 1444 
 
 1514 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Brevoort, J. E. (N. Y.) 
 
 . Landscape Painter. 
 
 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Brill, Matthew . , 
 
 . . Painter. 
 
 1550 
 
 1584 
 
 Dutch. Brill, Paul 
 
 • Landscape Painter. 
 
 1556 
 
 1620 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Brown, Geo. L. , , 
 
 • , Painter. 
 
 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Brown, Henry Kirke , 
 
 ... Sculptor. 
 
 1814 
 
 
 FJem, 
 
 Bruges, John of, or John Van Ey 
 
 ck , • Painter. 
 
 1370 
 
 1441 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Brunelleschi, Ph., Pitti Palace at Florence ' . Architect. 
 
 1377 
 
 1444 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Buonarotti, see Angelo 
 
 
 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Burnett, James • 
 
 , Landscape Painter. 
 
 178S 
 
 1816 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Cagliari, Paul, known as Paul Veronese, celebrated Painter. 
 
 1532 
 
 1588 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Cagliari, Benedict, Carlotto, and Gabriel, brothers and 
 
 
 
 
 sons of Paul 
 
 
 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Calcott, Sir A. W. . 
 
 . Landscape Painter. 
 
 1779 
 
 1844 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Caldara, or Polydore Caravaggio 
 
 • , . . Painter. 
 
 1495 
 
 1543 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Calimachus • , 
 
 Sculptor and Architect. 
 
 f. B 
 
 . C. 540 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Cambiaso, Lucus, a Genoese 
 
 Pa' titer. 
 
 1527 
 
 1587 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Canaletto, or Canale, Anthony, a 
 
 Venetian Lands. Painter. 
 
 1697 
 
 1768 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Canova, Antonio . , 
 
 , , Sculptor. 
 
 1757 
 
 1822 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Caracci, Ludovico , 
 
 . • • Painter. 
 
 1555 
 
 1619 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Caracci, Agostino , 
 
 , • Painter. 
 
 1558 
 
 1601 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Caracci, Annibale • 
 
 , • , Painter. 
 
 1560 
 
 1609 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Caracci, Antho y , 
 
 , , Painter. 
 
 1583 
 
 1618 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Caravaggio, see Angelo . 
 
 . • . 
 
 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Carpi, Ugo da, discoverer of the art of printing in Chiaro-oscuro 
 
 
 
 
 with three plates to imitate drawiijgs 
 
 1486 
 
 1530 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Casas, Louis Francis . 
 
 . Painter and Architect. 
 
 1756 
 
 1827 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Oasilear, John W. (N. Y.) 
 
 . , Lands. Painter. 
 
 
 
 Span. 
 
 Castilio y Saavedra, Anthony 
 
 , . Painter. 
 
 1603 
 
 1667 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Cavendone, James 
 
 Fresco-Painter. 
 
 1577 
 
 1508 
 
 ItaL 
 
 Cellini, Benvenuto, Florentine i 
 
 artist, author of auto- 
 
 
 
 1500 
 
 1570 
 

 BIOGKAPHICAL INDEX. AETISTS. 
 
 
 93 
 
 NATION 
 
 NAME AND 
 
 PROFESSION. 
 
 BORN, 
 
 DIED. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Cespedes.Paulde 
 
 . 
 
 Painter, Sculptor, Architecl. 
 
 1538 
 
 1608 
 
 Flem. 
 
 Champiigne, Philip de 
 
 
 . 
 
 , . Painter. 
 
 1604 
 
 1674 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 1643 
 
 1688 
 
 
 ^— — — — . OUllLi. ±J(XyLLOv 
 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Chantr}', Sir Francis . 
 
 
 • 
 
 , . Sculptor. 
 
 1781 
 
 1841 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Chapman, John G. 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 , Hist. Painter. 
 
 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Chares . . . 
 
 
 • 
 
 Painter. 
 
 f. I, 
 
 , C. 300 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Chaudet, Anthony Denis 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 Painter and Sculptor. 
 
 1763 
 
 1810 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Church, Fred. E, 
 
 
 • 
 
 . Lands. Painter. 
 
 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Cignani, Carlo 
 
 ■ • 
 
 • 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 1628 
 
 1719 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Cimahue, Giov., Florentine 
 
 
 • 
 
 , , Painter. 
 
 1240 
 
 1300 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Claude Gelee— called Claude Lorraine . 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 1600 
 
 1682 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Cleomenes, an Athenian, (the 
 
 Medicean Yenus) . Sculptor. 
 
 f. B. 
 
 C. 180 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Cievenger, Shobal Vail 
 
 . 
 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 1812 
 
 1S44 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Cole, Thomas . . 
 
 
 Lands, and Hist. Painter. 
 
 1802 
 
 1848 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Collins, William 
 
 , 
 
 Lands. 
 
 and Fam. life Painter. 
 
 1788 
 
 1847 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Colman, Saml. (N"." T.) 
 
 
 , 
 
 Lands. Painter. 
 
 
 
 Eng.,- 
 
 Constable, John 
 
 • 
 
 , 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1776 
 
 1837 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Cooper, Samuel . 
 
