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 COMMERCIAL 
 
 POULTRY RAISING 
 
 A THOROUGHLY PRACTICAL AND COMPLETE 
 REFERENCE WORK FOR THE AMATEUR, FAN- 
 CIER OR GENERAL FARMER M? ^ ESPECIALLY 
 ADAPTED TO THE COMMERCIAL POULTRYMAN 
 
 Containing a Description of All Recognized Breeds of Fowls, Including 
 Turkeys, Ducks, Geese and Pigeons; Special Chapters on Artificial 
 Incubation and Brooding, Diseases of Poultry and Their Treat- 
 ment, Breeding for Increased Egg Production, Feeding For- 
 mulas, Fattening and Marketing, also Numerous Working 
 Plans and Descriptions of the Most Improved Types 
 of Houses, Yards, Labor-Saving Appliances 
 and Equipment Generally 
 
 By 
 
 H. ARMSTRONG ROBERTS 
 
 Author of "The Farmer His Own Builder," Etc. 
 
 WITH OVER THREE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 DAVID McKAY, PUBLISHER 
 
 WASHINGTON SQUARE 
 
f 
 
 Copyright, 19 18, by 
 
 David McKay 
 
 Copyright, 1920, by 
 
 David McKay Company 
 
 m -9 1920 
 
 WM ■ P. FELL CO • PBINTERS 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 &CI.A571973 
 
Diagram reproductive organs of laying hen. 
 I, Ovary, with minute ovules; 2, yolk sacs; 3, suture lines; 5, empty 
 yolk sac; 6, funnel opening into oviduct; 8, yolk in oviduct; 9, albumen- 
 secreting region; 10, the same; 11, albumen being secreted; 12, yolk passing 
 through oviduct; 13, germinal disc; 14, uterus; 15, large intestine; 16, 
 isthmus; 17, glands of uterus; 18, complete egg; 19, vagina; 20, cloaca; 21, 
 egg shell; 22, albumen; 23, yolk; 24, chalaza. 
 
To 
 
 4H. a. 3a. 
 
 WHOSE ENCOURAGEMENT WAS A 
 
 CONSTANT SOURCE OF INSPIRATION THIS 
 
 WORK IS AFFECTIONATELY 
 
 INSCRIBED 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 There are numerous poultry books on the market. Some are 
 valuable works, except that they are out of date. Others have 
 been written by persons who knew more about theory than of 
 practice. Still others were printed because the author had a 
 system to advocate, a farm to advertise, or an axe to grind. 
 Obviously, in reading these so-called systems the beginner gen- 
 erally obtains erroneous ideas, which sooner or later bring about 
 costly mistakes, often failure. 
 
 In the chapters that follow the author has no hobbies to ride, 
 no theories to advance, nothing to offer, in fact, except the prac- 
 tical information which he has acquired from many years of 
 actual experience raising fowls on a commercial scale, and from 
 the associations of other poultrymen with whom he has come in 
 contact in a business or friendly way. His effort has been to 
 give facts and state principles clearly, so as to establish a solid 
 foundation for the study of poultry culture. The real study, 
 of course, commences with the actual work with the fowls, and 
 cannot be acquired from the printed page alone. 
 
 No phase of agriculture or animal husbandry has made such 
 enormous progress in the past thirty years as poultry culture. 
 Consequently, literature written on this subject a quarter of a 
 century ago, or even a decade ago, is now mostly obsolete. Not 
 that fowls have changed their habits to such an extent, but 
 because we have learned more about their habits, and how to 
 derive the greatest benefits from them at the least possible 
 cost. 
 
 Poultry raising on a commercial scale could not be attempted 
 on the methods practised by our grandfathers. It was not until 
 the invention and perfection of appliances for the artificial rear- 
 ing of little chicks in large numbers that poultry keeping really 
 
viii INTRODUCTION 
 
 passed the "pin money" stage. Even then, it was not until we 
 learned something about the scientific manner of feeding, breed- 
 ing and housing the fowls that our efforts were assured any 
 degree of success from the standpoint of dollars and cents. We 
 have long known how to keep fowls; but it has been compara- 
 tively recent that we found out how to make the fowls keep us. 
 
 There is money to be made from poultry. There is a living to 
 be made from it, and a good living. Some claim there are for- 
 tunes to be had from hens. The author begs leave to differ 
 with this last statement, or rather to qualify it. Fortunes might 
 be made from chickens if it were possible to look after them, 
 personally, in large enough numbers; but this is quite out of the 
 question. Very large flocks necessitate the employment of help, 
 and it is the uncertainty or incompetence of this help that makes 
 success with tens of thousands of birds more or less dependent 
 upon chance. 
 
 The author has purposely avoided all reference to "big stories 
 of big profits," likewise the fads and fancies of poultry keeping, 
 which have brought disaster to so many beginners. He has 
 aimed to show that hard work is necessary, that the caretaker 
 must be always on the job, that some of the tasks are not as 
 pleasant as they might be, that common sense is required above 
 theoretical training, that disappointments and mistakes are to 
 be expected, and that it is no get-rich-quick scheme, but a safe, 
 sane, practical business enterprise, and as such it must be con- 
 ducted. Where figures are quoted, especially in respect to profits, 
 if anything the author has been too conservative. These figures, 
 however, are based on prices prevailing before our entrance into 
 the European War. Success does not fall into the lap of the 
 poultryman ; he must go out and dig for it. And if he digs hard 
 enough, he is sure to be rewarded. 
 
 As previously inferred, the author has read most of the litera- 
 ture written about poultry, and having found it either obsolete, 
 incomplete or utterly fallacious, he has endeavored to prepare a 
 work that is the most up-to-date, comprehensive, practical 
 guide-book of its kind. Economy and efficiency are the under- 
 
INTRODUCTION ix 
 
 lying motives of every chapter. They are what he conceives to 
 be the cornerstones of success with poultry. 
 
 Acknowledgment is herewith made to The Country Gentle- 
 man and Public Ledger, in which publications most of these 
 chapters have appeared, for the rights to publish them in book 
 form. Appreciation is also acknowledged to those who kindly 
 submitted photographs for reproduction as illustrations. 
 
 H. Armstrong Roberts 
 
 Philadelphia, 19 18 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter Page 
 
 I. American Poultry Industry i 
 
 II. Analyzing the Different Breeds n 
 
 III. Egg Breeds 23 
 
 IV. Meat Breeds 46 
 
 V. Dual-Purpose Breeds 53 
 
 VI. Ornamental Fowls, Games and Bantams 70 
 
 VII. A Business Enterprise 82 
 
 VIII. Keeping Records 95 
 
 IX. Principles of Poultry House Construction 109 
 
 X. Interior Arrangement of Buildings 132 
 
 XI. Poultry House Appliances 144 
 
 XII. Devices for Doors and Gates ■ 153 
 
 XIII. Trap Nests 166 
 
 XIV. Feeding 175 
 
 XV. Available Grains and Meals 193 
 
 XVI. Animal and Green Foods 215 
 
 XVII. Artificial Incubation 235 
 
 XVIII. Selecting Hatching Eggs 256 
 
 XIX. Testing Eggs During Incubation 263 
 
 XX. Day-Old-Chick Industry 270 
 
 XXI. Natural Incubation 283 
 
 XXII. Artificial Brooding 295 
 
 XXIII. Feeds for Baby Chicks 312 
 
 XXIV. Care of Young Stock 325 
 
 XXV. Breaking Up Broodiness '. 339 
 
 XXVI. Surplus Cockerels 347 
 
 XXVII. Caponizing 358 
 
 XXVIII. Breeding Principles 372 
 
 XXIX. Development .of the Egg 390 
 
 XXX. Market Eggs 400 
 
 XXXI. Selling Eggs Advantageously 426 
 
 XXXII. Preserving Eggs 436 
 
 XXXIII. By-Products of Poultry 445 
 
 XXXIV. Preparing Birds for the Show 457 
 
 XXXV. Ailments and Diseases 471 
 
 XXXVI. Crop Bound 486 
 
 XXXVII. Worms 495 
 
 XXXVIII. White Diarrhea. . 502 
 
 XXXIX. Parasites and Pests 509 
 
 XL. Ducks 519 
 
 XLI. Geese 528 
 
 XLII. Turkeys 538 
 
 XLIII. Guinea Fowls 554 
 
 XLIV. Pigeons 562 
 
 XLV. Artificial Lighting of Houses 573 
 
 Index 579 
 
 xi 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Fig. Page 
 
 Fowl's reproductive organs Frontispiece 
 
 i. Petaluma poultry district 2 
 
 2. Chart poultry production in U. S 4 
 
 3. Hen with a brood of chicks 5 
 
 4. Poultry and farm crops 8 
 
 5. Model backyard poultry plant 10 
 
 6. Light Brahmas 17 
 
 7. White Wyandottes 18 
 
 8. White Plymouth Rocks 19 
 
 9. White-Laced Red Cornish Fowls 21 
 
 10. Single Comb White Leghorns 24 
 
 11. Single Comb Brown Leghorns 25 
 
 12. Rose-Comb Buff Leghorns 27 
 
 13. Lakenvelders 28 
 
 14. Single Comb Black Minorcas 30 
 
 15. Single Comb White Minorcas 31 
 
 16. White-Faced Black Spanish 32 
 
 17. Andalusians ' 34 
 
 18. Single Comb Mottled Anconas 35 
 
 19. Golden Spangled Hamburgs 36 
 
 20. Sicilian Buttercups 37 
 
 21. White Houdans 38 
 
 22. Silver Campines 39 
 
 23. White Aseels 40 
 
 24. Long-Tailed Yokohamas 42 
 
 25. Silver Laced Polish 43 
 
 26. Brahmas 47 
 
 27. White Cochins 49 
 
 28. Partridge Cochins 50 
 
 29. White Langshans , 52 
 
 30. Barred Plymouth Rocks 54 
 
 31. Columbian Plymouth Rocks 55 
 
 32. Silver Wyandottes 56 
 
 33. Columbian Wyandottes 57 
 
 34. Rhode Island Reds 58 
 
 35. Black Javas 59 
 
 36. Buckeyes 60 
 
 37. Black Orpingtons 62 
 
 38. White Orpingtons 64 
 
 39. Silver-Gray Dorkings 65 
 
 40. Rose Comb White Dorkings 66 
 
 41. White Faverolles 67 
 
 42. La Fleche Fowls 68 
 
 43. Crevecoeurs '. 69 
 
 xiii 
 
siv ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Fig. Page 
 
 44. White-Crested Black Polish 71 
 
 45. Bearded Golden Polish 72 
 
 46. Non-Bearded White Polish _ 73 
 
 47. Silver Duckwing Games "..... 74 
 
 48. Red Pyle Game Bantams 75 
 
 49. White Cornish Fowls 76 
 
 50. Silver Sebright Bantams "jj 
 
 51. Rose-Comb White Bantams 78 
 
 52. White Cochin Bantams 79 
 
 53. White Japanese Bantams 80 
 
 54. Colony houses on range 83 
 
 55. Centralized plant 84 
 
 56. Laying house in grove of trees 85 
 
 57. Box-packed poultry for shipment 87 
 
 58. Arch of poultry success 88 
 
 59. Broiling chickens packed for shipment 90 
 
 60. Roasting chickens packed for shipment 92 
 
 61. Dressed poultry in cartons 93 
 
 62. Wagon load of live poultry ■ • • • 96 
 
 63. Suburbanite's poultry plant 97 
 
 64. Fowls on free range 98 
 
 65. "A good hatch" 99 
 
 66. Aluminum leg bands 100 
 
 67. Making incision for wing band. . . 101 
 
 68. Wing band in place 102 
 
 69. Methods of marking toes of chicks 103 
 
 70. Laying house on sloping ground 105 
 
 71. Outdoor feed hopper 106 
 
 72. Substantial set of poultry buildings. 107 
 
 73. Plans for medium-size hen house no 
 
 74. Site for sanitary yards in 
 
 75. Diagram angle of sun's rays 112 
 
 76. Diagram yard arrangement 113 
 
 77. Diagram types of pens 114 
 
 78. Poultry house under construction. . ■. 115 
 
 79. Diagram types of roofs 116 
 
 80. Interior continuous laying house 117 
 
 81. Diagram floor construction. .' 118 
 
 82. Cross-section model hen house 120 
 
 83. Floor plan model hen house 121 
 
 84. Front elevation model hen house 122 
 
 85. End view model hen house ■ 123 
 
 86. Framing for continuous laying house .' 124 
 
 87. Diagram arrangement colony house on range. 125 
 
 88. Wire-covered yards 127 
 
 89. Section intensive broiler plant 129 
 
 90. Floor plans intensive broiler plant 130 
 
 91. House at Wisconsin College 131 
 
 92. Interior laying house divided into pens 133 
 
 93. Section of laying house 20 feet deep 134 
 
 94. Floor plan of 20-foot house 135 
 
 95. Interior arrangement house 136 
 
 96. Section laying house 16 feet deep 137 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS xv 
 
 Fig. Page 
 
 97. Front elevation 16-foot house 138 
 
 98. Commercial flock Leghorns 140 
 
 99. Elevated walk in front of house 141 
 
 100. Slatted openings for ventilation 142 
 
 101. Diagram arrangement roosts and nests 145 
 
 102. Roosting compartment 146 
 
 103. Floor plan well-arranged house 147 
 
 104. Perches hinged upward 148 
 
 105. Shelf for water fountain 149 
 
 106. Plans for dry mash hopper 151 
 
 107. Indoor mash hopper 15 2 
 
 108. " In for the night " 154 
 
 109. Plans for "self-rising door" 156 
 
 no. Maryland poultry farm building 157 
 
 in. Inexpensive colony house 158 
 
 112. Details "self-closing door" 161 
 
 1 13. Hook for catching fowls 162 
 
 114. Device for securing open door 163 
 
 115. Stake for securing open door 164 
 
 116. Home-made trap nest 167 
 
 117. Plans Storrs' trap nest 168 
 
 118. Corner of well-designed laying house 169 
 
 1 19. Plans of Maine trap nest 17° 
 
 120. Single-compartment trap nest 172 
 
 12 t. Two-compartment trap nest 173 
 
 122. Feed house in center of laying house 176 
 
 123. Feed carrier suspended from track 178 
 
 124. Automatic feed hopper 180 
 
 125. Outdoor feed hopper on skids 182 
 
 126. Overhead rail system for feed 185 
 
 127. Designs for feed hoppers 188 
 
 128. Outdoor feed hopper 190 
 
 129. Low-wheeled truck for feeding range 19 1 
 
 130. Growing stock on alfalfa pasture 195 
 
 131. Fowls scratching 197 
 
 132. Chick fountains : 199 
 
 133. Feeding time in a fattening station 201 
 
 134. Feeding battery 202 
 
 135. Poor feeder 203 
 
 136. Good type of feeder. 203 
 
 137. Farm flock on range 204 
 
 138. Chickens in feeding batteries 209 
 
 139. Grading poultry in packing house 213 
 
 140. Spading over soil in poultry runs 216 
 
 141. Milk-feeding experiments 219 
 
 142. Equipment for chicks' range 222 
 
 143. Gathering greenstuff's 224 
 
 144. Feed oats and sprouted oats 226 
 
 145. Commercial fattening plant 228 
 
 146. Home-made rack for sprouting oats 230 
 
 147. Killing room in a Western packing house ■ • • 233 
 
 148. Small single-tray incubator 236 
 
 149. Double-tray lamp incubator 237 
 
xvi ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Fig. _ _ Page 
 
 150. Diagram hot-air incubator : . . . . 238 
 
 151. Egg tray and thermometer 240 
 
 152. Double-deck coal-burning incubator ...... 242 
 
 153. Interior incubator cellar 243 
 
 154. Erection of mammoth incubator 244 
 
 155. Completion of mammoth incubator 245 
 
 156. Well-built incubator heater 247 
 
 157. Diagram incubator heater and lamp 248 
 
 158. Gas heater for incubator 249 
 
 159. Design for concrete incubator cellar 251 
 
 160. Oil-burning lamp approved by fire underwriters 252 
 
 161. Mammoth incubator with trays arranged in tiers 253 
 
 162. Doing the work of four hens with an incubator 257 
 
 163. Sectional view coal-burning incubator 258 
 
 164. Plans for hatching egg cabinet 260 
 
 165. End view of egg cabinet 261 
 
 166. Turning and cooling eggs for hatching 264 
 
 167. Plans for electric egg tester 265 
 
 168. Appearance of hatching eggs through tester 266 
 
 169. Testing hatching eggs 267 
 
 170. Simple egg-testing outfit 268 
 
 171. Diagram showing growth of air cell 269 
 
 172. Double-deck mammoth incubators in large hatchery 271 
 
 173. Interior of a California hatchery : 273 
 
 174. Incubator room in a large hatchery 274 
 
 175. 10,000 chicks ready for shipment 275 
 
 176. Well-designed incubator building 276 
 
 177. Hatchery of 600,000 egg capacity 278 
 
 178. Express shipment of chicks 279 
 
 179. Double-deck mammoth incubators 281 
 
 180. A farm brood 284 
 
 181. Simple devices for sitting hens 285 
 
 182. Broods on a grassy range 286 
 
 183. Section through outdoor incubator 287 
 
 184. Plan of coop for sitting hens ' 288 
 
 185. Front elevation of coop for sitting hens: 289 
 
 186. Rear perspective of coop 290 
 
 187. Dusting sitting hens 292 
 
 188. Makeshift coop 293 
 
 189. Rectangular brood coop 294 
 
 190. V-shaped brood coop and run 294 
 
 191. Hot-water brooding system 296 
 
 192. Brooder house with outdoor runs 297 
 
 193. Brooder stoves are great labor savers 299 
 
 194. Colony brooders on Government station 300 
 
 195. Homemade fireless brooder 301 
 
 196. 50-chick size lamp brooding hover 302 
 
 197. Outdoor colony brooder 303 
 
 198. Brooder — complete outfit 304 
 
 199. Sectional view coal-burning brooder stove 305 
 
 200. Chicks sleeping around stove 306 
 
 201. Combination brooder and colony house 307 
 
 202. Filling coal hopper of a brooder stove 308 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS xvii 
 
 Fig. _ _ Page 
 
 203. Sectional view of brooder stove 309 
 
 204. Summer chicks require plenty of shade 313 
 
 205. Feeding frame for chicks 314 
 
 206. Cleaning around brooder stove 315 
 
 207. Lamp hovers are easily moved 316 
 
 208. Portable yard for young chicks 317 
 
 209. Sectional view of brooder stove 318 
 
 210. Colony house with gasoline brooder 319 
 
 211. Orchard an ideal location for growing chicks 320 
 
 212. Privacy for the hen and brood 322 
 
 213. Portable hover in simply constructed coop 326 
 
 214. Separating the mother hens 327 
 
 215. Covered runaway 329 
 
 216. A husky brood 332 
 
 217. Colony house from piano cases 334 
 
 218. Inexpensive colony growing coop 336 
 
 219. Secluded spot for the brood 337 
 
 220. Hinged front for colony house 337 
 
 221. Indoor coop for discouraging broodiness 340 
 
 222. Outdoor coop for broody hens 341 
 
 223. Contest house at Storrs, Connecticut 343 
 
 224. A-shaped colony house 345 
 
 225. Wire-covered shed for housing cockerels 348 
 
 226. Homemade fattening crate 349 
 
 227. Pouring feed in fattening crates 351 
 
 228. Plans for 2-compartment fattening crate 352 
 
 229. Killing and dressing broilers 353 
 
 230. Correct way to grasp fowl for sticking 354 
 
 231. Anatomy of skull showing position of veins 355 
 
 232. Heads of fowls with jaws removed 356 
 
 233. Well-finished market fowl 359 
 
 234. Capons dressed for market 360 
 
 235. Side view of capons dressed for market 361 
 
 236. Caponizing instruments 363 
 
 237. Layout for caponizing 365 
 
 238. Diagram showing where incision should be made 366 
 
 239. Inserting the spreaders 367 
 
 240. Using the probe 368 
 
 241. Pushing the intestines aside 368 
 
 242. Grasping the gland 369 
 
 243. Operation finished 369 
 
 244. Class in killing and dressing 370 
 
 245. Permanent quarters for pullets 373 
 
 246. Three thousand pullets on range 375 
 
 247. Busy moment for the trap nest 376 
 
 248. Brood coop with slatted run , 377 
 
 249. Pullets on a California ranch 379 
 
 250. Packing house equipment 381 
 
 251. Breeders handled in large units 383 
 
 252. Plans for a catching coop 384 
 
 253. Brood coop made from rough lumber 386 
 
 254. Practical method for catching fowls 388 
 
 255. Diagram digestive apparatus of a fowl 392 
 
xviii ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Fig. Page 
 
 256. Outer shell membrane of fresh egg 393 
 
 257. Inner shell membrane of fresh egg 394 
 
 258. Sectional view of egg 396 
 
 259. Yellow yolk of fresh egg 397 
 
 260. White yolk of fresh egg '•...■ 398 
 
 261. Class in candling and grading eggs 401 
 
 262. Changes affecting the appearance of eggs 403 
 
 263. Eggs during period of incubation 405 
 
 264. Fertile and infertile eggs 407 
 
 265. Vegetable cellar for storing eggs 408 
 
 266. Gravity test for telling age of eggs 409 
 
 267. Freight car for shipping live poultry '. 411 
 
 268. A full house 414 
 
 269. Refrigerator car loaded with poultry. 415 
 
 270. Candling eggs at farmer's gate 419 
 
 271. Stolen nest in tree 420 
 
 272. Other stolen nests 422 
 
 273. Typical forms of egg breakage 424 
 
 274. Grading and packing eggs 427 
 
 275. Well-equipped feeding plant 428 
 
 276. Interior of a feeding plant. . . 430 
 
 277. Metal chilling racks 432 
 
 278. Bench killing and picking 434 
 
 279. California type of laying house 437 
 
 280. Elevated laying houses 439 
 
 281. Preparing water glass 440 
 
 282. Receptacles for preserving eggs 441 
 
 283. Examining eggs by means of candler .' 442 
 
 284. Arrangement of houses and runs 443 
 
 285. Indiana poultry house 446 
 
 286. Metal chilling racks for hanging poultry 448 
 
 287. Small fattening station 450 
 
 288. Removing small feathers from poultry 453 
 
 289. String killing and picking 454 
 
 290. Holding birds on lap while picking. . . 455 
 
 291. Glossary chart of the sections of a fowl 458 
 
 292. Catching coop for fowls 459 
 
 293. Well-arranged poultry exhibit 462 
 
 294. Prize-winning Black Langshan 465 
 
 295. Skeleton of a fowl 468 
 
 296. Commercial feeding station 469 
 
 297. Open-front poultry house 472 
 
 298. Pen of Pekin ducks 474 
 
 299. Good type of feeder 476 
 
 300. Indifferent type of feeder 477 
 
 301. Poor feeder 479 
 
 302. Ducks require low fences 481 
 
 303. Household scales for weighing poultry 484 
 
 304. Brooder house with covered front platform 487 
 
 305. Promising looking flock of Leghorn pullets 489 
 
 306. Ducks raised near water 492 
 
 307. Feed hopper on raised platform 496 
 
 308. Colony nouses grouped in winter 498 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS xix 
 
 Fig. Page 
 
 309. Feeding with tramcars 500 
 
 310. Ideal location for ducks and geese 503 
 
 311. Artificial duck pond 505 
 
 312. Well-proportioned poultry house 506 
 
 313. White Pekin ducklings 507 
 
 314. Painting the perches with crude oil 510 
 
 315. Dusting a fowl with insect powder 511 
 
 316. Spraying the roosting compartments 513 
 
 317. Outfit for whitewashing ' 515 
 
 318. Interior of pigeon house 517 
 
 319. Pekin ducks 520 
 
 320. White Muscovy ducks 521 
 
 321. Indian Runner ducks 522 
 
 322. Aylesbury ducks 524 
 
 323. Rouen ducks 525 
 
 324. Ducks are heavy drinkers 526 
 
 325. Toulouse geese 529 
 
 326. Emden geese 530 
 
 327. White China geese 531 
 
 328. Muscovy ducks are sometimes regarded as geese 536 
 
 329. Bronze turkeys 540 
 
 330. White Holland turkeys 542 
 
 331. Shelters for protection against elements 545 
 
 332. Combination chicken and squab farm 549 
 
 333. Typical pigeon house and fly 551 
 
 334. Open-front poultry house in summer 555 
 
 335. Same house in winter 557 
 
 336. Ideal range for growing stock 559 
 
 337. Homer pigeon 563 
 
 338. Carneaux pigeon 565 
 
 339. White runt, female pigeon 566 
 
 340. Runt cross pigeon 567 
 
 341. Runt cross pigeon 568 
 
 342. Fixtures for artificial lighting 575 
 
COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 AMERICAN POULTRY INDUSTRY 
 
 The term poultry, as it is commonly understood, applies col- 
 lectively to those species of domestic birds which are kept for 
 the purpose of furnishing eggs and meat for human consump- 
 tion. Game birds are used on the table, but so long as they re- 
 main in a wild state they cannot be classed as poultry. On the 
 other hand, we are disposed to consider certain species of birds 
 as poultry, such as pigeons which are bred for ornament or as 
 carriers, whereas they do not rightfully belong under this head. 
 Peafowls are considered as poultry, and while formerly they were 
 bred for the table, they are now raised almost exclusively for orna- 
 ment. Swans are in pretty much the same position as peafowls. 
 
 Main Divisions. — Technically there are three main divisions 
 of poultry: (i) Gallinacea, or comb bearers, which include 
 chickens, turkeys, guinea fowls, pheasants and quail. All re- 
 semble each other in general structure and habits, and all are 
 distinguished from other birds in that the flesh on the breast 
 and wings is lighter in color than on the rest of the body. (2) 
 Natatores, or swimmers, include ducks, geese and swans, and 
 are characterized by their web feet and long, thick bills. (3) 
 Columbidae, or doves, is the other order; pigeons are its only 
 representatives in the poultry world. 
 
 Chickens comprise the bulk of the poultry industry, especially 
 in this country, and their relation to the animal kingdom is as 
 follows: They belong to the series, Metazoa, because they con- 
 sist of animals with cellular tissues and true eggs. They are of 
 the branch, Vertebrata, inasmuch as they are animals having an 
 internal skeleton and backbone. They are in the division known 
 1 1 
 
AMERICAN POULTRY INDUSTRY 3 
 
 as Craniota, because they have a skull, heart and brain. They 
 are classed as Aves, because they are true birds, feathered, and 
 have four limbs, one pair for progression on land and one pair 
 for flight; no teeth. They are sub-divided into the order, 
 Rasores, because they are terrestrial in their habits, having 
 stout legs suitable for scratching, and strong arched beaks suit- 
 able for seed eating. Gallus is a true representative of this 
 order, and is the common ancestor of all our domestic fowls; 
 it was a jungle fowl native to southwestern Asia and Oceania. 
 
 To-day there are over a hundred different varieties of chickens. 
 By variety we mean species of certain well defined character- 
 istics, which are officially recognized, as by the American Stan- 
 dard of Perfection. 
 
 Scope of Poultry Industry. — The importance of the poultry 
 industry, and the relative importance of chickens to the industry, 
 may be gathered from the United States census report for 19 10, 
 as shown in Table I. 
 
 Table I. — Species of Poultry in United States According to 1910 
 
 Census 
 
 
 Farms Reporting 
 
 Number of 
 Poultry 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Per Cent 
 of Farms 
 
 Value 
 
 Total Poultry 
 
 5,585,012 
 
 88.1 
 
 295,876,176 
 
 $153,394, H2 
 
 Chickens 
 
 Turkeys 
 
 Ducks 
 
 Geese 
 
 Guinea fowls 
 
 Pigeons 
 
 All others 
 
 5,577,218 
 852,679 
 
 503,673 
 661,189 
 339,922 
 
 99,409 
 2,005 
 
 88.0 
 
 13-4 
 
 7-9 
 
 10.4 
 
 5-4 
 1.6 
 .001 
 
 280,340,643 
 3,688,688 
 
 2,904,359 
 4,431,623 
 
 1,765,033 
 
 2,730,996 
 
 14,834 
 
 $140,192,912 
 
 6,605,640 
 
 1,566,176 
 
 3,192,861 
 
 613,282 
 
 162,372 
 
 460,899 
 
 Unfortunately, Table I fails to talce into account the numbers 
 of poultry under three months of age, or those which are raised 
 and kept in backyards of towns and villages all over the country. 
 If these were added they would constitute a big increase over the 
 
EQUALS VALUE OF WHEAT 
 
 figures in the census report, and also raise the ratio of chickens 
 to other species. 
 
 Regarding the magnitude of the industry in still another way, 
 in 191 1 the Secretary of Agriculture placed the national income 
 from poultry products at $750,000,000 for the year. This figure 
 equaled the combined value of all the gold, silver, iron and coal 
 mined that year, and exceeded the value of the wheat crop for 
 the same period. To-day, the income from poultry products 
 is estimated at one billion dollars annually, or one-twelfth the 
 value of all agricultural products, or one-fiftieth of our total 
 wealth on all manufactures and industries of every description. 
 Manifestly, the poultry 
 industry occupies a very 
 important part in our de- 
 velopment, a very much 
 more important part 
 than most of us have any 
 idea. 
 
 Eggs Leading Prod- 
 uct. — According to the 
 1 9 10 census the income 
 from poultry products 
 for the average farm was 
 $104.98, or about two 
 dollars per bird. Eggs 
 
 are the leading poultry product, and constitute about sixty-five 
 per cent of the total value of the poultry as a whole. That most 
 of these eggs are hens' eggs goes without saying. True, the eggs 
 from ducks and guinea fowls find their way into the trade chan- 
 nels, but in such small numbers as to be a negligible factor. 
 Turkey eggs and goose eggs are used almost exclusively for hatch- 
 ing purposes. 
 
 Demand Greater Than Supply. — The output of eggs is in- 
 creasing each year, yet there are no gluts for the reason that the 
 demand is always greater than the supply. According to the 
 Year Book of the Department of Agriculture for 19 10 the aver- 
 
 (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 3. — A hen with a brood of sturdy chicks 
 is one of the farmer's best assets. 
 
COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 age price paid to farmers in 1899 was 11.5 cents a dozen. In 
 1909 the average price was 19.7 cents per dozen, an increase of 
 almost a hundred per cent in ten years. In 191 7 the average 
 price was about 25 cents a dozen. 
 
 Table II shows a comparison of the prices paid for poultry and 
 eggs in New York City for a number of years. The prices are 
 those paid by wholesalers, all grades considered, except those of 
 the strictly fancy marks from nearby points, which are in small 
 volume, and handled mostly by express shipments. 
 
 Table II. — Wholesale Prices of Eggs and Poultry in New York City 
 
 
 Prices Paid in Cents 
 
 Year 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Live Poultry 
 
 Dressed Poultry 
 
 
 Eggs Per Dozen 
 
 Per Pound 
 
 Per Pound 
 
 1896 
 
 14.O 
 
 9.0 
 
 IO.O 
 
 1897 . 
 
 H-5 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 9.0 
 
 1898 
 
 15-5 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 9.1 
 
 1899 
 
 17.0 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 II.O 
 
 1900 
 
 16.0 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 10.0 
 
 1901 
 
 18.0 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 II.O 
 
 1902 
 
 20.0 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 14-5 
 
 1903 
 
 18.5 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 15-5 
 
 1904 
 
 20.0 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 15.0 
 
 I905 
 
 20.0 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 16.0 
 
 1906 
 
 19.0 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 15.0 
 
 1907 
 
 18.5 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 15-5 
 
 1908 
 
 19.0 
 
 ■ 13 
 
 5 
 
 15.8 
 
 1909 
 
 23-5 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 18.3 
 
 1910 
 
 23.0 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 19.8 
 
 1911 
 
 19-3 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 17.8 
 
 1912 
 
 22.8 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 18.3 
 
 For 191 7 the average price on eggs was about 30 cents, for live 
 poultry 22 cents, and for dressed poultry 26 cents. 
 
 Export Trade. — Aside from the increase in our home consump- 
 tion of poultry products, our export trade is steadily growing. 
 In 1912 we imported eggs to the extent of $147,173. For the same 
 period we exported eggs to the extent of $3,400,000. Table III 
 shows how these exports have grown, and to which continental 
 divisions they were sent: 
 
DEMAND INCREASING STEADILY 
 Table III. — Exports of Eggs from U. S. 
 
 Year 
 
 1908 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 Europe 
 
 North America 
 
 South America 
 
 Asia 
 
 Oceania 
 
 $44,995 
 
 1,490,279 
 
 2,692 
 
 597 
 
 i,45i 
 
 $2,265 
 
 1,195,446 
 
 1,342 
 
 135 
 
 334 
 
 $574 
 
 1,256,998 
 
 1,921 
 
 337 
 666 
 
 $639 
 
 1,782,141 
 
 3,218 
 
 43 
 978 
 
 $15,613 
 
 3,375,413 
 
 3,135 
 
 60 
 
 1,731 
 
 The figures in Table III apply to eggs in the shell. There were 
 additional exports, amounting to about thirty thousand dollars 
 a year, for canned eggs, yolks, and so on. 
 
 Distribution of Poultry. — Geographically the poultry produc- 
 tion of this country may be divided into three principal sections : 
 (1) the northeastern states, including New England and the 
 Middle Atlantic States, (2) the states bordering on the Pacific 
 coast, and (3) the states lying in the Mississippi Valley. Each 
 principal section is more or less distinctive for its kind of products. 
 In the northeastern territory the poultry industry is highly spe- 
 cialized. A great many large farms devoted to nothing but fowls 
 are found there, and their outputs are consumed in nearby mar- 
 kets in the large cities. In the Vineland, New Jersey, tract there 
 are upwards of a quarter of a million White Leghorn hens, bred 
 for high egg production. 
 
 The Pacific territory is pretty much the same as the north- 
 eastern section, only on a smaller scale. Conditions are pretty 
 much identical, both as to methods of production and marketing. 
 The Petaluma district corresponds to the Vineland tract, and it 
 is the largest single poultry producing section in the world. 
 See Fig. I. It has close to a million White Leghorn hens. 
 
 Mississippi Valley Poultry. — Things are very different in the 
 Mississippi Valley, which comprises the states of Minnesota, Wis- 
 consin, Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, Nebraska, Iowa, Kan- 
 sas, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and 
 Texas. In this vast territory the great bulk of our poultry is 
 produced, yet for all, there are very few farms which might be 
 
»h X! 
 
VALUE OF POULTRY 9 
 
 termed strictly poultry farms, or where the poultry reared is con- 
 sidered anything more than a by-product. The farms are devoted 
 to other forms of livestock or to other agricultural pursuits, chiefly 
 grain, and what chickens are kept represent small flocks, mostly 
 of indiscriminate origin. 
 
 Table IV. — Value of Poultry in Ten Leading States, According to 
 
 Census of 19 10 
 
 Rank 
 
 State 
 
 Total Value 
 
 I 
 
 Iowa 
 
 $12,270,000 
 
 2 
 
 Missouri 
 
 11,871,000 
 
 3 
 
 Illinois 
 
 11,697,000 
 
 4 
 
 Ohio 
 
 9.533,000 
 
 5 
 
 New York 
 
 7,879,000 
 
 6 
 
 Indiana 
 
 7,762,000 
 
 7 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 7,674,000 
 
 8 
 
 Kansas 
 
 7,377,000 
 
 9 
 
 Michigan 
 
 5,611,000 
 
 10 
 
 Texas 
 
 4,807,000 
 
 Collectively these flocks produce over fifty per cent of the 
 total valuation of our poultry industry, the greater part of 
 which is marketed elsewhere. The quality of the products pro- 
 duced in the Mississippi Valley is inferior to the grades pro- 
 duced in the other sections. This is especially true of eggs, and 
 is due to the fact that the average farmer does not give his 
 hens the correct care, neither does he take sufficient pains in 
 marketing the eggs promptly. The bulk of the poultry and eggs 
 produced in this section is sold to local buyers, thence to the city 
 packing houses and wholesalers. 
 
f^MWli-^ 
 
 
 10 
 
CHAPTER II 
 ANALYZING THE DIFFERENT BREEDS 
 
 Best Breed. — No inquiry comes to hand more frequently than : 
 "Which is the best breed of fowls?" "Which variety of chickens 
 is the most profitable?" 
 
 These and similar questions are entirely pertinent ones, of 
 course, yet none are so difficult to answer, except at great length, 
 accompanied by much explanatory matter. I have always held 
 that there is no one BEST breed of chickens. And I am still of 
 the same opinion. 
 
 To be sure, there are best breeds for a particular purpose, and 
 there may be superior breeds for a given locality, also, there are 
 varieties better suited to a special taste for ornamental fowls; 
 but, these qualifications make the subject more or less specific, 
 which is the only way that it can be discussed intelligently. Let 
 us consider it from this impartial standpoint. 
 
 Standard Varieties. — It may surprise the layman to learn that 
 there are upward of no standard and a large number of non- 
 standard varieties of chickens. See Table V. By non-standard 
 breeds is meant those that are well established, but not as yet 
 admitted to the American Standard of Perfection, which is the 
 authority on poultry in this country, just as the American Kennel 
 Club is the authority on dogs. The American Standard of Per- 
 fection is a very illuminating work, by the way, gotten up by the 
 American Poultry Association, and should find a place on every 
 poultryman's bookshelf. No fancier should attempt to raise 
 fowls for exhibition purposes without this authority, and even 
 for commercial ends it will be found decidedly helpful. 
 
 11 
 
12 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Table V. — Standard Classes, Breeds, and Varieties of Poultry 
 
 According to American Standard of Perfection for 1910 
 
 Variety 
 
 Class 
 
 American 
 
 Asiatic. 
 
 Mediterranean 
 
 Breed 
 
 Plymouth Rock 
 
 Wyandotte 
 
 Java 
 
 Dominique 
 
 Rhode Island Red 
 
 Barred 
 
 White 
 
 Buff 
 
 Silver Pencilled 
 
 Partridge 
 
 Columbian 
 
 Silver 
 
 Golden 
 
 White 
 
 Buff 
 
 Black 
 
 Partridge 
 
 Silver Pencilled 
 
 Columbian 
 
 Black 
 Mottled 
 
 Rose Comb 
 
 f Single Comb 
 
 \ Rose Comb 
 
 Buckeye Pea Comb 
 
 Brahma { Dafk 
 
 ( Buff 
 
 r u- Partridge 
 
 Cochin White 
 
 { Black 
 
 t u / Black 
 
 Lan g shan 1 White 
 
 Leghorn . 
 
 Minorca . 
 
 Spanish .... 
 Andalusians . 
 Ancona .... 
 
 Single Comb Brown 
 Rose Comb Brown 
 Single Comb White 
 Rose Comb White 
 Single Comb Buff 
 Rose Comb Buff 
 Single Comb Black 
 Silver 
 Single Comb Red Pyle 
 
 Single Comb Black 
 Rose Comb Black 
 Single Comb White 
 Single Comb Buff 
 
 White-faced Black 
 
 Blue 
 
 Mottled 
 
GREAT DIVISIONS OF CHICKENS 
 
 13 
 
 Table V. — Standard Classes, Breeds, and Varieties of Poultry- 
 
 (Continued) 
 Class Breed Variety 
 
 f White 
 
 Dorkings \ Silver Gray 
 
 I Colored 
 
 English 
 
 Red Caps Rose Comb 
 
 ( Single Comb Buff 
 
 Orpingtons 'j Single Comb Black 
 
 [ Single Comb White 
 
 Polish . 
 
 Polish 
 
 White-crested Black 
 Bearded Golden 
 Bearded Silver 
 Bearded White 
 Buff Laced 
 Non-bearded Golden 
 Non-bearded Silver 
 Non-bearded White 
 
 Hamburg Hamburg . 
 
 Golden Spangled 
 Silver Spangled 
 Golden Pencilled 
 Silver Pencilled 
 White 
 Black 
 
 French 
 
 Houdan 
 Crevecceurs 
 La Fleche . . 
 
 Game and Game Bantam - 
 
 Game. 
 
 Game Bantam. 
 
 Mottled 
 
 Black 
 
 Black 
 
 Black-breasted Red 
 
 Brown Red 
 
 Golden Duckwing 
 
 Silver Duckwing 
 
 Birchen 
 
 Red Pyle 
 
 White 
 
 Black 
 
 Black-breasted Red 
 
 Brown Red 
 
 Golden Duckwing 
 
 Silver Duckwing 
 
 Birchen 
 
 Red Pyle 
 
 White 
 
 Black 
 
14 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Table V. — Standard Classes, Breeds, and Varieties of Poultry — 
 
 (Continued) 
 
 Class Breed Variety 
 
 ( Dark 
 
 Cornish \ White 
 
 [ White-laced Red 
 
 • Sumatra Black 
 
 Malay Black-breasted Red 
 
 Malay Bantam . . Black-breasted Red 
 
 Ornamental Bantam , 
 
 c , ■ i . / Golden 
 
 Sebright.. . ^ SUver 
 
 Rose Comb 
 Booted .... 
 
 White 
 Black 
 
 White 
 
 Brahma { b?rk 
 
 ( Buff 
 
 r- u- Partridge 
 
 Cochin I White 
 
 { Black 
 
 Black Tailed 
 
 Japanese -! White 
 
 Black 
 
 Polish 
 
 Bearded White 
 Buff Laced 
 Non-bearded 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 Silkies White 
 
 Sultans White 
 
 Frizzles Any Color 
 
 Turkey Turkey . 
 
 Bronze 
 
 Narragansett 
 
 White 
 
 Black 
 
 Buff 
 
 Slate 
 
 Bourbon 
 
CLASSES OF POULTRY 
 
 15 
 
 Table V. — Standard Classes, Breeds, and Varieties of Poultry — 
 
 {Continued) 
 Class Breed Variety 
 
 Pekin White 
 
 Aylesbury White 
 
 Rouen Colored 
 
 Cayuga Black 
 
 caii { G ra .y 
 
 \ White 
 
 Duck. 
 
 East India 
 Crested . . . 
 
 Black 
 
 . . White 
 
 Tv/r / Colored 
 
 Muscov y White 
 
 Indian Runner. 
 
 Fawn and White 
 White 
 
 Swedish Blue 
 
 Toulouse Gray 
 
 Embden White 
 
 African Gray 
 
 Goose . 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 / Brown 
 • ■ ■ ■ \ White 
 
 Wild or Canadian . . . Gray 
 
 Egyptian Colored 
 
 The standard varieties are generally divided into the following 
 classes : 
 
 i. American Class: Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode 
 Island Reds, Javas, Dominiques, Buckeyes. 
 
 2. Asiatic Class: Brahmas, Cochins and Langshans. 
 
 3. Mediterranean Class: Leghorns, Minorcas, Spanish, An- 
 dalusians, Campines and Anconas. 
 
 4. English Class: Dorkings, Orpingtons and Redcaps. 
 
 5. Polish Class : Polish fowls of which there are eight varieties. 
 
 6. Dutch Class: Hamburgs, of which there are six varieties. 
 
 7. French Class: Houdans, Crevecoeurs and La Fleche. 
 
 8. Games and Game Bantams: Eight varieties of games, and 
 the same number and kind of game bantams. 
 
16 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 9. Oriental Class: Cornish, Sumatras, Malays and Malay 
 Bantams. 
 
 10. Ornamental Bantam Class: Sebrights, Rose-Comb, Booted, 
 Brahmas, Cochins, Japanese and Polish. 
 
 11. Miscellaneous: Silkies, Sultans and Frizzles. 
 
 For practical purposes the above eleven classes are grouped 
 into four general classes, about as follows: 
 
 1. Egg breeds, commonly called the non-sitting breeds. 
 
 2. Meat or table breeds. 
 
 3. General purpose breeds, sometimes spoken of as dual-pur- 
 pose fowls. 
 
 4. Ornamental breeds, which, as the term implies, includes such 
 ornamental varieties as the Polish, Games, and Bantams, 
 and are raised almost exclusively by fanciers for exhibition 
 purposes. 
 
 General Discussion. — It will appear obvious that the question 
 of selecting a particular variety of poultry is one having consider- 
 able scope and many sides. It is manifestly impossible to take 
 care of the subject in a single chapter. Therefore, in this chapter 
 we will devote our attention to a general discussion of the problem. 
 
 No Iron-Clad Rules. — The writer has always worked on the 
 assumption, if such it be, that there are no iron-clad rules for 
 poultry keeping. It has been said that a man must be half hen 
 with feathers growing on "his back to make a success with chickens. 
 We interpret this to mean that a man (or woman, we use the 
 masculine form merely to simplify expression) must be fond of the 
 work, and understand the nature of his charge, otherwise he can 
 not attain that insight and competence, in a sense comradeship, 
 which is the foundation of all success in handling animals. In 
 other words, he must always have the interests of his birds at 
 heart. Such a man can make a success of any breed of poultry. 
 
 Hens are considered downright stupid by some. However true 
 this may be, there is considerable human nature in a chicken, 
 more character, perhaps, than one would suppose. Failure to 
 appreciate this is probably one of the reasons why many breeders 
 are unsuccessful. There are temperaments in chickens, just as 
 there are temperaments in the human kind. The point is to seek 
 
BREED FOR DEFINITE END 
 
 17 
 
 the fowl having some basis for mutual exchange — a similarity or 
 congeniality between the keeper and his flock. For this reason 
 I do not care to say offhand that a certain breed is best. I prefer 
 toleave this selection to the individual. The wisdom of this stand 
 will become apparent in the succeeding paragraphs. 
 
 Some prospective poultrymen contemplate a start in the busi- 
 ness with a fixed interest or fondness for a particular variety 
 firmly established in their minds. Others enter the field with a 
 
 Fig. 6. — Eight Brahmas. 
 
 definite end, but no particular interest in any one breed. Still 
 others engage in the work without any special interest in any 
 breed or any particular phase of the work, simply a desire to raise 
 chickens. There is yet another class of prospective poultrymen 
 who, being possessed of certain real estate, from which it is im- 
 practicable to move, we will say, should select breeds that are 
 best adapted to their particular localities. 
 
 Have a Definite Aim. — At first glance you may conclude that 
 
18 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 this analysis is hair-splitting. Not so. It is common sense in the 
 extreme. One of the fundamentals of good business is to apply 
 one's talents to the best advantage, where they are the most con- 
 genial, the most productive, and where they can be made to 
 specialize. Aimlessness is almost fatal to success in any line of 
 endeavor. It is like the proverbial rolling stone. Fix your mind 
 on a specific end, and then select the conditions best suited to 
 accomplish that end. 
 
 
 
 Fig. 7. — White Wyandottes. 
 
 ■***i#v, 
 
 The person who starts out with a fondness for a particular 
 breed of chickens should capitalize on that fondness if it is at all 
 feasible. For example, we will say that a person is partial to 
 Light Brahmas. See Fig. 6. That person should make his spe- 
 cialty meat, and not eggs. If, on the other hand, he favors Silver 
 Campines to the exclusion of all other breeds, he should make his 
 specialty eggs, and not meat. The Light Brahma is one of the 
 
WYANDOTTES ARE GOOD BROILERS 
 
 19 
 
 best meat breeds, either for soft roasters or capons; the Silver 
 Campine is essentially an egg producer, and is not desirable for 
 table poultry. When I say "not desirable for table poultry" I 
 mean that it is not in popular demand, and not particularly pro- 
 fitable as such. The Campine is small, inclined to be dry and 
 stringy, and the color of its carcass does not meet with market 
 requirements. They find a sale, of course, but the prices received 
 are below those gotten for the Brahmas. 
 
 Fig. 8. — White Plymouth Rocks. 
 
 Breeds for Particular Purposes. — The person who starts out 
 with a particular specialty firmly fixed in his mind should make 
 everything subordinate to this end. If he has his mind made up 
 on a broiler plant, well and good, he will do well to choose the 
 Wyandotte, all other things being equal. See Fig. 7. He might 
 also select the Plymouth Rock or the Rhode Island Red, or nu- 
 merous others, but he would be heading wrong to pick out, let 
 
20 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Table VI. — Weights of Different Breeds as Required by the 
 American Standard of Perfection of 19 10 
 
 American class: 
 
 Plymouth Rocks 
 
 Wyandottes 
 
 Javas 
 
 Dominiques. .......... 
 
 Rhode Island Reds. . . . 
 
 Buckeyes 
 
 Asiatic class: 
 
 Brahmas 
 
 Cochins 
 
 Langshans 
 
 Mediterranean class: 
 
 Minorcas 
 
 Spanish 
 
 Blue Andalusians 
 
 English class: 
 
 Dorkings 
 
 Redcaps 
 
 Orpingtons 
 
 French class: 
 
 Houdans 
 
 Crevecceurs 
 
 La Fleche 
 
 Oriental class: 
 
 Cornish 
 
 Malays 
 
 Malay Bantams 
 
 Game Bantam class: 
 
 Game Bantams 
 
 Ornamental Bantam class: 
 
 Sebrights 
 
 Rose-Comb 
 
 Booted 
 
 Brahma 
 
 Cochin 
 
 Japanese . . 
 
 Polish 
 
 Cocks 
 
 Pounds 
 
 9 l A 
 
 8^ 
 
 9A 
 
 7 
 
 8}4 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 11 
 9 A 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 6 
 
 VA 
 10 
 
 7A 
 
 8 
 8 A 
 
 9 
 9 
 
 Ounces 
 26 
 
 26 
 26 
 26 
 30 
 30 
 26 
 26 
 
 7A 
 
 ey 
 7A 
 5 
 (>A 
 
 6 
 
 9A 
 9A 
 
 7A 
 
 7A 
 
 6y 2 
 5 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 ey 
 
 7 
 7A 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 Ounces 
 24 
 
 22 
 22 
 22 
 26 
 26 
 
 Cockerels 
 
 Pounds 
 
 8 
 
 7A 
 8 
 6 
 
 -7-1/ 
 7/1 
 
 IO 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7A 
 
 6y 2 
 5 
 
 6A 
 6 
 
 8A 
 
 6y 2 
 7 
 
 7A 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 Ounces 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 26 
 26 
 
 Pullets 
 
 Pounds 
 
 6 
 
 5A 
 
 by 
 
 4 
 5 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 6 A 
 
 ey 
 
 5A 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 5 
 7 
 
 sA 
 
 6 
 
 6y 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 Ounces 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 20 
 24 
 24 
 20 
 20 
 
 us say, the Hamburg or the Polish. On the contrary, if this fellow 
 wanted to establish a specialty in fancy eggs for a select trade, 
 and the trade called for white eggs, he would do well to raise 
 Leghorns, and not Cornish or Red Pyle Games. If the market 
 
COLD CLIMATE BREEDS 
 
 21 
 
 requirements demanded brown shelled eggs, he must forget about 
 Leghorns and turn to one of the American breeds or English 
 breeds. New York, for instance, is very partial to white eggs — 
 they command premium prices over brown eggs; whereas Boston 
 favors brown eggs, as do other New England cities. 
 
 We now come to the fellow who has few if any convictions as 
 
 Fig. 9. — White-Laced Red Cornish Fowls. 
 
 to breeds or purposes. He will be influenced by his circumstances, 
 of course, the amount of available capital, the amount of labor he 
 intends putting into the project, and the locality in which he 
 hopes to make a start. This prospective poultryman is pretty 
 much in the same class with the fellow who is possessed of a loca- 
 tion, and must make his specialty suit that property. 
 
 In extremely cold climates where the winters are long and 
 
22 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 severe, it is sometimes best to adopt one of the heavier breeds, 
 such as the Plymouth Rocks, for these are hardy birds. See Fig. 
 8. If the location is adjacent to water, ducks should be considered. 
 If there is an abundance of pasture land, geese would be profitable. 
 Where there is wide range in a wood lot, turkeys and guineas do 
 well. If the chickens are to be kept in a backyard, in restricted 
 quarters, it is advisable to select a docile breed rather than a 
 nervous, excitable variety. If the flock is to be restrained within 
 a low fence, the meat or general purpose breeds are best. They 
 can be confined within a three or four foot fence, whereas the 
 Mediterranean breeds are high flyers and generally require a 
 seven-foot yard. 
 
 The popularity of the breed is another factor worthy of one's 
 consideration. Whimsical and illogical as this may sound, it is 
 nevertheless an important item toward the success of a poultry 
 venture. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 EGG BREEDS 
 
 Definition. — The term Egg Breeds is used to designate those 
 varieties whose greatest usefulness lies in the production of eggs. 
 Most of these fowls comprise the Mediterranean class. They are 
 mostly small or medium-size birds, of a nervous, active tempera- 
 ment, take flight readily when frightened, excellent foragers, gen- 
 erally poor sitters, and not very dependable mothers. For best 
 results their eggs must be hatched in incubators, and the chicks 
 raised artificially. They mature quickly, and feather at an early 
 age, the chicks often developing wing feathers when but a few 
 days old. The meat of the egg breeds does not rank very high 
 for table purposes, except when the fowls are young. They make 
 fair broilers up to twelve weeks of age. Surplus cockerels are 
 used to this end, though it would hardly pay the poultryman who 
 specializes in broilers to think of adopting these breeds. He would 
 do better to select one of the meat or general purpose breeds. 
 
 Broad Generalities. — In discussing a subject of this kind it 
 must be borne in mind that these descriptions are based upon 
 broad generalities — the popularly accepted rules. There are ex- 
 ceptions, of course, since many natural instincts have been out- 
 bred in certain strains of fowls by long periods of intense domes- 
 tication. Chickens are made docile by training, just as wild 
 animals are made to live peaceably in a domestic state. I have 
 seen Leghorns that were a lot more approachable than Plymouth 
 Rocks, though the rule is not the case. I mention this here that 
 the reader will not be misguided into the belief that all egg breeds 
 of fowls are wild, or even semi-wild, uncontrollable birds, because 
 they are not. 
 
 Vigor of Mediterranean Varieties. — Until the past decade, 
 most of the Mediterranean varieties were thought to be more or 
 
 23 
 
24 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 less delicate. This is accounted for by several reasons. Nearly 
 all of the eggs breeds have large combs and pendulous wattles, 
 hence they are sensitive to cold. It has been found, however, that 
 if the poultry houses are kept dry by adequate ventilation, and 
 the fowls are given suitable roosting quarters, there is little trouble 
 from frost-bite, even in climates where the temperature goes below 
 freezing for months at a time. The fact that the young chicks 
 
 Wf iMw 
 
 Vf^M^i/M&- ^ /:iL 
 
 Fig. io. — Single Comb White Leghorn. 
 
 feather very quickly, which is a great drain on their systems, was 
 accepted as another reason for making them delicate for a time. 
 Being imported from countries that are warm and sunny the 
 greater part of the year, it was to be expected that these Mediter- 
 ranean breeds should be influenced by our northern winters at 
 first. Now, however, they have been bred here so long that they 
 are in the main thoroughly acclimated, and little fear need be 
 entertained as to their hardihood. 
 
MOST COMMON EGG BREEDS 
 
 25 
 
 The Leghorn is probably the best example of the non-sitting 
 class. See Fig. 10. It is certainly the most popular and the most 
 widely bred of any European fowl. Other egg breeds include the 
 Minorcas, Anconas, Andalusians, Campines and Spanish, all 
 Mediterranean breeds. To these should be added the Hamburg, 
 Houdan, the Redcap and possibly some others. They all lay 
 white-shelled eggs. 
 
 Fig. ii. — Single Comb Brown Leghorn. 
 
 The most common varieties of Leghorns are White, Brown, 
 Buff, Black and Silver, and most of these color varieties are again 
 sub-divided into Single and Rose-Comb species. The White and 
 Brown Leghorns are the most widely bred, and they were the 
 first varieties known. There seems to be excellent ground for the 
 belief that they were first introduced into America from Italy. 
 There is a story to the effect that in 1834 a sailing vessel from 
 
26 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Leghorn, Italy, brought a small cargo of fowls to this country, 
 which were at once named Leghorns. They were found to be 
 prolific layers, which at once gave rise to their popularity. 
 
 Improvement. — Since their first importation the Leghorns have 
 been greatly improved, needless to say, and American breeders 
 are also responsible for creating most of the sub-varieties of the 
 breed. I am of the opinion that the Browns run a trifle smaller 
 than the Whites, and that they lay a smaller egg. See Fig. n. 
 The Browns are probably hardier, but to offset this advantage, 
 they are harder to breed true to color, especially in large flocks, 
 and they do not make so good a carcass as the Whites when 
 dressed. 
 
 The White Leghorn is acknowledged to be the premier in lay- 
 ing, so much so that it has come to be recognized as the standard 
 by which the prolificness of other breeds are judged. It may be 
 said to represent in the poultry world what the Jersey cow does 
 in the dairy — small in size, but great in production. Some of the 
 most successful poultry plants in the country use the White 
 Leghorn exclusively, especially those catering to a fancy egg trade. 
 
 The Buff Leghorn is a beautiful variety, and has many ad- 
 mirers. See Fig. 12. It has the same general characteristics as 
 its White cousin, only its plumage is a rich golden buff color. 
 The Black Leghorn is another striking example of this breed, and 
 is a favorite among those who are partial to dark-colored birds. 
 This variety is sometimes mistaken for the Black Minorca, though 
 the latter is larger in size, has a longer body, larger comb, and 
 dark slate or nearly black shanks and toes. The Black Leghorn 
 is a glossy black throughout its plumage; comb, face and wattles 
 are bright red; the ear lobes white, and the shanks yellow or 
 yellowish black. 
 
 Silver Leghorns, sometimes called Silver Duckwing Leghorns, 
 are not so widely bred in this country, though they are frequently 
 seen in the show rooms. In point of beauty they are considered 
 very interesting, but they are likewise difficult to breed true to 
 color in large flocks. In other ways they are considered as profit- 
 able as the other varieties. 
 
RIGHT BREED IN RIGHT PLACE 
 
 11 
 
 The only distinguishing difference between the single-comb and 
 rose-comb varieties is in the comb. The former has a blade, while 
 the latter has a spike. Rose-comb varieties are preferred by some 
 because there is less danger from frost-bite. 
 
 There is no standard weight given for Leghorns, though the 
 average may be said to be 3^2 pounds for hens, and 4^ pounds 
 for cocks. Pullets and cockerels are a trifle under these weights. 
 Some strains run heavier, which is obtained by introducing 
 
 Fig. 12. — Rose-Comb Buff Leghorn. 
 
 Minorca blood. It is thought that some of the English breeders 
 have crossed a little Wyandotte blood, for their Leghorns are of 
 a much different type. 
 
 Correct Circumstances. — The Leghorn, while it is a breed of 
 great merit, should not be confused as the right breed for every 
 man and every place. Put the Leghorn in its proper environment 
 and there is no fowl that will surpass it. On the contrary, if sub- 
 jected to conditions that are not suitable for it, it will be an end- 
 less source of trouble and disappointment. Leghorns are ambi- 
 
28 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 tious fowls, tireless foragers. If there is any scratching in sight, 
 whether it be a garbage heap, truck garden, cold-frame, manure 
 pile, or rose-bed, the Leghorn will make strenuous efforts to get 
 into it. Therefore, the person who would keep a garden, for 
 flowers or vegetables, had better see to it that his hen yard is 
 securely inclosed with wire netting if he expects to raise Leghorns. 
 If the runs are large enough, Leghorns can be confined within 
 
 Fig. 13. — Lakenvelders. 
 
 a seven-foot fence, as a rule. Once they develop the habit of 
 "yard-breaking," however, they will clear this with ease, for they 
 make a practice of half-flying and half-climbing up the netting. 
 Nervousness. — As previously mentioned, the Leghorn is a 
 nervous bird. Whenever danger approaches, or anything that 
 they imagine is dangerous or unusual, their first impulse is to 
 fly out of the way. They abominate the feeling of being cornered. 
 
MINORCAS 29 
 
 In a large yard, especially if it is square, this condition is not so 
 likely to occur. And if a flock is not made to resort to its wings, 
 in time it seems to forget their real power, in which event they 
 are confined with less trouble. It is a mistake to place rails at 
 the top of a fence, or anything that appears as a perch. These 
 tempt the birds to fly to them. 
 
 Small Size. — One argument that is used in favor of the Leghorn 
 is its small size, which will enable one to keep a large number in 
 a small space, such as a backyard or town lot. It is true that Leg- 
 horns require smaller house room than some other breeds, which 
 is an important factor on the commercial plant, but at the same 
 time they should have greater outdoor freedom. From my ex- 
 perience, I would prefer one of the American breeds in limited 
 areas. As a rule they are more docile and will stand close confine- 
 ment with better results. 
 
 The eggs from the Leghorn run high in fertility, which has 
 made this breed a favorite in the day-old-chick trade. It is not 
 unusual for breeders to secure 98 per cent fertility. An average 
 of 90 per cent would be considered equal to 65 per cent in the 
 heavier varieties. The pullets often begin laying when 4^2 months 
 old, though 5^2 months should be reckoned as the average. The 
 cockerels commence to crow at two months, or younger, and are 
 very precocious. 
 
 Leghorns, and in fact, other egg breeds, are comparatively 
 small eaters, and the cost of raising them to maturity is about 
 one-half that of the meat breeds. Under proper conditions a 
 flock of Leghorns that has been bred for heavy egg production 
 should average between 130 and 180 eggs a year. Many indi- 
 viduals have scored over 250 eggs in a single year, and even 300 
 eggs. 
 
 General Characteristics. — The Minorcas belong to the Medi- 
 terranean class, and are often rated next to the Leghorn in laying 
 qualities. They are bred in two colors, white and black. The 
 Whites have a single comb, whereas the Blacks are bred with a 
 single comb, also rose comb, which is now accepted as a standard 
 variety. The single comb Black is the most widely bred of this 
 family, a truly beautiful and useful fowl. See Fig. 14. 
 
30 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Origin of Name. — Why these fowls are called Minorcas is one 
 of the mysteries so common to the history of poultry. The breed 
 was formerly called the Red-Faced Black Spanish, or Portugal 
 fowl. Some persons got the idea that they originally came from 
 the island of Minorca, hence the name. 
 
 Weight. — Minorcas are heavier than Leghorns, and are there- 
 fore more to be recommended as table fowls. The standard 
 
 Fig. 14. — Single Comb Black Minorca. 
 
 weight of the Single Comb Black variety is 9 pounds for cocks, 
 7^2 pounds for hens, 7^2 pounds for cockerels and 6^2 pounds for 
 pullets. The weights for the Whites are one pound lighter. See 
 
 Fig. 15- 
 
 Popularity. — The Minorcas have long been a popular fowl in all 
 sections of the country, and this popularity has been attained 
 solely on the merits of this breed. They are non-sitters and year- 
 
MINORCAS 
 
 31 
 
 round layers. For table purposes they would be classed as " fair." 
 Their flesh is sweet and juicy, but owing to its being white, and 
 the shanks black or slate-color, it is discounted by American 
 housewives, who prefer a yellow-skinned carcass. While the Leg- 
 horns as a class surpass the Minorcas in the number of eggs laid, 
 the latter are considered to lay a larger egg, and to equal the Leg- 
 horn in actual bulk of egg material. 
 
 Fig. 15. — Single Comb White Minorca. 
 
 In recent years, however, so much improvement has been made 
 in the Leghorn in the way of selecting layers of large-size eggs, 
 that I am inclined to think this superiority of the Minorca is 
 more romance than fact. I have seen whole flocks of Leghorns 
 that laid uniformly large eggs, eggs that seemed out of all propor- 
 tion to the hens' bodies. 
 
 Good Breed for Farmers. — Minorcas make a desirable fowl for 
 the farmer ; they have an active disposition and are excellent fora- 
 
32 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 gers. Perhaps their most striking feature is the comb, which is 
 almost ponderous in size and quite thick. This feature is often 
 raised as an objection because of the susceptibility to frost bite. 
 In climates where the winters are long and severe Minorcas are 
 not to be recommended on this account. This huge comb and 
 proportionately pendulous wattles offer another disadvantage in 
 marketing the fowls for table poultry. Large combs are con- 
 sidered an indication of age, which makes it difficult for dealers 
 
 Fig. 16. — White-Faced Black Spanish. 
 
 to secure top prices. Then, too, buyers do not want to pay fancy 
 prices for this extra weight, which is, after all, waste. To obviate 
 this drawback the combs of dressed birds are often torn off, but 
 this removal presents an unattractive appearance, and is suscep- 
 tible of deception. 
 
 Black Spanish fowls, sometimes called White-Faced Black 
 Spanish, constitute one of the oldest varieties of domestic poul- 
 try, and are probably the oldest pure-bred fowl in the Mediter- 
 
BLACK SPANISH 33 
 
 ranean class. Moubray, one of the earliest writers on poultry, 
 includes this variety in his descriptions of fowls. See Fig. 16. 
 
 They were more widely bred in this country a quarter of a cen- 
 tury ago than now, probably because of the increased popularity 
 of the Leghorn. In size they are about equal to the White Min- 
 orca, though their mold is somewhat different, being shorter and 
 perhaps more erect. Their haughty bearing, and the white face 
 and lobes peculiar to the breed, contrasting with their glossy 
 black plumage, render them strikingly beautiful birds. This dis- 
 tinguishing white face, rising well over the eyes and extending to 
 the back of the head, should be pure white and free from wrinkles. 
 The greater the extent of surface the better. Needless to say, 
 this is the one difficult problem in breeding Spanish, though from 
 a fancier's point of view it is this very feature that adds interest. 
 
 Black Spanish lay a white-shelled egg, and for productiveness 
 and other qualifications they can be rated with the Minorca. 
 The males are said to be wonderful fighters, and to be capable of 
 holding their own against all comers, save the Games. Recently 
 they have not been bred in any numbers except by fanciers. 
 Lack of the more accepted utility qualities is probably the reason 
 for this falling off in popularity. 
 
 The Andalusian, sometimes called the Blue Andalusian, the 
 prefix "blue" being superfluous, since there is only the one variety 
 of this breed, has the rather unique distinction of wearing the 
 national colors. See Fig. 17. The face, eyes, comb and wattles 
 are red, the ear-lobes are white, and the plumage is a beautiful 
 light and dark blue. 
 
 There is considerable confusion concerning the origin of this 
 breed. Judging from its name, it might have come from Anda- 
 lusia, a province in Spain, which is celebrated for its bulls for the 
 ring, though Mr. Weir, an English authority on poultry, who 
 visited this section with the view to learning something about this 
 breed, failed to find any convincing evidence. 
 
 Anatomically the Andalusians and Minorcas are noticeably 
 alike, though the former are somewhat smaller, the standard 
 weight for cocks being 6 pounds, for hens and cockerels 5 pounds, 
 3 
 
34 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 and for pullets 4 pounds. For farm purposes they are an admir- 
 able breed, good layers, non-sitters, active and vigorous. The 
 chicks are hardy and mature early, and the pullets begin laying 
 at five or six months of age. They are rather difficult to breed a 
 uniform color in large flocks, because the plumage is likely to show 
 many shades of blue, from light gray to a slate-black. 
 
 The Jersey Blue, once very popular as a farm fowl, is some- 
 
 Mi. 
 
 Fig. 17. — Andalusian Fowls. 
 
 times confused with the Andalusian, but this is a mistake. The 
 Jersey Blue was the counterpart of the Andalusian in disposition 
 and color, but favored the Brahma in size and shape. Jersey 
 Blues were large fowls, and bore indications of a cross between 
 Asiatic and Spanish breeds. 
 
 The Ancona, or Mottled Ancona, is one of the least common 
 varieties of the Mediterranean class. See Fig. 18. In shape and 
 
ANCONAS AND HAMBURGS 
 
 35 
 
 size and general characteristics they are the same as the Leghorn. 
 They are hardy, quick to mature, and are prolific layers of white- 
 shelled eggs. Recognition of their virtues as Egg Machines is 
 becoming more widespread every year. The color of the plumage 
 should be a beetle-green or lustrous greenish-black, with about 
 every fifth feather tipped with white. This mottling should be 
 uniform throughout, with no tendency to lacing. It is this uni- 
 
 
 
 '"■*''■ '■"' ■■"'■■ h ■•.''-/w&l!k AsSObL 
 
 
 
 > -'• 
 
 
 WlSgi^ 
 
 » 
 
 
 ^l;?' 
 
 W^Jl; 
 
 ^^mg*% 
 
 '^M^X 
 
 
 \!Uf. 
 
 Fig. 1 8. — Single Comb Mottled Anconas. 
 
 formity that makes for careful selection at breeding times. Like 
 the Leghorn, there is no standard weight for the Anconas. They 
 are Italian fowls, and are sometimes referred to as such. 
 
 The Hamburgs originated in Holland and derived their name 
 from the city of Hamburg. See Fig. 19. They are one of the 
 oldest standard bred fowls, and were first known as the Dutch 
 Every-Day Layers, or Dutch Everlasting Layers. They are in 
 
36 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 the front rank of egg producers to this day, but lay rather small 
 eggs, ,and for this reason they are outstripped by the Leghorns, 
 They are small in size, and by some are considered as ornamentals 
 There is no mistake concerning their beauty, the Hamburg, espe- 
 cially the Silver Spangled variety, is one of the most beautiful, 
 striking domestic fowls. 
 
 There are six varieties of this breed, the Silver Spangled, 
 Golden Spangled, Silver Laced, Golden Laced, White, and Black. 
 
 Fig. 19. — Golden Spangled Hamburgs. 
 
 The first named variety is probably the most popular. Hamburgs 
 are economical fowls to keep, beside being small eaters, they are 
 great foragers. The only serious objection to them is the small- 
 ness of their egg. By careful selection this may be remedied and 
 the size of the egg improved. One of the distinctive features of 
 the Hamburg is its rose comb, which should be developed into a 
 straight spike. There are no standard weights given for Ham- 
 burgs. 
 
HOUDANS 
 
 37 
 
 The blood from the Hamburgs has been used in establishing 
 some of our most useful American breeds. Though they breed 
 remarkably true to color and shape, especially for fowls that have 
 such a wide range of color, the problem of securing perfection 
 demands the skill and patience of the most inveterate fancier. 
 In this country, they are bred more for exhibition purposes than 
 anything else. 
 
 Fig. 20. — Sicilian Buttercups. 
 
 w% 
 
 French Breeds. — There are three varieties of poultry listed in 
 the French class — Houdans, Crevecoeurs and La Fleche. Of 
 these, only the Houdans can be classified as an egg breed, and, in 
 fact, they might just as well be called a dual-purpose fowl, for 
 they are highly esteemed for table purposes. See Fig. 21. They 
 are the most popular French breed in this country, and while not 
 raised in such large numbers as many other varieties of chickens, 
 still they are bred to a fair extent throughout the States. 
 
38 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Houdans are hardy, prolific layers of white-shelled eggs, non- 
 sitters and light feeders. They have small bones and the flesh is 
 tender and of a delicious flavor. It is white, however, which is 
 discredited in America as prime table poultry. Some day it is 
 to be hoped we will get over this foolish prejudice. 
 
 Crested Variety. — Houdans are a crested variety; their crest 
 or "top knot" is their most conspicuous mark of distinction. 
 Another peculiarity is their having five toes* like the Dorking. 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 21. — White Houdans 
 
 
 Both sexes have a V-shaped comb which rests against the front 
 of the crest. It is often partly hidden by the crest. Houdans have 
 mottled plumage, black and white, with the black predominating. 
 Recently a variety of White Houdans has been developed, which 
 is quite attractive. The standard weight of the Houdan is 7>^ 
 pounds for cocks, 6}4 pounds for hens and cockerels, and 5^2 
 pounds for pullets. 
 
 Campines. — Though comparatively new in America, the Cam- 
 
SILVER CAMPINES 
 
 39 
 
 pine (pronounced kampeen) is a very old breed, and derives its 
 name from the sandy plains of La Campine, in Belgium. See 
 Fig. 22. Thus we are accustomed to credit this country with the 
 ancestral dignity of this breed. Lapse of centuries and the ab- 
 sence of authentic records make it impossible to trace the exact 
 origin of the Campines, though tradition has it that they were 
 first taken into Flanders (Belgium and northern France) by 
 Charlemagne from the shores of the Mediterranean. They cer- 
 
 
 AW' "• Y*f&"'?*-Z3 
 
 Fig. 22. — Silver Campines. 
 
 tainly bear a close resemblance to other Mediterranean varieties, 
 especially the Leghorn, in shape and habits, though not so much 
 in color. The color of the Campine is quite distinctive, and prob- 
 ably creates the greatest interest in the breed. 
 
 There are two color varieties of Campines, Silvers and Goldens. 
 Both lay a white-shelled egg, and the fowls are precisely the same 
 in shape, size and general characteristics. It is said that the 
 Goldens are likely to lay a slightly tinted white egg, and that they 
 
40 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 are more difficult to breed true to color in plumage. The ground 
 color of the Silver is white, in the Golden it is yellow. 
 
 Both varieties were admitted to the American Standard in 
 1893, but through lack of interest in the breeds, due chiefly to 
 the absence of a uniform size, shape, and color, they were dropped 
 in 1898. These defects, if they should be termed such, did not 
 
 Fig. 23. — White Aseels. 
 
 make the fowls any the less valuable for utility purposes, but 
 the early importations were too crude and indefinite for the 
 American fancier. 
 
 Even at this date their color qualifications are open to argu- 
 ment, though in the past ten years they have been greatly im- 
 proved and standardized, especially by the English breeders. 
 
THE BRAEKEL 41 
 
 The breeds are now pretty widely bred in this country, and in- 
 variably render an excellent account of themselves. 
 
 Plumage. — It is generally accepted that the ideal plumage 
 should represent two distinct colors, silvery white (substituting 
 golden yellow for the Golden variety), overlaid by black barrings 
 that possess a rich purplish green sheen. The barrings should be 
 clean-cut, about three times the width of the ground color, and 
 run transversely across the feather, with such regularity as to 
 form the appearance of rings around the bird's body. With due 
 allowance for a slight departure in the breast, wings, and tail, 
 every feather should conform to this idea of symmetry, excepting 
 the neck hackle, which is clear white, or clear yellow, in both 
 sexes. 
 
 The Braekel (sometimes spelled Brackel) is a similar breed, 
 frequently confused with the Campine, and is also indigenous to 
 Belgium. It flourished in the more fertile regions of the southern 
 districts, where it is supposed to have gained greater size. Both 
 have the same progenitors, there can be no mistake on this point, 
 but the Braekel, having the good fortune to live in a plenteous 
 land, waxed big and fat, whereas her northern sister, the Cam- 
 pine, residing in a less fruitful section, was obliged to pass a more 
 frugal existence. In consequence her growth was in proportion 
 to her living, small and lean. This training, however, has made 
 the Campine a very thrifty fowl, and given it a hardihood and 
 vigor for which it is celebrated. 
 
 The two names, Campine and Braekel, were intermingled — • 
 large and small Campines, and large and small Braekels — until 
 about fifteen years ago, when the English fanciers took up the 
 breeds and set about standardizing them, and at the same time 
 eliminating several objectionable features. They found the Cam- 
 pine too small, and by infusing Braekel blood increased the size. 
 The Braekel, however, had a white saddle hackle, similar to the 
 neck hackle, which was objectionable, because it required a 
 double mating to secure any degree of uniformity in the color of 
 the plumage. 
 
 By careful selection this white saddle was removed; in fact, 
 
42 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 the hackle feathers themselves were eliminated, until to-day we 
 have the males feathered on the saddles precisely the same as the 
 females, or what is termed "hen-feathered males." This develop- 
 ment of the breed became known as the Improved English Cam- 
 pine, and is the accepted standard to-day. 
 
 The carriage and mold of the Campine is alert and graceful, 
 and may be compared to the Leghorn or Hamburg. In size and 
 
 Fig. 24. — Long- Tailed Yokohamas. 
 
 weight it is also the counterpart of these other egg breeds. The 
 comb of the male is of fair size, with an erect blade; in the female 
 it falls gracefully to one side. Like other breeds of the Mediter- 
 ranean class, the Campine is rated as a non-sitting variety. The 
 hens seldom become broody, and if they do, they are easily dis- 
 couraged. 
 
PROiMINENT EYE 
 
 43 
 
 A large prominent eye is peculiar to this interesting breed. It 
 is a brilliant red, and like the proverbial hawk's eye, it is always 
 searching and never failing in its accuracy. It seems almost to be 
 endowed with a kind of supernatural power, an obscure sense of 
 being aware of the existence of an object before the object has 
 actually appeared. This readiness of eye, coupled with a wonder- 
 ful sagacity, and strong constitutional vigor, serves to make the 
 
 
 Fig. 25. — Silver Laced Polish. 
 
 Campine a peerless forager, and easily adaptable to any condi- 
 tions. 
 
 Campines resemble game birds in many respects. They are 
 strong flyers, fast runners and good fighters, yet no fowl is more 
 domesticated than the Campine, and none more docile and re- 
 sponsive. Though quick to scent an enemy, they are almost 
 equally quick to make friends with the attendant or feeder. The 
 
44 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 writer's tamest pets in the poultry yard were Silver Campines. 
 They haunted the kitchen door for tid-bits, and at the first oppor- 
 tunity would enter the house and beg for food. An English Bull 
 Terrier and these Campines often ate from the same platter at 
 the same time. 
 
 A breed that will show the maximum production at the least 
 expense is the desirable commercial fowl, and on this score the 
 Campine extends her challenge to the world. Not that Campines 
 are necessarily smaller feeders than other breeds of the same size, 
 for they are not;, but if given the opportunity they will forage 
 for two-thirds of their food. Furthermore, they will thrive out- 
 doors the greater part of the year, and all year, if the climate is 
 at all temperate. They resemble the guinea in this respect. 
 
 Energy of Campines. — In any kind of weather, rain, wind, heat, 
 and cold, when most other breeds are content to remain snugly 
 indoors, the Campine is abroad, wrestling for its daily keep. In 
 fact, from close observations I have concluded that if a Campine 
 seeks shelter, it is an ill omen, similar to that drawn from the 
 guinea's entering the hen house at night, that a terrific storm is 
 in the making, and that it is high time to make things snug and 
 secure. 
 
 It is always unwise, and sometimes inhuman, to neglect birds 
 or animals of any kind; yet there are various degrees of negli- 
 gence. In most cases where chickens are raised in the backyard 
 or on the farm the owner is unable to devote any more time to the 
 flock than is required by the bare necessities — feeding and water- 
 ing. The point to be emphasized is this: where it is impossible 
 to give frequent attention to the needs and requirements of a 
 flock of chickens, that flock should consist of a breed that is com- 
 petent to shift for itself. The Campine is an ideal fowl for this 
 purpose. Literally speaking, it will thrive where many other 
 birds would starve. 
 
 Redcaps. — There is another breed frequently classed as an egg- 
 variety, though it is seldom found in th^ poultry yards of this 
 country — the Redcap. This is the modern name for a very old 
 English breed, commonly bred in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Stafford- 
 
RED CAPS 45 
 
 shire and Cumberland. Its exact origin is unknown. Redcaps 
 were called by different names in different localities, such as Cop- 
 heads, Corals, Rosetops, Redheads, Derbyshire Redcaps and 
 Yorkshire Everlayers. 
 
 The colors of the Redcaps are red, brown and black, the red a 
 mahogany tint, and the black a bluish black. Each body feather 
 ends with a black spangle, shaped like a half-moon, in which re- 
 spect they resemble the Hamburgs. They have a large rose comb, 
 terminating in the rear in a well-developed, straight spike. The 
 cock, especially, is a very handsome bird. The hens lay large-size 
 white-shelled eggs and are generally prolific. The standard 
 weights call for 7^2 pounds for cocks, 6 pounds for hens and cock- 
 erels, and 5 pounds for pullets. 
 
 Of late years, probably due to the improvement and increased 
 popularity of some other breeds, the Redcaps have lost caste, 
 notwithstanding their many useful, practical qualities. In habit 
 they are alert, given to roaming, and somewhat wild unless 
 thoughtfully managed. Their flesh is light and of a good flavor, 
 though not so rich as some of the meat varieties. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 MEAT BREEDS 
 
 Definition. — The term "meat breeds" is intended to designate 
 those varieties of chickens whose greatest usefulness lies in the 
 production of meat. Do not be misled by this definition. It does 
 not mean that these meat breeds are only useful for the produc- 
 tion of meat alone; nor that others of the dual-purpose and other 
 classes are undesirable as meat producers. The term simply 
 means that these breeds excel in this branch of the poultry in- 
 dustry, reasons for which will become apparent in the following 
 paragraphs. 
 
 Largest Fowls. — As might be expected, the meat breeds are 
 the largest fowls, the heaviest, broader and deeper in the body, 
 with a full breast, heavy limbs, and relatively short legs and neck. 
 They are mostly of Asiatic origin, and are popularly conceived to 
 be rather poor layers, persistent sitters, weak fliers, docile and 
 easily controlled. They lay large brown eggs, which are not likely 
 to run so high in fertility as the lighter breeds, consequently they 
 are seldom used in the day-old-chick trade. Because of their size 
 their development is slow, or rather a longer time is required for 
 them to reach maturity. Leghorns mature in from five to six 
 months, sometimes earlier; whereas the Asiatic Breeds take from 
 eight to ten months, often longer. The chicks do not feather 
 quickly, and are often almost nude at the age of two months. 
 This feature has its advantages and disadvantages. Chicks that 
 start to feather as soon as they leave the shell, such as the Leg- 
 horns, are often weakened by this rapid growth of plumage. On 
 the other hand, chicks that are bare of feathers are sometimes 
 affected by cold weather in the early Spring hatches. 
 
 The leading varieties of the Asiatic class are the Brahmas, 
 
 46 
 
BRAHMAS 
 
 47 
 
 Cochins and the Langshans. The Brahmas are conceded to be 
 the most popular, and are divided into two varieties, Light Brah- 
 mas and Dark Brahmas, of which the former are the most widely 
 bred. 
 
 The Light Brahma is the largest chicken. See Fig. 26. The 
 standard weight calls for 12 pounds for cocks, 10 pounds for 
 cockerels, <)j4 pounds for hens, and 8 pounds for pullets. These 
 weights are often exceeded ; I have seen specimens that weighed 
 from twelve to seventeen pounds, regular giants, they seemed. 
 
 Fig. 26. — Light Brahmas. 
 
 History. — It would take a large volume to hold the history of 
 the Light Brahma. It was probably the first breed of poultry to 
 be popularized in this country, where it was greatly improved by 
 American fanciers. Though fundamentally an Asiatic, it is really 
 an American output. They were first known as Brahma Pootras, 
 Gray Shanghais, Chittagongs and Cochin Chinas. In fact, the 
 early breeders were disposed to give them high-sounding, fanciful 
 names, for the sake of the benefit these names might have in 
 
48 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 helping them to sell stock at fancy prices. Records show that in 
 many cases fabulous prices were received. The hen fever ran 
 high about this time, which was in the early fifties. There was a 
 craze for pure-bred poultry, and the Light Brahma occupied the 
 center of attraction. In later years their popularity abated some- 
 what with the advent of other breeds, though to this day they 
 still remain high in the esteem of poultry lovers who prefer a 
 heavy fowl. 
 
 Shape. — The Brahma is different from the other meat breeds, 
 and must not be confounded with the Cochin or the Langshan. 
 It has a long, deep body, with full, broad and round breast, carried 
 well forward, which is characteristic of prolific birds. It is by far 
 the best layer of the Asiatic breeds. Numerous hens have made 
 enviable records in laying contests, though the average flock pro- 
 duction should be placed at about ten dozen per year. 
 
 The plumage of the Light Brahma is white and black, with the 
 white predominating. Any other color is a disqualification. The 
 body plumage is white, the tail feathers are black, with the sickles 
 a greenish black. The neck hackle is white with a black stripe 
 running down the center of each feather and terminating in a 
 point. The shanks are well feathered, with the feathering ex- 
 tending down the middle toe. This feathering may be white, -or 
 white marked with black. 
 
 Feathered shanks and toes is probably the most distinguishing 
 feature of the meat breeds, for all of the Asiatics have them. 
 
 The Light Brahma has a small pea comb; its face, wattles and 
 earlobes are a bright red. The shanks and toes are yellow. 
 
 Brahmas are excellent mothers; they will hatch and rear large 
 broods of chicks. In fact, their maternal instincts constitute a 
 drawback to the poultryman who is after eggs in large numbers. 
 For capons the Brahma is in a class by itself; it has size, shape, a 
 small comb and all the other qualifications that make for prime 
 table poultry. 
 
 Dark Brahmas are not so popular, and never have been. This 
 is due to the great difficulty of breeding them true to a uniform 
 color. The head and neck of a Dark Brahma male are similar to 
 
COCHINS 
 
 49 
 
 the Light. for hackle, but the neck other than the hackle should be 
 black. The back is silvery white, the breast is black, the thighs 
 are black, and the fluff either black, solid, or very slightly mottled 
 with white. The saddle feathers are similar to the neck hackle, 
 and as they approach the tail the stripes become a broader black 
 until they merge into the tail coverts, which are a glossy, greenish- 
 black. The wing coverts are greenish-black, the secondaries and 
 
 Fig. 27 . — White Cochins. 
 
 flight feathers are mostly black, and the shank feathering is black, 
 or black mottled with white. 
 
 The weights of the Dark Brahmas are one pound lighter than 
 the Light Brahmas, or about the same weights as the Cochins. 
 The plumage of the Dark Brahma hen is a white ground, closely 
 penciled with a dark steel gray. This produces a beautiful effect, 
 if it is correct ; but unless extreme care is taken in the mating, the 
 plumage is likely to be a dingy color, and lack uniformity. 
 
 The Cochins probably rank next to the Brahmas as meat 
 breeds, and are bred in four colors: Buff, Partridge, White and 
 
50 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Black. 5ee Fig. 27. The Buffs are the most widely bred; they 
 are, indeed, beautiful birds, and have a color that is golden 
 throughout in both sexes. They have the purest buff color of 
 any of the buff breeds of poultry, and have been used quite exten- 
 sively in improving this color in other breeds. They are bred with 
 loose feathers, so that the general effect is that of a ball of feathers. 
 The shank feathering is more profuse than the Brahmas. And 
 unlike the Brahmas, the Cochins have a small, single comb. In 
 
 Fig. 28. — Partridge Cochins. 
 
 disposition it might be said without fear of controversy the Co- 
 chins are the least restive of all fowls. They have a quiet, sluggish 
 nature, and are the most determined sitters. They stand confine- 
 ment well, and may be restrained within a three-foot fence. 
 
 The Partridge Cochin is a beautiful bird, but like all penciled 
 varieties, it is difficult to breed true to color. See Fig. 28. The 
 plumage arrangement of the Partridge Cochin is not unlike the 
 Dark Brahma, except the colors are red and brown instead of 
 
LANGSHAN IS A RANGY BIRD 51 
 
 steel-gray and black. In breeding penciled or parti-colored birds 
 it is so often necessary to mate them so close in order to secure 
 the correct characteristics, that the productiveness of the birds 
 is likely to be slighted. In consequence a solid-color bird is the 
 more practical one for the farmer or general market poulterer. 
 They can be raised in large flocks with the least amount of atten- 
 tion paid to color, and all the attention bestowed on their utility 
 qualities. 
 
 Black and White Cochins. — In this respect the Black Cochin 
 or the White Cochin is the more desirable variety. The Black is 
 of a rich, glossy, greenish-black throughout its entire plumage, 
 and the White is pure white throughout. A flock of Black Co- 
 chins present a handsome sight, and being dark they do not soil 
 so readily, as do the Whites. On the other hand, the Whites 
 dress better for market purposes, for there are no dark pin feathers 
 to mar the clean appearance of the flesh. 
 
 Langshans are the smallest and the most active of the Asiatic 
 breeds, also the most rangy-looking birds. See Fig. 29. They 
 are bred in two colors, White and Black, and the latter is probably 
 the most widely bred in this country. 
 
 The Langshan is distinct from the Brahma or Cochin in shape. 
 The male, especially, has a very majestic carriage, tall and stylish, 
 not the least gawky, a splendid leader for the flock, attentive to 
 the hens, and an excellent forager. Langshans are good sitters 
 and mothers, and having a gentle disposition, they are ideal fowls 
 for the farm. They are fair layers, particularly during the winter 
 months, and the chicks are hardy and grow well. Langshan 
 chicks mature earlier than the other Asiatic breeds. 
 
 To the inexperienced eye some confusion exists between the 
 Black Langshan and the Black Cochin; but this should not be. 
 The Cochin is a stocky bird, with heavy-looking neck and legs, 
 whereas the Langshan is very erect, with a high tail and sweeping 
 curve to the neck. The Langshan fluff is moderate and close, 
 while the Cochin fluff is extreme and loose. Then, too, the feath- 
 ering on the shanks of the Langshan is not so profuse, and the 
 shanks are longer in proportion. The comb of the Langshan is 
 
52 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 relatively larger than the Cochin's comb, well up in front, and 
 arch-shaped. The wattles are longer and more pendulous. 
 
 The quality of the flesh of the Langshan is all that could be 
 desired in a sense; it is fine-grained, tender and nicely flavored; 
 but it is white, a feature that is not so acceptable to American 
 housewives. The skin of the Cochin is yellow. Another objec- 
 
 Fig. 29. — White Langshans. 
 
 tionable feature is the bluish-black shank in the Langshan. In 
 the Cochin it is yellow. 
 
 The plumage of the Black Langshan is a glossy, metallic black 
 throughout; in the White it is pure white throughout. The stan- 
 dard weight of cocks for both varieties is 9^ pounds, for cockerels 
 8 pounds, for hens 7>£ pounds, and for pullets 6>£ pounds. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS 
 
 Definition. — The terms "dual-purpose" or "general-purpose," 
 for the expressions are used interchangeably, are intended to 
 designate such fowls as may be found useful and profitable in the 
 production of both meat and eggs, and if need be — under condi- 
 tions that require natural incubation. In other words, instead 
 of possessing qualities of a particular nature, such as intensive 
 egg production, "dual-purpose" birds are adapted to the com- 
 mon and more general conditions of the country — the farmer and 
 backyard poultryman. 
 
 The farmer and backyard poultryman want hens that are good 
 layers, of course, but they also want fowls that produce an abun- 
 dance of meat, so that when the hens' days of usefulness in the 
 egg basket are over, they can terminate their utility on the dinner 
 table. 
 
 The "dual-purpose" breeds meet these requirements. Most 
 of them belong to the American class, in addition to which there 
 are breeds of like type, such as the Orpingtons, Dorkings and 
 Faverolles. We will take the American breeds first. There are 
 no finer specimens of poultry in the world than these products of 
 American fanciers. 
 
 American Class. — The American Standard of Perfection of 
 1910 admits six breeds in the American class, as follows: Ply- 
 mouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, Javas, Domin- 
 iques and Buckeyes. The first three named breeds are the most 
 widely bred, and of these three the Plymouth Rocks are un- 
 doubtedly the most popular. It has been said, and there seems 
 to be excellent ground for the opinion, that Plymouth Rocks, 
 
 53 
 
54 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 notably the Barred variety, are the most widely bred fowls in 
 America. They are business birds from the ground up; intensely 
 practical and utilitarian, at the same time they possess enough 
 caste and beauty to satisfy the most fastidious fancier. In any 
 climate, north, south, east or west, and in any locality or under 
 any circumstances that will permit other fowls to live, there also 
 will the Plymouth Rocks thrive and be of profit to their keeper. 
 
 Fig. 30. — Barred Plymouth Rock. 
 
 There are six varieties of Rocks, differing only in the color of 
 their plumage: Barred, White, Buff, Silver- Penciled, Partridge 
 and Columbian. See Figs. 8, 30, 31. Popular fancy delights in 
 the sentiment that the Plymouth Rock was named after the land- 
 ing place of the Pilgrim Fathers. This fancy exemplifies the en- 
 during qualities of the breed; but it must not be construed as 
 establishing their age. The name was first given to a nondescript 
 
PLYMOUTH ROCKS 
 
 55 
 
 breed about 1849, but not until twenty years later was the real 
 Plymouth Rock established. 
 
 The "Barred variety was the original Plymouth Rock, and to it 
 rightfully belongs the title of the pioneer of American fancy 
 poultry. See Fig. 30. There were two other breeds of fowls pro- 
 duced before the Barred Rock, namely, the Dominique and the 
 
 Fig. 31. — Columbian Plymouth Rocks. 
 
 Java, but at that time they were not bred to anything like a 
 fixed standard, as were the Rocks. 
 
 The weights of the Rocks show a betwixt-and-between fowl, 
 cocks <) l /2 pounds, cockerels 8 pounds, hens 7)4 pounds, and 
 pullets 6 pounds. Neither too small for meat purposes, nor too 
 large for egg production, hence the name "dual-purpose." For 
 the farmer or market poulterer these fowls are favorites, being of 
 medium-size, well proportioned, with a deep, full, round breast. 
 They are hardy, mature in about eight months, and are excellent 
 
56 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 layers the year round. The eggs are brown, as with all American 
 breeds; the hens are good sitters and excellent mothers. 
 
 The other varieties of Rocks followed in the wake of the Barred, 
 of which the White, Buff and Columbian, in the order named, are 
 the most widely bred. It is doubtful, however, if all of the other 
 varieties combined, equal the popularity of the Barred Rock; it 
 seems to stand supreme. Besides being a thoroughly practical 
 
 
 
 Fig. 32. — Silver Wyandottes. 
 
 fowl, it is highly esteemed by fanciers for exhibition purposes. 
 No class is offered to keener competition in the show room. 
 
 The Wyandottes stand next to the Rocks in popular favor. 
 There are eight varieties, differing only in the color of their plum- 
 age, as follows: White, Silver, Golden, Buff, Black, Partridge, 
 Silver-Penciled, and Columbian. The Silver Wyandotte is the 
 original and the foundation pf all the other varieties. See Fig. 32. 
 It was admitted to the Standard as the Wyandotte, and later, as 
 
EIGHT VARIETIES OF WYANDOTTES 
 
 57 
 
 the other varieties were brought out, it was called the Silver 
 Laced Wyandotte, which has been shortened to Silver Wyandotte. 
 The White Wyandotte is by far the most popular variety. See 
 Fig. 7. In fact, it is conceded to be the most popular white fowl 
 of all-round capabilities in the world. The popularity of the 
 Plymouth Rocks was the main stimulus of the origin of the Wyan- 
 dottes, which came into being about 1875, though they were not 
 
 
 dgjSK 
 
 jjgmszmw& 
 
 Fig- 33- — Columbian Wyandottes. 
 
 admitted to the Standard until about eight years later. They 
 have been a huge success ever since. They weigh about a pound 
 less than the Rocks, are prolific layers, easily cared for, and stand 
 confinement well. For table poultry, especially broilers, they are 
 ideal. They have plump, round bodies, and the flesh is sweet and 
 of excellent flavor. Furthermore, the skin is a rich yellow, so 
 much sought after by the average housewife. 
 
58 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 All Wyandottes have rose combs, which is an indication of 
 Brahma blood in their make-up. The Rocks have a single comb, 
 of moderate size. Often, the comb is the only distinguishing 
 feature between some varieties of Wyandottes and Rocks. For 
 example, except in shape, which is not always so apparent to the 
 inexperienced eye, the Buff, White, Silver-Penciled, Partridge and 
 
 Fig. 34. — Single Comb Rhode Island Reds. 
 
 Columbian varieties of Wyandottes and Rocks are virtually the 
 same, only for the difference in the comb. See Fig. 33. 
 
 The Rhode Island Reds probably come third in popularity 
 among the American breeds, and this popularity is growing by 
 leaps and bounds. See Fig. 34. They are of comparatively recent 
 origin, in the sense that they have only been admitted to the 
 Standard since 1895; Y e t they are the result of over fifty years 
 persistent breeding toward a very definite end. That goal was 
 
RHODE ISLAND REDS AND WHITES 
 
 59 
 
 to produce a utility fowl of red plumage, of the greatest hardihood 
 and the most enduring qualities, and a fowl that would tend to 
 great fecundity and all-round, general qualifications under all 
 conditions and in any climate. 
 
 The Reds are the result of out-crossing, rather than out- 
 breeding, which probably accounts for their great vigor and pro- 
 ductiveness. Out-crossing is the mating of breeds that are en- 
 
 Fig- 35- — Black Javas. 
 
 tirely foreign to each other; for instance, a Brahma mated to a 
 Cornish fowl. Out-breeding is mating fowls of the same breed, 
 but not related by blood. 
 