 
 , 
 
 . Miniature Painter. 
 
 1689 
 
 1776 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Copley, John Singleton (horn in 
 
 Boston) 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1737 
 
 1815 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Cornelius, Feter von 
 
 
 . 
 
 Painter, 
 
 1787 
 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Correggio, Ant., founder of the Lombard 
 
 school Painter. 
 
 1493 
 
 1534 
 
 Dutcli. 
 
 Cort, Cornelius . 
 
 
 , 
 
 . Engraver. 
 
 1536 
 
 1578 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Cortona, Pietro da, Tuscan 
 
 , 
 
 , 
 
 • Painter. 
 
 1596 
 
 1669 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Cosway, Richard 
 
 
 , 
 
 , . Painter. 
 
 1740 
 
 1828 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Courtois, James, known as 11 
 
 Borgognone • Painter. 
 
 1621 
 
 1673 
 
 Fr. 
 
 , William (brother) 
 
 
 . 
 
 . >• Painter. 
 
 1628 
 
 1679 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Couture 
 
 , 
 
 . ■> 
 
 Painter. 
 
 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Couston, Nicholas (also his brother William) . Sculptor. 
 
 1658 
 
 1731 
 
 Fr. 
 
 , "William 
 
 
 s 
 
 culptor and Architect. 
 
 1716 
 
 1777 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Cousin, John , 
 
 , 
 
 . 
 
 Paint., Sculp., etc. 
 
 1500 
 
 1590 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Cox, David 
 
 
 • 
 
 Lands. Painter. 
 
 1723 
 
 1859 
 
 Gar. 
 
 Cranach, Lucas 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 Engraver. 
 
 1470 
 
 1553 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Cranch, Christr, P. • 
 
 
 • 
 
 , . Painter, 
 
 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Crawford, Thomas 
 
 • 
 
 , 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 1814 
 
 1857 
 
 Amei-. 
 
 Cropsey, Jasper F. (N. Y.) 
 
 
 • 
 
 Lands. Painter. 
 
 
 
 Dutcli. 
 
 Cuyp, Jacob G. 
 
 . 
 
 Lands, and Cattle Painter. 
 
 1568 
 
 1649 
 
 Dutcli. 
 
 , Albert (son of Jacob) 
 
 
 . Lands, and Cnttle Painter. 
 
 1606 
 
 1667 
 
 Dutcli. 
 
 , Benjamin • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • Hist. Painter. 
 
 1650 
 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Danby, Francis . • • • Painter. 
 
 Daniel, Thomas • • • . Lands. Painter. 
 
 , Wm. .... Lands. Painter. 
 
 Dp.nneckcr, John Henry, ' Adriadne,' &c. . Sculptor. 
 
 Darley, F. O. C, . . . Painter and Designer. 
 
 David, James Lous .... Painter. 
 
 , Peter John, of Angers (founder of recent French 
 
 school) . . . • . Sculptor. 
 
 Delacroix, P. V. E. . . . . Painter. 
 
 Delaroche, Paul • . . Hist. Painter. 
 
 1793 
 
 1861 
 
 1749 
 
 1840 
 
 1769 
 
 1837 
 
 1758 
 
 184J 
 
 1822 
 
 
 1750 
 
 1825 
 
 1789 
 
 1856 
 
 1798 
 
 1863 
 
 1797 
 
 1856 
 
94 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 NATION, 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Dutch, 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ita], 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amcr. 
 
 Dntch. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Araer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Denner, Balthasar .... Port. Paiater. 
 De Witt, James .... Painter. 
 
 Dinocrates, a Macedonian (builder of Alexandria, &c.) Architect. 
 Dolci, Carlo .... Scripture Painter. 
 Domenichiuo, Dorainic Zampicri (excelled in expression) Painter. 
 
 Donatello, or Donato 
 
 Dor6, GiiBtave 
 
 Doughty, Thomas 
 
 Douw, or Dow, Gerard . 
 
 Dabuffe, 
 
 Dufresnoy, Charles Alphonse 
 
 Dunlap, William 
 
 Durand, Asher B. (N". Y.) . 
 
 Durer, Albert (and author) 
 
 . Florentine Sculptor. 
 
 . Painter and Designer. 
 
 Lands. Painter. 
 
 Familiar Life Painter. 
 
 Hist. Pa'nter. 
 
 , . Painter. 
 
 Hist. Painter, 
 
 Paiater and Engraver. 
 
 Paint., Eng., Sc, and Arch. 
 
 ORN. 
 
 DIED 
 
 16S5 
 
 1741 
 
 1695 
 
 1747 
 
 f, B. 
 
 c. 330 
 
 1616 
 
 1686 
 
 1581 
 
 1641 
 
 1383 
 
 1466 
 
 1793 
 
 1856 
 
 1613 
 
 1674 
 
 1611 
 
 1665 
 
 1766 
 
 1839 
 
 1471 
 
 1528 
 
 Eng Easthike, Chas. L. . . . . Painter. 
 
 Gc>r. Eberhardt, Conrad .... Sculptor. 
 