 In the make-up of the Reds new males were used each year, 
 but always of some red breed, such as Malay Games, Red Pit 
 Games, and Brown Leghorns. The Red is truly a composite 
 fowl. Many breeders were of the opinion that red plumage stood 
 for stamina, and it is certain that this belief has been confirmed 
 in the Rhode Island Red, at least. 
 
60 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 The Reds are divided into two varieties — single comb and rose 
 comb. Except for these head points they are identical. In the 
 past few years another division has been created — the Rhode 
 Island Whites, which gives promise of making a splendid showing. 
 There does not seem to be so much demand for another white 
 breed, however, in view of the great popularity of the White Rock 
 and White Wyandotte, not to mention the white varieties of 
 numerous other breeds. 
 
 
 Fig. 36. — Buckeyes. 
 
 The Reds are ideal birds for farmers, not only because of their 
 size and prolificness, but because their plumage is well adapted 
 to farm conditions. Being dark in color, it does not soil so readily. 
 The weights for the Reds are the same as for the Wyandottes, 
 though the mold or contour of the former is not so round. 
 
 The Javas, see Fig. 35, of which there are two varieties, Black 
 and Mottled, the Dominiques and the Buckeyes complete the 
 list of the purely American breeds. None are bred so extensively 
 
ENGLISH BREEDS 61 
 
 as the breeds described above, though all of them are well suited 
 to the class of general-purpose fowls. 
 
 Buckeyes, named after the state of Ohio, where they were 
 originated, were obtained from Barred Rock crosses on Buff 
 Cochins, with an infusion of Cornish and Pit Game blood to give 
 the flesh quantity, and the offspring vigor.* See Fig. 36. In 1905 
 they were admitted to the ranks of the Standard of Perfection. 
 
 The name of the Dominique is closely interwoven with our 
 early history of poultry, yet the real origin is very obscure. Some 
 claim that the breed is a product of the Island of Dominica, but 
 apparently this idea is purely fanciful, since a breed of these char- 
 acteristics was never found there. A more reasonable theory is 
 that the name just evolved — as an ambiguous term to cover a 
 mixed origin. The similarity of the Barred Rock has no doubt 
 been responsible for the falling off in the popularity of the Dom- 
 inique, for it is no longer bred by so many poultrymen. In fact, 
 it is seldom seen to-day. The same holds true of the Javas and 
 the Buckeyes. 
 
 For poultrymen specializing in eggs, we were glad to doff our 
 hat to the sprightly little Leghorn; it holds first place among all 
 comers in the egg class. But, for all-round, general poultry busi- 
 ness, which includes all of the different branches of the industry 
 — eggs, meat, broilers, roasters, capons, feathers and maternal 
 instincts, not to forget caste and beauty — the American breeds 
 are at the top of the heap, and not likely to be supplanted. 
 
 There are numerous other varieties closely resembling the 
 American breeds in shape, disposition and size, and are commonly 
 classed as general-purpose fowls. 
 
 English Breeds. — First, let us take the English breeds. With- 
 out question the most popular of these are the Orpingtons, of 
 which there are ten or more distinct varieties, — single-comb 
 White, single-comb Black, single-comb Buff, single-comb Span- 
 gled, and single-comb Diamond Jubilee; also, rose-comb varieties 
 of the same colors. See Fig. 37. In the past few years a couple 
 of other varieties have been originated, notably the Blues, but 
 these are so recent and bred in such limited numbers that we will 
 
62 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 not devote special attention to them. As a matter of fact, the 
 Whites, Blacks and Buffs are the only varieties bred in large 
 numbers in this country, and the Whites are the most popular of 
 these. 
 
 Orpingtons. — This remarkable family of fowls, and I qualify 
 them as such because of the perfection and enormous popularity 
 that they received in such a brief space of time, were originated 
 
 Fig- 37- — Single-Comb Black Orpingtons. 
 
 by one man, William Cook, of Orpington, England, whence they 
 take their name. 
 
 Mr. Cook had a definite object in producing these birds. He 
 found that most of the old varieties of English poultry were inbred 
 too closely for egg production, and that no one breed combined 
 laying and table qualities to any marked degree. Then, too, he 
 noted the success of the Plymouth Rocks in America, which were 
 then coming to the fore, and he was determined to produce a like 
 
ORPINGTON FOWLS 63 
 
 general utility fowl, one that would answer the prime requisites — 
 eggs, table and show qualities. 
 
 The first Orpingtons to be produced and exhibited by Mr. 
 Cook were the Blacks. This was in 1886. In 1889 the Whites 
 were brought out, and in 1894 the Buffs. Later the Jubilee and 
 Spangled were developed. 
 
 Composite Birds. — The Orpingtons are an amalgamation or 
 composite bird, which is largely responsible for their productive- 
 ness and vigor. We all know of the hardihood and other excellent 
 qualities of the Barred Plymouth Rocks. The black sports, or 
 "off colors" of this American breed were made the basis of the 
 Black Orpington. To this was added Minorca blood, for produc- 
 tiveness and to intensify the color, and finally Langshan blood, 
 which was calculated to give the breed size and a superior flavor 
 to the flesh. Several years were required to eliminate the feath- 
 ered shanks of the Langshan. To this day stubs are likely to 
 appear on the shanks of some specimens, indicating a throw-back, 
 though as a whole the breed develops with unusual dependability 
 as to type and color. 
 
 Origin. — Mr. Cook realized that poultry raisers were more or 
 less partial to buff colored fowls, therefore he set about producing 
 the Buff Orpington, having the same characteristics as the Black 
 as to shape, size and so on, but of buff plumage. The Cochin was 
 the basis of this variety, crossed with Golden-Spangled Hamburg 
 blood, and Dark Dorkings. He took the Hamburg for its laying 
 qualities, and the Dorking for its length of breast and the quality 
 of its meat. The latter had a fifth toe that required years to 
 eliminate, which was only one of the many problems that had to 
 be solved, for here again, in the Cochin, was the feathered shank. 
 And the Orpington must have a clean shank. 
 
 In producing the White Orpington Mr. Cook turned to the 
 White Leghorn for color and productiveness, and to the Hamburg. 
 For size and table qualities he used the White Dorking. With 
 this combination it is no wonder that the White Orpingtons should 
 have gained prominence as good layers. See Fig. 38. The chief 
 difficulty in this cross arose from the tendency to throw cream- 
 
64 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 colored plumage, especially brassiness in the neck and saddle 
 feathers. Even now this is a problem. There are few flocks that 
 are entirely free from this defect, though each year satisfactory 
 progress is being made. The females, breed true without diffi- 
 culty ; the trouble lies with the males, because of their hackles. 
 
 The standard weights for Orpingtons are 10 pounds for cocks, 
 S}4 pounds for cockerels, 8 pounds for hens, and 7 pounds for 
 
 pullets. These run about a half-pound heavier than the weights 
 called for in the Plymouth Rocks. In shape the Orpington re- 
 sembles the Wyandotte or Cochin more than it does the Rock, 
 since it is a round, short-legged, short-necked, chunky sort of 
 fowl. The plumage, too, is more fluffy than the Rock, thereby 
 giving the Orpington a more rotund appearance. 
 
 All Orpingtons lay exceedingly well, and they are exceptionally 
 good winter layers. From the writer's experience, which seems 
 
ORPINGTON EGGS 
 
 65 
 
 to be borne out by the experiences of others, though the opinion 
 may be denied by some, the eggs are not so large as they might be, 
 nor so uniform in shape, texture nor color as is to be desired by 
 poultrymen catering to a fancy egg trade. The eggs have not 
 the "egg-shape" nor uniformity of Rock eggs. They are rounder 
 and more elliptical in contour, and are given to a polished surface 
 
 Fig. 39. — Silver-Gray Dorkings. 
 
 rather than a dull, matt surface, which makes the characteristic 
 "bloom" of a Rock egg so desirable. 
 
 I have found this virtue about the Orpington, however, it 
 matures earlier than the Rock, and can be made to put on more 
 weight at the least expense. Furthermore, the Orpington is not 
 so prone to put on fat, which means that they are better able to 
 stand forced feeding for egg production. 
 
 The habits and demeanor of the Orpingtons are practically the 
 5 
 
66 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 same as the American breeds. They are quiet birds, easily made 
 pets, are confined within low fences, become broody, sit and hatch 
 well, and make excellent mothers. The chicks are hardy and grow 
 rapidly, and make good broilers at an early age. 
 
 The meat of the Orpington is delicious. It is soft, juicy and 
 abundant. But, unfortunately for American markets, which cater 
 to yellow-skinned poultry, the skin of the Orpington is a pinkish- 
 white. In the Blacks it is likely to be a bluish-white. Moreover, 
 
 Fig. 40. — Rose Comb White Dorkings. 
 
 the shanks are pink instead of yellow. In the Blacks they are 
 bluish-black. It is an absurd notion, but these qualities are some- 
 times interpreted to be indications of cold storage poultry. 
 
 Poultry growers are gradually educating the public on the 
 fallacies of its prejudices, and in time they will succeed, in which 
 event the Orpington will rank among the best of the meat-pro- 
 ducing breeds. In Europe, and we are inclined to concede the 
 honors to its chefs, notably the French, the white-skinned fowls 
 are acknowledged to be more highly esteemed. 
 
DORKINGS AND FAVEROLLES 
 
 67 
 
 The Dorkings, of which there are three varieties — White, 
 Silver-Gray, and Colored, constitute another favorite English 
 breed, and one of the oldest of domestic fowls. There are no 
 accurate records to show its exact origin, but the supposition is 
 that it was carried to England by the Romans. 
 
 Weight. — The Dorking is not so heavy as the Orpington, but 
 it is highly prized for table meat. See Fig. 39. The flesh is 
 white and possesses a very delicate texture and flavor, and there 
 
 White Faverolles. 
 
 is an abundance of meat on the breast, which is broad, deep and 
 full. The weights given for Dorkings are somewhat variable; 
 the Colored Dorkings are heaviest : 9 pounds for cocks, 8 pounds 
 for cockerels, 7 pounds for hens, and 6 pounds for pullets. The 
 standard weights for the Silver-Gray Dorking run about a pound 
 under the above, while the weights for the White Dorking are 
 about a half-pound under the Silver-Grays. 
 
 Fifth Toe. — The most distinguishing feature of this breed is 
 the presence of a fifth toe, or supernumerary toe, extending a 
 
68 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 little behind, above the foot and below the spur, similar to the 
 fifth toe of the Houdan. 
 
 Dorkings could not be rated as a popular breed in this coun- 
 try. They are rather indifferent layers, and while nice looking 
 fowls, there are too many other breeds of superior qualities. 
 
 Faverolles. — Excepting- in France, very little was known of 
 the Faverolles until 1896, when they were taken up by English 
 
 Fig. 42. — La Fleche Fowls. 
 
 breeders and later, by Americans. They are bred in several 
 colors, white, salmon, ermine and black. The Whites and the 
 Salmons are probably the most popular in this country. See 
 Fig. 41. They are considered good layers, and weighing about 
 the same as the Dorkings, they are valued as table poultry. 
 
 The odd feature of the Faverolle is the growth of feathers, 
 resembling a beard and mutton chops, around the throat and 
 ears. This whiskering is one of the fixed characteristics of the 
 entire breed. Another feature is the fifth toe, like the Dorking, 
 
FRENCH BREEDS 
 
 69 
 
 also, a booted or feathered shank, such as is found on the Brahma. 
 For those who prefer the unusual, the Faverolle is to be highly 
 recommended. Because so little is known about it, however, 
 its sale for breeding purposes is likely to be restricted. 
 
 Crevecoeurs and La Fleche fowls are two other French breeds 
 little known in this country, though they are widely bred in their 
 native homes. See Figs. 42 and 43. They are kept for general 
 
 Fig. 43. — Crevecoeurs. 
 
 farm purposes, but are best for the table. The former are the 
 better layers. The weights of both breeds are about the same 
 as the Dorkings. 
 
 The plumage of the Fleche fowls is a glossy, greenish black. 
 Their chief claim to distinction is the peculiar comb, which is 
 in the form of two well denned spikes, resembling horns. Cre- 
 vecoeurs have a similar, comb, only it looses its distinction by 
 reason of the crest of feathers growing on the top of its head, like 
 the Houdan or Polish. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 ORNAMENTAL FOWLS, GAMES AND BANTAMS 
 
 Ornamental Varieties. — Some varieties of poultry are purely 
 ornamental in character and purpose. They have no particular 
 virtues as to egg production, neither are they superior for table 
 purposes. The Bantams are in this class. They are raised 
 simply for the interest attached to their oddity or beauty. Other 
 breeds are deemed fancy, by reason of some unusual character- 
 istic, or scarcity, though in reality they may be good layers, or 
 splendid table poultry. Custom has placed them in the orna- 
 mental class, because few are adapted to the farm or general 
 commercial use. It is easily understood that the more varie- 
 gated the fowl's plumage, or the more eccentric its shape and 
 feathering, the more difficult, almost impossible it is to breed 
 them to any degree of uniformity in large flocks. Ornamental 
 breeds almost invariably require special matings, and years of 
 experience to know how to make such matings, hence their ap- 
 peal to the fancier. 
 
 No one will deny that the work of raising fowls for purely 
 ornamental purposes is most interesting, and some fanciers have 
 found a big outlet for their products, thereby making their work 
 profitable, but these cases are the exceptions and not the rule. 
 Those who would enter the poultry industry for pecuniary gain 
 had better start with one of the breeds described in the earlier 
 chapters of this Analysis of Chickens, such as the egg breeds, 
 meat breeds, or dual-purpose breeds. 
 
 The Polish varieties are generally regarded as strictly fancy 
 chickens, though they are known to be one of the oldest breeds 
 of pure-bred fowls. Their ancestry has been traced back to the 
 
 70 
 
TOP KNOT CHICKENS 
 
 71 
 
 sixteenth century. The eight varieties of Polish are: White 
 Crested Black (see Fig. 44), Bearded Golden, Bearded Silver, 
 Bearded White, Buff Laced, Non-Bearded Golden, Non-Bearded 
 Silver, and Non-Bearded White. (See Figs. 25-45-46.) 
 
 It will be seen that there are two distinct sub-breeds of Polish, 
 the plain, or non-bearded varieties, and the bearded ones. All 
 have crests, or "top knots," which is their chief mark of distinc- 
 tion, in addition to which the bearded varieties have a thick, 
 
 Fig. 44. — White-Crested Black Polish. 
 
 full beard of feathers running under the beak from eye to eye in 
 a graceful curve. The plain varieties are without this beard. 
 
 The White-Crested Black is the most extensively bred in this 
 country, and the Bearded Silver variety probably comes next. 
 They are beautiful fowls, all of them, and by some are considered 
 good layers. As with all crested varieties of fowls, their "top 
 knots" are really against them. This head feathering obstructs 
 the vision, causing them to be timid and suspicious, an easy 
 
72 
 
 COMMERCIAL FOULTRY RAISING 
 
 prey to vermin, and much subject to colds if the birds are allowed 
 to run in the wet. No standard weights are given for Polish. 
 They are medium-size birds, about that of Leghorns. 
 
 The Sultans, as the name implies, are from Turkey, and might 
 with propriety be classed with the Polish, except the former have 
 additional peculiarities. Sultans, in fact, possess about every 
 peculiarity possible for a fowl of its size. A compact crest sur- 
 mounts the head, more profuse even than the Polish, and they 
 are full bearded. For a comb they have two small spikes, re- 
 
 ^i^MP-^-r 
 
 Fig. 45. — Bearded Golden Polish. 
 
 minding one of horns; their legs are feathered and booted, their 
 hocks are vultured, and they possess a fifth, or supernumerary 
 toe. They have an abundant neck hackle and a large tail, which 
 is erect and contains many flowing sickles. The color of the 
 plumage is pure white throughout. They seem to thrive well, 
 but are too small for practical purposes. 
 
 The Game is one of the most interesting of the ornamental 
 breeds, and perhaps the most widely bred. It is noted for its 
 
GAMES AND GAME BANTAMS 
 
 73 
 
 vigor and courage, and were formerly raised for fighting. They 
 are still raised for this purpose in countries where cock-fighting 
 is permitted. 
 
 The beauty of the Game is unquestioned. It is a tall, slim 
 bird, very erect in carriage, with long legs, and short, close 
 feathering. The carriage of the Game is peculiar to it, and is 
 spoken of as "station." Specimens with the highest "station" 
 
 S#. 
 
 0W* 
 Fig. 46. — Non-Bearded White Polish. 
 
 are the most desirable. It is customary to remove the comb and 
 wattles of the cocks, a practice that is termed "dubbing." This 
 adds to their sleekness and general fighting trim. 
 
 Games are not without their practical qualities, though they 
 are seldom bred for general farm purposes. They are fair layers, 
 and their flesh is excellent, the meat being fine-grained, tender 
 and juicy. The chicks are said to require considerable care, but 
 
74 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 this is probably due to weakened constitutions from too much 
 close breeding for strictly ornamental purposes. There is no 
 reason why the Game should not be as easy to rear as the Leg- 
 horn. 
 
 The varieties of the Games are: Black-Breasted Red, Brown 
 
 
 
 "^W'OtWtt^W 
 
 Fig. 47. — Silver Duckwing Games. 
 
 Red, Golden Duckwing, Silver Duckwing (see Fig. 47), Birchen, 
 Red Pyle, White, and Black. 
 
 Game Bantams. — For every Game there is a Game Bantam. 
 See Fig. 48. The color of the plumage in the Bantam, its mark- 
 ings, shape and carriage correspond precisely to the Game that 
 bears its name. The Bantam's diminutive size is the only dis- 
 
ORIENTAL GAMES AND BANTAMS 
 
 75 
 
 tinguishing feature between the two. Bantam cocks average 
 twenty-two ounces, and the hens twenty ounces. 
 
 Oriental fowls comprise the Cornish, Sumatras and Malays, 
 and the Malay Bantams. Cornish fowls, sometimes spoken of 
 as Cornish Indian Games, are really an English product, having 
 been originated in Cornwall, whence their name. They were 
 produced from Black-Breasted Red Games crossed on Red Aseel 
 
 Fig. 48. — Red Pyle Game Bantams. 
 
 fowls imported from India. This cross produced what is known 
 as the Dark Cornish. There are three varieties: Dark, White, 
 and White-Laced Red. See Figs. 9-49. The Whites were pro- 
 duced from "sports" from the dark variety, crossed with White 
 Aseel. See Fig. 23. The White-Laced are of Yankee origin, 
 using both the Dark and White varieties, with some infusion of 
 White Georgia Game blood. 
 
76 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Cornish. — As layers the Cornish fowls do not rank very high, 
 but they make excellent table poultry. They are frequently 
 crossed with the meat breeds for this purpose, especially for 
 capons. The shape of the Cornish creates the impression of 
 massiveness and great muscular strength, also pugnaciousness. 
 They are stockily built birds, with heavy thighs, legs set far 
 
 Fig. 49. — White Cornish Fowls. 
 
 apart, and a full round breast and broad shoulders. Then, too, 
 they have the characteristic feathering of the Game — closely 
 set, thin hackle and small tails, which gives them a rather fero- 
 cious appearance. The standard weights of the Cornish are 9 
 pounds for cocks, 8 pounds for cockerels, 7 pounds for hens, and 
 6 pounds for pullets. It will be seen from these weights that 
 they are very worthy birds for the table. 
 
MALAYS AND SUMATRAS 
 
 77 
 
 Malays are little known in this country except for crossing 
 with other breeds to infuse vigor and size. They have about the 
 same weights as the Cornish, and are strong and powerful look- 
 ing. They are reputed to be extremely savage, and in battle 
 often actually tear their opponents to pieces. The plumage of 
 the Malay is very close, like other Games, only perhaps more 
 
 Fig. 50. — Silver Sebright Bantams. 
 
 scanty, and the color is red or maroon and black. The head is 
 long, with a projecting crown, which gives the cock a cruel and 
 fierce expression. The wattles and earlobes are small. 
 
 Sumatras, or Black Sumatra Games, differ from the Malays, 
 in that they are of a gentle disposition, though once started in 
 a conflict, there is no Game that will show greater staying power 
 
78 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 u ri, <;„ ma tra especially if it is in defense of its mates and 
 than the Sumatra espec Y ^^ ^ ^ from th 
 
 ^Gamlcal fts long, flowing tafl, with an abundance of 
 I, and coverts The plumage is of a r.ch, greenish black 
 dtughont Sumatras and" Malays are little bred in Amer.ca 
 Ixcepf for exhibition purposes, and even thts » more or less 
 restricted. 
 
 Fig 5I _ Rose-Comb White Bantams. 
 
 ^ T3io^ Rrpasted Red Malay Bantam, 
 
 TVi«a Ma1av Bantam, or Black-oreasveu i^u j 
 
 should £ he same in color, shape and general character.st.es as 
 t full size Malay. Cocks should not we.gh over 30 ounces, 
 
 "VkJ B* "Tddition to the Bantams previously 
 d es^Id £U are numerous other ££^££* 
 ST^ir^SrS^^W SO), m two 
 
ORNAMENTAL BANTAMS 
 
 79 
 
 varieties — Golden and Silver; Rose-Comb Black Bantams and 
 Rose-Comb White Bantams (see Fig. 51), which are counter- 
 parts of the Hamburgs; Booted White Bantams; Light Brahma 
 Bantams and Dark Brahma Bantams, which are miniatures of 
 the regular Brahmas; Cochin Bantams (see Fig. 52) in four 
 varieties — Buff, Partridge, White and Black; Polish Bantams in 
 three varieties — Bearded White, Buff Laced, and Non-Bearded; 
 
 Fig. 52. — White Cochin Bantams. 
 
 and the Japanese Bantams (see Fig. 53) in three colors — Black 
 Tailed, White, and Black. 
 
 Bantams are raised almost exclusively for pleasure, though 
 they are sometimes used to hatch the eggs of Pheasants and other 
 fowls, since as a rule Bantam hens are good sitters and mothers. 
 Some of them are good layers, and for their size they lay un- 
 usually large eggs. These, however, are not marketable as prime 
 eggs, for they are too small. 
 
80 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Any of the Bantams will make delightful pets for children. 
 With their cute and saucy ways they are a constant source of 
 amusement. Where is there a small boy who has not sometime 
 yearned for a pair of these little feathered friends? 
 
 Silkies. — We could continue to enumerate other varieties of 
 ornamental poultry, but most of them are so rare, that to devote 
 space to them would serve no practical end. Silkies are fowls 
 of small size, whose chief peculiarity consists of very soft, web- 
 
 Fig- 53- — White Japanese Bantams. 
 
 less feathers, which are exceedingly loose when in prime condition, 
 and stand out from the body in all directions. They are purely 
 ornamental birds. _ 
 
 Frizzles are another grotesque member of the poultry family. 
 The ends of their feathers curl backwards, giving them a frizzled 
 look, hence the name. 
 
 Long Tailed Yokohamas represent still another odd variety. 
 See Fig. 24. They are Japanese birds, having very long tails, 
 
SICILIAN BUTTERCUPS 81 
 
 sometimes attaining, a length of fifteen or eighteen feet, and are 
 quite beautiful in coloring. Occasionally specimens are ex- 
 hibited in American poultry shows. 
 
 Sicilian Buttercups have appeared in the poultry exhibits 
 from time to time, but they never won any particular favor. 
 See Fig. 20. They have an odd comb, resembling a cup. In 
 Sicily, their native home, they were known as "Patera Opulentae," 
 meaning sacred cup of riches, and were formerly used in religious 
 sacrifices. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE 
 
 Principles. — Fine feathers usually make fine birds, for the same 
 reason that up-to-date business methods make satisfied custo- 
 mers, than which there is no greater asset to the poultryman, be 
 he conducting a large or small industry. Fine feathers indicate 
 quality — careful breeding of known reliability, proper feeding 
 and good care generally. Up-to-date business methods bear 
 the hall-marks of ambition to please, of progressiveness, of pains- 
 taking, workmanlike ability, of superiority and dependability. 
 Business to-day demands certain conventionalities, and those 
 who do not appreciate the fact, and who remain in the rut of a 
 past generation, thinking that they can do things as their grand- 
 fathers did, are sooner or later destined to become relegated to 
 obscurity. 
 
 Conducting a poultry farm is no different from any other 
 enterprise in this respect; if the poultryman wants to make a 
 success of his business, and derive other than laborer's wages 
 from his investment, he must conduct his operations on what 
 have come to be recognized as the standards of modern business. 
 He must produce commodities which are in popular demand, not 
 has teens; he must exercise good salesmanship, by using every 
 means at his command to get his commodity before the public; 
 following which he must keep his products up to their representa- 
 tion, and never tolerate a sag in quality; and above everything 
 else he must give good value, and wherever possible — just a little 
 bit more than the other fellow. Perhaps not in a reduction in 
 price, for under-cutting is sometimes accompanied by retaliative 
 measures; but in the excellence of the product, or the manner in 
 which it is packed and distributed, in the service — the prompt- 
 
 82 
 
bo 
 
- 
 
 ( 0MMERCIA1 rori FK\ R USING 
 
 . and courteous treatment accorded a customer; these are 
 values, move or loss intangible, nodoubt, but nevertheless potent. 
 Furthermore, the buying public is quick to appreciate them, 
 Pood Products, Primarily, the poultryman should always 
 in mind that he is producing food products, not coal ox iron 
 castings, consequently his wares have an esthetic appeal, ["here 
 is much agitation those days over sanitary conditions in factories 
 where food stuffs are made, and it is right that there should be; 
 the slogan is ss to a most exacting degree We do not 
 
 Fig. 55, A centraKxed plant. 
 
 look for purity in articles of food that are made in dirt-infested, 
 antiquated factory buildings, where the workers must toil amid 
 sordid conditions, — filth, improper ventilation and unhealthful 
 environments generally. Pure ood commissions are empowered 
 to egulate these affairs. It it is important (hat milk should be 
 produced and sold under certain restrictions, it is also impor- 
 tant that poultry and eggs should be produced likewise. At 
 loast the commercial aspects are the same. 
 
 The buildings on a poultry farm, their yards and all the acces- 
 sories should be built with the idea of maintaining them in a 
 
GOOD BUS! 85 
 
 strictly sanitary condition. Dirt, disorder and dereliction • 
 
 olerated. By this it is i • et unduly 
 
 e buildings, nor to install elaborate equipment; for the 
 
 margin of profit in the bu - - arrant the expenditure 
 
 of ijjjij'-" • capital. Besides, unneo capital bring 
 
 return on the ent. 
 
 c. There is no better spot for poultry than a grov< providing 
 
 fix- sun i- able to shine on the house. 
 
 Show Place. Every poultryman should aim to make his farm 
 a -how place, where visitors can be allowed at regulated times, 
 and where prospective customers can be shown the articles that 
 an; for sale, and note for themselves that what has been said about 
 the articles is true. None of us like to buy "a pig in a poke," if 
 /.' ' .in help it. And do not think that a show place should con- 
 gist of yfow in the sense of elegance, a mere spending of money. 
 
8(5 COM Ml Kri \i POI i i'KY k USING 
 
 Simph constructed buildings, in an orderly arrangement, neatly 
 painted 01 white-washed, and having an ail oi practical utility, 
 make the most impressive showing, provided the} are clean and 
 stocked with vigorous, healthy looking poultry. By .ill means 
 avoid an accumulation ol junk 01 rubbish lying about the 
 premises; it is bad foi the fowls, and .1 constant eyesore. Have 
 .1 place foi everything, and everything kept in its place. I'lio 
 appointments neeessai 3 foi the convenience ot the fowls and theii 
 caretakei are really verj simple, and most oi them can be bought 
 fpi .1 small outlay, or ilu-\ can be made at home. 
 
 Home made devices should not necessarily mean makeshifts 
 odds and ends, broken china, discarded kitchen utensils, old 
 buckets, rustj pans .mil othei receptacles that have long since 
 passed theii age of usefulness, and which onlj serve to cluttei up 
 the yards and houses. Visitors and customers observe these 
 things, and theii opinions are formed accordingly. Nothing 
 is more enbarrassing than to have to make excuses foi the ap 
 pearances ol everything; and besides excuses are futile. Ml 
 the excuses in the world fail i> a make .1 reason that will justify 
 shiftlessness; it is inexcusable, 
 
 visitors. Notwithstanding the poultryman's time is very 
 much occupied bj routine work, and that visitors are sometimes 
 rathei troublesome to entertain, also that theii presence is dis 
 turbing to the birds unless precautions are taken, experience 
 has proved that one of the best selling methods is to gel the pub 
 lie's interest in youi work. Every familj living in the commu 
 nity, 01 who might be visiting the community, is .1 prospective 
 customei if theii interest is aroused, and they are assured 01 .1 
 courteous reception when they seek information. It you have 
 something to sell, you must let it be known, following which 
 you must be perfectly willing to exhibit your goods. 
 
 Sipi. rho fust stop toward publicity is to erect .1 neat sign, 
 settingforth the name of the farm 01 that of the owner,which 
 evei is used to trade under, together with any other advice, 
 clearly and concisely worded, such .is the names ol the broods 
 raised, and whether hatching eggs, breeding stock, day old- 
 
ADVANTAGES OF A SIGN 
 
 «7 
 
 chicks, market eggs or table poultry are for sale. If you wish to 
 allow visitors, or have a particulai place foi customers to call, 
 mention the facts or directions. If necessary state that visitors 
 will be welcomed on certain days or between certain hours. 
 Place the sign in a conspicuous position, preferably at the entrance 
 
 Fig. 57. -Box-packed 
 
 (Courtesy V . S- De.p'l Acricullur/:) 
 wliry, well-graded and ready for shipment. 
 
 to the grounds, and endeavor to make it as attractive as possible, 
 yet in harmony with its surrounding. 
 
 If there is a wind-mill tower on the premises, and your business 
 warrants I he display, have your name neatly lettered on the 
 rudder, or on the water tank, or on the roof of the barn, so that 
 ii < an be seen for long distances, especially if it can be seen from 
 a railroad or trolley line over which many people travel. 
 
 If there is likelihood of the fowls being disturbed by the in- 
 
88 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 trusion of strangers, a question that is largely determined by the 
 arrangement of the yards and buildings, there is no harm in 
 putting up a sign to the effect: Visitors are invited to inspect 
 
 THE MAM AND THE LAND 
 
 {Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 
 Fig- 58- — Elements which make for success in poultry raising. 
 
 the farm, but they are requested not to enter the buildings, or 
 to frighten the fowls in any way. 
 
 Printed Matter. — Another factor that plays an important part 
 in the farm's publicity, and one that inspires confidence in its 
 
SHIPPING TAGS, STATIONERY, LABELS 89 
 
 sstablishment, is the use of a neatly printed letter-head and bill- 
 head in all business transactions. On farms of any size there is 
 quite a little correspondence, inquiries are received, asking for 
 prices on stock, eggs and so on, and if these are answered in a 
 poor handwriting on scraps of paper, or if bills are rendered in 
 some obscure, back-woods style, they are sure to create a very 
 unfavorable impression. It is unfortunate, perhaps, but we are 
 frequently judged by these apparently trivial details. 
 
 Mail. — It should be a hard and fast rule, that all mail be 
 answered promptly, preferably the same day it is received, and 
 it should be answered courteously and fully, paying the same at- 
 tention to a small order as to a large one. The person who writes 
 for a setting of eggs to-day, or this season, may be in the market 
 for a thousand eggs next month or next year. If bills are paid, 
 or money is received on deposit, it must be acknowledged, with 
 thanks, immediately. Indifference to these matters has a far- 
 reaching effect. Business men are accustomed to extending and 
 receiving certain formalities, and they expect them; it is a part 
 of our great commercialism. 
 
 Printing is so cheap these days, there is seldom any excuse for 
 a farm being without printed stationery, which should include a 
 letter-head, bill-head, envelopes, shipping tags and labels, if such 
 are used in place of tags, as, for example, on egg cases. There is 
 usually a printer in every town of any size, who will get up some 
 ideas at a small cost; or, stationery may be obtained through 
 mail order houses, such as the publishers of agricultural journals 
 and weekly papers. Aim to have the printing as attractive as 
 possible, on fairly good quality paper, and to include the name of 
 the farm, its location, its products, any of its most salient fea- 
 tures, and wherever possible a trade-mark. Do not use anti- 
 quated wood cuts, meaningless ornaments, poor half-tone re- 
 productions of the owner, or his house, or one of the hackneyed, 
 conventional electrotypes of a trio of fowls; people are not in- 
 terested in such things, because they convey absolutely no mark 
 of originality or distinction. 
 
 Trade-Mark. — Try to think up an original idea for a trade- 
 
90 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 mark or brand, and incorporate with it something that is sig- 
 nificant, an idea that means something besides printers' ink; 
 either the name, the farm's specialty, or its policy will do nicety. 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 59. — Broiling chickens, packed breast up, twelve to the box. 
 
 Thereafter, this trade-mark should be embodied in all of the sta- 
 tionery, shipping tags, labels and any advertising literature or 
 price lists that may be gotten out from time to time. If neces- 
 
LABELS ON EGG CASES 91 
 
 sary have the design copyrighted or registered, or later, some un- 
 scrupulous fellow may try to take advantage of an established 
 publicity. 
 
 Reputation. — At first a trade-mark has very little significance, 
 but as soon as a farm gains a reputation for straightforward deal- 
 ings and a uniform quality in its products, its trade will look for 
 some means of identification, and will insist upon having the 
 goods of known reliability, even if it has to pay more for them. 
 A well-known duck breeder, who makes a specialty of market 
 ducks of prime quality, inserts a neatly printed tin tag in the 
 web of the foot of each duck. Patrons of high-priced hotels and 
 cafes where these ducks are served, have come to recognize that 
 this tag, which is not unlike the tin tags inserted in plug tobacco, 
 stands for quality, and the proprietors of these places, realizing 
 the importance of the name, see to it that the tag is left in the foot 
 when the duck is cooked and served. 
 
 The egg case is another advertising medium that should not 
 be overlooked. If gift crates are used, those of light material 
 that are not to be returned to the shipper, the poultryman should 
 have a stencil made, giving the farm's name and address, and 
 apply it to each side of the crate before it is packed. Another 
 method is to paste an attractive label or sticker on the ends of 
 the crates, similar to those seen on orange crates. They are not 
 expensive to have printed, and while they require a little trouble 
 gluing them on, the benefits to be derived therefrom will more 
 than compensate for the time expended. It is a job that can be 
 done on rainy days or at odd moments, and need not intrude 
 itself upon routine work. 
 
 If returnable crates are employed, and these are desirable for 
 certain classes of trade, they should be painted a serviceable 
 color, and neatly lettered with the farm's name and address. 
 In addition to this, it may be desirable to include the farm's 
 specialty, such as: Day-Old Sterile White Eggs, or Selected 
 Farm Eggs. 
 
 The proprietors of many high class stores like to offer their 
 eggs for sale in the original carriers, and will take particular 
 
92 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 pains to give them a conspicuous display, especially when they 
 can afford to recommend goods from a reliable poultry farm. It 
 is therefore a good plan to have the farm's name lettered on the 
 inside of the lid, so that when it is thrown back the lettering will 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 60. — Roasting chickens, side-packed, six to the box. 
 
 attract attention. The interior of the crate must be kept 
 scrupulously clean, of course, and to aid in this it is well to shellac 
 or varnish the inside of the crate when it is new. A hard oil 
 finish on the outside of the crate is also effective. 
 
PACKAGES 
 
 93 
 
 Packages.— Many poultrymen are rather careless about the 
 appearance of their packages, and pay no attention to them, any 
 more than to see that they are securely packed. This is an error 
 in judgment. Not only will the crates come under the observa- 
 tion of the consignee and his customers, if shipped to a wholesale 
 
 (Courtesy V. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 61. — Dressed poultry packed in cartons. 
 
 firm, but they will also be noted by many persons at the express 
 depots and while in transit. This fact is especially true of crates 
 of live fowls; there seems to be a sort of fascination about them 
 for most people, who will go out of their way sometimes to in- 
 spect the tags, and note the name of the sender and to whom 
 they are being shipped. 
 
94 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Publicity.— Summing up the entire situation, it behooves the 
 poultryman to take advantage of every means at his command 
 to gain publicity for his plant and its products; he should leave 
 no stone unturned to keep in the limelight, and in so doing he 
 should be careful to conduct his affairs in a dignified, reputable, 
 business-like manner — paying the same strict attention to de- 
 tails that are found among progressive merchants generally. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 KEEPING RECORDS 
 
 Know Where You Stand. — To have an accurate understanding 
 of one's position or progress in any line of work it is essential 
 to keep accounts. Conducting a poultry farm is no different 
 from any other enterprise in this respect. To raise chickens 
 intelligently and profitably, one must consider, precisely, such 
 factors as labor, feed, the number of eggs laid by different flocks, 
 cost of equipment, housing and so on. Haphazard, hit-or-miss, 
 guess-work methods belong to the time when chickens were 
 raised as a by-product of the farm, merely to supply the home 
 table with a few tempting viands. Such methods are inexcus- 
 able to-day; they are shiftless. 
 
 imagine the confusion that would exist if the general run of 
 business houses attempted to conduct their affairs without some 
 system of book-keeping. It is hardly likely they would survive 
 a week. Yet it is safe to say the general run of poultry raisers 
 are very lax in this respect, many of them keeping no records 
 whatever, not even a memorandum of their feed bills. They 
 have no way of telling whether their hens are an asset or a lia- 
 bility, or what it costs to produce a dozen eggs or a pound of 
 meat. For all they know, it may be cheaper to buy poultry 
 products at the store. 
 
 Leaks. — Farms specializing in poultry products, progressive 
 poultrymen, must have a definite knowledge of the performance 
 of their flocks, and what it costs to maintain that performance. 
 Experienced breeders, those who helped to make poultry raising 
 a billion dollar industry, and thus take front rank in the country's 
 industrial activities, laid the foundation of their success on the 
 leaks and shortcomings that were detected by some system of 
 
 95 
 
96 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 records. Every day valuable information is brought to light 
 by the simple recording of a series of experiments; witness our 
 agricultural experiment stations. 
 
 Eliminate the drones, the nonproducers, and cull the unde- 
 sirables and defectives, is the twentieth century farmer's slogan. 
 Get rid of the boarders, either as a class or as individuals; in- 
 stall breeds or stock of known reliability, those that are good 
 
 
 
 * ' "~*^ ' J m — 4 W-l 
 
 1 '■•— • ~ -wr-J "™~^ 
 
 -£r"1 -~- 
 
 ' ■ i '*%& J » 
 
 "^ .,|.fS«Bt, 
 
 -«ss> , — . 
 
 ' ~*1 im 3 1 "" 
 
 j||g *~'W*gjB«j 
 
 
 tMmrvjBUT . flf^ * 
 
 
 Ifp- 
 
 
 ^Si*^4 s l' : 
 
 ^'t** 
 
 B *^ f ** a »tu^ s ^i * 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 62. — Wagon load of live poultry unloading at a Western packing house. 
 
 tenants. Except for resolutions of-this kind the two-hundred- 
 egg-hen would still be a myth; our flocks would never have 
 progressed beyond the average of five dozen eggs per year. In 
 fact, raising chickens could never have been made profitable, 
 not even as a side line, except for consistent efforts of careful 
 selection for many generations, which established a standard. 
 Simple Records. — Unless detailed information is desired, it is 
 
SIMPLE SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS 
 
 97 
 
 not necessary to employ a highly involved system of book- 
 keeping, but a simple record of costs and sales, the revenue 
 derived from eggs, meat, and other sources, such as feathers and 
 manure, and the cost of production, the feed, labor, repairs, 
 improvements and general overhead expenses. A good record 
 should be complete, concise and convenient; above all else it 
 
 Fig. 63. — Suburbanite's poultry plant. 
 
 should be accurate. The best way to insure accuracy is to 
 keep the account up to date by a few minutes' work each day. 
 
 To those who are unaccustomed to keeping accounts, it may 
 seem rather difficult on first thought to keep tabs on a flock of 
 hens. In reality it is quite easy. Some subjects are rather 
 obscure at first, but if they are initiated, one by one, a simple 
 general scheme will evolve, one that will be easy to follow there- 
 after, and prove unquestionably helpful. 
 
 Back lot poultrymen, those who raise but a few hens a year, 
 7 
 
98 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 mostly for home consumption, need not concern themselves with 
 but two columns of figures — a debit and a credit column. The 
 debit column, though it may be the least desirable, will be con- 
 sidered first; it is a necessary evil. 
 
 Feed bills are the chief occupants of this column. Be sure 
 to enter every item. The cost of the grain is seldom the only 
 item. What about sacks, freight on the feed, hauling and so on? 
 These are chargeable. Include all the labor required to care for 
 the birds, for cleaning, feeding, watering and general supervision, 
 whether it is performed by the owner of the flock, or assisted by 
 
 (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 64. — Fowls on range are stronger, more thrifty and less liable to contract 
 
 disease. 
 
 his wife and children. Perhaps only a few minutes are required 
 several times a day; estimate their total in hours and multiply 
 by a fair wage rate. 
 
 Original Investment. — It is not fair to charge the cost of the 
 poultry building and all equipment, also the value of the flock, 
 to the expense account. They represent capital. Figure the 
 original investment, and on this it is fair to charge an interest 
 rate of six per cent per annum, which should be added to the debit 
 column. Against the value of the buildings, fencing and equip- 
 ment should be charged another six per cent for depreciation. 
 
KNOW YOUR BUSINESS 
 
 99 
 
 Repairs and any other incidental expenses are also charge- 
 able. 
 
 On the credit side of the ledger must be entered items covering 
 the sale of any eggs or stock, the products consumed on the 
 home table, and an allowance made for the value of the manure 
 as a fertilizer, or perhaps feathers. As much should be charged 
 for the eggs used in the home kitchen as would have to be paid 
 for eggs of a similar grade in the retail store. 
 
 Information. — Those engaged in the poultry business as a 
 
 (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 65. — "A good hatch." Note the tray of empty egg shells on top of the 
 incubator, and the leg bands on the chicks. 
 
 specialty and who raise fowls on an extensive scale, will find- it 
 to their advantage to gather as much additional information 
 about their flocks as possible. They should ascertain the laying 
 capacity of each flock, and what it costs to feed each flock. 
 These facts enable you to estimate the cost of producing a dozen 
 eggs at different seasons of the year. If itemized records are 
 kept of the feed consumed by different flocks and by broods of 
 chicks, it is possible to figure out the cost of raising certain breeds 
 to maturity, and of keeping different varieties for a year. 
 
100 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Of what practical benefit is it to know these things? Simply 
 this, the question constantly arises, which is the most profitable 
 breed of chickens? Or, beginners will ask, which is the more 
 profitable specialty — meat or eggs? 
 
 It is impossible to furnish a reliable answer to these queries 
 with a general statement. The fact of the matter is, there is no 
 one best breed, and no one branch of poultry culture can be said 
 to be the most profitable. There is no greater proof of this than 
 the reports from the Egg Laying Contests for the past six years. 
 Some breeds are more desirable for certain purposes. Even so, 
 there is as much difference between different strains — different 
 blood lines, of the same variety, as there is between totally different 
 breeds. 
 
 The only way to be sure of the best breed for a certain purpose, 
 
 or the best strain of a certain breed, is 
 to experiment with it and keep an ac- 
 curate record of its behavior. Never 
 take too much for granted in any line 
 
 (Courtssy Kansas Experiment Station) of WOrk, especially in the poultry in- 
 
 Fig. 66. — Aluminum leg dustry. Not that there is any at- 
 tends. Small one is for chicks t t at inful misrepresentation, 
 and tor inserting in the web ot . ^ 
 the wing. but it does not necessarily follow 
 
 that every one will succeed with cer- 
 tain conditions because some have done so. Do your own think- 
 ing; conduct your own investigations; establish your own rates 
 and records. In no other way will it be possible to really know 
 your business. 
 
 Breeding Records. — To return to our subject, if one wishes to 
 breed from none but the heaviest producers, or from specimens 
 of a particular type, records must be kept of the hatching and 
 brooding. A single great performance really conveys nothing to 
 the poultryman so far as breeding progress is concerned, unless 
 it can be definitely located in the preceding generation and later, 
 in the succeeding generation. It is the heavy layer with the 
 faculty for producing heavy layers, or the fowl of superior type 
 with the capacity to beget offspring of the same superior type, 
 
HATCHING AND BROODING RECORDS 
 
 101 
 
 that are sought. Such matings are proved by records established 
 for several generations. 
 
 In the breeding of other kinds of pedigreed livestock, such as 
 horses, cows and dogs, permanent records are maintained by the 
 officers of a society or association of breeders. In other words, 
 the stock is registered; and an examination of the records of a 
 certain society will disclose the ancestry of any animal of note. 
 Because the poultryman 
 must keep his own pedi- 
 gree, it becomes none the 
 less important. 
 
 The trap nest and the 
 numbered leg band are 
 the only positive means 
 of determining the exact 
 laying ability of a hen, 
 which hens lay the best 
 shaped eggs, which the 
 largest sized, which the 
 strongest in point of fer- 
 tility, which are the best 
 winter layers, which pul- 
 lets begin early and lay 
 the greatest number of 
 eggs in succession, the 
 number of times they be- 
 come broody, and many 
 other facts of vital im- 
 portance to the poultryman. But whether or not this informa- 
 tion is considered of sufficient value to warrant the additional time, 
 trouble and expense of operating the trap nest system is the de- 
 batable question that must be determined by every poultryman 
 for himself. 
 
 The use of the trap nest is described in another chapter. 
 
 Fertility. — A fair idea of the fertility and hatchability of the 
 eggs, and the stamina and growth of the chicks may be ascer- 
 
 (Conrtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 67. — Making incision for wing band. 
 
102 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 tained by flocks, where the poultryman does not wish to trap nest 
 his birds. Let us assume the breeding pens consist of units of 
 from twenty to a hundred fowls, and that they have been mated 
 with the view to some definite purpose. As the eggs are col- 
 lected from these pens let the collector mark the number of the 
 pen on the receptacle in which the eggs are gathered ; later, when 
 
 the eggs are selected for 
 incubation this number 
 is marked on the egg shells 
 and they are placed in the 
 incubator or under hens. 
 A card is made out for 
 each hatching, and on it 
 is marked the date the 
 eggs are set. When the 
 eggs are tested for fertil- 
 ity a report is made on 
 the card of the number of 
 clear eggs removed, and 
 to what pen numbers 
 they belong. The same 
 idea is carried out at 
 hatching time — the un- 
 hatched eggs are counted 
 and credited to their re- 
 spective pens. 
 
 Marking Chicks. — This 
 data will keep a pretty 
 good line on the fertility 
 of the different pens, and 
 the hatchability of their eggs. If the operator wishes to go further, 
 and follow the progress of the chicks in the brooder, he can mark 
 them when they are removed from the incubator, by leg bands, such 
 as are used for pigeons. See Fig. 65. In keeping track of the eggs 
 in the incubator they are given ordinary treatment up to the eigh- 
 teenth day, or when the eggs are turned for last time. Then, by 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 {Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
 
 -Wing band in place on a mature 
 bird. 
 
TOE MARKING 103 
 
 means of wire baskets, pedigree trays, or mosquito-netting sacks, 
 the eggs are segregated according to the numbers on their shells, 
 and when the hatch is completed these numbers are designated 
 on the leg bands placed on the chicks. 
 
 This method permits the breeder to follow the progress of the 
 chicks from different pens, and to note the results of his selection 
 for given matings. It also keeps a check on the mortality and 
 on early development. When the chick is five or six weeks old, 
 
 '■ A 
 
 A 
 
 » A 
 
 A 
 
 * A 
 
 A 
 
 - A 
 
 A 
 
 * A 
 
 A 
 
 " A 
 
 A 
 
 « A 
 
 A 
 
 * A 
 
 A 
 
 « A 
 
 A 
 
 /3 A 
 
 A 
 
 « A 
 
 A 
 
 >*■ A 
 
 A 
 
 - A 
 
 A 
 
 * A 
 
 A 
 
 « A A '« A A 
 
 Fig. 69. — Sixteen different methods of marking the toes of chicks. 
 
 and has outgrown the size of the first leg band, it must be removed 
 and a larger one substituted, or the original band may be secured 
 to the web of the wing, where it will remain throughout life. 
 
 Wing Bands. — Attaching the band to the web of the wing is 
 accomplished without serious discomfort to the bird. See Fig. 
 67. Select a spot free from blood vessels of any size, pierce it 
 with the point of a sharp knife and adjust the band. 
 
 Toe Marking. — The advantages of having the fowls marked are 
 numerous; it is always possible to tell the bird's age, and if the 
 
104 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 records are properly kept there will be no likelihood of inbreed- 
 ing. Another method of marking the chicks is to punch a small 
 hole in the web of the foot. Special punches may be purchased 
 for this purpose. The chicks should be marked the day they are 
 hatched, as the web is then soft, does not bleed so much as later, 
 consequently there is little risk of the other chicks pecking the 
 toes, as they would do when older. By different combinations 
 there are sixteen markings possible, and a chart should be kept 
 illustrating the marks. See Fig. 69. In my experience leg- 
 banding is better than toe-punching. 
 
 Feed Records. — In keeping a record of the amount of feed con- 
 sumed by the different flocks it is not necessary to go to the 
 trouble of weighing the feed every day. To do so might prove 
 very tedious. A fowl's appetite is never the same; it varies 
 from one year's end to the other, much the same as the prices of 
 grain and other commodities fluctuate. During a period of 
 heavy laying hens eat more than at other times; when they are 
 molting or sitting they eat very little; in cold weather they con- 
 sume more grain than in warm weather, providing their egg 
 yield is the same; and on a bright sun-shiny day in winter they 
 will eat more than on a dull, stormy day. Experienced poultry- 
 men seldom feed a prescribed amount of grain to each flock every 
 day; they cater to the flock's appetite and general conditions. 
 It is the only intelligent way to feed. 
 
 Except for these variations in the quantities of the feed and 
 in the prices of the feed, it would be a comparatively simple task 
 to figure the cost of the feed for a given pen. 
 
 On most farms it is customary to feed the layers a certain 
 amount of scratch grains in the morning, just enough to keep 
 them at work in the litter, and all they will clean up in the late 
 afternoon. At the same time a dry mash is kept before the flock 
 all day, together with oyster shells, grit, charcoal and beef scrap, 
 unless the last two of these articles are included in the mash. 
 Naturally, the quantities vary considerably. Furthermore, the 
 numerous kinds of feed are purchased at varying intervals, in 
 

 ,V 
 
 ..r 
 
 
 ■ r.v 
 
 y 
 
 105 
 
106 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 different quantities, and at such times as they may be bought 
 advantageously. 
 
 Obtain a Rate. — The only simple way to surmount these 
 irregularities is to reduce them to a unit basis or rate — the cost 
 of a pound or quart for a given period, as, for example, the cost 
 of a pound of dry mash for the month of October is $0.0195, or 
 the cost of a quart of scratch grains for November is $0.0198. 
 If large quantities are handled the unit may be raised to a hun- 
 dred pounds or a hun- 
 dred quarts. 
 
 A scheme of this kind 
 is in use on a farm of 
 my acquaintance, and it 
 works out very nicely. 
 Every consignment of 
 feed received is appor- 
 tioned to dry mash, 
 scratch grains, chick feed 
 or whichever way the 
 meals and grains are to 
 be used, in two totals, 
 weight and price. At 
 the end of each month the total costs are added, and divided by 
 the sum of the total weights, and the quotients are the rates per 
 pound for each classification for that particular month. 
 
 The rates are then applied to the quantities consumed by the 
 various flocks, whose records are kept daily in each house or pen, 
 then totaled for the month. 
 
 The manner of keeping the records of the feed consumed is 
 rather unique. A card or slate is fastened near the door of each 
 pen, and as the attendant goes about distributing the feed, an 
 entry is made of the quantity of each kind of feed, dry mash, 
 scratch grains, shells and so on. Large hoppers are employed 
 for the storage of dry mash, some of them having a capacity of 
 two and three hundred pounds, hence there may be only five or 
 six entries for mash in a month. Similar devices are installed 
 
 Fig. 71.- 
 
 (Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) 
 
 -Outdoor feed hopper for growing 
 stock. 
 
TELL-TALES 
 
 107 
 
 for shells and grit, which are replenished on an average of once 
 a month. 
 
 Buckets of known uniform capacity are used for distributing 
 the feed and other supplies, which obviates the necessity for 
 weighing and feeding. Let us say, a certain-sized bucket con- 
 tains forty pounds of scratch grains: If the feeder throws half 
 of it to one pen and a quarter to another, and then four buckets 
 
 sir*! wbsm 
 
 
 Fig. 72. — Substantial set of poultry buildings. 
 
 to a larger house, he enters twenty, ten and a hundred and sixty 
 pounds respectively on each slate. 
 
 The same bucket will probably hold about thirty pounds of 
 dry mash, and about eighty pounds of grit or shells. At the end 
 of the month all slates are brought to the office, totaled, entered 
 in a book and wiped clean for the next month. 
 
 Tell-Tales. — If the record of a particular house indicates a 
 falling off in feed along with a decrease in eggs, or if the egg record 
 
108 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 does not compare favorably with the cost of the feed, it proves 
 substantially that something is wrong, or that a certain flock 
 is not up to standard. An inquiry is then held and the reasons 
 ascertained. The system also acts as a check on the feed; since 
 the total amount of feed placed before the fowls must compare 
 with the amount of feed purchased. This is a feature not to be 
 ignored; we have known feed to be wasted, sold short weight 
 and stolen. The question of keeping records on a poultry farm 
 is in harmony with this age of time clocks and cash registers. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 
 
 The question often arises, which is the best system of poultry 
 management? 
 
 Many persons have been led to believe that such systems exist, 
 even to the extent of being patented, and for the use of which it 
 is necessary to pay certain sums of money. The truth is, that 
 while hundreds of books and pamphlets have been published on 
 this subject, purporting to be secret methods and systems, many 
 of which contain extravagant claims, there is no such thing as a 
 hard and fast system of poultry culture. 
 
 On the contrary, the only principle which might be said to con- 
 stitute a system, and upon which all of the so-called systems and 
 secret methods agree, is — that the management or care shall be 
 systematically done. Beyond this every poultryman must 
 evolve his own individual methods and practices, those which 
 are best suited to a given purpose in a given locality. It is im- 
 portant that one should have a definite purpose, for in that way 
 only is it possible to determine the most suitable location, the 
 best type of housing, the most profitable breeds, and so on. 
 
 Location. — While fowls can be kept almost anywhere and 
 everywhere, they do best in congenial locations. Soil conditions 
 and the arrangement and construction of buildings have much 
 to do with their health and profit. We must also consider the 
 means and inclinations of their owner. 
 
 Briefly, the ideal location may be summarized as follows: 
 Choose a soil which is light enough to provide good natural 
 drainage, yet heavy enough to grow grass, and a site having a 
 south or southeast exposure, protected from prevailing high 
 winds. 
 
 109 
 
110 
 
LOCATION OF HOUSES 
 
 111 
 
 A dry porous soil, such as sandy or gravelly loam, is preferable 
 to a heavy clay soil, because the former is easily kept sanitary. 
 A purely sandy soil, however, is not desirable, because it will not 
 support the plant and insect life which poultry should have. If 
 it is impracticable to select a naturally dry soil, it should be made 
 sanitary by underdrainage. 
 
 Build the houses in the lee of a wind-break if possible, and on an 
 elevation having a natural drainage away from the buildings. 
 When a direct southern exposure is not obtainable, aim to have 
 
 (Courtesy Monmouth Poultry Farm) 
 Fig. 74. — A site like this means well-drained, sanitary yards. 
 
 the buildings face the southeast rather than southwest, for fowls 
 seem to enjoy morning to afternoon sun, and other things being 
 equal the quarters should be warmer. 
 
 In the manner of housing fowls there are two general ideas — 
 the colony plan, which consists in placing small houses for small 
 flocks far enough apart so that they will have an abundance of 
 range, and with little chance of intermingling, and the more in- 
 tensive plan of keeping the birds in long continuous laying houses. 
 See Fig. 76. This latter arrangement of housing may consist 
 
112 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 of a series of separate pens under one roof connected by an alley- 
 way at the rear, or by doors or gates between the pens, or it may 
 be one long house capable of accommodating units of from 500 
 to 1000 birds. 
 
 The advantages and disadvantages of the two ideas are nu- 
 merous. Birds on free range require less scrupulous attention to 
 cleanliness, no expense for fencing, and they will pick up the 
 greater part of their green and animal food. Moreover, should 
 sickness break out there is less likelihood of its becoming an epi- 
 demic. On the other hand, the colony plan involves considerably 
 
 -15-0 
 
 (Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 75. — Diagram illustrating the angle of the sun's rays during December. 
 Sunlight should be permitted to reach the rear of the building, where it is most 
 needed. 
 
 more labor in the performance of routine work, such as feeding 
 and watering, cleaning and gathering eggs, than the continuous 
 house plan, which is especially true in stormy weather. 
 
 The cost of building houses on the colony plan is much higher 
 per bird, not only because a number of smaller houses require so 
 many additional end walls, but being smaller the allowance of 
 floor area per bird in the colony house should be almost double 
 that required in the long continuous house. 
 
 The relative merits as to productiveness are debatable, although 
 there is a tendency to accept the idea that small flocks produce 
 the greater egg yield. To offset this, however, it costs more in 
 
IDEAL TYPE OF HOUSE 
 
 113 
 
 labor to produce a dozen eggs by the colony plan than by a more 
 intensive arrangement. 
 
 The ideal type of poultry house is not necessarily the most ex- 
 pensive building. It should be serviceable above all things, fairly 
 roomy, well ventilated and yet free from direct drafts, capable of 
 being flooded with sunlight, and dry and sanitary at all times. 
 It should be built wherever possible with the view to simplicity, 
 economy and convenience. To spend large sums on it is almost 
 as grave an error as to slight it, for money expended for unneces- 
 
 ;' 
 
 300 
 
 ■' 
 
 
 . r] ..... > 
 
 •o 
 
 p 
 
 /jU 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 in 
 
 tT" 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 U 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 : 
 
 
 D 
 
 u 
 
 D 
 
 
 « 3oo- »; 
 
 
 IOUTM YAfLD 
 ALL ONE YARD 
 
 8 
 
 ^ri-rttt-tfttt-tttii^ 
 
 
 
 
 NOflJM rARD 
 
 {Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 76.— Housing plans. Diagram on left indicates colony house system; 
 dotted line shows the distance travelled to reach all the buildings. In the 
 right-hand diagram the same number of pens are brought together in a con- 
 tinuous house; note the amoiint of walking saved. 
 
 sary purposes on a poultry farm is dead capital and brings no re- 
 turn on the investment. 
 
 It is impossible, of course, to meet all conditions or suit all 
 tastes in one or two types of houses, but if one gains a familiarity 
 with the fundamental principles of poultry house construction, 
 it is then a simple matter to incorporate those principles into a 
 type suitable to any tastes, conveniences, soils and climatic con- 
 ditions. 
 
 Warmth. — A warm house, or at least warm sleeping quarters, 
 is one of the prime requisites for winter egg production; yet arti- 
 
114 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 ficial heat is not to be recommended. In fact, it has been tried 
 very thoroughly, and with unsatisfactory results. Birds so kept 
 quickly lose their vitality, and sickness and other troubles de- 
 velop. It is better to build the house substantially, and thus in- 
 sure it against drafts and dampness, for these are the poultryman's 
 greatest foes. 
 
 Egg production is really the result of a secondary circulation, 
 hence if the fowls require all their surplus energy and vitality 
 to combat improper conditions and to keep warm, there is none 
 left for egg production. 
 
 Pen / Pen 
 
 £ 
 
 1 
 
 Pen 
 
 Pen 
 
 / Met, 
 
 J-^l 
 
 SS ; SS | 
 
 {Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 77- — Types of pens, illustrating arrangement of roosts, partitions, alley- 
 ways and scratching sheds. 
 
 The size of a poultry house is largely influenced by the breed 
 and number of birds kept in each flock. If the fowls are kept in 
 small flocks, more floor space per bird is needed, and the reason 
 is quite apparent. In the small flock, say twenty birds in a house 
 10 by 12 feet, each hen is confined to a very narrow area, although 
 she has an allotment of six square feet; whereas in a large flock 
 of 500 layers, housed in a building 16 by 100 feet, each bird would 
 have but a trifle over three square feet of floor space, yet it would 
 have the freedom of roaming and scratching over the entire area, 
 and would not be oppressed with the feeling of constraint. 
 
 Ordinarily, the heavier breeds require about one-half again as 
 
SIZE AND PROPORTION 
 
 115 
 
 much floor space as the Leghorn and other Mediterranean classes; 
 but the smaller breeds, being more active and more nervous, are 
 more apt to become unduly excited and panicky when crowded 
 in a small pen. It is difficult for the attendant to work in a small 
 house or pen without getting the flock into a condition of unrest 
 and excitability for fear of being cornered, and such is not con- 
 ducive to egg production. 
 
 The situation may be summarized about as follows: Allow 6 
 to 7 square feet per bird for all classes, if the houses are small. 
 
 Fig. 78. — Poultry house under construction by students at Purdue University. 
 
 Provide 5 to 6 square feet per bird of the Plymouth Rock or 
 Wyandotte type, in houses where the flocks are made up of large 
 units. Allow 3 to 4 square feet per bird for Leghorns and similar 
 classes, when they are kept in large flocks. This is the practice 
 on many of the largest commercial farms. 
 
 To obtain the greatest amount of floor space at the least cost, 
 the building should be designed as wide as possible, yet not exceed 
 a point where long timbers are required, for these are certain to 
 be expensive. Sixteen feet is a good width for the shed roof type 
 of house; the timbers required are stock lengths, therefore sold 
 
116 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 at regular rates; and the front wall need not be so high but that 
 the sun will reach the rear wall, where it is most needed on account 
 of the roosting compartments. 
 
 There are three general types of roofs for poultry buildings — 
 the single pitch or shed roof, the gable roof, or double pitch, 
 having equal or unequal slopes; and the half-monitor style of 
 house, which consists of a shed roof in the rear of the house, 
 covering about two-thirds of the building, then from the front 
 eaves a wall is built for perhaps a distance of three or four feet, 
 consisting mainly of windows, and from which there extends 
 
 {Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 79. — Types of roofs for poultry houses. A, shed roof; B, two-thirds span; 
 C, gable; D, monitor; E, half monitor; F, hip roof. 
 
 another plane or shed roof, covering the front third of the build- 
 ing. See Fig. 79. Houses of this type can be erected wider than 
 sixteen feet and not require exceptionally long timbers, and it is 
 also practicable to have the sun's rays reach the rear of the in- 
 terior without a high front wall. 
 
 The single-pitch roof is the easiest to build, and is probably 
 the most generally used on that account. It furnishes the highest 
 front wall, and sheds all the rain water to the rear. 
 
 All poultry buildings should be built as low as possible, not 
 only to save material, but to conserve warmth in cold weather; 
 yet they should be built with standing room in all sections where 
 
ROOF 
 
 117 
 
 the routine work is performed. If the rear wall is built of suffi- 
 cient height for the attendant to perform his work without bump- 
 ing his head, and the front wall is to be kept as low as practicable, 
 the roof will necessarily have to be of comparatively low pitch. 
 Since shingles do not wear well on roofs of low pitch, houses of 
 the shed roof type are usually roofed with a good grade of ready- 
 to-lay patent roofing. These roofings, providing they are of 
 known reliability, have rendered satisfaction, and are to be 
 recommended. They require few repairs, but an occasional 
 
 Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 80. — Interior of continuous poultry house in course of construction. 
 Note the framing for pen partitions, ceiling against the rear wall in way of the 
 roosting compartments, and the dirt floor. The sills are laid on concrete walls. 
 
 painting, and are very economical in the amount of labor in- 
 volved in laying them. 
 
 When to Build. — Whenever possible it is best to build during 
 the spring or early summer, for the building then has time to dry 
 out during the hot days. This is especially true of houses which 
 are intended to have dirt floors, or those having cement floors 
 and foundation walls. Much of the sickness attributed to damp- 
 ness will be avoided in this way, also considerable trouble and 
 annoyance caused by wet, mucky litter. 
 
118 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Kinds of Floors. — The floor may be of earth, wood or cement; 
 location and soil conditions are the determining factors. See 
 Fig. 81. It is highly important that the floor be dry, otherwise 
 it will be impossible to keep the litter dry and sweet enough for 
 the fowls to work in. Straw and similar materials absorb mois- 
 ture very quickly, whereupon they give off foul odors and are 
 very apt to contaminate the scratch grains thrown into them. 
 
 Earth Floor. — There is no better floor for poultry than an earth 
 one, providing it is practicable to keep it dry, and it is also the 
 most economical. A light sandy loam is best. A dirt floor 
 should be about a foot above the outside ground level, hence the 
 
 (Cornell Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 8 1. —Methods of constructing foundations and floors. 
 
 best method of construction for such a house is to erect a concrete 
 wall for a foundation. This should be built deep enough to pre- 
 vent heaving by frost action, and extend about a foot above 
 ground, after which it is filled in with soil, preferably sand, before 
 the balance of the structure is erected. 
 
 A wooden sill is laid on the top of this wall, upon which the 
 frame studding is built, with the weather boards or siding carried 
 three or four inches down on the outside of the concrete. An ar- 
 rangement of this kind promotes great durability, for there is no 
 part of the frame structure in contact with dampness and there- 
 fore likely to deteriorate. 
 
FOUNDATION AND FLOOR 119 
 
 Board floors are usually short-lived unless a free circulation of 
 air is allowed under them, in which case it is well to build the 
 house on piers two feet from the ground, or on a wall having ade- 
 quate openings for ventilation The piers should be built of 
 concrete, stone or brick for permanence. If posts are used, they 
 should be charred or treated with a wood-preserving compound 
 to prolong their life. 
 
 Another objection to the wood floor which is built close to the 
 ground, it offers a refuge to rats and mice and, perhaps, other 
 animals. These pests are likely to occur on any farm, and if 
 means are not provided to combat them, they will rapidly be- 
 come a serious nuisance. 
 
 Cement floors are the only absolutely vermin-proof ones; they 
 are easily cleaned and durable, but apt to be cold and hard on the 
 fowls' feet, unless covered with a thick layer of sand and litter. 
 In constructing a cement floor the ground should be excavated 
 for a depth of eight or ten inches, and filled in with broken stones 
 or cinders to make a good foundation, which also acts as a sort 
 of French drain and keeps the floor dry. The concrete slab 
 should be about two or three inches thick, poured over the broken 
 stones or cinders after they are well tamped to a solid bed, and 
 mixed in the proportion of I part Portland cement, 2^ parts 
 crushed stone or cinders, and 5 parts clean sharp sand. It is 
 advisable to pitch the floor to a drain, which will greatly facilitate 
 house cleaning. 
 
 Floor Joists. — If the floor is of wood, built upon piers, the sills 
 should be of fairly heavy timbers, running the long way of the 
 house, which support the floor joists; these latter of 2 by 8, or 2 
 by 10 material, and spaced about 20 inches on centers. If a 
 single floor is to be installed, it should consist of a good grade of 
 matched flooring; otherwise, if a double floor is contemplated, 
 the rough flooring may be of I by 12 inch sheathing boards, laid 
 diagonally across the joists, and over-laid lengthwise of the house 
 with 1 by 3 inch matched flooring. The finished floor should 
 be blind nailed, so that no nail heads project to hamper the use 
 of a shovel or scraper in cleaning. Where necessary a layer of 
 
120 
 
M 
 E 
 
 121 
 
■fS 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 d 
 
 O 
 
 d 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 122 
 
WALL CONSTRUCTION 
 
 123 
 
 felt building paper may be inserted between the two floors, which 
 will add greatly to the warmth of the building. 
 
 The framework is constructed mainly from 2 by 4 inch lumber, 
 as are the rafters of buildings less than fourteen feet in width. 
 The walls may consist of one thickness of matched boards covered 
 with 1 -ply smooth-surfaced patent roofing, similar to the roof 
 covering, novelty siding, weather boards, or rough sheathing 
 shingled. Or, as is the custom in extremely cold climates, the 
 walls may be made double, with a dead air space between, or 
 
 Fig. 85. — -End view of model hen house, as shown in Fig. 82. 
 
 filled in with straw, hay or shavings for insulating purposes. 
 These precautions, however, are not necessary unless the temper- 
 ature goes below zero for long periods at a time. 
 
 Another practice is to ceil the inside edge of the studding in 
 way of the roosting compartments, and also the under side of the 
 rafters. This makes a very neat interior, and helps to carry off 
 any foul odors from the perches. Some poultrymen advocate the 
 use of felt or tar paper on the inside of laying houses, lining the walls 
 with it ; but in the writer's experience this is very unsatisfactory. 
 
124 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 It affords a breeding ground for lice and mites, and it cannot be 
 cleaned. Then, too, it is inflammable. 
 
 Openings. — The best arrangement is to have all the openings 
 in the house on one side — the front wall — so that by keeping the 
 other three sides tightly closed, drafts are prevented. 
 
 Too much glass in a poultry house makes it cold in winter and 
 hot in summer. In recent years curtain frames have taken the 
 
 (Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 86. — Framing for a continuous poultry house. Note the concrete walls; 
 building is intended to have a dirt floor. 
 
 place of glass windows to a great extent. In fact, many farms 
 use curtain frames exclusively, although this practice makes for 
 a dark interior, when on very stormy days it becomes necessary 
 to close the curtains. The semi-open front house should consist 
 of one-third board partition for its front wall, commencing at the 
 floor line, one-third curtain frame openings, and one-third win- 
 dows and ventilators. See Fig. 84. 
 
 Curtain Frames. — A medium-weight, unbleached muslin is 
 
WINDOWS AND CURTAIN FRAMES 
 
 125 
 
 the proper material for the curtains, not heavy duck; the idea 
 being that they should be porous and permit a circulation of 
 fresh air without direct drafts. The frames may be hinged at the 
 top and made to swing inward or outward, or they may be made 
 portable and held in place by wooden buttons, operated from the 
 outside. Inasmuch as they are in use for only about four months 
 in the year, and then only at night or at such times when there is 
 a severe storm from the south, it is best to make the frames 
 portable, and to store them elsewhere when not needed. 
 
 The position of the glass windows in the upper section of the 
 
 Jo nth 
 - 300ft- 
 
 ~~l 
 
 ~\ 
 
 
 r ■ — 
 
 500 — 
 
 
 
 
 ■] 
 
 
 >-3/& 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 -F^r- 
 
 ,-rh- 
 
 -fH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■-F 
 
 -}... 
 
 -F 
 
 ■q.... 
 
 dE 
 
 -q... 
 
 ~F 
 
 1 
 
 
 {Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 87. — Methods of arranging colony houses and yards to save unnecessary 
 
 steps. 
 
 front wall should allow the maximum amount of sunlight to enter 
 the building. They may be made portable, similar to the cur- 
 tains, and stored elsewhere when not in use, or they can be opened 
 by sliding to one side, or by swinging outward, which also serves 
 the purpose of shedding driving rains from the south. 
 
 Doors. — A small opening should be cut in the front wall as a 
 means of egress for the birds, and fitted with a door. The main 
 entrance door should be located at the end of the building, and 
 be of generous proportions. There is no economy, only incon- 
 venience, in a small entrance door. It should be large enough 
 
126 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 to permit the passage of a wheelbarrow or push-cart for cleaning, 
 replenishing the litter and other routine work. In houses fifty- 
 feet in length and longer it will be found advisable to have a door 
 at each end of the building. With this convenience a great many 
 unnecessary steps may be avoided. 
 
 Yard Space. — Chickens do not require unlimited range to give 
 results, providing the deficiencies of a small enclosure are met 
 by supplying them with an abundance of green food, animal food, 
 and so on from other sources. Yet it is a bad plan to attempt to 
 keep a large flock in a very small yard, unless considerable labor 
 is expended in spading or plowing up the soil at frequent in- 
 tervals. 
 
 The earth in a yard crowded with fowls, especially if the soil 
 is heavy, will become contaminated by their droppings, which is 
 particularly objectionable in wet weather. It is therefore best 
 to have double yards, one on either side of the house, or if this 
 is not practicable, have them arranged side by side ; so that when 
 the flock is occupying one yard, the other may be sown to clover, 
 rye, rape, or other green crop, and given time to make a start. 
 This cultivation not only sweetens the soil, but it will provide a 
 large portion of the necessary green food. 
 
 Permanent Pasture. — If the yards are intended to be kept in 
 permanent sod and furnish all of the green food, it will be ad- 
 visable to allow at least ioo square feet per fowl, otherwise the 
 birds will destroy the entire growth. If yards are intended for 
 exercise only, and the greens are supplied from other sources, 
 about 25 square feet per bird is sufficient. 
 
 In any event, it is well to remember that the nearer square a 
 yard is made the less it costs to fence a given area and the flock 
 is more easily confined. Obviously, the small yard requires a 
 higher fence than the large one, although the question of height 
 is largely determined by the breed one keeps. The meat breeds, 
 such as the Brahmas, may be confined within a 3- to 4-foot fence, 
 general-purpose fowls within a 4- to 5-foot fence, and the egg 
 breeds within a 6- to 7-foot fence. 
 
 Erecting wire netting is sometimes attended by difficulties, 
 
ERECTING WIRE NETTING 
 
 127 
 
 which are generally due to lack of experience with this com- 
 modity, and not to the netting itself. It is contrary material 
 to work, yet if a few principles are followed, the task may be 
 made comparatively simple, and one that can be done single- 
 handed. 
 
 In purchasing poultry netting, even the best grades, it some- 
 times happens that one selvage is slightly longer than the other, 
 which will be responsible for trouble in hanging it, unless pre- 
 cautionary measures are taken. To ascertain if such is the case, 
 
 Fig. 88. — Wire-covered yards for cross-breeding experiments at the Kansas 
 Agricultural Station. 
 
 unroll the netting on a level stretch of ground, and if instead of 
 lying in a straight line, the netting describes a slight curve, it 
 is because one edge or selvage is longer than the other, perhaps 
 but a few inches, which will not interfere with its efficiency, if 
 the defect is borne in mind. 
 
 Netting having uneven edges should always be hung with the 
 shortest selvage — the selvage on the inside of the curve — at 
 the top. Otherwise, if the longest selvage — the one on the out- 
 side of the curve — is placed at the top, the upper section of the 
 
128 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 netting, after it is hung, will sag between the posts in spite of 
 every effort to remedy it. 
 
 There is one exception to this rule, which will explain the prin- 
 ciple of it: If a fence is to be erected on ground which is rolling, 
 and the contour of the ground is sucK that the highest ground is 
 in the center of the curve, grading away uniformly on both sides, 
 it is quite likely that this curve will conform to the curve in the 
 netting, in which case the wire may be hung with the longest 
 edge uppermost. 
 
 Top Rails. — A poultry yard should never be constructed with 
 a rail at the top, unless the top is to be covered with netting also, 
 or unless the fence is to be built very high for a particular breed. 
 To build rails only invites the birds to fly and alight on them. 
 Fowls are not so apt to attempt to fly over plain wire, though now 
 and again the more venturesome members of a flock will try to 
 elude the mysterious barrier by climbing up and over it. 
 
 If a rail is necessary at the top of a fence, as over gateways, 
 it is well to erect a piece of netting over the top of the rail, which 
 will baffle and discourage those who attempt an aerial escape. 
 
 Base boards 12 inches wide, securely nailed to the fence posts, 
 make the best bottom for a poultry fence, and assist greatly in 
 stretching the netting, but they are also expensive if large areas 
 are to be inclosed. They are not absolutely essential; in fact, 
 equally good results can be obtained without them, for which a 
 method is herewith described. 
 
 The fence posts should be well planted in the ground, from 10 
 to 12 feet apart, and braced at the corners, or in way of gates, to 
 take the strain of stretching the wire. Then, commencing at a 
 corner, unroll the bale of netting on the ground for its entire 
 length, ascertain if it is straight, and decide which is the best 
 edge for the top. 
 
 Start to hang the netting by the top selvage at the proper 
 height from the ground, driving one staple — no more— in each 
 post, until the entire length is hung, all the while stretching the 
 selvage away from the starting point. Be careful not to walk on 
 the netting unnecessarily, or to handle it in such a way that it 
 
HOW TO BUILD A FENCE 
 
 129 
 
 develops bulges or sagged places, and do not attempt to stretch 
 the middle of the netting. To do so will only result in a dis- 
 torted sagged section which can never be straightened without 
 
 Fig. 89. — Section of intensive broiler plant. 
 
130 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 great difficulty, if at all. It is also a bad plan to try and carry 
 the netting around a corner without cutting it and making a 
 new place of beginning, especially if the posts are round. 
 
 Stapling. — When the netting is entirely hung by a single staple 
 at each post, commence at the middle of the length of wire and 
 
 LLU 
 
 m sb 
 
 W EB 
 
 S3 
 
 tM^btlWdteTtdbiiltatatg" 
 
 ^d 
 
 UU — Dll LLU UU UP LI!] LJJ UU LLU 
 
 WW E 
 
 J3J 
 
 Front elevation. 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 O'OIOiOIOIOO'O'O 
 
 < 
 
 2» TWa I »-<\ 
 
 Q 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 olo 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 [Hffl^i 
 
 Second floor — brooding compartment. 
 
 First floor — developing pens. 
 
 "k 
 
 1 
 
 > 
 
 "F,CKI«£» -R.o 
 
 sM 
 
 m- 
 
 Cellar — incubator, oats and picking rooms. 
 Fig. 90. — General arrangement of broiler plant, as shown in Fig. 89. 
 
 secure the bottom selvage at each post at the ground line or an 
 inch below, working each way from the center, and being careful 
 not to stretch the netting beyond the distance allotted to it by 
 each post interval. This method apportions the correct amount 
 of netting over the entire area, whereupon it is then a simple 
 
TO HOLD NETTING AT BOTTOM 
 
 131 
 
 matter to return and staple the wire to each post individually, 
 stretching it slightly here and there as it is required. 
 
 To hold the bottom of the netting in place and make it hug the 
 ground closely, drive stakes at intervals of three or four feet — 
 two stakes between the posts are generally sufficient — and secure 
 the netting to them by a staple. Discarded wooden fence palings 
 are splendid for this purpose, especially if they are tapered. 
 Drive the largest end in the ground first, for a distance of about 
 eighteen inches, whereupon they are less likely to heave upward 
 by frost action. 
 
 The life of these stakes will be prolonged if they are first 
 dipped or soaked in a wood preservative, or else charred. 
 
 Fig. 91. — Poultry house at Wisconsin College of Agriculture. 
 
 By the use of stakes in this manner, especially in a light soil, 
 it is possible to sink the netting six inches into the ground with- 
 out difficulty, which in some respects is better than the wooden 
 base boards, the bottoms of which soon rot away, or under which 
 the fowls are able to dig their way to freedom. Moreover, with 
 a little practice one wiil soon develop the skill and judgment of 
 being able to drive the stakes with just enough tension on the 
 netting to stretch it perfectly flat and tight. 
 
 Chick Runs. — For inclosing yards intended for chicks, a course 
 of inch mesh wire netting should be used at the bottom, twelve 
 or eighteen inches high is sufficient, to which the coarser mesh 
 netting is fastened by pieces of pliable wire bound around the 
 two selvage edges. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 INTERIOR ARRANGEMENT OF BUILDINGS 
 
 Convenience. — In the design and construction of poultry 
 buildings not only the health and comfort of the fowls must be 
 carefully considered, but the convenience of the caretaker should 
 receive equally thoughtful attention. If not, and the arrange- 
 ment of a building or plant is inconvenient, or its facilities are 
 meager and of such a character that the performance of one's 
 work is made unnecessarily tedious .and laborious, it is quite 
 likely to have a demoralizing effect upon the attendant's interest 
 and ability. In consequence, some of the routine chores are 
 apt to be overlooked or slighted, and in due time carelessness 
 takes the place of thoroughness. 
 
 The interior fittings of a poultry house — the arrangement of 
 nests, perches, feed hoppers, watering devices and so forth — 
 are no less important than the construction of the building itself. 
 
 Cleanliness. — The paramount issue is cleanliness, or rather, 
 let us say, facilities which will obtain cleanliness at the least pos- 
 sible effort. It is a subject that admits of much argument and 
 varying principles. Some methods achieve their' end at too 
 great a cost for labor; others simplify labor at the expense of 
 sanitation. Various degrees of cleanliness are maintained either 
 by an intricate or simple operation, and the same ease or effort 
 may be expended upon the feeding, watering and egg collecting. 
 If the methods are so antiquated or so involved as to require 
 an unreasonable amount of labor, the efficiency of such a system 
 is defective and should be corrected at once. 
 
 Roosting Compartments. — The warmest part of the building, 
 that which is freest from drafts, should be selected for the roost- 
 ing compartments, which is usually against the rear wall. Each 
 
 132 
 
(Courtesy Purdue Experi 
 
 Fig. 92. — Interior of continuous laying house divided into pens. Note the 
 abundance of litter, swinging doors, and platform for water crock, shell box 
 and mash hopper. 
 
 133 
 
134 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 fowl should be allowed about ten inches linear perch room, and 
 all the perches must be of the same height, or the birds will 
 fight and struggle for the highest ones. Running the perches 
 the long way of the house, that is, parallel with the rear wall, is 
 generally the most economical, convenient arrangement, and 
 their height from the floor is determined by the breed of poultry 
 kept, and whether dropping-board platforms and nests are in- 
 tended to be installed under the roosts. 
 When dropping-boards are used, which are advisable, the roosts 
 
 /1ou!c/mg. 
 
 (Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig- 93- — Cross-section of laying house 20 feet deep, built on continuous plan, 
 
 any length desired. 
 
 should be located high enough to make their removal unneces- 
 sary when cleaning the boards, and yet not so high but that the 
 fowls can fly to them without difficulty. When fowls jump to a 
 hard floor from a considerable height, especially to a concrete 
 floor which is scantily covered with litter, they are in danger of 
 bruising their feet, causing a very painful condition which later 
 develops into bumblefoot. On this point the dirt floor is de- 
 sirable; it is so resilient that cases of bumblefoot or corns are 
 virtually unknown. 
 
 Height of Boards. — As a general rule the dropping-boards for 
 
HEIGHT OF PERCHES 
 
 135 
 
 the Asiatic classes should not be over eighteen inches from the 
 floor; for the general-purpose or American breeds, twenty-four 
 inches; and for the Leghorn and other light weight Mediter- 
 ranean classes, forty inches. The perches should be located 
 
 'M 
 
 £-t = .--. 
 
 Steel Track- 
 
 Do ub/e Act/rtg Doc/rX 
 
 <4' Support for Irolleg — J 
 
 '& t r-~-5upport for Roof 
 
 floor Plan offitjuse 
 — with-' 
 
 "Peris Eo'Sj/Uare 
 
 Dry flash hopper 
 
 Water Pan on 
 
 SlaTTed P/atform*, 
 
 (Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 94. — Floor plan of 20-foot laying house, as shown in Fig. 93. View shows 
 the width of a single pen, 20 feet wide. 
 
 about twelve inches above the boards, and so constructed as to 
 permit them to be readily removed and cleaned. 
 
 Perches. — A 2- by 3-inch timber stood on edge, with the upper 
 edge slightly rounded, makes an excellent perch. If these are 
 supported at the ends by U-shaped wooden sockets, they may be 
 
136 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 made to span ten feet without need for an intervening support. 
 Spans greater than this should be supported in the middle by a 
 third cleat, a piece of I- by 3-inch stuff stood on edge, otherwise 
 the perches will sway heavily and disturb the sense of security in 
 the fowls. 
 
 The end walls in houses sixteen feet long and less may be made 
 to support the perches, dropping-boards and nests. In buildings 
 of the continuous laying-house type it is customary to erect 
 
 {Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 95. — Floors of poultry buildings should be unobstructed. Note how 
 this battery of trap nests is arranged, together with the perches and dropping- 
 boards. 
 
 transverse partitions, at intervals of twelve or sixteen feet, ex- 
 tending five or six feet from the rear wall, which are designed to 
 prevent currents of air from forming dangerous drafts in the 
 roosting compartments, and which serve the additional purpose 
 of a foundation for the perches and so forth. 
 
 Construction of Boards. — The dropping-boards should be 
 made fairly heavy and rigid, for it must be remembered that they 
 will be made to carry considerable weight, not alone the weight 
 
ROOSTING COMPARTMENTS 
 
 137 
 
 of the fowls, but perhaps the nests as well. They should consist 
 of matched boards — 8-inch roofers or 6-inch tongue-and-grooved 
 fence boards are just the thing, and secured to their framework 
 at right angles to the rear wall, never lengthwise of the house. 
 The reason for this is apparent : there is a tendency for the boards 
 to warp and curl, which would seriously interfere with scraping 
 
 (Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 96. — -Cross-section of laying house 16 feet deep, built on continuous plan, 
 
 any length desired. 
 
 the boards at cleaning time if the hoe or similar implement had 
 to oppose these cracks and irregular places. 
 
 Roosting Curtains. — When the roosting compartments are 
 arranged as described above, it is a simple matter to fit the fronts 
 of them with curtains, which may be lowered on extremely cold 
 nights and hooked up to the ceiling in the daytime, a practice, 
 however, which is not necessary except in very cold climates: 
 Heavy unbleached muslin or a light duck tacked to a wooden 
 batten or pole makes a good arrangement. 
 
138 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Still another point concerning the dropping-boards : they should 
 be arranged with the view to scraping them into a push-cart or 
 wheelbarrow, preferably the former. No part of the poultry- 
 man's equipment is more generally useful and a greater labor 
 saver than a well-built push-cart with fairly high wheels. It 
 need not be an expensive one with springs. 
 
 tl 
 
 r-*' 8 '- 
 
 a ■•« &■ p/are 
 
 Window sgs/i 
 {craped n gel/i? 
 
 d /7/n<j °ii 
 
 — CloHi Cui turn — 
 
 
 Concrete Wall- 
 
 Stone piled Trench. 
 
 {Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 97. — Front elevation of laying house shown in Fig. 96. View shows the 
 width of a single pen, 16 feet wide. 
 
 Nests. — Next in importance to the roosting compartments is 
 the arrangement of nests, of which there should be one to every 
 four or five hens. Under natural conditions the hen seeks a se- 
 cluded spot in which to lay, hence it behooves the poultry house 
 designer to imitate the natural environment as much as practic- 
 able. The nests should be situated in a more or less dark place, 
 easily accessible, and in such a way that they do not obstruct 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF NESTS 139 
 
 passageways or intrude upon the floor area. An unobstructed 
 floor area is a vital consideration, and it should not be robbed 
 in any way unless absolutely necessary. 
 
 A good location for the nests is underneath the dropping- 
 boards, suspended from them in light portable sections or bat- 
 teries, which may be removed conveniently for cleaning. This 
 practice, however, is not possible in houses intended for the 
 heavier breeds, where the dropping-boards are built close to the 
 floor, but it is admirably well suited to Leghorns. 
 
 The nests should be arranged so that the hens enter from the 
 side toward the rear wall, and have a shelf upon which they may 
 alight before entering a particular compartment. Each nest 
 should be from 12 to 14 inches square and about 12 inches high, 
 with solid partitions between them to prevent the hens from 
 fighting. The side from which the fowls enter should have a 
 front piece — a batten about three inches high — to keep the nest- 
 ing material in its proper place; the side of the nests exposed to 
 the interior of the house and from which the attendant is sup- 
 posed to gather the eggs, consists of a hinged lid, arranged to 
 operate with the greatest facility. 
 
 Portable Nests. — The advantages of nests built in portable 
 sections are numerous. It is necessary to clean them frequently 
 in order to secure clean eggs at all times, and to replenish the 
 nesting material. Moreover, they should be sprayed or scrubbed 
 with a disinfectant at regular intervals to avoid a pestilence of 
 lice and mites. The easiest way to perform this work is to re- 
 move the nests outdoors, dump out their old contents, wash or 
 spray them, place them in the sun to dry, refill with fresh straw, 
 excelsior or other material and return them to their proper place. 
 
 Built-in nests, those which are not portable, are very difficult 
 and tedious to clean, and should not be tolerated. 
 
 Cleanliness. — It is also important that the nests be protected 
 against the fowls roosting in or on top of them, thereby soiling 
 them unnecessarily. Soiled eggs are very bothersome, and even 
 when thoroughly cleaned they are apt to be detected as washed 
 eggs, and will be discounted accordingly. Furthermore, the 
 
140 
 
BROODY HEN COOP 
 
 141 
 
 nests should be built so that it is convenient for the caretaker 
 to remove any setting hens. In the brooding season, especially 
 on the commercial egg farm, it is necessary to go over all the nests 
 every night and remove all hens showing any broody inclination. 
 Therefore, unless the nests are suitably arranged, this detail in 
 the day's routine will consume a great deal of time and is likely 
 to prove a severe tax on one's patience. 
 
 Broody Hen Coop. — On farms where incubation and brooding 
 are entirely artificial, the hen is not made responsible for the rear- 
 ing of next year's pullets, hence her maternal instincts should 
 
 Fig. 99. — The elevated walk in front of this house, under which the birds 
 pass to gain entrance to the yards, enables the attendant to observe the dif- 
 ferent pens without entering the building. 
 
 never be allowed to develop. When a hen has laid a series or 
 clutch of eggs, a rest period follows before another clutch de- 
 velops, and at certain seasons of the year this dormant period is 
 usually accompanied by broodiness. This condition must be 
 broken up at once or there will be a heavy falling off in the egg 
 yield. When a hen is allowed to remain on the nest she eats and 
 drinks very little, draws heavily upon her internal storehouse for 
 sustenance, and in a few days she becomes thin and emaciated. 
 For economical reasons alone it is imperative that this self- 
 
142 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 imposed starvation be intercepted at the earliest possible moment. 
 Moreover, a hen that is removed from the nest on the first or 
 second day of her broody spell is much more easily discouraged 
 than if she is allowed to remain longer, and thus have her in- 
 clination become confirmed. 
 
 There are many ways of breaking up broodiness, but common 
 sense dictates that the proper method shall not subject the hen 
 to cruelty or privation. To do so only further retards egg de- 
 
 (Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. ioo. — Poultry house with slatted openings for ventilation instead of 
 
 curtains. 
 
 velopment, and thus defeats the whole idea. A sitting hen should 
 be induced to eat and drink freely and to exercise, for only in this 
 way can her productive organs be stimulated. 
 
 Slatted Bottom. — If only a few hens are to be considered, a 
 good plan is to construct a packing box or coop with a slatted 
 bottom, and to raise it about six inches from the floor. The 
 hens' feet slip between the slats, the birds are unable to squat 
 in a comfortable position, and the sensation of currents of air 
 under them instead of eggs is disconcerting and harmlessly an- 
 
PROVISION FOR DUST BATH 143 
 
 noying, so that in a few days they are disgusted with the whole 
 maternal idea and are only too glad to rejoin their comrades in 
 the laying pens. It is understood, of course, that food and water 
 must be kept before the hens while they occupy their place of 
 incarceration. In long laying houses, where a great number of 
 sitting hens may have to be discouraged at one time, it is ad- 
 visable to set aside a section of the roosting compartments at 
 one end of the building for this special purpose, and to build it 
 with a removable slatted floor, and with a wire netting front, so 
 that the section may be converted into a brood coop as desired. 
 At other times it may be used for an ordinary roosting space. 
 
 To return to the subject of nests, if it is impracticable to erect 
 the nests under the dropping-boards, as in the case of houses in- 
 tended for the heavy breeds, they may be built in transverse 
 tiers at the ends of the building, and in several sections in the 
 interior of the house. But, as far as possible they should be 
 built upon posts, with inclined runways leading to the nests, 
 to obviate obstructing the floor space. In the monitor type of 
 laying house they may be conveniently located along the line of 
 columns supporting the roof, and where the front roof plane 
 joins the main .structure. 
 
 Some poultrymen are opposed to locating the nests under the 
 dropping-boards because of their proximity to the danger of 
 lice and mites. This argument does not seem to be well taken, 
 however, inasmuch as if the dropping-boards are infested with 
 vermin to that extent, the conditions are as bad for sleeping as 
 they are for laying and should be remedied at once. 
 
 A dust bath is as essential to the well-being of poultry as is 
 the soap and water variety to the human. Consequently, unless 
 the poultry houses have dirt floors, which will answer the purpose 
 nicely, provision must be made for a space devoted to dusting, 
 preferably where there is sunlight, for the fowls seem to relish the 
 combination. They like to dust themselves and then recline lux- 
 uriously and bask in the sun. Any sort of a board partition about 
 twelve inches high will answer the purpose, and about twenty- 
 five square feet should be allowed for every hundred birds. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 POULTRY HOUSE APPLIANCES 
 
 Interior Equipment. — In laying out the interior arrangement 
 of a poultry house attention is first given to the location of the 
 roosting compartments, perches and nests. See Fig. 101. After 
 these are installed the poultryman must turn his inventive 
 ability to ideas for equipping' the house with feeding and water- 
 ing devices. 
 
 These appliances should be arranged in the most convenient 
 places left vacant after doors, windows, curtain frames, roosts, 
 and so on have been located, and in such a way that they are not 
 only easily accessible to the fowls, but equally handy for the 
 caretaker to attend. 
 
 Water fountains, shell boxes and mash hoppers require daily 
 attention, consequently they should be simple in design, easy to 
 clean and especially easy to replenish, otherwise a great deal of 
 time will be needlessly consumed. They should be elevated from 
 the floor as much as possible, not alone to avoid obstructing the 
 floor area, but to prevent litter being scratched into them. This 
 is especially true of the water fountains, hence it is sometimes best 
 to locate these receptacles on a platform built about eighteen 
 inches above the floor, and to which the fowls will jump when they 
 want a drink. 
 
 Poultry supply houses display such an array of equipment and 
 of such a wide variety and completeness, the layman is ofttimes- 
 amazed at the thought and consideration expended on the up- 
 to-date hen. From a gapeworm extractor to a mammoth incu- 
 bator or a coal-burning brooder stove, there is an endless assort- 
 ment of appliances. Many of these devices can be bought more 
 cheaply than one could make them at home; in fact, it would be 
 
 144 
 
SUPPLYING DRINKING WATER 
 
 145 
 
 impossible to make some of them without special machinery and 
 costly tools. There are some men, however, for whom the pleas- 
 ure of making can never be equalled by the satisfaction of buy- 
 ing a ready-made article, hence there is a splendid opportunity 
 for them to exercise their ingenuity and skill as an amateur car- 
 penter and mechanic. 
 
 Water Supply. — If left to her own inclinations a hen would 
 rather drink from a cow's hoof-print in preference to a fountain 
 
 {Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 101. — Different arrangements for roosts and nests. A, Roosts and 
 nests suspended from rafters, clear of rear wall; B, roosts and nests built on 
 shelf attached to rear wall; C, a complicated arrangement; D, nests are too 
 low for convenience; E, no provision for nests; F, no dropping-boards — 
 manure falls to floor; G, wall arrangement for nests; H, open nest, which per- 
 mits fowls to roost upon it. 
 
 of clean, fresh water; yet that is no reason why she should be 
 allowed to do so, any more than she should be permitted to eat 
 putrid animal matter, which this perverse creature is sure to do 
 if given the opportunity. Nature, it seems, has not seen fit to 
 modify the fowl's instincts to conform to a civilization more in- 
 tensive than was her original state; consequently, inasmuch as 
 we have taken upon ourselves the responsibility of surrounding 
 the hen with more or less artificial conditions, and induced her 
 to be several times more productive than normal, it behooves us 
 10 
 
146 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 to go even further and be responsible for every detail that makes 
 for her safety and well-being. 
 
 An unlimited supply of pure drinking water must be kept be- 
 fore the flocks at all times, and on large commercial egg farms 
 this is a factor worthy of serious consideration. If there is water 
 pressure on the premises, either from an overhead tank or from 
 a municipal water supply, the problem is greatly simplified, for it 
 
 * "P***^ 
 
 Fig. 102. — Interior of "well-designed laying house. Note how curtains are 
 stowed against under side of rafters, and the partitions between the roosting 
 compartments. 
 
 is then only necessary to run pipe connections to the various build- 
 ings and fit them with non-freezing hydrants. The water may be 
 allowed to trickle continuously into a trough equipped with an 
 overflow leading to the outside of the house, or fountains of gen- 
 erous capacity may be filled at the hydrant and distributed 
 throughout the building. 
 
 Installing a water system does not necessarily require the ser- 
 
PIPE FITTINGS AND TOOLS 
 
 147 
 
 vices of a skilled plumber. On the contrary, any one who is 
 handy with tools will find pipe-fitting a comparatively simple 
 task. The most laborious part of the work is digging the trenches, 
 for these should be excavated deep enough for the pipes to lie 
 below frost line — thirty inches or thereabouts. A pipe vise, pipe 
 cutter, set of dies for cutting threads, and a couple of Stillson 
 wrenches are the essential tools. 
 
 Pipe. — It is better to use galvanized pipe throughout the sys- 
 tem, although black iron pipe will answer the purpose. In laying 
 
 B\6- Studs j pocp.d B'Q- on centers 
 
 :jpT- 
 
 t — r 
 
 fC 
 
 j Wiyppng bazxli\\\ 
 
 Concrete floor \ 
 
 (Kansas Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 103. — Floor plan of a well-arranged poultry house. 
 
 out the piping underground, it is well to make provision for ex- 
 tending the system at some future time. That is — put in tee 
 connections here and there, at points where you may want to 
 run off pipe lines to new buildings. These tees can be shut off by 
 plugs made for the purpose, and they will also act as clean-outs 
 should any trouble occur. If these tee connections are not in- 
 stalled, and later one wishes to tap into the main feed pipe, it 
 will be very difficult to do so without taking up a great deal of the 
 system. The reason for this is obvious: The pipe and fittings 
 are all threaded right-handed, and unless unions are installed, 
 
148 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 it is then necessary to commence at the end of the system, work 
 backward, and take down the entire system. 
 
 Make a rough diagram of the proposed scheme first, measure 
 the distances accurately, and, bearing in mind that pipe is pur- 
 chased in sixteen- and twenty-foot lengths, ascertain the number 
 and kinds of fittings required. One-inch pipe is plenty large 
 
 Fig. 104. — Perches arranged in sections which hinge upward clear of the drop- 
 ping-boards for cleaning. 
 
 enough for the mains, reducing to f^-inch pipe for the branch 
 lines and connections. 
 
 In addition to the enormous saving in labor of watering the 
 flocks, a water system having connections in all the principal 
 houses is a very vital factor toward fire protection. A plant thus 
 equipped is usually able to obtain fire insurance at a lower rate, 
 hence this saving should be credited to the original outlay for the 
 water system. 
 
WATER WITHOUT PRESSURE 
 
 149 
 
 If there is no municipal water supply available, no reservoir 
 and no overhead tank on the premises, and an investment for 
 same is not warranted, the following scheme may be substituted, 
 and it is entirely practicable and satisfactory. The writer 
 worked out the idea and has used it for several years. 
 
 The most expensive part of a water system is the tower and 
 overhead tank, both of which may be eliminated. Install a sound 
 oak barrel of about 50-gallon capacity, preferably a charred 
 
 (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 105. — A raised shelf for the fountain insures clean drinking water. 
 
 whiskey container (the charred lining serves to clear the water, 
 absorb any impurities and keep it sweet), in each house and on 
 the range where desired, and connect these with underground 
 piping to an ordinary force-pump at the well. Erect a pump- 
 jack, back-geared about seven to one, over the pump, and oper- 
 ate this with a small gasoline engine — one horse power is ade- 
 quate. 
 
 The barrels are left with their heads in, and an inlet pipe fitted 
 with a valve or spigot is inserted in the top of each, also an over- 
 
150 COMMERCIAL POULTRY -RAISING 
 
 flow pipe leading to the outside of the building. Suppose, for 
 example, there are ten of these barrels on a plant; at feeding and 
 egg-collecting time in the evening the attendant first starts the 
 engine, having the spigots or valves to all barrels open. One 
 by one the barrels fill up and overflow, and as they do so the 
 attendant shuts them off as he pursues his other work, until they 
 are all filled, which will require about a half hour's pumping. 
 The cost of the gasoline and lubricating oil is negligible, amount- 
 ing to but a couple of cents ; whereas the saving in labor is enor- 
 mous. Moreover, among farm hands there seems to be a deep- 
 rooted antipathy against carrying water for livestock, and they 
 will either openly rebel against the task, or purposely neglect to 
 furnish the necessary quantity. At least, such has been the 
 writer's experience and observations. 
 
 Trough System. — In the above system the water is placed 
 before the fowls in 15-foot galvanized sheet iron troughs, made 
 from roof gutters, and supported by metal brackets designed for 
 the purpose. The troughs are located against the front walls of 
 the laying houses, about twelve inches above the floors, and 
 covered over by a hinged board to prevent the birds fouling the 
 water. Each trough is fitted with an overflow and a drain for 
 cleaning, both of which lead to the outside of the building. The 
 barrel is bored at the lowest convenient level, fitted with a wooden 
 tap, such as is used for wine, oils or molasses, which is allowed to 
 trickle in a very thin stream at all times, and which keeps the 
 water in circulation and therefore fresh. 
 
 The water will not freeze seriously in the barrels of a system 
 of this kind, because having their heads in, the air is virtually 
 excluded from the water; the taps are not apt to freeze because 
 they are wood, and the water in the trough, while ice may form 
 around the metal in the bottom, is always open to the fowls be- 
 cause they are constantly drinking from it. At night the water is 
 drained off entirely, and a plug is substituted for the wooden 
 spigot, consequently the latter cannot freeze. 
 
 A barrel of water in a house of 500 fowls is a day's supply, 
 except in very warm weather, when to keep the water cool and 
 
FEED HOPPERS 
 
 151 
 
 fresh it is advisable to fill the barrels twice a day — at noon and 
 in the evening — and to allow twice the ordinary flow from the 
 spigots. The troughs should be brushed out daily with a disin- 
 fectant, which is not a tedious task if a cheap scrubbing brush 
 and a small supply of disinfecting fluid is kept handy in each 
 building. 
 
 The manner of placing feed before the fowls constitutes an- 
 other phase of the daily work in which a great deal of time and 
 labor may be conserved by providing the right sort of appliances. 
 It is impossible, of course, to establish rules that will meet the 
 demands of all farms, for feeding principles vary. The most 
 generally accepted practice, however, is to give a light feeding 
 
 2^- 
 
 / / / / / / / / / / / / / / 
 
 / / / / / A/hpV / / /' A 
 
 CBXO-3KTOn 
 
 {California Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 1 06. — Plans for a dry mash hopper. 
 
 of scratch grains in the morning, all the grain the fowls will clean 
 up at night, and to keep a dry mash, beef scrap, charcoal, grit 
 and oyster shells before the birds constantly. Or, the beef scrap 
 and charcoal may be placed in the mash. 
 
 Automatic feeders may be installed to distribute the scratch 
 grains. These devices insure clean food, save labor and induce 
 exercise, and it is surprising how quickly a pen of fowls will learn 
 the trick of operating them. They are constructed mainly of 
 galvanized sheet iron, and those having the largest capacity are 
 usually the most desirable. Many of the largest commercial 
 farms are equipped with them, not alone in the laying houses for 
 mature stock, but in the rearing of young stock on the range and 
 for little chicks in the brooder. 
 
152 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Mash Hoppers. — Assuming that a dry mash is fed, and this is 
 conceded to be the most advanced method of feeding poultry, 
 there is no economy in placing it before the fowls in small quan- 
 tities, which necessitate filling the hoppers every day. Self- 
 feeding, reliable, sanitary, non-wasteful hoppers of sufficient size 
 to store large quantities, say, two or three hundred pounds, or 
 
 a week's supply, should be pro- 
 vided. 
 
 There are no limitations to 
 the style and construction of 
 dry mash hoppers, any more 
 than they should be as simple 
 as possible, both for the birds 
 to eat from, and for the atten- 
 dant to fill, and care should be 
 taken that the mash cannot be 
 wasted by the fowls dragging 
 it out on the floor with their 
 beaks. Neither should they be 
 allowed to scratch in it, nor 
 foul it in any way, as they are 
 prone to do if the hoppers are 
 not fitted with lids or covers. 
 Hoppers having slatted sides 
 with openings just large enough for the birds to enter their heads, 
 and fitted with a lip on the inside to prevent waste, are among the 
 best types. They may be built as long and as high as desired, 
 cheaply constructed, and made for both indoor and outdoor use. 
 Shell Boxes. — In addition to dry mash hoppers, each pen 
 should be equipped with a box for oyster shells and grit. These 
 need not be large affairs, but convenient and accessible, sanitary 
 and non-wasteful. The supply houses carry a wide assortment of 
 them, built mostly of galvanized iron. 
 
 Kansas Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 107. — Indoor mash hopper for use 
 against a wall. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 DEVICES FOR DOORS AND GATES 
 
 The experienced poultryman never fails to close his hen houses 
 at night. He will tell you this practice is a part of the daily 
 routine, quite as important as the feeding and watering. This 
 closing up does not necessarily mean shutting the windows, cur- 
 tains and doors with the view to keeping the house warm or pro- 
 tected against -storms. In fact, it has nothing to do with the 
 temperature of the interior, but with its security — against intru- 
 sion. 
 
 Protection against burglars! Yes, that is correct. But not so 
 much two-legged gentry, as four-footed raiders. The measure is 
 inspired by a simple natural law — that poultry is the prey of dogs, 
 cats, rats, weasels, foxes, minks and other varmints, and against 
 which fowls must be protected by artificial means. 
 
 For the sake of ventilation it is customary to build the greater 
 part of the fronts of poultry houses in the form of windows, cur- 
 tains and openings of one type or another. To close these would 
 make the interior stuffy and humid, unhealthful, and in warm 
 weather suffocatingly hot. The most approved type of poultry 
 house is that which is known as the open-front house. In good 
 practice these openings are carefully covered with small mesh 
 netting, preferably cellar window screening, though inch mesh 
 poultry netting will do nicely, which not only prevents the escape 
 of the. occupants of the house, but safeguards them against in- 
 truders. 
 
 Thus with netting over all openings the windows and curtains 
 may be left in any position night or day with perfect safety. But 
 — what about provision for the fowls to enter and leave the house? 
 
 Fowls are Abroad Early. — At the first streak of light from the 
 East, chickens stir themselves from their perches. At the earliest 
 
 153 
 
154 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 opportunity they start afield, and how they revel in these morn- 
 ing hours, especially during the spring and summer months, be- 
 fore sun-up, while the dew hangs heavily on the foliage, and every- 
 thing seems fresh and full of life! During warm weather particu- 
 larly, this wandering abroad in the early morning is the most bene- 
 ficial exercise a fowl can take. It not only provides exercise, but 
 if the flock is given sufficient range, the fowls will forage for a 
 considerable part of their keep, in the shape of greens and insect 
 
 Fig. 108. — "In for the night." 
 
 (Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 
 
 life. All things considered this early morning outing should be 
 encouraged wherever possible. 
 
 Do Not Confine Chicks. — It is also true of young chickens. 
 The growth of a brood is often stunted by keeping it confined to 
 the sleeping quarters until the sun is high. Every minute in 
 which a brood is kept off the grass, when conditions are such that 
 it should be abroad, is detrimental to the flock's development and 
 to the keeper's pocketbook. Like grown fowls, chicks are astir at 
 daybreak, and from the moment it is light enough for them to 
 even grope about, they struggle to gain their liberty. 
 
EARLY-RISING DOOR 155 
 
 Unfortunately, most of us humans have not the same point of 
 view as poultry. We do not struggle and trample one another to 
 get outdoors at four o'clock in the morning. Just about that 
 hour we would be willing to struggle against getting up, and the 
 chances are we would put up a pretty lively struggle against it. 
 
 Automatic Device. — Yet the fowls should be at liberty. If you 
 leave a door open all night, though it may be but a hen door, you 
 take the chance of having the house entered and robbed — not 
 robbed of a single fowl, perhaps, but of a dozen, or maybe the 
 entire flock, will be killed, just for the sake of killing. 
 
 The remedy is to install or equip the house with an automatic 
 device that will permit the fowls to liberate themselves at dawn, 
 in other words, to construct a self-opening door. I have called it 
 the early -rising door. 
 
 Chickens are creatures of habit. If they are accustomed to 
 drinking at a particular spot, there they will look for water, even 
 to the point of going through the motions of taking a drink. If 
 they are in the habit of leaving a house or coop at a certain door, 
 there they will congregate for admittance. It is due to this char- 
 acteristic that it is so easy for the poultryman to contrive some- 
 thing; for he has but to utilize the hen's weight to release a catch 
 — and presto! the door is open. 
 
 A swinging door or a sliding door can be operated, whichever 
 is the most convenient ; in most cases the latter is the easiest to 
 build. In either case the mechanism should be completely located 
 on the inside, so that the door cannot be accidentally released by 
 the raider. Above everything else, keep the device as simple as 
 possible, for the fewer the parts the less likely they are to get out 
 of order. The wear and tear is heavy, more especially in the ac- 
 cumulation of dirt, consequently it must be cleaned easily, and 
 without danger of throwing the appliance out of adjustment. 
 
 In the drawing shown in Fig. 109 there is shown a simple device 
 for releasing a catch, which is applied to both a swinging and a 
 vertically sliding door. It involves the simplest kind of a principle. 
 The platform, or trigger board "A," is hinged to the threshold or 
 wall of the house, and supported in a horizontal position by means 
 
156 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 of a light spring "B." The trigger "C," made from a piece of 
 metal, preferably brass, since that material will not rust, engages 
 a trip or cleat "D," when the platform is set. This cleat is also 
 made of metal and is screwed to the door proper. It is not neces- 
 sary for this part to be of brass, particularly if the trigger "C" 
 
 T-niT* -ron Sliding 
 
 ^r^rvri\ 
 
 TLflTroHM-fl 
 
 ^ T "i_o q-H 
 
 \ 
 
 i 
 
 tToiST 
 
 Tier 
 
 THIOUqH. 
 
 Hoo5E 
 
 T 
 
 /jfrniNqeMCM-r or TTfl-r--f=Ffoo-r 
 
 Fig. 109. — Details of a self-rising door. 
 
 is composition, since brass against steel makes a good bearing 
 surface. 
 
 If a swinging door is used, it should be hinged on the outside 
 of the building, using spring hinges similar to those commonly 
 found on screen doors; but, of course, the hinges must be reversed 
 so that the action of the door is to open outward instead of in- 
 
HEN'S WEIGHT RELEASES TRIP 157 
 
 ward. Or, plain hinges may be employed, and a weight or simple 
 spring can be fastened to the door in such a way that it will be 
 forced open as soon as the trigger disengages the cleat "D." If 
 a sliding door is used, the force to raise it upward may consist 
 of a spring or weight, as shown in diagram. The spring is the 
 cheapest device, but the weight is probably the most generally 
 satisfactory. Two awning pulleys fitted with screw-eyes, screwed 
 into the wall of the house, a short length of cotton rope — clothes- 
 
 It' 'II It 
 
 (Courtesy C. L. Opperman) 
 Fig. no. — Laying house on a Maryland poultry farm. 
 
 line will do, and a cast iron window-cord weight are the articles 
 required. 
 
 When the house is closed for the night the early-rising door is 
 set, as previously described, which only takes a couple of seconds. 
 In the small hours of the morning, when the hens leave the perches 
 and start to roam in quest of freedom outdoors, they are sure to 
 go to their customary place of exit, and to walk onto the trigger 
 platform "A." If necessary, at the beginning they can be trained 
 to walk on the platform by placing a little grain on it, though I 
 have never found this compulsory. Instantly the weight of the 
 hen is transmitted to the platform, it sags an inch or two at the 
 
158 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 inward end, which releases the cleat " D," and the door flies open. 
 This may surprise the fowls at first, but they soon become ac- 
 customed to it. In fact, they will actually learn to operate it, 
 just as they learn to operate an automatic feeder. 
 
 Thus, Mr. Poultryman, you can finish your nap in peace; let 
 Biddy do this early-rising work. 
 
 It would be impracticable to make the adjustment of the 
 
 {Courtesy C. L. Opperman) 
 
 Fig. in. — Serviceable, inexpensive colony house, constructed of rough lumber 
 covered with patent roofing paper. 
 
 door so fine that the weight of a month-old chick could depress 
 the platform; but this is not necessary. Chicks move about in 
 crowds, especially when they are trying to get out of a building. 
 Very good, the crowd passes across the trigger platform — and the 
 trap is sprung! Liberty! 
 . In connection with the early-rising door it may be desirable to 
 make the exit as near proof against raiders as possible, even in 
 the daytime. Rats do most of their marauding at night, under 
 
MAKING OPEN DOOR RAT-PROOF 159 
 
 cover of darkness, but they are not afraid of a daylight attack if 
 conditions seem at all favorable. If rats abound in large numbers 
 and food is scarce, they will become exceedingly bold. I have 
 seen them search for food in broad daylight under the very eyes 
 of an attendant, and fairly defy him to make any defence against 
 their mischief. 
 
 Rats appear to be good jumpers, but that is because they half 
 climb and half jump to gain a certain position. They cannot 
 jump straight into the air for any distance — two feet is easily their 
 limit. They are good climbers, of course, yet they cannot pass 
 a vertical surface of metal, because their claws will not grip the 
 slippery metal. Thus, if a house is elevated a couple of feet from 
 the ground, which is desirable anyhow if the house be frame, to 
 prevent decay due to moisture, and its foundations are covered 
 with a strip of tin, as shown in Fig. 109, the rats will not be able 
 to climb into the building. And if the exits are kept clear of any 
 inclined runways, save for a projected shelf, as indicated, which 
 is kept a couple of feet from the ground, the rats will not be able 
 to jump into the building. 
 
 Excepting the very heaviest breeds, it is no trouble for fowls to 
 jump two feet, and thus gain entrance to the house. Mediter- 
 raneans find it easy to jump three and four feet. Similarly, 
 Mediterranean chicks, whose wing feathers develop at an early 
 age, have no difficulty in flying two or three feet. 
 
 Avoid Tedious Methods. — Ultimately the poultryman is bound 
 to discover that the arrangement, accessibility and operation of 
 doors and gates have a great deal to do with the labor expended on 
 a flock. They have an important bearing on the ease and com- 
 fort with which the numerous chores are performed, and this 
 factor has a greater influence on the efficiency of a plant than 
 many are inclined to suppose. It is especially vital where hired 
 labor is concerned. Whatever the ethics or circumstances may 
 be, it is a fact that an intelligent worker resents having to per- 
 form a task by some tedious method, and in the course of time 
 this worker is likely to slight the task by reason thereof. Finally, 
 it may necessitate discharging the worker for negligence. 
 
160 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Most doors and gates are used constantly, and they are gen- 
 erally used under more or less trying circumstances — either the 
 fowls are being fed and watered, in which case the feeder has his 
 hands very much occupied with buckets, or the eggs are being 
 collected, or the buildings are being cleaned, both of which engage 
 one's hands with, equipment. Obviously, all doors and gates 
 should operate freely, which means that they should be properly 
 fitted, hung on strong hinges, and wherever possible they should 
 be equipped with a self-closing device. 
 
 Door Check. — There are numerous patented articles for closing 
 doors, some of which close the door securely without slamming, 
 but most of these are too expensive for general use on a chicken 
 plant. Screen door springs are useful contrivances for doors or 
 gates that open one way. Substitutes for them may be made out 
 of a light piece of rope rove through a pulley and secured to a 
 counterpoise weight of sufficient bulk to move the door. We have 
 all seen this principle. It has been used for centuries — long before 
 a steel spring was deemed possible. 
 
 For doors and gates between pens and yards it has been found 
 convenient to have them open both ways. In fact, they involve 
 considerable inconvenience if they do not open both ways. This 
 feature requires double-acting hinges. If the door is to be self- 
 closing, which is virtually an indispensable feature, special spring 
 double-acting hinges are necessary, unless the door is equipped 
 with a double-acting self-closing device apart from the hinges. 
 Reliable double-acting spring hinges are rather expensive, and 
 most of them are of such material that if exposed to the weather 
 for any length of time they soon deteriorate and become worth- 
 less. 
 
 Diagram in Fig. 112 shows two ideas for a home made double- 
 acting self-closing device, based on the simple principle of the 
 rope, pulley and weight employed for the one-way door. In 
 detail 1 a wooden cross-piece "A" is nailed at right-angles to the 
 top of the door, near the end that is hinged. A hole is bored in 
 each end of this cross-piece, from which a light rope is run to a 
 point, "B," thus forming a bridle. The single rope, "C," runs 
 
SELF-CLOSING DOOR 
 
 161 
 
 from the point, "B," to a pulley, "D," thence to a counterpoise 
 weight. 
 
 Whichever way the door is opened the cross-piece pulls on the 
 bridle, one end of which draws tight as the other end loosens, 
 which in turn lifts the weight. As soon as the door is released a 
 corresponding strain is placed on the bridle by the weight, which 
 closes the door. 
 
 "Fuui-er-P 
 
 1 
 
 
 == 1N 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 11 if 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 X — \\\ 2 
 
 \\ ll 
 
 I 
 
 NNU E 
 
 
 Tk, 3 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 112. — Details of a self-closing door. 
 
 It is more complicated to describe this device than to build it. 
 The essential idea is to have the weight evenly distributed on 
 both sides of the cross-piece, which really amounts to having the 
 cross-piece and bridle of the same length on both sides of the door. 
 Thus, when the weight is distributed, and the door remains at 
 what we might call a dead center, it will be in a closed position. 
 
 The size of the counterpoise will necessarily depend upon the 
 
162 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 weight of the door or gate. The counterpoise should be amply 
 heavy, so that the action of closing will be quick. Sash weights 
 answer the purpose nicely, or narrow canvas bags filled with sand 
 will do for indoor use. Naturally, the doors or gates between par- 
 titions should be made as light as possible, which makes for ease 
 of operation. White pine frames covered with wire netting are 
 best. 
 
 Detail 2, Fig. 112, illustrates a more direct principle of the rope 
 and weight idea, though it is not always practicable to install it, 
 because of the rope interfering with head room in the doorway. 
 In this arrangement the pulley, "D," is fastened to the center of 
 the jamb, or to a point on the partition which corresponds to the 
 door-jamb. The rope, "C," is rove through the pulley, and one 
 
 (California Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 113. — Hook for catching fowls. 
 
 end is secured to the top of the door or gate, in such a way that 
 it receives the least chafe. The other end is made fast to the 
 counterpoise. 
 
 Either way the gate or door is opened it pulls the rope and 
 raises the weight, which reacts as soon as the pressure is removed, 
 the tendency being to draw the point, "B," toward the pulley. 
 There is no leverage obtained by this arrangement, like that 
 shown in detail 1, consequently the door offers more resistance 
 when being opened, which might be considered an objection under 
 certain circumstances. 
 
 Hinges Out of Perpendicular. — Doors can be made self-closing 
 by placing the hinges slightly out of the perpendicular, as shown 
 in detail 3, Fig. 112, which alters the center of gravity of the door 
 
SECURING THE OPEN DOOR 
 
 163 
 
 DooK 
 
 the more it is opened. It is understood, of course, that the hinges 
 themselves are in perfect line, otherwise they would not operate; 
 it is the line of the door-jamb that is thrown out of plumb. 
 
 Regular double-acting hinges are not necessary for partition 
 doors and gates. They are apt to be too expensive. A simple 
 gate hinge, or something 
 fashioned after it, such as 
 indicated in detail 4, Fig. 
 112, will work just as well. 
 
 Keeping a Door Open. — 
 Sometimes it is just as im- 
 portant to keep a door open 
 as it is to keep it closed. For 
 example, in warm weather 
 the doors to poultry build- 
 ings should be kept open as 
 much as possible. The in- 
 teriors need all the fresh air 
 available, which is espe- 
 cially desirable in colony 
 houses for growing stock. 
 Then, too, very often the 
 entrance door is the only 
 means of egress for the 
 fowls, there being no 
 special hen door; in which 
 case it is important that 
 the main door be held 
 open at all times the flock 
 is at liberty. 
 
 Sudden storms are likely to occur, accompanied by high winds, 
 which will slam and play havoc with doors if they are not firmly 
 secured. If the doors blow shut, the fowls will be unable to seek 
 the shelter of the houses, and such exposure to very young stock 
 is almost certain to result in fatalities. On the other hand, if the 
 door sways violently with the wind, though it does not actually 
 
 Fig. 114. 
 
 -Convenient device for securing 
 the open door. 
 
164 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 break from its hinges, it will frighten the birds away from the 
 entrance. 
 
 Fig. 115. — Details of stake for securing the open door, as shown in Fig. 114. 
 
 Sticks or pieces of lumber, logs, bricks, stones and trash are 
 frequently propped against doors to keep them open. These 
 makeshifts are not only unsightly, but they are insecure and 
 
DEVICE THAT WORKS WITH THE FOOT 165 
 
 troublesome. Instead of representing an economy, they are ac- 
 tually wasteful, both in the probable damage to the door and live- 
 stock, and in the loss of one's time in adjusting them. I have 
 seen doors fastened by an involved system of cord, wire, hooks, 
 leather and other bits of junk that were more intricate to open 
 than a bank vault door, which means lost time — waste. 
 
 If a door or gate hinges so that it opens against the building, 
 and there is nothing to prevent it from swinging flat against the 
 wall, it may be secured by a common gate hook. It is not always 
 convenient nor practicable to do this, however, on account of 
 windows, curtain frames and other projections. A similar strong 
 fastening may be made by driving a stake into the ground and 
 attaching the door to it by a gate hook. But this operation 
 requires stooping over, and perhaps the use of two hands, there- 
 fore an improvement is suggested in Figs. 114-115. This fasten- 
 ing is operated by a simple movement of the foot, and if the device 
 is securely made there is no chance of the door working loose. 
 
 The stake is cut from any timber that may be available, though 
 two-by-four material is about the right size, pointed at one end 
 to facilitate driving it into the soil. See Fig. 115. The rest of the 
 device consists of a button that is movable, and an off-set block, 
 which is nailed to the stake. The off-set block is cut from ma- 
 terial slightly thicker than the door, to allow a certain amount of 
 play. A carriage bolt and washer complete the affair. 
 
 The hole in the button should be bored slightly larger than the 
 bolt on which it turns; the button, being longer at one end, there- 
 fore heavier, will always assume an upright position, which en- 
 gages the bottom of the door, as shown. By turning the button 
 with the toe of one's shoe to a horizontal position the door may be 
 released or secured. The stake may be removed complete and 
 driven elsewhere when desired. 
 
CHAPTER XI LI 
 TRAP NESTS 
 
 While the value of trap nests for breeding purposes is still a 
 subject for argument, there is no controverting the fact that they 
 constitute the only positive means of determining the exact laying 
 ability of a hen. Moreover, their use makes it possible to ascer- 
 tain which hens lay the best shaped eggs, which the largest sized, 
 which the strongest in point of fertility, which are the best winter 
 layers, which pullets begin early and lay the greatest number of 
 eggs in succession, the number of times they become broody, 
 and many other facts of vital interest to the poultryman. But 
 whether or not this information is considered of sufficient value 
 to warrant the additional time, trouble and expense of operating 
 a trap nest system is the debatable question that must be deter- 
 mined by every poultryman for himself. 
 
 Some authorities swear by them as the only means of building 
 up a heavy -laying strain; others condemn their use as too ex- 
 pensive a method of selection for the average breeder. The New 
 York State Experiment Station estimated the cost of maintaining 
 a trap nest system to be fifty cents per hen per year, while the 
 Maine Agricultural Experiment Station states their system can 
 be operated on the basis of one active person to 500 nests for 2500 
 hens — which, at a wage of $40 per month, amounts to about 
 twenty cents per hen per year. Thus, there is a wide difference 
 of opinion on the subject. There seems to be truth in the argu- 
 ments for and against the trap nest as a commercial proposition ; 
 but for purposes of investigation, and where a breeder of show 
 stock wishes to record pedigrees accurately, they are unques- 
 tionably indispensable. 
 
 My intention in this chapter is not to discuss the pros and cons 
 
 166 
 
ELEMENTS OF A GOOD TRAP NEST 
 
 167 
 
 for the employment of the device, so much as to describe the con- 
 struction and operation of a few simple types of trap nests, 
 home-made appliances which I have found to be mechanically 
 satisfactory. There are reliable makes of trap nests on the 
 market, at such nominal prices that in many cases it does not 
 pay the poultryman to make them himself. 
 
 Primarily, a good trap nest must be certain in action. It 
 must not only imprison the hen that enters, but it must refuse 
 admittance to all others until a record of the first performer has 
 been secured. It should also offer an inviting", quiet, comfort- 
 able retreat for the hen, care being taken that the locking device 
 is not so violent in its action as to engender fright, and that when 
 closed, the interior, especially 
 
 (Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 1 16.— Home-made trap nest, simi- 
 lar to the Storrs' nest. 
 
 in summer time, is not suffo- 
 catingly warm. Furthermore, 
 the nest should be accessible, 
 convenient for the attendant 
 to open and remove the hen, 
 and with no intricate parts to 
 dislodge and get out of order, 
 or require unnecessary time in 
 resetting the trigger or door. 
 
 The nest should be of ample 
 size, usually larger than the or- 
 dinary nest, so that when the hen has laid her egg and commences 
 moving about in an effort to rejoin the flock, she is not obliged 
 to trample or stand on the egg and thus run the risk of breaking it. 
 The nest should offer easy means of cleaning its interior and re- 
 plenishing it with nesting material. 
 
 Storrs' Nest. — The trap nest employed at the Storrs egg-laying 
 contest, plans of which are shown in Fig. 117, was developed at 
 the Connecticut Agricultural College, and has given entire satis- 
 faction for several years. 
 
 It consists mainly of two movable parts, the trigger and the 
 door, both of which are comparatively easy to make and may be 
 fitted to any box of suitable size. The door is S}4 inches high, 
 
168 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 1 1 }/ 2 inches wide at the top and 1 1 inches wide at the bottom, and 
 being narrower at the bottom, as it swings shut it has no tendency 
 
 Battery of three nests. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £Lcs 
 
 i" 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 ■jUt* 
 
 
 N 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EHD GT3 E 
 
 < t 
 
 
 
 
 
 Section through nest 
 
 Dimensions of door. 
 
 Detail of trigger. 
 Fig. 117. — General arrangement of the Storrs' trap nest. 
 
 to rub or bind against the sides of the nest box. It is bound with 
 a thin piece of metal, galvanized sheet iron strips cut from stove 
 
DESCRIPTION OF STORRS' NEST 
 
 169 
 
 pipes or other similar material will answer the purpose nicely, 
 which project above the top for about an inch, or far enough to 
 permit of punching a small hole in each end of the strip, through 
 which a piece of fairly rigid wire is slipped, forming a hinge upon 
 which the door swings. 
 
 The trigger is a trifle more difficult to make than the door, for 
 it is small and must be accurately cut as shown in the diagram, 
 
 t 
 
 {Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 118. — Corner of a well-designed laying house. Trap nests are arranged 
 under dropping-boards. Note broody hen coop at extreme end. 
 
 or it will not balance properly. This is an easy matter with a 
 jig saw or band saw. It should be made from %" or i" close- 
 grained stock, the harder the wood the better. The hole bored 
 for the screw that is to fasten the trigger to the side of the box 
 should be slightly larger than the screw itself, to secure free action. 
 To set the nest, the front end of the trigger is slightly depressed 
 and the door pushed inward until it engages the notch in the 
 
170 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 trigger. When the hen enters, she pushes against the door with 
 her back; this disengages the trigger, allowing the door to close 
 after her, and by the same operation locks the door from within, 
 — for the trigger has simultaneously assumed a horizontal posi- 
 
 Treadle set with door open to admit hen. 
 
 Treadle sprung — door closed. 
 Fig. 119. — Details of the Maine trap nest. 
 
 tion. Small wooden buttons or bent screw-eyes are screwed to 
 the partitions, turned in such a manner as to prevent the doors 
 swinging outward when the nest is sprung. To open the nest, 
 the attendant has but to turn the little button, open the door 
 outward, and remove the hen. 
 
MAINE TRAP NEST 171 
 
 Batteries of Nests. — The floor and sides of the nest should be 
 solid, the top is slatted for ventilation, and if the back of the nest 
 is to be placed against a wall of the poultry building it may be 
 left entirely open, which will facilitate cleaning when the boxes 
 are removed. It is a good plan to construct the nests in portable 
 sections or batteries of about four each, and if built of light ma- 
 terial,— half-inch white pine or poplar will do nicely, — they may 
 be conveniently handled for cleaning by one man. A four-inch 
 board is fastened to the lower portion of the front to stiffen the 
 partitions and retain the nesting material, and if it is found that 
 small hens can walk over this board without disturbing the door, 
 the distance between the nesting material and the lower edge of 
 the door should be reduced accordingly, either by increasing the 
 quantity of nesting material, increasing the depth of the front 
 board or extending the length of the door. A platform or shelf 
 of some kind should be built in front of the nests for the hens to 
 walk upon in entering and leaving the traps. 
 
 Maine Nest. — The Maine Agricultural Experiment Station 
 has developed a two-compartment nest which seems to possess 
 several important advantages over the single type previously 
 described; yet because of them it is considerably more trouble- 
 some and expensive to build. Diagrams of this nest are shown in 
 Fig. 119, and represent longitudinal views with one side removed 
 to illustrate the construction and method of operation. 
 
 The nest is a box-like structure, without front or cover, 28 
 inches long, 13 inches wide and 16 inches deep, inside measure- 
 ments, — divided in the middle with a partition extending 6 inches 
 from the bottom. The rear compartment is the nest proper, 
 and contains the nesting material, while the front section is de- 
 voted to a treadle for closing the front entrance, and need not 
 have any other bottom. This treadle is hinged to the door, and 
 by a nice balance it can be so delicately adjusted that a weight 
 of less than half a pound on the treadle will spring the trap. 
 
 When the nest is set, ready for occupancy, the door extends 
 outward in a horizontal position as shown in upper diagram. A 
 hen about to lay steps on the door and walks in toward the rear 
 
172 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 of the nest; as she passes the point where the door is hinged to 
 the treadle, her weight causes it to fall, which pulls up the door 
 behind her, as shown in lower view. It is then impossible for the 
 hen to leave the nest or for other hens to enter, until the atten- 
 
 2S^3 
 
 
 J>n-fML a^tyice Moo*; fcK7/?£ 
 
 (California Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 120. — Plans for a single-compartment trap nest. 
 
 dant resets the trap by depressing the door to its original hori- 
 zontal position. The operation is extremely simple, consists of 
 but one movement, with no triggers or other locking devices to 
 adjust. 
 
 When a hen has laid an egg and desires to leave the nest, she 
 
TWO-COMPARTMENT NEST 
 
 173 
 
 steps into the front section, toward the light, entering the screen 
 door, and remains there until released. There is little danger 
 of her trampling on the egg she has just laid, or soiling or dis- 
 
 sXs 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 . % ClEAttArtCE 
 
 - 3i7<ALF aouriD 
 7* noOLDinG ~ 
 
 -V 
 
 Front view. 
 
 ' f*.£3T O MADt 
 
 DOULDinG TO Oir*D 
 
 °L' 
 
 Cross-section. 
 
 (California Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 121. — Plans for a two-compartment trap nest. 
 
 turbing the nesting material. Dry manure collecting on the 
 treadle is easily scraped off with a putty knife or similar imple- 
 ment, and allowed to fall through the open bottom. 
 
 At the Maine Station these nests are arranged in tiers and 
 
174 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 operated like drawers. To remove a hen, the nest is pulled part 
 way out, and as it has no cover, the bird is easily caught. Usually, 
 after having been taken off the nests a few times, hens become 
 accustomed to this handling and remain perfectly quiet, appar- 
 ently expecting to be picked up. 
 
 For the sake of greater durability, it is advisable to build all 
 parts connected with the treadle and door of fairly good material, 
 especially the bevelled cleat on which the door bears and the 
 side frames of the door, which should be of beech or other hard 
 wood that will become polished with wear. One-quarter inch 
 mesh galvanized wire netting, commonly used on cellar window 
 screens, is securely stapled to the inside of the door frame, thus 
 admitting light and air to the nest. The hinges used in fastening 
 the door to the treadle, and the treadle to the middle partition, 
 should have brass pins, otherwise they are likely to rust and work 
 stiffly. It may also be necessary to file the pins slightly, to in- 
 sure the hinges working with perfect freedom. 
 
 Diagrams shown in Figs. 120 and 121 illustrate other types 
 of nests. An examination of them will suffice to explain their 
 principles of operation. They were developed at the California 
 Experiment Station. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 FEEDING 
 
 The feeding operations on a poultry farm, large or small, con- 
 stitute the largest part of routine work. It is work that is done 
 every day, and several times a day. No other work must be 
 done so punctually and with such care as feeding. Feeding — 
 promptly, properly and economically, makes for success or fail- 
 ure. It is one of the fundamentals of the enterprise. 
 
 Need for System. — Before discussing the virtues of different 
 feeds and how to compound them in rations suitable for given 
 purposes, we will review some of the methods of handling feed 
 and placing it before the flocks. The facilities for storage and 
 distribution are highly important, and result either in needless 
 waste of time and labor, or in a corresponding saving of these 
 factors. It is to be deplored that so many farms fail to give this 
 subject the attention which it deserves, and no doubt a great 
 many failures might be attributed to this oversight. 
 
 Simplicity of Operation. — The best feeding system is one that 
 reduces and simplifies the number of handlings and operations, 
 and at the same time renders the greatest ease and convenience 
 to the feeder. The first consideration is the location of the feed 
 storage. Obviously, this location should be a central one. The 
 feed house should be as nearly equidistant to the laying houses, 
 brooder houses and colony houses as it is possible to make it; 
 not at one end of the group of buildings, which necessitates long 
 walks in getting the feed to the farthest houses. 
 
 If a special feed house is to be built it is a simple matter to 
 locate this structure where it will have the fullest accessibility. 
 On large plants it may be found advisable to have two or more 
 feed houses, for in no other way is it possible to have the feed 
 
 175 
 

 176 
 
SPECIAL FEED HOUSE 177 
 
 close to the flocks. Some poultrymen build a feed room in con- 
 nection with each long laying house, usually in the center of the 
 building, and sometimes with overhead tracks to convey the 
 feed to the birds. See Fig. 122. An important saving in labor 
 is accomplished by such equipment, and where large quantities 
 of heavy feed are used, as on duck plants of any size, these meas- 
 ures are essential. 
 
 The overhead track system, from which cars are swung and 
 made to run by pushing them, similar to litter carriers in dairy 
 barns, is thoroughly practical in every way. Another method is 
 to employ tramcars operated on rails, which may be of wood or 
 steel. For indoor use the overhead rail is cheapest, because the 
 building can be made to support the track. See Fig. 123. Out- 
 doors the tramway is generally the most economical. 
 
 It is doubtful if the average size poultry plant would be justi- 
 fied in expending the capital required to install any sort of a 
 carrier. Certainly plants under 3000 birds would not be war- 
 ranted in so doing. 
 
 Converting Old Buildings. — Then, again, many poultry farms 
 are started on premises which have certain buildings erected, as, 
 for example, a barn or wagon house, which with a few improve- 
 ments may be converted into satisfactory feed houses. In this 
 event the poultry houses should be built on sites adjacent to the 
 barn, and on all sides of it, though not too close, which will inter- 
 fere with a satisfactory arrangement of yards. Another objection 
 to having the buildings too close arises from the fire hazard. It 
 is a good plan to have the buildings at least a hundred feet apart, 
 preferably two hundred feet. In this way, should a fire occur 
 in some part of the plant, it can be fought and confined to the one 
 building. 
 
 Avoid Crowding the Buildings. — You will find some farms with 
 the buildings all bunched up together; incubator cellar with 
 brooder house and feed room overhead, and leading off from the 
 feed room are the laying houses, breeding pens and yards for 
 young stock. Such an arrangement is convenient by reason of 
 its compactness, but when carried to extremes it is likely to result 
 
178 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 in grave risks, not alone from fire, but from the evils of too in- 
 tensive methods — insanitation and disease. 
 
 The size, character and appointments of the feed house will be 
 determined largely by the capacity of the plant and its stock. 
 For instance, duck farms need different equipment from chicken 
 farms, and the requirements of the egg farm are different from 
 the broiler plant. Following are some of the points to be con- 
 
 (Courtesy C. L. Opperman) 
 
 Fig. 123. — Feed carrier suspended from overhead track which runs continu- 
 ously through all the houses. 
 
 sidered: Have the building large enough for the storage of at 
 least a month's supply of feed, preferably larger, because during 
 certain seasons of the year it is possible to buy grain at reduced 
 prices, and important savings can be made thereby. Make the 
 building as near rat and mouse proof as possible. When these 
 pests gain access to a feed house there is no end to their thievery. 
 They will consume or spcil hundreds of dollars' worth of feed in a 
 
FEED STORAGE 179 
 
 season, and in many cases this loss may go on for months before 
 it is noticed. 
 
 Construction. — Masonry or metal is the best construction to 
 obstruct vermin. Hollow tile or concrete makes splendid walls 
 and floors for granaries. If this is too expensive, and frame con- 
 struction is used, then some provision must be made to keep the 
 rodents from gnawing through the partitions and floors. If the 
 building is raised from the ground and supported on piers, it 
 is feasible to baffle the rats and mice by means of tin so arranged 
 that they cannot climb up the piers because of the slippery sur- 
 face of the tin. Where this is impracticable small mesh wire 
 netting should be laid over the floor joists and wall studs, through 
 which the rodents cannot pass. 
 
 Storage bins are not necessary unless feed is purchased in 
 bulk, or unless the original sacks must be returned as soon as the 
 feed is received. The use of bins for storing unmixed feed in- 
 volves two unnecessary handlings — the emptying of the feed into 
 the bin, and its removal when required for mixing. Then, too, 
 feed keeps better in sacks, and it may be piled up almost as com- 
 pactly as in bins. When 'feed is stored in bulk provision must be 
 made to ventilate it, otherwise it will heat and spoil. If stored 
 in sacks, and piled up so that air can circulate freely around the 
 bags, there is little or no danger from heating. 
 
 In the majority of times a charge of about ten cents is made for 
 the bags, which charge is redeemable when the bags are returned 
 in good condition. This is another reason why the feed room 
 should be free from vermin : rats and mice gnaw through the 
 sacks and play havoc wiih them. 
 
 Since most poultry feeds consist of a mixture of grains or meals, 
 it is advisable to have a few bins (barrels will answer the purpose 
 on small farms) wherein these mixtures are stored for every-day 
 use. It is more convenient to remove a bucketful of feed from 
 a barrel or bin than from a sack. And the most convenient bin 
 is one from which the feed may be scooped out with a bucket, 
 preferably the actual feeding bucket. To fill the feed buckets 
 with a shovel or other implement involves needless operations. 
 
180 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Place for Mixing. — If the poultry feeds are mixed on the farm, 
 it will be necessary to provide a suitable place for this work. It 
 is no small task to mix the dry mash mixture for several thousand 
 birds, or even one thousand hens. The mixing will probably be 
 done in lots of from five hundred to a thousand pounds, maybe in 
 ton batches. 
 
 How to Mix. — The best place for this work is the feed room 
 
 floor, consequently it 
 should be tight, con- 
 structed of tongue 
 and grooved boards, 
 and smooth, so as to 
 offer no obstructions 
 to the use of shovels 
 or scoops. Suppos- 
 ing that the feed is 
 piled up around the 
 walls of the room, 
 the most convenient 
 way to proceed with 
 the mixing is to 
 empty the required 
 number of bags in a 
 pile. Begin with the 
 ingredient having 
 the greatest bulk, 
 such as bran or alfal- 
 fa; dump it, spread 
 it out a bit, and then 
 add the other ingre- 
 dients, reserving the most concentrated feed, such as beef scrap, 
 until last. When the ingredients are all heaped in a pile, turn 
 the mass over with a broadcasting motion of the shovel or scoop, 
 repeating the operation two or three times, or until the mash is 
 uniformly mixed. 
 
 If two men do the mixing, one man should rake the mass back 
 
 {Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 
 
 Fig. 124. — Combination automatic feeder, grit and 
 shell box. 
 
FEED-HOUSE IMPLEMENTS 181 
 
 and forward, while the other fellow turns it over. A large, half- 
 bushel grain scoop is the most efficient implement for the shovel- 
 ing, because it handles such a large quantity in a single operation. 
 
 Storage in Hoppers. — As soon as the mash is mixed, it should 
 be stored in a bin ready for use, though a good plan is to have self- 
 feeding mash hoppers in all of the poultry houses of such capacity 
 that they will accommodate the bulk of the mash mixed at each 
 operation. Unnecessary handling is eliminated in this way, for 
 the mash is carried right from the mixing floor to the hoppers, 
 and only a small surplus is stored in the feed-house bins. Savings 
 of this sort are considerable in the course of a year's work. 
 
 Unless automatic feeders are installed throughout the plant, 
 it is not practicable to handle the scratch grain mixtures the same 
 as the mash. See Fig. 124. Scratch grains are usually dis- 
 tributed by hand twice a day, morning and evening. Sometimes 
 the grains are fed separately. If mixed, which seems to be the 
 most accepted practice, these scratch grains usually consist of 
 but a few grains, such as corn, wheat and oats (except the chick 
 feeds), which are much easier to mix than the mash, which con- 
 sists of meals. Dumping the grains into a barrel or bin and stir- 
 ring them with a potato fork will perform all the mixing neces- 
 sary. 
 
 Need for Power. — On plants of considerable size it is poor 
 economy to mix and prepare the feed by hand. Power should be 
 installed. If electric power is available, this will probably prove 
 the cheapest, otherwise a gasoline engine is necessary. Get a 
 motor or engine plenty large enough to handle all of the machines 
 without danger of over-loading it, and so arrange it that it can 
 be hooked up to each machine with the least amount of time and 
 worry. An overhead systerh of belts and pulleys is the safest 
 and most convenient arrangement. Provide a tight and loose 
 pulley for each machine, so that the drive can be thrown on and 
 off at will. An engine or motor of three or four horsepower will 
 take care of the average poultry plant equipment. 
 
 The machines necessary to lighten the burden of hand labor 
 are as follows: Bone Cutter, for grinding fresh bones, com- 
 
182 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 monly called green bones, which is fed in place of the cured meat 
 scrap and similar prepared animal feeds. 
 
 Hay Cutter, for cutting clover, rye, alfalfa and other succu- 
 lent feeds, also to be used for cutting dry hay and straw for litter 
 in the brooder houses. 
 
 (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 125. — Outdoor feed hopper built on skids or runners. Cover is raised, 
 showing partitions for different kinds of feed. Note the small lids hooked 
 against body of hopper, which can be lowered to keep rats or mice from stealing 
 the feed. 
 
 Vegetable Cutter: This is really a shredder, and is used to cut 
 and tear mangels, turnips and other vegetables into short lengths. 
 Fowls eat vegetables with greater relish if they are cut into bits, 
 and there is less waste than feeding them whole. 
 
 Mash Mixer: This is indispensable if wet mashes are fed in any 
 quantity. Mixers are made in a number of sizes, heavily built 
 
ELEMENTS OF POULTRY FEEDING 183 
 
 and geared, and so devised that they can be made to dump their 
 contents. They consist mainly of a cylinder-shaped body, in 
 the center of which a shaft is operated. This shaft is fitted with 
 propeller-like blades or flukes that revolve and agitate the mash. 
 
 A Cooker or Steaming Kettle is another valuable adjunct 
 to the feed-room equipment, especially where it is desirable to 
 feed hot mashes during the winter. The caldron may be used 
 to heat water for scalding feeding utensils, and for scalding ducks 
 for picking. It will be found useful in many ways where heat is 
 required. 
 
 Poultry supply houses keep a full line of these accessories, or 
 they may be purchased direct from the manufacturers. It will 
 undoubtedly prove worth while for the poultry keeper to in- 
 vestigate them. 
 
 Feeding poultry has more angles and arguments to it than is 
 generally supposed. The broad understanding of the office of 
 food is that it supports life. In the case of animals this objective 
 becomes more definite. We feed them that we may convert 
 certain vegetable, animal and mineral substances, which are not 
 palatable to the human taste in their raw state, into finished food 
 products which are edible by man. 
 
 In this respect stock feeding may be compared to a manu- 
 facturing process. And this process may be divided into three 
 principal stages: First, growth of the fowl; second, reproduction 
 of the species; and third, the storing of surplus energy in the form 
 of flesh. 
 
 These factors are inseparable. We must supply materials 
 with which to build bone, muscle, tissues and feathers in growing 
 stock. See Table VII. We must furnish the fuel for muscular 
 energy, digestion, repairs to tissues and the renewal of organic 
 secretions. In the young fowl these elements promote growth. 
 When this growth is complete, or nearly so, reproduction com- 
 mences. If there is a surplus of material in excess of the require- 
 ments of reproduction and maintenance, which there should be in 
 the healthy, normal fowl, this surplus is stored up in the body as a 
 
184 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 reserve in the event of a failure of the regular supply. Usually 
 this surplus consists of fat. 
 
 Table VII 
 
 Digestible Nutrients Required per Day for Each ioo Pounds of Fowls 
 
 for Bodily Maintenance 
 
 Nutritive 
 Ratio 
 
 Capons (9 to 12 pounds) 
 Hens (5 to 7 pounds) . . . 
 Hens (3 to 5 pounds) . . . 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dry 
 
 
 Pro- 
 
 Carbo- 
 
 
 Mat- 
 
 Ash 
 
 tein 
 
 hy- 
 
 Fat 
 
 ter 
 
 
 
 drates 
 
 
 2.30 
 
 O.06 
 
 O.30 
 
 I.74 
 
 O.20 
 
 2.70 
 
 O.IO 
 
 0.40 
 
 2.00 
 
 0.2c 
 
 3-9C 
 
 0.15 
 
 O.50 
 
 2-95 
 
 O.30 
 
 I to 7.5 
 1 to 6.2 
 1 to 7.4 
 
 Digestible Nutrients Required per Day for Each 100 Pounds of Fowls 
 
 in Full Laying 
 
 Hens (5 to 8 pounds) I 3.30 I 0.20 I 0.65 I 2.25 I 0.20 I 1 to 4.2 
 
 Hens (3 to 5 pounds) | 5.50 | 0.30 "| 1.00 | 3.75 | 0.35 | 1 to 4.6 
 
 Digestible Nutrients Required per Day for Each 100 Pounds 
 of Growing Chicks 
 First 2 weeks 
 
 Second 2 weeks 
 
 From 4 to 6 weeks. . . 
 From 6 to 8 weeks. . . 
 From 8 to 10 weeks. . 
 From 10 to 12 weeks. 
 
 10. 1 
 
 0.5 
 
 2.0 
 
 7.2 
 
 0.4 
 
 9.6 
 
 0.7 
 
 2.2 
 
 6.2 
 
 0.5 
 
 8.6 
 
 0.6 
 
 2.0 
 
 5-6 
 
 0.4 
 
 74 
 
 0-5 
 
 1.6 
 
 4.9 
 
 0.4 
 
 6.4 
 
 0-5 
 
 1.2 
 
 44 
 
 0.3 
 
 54 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 3-7 
 
 0.3 
 
 1 to 4.1 
 
 1 to 3.4 
 
 1 to 3.4 
 
 1 to 3.7 
 
 1 to 4.3 
 
 1 to 4.4 
 
 Digestible Nutrients Required per Day for Each 100 Pounds 
 of Growing Ducklings 
 First 2 weeks 
 
 From 2 to 4 weeks . . . 
 From 4 to 6 weeks . . . 
 From 6 to 8 weeks . . . 
 From 8 to 10 weeks. . 
 From 10 to 15 weeks. 
 
 17.2 
 
 1.1 
 
 4.0 
 
 11. 2 
 
 1.4 
 
 17.0 
 
 I-5" 
 
 4.1 
 
 10. 1 
 
 i-3 
 
 II. 2 
 
 0.8 
 
 2.7 
 
 7.0 
 
 0.7 
 
 8.0 
 
 0.6 
 
 1-7 
 
 5-2 
 
 0-5 
 
 7.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 1.4 
 
 4-7 
 
 0.4 
 
 4.6 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.9 
 
 3-2 
 
 0.2 
 
 1 to 3.7 
 1 to 3.2 
 1 to 3.3 
 1 to 3.8 
 1 to 4.1 
 1 to 4.1 
 
 Throwing a pailful of food to a flock of birds at regular intervals 
 is not feeding them in the strict sense of the term. To feed stock 
 intelligently, which is to say economically and properly, means to 
 cater to their bodily requirements in every particular. First 
 of all we must have some knowledge of the demands of the body 
 and its functions. We must have a similar knowledge of the 
 composition of the different foodstuffs and their availability in 
 meeting the demands of the body. We must consider the me- 
 
POINTS TO CONSIDER 
 
 185 
 
 chanical condition of the various foods, since some are more 
 convenient to use than others. And we must pay attention 
 to their digestibility and palatability. For example, some 
 feeds possess most of the elements of a well-proportioned diet, 
 but if fed exclusively 
 or in large quantities, 
 they are harmful in 
 that they tax the fowl's 
 digestion. Then again, 
 some feeds are practi- 
 cally incapable of diges- 
 tion by fowls. 
 
 Palatability and Di- 
 gestibility. — On the 
 other hand, no .matter 
 how digestible and nour- 
 ishing a particular food 
 may be, if it is not palat- 
 able to the fowls, they 
 will not eat freely enough 
 of it to sustain them in 
 proper condition. It has 
 been found in practice, 
 however, that highly di- 
 gestible foods are usually 
 equally palatable, pro- 
 viding they are fed in 
 sufficient variety, hence 
 this point is a consider- 
 ation. Moreover, it has 
 been found that certain 
 
 foods are made more digestible when fed in conjunction with 
 certain other foods. 
 
 The cost of the feed is another vital consideration, if not the 
 most vital point. Economical feeding means to use those ma- 
 terials which render the greatest benefit at the least cost. This is 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 (Courtesy C. L. Oppermari) 
 
 -Overhead rail system for carrying 
 feed and other supplies. 
 
186 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 saying a great deal, as we shall see. A food that costs very little 
 money is not necessarily a cheap food. On the contrary the most 
 expensive feeds to buy are sometimes the cheapest. In other 
 words, price alone should not determine the cost of a food. Price 
 plus results should form the decision. 
 
 No matter how cheap a food may be, if the fowl cannot secure 
 substantial benefits from it, it is expensive to use in that it is 
 largely wasted. See Table X. For example, rye, though similar 
 to wheat, has little value as a poultry feed. The fat of rye is 
 quite indigestible, and tends to cause organic disturbances. 
 And there is something about rye grain which is distasteful to 
 birds; they do not care for it, and seldom eat it unless compelled 
 to do so. On the other hand, sprouted rye is exceedingly palat- 
 able, and fowls do well on it. This is characteristic of the knowl- 
 edge which the successful poultryman must have. 
 
 Composition of Fowl. — Let us begin with the composition of the 
 fowl's body. We should know its analysis, or how are we to 
 supply the necessary elements? This is going to lead us into a 
 technical discussion, though it is the writer's intention to devote 
 as little space as possible to scientific expression. It is wearisome 
 to the practical poultryman, and of little value outside of the 
 laboratory. 
 
 The fowl's body, as with any form of life, consists of numerous 
 substances or compounds. For convenience they are grouped 
 under four general headings: water, protein, ash and fat. Table 
 VIII shows the percentages of these elements. 
 
 Table VIII. — Composition of Fowl and Egg 
 
 Leghorn hen 
 
 Plymouth Rock capon. 
 New-laid egg, complete 
 Egg, without shell .... 
 
 White of egg 
 
 Yolk of egg 
 
 Water 
 
 Protein 
 
 Ash 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Per cent 
 
 55-8 
 
 21.6 
 
 3-8 
 
 41.6 
 
 19.4 
 
 3-7 
 
 657 
 
 II.4 
 
 12.2 
 
 7445 
 
 I2.l6 
 
 0.97 
 
 86.2 
 
 I2.3 
 
 0.2 
 
 49-5 
 
 15-7 
 
 1.1 
 
 Fat 
 
 Per cent 
 
 17.O 
 
 33-9 
 
 8.9 
 
 9-74 
 
 0.6 
 
 33-3 
 
ANALYSIS OF FOWL'S BODY 
 
 187 
 
 It will be seen from Table VIII that the hen's body is over half 
 water, and that the egg which she produces is nearly three- 
 fourths water. Obviously water is as essential to her welfare as 
 food. In fact, a fowl can go without food with fewer ill effects 
 than it can go without water, especially during warm weather. 
 Lack of water retards every function of the body, thickens the 
 blood and raises the body temperature. Failure to supply a liberal 
 quantity of clean fresh water is particularly hard on growing 
 chicks. It stunts their development quite as much as sickness. 
 
 Table IX. 
 
 -Cost of Protein from Different Foodstuffs, According 
 to California Experiment Station 
 
 Alfalfa hay 
 
 Alfalfa meal 
 
 Barley 
 
 Blood, dried 
 
 Casein, dried 
 
 Corn 
 
 Cottonseed meal 
 
 Linseed-oil cake meal (n. p.) . 
 Linseed-oil cake meal (o. p.) . 
 
 Meat, fresh 
 
 Meat scraps 
 
 Milk, skim 
 
 Milk, granulated 
 
 Oats 
 
 Peas 
 
 Rice 
 
 Rice bran 
 
 Rye 
 
 Soya-bean meal 
 
 Wheat bran 
 
 Wheat, plump 
 
 Wheat, shrunken 
 
 Wheat shorts 
 
 Price Per Ton 
 in Dollars 
 
 16 
 21 
 
 30 
 60 
 
 80 
 22 
 
 33 
 34 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 
 4 
 80 
 
 25 
 80 
 
 36 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 45 
 23 
 ^7 
 3i 
 28 
 
 Protein in 
 
 Pounds Per 
 
 Ton 
 
 210 
 2IO 
 168 
 I2l6 
 1500 
 140 
 752 
 630 
 582 
 400 
 
 1324 
 66 
 
 1003 
 I 7 8 
 380 
 128 
 214 
 
 I50 
 600 
 220 
 170 
 264 
 246 
 
 Digestible 
 Protein. 
 
 Price Per 
 
 Pound in 
 
 Cents 
 
 7.6 
 
 I O.O 
 
 17.8 
 
 4-9 
 
 5-3 
 
 15-7 
 
 4-3 
 
 5-4 
 
 5-8 
 
 15.0 
 
 4.6 
 
 6.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 14.04 
 
 21.0 
 
 28.1 
 
 14.0 
 
 18.0 
 
 7-5 
 10.4 
 14.8 
 11.7 
 1. 1-3 
 
 Protein, sometimes spoken of as nitrogenous matter, because 
 nitrogen is its most distinguishing characteristic, is the most im- 
 portant group of materials found in the body. In reality protein 
 
188 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 is the foundation or base of all living tissue — the substance 
 through which life is manifested. The muscles, skin, tendons, 
 brain, feathers, blood and internal organs are composed chiefly 
 of protein. The white of the egg when dry is almost all protein, 
 while the dried yolk is one-third protein. 
 
 Tfl-R "Fat=e:"R -C1NVH5 
 
 i' i k-l v 
 
 nil 
 
 ISSI Tiq 2 gsi 
 
 
 7 
 
 t- 
 
 h 
 
 Under Side o^ Cover 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 3 /A"' X £ " 13 * T -r c rv 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 2 «)io 
 
 flTV.IT 7 -3 
 
 
 N 
 
 I? 
 
 
 i 
 
 5 
 
 
 ^/V * 2" BflTTCr-l 
 
 
 "T\q 3 
 
 
 
 Fig. 127. — Designs for feed hoppers that are sanitary and non-wasteful. 
 
 Ash, or the mineral substances, such as lime, silicon, mag- 
 nesium and so on, form the incombustible material of the body. 
 In short, ash is that part of the body which is left after the vola- 
 tile and combustible elements are driven off by heat, the heat 
 being created by the fats. Considerable ash enters into the egg, 
 and it is an important element in the structure of bone and 
 
COMPOSITION OF FOODS 
 
 189 
 
 feathers. Foods which supply ash are especially vital to the 
 growth of young stock. 
 
 Fats comprise the fuel of the body. They are burned to main- 
 tain the body temperature, to produce the energy required in all 
 muscular action, and where the supply is greater than the im- 
 mediate needs of the fowl, they are stored up in fatty tissues under 
 the skin or in globules distributed throughout the muscles, giving 
 the fowl a full, plump appearance. This fat constitutes a re- 
 serve force, and will vary according to the health and condition 
 of the fowl. Too much fat is as bad as too little, because it 
 tends to make the fowl sluggish and non-productive. 
 
 Table X. — Average Digestion Coefficients of Different Foods with 
 Chickens, According to the Maine Experiment Station 
 
 Bran (wheat) . . . 
 
 Beef scrap 
 
 Beef (lean meat) 
 
 Barley 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Corn (whole) . . . 
 Corn (cracked) . 
 Corn (meal) . . . . 
 
 Clover 
 
 India wheat . . . . 
 
 Millet 
 
 Oats (whole) . . . 
 
 Peas 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Rye 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Experi- 
 ments 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 io 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Organic 
 
 Matter 
 
 46.70 
 80.20 
 87.65 
 77.17 
 69.38 
 86.87 
 83-30 
 83.IO 
 '27.70 
 72.70 
 
 62.69 
 77.07 
 82.26 
 79.20 
 
 78.33 
 
 Crude 
 Protein 
 
 71.70 
 92.60 
 90.20 
 
 77-32 
 594o 
 81.58 
 72.20 
 74.60 
 70.60 
 75.00 
 62.40 
 
 7i-3i 
 87.00 
 
 75-05 
 66.90 
 46.94 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen-Free 
 Extract 
 
 46.OO 
 
 85.09 
 86.99 
 91.32 
 88.10 
 86.00 
 14.30 
 83.40 
 
 98.39 
 90.10 
 84.80 
 87.04 
 86.70 
 84.46 
 
 Ether 
 
 Extract 
 
 (Fat) 
 
 37.00 
 95.OO 
 86.30 
 67.86 
 89.22 
 88.11 
 87.60 
 87.60 
 35-50 
 83.80 
 
 85-71 
 87.89 
 80.01 
 53-00 
 22.60 
 
 Composition of Foods. — The same elements which are found in 
 the fowl's body or in the egg are also found in different foods. 
 But it should be understood that these elements are not trans- 
 ferred as such direct from the food to the body tissues. On the 
 contrary, they are entirely remade. The food elements are taken 
 into the body, digested and assimilated, and when they are in such 
 
190 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 form that the blood can absorb them, they are distributed 
 throughout the body as required. Water is a great aid in this 
 respect, in that it softens the food in the crop and prepares it for 
 the grinding process in the gizzard. It also serves as a carrier 
 in transporting the food through the digestive tract, and being a 
 liquid it dilutes the digested elements so that they can be more 
 readily absorbed. 
 
 (Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 128. — Simple type of outdoor feed hopper. Cover is made water-tight 
 By means of patent roofing material. 
 
 Nutrients. — Those portions of the food which yield heat or 
 energy or serve the body in any way are termed nutrients. 
 Nourishing elements would be another way of expressing the 
 parts or constituents of food. They are classified in five groups, 
 as follows: (1) water, (2) protein, (3) carbohydrates, (4) fats, 
 (5) ash. 
 
NUTRIENTS 
 
 191 
 
 Water and ash are the inorganic nutrients; protein, carbo- 
 hydrates and fats are the organic elements. For convenience 
 carbohydrates and fats are sometimes grouped together. They 
 contain the same compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, 
 only in different proportions. The one great difference is that 
 the fats have a greater power than the carbohydrates, being 
 rated at two and a quarter times the power of carbohydrates. 
 
 Carbohydrates include the starches, sugars and gums, and 
 like fats, they are burned to produce heat and energy. Carbo- 
 hydrates as found in plants or grains are stored in a structure 
 of cellulose, which con- 
 stitutes the framework 
 of the plant or the kernel 
 of the grain. This frame- 
 work or fibrous sub- 
 stance is mostly indi- 
 gestible, and in livestock 
 feeding, especially poul- 
 try feeding, it is spoken 
 of as crude fiber. The 
 digestible portions of the 
 carbohydrates are called 
 collectively Nitrogen- 
 Free Extract. 
 
 Avoid Fiber. — The 
 poultry man aims to feed materials which have the greatest 
 quantity of nitrogen-free extract, with the least amount of crude 
 fiber, since fiber is not only indigestible, but it is voided and 
 therefore of no food value. 
 
 Protein nutrients are by far the most expensive portion of the 
 fowl's diet. See Table IX. As a matter of fact, protein usually 
 forms the basis upon which prices of feeds are determined. 
 Wheat and its by-products rank first in popularity as sources of 
 vegetable protein. Beef scrap, green cut bone and fish scrap are 
 the most common sources of animal protein. Fowls require 
 
 (Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 129. — Where fowls are grown in large 
 numbers on free range it is economy to tend 
 the houses with a team, preferably a low- 
 wheeled truck, containing water-barrel, feed 
 and so on. 
 
192 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 both animal and vegetable protein for best results, though chemic- 
 ally there is very little difference between the two kinds. 
 
 Most of the ash elements are found in sufficient quantities in 
 the ordinary poultry feeds, except lime, which should be fur- 
 nished in the form of oyster shells for laying hens, and in granu- 
 lated bone for growing stock. Bran and alfalfa are both rich 
 in ash, hence they are valuable feeds for chickens. 
 
 Wheat is the most efficient single feed for poultry, because it 
 furnishes the nearest thing to a perfectly balanced ration. When 
 fed in conjunction with corn and oats as a scratch feed, supple- 
 mented by a mash consisting of various meals, including a meat 
 ingredient, properly compounded, wheat produces the best re- 
 sults at the least cost. When fed by itself corn is too fattening. 
 Oats is a fattening feed, too, in addition to which it has a high per- 
 centage of fiber in the hulls, which is objectionable when fed in 
 large quantities. Hulled oats or oatmeal, without this fiber, 
 makes a splendid feed for young chicks. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 AVAILABLE GRAINS AND MEALS 
 
 Fowls are omnivorous feeders, in. that they eat both animal 
 and vegetable foods. They require both kinds of food to do their 
 best. Under domestic conditions, they might be classed as 
 granivorous, or grain eaters, because they subsist mainly on a 
 grain diet. Their digestive tract is especially well adapted to 
 the grinding and digesting of cereals, which the fowls relish. 
 
 Left to forage for themselves over a range that is abundant in 
 plant life, the natural food of fowls would consist of grains, seeds, 
 roots, grasses, worms and insects, tidbits of greens, berries and 
 so on. The ration would comprise a wide variety of things, and 
 in the main it would be wisely balanced. When kept in confine- 
 ment the fowls must be given food that resembles this natural 
 diet. It is impracticable to give them precisely the same articles 
 which are found on free range, but these articles can be closely 
 imitated, and the poultry keeper has a large list from which to 
 choose. 
 
 How Foods are Grouped. — For convenience we will divide the 
 available foodstuffs into four groups, about as they are grouped 
 in everyday practice: (i) grains; (2) meals and prepared foods, 
 or mash constituents; (3) green foods, or succulents ; (4) mineral 
 and condimental foods. We will analyze them in this order, 
 confining ourselves more or less to the commonplace products. 
 
 Value of Wheat. — If it were necessary to limit the flock to a 
 single article, wheat would probably give the best results, be- 
 cause it is the nearest thing to a well-balanced ration. It is not 
 perfectly balanced, however, and gives best results only when 
 fed in conjunction with other products. Wheat contains more 
 protein and ash than corn, and less fiber than oats. At the same 
 13 193 
 
194 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Table XL — Composition of Various Grains and Their By-Products 
 (The nutrients are given regardless of their digestibility. And it should 
 be, borne in mind that analyses of this kind vary somewhat according to 
 different authorities.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Carbo- 
 
 Water 
 
 Ash 
 
 Protein 
 
 Fibre 
 
 hy- 
 drates 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Per cent 
 
 10.6 
 
 i-5 
 
 IO.3 
 
 2.2 
 
 70.4 
 
 H-3 
 
 i-4 
 
 IO.5 
 
 1-7 
 
 70.I 
 
 8.8 
 
 1.9 
 
 II.6 
 
 2.8 
 
 66.8 
 
 10.7 
 
 i-5 
 
 11.6 
 
 1.8 
 
 69.2 
 
 12.0 
 
 i-3 
 
 8-7 
 
 2.1 
 
 71.2 
 
 12.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 8.9 
 
 1-3 
 
 72.0 
 
 i5-i 
 
 i-5 
 
 8-5 
 
 6.6 
 
 64.8 
 
 8.2 
 
 •9 
 
 29-3 
 
 3-3 
 
 46.5 
 
 8-5 
 
 i-7 
 
 26.2 
 
 7.2 
 
 53-3 
 
 11.0 
 
 2-5 
 
 10.4 
 
 4-2 
 
 64.1 
 
 10.5 
 
 1.8 
 
 1 1.9 
 
 1.8 
 
 71.9 
 
 11.6 
 
 2.9 
 
 12.5 
 
 4-9 
 
 65.1 
 
 11.9 
 
 5-8 
 
 154 
 
 9.0 
 
 53-9 
 
 12. 1 
 
 3-3 
 
 15.6 
 
 4.6 
 
 60.4 
 
 12.4 
 
 .6 
 
 10.0 
 
 •9 
 
 75-o 
 
 31.2 
 
 Variable 
 
 6.9 
 
 Variable 
 
 44.2 
 
 11.0 
 
 3-0 
 
 11.8 
 
 9-5 
 
 60.7 
 
 II. 2 
 
 2.8 
 
 12.0 
 
 7-4 
 
 61.6 
 
 7-9 
 
 2.0 
 
 14.7 
 
 •9 
 
 67.4 
 
 8-5 
 
 i-9 
 
 15.0 
 
 .6 
 
 66.0 
 
 12.6 
 
 2.0 
 
 1 0.0 
 
 8.7 
 
 64-5 
 
 10.5 
 
 3-i 
 
 12.4 
 
 31-9 
 
 38.8 
 
 13.2 
 
 4-9 
 
 28.9 
 
 4.1 
 
 41.9 
 
 10.9 
 
 2.4 
 
 12.4 
 
 2.7 
 
 69.8 
 
 11.9 
 
 2.6 
 
 10.5 
 
 6-5 
 
 66.3 
 
 12.4 
 
 3-6 
 
 12.2 
 
 7.6 
 
 61.6 
 
 10.2 
 
 5-7 
 
 23.2 
 
 10.7 
 
 48.5 , 
 
 9.2 
 
 5-7 
 
 32.9 
 
 8.9 
 
 35-4 
 
 10.2 
 
 3-5 
 
 18.4 
 
 23.2 
 
 24.7 
 
 8.2 
 
 7.2 
 
 42-3 
 
 5-6 
 
 23.6 
 
 11.6 
 
 i-9 
 
 10.6 
 
 i-7 
 
 72.5 
 
 12.8 
 
 •7 
 
 7-5 
 
 •5 
 
 78.1 
 
 12.8 
 
 2.1 
 
 9.1 
 
 2.6 
 
 69.8 
 
 12.7 
 
 3-4 
 
 10.2 
 
 7-i 
 
 63.6 
 
 14.0 
 
 3-3 
 
 11. 8 
 
 9-5 
 
 57-4 
 
 8.6 
 
 2.6 
 
 16.3 
 
 29.9 
 
 21.4 
 
 13-4 
 
 2.4 
 
 22.4 
 
 6.4 
 
 52.6 
 
 14.8 
 
 3-2 
 
 20.8 
 
 4.1 
 
 55-7 
 
 10.8 
 
 4-7 
 
 34-o 
 
 4.8 
 
 | 28.8 
 
 Fat 
 
 Corn group 
 
 Dent corn 
 
 Flint corn 
 
 Sweet corn 
 
 Pop corn 
 
 Corn meal 
 
 Corn meal (sifted) .... 
 Corn-and-cob-meal . . . 
 
 Gluten meal 
 
 Gluten feed 
 
 Hominy meal 
 
 Wheat group 
 
 Whole wheat 
 
 Wheat screenings 
 
 Wheat bran 
 
 Wheat middlings 
 
 Low-grade flour 
 
 Old bread 
 
 Oat group 
 Oats, whole or ground. 
 
 Clipped oats 
 
 Oatmeal 
 
 Rolled oats 
 
 Buckwheat group 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Buckwheat bran 
 
 Buckwheat middlings . 
 
 Barley group 
 
 Barley 
 
 Barley meal 
 
 Barley screenings 
 
 Malt sprouts 
 
 Other grains 
 Linseed meal (old process) 
 
 Cottonseed 
 
 Cottonseed meal .... 
 
 Rye 
 
 Rice 
 
 Sorghum seed 
 
 Broom corn seed .... 
 
 Millet seed 
 
 Sunflower-seed 
 
 Canada field peas .... 
 
 Cowpeas 
 
 Soy beans 
 
 Per cent 
 5-0 
 
 5-0 
 
 8.1 
 
 5-2 
 
 4-7 
 4.8 
 
 3-5 
 11.8 
 
 3-i 
 
 7.8 
 
 2.1 
 30 
 4.0 
 4.0 
 1.1 
 •9 
 
 5-0 
 
 5-0 
 
 7-i 
 
 8.0 
 
 2.2 
 
 3-3 
 
 7.0 
 
 1.8 
 2.2 
 2.6 
 i-7 
 
 7-9 
 19.9 
 
 I3-I 
 i-7 
 
 •4 
 3-6 
 3-0 
 4.0 
 21.2 
 3-0 
 
 i-4 
 
 16.9 
 
WHEAT THE LEADING GRAIN 
 
 195 
 
 time it contains materially less digestible fat than corn, and 
 slightly less nitrogen-free extract. 
 
 Fowls fed on a pure wheat diet are subject to digestive dis- 
 turbances. When fed on a mixture of wheat, corn and oats, these 
 troubles are minimized. This mixture constitutes the bulk of 
 so-called Scratch Feeds on the majority of poultry farms in this 
 country. 
 
 ■ 
 
 (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 130. — Growing stock on alfalfa pasture. 
 
 Cost of Wheat. — Considering the high cost of wheat, it is 
 likely that too much importance has been laid upon it in respect 
 to poultry feeding. Pound for pound, the by-products of wheat — 
 bran and middlings — are more valuable than the whole grain, 
 and they are very much less expensive. True, the whole grain 
 of wheat has all the qualities — attractiveness of size, color, shape 
 and texture — which go to make a palatable ration for fowls, 
 and it should be used in the scratch feed by way of variety be- 
 
196 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 cause of this palatability; but wheat need not be depended upon 
 as a mainstay of the diet. Wheat is a better growing feed than 
 a fattening feed, hence it is valuable in rearing young stock. It 
 has been found that wheat gives a lighter color to the yolks of 
 eggs and to fat, and according to many packers, it imparts a 
 redder color to the flesh, the lean meat, than does corn. 
 
 Table XII. — Feeding Rations for Laying Hens Recommended by 
 
 Poultry Department, Cornell University 
 
 Whole-Grain Mixture Fed Morning and Afternoon in Litter 
 
 By Weight, Winter 
 
 By Measure, Winter 
 
 By Weight, Summer 
 
 By Measure, Summer 
 
 60 lbs. wheat 
 60 lbs. corn 
 30 lbs. oats 
 30 lbs. buckwheat 
 
 32 qts. wheat 
 36 qts. corn 
 30 qts. oats 
 20 qts. buckwheat 
 
 60 lbs. wheat 
 60 lbs. corn 
 30 lbs. oats 
 
 32 qts. wheat 
 36 qts. corn 
 30 qts. oats 
 
 Dry Mash Fed in a Hoppe 
 
 r, Open Afternoons Only 
 
 By Weight, Winter and Summer 
 
 By Measure, Winter and Summer 
 
 60 lbs. corn meal 
 60 lbs. wheat middlings 
 30 lbs. wheat bran 
 10 lbs. alfalfa meal 
 10 lbs. oil meal 
 50 lbs. beef scrap 
 I lb. salt 
 
 57 qts. corn meal 
 71 qts. wheat middlings 
 57 qts. wheat bran 
 20 qts. alfalfa meal 
 
 8 qts. oil meal 
 43 qts. beef scrap 
 yi qt. salt 
 
 "The fowls should eat about one-half as much mash by weight as whole 
 grain. Regulate the proportion of grain and ground feed by giving a light 
 feeding of grain in the morning and about all they will consume at the after- 
 noon feeding (in time to find grain before dark). In the case of pullets or 
 fowls in heavy laying, restrict both night and morning feeding to induce 
 heavy eating of dry mash, especially in the case of hens. This ration should 
 be supplemented with beets, cabbage, sprouted oats, green clover, or other 
 succulent feed, unless running on grass-covered range. Grit, cracked oyster 
 shell, and charcoal should be accessible at all times. Green feed should not 
 be fed in a frozen condition. All feed and litter used should be strictly sweet, 
 clean, and free from mustiness, mold, or decay. Serious losses frequently 
 occur from disease, due to the fowls taking into their bodies, through their 
 intestinal tract or lungs, the spores of molds." 
 
 No Need for Best Wheat. — It is a mistake to assume that the 
 best grades of milling wheat are the best for poultry. Plump 
 
POPULARITY OF CORN 
 
 197 
 
 wheat is slightly more palatable, but it has been shown that 
 shrunken wheat, caused by frost or drought, contains a higher 
 percentage of protein, therefore it is more economical as a stock 
 feed. Frequently the poorer grades of wheat, which are not 
 suitable for the best grades of flour, can be had at prices which 
 are so low that they are cheaper than corn and oats. 
 
 Musty, smutty and heated wheat should be carefully avoided, 
 no matter how cheap they can be bought, because of the in- 
 jurious effect they may have on the fowls' digestion. There is no 
 objection to wheat 
 screenings, however, 
 which constitute the 
 refuse or "screen- 
 ings" from the bet- 
 ter grades of wheat. 
 The feeding value of 
 screenings depends 
 upon quality, and 
 quality varies in each 
 purchase. Screen- 
 ings contain broken 
 and shrunken wheat 
 kernels, weed seeds, 
 chaff and often con- 
 siderable harmless 
 trash. If the price 
 
 is low enough, screenings can be fed to an advantage. The point 
 to consider is the price and quality of the screenings in relation 
 to the price of sound feeding wheat. 
 
 Corn and its products are the principal sources of grain feed 
 for poultry. It is the best relished of all the grains, it is easily 
 digested, contains no poisonous substances, and except that it is 
 too concentrated when fed alone, too fattening, it is an ideal 
 ration. Corn has many advantages; it is attractive looking, 
 free from shuck or husk, it is easily swallowed, and contains large 
 amounts of oil and sugar which give it flavor and ease of diges- 
 
 (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 131. — Fowls seldom derive sufficient exeiv 
 cise unless there are opportunities and incentives 
 for scratching. 
 
198 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 tion. It satisfies the cravings of appetite and furnishes warmth. 
 It is not the most desirable food for egg production and the de- 
 velopment of lean meat, because it is deficient in protein. Corn 
 is a fattening food, and it is most valuable in this respect. When 
 fed in conjunction with foods which are rich in protein, and some 
 bulky material, such as green stuff or vegetables, it makes an 
 indispensable article of diet. 
 
 With the exception of flaxseed and sunflower seed, corn is the 
 richest grain in carbohydrates and fat formers. As previously 
 mentioned, it is a little low in protein, and quite low in mineral 
 substances. To make up for this deficiency in mineral matter, 
 oats are usually compounded with corn in poultry feeding. 
 Barley is also used, though there is no better food for ash or 
 mineral matter than wheat bran. 
 
 Cheapness of Corn. — Ordinarily, corn is the cheapest food for 
 poultry, not alone because of its price per bushel, but because 
 fowls obtain the greatest amount of digestible material from corn. 
 With oats at 40 cents a bushel, corn at 60 cents and wheat at 80 
 cents, it has been found that the protein in wheat or oats costs 
 practically fifty per cent more than the protein in corn. Simi- 
 larly, the cost of fat in wheat is about twice as much as the cost 
 of fat in corn. From every standpoint corn is the cheapest 
 food, but since it does not contain the nutrients in the propor- 
 tion in which they are required in the production of eggs and 
 lean meat, it must be mixed with other products. 
 
 The majority of farm flocks of poultry are maintained on an 
 exclusive corn diet, largely because the corn is grown at home, 
 and because it is not sold so readily as wheat. This practice is 
 a great mistake, and cannot be condemned too harshly. It 
 invariably results in a small egg yield, and frequently no eggs at 
 all. Properly fed, corn is a most valuable feed — quite as valuable 
 as wheat. This is especially true in America, where corn is 
 plentiful, and under normal circumstances cheap. 
 
 The value of oats as a poultry feed is determined largely by the 
 percentage of fiber in the hulls. This fiber is the greatest ob- 
 jection, because it is a tax on the fowls' digestion. Light oats, 
 
OATS AND BARLEY 
 
 199 
 
 so called because of the large proportion of hull to kernel, which 
 makes a bushel of oats weigh light, is not a desirable poultry feed. 
 Heavy oats, with a smaller percentage of husk, are greatly rel- 
 ished by chickens, and should form an important part of the 
 diet. Hens are quick to recognize the quality of oats. They 
 will refuse to eat oats which contain a great deal of shuck, seeming 
 to know instinctively that it is as indigestible as straw. 
 
 No grain varies so much in weight per bushel as oats, which, of 
 course, is due to the variation in the proportion of husk to kernel. 
 It will pay to get heavy oats, though the price is more, because 
 
 (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 132. — Chickens require an abundance of fresh drinking water at all times. 
 
 of the waste in the hulls. Hulled oats or oatmeal is an excellent 
 food for growing chicks. Some breeders maintain that oats con- 
 tain an ingredient not found in other grains, which has a stimu- 
 lating effect on the nerves and thereby promotes rapid growth. 
 Whether or not there is any truth in this belief, the fact remains 
 that there is no better food for baby chicks than pinhead oat- 
 meal or hulled oats. It is expensive, but the results seem to 
 warrant the additional expense. Ground oats are used ex- 
 tensively in fattening poultry. 
 
 Barley ranks between oats and corn as a growing and fattening 
 feed. It contains less fat, fiber and ash than oats, but more 
 
200 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 protein and carbohydrates. It does not rate so high in digestible 
 protein as wheat, and barley is not so palatable as either wheat, 
 corn or oats; but it is a splendid ingredient for the scratch feed 
 because of its variety. 
 
 The husk and beard of barley are somewhat against it, though 
 not so much as in oats. So long as the fowls will eat freely of it, 
 barley can be fed in liberal quantities. In Europe barley oc- 
 cupies the place filled by corn in America, in fact, it has much the 
 same feeding value. The great demand for barley for brewing 
 purposes tends to keep the price high. Malt sprouts and 
 brewer's grains, which are the by-products of barley, are useful 
 stock feeds, but because they are in such demand as dairy feed, 
 little attention has been given to them as poultry feed, though 
 they are a good source of succulent material. 
 
 Buckwheat. — Strictly speaking, buckwheat is a poor poultry 
 feed. It contains properties which supply heat and energy, but 
 because of the black, woody hulls, which are both unappetizing 
 and indigestible by reason of the fiber, fowls do not eat it readily. 
 In fact, until the hens are accustomed to buckwheat, they are 
 likely to ignore it completely. Compared with other grains, 
 buckwheat cannot be called a rich food, nor an economical food. 
 It has a lower percentage of digestible organic matter than most 
 grains, and is low in mineral matter. The only excuse for feeding 
 buckwheat is to add a little variety to the ration, but even this 
 virtue is questionable because of its unattractiveness. 
 
 Rye is even less of a success as a poultry feed than buckwheat. 
 Though virtually the same as wheat in composition, appearance, 
 size and color, rye is not relished by fowls. There is something 
 about it which is distasteful, and if birds are compelled to eat it 
 in grain form there is a tendency to create digestive trouble. On 
 the other hand, sprouted rye is exceedingly palatable, and fowls 
 do well on it. The fat of rye is said to be the indigestible portion 
 of the grain, and apparently it has some medicinal quality or 
 flavor which is objectionable. In view of these facts, it is poor 
 economy to try and use rye grain as a poultry feed. 
 
 Rice. — Though rice is reckoned among the available grains for 
 
RICE, PEAS, AND BEANS 
 
 201 
 
 poultry, it is used in very limited quantities. Even in the South, 
 where it is grown, rice is not generally used, except as a chick 
 feed, and then only in small quantities. The commercial chick 
 feeds contain a small percentage of broken rice. Its value, how- 
 ever, is questioned by most breeders. Chicks do not seem to 
 care for it, and for this reason it is not generally recommended. 
 Boiled rice is sometimes fed to chicks as a wet mash, and the water 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 133. — Feeding time in a fattening station. 
 
 which is drained off the rice is cooled and given as drinking water. 
 As a commercial proposition this is too troublesome. 
 
 Field peas, cowpeas and Soy beans are three nitrogenous 
 seeds which may be used to vary the ration, though it is not ad- 
 visable to feed them to poultry unless they can be bought at a 
 reasonable price. Usually they are scarce and correspondingly 
 high in price. 
 
 Kafir corn, milo maize, sorghum seeds and broom corn seeds 
 may be added to the scratch grain ration to give variety. They 
 can be made to take the place of corn, because they are pretty 
 
202 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 much the same in character. Fowls eat them with a relish. The 
 one objection is cost; they are usually high in price, therefore 
 prohibitive, except in small quantities." 
 
 Millet is fairly reasonable in price, and is found in most of the 
 commercial chick feeds. It has practically the same composi- 
 tion as oats. Owing to 
 an extremely hard shell, it 
 is indigestible. There is a 
 high percentage of fiber, 
 which is against it as an 
 economical feed. Because 
 the seeds are small and 
 brilliantly colored, little 
 chicks are attracted to 
 millet, and will eat it read- 
 ily. This is accompanied 
 by risks, since the bullet- 
 like structure of the seeds 
 resists the grinding action 
 of the gizzard. Many 
 breeders are opposed to 
 the use of millet on this 
 account. The writer dis- 
 carded it long since. 
 
 Sunflower seeds are 
 recommended for the 
 molting season, and for 
 birds intended for exhi- 
 bitions, because of the 
 vegetable oil which im- 
 parts a gloss to the plumage. They have a high fiber content 
 (about 30 per cent) which renders them indigestible and wasteful. 
 Then, too, sunflower seed is expensive. In the writer's opinion, 
 it is not worthy of notice. The plumage can be stimulated by 
 the use of cake meal (old process) , which is the residue from linseed 
 
 {Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 134. — Feeding battery used in pack- 
 ing houses. Note troughs on the outside of 
 the cages. 
 
FOWLS HAVE INTENSIVE ORGANISMS 
 
 203 
 
 (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 135. — Fowls with long, crow- 
 like heads are usually poor feeders and 
 do not make rapid gains. 
 
 after the oil has been extracted. This oil meal contains valuable 
 
 nutrients, and is reasonable in 
 
 price. 
 
 Every Process is Intensive. — 
 
 Fowls have a higher tempera- 
 ture, increased respiration, and 
 
 a more rapid digestion than 
 
 most other animals. Their 
 
 young is brought into being very 
 
 quickly; they mature in from 
 
 five to nine months; and their 
 
 life is limited to about five years. 
 
 Thus, every function, process 
 
 and phase of the fowl's existence 
 
 may be called intensive or rapid . 
 
 In many respects the fowl may 
 
 be compared to a high-geared machine, which is delicate of oper- 
 ation, but thoroughly reliable, 
 providing the adjustments are 
 properly maintained. 
 
 We know that a low-geared 
 machine can withstand more 
 neglect than the fast-running, 
 high-tensioned mechanism. In 
 a similar way, the relation of 
 food to bodily requirements is 
 more exacting in fowls than in 
 other animals of slower growth. 
 Do not misconstrue this state- 
 ment: Fowls do not require 
 greater care than other animals. 
 On the contrary, they require 
 much less attention. But fowls 
 must be provided with the 
 means by which they can take 
 
 care of themselves, and of which they are fully capable. This 
 
 (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 136. — This bird's head is typi- 
 cal of a good feeder, one that can be 
 depended upon to make rapid gains 
 in flesh. 
 
204 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 provision consists chiefly in giving the fowls access to the right 
 sort of foodstuffs. 
 
 As explained in a preceding chapter, poultry must be fed those 
 products which yield certain elements, such as protein, fats and 
 mineral substances, which are necessary to meet the daily de- 
 mands of the body. Moreover, these elements must be fed in a 
 mechanical condition which will render the greatest good at the 
 least expense. Expense in this instance embraces both the 
 poultryman's pocketbook and the fowls' health. 
 
 {Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 137. — The farm flock can be made to forage for the greater part of its 
 
 keep. 
 
 Exclusive Grain Diet. — Time was when poultry was fed al- 
 most exclusively on whole grain. Such a diet was expensive and 
 improperly balanced. Also, it was wasteful, because certain 
 portions of whole grain were not necessary to a fowl's welfare. 
 They were of greater value as human food. For example, wheat 
 middlings and wheat bran are better poultry foods than wheat 
 flour, whereas the latter is considered more desirable as human 
 food. Therefore the logical thing is to mill and separate the 
 whole grain. In recent years this has been done, with the result 
 
Table XIII. — Feeding Rations for Laying Hens Recommended by the 
 
 New Jersey Station 
 
 Dry Mash Mixture (Winter) 
 
 
 OuANTITY 
 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Quarts 
 
 Wheat bran 
 
 200 
 200 
 200 
 
 ioo 
 
 IOO 
 IOO 
 IOO 
 
 380 
 240 
 200 
 
 Wheat middlings 
 
 Ground oats 
 
 Corn meal 
 
 95 
 80 
 
 Gluten meal 
 
 Meat scrap (high grade) 
 
 Alfalfa (short cut) 
 
 86 
 200 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 IOOO 
 
 1 28 1 
 
 
 
 Nutritive Ratio, 1: 3.02 
 
 Dry Mash Mixture (Summer) 
 
 
 Quantity 
 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Quarts 
 
 Wheat bran 
 
 200 
 
 IOO 
 
 IOO 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 380 
 
 Wheat middlings 
 
 Ground oats 
 
 Gluten meal 
 
 IOO 
 
 40 
 
 21 
 
 Meat scrap (high grade) 
 
 Total 
 
 475 
 
 66l 
 
 Nutritive Ratio, 1 : 3.22 
 
 For Leghorns and other egg breeds the feed hoppers are kept open all day. 
 For the heavier breeds, which are prone to put on too much fat, the hoppers 
 are kept open in the afternoon only. 
 
 Scratch Grain Mixture (Morning) Five Pounds to 100 Birds Fed in 
 
 Deep Litter 
 
 
 Kind of Feed 
 
 Quantity 
 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Quarts 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Oats : 
 
 IOO 
 IOO 
 
 53 
 98 
 
 
 Total 
 
 200 
 
 151 
 
 Nutritive Ratio, 1 : 6.6 
 
 Scratch Grain Mixture (Evening) Ten Pounds to 100 Birds 
 
 
 Kind of Feed 
 
 Quantity 
 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Quarts 
 
 Cracked corn 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Oats 
 
 200 
 IOO 
 IOO 
 IOO 
 
 I20 
 
 53 
 98 
 66 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 ' Total 
 
 500 
 
 337 
 
 Nutritive Ratio, 1: 7.8 
 
 The above is intended for cold weather feeding. In the summer half the 
 cracked corn is used, and barley is substituted for the buckwheat. 
 
 205 
 
206 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 that we now have a valuable list of by-products, most of them 
 meals, which are available as stock foods, at a much lower cost 
 than the whole grain. 
 
 Merits of Mash Feeding. — To-day, instead of feeding their 
 flocks exclusively on whole or broken grain, practical poultry 
 raisers feed about half grain and half meals. The grain feed, 
 which consists of a mixture of grains, such as corn, wheat and 
 oats, is termed the "scratch feed"; the meals are mixed together 
 in certain proportions and called a "mash." This mash is fed 
 dry or moist, depending upon the object desired. Of late the 
 dry mash has gained considerable favor over the wet mash, and 
 largely because of the inconvenience in placing the wet mash be- 
 fore the birds. It must be fed at regular intervals and in specific 
 quantities, because if moist feed is allowed to stand for any length 
 of time, it will spoil in hot weather and freeze in cold weather. 
 A dry mash is always available; it can be placed before the flocks 
 in large quantities, providing the hoppers are suitable, and the 
 mash remains sweet and wholesome until consumed. 
 
 Table XIV 
 At the Maine Experiment Station under Prof. Gowell the following quanti- 
 ties of feed were consumed per hen in one year by a flock of Barred Plymouth 
 Rocks, averaging 144 eggs each: 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Grain and mash 90.0 
 
 Oyster shell 4.0 
 
 Granulated bone 2.4 
 
 Grit 2.0 
 
 Charcoal 2.4 
 
 Clover 10.0 
 
 Forced Feeding. — Excellent results have been secured through 
 mash feeding. It is particularly valuable in fattening, and in 
 forced feeding for increased egg production. This is due to the 
 fact that meals are digested more quickly than the whole grains, 
 therefore the nourishment which they contain is more readily 
 available for absorption. Dry mash feeding is the only method 
 by which fowls can be made to consume large quantities of food, 
 which are so essential to rapid development. 
 
ACTION OF THE GIZZARD 207 
 
 The point to remember, however, is this, forced feeding must 
 not be carried to the point where it affects and impairs stamina 
 and health. In fattening poultry for market there is little need 
 for caution in this respect, because the birds are killed before any 
 ill effects are manifested. But in feeding laying stock, especially 
 breeders, prolonged over-feeding is almost certain to result in 
 weak offspring and a general deterioration in the vigor and pro- 
 ductiveness of the flocks. 
 
 On first thought, ground feed or meals would seem to be more 
 digestible than whole grains, because, as stated above, the meals 
 are more quickly digested than the grains. It does not follow, 
 however, that the meals are more thoroughly digested, as we 
 shall see. 
 
 Gizzard. — Fowls are endowed with a powerful muscular organ 
 — the gizzard, for the express purpose of grinding solid foods. 
 The action of the gizzard is involuntary. If it is equipped with 
 sufficient "molars" in the form of hard, sharp, angular grit, its 
 grinding process is consistently thorough. 
 
 Gastric Juice. — The crushing and grinding process is not the 
 only function of the gizzard. The food is partially digested in 
 this organ, and to accomplish this digestion the food must re- 
 main in this part of the digestive tract for a certain length of 
 time. It has been found that the gizzard secretes a gastric 
 juice, which is one of the most powerful agents of digestion, 
 especially in respect to digesting protein and in dissolving the 
 mineral elements. Naturally, the harder the food the longer 
 it is required for the gizzard to grind it, and the longer the food 
 remains in the gizzard the greater is the action of the gastric 
 secretion. 
 
 Sparing the Gizzard. — As might be supposed, meals pass 
 through the gizzard much quicker than whole grains, and this 
 spares the gizzard considerable work. In forced feeding it is 
 found cheaper to do this work with power millstones. But the 
 point to remember is this: If the gizzard is spared too much, it 
 soon loses its efficiency, and thereafter the food will not be 
 thoroughly digested, which is both a tax on the fowls' health and 
 
208 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 wasteful of food. In short, the fowls must be fed enough hard 
 grain to maintain the gizzard and all other organs in their normal 
 state. It is therefore considered good practice to feed from one- 
 third to one-half ground feed. 
 
 Table XV 
 In a test at the Maine Experiment Station it was found that a flock of two 
 thousand Barred Plymouth Rocks were raised to laying age on an average of 
 the following quantities of feed per fowl : 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Grain and mash 28.0 
 
 Granulated bone 0.75 
 
 Oyster shells 0.5 
 
 Grit 2.25 
 
 Charcoal 0.5 
 
 Total 32.00 
 
 Controlling the Diet. — There is still another important point 
 about mash feeding: The feeder is better able to control the 
 flock's diet. This statement is easily explained. When whole 
 or broken grain is fed, it is more good luck than good manage- 
 ment if some hens do not eat more corn, others wheat, and others 
 oats, or whatever are the ingredients. And since no one kind of 
 grain is a complete ration, the error of this method is apparent. 
 
 In a properly compounded, well-mixed mash, which has the 
 exact proportion of protein, carbohydrates and mineral sub- 
 stances required to preserve health and stimulate egg production, 
 the hen has no selection. She simply gulps mouthfuls of the 
 mash, and every mouthful has practically the same ingredients, 
 consequently she is made to eat just what the feeder has pre- 
 scribed. Furthermore, if the mash is accessible at all times, 
 which is the generally accepted method of feeding it, the fowls 
 soon learn that they can eat it at will, and this habit tends to 
 eliminate gorging by the stronger birds, and under-feeding on 
 the part of the weaker or more timid members of the flock. In 
 other words, there is no mad rush for the mash hopper like there 
 is for a periodical distribution of scratch feed. 
 