 Eng Eginton, Francis, restorer of the art of painting on 
 
 glass ..... Painter. 
 
 Amer, Ehninger, John W. (N. Y.) . . . Painter. 
 
 Amer, Elliott, Chas. L. (N. Y.) . . . Port. Painter, 
 
 Eng. Etty, Wm. . • . . i . Painter. 
 
 Gr. llupompus (founder of t-chool at Sicyon) . Painter. 
 
 Dutch. Eyck, Jolm van (said to have invented painting in oil) Painter. 
 
 F 
 
 Ita\Am.Fagnani, G. 
 
 Eng. Fielding (Copley Vandyke) . 
 
 Erg. Flaxman, John . 
 
 Eng. Finden, Wra. . . 
 
 Amer. Fo;-bes, Edwin . 
 
 Scot. Forrest, Robert . . 
 
 Fr. Frere, Edouard 
 
 Swiss. Fuseli, llenry (resided in England 
 
 Swiss. , John G. . 
 
 Poi-t, Painter, 
 
 . Lands. Painter* 
 
 Sculptor and Artist. 
 
 Engraver. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 Genre Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Pair.ter. 
 
 G 
 
 Eng. Gainsborough, Thomas 
 
 Fr. Gerard, Fi-an, P. S., baron 
 
 PV. , Jolm I. (Gr:inville) . 
 
 Ita'. Ghiberti, Lawrence 
 
 Eng. Gibbons, Grinling, famed for carving in oak 
 
 Eng. Gibson, John .... 
 
 Amer. GifFord, Sanford E.. . ■ 
 
 Fr.Am. Gignoux, Regis 
 
 Ita!. Giordani, Luke (the Pi-oteus of Painting) 
 
 I: a!. Giorglone, Barbarelli 
 
 Ital. Giotto (one of the earliest modern) 
 
 Fr, Girardon, Francis 
 
 •Fr. Girodetj Trioson Aime Louis 
 
 . Lands. Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Caricaturist, 
 
 Floreniine Sculptor. 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 Lands. Painter. 
 
 Lands. Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Paint. Sculp, and Arch. 
 
 Sculp, and Arch. 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 1793 
 
 1768 
 
 1737 
 
 1787 
 1370 
 
 1755 
 1787 
 
 1790 
 
 1741 
 
 1703 
 
 1727 
 1770 
 1803 
 1378 
 1648 
 1791 
 
 1629 
 1477 
 1276 
 1630 
 1767 
 
 1865 
 1859 
 
 1805 
 
 184& 
 1441 
 
 182*' 
 185:' 
 
 185 a 
 
 182^ 
 
 1781 
 
 1788 
 1887 
 1847 
 1456 
 1721 
 1867 
 
 1704 
 1511 
 133f 
 1715 
 162^ 
 
BlOGEAPHICAIi INDEX. — AKTISTS. 
 
 95 
 
 KATION. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Ital. Giulio Eoniauo (Pippi) .... Painter. 
 
 Fr. Goujon, John, the French Phidias . „ . Sculptor. 
 
 Amer. Gray, Henry Peters . . Port, and Hist. Painter. 
 
 Amer. Greenough, Horatio , . . Sculptor. 
 
 Amer. Greene, E. D. E. . . . Port. Painter. 
 
 Fr. Greuze, Jean Baptiste . . . Painter. 
 
 Ital. Guercino, real name Francis Barbieri . . Painter, 
 
 Ital. Guido, Reni (excelled in beauty of expression and grace) Painter. 
 
 Eng. Harlow, Geo. Henry 
 
 Amer. Hart, "Wm., b. in Scotland 
 
 Amer. Hart, Jas. M. " 
 
 Amer. Haseltine, "W. Stanley 
 
 Eng. Hayiland, John , 
 
 Eng. Haydon, R. B. . 
 
 Amer. Healy, Geo. P. 
 
 Eng. Heath, Charles 
 
 AmtT. Hennessy, W. L . 
 
 Amer. Hicks, Thos. . 
 
 Eng. Hilton, 'William . 
 
 Flem. Hobbema, Mynderhout 
 
 Eng. Hogarth, William 
 
 Swiss. Holbein, Hans 
 
 Ger. Hollar, Wenceslaus, executed 2,400 plates 
 
 Amer. Homer, Winslow . . 
 
 Flem. Honthorst, Gerard (called Gherarda del Notte) 
 
 Amer. Hosmer, Harriet . . . 
 
 Dutch. Houbraken, Jacob (600 portraits) . 
 
 Fr. Houdon (executed statue of Franklin) 
 
 Fr. Houel, John, Ti-avels, &c 
 
 Amer. Hubbard, Rich. W. 
 
 Amer. Hughes, Ball (b. in England). . 
 
 Amer. Huntington, Dan. 
 
 Eng. Hunt, Wm. H. (Pre-Raphaelite) . 
 
 Dutch. Huysum, J-ohn van (flowers and fruit) 
 
 Dutch. , Justus (The Old) 
 
 Dutch. (The Young) 
 
 M 
 
 . , . Painter. 
 
 . • Fainter. 
 
 . * , Painter. 
 
 . landscape Painter. 
 
 , , . Architect. 
 
 , Historical Painter. 
 
 , , , Painter. 
 
 Engraver. 
 
 , , , Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Historical Painter. 
 
 . . Landscape Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Portrait and Historical Painter. 
 
 Engraver. 
 
 Pai nter. 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 . Engraver. 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 Picturesque Painter and Engraver. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 BORN. 
 1492 
 1515 
 
 1805 
 
 1726 
 1590 
 1574 
 
 1787 
 1823 
 1828 
 
 1792 
 1786 
 1808 
 
 1823 
 
 1786 
 1611 
 1697 
 1498 
 1607 
 
 1592 
 1831 
 1698 
 1746 
 1736 
 
 1806 
 1816 
 1827 
 1682 
 1659 
 1684 
 
 DIES. 
 
 1546 
 1572 
 
 1852 
 
 1805 
 1603 
 1642 
 
 1S19 
 
 1852 
 1846 
 
 1849 
 
 1839 
 1699 
 
 1764 
 1654 
 1677 
 
 1660 
 
 1780 
 1828 
 1813 
 
 1749 
 1716 
 1706 
 
 Amer. Inman, Henry 
 
 Portrait and Landscape Painter. 1801 
 
 1846 
 
 Amer. Jarvip, J. W. 
 
 Amer. Johnson, Eastman (N. T.^ 
 
 Amer. , David (N. Y.) 
 
 Fr. Joliannot, Chas. H. A. 
 
 Fr. , Tony (brother) 
 
 Amer. Jones, Alfred, N. Y. 
 
 Eng. , Inigo , 
 
 Amer. , Thos. D. 
 
 , Portrait Painter. 
 
 
 
 Painter. 
 
 
 
 Painter. 
 
 
 
 Painter and Designer. 
 
 1800 
 
 1887 
 
 Painter and Designer. 
 
 1803 
 
 1852 
 
 Engraver. 
 
 
 
 . Architect. 
 
 1572 
 
 1652 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 
 
96 
 
 THE WOELD S PEOGEESS. 
 
 NATION. 
 
 Flem. Jordaens, JacoTj 
 Ital. Julio, Eomano 
 
 NAME AND PEOFESSION. BORN. DIED, 
 
 Painter. 1595 1671 
 
 Painter and Architect. 1492 1546 
 
 Swiss. Kauffinan, M. A. Angelica C. (in England) Poetical Painter. 1747 
 
 Amer. Kensett, John F. ... 
 
 Ger. Kiss, August .... 
 
 Ger. Kneller, Sir Godfrey (resided in England) 
 
 1807 
 Painter. 1818 
 Sculptor. 1802 1865 
 
 Painter. 1648 1723 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Lairesse, Gerard (excelled in expedition) Painter and Engraver. 
 Landon, C. P. . , Writer on Art and Painter. 
 
 Landseer, Chas. . , . Painter of Genre. 
 
 , John .... Engraver. 
 
 , Sir Edwin .... Painter, 
 
 Lang, Louis (b. in Germany) • . • Painter. 
 
 Lawrence, Sir Thos. .... Painter. 
 
 Lebrun, Charles (painter to Louis XIV.) * . Painter. 
 
 Leech, John . . . Humorist Artist. 
 
 Lely, Sir Peter (painter to Charles II. of England) 
 Le Sieur, Eustace (the French Raphael) . 
 Leslie, Cbas. R, (resided in England) . . 
 
 Lessing, Carl Fred. . . . \ 
 
 Leutze, Emanuel (h. in Germany) 
 Leyden, Lucas Dammesz . , 
 
 Liverseege, Henry . . 
 
 Lysippus (made 600 statues) 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 \ . Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Painter and Engraver 
 
 Painter. 
 
 . Sculptor. 
 
 m; 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Flem. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Malbone, Edward G. 
 Marshal], Wm. C. 
 
 , Wm. C. . 
 
 Martin, John . 
 Masaccio 
 
 Matsys, Quintin . 
 Mayer . , 
 Mazzuolo, Francis 
 McEntee, Jervis 
 Meissonier, Justus A. 
 , Jean L. 
 
 , Miniature Painter. 
 , . . Sculptor. 
 
 , . . . Engraver. 
 
 , , , Painter. 
 
 , , , Painter. 
 
 , , , , Painter. 
 
 . . , . Sculptor. 
 
 ... Painter. 
 . . . Painter. 
 
 Painter, Sculptor, and Architect, 
 Painter. 
 Mengs, Anthony R. (the Raphael of Germany) . Painter. 
 
 Dutch. Metzu, Gabriel . . . Familiar Life Painter. 
 
 Dutch. Mieris, Francis . , . , Familiar Life Painter. 
 
 Ft. Mignard, Peter .... Painter. 
 
 Amer. Mignot, Louis R. .... Painter. 
 
 Amer. Mills, Clark . . . • . Sculptor. 
 
 Swiss. Mind, Gottfried ..... Painter. 
 Ital. Morghen, Raphael .... Engraver. 
 