 Mash Constituents. — The feeder has a wide list from which to 
 
AVAILABLE GROUND FEEDS 
 
 209 
 
 select the ingredients for a mash. We will commence with the 
 by-products of wheat. 
 
 Bran is probably the most commonly used, all-round stock 
 food. It is the outer layer of the wheat kernel and is rich in 
 mineral matter. By reason of its flaky nature, bran gives the 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 138. — Chickens in feeding batteries, being fattened for market. 
 
 mash a light, bulky texture, and this condition is preferred by 
 fowls. Bran is fibrous and slightly laxative. It is compara- 
 tively rich in nutrients, though its digestibility is rather low. 
 Bran and corn meal comprise the bulk of most poultry mashes. 
 As might be supposed, there is a wide variation in the quality 
 of bran, which is due to the milling process — how thin the out- 
 
210 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 side shuck of the wheat kernel is taken off and how much of the 
 gluten is retained. The more gluten it contains the richer the 
 
 bran is in protein. 
 
 Table XVI 
 Two Dry Mash Formulas Recommended by California Experiment Station 
 
 Bran 
 
 Middlings 
 
 Linseed meal (o. p.) 
 
 Gluten feed 
 
 Ground oats 
 
 Corn meal 
 
 Beef scrap 
 
 Bone meal 
 
 Quarts 
 
 Pounds 
 
 
 6.0 
 
 3-0 
 
 
 0-5 
 
 0.5 
 
 
 0-5 
 
 0.5 
 
 
 0.8 
 
 I.O 
 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.75 
 
 
 i-5 
 
 2.25 
 
 
 1.0 
 
 i-5 
 
 
 0.5 
 
 1.0 
 
 
 Bran 
 
 Alfalfa meal . . 
 Corn meal . . . 
 
 Shorts 
 
 Barley meal . . 
 Ground beans 
 Beef scrap . . 
 Bone meal . . 
 
 Quarts 
 
 4.0 
 I.O 
 I.O 
 2.0 
 I.O 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 Pounds 
 
 2.0 
 0.5 
 i-5 
 i-5 
 1.1 
 1.1 
 
 0.5 
 1.0 
 
 The above rations are calculated for 100 hens a day, to be fed in conjunction 
 with from 9 to 12 pounds of scratch grains and sufficient green stuffs. 
 
 Middlings and Shorts. — In the center of the wheat kernel is 
 the flour, which is largely starch. Between the flour and the outer 
 shuck or bran is a layer of gluten, called middlings or shorts. 
 Shorts are practically the same as middlings, except that a larger 
 percentage of fine bran may be present in the former. As a rule 
 middlings are ground finer than shorts and resemble a low-grade 
 flour. Middlings are richer in carbohydrates and fats than bran; 
 and lower in mineral matter and fiber, therefore more digestible. 
 Middlings are heavy and form a compact mass, and for best 
 results they should be mixed with a bulky feed, such as bran, 
 mealed alfalfa or ground oats. 
 
 Feeding Flour. — Some feed markets do not distinguish between 
 middlings and shorts. Then again, there is only a slight dif- 
 ference between middlings and low-grade feeding flour. The 
 feeding flour resembles the patent grades of white flour intended 
 for human consumption, and is richer in gluten than middlings. 
 
 Corn meal, sometimes spoken of as regular feed meal, as the 
 name implies, is simply the whole corn kernel ground fine, or 
 it may be the sif tings from cracked corn. It possesses virtually 
 the same merits as the whole grain, and is used extensively for 
 fattening purposes. 
 
CORN PRODUCTS 
 
 211 
 
 Corn-and-Cob Meal. — When the cob is ground with the corn 
 the product is called corn-and-cob meal. No matter how fine 
 the cob is reduced to a meal, it consists mainly of fiber, with low 
 feeding value, which is objectionable in feeding poultry. A little 
 corn-and-cob meal can be used in the mash if bulk is desired, but 
 it should not be made to take the place of straight corn meal. 
 
 Gluten Meal. — In the manufacture of starch the kernels of 
 corn are separated into hulls or bran, gluten and starch. Gluten 
 meal is therefore corn less the bran and starch. It is rich in fat 
 and protein and highly concentrated. When fed in large quanti- 
 ties it produces ill effects. To overcome this concentration, and 
 to provide a market for the corn bran, manufacturers now mix 
 the gluten meal with the bran and sell the mixture as gluten feed. 
 
 Table XVII 
 
 War Time Rations Recommended by Hare, of the South Carolina 
 
 Experiment Station 
 
 Dry Mash for Southern Breeders 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Corn meal 100 
 
 Wheat middlings ioo 
 
 Rice bran ioo 
 
 Ground oats 200 
 
 Velvet bean meal 100 
 
 Cottonseed meal 100 
 
 Salt 3.5 
 
 Dry Mash for Western Breeders 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Corn meal 250 
 
 Ground oats 200 
 
 Wheat middlings 200 
 
 Wheat bran 200 
 
 Meat scrap 100 
 
 Alfalfa meal 50 
 
 Salt 5 
 
 Gluten feed contains less fat and protein than gluten meal, and 
 greater bulk, therefore it should be bought on a guaranteed 
 analysis, depending upon its content of protein. Gluten feed 
 and gluten meal are both palatable and digestible. They are 
 valuable sources of protein, as will be observed, and are excellent 
 egg producers. It is a mistake, however, to depend entirely 
 upon this vegetable protein. Some animal protein is necessary 
 in the mash, such as bone meal or meat scrap. 
 
 Hominy meal or hominy chop is still another valuable by-prod- 
 uct of corn, useful as a poultry feed, but not so generally used 
 
212 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 because of the limited supply. It consists of the hull, germ and 
 portions of the starch cells — the residue from the process of 
 making hulled corn or hominy. It is similar to gluten and may 
 be used in about the same way. 
 
 Ground oats, as the name suggests, is simply the whole oats 
 ground fine. The fiber is not reduced in any way, though it is 
 rendered more palatable. In buying ground oats care should be 
 taken that there is not an excess of hulls, since unreliable manu- 
 facturers sometimes use a very light or poor grade of oats for this 
 feed. Ground oats are useful in all mashes, but because of the 
 high percentage of fiber, they must be used judiciously. For ex- 
 ample, it would be a mistake to compound a mash having large 
 quantities of mealed alfalfa, ground oats and bran, because all 
 three have large percentages of fiber, whereas the fiber content 
 in poultry feeds should be kept as low as possible. 
 
 Ground barley, sometimes called barley meal, has pretty much 
 the same value as the whole grain. Like ground oats, it must be 
 used carefully because of the hulls. It is not a common feed in 
 this country. Dried brewers' grains, a by-product of barley 
 from the breweries, is a valuable addition to the mash, rich in 
 fat and protein, and used about the same as corn meal and wheat 
 middlings. It is more widely used as a dairy feed than for 
 poultry. 
 
 Buckwheat bran and middlings, which are the by-products of 
 buckwheat flour, are not particularly desirable as a poultry feed 
 because of the large percentage of indigestible matter. The 
 middlings are sometimes used in fattening poultry for slaughter, 
 especially where white flesh is desired. 
 
 Cottonseed meal, a by-product from, the manufacture of cotton- 
 seed oil from cotton seed, is thought by some to be a substitute 
 for meat scrap. Fowls do not take kindly to it, however, and the 
 general opinion among poultry feeders is that it is not a desirable 
 feed. The consensus of opinion is that cottonseed meal should 
 be used with extreme caution, or not at all. 
 
 Oil meal, or linseed meal, a by-product of the manufacture 
 of linseed oil from flaxseed, is rich in protein and fat, and a valu- 
 
213 
 
214 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 able feed for molting fowls. It is exceedingly laxative, however, 
 and because of this tendency it must be fed sparingly. Oil 
 meal contains about three times as much protein as wheat or 
 oats, and about five times the protein of rice. It is one of the 
 richest foods available for poultry, fairly reasonable in price, 
 and it should find a place in all mashes for mature stock; but 
 because of its concentrated nature, oil meal should not form over 
 five per cent of the ration. 
 
 Old process oil meal, or O. P. cake meal, are other names given 
 to this product. In the old process of manufacturing linseed 
 oil the flaxseed is crushed and the oil extracted by great pressure. 
 In the newer methods the oil is dissolved by means of naptha. 
 The old process meal is best, because it contains more oil, which 
 stimulates the growth of feathers, and gives the plumage a glossy 
 appearance, so much desired by fanciers. When moist, oil meal 
 is very sticky, and this quality tends to thicken or gum the mash. 
 It is therefore objectionable in wet mashes. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 ANIMAL AND GREEN FOODS 
 
 Animal Protein. — A controversy has existed for some time over 
 the relative merits of vegetable protein and animal protein. 
 From the chemist's standpoint they may be practically the same; 
 but not so from the fowls' point of view, which is the all-impor- 
 tant angle for consideration. We cannot escape the fact that 
 chickens are scavengers. They are meat eaters, naturally. 
 Witness their eagerness for worms and insects, or for dead ani- 
 mal matter, if they find it. Apparently they crave meat in some 
 form, hence it behooves the feeder to furnish it. 
 
 Important feeding experiments have shown that protein and 
 fats are more digestible when supplied from animal sources than 
 from vegetable sources. Chicks and ducklings fed on rations 
 containing animal food consume greater quantities of food and 
 make faster gains in growth. Pullets are brought to maturity, 
 and older hens lay more eggs when fed animal protein. It might 
 be said that animal food is essential to economical production — 
 an absolute necessity. No other food constituent stimulates 
 the ovaries into activity in such a brief space of time. Because 
 of this stimulation, however, animal foods must be used judi- 
 ciously or ill effects will result. 
 
 Meat Scrap. — There are several sources of animal food, though 
 meat scrap, otherwise known as beef scrap, poultry meat, ani- 
 mal meal and similar names, is unquestionably the most widely 
 used. It consists of meat trimmings from slaughter houses and 
 butcher shops, including considerable bone, which are cooked 
 under steam pressure to render out most of the fat, and then dried 
 and ground to different degrees of fineness. The cooking and 
 curing process, if properly done, also sterilizes the product, 
 
 215 
 
216 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 thereby destroying any bacteria which might prove harmful to 
 the fowls. 
 
 Guaranteed Analysis. — In the cheaper grades of meat scrap 
 the product is not so carefully purified, and in some instances it is 
 treated with acid, which is injurious. These grades should be 
 avoided. In no other form of food is it so essential to use the 
 best grades as in meat scrap. And usually the best grades are 
 the cheapest in the long run, because they are almost certain to 
 
 .-. * 
 
 (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 140. — Spading and turning over the soil not only keeps the yards sani- 
 tary, but it affords worms and insect life for the fowls. 
 
 contain higher percentages of protein, which is the sole reason 
 for buying this sort of food. High-grade scrap will contain from 
 50 to 60 per cent protein, the low grades from 25 to 40 per cent. 
 Obviously the price should be based on a guaranteed analysis. 
 
 Testing Meat. — The appearance of meat scrap will go far in 
 convincing the purchaser as to its quality. To test it, pour 
 scalding water over a sample, and if it continues to smell sweet, 
 the chances are it is all right. If it gives off a putrid odor — be- 
 ware. Then examine it in a dry state: If it seems to have large 
 
POULTRY MEAT 217 
 
 quantities of hair, horn and hoof, it is not desirable. Particles 
 of horn and hoof resemble bits of brown glass. 
 
 Tankage, dried blood and kindred packing-house by-products, 
 though suitable for hog feeding, are not relished by poultry. 
 They are rich in nitrogen, but not capable of digestion by fowls. 
 Shun them. 
 
 Green cut bone is one of the most palatable foods of animal 
 origin, and also one of the most forcing foods for egg production. 
 It must be fed sweet by all means, which renders it a difficult 
 food to handle on a large scale, especially in the summer time. 
 The practice is to collect the bones, together with meat trimmings, 
 from nearby butcher shops, and grind them at home by means of 
 a power bone cutter. The ground bone and mangled bits of 
 meat which cling to the bone are then fed separately or mixed 
 with a little dry mash. 
 
 Green cut bone heats and spoils very quickly, even in cold 
 weather, unless it is spread out so that the air can circulate freely 
 through it. If fed in a heated condition it is almost certain to 
 develop diarrhea and kindred troubles. It is laxative at best, 
 therefore it is not a good food for young chickens. When given 
 to laying stock to assist egg production, green bone should not 
 comprise more than ten per cent of the ration. Excessive use of 
 such stimulating food is a serious tax on the liver, and brings 
 about symptoms similar to gout in man. Very few egg farms of 
 any size have the facilities to feed green bone, consequently they 
 depend upon the commercial forms of meat scrap, which can be 
 kept indefinitely in any climate, providing they are stored in a 
 dry place, and are not allowed to heat. 
 
 Granulated bone, or bone meal, which is a finer grinding of 
 the bones, are both excellent foods for poultry, and especially 
 for young stock, since they are valuable sources of both protein 
 and mineral substances. This product is free from meat. The 
 raw bones are dried, then ground to a meal. The best way to 
 feed it is in the mash. It has no laxative properties to speak of, 
 and fowls relish it. From- five to ten per cent of bone meal 
 should enter all mashes for chicks of all ages. 
 
218 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Fish scrap corresponds to meat scrap in many respects, and 
 in some localities it is extensively used. The great difficulty 
 with it is that it is likely to impart a fishy flavor to the eggs and 
 flesh. This is due to the oil. In the best grades, wherein this 
 oil is practicaWy all removed, fish scrap makes a valuable substi- 
 tute for meat scrap, and in most cases it it much cheaper than the 
 latter. 
 
 Table XVIII. — Composition of Different Animal Foods 
 
 Meat scrap (high grade). 
 Meat scrap (low grade) . 
 
 Pork scrap 
 
 Ground bone (dry) 
 
 Green cut bone 
 
 Animal meal 
 
 Blood meal 
 
 Dried blood 
 
 Fresh fish 
 
 Fish scrap (variable) . . . . 
 Clams and other shell fish 
 
 \Vhole milk 
 
 Skim milk 
 
 Buttermilk 
 
 Whey 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Granulated milk 
 
 Water 
 
 Per 
 cent 
 IO.70 
 15.40 
 II. O 
 8.I9 
 
 38-94 
 4.9O 
 IO.61 
 6.70 
 44.O 
 5-10 
 34.10 
 87.2 
 9O.6 
 90.1 
 
 93-8 
 40.6 
 28.5 
 
 Per 
 cent 
 4.IO 
 2.50 
 2.2 
 
 56.95 
 26.12 
 42.65 
 
 4-65 
 6.60 
 I. OO 
 
 2-8 
 
 2.30 
 
 .6 
 
 •7 
 
 •7 
 
 •4 
 
 3-4 
 
 3-6 
 
 Per cent 
 
 60.20 
 
 ■ 45.OO 
 
 55-o 
 
 3I-36 
 20.37 
 
 30.45 
 75-69 
 65.IO 
 IO.50 
 34-0-50 
 
 6.00 
 
 3-6 
 
 3-i 
 
 4.0 
 
 .6 
 
 23-7 
 
 13-7 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 3-30 
 
 1.28 
 
 42.OO 
 
 55 -oo 
 
 Carbo- 
 hy- 
 drates 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 IO.32 
 I.46 
 
 5-30 
 
 2.00 
 4-9 
 5-3 
 4.0 
 
 5-i 
 
 i-7 
 
 511 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 25.OO 
 37.IO 
 31-8 
 
 3-50 
 11.67 
 
 8.38 
 
 7. 11 
 16.30 
 
 2.50 
 17.0 
 .60 
 
 3-7 
 •3 
 
 1.2 
 
 .1 
 
 30.6 
 
 3-i 
 
 Milk albumen, a by-product from the manufacture of milk 
 sugar, is a good source of animal protein, but in the main it is 
 too expensive for general use as a poultry food. Some breeders 
 use it for their chicks. It is largely casein and lime, ground to a 
 meal, and contains no crude fiber. 
 
 Granulated milk is another product of this kind, except that 
 it is whole milk evaporated and crystallized. Sometimes it is 
 spoken of as powdered milk. It is useful for chick feeding for 
 the first few weeks, but its cost is high, therefore prohibitive for 
 general use. 
 
VIRTUES OF MILK 
 
 219 
 
 Milk in any form — fresh, sour, skimmed or buttermilk — is a 
 wholesome feed for all forms of livestock, and should be used 
 wherever possible in regular quantities. See Fig. 141. It is 
 
 Chicks fed corn and green clover Chicks fed wheat and green clover 
 
 Chicks fed corn, green clover and milk 
 
 141. — Experiment illustrating the benefit of milk in the chicks' diet, 
 three lots are the same age. (Wisconsin Experiment Station.) 
 
 All 
 
 palatable, aids digestion, carries a high nitrogenous content, and 
 the presence of lactic acid tends to correct bowel troubles and re- 
 duces the spread of white diarrhea. Fowls will consume large 
 quantities of it with the greatest relish. 
 
220 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Clean Fountains. — As previously mentioned, milk may be fed 
 sweet or sour, but wherever possible it should be given one way 
 or the other, and not alternated. To change it about constantly 
 sometimes results in digestive disorders. Milk is given to fowls 
 in drinking fountains, or it may be used to moisten the mash. 
 When given to drink, the vessels must be scalded at regular 
 periods, otherwise the milk is likely to become putrefied, espe- 
 cially in warm weather, which is equivalent to putrid meat, and 
 is injurious, resulting in limberneck and similar troubles. 
 
 Milk whey, a by-product from the manufacture of cheese, 
 is not so valuable as the other forms of milk, but it may be used 
 whenever it can be obtained conveniently. It is relished by 
 poultry. 
 
 Table XIX. — The Following Feeding Formulas Were Used in Four 
 Laving Competitions at Storrs, Connecticut 
 
 Scratch Grains Dry Mash 
 
 Pounds Pounds 
 
 Cracked corn 60 Wheat bran 200 
 
 Wheat 60 Corn meal 100 
 
 Heavy oats 40 Gluten feed 100 
 
 Barley 20 Ground oats 100 
 
 Kafir corn 10 Middlings 75 
 
 Buckwheat 10 Beef scrap 60 
 
 Coarse beef scrap 10 Low grade flour 25 
 
 In the fifth contest the formulas were simplified, as follows: 
 
 Scratch Grains Dry Mash 
 
 Pounds Pounds 
 
 Wheat 100 Wheat bran ioo 
 
 Cracked corn 100 Corn meal 100 
 
 Ground oats 100 
 
 Middlings 100 
 
 Fish scrap 50 
 
 Beef scrap 50 
 
 Salt adds to the palatability of the fowl's diet the same as it 
 does for human food, also it assists digestion; but it must be 
 used with more or less caution. Too much salt will result in 
 diarrhea, while excessive quantities will prove fatal in very short 
 order. Authorities recommend the use of four ounces of salt 
 to each hundred mature fowls, and none to stock under ten weeks 
 of age. 
 
CONDIMENTAL FOODS 221 
 
 Ground salt, or the kind used in the preparation of human food, 
 is best. It should be well distributed through the dry mash. If 
 wet mashes are used, the salt should be dissolved in the water 
 used to moisten the mash. Avoid rock or coarsely granulated 
 salt, because the fowls are likely to mistake it for grit, in which 
 event they will eat excessive quantities, and perhaps die. In 
 most cases where fowls have died from salt it was attributed to 
 this mistake. The writer was once called in by a neighbor who 
 lost several hens suddenly, and on examination it was found that 
 an ice-cream tub had been dumped near the kitchen door, and 
 the hens had devoured most of the rock salt used in connection 
 with the ice around the cream container. 
 
 Condiments, such as Cayenne pepper, should be used very 
 sparingly, if used at all. By some they are severely condemned; 
 others claim increased production with no ill effects. Opinion 
 is divided on the subject, though one's common sense dictates 
 that if certain elements are highly stimulating, there must follow 
 a corresponding reaction. 
 
 Condiments should be given in moderation, for the purpose of 
 seasoning the food about as would be desired by the human 
 taste. This adds palatability to the ration and increases the fowls' 
 appetites. With increased appetite more food is consumed, 
 which is the sort of stimulation to be sought, not the direct action 
 of the condiments themselves. Ground mustard or mustard 
 bran and some of the reliable poultry regulators are to be recom- 
 mended. 
 
 Charcoal is a very necessary part of the bill-of-fare. It is 
 not a condiment, and strictly speaking, it is not a food. It is 
 given for its effect as an absorbent and intestinal corrective. It 
 has a marked influence on gases, impurities and acids, relieves 
 sour stomach and indigestion, and generally sweetens the whole 
 of the inner workings. It is thought to be a laxative when eaten 
 in large quantities, and for this reason many breeders are opposed 
 to giving charcoal to little chicks. The writer has never ex- 
 perienced such trouble. Some fowls do not take kindly to char- 
 coal. The best plan is to keep it before the birds at all times in a 
 
222 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 separate hopper, the same as grit and oyster shells, or to mix it 
 with the dry mash. Granulated charcoal is a commercial article, 
 usually sold in three grades, coarse, medium and fine. 
 
 Shredded alfalfa, or mealed alfalfa, which is finely ground 
 alfalfa hay, makes an excellent mash constituent, providing the 
 quality is good. It is high in protein, ash and fat, resembling 
 wheat bran in this respect. Moreover, it contains a great deal 
 
 (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 142. — Complete equipment for chicks on range: colony house, feed hopper 
 
 and water-barrel. 
 
 of fiber, like bran, which is the worst feature about it as a poultry 
 food. 
 
 If manufacturers would only use the leaves of the alfalfa in 
 the preparation of mealed alfalfa for poultry, instead of including 
 the stalks, which have very little feeding value for fowls, this 
 product would find much greater favor. Another objection is 
 found in the susceptibility to adulteration. Timothy and other 
 grasses are sometimes used as fillers. 
 
 It is not advisable to use more than fifteen per cent of alfalfa 
 in the mash, and then only as a substitute for bran or ground 
 
BEET PULP AND PEAS 223 
 
 oats. If bran, ground oats and alfalfa are to be included, their 
 combined total should not exceed twenty-five per cent of the 
 ration. 
 
 Short-cut clover and clover meal are very similar to the alfalfa 
 products, and are used in about the same way. If anything, the 
 clover is richer in ash, protein and carbohydrates, with a trifle 
 less fiber; but it is not so attractive looking as alfalfa in a dry 
 state. Alfalfa is a bright green and has the true alfalfa smell, 
 whereas the clover is brown and not so volatile. 
 
 Cut clover or finely shredded alfalfa soaked in boiling water 
 or steamed over night, and fed separately or with a little mash, 
 makes a good substitute for green food in the winter months. 
 They could hardly be termed succulent food, however, any more 
 than they contain considerable moisture. 
 
 Dried beet pulp, shredded, a by-product of the sugar-beet in- 
 dustry, and dried green cracked peas are two other substitutes 
 for green food. Either one may be fed to advantage, and a com- 
 bination of the two makes an ideal ration. It is appetizing in 
 appearance, highly nutritious, a bulky food, comparatively in- 
 expensive, and one that has given satisfactory results for a num- 
 ber of years. Most feed dealers carry these products in stock, 
 or they will order them for a customer. The best pulp is used 
 extensively as a dairy food, and is rich in carbohydrates. It 
 contains considerable fiber. 
 
 To prepare this mixture, put equal parts of the pulp and peas 
 into a tub or other receptacle, and add about three times their 
 volume of water. Allow them to soak over night, and they will 
 absorb all the water and swell to three or four times their original 
 bulk. Before feeding next morning, loosen the mass from its 
 compact state by turning it over a couple of times with a fork, 
 and then place it before the fowls in troughs or hoppers. 
 
 If the fowls do not eat freely of the mixture at first, it is be- 
 cause they are not accustomed to it. To overcome this hesitancy 
 mix some middlings or the regular dry mash with the pulp. This 
 will give it a more familiar smell and appearance, and in a short 
 time the birds will take to it readily. 
 
224 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Importance of Succulence. — Green foods are likely to be re- 
 garded more as an accessory to the fowl's bill-of-fare than an 
 essential requirement. This notion is a mistake. Greenstuffs, 
 sometimes spoken of as succulents, are just as important as 
 grains, meals and animal foods — not so much from the stand- 
 point of nutrition, because in this respect they are far below grain, 
 
 (Courtesy Million Ess Farm) 
 Fig. 143. — Gathering greenstuffs for the fowls. 
 
 rather because of their medicinal and hygienic value. Greens 
 act as a tonic. They tone the system; counteract the evils of 
 the more concentrated foods, and assist in their assimilation. 
 Besides, they do furnish -some nutrients, especially the mineral 
 elements; also they contribute water. 
 
 The human taste craves lettuce, celery, water-cress and other 
 crisp greens, not so much for their food value, but because of their 
 
GREEN FOODS 
 
 225 
 
 beneficial effect on the system. If we tried to sustain ourselves 
 on lettuce and celery alone, we would fail, because they do not 
 contain sufficient nourishment. On the contrary, if we tried to 
 sustain ourselves without greens of any kind, we would fail also, 
 because the more concentrated foods would soon reduce our 
 systems to a break-down. The same condition applies to poultry. 
 
 Table XX. — Composition of Green Foods 
 
 Feed 
 
 Grasses 
 Alfalfa (green) ........ 
 
 Alfalfa (dry) 
 
 Clover (green) 
 
 Clover (dry) 
 
 Lawn clippings (green) . 
 Lawn clippings (dry) . . 
 
 Barley (green) 
 
 Peas and oats (green) . . 
 Roots 
 
 Potatoes (white) 
 
 Potatoes (sweet) 
 
 Beets (mangel) 
 
 Beets (sugar) 
 
 Beet pulp (dry) 
 
 Beet pulp (wet) 
 
 Onions 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Carrots 
 
 Artichokes 
 
 Leaves 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 Beet tops 
 
 Rape 
 
 Onion tops 
 
 Chard (Swiss) 
 
 Water 
 
 Per cent 
 80.OO 
 II.90 
 70.80 
 IO.OO 
 76.40 
 I5-30 
 76.OO 
 80.50 
 
 78.9 
 71. 1 
 90.9 
 86.4 
 8.0 
 89.8 
 87.6 
 
 90.5 
 88.6 
 80.0 
 
 90.5 
 95-9 
 88.0 
 89.2 
 91.0 
 87.8 
 
 Ash 
 
 Per cent 
 I.80 
 
 7-13 
 2.10 
 
 8.IO 
 2.4O 
 5-50 
 7-30 
 
 I.74 
 
 I.O 
 
 1.0 
 I.I 
 
 •9 
 54 
 
 .6 
 
 .6 
 
 .8 
 1.0 
 1.0 
 
 i-4 
 .8 
 2.4 
 2.0 
 1.1 
 2.4 
 
 Per cent 
 4.90 
 
 I4.12 
 4.40 
 
 16.32 
 2.30 
 7.40 
 2.71 
 2.90 
 
 2.1 
 
 1.6 
 
 14 
 
 1.8 
 9-5 
 •9 
 1.4 
 1.1 
 1.1 
 2.5 
 
 3-8 
 1.6 
 
 44 
 34 
 3-9 
 44 
 
 Fiber 
 
 15 
 
 Carbo- 
 hy- 
 drates 
 
 .70 
 
 7 
 
 .09 
 
 37 
 
 .10 
 
 13 
 
 .84 
 
 45 
 
 .IC 
 
 13 
 
 .20 
 
 42 
 
 .90 
 .00 
 
 7 
 8. 
 
 .6 
 
 17- 
 
 •3 
 
 24. 
 
 •9 
 
 5- 
 
 •9 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 9- 
 
 61. 
 
 6. 
 
 •7 
 .2 
 
 9- 
 6. 
 
 •3 
 
 .8 
 
 7- 
 L5- 
 
 5 
 
 2. 
 
 •5 
 
 1. 
 
 2 
 
 2. 
 
 6 
 
 2. 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 2. 
 
 Fat 
 
 Ter cent 
 .07 
 
 2.42 
 
 Fowls are vegetable eaters, and they are grazers, though not 
 to the same extent as geese and ducks. They like to forage, 
 which affords much needed exercise as well as tidbits of greens. 
 On the majority of egg farms, and the same thing is true of most 
 of the backyard flocks, there is not sufficient range to maintain 
 
226 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 abundant pasture. It takes a large acreage of land to support 
 any considerable number of birds on the natural vegetation, be- 
 cause the fowls soon destroy it. Result, bare yards and runs, 
 in which event it becomes necessary to supply the greens in a 
 more or less artificial manner. 
 
 When the poultry raiser's yards become bare, and this erst- 
 while plant food is not supplemented from the outside, his venture 
 is in a fair way to quit the business. He may not be aware of 
 this fact, but it is true nevertheless. Fowls will not thrive pro- 
 
 
 
 
 ''Ji\ ■ '■•i:t:'--'-''- 
 
 "'<S$^v. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r.-> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 £~~.. 
 
 
 
 
 '"'-¥M*$r '•" • 
 
 Ws0$M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 
 (Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 
 
 Fig. 144. — Relation of ordinary feed oats to sprouted oats. The pile on the 
 left was sprouted from the same quantity as shown in the right-hand pile. 
 
 fitably without greenstuff's of some kind. Their eggs are likely 
 to be weak and to lack fertility. Weak eggs mean poor hatches 
 and chicks with weakened constitutions, than which nothing is 
 more difficult to combat in the brooder. It is unreasonable to 
 expect strong, productive pullets from chicks with impaired 
 stamina, hence in a few generations the vigor and productive- 
 ness of the flock is reduced to an unprofitable level. The next 
 step is failure. 
 
 Failure to appreciate the importance of green food is not so 
 much ignorance as indifference. Most poultry keepers are 
 
AVOID BARE YARDS 227 
 
 aware of the benefits of succulence, but because it is the most 
 troublesome part of the ration to supply, particularly in winter, 
 there is a tendency to side-step it — to take chances on getting 
 by without it. As cold weather approaches the fowls receive 
 less and less green food, finally none at all, until the advent of 
 spring, when the problem is temporarily solved by the sprouting 
 of a new crop of grass and weeds. 
 
 There can be no doubt as to the trouble involved in supplying 
 greenstuffs, especially for large flocks. You can buy grains 
 and meals and most of the other supplies in sacks, and there is 
 very little care required to store them. But not so with green- 
 stuffs. Plant food involves farming; the crops must be sowed, 
 cultivated and harvested, and then carefully stored for the 
 winter so that they will not freeze. The ^alternatives are to 
 sprout oats in rotation, or to purchase plant food in the form of 
 vegetables, such as cabbage, turnips and small potatoes, from 
 nearby growers. 
 
 Table XXI. — Feeding Rations for Laying Hens Recommended by In- 
 diana Experiment Station 
 Scratch Grains Dry Mash 
 
 Pounds Pounds 
 
 Cracked corn 10 Wheat bran 5 
 
 Wheat 10 Middlings 5 
 
 Oats 5 Meat scrap 3.5 
 
 A light feeding of the scratch grains is given in the morning, and all the 
 birds will clean up at night. Dry mash is kept before the light breeds all the 
 time, and for the heavier breeds from noon on. Succulent food is supplied in 
 the form of sprouted oats, cabbage or mangels. The following variations are 
 suggested: (1) Replace the beef scrap with 62 pounds of skim milk; (2) drop 
 the wheat and increase the corn and oats; (3) give fowls abundant range and 
 cut down a portion of the mash. 
 
 The poultryman has a wide list of plants from which to derive 
 greenstuffs, and a great number of ways of placing them before 
 the fowls. Practically speaking, almost anything that has 
 tender, juicy foliage, fruit or roots is suitable, from the grasses 
 to beets — mangel wurtzels. The point to bear in mind is, that 
 the product must be appetizing and palatable, or made so. 
 
 Clover and alfalfa pasturage are considered to be the finest 
 sources of greenstuffs. Rye is another excellent crop, especially 
 
228 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 for a fall planting, because it will germinate in cold weather, 
 following which the sprouts are available in the early spring, 
 weeks ahead of any other crop, except wheat, which can be used 
 for the same purpose. 
 
 Oats and peas sown together, with a thin sprinkling of clover 
 and rape seed, make a good planting for poultry pasture. The 
 oats and peas furnish the first growth of greens, and serve to 
 protect the more delicate shoots of the clover and rape. The 
 
 latter will grow late into the 
 fall, and so long as the crown 
 of the rape plants is not de- 
 stroyed, they will continue to 
 bear foliage in abundance, 
 which is much relished by 
 fowls of all ages. 
 
 If fowls are not accustomed 
 to unlimited quantities of 
 green food, it must be fed with 
 more or less caution at first, 
 especially rye pasture, or the 
 birds are likely to develop a 
 mild form of diarrhea. 
 
 Turning fowls out on pas- 
 ture is the easiest way to fur- 
 nish greens, but unless the 
 pasture is given an oppor- 
 tunity to obtain a strong 
 growth, the birds will quickly 
 destroy it. To overcome this, 
 the practice is to have two or more yards, and to use them 
 successively. Or the greenstuffs can be cut with a scythe or 
 mower, raked up and fed to the birds inside their houses. If this 
 method is followed, the greens must be fed in small quantities, 
 once or twice a day, to keep them fresh. As soon as they wilt 
 they are not eaten with any degree of relish. 
 
 The best grasses to sow for permanent poultry pasture are 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 
 Fig. 145. — Commercial fattening plant, 
 well lighted and ventilated. 
 
GRASSES FOR PASTURE 229 
 
 blue grass, red top, low, Dutch or white clover. Other seeds, 
 such as red clover, timothy, alsike and alfalfa, make very good 
 hay, but they are not durable enough for poultry. They are 
 soon killed off. 
 
 Swiss chard and lettuce are useful for feeding baby chicks in 
 the early spring. They should be cut into short lengths and fed 
 in small quantities to keep them fresh. 
 
 Onion tops and sliced onions are both excellent for chicks. If 
 you have a brood which is inclined to mope around, out of sorts, 
 so to speak, and you want to put a little "pep" into the chicks, 
 try a few onions sliced fine. In short order the chicks will be 
 tussling and tugging at the slices of onion as though they were 
 bugs or worms. 
 
 Onions are very good for mature stock, too, except that when 
 fed in large quantities to laying hens they are apt to impart the 
 flavor of the onion to the eggs. 
 
 Beets — mangel wurtzels — is the best all-round vegetable for 
 poultry. They are easy to grow, and keep well for winter feed- 
 ing. From twenty to twenty-five pounds per day per hundred 
 hens is about the correct ration. Shredding the beets by means 
 of a root cutter is the best way to feed them ; or they may be cut 
 into large pieces and spiked on nails, in the poultry houses. Sus- 
 pending the halved beets in a fish net is another way to place this 
 sort of food before fowls. The idea is to keep the beets from being 
 tracked around in the dirt and litter. In cold weather the middle 
 of the day is the only time to feed succulent food, so that it will 
 not freeze and become unpalatable. 
 
 Table XXII. — War-Time Rations for Laying Hens Recommended by 
 the American Egg Laying Contest 
 
 Scratch Grains 1 Dry Mash 
 
 Pounds Pounds 
 
 Cracked corn 400 Wheat bran 150 
 
 Middlings 150 
 
 Beef scrap 100 
 
 Charcoal 4 
 
 Fine salt 3 
 
 Cabbage is relished by fowls, though it should be fed in modera- 
 tion, lest it impart an objectionable flavor to the eggs. It is 
 
230 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 somewhat difficult to store in winter, and not always available 
 at an economical price. If the cabbage is grown at home, a good 
 plan for its storage is to take up the heads with the roots, then 
 turn a fairly deep furrow, place the cabbages head downward in 
 
 (Courtesy Cornell Expeiiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 146. — Home-made rack for sprouting oats. Note the seven trays, one for 
 each day in the week, grown in rotation. 
 
 this furrow, cover them over with soil, allowing the roots to stick 
 above ground, whence they can be taken up as desired. 
 
 So much of the cabbage grown for market is not saleable, due 
 to small, misshapen and loosely headed specimens, that it is 
 
SPROUTED OATS 231 
 
 possible for the poultry keeper to bargain with farmers for this 
 condemned cabbage at a low price. The writer has bought large 
 quantities of cabbage for fifty cents a load, and, of course, I fur- 
 nished the labor of picking and hauling. In this way cabbage 
 is a very cheap food. 
 
 Undersized potatoes and similar vegetables are often pro- 
 curable at low prices, and make good succulent food for winter 
 use. Hard vegetables, like potatoes and turnips, should be 
 boiled first, or they will not be eaten in large quantities. Cook 
 them in their skins, and when soft crush them slightly and mix 
 with a little dry mash. Fed warm, this is a splendid food for 
 cold mornings. 
 
 Waste fruits, pumpkins, melons and other garden products 
 are available for poultry. Fowls eat them with the greatest 
 avidity. The main consideration is to try and feed them in 
 regular quantities, rather than in large doses some days and none 
 at other times. And always feed them in troughs or hoppers to 
 keep them as clean as possible. 
 
 Sprouted oats make a convenient form of raising greenstuff 
 in limited quarters, or during the winter months when plants 
 cannot be grown outdoors. Chickens eat them greedily. They 
 are commonly used and possess unquestioned merits. Some 
 writers refer to them as a cheap food, and they have been widely 
 advertised as the secret of feed at fifteen cents per bushel. This 
 idea is a delusion. Oats are oats, whether you feed them as dry 
 hard grains or in the form of sprouts. Sprouting changes the 
 form of the feed and increases the bulk by means of water, but 
 it does not add nutriment. According to some authorities, 
 sprouted oats contain about 76 per cent water, 3.2 per cent pro- 
 tein, 0.8 per cent ash, 16.3 per cent carbohydrates, 1.3 per cent 
 fat and 2.5 per cent fiber. 
 
 Warmth and moisture are the essential conditions for sprouting 
 oats. Use a good grade of heavy feed oats, natural oats, not 
 bleached or clipped oats. Soak them in a pail of warm water 
 for about forty-eight hours, and then spread them out on trays 
 to a thickness of about an inch. At this time the excess water is 
 
232 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 drained off, but each day the oats must be sprinkled and kept 
 as moist as possible without having the oats actually immersed 
 in water. 
 
 A good plan is to cover the oats with pieces of burlap, some- 
 thing to act as a blanket and conserve the moisture. For the 
 first couple of days, or until there is danger of breaking the roots 
 and sprouts, the oats are stirred about on the trays. In about a 
 week they are ready for feeding; the sprouts will be two or three 
 inches long, and the roots will be so closely interwoven that the 
 whole tray of oats can be picked up in a mass or cake. 
 
 Mould. — The one difficulty in sprouting oats is mould. To 
 prevent it the oats should be treated with a solution of formalin. 
 In the pail of water in which the oats are first soaked, add about 
 ten drops of formalin. All trays and other fixtures should be 
 sprayed with a solution of formalin at regular intervals. 
 
 There are numerous types of oat-sprouting cabinets on the 
 market, heated by kerosene lamps, which are convenient of 
 operation. Similar appliances are easily contrived by anyone 
 who is mechanically inclined. 
 
 Mineral Matter. — As will be noted from the analyses of dif- 
 ferent grains and -feeds, practically all foodstuffs contain a cer- 
 tain percentage of mineral substances or ash. Mineral matter 
 may be said to determine the efficiency of a ration, in that it 
 increases the digestibility of all the other nutrients, especially 
 protein. Besides, it is required for the upbuilding of bone and 
 in the formation of egg shells, not to mention many other uses 
 throughout the body. 
 
 Mineral matter should be supplied in two forms: that which 
 is quickly available as such; and in a hard form, not so easily 
 assimilable, but for use in the gizzard for the purpose of crushing 
 and grinding the other feeds. A diet consisting of a well-bal- 
 anced mash, scratch feed and an abundance of green food will 
 supply the first-named sort of mineral matter, especially if the 
 mash contains either granulated bone, bone meal or meat scrap. 
 The second kind of mineral matter, the hard variety, is supplied 
 
233 
 
234 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 by grit and oyster shells. No pen of poultry should be without 
 these two products. 
 
 Oyster shells, also other kinds of sea shells, crushed to small 
 particles, are rich in carbonate of lime, so necessary for the forma- 
 tion of egg shells. They are quickly dissolved by the action of 
 the gizzard, hence they will not answer the purpose of grit. 
 
 Grit, to aid the gizzard in grinding solids, corresponds to teeth 
 in other animals, consequently it must be hard, sharp and angu- 
 lar, and preferably bright, so that fowls will be attracted to it. 
 The commercial forms of poultry grit are usually made from 
 crushed quartz, granite, phosphate rock and feldspar. They 
 come in various sizes for poultry of all ages. 
 
 Table XXIII. — Composition of Oyster Shells 
 
 Per Cent 
 
 Carbonate of lime 93.7 1 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia 1.39 
 
 Phosphate of lime 0.76 
 
 Organic matter 4- 2 4 
 
 Grit contains very little lime, and very little of the other min- 
 eral substances in soluble form. What nutrients it may supply 
 are but incidental ; its chief function is a mechanical one — grinding. 
 
 Grit and oyster shells should be kept before fowls in separate 
 hoppers at all times. It is surprising the quantities they will 
 consume. If fowls have been deprived of grit for a considerable 
 period, they will eat it as ravenously as though it were grain. 
 Lack of grit, especially among flocks kept away from the soil, 
 has had much to do with the failures in the poultry industry. 
 Apparently, the soil furnishes some material which the system 
 of the fowl craves, and which is deficient in most of our foods. 
 Witness how hens revel in scratching in free earth. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 
 
 Simplicity of Operation. — To-day few people question the value 
 and convenience of the incubator, though there are some who 
 suspect that hatching machines might be difficult to operate, 
 or that they require special training and considerable experience 
 before good results are to be expected. This is a mistaken idea. 
 Incubators are not difficult to run, and previous experience is 
 altogether unnecessary. Naturally, however, the more practice 
 one has with a machine, whether it be an incubator, gas engine, 
 cream separator or other implement, the more proficiency one de- 
 velops. On the other hand, there is a kind of beginner's luck 
 in the matter of these things. The writer has seen some un- 
 usually large hatches brought off by novices. 
 
 Regularity and Care. — Perhaps it is a discredit to call this 
 success luck. Let us call it the beginner's watchfulness, or be- 
 ginner s faithfulness in observing the necessary rules, for such it 
 really is. Later, when we become fully experienced, we are apt 
 to develop over-confidence, or a sort of carelessness, which may 
 cause difficulties. Regularity and carefulness, both in the man- 
 agement of the heating device and in the handling of the eggs, go 
 far toward insuring success. Reliable incubators are made al- 
 most automatic and fool-proof these days. They are so simple 
 that children can operate them. Therefore when poor hatches 
 result, it is well to look for other causes beside the machine. 
 
 Condition of the Eggs. — No incubator can vitalize eggs with 
 weak germs, or overcome conditions which may have had a del- 
 eterious effect on the eggs before they were even taken to the 
 incubator cellar. The first and one of the most important steps 
 in the process of either natural or artificial incubation begins in 
 
 235 
 
236 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 the condition of the eggs. See chapter on selecting eggs for 
 incubation. If the eggs are in every way strong and hatchable, 
 the incubator will hatch them almost as well as the hen, and a 
 great deal more economically, because the machine can handle 
 such large quantities. 
 
 The prospective purchaser of an incubator is sometimes per- 
 
 Fig. 148. 
 
 -Small single tray incubator suitable for the farmer and backyard 
 enterprise. 
 
 plexed as to which is the best type of machine for his purpose. 
 There are many different makes of incubators on the market, 
 which may be divided into two general classes: hot-air machines 
 and hot-water machines, all of which are constructed along 
 moisture and non-moisture designs. In principle they are es- 
 sentially the same. The reason for this is clear: the whole 
 theory of incubation is based upon the fact that, if a fertile egg 
 
TYPES OF INCUBATORS 
 
 237 
 
 is kept for a sufficient period of time under certain conditions of 
 heat, ventilation, moisture, and position, it will be transformed 
 into a healthy fowl. 
 
 Small incubators are heated by gas or kerosene, though most 
 of them use the latter. Gas burners require less attention and 
 are desirable in every way, but it is unfortunate that gas is not 
 
 • > 
 
 B 
 
 Fig. 149. — Double tray lamp incubator with capacity of from 200 to 400 eggs. 
 
 available in all localities. Electricity is also used for heating 
 incubators, and has proved satisfactory, but it requires a totally 
 different method of radiation. The large incubators — those 
 which have a capacity of many thousands of eggs, popularly 
 known as mammoth machines, are mostly heated by a coal- 
 burning stove, though gas is used to some extent. 
 
 The hot-air-heated machines are those in which fresh air is 
 
238 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 taken in at the lamp, heated as it passes around the drum, which 
 corresponds to the chimney of a lamp, and passed through the 
 egg chamber by means of a diaphragm in the ceiling of the ma- 
 chine, and then out through variously arranged outlets. See 
 Fig. 150. In some machines the heated air only passes over the 
 
 {California Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 150. — Cross-section of a hot-air incubator, showing method of regu- 
 lating the temperature and ventilation, a, Counterpoise weight; b, regulator 
 arm; c, connecting rod; d, thumb-screw; e, pivot casting; /, heater disc; g, 
 cotton batting filling between inside and outside cases; h, thermostat; i, 
 egg chamber; j, moisture pan; k, nursery; m, bottom ventilator; 11, insula- 
 tion in bottom of incubator; p, outlet to discharge air from egg chamber into 
 false bottom beneath moisture pan; r, fresh air intake; s, outlet for escape of 
 lamp fumes. 
 
 radiator above the egg trays, and never actually enters the egg 
 chambers. 
 
 Hot-water machines are heated by tanks or a system of pipes 
 above the egg trays. In both types the heat is supplied with a 
 regulator which, acting upon a valve or damper, controls the 
 admission of heat to the egg chamber. Such a device is called 
 the thermostat. 
 
 Moisture. — Whether moisture should or should not be sup- 
 
MOISTURE AND TEMPERATURE 239 
 
 plied has never been definitely decided; both principles have 
 their advocates. Some machines are built with pans to hold 
 moist sand or water, others have none. Some machines are 
 built with a solid bottom, the idea being to conserve the moisture 
 within the eggs, and others are built with slatted bottoms, 
 through which there is a constant circulation of air. All types 
 are in general use, and all give equally good results. The ques- 
 tion of moisture is one that must be solved by the individual 
 operator. Common sense should tell us, however, to conform 
 in a general way to the instructions of the manufacturer. In- 
 cubators which are designed to use moisture pans seldom give 
 best results when operated without the pans. Similarly, the 
 non-moisture machines are seldom improved by the addition of 
 moisture pans. 
 
 In the opinion of the writer there can be no set rule advanced 
 on the subject of moisture. That excessive evaporation is bad 
 for a hatch, there can be no doubt. And too much moisture will 
 ruin a hatch, also. It seems to be better to err upon the side of 
 too little than too much. But everything depends upon the 
 incubator, its location, the season of the year, climate and the 
 external atmosphere at the time of the hatch. If the weather 
 is extremely dry and hot, more evaporation will take place than 
 when the weather is cool and damp; this is only natural. An ex- 
 amination of the air cell in the egg by means of a candle will 
 reveal the exact condition of the contents. See chapter on test- 
 ing hatching eggs. 
 
 Temperature. — An absolutely uniform temperature is not at all 
 necessary to success, and in fact, it is seldom obtainable. That 
 statement does not mean the operator should disregard tempera- 
 ture or cease his vigilance. On the contrary he should aim to 
 keep the thermometer as near a certain degree as possible. The 
 point is this, variations of a degree or so either up or down, if 
 corrected within a reasonable length of time, will cause no dam- 
 age. The operator should aim to maintain a temperature of 
 102^2 degrees for the entire hatch. If the temperature drops 
 to 100 degrees or rises to 104^2 degrees, no ill effects will result, 
 
240 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 providing either extreme is discovered and corrected. These 
 temperatures might be termed the limits of natural incubation. 
 Some operators prefer to start a hatch at 102 degrees, and grad- 
 ually allow it to creep up to 103^2 degrees at the close. 
 
 Hen's Temperature. — Personally, I think there is no better 
 authority than an imitation of the hen's ways. If we insert a ther- 
 mometer under a sitting hen we will find a temperature of 104^2 de- 
 grees against her bare breast ; in her plumage in about the center of 
 the nest the temperature is a trifle more than 103 degrees; while 
 the temperature inside the sitter's wings, a position that corre- 
 sponds to the outside row of eggs, is about 100 degrees, sometimes a 
 
 little less. Thus, the eggs are 
 exposed to a constant vari- 
 ation in temperature, with an 
 average of 1 02 ^degrees, The 
 hen turns her eggs about eight 
 times daily in order to over- 
 come this variation, but it 
 cannot be doubted that some 
 eggs will remain in the 
 warmest part of the nest for a 
 greater length of time, no 
 matter how faithful and care- 
 ful the hen may be. 
 Thermometer. — Notwithstanding the existence of this varia- 
 tion, it should not be construed to mean that the office of the 
 thermometer is unimportant. The thermometer should be 
 absolutely accurate, since it is only by this instrument that the 
 operator can attempt an average temperature. We have shown 
 where a variation of a degree or so will not seriously affect a 
 hatch, if it is shortly corrected, but if the temperature varies a 
 degree or even a half degree for the entire period, it will make a 
 big change in the hatch. 
 
 There are two general styles of incubator thermometers, while 
 each style has numerous modifications. One is mounted on a 
 metal frame and placed on the egg tray, with the bulb located 
 
 {(Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company) 
 
 Fig. 151. — Incubator tray showing the 
 relation of thermometer to the eggs. 
 
TESTING THE THERMOMETER 241 
 
 at the level of the centers of the eggs; the other is hung directly 
 above the eggs, with the bulb as close to the eggs as is practic- 
 able, but not touching them. See Fig. 151. It is a mistake to 
 have the thermometer in contact with the eggs, because the 
 temperature will vary with the vitality of the egg touched by it. 
 Touching good eggs it will be high; next to weak or dead germs it 
 will be low, thus never registering the real temperature of the 
 egg chamber. 
 
 Unless there is a very good reason for changing the position of 
 the thermometer, it should be used in strict accordance with the 
 manufacturer's directions. In/ some egg chambers a difference 
 of an inch in the height of the bulb will make a difference of a 
 degree in the temperature. 
 
 Testing Thermometer. — It is a good plan to test the ther- 
 mometer once a year, even with a new machine. This can be 
 done by comparing it with a clinical thermometer, which has 
 about the same scale and range; place both instruments in warm 
 water, heated to about 103 degrees, which should be stirred, and 
 the bulbs kept in about the same position. Or a thermometer 
 can be certified by an optical goods store or a reliable drug store. 
 
 The thermometer is placed near the front of the egg chamber 
 so that it can be easily read without opening the door to the 
 machine. Even so some thermometers are particularly difficult 
 to read, and it is surprising that so little improvement has been 
 made in this respect. An electric flash lamp is very helpful in 
 reading a thermometer. By all means learn to read the ther- 
 mometer without opening the door; to so do will cause the tem- 
 perature to fall. 
 
 Set Machine Level. — The incubator should be set up level by 
 all means. Heat rises to the highest point, and if the machine 
 is not plumb, one part of the egg chamber will be warmer than 
 the other. Do not guess at the level of the machine, but test it 
 with a spirit level, both ways, for length and breadth, and cor- 
 rect any irregularity with thin blocks of wood under the legs of 
 the machine. 
 
 Some manufacturers are careless about the fit of the door, or 
 16 
 
242 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 the tracks for the egg trays. The door should fit snugly, but it 
 must open and close easily, without jarring, which will tend to 
 throw the regulator out of adjustment, and the machine out of 
 plumb. If the doors stick, which they are likely to do with the 
 first hatch, plane them down a bit, or rub the edges with sand- 
 paper. If the trays do not run smoothly, plane them also, and 
 then rub the bearing edges with soapstone, or some other sub- 
 stance that will reduce friction. Do not use oil. 
 
 (Courtesy Newton Giant Incubator Company) 
 
 Fig. 152. — 9,600-egg double deck coal-burning incubator. Note handles at 
 end of machine which operate the egg-turning mechanism. 
 
 In selecting a machine here are a few pointers: The size to buy 
 will depend upon circumstances, of course, but it should be 
 borne in mind that it does not take any more time to care for 
 the heating device on a 400-egg machine than it does for a 60-egg 
 machine. And in most cases the fuel cost per egg is reduced with 
 the increased capacity of the machine. Furthermore, the larger 
 the machine the less likelihood there is for a variation in the 
 temperature. 
 
VIRTUES OF A CELLAR 
 
 243 
 
 In regard to price, it is well to consider that the value of the 
 machine is small compared to the value of the eggs placed in it 
 during the lifetime of the incubator; hence it is poor economy 
 to purchase a machine just because it is cheap. Buy one that 
 is reliable. The good hatches that it will produce will soon return 
 its initial cost. 
 
 Where to locate the machine? — This question is important. 
 It has much to do with the convenience of running the machine, 
 and when a device is conveniently run, it goes a long way towards 
 successful operation. One needs room to work about an incu- 
 
 (Courtesy Niagara Farm) 
 
 Fig. 153. — Interior incubator cellar. 
 
 bator, and sufficient light to perform the work properly. Then 
 there must be plenty of fresh air, yet without direct drafts, and 
 the place must be clean, free from shocks and vibrations, such 
 as are transmitted by a weak floor and which would disturb the 
 adjustment of the heating apparatus, and the location should be 
 permanent and easy of access for the attendant. 
 
 Cellar is Best. — Incubators are run in a great variety of places 
 and under the most varying conditions; I have seen them 
 operated in the barn, attic, loft, cellar, shed, spring-house, parlor 
 and in a tent. Be that as it may, authorities agree that the best 
 
{Courtesy Candee Incubator Company) 
 
 Fig. 154. — Erection of a mammoth incubator. Upper picture shows the 
 sections and parts ready to be assembled. Middle picture shows the heater 
 set up and the foundations temporarily braced to receive the body of the ma- 
 chine. Lower picture shows the first section in place. 
 
 244 
 
(Courtesy Candee Incubator Company) 
 
 Fig. 155. — Erection of a mammoth incubator, continued from opposite 
 page. Upper picture shows the second section in place. Lower picture 
 illustrates the completed machine, with temporary bracing removed. 
 
 245 
 
246 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 location is where the atmosphere is more or less moist, where the 
 temperature is practically uniform, and cool, and where at the 
 same time it is possible to obtain ventilation without draft. 
 The air in the incubator apartment must be sweet and fresh or 
 the eggs will not receive the oxygen which they absolutely re- 
 quire at all times. 
 
 These conditions are seldom found in buildings above ground, 
 especially in frame structures, consequently it has become cus- 
 tomary to run incubators in cellars and basements. In fact, 
 there is a generally accepted view that they must be run in 
 cellars for best results. 
 
 If only a few machines are in use, they may be operated in the 
 cellar of the poultryman's house, which is perfectly practicable, 
 except that it is advisable to partition off a tight room for the in- 
 cubators, so that the heat from a furnace or other objectionable 
 influence will not affect the hatches. Where the incubating 
 equipment is extensive, particularly if mammoth machines are 
 contemplated, it is better to have the apparatus housed in a cellar 
 specially built for the purpose. See Fig. 155. Common sense 
 teaches us that if equipment of any kind is not afforded suitable 
 quarters, we cannot hope for its fullest efficiency. 
 
 For convenience in shipping and to save freight incubators are 
 packed and crated within the smallest compass. With each ship- 
 ment the manufacturer sends out a book or card of directions, 
 telling how to unpack and set up the machine, and how to 
 operate it. These instructions should be carefully followed. 
 Read them carefully before attempting to set up the machine, 
 count and inspect the parts, and then put them together in a 
 workmanlike manner. See Fig. 154. 
 
 In the case of a second-hand machine, it should be thoroughly 
 cleaned and disinfected, and the heating apparatus carefully 
 examined — taken down and re-assembled, if necessary. 
 
 Care of Lamp. — In oil-burning machines be particularly care- 
 ful of the lamp. Always start with a new wick, which should be 
 slightly trimmed at the corners, so as to produce a nicely rounded 
 flame. Avoid the fish-tailed flame, for it is apt to smoke and 
 
CARE OF LAMP HEATER 
 
 247 
 
 start trouble. Fill the bowl of the lamp with a good grade of oil, 
 not too full, because as the oil warms it will expand and may over- 
 flow. This is not dangerous, of course, any more than it is dis- 
 agreeable to have oil spilled on things. It may cause smoke, or 
 the oil may find its way to the eggs by means of the operator's 
 hands, which will endanger the hatch. For this reason it is a 
 good plan to turn and handle the eggs before caring for the lamp. 
 
 Regulating Flame. — If the 
 machine is of the hot- water type, 
 then, of course, the tank must be 
 filled with water before the lamp 
 is lighted. After lighting the 
 lamp and placing it firmly in 
 position, which should be accom- 
 plished without jolting the ma- 
 chine, regulate the burner so that 
 the flame is about half as high as 
 it should be finally. The reason 
 for this is, as soon a^the chimney 
 or heater warms, it will draw the 
 flame upward and increase its 
 height. It is, therefore, a safe 
 practice to return about a half- 
 hour after the lamp is lighted, 
 to see that the flame is all right. 
 
 Skilled operators visit their in- 
 cubators at frequent intervals, 
 including an inspection the last 
 
 thing at night. The machines seldom need attention, but it is 
 gratifying to assure oneself that everything is running properly. 
 In hot weather, when the temperature of the cellar is likely to rise 
 in the middle of the day, especially toward the close of a hatch, 
 when the eggs themselves radiate considerable heat, it is often 
 necessary to lower the burner of an oil-burning machine almost 
 to the point of extinguishing it. In some cases I have found it 
 
 (Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company) 
 
 Fig. 156. — Well-built incubator 
 heater protected by metal casing. 
 Heaters of this kind meet the ap- 
 proval of fire underwriters. 
 
248 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 expedient to turn the lamp out completely, sometimes for several 
 hours, re-lighting it again toward evening. 
 
 Always test an incubator before filling it with eggs. This ad- 
 vice applies to both old and new machines. A few hours spent 
 in adjustment will be time and money saved later on, perhaps. 
 
 Just because a machine 
 worked satisfactorily the last 
 time it was used the preceding 
 season, is no guarantee that it 
 has remained in perfect adjust- 
 ment. During the six months 
 or more in which it was idle a 
 great many things could hap- 
 pen' to it. Dust or dirt may 
 have clogged some of the parts, 
 dampness may have caused 
 swelling or warping, a child, 
 stray fowl, cat, rat or mouse 
 may have interfered with the 
 regulator or some other vital 
 part. 
 
 Heat Control. — It is impos- 
 sible, of course, to attempt to 
 explain the individual peculi- 
 arities of the heating devices 
 of different makes of machines. 
 The card or book of directions 
 which accompanies the incu- 
 bator should be followed for 
 this advice. The general principle, however, is the same in all 
 machines. Inside the egg chamber there is a thermostat, an instru- 
 ment made of a combination of metals, such as steel, zinc and 
 aluminum, which contract and expand, and thereby operate a 
 damper. Wafer or disc thermostats, which contain some fluid used 
 for expanding the disc, are also used. The point is this, they are 
 connected by a thin rod to a bar or regulating arm, which is 
 
 15nu*<;t.>*»5\. VVy« 
 
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 II Toy Cower Ci^ 
 
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 17 \.Kfttac,».»\*a»4\e 
 
 19 \>ouSo\« Snm V\r 
 
 £0 Wi\(v WAVGu-Ab^xxt^ 
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 {Courtesy Prairie Slate Incubator Company) 
 
 Fig. 157. — Diagram of an incubator 
 heater and lamp. 
 
TESTING AND REGULATING 
 
 249 
 
 Heater without chimney 
 
 nicely balanced by means of a counterpoise weight. On the 
 
 other end of this arm there is a damper, suspended over the top 
 
 of the heater, which opens and 
 
 closes, thereby permitting the 
 
 heat to enter the machine or to 
 
 escape around the damper. Some 
 
 thermostats regulate the size of 
 
 the flame as well as the position 
 
 of the damper. 
 
 The position of the counter- 
 poise weight is usually located at 
 the factory, and seldom needs 
 attention; but it should be so 
 placed in point of balance that 
 it will develop sufficient leverage 
 to raise the damper which is hung 
 at the other end, as soon as there 
 is the slightest pull on the con- 
 necting rod which leads to the 
 thermostat. In other words, the 
 damper or tin wafer over the 
 heater should be a trifle heavier 
 than the counterpoise weight, 
 consequently lie flat over the vent 
 in the heater when the machine is 
 cold. 
 
 We are cautioned not to tam- 
 per with the heat-regulating ap- 
 pliance, which is good advice in 
 a way, except that intelligent 
 tampering, which amounts to ad- 
 justing, is sometimes necessary. 
 Occasionally the regulator arm is 
 
 found bent out of line, if it is metal, or perhaps warped, if it is 
 wood, in which case the alignment will have to be corrected, or 
 the damper will not fall directly over the vent in the top of the 
 
 (Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company) 
 
 Fig. 158. — Complete gas heater for 
 incubator or brooder. 
 
250 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 heater. Then again, the tin wafer which acts as the damper may 
 be bent or twisted in some trifling manner, or thrown out of poise, 
 which will not allow it to settle evenly over the vent. Note these 
 things carefully, and your common sense will tell you if they seem 
 to function correctly. 
 
 Adjusting Regulator. — As soon as the thermometer registers 
 102 degrees, the connecting rod between the regulator arm and 
 the thermostat should be adjusted by means of a thumb-screw 
 so that sufficient tension is placed on the regulator to raise the 
 damper about an eighth of an inch, perhaps a sixteenth of an 
 inch, over the vent in the heater. Then, if the heat increases 
 and the thermostat expands, this expansion will transfer greater 
 tension to the connecting rod, which in turn lifts the damper and 
 permits the excess heat to escape. 
 
 The temperature of 102 degrees should be maintained for 
 several hours, preferably twenty-four hours, before the eggs are 
 placed in the machine, and this temperature should be attained 
 without having to turn the flame up so high as to be in danger of 
 smoking. Once the machine has been adjusted to "blow off," 
 so to speak, at 102 degrees, and it has been found to work satis- 
 factorily, do not meddle with it. 
 
 When the eggs are first placed in the chamber, though the 
 temperature was correct previously, the heat will fall instantly. 
 In fact, the thermometer will probably fall so low as not to read 
 at all; but do not be alarmed, this is to be expected, and is due 
 to the temperature of the eggs. It is likely that the eggs had a 
 temperature of 50 degrees, and if there are several hundred of 
 them in the one chamber, it will take twelve hours or more for 
 the incubator to warm them to the correct temperature. 
 
 Remember that you have this latitude to depend upon in the 
 operation of a machine: Several hours are required to affect the 
 interior of the egg a single degree. That is, if you should sud- 
 denly find something wrong with the heating apparatus and the 
 thermometer registering 98 degrees or 106 degrees, it does not 
 necessarily follow that the interior of the eggs is that temperature. 
 And the more advanced the hatch, the greater the increase in this 
 
LOADING EGG TRAYS 
 
 251 
 
 reserve so far as a deficiency in heat is concerned, by reason of 
 the heat generated by the embryos. From the fourteenth day 
 this natural heat is quite noticeable. 
 
 Cases have come to my attention in which chickens have 
 hatched from eggs left out of the incubator all night, due to for- 
 getfulness. Therefore, if you meet with accidents, do not as- 
 sume that the hatch is ruined, and destroy the eggs; but correct 
 the error, and then in a day or so test the eggs to see what dam- 
 
 e 
 
 Fig. 159. — Design for concrete incubator cellar. 
 
 age, if any, has been done. It is surprising to learn the extent 
 of improper usage and handling to which eggs can be subjected 
 at times, and still develop into perfectly formed chicks. I have 
 thrown presumably unhatchable eggs into a manure pit, and had 
 them hatch chicks. 
 
 Loading the Trays. — If a machine can be operated for a couple 
 of days with no appreciable variation in temperature, one can 
 feel reasonably sure there is no fault in its mechanism, and that 
 it is safe to commence hatching. Place the eggs on the travs on 
 
252 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 
 their sides, never on end, and never on top of one another. Fill 
 the trays comfortably full, but avoid crowding them. This is 
 most unwise and poor economy; it will make turning very diffi- 
 cult, and breakage is likely to occur. 
 A good plan is to allow room for two 
 or three more eggs at each end of the 
 tray. 
 
 For the first three days after the eggs 
 are placed in the machine, little atten- 
 tion is required save the daily filling 
 and trimming of the lamp. This, of 
 course, must be done punctiliously. It 
 is advisable to have a special time to 
 do this work, and never deviate from 
 it, any more than you would neglect 
 your breakfast. Morning is the best 
 time, because there is then all day in 
 which to note the behavior of the 
 lamp. 
 
 In trimming the lamp, a term that 
 really means caring for it, it is not 
 necessary to actually trim the wick. 
 In fact, this should not be done after 
 the wick is first lighted, unless it be to 
 cut off a pointed thread or corner. 
 Simply rub the charred portion of the 
 wick, using a rag for this purpose, tak- 
 ing care to remove all dirt from the per- 
 forated screen through which the air 
 passes to feed the flame, or the lamp 
 will smoke. Try to make a practice 
 of rubbing the wick in the one direc- 
 tion. In this way there will be no trouble in keeping the wick 
 perfectly level. 
 
 Turning the Eggs. — On the evening of the third day, and twice 
 daily thereafter, the eggs should be turned. By turning it is not 
 
 Fig. 160. — Type of oil- 
 burning incubator lamp 
 which is approved by the 
 fire underwriters. 
 
TURNING THE EGGS 253 
 
 meant that each egg should be turned over an exact 180 degrees, 
 simply that the position of the egg should be sufficiently altered, 
 so that the germ will not gravitate and adhere to the mem- 
 branous lining of the shell. Some operators turn their eggs 
 three or four times a day. It has never been satisfactorily 
 demonstrated that these extra turnings insure better hatches, 
 
 {Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company) 
 
 Fig. 161. — Phantom view of mammoth incubator in which the egg trays 
 are arranged in tiers to save space. An even distribution of heat is main- 
 tained by means of electric fans inverted in the top of the machine. 
 
 though it is reasonable to suppose that they do. The hen is 
 known to turn her eggs eight or ten times a day; but in her case 
 this is necessary to overcome the variation in temperature in the 
 different parts of the nest. 
 
 Best results are obtained when the eggs are turned by rolling 
 them with the hands. The trays of the larger sized machines 
 
254 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 are built with inclined bottoms, divided in the center with a low 
 partition, therefore it is a simple matter to remove a few of the 
 eggs from the middle rows, gently roll the others toward the 
 center, replacing the middle eggs at the ends of the trays. Lay 
 the palms of the hands flat on the eggs and endeavor to move 
 them with a slight rotary motion. Avoid jarring them or hand- 
 ling them roughly, for the delicate membranes and blood-vessels 
 are apt to be ruptured. 
 
 When the tray is replaced in the machine, it should be reversed 
 end for end, and if there are two trays to a compartment, which 
 is the customary arrangement in large incubators, the trays 
 should be alternated from side to side. This is done to equalize 
 any irregularity in the temperature of the egg chamber; the eggs 
 are constantly moved to every point in the interior. In per- 
 forming this work the hands should be clean, and particularly 
 free from any kerosene that might have been acquired in handling 
 the lamp. For this reason, it is well to handle the eggs first, and 
 then trim the lamp. 
 
 Cooling the Eggs. — Some operators declare that cooling the 
 eggs is unnecessary. I do not agree with this idea. I believe 
 that cooling is just as necessary as turning the eggs, perhaps more 
 so. I have found it to be a decided help in hatching chicks of 
 strong vitality, whereas lack of cooling often produced weak 
 chicks. The amount of cooling depends almost entirely upon the 
 season of the year and the temperature of the cellar. During 
 the first week of incubation sufficient cooling is obtained in turn- 
 ing the eggs. After the seventh day leave the trays on top of 
 the machine or on tables until the eggs are almost cool, or until 
 an egg when it is placed against the eyelid feels neither warm nor 
 cool. From fifteen minutes to a half-hour is about the correct 
 time. 
 
 While the eggs are cooling in this fashion see that they are not 
 in a draft, and always keep the doors to the egg chambers closed. 
 The temperature in the machine should be maintained, though, 
 of course, it will fall as soon as the trays are replaced, by reason 
 of the lower temperature of the eggs. It is customary to cool 
 
COOLING MEANS STRONG CHICKS 255 
 
 the eggs at the morning turning only, not in the evening, unless 
 the hatch is pretty well advanced and the weather is exceedingly 
 warm. On the eighteenth day the eggs are turned and cooled 
 for the last time, after which the machine is closed and not opened 
 until the hatch is off. 
 
 This cooling process not only exposes the eggs to fresh air, but 
 it causes the contents of the eggs to contract, and thereby draw 
 through the pores of the shell a fresh supply of oxygen, without 
 which the embryo could not thrive. 
 
 The above methods are really in imitation of the hen's ways. 
 For the first few days the sitter remains close to her nest, after 
 which she leaves it once or twice a day, sometimes staying away 
 for an hour or more. Cooling can be overdone, like anything 
 else. But in most cases I have found too little cooling rather than 
 too much, to be in practice. After all, there can be no set rules 
 for an operation of this kind. The rules must be flexible, and 
 governed largely by the operator's judgment. For example, 
 in addition to weather conditions and the temperature of the 
 cellar, the amount of cooling should be regulated according to 
 the temperature of the machine for the past twenty-four hours. 
 If the temperature has been low, little or no cooling is advisable; 
 if the temperature has been high, then extra cooling is in order. 
 Moderation — common sense — that is the watchword in running 
 an incubator. Live up to the reason for a rule, rather than to 
 the letter of it. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 SELECTING HATCHING EGGS 
 
 Composition of Eggs. — Chemically, the composition of an egg 
 remains practically constant, notwithstanding serious changes 
 may take place in the hen's bill-of-fare, her environment and 
 general care, which are in turn reflected in her state of health. 
 In other words, we find in this condition, which has been estab- 
 lished by careful scientific experiments, one of the highest laws 
 in nature — that the animal will sacrifice its own bodily strength 
 and health in a supreme effort to produce a perfect offspring. 
 
 Comparisons have been made between the eggs of fowls in 
 robust health and those in a more or less anemic, sickly condition, 
 and it has been found that they are almost identical in composi- 
 tion. Also, there is little or no difference in the composition of 
 eggs from different breeds. This is an interesting idea, especially 
 so when we consider the controversy that sometimes breaks 
 forth between the advocates of brown-shelled and white-shelled 
 eggs. 
 
 This does not mean, however, and should not be so construed, 
 that there is no difference in the flavor of eggs, because there is 
 a vast difference in this quality — a very great difference. Further- 
 more, there is a great difference in the fertility of eggs and in 
 their hatchability, also in the vitality of the chicks, which are 
 manifestations of the differences between the well-fed, vigorous 
 fowl, and the bird which is impoverished by disease or improperly 
 nourished. In short, though the chemist may not detect any 
 difference in the make-up of the egg, from a reproductive point of 
 view it is there, nevertheless. 
 
 The most logical way to account for this is due to the fact that 
 egg making is in reality a double process — it is a reproductive 
 
 256 
 
STRENGTH REQUIRED IN EGGS 257 
 
 and secretory process combined. It differs from milk-making. 
 in this respect, which is purely secretory, consequently egg- 
 making is a lot more exhaustive and vital. The perfect egg not 
 only contains the embryo from which the chick is developed, 
 but it also contains the materials for the embryo to draw upon, 
 a complete shelter for the chick during its development, and 
 last of all it provides the chick with several days' food after it is 
 hatched, and until it is strong enough to learn to eat. We are 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 >**>* 
 
 
 
 m^ '"e 
 
 
 
 
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 "'*' S 
 
 ■**3S3»*-» 
 
 O^'vf- ' 
 
 
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 ^^^y^i^ 
 
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 pfy 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 L -ifc^^B 
 
 
 
 
 
 ...... "ui 
 
 Fig. 162. — "Doing the work of four hens with a small incubator." 
 
 speaking of the yolk, which is absorbed by the chick before it 
 pips the shell. 
 
 Thus, if we consider that the profitable hen is expected to 
 produce at least ten dozen eggs a year, and in some cases speci- 
 mens have laid three hundred and over, which is many times the 
 weight of the hen, it is easy to understand what a terrific strain 
 this must be on the fowl's constitution, and illustrates as nothing 
 else can, what a really intensive organism we have in the hen. 
 17 
 
258 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Some idea of the effort and strain may be gleaned from the fact 
 that the temperature of the hen, which under normal conditions 
 burns with much greater vitality than the temperature of man, 
 rises two or three degrees above normal at the time the egg is 
 being laid. 
 
 The first step in the important work of incubation lies in the 
 selection of the eggs. Hatching eggs of prime quality must be 
 laid by hens which are intelligently bred, carefully fed and quar- 
 tered, and from blood lines of known 
 reliability as to stamina and prolific- 
 ness. 
 
 Poor hatches are often blamed on 
 the incubator, on the eccentricities of 
 a perverse hen, or the poultry raiser will 
 rail against weather conditions, or what 
 not, as the cause of his failure, when in 
 reality the quality of the eggs is entirely 
 at fault. The first essential being the 
 character of the parent stock, the next 
 step is the selection of eggs suitable for 
 incubation, for all eggs, even though 
 they are laid by strong, healthy birds, 
 are not equally hatchable. A third 
 step might be called the care of the 
 eggs prior to hatching them, since they 
 are extremely susceptible to surround- 
 ing conditions. 
 It is useless to attempt to obtain strong, vigorous, livable 
 chicks, the kind that are calculated to perpetuate one's stock 
 with profitable, productive fowls, from a sickly, poorly fed, 
 listless, degenerate, in-bred, dwarfed and anemic flock of breeders, 
 for the reason that it is impossible to produce any first-class article 
 from inferior materials. This is a natural law, and it is im- 
 mutable. 
 
 Eggs from over-fat breeding stock seldom produce a large 
 percentage of chicks. Hens that are closely confined, without 
 
 (Courtesy NewtownGiant Incubator Co.) 
 
 Fig. 163. — Sectional view 
 of coal-burning incubator 
 stove, with automatic fuel 
 feeder. 
 
SELECTING HATCHING EGGS 259 
 
 sufficient exercise, and where they have little sunshine and fresh 
 air, are almost certain to lay eggs which are low in fertility, and 
 even lower in vitality. Fowls that are fed on highly concen- 
 trated foods and forced to the limit for egg production usually 
 lay eggs which are so nearly devoid of the life-giving principles 
 that they are virtually useless as breeders. 
 
 To get fertile eggs, with strong, hatchable germs, plenty of 
 fresh air, sunshine, exercise, green food and a well-balanced 
 rational diet throughout are necessary. For this reason the 
 breeding stock should be kept on free range as much as possible. 
 Abundant range is the greatest panacea in the world for chick 
 and grown fowl alike. 
 
 The importance of selecting none but well-formed eggs for 
 hatching purposes cannot be overestimated. Not only is this 
 essential to the actual hatching capacity of the eggs, but it goes 
 a long way toward improvement generally. Eggs which are 
 well shaped and normal are almost certain to produce chickens 
 which will later mature and lay well-shaped eggs, consequently 
 the poultryman is enabled to secure better prices for his products 
 by reason of their uniformity and superior quality. 
 
 Select the eggs of a medium size and an average as to color 
 and shape. By that I mean, let the selection be governed by the 
 average product of the hen or breed, rather than by some arbi- 
 trary standard. Eggs that would be considered abnormally 
 large on one farm, might be considered medium-sized on another 
 plant, or even small on a third. Discard all eggs which are un- 
 usually long, too round, flattened on one side, elliptical, wedge- 
 shaped, and those which have any excrescence or ridge. Mon- 
 strosities cannot be expected to hatch. 
 
 The ideal hatching egg is the real egg-shaped specimen, nicely 
 rounded at one end, with a gradual taper to the other, and having 
 a firm shell of good texture, free from bumps, corrugations and 
 other imperfections. Avoid eggs with very thin shells or ex- 
 ceedingly thick shells, or those with invisible cracks. A good 
 plan is to sound each egg as it is selected, by tapping it gently 
 with a lead-pencil or with one's finger-nail. I have seen eggs 
 
260 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 with cracked shells hatch, providing the cracks were sealed 
 with adhesive plaster, but as a rule it does not pay to bother with 
 them. Cracks mean excessive evaporation or ruptured blood- 
 vessels. 
 
 Front view 
 
 fcGO-CME FILLED 
 
 Top view 
 
 (California Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 164. — Plans for a revolving hatching egg cabinet. 
 
 There is a commonplace that round eggs will hatch pullets 
 and long eggs cockerels. This is a notion and should not be 
 taken seriously. The shape of an egg is influenced entirely by 
 the contour of the oviduct in which it is cast, and has nothing to 
 do with the sex of its embryo. For further proof of this, we ob- 
 
KEEPING HATCHING EGGS 
 
 261 
 
 serve that the hen laying a long egg or round egg will continue 
 to lay the form peculiar to her with very little variation, pro- 
 viding she is not frightened or injured in any way. 
 
 Freshness. — Common sense teaches us that freshness is a 
 prime necessity in hatching eggs. Successful poultrymen aim 
 to set eggs. as soon as possible after they are laid. Not only be- 
 cause eggs a day or two old hatch from 12 to 24 hours earlier 
 than those kept a couple of weeks, but because the longer an 
 egg is kept the more evaporation takes place, which weakens 
 its vitality. If eggs are held in too low a temperature, the chilling 
 is likely to injure them. If they are stored where it is too warm 
 
 Y*> — «r — > 
 
 Fig. 165. — End view and section of egg cabinet as shown in Fig. 164. 
 
 the development of the germ is apt to start, and later die. A 
 temperature of about 50 degrees F. seems to be best. 
 
 The eggs should not be permitted to stand in a direct draft, 
 or exposed to steam, vapor or fumes of a deleterious nature. 
 The shells of eggs are exceedingly porous, therefore they are pre- 
 disposed to outside influences. It is a bad plan to wash eggs 
 intended for incubation. If they are so dirty as to make this 
 necessary, they had better be discarded altogether. Moisture 
 only helps to convey any soiled matter into the interior of the 
 egg through the pores in the shell. 
 
 In cold weather eggs intended for hatching should be gathered 
 several times a day to prevent chilling, and in hot weather they 
 
262 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 should be collected frequently to avoid heating. If they are to 
 be kept more than two or three days before being set, it is best 
 to turn them once a day. There are revolving egg cabinets made 
 for this purpose (see Fig. 164), but equally satisfactory results 
 can be had by packing the eggs in an ordinary egg crate and turn- 
 ing it over gently from day to day. This is done to prevent the 
 yolk, also the germ, from gravitating to the membranous lining 
 of the shell and adhering to it. 
 
 A little attention paid to the foregoing simple directions will 
 work wonders in the possibilities of hatching eggs, and will in- 
 sure much better results in the brooder. It is another applica- 
 tion of the doctrine of preparedness. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 TESTING EGGS DURING INCUBATION 
 
 Inasmuch as all eggs are not fertile, and because all fertile 
 eggs do not contain embryos that develop properly, it has be- 
 come a rule to test the eggs during the period of incubation, first 
 for fertility, and later for the strength of the embryo. It will be 
 readily understood why this information is desirable: In the 
 first place, by removing the infertile or clear eggs, which may be 
 used for culinary purposes or hard boiled and fed to little chicks, 
 additional room will be created on the egg trays, which means 
 greater ease and convenience in the operation of the incubator. 
 Then again, if the dead germs are removed the egg chamber is 
 more easily kept free from bad odors, and this is a worthy factor. 
 
 Since there is no way to determine if an egg is fertile before 
 placing it in the incubator, we must endeavor to gain this in- 
 formation while the eggs are being hatched. Claims have been 
 made that fertility can be told before incubation. These theories 
 have no basis in scientific fact. They are usually offered for 
 some pecuniary gain, and should be discarded. 
 
 Construction of an Egg. — The yolk of a fresh egg floats in a 
 dense mass of albumen, popularly known as the white, which is 
 in the form of layers. These layers are particularly noticeable 
 in the hard-boiled egg. Attached to the yolk are two cords, 
 called the chalaza. The office of these cords is to suspend the 
 yolk in the white and keep it from injury, and to keep the life 
 germ which is attached to the vitelline membrane of the yolk 
 in a certain position where it will receive the fullest effect of heat 
 during incubation. See chapter on the development of an egg. 
 
 Experiment and you will soon see that no matter how you twist 
 or turn an egg, the yolk will always return to a definite position. 
 
 263 
 
264 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 That is — it will do so providing the egg is fresh. These cords, 
 or chalaza, lose strength with age, the albumen becomes thin and 
 watery, and the yolk, instead of being supported in the center of 
 the white, settles or gravitates to the surface, where it finally 
 adheres to the membranous lining of the shell. In time the 
 vitelline membrane which surrounds the yolk loses its strength 
 and ruptures, and thereby allows the escape of the yellow sub- 
 stance — called the vitellus — into the albumen. 
 
 (Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 
 Fig. 166. — Turning and cooling eggs for hatching. 
 
 There are several fallacies in connection with the production 
 of eggs which all breeders should aim to clarify. One is that a 
 pen of fowls must be headed by a male bird for the production of 
 eggs. Another idea is that only fertile eggs contain life germs, 
 sometimes called germinal spots. Still another supposition is 
 that the. germ contains an innnitesimally small chick, and that 
 the process of development is simply enlargement. All of these 
 ideas are logical enough in their conception- nevertheless all 
 are wrong. 
 
NECESSITY FOR MALE BIRDS 
 
 265 
 
 The presence of the male is not essential to the production of 
 eggs. Hens will lay just as well without his society as with him. 
 Some breeders claim that their hens do better without males. 
 I do not think there is anything of importance to this idea, ex- 
 cept in rare cases where it might be found that a large number of 
 males were annoying the hens. If anything, I am inclined to 
 think that egg production is slightly improved by the presence 
 of a few males. They are very attentive in the matter of lo- 
 cating food, and in escorting the flock afield, which induces exer- 
 cise and encourages foraging. This value, however, is more 
 
 -<jr 
 
 
 nin 
 
 I 
 
 (California Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 167. — Plans for an electric egg candler or tester. 
 
 than offset by the disadvantage in having fertile eggs at times 
 when they are not required for hatching purposes, because they 
 are so easily affected by heat. These days the slogan is — ' ' swat 
 the rooster," and in the long run it is a good rule. 
 
 Now for the second fallacy: An egg, whether fertile or not, has 
 a small grayish spot the size of a pin-head on the surface of the 
 yolk, known as the life germ, because it is the vital principle of 
 the egg. If an egg is broken into a saucer, this germ is usually 
 plainly visible to the naked eye; sometimes it is quite con- 
 spicuous. Examine it closely; if it has a clear outer rim or circle 
 
266 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 with little white dots in the center, it is fertile. The infertile 
 germ is whitish in appearance and lacks the clear outer ring. 
 
 The activity of this life germ is temporarily suspended as soon 
 as the egg is laid. But as soon as the egg becomes heated to the 
 proper temperature, either by contact with the hen's body or by 
 other means, its development is resumed. It has been found that 
 this germ contains no definite organs, but that its function is to 
 reproduce other cells like itself, each enlarging and reproducing 
 more cells with the same functions, which ultimately establish 
 the form and body of the chick. 
 
 Signs of Life. — After about 24 hours' incubation life is per- 
 
 Dead Germ 
 
 Fertile Egg 
 
 Infertile Egg 
 
 {California Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 168. — Appearance of hatching eggs through candle on seventh day of in- 
 cubation. 
 
 ceptible, but only if the egg is broken open. Blood-vessels may 
 be seen, and on the third day the heart appears. On the fourth 
 day the eye can be distinguished, and from the eye and heart 
 blood-vessels radiate in all directions, which, to the mind of the 
 candler, resemble a sort of spider. See Fig. 168. This network 
 of blood-vessels continues to grow until it completely surrounds 
 the shell membrane. Its function is to take up oxygen penetrat- 
 ing the shell, and act as a respiratory apparatus until the lungs 
 are completed on or about the nineteenth day. 
 
 The lungs start to take form on the fifth day, and on the seventh 
 day the bill is noticeable. The bones are pretty well shaped by 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO 
 
 267 
 
 the ninth day, later the muscles of the wings are visible, and by 
 the eleventh day the arteries are quite distinct. Up to the end 
 of the first week the embryo lies very still, after which it shows 
 unmistakable signs of voluntary motion. The yolk is now per- 
 ceptibly thinner, for the growing embryo draws heavily upon it 
 
 (Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 
 
 Fig. 169. — Testing hatching eggs. 
 
 for nourishment. The feathers are well developed by the four- 
 teenth day; on the eighteenth day the first cry is usually heard. 
 On the day following the yolk should be nearly all taken into the 
 body. The beak of the chick then breaks through the membrane 
 into the air cell, after which it soon pips the shell and extricates 
 itself. 
 
268 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Testing Eggs. — It is customary to test hatching eggs twice, 
 the first time on or about the seventh day, for fertility, in which 
 the clear eggs are removed; and the second time at the end of 
 the second week, though some operators, if they make their first 
 test on the seventh day, which is pretty sure to remove most of 
 the dead germs, prefer to make the last test on the evening of the 
 eighteenth day, when the eggs are turned and cooled for the last 
 
 time, and the machine 
 is to be closed until the 
 hatch is completed. 
 
 The shells of white 
 eggs are so translu- 
 cent that they can be 
 tested on the third 
 day, which is a big 
 convenience. The 
 shells of brown are so 
 dense and thick that 
 it is difficult to see the 
 contents with any de- 
 gree of accuracy until 
 the seventh day. 
 
 The process of test- 
 ing eggs is simple 
 enough after a little 
 experience is acquired. 
 It consists mainly in 
 holding the egg between the eye and a strong light, which illu- 
 minates the interior of the egg. In fact, it is precisely the same 
 as candling eggs. See Fig. 169. 
 
 Egg Testers. — There are many types of egg testers on the 
 market, and the manufacturers of incubators usually furnish 
 one with each machine. The simplest device is a tube or chim- 
 ney of tin to fit over an oil lamp, and on one side of the tube there 
 is a small opening, against which the egg is held for an examina- 
 tion. See Fig. 170. Eggs may also be tested by sunlight, using 
 
 Fig. 170. 
 
 -Simple egg candling outfit— ordinary 
 lamp and cardboard box. 
 
HOW TO TEST EGGS 269 
 
 a shutter or curtain with a small hole in it for the light to shine 
 through. 
 
 Evening is the best time to make a test by artificial light. 
 Arrange all the details as conveniently as possible before the 
 eggs are removed from the machine, especially for the first test, 
 as the work should be done rapidly to avoid prolonged exposure. 
 Have a low table, large enough to accommodate two egg trays, 
 and locate them on either side of the tester. Two baskets should 
 be placed near at hand, one for the clear eggs, and the other for 
 the dead germs. One by one the eggs 
 
 are held before the spot of light from ^ -" ^ -^- Fresh E gg 
 
 the tester. If fertile, they are placed / V — uthaay 
 
 on the empty tray, and if infertile or 
 dead, they go into one of the two 
 baskets. 
 
 Experience soon teaches the most 
 unfamiliar operator how to distin- 
 guish between the spoiled egg and the 
 egg which is developing properly. 
 
 And there is no difficulty at all in (California Experiment Station) 
 
 , , ,• ,i , T f ,i r Fig. 171. — Increase in size 
 
 detecting the clear egg. If the for- of air s cel ( due to evaporation 
 
 mation appears as a black, station- during period of incubation, 
 ary spot, the egg is one that was fer- 
 tile, but the germ of which is now dead. Other manifestations of 
 a dead germ are blood rings, which indicate a hemorrhage, or, if 
 the albumen appears cloudy and watery, it is a sign that life has 
 started and then died. See Fig. 168. Some dead germs show 
 only a streak of blood. 
 
 Eggs from the Mediterranean breeds, such as the Leghorns, 
 often run so high in fertility that some breeders do not bother 
 to test them for fertility at all, preferring to test them but once — 
 about the fourteenth day— for dead germs. Or the eggs may be 
 given their first test without handling, by passing an electric 
 torch under the eggs as they lie on the wire bottom of the incu- 
 bator trays, which quickly discloses the clear ones. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 DAY-OLD-CHICK INDUSTRY 
 
 Unique Development. — The day-old-chick industry probably 
 constitutes the most remarkable development in the history of 
 animal husbandry. Chick producers themselves do not boast 
 about this achievement, and the industry is still too young to 
 have gained the distinction to which it is rightfully entitled. 
 In sharp contrast to other discoveries of its kind, the baby chick 
 trade is one of those evolutions which arrived unheralded and 
 unnoticed, but which instantly secured recognition through sheer 
 merit alone. 
 
 Accidental Beginning. — The baby chick business is unique 
 in that the discoverer of it did not know that he had discovered 
 anything. The idea came into being by accident, one might say. 
 And from this accidental beginning it has progressed by leaps and 
 bounds that are almost bewildering even to those who have made 
 a practice of following the enormous strides taken by other 
 branches of the poultry industry in the past twenty years. 
 
 Old Idea. — We speak of the baby chick trade as a new idea, 
 whereas it is little more than the adaptation of a very ancient 
 practice. Artificial incubation is an old custom. It was prac- 
 ticed by the Chinese and Egyptians centuries before the Christian 
 Era. Tradition credits the invention to the priests of the ancient 
 Temple of Isis. The Egyptian hatcheries, which were little 
 more than brick ovens heated by wood fires, were public institu- 
 tions, operated on a toll basis. The farmers brought their eggs 
 to the hatcheries, and later they returned for the chicks. Prac- 
 tically the same idea is carried on in this country, and it is called 
 custom hatching. 
 
 It remained for an American farmer to expand this custom 
 
 270 
 
ORIGIN OF CHICK TRADE 
 
 271 
 
 hatching into the actual sale of baby chicks. The story goes 
 that a poultryman agreed to do some hatching for a neighbor as 
 an accommodation. This neighbor died suddenly while the 
 hatch was in progress, whereupon the poultryman was at a loss 
 to know what to do with the five hundred chicks which he had 
 incubated. He had no facilities for brooding the extra chicks, 
 and he could not afford to kill them. It occurred to him that 
 some of the townspeople might buy them to place under their 
 sitting hens. 
 
 Accordingly this poultryman placed some of the chicks in a 
 
 (Courtesy Watson Mfg. Company) 
 
 Fig. 172. — Series of double-deck mammoths in a large Eastern 
 hatchery. 
 
 basket, covered them over carefully to keep them warm, and set 
 out to peddle what he conceived to be a very strange assortment 
 of wares. 
 
 Sold Out. — To make a long story short, this poultryman not 
 only sold all of his extra chicks without any trouble, but he dis- 
 covered that he could have disposed of hundreds more. He found 
 that farmers and backyard poultry keepers were only too eager to 
 avail themselves of the opportunity, and to pay a fair price for 
 the chicks. It was an inspiration to the poultryman. He rea- 
 soned that if farmers in his own community wanted to buy chicks 
 
272 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 already hatched, in preference to going to the trouble of incubat- 
 ing their own eggs, it was likely that people in other communities 
 would want to buy them for the same reasons. 
 
 Forthwith this poultryman increased his incubator capacity, 
 and for the remainder of the season he found a ready sale for all 
 the chicks he could hatch. The following year he added more 
 incubators, and to be sure of a sale for his increased output, the 
 poultryman inserted a small advertisement in a local paper. 
 The notice was to the effect that he had little chicks for sale, 
 and that he would deliver or ship them when one day old. Orders 
 came in thick and fast, and in a comparatively short time the 
 season's output was sold or reserved. 
 
 The next year this progressive poultryman's incubator ca- 
 pacity was trebled, also he did more advertising. He sold out 
 again. Most of the buyers to whom he sold the first season 
 wanted more and more chicks. They were satisfied customers 
 and told their friends about the scheme. Whereas the first 
 year's chicks were sold to farmers living in nearby sections, now 
 orders began to come in from more distant points and from other 
 states. The poultryman soon found that he had more business 
 than he could possibly handle. 
 
 Idea Spreads. — Then it was that others engaged in the enter- 
 prise, until the baby chick industry quickly spread throughout 
 the entire country. In less than five years hatcheries were dotted 
 in almost every state from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific, 
 and almost all reported a thriving business. 
 
 To-day the chick industry has assumed operations on a gigantic 
 scale. It has capital invested in plants and equipment running 
 into millions of dollars. Millions of chicks are produced each 
 year, and the demand is constantly growing. In the opinion of 
 many, the business is still in its infancy. 
 
 Capacities of Hatcheries. — Apparently the size of a hatchery 
 has no limitation. There is one in Ohio which has an incubator 
 capacity of over 600,000 eggs — about forty tons of eggs — at 
 each hatching. See Fig. 174. During the spring of 1917 this 
 establishment produced 1,500,000 chicks. Numerous other 
 
18 
 
 273 
 
274 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 hatcheries ship from a quarter to a half million chicks in a season, 
 while scores of smaller plants turn out numbers varying from 
 twenty thousand to a hundred thousand chicks. 
 
 It is doubtful if any enterprise could make the enormous growth 
 of the day-old-chick trade within such a short space of time, unless 
 it possessed some peculiar advantages. That is the secret of the 
 
 success of the chick trade — it has 
 unique advantages, and natural 
 ones. 
 
 The first poultryman stumbled 
 over them, but even he did not 
 see the commercial possibilities 
 at the time. His awakening was 
 not so much in the baby chick, 
 as in the realization of the extent 
 to which farmers and poultry 
 keepers generally were disgusted 
 with their own efforts in trying to 
 hatch eggs. The opportunity to 
 purchase chicks already hatched 
 filled a long-felt want, unques- 
 tionably the greatest want in the 
 poultry industry. It ran counter 
 to the familiar proverb — " Never 
 count your chickens before they 
 are hatched," of which everyone 
 who had struggled with the 
 mechanics of an incubator or 
 the eccentricities of a perverse hen, had the fullest appreciation. 
 Specialization. — What is even of greater importance, the chick 
 trade is an application of the principle of specialization. It is 
 generally admitted that the man who devotes all his time, energy 
 and thought to one thing exclusively is likely to become more 
 skillful in that particular line than the man who must do the same 
 thing and a dozen others besides. The poultryman who pro- 
 duces baby chicks is a specialist. He has trained himself for 
 
 {Courtesy Smith Standard Company) 
 
 Fig. 174. — One of the incubating 
 rooms in a hatchery of 600,000 egg 
 capacity. 
 
ADVANTAGES OF CHICK INDUSTRY 
 
 275 
 
 the work. He has experimented and put into operation methods 
 and appliances best suited to secure maximum results at the 
 minimum cost. 
 
 The beginner with poultry, who is the chick producer's best 
 customer, as a rule, is especially benefitted by the merits of 
 specialization. While the beginner's attention is occupied with 
 a hundred and one details incident to the commencement of 
 operations, and before he has had time to learn his own lessons in 
 
 Fig. 175- 
 
 (.Courtesy Watson Mfg. Company) 
 -10,000 chicks ready for shipment. 
 
 the economical operation of an incubator, he has at his command 
 for a very nominal charge the services of a veteran operator. 
 
 Still another advantage: If a poultryman meets with a mis- 
 fortune of some kind, either with sitting hens, artificial incuba- 
 tion or brooding, and there is no time in which to make a fresh 
 start, his project sustains a severe setback, maybe for a year, 
 except for the baby chick operator. 
 
 To-day it is comforting to think that if you are caught in a 
 tight place through unforeseen circumstances, you can turn to 
 the baby chick man. He takes the responsibility of counting 
 
276 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 your chickens before they are hatched. He assumes the risk 
 of your not having broody hens early enough to produce chicks 
 for autumn layers. He can furnish you with broods without your 
 having hens at all, and in whatever quantity and at whatever 
 time or times you want them. Hence a start can be made on 
 short notice, and the only equipment required is a brooder. 
 
 The baby chick man, perhaps, has forgotten more about the 
 
 
 Fig. 176. — Incubator building on a large hatchery in Ohio. 
 
 operation of an incubator than the average operator will ever 
 take the time to learn. Therefore its eccentricities, if it has any, 
 do not keep him awake nights. He is operating on a very large 
 scale, consequently he can afford to hire the services of trained 
 assistants. And the scale on which his business is conducted 
 enables him to incubate an egg for maybe one-third the cost 
 others could do it. Briefly, the baby chick man is one of the 
 greatest assets to the poultry industry. He is a sort of fly-wheel, 
 
WHY CHICKS CAN BE SHIPPED 277 
 
 with sufficient impetus to carry other breeders over their fluctua- 
 tions in power. As the baseball fan would say — He's a good 
 pinch hitter. 
 
 Many were prejudiced against the day-old-chick trade at one 
 time, and a few are still opposed to it. They feel that baby 
 chicks, above all creatures, seem so tiny and delicate as to re- 
 quire the utmost care and attention for the first hours of their 
 existence, and that to ship them hundreds of miles at the mercy 
 of a cardboard box is little short of barbarous. Others ask: 
 "Will the little fellows survive the shipment in express cars with- 
 out being chilled, or without permanent injury to their vitality 
 and productiveness?" 
 
 Natural Provision. — Let us consider these fears: Chicks re- 
 quire neither food nor drink for the first couple of days of their 
 life. Practically the only attention needed consists of rest, 
 warmth and air. During the period immediately following in- 
 cubation the chick is sustained by the assimilation of the yolk 
 of the egg. The general practice is to allow the chicks to remain 
 in the incubator for about twenty-four hours after the hatch is 
 completed, then to place them in the brooder for another day 
 before giving them food. In fact, some poultry men do not give 
 their first feeding until after the third day, believing that this 
 much time is required for the proper assimilation of the yolk. 
 
 In any event it is this provision of nature which gave rise to 
 the possibility of shipping chicks long distances while they were 
 in this dormant state. This natural provision was greatly 
 aided by the invention and perfection of special boxes or carriers, 
 which were designed with the idea of conserving the warmth 
 radiated by the chicks themselves. See Fig. 175. 
 
 The principle of this shipping box for chicks is much the same 
 as the fireless cooker or the vacuum bottle, both of which were 
 regarded rather skeptically at first. The principle is based on a 
 very simple law, that of retaining heat or cold by non-conducting 
 enclosures, and corresponds to the insulation in a refrigerator. 
 
 One of the best packages yet devised for the shipment of baby 
 chicks is that made from corrugated fibre-board, than which 
 
278 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 there is no greater non-conductor of heat or cold, weight, strength 
 and other qualities being considered. Carriers of this descrip- 
 tion are made expressly for the purpose. They are strong, — 
 capable of withstanding the weight of a man, — durable, easy to 
 assemble and handle, and represent a great saving in transporta- 
 tion charges by reason of their light weight. They are usually 
 made in three sizes, for shipments of 25, 50 or 100 chicks; the 
 small size containing but one compartment, the 50-chick size 
 two compartments, and the large size four compartments. 
 Early in the season, when the weather is quite cold, more chicks 
 
 may be shipped in each 
 box than is stated above, 
 because the chicks huddle 
 closely together and re- 
 quire very little space. 
 Similarly, in very warm 
 weather the number 
 should be reduced to about 
 twenty chicks to a com- 
 partment, to prevent over- 
 heating. 
 
 Ventilation is obtained 
 by cutting small holes in 
 the sides of the box near 
 the lid, and in such a way that drafts are prevented. In the winter 
 very few holes will supply all the air necessary, while as the season 
 advances, depending also upon the climate to which the shipment 
 is made, more holes should be cut. 
 
 To prevent the chicks from slipping around over the smooth 
 surface of the bottom of the box, cut hay, straw, alfalfa or other 
 material is placed in the bottom to give them a foothold, and to 
 absorb any manure. If the weather is extremely cold, feathers 
 may be substituted, which will make the little fellows as warm 
 and comfortable as though in a brooder. As a matter of fact, 
 these shipping boxes are precisely the same as fireless brooders, 
 in which the heat from the chicks' bodies is bound to keep them 
 
 (Courtesy Smith Standard Company) 
 
 Fig. 177. — Hatchery of 600,000 egg capa- 
 city; it resembles a warehouse or refrigerat- 
 ing plant. 
 
DISTANCES SHIPPED 
 
 279 
 
 sufficiently warm. The point to remember is to place the correct 
 number of chicks in a given size box. With this done, there is 
 no question as to their security. 
 
 Mortality. — A visit to any of the large hatcheries will show that 
 it is now a common thing to ship chicks a thousand miles and 
 have them arrive at their destination in as healthy and active a 
 condition as the day they were removed from the incubator. 
 The average mortality during shipment is two per cent, which is 
 a negligible factor, and would probably exist anyhow, in placing 
 the chicks under the 
 hover in a brooder for the 
 first twenty-four hours. 
 Most hatcheries make a 
 practice of including 
 three or four extra chicks, 
 to allow for this mortal- 
 ity. In addition to this, 
 they guarantee safe ar- 
 rival and full count, and 
 will make good any losses, 
 providing these are re- 
 ported at the time the 
 packages are delivered 
 by the carrier's agent. 
 
 A poultry plant in 
 Maine shipped a box of 
 fifty chicks to a town in 
 Wyoming, a distance of 2600 miles, and only four of the birds per- 
 ished. Another shipment was made to New Orleans, in which the 
 chicks were two days and three nights on the road, and they arrived 
 none the worse for their long j ourney . Express messengers and other 
 railroad employees are now so accustomed to handling baby chick 
 shipments, and they seem to have such a great deal of sympathy for 
 them, that the shipper is usually assured of the very best treatment. 
 
 Pet Shop Trade. — For the past couple of years the hatcheries 
 have found a big outlet for chicks in pet shops and 5-and-io-cent 
 
 {Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 
 Fig. 178. — 500 chicks ready for express ship- 
 ment. Corrugated boxes are slipped into a 
 wooden crate for extra protection. 
 
280 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 stores. Hundreds of thousands have been sold to eager buyers 
 in this way, mostly to women and children who find it difficult 
 to resist the attractiveness of little chicks. Seemingly nothing 
 arouses the human interest so quickly as a flock of chicks, which 
 fact constitutes a potent advantage, in that the chicks advertise 
 themselves. Every child and most women have an impulse to 
 love and fondle a tiny chick, though generally to the discomfort 
 and injury of the latter. 
 
 It is doubtful if this phase of the business should be encouraged. 
 The chicks are sold almost exclusively as pets, and the stores 
 handle them largely as a drawing card, often at prices less than 
 they have to pay, simply to attract buyers for other goods — an 
 advertising scheme. Very few of the chicks outlive the pet stage 
 or serve a useful purpose, thus the practice amounts to a waste. 
 If stores insist upon retailing chicks, they should distribute a 
 pamphlet on the care of the birds, or make some attempt to en- 
 lighten inexperienced persons not to kill their pets with kindness. 
 
 Many of the objections against the baby chick trade were raised 
 by fanciers who claimed that the increased sale of chicks had 
 seriously impaired their business in breeding stock and hatching 
 eggs, for which they were accustomed to receiving good prices. 
 If there is any truth in this belief, which is doubtful, to complain 
 about it is working on the wrong tack. Poultrymen must sell 
 what the buyers want, and not what the breeders choose to offer 
 them. It is quite evident that customers want chicks, because 
 they represent the most convenient form of acquiring stock, in 
 which event it is up to the fanciers to get into the chick game, 
 as many are now doing. To oppose the progress of the chick 
 trade is a policy that is almost certain to result in a reaction 
 against the fancier. 
 
 Appeal to Farmers. — For years State Experiment Stations and 
 agricultural organs have been endeavoring to induce the farmers 
 to substitute standard-bred poultry for their flocks of mongrels. 
 But the farmer has never been a heavy buyer of hatching eggs 
 from thoroughbred stock, chiefly because of the uncertainty of 
 success with his hatches. Now that he can buy well-bred poultry 
 
COMPLAINTS ARE FEW 
 
 281 
 
 in the form of baby chicks, ready for the brooder, his interest is 
 aroused, and the farmer is fast becoming a regular customer. 
 
 Chick producers will do well to direct their appeal more directly 
 to this class of trade, and not so much to the beginners. The 
 farmers produce the bulk of our poultry, and the chances are 
 they always will. Furthermore, they produce it more or less 
 as a side line, at the least possible outlay for grain, labor, housing 
 and range. 
 
 {Courtesy Watson Mfg. Company) 
 Fig. 179. — Double-deck mammoth incubators of large capacity. 
 
 Few Complaints. — It is curious, perhaps, but poultrymen de- 
 clare they receive fewer complaints over the sale of baby chicks 
 than with hatching eggs, therefore they prefer to sell chicks. 
 This anomaly is attributed to the fact that the customer may se- 
 cure unsatisfactory results from eggs, for which he is practically 
 certain to blame the poultryman, when in reality the customer's 
 ignorance or carelessness, or the integrity of his hens or incubator, 
 is entirely at fault. 
 
 It must be admitted that any one of a dozen things can befall 
 
282 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 a shipment of eggs, which may weaken or destroy their hatch- 
 ability, and over which the poultryman has no control. Never- 
 theless he is held responsible. He seldom has a chance to defend 
 himself. He must either endure a dissatisfied customer, which 
 is a poor business associate, or he must make good the losses, 
 which wipes out his profit on the transaction. 
 
 Most of this obscurity is eliminated with baby chicks. The 
 purchaser sees at a glance what he is getting, and thereafter if he 
 mismanages the chicks in the brooder, he cannot blame his in- 
 competence on the shipper. 
 
 Of course, there will always be some doubt as to the quality 
 and productiveness of a flock of fowls raised from a shipment of 
 chicks. It is a matter of dealing with responsible hatcheries. 
 The reliable chick man is in business, not for a season, but for 
 an indefinite time; he has made a considerable investment on 
 plant and equipment, and to hope to derive profit from this in- 
 vestment it is absolutely necessary for him to render satisfaction. 
 As in all enterprises, satisfied customers are his chief assets. 
 
 Satisfaction is more than landing baby chicks alive at the ex- 
 press station of the customer. It is giving the customer chicks 
 hatched from strong, vigorous, well-bred productive parent 
 stock, chicks which were properly incubated, and those which 
 should make rapid growth in the brooder, mature early and be- 
 come prolific layers. In other words, the success of the hatchery 
 depends largely upon what becomes of its products under the 
 care and management of its customers. It behooves the chick 
 man to aid his customers wherever possible, and to give them a 
 little more value than what was promised. 
 
 On the other hand, the customer should not expect unreason- 
 able things. He must not anticipate exhibition specimens from 
 utility chicks, which were sold at utility stock prices. The aver- 
 age hatchery chicks, which sell for about ten dollars a hundred, 
 should be from well-bred, standard stock, but not show birds. 
 They cannot be expected to have the refinements in shape and 
 plumage of specially mated pens, whose eggs are seen advertised 
 at from five to twenty-five dollars per setting. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 NATURAL INCUBATION 
 
 Artificial incubation and brooding are to be recommended 
 because of their economy. They save the hen's time, and in so 
 doing the hen is enabled to produce more eggs. Very often, 
 however, it is more important to save the poultry-keeper's time, 
 as in the case of farmers and backyard growers, in which event 
 the business of rearing young stock is left entirely to Mistress 
 Biddy. 
 
 Though incubators are widely used on farms, it is not likely 
 that they will entirely replace hens, because the hens are capable 
 of looking after hatching and brooding details with practically 
 no outside attention. Unfortunately, the hatching season comes 
 at a time when farm work — plowing and planting — is most press- 
 ing. To escape the responsibility of looking after an incubator, 
 the farmer prefers to depend upon his hens, knowing that they 
 are fully competent to secure results, if not so economically, at 
 least as thoroughly, as the machine. 
 
 It is a mistake, however, to ignore the hens completely. Unless 
 the quarters intended for the sitting hens are convenient, sani- 
 tary and comfortable, not alone for the hens, but for the person 
 who feeds them, it is likely that the results will be disappointing. 
 The hens will do their part, providing they are given the oppor- 
 tunity, and it is this opportunity which is so often neglected. 
 
 Avoid Stolen Nests. — On farms where little or no attention is 
 paid to the chickens, it is customary to allow the hens to steal 
 their nests in out-of-the-way corners of the buildings, sometimes 
 in the hen house, under the barn, in the loft, or in barrels or boxes 
 scattered about the barnyard. This hit or miss plan neither 
 gives comfort to the hen nor security to her brood; it is wrong. 
 
 283 
 
284 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 The sitting hen is entitled to just as much consideration as the 
 brood mare or cow. Aside from the humanity involved, to 
 treat animals decently is the only way to obtain the full benefit 
 of their efficiency. 
 
 Give the Sitters Privacy. — It is a mistake to allow the sitters 
 to bring off their hatches in the regular poultry house along with 
 the rest of the flock. In the first place, the sitting hens are al- 
 most certain to be pitilessly tormented by the other fowls. The 
 layers will fight for possession of the sitters' nests, lay in them, 
 sometimes drive the rightful owners off the nests entirely, or 
 
 break their eggs, which is not 
 only a loss in itself, but the 
 presence of broken eggs seri- 
 ously endangers the safety of 
 the rest of the hatch. There 
 is also the risk of allowing 
 fresh laid eggs to become 
 heated and spoiled by the 
 sitters, or of removing the 
 hatching eggs in mistake for 
 fresh eggs. Or, if the nests 
 are entirely ignored, it is 
 likely that the layers will fill 
 them to over-flowing with 
 their eggs, making it impossi- 
 ble for the sitting hens to 
 cover the real hatching eggs, in which case they are chilled and 
 the hatch is a failure. 
 
 Vermin. — Then, again, hens set in the poultry house are more 
 apt to be troubled with vermin than if they are given a clean, 
 new nest of their own somewhere else. This is an important 
 consideration. 
 
 We like to think that our flocks and houses are free from lice 
 and mites; but free from these pests they seldom are; make no 
 mistake on this point. To delude ourselves on this score is to 
 invite trouble and losses. The brood is no sooner hatched than 
 
 Fig. 1 80. — A farm brood. 
 
GIVE THE HENS SECURITY 
 
 285 
 
 it becomes infested with vermin, both from the mother hen and 
 from the nesting material. Nothing is more devastating. The 
 chicks are weakened, their growth and development are dwarfed, 
 they fall easy prey to disease, and those that survive are finally 
 reckoned as unprofitable. 
 
 Remote corners in the outbuildings, in mows and under sheds, 
 are objectionable places for sitting hens because they are so re- 
 mote. With nests scattered or stolen in this way the hens are 
 
 J^/D AT TO^'*: 
 CONTJ?oj,£ 
 
 vj^wryi.ATyav 
 
 Styw^'fif' 
 
 sww&tfi 
 
 BA&PEZ. S3 A CftSAP 
 CQm/£t//£MTAm ■3WZ4BZ£A r S5T 
 
 Fig. 181. — Simple devices for sitting hens. 
 
 troublesome to feed and water; frequently the hens are neg- 
 lected, either through ignorance of their whereabouts or because 
 it is too inconvenient to reach them. 
 
 Stolen nests may be free from vermin and free from the dis- 
 turbances of other layers, but as a rule they are not so secure 
 as the hens suppose. Rats are likely to abound in obscure cor- 
 ners, and these pests are a constant menace, or the nests may be 
 visited by an inquisitive cat or dog. Then, again, hens sometimes 
 
286 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 choose locations which are insanitary or wet, and both are detri- 
 mental to good hatches. 
 
 Fowls are accredited with astounding judgment in some re- 
 spects, yet for all this show of intuition they do stupid things. 
 This point is mentioned to emphasize the fact that no matter 
 how attentive a hen may be to her eggs or to her brood, in a 
 general way her efforts must be supervised by the owner of the 
 
 Fig. 182. — Give the hens and their broods a grassy range and they will thrive 
 
 like weeds. 
 
 flock. Your labor will be amply repaid by the additional chicks 
 reared . 
 
 To set eggs successfully the first step is to get the hen — the 
 right hen, because they are not all good hatchers. Chickens 
 have a certain amount of individuality; some, indeed, might be 
 said to be temperamental. Some hens are quiet and long-suf- 
 fering; in spite of everything you do to them they will remain on 
 the nest. Others are wild and nervous, and take flight at the 
 approach of the attendant. These excitable birds are not to be 
 intrusted with eggs. Usually they make poor work of hatch- 
 
287 
 
288 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 ing, and later they are found incompetent to manage a brood of 
 chicks. 
 
 Kens from the heavy breeds, such as Plymouth Rocks, Brah- 
 mas, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds and Orpingtons, make the 
 best sitters. The lighter breeds, such as Minorcas, Leghorns 
 and Campines, are too nighty, and they are seldom used on that 
 account. Their size is against them, too. It is economy to use 
 
 Nest 
 
 Ten 
 
 NEST 
 
 
 
 
 Nest 
 
 
 
 Teim 
 
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 ■ ■ " ■ L 
 
 
 i " y. * " 
 
 
 
 " "" " JT 
 
 
 
 
 
 1" ME SM 
 
 NETTi 
 
 p*q 
 
 HB 
 
 ; 
 
 
 r > a-" 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 X-2. -O 
 
 Fig. 184. — Plan of coop for sitting hens, as shown in Fig. 183, sometimes 
 called an outdoor natural incubator. 
 
 large hens because they cover more eggs, though this advantage 
 should not be carried to the extreme of using clumsy hens. The 
 ungainly bird is apt to break the eggs while moving about on the 
 nest, or she is likely to trample and kill some of the chicks before 
 the little fellows are strong enough to get out of her way. 
 
 Test the Sitters. — The hen that is observed to leave and return 
 to the nest with care and precision aad to step lightly is the bird 
 
TEST THE SITTERS 
 
 289 
 
 to select for setting. But do not be misled into thinking that 
 all hens found on the nest after nightfall are really and truly 
 sitters. When broody hens are removed from the laying nests 
 to the place where it is desired to have them sit, some may go on 
 a strike and not sit at all. It is therefore best to first test the 
 hens. Give them some dummy eggs for a couple of days, and 
 if they show unmistakable signs of settling down to business, 
 give them real eggs. 
 
 H 
 
 Muslin 
 
 *+3- 
 
 12 
 
 - 15' - 
 
 Mus l_l N 
 
 V9 
 
 12 
 
 15" 
 
 "Doo-R 
 
 _b 
 
 Fig. 185. — Front elevation of coop for sitting hens, as shown in Fig. 183. 
 
 Quarters. — A clean, cool, well-ventilated room or coop is the 
 best place for the sitters. If it can be darkened after feeding 
 time, so much the better, as the hens will be quieter. Arrange 
 the nests along the walls and in such a manner that the hens will 
 not have to fly or jump into them, a practice which is likely to 
 break the eggs. If the coop has a dirt floor, the earth will serve 
 as a dust wallow, otherwise the building should be fitted with 
 a special dust bath. It is customary for sitting hens to take a 
 dust wallow about once a day, which they seem to realize is 
 19 
 
290 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 necessary to rid themselves of vermin. Therefore encourage 
 this habit. 
 
 Nests. — A nest fifteen inches square is none too big for the 
 sitter, and six inches is about the right depth. Place some clean 
 earth or sand — better still, a piece of sod — in the bottom of the 
 nest, about two inches deep, nicely hollowed to receive the litter 
 and finally the eggs. Avoid corners into which the eggs can be 
 rolled and left to chill; yet do not have the nest so much like a 
 
 Fig. 1 86. — Rear perspective of coop for sitting hens, as shown in Fig. 183. 
 
 hole that there is a tendency for the eggs to pile on top of each 
 other. 
 
 Litter. — Straw, cut hay, excelsior, shavings or fresh pine needles 
 make excellent nesting material, and shape the stuff so that it 
 will conform to the body of the hen. Never use old nesting ma- 
 terial, because of the germs or vermin which it might contain. 
 If the nest boxes have been used for previous hatches, it is ad- 
 visable to give them a thorough cleaning with some disinfectant, 
 or to whitewash them. 
 
SET HENS IN PAIRS OR TRIOS 291 
 
 The number of eggs to allow a hen will depend upon the bird's 
 ability to cover them properly. Never put so many eggs under 
 a hen that they are even slightly visible from beneath her plum- 
 age. This is especially important in cold weather; the outer row 
 of eggs is almost certain to be chilled, and in view of the fact 
 that the hen changes the position of the eggs from six to ten times 
 a day, it means that all of the eggs are likely to be chilled at in- 
 tervals. Even if this does not spoil the hatch, it is sure to retard 
 it, which is not good for the chicks. 
 
 From ten to eighteen eggs is correct ; thirteen eggs are reckoned 
 as a setting. When a number of hens are set, it is well to start 
 them in pairs or trios, then at hatching time the chicks from three 
 hens may be divided between two hens, or the chicks from two 
 hens may be given to one hen, thereby saving the toil of extra 
 hens. 
 
 On farms it is quite common to see a number of hens with their 
 broods, each brood having perhaps six chicks. If these broods 
 were doubled up, the efficiency of the hens would be greatly in- 
 creased, since it is no trouble for a good biddy to care for fifteen 
 chicks. The work of transferring the chicks must be done at the 
 start, however, or the hens are likely to refuse to accept the extra 
 chicks. A good plan is to make the transfer on the evening of the 
 day the hatches are completed, before the hens have left their 
 nests. Slip the chicks under the hens when it is dark, and on the 
 day following the chicks will not be able to distinguish their 
 foster mothers, neither will the hens be able to detect their 
 adopted offspring. 
 
 Dusting the Sitters. — Special efforts must be made to render 
 the sitters free from vermin. When the hatches are started, the 
 hens should be thoroughly dusted with a good insect powder. 
 See Fig. 187. Repeat the operation at the end of the first and 
 second weeks of the incubating period. Watch for mites, and 
 in case any are discovered, move the hen and eggs to a clean 
 nest. Lice and mites are not only a danger to the health of the 
 chicks, but they annoy the sitters to such an extent that some- 
 
292 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 times the hens are driven from their nests to escape torment 
 from the pests. 
 
 It is unwise to dust the hens at hatching time, unless one is 
 familiar with the nature of the insect powder, because some of 
 
 them are of such strength 
 that they may in j ure or kill 
 the newly hatched chicks. 
 As soon as the chicks are a 
 week old it is safe to dust 
 the mother, and this dust- 
 ing should be repeated 
 weekly until the chicks are 
 weaned. If, despite these 
 efforts, the chicks are 
 bothered with head lice, 
 which sap their vitality 
 and stunt their growth, it 
 is necessary to grease the 
 heads of the chicks with 
 lard or carbolated vase- 
 line. This method will 
 drive the lice away, and 
 tend to prevent others 
 from coming. 
 
 Feeding. — It is a good 
 plan to feed the sitters at 
 regular times each day, for 
 this teaches them to expect 
 it at certain intervals, and 
 they will come off the 
 nests, eat and return, 
 promptly. Whole grain should be fed together with a dry mash, but 
 nothing in the shape of sloppy feed should be given, because moist 
 food tends to loosen the bowels. Provide clean water in abun- 
 dance, grit and charcoal. In warm weather it is a good plan to place 
 a can of water beside each nest, so that the hen can drink at will 
 
 (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 187. — Sitting hens should be carefully 
 dusted to eradicate vermin. 
 
TESTING THE EGGS 
 
 293 
 
 without leaving the nest. Whole corn is an excellent food for 
 sitters; it is fattening, which is a desirable effect, because the 
 broody hen is prone to become very thin and poor. Should 
 undue looseness of the bowels occur, the addition of a little sul- 
 phate of iron in the drinking water will usually correct the trouble. 
 Disturb the hens as little as possible while they are sitting. If 
 the nests need attention, because they are sometimes soiled from 
 one cause or another, clean them while the hens are off eating. 
 
 Fig. 188. — The makeshift coop is all right, providing it is weather-proof, 
 vermin-proof and sanitary. 
 
 See to it that cats, dogs or other animals are unable to gain en- 
 trance to the room or coop, also other poultry. 
 
 Testing Eggs. — Few farmers bother to test the hatching eggs, 
 though this is advisable, because the infertile eggs may be used 
 as food for other broods. Then, too, if the fertility is poor, let 
 us say if half of the eggs are clear, the eggs from two hens may 
 be placed under one sitter, providing the hatches were started 
 at the same time, and fresh eggs started under the hen from 
 whom the eggs were removed. Here again we add to the effi- 
 ciency of the hens. 
 
 By all means darken the nests at hatching time, and do not 
 
294 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 disturb the hens unless they step around on the nests a great 
 deal, in which event they are likely to trample the chicks, or if 
 they pick at the chicks, then the chicks should be removed as 
 soon as they are hatched and placed in a basket lined with flannel 
 or some other warm material, and kept near a stove until the 
 balance of the hatch is completed. Occasionally a hen will 
 manifest a vicious attitude toward the brood from the start, 
 and nothing that the attendant can do will alter the situation, 
 in which case it is best to take the chicks away from the vicious 
 mother and give them to a quieter bird. 
 
 Fig. 189. — Rectangular brood coop 
 and run. 
 
 {Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 190. — V-shaped brood coop 
 and run. 
 
 If the sitters are well fed immediately before hatching time, 
 they are not so likely to leave the nests in search of food, there- 
 fore the brood is not chilled before the chicks have had a chance 
 to dry off. Confine the hens for a few days after the hatches 
 come off, or they will take their broods too far afield and tire 
 them. It is well to provide separate coops for the broods, and 
 wherever possible place the coops on a grassy range, preferably 
 where there is some shade. For the first two weeks confine the 
 hens to the coops in the early morning, or until the grass has had 
 time to dry off; otherwise the hens will stalk their young through 
 the dew-laden undergrowth and get them soaking wet. 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 
 ARTIFICIAL BROODING 
 
 If artificial incubation is practiced 
 it necessitates artificial brooding, unless 
 the hatches are small, in which case 
 the chicks can be given to hens, though 
 this practice really defeats the idea of 
 the incubator, which is to conserve the 
 hen's time. It takes at least four weeks 
 to wean a brood of chicks, sometimes 
 six weeks, and during this period the 
 mother hen is a non-layer. In fact, 
 she seldom starts to lay for a month after she has weaned her 
 brood, due to the fact that she is usually so run down and out of 
 condition, as the result of her maternal efforts and responsibili- 
 ties, that she must first rebuild her vitality. This represents a 
 great deal of lost time so far as egg production is concerned, and 
 the time lost is usually during April, May and June, the months 
 of heaviest laying. 
 
 Farmers are the greatest patrons of this combination method, 
 and their idea is to escape the care of the brooder, which they 
 regard more or less with suspicion. It must be admitted, of 
 course, that no brooder is equal to the hen as a mother; we can- 
 not improve on nature in this respect ; but we can do the work a 
 whole lot cheaper with the brooder, and this is an important con- 
 sideration. 
 
 Were it not for artificial incubation and brooding it would be 
 impossible for commercial poultry plants to conduct their opera- 
 tions on such a vast scale. It is not practicable to raise large 
 numbers of chicks by hens. In the first place, it is virtually im- 
 
 295 
 
296 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 possible to secure enough sitting hens at the right time — early 
 enough to hatch pullets which will mature as fall layers. In the 
 second place, a large number of sitting hens and their broods 
 require a great deal of equipment and range, not to mention care 
 in feeding; and in the third place, the expense of maintaining the 
 hens, without egg production, would wipe out the profits which 
 might be made from their broods. 
 
 (Courtesy Candee Incubator Company) 
 
 Fig. 191. — Double hot-water brooding system. A row of hovers located on 
 either side of a central alleyway. 
 
 These factors have always been of importance: to-day they 
 are vital to success. The hen must be kept on the job of laying. 
 Her work of rearing young must be left to the machine. 
 
 Makes of Brooders. — There are a number of brooding systems 
 in vogue, and a wide variety of makes from which to select or 
 evolve a particular scheme, one that is adaptable to given cir- 
 cumstances. There is as much, if not more, choice with brooders 
 
297 
 
298 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 than with incubators. One might say, there is a brooder for any 
 or all circumstances. 
 
 It goes without saying that artificial brooding should be in 
 imitation of natural brooding, except that the hen's shortcomings 
 should be eliminated. And the hen has her faults, make no mis- 
 take on this point. For example, she will take her brood afield 
 in wet weather, or lead them through wet grass in the early morn- 
 ing, where the chicks may become chilled and die. 
 
 The chief requirements of artificial brooding are these: (i) a 
 compartment in which the temperature is equal to the warmth 
 of the hen's body, which is accessible to the chicks at all times ; (2) 
 an abundance of fresh air as well as warmth, because if heat is 
 obtained at the expense of ventilation, the chicks will not thrive; 
 (3) a well-lighted, moderately warm compartment in connection 
 with the heated hover, which will provide a place for exercise, 
 feeding and everyday activities; (4) a protected run or yard 
 where the chicks can be given outdoor freedom in nice weather, 
 and an opportunity to pick up greens and grits; (5) the interior 
 of the brooder must be dry, capable of being flooded with sun- 
 light, and safe from fire risks; (6) every compartment and all 
 appliances must provide means for convenience in cleaning and 
 disinfecting. 
 
 Common Defects. — The absence of one or more of the fore- 
 going requirements is quite common in many of the brooding 
 systems in use. The greatest difficulty seems to be that the in- 
 stallation of the average brooding system is without sufficient 
 latitude — a margin of safety which will automatically take up 
 the slack resulting from sudden changes in temperature and so 
 forth. Many brooders are run too hot or too cold, some have 
 insufficient ventilation, and others are over-crowded. Heavy 
 losses are likely to occur from these conditions, for which perhaps 
 the operator condemns his apparatus, when as a matter of fact 
 the trouble probably exists solely in its management. 
 
 Careless Operation. — Nine times out of ten losses in the 
 brooder are due to carelessness or mismanagement, and the most 
 conspicuous blunders are made at the beginning of a new brood, 
 
SOME COMMON MISTAKES 
 
 299 
 
 in that the brood is not properly broken to the brooder. Briefly, 
 the brooder will provide warmth and so on, but the operator must 
 teach the brood of chicks how to avail themselves of its care. 
 
 No one make of brooder or system of brooding is superior to 
 the others. The poultry raiser must choose one that is best suited 
 to particular requirements, such as the size of the flock, size and 
 
 (Court,- 
 
 Fig. 193. — Brooder stoves are great labor-savers inasmuch as they can be made 
 to care for chicks in large flocks. 
 
 type of houses, climate and so on. Also the funds available for 
 permanent equipment of this sort. 
 
 There are two principal ways of brooding : one is in small units, 
 consisting of about fifty chicks, and the other is in large flocks, 
 ranging from 200 to 1500 chicks. Then again, the small unit plan 
 may be carried out in two ways: either by single hovers in small 
 coops (see Fig. 194), usually spoken of as colony brooder coops, 
 or by a long, continuous brooder house in which the hovers are 
 
300 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 arranged side by side and heated from a central plant, which is 
 generally a hot- water system. See Fig. 191. 
 
 Hot- Water System. — The earliest method of heating the hovers 
 in a long brooder house was by means of a series of hot-water pipes 
 arranged about eight inches above the floor of the brooder. The 
 chicks huddled together under these pipes, and ventilation was 
 controlled by means of apertures in the tops of the hovers. A 
 development of this idea was found by heating a compartment 
 
 Fig. 194. — Colony coop brooders on a Government experiment station. 
 
 or duct under the brooder floor with a hot-water system of piping, 
 and then conveying the warmed air up through a vent in each 
 hover. 
 
 Fireless Brooders. — Another method is to heat the brooder 
 house to a moderate temperature by the use of a few coils of hot- 
 water pipes, but to heat the hovers themselves by means of indi- 
 vidual kerosene lamps. An adaptation of this method is to use 
 fireless hovers, so constructed as to conserve the heat thrown off 
 from the chicks' bodies. See Fig. 195. These fireless brooders 
 
INDIVIDUAL HOVERS AND BROODERS 
 
 301 
 
 have never been widely used ; the whole principle is against them. 
 Adequate ventilation is impossible, since to ventilate the hovers 
 means to lose the warmth created by the chicks. 
 
 As a matter of fact, all long brooder house systems are rapidly 
 disappearing in favor of large flock systems reared with brooder 
 stoves. The long brooder house usually represented the most 
 expensive building on a poultry farm, and because of its equip- 
 ment it could not be used for any other purpose, consequently 
 for six months each year it was idle. See Fig. 192. And capital 
 invested in idle equip- 
 ment is unprofitable. 
 
 Individual Hovers. — 
 For farmers and back- 
 yard flocks, where but a 
 hundred or so chicks are 
 raised each year, the in- 
 dividual hover, heated 
 by hot air or hot water, 
 with a kerosene lamp as 
 the source of heat, seems 
 to be the most popular 
 device. See Fig. 196. 
 Most of these hovers can 
 be installed in any sort of 
 
 a coop or building without alterations, or with some minor prepara- 
 tion, such as cutting a hole for the exhaust pipe from the lamp. 
 Some makes have the lamp in the center and are entirely portable, 
 others have the lamp on one side, which is housed in a separate 
 box fastened to the outside of the house. They are called uni- 
 versal or adaptable hovers, and practically all makes can be de- 
 pended upon to give satisfactory results. 
 
 Colony Brooders. — Some manufacturers of portable hovers 
 make a brooder coop in connection with the hover. The coop 
 is built in sections, screwed together and easily handled. See 
 Fig. 197. The coop is about six feet long, three feet wide and 
 about three feet high at the front; it has a shed roof, which is 
 
 (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 195. — Homemade fireless brooder. The 
 principle is that of conserving the warmth 
 given off by the chicks' bodies. 
 
302 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 removable, and the interior of the coop is divided by a removable 
 partition. One compartment is fitted for the hover; the other 
 is intended for an exercising pen or nursery. Both compart- 
 ments are easily ventilated, comfortable and convenient for the 
 chicks, and the entire coop is readily cleaned. 
 
 This type of brooder is commonly known as the outdoor colony 
 brooder. It can be purchased complete at a reasonable price, 
 and there is no better outfit for the beginner or for one who in- 
 
 {Courtesy Prairie State Incubator Co.) 
 
 Fig. 196. — 50-chick size lamp brooding hover which may be adapted to any 
 
 type of house. 
 
 tends to raise but a few chickens. The average capacity is 
 fifty chicks. When artificial heat is no longer required, the hover, 
 lamp and central partition can be removed and the coop used for 
 a growing coop. It is also convenient for housing extra male 
 birds at "odd times, as a conditioning coop for show specimens, 
 or as an isolation pen for sick birds. When not in use, it can be 
 taken apart and stored under a shed. Paint it occasionally and 
 it will last for many years. 
 
COLONY BROODER STOVES 
 
 303 
 
 Brooder Stoves. — Whereas the outdoor colony brooder is a 
 splendid outfit for the farmer, backyard flock and small poultry 
 plant, the colony brooder stove is to be recommended for larger 
 operations. In reality the brooder stove is a development or 
 enlargement of the colony brooder idea. It is of recent origin, 
 yet for all it has gained greater popularity than all the other ap- 
 pliances. It is the one device, which permits of a gradation of 
 heat and a reserve heat, and it is by far the most economical 
 system of brooding, both as to labor and fuel. 
 
 (Courle 
 
 Fig. 197. — Outdoor colony brooder. The front and top are removed to 
 show interior equipment, which consists of a hover similar to that shown in 
 Fig. 196. The lamp box is on the outside, and all fumes from the lamp are 
 carried off by means of the T-shaped duct leading from the top of the hover. 
 
 Works on a Large Scale. — The brooder stove had its inception 
 in the need for performing its work on a large scale, at the least 
 possible cost for special buildings, for fuel, for operating costs 
 and for the care of the chicks, and this it does. These stoves 
 are made in various sizes, with capacities ranging from 200 to 
 1500 chicks. They have passed the experimental stage; they 
 are giving results, though until one has had considerable ex- 
 perience in raising chicks in fairly large numbers, it is not ad- 
 
304 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 visable to attempt a brood greater than, say, 300 chicks. Then, 
 as skill is developed, the flocks can be enlarged. Not that 
 brooder stoves will fail to perform the functions required of 
 them, but the operator must become familiar with ways of feed- 
 ing large flocks of chicks running together, so that they can be 
 induced to exercise sufficiently, and not get into bad habits, such 
 as toe-pecking and feather-pulling. 
 
 Gradations of Heat. — In many of the earlier brooding ap- 
 pliances there were, generally speaking, two distinct tempera- 
 tures and no gradations of heat; the interior temperature of the 
 hover, so frequently stuffy and hot, and the outside air, which 
 
 {Courtesy Prairie Slate Incubator Co.) 
 Fig. 198. — Outdoor colony brooder — a complete outfit. 
 
 was very apt to be too cold. Either of these the chick had to 
 accept, and both were weakening — to be chilled or partly suf- 
 focated. 
 
 The brooder stove is a high-power furnace capable of radiating 
 a great deal of heat, which, by means of a wide-spread sheet-iron 
 deflector, is distributed downward over the backs of the chicks, 
 where it is most needed. See Fig! 199. When taken from the 
 incubator direct to the brooder, the chicks instinctively learn to 
 form a circle around the stove. In the majority of times they 
 will gauge their distance from the base of the stove entirely by 
 the intensity of the heat most comfortable to them. See Fig. 
 
HIGH-POWERED FURNACE 
 
 305 
 
 200. In short, the brooder stove provides a gradual decrease in 
 temperature, from the base of the stove, which is very hot, to 
 the farthest corners of the room, which can be kept as cool as 
 desired by means of ventilation. 
 
 This arrangement of providing warmth is thoroughly practical, 
 for it permits every chick to seek the degree of warmth best 
 suited to its individual comfort. The plan is in imitation of 
 natural brooding, which is best, except that it is not economical. 
 
 kT~ T'T", 
 
 (Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company) 
 
 Fig. 199. — Sectional view of a coal-burning brooder stove. All the warmth 
 is radiated downward over the backs of the chicks, where it does the greatest 
 
 The bare breast of a sitting hen has a temperature of about 105 
 degrees, which is greater heat than the chicks require under 
 ordinary circumstances. The temperature of the hen's plumage 
 ranges from about ioo degrees to 90 degrees. But the chicks 
 are not compelled to accept any one of these temperatures for 
 all time. They may seek that which is most comfortable at a 
 particular time. If they have been exposed and are cold, the 
 chicks can be quickly warmed by nestling close to the bare breast 
 of the hen. Later they can seek a lower temperature within the 
 
306 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 confines of the wing feathers; or, if they are too warm, they can 
 push out their heads and cool off. Thus it will be seen that the 
 natural condition is a very flexible one, and we should aim to 
 imitate this flexibility as much as possible in artificial brooding. 
 
 No Special Buildings. — A brooder stove does not require a 
 special type of building, and this factor is one of its greatest 
 virtues. It can be installed anywhere, providing the room or 
 
 {Courtesy Newtown Giant Incubator Co.) 
 Fig. 200. — Coal-burning brooder stove. Note the circle formed by the chicks. 
 
 building is fairly well constructed, weather-proof, dry, and 
 capable of being well ventilated without direct drafts. 
 
 Stoves may be set up in colony houses, and later, when the 
 brood no longer require artificial heat, the stoves may be removed 
 and the same quarters used for rearing the young stock. See 
 Fig. 201. Stoves may be erected in laying houses, and when the 
 broods are weaned the stoves are taken down and stored else- 
 where, or removed to other quarters to take care of new broods. 
 The idea is simplicity itself; it is flexible and economical. 
 
 Fuel. — There are various types of brooder stoves on the mar- 
 
NO SPECIAL BUILDINGS 
 
 307 
 
 ket; some designed for crude oil, gasoline, kerosene, distillate and 
 coal ; but, since no form of combustion is safer than that confined 
 within the iron castings of a coal stove, where coal is obtainable 
 for anything like a reasonable price, this fuel should become the 
 
 Chimney Car 
 
 Fig. 201. — Combination brooder house, colony house and laying house. 
 
 most popular. One scuttle of coal will run a good-sized brooder 
 stove for twenty-four hours. 
 
 The ideal house for an 8oo-chick stove is a building about fifteen 
 by thirty feet, divided in the middle by a solid partition. This 
 affords two rooms, one to be heated by the stove, and the other 
 without heat, to be utilized as a scratching pen after the chicks 
 are about a week old. There should be large windows on at 
 
308 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 least three sides, and so arranged as to flood the interior with sun- 
 light. Except in very warm weather, these windows should not 
 be relied upon for ventilation, for it is almost impossible to venti- 
 late in this manner without creating drafts. It is the draft, not 
 fresh air, that causes trouble. 
 
 Ventilation. — The following system of ventilation has given 
 excellent results, and it may be installed in any house at a moder- 
 
 (Courtesy Prairie Stale Incubator Co.) 
 Fig. 202. — Filling the coal hopper of a brooder stove. 
 
 ate cost: In the four corners of the brooder house, and about 
 one foot above the floor line, cut circular openings in the walls 
 about six inches in diameter, and with ordinary stove-pipe and 
 elbows construct an S-shape ventilator, pointing downward on 
 the outside and upward on the inside. Over the inside opening 
 place a screen to prevent chicks from flying into it, also a damper 
 to control the intake of air. In the center of the roof install an 
 exhaust vent or cupola having an area twice as great as the com- 
 
TEST THE BROODING SYSTEM 
 
 309 
 
 bined areas of the fresh air intakes. Cold air expands when 
 heated, hence the necessity for doubling the size of the exhaust 
 ventilator. 
 
 Ventilating cupolas of galvanized iron may be purchased in 
 varying sizes from sheet-iron workers, or a similar device may be 
 made of wood which will answer the purpose nicely. If one does 
 not wish to cut an opening in the roof, the highest point in the 
 
 {Courtesy Prairie Stale Incubator Co.) 
 
 Fig. 203. — Sectional view of coal-burning brooder stove. A, Base; B, ash- 
 pit; C, grate; D, fire draft; E, thermostat wafer; F, counterpoise weight; 
 G, regulator arm; H, escape vent; I, metal hover; J, curtain. 
 
 front wall of the building may be converted into a ventilator, 
 and fitted with a shield or baffling plate to prevent back currents 
 of air or driving rains from entering the house. 
 
 Test the System. — When the brooder stove and ventilation 
 system are installed, it is advisable to try out the scheme for a 
 few days before the chicks are brought out, in order that the 
 operator may familiarize himself with every phase of the work. 
 Ascertain the exact heating capacity of the stove under severe 
 
310 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 weather conditions, how often the fire requires stoking, if it is a 
 coal fire, and how to bank the fire at night. 
 
 A thermometer should be hung three feet from the base of the 
 stove and one inch above the litter, for that is where the chicks 
 sleep and rest. The stove should be hot enough to make the 
 thermometer in that position register 90 degrees. No harm will 
 ensue if it registers more than 90 degrees, but try not to have 
 it register less oarticularly if the night is coming on cold. When 
 the brood has settled down comfortably for the night, the nearest 
 chicks should be about two feet from the base of the stove, and 
 this intervening distance amounts to a reserve heat, so that as 
 the night advances and the fire cools off somewhat, the chicks 
 may draw closer to the stove for the desired warmth. 
 
 Hover Breaking. — Late afternoon or early evening is the best 
 time to remove the chicks from the incubator and place them in 
 the brooder, for the darkness will serve to restrain the more 
 venturesome fellows from exploring the building and becoming 
 chilled. Furthermore, when they are quiet they can be made to 
 obtain their first impression of where the warmth is to be had. 
 This is termed hover breaking, and it is the first and paramount 
 issue in the artificial brooding of chicks; they must be taught to 
 seek the hover or the base of the stove, which corresponds to a 
 hover, for warmth, and until the attendant is absolutely assured 
 that this instinct is firmly established, he must adopt special 
 means of confining them within or very close to the stove. 
 
 Wire Partition. — A good plan is to erect a small mesh-wire 
 partition, poultry netting will do, in a circle around what is con- 
 sidered to be a safe distance from the stove, removing it in the 
 daytime, or when it is found the chicks no longer require it as a 
 safeguard. See Fig. 193. If the chicks are not confined close 
 to the stove in this manner for the first few nights, it is quite 
 likely that some of them will stray from the warmth and be 
 unable to find their way back, whereupon they will soon become 
 chilled and die. 
 
 With proper training, two or three days is usually sufficient 
 to break a brood of chicks to the hover, and the attendant must 
 
BREAKING BROOD TO THE HOVER 311 
 
 be as patient as possible, for the success of the brood later on 
 largely depends upon this early discipline. It sometimes happens 
 that a brood will be particularly obstinate, and insist upon spend- 
 ing the night in every place but the right one, all of which is very 
 exasperating and likely to tax the patience of the most careful 
 operator; yet the will of the operator must dominate. 
 
 The expert brooder operator realizes the importance of this, 
 and aims to break his brood into the ways of a particular ap- 
 paratus, much as a dog is trained to follow a scent, or a horse is 
 broken to the harness. Poor results are often blamed on the 
 brooding appliances, when in reality the fault rests entirely on 
 the persons running them. A brooder stove, no matter what 
 make or type, is seldom better than the operator in charge of it. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 FEEDS FOR BABY CHICKS 
 
 Baby chicks seem like such helpless, frail little creatures that 
 the first month of their life is likely to be a period of much con- 
 cern to their keeper, especially the beginner. A certain mystery 
 seems to attach itself to the undertaking, which forebodes dis- 
 tressing, troublesome times ahead, maybe serious losses, even 
 failure. We speak of it as the brooding period, and it is well 
 named. According to the dictionary, brooding means "to dwell 
 upon with anxiety." 
 
 Rearing young stock is the most difficult operation, though 
 largely because it requires the closest attention to details. Other 
 than this it need hold no fears, even for the novice, because the 
 work is really quite simple, and almost certain of success, pro- 
 viding a few elemental facts are borne in mind. Moreover, there 
 is comfort in the fact that once a chick is weaned from the brood- 
 ing period, which lasts from four to six weeks, depending upon the 
 season and weather conditions, it is practically as hardy as a 
 mature fowl. 
 
 In its fullest sense, brooding means to provide shelter, warmth 
 and comfort, a quiet retreat for the chicks, a resting place and a 
 place to sleep, under the most healthful conditions, such as sani- 
 tation and ventilation, which will promote rapid development 
 and a strong constitution. 
 
 Hatch all the chicks you can during March, April and May and 
 the problems of brooding are greatly simplified, because condi- 
 tions at this time are naturally favorable. The weather is on 
 your side, also plant life, because it is fresh and appetizing. Then, 
 too, March, April and May hatched pullets will start laying in 
 the fall and furnish winter eggs, which is the goal of every poultry 
 raiser. 
 
 312 
 
HIGH-POWERED ORGANISMS 
 
 313 
 
 Remarkable Growth.— When one considers the remarkable 
 growth made by chicks during the first month or two, it is easy 
 to understand why they require a watchful attendant. At 
 hatching time the chick weighs about one and a half ounces. It 
 doubles this weight in six days, and under normal circumstances 
 it can be made to weigh two and a half pounds in three months, 
 which is more than twenty-five times its original weight. 
 
 If we humans grew that fast, we would weigh about two hun- 
 dred pounds at the age of three months. This comparison fur- 
 nished some idea of the naturally intensive, high-powered ca- 
 pacity of the chick, and of the need for suitable nourishment. 
 
 {Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment' Station) 
 
 Fig. 204. — Summer-hatched chicks require plenty of shade. Inexpensive 
 coops like these are easily moved from place to place, which moving gives 
 the chicks fresh greens and clean soil. 
 
 Proper nourishment is the crux of the whole business. Chicks 
 require a great deal of food in relation to their size, but do not 
 mistake this to mean that you should simply pile the food in 
 front of them. On the contrary, they must be fed in just the 
 right quantities. The feeding program is the most important 
 consideration ; it is paramount ; it makes for success or failure. 
 
 Overfeeding. — Oddly enough, perhaps, more chicks die from 
 overfeeding than from underfeeding. And the trouble usually 
 starts by feeding the brood too soon after it has left the incubator. 
 
 The last development in incubation prior to breaking the shell 
 is the embryo chick's absorption of the yolk. This highly nutri- 
 
314 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 tive material is capable of sustaining life for two or three days, or 
 until the chick is strong enough to walk about freely and pick up 
 food. Investigations have shown that this absorbed yolk con- 
 tains almost half of the original energy of the egg. It is a wise 
 provision of nature, with which it is folly to interfere. There 
 is no need for additional nourishment at this time, and to supply 
 any will invariably work more harm than good, in that it inter- 
 feres with the proper assimilation of the yolk. We might say 
 
 (Courtesy V. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 
 Fig. 205. — Feeding frame for young chicks. It is wire-covered, and none but 
 the small chicks can crawl under the lower rail. 
 
 that the chick's system is not ready for food until the third day 
 after incubation. 
 
 This condition makes it possible to ship chicks hundreds of 
 miles without imposing any hardships through lack of feeding 
 and watering. It is a good plan, however, to place water before 
 the chicks as soon as they are removed to the brooder, preferably 
 water with the chill taken off, if the weather is cold. Care should 
 be taken that the little fellows do not wallow in the water and 
 get wet; therefore it is best to use shallow vessels protected in 
 some way so that the chicks cannot fall inside. 
 
FEED LITTLE BUT OFTEN 
 
 315 
 
 As a rule, chicks learn to eat as soon as they are able to stand. 
 They will even commence picking at things while they are in the 
 
 {Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company) 
 
 Fig. 206. — Brooder stove with the hover or heat deflector raised to permit 
 sweeping and cleaning around the base of the stove. The deflector is suspended 
 by means of rope and pulleys attached to a counterpoise weight. 
 
 incubator. The idea seems to come to them as instinctively as 
 walking. In the case of drinking it is sometimes necessary to 
 teach them, or at least to point out the presence of water. This 
 
316 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 is easily done by dipping the bills of two or three chicks in the 
 water. They will catch on to the idea in a few minutes, where- 
 upon the rest of the flock will quickly imitate them. 
 
 Feed little but often, is the slogan to be adopted in the brooder. 
 This is especially important with flocks which are confined in- 
 doors, or leg weakness is. 
 apt to result. Chicks on 
 free range are not sus- 
 ceptible to this ailment. 
 Leg weakness comes 
 from excessive feeding 
 without sufficient exer- 
 cise; the bodies of the 
 chicks become too heavy 
 for the muscles and bones 
 of the legs, consequently 
 the chicks are unable to 
 walk or stand. They 
 present a pitiable ap- 
 pearance and are likely 
 to be trampled and killed 
 by the rest of the flock. 
 On the morning of the 
 third day, which is to 
 say when the chicks are 
 forty-eight hours old, 
 give them a light meal 
 of easily digested food, 
 preferably soft food, 
 which has been sprinkled with fine grit. Repeat this feeding 
 every two or three hours, so that the chicks receive four or five 
 meals a day. 
 
 The first feed may consist of bread crumbs moistened with 
 milk, bread crumbs and hard-boiled eggs ground fine, shells and 
 all, johnnycake, or pinhead oatmeal. Food moistened with 
 milk is of great value in giving the chicks a good start, but the 
 
 {Courtesy Prairie Slate Incubator Company) 
 
 Fig. 207. — Small lamp hovers are easily moved 
 from place to place. 
 
IMPORTANCE OF MILK 
 
 317 
 
 mixtures must be fed in a crumbly state, never in a sloppy con- 
 dition. In the case of bread crumbs a good plan is to moisten 
 them with milk and then squeeze out the greater part of the liquid. 
 It is also important to feed these mixtures fresh. Do not mix 
 up a large quantity and then allow it to stand around until it 
 turns bad. 
 
 Johnnycake. — The following is a good recipe for johnnycake: 
 One dozen eggs (wherever possible use clear eggs removed from 
 the incubator), or one pound of sifted beef scrap, to ten pounds 
 
 (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 208. — Where flocks of different ages are likely to run together, the 
 young broods should be given a fenced yard for the first few weeks so that 
 they will not be molested by the older chickens. 
 
 of corn meal; add enough milk to make a dough, and one table- 
 spoonful of baking soda; bake into cakes. 
 
 Milk. — Many breeders are having good results by feeding 
 milk and no water the first week or ten days, and even longer. 
 Sour milk should be fed just as it begins to thicken and before 
 it separates, as the chicks like it better in that condition. Milk 
 is more than a food; it contains lactic acid, which tends to pre- 
 vent and correct white diarrhea and kindred bowel troubles. 
 It should be placed before the chicks in shallow pans or founts, 
 so designed that the birds cannot wade in it or contaminate it. 
 
318 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Scratch Grains. — Continue with the soft food for three or four 
 days, then gradually substitute a scratch grain mixture consisting 
 of cracked wheat, finely cracked corn and hulled oats in equal 
 parts, to which may be added about five per cent of cracked peas 
 or broken rice, and two per cent of millet or rape seed. At the 
 same time a dry mash should be fed, which may consist of ten 
 pounds of corn meal, ten pounds of wheat bran, two pounds of 
 bone meal and one-half pound of granulated charcoal. 
 
 Only as much of the scratching feed should be given as the 
 chicks will scratch out in ten minutes. If the chicks have range, 
 
 the dry mash may be kept 
 before them all the time, in 
 shallow troughs or hoppers. 
 If they are confined to the 
 brooder, the mash should be 
 left before them for about 
 fifteen minutes at each feed- 
 ing. 
 
 If it is impossible to sup- 
 ply the chicks with milk in 
 any form, add a half pound 
 of sifted beef scrap to the 
 dry mash after the first 
 week. Increase the propor- 
 tion of scrap each week, 
 until it amounts to about four pounds at the end of a month. 
 
 After the first week the number of feedings may be reduced to 
 four a day, and after the second week to three a day. In the 
 morning the feeds are light, so as to encourage exercise. To- 
 ward evening the heaviest feed is given, so that every chick may 
 go under the hover with a full crop. The last meal should be 
 given about an hour before sundown. 
 
 The best way to feed the soft mixtures is on boards or heavy 
 sheets of cardboard. Tin pie plates are good, except that the 
 chicks slip about on them. Never feed the soft mixtures in the 
 litter, where they are likely to absorb filth from the droppings. 
 
 (Courtesy Newtown Giant Incubator Company) 
 Fig. 209. — Sectional view of brooder stove. 
 
BEEF SCRAP AND GREENS 
 
 319 
 
 On the other hand, it is a bad plan to feed the scratch grains on 
 a board, once the chicks have learned how to hunt for them, be- 
 cause they are likely to gorge themselves, which defeats the idea 
 of the scratch grains. These grains should be sprinkled in the 
 litter, where the chicks are obliged to dig and work for them. 
 
 Green Food. — Unless the chicks are given outdoor freedom 
 where they have access to an abundance of tender green shoots, 
 they must be given succulence in some other form, such as lettuce, 
 sprouted oats, sliced onions and tops, or ground vegetables, such 
 as mangels or turnips. Chicks are very fond of onions, which 
 seem to act as a tonic. 
 Slice a good-sized onion 
 for each fifty chicks; cut it 
 so as to form rings, and the 
 chicks will tussle and fight 
 for them as though they 
 were worms. 
 
 Clover, alfalfa and rape 
 are all excellent green 
 foods for chicks, and 
 wherever possible they 
 should be given liberty 
 where these crops are 
 growing. This is the most 
 convenient way to furnish 
 green food, and the 
 
 cheapest way. If a grass range is not available, substitutes must 
 be found, because no brood will thrive without greens. Succulence 
 supplies them with roughage for crop development, mineral ele- 
 ments to aid the digestion of concentrated foods, and with certain 
 tonic properties which sustain the appetite. In short, if chicks are 
 given unlimited freedom on a grassy range, they are almost certain 
 to thrive even if the rest of the feeding system is seriously defec- 
 tive. 
 
 Avoid Moldy Feed. — Chicks are susceptible to bowel trouble 
 if given moldy or musty grain or decomposed food, therefore it 
 
 {Courtesy C. L. Opperman) 
 
 Fig. 210. — Colony house fitted with gasoline 
 brooder. 
 
320 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 behooves the poultryman to investigate his feeds very carefully. 
 Grain which has heated in the bin, or allowed to become damp and 
 mildewed, is the equivalent to so much poison. Bear this point 
 in mind if you are offered cheap grain, because it is likely that 
 the grain has suffered some such deterioration, hence the reduced 
 price. Bargain foods are usually inferior goods, and the most 
 expensive in the long run. It pays to get reliable stuff from a 
 responsible dealer, and then to store it properly so that it will 
 not spoil. 
 
 (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 211. — An orchard makes an ideal location for growing chicks. 
 
 Finely broken grit and oyster shells should be kept before the 
 chicks at all times after they are a week old. It is best not to 
 put these articles before them in hoppers until this time, because 
 some of the chicks are likely to mistake the grits for food and gorge 
 themselves forthwith. As previously mentioned, the early 
 feedings of soft food should be sprinkled with the grit; sharp 
 sand will answer the purpose. 
 
 If charcoal is not included in the mash, it is well to keep this 
 before the chicks along with the grit and shells, also a box of 
 
FEEDING RATIONS FOR CHICKS 321 
 
 granulated bone or bone meal. These articles are inexpensive 
 and they will last a long time. The charcoal acts as an absorbent 
 and aids digestion ; it serves to keep the crop sweet. Granulated 
 bone is rich in nitrogenous matter and makes bone and muscle; 
 it keeps the chicks sturdy. 
 
 Table XXIV. — Feeding Rations for Chicks Recommended by the 
 Indiana Experiment Station 
 
 Scratch Grains Dry Mash 
 
 Pounds Pounds 
 
 Cracked corn (sifted) iq Wheat bran 10 
 
 Wheat (cracked) 10 Middlings 10 
 
 Oats io Corn meal 5 
 
 Meat scrap 5 
 
 Charcoal 2.5 
 
 Plenty of sour milk or buttermilk to drink. If milk is not available, the 
 meat scrap may be increased to 15 pounds in the mash. Scratch grains are 
 fed in litter from the first. The mash is supplied in a hopper when the chicks 
 are five to seven days old. 
 
 Table XXV. — Feeding Rations for Chicks Recommended by the 
 California Experiment Station 
 
 Scratch Grains Pounds 
 
 Wheat 20 
 
 Oats (steel cut) 15 
 
 Millet 5 
 
 Rice 2 
 
 Cracked corn 6 
 
 Grit 10 
 
 Charcoal . . ■ 5 
 
 Bone meal 5 
 
 The ingredients are crushed to the size of millet. The mixture is fed from 
 the first. Toward the end of the second week the cracked wheat and oats are 
 increased until by the sixth or seventh week these two grains have replaced all 
 others, except the cracked corn. From the seventh week on the grains con- 
 sist of cracked corn and wheat. A mash is given after the eighth day, con- 
 sisting of either of the following mixtures: 
 
 Mash Mixture I Mash Mixture II 
 
 Pounds Pounds 
 
 Bran (wheat) . . . . 3 Bran (wheat) 4 
 
 Middlings 2 Alfalfa meal 2 
 
 Corn meal (coarse) I Corn meal (coarse) 1 
 
 Oatmeal 1 Meat meal X A 
 
 Meat meal Va, Bone meal X A 
 
 Bone meal Y\ Charcoal V2 
 
 Charcoal >i 
 
 One teaspoonful of salt is added to each gallon of either mixture. The 
 mixtures are intended for chicks from ten days old to six weeks. After this 
 the meat meal and the bone meal should be increased gradually, until the meal 
 equals one pound of the ration and the bone meal a half pound. 
 
322 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Fresh Water. — Needless to say, the fountains must be kept 
 full of pure, clean water at all times. If they are permitted to 
 go dry, though only for a short time, the chicks soon become 
 famished for a drink, whereupon they fight for room around the 
 refilled fountains and in so doing seriously wet themselves. 
 
 As soon as the flock can be weaned from artificial heat or from 
 the care of the brooder, the chicks are old enough to be given a 
 scratch-grain ration of whole wheat, cracked corn and other small 
 
 'rf^**?!*" 
 
 ■"•'..• -'\ .'■ . '■"■,'.• 
 
 (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 212. — The hen and her brood must be given privacy for the first couple of 
 
 weeks. 
 
 grains, such as milo maize, kafir corn and barley. The corn meal 
 in the mash can be increased somewhat and other meals added, 
 such as ground oats and wheat middlings. 
 
 Essentials to Health. — If called upon to suggest the proper 
 care of baby chicks, and my expression were limited to ten words, 
 it would be something in this fashion: Keep them warm, dry, 
 exercised, aired, watered, and somewhat hungry. The question 
 might then arise, how can one feed liberally and yet keep the 
 chicks somewhat hungry? An answer is difficult without ap- 
 
CORNELL FEEDING METHODS 
 
 323 
 
 pearing to argue in a circle, which is really the case: If a chick is 
 dry, warm, exercised, aired and watered, he is sure to be hungry, 
 and when hungry he will search continually for food ; and thereon 
 hangs the secret of successful brooding. Keep all the conditions 
 such that every chick is exercising for food, and always re- 
 ceiving a reward for its pains, from dawn to dark. 
 
 Table XXVI. — Rations and Methods of Feeding Chicks Recommended 
 by Poultry Department of Cornell University 
 
 The Ration The Method 
 
 Mixture No. i 
 8 pounds rolled oats. 
 8 pounds bread-crumbs or 
 cracker waste. 
 
 2 pounds sifted meat scrap 
 
 (best grade). 
 
 1 pound bone meal. 
 
 Mixture No. 2 
 
 3 pounds wheat (cracked). 
 
 2 pounds cracked corn (fine). 
 I pound pinhead oatmeal. 
 
 Mixture No. j 
 3 pounds wheat bran. 
 3 pounds corn meal. 
 3 pounds wheat middlings. 
 3 pounds meat scrap (best 
 grade) . 
 
 1 pound bone meal. 
 
 Mixture No. 4 
 3 pounds wheat (whole). 
 
 2 pounds cracked corn. 
 1 pound hulled oats. 
 
 Mixture No. 5 
 
 3 pounds wheat. 
 
 3 pounds cracked corn. 
 
 One to Five Days 
 Mixture No. 1, moistened with sour 
 skimmed milk, fed five times a day; 
 Mixture No. 2 in shallow tray containing 
 a little of No. 3 (dry) always before 
 chicks. Shredded green food and fine 
 grit and charcoal scattered over food. 
 
 Five Days to Two Weeks 
 No. 2 in light litter twice a day; No. 3 
 moistened with sour skimmed milk, fed 
 three times a day; No. 3 (dry) always 
 available. 
 
 Two to Four Weeks 
 As above, except that the moist mash is 
 given twice a day. 
 
 Four to Six Weeks {until Chicks are on 
 
 Reduce meals of moist mash to one a day; 
 Mixture No. 4 in litter twice a day; dry. 
 mash always available. 
 
 No. 
 
 Six Weeks to Maturity 
 3 and No. 5 hopper fed. One meal a 
 
 day of moist mash if it 
 hasten development. 
 
 is desired to 
 
 Further instructions: Provide fine grit, charcoal, oyster shells and bone 
 from the start. Give grass range or plenty of green food. Keep chickens 
 active by allowing them to become hungry once daily. 
 
 The incubator chick is born with just as many instincts as the 
 chick hatched under a hen, it is just as sturdy if the period of in- 
 
324 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 cubation has been properly conducted, hence there is no reason 
 why it should not develop just as quickly and profitably. Like 
 most of us, however, the chick is a creature of habits, some of 
 which are pernicious, and generally inspired by simply watching 
 the other fellow do it. For example, toe-pecking and feather- 
 pulling are two of the most troublesome habits to combat in the 
 brooder, and unless controlled at their inception, they will fre- 
 quently lead to a heavy mortality. Therefore while it may be 
 perfectly normal for a brood to develop toe-pecking, yet the 
 habit must have been induced by an abnormal condition — lack 
 of exercise, idleness due to exhaustion from overheating, over- 
 feeding or improper feeding. Usually it is improper feeding, 
 either as to quantity or an insufficient variety; not necessarily 
 a lack of variety in the grains, but an improper balance of the 
 nutritive elements — the greens, grains, grits and grubs. 
 
 Last, but not least, of the suggestions for brooding — be sure 
 to get chicks on the soil at the earliest possible moment. No 
 matter how well equipped the brooder, Mother Earth is the 
 chick's natural habitat. The chick has an affinity for dirt, — 
 and it won't be genuinely happy till it gets the dirt 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 CARE OF YOUNG STOCK 
 
 The hatching season is admitted to be the critical period for 
 the poultry keeper. It is the time when affairs are most pressing, 
 and when the prospects for next season's flock are either secured 
 or discouraged. As soon as this season is past, and the brooders 
 and incubators have cooled off for the last time, say about the 
 first of August, poultrymen are likely to relax their vigilance, 
 which is natural enough, except that it must not be carried to 
 extremes. 
 
 When chicks reach the age of four weeks, and are fairly well 
 feathered, they are as good as grown, barring accidents, and pro- 
 viding they receive reasonable care. Most of them are inde- 
 pendent of their mothers or brooders, and quite competent to 
 shift for themselves; yet too much confidence must not be re- 
 posed in them. Young chickens are susceptible of indiscretions, 
 just as are children. They need a watchful eye more or less at 
 all times for best results. 
 
 The breeder who gets the most from his flock is the fellow with 
 this watchful eye, to see that all are sufficiently fed, that they 
 are not tortured by vermin, that they are not menaced by rats, 
 hawks, crows and other pests, that none are killed accidentally and 
 their bodies left to decay in some obscure place where the rest 
 of the flock can eat this putrid matter, with its resultant ill effects. 
 They must have an abundance of clean, cool water. They must 
 have plenty of green food, and an opportunity to roam for insect 
 life and mineral food. 
 
 Exercise. — They must have plenty of exercise, especially in 
 the cool morning hours or in the late afternoons. Exercise 
 sharpens the appetite and encourages eating large quantities of 
 
 325 
 
326 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 food, so essential to rapid development, and it also wards off 
 any tendency toward leg weakness which is apt to result from 
 heavy eating without exercise. Exercise on a grassy range is 
 the greatest boon of all. Give fowls range and clean living 
 
 (Coitrtesy Million Egg Farm) 
 Fig. 213. — Portable hover installed in a simply constructed coop. 
 
 quarters and their keeper can almost afford to throw away all 
 the medicine bottles. 
 
 Over-crowding. — By all means avoid over-crowding at this 
 season, which is saying a good deal. Where large flocks are kept 
 it is not so easy as it sounds, even if sufficient buildings are 
 available. Chicks have strange ways. They are gregarious; 
 
EXERCISE AND OVER-CROWDING 
 
 327 
 
 they like to assemble in large numbers. Where one goes they 
 all want to go, despite the fact that there may not be room for 
 them. 
 
 However carefully the attendant may have been to distribute 
 the young stock among brood coops and colony houses, if these 
 buildings are on the one range, with no partition fences, the chicks 
 are likely to desert some houses, and crowd into others. I never 
 heard of a poultryman of any experience who was not bothered 
 with this perversity. It is as sure to occur as two or three hens 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 
 Fig. 214. — A number of broods can be kept together if the mother hens are 
 
 confined. 
 
 trying to crowd into one nest, though there may be a dozen or 
 twenty other empty nests. 
 
 Keeping the houses fairly far apart tends to discourage this 
 practice of over-crowding, but to do so is not always possible, 
 nor practicable. Where large numbers of chickens are grown a 
 great deal of ground is required. And when the houses are 
 spread over a big acreage, it means considerable additional labor 
 to distribute feed and water, and to perform the cleaning and 
 other chores. Very large farms do this work with a team, which 
 is the only practical, economical method. 
 
328 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Abandoned Houses. — Usually the houses that are farthest 
 away from the central part of the farm are the ones most likely 
 to be abandoned. The reasons for this are very apparent. 
 Chickens soon learn the ways of an attendant and the hours when 
 feed is distributed. Day after day they watch the feeder ap- 
 proach from the central part of the farm, and they go to meet 
 him. The stock from the farthest points on the range comes in 
 and joins the flocks close by; in a large herd they congregate, 
 impatiently waiting for the dinner pail. It is natural enough, 
 even if it is troublesome. 
 
 Change Feeding Ground. — Efforts should be made to avert 
 the forming of these habits, though I confess, it is not always 
 .possible to do so. The first step is to keep the flocks guessing 
 as to where the attendant is going to make his approach. In 
 other words, if practicable alternate the routine as much as pos- 
 sible; approach the colony field from different points, so that no 
 particular place exists as a feeding ground. On some farms this 
 is easy to do, on others it is out of the question. 
 
 Another stunt is to avoid distributing feed near the houses that 
 are nearest the central part of the farm, but to carry it to the 
 farthest houses. In this way the flock will follow to the farthest 
 points, and when the chicks have finished, especially if it is 
 the evening meal, they are more likely to remain in the vicin- 
 ity of the farthest houses, and to take shelter in them as night 
 falls. 
 
 In our haste and efforts to reduce our steps it is natural to 
 want to distribute the feed at the nearest point where the flocks 
 can get it; but this is wrong, and will only pile up additional 
 work in the long run. Short-sightedness is one of the worst 
 characteristics a poultryman can have, yet it is strangely common 
 in the matter of feeding. Avoid the spirit of doing a thing for the 
 sake of getting it done. It is almost always fatal to success with 
 poultry, just as it is a serious handicap in other lines of work. 
 Watch the flock and not the clock, is a pretty good slogan for the 
 chicken man. 
 
 Unlimited Feed. — Some of the most successful poultry raisers 
 
WHEN THE FLOCK EATS AT WILL 329 
 
 work on the assumption that the fowls know what is best for 
 them in the matter of food, better than the man who does the 
 feeding. Certainly this is true of some feeders, for I have seen 
 some farm laborers who appeared to have as little interest in 
 their tasks, and as little knowledge of the importance of their 
 work, as they might have over a translation of Sanskrit. Where 
 this condition obtains it is infinitely better to permit the stock to 
 
 mttB0^^^Bti&^ 
 
 (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 215. — A covered runway which can be moved from place to place is 
 best for very young chicks until they are strong enough to battle with the older 
 stock on free range. 
 
 exercise its own judgment, by keeping all feeds before them at all 
 times, and giving them access to the feeds at will. 
 
 There is another virtue about this method : the birds do not 
 establish any habits of waiting for the feeder two or three times 
 a day, and then gorging themselves forthwith, only to go off in 
 the shade somewhere, like a snake after it has swallowed a toad, 
 and wait for digestion. Instead, if they have always been ac- 
 customed to feeding at will, they generally eat a little, run around, 
 return and eat some more, run off again, and repeat the process 
 
330 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 all day long. This is the best thing for them — a lot better than 
 gorging at stated intervals. 
 
 When chickens have feed before them in hoppers situated at 
 convenient places throughout the range, they have nothing to 
 draw them in a herd in any one spot, consequently they are not 
 so likely to find one location more attractive than another, and 
 will remain pretty much as they are distributed over the range 
 in the first place. The "always filled hopper" principle goes a 
 great way toward eliminating the bother of over-crowding due to 
 the abandonment of certain houses. 
 
 Feed Hoppers. — There should be plenty of hoppers, of a non- 
 wasteful type, and great care should be taken to make them 
 water-tight and weather-proof. Some of them can be placed 
 indoors. A good plan is to keep the mash hoppers inside the 
 house, where the feed will not be wasted by high winds blowing 
 the lighter meals away. Scratch feed hoppers may be left out- 
 side, in sheltered spots, accessible to the fowls, but in such a way 
 that the hoppers will have protection from sparrows and other 
 thieves. 
 
 Watertight Covers. — Positively the hoppers must be made 
 watertight, not only for the economy of the thing, but to avoid 
 moldy, sour or spoiled food. If the hoppers leak ever so little, 
 it means musty grain, and musty grains mean bowel troubles, 
 maybe serious ones, and heavy losses. Take a little extra care 
 in the making of the hoppers and provide tight lids or covers. 
 And the covers must extend far enough over the sides of the 
 hoppers to prevent driving rains from reaching the contents. 
 The hoppers should have slatted sides through which the birds 
 can reach the grain without difficulty, but not large enough for 
 them to crawl through and perhaps soil the feed. 
 
 The pullet is the favorite — the "star boarder." She is espe- 
 cially cherished on egg farms, and held in preference to the hen 
 for fall and winter egg production — the periods of highest prices, 
 which mean so much to the year's profits. 
 
 Every poultry raiser's experience will substantiate the belief 
 that a fowl's greatest egg-producing capacity is in her first 
 
CARE OF PULLETS 331 
 
 laying year — the pullet year, providing, of course, all conditions 
 are equal and as they should be. Therefore, under favorable 
 conditions the pullet is the most profitable bird on the farm; and 
 as such she is deserving of special care and attention. 
 
 We are enjoined to get our hatches out early, in time to have 
 pullets mature as autumn layers; but it is well to remember 
 that age is not the only important consideration. While it is 
 necessary to hatch chicks early to get mature pullets before cold 
 weather sets in, especially among the heavier breeds, the feeding 
 and general care of the growing stock have much to do with the 
 flock's start as layers. 
 
 To be fitted for laying a pullet must be in full flesh, of normal 
 size, with a fair amount of surplus fat, and these conditions are 
 obtained only by an abundance of food of the right sort. See 
 special chapters on feeding. 
 
 The pens from which the old stock has been removed should 
 be carefully cleaned, sprayed or whitewashed before the pullets 
 are turned into them; the yards should be plowed or spaded 
 under, and if possible sown to green food to sweeten them. In 
 short, everything must be made as fresh and comfortable as 
 possible for the new tenants. Cleanliness and roominess tend 
 to keep the growing pullets healthy and vigorous, which are 
 essential to egg production. 
 
 The young stock should be kept growing steadily, yet it is a 
 mistake to force pullets too rapidly. If their egg-producing 
 organs are developed into a state of production in advance of 
 their bodies having attained full growth, they will lay under- 
 sized eggs, or they may lay a few eggs and then enter a molt, 
 which will postpone further egg production until late in the 
 winter. By no means force pullets by excessive feeding of highly 
 concentrated animal protein foods. 
 
 Transfer Pullets Early. — Many poultry men make the mistake 
 of allowing their pullets to remain on the range, in colony houses, 
 too far into the fall, sometimes until the birds are ready to lay. 
 The error in this practice is this: Chickens are creatures of habit, 
 and nothing disturbs them more than changing their accommo- 
 
332 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 dations, even though they may be moved to a more desirable. 
 They will fuss and foolishly agitate themselves when placed in an 
 unfamiliar building, which invariably results in a falling off in 
 the egg yield. For proof of this, take a pen of fowls that are 
 laying nicely and remove them to another building; then note 
 the egg yield. 
 
 (Courtesy Petal uma Chamber of Commerce) 
 Fig. 216. — A husky brood; count them. 
 
 It should be a rule to get the pullets into their permanent 
 winter quarters several weeks in advance of the time they are 
 expected to commence laying, and to train them to accept their 
 more regulated method of living and confinement with as much 
 grace as possible. 
 
CREMATE OR BURY THE DEAD 333 
 
 Dangers of Poisons. — No experienced poultryman willfully 
 feeds his flock on spoiled grain, because he knows that to do so is 
 almost certain to result in sickness. No one with common sense 
 would think of leaving poisons about, such as arsenate of lead 
 or Paris green, where the fowls have access to them, or where 
 children are likely to play with them. Common sense dictates 
 that these poisonous things are in the class with high explosives, 
 to be treated with the greatest caution and forethought, lest 
 they result in some terrible fatality. In other words, we are im- 
 pressed with the danger of explosives and poisons, therefore we 
 handle them accordingly. 
 
 Decayed Animal Matter. — It is unfortunate that poultry 
 raisers generally do not extend this caution in the. matter of 
 poisons, and make it cover all such risks, since others exist 
 which are almost equally as potent as the arsenate of lead, 
 despite the fact that little or no attention is paid to them. I am 
 speaking of the decaying carcasses of fowls and rotten eggs which 
 are so often carelessly left about the premises, thrown on rub- 
 bish piles, in manure pits, or in adjoining woods and fields. 
 
 Such carcasses, in fact, dead animal matter of any kind, really 
 constitute just so much poison as soon as they start to putrefy. 
 If death was caused by disease, the bodies are poisonous even 
 before they start to putrefy, for reasons too obvious for further 
 explanation. They are the carriers of contagion, which is the 
 equivalent of poison. 
 
 Destroy the Dead. — Every authority who writes about poultry 
 or gives advice on the subject is sure to say — "Destroy the bodies 
 of dead fowls. Either burn them, put them in quicklime, or 
 deeply bury them." 
 
 Perhaps poultry keepers have been told this so often that it 
 has lost its power, for certain it is that the advice is not followed 
 as a general practice, at least, not with the scrupulousness that is 
 weighed against the skull and cross-bones poison label or the 
 explosive. Yet it should be, every mite as carefully. 
 
 Chickens Are Scavengers. — It is not a very pleasant idea to 
 contemplate chickens as scavengers, though in treating a subject 
 
334 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 of this kind we are obliged to deal with facts and not fancies. 
 Chickens are scavengers. Almost all fowls are scavengers to a 
 certain degree. Whether this is the result of intense domestica- 
 tion or a natural impulse, I am not prepared to say, but I do 
 know that fowls will eat dead animal matter at the slightest op- 
 portunity, and, what is more, they eat it with apparent relish. 
 
 
 7- 
 
 (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 217. — Growing coop for young stock constructed from piano cases covered 
 with tar paper. Note runway in front of right-hand window. 
 
 In the early stages of decomposition, if the animal matter 
 has not been infected with a malignant disease, little harm will 
 result from eating it, unless eaten in large quantities, which will 
 bring about bowel troubles. But as soon as an advanced state 
 of putrefaction sets in, the carcass fairly swarms with bacteria — 
 microbes of one kind or another, not to mention worms and the 
 
WHEN DISINFECTANTS ARE USELESS 335 
 
 eggs of flies, which are highly poisonous. Taken into the bodies 
 of the fowls these bacteria soon attack healthy tissue. 
 
 Since few fowls or animals meet with accidental deaths, or 
 die without cause, it is well to consider all dead animal matter as 
 being highly poisonous, therefore unfit for food. 
 
 All the disinfectants in the world are useless, and spraying, 
 white-washing and cleaning go for naught if the carcasses of 
 dead birds are left about the premises. We can treat disease till 
 the end of time, but we can never hope to exterminate it so long 
 as a single infected specimen remains on the plant. These are 
 not the vaporings of a crank. They are plain truths. And the 
 sooner we recognize them, the better it will be for our poultry 
 and other folks' poultry as well. 
 
 If the evils resulting from the careless handling of dead animal 
 matter were a little more tangible, no doubt we would be held 
 accountable unto the law for spreading contagion. The fact 
 that these evils are not tangible, and we are not held technically 
 responsible, does not alter the moral obligation, however, conse- 
 quently we owe it to the community, as well as to our own security, 
 to provide every precaution. 
 
 Flies thrive and breed upon carrion. They are notorious germ 
 carriers, traveling far and wide and doing untold damage. Your 
 flock of fowls may be perfectly well, and the conditions under 
 which the birds are kept may be the acme of sanitation, but if 
 your neighbor's ways are negligent, it will be only good fortune 
 if at some time or other your birds do not suddenly break down 
 with illness of some kind, which, if it could be traced, would be 
 chargeable to this neighbor. 
 
 The Easiest Way. — Dead bodies, especially those of little 
 chicks, are improperly disposed of largely because it is deemed 
 easier to get rid of them by the shortest route. This is a fallacy, 
 if the bodies return in the form of disease, for nothing is more 
 troublesome to combat than a flock of sick chickens. In back- 
 yard flocks the bodies of dead chicks are frequently thrown into 
 the garbage cans, many of which are without tops. With or 
 without lids to the cans, this is a bad practice. 
 
336 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 On farms where fowls are kept merely as a side line, the bodies 
 are apt to be tossed into the manure pit. Sometimes an effort 
 is made to cover them with the manure, but this does not remove 
 the evil, if the bodies were infected with disease. At some time 
 or other this manure is going to be spread about as fertilizer, and 
 with it will go the diseased remains of the dead fowls. Most of 
 the remains will be consumed, though not always the disease, 
 
 {Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 2 1 8. — Inexpensive colony growing coop built on skids. 
 
 for some disease germs live for months in the soil, especially 
 where there is heat, as in a manure pile, to further nurture them. 
 
 Hog Pen. — Frequently dead fowls are thrown into the hog 
 pen. Even when they are consumed by the hogs, this is not fit 
 food for hogs. Usually some parts of the remains lie about 
 long enough for other fowls to find it, and run off with it. Maybe 
 a dog will steal a body from the pen. 
 
 Pit or Well. — Some poultry keepers throw their dead into a 
 
PRECAUTION SEEMS TROUBLESOME 
 
 337 
 
 pit or abandoned well. It may be that the hole is covered over 
 so that other fowls or animals cannot gain access to the carcasses, 
 but the chances are that flies will have no trouble in finding them. 
 Maggots, the larvae of flies, worms and other "crawling things" 
 abide in putrid matter. Later these insects may be eaten by the 
 chickens. 
 
 The most careless method is to throw the dead bodies under 
 buildings, into hedge rows, along fences, on rubbish heaps or 
 other seemingly out-of-the-way places. Fowls and dogs, not to 
 mention rats, cats, skunks, crows and other flesh-eaters, soon 
 
 Fig. 219. — Choose a secluded spot 
 for the brood coop. 
 
 (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 220. — Open-front colony 
 house with hinged front to exclude 
 driving rains. 
 
 learn the whereabouts of such places, and thereafter they will 
 make a practice of haunting them, like scavengers. If they 
 would consume all of the waste matter, it would not be so bad, 
 but they do not. They eat portions, and distribute the balance 
 around the grounds. 
 
 Bad eggs, especially those removed from the incubator, are 
 often left lying about, together with the empty shells and a small 
 percentage of dead chicks gathered at the close of a hatch. On 
 some of the largest hatcheries I have seen whole barrels of un- 
 hatched eggs, in various stages of decomposition, standing un- 
 
338 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 covered outside the incubator cellars. In some cases the odors 
 were so bad as to be sickening. Eggs are animal matter, and 
 should be destroyed as thoroughly as dead bodies, especially 
 during warm weather. 
 
 In the winter time, when snow is on the ground, it- is not un- 
 common to find carcasses thrown into the snow right outside of 
 the hen houses, on the assumption, I presume, that the cold will 
 prevent their decay. No doubt it was the intention of these 
 poultry raisers to gather the bodies before a thaw, but in most 
 cases they were forgotten, or hidden by the snow, until decay 
 had set in. Furthermore, cold does not kill all germs. Some- 
 times it simply suspends life, which will be renewed at the ap- 
 proach of warm weather. 
 
 There are but three really effectual methods of destroying dead 
 animal matter: Incineration, quicklime and deep burial. 
 
 Placing the bodies in quicklime destroys them and all germ 
 life utterly, but it is rather troublesome to do this every time a 
 dead chick is found. Burial places the matter out of sight, and 
 may or may not destroy it. In any event, the burial should be 
 deep, so that other fowls or animals cannot dig it up. 
 
 Cremation is the best method, not only because burning puts 
 an end to any possibility of infection, but because it is the easiest 
 to perform. Contrive some kind of an incinerator out of an old 
 garbage can or metal receptacle, raise it off the ground about 
 eighteen inches, either by iron legs or a brick or stone foundation, 
 so that a fire can be built underneath, and every time you have 
 any waste paper or rubbish from the house, keep it handy for 
 this purpose. 
 
 Aside from destroying the bodies of all dead fowls which are 
 found in the brooders, laying houses and other buildings, do not 
 forget to look around the range at regular intervals. Sometimes 
 chickens are killed by strange causes, or they will go off in the 
 brush and die as the result of sickness or exposure. If their 
 bodies are not found by the attendant, they are sure to be found 
 by the rest of the flock, which is likely to prove a serious menace, 
 the importance of which cannot be over-estimated. 
 
CHAPTER XXV 
 BREAKING UP BROODINESS 
 
 Hen's Business is to Lay Eggs. — On farms devoted to egg pro- 
 duction it is the hen's exclusive business to produce this product 
 in the greatest number, and it is her manager's duty to see that 
 she is equipped with every facility toward this end, with no chance 
 for even a temporary cessation of activities. Where poultry is 
 raised on a large scale the hen is not held responsible for rearing 
 next season's flock of pullets. It is far more economical to per- 
 form this work by artificial means — with the aid of incubators 
 and brooders; in consequence the hen is denied any participa- 
 tion in the furtherance of her species, save the laying of the egg, 
 and any inclination toward these maternal ambitions must be 
 promptly discouraged. 
 
 Production is not Continuous. — Contrary, perhaps, to the 
 opinion of the novice, egg production is not a sequence of certain 
 quantities of correctly proportioned nutrients taken into the 
 body daily, digested, assimilated and then converted into a 
 regular supply of eggs — a continuous operation, as it were, un- 
 interrupted so long as the hen's health and vigor are maintained, 
 and her care is as it should be. 
 
 The egg cells, scarcely visible to the naked eye, of which there 
 are many hundred in the well-bred normal fowl, and some author- 
 ities place the number of latent eggs at upwards of five thou- 
 sand, are stimulated and developed in series or clusters, sometimes 
 called "clutches" or "litters"; each series being ripened or held 
 dormant in accordance with the fowl's general health and her 
 capacity to consume sufficient quantities of nutrients essential 
 to the stimulation of the egg-producing organs. 
 
 The number of cells in each series varies widely with different 
 
 339 
 
340 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 breeds and with different specimens, and there seems to be no 
 basis for an approximation. There may be a dozen cells in a 
 litter, or five dozen, and in rare cases, such as the hens that have 
 attained wonderful records at egg-laying contests, fowls will con- 
 tinue to lay almost without cessation, and continue to do so for 
 a couple of years. Ordinarily, between clusters there is a period 
 
 {Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 221. — Every laying house should be equipped with a broody hen coop. 
 
 of non-production, a sort of rest period, which varies in duration 
 the same as the size of the litter. It may be a week or a month, 
 or perhaps three months; and not infrequently a hen will lay 
 but the one cluster of eggs and then stay off the nest for the re- 
 mainder of the year. Such specimens are to be rated as drones, 
 and dealt with accordingly. Birds that are impoverished and 
 those that are not bred along the lines of heavy egg production are 
 
EGGS ARE LAID IN SERIES 
 
 341 
 
 usually in this class, and for which the poultryman should keep a 
 sharp lookout ; they are not fitted for the highly organized egg plant. 
 
 Intervals Between Litters. — Generally speaking, hens that lay 
 short litters take but a few days to the intervals between them, 
 whereas those that lay from thirty to sixty eggs in almost daily 
 succession will require a much longer period, which seems per- 
 fectly natural. Egg production is a severe tax on the hen's 
 body; it is a secretory and a reproductive process combined, 
 and as such it de- 
 mands time in which 
 to recuperate. 
 
 When a hen com- 
 pletes laying a litter, 
 especially during the 
 spring months, she is 
 usually attended by a 
 maternal instinct — a 
 desire to hatch the 
 eggs, all of which is 
 very natural, indeed, 
 but not in accordance 
 with the poultryman's 
 views on the subject. 
 Producing eggs for 
 table purposes does 
 not concern Mistress 
 
 Biddy. She performs her labors in response to the highest 
 ideal — that of reproducing her kind, and having completed the 
 first step in the operation, the laying of the eggs, she cannot 
 acquit herself of the responsibility until they are transformed into 
 a fluffy flock of youngsters. It is a noble resolve, but, unfor- 
 tunately for the hen, it has no place on the commercial egg farm. 
 
 Hens of the general purpose and meat varieties, such as Ply- 
 mouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds, Wyandottes and Brahmas are 
 more addicted to this form of domesticity than are the lighter 
 breeds; though the desire is pretty well founded in all classes of 
 poultry, even to the so-called non-sitting breeds — Leghorns, 
 
 {Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 222. — Outdoor coop for breaking up broody 
 hens. Note the slatted bottom. 
 
342 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Campines and Minorcas. The non-sitting breeds, however, 
 are not so habitually broody, nor so likely to be difficult to dis- 
 courage. 
 
 In the fall of the year strict attention is paid to the require- 
 ments of the pullets to induce them to commence laying, and 
 during the severe winter months that follow everything is done to 
 sustain this yield. By March, which is the natural season for 
 egg production, wherein almost anything that resembles a chicken 
 is giving a good account of itself, the poultryman relaxes his 
 vigilance over the egg basket and turns his energies toward other 
 problems — mating, fertility, incubating and brooding. There 
 is such an abundance of eggs at this time that this phase of the 
 business seems to take care of itself. 
 
 Watch Out for Broodiness. — March, April and May are the 
 months of heaviest production, after which the egg yield will 
 fall off very rapidly if the poultryman is not watchful of his 
 flock — on the lookout for broody hens. From the first of March 
 and well into the summer the poultry keeper should make it a 
 hard and fast rule to go over all the nests every evening, an hour 
 after the last feeding time is best, and remove therefrom any fowls 
 that show signs of broodiness. Very few hens lay after four 
 o'clock in the afternoon, and inasmuch as they have no business 
 on the nests after nightfall anyhow, it is a pretty safe practice 
 to take up all birds found in the nests at that time, on the assump- 
 tion that they are suspicious characters, and confine them in 
 quarters specially built for their accommodation, which will be 
 described in another paragraph. 
 
 Easily Broken at First. — Those who are inexperienced may rea- 
 son that it seems unnecessary to make this a daily task, and that 
 to go over the nests once a week or every few days will answer the 
 same purpose; but such is not the case. A hen removed from 
 the nest on the first day of her inclination to sit is very much 
 easier to discourage than when she has been permitted to indulge 
 her fancy for a week or more. She is usually rather indifferent 
 about the matter at first and can be diverted with little effort, 
 whereas at the end of a week the notion is a confirmed habit — 
 a firm resolve, lodged crosswise in her mind and clinched on the 
 
EFFECT ON EGG PRODUCTION 
 
 343 
 
 inside, from which it is a tedious job to break her. Everyone 
 who has raised chickens, no doubt, has had an opportunity to 
 observe the tenacity and stubbornness of a sitting hen ; her will- 
 power is almost unconquerable. 
 
 Failure to discourage broodiness is probably the most potent 
 cause for the low rate of egg production in the farm flock, and for 
 which the farmer has nothing to blame but his own indifference 
 or ignorance. The broody hen eats and drinks very little and 
 takes practically no exercise, consequently she soon becomes thin 
 and emaciated and we 
 are apt to marvel how 
 she sustains life at all. 
 She could not survive 
 if it were not for her 
 ability to draw upon 
 her internal store- 
 house for sustenance. 
 It is the depreciation 
 of this store of energy 
 that causes her egg- 
 producing organs to 
 become contracted 
 and dormant, and in 
 the same inactive, 
 
 shrunken condition that we find in the immature pullet or the 
 fowl that is going through the molt. Her entire attitude is 
 that of sluggishness; the abdominal section that was once re- 
 laxed and distended, is drawn well up into her body; the pelvic 
 bones that were formerly pliable and spread far apart, are rigid 
 and close together; and the comb and wattles that were pendu- 
 lous and brightly colored, are now pale and shrivelled. 
 
 Time Lost. — Briefly, when the hen becomes broody she reverts 
 to the state of an undeveloped pullet, and the time involved is 
 very short. Once she has been reduced to this condition, and 
 with all things favorable, from four to six weeks are required to 
 bring her back into laying. If conditions are not favorable; 
 for example, if the weather is very hot, or she is not fed the proper 
 
 Fig. 223. — Egg-laying contest house for two pens 
 of birds, Storrs, Connecticut. 
 
344 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 ration, or if she was never but an indifferent layer at best, the 
 chances are she will not resume laying until next season. In- 
 stead, it is highly probable that she will enter the molt. 
 
 Loss of Plumage. — When a hen is permitted to get in poor 
 condition, especially in warm weather, either by illness, idleness 
 on the nest, or by raising a brood of chicks, her plumage, like her 
 body, dries up. It loses its sleek, glossy appearance; the oil 
 in the quills is impoverished, and in consequence the fowl enters 
 an early molt. The early molt is the longest, sometimes re- 
 quiring four and five months, so that on farms devoted to egg 
 production it is seldom considered profitable to carry the early 
 ' ' molters ' ' over to the next season, and they are disposed of as meat. 
 
 Egg Production Is Secondary. — We might term egg production 
 a supplementary function, for such it really is — secondary circu- 
 lation, the result of over-stimulation. Strictly speaking, fowls 
 eat to repair and restore the daily wear and tear to the body 
 tissues — to maintain them in a healthy, normal state. If the 
 amount of nourishment that they consume is merely equal to 
 this task alone, there is none left for the work of stimulating the 
 egg-producing organs to a point of activity. On the other hand, 
 if there is an excess of nourishment, that which is assimilated over 
 and above the daily requirements of the body, it goes into the 
 development of the reproductive organs, which progress no faster 
 than this nourishment is provided. 
 
 In the late winter and early spring the hen will instinctively 
 labor to bring about this excess of nourishment for egg develop- 
 ment. It is the natural season for her to commence laying. 
 With the advent of milder weather she will forage for tidbits 
 of greens, seeds, bugs, worms and other morsels in addition 
 to her regular bill-of-fare, all of which is highly nutritious and 
 places her in the pink of condition. When she has completed 
 laying her first clutch of eggs, especially if it be a long one, the 
 chances are she will manifest a desire to hatch them. Or, she 
 may continue to lay another litter and then try to hatch it. 
 Certain it is that she will try to hatch at least once during the 
 spring months, and maybe three or four times. 
 
BREAKING UP BROODINESS 
 
 345 
 
 If the poultryman is not alert, the hen will steal a march on 
 him, for she is very persistent. The operator must thwart her 
 plans immediately, and frustrate them in such a way that she 
 is induced to continue to eat large quantities of food, and thus 
 maintain her appetite, keep her body well nourished and prolong 
 the life of her plumage, in which case she will continue laying 
 throughout the summer. 
 
 Avoid Cruel Measures. — There are many ways of discouraging 
 broodiness, but, remem- 
 bering that the real rea- 
 son for so doing is to in- 
 duce further egg produc- 
 tion, any practice or 
 method that subjects the 
 hen to cruelty or pri- 
 vation will only defeat 
 the idea, therefore it 
 should not be tolerated. 
 The old-fashioned ideas 
 of inflicting some form of 
 punishment on the un- 
 offending biddy because 
 she responded to a nat- 
 ural impulse were wrong. 
 
 Aside from humane reasons, to half starve or ill treat fowls, or to 
 keep them from water, invites further loss in eggs, since these cus- 
 toms are sure to bring about the very condition that should be 
 avoided — the reversion of the egg organs to a dormant state. 
 
 Small Flocks. — Where the birds are kept in small flocks, a good 
 plan is to build a coop with a slatted bottom at the end of the 
 roosting compartment, having it well ventilated and easy of 
 access. See Fig. 221. Or an ordinary packing-case may be 
 converted into a broody-hen coop: Remove the bottom and re- 
 place it with slats, mount the box on legs that will keep it about 
 six inches off the floor, and then construct a simple wire-netting- 
 covered-frame for a lid. As the clucks are taken from the nests 
 
 Fig. 224.- 
 
 (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
 
 -"A "-shaped colony house covered 
 with tar paper. 
 
346 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 they are placed in this coop, and the sensation of currents of air 
 under them instead of eggs is disconcerting, to say the least. 
 
 The hens are unable to squat in a comfortable position, due 
 to their legs protruding through the openings between the slats; 
 they have no sense of privacy nor security, hence two or three 
 days of this harmless pillory usually disgusts them with the idea 
 of wanting to hatch a brood of chicks, and when released they 
 are only too anxious to rejoin their companions in the laying 
 house. It is understood, of course, that food and water are kept 
 before them during their confinement, and that they are not to be 
 treated like prisoners, but as hospital inmates. 
 
 In long laying houses of the continuous type, where the birds 
 are kept in large units, a section of the roosting compartment 
 may be given over to the broody-hen coop and fitted with a 
 temporary slatted floor. It is better, however, to partition an 
 end of the house in which there is the maximum amount of sun- 
 shine, and to remove all fixtures or nests that may offer secluded 
 nooks. Green food in abundance should be placed in the pen 
 along with fresh water and the regular grain rations, and if pos- 
 sible the inmates should be induced to exercise. The presence 
 of a few lively cockerels in the pen will go a long way in breaking 
 the obstinate chicks. 
 
 If the weather is mild, as it usually is when one has a large 
 number of broody hens, another good plan is to place them in an 
 open yard, giving them no access to a house even at night, except 
 during a violent storm. Without refuge of any sort, and nothing 
 to do but fuss with others of their kind, life holds very little en- 
 joyment for them, so that even the most persistent members are 
 readily converted. 
 