 Amer. Morse, Samuel F. B. . , , . Painter. 
 
 Amer. Mount, William Sidney ... Painter. 
 
 Eng. Moreland, George .... Painter. 
 
 Span. Murillo, Bartholomew S. • . . Painter. 
 
 1640 
 
 1769 
 1803 
 1814 
 1769 
 1619 
 1816 
 1618 
 1617 
 1794 
 1808 
 1816 
 1494 
 1803 
 f. B. 
 
 1777 
 1813 
 
 1789 
 1402 
 1460 
 
 1503 
 
 1711 
 
 182-6 
 
 1852 
 
 1830 
 1696 
 
 1680 
 1655 
 1859 
 
 1533 
 1832 
 '. 324 
 
 1807 
 
 1854 
 1427 
 1529 
 
 1540 
 
 1695 
 
 1750 
 
 1815 
 
 
 1729 
 
 1779 
 
 1615 
 
 16G9 
 
 1635 
 
 1681 
 
 1610 
 
 1695 
 
 1815 
 
 
 1768 
 
 1814 
 
 1T58 
 
 1833 
 
 1807 
 
 
 1764 
 
 1804 
 
 1613 
 
 1683 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. AKTISTS, 
 
 9U 
 
 N 
 
 NATION. KAMB AND PKOFESSION. 
 
 Dutch. Neefs, Poter . . . Architectural Painter. 
 
 Eng, ISTewton, Gilbert (Stuart) , . Historical Painter. 
 
 Eng. NoUekins, Joseph .... Sculptor. 
 
 Eng, Northcote, James 
 
 BOEN. 
 1570 
 
 1785 
 1737 
 Paiuter. 1746 
 
 1651 
 
 1835 
 1S23 
 1831 
 
 O 
 
 Eng. Opie, John . . 
 
 Dutch. Ostade, Adi-ian van (interiors) 
 Dutch. Ostade, Isaac (winter scenes) 
 Eng. Owen, "William • . 
 
 Painter. 1761 1807 
 
 Familiar Life Painter. 1610 1685 
 
 Painter. 1617 1671 
 
 . Painter. 1769 1825 
 
 P 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ainti', 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 Bel. 
 
 Bel. 
 
 Bel. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Pr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Pr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Pr. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Page, "Wm. , , , 
 Pajou, Augustin • • 
 Palladio, Andrew . , 
 Palomino de Castro y Velasco A. A. 
 Panniui, Giov, Paolo , 
 Parrhasius, of E^jhesus • 
 Peale, Charles "W. 
 , Rembrandt 
 
 , , Painter. 
 
 , Sculptor. 
 
 , • Architect. 
 
 Paiuter. 
 
 Architectural Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Historical and Portrait Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Perrault, Claudius (designed the front of the Louvre^ Architect. 
 
 Perugino, Peter (the master of Raphael) 
 Petitot, John (excelled in enamel) 
 Peters, Bonaventura . . . 
 
 , Francis Lucas • • 
 
 ■ , John , . • 
 
 Phidias (the most famous of ancient sculptors) 
 Phillips, Thomas, R. A. . . . 
 
 Picart, Bernard . , . 
 
 Pigalle, John Baptist , , 
 
 Pietro, da Pietre . , 
 
 Piles, Roger de . . 
 
 Piranesi, John Baptist (16 volumes folio) • 
 
 Polidors, da Caravaggio . . • 
 
 Poly cletus (statue of Juno at Argos) • 
 
 Pordenone, Regillo da . . , 
 
 Potter, Paul (unequalled in animal painting) 
 Poussin, Nicholas (excelled in landscape painting) 
 Poussin, Gaspar (Dughet) , 
 
 Piombo, Sebastiano del , 
 
 Powers, Hiram , . 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Marine Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Marine Painter. 
 
 Sculptor. B 
 
 . Port. Painter. 
 
 . Engraver. 
 
 , Sculptor. 
 
 Hist. Painter of Rome. 
 
 Author and Painter. 
 
 , Engraver. 
 
 Painter. 
 Sculptor. B. 
 Painter. 
 Painter. 
 Painter. 
 
 Pradier, Jacques 
 
 Pratt, Mathew 
 
 Praxiteles • 
 
 Prout, Samuel . 
 
 Prudhon, of Cluny 
 
 Puget 
 
 Pugia, Augustus A. W. 
 
 , Landscape Painter. 
 
 , , Painter. 
 
 , , , Sculptor. 
 
 , . Sculptor. 
 
 , . , Painter. 
 
 , , Sculptor. 
 
 , , Water-colorist. 
 
 . . . Painter. 
 
 Sculptor, Painter and Architect. 
 
 . , Architect. 
 