 However troublesome it may be to remove the broody hens 
 every day, positively it must be done if eggs are to be secured in 
 large numbers during the summer months. It is a part of the 
 general scheme of intensive progressive poultry culture — equally 
 as important as artificial incubation and brooding. Furthermore, 
 it means greatly increased profits, for it should be remembered 
 that August eggs bring about the same prices as January eggs. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI 
 SURPLUS COCKERELS 
 
 Cockerels a Necessary Evil. — On poultry farms specializing 
 in egg production the aim is to rear pullets. Cockerels are looked 
 upon more or less as a nuisance. Yet, no matter how hard we 
 try to mate our pens so that the hatches will run to females, as a 
 general rule fifty per cent of the chickens are cockerels. 
 
 It is one of those natural laws over which we have no control. 
 To the beginner this is sometimes discouraging, in view of the 
 fact there is not a great deal of profit to be made from the average 
 flock of surplus cockerels. In fact, some breeders complain that 
 their cockerels actually become a liability, and sell for less than 
 the cost of production. Where such is the case, there is some- 
 thing wrong with the management. 
 
 Poor Returns. — It is true, very few breeders derive any ap- 
 preciable returns from their surplus cockerels, especially from 
 males of the egg-laying varieties, such as the Leghorns. This 
 is due in a large measure, however, to mismanagement. Either 
 the birds are not properly fattened and prepared for market pur- 
 poses, or they are not marketed at the right time. Many poul- 
 try raisers sell their cockerels at an early age, profit or no profit, 
 regardless of the prevailing prices, in order to get them out of the 
 way, retaining only the most promising specimens for future 
 breeding purposes. 
 
 It is a mistake to force these birds on the market at a sacrifice, 
 since they can be turned into easy money if one has sufficient 
 space in which to segregate them, and then fatten and hold them 
 for greater weight and better prices. 
 
 Separate at Early Age. — As soon as the cockerels are old enough 
 for their sex to be determined they should be separated from the 
 
 347 
 
348 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 pullets and kept by themselves. If permitted to run with older 
 fowls, they are constantly bullied and do not receive their proper 
 share of food, which, of course, retards their development. If 
 they are allowed to mature with the pullets, the males not only 
 get the lion's share, but they bother the pullets as well, which is 
 not good for the pullets' growth. If the pullets develop slowly, 
 they are not fitted for early egg production. 
 
 Cockerels that are penned by themselves at the age of two 
 
 (Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 225. — Wire-covered shed for housing cockerels in warm weather. Shed 
 is built in the lee of a barn. 
 
 months live peacefully together, require very little attention, and 
 if properly fed they can be made to put on flesh very rapidly. 
 The quality of their flesh is greatly improved in this manner; 
 instead of being dry and tough, it is tender and juicy, comparing 
 favorably with the capon, and in place of angular bodies their 
 carcasses will be plump and well-rounded. 
 
 The people of the United States are probably the greatest 
 consumers of poultry and eggs in the world, and yet we are said 
 
NEED FOR FATTENING 
 
 349 
 
 to be satisfied with a very poor quality. The average quality 
 of chicken seen in the retail store and on hotel tables in this 
 country is far below that found abroad — in France, England, 
 Belgium, Denmark and so on. This is largely due to the great 
 consumption of broilers, which, however good they may be 
 in some respects, lack the tenderness and abundance of flesh 
 found on fowls that have been properly fattened before killing. 
 
 (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 226. — Home-made fattening crate located in the lee of a building. These 
 crates can be utilized for broody hens as well. 
 
 In fact, as a general practice the fattening or finishing of poultry 
 by special processes is virtually an unknown industry in this 
 country. 
 
 The common plan has been to let the fowls eat all the corn they 
 will consume for a couple of weeks before marketing, but this 
 method does not produce prime table poultry in a strict sense of 
 the term. Corn has a distinct tendency to put on weight — this 
 is unquestionable; but this weight consists mainly of a heavy 
 
350 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 deposit of oily fat in layers under the skin, and in masses in the 
 abdominal cavity, which is not particularly desirable inasmuch 
 as it does not really constitute edible meat. In fowls that are 
 properly fattened this excess weight is distributed in tiny globules 
 of fat throughout all the body tissues, where it belongs; conse- 
 quently in cooking this fat is not wasted, but renders the tissues 
 soft and juicy. 
 
 The average American farmer is very careful to see that his 
 steers and hogs are properly fattened before sending them to 
 market, but to the poultry he pays little or no attention. It is 
 difficult to find any excuse for this indifference, because a pound 
 of grain can be converted into more poultry meat of greater value 
 and in less time than through any four-footed medium. 
 
 Fattening Feeds. — Common sense dictates that if fowls are 
 confined in small pens and ' kept quiet they will fatten much 
 quicker than if allowed their liberty. The flesh of a chicken on 
 unlimited range is tough and stringy, no matter how young the 
 bird may be. Ground barley or oats, with one-third corn meal, 
 thoroughly moistened with skim milk, makes a splendid growing 
 and fattening food. 
 
 Cramming is practised by experts who wish to produce fowls 
 of the highest quality table meat, and while it gives excellent 
 results, the crate fattening method is almost as good, and will 
 answer the purpose of the average poultry raiser. In the long 
 run the crate method is probably the most profitable. See Fig. 
 227. It is practised very extensively in England, and in recent 
 years many of the large American packing houses have specialized 
 in it. 
 
 Rations. — The Ontario Agricultural College conducted a series 
 of experiments in fattening poultry, and found that a mixture of 
 two parts corn meal, two parts ground buckwheat and one part 
 pearl oat dust, with an equal weight of skim milk, gave excellent 
 results at a cost of three and a half cents per pound for the weight 
 gained. Oats and skim milk made the gain cost slightly over five 
 cents per pound. 
 
 Another good fattening ration is made up of 100 pounds of 
 
FATTENING METHODS 
 
 351 
 
 corn meal, ioo pounds of wheat middlings, and 40 pounds of 
 animal meal. The fowls should have access to plenty of sharp 
 grit to aid digestion, and as a blood purifier, some poultrymen 
 mix a little sulphur in the mash once every two weeks. At the 
 close of the fattening period, which usually lasts about six weeks, 
 a little tallow may be added to the feed. 
 
 It is unquestionable that the breeder of heavy fowls, such as 
 Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds, has the 
 advantage over the Leghorn breeder when it comes to disposing 
 of cockerels. If desired, the heavier breeds can be caponized, 
 or they can be held for roasters, and made to weigh six or eight 
 
 {Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 227. — Pouring feed into the troughs of fattening crate§. 
 
 pounds. Furthermore, breeders of heavy fowls usually hatch a 
 month or two earlier than Leghorn breeders, consequently their 
 young stock can be made to weigh four to five pounds to the pair 
 at a time when broilers and fryers command top prices. 
 
 Squab Broilers. — March, April and May are the best months 
 for hatching Leghorns, hence cockerels from these hatches are 
 not large enough to be sold as broilers or fryers until June or 
 July, at which time market prices have materially declined. In 
 some localities there is a fair outlet for Leghorn cockerels as 
 squab broilers, weighing about three-quarters of a pound each, 
 during April and May. They are sometimes called asparagus 
 chickens, and the price is about a dollar per pair. 
 
352 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Costs. — Leghorn breeders will do well to take advantage of 
 this market whenever possible, since it means a very fair profit, 
 and it also offers an opportunity to relieve any congestion in the 
 colony houses. It is comparatively easy to bring Leghorns to 
 weigh a pound in six weeks' time, and under normal circumstances 
 the cost of production, including the original value of the egg and 
 its incubation, together with the labor and expense of dressing 
 and shipping, should not exceed twenty-five cents. This leaves 
 a net profit of twenty-five cents per bird — nothing to brag about, 
 
 (California Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 228. — Plans for a 2-compartment fattening crate. 
 
 perhaps, yet all things considered it is a very fair return on the 
 investment. This profit will defray the expense of maintaining 
 a pullet for two months. 
 
 When Prices Are Low. — When prices on young chickens fall 
 below twenty cents per pound live weight, as they do in July and 
 August, there is very little profit to be had over the cost of pro- 
 duction, especially for Leghorns weighing about two pounds each. 
 The market is usually so glutted that buyers can afford to dis- 
 criminate in favor of the heavier breeds. At such times, rather 
 than sacrifice the shipments, it will pay the poultryman to fatten 
 
SQUAB BROILERS 
 
 353 
 
 the cockerels for small roasters. True, the fact that they are 
 Leghorns will always discount the highest prices, yet if they are 
 properly fattened and neatly dressed their returns will be pretty 
 nearly commensurate with their cost of production. 
 
 Quarters. — -Some breeders argue against the idea of keeping 
 surplus cockerels for the reason that they cannot provide suitable 
 living quarters for them. Admitting that the poultryman's 
 
 {Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 
 Fig. 229. — Killing and dressing broilers — surplus cockerels. 
 
 space is limited, the cockerels come along at a time when it is 
 usually advisable to dispose of some of the older fowls for meat, 
 especially the breeding males, whereupon, by combining other 
 pens, there will be left one or more empty pens for the accommo- 
 dation of the cockerels. See Fig. 225. Before the breeding 
 season opens again, or before these pens are required by the pul- 
 lets, the cockerels will have been sold or used on the home table. 
 Quality Counts. — Many a consignment of poultry has brought 
 
 23 
 
354 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 poor returns and bitter disappointment to the shipper simply 
 because it was not uniformly graded, or because the fowls were 
 carelessly dressed or improperly packed. Nine times out of ten 
 the poultryman has no one but himself to blame for poor prices. 
 Specimens that are thin and emaciated, malformed in any way, 
 those having crooked breast-bones, or those with bruised or 
 mutilated skins, should not be included in a shipment intended 
 to be sold at top prices. 
 
 It is far better to leave a few undesirable carcasses out of a 
 
 shipment, to be used on 
 the home table, than to 
 include them, no matter 
 how tempting it may be 
 to add this additional 
 weight. Remember 
 that the sales account is 
 going to be returned on 
 the basis of quality. To 
 keep the undesirables at 
 home you may lose a 
 few pounds, from which 
 at least you derive a 
 meal or two for the 
 family; whereas to 
 send them in the ship- 
 ment may be the means 
 of reducing the price a couple of cents per pound on the entire lot. 
 Nothing appeals to a dealer so much as uniform quality. Each 
 grade should be uniform in size, shape, color of skin and shanks, 
 age and degree of plumpness. 
 
 Scalding is the most rapid method of removing the feathers, 
 and there is less loss in dressed weights than by dry picking, due 
 to the absorption of a small amount of water by the body in the 
 plumping process, but it is almost impossible to practise this 
 method without destroying the natural appearance of the skin. 
 If the water is too hot, or the fowl is immersed too long, the skin 
 
 Dep't Agriculture) 
 
 Fig. 230. — Correct way to grasp head of fowl 
 for killing and bleeding. Note position of knife 
 in respect to veins. 
 
STICKING AND PICKING 
 
 355 
 
 is partly cooked and the thin 
 scarf skin peels off, which 
 causes the flesh to become dis- 
 colored. If the water is not 
 hot enough, it is then difficult 
 to remove the feathers with- 
 out tearing the skin. The cor- 
 rect temperature is about 180 
 degrees. When the feathers 
 are removed, singe the body 
 with an alcohol flame to re- 
 move hairs, and then plunge it 
 in cold water to remove the 
 animal heat, and to plump the 
 carcass. 
 
 Dry Picking. — It requires 
 more time and skill to dry pick 
 fowls, yet one is usually com- 
 pensated for this additional 
 trouble. Dry picked poultry 
 is more attractive and brings 
 higher prices, and in many 
 markets no other sort will be 
 tolerated, except to a cheaper 
 class of trade. 
 
 The success of dry picking 
 depends on getting the right 
 bleed and the correct stick. 
 Hang the fowl by a cord (see 
 Fig. 229) , or hold in the hands 
 while sitting, seize the head in 
 the left hand (see Fig. 230), 
 and with the right hand run 
 the blade of the sticking knife 
 into the throat until the large 
 artery in the left side of the 
 
 coKRecT ce/r 
 
 ANGLE- OF-TAW 
 
 CO&KECT cor 
 
 GROOVE W 
 
 EYE 
 END OF BEAK 
 
 (U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 
 Fig. 231. — Anatomy of skull, showing 
 position of veins and correct way to cut 
 for killing. 
 
356 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 throat is severed. This operation is termed bleeding, and must 
 be successfully done before the fowl is stuck. See Fig. 231. 
 As soon as the blood spurts freely insert the knife-blade in the 
 slit of the roof of the mouth and plunge it backward into the 
 brain directly back of the eye. When the brain is reached, there 
 will be a violent muscular contraction, whereupon give the knife 
 a sharp twist and withdraw it. 
 
 (U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 
 Fig. 232. — Heads of fowls with lower jaw removed, showing poor attempts at 
 severing veins in throat. 
 
 If the operation has been successful, paralysis will be induced, 
 and the feathers will loosen. Begin picking immediately; rough 
 pick the breast and body feathers first, then wing and tail feathers 
 and finally the wing and tail quills. Always remove the greater 
 bulk of all the feathers before attempting to clean off the small 
 feathers. Avoid pulling too many feathers at one stroke to pre- 
 vent tearing the skin, and remember that tearing is most likely 
 
PACKING AND SHIPPING 357 
 
 to occur on each side of the breast and on the neck. A neat job 
 and rapid work are only acquired after considerable practice. 
 To the uninitiated it looks very simple, indeed, until experience 
 proves that there is quite a knack to be learned. 
 
 Give No Food. — All poultry intended for slaughter should be 
 kept without food for twenty-four hours, and in many states this 
 is required by law. In so doing the intestines are given time to 
 become empty, which helps to prevent decomposition of food 
 materials within the body, and adds greatly to the keeping qual- 
 ity of the carcass. Water should be supplied during this fasting 
 period, for it aids in cleansing the intestines. 
 
 A few markets prefer poultry drawn, but that sent to New 
 York, Chicago and cities in general is not drawn. Undrawn 
 poultry keeps best. 
 
 Shipping. — Bearing in mind that the package frequently sells 
 the product which it contains, the poultryman should prepare 
 his shipments in the most attractive manner, so they will arrive 
 in the best possible condition. Each box or barrel should be 
 lined with paper, preferably parchment paper, which will help 
 to prevent evaporation, or injury to the contents through rough 
 handling. Clean rye or wheat straw may be used to advantage. 
 
 For icing poultry in barrels in warm weather, bore a hole in the 
 bottom for drainage, then place a layer of ice, then alternate layers 
 of poultry and ice until the package is full. Pack the poultry 
 breast down and back up, with the legs straight towards the 
 center of the barrel, making a ring of fowls side by side around 
 the outside. The middle of the barrel may be filled with bodies 
 or with cracked ice. Over the top layer of poultry place a layer 
 of ice, then a piece of burlap, and finally a layer of ice on which 
 the head rests. Poultry packed in this manner can be shipped 
 long distances and should arrive at its destination in perfect 
 condition. In cold weather it is seldom necessary to use ice. 
 
 Mark all shipments clearly, giving the name and address of 
 the consignee, name and address of the shipper, and the contents 
 of the package. A stencil is useful for this purpose; it is much 
 neater than amateur printing. Besides, it is more business-like. 
 
CHAPTER XXVII 
 CAPONIZING 
 
 Does Caponizing Pay? — There is a wide difference of opinion 
 on the subject. 
 
 Without attempting to answer this question offhand, let us 
 first consider the matter fully, and from different points of view. 
 
 Delicious Meat. — Capons are undoubtedly a more delicious 
 meat than an uncaponized bird, which is especially true of fowls 
 that are held past six months of age. The flesh is sweeter and of 
 a superior flavor in the capon, consequently it brings much 
 higher prices. The markets of the entire country are sparingly 
 supplied with capon flesh, hence there is a constant demand for it 
 at uniformly good prices. There is no definite capon season, 
 apparently, but most breeders market their stock after the holi- 
 days, from January to March. Usually the highest prices pre- 
 vail at this time. Even so it is almost impossible for the chance 
 buyer to pick up any capons in the general markets, because the 
 supply is seldom equal to the demand. 
 
 Advantages of the Capon. — The capon has many advantages 
 over the rooster: In the first place he is very docile, his disposi- 
 tion is entirely changed, he seldom if ever fights, he declines any 
 great amount of exercise, and will stand close confinement well. 
 Life holds very little for him, except to eat and sit around and grow 
 large and heavy. The meat of capons is more economically 
 grown than that of cockerels, because more of the food consumed 
 is stored up on the body as flesh and less is devoted to energy. 
 What is most important, capons can be kept longer than cock- 
 erels, because they will continue to grow larger and heavier, with- 
 out becoming coarse and staggy. They can be kept for a year 
 or longer, and sold profitably when poultry is scarce and bringing 
 
 358 
 
SURPLUS MALES INTO CAPONS 
 
 359 
 
 higher prices. Not caponized, it is quite likely they could not be 
 kept in prime condition for market longer than the fall of the 
 year, at which time poultry is so plentiful that prices are usually 
 low. Capons command 
 from twenty-five to forty 
 cents a pound , depending 
 upon locality and the 
 season, while the ordi- 
 nary rooster brings from 
 twelve to twenty-five 
 cents. These are pre- 
 war prices. 
 
 Surplus Cockerels. — 
 On the average farm, 
 especially those devoted 
 to egg production, cock- 
 erels are taboo — unwel- 
 comed guests. Every 
 year several hundred 
 thousand male birds are 
 sold at an actual loss to 
 producers, because poul- 
 trymen believe they are 
 a nuisance. It is con- 
 tended that they do not 
 more than pay the ex- 
 pense of raising. This is 
 true if the young cock- 
 erels are marketed direct 
 from the range without 
 any special preparation. 
 
 Cockerels sold off the range are too thin and muscular. As prime 
 table poultry they should be fattened for a couple of weeks in 
 crates, as described in the previous chapter. 
 
 Increased Profits. — In our efforts to secure pullets for egg 
 production, we cannot evade raising an equal number of cockerels, 
 
 Fig. 
 
 {Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
 233. — Well finished market fowl. 
 
 Note the plump breast, well covered body 
 and short thighs. 
 
360 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 of which only a very small percentage are required for breeding 
 purposes. Therefore, as a simple business principle, if we must 
 raise surplus cockerels, we should strive to convert them into a 
 profit, if only as a by-product. And if caponizing will bring this 
 about, it is the strongest argument in favor of the practice. 
 Since the poultry department at Cornell University has been 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 
 Fig. 234. — Capons dressed for market. Conventional method of picking; the 
 birds, however, are not in perfect condition of flesh. 
 
 caponizing their surplus males, it has added several hundred 
 dollars a year to the net profits. Not only are better prices re- 
 ceived for capons, but there is an increase in weight over the nor- 
 mal state for the same age and under precisely the same care and 
 feeding. In the same length of time it is possible to raise capons 
 that will weigh almost a half more than they would have weighed 
 
LARGE BREEDS ARE BEST 361 
 
 as cockerels. At six months of age cockerels have received their 
 most rapid growth. The same birds, if caponized when about 
 twelve weeks old, can be made to continue their growth until 
 they are eight and ten months old. 
 
 Larger Breeds Are Best. — Cockerels of any breed can be made 
 to increase in weight by being caponized; yet the larger breeds 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 235. — Side view of capons dressed for market. 
 
 are by far the most desirable. If a poultryman is going to special- 
 ize in capons, rather than develop surplus males as a side line, then 
 of course, the selection of the breed to be used is of primary im- 
 portance. The operator must keep before him the idea of well- 
 finished, well-rounded, solid meat, a bird that has the greatest 
 amount of flesh for the least amount of bone, and the shortest 
 shank. See Fig. 233. This ideal condition is shown by the use 
 
362 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 of Asiatic breeds — Brahmas and Langshans, which are still 
 further improved by the admission of Plymouth Rock and English 
 Game blood. 
 
 Cross Breeds. — It is not uncommon for Light Brahma capons 
 to weigh from twelve to fifteen pounds each at eight or ten months 
 of age. Smaller capons, however, will more nearly supply the 
 needs of the average family, consequently the Plymouth Rocks 
 and Wyandottes will be found very satisfactory. White Ply- 
 mouth Rocks, straight or crossed with White Cornish Game, give 
 excellent results, a long full breast, clean yellow legs, and no 
 dark pinfeathers. 
 
 Another practice is to cross the Barred Plymouth Rock with 
 the Light Brahma, which will give greater weight, but the dark 
 pinfeathers are an objection. A bird with handsome plumage is 
 more attractive as a capon, for in dressing this class of poultry 
 much of the plumage is left on the body. See Figs. 234 and 
 
 235- 
 
 The conventional way to dress capons is to leave the head and 
 hackle feathers, the feathers on the wings to the second joint, the 
 tail feathers, including those a little way up the back, and the 
 feathers on the legs halfway up the thighs. These feathers 
 serve to distinguish capons from other fowls in the market, 
 and for this reason partridge-colored birds are used to a great 
 extent. The undeveloped comb and wattles are other distin- 
 guishing features of the capon, also a long, rather pointed head. 
 
 Time to Caponize. — Cockerels may be caponized at any age, 
 but for the comfort of the bird and convenience of the operator, 
 it is not advisable to perform the operation when the birds are 
 too young or after they are more than six months old. In de- 
 termining the proper time, the size of the bird should be the 
 governing factor, the most desirable time being when the birds 
 weigh from two and a half to three pounds, or when they are 
 about three months old. The operation will succeed on older 
 birds, but the percentage of deaths and slips will be greater. A 
 slip is a bird that is neither capon nor cockerel, and brings no 
 better price than a cockerel. 
 
(U. S. Department of Agriculture) 
 
 Fig. 236. — Caponizing instruments: a, hollow tube cannula; b, scoop can- 
 nula; c, knife; d, spring spreader; e, sliding spreader; /, tweezers; g, probe; 
 h, sharp-pointed hook; i, sliding cannula; k, spoon forceps. 
 
 363 
 
364 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Caponizing is simple and easy to learn; in France it has 
 been practised for centuries, and practically without instruments 
 except a sharp knife. Anyone with average intelligence and a 
 fair amount of dexterity can learn to caponize in a short time. 
 The beginner should practise first with dead fowls, and wherever 
 possible it is well to first attend a practical demonstration. The 
 Agricultural Stations of some states give free lessons at certain 
 seasons. 
 
 Reliable Instruments. — The beginner should purchase a re- 
 liable set of instruments (see Fig. 236), and once he has become 
 familiar with the use of each instrument, and with the manner 
 of making the incision, there will be little difficulty in doing the 
 work. Dexterity is simply a matter of practice. The beginner 
 should caponize a bird in about fifteen minutes; after one has 
 gained the confidence and dexterity that come with practice, 
 this time may be reduced to four or five minutes. The operation 
 is performed with apparently little pain to the subject, and the 
 moment the bird is released he will walk about as if nothing had 
 occurred. 
 
 Two conditions are essential to success in caponizing: One is 
 that the intestines of the bird should be entirely empty, so that 
 there will be the least amount of bulk in the abdominal cavity; 
 the other condition is strong light, which will permit the organs 
 of the bird to be clearly distinguished. Sunlight is best, conse- 
 quently if the weather is favorable it is a good plan to operate 
 outdoors. Withhold all food and water from the fowls for at 
 least twenty-four hours before the operation. Some operators 
 keep the birds off food for forty-eight hours, which insures empty 
 intestines. 
 
 The bird must be secured to the operating table in a convenient 
 manner; pass a noose of cord about the legs, as shown in Fig. 
 237, and tie the wings in the same way. Attach weights to the 
 ends of the cords, which will hold the bird in any desired position. 
 
 Have the instruments conveniently at hand, also a basin of 
 water, to which have been added a few drops of carbolic acid, and 
 
(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 237. — Layout for caponizing. First step in the operation is to locate the 
 last two ribs and make the incision. 
 
 365 
 
366 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 possible, about an inch long. 
 
 some absorbent cotton. Once the operation is started, carry it 
 through as quickly as possible. 
 
 Locate the area for the incision, between the last two ribs, 
 as shown in Fig. 238, and then remove a few feathers where the 
 cut is to be made. Moisten the surrounding feathers to keep 
 them out of the way. Before making the incision, stretch the 
 outer skin as far as possible toward the thigh; thus when the 
 operation is completed the opening in the outer skin will not be 
 over the cut between the ribs, inasmuch as it will have slipped 
 back to its normal position. Make the incision as neatly as 
 
 There is little danger of cutting the 
 intestines, providing the bird has 
 been sufficiently starved. Insert 
 the spreader, being careful that 
 it presses against the ribs, thus 
 springing the ribs apart and ex- 
 posing the intestines. See Fig. 
 
 239- 
 
 The intestines are covered with 
 a thin membrane called the omen- 
 tum. Tear this membrane apart 
 with the point of a sharp hook 
 (see Fig. 240) ; push the intestines 
 aside with a probe, and up against 
 the backbone the glands or testicles should be in plain sight. See 
 Fig. 241. These glands are a creamy yellow and about the size 
 and shape of a bean. In very young birds the glands are little 
 bigger than a grain of wheat. 
 
 Skilled operators remove both glands through one incision, 
 in which case the lower gland should be removed first, so that 
 any bleeding will not obscure the other gland. Inexperienced 
 operators remove only the upper or nearer gland, and then make 
 a second incision on the opposite side of the body for the removal 
 of the other gland. This takes double the time, and is much 
 harder on the bird. It is not a good practice. 
 
 Back of the gland is a large blood-vessel, the spermatic artery, 
 
 (U. S. Department of Agriculture) 
 
 Fig. 238. — Diagram of side of 
 fowl, showing where incision should 
 be made between the last two ribs. 
 
(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 239. — After the incision is made the spreaders are inserted to hold the 
 
 cut open. 
 
 367 
 
368 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 which constitutes the delicate part of the operation, because if 
 this artery is ruptured the bird is almost certain to bleed to death. 
 The whole trick is to grasp the gland without grasping the artery 
 or the tissues surrounding it. The cannula or spoon forceps is 
 used for this purpose. Having grasped the gland, twist the 
 instrument around several times, then tear the gland from the 
 body and remove it. Repeat the operation on the other gland. 
 See Fig. 242. 
 
 After removing the glands, if the bleeding is at all profuse, it 
 
 Fig. 240. — The hooked end of a 
 sharp probe is then used to tear 
 away the thin membranes covering 
 the intestines. 
 
 {Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 241. — When this is done the 
 intestines are pushed aside, revealing 
 the gland, which is about the size and 
 shape of a small bean. 
 
 is advisable to remove a portion of the blood by means of small 
 pieces of absorbent cotton, inserted in the wound with the aid of 
 the tweezers or probe. Be sure to remove all blood-clots, 
 feathers or other matter that may have gathered inside the 
 wound, then take out the spreaders, thus allowing the skin to 
 slip back over the cut. See Fig. 243. 
 
 Losses are likely to occur with the best operators. The mor- 
 tality, however, should not exceed five per cent under average 
 circumstances, and with a skilled person it will not be more than 
 
CARE AND FEEDING 
 
 369 
 
 two per cent. If the birds are killed accidentally, they are per- 
 fectly good to eat, hence they are not wasted. 
 
 A Slip. — Sometimes the operation appears to be very success- 
 ful, yet the bird develops much the same as a cockerel. This 
 condition is due to the fact that a small portion of the gland 
 has been left in the body. Such specimens are termed slips. 
 They are neither cockerels nor capons. 
 
 Following the operation the birds should be placed in a clean 
 pen by themselves. Give them all the water they want, and for 
 
 Fig. 242. — The gland is grasped by 
 means of the spoon forceps or can- 
 nula, twisted round and removed. 
 
 (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 243. — When the second gland 
 is removed, or if both glands are re- 
 moved at once, unfasten the spreaders 
 and allow the skin to cover the open- 
 ing between the ribs, as shown, and 
 the operation is finished. 
 
 the next few days keep them confined on -soft feed. A few of 
 them will bloat during the first week, but this is not serious and 
 can easily be remedied by pricking the skin with a needle. It is 
 caused by air getting under the skin, raising a slight swelling or 
 wind puff. 
 
 No stitching is required by the operation; the wound will 
 heal in a few days, and in a couple of weeks it will be hard to find 
 even a scar. Capons should be fed nourishing rather than fat- 
 tening feed for the first few months, the object being to keep them 
 24 
 
370 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 growing. About three weeks before marketing they should be 
 fattened, either in small yards or crates. Corn meal and ground 
 oats, equal parts by weight, or corn meal and middlings, moist- 
 ened with water or milk, make a good mash for fattening capons 
 or other poultry. 
 
 The one great mistake in raising capons is in marketing them 
 too early and not having them fat enough. After caponizing 
 they can be made to put on flesh in a surprising manner, and they 
 
 Fig. 244. — Class in killing and dressing at the Kansas Agricultural College. 
 
 should be kept growing as fast as possible until they attain full 
 size, which will take from six to ten months. 
 
 After caponizing the comb and wattles cease to develop; the 
 hackle, saddle feathers and tail feathers grow very long, and the 
 plumage assumes a heavy, glossy appearance. Capons never 
 crow, manifest no interest in the rest of the flock, and are 
 generally despised for their peculiarities by other fowls. They 
 are exceedingly gentle and tractable, and often show a fondness 
 for little chicks. In fact, there are instances in which they have 
 been utilized in rearing broods of chickens. 
 
 Their behavior with chicks, in the main, is very much like that 
 
COSTS AND PROFITS 371 
 
 of a hen ; such differences being of a minor character and difficult 
 to distinguish clearly from those of a broody hen. They will 
 cluck, though in an imperfect way, hunt food for the chicks, and 
 attack anyone who approaches the brood. 
 
 Darwin states that capons are said to incubate eggs as well 
 as care for chicks, but the writer has no proof of this statement. 
 In fact, tests of capons are not extensive enough to warrant de- 
 finite conclusions, but it would appear entirely plausible that the 
 brooding instincts are after all not necessarily female character- 
 istics. Male pigeons, for example, assist in brooding and rearing 
 the young, as do guinea cocks and many wild birds. 
 
 In housing capons very little space is required, providing the 
 quarters are kept clean. About two square feet per bird is 
 sufficient. They require very little care; one man can easily 
 take care of three to five thousand capons, which is a point in 
 favor of the practice. 
 
 The cost of feeding a capon to maturity, or for twelve months, 
 is from eighty cents to a dollar and a quarter, depending upon the 
 cost of feed, and whether a fair portion of the daily fare is picked 
 up on the range. Add to this the cost of the operation, let us 
 say, five cents, and the cost of the chick at hatching time, and 
 we have a total cost of about a dollar and a quarter. Assuming 
 an average weight of eight and a half pounds for a twelve months' 
 bird, which is very conservative, with a selling price of thirty 
 cents a pound, the market value at killing time is two dollars 
 and fifty-five cents. This leaves a net profit of more than a 
 dollar and a quarter — a profit that compares very favorably 
 with the results obtained from a heavy laying hen. 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII 
 BREEDING PRINCIPLES 
 
 In the minds of many who raise chickens and other fowls there 
 is but one idea and one kind of breeding — that of mating males 
 and females, regardless of type, strain, variety, prolificness or 
 relationship. Needless to add, that such matings sooner or 
 later — usually sooner — prove of little value to their owner, and 
 are finally completely dissipated. It is Nature's way of eliminat- 
 ing the unfit. 
 
 Definitions of Ereeding Methods. — To be precise, there are the 
 following methods: In-breeding, line-breeding, out-breeding, and 
 cross-breeding; and — shall we say — no breeding at all, meaning 
 rank mongrelism. 
 
 Line-Breeding. — Primarily, it is not advisable to make a 
 practice of mating birds more closely related than first cousins, 
 and the more distant this relationship can be drawn apart, the 
 better the chances for success. In making a start with a flock 
 of fowls, however, where one wishes to preserve the same strain 
 of blood, or in creating a new breed, it is usually necessary to 
 breed pretty close for a number of years, or until certain quali- 
 fications become intensified and fixed. If this breeding of re- 
 lated birds is done intelligently, with the view of fixing superiority 
 in color, shape and so on, it is called line-breeding. If the breed- 
 ing of related stock is done indiscriminately, and brothers and 
 sisters are bred together for generations for no particular purpese, 
 it is called in-breeding. 
 
 In other words, line-breeding, or breeding in line, is keeping 
 to the same ancestry — the same blood lines, without the disas- 
 trous effects of in-breeding. It is carefully selected, systematic 
 in-breeding. 
 
 372 
 
EXCHANGING MALES 
 
 373 
 
 Out -breeding is a term applied to the practice of introducing 
 new blood every year, but blood of the same breed. Cross- 
 breeding is introducing entirely new blood of a distinctly different 
 breed. 
 
 New Males. — Through fear of the flock degenerating many 
 poultry raisers consider it absolutely necessary to bring in new 
 males each year. Very often they make a practice of exchanging 
 
 Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 245. — Pullets should be placed in their permanent laying quarters as soon 
 as they show signs of maturity. 
 
 males with nearby farms, which is the vogue among farmers, 
 especially. This is inspired by the right idea, but it is likely to 
 be accompanied by trouble. If it is desirable to introduce new 
 blood, the rule should be to do so — not just because it is new 
 blood, but because it is superior to your own in vigor and other 
 ways. 
 
 Speculation. — It is very difficult to raise standard bred birds 
 if new blood is added to the flock each year. You may buy a 
 
374 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 pure-bred male to mate with your pure-bred females, and later 
 find that the two strains failed to nick properly. That is, the 
 mating may throw offspring with defective combs, dispropor- 
 tion or poor color, which will take several generations of special 
 breeding to eliminate. In short, the advent of new blood is a 
 speculation. 
 
 A better way to introduce new blood is to take two years to 
 do it, and experiment with individuals. Purchase a few hens of 
 the desired strain and mate them to your best males, or secure 
 a couple of outside males and mate them to your best females; 
 then study their offspring for a year, and if satisfactory, mate the 
 new blood to the balance of the flock. 
 
 There is no evidence to prove that line-breeding initiates de- 
 generacy, providing reasonable care is exercised each year in 
 selecting only vigorous breeders, and there is a large number of 
 fowls from which to choose. The danger becomes even more 
 remote if two divisions of the same blood are kept going year 
 after year. This consists of keeping two distinct strains or 
 matings on the same farm, both of which have a common an- 
 cestry, but which grow farther apart every year. 
 
 Every season the males of one line are mated to the females of 
 the other line, and vice versa, these lines having been started by 
 mating the best male to the best female, and continuing the 
 second generation by mating the original male to his daughters, 
 or the original hen to the son. Proceeding in a similar manner 
 for the third generation, the original male is mated to grand- 
 daughters and the original hen to her grandson, which practically 
 eliminates from each line its original respective sire or dam. It 
 is difficult to explain this system of line-breeding in writing, but 
 if you will make a chart of it and get down to actual figures, you 
 will soon see that it is very simple. 
 
 Cross-Breeding.— Some time in the career of every poultry- 
 man there is the temptation to cross-breed with a view to im- 
 proving certain qualities. In most instances the crossing of 
 two pure breeds is a mistake. The appearance alone of a flock 
 of cross-bred fowls when compared with the pure breeds whence 
 
a 
 
 
 375 
 
376 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 they originated should convince any one that this is a bad plan. 
 The first cross is not so bad, as a rule, and occasionally it possesses 
 some slight advantages in egg production or weight, but these 
 hybrids should not be mated in any way, either among them- 
 selves or back to their parents. Therefore, to continue cross- 
 breeding it is necessary to maintain two distinct pure breeds year 
 after year, and to destroy the hybrids as soon as they cease to be 
 profitable. This occasions many separate houses and yards, 
 for the* sexes of each pure breed, and for the crosses, a practice 
 that is both expensive and troublesome. 
 
 Grading Up Mongrels. — Sometimes it is profitable to grade up 
 
 (Courtesy Maryland Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 247. — "Busy moment for the trap nests." 
 
 a flock of mongrels, such as are found on many general farms, 
 by introducing pure bred males. Pure bred males of the same 
 variety should be used year after year, however, and not the males 
 from the offspring of the first cross. In the course of four or 
 five generations, with careful selection, it is possible to grade up 
 the original flock of mongrels to the level of the pure bred male 
 in appearances, but scarcely in breeding qualities. There is 
 always more or less chance of a reversion to type in breeding 
 from mongrels, hence it is often cheaper in the long run to com- 
 mence with pure bred stock. 
 
 Barnyard fowls are better than none, of course, but why keep 
 
TO CHOOSE BEST LAYERS 
 
 377 
 
 mongrels when pure bred birds can be had for almost the same 
 price. Those who appreciate the value of uniformity in body 
 and eggs, and who realize the need of transmitting these qualities 
 to the progeny, find no argument in favor of the manure pile 
 diggers. There are more beauty and more dollars in the thorough- 
 bred — be it hog, horse, cow or fowl. 
 
 Heavy Laying Strain. — The trap nest is the only positive index 
 to the hen's performance as a layer. It has furnished the only 
 means of establishing many facts leading to a more or less definite 
 conception of just what characteristics belong to the heavy layer, 
 also, the qualifications of the fowl possessing the faculty of trans- 
 
 (Conrtesy Missouri Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 248. — Brood coop with slatted run for chicks. 
 
 mitting certain desirable qualities to its offspring. In fact, the 
 trap nest has collected such a vast amount of data, that it is now 
 possible to dispense with its service, if need be, and still profit 
 from it. In other words, we are now able to verify certain ex- 
 ternal indications, actions and habits as belonging to this or that 
 type of fowl. 
 
 Thus, the progressive poultryman who wishes to mate his birds 
 along definite lines, but who is not in a position to trap them, can 
 select his breeders so that their increase in efficiency compares 
 favorably with flocks that are trap-nested. 
 
 Relation of Size and Shape. — No sensible person questions the 
 importance of shape and size in the matter of breeding horses 
 
378 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 and cows. One does not mate Percheron stock for speed in 
 horses, nor Hereford cattle for a dairy farm. The same idea holds 
 true of poultry. The general shape of the laying type of chicken 
 is agreed upon as a V or wedge when viewed from the top, side 
 and rear, the supposition being that in this conformation the 
 egg-producing organs have the greatest opportunity for develop- 
 ment. This shape is sometimes called by the term Capacity, 
 which really amounts to abdominal power. 
 
 Capacity means the ability of the crop and digestive tract to 
 receive, consume and assimilate large quantities of food. Con- 
 tinuous egg production is an intensive, exhausting process. It 
 necessitates the consumption of vast quantities of food, other- 
 wise it would be physically impossible for the hen to turn out an 
 egg a day. This is only common sense reasoning. Beware of 
 the small eater, or the hen that goes to roost on a crop half full 
 of food. She is either a defective, a drone or an invalid. 
 
 The depth of the abdomen, as well as the length, indicates 
 Capacity. Hence the good layer is described as having a long 
 body, deep in the keel, which is another term for the breast bone. 
 To ascertain or measure the abdominal capacity of a hen, the 
 fowl is grasped by the legs in the left hand, and its head and wings 
 are held under the arm in a horizontal position in what is ad- 
 mitted to be the correct method of holding or carrying a chicken. 
 Then the fingers of the right hand are placed on the abdomen 
 between the two pelvic bones on either side of the vent and the 
 rear of the breast bone. This distance will be found to vary 
 quite considerably with different hens. In some the width of 
 one finger will be found to be sufficient to occupy the space be- 
 tween the pelvic bones and the breast bone, in others two fingers 
 will be required, in others three, four, five and six fingers, and in 
 rare cases seven fingers. 
 
 The pelvic bones are sometimes called the lay bones or vent 
 bones. They, too, are measured for the distance or spread be- 
 tween them; but do not mistake the abdominal measurement for 
 the distance between the pelvic bones. This latter test is for 
 another purpose. The tips of the fingers are used for this test, 
 
WHAT TO EXPECT IN COLOR 
 
 379 
 
 whereas for the abdominal measurement the widths of the fingers 
 are used between the tips and the knuckles. 
 
 Further indications are found in a large comb and wattles of 
 good color, a high tail rather than one carried low, medium-size 
 head with a short, stocky beak, rather short legs well spread apart, 
 and as much weight as the specimen should have to conform to 
 the standard requirements for a particular variety. 
 
 Under-size specimens are seldom exceptional performers. 
 
 {Courtesy Petaluma Chamber of Commerce) 
 Fig. 249. — Leghorn pullets on a California poultry ranch. 
 
 The same is true of over-developed birds, though of the two con- 
 ditions, small and large, the latter is the least objectionable. 
 There are many exceptions to this rule, of course, just as there 
 are many exceptions to every rule. The findings in this chapter 
 are based on the general run of fowls, and must be considered as 
 such, or averages. 
 
 Next to shape, color is probably the most reliable sign of a 
 hen's ability as a layer. And the chief advantage of this test 
 
380 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 lies in the fact that it is discernible without having to handle the 
 bird. 
 
 Color. — In virtually all of the yellow-skinned breeds of chickens 
 the shanks, beak and flesh of the posterior parts of the birds are 
 a rich yellow at the commencement of laying, and gradually 
 undergo a fading out as the laying progresses, until these parts 
 become a real pale color, sometimes pink, or white, as the laying 
 season advances. This change in color is so consistent, in fact, 
 and so quickly made, especially in the region of the flesh sur- 
 rounding the vent, that it will be clearly apparent even to the 
 layman. 
 
 The theory cf this test is based on the fact that the same color- 
 ing matter that gives the shank, beak and skin its rich yellow 
 look is also used in the color of the yolks of eggs. Heavy layers 
 produce eggs faster than they can supply the coloring matter 
 for the shanks, beak and so on, consequently the color becomes 
 lighter and lighter, until it is frequently scarcely visible. 
 
 Furthermore, hens that are not in laying condition are prone 
 to store up a certain amount, and sometimes a very large amount, 
 of fat in the region surrounding the vent, and this fat, being of a 
 rich yellow color, transmits its color to the flesh. When these 
 hens start to lay and lay heavily, this fat is drawn upon to supply 
 the body tissues with the necessary energy, until its supply is 
 virtually depleted, in which case the skin loses its former rich 
 yellow appearance. 
 
 In selecting hens by the color test, allowances must be made 
 for the natural difference in color between different breeds and 
 different individuals of the same breed. For example, it is 
 manifestly unreasonable to compare the color of a Rhode Island 
 Red or Barred Plymouth Rock with a White Orpington or White 
 Leghorn. The color test should be made relatively and with the 
 exercise of much common sense. 
 
 An examination should be made at the commencement of 
 laying, and not during the molt or when the birds are immature, 
 and the degree or shade of color carefully noted. Later, when 
 the flock should be laying heavily, say about April first, the color 
 
381 
 
382 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 is observed again, and the hens which have little or no color in 
 the parts mentioned may be selected as the best layers. 
 
 To prove this, if you observe any birds which are noticeably 
 yellower than the others, transfer them to a separate pen and 
 note if they are not poor layers. If you have trap nests, these 
 ideas are easily verified. 
 
 Conduct and Other Indications. — It is pretty generally estab- 
 lished that pullets which begin to lay early in life, providing they 
 are fully matured, are pretty sure to be the most prolific members 
 of the flock. Ordinarily this means that the pullets which com- 
 mence laying in the fall, before snow flies, are the most desirable. 
 Fowls that fail to start production until after Christmas seldom 
 attain high scores. By high scores is meant records of excep- 
 tional merit, say over 150 eggs a year. It usually follows, also, 
 that pullets continuing to lay late into the fall, thereby post- 
 poning the molt until cold weather is at hand, are almost without 
 exception heavy producers. 
 
 Late Molters. — Hens that have a nice new coat of feathers by 
 July look well, but they are not often profitable. The late 
 molters, those that look ragged and dirty when the others are 
 sleek and clean, are almost always the best layers in the flock. 
 Moreover, it will be noted that the late molters get through with 
 this task very quickly, seemingly, which is an appreciable saving 
 in time. 
 
 The appetite and general conduct of the hen are other indica- 
 tions of productiveness. The heavy layer is the first off the perch 
 in the morning and the last to go to sleep at night. She is active, 
 constantly searching for food, and when observed on the roost 
 after dark, she will be found to have a very large crop tightly 
 packed with food. It is also found that the hens which have the 
 most confidence in their keeper, and are not foolishly disturbed 
 or frightened, are the most consistent performers and the most 
 reliable breeders. 
 
 Importance of the Male. — It is said that the male bird is 
 half of the flock, meaning, of course, that his characteristics will 
 be transmitted to the offspring in equal proportion to the hens, 
 
383 
 
384 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 though the latter may outnumber the male fifteen to one. This 
 is not an idle thought; it is true. In fact, in some cases it is 
 highly probable that the influence of the male is even greater 
 than a half — maybe three-quarters. 
 
 Prepotency of the Male. — This belief is certainly true of the 
 male's ability to transmit type and color to his progeny. There- 
 fore, if he can dominate" certain important characteristics, is it 
 not reasonable to suppose that he may dominate all of them? 
 We assume, of course, that to so do, his vitality and constitu- 
 
 toy*° "<" a"»«e 
 
 3^7 
 
 a-- 
 
 5IDE ELEVATIOti 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1*1 
 
 FLCX 
 
 xun 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 - 
 
 '" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 CfHO ELtVATlOrt 
 
 J^XfCLCATJ _jrfl 
 
 FLOCCL PLAn DETAIL ^/"EflO GATE 
 
 {California Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 252. — Plans for a catching coop. 
 
 tional vigor are equally as strong as the female's, if not stronger. 
 More than that, we assume that he possesses the faculty or capa- 
 city of transmitting his qualities. This qualification is sometimes 
 spoken of as prepotency. 
 
 Like Does Not Always Beget Like. — One of the greatest im- 
 pediments to the successful breeder of poultry is the inability to 
 select male birds of the required type. There is an old saying 
 that "like begets like." In a general sense this is true, but not 
 always so, because of which the idea becomes a subject worthy 
 
TYPE AND NUMBER OF MALES 385 
 
 of study. We often see children who resemble and act like one 
 parent, let us say the father, while others resemble and act like 
 the mother. And yet some children will be like neither of the 
 parents, nor like any of their immediate kin. Breeders of horses 
 and cattle and other branches of livestock are fully aware of the 
 variations in offspring in this respect, and it is probably because 
 of their persistent quest of knowledge along these lines that they 
 have made so much more progress in scientific breeding than 
 poultrymen. 
 
 Among those who have never given mating other than casual 
 thought, and such persons are in the majority, there is the belief 
 that heavy layers are bound to produce chicks which will develop 
 into heavy layers. In their minds, to produce a heavy laying 
 strain all that is necessary is to trap-nest the flock, and breed 
 only from such hens' as have made a certain record. This is a 
 step in the right direction ; the idea is a splendid one, and makes 
 for careful selection. But, unfortunately, it does not go far 
 enough. In the first place, we cannot trap-nest male birds; and 
 pedigree, while useful and essential, is not alone a sufficient basis 
 for the selection of that element which is to dominate future 
 generations, and probably the success or failure of the poultry- 
 man. 
 
 Maine Experiment. — Some years ago the Maine Experiment 
 Station endeavored to establish a 200-egg strain of fowls by 
 breeding only from those which laid the most eggs. The experi- 
 ments extended over a number of years, the plan was well con- 
 ducted, it received the most favorable attention, and everything 
 was done to further the idea. The work was finally abandoned 
 as a failure. Those in charge of the work were trying to establish 
 an extreme in egg production, by breeding from high-producing 
 hens. They failed to appreciate the need for that other faculty — 
 prepotency — the capacity to transmit high-producing qualities. 
 
 Number of Males. — Let us first consider the ratio of males to 
 females. No fixed rule can be given, because the breed, size of 
 the flock, living quarters, extent of range and the general health 
 and vigor of the stock are all determining factors. For example, 
 
386 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 the Mediterranean breeds, such as the Leghorns, are usually 
 mated one male to fifteen females, providing the flocks are single. 
 In the American or general-purpose class, it is customary to mate 
 one male to about ten females ; and in the Asiatic or meat class, 
 it is advisable to use one male to six or eight females. 
 
 Single Flocks. — As previously mentioned, these ratios apply 
 to single flocks — pens in which but a single male is to be used. 
 In larger flocks the ratio of males to females may be greatly re- 
 
 (Conrtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 
 Fig. 253. — Handy brood coop made from rough lumber, small sliding window 
 
 serves as a door. 
 
 duced. The reason for this is easily understood. In a flock of 
 fifteen Leghorns there may be two or three hens uncongenial to 
 the male, or the male may be uncongenial to two or three females 
 who will fight him away from them, in which case the fertility 
 from such a pen will run about eighty-five per cent. 
 
 In a flock of 35 females to 2 males there is almost certain to be 
 rivalry or jealousy, which tends to eliminate favoritism, and 
 thereby increases the fertility. In a flock of 60 hens to 3 males 
 there is still greater rivalry, while in a unit of 500 hens to about 
 
OUTWARD QUALIFICATIONS 387 
 
 20 males little, if any, discrimination is found, and the fertility 
 of the eggs should run ninety-five per cent or better. 
 
 The same general ratio applies to the heavier breeds, but in no 
 case can they be expected to equal the Mediterraneans in the 
 matter of fertility. The heavier breeds have a more sluggish 
 nature, and they are naturally less active fowls. From the 
 writer's experience, sixty-five per cent fertility in the Asiatics 
 is equal to seventy-five per cent in the Americans, or ninety-five 
 per cent in the Mediterraneans. 
 
 In selecting males for breeding purposes the first qualities to 
 be considered are those in plainest evidence, in other words, the 
 general appearance of the birds. If a specimen has malformed 
 feet, wry tail or serious squirrel tail, brassiness or other color 
 defects, lopped comb or exceedingly ponderous or poorly shaped 
 comb, under-developed ear lobes or wattles, or if a bird is ab- 
 normally large or small, noticeably disproportionate and un- 
 gainly, it goes without further argument that he should be dis- 
 carded. 
 
 A fowl's actions is one of the best guides to its breeding ability. 
 Males that are too greedy, or those that are so gallant that they 
 will not eat until the hens have helped themselves, are likely to 
 prove of little value in the breeding pen. The former are apt to 
 become over-fat, due to over-feeding, and the latter under-fed 
 and anemic. Crowing is an excellent indication of vigor and 
 vitality, and should always be borne in mind in selecting breeding 
 males. It characterizes physical strength and masculinity. The 
 desirable breeding cockerel is always on the alert, strikingly erect 
 in carriage, aristocratic and combative — a good fighter, and one 
 who believes in crowing about it. Fear and physical weakness 
 usually go together. A cowardly bird, or one that becomes 
 unduly excited, which amounts to a rattle-brained nature, should 
 never be placed in the breeding pen. He is too apt to be a 
 degenerate. 
 
 Some Naked Truths. — Selecting breeders from the fancier's 
 point of view — the show room — is more discriminating, perhaps, 
 than for commercial purposes, yet it is also more superficial. 
 
388 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Color, shape, carriage, texture of plumage, comb, wattles and 
 ear lobes are the essentials to success in the exhibition; but as 
 they constitute a study in themselves, we will not attempt to 
 cover them in this chapter, which is intended more for the com- 
 mercial poultry raiser. 
 
 Having selected a group of birds of the desired appearance 
 and most precocious habits, final judgment is passed upon their 
 
 (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig- 254. — Practical method of catching fowls. Crate is placed against small 
 entrance door, through which the chickens are driven into the crate. 
 
 physical qualifications — literally speaking, their naked truths. 
 There is a distinct correlation between the different parts of a 
 fowl, make no mistake about this. The body of the vigorous 
 fowl is broad, deep and blocky, as contrasted with the long, thin, 
 slender type. And since the fowl's plumage is often very de- 
 ceiving, they must be carefully handled. In a sense they must 
 be measured. 
 
 In a foregoing paragraph on selecting pullets for heavy egg 
 
MALE'S SHAPE RESEMBLES FEMALE'S 389 
 
 production we emphasized the following requirements: Large 
 crop and abdominal capacity; thin pelvic bones that are pliable 
 and well spread apart; a fairly long back, depth in the keel and 
 width between the legs. In selecting males as breeders for heavy 
 egg production, the same analysis should be applied to their 
 anatomy — relatively, of course, for the male never has the spread 
 of pelvic bones nor the abdominal capacity of a hen of the same 
 size. 
 
CHAPTER XXIX 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGG 
 
 Embryology. — It is certain that the majority of poultry keepers 
 do not know as much about the formation and development of 
 the egg as they should. Yet this is a very important subject, 
 a knowledge of which is essential before one can really exercise 
 intelligent care and feeding. To do certain things blindly or on 
 a guesswork principle is archaic; they may be correct, and the 
 results therefrom may be entirely satisfactory up to a given point, 
 when, without any warning, trouble may come. Then, if the 
 foundation of one's knowledge is meager, or perhaps there is no 
 foundation at all, which is frequently the case, the poultryman 
 is at a loss for a solution or remedy. It is like trying to run an 
 engine without some understanding of its construction; when 
 trouble occurs, instead of being able to repair or adjust the defect, 
 the situation becomes aggravated and serious. 
 
 Every phase of the poultryman's work should have a definite 
 purpose, and in view of the fact that the egg is the first stage in the 
 production of fowls, whether for meat, eggs or the show room, it 
 behooves him to have at least a general idea of embryology. 
 
 Some hens are absolutely sterile; of this there is no doubt, 
 but they are rare, and are to be compared with any other mal- 
 formation. Others have the power to produce a few eggs in 
 short litters, followed by long rest periods, whereas others have 
 reproductive organs which are so strong and easily stimulated 
 that they lay almost without cessation, and continue to do so for 
 a couple of years. In fact, they seem almost to have a super- 
 natural power. 
 
 Prolific Power of a Hen. — Some experts tell us there are more 
 than 7,000 latent eggs in the normal hen, but whether or not this 
 
 390 
 
OVARY AND OVISAC 391 
 
 is correct we need only concern ourselves with about 700. The 
 number is not a fixed quantity, and those which will be developed 
 is still less certain. The prolific power of a hen is largely an in- 
 herited tendency, the result of careful selection and breeding, made 
 potent by careful handling and feeding. Both elements are abso- 
 lutely essential, as we have shown in preceding chapters. 
 
 The ovary or egg cell cluster which contains the latent eggs is a 
 muscular tissue on the left side of the spine. In it, in various 
 stages of development, from the full-sized yolk, ready to be de- 
 tached, to the cells which are so small as to be invisible without 
 the aid of a microscope, are the yolks or ova. When a yolk is 
 fully matured and ripe, it bursts from the tough membrane of the 
 ovisac and enters the neck of the oviduct, a convoluted, muscular 
 tube some twenty inches long, wherein the albumen or white is 
 deposited, and later the shell is formed. See Frontispiece. 
 
 The ovisac is lined with blood-vessels, yet provision is made in 
 the healthy, normal hen that when the yolk ruptures this mem- 
 brane the blood-vessels are parted to one side and not broken. 
 It occasionally happens, however, either through an injury to the 
 fowl, fright or weakness due to a debilitated condition, that one 
 of the blood-vessels may become slightly ruptured, whereupon a 
 blood clot will escape with the yolk and later be incorporated with 
 the albumen. This accounts for spots of blood found in strictly 
 fresh eggs, and which have led many consumers to believe they 
 have purchased partly incubated eggs. 
 
 Double Yolk Eggs. — It sometimes happens that two yolks 
 mature and burst through the ovisac at the same time; in this 
 event they are likely to become encased with albumen together, 
 and subsequently surrounded by the same shell, producing a 
 double-yolked egg. Occasionally a mass of albumen will be de- 
 posited without yolk or shell, or it may be laid with a perfectly 
 formed shell but without a yolk; or a yolk will be laid without 
 albumen or shell, and in rare cases a perfectly formed egg has 
 been found within an outer egg shell. These freak conditions 
 are brought about by improper care and feeding, but more 
 especially by fright, neglect or injury. 
 
I, Tongue; 2, 
 pharynx; 3, first 
 portion of esopha- 
 gus; 4, crop; 5, 
 second portion of 
 esophagus; 6, suc- 
 centric ventricle; 
 7, gizzard; 8, ori- 
 gin of the duoden- 
 um; 9, first branch 
 of the duodenal 
 flexure; 10, second 
 branch of same; 
 
 II, origin of the 
 floating portion of 
 the small intes- 
 tine; 12, small in- 
 testine; 13, free 
 extremities of the 
 csecums; 14, in- 
 sertion of these 
 two culs -de - sac 
 into the intestinal 
 tube; 15, rectum; 
 16, cloaca; 17, 
 anus; 18, mesen- 
 tery; 19, left lobe 
 of liver; 20, right 
 
 ■4- lobe of liver; 21, 
 gall-bladder; 22, 
 insertion of the 
 pancreatic and 
 biliary ducts; 23, 
 pancreas; 24, dia- 
 phragmatic aspect 
 of the lung; 25, 
 ovary in a state 
 of atrophy ; 26, 
 oviduct. 
 
 -25 
 
 Fig. 2 55- — Diagram of digestive apparatus of a fowl. 
 
 392 
 
SPOILED FRESH EGG 393 
 
 Held Eggs Within the Body. — It is not positively established 
 whether a hen can of her own will stop the development of the 
 yolks prior to their entrance to the oviduct, and it is hardly 
 likely that she can, but it is certain that she can control the egg 
 after that period. She can retain it for a considerable time after 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 256. — Outer shell membrane of fresh egg. Magnified 150 times. 
 
 it is completely formed, whereupon, instead of the life germ re- 
 maining dormant in the fertile egg after it is laid and until such 
 time as it is subjected to the proper uniform temperature for 
 incubation, it will commence to develop within the egg within 
 the hen. Obviously, although such an egg may be freshly laid, 
 it is not a fresh egg. On the contrary, it is a spoiled egg; 
 
394 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 sometimes very badly spoiled, which is apt to lead to diffi- 
 culties with the customer who has been unfortunate enough to 
 receive it. 
 
 Egg-Bound. — Hens that delay their laying in this manner are 
 usually egg-bound, a condition brought about through injudicious 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 257. — Inner shell membrane of fresh egg. Magnified 150 times. 
 
 feeding, injury and by the drying up of the secretions in the 
 cloaca, where the egg rests before it is laid, thus failing to assist 
 in the passage of the egg. Over-fat hens and pullets producing 
 their first eggs are apt to be troubled in this manner. 
 
 The most common symptoms are repeated trips to the nests, 
 accompanied by prolonged squatting and straining, and in ex- 
 
HOW THE SHAPE OF AN EGG IS DETERMINED 395 
 
 treme cases a fowl so afflicted will crawl with her body upright 
 and her tail dragging on the ground. 
 
 The shape of an egg is largely determined by the contours in 
 the oviduct in which it is cast. During the passage of the yolk 
 in the oviduct it is pushed forward by the muscles of this 
 tissue, at the same time receiving a deposit of albumen. The 
 oviduct being twisted and contracted, imparts a turning motion 
 to the yolk as it advances, which causes the albumen to be formed 
 in layers. These layers are sometimes visible in a raw egg, but 
 are better seen in a hard-boiled egg. 
 
 Chalaza.- — Two principal cords or fibers, technically known as 
 the chalaza, support the yolk in about the center of the al- 
 buminous mass, and serve to protect the yolk from injury by 
 undue jarring or rough handling. See Fig. 258. We have all 
 noticed, perhaps, that whatever way an egg is turned the yolk 
 quickly assumes its original position ; this is due to the influence 
 of the chalaza, and to the fact that the yolk, containing a large 
 amount of fat, which is lighter than the albumen, has a tendency 
 to float upward. 
 
 Shell Membrane. — When sufficient albumen has been se- 
 creted, at which time the entire mass has reached the lower part 
 of the oviduct, the shell membrane is formed, after which it 
 passes still further and the outer membrane is added. Here, 
 glands which contain a secretion of carbonate of lime and other 
 mineral substances, also the color pigment, deposit their liquid, 
 which quickly hardens the outer membrane. This hardening 
 process is very rapid, and frequently takes place while the 'hen is 
 on the nest. 
 
 Bloom of the Egg. — The egg has now reached the lowest part 
 of the oviduct, known as the cloaca, whence it is ready to be laid. 
 While in this section it is covered with an oily secretion which, 
 as previously mentioned, aids in the delivery of the egg. This 
 secretion dries almost immediately the egg is laid, and gives it 
 the bloom or fresh appearance found in a newly laid egg. When 
 eggs are washed this bloom is destroyed, or partly so, which 
 makes washed eggs rather easily detected by experienced handlers. 
 
396 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 5 84 
 
 Texture of Shell. — It will be noted that the shell of an egg is 
 exceedingly porous, which enables the embryo to take in oxygen 
 through the shell, otherwise it could not breathe. See Fig. 256. 
 During the early stages of incubation a network of blood-vessels 
 surround the inner membrane of the egg, close to the shell. See 
 Fig. 257. These blood-vessels absorb the oxygen and act as the 
 respiratory apparatus for the embryo until about the nineteenth 
 day of incubation, when the lungs are completed and brought 
 
 into use. The oily secre- 
 tion deposited on the shell 
 in the cloaca tends to stop 
 up the pores temporarily, 
 so as to prevent undue 
 evaporation of the con- 
 tents of the egg, and to 
 keep the pores clear. Ob- 
 viously, a hatching egg 
 should not be washed; 
 and if very badly soiled it 
 should not be used for 
 hatching purposes aj: all. 
 To return to the yolk, it 
 must be very apparent 
 that if production is to be 
 successfully carried out, 
 the yolk or ovum, which is 
 the real beginning, must be carefully and normally developed, 
 otherwise the succeeding processes are all thrown out of kelter. 
 Egg making is a very exhaustive process, if we stop to consider that 
 a profitable hen is expected to lay about 150 times a year, which 
 is equivalent to almost five times her weight; hence the drain 
 on her system is enormous. The activity of the ovary, then, 
 depends upon the health of the bird. 
 
 The over-fat hen does not lay because over-fatness is an indi- 
 cation of improper or immoderate feeding, usually accompanied 
 by lack of exercise. The poor, anemic, emaciated hen cannot 
 
 Fig. 258. — Sactional view of fowl's egg. 
 
 1 , Yellow yolk composed of successive layers ; 
 
 2, vitelline membrane; 3, layers of albumen 
 (white) ; 4, two layers of the lining mem- 
 brane of the shell; 5, calcareous shell; 6, 
 chalaza; 7, air space between the two layers 
 of the shell membranes; 8, cicatricula, with 
 its nucleus, beneath which is seen the canal 
 leading down to the white yolk cavity, or 
 latebra, 9. 
 
LOCATION OF THE LIFE GERM 397 
 
 lay because there is not sufficient fat to develop the yolk. There- 
 fore, it will be found that the best layers are neither too thin nor 
 over-fat; rather those which are active and in good spirits from 
 dawn to dark. 
 
 Germ. — Although invisible to the naked eye, the yolk is 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 259. — Yellow yolk of fresh egg. Magnified 250 times. 
 
 covered by a delicate membrane, called the vitelline membrane, 
 so named, perhaps, because clinging to this membrane is found 
 the life germ, the really vital part of the egg. The contents of 
 the yolk is called the vitellus, upon which the life germ draws 
 for its sustenance. When a hen's vitality becomes weakened it 
 is generally manifested in the composition of the vitelline mem- 
 
398 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 brane, which is easily ruptured, causing the vitellus to escape 
 and mix with the albumen. Naturally, this condition gives the 
 egg an addled, unsavory appearance, undesirable as food, even 
 though it may be strictly fresh. Nine times out of ten the house- 
 wife condemns it as a bad egg. 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 260. — White yolk of fresh egg. Magnified 250 times. 
 
 Keeping eggs for any length of time weakens the vitelline 
 membrane, also, consequently eggs intended for hatching pur- 
 poses should be set as fresh as possible. An example of this de- 
 terioration is found in storage eggs, which, if kept for many months, 
 frequently result in ruptured yolks as soon as they are opened. 
 Moreover, in a stale egg the albumen loses its firm consistency 
 
TIME REQUIRED FOR DEVELOPMENT 399 
 
 and becomes watery, hence it fails to support the yolk, which 
 then gravitates to the membranous lining of the shell and adheres 
 to it. 
 
 Fertility. — All normal eggs contain a life germ, but all life 
 germs are not fertile, and there is no way to determine the fer- 
 tility of the embryo before incubation, except by breaking the 
 shell and examining the contents very closely, and even this is 
 not infallible. The fertile germ has a ring or film surrounding 
 it, which is clear, and in the center may be seen little white dots — 
 rudimentary cells. The sterile germ has a whitish appearance 
 and does not possess the outer ring or the dots. After 24 hours' 
 incubation life is perceptible if the egg is opened. 
 
 Shape and Color of Shells. — Notwithstanding many claims 
 to the contrary, the shape of an egg has nothing whatever to 
 do with its sex. We have shown that the shape of an egg is 
 governed almost entirely by the shape of the oviduct, which is 
 peculiar to every individual and practically constant. The 
 same individuality applies to the color of an egg, which also re- 
 mains more or less constant, except that as the laying season ad- 
 vances the color gradually fades to a lighter shade. The reason 
 for this is plain : the glands which secrete the color pigment are 
 more heavily drawn upon, consequently the supply is somewhat 
 weakened. 
 
 Time for Development. — Just how much time is required for 
 the development of an egg is not definitely known. The forma- 
 tion of the yolk is the longest period, and probably requires three 
 weeks before it is ready to leave the ovisac. The second process, 
 that of accumulating the albumen and forming the shell, is com- 
 paratively short, and requires about eighteen hours. It fre- 
 quently happens that two eggs are under completion in the ovi- 
 duct at the same time. 
 
 Like all secretory organs, these reproductive tissues, glands, 
 and so on, are shrunken and very much contracted when not in 
 use, and enlarge to many times their former size when stimulated 
 to a point of productivity. It is this stimulation — the time re- 
 quired to overcome the inert condition — which is of vital im- 
 portance to the poultryman's pocket-book. 
 
CHAPTER XXX 
 MARKET EGGS 
 
 Quality in Eggs. — Housewives and consumers generally are 
 seldom concerned with any but two kinds of eggs — good eggs and 
 bad eggs. The term good in this sense usually means fresh, and 
 has become synonymous with the idea of desirable quality. A 
 bad egg — is a bad egg, commonly thought to be the result of old 
 age, and as such it is condemned. The actual age of an egg, 
 however, is only one of the factors that affect its quality. There 
 are many other equally potent influences, a knowledge of which 
 will be beneficial to those engaged in the production, handling 
 or consumption of eggs. Strictly speaking, the term fresh should 
 mean a definite quality rather than a definite age, for all newly 
 kid eggs are not necessarily good eggs, in a sense that they are 
 desirable as food. An explanation of the reasons for these 
 peculiarities will be set forth in this chapter. In the succeeding 
 paragraphs the term fresh is intended to express prime — superior 
 ■ — quality. 
 
 Strictly Fresh Normal Egg. — Eggs are one of the most difficult 
 food products to grade, not only because each egg must be con- 
 sidered separately, but because an accurate knowledge of the 
 contents cannot be ascertained without "destroying the egg. 
 They can be selected for size, shape, color, cleanliness and texture 
 of shell, and freedom from cracks, from external appearances, 
 which is the most common method of grading them. The best 
 method of determining the interior quality is by the process of 
 candling, which is used for commercial purposes. See Fig. 261. 
 
 Composition of the Egg. — The purpose of the normal egg in 
 nature requires that it be ©f a fairly uniform composition ; its 
 contents must be so proportioned as to form the chick without 
 
 400 
 
COMPOSITION OF THE EGG 
 
 401 
 
 surplus matter, and naturally this demands a uniform chemical 
 composition. When the egg is first laid it is completely filled, 
 but as soon as it cools the contents contract and an air space or 
 air cell is formed. This cell usually lies between the two shell 
 membranes, and at the large end of the egg, where it is plainly 
 visible with the aid of a candle. As the age of the egg increases 
 evaporation takes place, which enlarges the air cell to consider- 
 able size, and therefore denotes, approximately, the degree of 
 freshness. 
 
 The composition of hens' eggs is somewhat variable, with 
 
 Fig. 261. — Class in candling, grading and packing eggs at the Kansas 
 Agricultural College. 
 
 breeds and with individuals, and also as the result of care and 
 feeding. A general idea may be had from the following table: 
 
 Albumen 
 Whole Egg Yolk or White 
 
 Water ' . . . 70 to 76% 46 to 52% 80 to 88% 
 
 Fat 9 to 14% 30 to 35% Traces 
 
 Protein 10 to 15% 14 to 16% 10 to 13% 
 
 Shell and its membranes 9 to 12% .... .... 
 
 The precise chemical analysis of a hen's egg is too technical 
 for the subject of this book, and it is really unimportant so far 
 as the average poultryman is concerned. The eggs of turkeys, 
 geese, ducks, guineas and other birds vary slightly from the above 
 table, and are, therefore, more desirable for certain purposes. 
 26 
 
402 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Size. — Although certain breeds are credited with laying larger 
 eggs than others, as a general rule the size of an egg is controlled 
 principally by selection of layers of large eggs and judicious 
 breeding toward this end. In a number of tests conducted by 
 Experiment Stations it has been found that care and feeding 
 have slight influences in the sizes of eggs, but this does not estab- 
 lish anything beyond the fact that the condition and general 
 health of the fowls are directly responsible. At the beginning of 
 their laying period pullets lay a much smaller egg than those laid 
 during the height of their laying season. Similarly, as a hen 
 approaches the molt, her eggs become smaller. The difference in 
 food value per pound is in favor of the large eggs, because they 
 have a smaller percentage of shell. 
 
 Food Value. — It should be borne in mind, however, that there 
 is considerable difference in the food value of eggs of different 
 grades. Furthermore, the season of the year has something to 
 do with the quality of eggs. Those produced in summer are of 
 lower quality; the albumen is more watery than the eggs pro- 
 duced in the spring, hence they are not so desirable for storage 
 purposes. In candling, the yolks of summer eggs float lower in 
 the albumen, which is a sign of weakness, and the yolks appear 
 slightly darker than in spring eggs. Packing houses always aim 
 to store eggs produced during March, April and May for best 
 results. 
 
 It is almost certain that some hens have an inherited tendency 
 to produce eggs of poor quality, for the same reason that certain 
 hens will almost invariably lay a malformed egg. If this is true, 
 it is reasonable to suppose that this characteristic will descend 
 to their progeny. Flocks should be culled for the quality of their 
 eggs as well as for their productiveness. In no other way is it 
 possible to develop a flock that will lay a uniformly high grade of 
 eggs. - 
 
 Abnormal Eggs. — To further illustrate the remark that a 
 newly laid egg is not always a desirable egg, some of the most 
 common abnormalities will be discussed. Double-yolk eggs 
 result from the joining together of two yolk sacs during their de- 
 
ABNORMAL EGGS 
 
 403 
 
 velopment; their growth is identical, they have the same blood 
 supply, and both drop into the oviduct at the same time. The 
 
 Normal fresh egg. 
 
 Fresh egg showing blood clot. 
 
 Fertile egg after 24 hours of incubation. 
 
 Infertile egg after 24 hours of incubation. 
 {Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 262. — Changes affecting the appearance of eggs. 
 
 formation of the albumen seems to be entirely automatic, hence 
 the same mass surrounds both yolks, and later they are framed 
 by the same shell. 
 
404 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Most double-yolk eggs have the same quality as normal eggs, 
 but the poultryman should not try to pack them in ordinary car- 
 tons or fillers on account of their increased size. They will project 
 above the level of the filler, or fit too snugly into the filler, and be 
 broken by the eggs surrounding them. One broken egg in a 
 shipment will damage perhaps four or five dozen eggs by reason 
 of its leaking contents. A broken egg is a very messy, unpleasant 
 looking article, consequently a moment of carelessness in packing 
 is often responsible for a serious discount on the sales statement, 
 or a disgruntled, indignant customer. 
 
 Yolks are sometimes forced into the oviduct before they are 
 mature, and thus appear very small, and in some cases they are 
 little more than specks, in the completed egg. 
 
 Blood Clots. — At certain seasons, usually during the first 
 laying period of pullets and during the spring months of heavy 
 egg production, especially if the flock is excessively forced by 
 highly concentrated foods, blood clots appear in the eggs, ad- 
 hering to the yolks. This is probably the commonest defect 
 arising in the ovary, and often a very troublesome one for the 
 poultryman, since he can not detect it without candling. Blood 
 clots are different from bloody eggs. The former are usually 
 caused by the rupture of a blood-vessel when the yolk sac 
 splits to allow the escape of the mature yolk into the oviduct. 
 The clot adheres to the yolk as it passes through the oviduct, 
 and is encased by the albumen. It is easily detected by the 
 candle. When the egg is opened the clot can be removed and 
 the egg is suitable for food. For table purposes this is very ob- 
 jectionable, for the appearance of the blood is disagreeable. 
 To those unfamiliar with the physiological reasons, it sug- 
 gests a partly hatched egg, for which many poultrymen have 
 been unjustly blamed. Obviously, when catering to a fancy 
 retail trade, or when eggs are represented as being of the 
 finest quality, they should be candled as a guard against this 
 trouble. 
 
 Bloody Eggs. — An ordinary blood clot does not color the al- 
 bumen. If the white of an egg is bloody, it is from a different 
 
BLOODY EGGS 405 
 
 cause; and such an egg is termed a bloody egg. When boiled, 
 such eggs appear brownish, and they are distinctly unappetizing- 
 
 Fertile egg allowed to die after 36 hours of Infertile egg after 36 hours of incubation, 
 
 incubation. 
 
 Fertile egg after 48 hours of incubation. Infertile egg after 48 hours of incubation. 
 
 {Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 263. — Changes affecting the appearance of eggs. 
 
 looking. It is virtually impossible to remove the affected part, 
 as in the case of the blood clot, hence the egg is useless. Bloody 
 eggs are caused by an irritation or injury to the wall of the ovi- 
 
406 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 duct, whereupon blood is exuded with the albumen, thereby 
 making the white of the egg bloody-looking or streaked with 
 blood. It is generally caused by over-exertion or constitutional 
 weakness, and is not nearly so common as blood clots. Wherever 
 possible the poultryman should strive to find out the hen that is 
 responsible and to remove her from the flock. 
 
 Fresh Laid Stale Eggs. — It sounds incredible that a fowl should 
 lay a stale egg, or a spoiled egg, but this frequently happens. 
 The condition responsible for this peculiarity is sometimes chronic 
 with certain hens, or merely occasional, and if the victims can be 
 spotted they had better be killed for Sunday's dinner. If not, 
 the poultryman will have to assume the burden of a tedious 
 explanation to the customer who is unfortunate enough to receive 
 such eggs. 
 
 After the yolk enters the oviduct it is forced through this tube 
 by a circular movement or contraction of the muscles of the 
 oviduct wall, and at the same time receiving layer after layer of 
 albumen, and finally the shell, when it is ready for expulsion 
 from the body. At some stage in this development, which under 
 normal circumstances should only require about eighteen hours, 
 from the time the yolk enters the oviduct until the finished egg 
 is laid, this action ceases temporarily, maybe as the result of 
 fright or due to an injury, and the egg is held in the body of the 
 fowl for several days after it is completed. 
 
 It must be remembered that the life germ, or germinal disk, 
 is complete when the yolk leaves the yolk sac, hence it is subject 
 to heat for its development into the embryo chick. If the egg is 
 held in the body, the life germ comes under the influence of the body 
 temperature and incubation begins, providing, of course, the egg 
 is fertile. If the egg is infertile, the results are not so disastrous; 
 the egg has a stale flavor, or maybe the contents are of a peculiar 
 color. In the fertile egg, when it is finally laid, the germ dies, 
 and immediately it starts to decay. Such eggs are called body- 
 heated eggs. 
 
 There are other minor abnormalities, those of such rare oc- 
 currence, such as an egg within an egg, foreign substances within 
 
MINOR ABNORMALITIES IN EGGS 
 
 407 
 
 eggs, intestinal worms within eggs, connected eggs, multigerminal 
 disks, meat spots, soft-shell eggs and eggs with loose shell mem- 
 branes, that space will not be devoted to their description. 
 
 Fertile egg after 72 hours of incubation. Infertile egg after 72 hours of incubation. 
 
 Fertile egg after 7 days of incubation. Infertile egg after 7 days of incubation. 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep'l Agriculture) 
 Fig. 264. — Changes affecting the appearance of eggs. 
 
 External Influences. — In the foregoing paragraphs we have 
 discussed only the internal factors affecting the quality of eggs. 
 
408 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 There are as many, perhaps more, external influences. The 
 most potent of these influences are evaporation, heating, musti- 
 ness, mold, bacterial contamination, moisture, bad odors and so 
 on. 
 
 The egg shell is porous, so that the embryo chick may obtain 
 air, and this porosity exposes the contents to the drying influence 
 of the atmosphere surrounding it. The rate at which the in- 
 terior moisture is lost depends upon the humidity and tempera- 
 ture of the air in which the eggs are stored, also the rate at which 
 the air is moving over or among the eggs, and the texture of their 
 
 shells and membranes. 
 As evaporation con- 
 tinues, air replaces the 
 moisture, which enlarges 
 the air cell, and if the eggs 
 are kept long enough, 
 and at the same time pro- 
 tected against heating or 
 contamination, all the 
 moisture will evaporate 
 and the yolk and albu- 
 men will become a dried 
 mass. 
 
 Storage Place. — A 
 cool, sweet cellar or refrigerator is the most desirable place for stor- 
 ing eggs, in which they may be kept for three or four weeks without 
 serious evaporation. See Fig. 265. Never store eggs in the kitchen 
 or shed, or where they are subjected to warm air or currents of air. 
 The best receptacle is a pail or box, something that will prevent the 
 free circulation of air through the eggs, and yet allow a moderate 
 amount of ventilation, hung in a cool, moderately dry place where 
 there are no odors to be absorbed by the eggs. Avoid excessive 
 dampness, for this may cause mold or other changes to take place. 
 If eggs are allowed to remain in the one position for a long time, 
 the yolks will rise and stick to the shell membranes, which is, 
 of course, an objectionable feature. Moreover, if they are stored 
 
 Fig. 265. — A well-ventilated, clean vege- 
 table cellar is a good place for the farmer 
 to hold his eggs until ready for market. 
 
LOSSES IN MARKETING 
 
 409 
 
 in a damp place, mold spots are very apt to form at the points 
 where the yolks come in contact with the shell membranes, in 
 which case they are unfit for food. It is sometimes possible to 
 shake the yolk loose without rupturing the vitelline membrane 
 of the yolk, but it more often breaks. 
 
 Water Test. — Some housewives attempt to ascertain the con- 
 dition of their eggs by placing them in water, and they will argue 
 that if the egg sinks it is fresh, and if it floats it is bad. See Fig. 
 266. This test is fairly accurate in determining the age of an egg, 
 but only so far as the extent of its evaporation. It will not dis- 
 close the interior quality of 
 
 ^ 
 
 the egg, nor determine the 
 other peculiarities that we 
 have discussed. A newly laid 
 egg will lie nearly flat on the 
 bottom of a dish filled with 
 water. If the egg is slightly 
 evaporated, the large end will 
 tip slightly upward, and this 
 tendency will increase with 
 the degree of evaporation. 
 If the egg rises to the surface 
 of the water, it is pretty badly 
 evaporated ; sometimes they 
 will float with half of their 
 surface exposed. 
 
 The best way to inspect eggs is to candle them, a simple method 
 of placing the egg before a bright light and looking through the 
 egg toward the light. Anyone can become proficient in the use 
 of this method in a very few trials. 
 
 Our Two Billion Egg Waste. — Immediately it is laid the prod- 
 uct of the American hen is worth $50,000,000 more than when 
 it is opened by the consumer. In other words, the value of the 
 eggs produced in this country each year depreciates, shrinks, 
 to the extent of $50,000,000 by reason of deterioration and dam- 
 age due to improper care of the eggs on the farm, most of which 
 
 (Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 266. — Specific gravity test for 
 determining the age and condition of eggs. 
 a, Fresh egg; note smallness of air cell 
 and the horizontal position of the egg 
 when immersed in water; b, slight evapor- 
 ation causes the egg to tip; c, increased 
 evaporation causes egg to stand on end; 
 
 d, badly evaporated egg which floats; 
 
 e, an egg so badly evaporated that it is 
 likely to be unfit for use. 
 
410 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 may be attributed to gross negligence and inexcusable ignorance, 
 and through careless packing and shipping, resulting in heavy 
 breakage losses, and because of antiquated selling methods, such 
 as the practice of exchanging eggs at the general store for mer- 
 chandise. 
 
 Think of it, in a single commodity in a single country in a 
 single year there is a loss of fifty millions of dollars. And it has 
 been going on right under our noses year after year. Sounds 
 incredible, no doubt. 
 
 The Department of Agriculture and other bureaus of statistics 
 are authority for these figures. A journey through the egg 
 trade — all the devious channels from the hen's nest to the con- 
 sumer's household — will convince the most skeptical that this 
 estimate of the depreciation in eggs is absolutely reliable. If 
 anything, it is too conservative. For example, the above figures 
 represent only actual losses, in addition to which there are cer- 
 tain intangible losses, which are none the less real because of 
 their intangibility. 
 
 The intangible losses are those induced by curtailed consump- 
 tion due to the presence of inferior eggs. Let me explain this 
 point: All are agreed, I think, that nothing disturbs the appetite 
 more than bad eggs. Perhaps this is because of the sensitiveness 
 of our olfactory membranes. However, when we open a bad egg, 
 even though it is only somewhat stale or of poor flavor, what is 
 the result? Disgust — repulsion. We push it from us, or cause 
 it to be removed from sight. At certain seasons of the year 
 when fresh eggs are scarce this denouement happens frequently. 
 In fact, it is the rule rather than the exception, and what is the 
 result? We regard all eggs with suspicion; they are persona 
 non 'grata, and in consequence we turn to something else for our 
 breakfast dishes. This cuts down the demand and lowers the 
 price. 
 
 Statistics are sometimes wearisome, especially if they involve 
 large numerals, yet they offer the only means of a convincing 
 argument, outside of the actual conditions. Therefore, at the 
 risk of seeming too statistical I am going to indulge in a few 
 
411 
 
412 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 figures. I want it to become vividly apparent and to sink in — ■ 
 just how appalling, how profligate, is this enormous waste. 
 
 Such a loss should be considered sinful, not alone because of 
 the financial loss to the farmers, who bear the greater part of the 
 burden, but because it is a community loss of so much valuable 
 food, the most nourishing kind of food, of which thousands are 
 in such urgent need. 
 
 A depreciation of fifty millions of dollars in the value of our 
 eggs is equivalent to throwing away 2,000,000,000 eggs, or about 
 280,000,000 pounds of one of our finest food staples. Reducing 
 this loss to a per capita basis, it means that every man, woman 
 and child in the country is deprived of about twenty eggs each 
 year. If we consider that very young infants do not eat eggs in 
 any form, also that the majority of the poorer classes can seldom 
 afford them except in the preparation of other foods, the loss 
 pro rata to those who do eat table eggs would probably be in the 
 neighborhood of four dozen each year. 
 
 Breakage. — Let us regard the waste in still another way: In 
 New York City about 5,000,000 cases of eggs, or 150,000,000 
 dozens, are received each year. Records show that in the spring 
 and early summer months it is not unusual for 200,000 cases to 
 be received in a single week. The breakage on this egg supply, 
 not the total damage, together with the depreciation result- 
 ing from such breakage, is about three and a half per cent, or 
 5,250,000 dozens annually. 
 
 Until a few years ago the railroads and other carriers were 
 held accountable for the greater part of this breakage, and their 
 claims in the New York district alone amounted to over a million 
 dollars a year. Their claims still amount to about a half million 
 dollars annually. This reduction in claims does not mean that 
 the breakage has lessened, merely that the carriers have shifted 
 a certain portion of the responsibility to the shoulders of the pro- 
 ducers, shippers, packers and wholesale distributors, where it 
 rightfully belongs, as I will explain later. 
 
 In a case heard before the Interstate Commerce Commission 
 two years ago, between the New York Mercantile Exchange, a 
 
CLAIMS FOR DAMAGED EGGS 413 
 
 corporation of about five hundred merchants engaged in dealing 
 in eggs and dairy products, which exchange corresponds to the 
 Chicago Grain Exchange or the New York Stock Exchange, and 
 six leading railway systems entering the metropolitan district, 
 it was shown of record that one railroad's gross revenue on eggs 
 and the total claims presented for loss and damage thereon 
 amounted in the periods of 1912 below noted to the following 
 amounts : 
 
 Total Revenue Total Claims Per Cent 
 
 April $34,014.54 $2,774.40 8.1 
 
 May : 23,298.59 4,717.58 20.25 
 
 June 16,762.41 2,423.66 14.5 
 
 September, first week 5,589.58 3,190.71 57-25 
 
 September, second week 5,594.70 3,338.12 59-66 
 
 September, third week 4,578.70 2,661.28 58.1 
 
 September, fourth week 4,125.46 1,746.67 42.1 
 
 During the above periods there were no wrecks or derailments, 
 and no unusual weather conditions cr labor disturbances to 
 account for these losses. At the same hearing it was also shown 
 that in 1913 another railroad paid claims on eggs from its New 
 York office alone amounting to $100,207.35. With this and 
 similar losses going on constantly all over the country is it any 
 wonder that the railroads find themselves financially embar- 
 rassed, or that they have had to forego dividends to their stock- 
 holders? In 1916 their total claim bill for loss and damage on all 
 commodities amounted to thirty-five million dollars, which ab- 
 sorbed about two per cent of their total earnings. 
 
 For convenience in analyzing this subject we will divide the 
 egg trade as a whole into four principal divisions or classes: 
 First, the producers, second, the shippers, third, the carriers, 
 and fourth, the distributors, both wholesale and retail. 
 
 All Are to Blame. — It cannot be said that any one class is re- 
 sponsible for our fifty-million-dollar egg-loss, and certainly no 
 class is exempt from it. All are to blame', and all are equally 
 culpable. 
 
 Losses in eggs occur at all stages of handling, on the farm, in 
 the country store, with the local shipper, the egg-collecting center, 
 the railroad, the packer, the jobber, the commission merchant, 
 
414 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 the teamster and the retailer. Strictly fresh eggs, generally 
 known as nearby hennery, which tickle the palates of the well 
 to do at the rate of eighty cents to a dollar a dozen, come largely 
 from the environs of the large cities, where they are produced by 
 poultrymen who make a specialty of fancy eggs. Such eggs 
 constitute a very small percentage of the trade, however, — about 
 ten per cent, — and their damage aside fr.om breakage is not ap- 
 preciable because most of the shipments are made by fast ex- 
 press. For the present we will not concern ourselves with this 
 class of eggs. 
 
 Fig. 268. — "A full house." 
 
 (Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 
 
 The great bulk of the egg trade must travel a thousand or two 
 thousand miles before it reaches its destination. These are the 
 eggs wherein the serious losses occur. Not so much because of 
 the distances transported, though this is an important factor, 
 but because of the numerous hands through which they pass, 
 and the personal equation in each instance, and because the 
 character of the egg is such that any slight defect visited upon it 
 at its place of origin rapidly accumulates further deterioration. 
 A slightly heated egg on the farm, or an egg with a blind check, 
 so termed because the crack is not visible without the aid of a 
 strong candle, may reach the market in such an advanced state 
 
415 
 
416 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 of decomposition that, unless carted to a crematory or dump- 
 heap, its only use is a manufacturing one, such as tanning leather, 
 and for which eggs are worth about fifty cents a case. 
 
 All Bear the Burden. — While the burden of these losses falls 
 upon all who handle the eggs, they are borne chiefly by the pro- 
 ducers and the consumers. The producers' loss is represented in 
 a decrease in price because of spoilage or poor quality; the con- 
 sumers' loss is reflected in a decreased supply by reason of the 
 spoilage, which compels the consumer to pay a higher price for 
 the sound portions which finally reach him. 
 
 Investigations. — Exhaustive special inquiries have been con- 
 ducted in different parts of the country for a number of years, 
 both by the Department of Agriculture and other interested 
 bodies, with the view to finding out the exact conditions of eggs 
 in the numerous stages of handling, and to ascertain ways of 
 remedying the defective practices. 
 
 A test was made in an egg-collecting center in the West made 
 up of twenty prominent shippers, wherein it was found that the 
 percentage of eggs that were so bad as to be an absolute loss 
 amounted to 8.33 per cent. This was in November. In other 
 sections during the warmer months as high as thirty per cent of 
 the eggs were totally unfit for food. 
 
 An investigation among some country stores during October, 
 which is considered a fairly favorable month for eggs, showed 
 that only twenty-five per cent of the eggs collected from the ad- 
 jacent farmers would rank as firsts, that sixty per cent were 
 seconds, due to long holding on the farms, that five per cent were 
 cracked, and that four per cent were rotten or stuck to the shell. 
 In this experiment, as with many others, it was found that the 
 majority of the farmers had held their eggs for four and six weeks 
 before turning them into the village store. 
 
 Grades. — For the benefit of those who are not familiar with 
 the different grades of eggs from a commercial standpoint, — and 
 few are, — I want to explain the definitions of these grades as em- 
 ployed by the trade. The term firsts does not mean one hundred 
 per cent strictly fresh eggs, or even good eggs, by any manner 
 
GRADING OF EGGS 417 
 
 of means, though the term implies such a quality. The rules 
 governing transactions in eggs on the New York Mercantile 
 Exchange, which constitute the standard or basis by which all 
 trading is carried on, and which are published in booklet form and 
 distributed throughout the trade, are set forth in part as follows: 
 
 Rule I. — Classification and Grading: 
 i. Eggs shall be classified as "fresh gathered," "held," 
 "refrigerator," and "limed." 
 
 2. There shall be grades of "extras," "extra firsts," "firsts," 
 "seconds," "thirds," "No. I and 2 dirties," and "checks." 
 
 Rule II. — Qualities: 
 Fresh Gathered Extras shall be free from dirty eggs, of 
 good uniform size, and shall contain reasonably fresh, rea- 
 sonably full, strong-bodied, sweet eggs. 
 
 Quality A 90 per cent 
 
 Quality B 80 per cent 
 
 Quality C 65 per cent 
 
 The balance, other than loss, may be slightly defective in 
 strength or fullness, but must be sweet. The maximum 
 total average loss per case permitted in "extras" shall vary 
 with the requirement of reasonably full, strong-bodied eggs, 
 as follows: 
 
 Quality A 1 dozen maximum loss 
 
 Quality B \ l /i dozen maximum loss 
 
 Quality C 2 dozen maximum loss 
 
 Fresh Gathered Firsts shall be reasonably clean and of 
 good average size, and shall contain reasonably fresh, rea- 
 sonably full, strong-bodied, sweet eggs. 
 
 Quality A 75 per cent 
 
 Quality B 65 per cent 
 
 Quality C 50 per cent 
 
 Quality D 40 per cent 
 
 The balance, other than loss, may be defective in strength 
 or fullness, but must be sweet. The maximum total loss 
 per case permitted in "firsts" shall vary with the require- 
 ment of reasonably full, strong-bodied eggs, as follows: 
 
 Quality A i}4 dozen maximum loss 
 
 Quality B 2 dozen maximum loss 
 
 Quality C 3 dozen maximum loss 
 
 Quality D 4 dozen maximum loss 
 
 27 
 
418 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Fresh Gathered Seconds shall be reasonably clean and of 
 fair average size, and shall contain reasonably fresh, reason- 
 ably full eggs: 
 
 Quality A 65 per cent 
 
 Quality B 50 per cent 
 
 Quality C 40 per cent 
 
 Quality D 30 per cent 
 
 The balance, other than loss, may be defective in strength 
 and fullness, but must be merchantable stock. The maxi- 
 mum total average loss per case permitted in "seconds" 
 shall vary with the proportion of reasonably full eggs re- 
 quired, as follows: 
 
 Quality A 2 dozen maximum loss 
 
 Quality B 3 dozen maximum loss 
 
 Quality C 4 dozen maximum loss 
 
 Quality D 5 dozen maximum loss 
 
 "Loss" as used in these rules, shall comprise all rotten, 
 spotted, broken (leaking), broken yolked, hatched (blood 
 veined) and sour eggs. Very small eggs, very dirty, cracked 
 (not leaking), badly heated, badly shrunken and salt eggs 
 shall be counted as half loss in all grades excepting "dirties" 
 and "checks." 
 
 The foregoing rules cover but three grades of eggs. There are 
 about twenty grades all told, with exceptions and modifications 
 to each. Some of their names follow: Fresh gathered thirds, 
 held firsts, held seconds, refrigerator extras, refrigerator firsts, 
 refrigerator seconds, refrigerator thirds, limed extras, limed firsts, 
 limed seconds, No. 1 dirties, No. 2 dirties, checks and so on. 
 
 To describe all of these different grades would take up too 
 much space. The point that I wish to bring out is this, not- 
 withstanding certain eggs are good enough to be rated as "fresh 
 gathered firsts," they are still a long way from being perfect. 
 And this way constitutes waste. As will be noted from the fore- 
 going rules, the shrinkage in "fresh gathered firsts" runs from 
 twenty-five to sixty per cent, with an actual loss of from one and 
 a half to four dozen to the case. 
 
 A certain amount of shrinkage is to be expected in storage eggs, 
 even when they are stored under the most favorable refrigera- 
 
HEAT LOSSES 
 
 419 
 
 tion. It is a natural evaporation of the contents of the egg, re- 
 sulting in an air cell which is familiar to all, and cannot be over- 
 come. 
 
 Excessive shrinkage, badly shrunken eggs, is another matter. 
 Its responsibility usually commences on the farm, due to holding 
 the eggs too long, though the rural buyer or country store and 
 the egg-collecting center are in no wise innocent of the same poor 
 practice. Actual physical deterioration, or total loss, as de- 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 270. — Candling eggs at the farmer's gate. 
 
 scribed in the foregoing rules of the Mercantile Exchange, is 
 still another matter, and includes such depreciation as heat affec- 
 tion, bacterial contamination, mustiness, mold and sour eggs. 
 The conditions which bring about these changes are almost 
 wholly due to negligence and antiquated methods. They are 
 unpardonable because in the main they are preventable. 
 
 Heat Losses. — As might be supposed, heat is the worst enemy 
 of the egg. The loss to the trade as the result of heated eggs is 
 
420 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 greater than from any other source, especially if male birds are 
 allowed to run with the hens. - 
 
 Heat in connection with eggs does not necessarily mean ex- 
 cessive heat, which we know will injure the quality of eggs. The 
 fertile egg is susceptible to even a moderate temperature. If 
 allowed to remain in a temperature of 70 degrees F. for any 
 length of time, it starts to incubate, slowly, of course, neverthe- 
 less development goes on, and every day it is exposed to this 
 warmth it is hastened on its downward career. The first stage 
 
 of this deterioration ap- 
 pears as blood on the 
 yolk. Later a blood ring 
 is formed, which indi- 
 cates that the embryo is 
 dead, and like all dead 
 animal matter forthwith 
 it starts to decay. Com- 
 mercially, heated eggs are 
 known as floaters and 
 blood rings. Light floats 
 correspond to about 
 twenty-four hours' in- 
 cubation at a temper- 
 ature of 102 degrees, 
 whereas heavy floats are equal to about forty-eight hours' incu- 
 bation. 
 
 Infertile eggs, sometimes called sterile eggs, those laid by hens 
 kept apart from male birds, withstand heat much better than 
 fertile eggs, though it is an utter fallacy to assume that the 
 former will not spoil. This mistaken notion is all too common. 
 Without a vitalized life germ, there is no incubation in sterile 
 eggs, hence there are no blood rings to develop; nevertheless 
 they undergo certain chemical and physical changes which sooner 
 or later impair the quality of their contents. They shrink as 
 badly as the fertile eggs, and the yolks are likely to weaken and 
 break or stick to the shells. 
 
 Stolen nest in the hollow of a tree. 
 
LOSSES ON THE FARM 421 
 
 Farm Losses. — It is not uncommon for farm eggs to remain 
 under a wheat shock or in some out-of-the-way corner for two or 
 three days, maybe a week, before they are found, or before it is 
 convenient to collect them, during which time probably they 
 have been subjected to summer heat of perhaps 95 degrees. 
 See Fig. 272. Frequently the eggs are stored in the kitchen or 
 back porch, or in a closet in one of the outbuildings, where the 
 thermometer hovers around 85 degrees at midday. Often the 
 eggs are hauled to the village store or shipping point in an open 
 wagon, maybe a wagon without springs, exposed to the direct 
 rays of the sun and a temperature of 105 degrees, and then left on 
 a truck at the railway station for several hours. 
 
 General Store. — If -the eggs are delivered at the village store 
 for credit, it is quite likely that the storekeeper, receiving the 
 eggs over the counter, will let them remain in the store until the 
 close of the day, and then carry them down to the cellar, where 
 they will remain for perhaps a week, until a large enough quantity 
 is gathered to ship to a local buyer or egg-collecting center. 
 What if the cellar is warm or damp or musty or poorly ventilated, 
 the storekeeper has no particular interest in the eggs, any more 
 than as a means of keeping the farmer's trade in merchandise. 
 
 Local Buyer. — When the local buyer or egg-collecting depot 
 receives the eggs, probably it is by way-freight, the eggs are 
 again held for several days or a week until there is enough to 
 make up a carlot, whereupon they are dispatched to a city jobber 
 or to a packer. This last lap of the journey may be made in a 
 refrigerator car, or it may not. In either event there is enough 
 iniquity already stored up inside the eggs or their cases to account 
 for a large portion of our fifty million dollar loss. 
 
 This system of marketing is not incidental. It is general. It 
 is in vogue all over the country. Its evils are perfectly obvious. 
 Exchanging eggs for merchandise or credit at the general store, 
 as at present practised, is pernicious. It is the weakest spot in 
 the egg trade. 
 
 A graphic idea of the loss due to heated stock can be obtained 
 from the fact that in the South and Southwest the egg industry 
 
422 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 is practically dead from the first of June until cool weather in 
 the fall. The losses are so great, and the net returns so small, 
 that the majority of the farmers hardly consider it worth while 
 to collect their eggs at all during the summer months. It is a 
 common thing to find fully hatched, live chicks in cases of market 
 eggs from these sections. In fact, the heat damage and other 
 losses are so heavy that producers do well to receive a net price 
 of five cents per dozen. 
 
 An average lot of summer southern eggs would candle about as 
 follows: Light floats, 80 per cent; heavy floats, 15 per cent; 
 
 Fig. 2; 
 
 'd nest. Nest in straw stack. 
 
 (Courtesy V. S, Dep't Agriculture) 
 
 -Stolen nests are responsible for a huge wastage of eggs. 
 
 blood rings and checks, 5 per cent. As bakers' stock the light 
 floats might bring twelve cents a dozen, the heavy floats five 
 cents a dozen, and the blood rings nothing. Deduct for break- 
 age, commission, candling, freight and haulage, and the net re- 
 turns are insignificant. 
 
 One in Four Lost. — As near as it can be estimated, the loss in 
 southern and western eggs due to heat is one-fourth of the original 
 value of the crop. For the entire country this element of waste 
 is estimated at fully five per cent of the total valuation of the 
 
LOSSES DUE TO BREAKAGE 423 
 
 egg trade. Mind you, this percentage represents actual wastage, 
 and nothing more. It does not include the losses resulting from 
 decreased prices by reason of the inferiority of most farm eggs. 
 The losses attributable to the inferior quality of the bulk of our 
 egg trade are intangible, the same as the losses due to curtailed 
 consumption are intangible; but they are real nevertheless. It is 
 doubtful if one hundred million dollars a year would cover them. 
 The most significant testimony to this statement is found in 
 the twenty or more grades of low quality eggs, selling at low 
 prices, and their relation to a few grades of high class eggs, which 
 sell at high prices. The farmer's eggs comprise the bulk of the 
 low grade marks, which include storage eggs, and sell at prices 
 from a third to two-thirds the value of strictly fresh, prime eggs. 
 The following is a typical set of wholesale quotations in the New 
 York market for December : 
 
 Nearby hennery whites, fine to fancy . 76 to 82 cents 
 
 Nearby hennery browns 57 to 63 cents 
 
 Fresh gathered extras 54 to 55 cents 
 
 Extra firsts 52 to 53 cents 
 
 Firsts 48 to 50 cents 
 
 Seconds 42 to 46 cents 
 
 Refrigerator extras 38 to 39 cents 
 
 Refrigerator firsts 35 to 36 cents 
 
 Refrigerator seconds 32 to 33 cents 
 
 Refrigerator thirds 30 to 31 cents 
 
 Limed extras 28 to 29 cents 
 
 Limed firsts - 26 to 27 cents 
 
 Limed seconds 24 to 25 cents 
 
 No. I dirties, refrigerator 23 to 24 cents 
 
 Checks 22 to 24 cents 
 
 It is not possible, of course, to bring the entire egg crop of the 
 country up to the level of the " nearby hennery whites," but it is 
 possible to create a vast improvement in the lower grades, which 
 improvement will redound to the benefit of the farmers. Strange 
 that they do not see it this way ! 
 
 Breakage. — Next to heat, the greatest damage is occasioned 
 by breakage. Indeed, it is nip and tuck which is the most in- 
 fluential factor in piling up our monument of worthless eggs — 
 heat or breakage. A broken egg is such a malicious sort of 
 
424 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 breakage. It is not only a loss to itself, but it contaminates 
 everything around it. 
 
 Trade Terms. — In the trade, breakage is designated by various 
 names, some of which are descriptive, if not picturesque. Cracked 
 eggs are termed checks. When the shells are pushed in without 
 rupturing the inner membrane, they are called dents. If the 
 eggs are partly open, or if they have lost a portion of their con- 
 tents, they are known as leakers. When the eggs are com- 
 pletely broken — among the missing, as it were — they are spoken 
 of as mashers. 
 
 Leakers and mashers not only produce smeared eggs, which 
 
 {Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 273. — Typical forms of breakage which usually result from careless hand- 
 ling or packing. 
 
 are heavily discounted as dirties, but they account for a great 
 many moldy eggs, also rots and spots. The checks and dents 
 constitute a heavy loss because they do not keep in storage. It 
 is estimated that thirteen million dollars' worth of eggs spoil in 
 storage each year because of cracks, some of which are scarcely 
 visible to the naked eye. 
 
 Mechanical Injury. — The responsibility for mechanical injury 
 — breakage — is the bugbear of the egg trade. It has been the 
 cause of so many claims, controversies and law suits between 
 shippers, receivers and railroads that many of the latter have 
 wanted to give up handling case eggs altogether. Even now 
 
FRAUDULENT PRACTICES 425 
 
 these relations are far from amicable. It is hardly likely that 
 they ever will be harmonious until we abandon some of our 
 obsolete practices. 
 
 If you listen to the shipper's or receiver's tale of woe in regard 
 to breakage, you gain the impression that the carriers are a set 
 of beats, who, for no reason at all, kick egg cases all over the 
 map, smash them into bits, and then refuse to pay claims for 
 damages. 
 
 True, the railroads, express companies and other carriers have 
 adopted rather drastic measures of late, one of which is the allow- 
 ance of five per cent breakage on each case of eggs. Their tariff 
 files now state that they will not be held accountable for breakage 
 unless it exceeds five per cent, and that claims will be considered 
 only on the damage in excess of five per cent on each case or 
 crate. 
 
 Shippers and receivers regard this regulation as an unjust im- 
 position. They go so far as to call it confiscation. The carriers 
 have been put to it in self-defense. There was a time, and only 
 a few years back, when the greatest asset that many of the men 
 engaged in the egg trade had, was the volume of claims which they 
 collected from the carriers. Apparently, the carriers were re- 
 garded as legitimate prey. They were set upon and gouged in' 
 a merciless manner by the most unscrupulous practices. The 
 carriers knew they were being gouged, and, like the proverbial 
 worm, they turned. They got the goods on various gentlemen, 
 and said gentlemen were indicted for fraudulent practices. 
 
CHAPTER XXXI 
 SELLING EGGS ADVANTAGEOUSLY 
 
 Many poultry men, especially those who raise but a few- 
 chickens, concern themselves chiefly with the problem of pro- 
 ducing eggs, with insufficient attention to the best methods of 
 selling them. They are accustomed to think that there is an un- 
 limited demand, which is true — there is always a regular outlet for 
 eggs, just as there is a regular market for corn, wheat and other 
 staple products; but, to secure top prices, or to obtain the full 
 value of the product,. as much thought and care must be devoted 
 to the selling end of the business as to the subject of production. 
 
 Eggs are probably the easiest commodity to sell. — In fact, 
 the demand for strictly fresh goods of prime quality is always 
 greater than the supply. If we so desire we do not have to stir 
 from our doorstep to find a buyer. The buyer will come to us, 
 pay spot cash if he is a dealer, or give us credit for merchandise 
 at his store. Transactions of this sort are very common, and 
 they are so simple and call for so little effort on the part of the 
 producer that "they have induced the poultry raiser to accept 
 them as a regular practice — along the lines of the least resistance. 
 In other words, it is so easy to sell eggs through the regular chan- 
 nels — the country store, commission merchant or wholesale 
 dealer — that the practice has encouraged a form of laziness on the 
 part of the producer. Instead of making him independent and 
 resourceful, and stimulating a desire to seek the most profitable 
 outlet for his wares, it has made him dependent and submissive 
 — a sort of "take what I can get" spirit. 
 
 Middleman's Charges. — It is very convenient to dispose of 
 one's output at the back door, but it is a great mistake to think 
 that the producer is not paying for this convenience. He is 
 
 426 
 
MANY HANDLINGS REDUCE PRICE 
 
 427 
 
 paying for it in the form of a reduction in price. Eggs for which 
 the producer is paid twenty-five cents a dozen usually retail to 
 the consumer for thirty-five and thirty-eight cents, or higher. 
 Thus, the middlemen's profits and handlers' charges amount to 
 over ten cents a dozen. These charges are legitimate, because 
 
 (Courtesy Million Egg Farm) 
 Fig. 274. — Grading and packing eggs. 
 
 these distributing agents have rendered service for the poultry- 
 man. They have received, shipped, stored, graded, sold, de- 
 livered and collected for his goods. On each operation the mid- 
 dleman has been put to an expense, which is chargeable, and 
 on each operation the middleman wants a profit above his ex- 
 
428 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 pense, or there would be no incentive to do business. The sum 
 total of all expenses and profits is therefore quite considerable. 
 Admitting that the poultryman is put to a similar expense when 
 he markets his goods direct to the consumer, the profits on these 
 expenses, at least, are diverted to his own bank account. 
 
 In talking to poultrymen on this subject I have heard remarks 
 as follows: "It doesn't pay me to sell eggs retail. I haven't 
 the time to bother with small shipments. I'd rather take a 
 lower price and ship to a commission merchant — let him peddle 
 the eggs. A private trade is all right in a way, but the pay is too 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 
 Fig. 275. — Well-equipped feeding plant. Note the complete lighting and 
 
 ventilating system. 
 
 slow. I've got feed bills to meet, and I've got to get my check 
 for a shipment promptly. Besides, when you ship to customers 
 direct, and there is breakage or a delay of some kind, there are 
 too many complaints. Let the other fellow do the worrying." 
 
 Retailing Troubles. — There is a great deal of truth in the fore- 
 going remarks; it is troublesome to sell eggs retail; yet it is the 
 only way to get the greatest profits from the business. The de- 
 tails of any enterprise require close attention, and it behooves the 
 man in charge to evolve a system or scheme whereby they are 
 simplified as much as possible. Certain it is that if the middle- 
 
COMMISSION MERCHANTS' WORK 429 
 
 men find it profitable to distribute retail or direct to the con- 
 sumer, the producer should find it equally profitable, providing 
 he follows practical methods. 
 
 In addition to the loss in price due to the charges and profits 
 previously mentioned, it should also be borne in mind that the 
 more eggs are handled the more their quality depreciates, conse- 
 quently their value is discounted, as we have shown in a pre- 
 ceding chapter. 
 
 Number of Handlings. — Though transportation facilities are 
 relatively simple, it is surprising to note the number of times a 
 shipment of eggs is handled even when the eggs are produced 
 within a hundred miles of their ultimate market. Eggs produced 
 on a Pennsylvania or New Jersey poultry farm and consigned to 
 a New York commission merchant are packed in 30-dozen crates. 
 The crate is delivered to the express agent by the poultryman, 
 the agent puts it aboard the train, and while it is in the care of 
 the express company it may be handled four or five times before 
 it reaches New York. At the railroad terminal the crate is re- 
 moved from the car to the warehouse, and later loaded into a truck 
 and delivered to the commission house to which it is consigned. 
 
 Commission Merchants' Work. — Most commission merchants 
 find it necessary to unpack, candle and grade the shipment, after 
 which the eggs are sold to a retail store or hotel, or frequently the 
 wholesale house will sell the shipment to a jobber, who will dis- 
 tribute to the retail stores, restaurants and other consumers in 
 one or two case lots. The retail store distributes the eggs to the 
 ultimate consumer in dozen lots. The eggs have probably been 
 handled twenty times, which does not improve their quality, 
 particularly if they have been kept in warm temperatures or 
 where the atmosphere is not as fresh as it might be. Such is the 
 devious route by which a local shipment of eggs is received, and 
 if they are of prime quality, they are known to the trade as 
 "Nearby Hennery Fancy." 
 
 Eggs of this grade, however, are more or less limited, and if the 
 public had to depend upon them alone, there would be an egg 
 famine. The greater number of eggs consumed in the large 
 
430 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Eastern cities come from the Central States, over a route about 
 as follows: 
 
 The farmer collects his eggs whenever he is of the mind to do 
 so — maybe it is every day or twice a week, and from nests scattered 
 about the farm buildings, under wheat shocks and in the brush. 
 If they are fairly plentiful, he will take them to the general store 
 (just as he has found them), in a basket, on an average of once a 
 week. Or, perhaps the farmer lives in a section visited by an 
 agent who drives from farm to farm gathering eggs in small 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 276. — Interior of a Western feeding station for handling live poultry. 
 
 quantities. See Fig. 270. When the local merchant has col- 
 lected a number of cases he disposes of them to a wholesale buyer, 
 who is usually the representative of a large commission house in 
 the East. The local merchant probably makes his shipment by 
 freight to save expense. The wholesale buyer collects in case 
 lots until he has enough for a carload, which is generally sent 
 East in a refrigerator car. He may have repacked the eggs 
 in new cases after candling them, or sold them case count. When 
 the commission house receives the carload, the eggs are sorted 
 
TO OBTAIN BEST PRICES 431 
 
 into a number of grades, which are sold to jobbers, and there- 
 after the same route is followed as for the local eggs, only to a 
 different class of trade. These eggs seldom come in competition 
 with local eggs, for they are usually of inferior quality. 
 
 Selling Direct. — If eggs are worth producing, every effort 
 should be made to get their full value, and to do this they must 
 be marketed as quickly as possible, so as to avoid any deteriora- 
 tion, and sold wherever possible direct to the consumer, all other 
 arguments to the contrary notwithstanding. Hotels, restaurants 
 of the better class, clubs, steamships, railroads and soda fountains 
 are among the highest bidders for strictly first-grade eggs, and 
 many are supplied directly from large poultry farms. The prices 
 at which these eggs are sold are usually at a given premium over 
 top market quotation, or at a fixed rate per dozen on a year's 
 contract for a given number of crates per week. The premium, 
 method is probably the best for all concerned, and may be made 
 from three to ten cents above the market. 
 
 Business of this character is generally done on a standing order, 
 and the shipments are seldom more troublesome than dealing 
 with commission merchants. Collections may be slower, of 
 course, but the progressive poultryman must endeavor to take 
 a position where he can extend a certain amount of credit; it 
 is one of the principles of modern business. 
 
 Another class of trade may be found among the first-class 
 grocers who make a specialty in eggs of known quality, and to 
 dealers who carry on a strictly high grade butter and egg delivery. 
 Special terms can be made with a trade of this kind, similar to 
 the hotel patronage — a premium over market quotations, and 
 if those dealers who cater to a discriminating class can rely upon 
 the poultryman for an absolutely uniform product, they will take 
 special pains to create a high price market. 
 
 Unscrupulous poultrymen have abused the practice of receiving 
 premiums, hence those who have suffered by the abuse are apt 
 to be a little skeptical, and justly so. The weakness of the plan 
 is this: The premium offered sometimes tempts the poultryman 
 into buying eggs from his neighbors and othef outside sources, 
 
432 
 
DISTRIBUTING BY PARCEL POST 433 
 
 all in good faith, no doubt, but unless the eggs are produced on 
 his own farm, the poultryman has no real warranty as to their 
 quality. He must depend upon the word of others, and fre- 
 quently such assurances are not dependable. The quality be- 
 comes uncertain, complaints are made, and confidence is shat- 
 tered. Altogether, the practice is a risky one, and in a measure 
 it is a misrepresentation — unfair dealing. 
 
 Lost Confidence.— Tt is strange, perhaps, how quickly a cus- 
 tomer will lose faith in the source of an egg supply, especially if 
 the dealer is making attractive claims for the product. You 
 may serve a household with eggs of the best quality for weeks 
 and months, with never a complaint, when suddenly there is 
 trouble. Maybe two or three eggs in a consignment are slightly 
 stale, or they have a peculiar flavor, or they contain blood clots; 
 immediately the consumer loses confidence, the loss of which is 
 no easy task to recover. 
 
 Private Trade.— In the outlets just described the business is 
 more or less of a wholesale nature, yet many of the middle profits, 
 ■ notably those of the commission merchant and jobber, have been 
 eliminated. There still remains, however, the profit taken by 
 the retail dealer, which usually amounts to about five cents a 
 dozen. Surely this profit is worth striving for, and may be had 
 if the poultryman will make an effort to reach a private trade 
 direct. 
 
 If the farm is situated within easy driving distance of a large 
 community, the problem is a simple one: the poultryman can 
 make regular deliveries about twice a week. If this is not 
 practicable, shipments can be made by parcel post, or by express, 
 or the poultryman can establish a delivery in the city and have 
 his eggs shipped to the city in large quantities, whence they are 
 distributed. 
 
 Parcel Post. — It is practicable to ship eggs by parcel post, so 
 far as the security of the packages is concerned. If the containers 
 are returned and used over and over, the charges are greatly re- 
 duced. There are many types of carriers on the market, generally 
 made of corrugated paper, which are strong and durable and yet 
 28 
 
434 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 very light. The prices range from ten to thirty cents, depending 
 upon the style and size, and from the writer's experience each 
 carrier will make on an average of eight trips before it becomes 
 too badly worn for further use. The customer is requested to 
 hold the empties until four or five are collected, when they are then 
 tied together and returned for the one charge. Thus, a carrier 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 278. — Bench killing and picking. 
 
 holding four dozen eggs and costing twenty cents can be made 
 to transport the eggs for about one cent a dozen, which includes 
 the return charges on the carriers. The parcel post charges will 
 amount to about three cents a dozen, bringing the total cost to 
 four cents a dozen. 
 
 Charges on Case Eggs. — At a glance this seems very high and 
 to defeat the idea of shipping by parcel post ; but if we consider 
 
CLUB PLAN OF SELLING 435 
 
 the cost of shipping eggs wholesale in case lots there is not a great 
 deal of difference. Consignments made to commission merchants 
 are usually made in gift crates and the express charges must be 
 borne by the shipper, the cost of which comes to about two cents 
 a dozen. The difference of two cents a dozen can be made up 
 in the price charged for the eggs when catering to a select trade, 
 over and above the retail profit of five cents a dozen. 
 
 The club plan is probably the best method of selling eggs retail, 
 and the easiest for the poultryman, although he should not expect 
 to receive quite as high a price for his product. The plan is 
 this — two or three families residing close together place a standing 
 order for a case or a half case of eggs once a week ; the shipment is 
 made to one address and the bill collected from there; the work 
 of distributing the eggs being left to the consignee, who must 
 also collect for them and remit to the poultryman. 
 
 The additional profits accruing to the poultryman who sells 
 retail are probably equal to the regular profits to be made on 
 wholesale shipments. The practice requires more work and 
 closer supervision, of course, but if one is engaged in the business 
 for what can be taken out of it, why not try to take all the profits 
 possible? If one thousand layers can be made to show a profit 
 of two dollars a year per bird by selling retail, why raise and 
 maintain two thousand layers at a profit of a dollar per bird per 
 year selling wholesale? 
 
CHAPTER XXXII 
 PRESERVING EGGS 
 
 No article of diet of animal origin is more commoniy eaten by 
 all classes in all countries and in a greater variety of ways than 
 eggs. They form one of our principal elements of food, and as 
 such they are always in great demand. Unfortunately, however, 
 the daily supply is not in proportion to the daily demand. We 
 want just as many eggs in the fall and winter as we do in the 
 spring and summer, but unless we store them, they are not avail- 
 able. Dealers realize the importance of this — witness the stocks 
 they place in cold storage each year. Why should the individual 
 not exercise the same forethought? It is entirely practicable, 
 and the investment required is small, outside of the cost of the 
 eggs themselves. 
 
 Virtues of Cold Storage. — It is strange and interesting to note 
 how some of our conventions and prejudices have evolved, and 
 how far removed from the truth are some of the popular beliefs. 
 Many people regard cold storage eggs, and all those connected 
 with the business, including the producer, middleman and re- 
 tailer, as being traffickers in a more or less illegitimate product. 
 Among some the very name cold storage is as odious as adultera- 
 tion ; and they rail against the practice as though it were a form 
 of knavery. Such a belief is absolutely false. 
 
 The cold-storage industry is a development of the past thirty 
 years, and as a whole it has been of enormous benefit to both the 
 producer and the consumer. Of this there can be no doubt 
 if one will only take the trouble to look into the subject a little. 
 Placing eggs in storage has tended to make the prices of this com- 
 modity more uniform throughout the year, and to increase fall 
 and winter consumption. 
 
 "How is that?" someone will ask. "I remember when you 
 
 436 • 
 
COLD STORAGE 437 
 
 could buy eggs in the spring for ten cents a dozen." True; but 
 at that time it was difficult to buy eggs in the fall and winter for 
 any price. They were not to be had in any quantity. Hens 
 lay very few eggs in the autumn, especially on general farms; 
 which farm flocks produce about 80 per cent of the country's 
 supply. It is a perfectly natural condition. The old hens are 
 in the molt, and the pullets have not reached maturity; and not 
 until scientific methods were perfected, such as artificial incu- 
 bating and brooding, and improved housing and feeding, was it 
 possible to obtain any sort of a yield except in the spring and 
 early summer. 
 
 (Cowrte 
 
 Fig. 279. — California type of laying house. Note that there are no dropping 
 
 boards. 
 
 In earlier times eggs were marketed at the time of and near 
 the place where they were produced. During the spring and 
 summer months there was an over-production; farmers found it 
 difficult to find a market for their eggs, and at times were lucky 
 to get five cents a dozen. In the South and Southwest it has 
 only been in very recent years that the farmers ever bothered to 
 collect their eggs during these seasons, they were that unprofit- 
 able. To-day conditions are very different. Since the advent 
 of the cold storage system and improved methods of transporta- 
 tion, we are able to take advantage of this over-production, and 
 to preserve it for our needs when there is no production. 
 
438 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING * 
 
 The farmer is therefore paid a fair price for what he previously 
 wasted — usually from fifteen to twenty-five cents per dozen. 
 
 Eggs are preserved in a number of ways. For convenience 
 they may be divided into two general classes: The use of low 
 temperature, from 31 to 32 degrees F. ; and by excluding the air 
 by coating, covering or immersing in a solution or dry substance. 
 The first classification is the only way they can be preserved on 
 a commercial scale, i. e., cold storage. Two methods are fol- 
 lowed : storing the eggs in crates in a fairly dry atmosphere, 
 and removing them from their shells and freezing them in bulk 
 in cans containing about fifty pounds each. 
 
 Under proper conditions, when fresh-laid eggs are placed in 
 storage, very little change takes place in their quality, except 
 evaporation. But they must not be allowed to remain long out 
 of storage before they are used. It is failure on the part of the 
 consumer and retailer to observe this point that results in most 
 of the difficulties with storage eggs. 
 
 As for the other methods, their aim being to exclude air con- 
 veying micro-organisms to the interior of the egg, and for sup- 
 pressing the growth of those already present, the results obtained 
 are by no means uniform, which is largely due to the condition 
 of the eggs at the time they are placed in storage. 
 
 One of the old-fashioned domestic methods was to pack the 
 eggs in bran, or in salt, or by covering them with limewater. 
 Sometimes the eggs remained in good flavor, other times they 
 spoiled. Their degree of preservation was commonly referred 
 to as luck; whereas it was chiefly due to ignorance. Only eggs 
 of known freshness and quality, and preferably non-fertile eggs, 
 should be preserved by these methods. 
 
 Twenty methods of preserving eggs were tested, with the fol- 
 lowing results, according to the Department of Agriculture: 
 Those preserved in salt water, brine, were all bad, not rotten, 
 but unpalatable, the salt having penetrated the eggs. Of the 
 eggs preserved by wrapping in paper, 80 per cent were bad ; and 
 the same proportion of those preserved in a solution of salicylic 
 acid and glycerin were unfit for use. Seventy per cent of the 
 
Si) a 
 
 439 
 
440 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 eggs rubbed with salt were bad, and the same proportion of 
 those preserved by packing in bran, or covered with paraffin or 
 varnished with a solution of glycerin and salicylic acid. Of the 
 eggs sterilized by placing in boiling water for 12 to 15 seconds, 
 50 per cent were bad. One-half of those treated with a solution 
 of alum or put in a solution of salicylic acid were also bad. Forty 
 per cent of the eggs varnished with water glass, collodion or 
 shellac were spoiled. Twenty per cent of the eggs packed in peat 
 dust were unfit for use, the same percentage of those preserved in 
 wood ashes, or treated with a solution of boracic acid and water 
 
 glass, or with a solu- 
 tion of permangan- 
 ate of potash, were 
 also bad. Some of 
 the eggs were var- 
 nished with vaseline ; 
 these were all good, 
 as were those pre- 
 served in limewater 
 or in a solution of 
 water glass. 
 
 Of the three meth- 
 ods that were en- 
 tirely successful, the 
 water glass treat- 
 ment is to be recom- 
 mended. Covering eggs with vaseline requires too much time, and 
 the idea is not a particularly pleasant one. The limewater treat- 
 ment sometimes communicates an odor to the eggs. 
 
 Water glass, or soluble glass, is the popular term for sodium 
 silicate or potassium silicate, the commercial article often being a 
 mixture of the two. The commercial product is generally used 
 for preserving eggs, if it is of a good grade, inasmuch as the 
 chemically pure article, which is used for medical and other pur- 
 poses, is very much more expensive. Inferior grades are likely 
 to be alkaline, which should not be used, as the alkali will 
 
 Fig. 281. 
 
 {Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
 -Preparing water glass for preserving eggs. 
 
EXPLANATION OF WATER GLASS 
 
 441 
 
 impart a bad flavor to the eggs. Moreover, they do not keep 
 well in it. 
 
 Water glass is offered for sale in two forms — a thick liquid hav- 
 ing the consistency of molasses, and in a powder. See Fig. 281. 
 The former is perhaps the most commonly used, and may be 
 purchased at any drug store for about forty cents a quart. In 
 larger quantities it may be bought of wholesale druggists very 
 much cheaper. In buying it, it is well to state the purpose for 
 which you intend |o use it, and to receive some assurance' as to 
 its quality. 
 
 The North Dakota Experiment Station conducted a series of 
 experiments with water 
 glass which were very 
 successful, and their re- 
 ports recommend a solu- 
 tion of 1 part water glass 
 in liquid form to 9 parts 
 water. If the powder is 
 used, a smaller quantity 
 of the water glass is re- 
 quired for the same 
 amount of water. Only 
 pure water should be 
 used in making the solu- 
 tion, hence it is well to 
 
 boil the water for about twenty minutes and then allow it to 
 cool before mixing it with the water glass. One gallon of the 
 water glass should make sufficient solution for covering 50 dozen 
 eggs, if they are economically packed; hence, at a cost of $1.25 
 for the water glass, the cost of storing eggs, including the cost of 
 the container, should not exceed 3 cents a dozen. 
 
 Earthenware crocks make the best containers (see Fig. 282), 
 though good results have been obtained with wooden kegs and 
 barrels. In any event, the container must be thoroughly cleaned, 
 scalded, scrubbed and then rinsed. The receptacles should be 
 stored in a cool, clean place, preferably in a well-ventilated cellar, 
 
 {Courtesy C. L. Opperman) 
 
 Fig. 282. — Earthenware crocks make the best 
 receptacles for preserving eggs in water glass. 
 
442 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 one that would be suitable for the storage of preserves. If they 
 are placed where it is too warm, the eggs will not keep well, the 
 solution will evaporate rapidly, and the silicate is likely to form 
 a deposit on the egg shells. 
 
 Only clean eggs should be preserved, and by that is meant, 
 
 only eggs which have 
 always been clean, and 
 not washed. Washing 
 the eggs removes the nat- 
 ural mucilaginous coat- 
 ing on the shell, which 
 was intended by Nature 
 to make the egg more or 
 less impervious to foreign 
 substances. The fresher 
 the eggs the better, 
 naturally, for there is less 
 likelihood of their having 
 been contaminated in 
 any way. Eggs known 
 to be older than a week 
 should not be used as a 
 general practice ; and 
 wherever possible use 
 non-fertile eggs — those 
 from flocks having no 
 male birds. Sterile eggs 
 do not contain an active 
 life germ or embryo, con- 
 sequently they are safe 
 from any state of animal growth, if at any time, no matter how 
 short the period may be, they were subjected to a temperature 
 that would start incubation. 
 
 As a further safeguard, it is well to candle all eggs before they 
 are stored, which will determine their freshness and detect any 
 eggs containing blood clots. See Fig. 283. The importance of 
 
 Fig. 283. 
 
 (Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 -Examining eggs by means of an 
 electric candler. 
 
SELECTING AND PACKING EGGS 
 
 443 
 
 this is not over-estimated, if we consider that one or two spoiled 
 eggs may ruin the entire container. 
 
 Packing. — The eggs should be packed with the small end down, 
 which will help to keep the yolks from gravitating and adhering 
 to the shells. The solution is then poured over the eggs, covering 
 them to a depth of about two inches. Later, if much of the 
 liquid has evaporated, it may be necessary to add more of the 
 solution. If one is unable to fill a receptacle with eggs at one 
 operation, which is hardly likely except on a large egg farm, the 
 eggs may be packed a layer at a time and covered with the liquid, 
 adding more eggs and more of the solution until the container 
 
 Fig. 284. 
 
 (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
 
 -Houses and runs should be arranged to render the greatest facility 
 in caring for the flocks. 
 
 is filled. If earthenware crocks are used and they have lids, 
 place the lids on, for this will reduce the amount of evaporation. 
 Otherwise, the containers should be protected in some way, and 
 a good plan is to cover them with paper, glued fast, and then 
 shellacked. 
 
 Influence on Eggs. — The eggs should be removed as they are 
 desired, and not kept out of the water glass for any considerable 
 time. If the eggs and all other conditions are right, they may 
 be kept for six to nine months and be perfectly edible. That is, 
 they may be used for any purposes, but they will not have the 
 consistency of fresh eggs. The white or albumen will be more 
 
444 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 watery than the strictly fresh egg, and the yolk will not have its 
 former firmness. These are the conditions found in the storage 
 egg, and they are to be expected. The membranes of the yolk 
 and the entire structure of the egg are weakened by its age, yet 
 their value as food is in no way impaired. 
 
 Preserved eggs will not stand the handling that fresh eggs can 
 receive, consequently the housewife should not be disappointed 
 to find some of the yolks broken. When boiling preserved eggs 
 a tiny hole should be pricked with a needle in the air cell end, 
 to prevent the shell from cracking. This is easily done by in- 
 serting the point of the needle once. It is sometimes difficult 
 to poach preserved eggs, because the yolks are apt to run into 
 the whites, and the same difficulties may be met in frying them; 
 but for cooking purposes generally these shortcomings are unim- 
 portant. When we consider the saving made over eggs pur- 
 chased from the store at certain seasons, which, by the way, are 
 not always as represented, the deficiencies of the preserved eggs 
 are amply compensated. 
 
 This subject should not be construed to mean that poultrymen 
 should adopt this means for other than home use ; for they should 
 not. It is a mistake to think that eggs can be preserved in this 
 way and then sold for fresh eggs. They cannot be made to de- 
 ceive anyone. If sold, they should be offered for just what they 
 are, — preserved eggs, — and no attempt made to misrepresent them. 
 If sent to an egg dealer in one of the large cities, they will be 
 candled and their contents will be noted. As previously men- 
 tioned, since they do not withstand handling well, their contents 
 are very apt to be addled, and a price paid accordingly. 
 
 Preserved eggs are intended for home use, or for sale as such, 
 and the results obtained for a number of years in every way war- 
 rant a more widespread practice. The subject is now being 
 taken up by many of the leading Women's Clubs throughout the 
 country, and the State Experiment Stations. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIII 
 BY-PRODUCTS OF POULTRY 
 
 The progressive poultryman is interested in any device that 
 will add to his profits. He will spare no expense to make his 
 fowls comfortable ; he will take great pains with the feeding and 
 watering, and he will devise every conceivable plan to increase 
 egg production, if that is his specialty. Not for a moment would 
 he tolerate conditions that might endanger the welfare of his 
 establishment. No doubt he prides himself that he is on the look- 
 out for opportunities to buy and sell to the best advantage, and 
 perhaps he also natters himself that he can detect a leak in any 
 of the farm's operations. 
 
 At the same time it is likely this very same poultryman may 
 be neglecting one of the most important, or at least one of the 
 most stable, sources of income — the revenue to be derived from 
 by-products — those things which are usually held as a nuisance. 
 
 Many thousands of dollars are wasted each year in the careless 
 handling or neglect of poultry droppings, while still other thou- 
 sands are wasted because no attention is paid to saving feathers. 
 
 The manure from fowls is rich in nitrogen; it heads the list 
 of farm manures, being worth four or five times the value of stable 
 manure. 
 
 Quantity Produced. — The Maine Experiment Station con- 
 ducted a series of tests on the subject of hen manure, and in one 
 of its bulletins it states that the weight of night droppings from 
 a fowl will average thirty pounds a year, and* that this manure 
 contains 0.8 pound of organic nitrogen, 0.5 pound of phosphoric 
 acid, and 0.25 pound of potash. Ordinarily, the value of these 
 elements would amount to a trifle over twenty cents. The way 
 prices have soared on fertilizers, these elements are now worth 
 considerably more. 
 
 445 
 
446 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 There are no reliable data to show the total quantity of matter 
 voided by the fowl, yet because the chicken is more than half its 
 time off the roost, it is safe to estimate that the weight of its 
 manure while off the roost will be at least thirty pounds a year, 
 probably nearer forty pounds, of which a fair percentage can be 
 conserved in the litter of the poultry buildings. 
 
 The writer has visited large poultry establishments where no 
 effort was made to preserve this by-product. In fact, I have 
 
 (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 285. — Indiana poultry house erected on concrete walls which extend 
 two feet above the ground level. Walls are built of novelty siding, making a 
 very neat exterior. 
 
 been on plants where the droppings, as they were gathered from 
 beneath the perches in the laying houses, were thrown outdoors, 
 actually cast on an open pile, exposed to rains and winds which 
 quickly rob such matter of its chemical value. 
 
 On one farm the disposal of the droppings was flagrantly in 
 error. I might add that it was fragrantly wrong, as well. The 
 houses were of the continuous type, located on a hillside, and 
 erected on piling several feet from the ground. In the front of 
 each building, in the yards proper, there was a huge mound of 
 
SAVING THE NITROGEN 447 
 
 manure and discarded litter, probably the accumulation of several 
 years. Needless to say, these mounds furnished anything but 
 sanitary scratching quarters for the fowls. They were objec- 
 tionable enough in dry weather. In wet weather they were 
 abominable — a slimy, unsanitary, steaming, stinking mass. 
 The proprietor of this place was not only wasting several hundred 
 dollars annually in the loss of this by-product, but he was menac- 
 ing the success and health of the flocks by imposing such un- 
 sanitary conditions. 
 
 Yet many persons wonder at the number of failures in the 
 chicken business. 
 
 Loss of Nitrogen. — Some poultrymen profess to take care of 
 the droppings, and really do go to considerable trouble; but their 
 care consists merely in storing the manure under cover. Keeping 
 it from the weather, of course, will preserve it to a certain extent, 
 because there is no leaching; but it will not prevent the escape 
 of a large percentage of the nitrogen, which is its most valuable 
 product, and the most expensive element. 
 
 Physical Condition. — Undoubtedly, the chief reason for the 
 great waste of poultry manure is due to its physical condition, 
 which is such that it requires special treatment to conserve it. 
 Its greatest value, as mentioned before, is in its nitrogen content, 
 which is subject to what are termed putrefactive processes, which 
 convert it into ammonia compounds. These compounds are 
 highly volatile, and unless they are conserved in some way, a 
 third or more of the nitrogen will pass off as ammonia gas. You 
 can smell this gas in almost every poultry house, and it is par- 
 ticularly noticeable in damp, humid weather, especially in the 
 winter months. 
 
 By itself, hen manure, like all other natural manures, is not 
 a well-balanced fertilizer. It contains too much nitrogen in 
 proportion to the amount of potash and phosphoric acid. Used 
 alone it is wasteful, because of this excess of nitrogen. To 
 properly balance this manure, and thus afford an economical 
 distribution of the nitrogen, suitable amounts of potash salts 
 
448 
 
USE AN ABSORBENT 449 
 
 and phosphoric acid should be added. This will make it a more 
 efficient fertilizer generally. 
 
 To Preserve Manure. — From an agricultural standpoint, the 
 successful treatment of poultry manure resolves itself into three 
 problems : First, to prevent the loss of the nitrogen ; second, to add 
 sufficient phosphorus and potassium in forms available for plant 
 food to make a balanced fertilizer; and third, to improve the phy- 
 sical condition so that it can be applied to the land in an econom- 
 ical manner, either in a fertilizer drill or with a manure spreader. 
 
 From the poultryman's point of view, these same questions 
 are of interest, and the idea is to work out a scheme that will 
 serve every purpose. The poultryman is anxious to prevent the 
 loss of nitrogen, because in so doing offensive odors are kept 
 down; and it is desirable to improve the condition of the drop- 
 pings by drying them out, because they are handled easier at 
 cleaning time, and the condition of the roosting compartments 
 is vastly more sanitary. 
 
 Acid phosphate and kainit both prevent the loss of nitrogen, 
 and if these are added to the manure in connection with sawdust, 
 land plaster or some other absorbent (good dry loam or peat will 
 answer nicely), there will result a well-balanced fertilizer. For 
 example, a mixture of 30 pounds of hen manure, 10 pounds of 
 sawdust, 16 pounds of acid phosphate, and 8 pounds of kainit 
 will test about 0.25 per cent nitrogen, 4.5 per cent phosphoric 
 acid, and 2.0 per cent potash. 
 
 Need for Absorbent. — The addition of kainit or acid phosphate 
 by itself makes the manure quite moist and sticky, hence the 
 necessity for a drier. Any absorbent may be used that can be 
 obtained at low cost, for the amount of plant food added by the 
 drier is of small consequence. Because of its slight acidity, 
 peat has some advantage, since it will help to preserve the 
 nitrogen. As a general rule, however, the farmer need only 
 concern himself with the selection of a material that will keep 
 down odors and absorb the moisture, since the addition of 
 kainit and acid phosphate will prevent the loss of the nitrogen. 
 Do not use wood ashes, for they tend to liberate the ammonia. 
 29 
 
450 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Roosts and perches should have tight platforms under them, 
 popularly known as dropping-boards, which should be cleaned 
 daily, or as often as it is necessary to maintain the quarters in a 
 sanitary condition. If the houses are not crowded, and the 
 weather is mild and dry, once a week will probably suffice for 
 cleaning. 
 
 The absorbent should be kept conveniently at hand, and eacb 
 time the dropping-boards are cleaned, if they are cleaned daily, 
 the platforms should be sprinkled with the drier. If the boards 
 are cleaned weekly, then each morning the droppings should be 
 
 {Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 287. — Small fattening station with feed room in the rear. 
 
 sprinkled with the absorbent material. This is quickly done, and 
 will work wonders with the general improvement of the house. 
 When cleaning time comes the waste matter is easily removed 
 with a hoe or scraper, leaving the boards comparatively clean 
 and dry. It is a big help in the winter months, for it will prevent 
 the droppings freezing to the boards, which condition makes 
 cleaning exceedingly laborious. 
 
 Each time the droppings are collected they should be treated 
 with the kainit and acid phosphate, and then carefully stored in a 
 sheltered bin or shed. At first it will be necessary to weigh the 
 
MIXTURES FOR GARDEN CROPS 451 
 
 ingredients, to insure the correct proportion, after which it will 
 be possible to make a fairly accurate guess at the desired amounts. 
 
 Any form of shelter can be used, though on a poultry farm of 
 large size it w T ill pay to erect or remodel a small building for this 
 special purpose. One having a watertight floor, which will 
 prevent the entrance of moisture from without, and the escape 
 of any liquids from within, is the ideal shelter, and will soon pay 
 for itself many times over in the increased valuation of the manure. 
 
 Fertilizer Formulas. — To aid those who wish to compound their 
 own fertilizer mixtures, the following analysis of hen manure 
 is given, which is in accordance with the investigations of the 
 Massachusetts Experiment Station : 
 
 COMPOSITION OF POULTRY MANURE Percent 
 
 Water 65.00 
 
 Nitrogen 1 .56 
 
 Potash 44 
 
 Phosphoric acid 1.09 
 
 Calcium oxide (lime) 1.62 
 
 FORMULA FOR LAWNS Pounds 
 
 Hen manure 1800 
 
 Muriate of potash 75 
 
 Acid phosphate 125 
 
 2000 
 Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 1.4 per cent, phosphoric acid 1.9 per 
 cent, potash 2.2 per cent. Apply from one to one and a half tons to the acre. 
 
 FORMULA FOR CORN Pounds 
 
 Hen manure 1510 
 
 Acid phosphate 340 
 
 Muriate of potash 150 
 
 2000 
 Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 1.1 per cent, phosphoric acid 3.2 per 
 cent, potash 4.0 per cent. 
 
 FORMULA FOR FRUIT TREES Pounds 
 
 Hen manure 1500 
 
 High-grade sulphate potash 170 
 
 16 per cent acid phosphate 330 
 
 2000 
 Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 1.1 per cent, phosphoric acid 3.3 per 
 cent, potash 4.5 per cent. 
 
452 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 FORMULA FOR BEANS AND PEAS Pounds 
 
 Hen manure 550 
 
 Ammonium sulphate 100 
 
 High-grade sulphate potash 350 
 
 Acid phosphate 1000 
 
 2000 
 Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 1.4 per cent, phosphoric acid 8.0 per 
 cent, potash 8.8 per cent. 
 
 FORMULA FOR STRAWBERRIES Pounds 
 
 Hen manure 1000 
 
 Nitrate of soda 100 
 
 Ammonium sulphate 100 
 
 High-grade sulphate potash 200 
 
 Acid phosphate 600 
 
 2000 
 Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 2.5 per cent, phosphoric acid 5.0 per 
 cent, potash 5.2 per cent. 
 
 The disregard of the value of feathers is another source of 
 waste to many poultry raisers. There is a uniformly steady 
 demand for feathers in all sections of the country, some dealers 
 send out buyers for this purpose, yet thousands of dollars are 
 lost annually because farms pay no attention to this product. 
 With some system of saving, sorting and curing the feathers, 
 they can be made to defray the cost of dressing and marketing 
 the poultry, which is an item worthy of consideration. As proof 
 of the demand for feathers, government reports show that in 
 recent years nearly $2,000,000 worth are imported annually, ex- 
 clusive of ostrich and similar ornamental varieties. Evidently, 
 the foreigner finds that it pays to save feathers. Why should 
 the American farmer not follow this example? 
 
 There are many kinds and grades of feathers, and prices 
 vary accordingly. Geese feathers are the most highly prized, 
 and bring about sixty cents a pound. When we consider that 
 geese may be plucked twice a year, maybe three times, it is 
 easy to see that the feathers are a source of profit, similar to the 
 wool of sheep. All white feathers sell for more than colored 
 ones or mixed feathers, and dry-picked feathers are preferred to 
 scalded ones. Usually duck feathers are rated next to goose 
 
DOLLARS WASIKD IN FEATHERS 
 
 453 
 
 feathers, though very often carefully selected white turkey feath- 
 ers are sold as high as the best grades of goose feathers. The 
 body feathers from white chickens come next to duck feathers, 
 and some grades compare favorably with goose feathers. 
 
 The down and very finest feathers from geese often sell for a 
 dollar a pound, and are user! for quilts. The finer body feathers 
 of ducks and chickens are used for pillows, beds, cushions and 
 so on. Tail and \ying feathers, those with quills, are used mostly 
 in making dusters and screens; feather boas are made from 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fijf. 288. -Removing small feathers while the birds han^ by I he feel. 
 
 hackle feathers, or from feathers curled with a hot iron; thou- 
 sands of pounds of feathers are glued together in the forms ef 
 wings and breasts in imitation of birds of paradise, which arc- 
 no longer permitted to be importer], and sold to milliners; and 
 large quantities are used in the manufacture of feather flowers, 
 fans, muffs and toys, for decorative purposes the feathers of 
 peacocks, large turkey feathers and the tail plumage from chick- 
 ens are in great demand. If you stop to think a moment, numer- 
 ous other uses for feathers will present themselves. Feather- 
 
454 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 bone, for example, is made from the shafts or quills of large flight 
 feathers. 
 
 Prime feathers are those that are dry-picked, clean and fully 
 cured, and properly sorted. By all means keep the different 
 grades separate. Tail feathers should not be mixed with body 
 feathers, not even with wing feathers, unless they resemble them. 
 Make bundles of the quills, and either tie them together or pack 
 
 {Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 289. — "String" killing and picking. 
 
 them in boxes. One-sided quills, usually the flight feathers from 
 the wing tips, are not worth as much as the full feathers, hence 
 they should be kept separate. 
 
 Remember, that an inferior article packed with a superior one 
 will invariably reduce the value of all to the level of the inferior 
 article. The call for feathers is constantly changing, conse- 
 quently it is well to consult the dealers as to just what is wanted, 
 and for any details in packing and shipping. Commission men 
 
CLEAN FEATHERS SELL BEST 
 
 455 
 
 who handle poultry can usually dispose of feathers to an advan- 
 tage, or they will be glad to put you in touch with firms who 
 make a specialty of this business. 
 
 Feathers should be thoroughly dried before they are packed, 
 or they mat together, turn musty and maybe spoil. Only a few 
 precautions are necessary to save feathers properly. In the first 
 place, the poultry must be dry-picked, but then, dry-picked 
 poultry always brings a better price than scalded poultry, conse- 
 quently it is to the grower's advantage to follow this method 
 regardless of the feathers. 
 
 Provide barrels or boxes, have them arranged beside the 
 picker, and as the pluck- 
 ing is done drop the body 
 feathers in one receptacle 
 and tail feathers in an- 
 other, and so on. This 
 also helps to keep the 
 feathers clean, for if they 
 are allowed to fall at the 
 picker's feet, it is quite 
 likely they will be satu- 
 rated or spattered with 
 blood. Before the feathers 
 are stored away, spread 
 the different kinds in trays 
 or on the floor of a dry, 
 
 well-ventilated room, to a depth of four to six inches, and every 
 day for a week, or until they appear to be thoroughly dry, stir them 
 with a stick. They are then ready to be packed or shipped. If 
 they are packed green, the animal heat will make them damp 
 and moldy, and greatly reduce their value. 
 
 Cleaning.— Most of the feathers shipped to the dealers are 
 just as they come from the fowls, and quite naturally they must 
 be cleaned. Clean feathers, of course, bring higher prices than 
 soiled ones, but whether it will pay the poultryman to go to 
 this extra work is a question that each person must find out 
 
 Fig. 290.- 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 
 -Holding birds on the lap to re- 
 move small feathers. 
 
456 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 himself. I am inclined to think that it pays to clean them at 
 home, since they bring almost twice the price, and the work is 
 not difficult. 
 
 Manufacturers and feather houses have facilities for washing 
 the feathers by machinery, treating them with live steam, and 
 then drying them with wringers and subjecting them to strong 
 drafts of air from fans which lay all animal odors and leave the 
 feathers in a fine, fluffy condition. 
 
 Shipping Methods. — Feathers are shipped in burlap sacks, 
 tightly compressed, and the quills in boxes. Or the quills may 
 be tied securely in bundles and packed in" sacks. Do not pack 
 the quills loosely in bags, all jumbled together, for they will not 
 bring a good price. And I repeat, keep the white feathers sepa- 
 rate; they are the most valuable. White chicken feathers are 
 worth about eighteen cents a pound; colored chicken feathers 
 about six cents a pound. 
 
 Feathers which are too badly soiled for use as such can be 
 utilized as fertilizer. They are valuable for this purpose, though 
 they decay slowly and are therefore a long time in the ground 
 before they become available for plant food. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIV 
 PREPARING BIRDS FOR THE SHOW 
 
 Educational Value. — Next to the poultry press, the show room 
 has done more for the poultry industry than anything else. It is 
 probably the most potent educational factor, and one of the 
 greatest advertising mediums. Without these annual displays 
 interest in poultry affairs would be dwarfed. The strongest 
 proof of their popularity lies in the fact that the number of shows 
 increases every year. 
 
 Every one who raises good poultry should take an active in- 
 terest in poultry shows, especially in the local shows. This 
 includes the utility breeder as well as the fancier. The man who 
 discredits the value of the show room simply because he raises 
 chickens for eggs and meat is short-sighted. The progressive 
 utility breeder is one who opposes mongrelism. For any pur- 
 pose he appreciates that pure breeds are superior. In the show 
 room not alone fine feathers and correct markings are displayed, 
 but the qualifications that go to make the egg or meat type of 
 bird are also shown. 
 
 Exhibit whenever possible, but whether you are an exhibitor 
 or not you will find it to your advantage to patronize the shows, 
 to be in attendance, and to contribute any assistance at your 
 command. One may not carry off blue ribbons, and yet win 
 many things of even greater value. You can obtain a closer 
 friendship with your fellow breeders, a broader view of the con- 
 ditions that make for success, poultry wisdom, some new points 
 on salesmanship or advertising, a better knowledge of how to 
 mate next season's contestants, an exhibition of the latest im- 
 proved apparatus, and last, but not least, a good time. 
 
 It is not always the poultry association with the largest mera- 
 
 457 
 
458 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 bership that is the most successful. One of the best exhibitions 
 in Pennsylvania has only a dozen members, but these men are 
 
 BLADE- 
 EYE- 
 
 POINTS 
 
 mms? 
 
 plCKLEp 
 
 TAIL 
 plCKLEg 
 
 $AVPLZ 
 FEATHER 
 
 :#-'.^'k SHANK 
 
 ■ -.' .•X.'i"" '"'""V <" Tr', >~~"- 
 
 .m '$&****&$ ■ ■ 
 
 0PUB 
 
 CLAYT S^*-'"'- 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 29 1 .—Glossary chart giving the names of the various sections of a 
 male fowl. In the female the cushion takes the place of the saddle of the male, 
 and the sickle feathers are absent. 
 
 up-to-date, hard workers and they work with a co-operative 
 spirit. Every year they set aside the week of the show for that 
 
IMPORTANCE OF CONDITION 
 
 459 
 
 particular purpose. They don't stand round with their hands in 
 their pockets, giving advice, and paying some one else to do the 
 work. Except for the judges' fees, prizes, hall rent, feed, light 
 and similar expenses, there are no other charges ; in consequence 
 the show is a financial success. 
 
 Selecting Specimens. — There was a time when a breeder could 
 
 (Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 292. — Catching coop for fowls. It is placed in front of a small door in 
 the main house, through which the birds are driven into the coop. 
 
 look over his birds, select the most promising specimens, and 
 without any further ado pack them off to the show and win. 
 That day is past. To-day, though a specimen ranks high in 
 size, shape, color and most of the other points that contribute 
 to the ideal, if it is not shown in perfect condition the chances 
 for a ribbon are limited. In fact, it is the art of conditioning 
 
460 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 specimens, as well as breeding them, that brings success in this 
 generation. 
 
 Some breeders are opposed to conditioning, and condemn it 
 as faking. There is a vast difference between the two, however, 
 even though it may be difficult to establish in some cases. The 
 mere fact that you have grown a fowl that conforms to certain 
 requirements, such as weight, shape, the angle at which the tail 
 is carried, length of shank and so on, is by no means as far as 
 it is possible to exert your skill. The other fellow, let us say, 
 has done the same thing, and a little more. He improved on the 
 fowl's ability to keep itself sleek and clean. Maybe he influenced 
 the bird's conduct, by training it to pose and strut about, to 
 exhibit its virtues to the best advantage, and not object to 
 handling. A wild, unruly bird is an abomination, and will try 
 the patience of the most skillful judge. 
 
 Show Conduct. — To properly demonstrate his or her points of 
 superiority, a bird must be docile, accustomed to pose when the 
 judge's stick is placed on its back, and in all ways assume an 
 aristocratic air. These characteristics are seldom born in a speci- 
 men; they are the result of careful training on the part of the 
 exhibitor, and as such they are worthy of consideration. Some- 
 times it requires weeks of careful handling and training before 
 a bird is in perfect show condition. Many a superior bird has 
 failed to be placed because it was impossible for the judge to 
 keep it quiet long enough to form any idea of its correct type. 
 
 In the selection for the show room every section of the bird 
 must receive exacting scrutiny. In some breeds color must be 
 more carefully considered, in others, as, for example, the Mediter- 
 ranean varieties, the head points are of great importance. In 
 the Hamburg breeds, if tail be not full and flowing, its long 
 sickles well curved and carried at the right angle with the back, 
 or if it approaches a squirrel position, the whole Hamburg char- 
 acter is lost or seriously marred. If the sickles are short and the 
 tail pinched, or carried in a trailing low carriage, they fail to 
 attract the necessary attention. 
 
 Like the tail, unless a fowl's shanks are of the right length, 
 
NEED FOR WASHING 461 
 
 and the angle formed by thigh and shank shows apparent strength 
 and perfect poise, the specimen appears at a disadvantage. The 
 shanks in the Cochin classes, because of their excessively heavy 
 plumage, will look short, but they must not look dwarfed. In 
 the American classes we describe the length of the shanks as 
 medium, meaning that they free the specimen from any stilted 
 appearance ; at the same time they must not look short for the 
 size of the specimen. 
 
 Thus, different breeds require different judgment, and the 
 only way to gain complete information about a particular breed 
 is to study the American Standard of Perfection, which is the 
 authority by which show specimens are judged. 
 
 Birds intended for the show room should be selected a month 
 or two before the show dates, and the males separated from the 
 females to avoid broken feathers. They should be given more or 
 less isolated quarters, where they cannot fight, or in trying to 
 do so, injure their combs in any way. The specimens should be 
 carefully dusted with an insect powder to free them of lice, and 
 if they are badly soiled they may require a preliminary washing. 
 
 Washing. — It is seldom necessary to wash the dark-colored 
 breeds, such as the Rhode Island Reds, unless they have been 
 reared in an atmosphere of coal smoke, in bare yards, or have 
 become very dirty, in which case a thorough washing will mean 
 a great improvement. Washing is sometimes used to improve 
 the shape of certain breeds, such as Cochins and Orpingtons, 
 which should have loose, fluffy plumage. By drying before a 
 fire, one that is not too hot, for this will make the feathers curl, 
 and fanning the feathers while they are drying, the plumage 
 will remain loose and fluffy. This gives the birds a fuller, rounder 
 appearance, and adds much to their beauty. 
 
 White birds are the hardest to condition. To insure a good 
 job they should be washed twice, the first time about two weeks 
 before the show, and again a day or two before shipping. The 
 idea of washing chickens sounds like a difficult task, but after a 
 little experience it becomes a pleasure. It is surprising how 
 placidly most fowls submit to the work. If the specimens have 
 
462 
 
FACILITIES FOR WASHING 463 
 
 received proper training, which is but another terra for sufficient 
 petting and handling, they will allow their master to perform 
 these ablutions in a very orderly fashion. A warm room, plenty 
 of soft water, good soap, a couple of tubs, some towels or cloths, 
 a sponge, patience and common sense are the requirements. 
 
 Quarters. — On many of the large farms, those that make a 
 specialty of exhibiting, special quarters are provided for con- 
 ditioning the fowls. In fact, some of the conditioning rooms 
 resemble exhibitions themselves, being fitted with show cages 
 in much the same manner. The small breeder may obtain 
 equally good results without going to this expense. An outside 
 kitchen or sheltered porch, some place where members of the 
 household frequently pass, is a good location to erect temporary 
 cages, and as often as one can spare the time, handle the birds 
 and make them accustomed to persons coming close to the cage. 
 
 Always handle fowls with quiet movements yet with a firm 
 grip, being careful to keep their wings closely folded against their 
 bodies when removing them from the cages, so as to avoid any 
 damage to the feathers. Sometimes it is best to commence the 
 training at night, for light seems to fascinate them, and they are 
 less wild. Teach the specimens to assume certain poses, and by 
 gently stroking them between the wattles they can be made to 
 retain a pose indefinitely. A few minutes spent in training every 
 morning and night for a couple of weeks will usually conquer 
 the wildest of birds. If you find a specimen that no amount of 
 training will tame, better discard it; the chances are it will try 
 to pull down the cage in the judge's presence. 
 
 Preparations for Washing. — Everything should be in readi- 
 ness before washing the birds, and a start made in the morning, 
 so that by night the fowls are dried off. Fill two tubs with warm 
 water of a temperature that is comfortable to the hands; use 
 the first for washing and the second for rinsing and sponging. 
 Provide a third tub of cold water for the final rinsing, to which 
 a small amount of laundry bluing may be added if desired. This 
 is a very particular part of the operation. The tub should con- 
 tain enough water to entirely immerse the bird, except the head, 
 
464 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 because if one portion of the plumage is submerged longer than 
 another, the bird will not be evenly blued. Use about as much 
 bluing as would be proper for laundering clothes. 
 
 Lather Each Section. — When all is ready, carefully immerse 
 the specimen, and then starting with the head, thoroughly lather 
 each section until every particle of dirt has been freed. Cover 
 each feather with lather clear to the skin and then rub the feath- 
 ers well between the hands. Don't be afraid of damaging the 
 feathers; once wet they are very pliable and may be rubbed 
 much the same as shampooing .one's hair. After washing the 
 upper part of the bird place a clean board across the sides of 
 the tub and stand the bird on this while you wash the breast 
 and body. A nail-brush or discarded tooth-brush should be used 
 for washing the comb and face, legs and toes, especially the claws. 
 
 Rinsing. — When you are assured of a good job of cleaning, 
 squeeze off the greater part of the lather into the first tub, re- 
 move the bird to the second tub, and with the aid of a sponge or 
 dipper thoroughly rinse every trace of soap-suds and dirty water. 
 If any soap is left in the plumage it will stick together. This 
 rinsing operation is the secret of a satisfactory result. If any 
 traces of soapy water remain the plumage will dry blotchy and 
 streaked, and if bluing is used in the third tub, any presence of 
 soap tends to prevent the feathers from taking the bluing evenly. 
 
 Third Tub. — When the specimen is thoroughly sponged and 
 rinsed, plunge it into the third tub of cold water, agitate and 
 ruffle the feathers so that the clean water, especially if bluing 
 is used, comes in contact with every section; then drain the 
 bulk of the water from the plumage by squeezing it; take the 
 specimen in your lap and wrap it in an absorbent towel or cloth. 
 
 When it has ceased to drip, return the bird to the conditioning 
 coop, which should be previously replenished with clean shav- 
 ings, straw or other material. A good plan is to cover the top, 
 sides and back of the cage with muslin to prevent drafts, and 
 leave only the front open. If convenient arrange the cages 
 around a stove while the birds are drying, or in a room where 
 the temperature is about 80 degrees. As previously mentioned, 
 
Fig. 294. — Prize-winning black Langshan cock. 
 30 465 
 
466 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 if too hot the feathers are apt to crimp and curl, which is un- 
 desirable. 
 
 Black and red varieties may be improved in lustre and bril- 
 liancy of plumage by rubbing the feathers with a little sweet 
 oil. LTse very little — a couple of drops on the palm of the hand 
 are sufficient. 
 
 Shanks. — Many exhibitors are careless in not cleaning the 
 shanks. If the legs are soaked in warm water and well washed 
 with a stiff brush, and a wooden tooth-pick is inserted under the 
 scales that lodge dirt, every bit of discoloration can be removed 
 as readily as one can clean his finger-nails. A little oil applied 
 to the shank, or carbolated vaseline, rubbed with a woolen cloth, 
 will work wonders. This brings out the true color nicely, and 
 gives them a fresh, immaculate appearance. It is not generally 
 known, perhaps, but fowls molt the scales on their shanks and 
 toes about the same time they molt their feathers. Look care- 
 fully to see that any dead scales are removed. 
 
 The comb, wattles, face and earlobes should be rubbed with 
 vaseline, using very little, but rubbing it in well. Those are the 
 finishing touches and should be given attention at the last minute. 
 
 Under Weight. — If show aspirants are a little under weight, 
 careful feeding for a few weeks will usually bring them up to 
 specifications. Vary the birds' rations so their appetites are not 
 cloyed, using a mixture of some of the following articles: boiled 
 potatoes, cornmeal, boiled rice, buckwheat meal, barley meal, 
 middlings, ground oats, wheat, skimmed milk, a little beef tal- 
 low, linseed meal or cottonseed meal. At the same time give 
 them a little sweetened water to drink, and a good tonic or 
 regulator to offset any ill effects from the forcing. If the birds 
 have lost weight in shipment to the show room, as they are 
 likely to do, feed them liberally on the regularly cooked and 
 seasoned bologna sausage. 
 
 In conditioning old hens that are over-fat and inactive, no 
 soft food should be given except green vegetables. The whole 
 grain should be largely oats scattered in deep litter. 
 
 Many beginners make the mistake of cooping the birds too 
 
SHIP IN LARGE CRATES 467 
 
 closely and too long before the show, which makes them dull 
 and sluggish. A pullet is at her best just before she lays her 
 first egg; after that she loses her bloom and goes off shape. 
 
 Buff color is the hardest to maintain at an even shade. The 
 secret of getting even, rich, golden buff color is never to allow 
 the sun or rain to touch the surface of a showbird. Some of 
 the most successful breeders of buff plumaged birds do not give 
 their birds freedom in the open from the time their final plumage 
 begins to show, but keep them in shady runs or under sheds. 
 
 Shipping Crates. — Above all things, do not try to save space 
 or a few cents on expressage by crowding show specimens into 
 small crates. There is no economy in it. Use standard exhibi- 
 tion crates, which may be purchased at a reasonable price. If 
 made at home, build them high enough for the birds to stand 
 upright, and wide enough for them to turn round without in- 
 juring their tails. Label or tag the crates neatly, and in strict 
 accordance with the instructions of the show secretary. See 
 that the crates are bedded with clean straw or some material 
 that is free from dust. We have seen instances where birds that 
 had been carefully washed and groomed were hopelessly marred 
 by a deposit of dust on face, shanks and plumage, caused by 
 scratching in dusty litter. 
 
 To insure identification every specimen should be leg-banded, 
 and the number or distinguishing feature of the band should be 
 marked on the entry blank and shipping crate. 
 
 Sportsmanship. — It has been said, any one can win blue rib- 
 bons, but it takes a real fancier to lose. If there is one thing 
 in a show room that is detestable, it is the exhibitor who has not 
 sufficient sportsmanship to abide by the decision of the judge. 
 If you can't understand an award, have it out with the judge in 
 a gentlemanly way, but if he can't convince you that his opinion 
 is correct, take your medicine like a man. A good loser is always 
 respected and admired. 
 
 Chickens are great imitators, and their imitations frequently 
 lead to habits which are very troublesome and difficult to com- 
 bat, among which are egg-eating, feather-pulling, cannibalism 
 
Fig. 295. — Skeleton of a 
 fowl. 
 I, Premaxillary bone 
 or upper jaw; 2, maxilla 
 or lower jaw; 3, jugal 
 bone; 4, nasal cavity; 
 5, eye cavity; 6, skull; 
 7, neck vertebrae; 8, 
 scapula; 9, humerus; 10, 
 clavicles (wishbone) ; 11, 
 ulna; 12, radius; 13, 
 bones of forewing; 14, backbone; 15, ribs; 16, ilium; 17, pygostyle or tail 
 bones; 18, breastbone; 19, ischium; 20, pubis; 21, sternum; 22, keel; 23, femur; 
 24, tibia; 25, tarso-metatarsus; 26, spur; 27, digits or toes; 28, rear toe. 
 
 468 
 
CLIPPING WINGS WITHOUT DISFIGURATION 
 
 469 
 
 and high-flying. Nothing is more distressing to the poultry 
 keeper than these four habits once they have become confirmed 
 practices, for then they amount to vices. They usually start 
 through accidents, or from the example set by a chief offender — 
 a ringleader, which should be removed as soon as the trouble is 
 discovered. Then, if the offender cannot be reformed, rather 
 than return it to the flock, it should be made to pay the death 
 penalty. Usually, these habits can be broken up if taken in 
 time and dealt with accordingly. 
 
 Flying over the fences is likely to become one of the troubles 
 among the Mediterranean 
 breeds, which is not serious 
 in itself, except that where 
 two or more varieties are 
 kept it is almost certain to 
 result in cross-breeding. And 
 even if one breed of chickens 
 is kept, in all probability the 
 poultryman has mated his 
 pens with a definite purpose, 
 hence he cannot tolerate pro- 
 miscuous changes. For one 
 thing, it may lead to inbreed- 
 ing; and then again it may 
 lead to unpleasant difficulties 
 with one's neighbors — their gardens or flower-beds. 
 
 Clipping Wings. — It is natural that we should hesitate to clip 
 a fowl's wings, as is customarily done to prevent high-flying, 
 for the usual method is sure to disfigure the bird. Clipping off 
 the flight feathers completely is not necessary, however, and if 
 a little care is taken in cutting, the wings can be deprived of 
 their power in such a manner that the mutilated feathers will 
 not be detected unless the fowl is caught and closely examined. 
 
 Flight Feathers. — The primaries or flight feathers are the long 
 quill feathers that grow on the first joint of the fowl's wing, and 
 are hidden, or nearly so, when the wing is folded against the 
 
 (Courtt 
 
 S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 
 Fig. 296. — Commercial feeding sta- 
 tion, 300 feet long, accommodating 
 30,000 birds. 
 
470 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 body. The secondaries are the quill feathers that grow on the 
 second joint of the fowl's wing, which are visible when the wing 
 is closed, and which form the section known as the wing-bay. 
 Together with the primaries they constitute the main feathers 
 of the wing or the flying feathers. 
 
 The ordinary way of clipping a fowl's wings is to clip off both 
 primaries and secondaries within a few inches of the fleshy por- 
 tion of the wings, and which always leaves a ragged, badly dis- 
 figured appearance, and seriously detracts from the bird's sleek- 
 ness. The practice is unnecessary and should be condemned. 
 
 Clipping Without Disfiguration. — The following method is 
 equally effective in restraining high-fliers, and while it takes a 
 little more time to perform the operation, the results seem to 
 warrant the additional trouble: Take the bird under your arm, 
 or better still, sit down to the work and hold the fowl between 
 your knees; then spread the feathers of a wing wide open, and 
 with a pair of scissors clip the web or plumed portion of each 
 primary close to the shaft; but do not cut off the shaft and do 
 not strip the webs of the secondaries. Repeat the operation on 
 the other wing. 
 
 When the fowl resumes its natural poise and the wings are 
 folded against its body, the clipped portions of the primaries 
 will be hidden from view by the secondaries, and it will take a 
 very acute observer to discover that the wings have been tam- 
 pered with at all. 
 
CHAPTER XXXV 
 AILMENTS AND DISEASES 
 
 When to Doctor. — It has been said that the best cure for ailing 
 fowls is a sharp hatchet. 
 
 The writer will not take issue with this treatment as an effec- 
 tive remedy for some ailments, yet as a hard and fast rule to 
 be recommended for general practice, the hatchet cure is a little 
 too stringent. 
 
 There is no question but that a sickly flock of fowls are a con- 
 stant source of vexation and financial loss to their owner, and 
 while it is very often unprofitable to expend much time and 
 trouble doctoring them, in my experience it will pay to administer 
 first-aid treatment in the early stages of a disorder; and if the 
 patient responds within a reasonable time, continue the treat- 
 ment; otherwise, call in the assistance of the hatchet. 
 
 Health Is Everything. — It does not matter how valuable a 
 strain of blood there may be in a flock of chickens, how long a 
 pedigree, or how many blue ribbons are back of them; how 
 splendidly equipped are their buildings; nor yet how attractive 
 and convenient may be the location and environment of a farm, 
 the foundation for success with poultry is built on perfect health, 
 — a strong, vigorous vitality, — and to this all else is subordinate. 
 
 Sickness in some form, though it may be of a trivial nature, 
 visits every flock at some time or other, and whether the trouble 
 finds a permanent abiding place, a home, so to speak, in which 
 to thrive, or whether it is met with an aggressive inhospitality 
 and promptly driven off and exterminated, depends almost 
 wholly upon the caliber and energy of the attendant in charge 
 of the flock. 
 
 Unfortunately, the beginner's farm usually endures the greatest 
 
 471 
 
472 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 hardships on this score, — not because he neglects to give his 
 fowls the best of care, rather because, lacking the experience and 
 practical knowledge of the more seasoned poultryman, the novice 
 frequently fails to detect \he first symptoms of a disease. Then, 
 too, when the novice does discover trouble, very often he has 
 not the courage to sacrifice a few birds as a precautionary meas- 
 ure. Yet drastic measures are sometimes necessary for the safety 
 of the rest of the flock, just as in a serious conflagration dynamite 
 
 (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 297. — Open-front house with irregular gable roof designed to afford suffi- 
 cient head room inside where it is required. 
 
 is used to raze whole blocks of houses, and thus check the spread 
 of the fire. 
 
 Trivial or Contagious. — Poultry diseases may be divided into 
 two general classes : Those of a more or less trivial nature, which 
 will respond to flock treatment through the drinking water or 
 feed, and those of a highly contagious, virulent action, which 
 require individual treatment — if treated at all, for in badly in- 
 fected birds it is usually advisable to kill them at once and destroy 
 the carcass, thereby preventing the spread of contagion. 
 
 Burying the carcass, unless it is buried very deep, is not always 
 
LOOK FOR SYMPTOMS 473 
 
 a safe method ; for at some future time it may be dug up by a 
 dog, or accidentally plowed up, and the infection again spread 
 about the premises. Instead, such a carcass should be burned, 
 or put in quicklime. 
 
 Indications of Illness. — The competent poultryman makes it 
 his business to note the physical condition of every bird, 
 every day — which is a much simpler task than it sounds. In 
 the early morning and at feeding times, it is an easy matter to 
 detect a bird that is feeling out of sorts. If a fowl remains on 
 the perches, with ruffled feathers, head drawn close to its body, 
 and is otherwise sluggish and disinterested, it should be taken 
 out of the pen and examined. Or if a fowl is seen to rub its eye 
 on its wing frequently, or if a soiled spot appears on its wing; 
 if it sneezes often, gasps for breath, mopes in the corners and has 
 a purplish comb — these conditions are all abnormal, and the 
 fowl should be removed for a closer examination and diagnosis. 
 
 Detention Coop. — On a farm of any size there should be a 
 small house or coop isolated from the rest of the buildings, 
 which should be equipped with a few cages, or crates, and desig- 
 nated as a hospital, or detention ward. When a fowl is discovered 
 out of condition, if only with a cold, it should be removed to this 
 hospital, carefully examined for the nature of its ailment, and 
 treated accordingly. A small closet should be convenient, fitted 
 for the storage of bottles, clean rags, a sponge, basin, and so on. 
 With the knowledge of a few simple drugs and remedies many of 
 these hospital inmates can be promptly and permanently cured. 
 
 Determine the Cause. — When an abnormal condition is first 
 discovered, the poultryman should analyze every symptom, not 
 only with the view to ascertaining the nature of the ailment, 
 but to determine the cause of the disorder. There is sure to be 
 a cause, and of course it should be immediately removed or cor- 
 rected, to prevent further trouble. It is then up to the atten- 
 dant to decide if the ailment is curable, and what the chances 
 are for an early recovery. If the chances are poor, he had better 
 stifle all sympathetic feelings and sentence the victim to be 
 executed — the hatchet. 
 
474 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Simple Remedies. — The following drugs are simple remedies 
 that should be found in the poultryman's dispensary, and their 
 actions are no doubt familiar to everyone. They are all inex- 
 pensive, and a supply should be kept on hand for instant use. 
 Like the "stitch in time," first-aid treatment in the early stages 
 of a fowl's ailment is the secret of a successful cure. 
 
 Castor oil is one of the most commonly used remedies for dis- 
 orders of the crop and other digestive organs. It not only removes 
 the irritant, but also helps to soothe and heal any inflamed tis- 
 sues. In fact, it is a pretty good rule to commence the treatment 
 
 Fig. 298. — Pen of Pekin breeders. 
 
 (Courtesy Atlantic Farm) 
 Duck houses are simple affairs. 
 
 of every ailment with a dose of castor oil. Give about two table- 
 spoonfuls to a grown bird, administering it with the aid of a 
 dropper or glass syringe. 
 
 Epsom salts and Rochelle salts are both splendid laxatives, 
 and will correct liver troubles and relieve diarrhea. Half a tea- 
 spoonful is the correct dose. In treating a large flock, the salts 
 may be mixed with the mash, — but the fowls should first be 
 allowed to become quite hungry, to insure their eating a sufficient 
 quantity of the mash. 
 
 Bi-carbonate of soda, or Baking Soda, will relieve a sour or 
 
MEDICINE LOCKER 475 
 
 distended crop, which is equivalent to indigestion. An amount 
 sufficient to cover a dime is the average dose for a single bird. 
 For flock treatment, dissolve a half-teaspoonful in a quart of 
 water, and keep it before the birds for several days. 
 
 Tincture of aconite is a well-known drug for the relief of colds, 
 catarrh, and in allaying fever. About five drops is the custom- 
 ary dose for a bird. 
 
 Sulphate of magnesia, ten drops to a pint of drinking water, 
 will relieve costiveness. 
 
 Spirits of camphor is another good remedy for slight cases of 
 diarrhea. Add a few drops to the drinking water. 
 
 Quinine will work wonders with colds and chicken pox; and 
 Iron, Quinine and Strychnine tablets make an excellent tonic 
 for birds whose vitality has been lowered through loss of blood, 
 excessive breeding or illness. 
 
 Bismuth nitrate will frequently cure the more serious intes- 
 tinal disorders, — bloody diarrhea or enteritis. 
 
 Tincture of nux vomica, about ten drops to a quart of drinking 
 water, is recommended for cases of leg weakness, and it also stimu- 
 lates the digestive organs. 
 
 Calomel is another excellent corrective for liver troubles, and 
 a strong laxative. Use a quarter of a grain to a grain. 
 
 Carbolated vaseline, or some one of the petroleum products, 
 should be on hand to use in anointing wounds and sores, and 
 for chicken pox, scaly legs, and frozen combs. 
 
 Gas tar, or one-third carbolic acid mixed with two-thirds gly- 
 cerine, are two other remedies for scaly leg. Cover the affected 
 shanks with the gas tar, and allow it to remain until it wears off. 
 The scales will come off with the tar. 
 
 Liver Pills. — When a fowl is somewhat mopish, the ordinary 
 family liver pill will very often correct this sluggishness, much 
 the same as it does with the human being. 
 
 Spirits of turpentine and sweet oil will usually relieve any 
 bronchial affection, such as a rattling or bubbling sound in the 
 throat. One part turpentine to five parts oil is the proper mix- 
 ture: administer about ten drops daily to the individual bird. 
 
476 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Fowls seem more susceptible to roup, canker, and other 
 
 respiratory derangements in the fall of the year than at other 
 
 seasons, and as either preventative or balm for these ills, the 
 
 Missouri State Experimental Station reports excellent results 
 
 from the use of the following mixture: 
 
 Magnesium Sulphate 10 ounces 
 
 Sulphur 3 " 
 
 Magnesium Oxide I ounce 
 
 Sulphate of Iron 2 ounces 
 
 Ground Ginger 2 " 
 
 A tablespoonful is fed in moist mash for 12 birds, for three 
 
 days. The Magnesium Sulphate acts on the intestines, as pre- 
 viously mentioned ; the 
 Sulphur is a general anti- 
 septic; the Magnesium 
 Oxide acts on the kidneys; 
 Sulphate of Iron stimu- 
 lates the blood; and 
 Ground Ginger is bene- 
 ficial to all organs. 
 
 A strong disinfectant, 
 preferably one of the coal- 
 tar products, should be in- 
 cluded in the poultry- 
 man's dispensary, and it 
 should be used freely as a 
 spray whenever an infec- 
 tious disease breaks out. 
 Permanganate of pot- 
 ash is frequently used in 
 
 the drinking water for antiseptic and disinfecting purposes, and will 
 
 prevent the spread of colds, coughs, bronchitis and similar troubles. 
 
 Use enough of the crystals to turn the water a deep purple color. 
 
 About as much as would cover a dime is sufficient for a gallon 
 
 of water. 
 
 It would seem as though chickens were heir to as many ills 
 
 as man yet since most of them are but very occasional, we need 
 
 Fig. 299. — Good type of feeder, 
 short, thick head. 
 
 Note the 
 
POULTRY AILMENTS 
 
 477 
 
 only concern ourselves with the more common troubles herein- 
 after mentioned, together with their principal symptoms and 
 causes. 
 
 Asthenia, or "Going Light." — A term applied to fowls that 
 persistently lose weight, become emaciated, anemic, weak and 
 unproductive. It is not a form of consumption, as some sup- 
 pose, but may be due to several causes. Sometimes it is the 
 result of lice or mites; at other times it is due to worms — this 
 is the most common cause; or the birds may be afflicted with 
 bacteria harbored in the 
 -small intestine, which 
 subsist on the food con- 
 sumed by the fowls. On 
 investigation, if no defect 
 is found in the rations, one 
 of the birds should be 
 killed and examined for 
 worms. If many are 
 found, the emaciation is 
 probably due to this cause, 
 and the flock should be 
 treated accordingly. See 
 chapter on Worms. 
 
 If no worms are found, 
 and the fowls are not 
 bothered with lice and 
 mites, and their rations 
 
 and living quarters are O. K., the cause of the trouble is probably 
 infection by microbes mentioned above. In this case a slight in- 
 flammation may be noted. The treatment should be, first, the 
 removal of the bacteria by purgation, using Epsom salts, castor oil 
 or calomel, following which the flock should be given a tonic to 
 build up the system, and an abundance of easily digested foods. 
 At the same time look carefully into the housing conditions; 
 clean and disinfect everything. 
 
 The following tonic is recommended: 30 grains each of pow- 
 
 Fig. 300. — Indifferent type of feeder, 
 crow-like shape of head. 
 
 Note 
 
478 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 dered fennel, anise, coriander seed, cinchona; I dram each of 
 powdered gentian and ginger; and 15 grains of powdered sul- 
 phate of iron. Mix these ingredients thoroughly. Dosage: 
 from two to four grains of the mixture added to the food twice 
 a day for each fowl. 
 
 Bagging Down. — The posterior parts of a fowl hang down and 
 even drag on the ground. It is not a disease, but the result of 
 improper feeding and lack of exercise, an over-fat condition, and 
 very hard to correct. Better kill such specimens for the table; 
 they are not sick birds, remember. 
 
 Blackhead {Enter o-Hepatitis) . — This is a disease that attacks 
 young turkeys, and is seldom found in other fowls. In the course 
 of the disease the head generally becomes dark colored or nearly 
 black, hence the name. It is an infection of the liver, similar in 
 its nature to human dysentery. It is highly contagious and very 
 difficult to cure. If the birds are in an advanced stage of the 
 disease, they had better be killed, and the bodies carefully dis- 
 posed of, because thus far the treatment for blackhead has not 
 given satisfactory results. If treated at all, the afflicted birds 
 must be isolated. 
 
 The symptoms are loss of appetite and condition, diarrhea, 
 and finally prostration. The liver is found to be more or less 
 enlarged, and spotted with yellowish or greenish-yellow nodules. 
 
 The remedies used are sulphur 5 grains, sulphate of iron I 
 grain; or benzonaphthol I grain, salicylate of bismuth I grain; 
 or sulphate of iron 1 grain, salicylate of soda 1 grain. These 
 remedies are followed by a purgative. Fifteen grains of catechu 
 to the gallon of drinking water is found to be beneficial. 
 
 Do not be afraid to use the axe in this disease, because sacri- 
 ficing a few birds may be the means of saving the balance of the 
 flock. Dissemination of this contagion has made some localities 
 almost impossible to raise turkeys. Every effort should be made 
 to check the disease. 
 
 Bronchitis. — Usually caused by exposure to sudden changes in 
 temperature, dampness or irritating particles of dust, like lime. 
 The symptoms are dullness, loss of appetite, coughing, which is 
 
BUMBLE FOOT 
 
 479 
 
 accompanied by a whistling or bubbling sound in the throat. 
 Though simply an inflammation of the breathing tube;;, which 
 may be treated successfully in large flocks, if only a few birds 
 are affected, it is well to isolate them and administer the tur- 
 pentine remedy. 
 
 Baldness. — See Favus. 
 
 Blood Spots in Eggs. — This trouble is due to the escape of 
 blood from ruptured blood-vessels, which generally occurs at the 
 time the yolk is freed from the ovary and enters the oviduct, 
 where it receives the coat- 
 ing of albumen. These 
 hemorrhages are thought 
 to be the result of great 
 functional activity and 
 congestion induced by the 
 excessive use of stimulants 
 or highly concentrated 
 foods; or they may be 
 caused by the general 
 breaking down of a hen's 
 vitality. 
 
 Relieving any causes 
 which might lead to con- 
 gestion or inflammation is 
 the logical way to attempt 
 a remedy. Reduce the 
 amount of grain or animal 
 
 food, and increase the green food. Give a little Epsom salts in the 
 drinking water. Some hens habitually lay eggs with blood spots or 
 streaks, and these should be killed for the table, to escape this 
 nuisance. 
 
 Bumble Foot. — One of the minor ailments. A callus or corn 
 that forms on the bottom of the foot and later becomes a pain- 
 ful swelling attended by ulcerations. It is caused by the birds' 
 jumping from perches that are too high, bruises and irritations 
 from splinters. A fowl so afflicted will limp and stand on one 
 
 Fig. 301. — Poor feeder. A cripple, or bird 
 off feed. 
 
480 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 foot. Painting with tincture of iodine will dissipate the callus 
 if taken in the early stages; but if it has ulcerated, open it, 
 remove any pus, cleanse the wound with an antiseptic, and then 
 bind the foot in an application of carbolated vaseline. 
 
 Canker. — This is probably the most disgusting ailment, and 
 is usually caused by contaminated food, also chronic cases of 
 roup. It is very contagious, hence the sick birds should be iso- 
 lated, and if they are badly afflicted, it is advisable to kill them 
 and destroy their carcasses. A yellow, cheesy, foul-smelling 
 matter forms in the corners 'of the mouth and in the windpipe, 
 which when removed reveals the raw flesh. Remove this foreign 
 matter and apply carbolated vaseline, or sulpho-carbolate of 
 zinc on the sores. See Roup. 
 
 Catarrh. — See Roup. 
 
 Chicken Pox {Bird Pox). — While this is contagious and will 
 spread rapidly throughout an entire flock, it is not necessarily a 
 serious trouble. It is usually caused by dampness or filth. It 
 may be introduced by new birds, or exhibition birds which return 
 from show rooms infected. Or it may be carried into the flock 
 by pigeons, sparrows and other birds, or by the attendant. 
 Scabby, yellow nodules or pimples appear on the face and comb, 
 especially around the beak, and frequently discharge a thick, 
 yellow matter. Isolate the sick birds at once, and anoint the 
 sores with carbolated vaseline. Administer the iron, quinine 
 and strychnine tonic, or a good poultry regulator, and simple, 
 nourishing food. 
 
 Cholera. — See Enteritis. A bacterial disease caused by con- 
 taminated food or drinking water. Highly contagious, with a 
 heavy mortality. 
 
 Colds. — See Roup. 
 
 Crop Bound. — A hard and swollen condition of the crop caused 
 by an obstruction to the gullet from the crop, or by gorging large 
 quantities of grain, which swell and ferment. This trouble is 
 described elsewhere in a special chapter. 
 
 Diarrhea. — See White Diarrhea, described in a separate 
 chapter. 
 
ENTERITIS 
 
 481 
 
 Egg Eating. — This is a pernicious habit that is almost always 
 the result of accidents, though the accidents are very often due 
 to the carelessness or ignorance of the keeper. Cramped nests 
 or an insufficient number of nests are generally responsible for 
 broken eggs, the hens taste them, form a liking for them, and 
 thenceforth eat them whenever an opportunity presents itself. 
 The ringleaders should be caught and broken of the habit, even 
 if they have to be killed for the table. If not, they are sure to 
 set a bad example to the rest of the flock. This trouble will 
 
 (Courtesy A tlantic Far?>i) 
 
 Fig. 302. — Ducks require low fences, which make it possible for the attendant 
 to walk from yard to yard without the bother of entrance gates. 
 
 spread through a flock much the same as Cannibalism or Feather- 
 eating. As a precautionary measure, install your nests in ac- 
 cordance with the best practices, as described in the chapter on 
 poultry house fittings. 
 
 Enteritis. — This disease is caused by irritant poisons or bac- 
 teria, which develop an inflammation of the mucous membrane 
 of the intestines. The fowls have poor appetite, roughness of 
 feathers, pale comb, and their excrement is of a greenish color, 
 or bluish green. The trouble is almost always fatal if allowed 
 to reach an advanced stage. Administer nitrate of bismuth, 
 
 31 
 
482 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 keep the birds isolated, and give them olive oil for nourishment. 
 Clean up the premises, look for the cause of the trouble, and 
 disinfect all drinking vessels and other utensils. This disease is 
 quite serious, and can create havoc with the strongest, healthiest 
 flocks. It is one of the cholera-like diseases. 
 
 Favus or White Comb. — This is a contagious disease caused by 
 growth of a fungus, the filaments or roots of which do not pene- 
 trate deeply into the skin, but remain very near the surface, 
 consequently the general health of the victim is not seriously 
 impaired in the early stages. The trouble usually breaks out on 
 the comb first, then the wattles and earlobes and, finally, the 
 neck and other parts of the body are affected. 
 
 When limited to the comb and wattles, the trouble responds 
 very nicely to treatment, and may even disappear of its own 
 account. If it has invaded the feathered portions of the body 
 it is extremely obstinate, and in very severe eases the "hatchet 
 and block" is the safest and most satisfactory remedy. 
 
 First, wash the affected parts with warm water containing a 
 mild disinfectant, at the same time removing any scabs that can 
 be rubbed off without bleeding, and then apply sulphur ointment 
 or carbolated vaseline. Good results have been obtained by 
 painting the spots with tincture of iodine. Some breeders recom- 
 mend an ointment of red oxide of mercury I part and vaseline 
 8 parts. 
 
 Feather-eating. — See chapter on Crop Bound. 
 
 Gapes. — See chapter on Worms. 
 
 Indigestion. — See chapter on Crop Bound. 
 
 Leg Weakness. — See chapters on the Care of Chicks. 
 
 Lice. — See chapter on Parasites. 
 
 Limber Neck. — Partial loss of control of the muscles of the 
 neck, and is generally caused by eating putrid animal matter. 
 A fowl so afflicted cannot hold its head upright, but twists it 
 around from side to side and staggers about drunkenly. The 
 disease is not contagious, though very often it is stubborn to 
 cure. A pill of asafetida night and morning for a couple of days 
 is a good remedy, also, borax in water, a tablespoonful to a pint, 
 
ROUP 483 
 
 pouring a large dose of the solution down the fowl's throat three 
 or four times a day. Castor oil and turpentine and warm water 
 are two other highly recommended remedies. 
 
 Mange (Scabies). — This is caused by mites which live at the 
 base of the feathers, where they bite the skin and cause intense 
 itching. It is quickly spread throughout the flock, and while 
 the general health of the birds does not suffer greatly, still the 
 trouble is discomforting, and if allowed to continue the birds 
 will lose flesh and become unproductive. Moreover, as the mites 
 spread the plumage is destroyed until the birds are almost naked. 
 
 Apply to the affected parts, and for some distance around 
 them, an ointment made by mixing I part flowers of sulphur 
 with 4 parts of vaseline or lard. Carbolated vaseline may be 
 used, too, and if it is mixed at home, use I part carbolic acid to 
 50 parts of vaseline. It is sometimes beneficial to wash the irri- 
 tated surfaces with a solution of creolin or some other disinfectant. 
 
 Mites. — See chapter on Parasites. 
 
 Pasting Up. — See chapter on White Diarrhea. 
 
 Parasites. — See special chapter devoted to these pests. 
 
 Roup. — This is probably the most dangerous, fatal and con- 
 tagious disease with which the poultryman must contend, and 
 it is certainly the most disagreeable to treat. It is a contagious 
 catarrh, resembling the more malignant forms of influenza in 
 the larger animals and in man; this and canker, which is a 
 chronic form of roup, are generally the aftermath of such ail- 
 ments as colds. 
 
 The first symptoms of roup are similar to those of a cold, 
 except in the former there are more fever, dullness and prostration. 
 There is sneezing, accompanied by a watery discharge from the 
 eyes and nostrils. Later this discharge becomes thick and ob- 
 structs the breathing, and as the inflammation, which begins in 
 the nasal passages, extends to the eyes and the spaces below the 
 eyeballs, the fevered condition hardens the secretions into a 
 cheesy matter, which accumulates in the tissues of the head, 
 causing the eyes or other parts of the face to bulge. This cheesy 
 matter has a very offensive smell, sometimes it obstructs the 
 
484 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 windpipe and the victim is suffocated. Other times the head 
 swells twice its normal size, blinding both eyes, and the victim 
 is a miserable-looking creature, indeed. When this stage is 
 reached it is quite useless to attempt a cure. 
 
 The most common form of roup is an exaggerated cold, and 
 nothing worse. It is caused by exposure for a prolonged period 
 to those conditions which produce colds. Obviously, the first 
 step is to rectify the conditions which foster the disease. Imme- 
 
 F'g- 3°3- — The ordinary household scales come in handy for the poultryman. 
 
 diately a case of roup is detected, it is a good plan to treat the 
 entire flock with a roup preventative for about a week, or until 
 one is assured the remaining birds have not been infected. This 
 may be done through the drinking water. Sick birds should 
 be isolated at once, and the houses whence they are removed, 
 particularly the drinking fountains, thoroughly cleaned and dis- 
 infected. 
 
 Treatment for roup, if it is to be treated at all, must begin in 
 
SCALY LEG 485 
 
 the early stages. The affected membranes should be given appli- 
 cations of antiseptic and healing mixtures, either sprayed on, or 
 by dipping the fowl's head in the solution. The following are 
 simple remedies for this treatment: One ounce of permanganate 
 of potash to three pints of water, or one and one-half ounces of 
 boric acid and a half ounce of borate of soda to a quart of water, 
 or one ounce of peroxide of hydrogen to three ounces of water, 
 or a two per cent solution of carbolic acid. 
 
 There are several reliable roup remedies on the market which 
 have given excellent results for a number of years; they should 
 be used according to the directions which accompany them. 
 
 Chlorate of potash, alone, or mixed with sulphur, is recom- 
 mended for dusting on the inflamed tissues caused by cankerous 
 growths. Another way is to dissolve I part of chlorate of pot- 
 ash in io parts of glycerin, and swab it on the affected parts. 
 
 Scabies. — See Mange. 
 
 Scaly Leg. — This condition is caused by a parasite that lives 
 under the scales of the shanks. The scabs or crusts that appear 
 is the excrement thrown off by these mites. It can be cured by 
 rubbing the shanks with an ointment containing a little sulphur 
 or kerosene. Gas tar is excellent, also — a mixture of one-third 
 carbolic acid and two-thirds glycerin. The trouble is harmful 
 in that it is very discomforting to the fowls. It is easily spread 
 by fowls coming in contact with the parasites on the perches. 
 No careful poultryman will tolerate this condition, and there is 
 no excuse for its existence, though it is frequently seen. 
 
 Sore Head. — See Mange or Favus. 
 
 Vent Gleet. — An inflammation of the cloaca, which causes fre- 
 quent passages of a white, offensive discharge that collects on 
 the skin and feathers around the vent. It is very difficult to 
 cure, and such specimens are better off dead. Though not con- 
 tagious, the trouble is transmissible, especially by the males ; 
 consequently such birds should be removed from the flock. 
 
 White Diarrhea. — See chapter on this subject. 
 
 Worms. — See chapter on this subject. 
 
CHAPTER XXXV 
 CROP BOUND 
 
 Common Form of Indigestion. — Almost everyone who raises 
 chickens in any numbers will be troubled at some time or other 
 with an ailment known as crop bound. It is a form of indi- 
 gestion, perhaps the commonest form of crop trouble, and is 
 generally caused by improper feeding. The poultryman, how- 
 ever, is not always to blame, for the condition is very often 
 brought about by the stupidity or gluttony of the fowls. 
 
 Easy to Detect. — As the name implies, crop bound is a com- 
 paction or hardening of the crop, and fortunately, it is easily 
 discernible. Instead of the crop having a full, close appearance, 
 in fact, scarcely noticeable in the well-proportioned bird, it is 
 seen to hang down like a bag, and on closer inspection it will be 
 found to be greatly enlarged, hard and heavy. The fowl thus 
 afflicted is usually droopy and inactive, and frequently a bad- 
 smelling liquid runs from the mouth. In an advanced stage of 
 the ailment the fowl's comb will be purple in color, and the bird 
 may gasp for breath. 
 
 Two Forms. — Generally speaking, there are two forms of crop 
 bound: One is the result of a weakened or paralyzed condition 
 of the crop muscle, and is usually observed in old fowls whose 
 vitality has been impoverished by old age and improper care, or 
 in chicks of low stamina. It is possible to relieve this condition 
 by careful medical treatment, though a permanent cure is sel- 
 dom effected. Therefore, unless the victim is considered very 
 valuable for some particular purpose, it is generally more profit- 
 able to kill the sufferer, and to devote one's time and energy to 
 correcting the conditions that brought about the trouble. 
 
 Clogging of the Crop. — The other form of crop bound is induced 
 
 486 
 
FIRST-AID TREATMENT 487 
 
 by a clogging of the outlet of the crop by twisted grass or rough 
 grain. It occurs most frequently among birds that are fed in- 
 sufficient green food, and as a result of this craving they attempt 
 to swallow pieces of hay, straw, tough blades of grass, cabbage 
 ribs or some other bulky article. This obstructs the outlet of 
 the crop and finally becomes so entangled and solidified with 
 other food that the mass presses on the windpipe, or fermenta- 
 tion sets in and induces a form of poisoning. 
 
 Occasionally a ration contains too much middlings, or other 
 sticky meal, fed either dry or moist, which, under certain condi- 
 tions, bake together and clog the passageway. This food, al- 
 
 (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 304. — Brooder house. Note the covered platform in front of the building, 
 under which the chickens emerge from the house. 
 
 though taken into the body, offers no nourishment until it is 
 digested, consequently the bird continues to eat, which only dis- 
 tends the crop further. In a few days the fowl shows signs of 
 weakness, and unless the obstruction is removed the bird dies. 
 
 If the trouble is discovered early, the treatment is compara- 
 tively simple and a cure is virtually assured. In the latter stages 
 a surgical operation is necessary which, though simple in itself, 
 is often accompanied by other complications that prove fatal. 
 
 Experienced, practical poultrymen make it their business to 
 inspect their flocks very closely every day, especially at meal 
 times and in the early morning. At these times it is easy to 
 detect birds that are out of condition, no matter how trivial 
 
488 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 may be their ailment. If a fowl remains on the roost after day- 
 light, or manifests little or no interest in food, it should be caught 
 and examined. If the bird is crop bound the symptoms will be 
 noticed as soon as the fowl is handled. The bird will be slow to 
 avoid capture, its crop will be distended and hard, and in most 
 cases a sour-smelling liquid will run from its mouth. 
 