 1811 
 
 17S0 
 
 1518 
 
 1653 
 
 1691 
 f . B 
 
 1741 
 
 1778 
 
 1613 
 
 1446 
 
 1607 
 
 1614 
 
 1606 
 
 1635 
 C. 498 B 
 ■ 1770 
 
 1663 
 
 1714 
 
 1671 
 
 1635 
 
 1707 
 
 1495 
 0.430 
 
 1484 
 
 1625 
 
 1594 
 
 1613 
 
 1485 
 
 1805 
 
 1798 
 
 1734 
 B. C.350 
 
 1783 
 
 1760 
 
 1622 
 
 1811 
 
 1809 
 1580 
 1726 
 1764 
 
 c. 420 
 1827 
 1860 
 1688 
 1524 
 1691 
 1652 
 1654 
 1677 
 
 C. 431 
 1845 
 1733 
 1785 
 1716 
 1709 
 1778 
 1543 
 
 1540 
 1654 
 1665 
 1675 
 154T 
 
 1P52 
 1805 
 
 1S52 
 1823 
 1094 
 1853 
 
98 
 
 THE WORLD'S PKOGEESS, 
 
 IS, 
 
 NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Raphael, d' Urbino (real name Sanzio; A prominent Painter. 
 
 KATION. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Ital, Kaphael da Rhegio (Raffaelino) 
 
 Ger. Raucb, Christian David 
 
 Dutch. Remhrandt van Eyn, Paul G-eritz 
 
 Ger. Retsch, Moritz . • 
 
 E-og, Reynolds, Sir Joshua , 
 
 Eng. Richardson, Jonathan , 
 
 Ger. Riedinger, John Elias . 
 
 Vr. Rober, Fleury . , 
 
 ycot. Roberts^ David 
 
 Jfr. Roland, Philip (Homer in the Louvre) 
 
 Eng. Romiiey, George , , 
 
 Flera. Roos, Philip Peters • . 
 
 Ital. Rosa, Salvator • . 
 
 Amer. Rossiter, Thomas P. . 
 
 Fr. Roubilliao, L. P. , . 
 
 Fr. Rousseau, James . 
 
 Eng. Rowlandson, Th. (caricature— Dr. Syntax, &c.) Paint, and Eng. 
 
 F;e.m. Rube;ie, Peter Paul » . . . Painter. 
 
 Scot. Runclman, A'exai:deT . . '» Painter. 
 
 Dutch. Ruysdael, Jacob , . Landscape Painter. 
 
 Dutch. Ruysdael, Solomon .... Painter. 
 
 Dutch. Ryckaert, David , . , . Painter. 
 
 Dutch. Ryckaert, Martin , , Landscape Painter. 
 
 Dutch. Rysbraeck, leter . . , Landscape Painter. 
 
 Eng. Rysbrach, John M. (works in Westminster Abbey) Sculp-tor. 
 
 Hist, a'nd Port. Painter. 
 • . Sculptor. 
 
 • 
 
 • • Art Designer. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 "Writer on Art and Painter. 
 
 Animal Painter. 
 
 • . Painter. 
 
 , • Painter. 
 
 • Sculptor. 
 
 , • Painter. 
 
 . • Painter. 
 
 . Paint<*v. 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 • Sculptor. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 BORN. 
 
 1483 
 1552 
 1781 
 1606 
 1779 
 1723 
 1665 
 1695 
 1797 
 179S 
 1746 
 1734 
 1655 
 1614 
 
 1695 
 1630 
 1756 
 1577 
 1736 
 1636 
 1616 
 1615 
 1591 
 1657 
 1694 
 
 1520 
 1580 
 1S59 
 1669 
 1859 
 1792 
 1745 
 1767 
 
 1864 
 1816 
 1802 
 1705 
 1673 
 
 1762 
 1693 
 1827 
 1646 
 1785 
 1684 
 1670 
 1677 
 1636 
 1716 
 1770 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Salvi, John Baptist (Sassoferrato) 
 
 • 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 1605 
 
 16S5 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Salvi, Mcholas 
 
 , 
 
 Arcliitect. 
 
 1699 
 
 1752 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Sanmicheli, M'chael 
 
 • 
 
 Architect. 
 
 1484 
 
 1559 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Sarto, Andrea del, see Vanucchi 
 
 * • 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Savage, James . , 
 
 . 
 
 , Architect. 
 
 1778 
 
 1852 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Seaini^zzi, Vincent 
 
 • 
 
 . Architect. 
 
 1550 
 
 151& 
 
 Pruss. 
 
 Schadow, J. G. . ' . 
 
 • 
 
 • Sculptor. 
 
 1764 
 
 1850 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Schadow, Godenhaus F. "W. 
 
 • 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 1789 
 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Schadow, Rudolf 
 
 • 
 
 • Sculptor. 
 
 1786 
 
 1822 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Schalken, Godfrey (Candlelight Scenes) 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 1643 
 
 1706 
 
 Ger. 
 
 Scheffer, Ary . . 
 
 , 
 
 • Painter. 
 
 1795 
 
 1858 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Schidone, Ba.rtolomeo , 
 
 , 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 1560 
 
 1616 
 
 Gr. 
 
 Scopas ... 
 
 , 
 
 . Sculptor. B. 
 
 C.460 B. 
 
 C. 353 
 
 Eug. 
 
 Sharp, William , 
 
 , 
 
 . Engraver. 
 
 1740 
 
 1824 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Shattuck, Aaron D. , 
 
 , 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Shee, Sir M. A., president Royal Academy 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 179.5 
 
 1850 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Sherwin, John Keyse . , 
 
 * 
 
 , Engraver. 
 
 1751 
 
 1790 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Smillie, Janjcs . , 
 
 • 
 
 , Engraver. 
 
 
 
 Amer. 
 
 ■■ — , George H. . , 
 
 • 
 
 . Painter. 
 
 
 
 Aaier. 
 
 — — , James D. , , 
 
 • 
 
 • Fainter. 
 
 
 
JSIOGEAPHICAL INDEX. AETISTS. 
 
 99 
 
 RATIO??. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Flci^i, 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Datch. 
 
 ^pan. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 Scot. 
 
 Amer. 
 
 Eiig. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 Amer, 
 
 G2r. 
 
 NAME AND PKOFESSION. 
 
 Smj'LHTt, John (b, in Scotland) . . . Painter, 
 
 ynydere, Francis . Lnndscape and Animal Painter. 
 
 Souiflut, J. G. (clmrch of St. Genevieve at Paris) Architect, 
 
 Spaeiidouck, G-erradvan . . Flower Painter. 
 
 Spai^nolctto, Giuseppe Rlhera la , , . Painter. 
 
 Steen, Jan 
 Stone, Willi itmO, 
 Strange, Robert 
 Strickland, William 
 Strutt, Joseph, . 
 
 . • . Painter. 
 
 1 • Portrait Painter. 
 
 .. . . P2ngraver, 
 
 • • . Architect, 
 
 . . , Author and Painter. 
 
 Stuart, James, author of the Antiquities of Athens Architect. 
 
 Stuart, Gilbert, pupil of Benjamin West . Port. Painter. 
 
 Sunder, Lucas (see Cranaeb) . , , Engraver. 
 
 BOHN, 
 
 DIED. 
 
 1684 
 
 1751 
 
 1579 
 
 1657 
 
 1714 
 
 1781 
 
 1746 
 
 182a 
 
 1589 
 
 1656 
 
 1636 
 
 1689 
 
 1721 
 
 1702? 
 
 
 1854 
 
 1749 
 
 1802 
 
 1713 
 
 1788 
 
 1756 
 
 1828 
 
 1. 
 
 Ital, Tenerani, Pietro . . • 
 
 F.em, Teniers, David, the elder (pupil of Euhens) 
 
 Fiem. Teniers, David, the younger (pupil of Rubens) 
 
 Scot, Thorn, Jas. (Tain O'Shanter, &c.) 
 
 Eng. Thornhill, Sir Jas. . . , 
 
 Dan. Thorwaldsen, Albert , . , 
 
 Ger. Tiect, Christ Fried . 
 
 Gr, Tinianthcs (contemporary with Parrhasius) 
 
 Ital, Tintoretto (Venetian — pupil of Titian) 
 
 Ital, — ■ , II (James Eobusti) 
 
 Ital, T.tian, the greatest of the Venetian school 
 
 Fr. Troyon, Constantino « • • 
 
 Amer. Trumbull, Jolin . • • 
 
 Eng. Turner, J. W. M. . 
 
 e 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 1789 
 
 
 , 
 
 . Painter,' 
 
 - 1582 
 
 1649 
 
 s 
 
 / ~ 
 
 Paintei-, 
 
 1610 
 
 1694 
 
 . 
 
 Sculptor, 
 
 1790 
 
 1850 
 
 Histori' 
 
 cal Painter. 
 
 1676 
 
 1732 
 
 . 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 1772 
 
 1841 
 
 , 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 1776 
 
 1851 
 
 . 
 
 Painter, 
 
 I, B, 
 
 C. 240 
 
 , 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1480 
 
 1579 
 
 • 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1512 
 
 1594 
 
 • 
 
 Painter, 
 
 14S0 
 
 1579 
 
 . 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1813 
 
 1865 
 
 Historical Painter, 
 
 1756 
 
 1843 
 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 1775 
 
 1851 
 
 Eng. Uwins, Thomas, R. A, 
 
 U 
 
 Painter, 
 
 1783 
 
 1857 
 
 Amer. 
 Eng. 
 Amer, 
 Dutch. 
 Dutch, 
 Dutch, 
 Dutch. 
 Dutch. 
 Flem . 
 Dutch. 
 -Dutch. 
 Ital. 
 Ital. 
 Ital. 
 Sic. 
 
 Van B?cst (h, in Holland F) . . Marine Painter, 
 
 Yanbrugh, Sir Jolm (Blenheim and Castle Howard) Arcli't, 
 
 Vanderlyn, John 
 
 VandtT Neer, Arnold • • 
 
 Vandervelde, Adrian . . 
 
 , the younger . 
 
 " — , "Wm., marine and battle 
 
 Vanderwerf, Adrian 
 
 Vandyke, Sir Anthony, the greatest of portrait 
 
 Vaneyck, Hubert 
 
 Vaneyck, John, brothers (John of Bruges) 
 
 Vannucchi, or Andrea del Sarto . . 
 
 Van Vitolli. Lotiia, a Neapolitan 
 
 Vasarl, George, biographer of artists 
 
 Vasi, Joseph . . 
 
 Historical Painter. 
 Landscape Painter. 
 Landscax^e Painter, 
 . . Painter. 
 
 Painter. 
 Historical Painter, 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Pai nter. 
 . Painter, 
 
 Painter. 
 Architect. 
 
 Architect and Painter. 
 Designer and Engraver, 
 
 1672 
 1773 
 1619 
 1639 
 1633 
 1610 
 lf=54 
 1598 
 1366 
 1370 
 1488 
 1700 
 1512 
 1710 
 
 1726 
 1852 
 1683 
 1672 
 1707 
 1693 
 1718 
 1646 
 142a 
 1441 
 1530 
 177:1 
 1574 
 1783 
 
100 
 
 THE world's progress. 
 
 VXtlOS. NAME AND PROFESSION. 
 
 Span. Velasquez, Jas. R. de Sylvia y . . . Painter. 
 
 Flem, Verboecklioven, Eugene . . Painter of animals. 
 
 Amer. Ver Bryck, C. . . . . Landscape Painter. 
 
 Fr. Vemet, Horace . . . Historical Painter. 
 
 Fr. Vernet, Joseph ..... Painter. 
 
 Ital. Veronese, Paul (see Cagliari) 
 
 Ital. Verrochio, Andrew, inventor of the method of taking 
 
 features in a plaster mould . . Sculptor. 
 
 Eng. Vertue, Q-eorge (500 plates) . . . Engraver. 
 
 Ital, Vigiiola, Jas., Caprarola palace and St. Peter's Architect. 
 
 Ital. Vinci, Leonardo da . . . . Painter. 
 
 Gr. Viti-uvius, contemporary of Augustus . . Architect, 
 
 ItaL Volpato, John ..... Engraver. 
 Fr. 
 
 Vouet, Simon, founder of French school, contempora- 
 ry of Charles I. , 
 
 BORIf. DIED. 
 
 1599 1660 
 1799 
 
 1813 1844 
 
 1789 1863 
 
 1714 178P 
 
 1422 1488 
 
 1684 1756 
 
 1507 1575 
 
 1452 1519 
 
 f B. 0. 30 
 1733 1802 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1582 
 
 1649 
 
 Fr. "WaUly, Charles de 
 
 Amer. Ward, J. Quincy A. 
 
 Eng. Warren, Charles, perfector of engravir 
 
 Fr. Watteau, Antoine . 
 
 Amer. Weir, Robt. W. . . . 
 
 Amer, , James F. . . 
 
 Dan. Wertmuller, (?) (painted in America) 
 Amer. West, Benjamin 
 Eng. Westall, Richard . 
 
 Eng. , William R. A. br. 
 
 Amer. White, Edwin . . 
 
 Amer. Whittredge, Worthington . 
 
 Scot. Wilkie, David 
 
 Eng. Wilson, Richard . . 
 
 Eng. WooUett, W illiam 
 
 Dutch. Wouverman, Philip 
 
 Ei!g. Wren, Sir Christopher (St. Paul's, &c.) 
 
 Eng. Wyatt, James (Pantheon, Kew Palace, 
 
 Eng. Wyatt, R. J. . . . • 
 
 Architect, 
 
 1729 
 
 1798 
 
 Sculptor, 
 
 
 
 ig on steel Engraver. 
 
 
 1823 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1684 
 
 1721 
 
 . Painter, 
 
 1803 
 
 
 ,' Painter, 
 
 
 
 Port. Painter. 
 
 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1738 
 
 182(1 
 
 Historical Painter. 
 
 1781 
 
 1830 
 
 Designer. 
 
 1781 
 
 1856 
 
 Painter. 
 
 
 
 Landscape Painter. 
 
 
 
 . Familiar Life Painter. 
 
 17S5 
 
 1841 
 
 Landscape Painter. 
 
 1713 
 
 1782 
 
 Engraver. 
 
 1735 
 
 1785 
 
 , Painter, 
 
 1620 
 
 1608 
 
 Architect. 
 
 1632 
 
 1723 
 
 &c,) . Architect. 
 
 1743 
 
 1813 
 
 Sculptor. 
 
 1795 
 
 1850 
 
 Bpan. Ximenes, Fran. 
 
 Painter. 
 
 1598 
 
 1666 
 
 Flem. YpleSj Charles de 
 
 Ital. Zablia, Nicholas . , 
 
 Gr. Zeuxis, celebrated ancient . 
 
 Ger. Zincke 
 
 Ital. Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Frederigo 
 
 Ital. Zuccaro, or Zucchero, Taddeo , 
 
 Ital. Zuccarelli . . . 
 
 Painter. 
 
 Architect. 
 
 , . Painter 
 
 Enamel Portrait Painter, 
 
 . Painter, 
 
 Painter. 
 
 , Painter. 
 
 1510 
 
 1563 
 
 1674 1650 
 
 c, 490 B. C, 4-^0 
 1684 1769 
 
 1539 1639 
 
 1529 - 1566 
 1710 1788 
 

 
 
 
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