 The treatment usually prescribed is an injection of castor oil 
 or olive oil into the crop. If these are not available, melted lard 
 will answer the purpose, or warm water, although the latter is 
 not so active or effective in its action. A good plan is to begin 
 by draining off any liquid in the crop, which may be accomplished 
 by holding the bird head downward. Then inject the oil, about 
 two tablespoonfuls, using a medicine dropper, small syringe or 
 spoon. Hold the bird upright and gently knead and work the 
 mass in the crop. After some minutes this operation will cause 
 the injected liquid to mix with the solids, and when the mass is 
 thoroughly broken up an effort should be made to remove it 
 through the mouth. 
 
 Dislodging the Obstruction. — This is sometimes a matter of 
 difficulty, particularly if the offending substance is long and 
 fibrous, such as grass. If the massaging process is ineffectual in 
 removing the contents of the crop through the mouth, and the 
 case is not a serious one, it may be well to wait and see if the 
 trouble will not pass off naturally. Kneading the crop some- 
 times dislodges the obstruction in the outlet from the crop, and 
 with the aid of the oil the mass will be assimilated. 
 
 When to Operate. — If, however, the crop is not materially 
 reduced in six hours, there is but one remedy — an operation. 
 It is a very simple one, requires no great skill, and if the fowl is 
 in a vigorous condition it has a splendid chance to recover. 
 Young chickens weighing under a pound are too small to undergo 
 the surgical treatment, and had better be killed. 
 
 Instruments. — The task will be much easier if one person holds 
 the bird while another performs the operation. The only instru- 
 ments required are a sharp knife, lancet or scalpel, a pair of small 
 scissors, a small spoon, preferably a mustard spoon — one that 
 
489 
 
490 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 has a narrow bowl, and a needle threaded with white silk or sur- 
 gical gut. Common sense dictates that the instruments should 
 be absolutely clean, also the operator's hands, so as to prevent 
 infection. 
 
 The first step is to trim the feathers from a space about one 
 by two inches over the center of the crop, and to moisten and 
 brush aside any other feathers that may be in the way. Clip 
 the feathers with the scissors; do not pull them out. Wipe the 
 bird's flesh with an antiseptic where the incision is to be made, 
 and with the fingers of one hand draw the outer skin fairly tight; 
 then make an incision with the point of the knife. Insert the 
 point of the scissors and enlarge the cut until it is about an inch 
 and a quarter long. Separate this outer skin by spreading the 
 slit, and then make a similar incision in the crop wall. 
 
 Care should be taken to make the cut where there are fewest 
 blood-vessels, and to avoid the largest ones altogether. A little 
 blood will flow, and this should be removed with bits of absorbent 
 cotton. The cut should not be made any larger than is neces- 
 sary to gain access to the interior of the crop and to remove its 
 contents with the small spoon. Sometimes the mass is so hard 
 that it is difficult to remove it without first manipulating to 
 break it up. It is usually very offensive, and considerable pa- 
 tience is necessary to perform the work thoroughly. The opera- 
 tion is practically painless, so that the operator need have no 
 unnecessary qualms over the victim's comfort. 
 
 Washing the Crop. — After the contents are thoroughly re- 
 moved, the crop should be washed out with a weak solution of 
 boracic acid, permanganate of potash, or a similar non-poisonous 
 disinfectant. To be sure that the fermented matter is entirely 
 removed it is well to insert a finger in the orifice, otherwise the 
 whole process may have to be done over again, or the operation 
 will be unsuccessful. This done, the incision must be drawn 
 together and sewed up. A bent needle is best, making the stitches 
 about an eighth inch apart and tying them carefully. Sew the 
 inner skin first, and then the outer skin, and tie each stitch 
 separately. 
 
FEATHER EATING A VICE 491 
 
 Next swab off the wound with the antiseptic solution, and 
 place the fowl in a clean, comfortable coop to rest. Food should 
 be withheld for about twenty-four hours, and then only light 
 feeds of an easily digested mash should be given at the regular 
 feeding hours. In about a week's time the bird will have recov- 
 ered sufficiently to be returned to the flock. 
 
 Some authorities advocate making the incision at the right of 
 the neck and at the top of the crop, at the point where it is 
 quite easy to see the contents of the crop, owing to the trans- 
 parent nature of the flesh at this point. After the contents are 
 removed the cut is allowed to heal naturally, without stitches, 
 which is practicable because the opening is made in the top of 
 the crop wall. In either method the subject must be kept iso- 
 lated and on a very light diet. If permitted to join the flock too 
 soon, the other birds will be attracted by the wound, and they 
 will peck and aggravate it. 
 
 Mortality. — Many poultrymen consider it rather futile to op- 
 erate for crop bound because the chances for recovery are dis- 
 couragingly small. This is true in a sense, yet in most cases 
 death is not the result of the operation, but because the com- 
 plaint had reached an advanced stage. It is easy to understand 
 that as soon as fermentation starts, poisons are formed, which 
 are quickly absorbed by the victim's body, and which will even- 
 tually prove fatal. Or the crop may be so enlarged and create 
 such pressure against the windpipe that breathing is made ex- 
 ceedingly difficult, and this is a great strain on the heart. As a 
 general rule, if the fowl's comb has not turned a purplish color 
 as the result of the trouble, it is well worth while trying to 
 operate. If, however, the bird is already weakened, one had 
 better use "the axe." 
 
 Feather Pulling. — One of the most distressing, troublesome and 
 unmanageable habits of fowls is feather pulling, or feather eat- 
 ing, and it is this vice that frequently brings about a crop bound 
 condition. Sometimes the feathers are merely plucked, for no 
 apparent reason except the "joy" of plucking them, and at 
 other times they are eaten as fast as they are removed. Quite 
 
492 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 naturally they are extremely indigestible; they are likely to 
 form a mat inside the crop, and to obstruct the canal leading 
 from the crop to the gizzard. 
 
 Causes. — The vice usually starts through fighting or accidents, 
 or it may develop through lack of sufficient mineral and animal 
 food — generally from insufficient animal food. It is also caused 
 by idleness — close confinement or no opportunity for exercise. 
 The vice spreads rapidly throughout an entire flock, unless the 
 ringleaders are promptly caught and removed. Erroneous meth- 
 ods of feeding and management are largely responsible for this 
 
 (Cotirtesy Atlantic Farm) 
 Fig. 306. — Ducks can be raised without water, hut not so successfully as with it. 
 
 trouble, so that the poultryman seldom has anyone to blame but 
 himself, and the same general conditions are likely to encourage 
 egg eating — another pernicious habit. 
 
 There is no medical treatment for feather eating, any more 
 than the amount of animal food should be increased, and the 
 fowls given as much liberty and exercise as possible. If the pens 
 are small and the yards are destitute of green food, arid there is 
 no room in which to increase the range, the habit is sometimes 
 controlled by changing the fowls to a different pen. This change 
 in environment may arrest their attention long enough for the 
 alteration in their diet to satisfy their peculiar craving for blood. 
 
SUPPLY MINERAL SUBSTANCES 493 
 
 An old-fashioned remedy was to apply something very bitter 
 to the plumage, such as oil of aloes, but in the writer's experience 
 this practice was little more than a faith cure; the fowls continue 
 to pluck the aloe-flavored feathers as though they considered 
 this bitterness a relish. The nearest approach to a successful 
 method for controlling the vice is to cut the tip of the lower 
 part of the beak, which tends to prevent the fowl from getting a 
 firm grip on the feather. 
 
 Occasionally feather pulling is developed by lice and mites, 
 consequently the caretaker should investigate his fowls for these 
 pests and treat them accordingly. The important measure 
 adopted should be a well-balanced ration, one that contains skim 
 milk, beef scrap, fish scrap, meat bone, vegetables or green feed, 
 and frequently varied. A piece of fresh beef hung from a nail 
 where the hens will have to jump for it slightly is one of the 
 surest tricks for dissipating the feather pulling habit. 
 
 Failure to furnish the flock with a liberal supply of mineral 
 substances is one of the contributing causes of crop bound and 
 indigestion. Nature has not endowed birds with teeth as a 
 means of masticating their food, but she has given them the 
 equivalent in the gizzard. This is a tough, muscular organ, so 
 situated that all food taken into the mouth must pass through it. 
 When the food is received in the crop it remains there until 
 soaked and acted upon by a secretion similar to that of the saliva 
 in the mouth of animals. This partially digested food gradually 
 leaves the crop and passes into the gizzard, where it is ground 
 up, and thence it goes tx> the intestines, where, after being acted 
 upon by other fluids, it passes on and the nutriment is absorbed. 
 
 Supply Grit. — We know that the gizzard is marvelously strong 
 when provided with sharp grit, for it is the rotary action of these 
 grindstones that crushes and masticates the solids. Hard, sharp 
 substances are necessary, and without them the harder parts of 
 the food are not digested. Husks and green food accumulate 
 between the crop and the gizzard, and frequently cause a stop- 
 page so that nothing but liquids can pass. In time this passage 
 is completely obstructed, and the result is a sour or bound crop. 
 
494 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 A person may live with defective teeth for years, or perhaps 
 with none at all, yet we know that such persons seldom enjoy 
 their food or good health. Surely, if the birds do not have the 
 means of properly masticating their food, they can neither be 
 healthy nor derive the greatest benefits from their food. In 
 consequence they cannot be expected to give their master a good 
 return for their food and care. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVII 
 WORMS 
 
 Losses from Worms. — The question of worms in poultry is of 
 far greater importance toward the success of the venture than 
 most poultrymen realize. Well-built houses, carefully prepared 
 food, close attention to sanitation, and good care generally are 
 of little avail if the fowls are infested with worms. Where there 
 are worms losses follow: if not actual death, at least there is a 
 falling off in the egg yield. In any event the poultry keeper is 
 not getting the proper returns from his feed and care, which is 
 the equivalent to loss. 
 
 A postmortem examination at one of the State Egg Laying 
 Contests suggested a careful examination of the dropping 
 boards, which finally led to the conclusion that some of the pens 
 were infested with intestinal worms. The flocks were given a 
 vermifuge, followed by a purgative, which had the desired effect, 
 and in a couple of weeks' time the change in the flocks was sur- 
 prising. They were eating more, took on weight and their egg 
 yield improved. 
 
 Widespread Trouble. — Numerous instances of anemia, liver 
 trouble, indigestion, diarrhea, general physical debility and other 
 complaints, due supposedly to lack of vigor in the breeding stock, 
 have been traced to worms within the fowl's body. In fact, it 
 has been said that of the strictly parasitic forms of life that 
 affect poultry, worms play the leading role. I am not prepared 
 to agree that worms are a greater menace to fowls than some 
 other varmints of our acquaintance, such as mites and lice, but 
 I do know that they work a great deal of loss and failure. 
 
 Kinds of Worms. — There are several varieties of worms, some 
 of which take up their abode in the crop, stomach and intestines, 
 
 495 
 
496 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 not to mention the gape worm, which attaches itself to the wind- 
 pipe and is made evident by frequent gaping, hence its name. 
 Those that breed in the intestinal section are probably the most 
 common and the most destructive. 
 
 There is something revolting about the idea of worms exist- 
 ing in the organs of a living creature; it is an unpleasant subject 
 
 {Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 3°7- — Feed hoppers and water fountains should be located on a raised 
 platform to prevent litter from being scratched into them. 
 
 to discuss. Nevertheless, since it is a foe, and a deadly one, we 
 must take up arms against it, and to do so intelligently we must 
 go into some detail. 
 
 Tapeworms. — It has been found that there are two principal 
 kinds of intestinal worms, round worms and ribbon-shaped 
 worms, commonly called tapeworms. The commonplace that 
 tapeworms actually consume food is all wrong; they do not. If 
 
WHAT TO GIVE FOR WORMS 497 
 
 we examine them under a microscope, we find that they have no 
 mouth or intestinal tract at all. They are a very low order of 
 life, and attach themselves to the intestinal lining by means of 
 a hook-like appendage. Free to come in contact with the digested 
 nutrients in the intestines, they absorb these elements, much as 
 the intestines themselves absorb this food. Obviously the fowl 
 is robbed of so much nutriment, and in due time it becomes 
 poor and emaciated, depending upon the extent of the worms. 
 
 Under a strong glass we note that the worms consist of seg- 
 ments, each of which is a complete organism, if you can call it 
 such. It absorbs its own food, develops its own eggs, and later 
 separates itself from the other segments and finally is passed out 
 to the soil. In each segment there are hundreds of tiny eggs 
 which are scattered on the ground, among food and in the drink- 
 ing water, only to be picked up by other birds, which are then 
 contaminated. It has been discovered that flies devour these 
 eggs, and that the eggs are hatched within the fly; and, of course, 
 chickens eat flies, therefore they take over the incipient worms 
 as well. 
 
 Numerous remedies are used to dislodge these parasites, and 
 for best results they should be administered when the birds are 
 fasting. The best way is to give the flock a light feeding at 
 night and the following morning give them the vermifuge. Sev- 
 eral hours later they are given a purgative, such as Epsom salts 
 or castor oil, and the treatment is complete. 
 
 One of the most commonly recommended remedies and one 
 of the easiest to administer is powdered pomegranate root bark. 
 The dose is one teaspoonful for each fifty fowls given in a wet 
 mash. Another good remedy is oil of wormseed (Jerusalem Oak). 
 Mix a teaspoonful of the oil in a moist mash for every 12 fowls. 
 In both treatments the purgative is given a few hours after the 
 vermicide. 
 
 For individual treatment oil of turpentine is excellent, which 
 
 may be mixed with an equal quantity of olive oil, and 20 to 30 
 
 drops of the mixture given at a dose. This is followed in a 
 
 couple of hours with a tablespoonful of castor oil. Thymol is 
 
 32 
 
498 
 
HOW TO DETECT WORMS 499 
 
 also used, I grain to each fowl, or powdered areca nut, 30 to 45 
 grains; powdered male fern, 30 to 60 grains; and kamala, 30 
 to 40 grains for each fowl. 
 
 Clean Premises. — At the same time the flock is being treated 
 medically, the premises must be treated by powerful disinfec- 
 tants to destroy the worms and their eggs, otherwise the 
 birds will only become re-infested. Be careful to drain off any 
 stagnant water, and fill in any marshy places. Sunlight is 
 one of the greatest insecticides, and the cheapest, therefore 
 the soil should be exposed to it by thorough plowing and har- 
 rowing. 
 
 Slaked lime is highly recommended, and in extreme cases it 
 may be well to spray the ground with a solution of carbolic acid. 
 Birds that have died from worms should always be incinerated, 
 or buried in quicklime, never allowed to decay on the surface 
 of the ground. 
 
 The houses, especially the dropping boards and floors, should 
 be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected, also all feeding troughs, 
 hoppers and drinking fountains. Bear in mind, there is little 
 use in combating worms in anything but a thorough, practical 
 manner. To do the task half is wasted energy, for only strenuous 
 'efforts will rid the premises of these pests. 
 
 A heavy clay soil is much harder to rid of worms than a light, 
 sandy loam. For that reason the latter soil is recommended for 
 poultry. It is usually perfectly sanitary at all times. 
 
 Manifestations of Worms. — Enterprising poultrymen realize 
 the danger of worms and keep on the lookout for manifestations 
 of them. If a bird should die from any cause whatever it is 
 examined, not only for the immediate cause of death, but for 
 indications of worms. The intestines, stomach and crop are 
 opened and their contents noted. Birds that are killed for the 
 home table are also examined. If one fowl is troubled with 
 worms it is pretty safe to assume that the remainder of the flock 
 is afflicted also, in which case treatment is begun at once. Birds 
 that are dull and listless, with pale combs and shrunken wattles, 
 are likely victims of worms. Post one of them and see what the 
 
500 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 trouble is. It is better to lose one bird, and thereby determine 
 the evil, than to risk losing half a flock later on. 
 
 Gape Worms. — Strictly speaking, gape worms do not come 
 under the head of worms, as they are commonly understood, 
 but under the term gapes, which is reckoned as a disease of 
 chicks. Nevertheless, it is equally abominable, a kindred ill, 
 hence its place in this chapter. 
 
 (Courtesy Atlantic Farm) 
 
 Fig. 309. — On commercial duck farms feeding is done almost exclusively by 
 means of tramcars. 
 
 Gape worms exist at all seasons, though they are seldom ob- 
 served as- troublesome until the hatching months, when they 
 affect young birds. Chicks are most susceptible from 10 days 
 to 6 weeks old, since at this age they are not large enough nor 
 strong enough to dislodge the worms from their throats. Vigor- 
 ous birds and older stock are attacked by the worms, but they 
 usually succeed in getting rid of them without the keeper's aid. 
 
NATURE OF THE GAPE WORM 501 
 
 The worm which causes gapes is in reality two worms — male 
 and female, and they are so firmly grown together that they 
 cannot be separated without tearing the tissues. The female 
 worm is the principal member; it is about a half-inch long, while 
 the male is little more than one-fifth of an inch. The heads 
 of both are attached to the mucous lining of the windpipe or 
 trachea, which causes such an irritation that undue secretions 
 collect and make breathing difficult. Sometimes so many worms 
 collect in the trachea, and grow to such size, for their eggs 
 develop while they are in this state, that breathing becomes im- 
 possible and the host, the afflicted chick, dies from suffocation. 
 
 Chicks affected with gape worms will be seen to cough and 
 sneeze with labored effort in a vain attempt to dislodge the 
 pests, which is very difficult to accomplish. Soon they commence 
 to gape, extending the neck and opening the beak, indicating 
 that they are having great trouble in breathing. Later, as they 
 become weakened by their struggles against the parasites, their 
 appetites fail and they grow dull and listless, their wings droop 
 and they stand with half-closed eyes and head drawn back into 
 the body feathers. In this condition they are apt to die from 
 suffocation, or be trampled by their fellows. 
 
 In dealing with this complaint the poultryman should barn to 
 rely more upon a preventative than a cure, because very young 
 chicks are very difficult to treat individually and therefore ex- 
 pensive. Good results have been obtained by extracting the 
 worms with a feather, twisted horsehair, or one of the patented 
 extractors. These devices are forced down the victim's throat, 
 either dry or moistened with turpentine, then twisted about 
 vigorously in an effort to dislodge the worms, and removed. 
 
 Recently, good results have been reported from medicating 
 drinking water, or by injecting 3 to 10 drops of a 5 per cent 
 solution of salicylate of soda. The best method of prevention 
 is to put the chicks on fresh ground, or soil that is known to be 
 perfectly sanitary, and if any trouble is experienced, to treat 
 the yards and premises with a strong disinfectant, the same as 
 for other kinds of worms or parasites. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVIII 
 WHITE DIARRHEA 
 
 Terror and Plague. — No term, perhaps, strikes greater terror 
 to the poultryman than white diarrhea. It is synonymous with 
 such words as plague, scourge, epidemic and pestilence. That 
 it has earned this opprobrium is attested by the fact that thou- 
 sands of chicks are lost annually by this infection, and also be- 
 cause of its resistance to any known treatment. It is success- 
 fully combated, of course, but by preventative measures rather 
 than curative ones. 
 
 Exaggeration. — There is no gainsaying the malady exacts an 
 enormous toll from the poultry raisers, yet I am inclined to think 
 that much of the alarm is the result of sensational writers and 
 highly imaginative persons, who find it more to the liking of 
 their morbid minds to spread terrorism instead of optimism. 
 Calamity is always more lurid than sublimity. These scares, 
 like the alarm about cholera, small pox and infantile paralysis 
 in the human species, are very much exaggerated and do more 
 harm than good. 
 
 Investigations. — It is natural that white diarrhea should have 
 been the object of a great deal of investigation; chemists and 
 bacteriologists have struggled with its mysteries for many years. 
 While, perhaps, they have not been particularly successful thus 
 far in establishing a positive cure for the disease, they have at 
 least succeeded in isolating the germ, learned how to detect it, 
 studied its development and propagation, and the conditions 
 under which it thrives best, and devised satisfactory methods of 
 preventing its spread. 
 
 Causes. — We are told that white diarrhea is caused by at 
 least four different kinds of infection, the most common of which 
 is a bacillus called bacterium pullorum, which means in ordinary 
 
 502 
 
KINDS OF WHITE DIARRHEA 
 
 503 
 
 terms, the bacteria or germs of the pullets. Coccidiosis and 
 aspergillus fungus are two other forms of the disease, but so far 
 as we are concerned these technical phrases are merely names, 
 difficult to pronounce, harder to remember, and of no value to 
 the unsophisticated mind. 
 
 All of these microbes infect the adult fowls and are generally 
 communicated from them to the chicks directly or indirectly. 
 
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 1 
 
 Fig. 310. — Ideal location for clucks and geese. 
 
 It is not necessary for the affected hen to have any external ap- 
 pearance of having white diarrhea or a diarrhea of any kind. In 
 fact, the affected bird may be in the pink of condition, a good 
 layer and a fine-looking fowl. By analyzing the eggs laid from 
 an infected hen, we may find white diarrhea germs in very active 
 form, or none at all. Apparently, some eggs are inoculated 
 while others escape, though there is no method of determining 
 this from external appearances 
 
504 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Symptoms. — In chicks the symptoms of white diarrhea are 
 virtually unmistakable, the most prominent one being a more or 
 less profuse diarrhea, the droppings consisting almost entirely 
 of mucus from the intestinal tube and the white secretion of the 
 kidneys. The white substance predominates, hence the name 
 white diarrhea. It is caused by an irritation of the intestines, 
 fever, and a rapid breaking down of the tissues of the kidneys. 
 
 Hens infected with this malady produce chicks which have the 
 germs of the disease within them when they are hatched, and 
 these chicks usually show manifestations of the trouble within 
 the first few days of their life. From the experiments conducted 
 it appears as though chicks are most susceptible to infection dur- 
 ing the first twenty-four hours, and that after the fourth or fifth 
 day they are practically immune. 
 
 Chicks which sicken of the disease later must have taken the 
 microbes into their systems at an early age, which for some 
 reason remained dormant for a time. Adult fowls are practically 
 resistant to the germs, and do not show any symptoms though 
 they may be inoculated with the disease and lay infected eggs. 
 Thus incubators and brooders, as well as coops, become infected 
 with the disease and preserve the contagion indefinitely, unless 
 scrupulous measures are taken to destroy it. The ground is also 
 impregnated with the contagion, and should be plowed under 
 and sowed to plant life. 
 
 Pasting Up. — A large brood of chicks may be hatched from 
 eggs subject to the germs of white diarrhea, and to all appear- 
 ances they are hail and hearty when taken from the machine. 
 But they soon commence to wilt. The first indication of some- 
 thing wrong is a disposition to huddle together and remain under 
 the hover or under the hen, as the case might be. Apparently 
 they suffer from chills. They are listless, stupid and sleepy, and 
 take no interest in food or their environment. They stand still, 
 heads drawn in, eyes closed, and chirp and peep almost con- 
 stantly. Their wings droop or project slightly from the body, 
 instead of being folded tightly against it, and the characteristic 
 diarrhea soon appears. Usually the excreta is mucilaginous, 
 
HEAVY MORTALITY 
 
 505 
 
 adhering to the downy feathers about the vent, where it dries 
 and cakes and continues to accumulate until it completely 
 covers the opening and causes a stoppage. Unless relieved, this 
 condition, known as pasting up, will bring about an early death. 
 The mass should be removed as gently as possible, and the 
 affected parts treated with vaseline or soothing ointment. 
 
 Spread of Contagion. — There is added mischief in these masses 
 of excreta due to the chicks picking at them and thereby con- 
 
 (Conrlesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
 Fig. 311. — Artificial pond constructed of concrete. Ducks can be raised 
 without a swimming hole, though best results are secured with one. The eggs 
 are likely to run more fertile. 
 
 tracting the disease. In this manner the germs are spread through 
 an entire flock, unless the caretaker adopts prompt means of 
 isolating the affected members. 
 
 Chronic Type. — Sometimes the disease is less severe, but of a 
 more chronic type, and takes longer to run its course. The 
 chicks thus afflicted waste away and gradually become weaker 
 and more emaciated, until their legs are unable to support their 
 bodies. They lean against walls or other objects for support, 
 
506 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 or squat down with outstretched wings until they die. As death 
 approaches the breathing becomes labored, and at intervals the 
 poor little creatures give utterance to a faint shrill cry, indi- 
 cating that they are seized with paroxysms of intense pain. 
 Most of these victims have the peculiar form of body described 
 as short back, which results from the distension of the abdomen. 
 The most disastrous phase of this complaint is the heavy 
 mortality. The losses vary from 50 to 80 per cent of the chicks 
 
 (Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 312. — Well-proportioned poultry house. Front wall is of novelty 
 siding, ends and rear wall are made of matched lumber covered with patent 
 roofing, as is the roof. Note position of doors, curtain frames, windows and 
 ventilator. 
 
 affected, and often it is impossible to raise any of them. Further- 
 more, it is questionable if it is advisable to try and raise any of 
 them, in view of the probability that they may later become what 
 is termed bacillus carriers. Because those that do not succumb 
 still carry the germs in their bodies, lodged in the ova — the un- 
 developed eggs, which are ultimately laid, perhaps, and thus 
 transmit the disease from one generation to the next. 
 
VALUE OF SOUR MILK 
 
 507 
 
 No Absolute Cure. — For bacillary white diarrhea in young 
 chicks there is no absolute cure so far as is known. Several 
 so-called remedies have been extensively advertised, but most of 
 these are in reality preventatives. Furthermore, the medical 
 treatment of individual chicks is virtually impracticable, as it 
 is too expensive, and flock treatment, once the chicks are afflicted, 
 
 Fig. 3 T 3- — White Pekin ducklings. 
 
 (Courtesy Atlantic Farm) 
 
 is of little consequence because the chicks cannot be induced to 
 eat or drink in sufficient quantity to be of any avail. 
 
 The feeding of sour milk to young chicks as soon as they 
 are taken from the incubator appears to be the most successful 
 treatment toward controlling the disease. The purpose of the 
 sour milk is to suppress any intestinal putrefaction which the 
 bacillus may set up. In other words, the sour milk contains 
 ferments or bacteria, which are calculated to counteract or offset 
 the parasites of the white diarrhea. 
 
508 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Lacking the sour milk, it has been found that 15 grains of 
 powdered catechu dissolved in a gallon of drinking water tends 
 to prevent the development of the diarrhea. This treatment 
 should be continued for about ten days, or until the danger 
 period is past. 
 
 Preventative measures should begin, of course, with the eggs 
 used for hatching. In the first place, no eggs should be used 
 which are known to be laid by hens afflicted with white diarrhea 
 or any other communicable disease at any time. If the eggs are 
 purchased the buyer should insist upon some assurance as to the 
 health of the parent stock, and if possible he should visit the 
 farm and inspect the flock. 
 
 Before the eggs are set under hens or placed in the incubator 
 they should be disinfected, which is easily accomplished by sev- 
 eral methods. Wipe the shells with a soft cloth saturated with 
 grain alcohol of 70 to 80 per cent strength. Or the eggs may be 
 dipped in a weak solution of creolin and water. Both methods 
 have been used effectively, and neither treatment has had any 
 serious influence on the hatchability of the eggs. 
 
 If the hatching is done in an incubator it goes without saying 
 that the interior of the machine, especially the egg trays and 
 nursery drawers, should be carefully disinfected after each hatch. 
 The same precautions should be adopted in regard to the brooder 
 and any other coop or device that is used by the chicks. If the 
 hatching is done by hens the broods should be put upon fresh 
 ground, and frequently moved to fresh ground, so that if any 
 cases develop the risk of contagion will be reduced to a minimum. 
 It may be asserted positively that, though there is no positive 
 cure for the disease, it may be eliminated, and if reasonable 
 sanitary measures are practised as a part of the routine work, 
 there is little reason to fear the ravages of white diarrhea. 
 
 Agglutination Test. — It is possible to detect the presence of 
 white diarrhea in grown fowls by a blood test, called the aggluti- 
 nation test, but owing to the delicate nature of the work it 
 must be performed in a laboratory. Some of the Experiment 
 Stations will perform this work for a nominal charge. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIX 
 PARASITES AND PESTS 
 
 Fowls are Subject to Vermin. — In every enterprise there are 
 certain realities and circumstances which may be classified as 
 grim realities. To combat them seems to be a part of the philos- 
 ophy of life. Therefore, to attempt a task without due allowance 
 for this struggle is in the nature of folly, since it is quite likely to 
 result in bitter disappointment, maybe failure. 
 
 Farming is no exception to the above. In fact, it is probably 
 the most graphic example of a struggle against adverse circum- 
 stances. There is scarcely a tree, shrub, vine or plant that is 
 without its natural enemy. For almost every stalk that sprouts 
 there is some other form of life eager to feast upon it. Horti- 
 culture is a constant battle against blight, worms, beetles, weevils, 
 moths, grubs and countless other insects. Successful animal hus- 
 bandry necessitates a corresponding struggle against similar 
 pests, for as such we have come to know these lower forms of 
 life. And not the least of these are the parasites affecting poultry. 
 
 No matter how much we would like to think of our fowls as 
 being nice and clean and free from anything so objectionable in 
 name and nature as lice and mites, just as certain as dogs are 
 likely to be bothered with fleas, and cattle and sheep are sus- 
 ceptible to ticks, poultry, especially chickens, are prone to become 
 infested with vermin. It seems to be a part of the general scheme 
 of things. 
 
 Be on the Lookout. — On the well-organized, progressive farm, 
 where poultry is made a specialty, there is less trouble resulting 
 from the ravages of vermin than on the general farm or back- 
 yard, where small flocks of fowls are kept principally as a side 
 line. There are several reasons to account for this condition. 
 
 509 
 
510 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 In the first place, the operator of large numbers of fowls, having 
 considerable capital invested in his plant, is more likely to have 
 a keener appreciation of the needs and requirements of his stock. 
 
 Usually he makes a 
 thorough study of the 
 conditions affecting his 
 birds, for he knows only 
 too well if he is an experi- 
 enced poultry man, that 
 the conditions which 
 affect his flocks adversely 
 or beneficially are almost 
 immediately reflected in 
 his bank account. 
 
 Owners of small flocks 
 are sometimes indiffer- 
 ent to improved meth- 
 ods, for no reason except 
 they do not take the work 
 seriously. Then, again, 
 on large farms where the 
 hatching is done in incu- 
 bators and the chicks 
 are brooded artificially, 
 never coming in contact 
 with hens, it is very much 
 easier to keep vermin 
 in check on the young 
 stock. They are not so 
 apt to become infested 
 until they are fairly well 
 grown, and not even 
 then, unless the buildings are seriously over-run with vermin. This 
 is quite a factor, indeed, because vermin is particularly fatal to 
 young chicks, and is responsible for all kinds of trouble. 
 
 Realizing the importance of safeguarding his flocks against 
 
 {Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 314. — Painting the perches with crude oil 
 or disinfectant to exterminate mites. 
 
KINDS OF VERMIN 
 
 511 
 
 parasites, the owner of a well-organized poultry plant makes it 
 his business to establish a regular sanitary schedule — a system 
 of spraying and disinfecting, also whitewashing, which he adheres 
 to quite as rigorously as feeding and watering. Not so frequently, 
 of course, but just as systematically. 
 
 The point is — that it is equally important for the keeper of a 
 small flock to exercise propor- 
 tionate care. Because the 
 flock is small, or because it is 
 kept merely as a side line is 
 no excuse for exemption, and 
 no guarantee that the birds 
 will not be troubled. How- 
 ever unpleasant the idea may 
 be, you must make up your 
 mind to the fact that wher- 
 ever you keep fowls you are 
 going to have vermin, unless 
 you fight these pests, and 
 fight them strenuously and 
 continuously. There is an 
 affinity between fowls and 
 vermin. They must be fought 
 the same as the farmer fights 
 potato-bugs and cut-worms. 
 
 Kinds of Parasites. — The 
 parasites that attack poultry 
 are of two kinds, commonly 
 known as lice and mites. 
 There are several varieties of 
 
 the former, but since they have the same general characteris- 
 tics and are combated in the same way, we need not concern 
 ourselves with a study of individual species. They live mainly 
 on the secretions of the body, feathers and skin, and inhabit 
 the fowls day and night. They are found largely on the head 
 and neck, under the wings and about the vent. When allowed 
 
 Fig. 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 
 315. — Dusting a fowl with insect 
 powder. 
 
512 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 to multiply in great numbers, as they are prone to do, they will 
 sometimes become so thick as to cause death. Sitting hens are 
 especially annoyed by them. 
 
 The female lice deposit their eggs on the feathers of the fowls, 
 cementing them to the quills near the skin. In a few days these 
 eggs hatch, in a short time they breed, also, propagating more and 
 more, so that it is possible for thousands to be multiplied in a 
 couple of months. In warm weather conditions are particularly 
 favorable for their reproduction, consequently with the approach 
 of spring and throughout the summer months extra care must be 
 taken to destroy them. 
 
 Mites. — If anything mites are more troublesome than lice. 
 They abound in larger numbers, and aside from tormenting the 
 fowls, they actually subsist on the blood of the birds. They are not 
 usually found on the bodies of the fowls except when on the roost 
 or in the nest. During the day mites inhabit cracks and crevices 
 of the walls, roosts and other fittings. Many houses, unsuspected, 
 actually swarm with them. When these pests have accumulated 
 in such hordes that they are unable to get enough blood from 
 the fowls during the night, they are found to remain on the birds 
 during the day. 
 
 Potent Enemy. — Though infinitesimal in size and, therefore, 
 almost insignificant individually, collectively mites represent an 
 enemy with the potentiality of a fair-sized animal. A host of 
 blood-sucking mites is capable of absorbing more blood, more 
 vitality over night than the fowl can replace by the assimilation 
 of large quantities of food during the day. In addition to this 
 actual loss of blood, which is a terrific drain on the fowl's strength, 
 the bird must endure the torment of being constantly pierced 
 and chewed by these pests. Sitting hens are often so tormented 
 that they are compelled to leave their nests in order to relieve 
 themselves. 
 
 The mouth of the louse is formed for biting and chewing, and 
 since they have a fondness for moisture, they can be poisoned by 
 spreading a mercurial ointment where they are seen to congre- 
 gate on the fowls. This treatment should be used on mature 
 
FORMULAS FOR DUSTING POWDERS 
 
 513 
 
 fowls only, since the mercury is likely to prove dangerous to 
 chicks. 
 
 Lice breathe through spiracles or pores in their sides, hence 
 they can be suffocated by stopping up these breathing tubes 
 with a fine powder. The instinct for a hen to take a dust bath 
 is nature's way to kill these pests. The most effective powder 
 for this purpose is that which contains a drying and burning 
 ingredient, or one giving off fumes. 
 
 (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 316. — Spraying the roosting compartments with an insecticide is part of 
 the sanitary schedule on a well-regulated poultry farm. 
 
 A reliable home made powder can be mixed as follows: Add 
 an ounce of 90 per cent carbolic acid to a peck of sifted coal 
 ashes, mix thoroughly, and then add an equal quantity of tobacco 
 stem dust. 
 
 Here is another recipe which has given satisfaction at the 
 Maine and Cornell Experiment Stations for a number of years: 
 Add one part crude carbolic acid to three parts gasoline, mix 
 these together carefully, and while stirring add enough plaster-of- 
 Paris to take up the moisture. When enough plaster has been 
 
 33 
 
514 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 added, the resulting mixture should be a dry pinkish — brown 
 powder, having a fairly strong odor of carbolic acid. 
 
 The dusting powder should be worked into the plumage of the 
 fowl, the greater part of the application being in the fluff feath- 
 ers, near the vent and under the wings. See Fig. 315. Its effect 
 is noticeable almost immediately. The dusting should be re- 
 peated in about two weeks to catch the new brood of lice, which 
 are in the form of eggs at the first dusting, and are not disturbed 
 by it to any extent. Fumigation and spraying with a good dis- 
 infectant will destroy lice about the roosting compartments and 
 cracks of the house. Once the hens are fairly rid of lice, it is no 
 trouble to keep these parasites under control by a systematic 
 spraying. See Fig. 316. 
 
 Destroying Mites. — Unlike lice, the young of the mites are 
 not hatched on the fowls, but in the hiding places where the 
 mites live. Consequently, to destroy mites the poultryman 
 should confine his attack to their breeding places in the structure 
 of the building, and not on the fowls. 
 
 Spraying or painting the perches, nests, drop boards, and all 
 other interior fixtures, including the ceiling and walls, with a 
 solution of crude oil or other powerful disinfectant, is the surest 
 way to rid a house of mites. See Fig. 314. Enough of the liquid 
 should be used to thoroughly saturate the surface of the wood, 
 and to run freely into all cracks and openings. Frequently a 
 poultry house is so dusty that unless large quantities of the spray 
 are used, the dust will absorb the greater part of the liquid. To 
 overcome this, it is well to first give the building a good brush- 
 ing down with a stiff broom, and then follow with the spraying. 
 
 It is a mistake to think that because a house is idle for some 
 time it will rid itself of mites, believing that the mites will starve 
 where there are no fowls to feed upon. They will live for months 
 without food, if necessary an entire winter, only to reappear as 
 soon as a flock of chickens is placed in the house. 
 
 Whitewashing. — In the minds of many, whitewashing means 
 slaking some lime in water and splashing this solution rather 
 carelessly over a prescribed surface. The result is all too familiar 
 
WHITEWASHING AND SPRAYING 
 
 515 
 
 — whitewash so badly streaked as to be most unsightly, and at 
 the slightest touch brushing off the woodwork. In fact, fre- 
 quently it does not remain long enough to be of any real value. 
 To execute a good, permanent job — a job that will not only 
 clean and disinfect the building, but improve its appearance as 
 well — one must regard the task much the same as painting. First 
 of all, the walls, sills, and all projections that have accumulated 
 large quantities of dust should be carefully brushed clean with 
 
 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 317. — Spraying outfit for disinfecting and whitewashing. 
 
 a stiff broom; otherwise the whitewash will simply form a coat- 
 ing or deposit over the dust and will subsequently curl up and 
 fall off, thus exposing the original dirt. Moreover, this dust is 
 frequently the refuge and abiding place for disease germs and 
 vermin and should be removed, not merely put out of sight 
 temporarily. Whitewash is a good exterminator if allowed to 
 come in contact with vermin, and will penetrate cracks and cre- 
 vices which are in a horizontal position, such as those on dropping 
 
516 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 boards, in a thorough manner; but if sprayed on the dusty sides 
 of a building, it is very apt to run off the dust like water from an 
 oiled surface. 
 
 Spraying is much easier and quicker than applying the white- 
 wash with a brush, and if the above cleaning precautions are- 
 taken, it is equally as effectual. But if one insists on following 
 the careless method, by all means use a brush, and put some car- 
 bolic acid in the wash — for in so doing the woodwork is at least 
 partially scrubbed with the solution. 
 
 Formulas. — The following are formulas for whitewash that 
 will not rub off: Slake a half-bushel of good strong lime in boil- 
 ing water, using just enough water to cover the lime and keep it 
 from burning. When the slaking process is completed, add a 
 little more water, and then strain the solution to remove any 
 sediment of sand or foreign substance. Dissolve a peck of salt in 
 warm water and add this to the lime solution ; mix it thoroughly 
 and allow it to stand for a couple of days. When ready for use, 
 thin to the proper consistency and apply it hot. 
 
 Mixing Wash with Skimmed Milk. — Another well-known 
 recipe: Slake the lime as before, and then add two pounds of 
 sulphate of zinc and one pound of salt dissolved in water. The 
 addition of a half-pound of whiting will improve the wash for 
 outside use, and if skimmed milk is used instead of water, the 
 results will compare favorably with oil paint.. 
 
 Disinfectant. — The following is an inexpensive and efficient 
 poultry house disinfectant for spraying purposes, and one that 
 is very simple to make at home: Dissolve a pound of strong, 
 hard soap or soap powder in a gallon of boiling water; imme- 
 diately this is removed from the fire add a gallon of kerosene 
 and one pint of crude carbolic acid, and churn and agitate the 
 solution until the ingredients are thoroughly mixed. If the oil 
 and water separate, it is because the soap was not sufficiently 
 caustic. It is important that crude carbolic acid be used and 
 not the refined product, for the crude acid — a dark brown, 
 dirty-looking liquid — contains tar oil, which is to be desired. 
 Add ten gallons of water to the above to make a stock solution, 
 
PROVISIONS FOR DUST BATH 
 
 517 
 
 and when ready for use, mix this stock solution with an equal 
 quantity of water. It is then in condition for spraying. 
 
 {Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 318. — Interior of pigeon house showing feed hopper, roosts, nest boxes 
 and different kinds of nest pans. 
 
 Coal ashes are an asset rather than a nuisance on the poultry 
 farm, and may be used to splendid advantage. They are an 
 
518 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 excellent absorbent, and when sprinkled under the perches and 
 mixed with the droppings, the volatile properties of the hen 
 manure are carefully preserved. They differ from wood ashes in 
 this respect, for wood ashes, though a good insecticide, contain 
 considerable lime, which liberates the ammonia in the droppings 
 and thus destroys much of their fertilizing value. 
 
 Finely screened coal ashes make the most effective sort of a 
 dust bath for the hens. The fine dust penetrates the fowl's 
 feathers, and coming in contact with lice serves to stop the 
 breathing passages of these parasites, causing them to suffocate 
 and die. Wood ashes are even better for this purpose, because 
 the particles of dust are finer, but here again the lime is objec- 
 tionable, since it tends to take the gloss off the plumage. 
 
 Coal ashes should be used freely on the floors of poultry build- 
 ings, for they penetrate cracks and crevices and assist in destroy- 
 ing mites and other vermin, dissipate noxious odors, and improve 
 conditions generally. Still another advantage — large quantities 
 of the cinders will be eaten by the birds as grit, and will contri- 
 bute some of the mineral nutrients. 
 
 Road Dust. — Dust removed from a road during dry weather, 
 and which is only an annoyance to travelers, will be found bene- 
 ficial in the dust boxes also. Every poultry farm should have a 
 supply on hand for winter use, for unless dirt floors are used, 
 these artificial means of supplying the fowl's toilet requisites 
 must be provided. A dust bath is quite as essential to the well 
 being of poultry as is the soap-and-water variety to the human. 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 DUCKS 
 
 Popularity of Duck Meat. — Time was when the duck was not 
 considered sufficiently profitable to warrant the trouble in rais- 
 ing it. Its flesh was never keenly sought after by the masses, 
 consequently it returned low prices and farmers generally de- 
 clined to show any enthusiasm. In those days, however, ducks 
 were raised without constraint in waterways and made to forage 
 for their living, subsisting almost entirely upon fish and other 
 water foods, which naturally imparted a strong fishy flavor to 
 their flesh and made them undesired except by the few who 
 might be partial to that kind of diet. 
 
 In the last twenty years breeders have awakened to the neces- 
 sity for improving the flavor of the flesh by feeding grain almost 
 exclusively, whereupon their efforts have been rewarded by a 
 steadily increasing demand, until to-day duck raising has devel- 
 oped into a flourishing industry, and on some of the well-known 
 plants, especially those on Long Island, a single farm will market 
 100,000 ducks a year. 
 
 Standard Varieties. — There are numerous standard varieties 
 of ducks, among which are the following: Pekin, Muscovy, 
 Indian Runner, Aylesbury (see Fig. 322), Rouen (see Fig. 323), 
 Cayuga, Call and Swedish. Of these the Pekin, Muscovy and 
 Indian Runner are the most widely bred, and probably the best 
 suited to farm purposes. 
 
 Pekins. — None stands higher in popular esteem than the White 
 Pekin, which was imported from China in the early seventies. 
 See Fig. 319. It is valuable for raising on a large scale, and while 
 naturally a very timid bird, it may be raised more easily, perhaps, 
 than any other. It has a distinct type of its own, and differs 
 
 519 
 
520 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 from all others in the shape and carriage of its body. They are 
 large birds, sometimes attaining twenty pounds to the pair; 
 yet their flesh, if properly nourished, is delicate and free from 
 any taint, and they are considered among the best of table fowls. 
 They mature early, are excellent layers, non-sitters, and require 
 no particular skill in breeding. 
 
 Shape of Pekins. — The standard-bred Pekin has a long, finely 
 formed head, neatly curved neck, and a bill of orange yellow, 
 
 Fig. 319. — Pekin ducks. 
 
 medium-sized, with no trace of any other color. The eyes are 
 of a deep, leaden-blue color. The back is long and broad, the 
 keel proportionately long and deep, the breast round, full and 
 very prominent, and the carriage of the body elevated in front, 
 sloping downward toward the rear. The wings are short, folded 
 closely against the body, and are not capable of sustaining 
 flight; hence a two-foot fence is sufficient to restrain the Pekin. 
 The plumage is downy and of a faint creamy tint throughout, 
 though recently there is a preference for an absolute white. The 
 
MUSCOVY DUCKS 
 
 521 
 
 standard weight of the drake is 8 pounds, and of the duck 7 
 pounds. 
 
 Muscovy ducks, of which there are two varieties — White and 
 Colored, the plumage of the latter being black and white — have 
 several distinct peculiarities. See Fig. 320. They are sometimes 
 called the Musk duck, owing to the odor of musk which pervades 
 the skin, but which is not objectionable when the fowl is cooked. 
 Also, their appearance is rather grotesque by reason of the long, 
 crest-like feathers on the head, the sides of which and the face are 
 
 Fig. 320. — White Muscovy ducks. 
 
 covered with scarlet caruncles. This large, red face gives them 
 a savage look, and to some minds it makes them quite hideous. 
 
 They are found in a wild state in the warmer regions of South 
 America, but in Brazil they have been extensively domesticated 
 and are highly prized for eating. They find great favor in Europe 
 as well, especially in Germany, where they are raised in large 
 numbers. They are the largest of all ducks, the standard weight 
 of the drake being 10 pounds and of the duck 8 pounds. 
 
522 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 The Muscovy is notorious for its pugnacious, quarrelsome 
 nature, and for this reason it is frequently inadvisable to keep 
 them on the farm with other poultry. The temper of the drake 
 is violent, indeed; he will fight with another drake, inflicting 
 serious harm, if possible; and his persecution of other poultry is 
 unceasing and abominable. 
 
 Unlike Pekins, the Muscovy is a strong flier, and when fright- 
 
 
 Fig. 321. — Indian runner ducks. 
 
 ened, they will fly into trees or into high places of concealment 
 where they remain for long periods of time. When bred, they 
 must be kept in yards by themselves, care being taken to clip 
 their wings to keep them from flying. The flesh of the Muscovy 
 compares favorably with that of any other duck, if eaten young, 
 but they cannot be credited with laying so many eggs as some 
 of the other breeds. 
 
LEGHORN OF THE DUCK FAMILY 523 
 
 The Indian Runner duck, which is said to have its origin in 
 India — hence the forepart of its name — has rapidly come into 
 wide popularity by reason of its prolific egg yield, and by reason 
 of which it is aptly termed the Leghorn of the duck family. See 
 Fig. 321. The name Runner is appropriate, for they literally 
 run, instead of waddle, as do other ducks, and sometimes present 
 a very comical appearance. 
 
 Runner ducks are exceedingly active in their habits, and by 
 reason of their willingness to forage are able to find a large part 
 of their food. Though easily domesticated, they do not stand 
 confinement well; they are non-sitters, are hardy and easy to 
 raise, and while their flesh is of prime quality, their size is rather 
 against them for market purposes, except as broilers. The stan- 
 dard weight of the drake is 4^ pounds and of the duck 4 pounds. 
 
 The body of the Runner somewhat resembles the shape of the 
 Penguin; it is long, narrow and carried very erect, with little or 
 no indication of keel. They are very good-looking, the plumage 
 being light fawn or gray and white, which blends admirably 
 with the orange-red of their shanks and the green of their bills. 
 In the past five years White Indian Runners have become very 
 popular, and are probably destined to be more extensively bred 
 than the Fawn variety. 
 
 Water is not Necessary. — We naturally associate ducks with 
 water — but as a matter of fact it is not at all necessary that 
 they have access to it, except such as is given them for drinking 
 purposes. If a pond or stream is available, it is well to allow the 
 breeders the freedom of it, also the young ducks until they are 
 about eight weeks old, when they should be penned and fattened 
 for market. On the other hand, equally good results are being 
 obtained by poultrymen who have no water on their premises; 
 the only noticeable difference between these ducks and those 
 having access to water is that the water ducks have somewhat 
 prettier and cleaner plumage. 
 
 Duck raising is to be recommended for those who wish to 
 make use of marshy land not suitable for chickens; yet this fact 
 must not deceive one in the belief that damp, wet quarters are 
 
524 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 available for ducks. Houses for ducks are simple affairs, but 
 they must be free from dampness and located so as to be assured 
 of good drainage — preferably on sandy soil. The feathers of a 
 duck are almost impenetrable to cold, but its feet are rather sus- 
 ceptible, much as a hen's comb and wattles. The duck likes to 
 warm its feet, and to this end it is advisable to have a dry dirt 
 floor in the duck house, covered with straw, hay, shavings or 
 
 Aylesbury ducks. 
 
 other litter. Some breeders advocate a board floor, but this is 
 scarcely necessary unless it is impossible to maintain a com- 
 paratively dry earth floor. 
 
 The beginner should start modestly and develop his plant 
 only as his experience increases and his capital warrants; for 
 duck raising is an arduous task and requires an absolute knowl- 
 edge of the business before success can be reached. Every phase 
 of the work should be carefully studied with the idea of minimiz- 
 
REQUIREMENTS TO BE SOUGHT 
 
 525 
 
 ing labor, and each department — the incubator cellar, brooder 
 house, breeding pens, fattening pens, picking room and feed 
 house — located where they are the most convenient and the 
 most accessible. The task of feeding and watering ducks alone 
 is no small one, and on large plants this factor receives very 
 careful consideration. Artificial incubation and brooding, com- 
 
 er 3> 
 Fig. 323.— Rouen ducks. 
 
 bined with improved machinery for handling and mixing the 
 feeds, are largely responsible for the growth of the duck industry. 
 Inspire Confidence. — One of the essentials in breeding ducks is 
 a quiet, even-tempered caretaker — the man or woman who will 
 inspire confidence in the flocks and become, in a sense, a com- 
 panion to them. Ducks are high-strung, excitable birds, skep- 
 tical toward strangers, and yet responsive to good treatment and 
 regular attention. Furthermore, they are confirmed creatures 
 of habit, and any serious change in their diet or management is 
 
526 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 likely to disturb their appetite and egg yield. For example, 
 mature stock that has never been fed on corn will not eat it 
 at first, and may never really learn to relish it, whereas if they 
 are brought up on a part corn diet it is one of their best-liked 
 grains. 
 
 Feeding and Watering. — Cinder natural conditions, the food of 
 the duck is both animal and vegetable, consisting of fish, water 
 insects, grasses and so forth, therefore when the birds are raised 
 under a somewhat artificial environment this diet must be imi- 
 tated to secure the most satisfactory results. Unlike the hen, 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 324. — Ducks are heavy drinkers. 
 
 the duck has no crop, the food passing from the bill to the giz- 
 zard; in consequence the food must be largely of a soft char- 
 acter. Too much hard food does not agree with these birds — 
 they will not thrive upon it, hence it is inadvisable. 
 
 While a proper selection of the food is highly important to 
 secure rapid growth, the necessary ingredients are the simplest 
 grains, usually wheat middlings, wheat bran, corn meal and low 
 grade flour, to which should be added beef scraps and, where 
 necessary, shredded alfalfa or other green food. The following 
 is an excellent ration for breeders, whose food should not, of 
 
FOOD AND DRINK 527 
 
 course, be so forcing as that intended for the market birds: 
 Equal parts corn meal, wheat bran, green food; 5 per cent beef 
 scraps, and 5 per cent coarse sand or grit. Mix with water to 
 a moistened, crumbly state — not sloppy — and feed three times a 
 day, the last feed to be given an hour before sundown. 
 
 Grit is as essential to ducks as it is to chickens, and should 
 be kept before the birds at all times, in addition to being fed in 
 the mash. The sand used in the mash supplies a certain amount 
 of the necessary grinding material, and the duck will pick up 
 more on range; yet this is not sufficient to fully satisfy the diges- 
 tive demands. A supply of oyster shells should also be kept in 
 a convenient place. 
 
 Heavy Drinkers. — As previously stated, water for bathing is 
 not necessary for growing ducks, but it is most important that 
 they have access to a liberal supply of fresh drinking water at 
 all times. Ducks are heavy drinkers, and it has been said that 
 the only neglect which will kill young ducks is failure to provide 
 them with sufficient water, in a vessel deep enough for them to 
 get their heads beneath the surface. Ducklings like to immerse 
 their eyes — a habit which seems to be essential to their well- 
 being. Obviously, the water should be kept as fresh as possible. 
 
CHAPTER XLI 
 GEESE 
 
 Virtues of Geese. — It is pretty safe to say that we Americans 
 do not raise enough geese, and do not fully appreciate their 
 possibilities. Like the guinea, the goose is not taken seriously 
 enough by the average farmer; yet there is no kind of livestock 
 that can be fed with so little loss, and so little attention, and 
 that requires such inexpensive equipment, as the goose. They 
 are heir to very little sickness; in fact, a gosling one week old 
 is virtually a grown bird, requiring little else but a stretch of 
 pasture over which to roam and forage for itself. 
 
 Need of Grazing Land. — That goose raising is not practised 
 so extensively as duck growing is probably due to the fact that 
 geese require an abundance of grazing land, and will thrive best 
 where there is a certain amount of water. They are the most 
 persistent grazers of any kind of poultry, and though they prefer 
 meadowland rich in plant life, which will sustain them in prime 
 condition, they are, nevertheless, capable of adapting themselves 
 to poor, waste land on which, perhaps, no other form of live- 
 stock could be supported. For this reason alone they should be 
 considered by farmers, especially those who have tidewater 
 farms, or low land bordering on rivers or ponds. A day's ride 
 through the Eastern Shore section of Maryland will convince 
 the most skeptical that there must be profit in geese, for nearly 
 every farm will be seen to have its flock. Many times, when 
 other crops have proved disastrous, the returns from the geese 
 have been the mainstay of these farmers. 
 
 There are seven standard varieties of geese: Gray Toulouse, 
 White Emden, Gray African, Brown Chinese, White Chinese, 
 Wild or Canadian, and Colored Egyptian. Of these, the first 
 
 528 
 
MOST COMMON VARIETIES 
 
 529 
 
 two breeds are the most widely bred in this country, and are 
 to be recommended for the average farm. 
 
 Toulouse geese (see Fig. 325) are named for a district in 
 France where they are extensively bred. They are fairly good 
 layers, and are well thought of as market birds, though their 
 flesh is somewhat coarser and not so white as some of the other 
 varieties. Their plumage being a dull gray in parts, merging 
 
 Fig. 325. — Toulouse geese. 
 
 into a lighter gray and then white on the underbody, they are 
 not so valuable for their feathers as the pure white breeds. 
 
 The Emden geese (see Fig. 326) are probably the most desir- 
 able for all round purposes. They are rapid growers, good for- 
 agers, and are more suitable for the early markets. They orig- 
 inally came from Emden, hence their name, but they have been 
 bred in this country for many years. Although not so prolific as 
 the Toulouse and other breeds, they have other qualities which 
 commend them as the most profitable, or at least the most 
 34 
 
530 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 desirable. Their flesh is finer, whiter and of a better flavor; they 
 have a wealth of pure white plumage which has a higher market- 
 able value, and in disposition they are less pugnacious, more 
 placid and more contented than the other breeds. In point of 
 weight they are about the same as the Toulouse, according to 
 the Standard, though as a general thing the Emden is bred 
 somewhat smaller than the Toulouse. 
 
 Gray African geese are considered by many to be the most 
 
 _ jj^*^ 
 
 Fig. 326. — Emden geese. 
 
 profitable, because of their great gain in weight in the least pos- 
 sible time. They are also very prolific, and many breeders cross 
 them with the Emden for this purpose. According to the Stan- 
 dard they are the same weight as the Toulouse and Emden geese, 
 yet they generally exceed the weights of these two. They have 
 rather long necks, and their heads are conspicuous for the knobs 
 which protrude from the base of the bill, the- same as in the 
 Chinese varieties. They also have a heavy dewlap under the 
 
CHINESE GEESE 
 
 531 
 
 throat, which is of a gray color. The knob of the African goose 
 is black, and in the White Chinese it is orange colored. 
 
 The Chinese geese (see Fig. 327), of which there are two 
 varieties, Brown and White, have never become extensively 
 bred in this country, probably because of their small size. What 
 they lack in size, however, they endeavor to make up in egg 
 production, for they are the most prolific of all breeds of geese, 
 averaging about sixty eggs a year. Their flesh has a superior 
 
 Fig. 327. — White China geese. 
 
 flavor and texture, and they are easy to fatten and manage. 
 The standard weight of the adult gander is 12 pounds, and the 
 adult goose 10 pounds, as against 20 pounds and 18 pounds for 
 the other three varieties. 
 
 Gray wild geese, or Canadian geese, as they are also called, 
 are about the same weight as the Chinese. Recently they seem 
 to have come to the fore, and are prized very highly for table 
 purposes. They are frequently crossed with African ganders, 
 
532 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 which has increased their weight as goslings. They are very 
 hardy and easy to rear. The head and bill are black; neck 
 black, shading to a light gray on the chest, and to a dark gray 
 on the back. The plumage of the underparts of the body is 
 white. 
 
 Colored Egyptian geese, sometimes called Nile geese, are the 
 smallest of the goose family, also the most beautiful. The 
 standard weight is 10 pounds for the adult gander and 8 pounds 
 for the goose. They are not to be recommended for general 
 farm use, and are bred almost exclusively, for ornamental pur- 
 poses. They are of a very quarrelsome nature, especially the 
 males, who will frequently fight among themselves until dead. 
 
 Houses of the most simple construction are used for shelters 
 for geese, little more than sheds, in fact, having nothing but a 
 supply of straw or other material for litter on the floors. These 
 may be of dirt or concrete; the latter is best to conserve the 
 manure, which is in large quantities and a very valuable by- 
 product. If ground phosphate rock is sprinkled over the manure 
 at regular intervals, and fresh litter is added as required to 
 keep the houses in a sanitary condition, there will be a surprising 
 amount of the finest kind of fertilizer produced by even a mod- 
 erate sized flock. 
 
 Fields that are worthless for cultivation may be turned into 
 goose pastures, and those which have streams or unused springs 
 are especially suitable. Unless too many birds are turned into a 
 small area, which is then likely to become depleted of its plant 
 life, the geese will gather the largest portion of their food, con- 
 sisting of grasses, insects, and other animal and vegetable life. 
 Or they may be made to work in the stubble of the grain fields, 
 in place of hogs, for it is a simple matter to drive geese to dis- 
 tant pasture and home again at night. 
 
 Geese are much maligned, in that they are accused of destroy- 
 ing pasture for cattle and horses, which is true only if they are 
 kept in large numbers in a comparatively small area. The same 
 is true of sheep or almost any other form of livestock. Where 
 there is a sufficiency of grass and other plant life, they may be 
 
MATING AND SETTING 533 
 
 left to graze in the same pasture with cattle and horses. Many 
 poor pieces of land have been converted into good pasture lots 
 by being stocked with geese for a few years. 
 
 They require drinking water in abundance, consequently, 
 unless they have access to large bodies of water in which to 
 swim, their drinking water should be supplied in fountains in 
 which they can only get their bills to drink. Otherwise they 
 will contaminate the water. 
 
 Although the goose is aquatic, and it must be admitted they 
 seem to do better when given access to a body of water, especially 
 in the summer, it is not absolutely essential for them to have a 
 swimming place, any more than for ducks. They will keep 
 themselves cleaner if a stream is available, and the chances are 
 the fertility of their eggs will be greater. Then, too, the stream 
 of water affords a large element of their food, which is of immense 
 value in the cost of their upkeep. Bur it does not follow that 
 they are not to be reared on farms without a watering place. 
 
 Age. — One of the most remarkable characteristics of the goose 
 is its long life. Many have been known to attain, the age of 
 forty years, and have been handed down from father to son, as 
 though they were a fixture on the farm. It is not at all uncom- 
 mon for birds to live fifteen years, and as a general rule they 
 will maintain their laying and hatching qualities throughout 
 their life. Ganders are at their best as breeders at three years 
 of age. The use of immature stock should be avoided as much 
 as possible, especially for the renewal of breeding geese. To 
 produce early goslings for market it is sometimes necessary to 
 use eggs from young stock, as they usually lay earlier than the 
 older birds, which is perfectly proper. 
 
 In selecting geese for breeders excessive size should not be 
 sought at the expense of other important features, such as width 
 of breast in proportion to length of body, depth of keel and 
 shortness of leg. Care should be taken to avoid inbreeding, and 
 to be sure of this it is sometimes necessary to procure ganders 
 from a distant point. If so, the ganders should come from the 
 same flock to insure their dwelling together amicably. 
 
534 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Mating. — As a rule three geese are mated to one gander, but 
 in the case of very large specimens it is sometimes better to 
 mate two geese to one gander. It is well to start this mating in 
 the autumn, for geese are rather eccentric creatures, and require 
 some time before they become accustomed to new surroundings 
 and settle down to work in earnest. They also make strong 
 companionships, and will pine and worry for weeks at the loss 
 of a mate. 
 
 It is usually more economical to keep geese in one large flock, 
 in preference to several small flocks, particularly if they have to 
 be driven to pasture. When the ganders are admitted to the 
 flock for the first time, and they are to be mated one to three, 
 each gander will select his three wives to whom he will remain 
 devoted for years. One of these three will probably receive the 
 most attention, however, and will be his chief consort in their 
 ramblings. 
 
 Laying. — Young geese usually commence laying in February, 
 and the older ones in March, although if the weather is unusually 
 mild they will start a month earlier. During the winter months, 
 preparatory to this breeding season, the stock should not be 
 allowed to become too fat, for an over-fat condition is not con- 
 ducive to either productiveness or fertility. So long as there is 
 pasture for them, they require very little grain. 
 
 When pasture is not to be had, and they are fed a grain diet, 
 the greater part of this ration should be soft food, such as bran, 
 middlings, corn meal and so on, with a little beef scrap. At 
 least ten per cent of the bulk of this food should be green stuffs 
 of some kind, either parings, cooked vegetables, or steamed 
 clover or alfalfa. It should be moistened by skimmed milk or 
 water. Grit and oyster shells are kept before them at all times 
 the same as for chickens. Most breeders feed the soft food in 
 the early morning, and a light feeding of cracked corn at night. 
 
 Broodiness. — The goose usually lays an egg every other day, 
 until from ten to fifteen eggs have been laid, when she will 
 become broody. As soon as this inclination presents itself, the 
 goose should be removed from the nest and her maternal in- 
 
CARE OF GOSLINGS 535 
 
 stincts broken up, whereupon she will join the flock and again 
 commence laying. After she lays the second clutch and becomes 
 broody, she should be discouraged again, and made to complete 
 the third laying. The second and third clutches are not apt to 
 be so large as the first, being one to three eggs less. 
 
 Nests. — Geese make their own nests from straw on the floor 
 of their houses, if they are encouraged to do so, otherwise they 
 may lay outdoors or in remote spots where the eggs are likely 
 to spoil. By the time the goose has completed laying a clutch 
 of eggs, she will have lined the nest with a thick covering of down 
 plucked from her breast, which makes a nice warm place for the 
 goslings to hatch. From ten to twelve eggs is the correct number 
 to place under a goose, and care should be taken that the broody 
 one is not too warlike in her attitude. If such is the case, she is 
 very apt to crush her eggs, especially during the last few days 
 of hatching, when the shells become more or less fragile. For this 
 reason many goose breeders prefer to have the hatching done by 
 hens, giving the hens about four eggs each. It is well to give 
 the first eggs laid by the geese to hens, or they may be hatched 
 in incubators with good success. 
 
 Hatching. — From twenty-eight to thirty days are required to 
 incubate goose eggs, and they require a great deal of moisture, 
 much the same as duck eggs. They should be sprinkled at fre- 
 quent intervals, and given plenty of time to cool after the first 
 week. 
 
 When the hatching is done by geese, the little goslings should 
 be carefully removed from under the goose as they are hatched, 
 allowing but one to remain to reassure the mother; otherwise 
 the great weight of the goose is apt to crush them, or she will 
 trample them. The goslings may be kept in a warm box, and 
 when the hatch is completed and they are sturdy enough to 
 walk about, which is usually on the second day, and at which 
 time the yolks have been absorbed, they may be given back to 
 their mother. The goose and her brood should be housed in a 
 sheltered spot, and the mother confined for the first week, at 
 the same time giving the goslings their freedom, which prevents 
 
536 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 the old goose from taking her charge too far afield and exhausting 
 them. 
 
 When a gosling is a week old it is usually reckoned as a grown 
 bird, for, barring accidents, it is a very hardy creature and will 
 make rapid growth. If given good pasture they require but one 
 feeding daily after they are two weeks old, but they should be 
 returned to the security of the goose house every night. 
 
 Fig. 328. — Muscovy ducks are sometimes regarded as geese. 
 
 Turkey hens make good mothers for geese, because they can 
 cover so many eggs; but they should be confined with their 
 broods for the first week. When goose eggs are placed under 
 chicken hens, the caretaker should make it a point to turn the 
 eggs daily, for they are too heavy for the hen to do this. 
 
 The prices obtained for geese in the large city markets run 
 from fourteen to twenty cents per pound live weight, which 
 quickly mounts up when v/e consider their great weight. In 
 
PROFITS FROM FEATHERS 537 
 
 addition to this revenue, there is a nice profit to be made from 
 the feathers. A prime goose will average about one pound of 
 feathers a year, and feathers of good quality will bring from 
 forty-five to sixty cents a pound. If the down is separated from 
 the feathers, it will bring about a dollar a pound. The feathers 
 should be plucked when there is no blood in the ends of the 
 quills. 
 
CHAPTER XLII 
 TURKEYS 
 
 Turkey Hearsay. — There is a widespread impression in some 
 localities that turkeys are exceedingly difficult to raise, and that 
 due to a heavy mortality among young turkeys the chances for 
 profit are very precarious. Much of this hearsay is nonsense, 
 gossip — pure and simple, or let us call it turkey tradition, 
 mysticism. Like other traditions or prejudices, these notions 
 are hard to eradicate. The beginner with turkeys should dis- 
 abuse his mind of these notions, discard them utterly, since 
 they contribute nothing to the industry but fear and worriment. 
 
 Susceptible to Exposure. — It is true that young turkeys are 
 delicate and that they are susceptible to exposure, to cold and 
 dampness, but they are nothing like as frail as one might sup- 
 pose, judging from the popular idea. For that matter chicks 
 are delicate creatures, too, and unable to endure exposure. The 
 young of all fowls require a great deal of care for the first few 
 weeks; it is a part of the business of growing livestock of any 
 kind. The point is to master the details in the most practical, 
 labor-saving manner. With proper care a good proportion of 
 the poults can be raised, and when the holiday season comes 
 round a handsome profit has accrued. 
 
 Standard Varieties. — No doubt it will surprise those who have 
 but a casual knowledge of turkeys to learn that there are seven 
 different varieties of domestic turkeys in the United States, each 
 with certain points of excellence, and ranging in color from white 
 to black. Many of us think of turkeys as being of a single breed, 
 commonly known as the Bronze, or Mammoth Bronze; a few 
 are familiar with the White Holland and Narragansett varieties; 
 whereas only those who have made a study of these fowls know 
 
 538 
 
STANDARD VARIETIES 539 
 
 about the Bourbon Reds, Slate turkeys, Black turkeys and Buff 
 turkeys. The Buffs and Slates have always been rare, and to-day 
 the Blacks are seldom bred. The Bronze is the most popular, 
 next comes the Narragansett, and then the White Holland, 
 though in recent years the Bourbon Red has grown into con- 
 siderable favor and may be entitled to third position. 
 
 The exact origin of the domestic turkey will probably never 
 be satisfactorily settled, for ornithologists are greatly at variance 
 on this subject. The most accepted view of the matter is that 
 all the turkeys of the world have descended in some way from 
 the three forms of wild turkeys, the North American, the Mexi- 
 can, and the Honduras, or Ocellated turkey. There seems to be 
 no question concerning the transportation of these birds from 
 America to Spain about the year 1520, and that they were sub- 
 sequently shipped to England, in 1524, where they soon became 
 very popular and were extensively bred. Many improvements 
 were made among the English breeders, but it remained for 
 American fanciers to develop the present standard varieties. 
 
 The color of the North American wild turkey is much the same 
 as the Bronze. It is black, wonderfully shaded with bronze, 
 the breast plumage being dark bronze, illuminated with a lus- 
 trous copper or gold color. The name Bronze is derived from 
 this beautiful metallic sheen. 
 
 Mexican Turkey. — The wild turkey of the southern part of 
 the continent, known as the Mexican turkey, is shorter in shank 
 than the North American species. The color is much the same, 
 except for the white markings on the tips of the feathers, which 
 is considered to be responsible for the color of the domestic 
 variety known as the Narragansett. From the meager records 
 available, the Mexican turkey was the first variety to be taken 
 to Europe by the Spaniards. 
 
 The Ocellated turkey, indigenous to Honduras and other 
 Central American countries, is considered to be the most beauti- 
 ful in color, and may be compared to the Impeyan pheasant. 
 The ground color of the plumage is a bronze-green, banded with 
 bars of gold, blue and red, or a lustrous black. The head and 
 
540 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 neck are devoid of feathers, and unlike the other wild varieties, 
 it has no breast tuft. Unfortunately, this breed will not thrive 
 in northern climates; it seems to be too sensitive to cold. 
 
 The domestic Bronze turkey is too well known to require 
 any particular description. See Fig. 329. It is being raised 
 almost to the exclusion of all other varieties, and holds the post 
 of honor for size and market requirements. Hens of this species 
 
 Fig. 329. — Bronze turkeys. 
 
 run from sixteen to twenty pounds or more, and while the Stan- 
 dard of Perfection calls for a weight of thirty-six pounds for 
 gobblers, they are often brought to much higher figures — even 
 exceeding fifty pounds. 
 
 The Narragansett is next in size to the Bronze, and back in 
 the days when Rhode Island was the leading turkey state of 
 the Union, this- variety was one of the most widely bred through- 
 
BOURBON REDS 541 
 
 out New England. The ground color of the plumage is black, 
 with markings of white and black which imparts a grayish cast 
 to the entire surface. The female is lighter in color throughout 
 than the male. The standard weight for hens is eighteen pounds, 
 and for cocks thirty pounds, though they are grown almost as 
 heavy as the Bronzes. If anything, the Narragansett is more 
 suitable for market purposes than the Bronze, inasmuch as it 
 has fuller, plumper breast, and will mature slightly earlier. 
 Furthermore, they seem to bear confinement better. 
 
 The Bourbon Reds have attained great popularity in the West, 
 though still rarely bred in the Eastern states, and rank very 
 high as a market bird. They are hardy, mature rapidly, have 
 excellent quality of flesh, and their weights are about equal to 
 the Narragansett. The plumage is a chestnut color, which is 
 made strikingly beautiful by brownish red markings and pure 
 white tail and wing feathers. 
 
 White Holland turkeys are now quite widely known; at first 
 they were small and delicate and not so desirable. See Fig. 330. 
 They are beautiful birds, with snowy white plumage and pink 
 bills and shanks, and are considered sports from other turkeys. 
 In recent years the breed has been improved in size and vigor 
 by the infusion of blood from the white sports of Bronze and 
 Narragansett varieties. Just why the name Holland attaches 
 to this species is not definitely understood. They may have 
 originated in Holland or been brought to this country by Hol- 
 landers, but it is certain that they were not natural to the Nether- 
 lands. They have been known to exist in England for over a 
 hundred years, and are sometimes referred to as "Austrian 
 Whites." 
 
 Dress Well for Market. — It is thought that the Whites are 
 more difficult to raise than the darker varieties, though they 
 mature rapidly, attaining market size in five to eight months. 
 They dress splendidly for market, as with all white poultry, 
 the pin feathers show less than in darker birds, and their feath- 
 ers command higher prices than those of the colored breeds. 
 The standard weight for hens is eighteen pounds, and for cocks 
 
542 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 twenty-eight pounds. At recent exhibitions I have seen toms 
 that weighed thirty-five pounds, but this is unusual. 
 
 The Black turkey is much the same as the English Norfolk 
 turkey, and is very desirable for table purposes. The young are 
 quite hardy when produced by strong, non-related stock, and 
 when it is necessary to confine turkeys upon a more or less 
 restricted area, the average farmer will do well to select this 
 variety. They are not so large as the other breeds, except the 
 
 
 ■tsV* 
 
 Fig. 330. — White Holland turkeys. 
 
 Giant Blacks, which closely resemble the Bronzes in everything 
 but plumage. 
 
 The Slate turkey, sometimes called the Blue turkey, and the 
 Buff turkey, range from ten to twenty-five pounds, according 
 to age and sex, and may be raised to advantage in almost any 
 locality. These varieties have been neglected for some reason 
 or other, in spite of the fact that they possess qualities that are 
 the equal of the more popular varieties. Lately, fanciers have 
 
VIGOROUS PARENT STOCK REQUIRED 543 
 
 devoted considerable attention to the Buffs, which are truly 
 beautiful specimens. 
 
 Profitable. — When we consider that from the time turkeys 
 are six weeks old until winter sets in, they will obtain the greater 
 part of their sustenance from the fields and woods over which 
 they roam, and this assures their keep at virtually no expense 
 to the grower, the question naturally arises: Why is the farmer 
 not more enthusiastic about growing them? And what is re- 
 sponsible for the losses that we hear so much about? 
 
 These losses really do exist, of this there can be no doubt, 
 and with the industry in its present stage it is likely to be accom- 
 panied by grave uncertainties. Turkey raising demands the 
 best efforts of which we are capable — and then some. It is no 
 secret, however, that many of the failures are attributable to 
 gross carelessness or ignorance, or both. The whole question of 
 deriving a profit from turkeys resolves itself into the ability of 
 the grower to rear the poults, the young turkeys. If the same 
 intelligent care in selecting the breeders is applied to turkeys 
 as we unquestionably devote to the scientific breeding of cattle, 
 sheep, hogs and horses, then we are in a fair way to achieve 
 success. 
 
 Deterioration through inbreeding is the greatest foe of the 
 turkey industry, and it has been brought about by the heed- 
 lessness of hundreds of farmers who have declined to consider 
 the necessity of infusing new blood into their flocks. For gen- 
 erations turkey growers in many of our eastern states have de- 
 pended upon their neighbors for the service of male birds, giving 
 no thought to the inevitable consequences, until in some localities 
 it is difficult to find any unrelated stock. This total disregard of 
 the fundamental laws of nature has in some sections reduced the 
 condition of turkeys almost to a state of imbecility, and so 
 undermined the vitality of the birds as to make it difficult to 
 rear a tenth of the number of poults hatched. 
 
 Avoid Inbreeding as You Would a Plague. — New blood is of 
 vital importance. It is better to send a thousand miles for a 
 new male than to run the chances of inbreeding. Whenever 
 
544 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 possible the torn should be a yearling, and the hens not less than 
 two years old. The hens from good stock will cost about five 
 dollars each, and the gobbler from six to ten dollars. A less 
 expensive way to start may be made with eggs purchased from 
 reliable breeders. When this is done, it is better to secure set- 
 tings from different localities, and the poults carefully marked when 
 hatched so that they can be properly crossed another season. 
 
 Time to Start. — The fall and early winter is the best time to 
 make a start with turkeys, for at these seasons there is a greater 
 number of birds from which to make a selection, and they are 
 generally offered at better prices. Furthermore, stock bought 
 at this time will become accustomed to each other and to their 
 new quarters before the breeding season commences, conse- 
 quently better results are likely to be secured. 
 
 Parent Stock. — Every precaution should be taken to obtain 
 strong, vigorous stock. Do not imagine that size is the main 
 point of excellence. A medium-sized gobbler weighing about 
 twenty-five pounds will usually render more satisfactory results 
 than an over-heavy specimen. In all fowls, remember that 
 size is largely influenced by the female, and the color and dis- 
 tinguishing characteristics by the male. The hens should be 
 well matured, weighing not less than fourteen pounds, intelli- 
 gent and tame, as distinguished from wild and unduly excitable 
 birds, and of pronounced constitutional vigor-^ 
 
 A safe rule for mating is to have a torn for every four to six 
 hens. Good fertility is reported from matings of a male to every 
 twelve females, but I am inclined to think this is unusual. On 
 farms where the flocks are yarded it is customary to keep two 
 cocks for every eight or ten hens, and to alternate the males 
 about twice a week, keeping one penned aloof, while the other 
 is with the flock. When turkeys are given unlimited range, 
 which is the most successful method of raising them, they natur- 
 ally divide into flocks. 
 
 Management. — It is said that the real secret of success in 
 rearing turkeys is exercise. They must have an abundance of 
 food, and to maintain the necessary health to assimilate large 
 
546 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 quantities of food, they must have an abundance of exercise. 
 The idea is entirely logical. Turkeys are large birds, semi-wild 
 by nature, possessed of a roving disposition, and fully capable of 
 taking care of themselves. To confine them is to impose a feel- 
 ing of constraint and worriment, over which they never cease to 
 fret. To do well turkeys must have range. Only a few should 
 be attempted in a confined space, and even then they will require 
 painstaking care. 
 
 Feeds. — Much of the so-called bad hick in turkey raising — infer- 
 tility, soft-shelled eggs and impaired vigor — is due to improper 
 feeding. Avoid having the breeding stock too fat. If they have 
 become so during the winter season, endeavor to reduce them to 
 medium flesh before the mating season. Oats is one of the best 
 feeds during the breeding months, with an occasional feeding of 
 wheat, corn, barley and ground bone. Grit, oyster shells and 
 charcoal should be kept within easy reach of the birds at all 
 times, also a plentiful supply of fresh drinking water. 
 
 Roosts. — Turkeys do better when they can roost in the open. 
 Only in storms do they seek protection, and not always then. 
 Fences and trees are preferable to tight houses, for the turkey 
 must have unrestricted ventilation. It is most unwise to com- 
 pel them to roost with other, poultry. If found necessary to 
 house them, which is recommended in extremely cold climates, 
 their quarters should be roomy and perfectly ventilated. The 
 ideal shelter consists of an open-front shed or house, which is 
 sufficient to protect them from heavy storms and from enemies, 
 such as dogs. Foxes take a heavy toll of turkeys annually, 
 especially if there is much brush or wooded areas nearby. 
 
 With the approach of cold weather, when insect food and 
 greens become scarce, an increased grain diet must be provided 
 for the growing turkeys. Do not give the flock large quantities 
 at first, but work up the supply gradually, until they are having 
 all they will eat up clean. Wheat and corn is about the best 
 ration. Keep them growing and fattening as fast as possible, 
 so that by the time Thanksgiving wee k ar rives, and prices are 
 usually the best, they will be in prime condition for marketing. 
 
PREPARING TURKEYS FOR MARKET 547 
 
 To grow the best is more expensive than to grow the poorer 
 grades, but the profits to be gained are almost double. 
 
 After the turkeys are ready for market quite as much care 
 should be given to the killing, dressing and shipping, not to 
 forget grading, as to the growing. If these conditions cannot 
 be obtained, it is better to sell the birds alive to someone who 
 makes a business of handling such stock. 
 
 Kill Nothing but Well-fattened Stock. — It never pays to send 
 poor stock to market. Skinny, gawky, crooked-breasted car- 
 casses are undesirable. Keep the stock away from food or water 
 for at least twelve hours before killing, preferably for twenty- 
 four hours. The food tract must be emptied, otherwise there is 
 danger of discoloration or spoiling. Full crops and full entrails 
 may increase the weight slightly, but they discount the price 
 so heavily, there is nothing to be gained, only disappointment. 
 Crops distended with food are sour, sometimes tainting the 
 flesh, but in any event they are uninviting to the careful buyer. 
 
 There are several methods of killing, but the most popular 
 way is to suspend the fowl by the shanks, head down, and cut 
 or stick it in the roof of the mouth with a sharp, narrow-bladed 
 knife. This severs the arteries, causing a hemorrhage, and at 
 the same time pierces the brain, causing insensibility. The flow 
 of blood should be copious, for poorly bled fowls are likely to 
 be purplish-tinted. 
 
 Dislocation. — Another method is to dislocate the neck by a 
 sudden twist and jerk. The disjointed part of the neck is then 
 pulled away, so as to form an open space into which the blood 
 may settle. Dislocation is claimed by some to be the only sani- 
 tary, up-to-date method of killing, since there is no opening by 
 which air can get into the body. It is used more for chickens 
 than for turkeys, and requires considerable practice to do it 
 well. Then there is the old-fashioned method of beheading 
 with an ax, which should never be used, except on birds intended 
 for home use, and even then it is a very poor mode. 
 
 Dry-picking is the only way to pluck poultry for a fancy 
 market. As soon as the bird is stuck, and while the blood is 
 
548 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 still flowing, commence to remove the feathers, taking great 
 care not to break the skin or tear the flesh. Purple abrasions, 
 often noticeable on plucked fowls, are due to bruises and rough 
 handling. Avoid these. Nothing detracts so much from the 
 appearance of dressed poultry as careless workmanship in the 
 picking. It will also mean a reduction in the selling price. 
 Remove the pin feathers with a blunt knife. 
 
 In dressing turkeys a small ruff of neck feathers and the wing 
 tips are undisturbed; this is a conventionality found in most 
 markets. To complete the dressing, cleanse the mouth and 
 head of any blood, and wash the feet thoroughly. Never remove 
 the head, feet or entrails. Some years ago it was the practice 
 to remove the viscera, but modern efficiency has found that 
 the undrawn carcass, from which all animal heat has been 
 expelled, is the most sanitary. 
 
 Cooling. — When the fowl is plucked hang it in a cool place, 
 head down, until the heat is entirely gone from the body; it is 
 then ready for packing. Poultry should not be allowed to freeze 
 for it will spoil the appearance. 
 
 Packing and Shipping. — Barrels are generally preferable to 
 boxes for shipping poultry, and they are easily obtained at a 
 small cost. Line the package with manila paper, — do not use 
 soiled or printed paper, — and pack as tightly as possible to avoid 
 shifting about in transit. In warm weather use ice, or if the con- 
 signment is billed for a long distance. Head the barrel securely, 
 and mark its contents plainly on the head to whom it is shipped, 
 and the name of the shipper. Never ship mixed lots of poultry 
 in the same package if it can be avoided. Graded shipments 
 invite good treatment on the part of the merchants, facilitate 
 sales, and are rewarded by larger returns. In short, it pays 
 handsomely to take a few extra pains. 
 
 Turkey Nests. — If left to follow her own inclinations the hen 
 turkey will select some secluded place for her nest, probably 
 under a pile of logs, in the brush or in the lee of a stone wall; 
 but, unless the flock is particularly wild, the hens can be induced 
 to adopt more suitable laying quarters, than which nothing is 
 
TURKEY NESTS 
 
 549 
 
 more practical than barrels laid on their sides and blocked to 
 keep them from rolling, and lined on the bottom with sod cov- 
 ered with straw or hay for nesting material. Sugar barrels 
 answer the purpose nicely; they are easy to handle, and not only 
 make an excellent protection from cold winds and rains, but hot 
 days as well. Later, when the brood is hatched a board may be 
 
 Fig. 332. — Combination chicken and squab farm in New Jersey. 
 
 nailed to the lower end so that the little turkeys cannot start to 
 roam at too tender an age. 
 
 Turkeys usually commence laying about the first of April, 
 and the earlier the eggs can be hatched after the middle of May 
 the longer the period of growth before the first holiday demand. 
 Six months at least are required to bring them to a profitable 
 marketable size, yet if their environment and feeding are cor- 
 rect this can be readily done. 
 
 The hen will lay from 15 to 20 eggs before becoming broody, 
 
550 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 and if one wishes to obtain a second clutch of eggs, it is not diffi- 
 cult to break her of broodiness, whereupon she will soon start 
 laying again. The first clutch of eggs may either be sold or 
 placed under chicken hens to be hatched. The eggs should be 
 gathered as promptly as possible and stored in a clean, cool 
 place. They should not be kept too long, for their vitality de- 
 preciates rapidly. The poult issuing from the egg that is set 
 within a few days of its being laid is noticeably sturdy. 
 
 As a rule 18 eggs are sufficient for a turkey hen to cover 
 properly, and 10 eggs for the chicken hen to manage. If more 
 than these are placed under the birds there is danger of the eggs 
 being chilled at times, and poor hatches will result. Before set- 
 ting the hen dust her thoroughly with a lice-expelling powder, 
 also the nest and nesting material. This will prevent trouble 
 from lice or mites, either of which may cause the hen to desert 
 her nest. When the hatch is ready to come off the hen and nest 
 should be dusted for the second time. Nothing is more fatal to 
 turkey health than parasites. 
 
 Eternal vigilance should be the watchword. When the little 
 ones droop search for vermin, and be satisfied with only the 
 closest scrutiny. Vermin is responsible for some of the greatest 
 losses. How the turkeys become infested is sometimes an 
 enigma — from coops, from other poultry, from sparrows — despite 
 the best care these pests will put in an appearance, and a vig- 
 orous campaign against them is necessary. Poults so afflicted 
 will sicken and die as though stricken with some wasting 
 disease. In fact, the poor little things are frequently dosed 
 internally with medicine, when their dire need is an insect 
 powder. 
 
 From 27 to 29 days are required to hatch turkey eggs, depend- 
 ing upon their freshness, weather conditions and the devotion of 
 the hen in charge. During this time she should not be disturbed 
 in any way. If frightened or driven from the nest the hen is 
 apt to abandon the eggs entirely. Some hens will rear two 
 broods in a season, and while the late-hatched brood will not 
 mature early enough to meet the demand of roasters, nor are 
 
FEED AND CARE OF POULTS 
 
 551 
 
 they so desirable as breeders, they may be grown as broiler 
 poults and as such sold to advantage. 
 
 Poults Unlike Chicks. — Many poultrymen have met with dis- 
 aster with turkeys because they tried to apply the same care to 
 the poults that they were accustomed to giving little chicks. 
 This is a great mistake, for on vital points the turk and the chick 
 are widely different. Poults have a ravenous appetite, without 
 the chicks' capacity for digesting and assimilating large quan- 
 tities of food within a short space of time. They require a cer- 
 tain amount of exercise as an aid to digestion, yet too much 
 
 (Courtesy V. S. Dep't Agriculture) 
 Fig. 333. — Typical pigeon house and fly. 
 
 running around wearies them to the point of complete exhaustion. 
 To guard against this, especially if chicken hens are being used 
 for mothers, the hens should be confined for the greater part 
 of the day for the first week, or until the poults have gained 
 sufficient strength to be taken far afield. Chicks seldom tire in 
 this way, and will trudge along unceasingly from dawn to dark 
 without ill effects. Still another point: soured food or partially 
 decayed food, which a chicken might eat with safety, works 
 havoc with the turk's digestion. 
 
 Diet. — Many of the difficulties with turkeys spring from the 
 
552 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 attempt to make them conform to an unnatural diet and man- 
 agement. The turkey raiser should always bear in mind that 
 poults are seed-eating chicks, not slop eaters. In the wild state 
 their food consisted of the bugs, worms, seed sand other tid- 
 bits which they hunted for in the woods and fields. In this 
 habitat there was no overfeeding of unnatural, concentrated 
 foods, likely to impair health and produce bowel troubles. 
 
 Like quail and other wild birds, turkeys subsisted by their 
 own efforts as foragers, and they were strong and vigorous, 
 whereas in a domestic or even semi-domestic state, they are too 
 often forced to eat unnatural foods with the idea of forcing them 
 to make an unnaturally rapid growth. Some breeders feed bread 
 and milk as soon as the poults will eat, while others feed dry 
 bread; some adhere strictly to a grain diet, while others feed 
 anything that happens to come to hand. The writer has seen 
 farmers' wives feed an exclusive diet of corn meal and skim milk 
 curds, believing that they were taking special pains with their 
 turkeys. Either the corn meal or the curds alone was enough 
 to kill the brood, and about the only thing that saved them was 
 the combination. The evil of the corn meal helped to offset the 
 evil effects of the curds. 
 
 Foods. — As a general practice dry foods are safer than moist 
 ones, though milk is very beneficial when fed judiciously. Stale 
 bread soaked in milk, with the milk pressed from the bread 
 before feeding, is a good food for the first few days, and it should 
 be sprinkled with a fine grit. The addition of a little hard- 
 boiled egg is good. Fine oatmeal or finely cracked wheat and 
 corn and a little granulated beef scrap are excellent rations. 
 Bread baked from corn meal, middlings, bran and ground oats 
 may be used, and after a few days add a little meat scrap. A 
 small quantity of lean beef cooked and chopped into fine bits is 
 a strengthening ration, but care must be taken that the meat is 
 sweet. Nothing will start bowel troubles quicker than tainted 
 beef. Raw meat and green bone should be avoided for this 
 reason. 
 
 Feed the poults frequently, giving them but a little at a time, 
 
FEED AND CARE OF POULTS 553 
 
 and be particularly sparing with the concentrated foods, such as 
 grains in the hulls — millet, kaffir corn and so on. Too much 
 hard-boiled egg or milk curds will congest the bowels. Do not 
 forget to provide succulence; green stuff should constitute at 
 least a half of the fare. Keep an abundance of clean water 
 before the poults at all times, also a plentiful supply of sharp 
 grit. Charcoal should be mixed with the food or fed separately; 
 it aids digestion and guards against fermentation in the crop and 
 gizzard. 
 
 Attention Required. — It should also be remembered that turkey 
 hens are not apt to be so attentive to their young as chicken hens, 
 especially in the matter of feeding; moreover, the turks are not 
 so apt as chicks in learning how to eat. The chick commences 
 to peck at objects almost as soon as it is hatched, but not so 
 with poults. They seem particularly unintelligent little creatures 
 in this respect, and the idea of looking on the ground or floor 
 for food never seems to occur to them. Indeed, sometimes they 
 run about with their heads in the air crying for food, until they 
 weaken and die from exhaustion. The turkey grower must be 
 on the lookout for this, and if necessary teach the poults by hand 
 feeding. It involves considerable time and trouble, of course, 
 but the advantages gained in giving the little turks a good start 
 will more than compensate for one's pains. 
 
 By all means keep the brood dry — dampness is fatal. Do not 
 allow the hen to take her brood into the tall grass early in the 
 morning when the dew is on it, or trudge about on rainy days. 
 Keep her penned up in an airy, roomy coop until conditions are 
 favorable. It is also imprudent to expose the brood to intense 
 heat, for they will wilt under it as though suffering with sun- 
 stroke. Shade of some kind must be provided in hot weather so 
 that they can escape the direct rays of the sun. 
 
 Moderation in all things is the secret to success. Avoid damp- 
 ness and filth, guard against vermin, do not overfeed and do not 
 overcrowd; these are the essential features. 
 
CHAPTER XLIII 
 GUINEA FOWLS 
 
 Nature of Guineas. — Generally speaking, until recent years 
 the guinea has merely been tolerated on the farm, and seldom 
 regarded as profitable. Semi-wild by nature, noisy, flighty and 
 unmanageable, they exhausted the patience of the farmer and 
 were too troublesome for serious consideration. Their chief 
 virtue, it seemed, was their well-known habit of setting up a 
 discordant chorus at the slightest provocation. If a hawk ap- 
 peared, or an animal or person approached the barnyard, these 
 alarmists immediately burst into a raucous denunciation. Woe 
 betide those who trespass on lands where guineas abound ; nothing 
 seems to escape their notice. 
 
 Left to their own devices guineas will skirt the edges of civil- 
 ized poultrydom, multiplying in distant fields and hedge rows, 
 but rarely reproducing more than their own number. Though 
 a hen will often hatch a large brood, it is seldom that she man- 
 ages to raise more than two or three chicks, and often not that 
 many. For some obscure reason the mother guinea does not 
 seem to realize that her little ones are frail creatures, unable to 
 withstand extremes of heat and cold, moisture and long tramps 
 afield. Their habits with their young seem to be about as sense- 
 less as their noise, which probably accounts in a large measure 
 for their culture having been neglected. 
 
 Snows and stormy weather sometimes drive the guineas to 
 the barnyard for food and shelter, but as a rule they are very 
 independent. Therefore, having cost the farmer nothing, he 
 was satisfied to sell them in an indifferent market for forty or 
 fifty cents a pair, or to tolerate them for the sake of an occa- 
 sional Sunday dinner for the family. No one will ever become 
 rich raising guineas, and it is hardly likely that any one will 
 
 554 
 
DOMESTIC BIRD WITH GAME FLAVOR 
 
 555 
 
 find it feasible to raise them as a commercial proposition, that 
 is — to make a living by keeping them as a specialty; but they 
 can be kept as a profitable side line. 
 
 The delicately wild flavor of the guinea's flesh and its tenderly 
 plump, dark breast commend it to the epicure. The appetites of 
 hotel and restaurant patrons are keen for game birds, but owing 
 to the increasing scarcity of these delicacies, those who cater to 
 epicurean tastes have had to seek substitutes for quail and 
 
 (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 334. — Open-front poultry house. Windows at top permit sunlight to flood 
 the rear of the building, where it is most needed. 
 
 pheasant that were hitherto plentiful. In consequence, much of 
 the so-called game listed on menus is — guinea. Whether the 
 epicure eats it under its own name, or deludes his palate with 
 the thought of wild fowl, he must admit that the guinea rivals 
 quail. Hence more young guineas are eaten now than ever 
 before, and the demand is steadily growing. The truth of this 
 is reflected in the prices received from dealers; instead of forty 
 or fifty cents a pair, guineas now bring about a dollar a pair and 
 more. And their eggs are considered quite a delicacy. 
 
556 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 Varieties. — There are two popular varieties of guineas — Pearl 
 and White, the only difference being in their color. The Pearl 
 variety should be bluish-gray in color, each feather marked with 
 white spots resembling pearls, hence its name, but it must be 
 free from any solid white' feathers in any part of its plumage. 
 The White variety should be a pure white in plumage, with orange 
 or yellowish-white bill and legs. 
 
 In the Pearl variety the bill and legs are brown. Some speci- 
 mens of this variety have white breasts, or breasts of a lighter 
 gray color than the back and other plumage, which denotes a 
 cross between the Pearl and White, hence they are mongrels. 
 For size, egg production and other characteristics both varieties 
 are equally desirable, although the Pearl Guinea is probably the 
 most common. The flesh of both is dark, but that of the White, 
 or of the White crossed with Pearl, is a shade lighter. 
 
 Except in size, a newly hatched Pearl Guinea is the replica 
 of a baby partridge; markings, colorings and contour are iden- 
 tical. Lately, there has come to be another variety known as 
 the Dove Guinea, but it is scarcely popular enough to be recog- 
 nized. 
 
 Sex. — The amateur has great difficulty in telling males from 
 females; at a casual glance they are indistinguishable. The 
 most accurate method of distinguishing the sex is by the cry — 
 the hen has the preponderance of vocabulary. The well-known 
 potrack, buckwheat or too quick is uttered by the female only, 
 while the che or tck is typical of both male and female. More- 
 over, the female seldom screeches like the cock. Those who are 
 well acquainted with the fowl will observe that the male has a 
 larger spike on his head, and that the ear-lobes are also larger 
 than those of the hen, and that the lobes generally curl in a sort 
 of semi-circle toward the beak. It will also be noted that the 
 cocks usually hold their heads higher than the hens. 
 
 The male selects his mate and his devotion is steadfast. 
 While the hen attends to the duties of maternity, the male 
 remains close by, ready at the least sign of danger to utter his 
 shrill cry of alarm. When the brood appears, he shares the 
 
HATCHING AND CARE OF GUINEA CHICKS 
 
 557 
 
 responsibility of food and shelter, and should misfortune over- 
 take the hen, the cock assumes her duties in a thoroughly com- 
 petent manner. 
 
 Nests are often located by the observance of guineas feeding 
 solitarily, since this is a pretty sure sign of the male bird, and 
 that the hen is laying nearby. They will make their nests in 
 remote, out-of-the-way places, under hedges, bushes, brush- 
 heaps or wheat shocks, and if their nests are disturbed they will 
 move to another place. Laying begins about the middle of April, 
 
 (Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 335. — Another view of house shown in Fig. 334, taken in midwinter. 
 Fowls are in splendid condition, proving that they require an abundance of 
 fresh air, providing the house is free from drafts and dampness. 
 
 and if broodiness is discouraged it will continue throughout the 
 summer. 
 
 Rearing Young.— Owing to the heavy mortality among broods 
 reared by guinea hens all attempts to raise a large flock by 
 natural methods will be discouragingly slow. On the other hand, 
 to raise the guinea chicks by artificial brooding methods is 
 equally difficult. When placed in a hover, they either remain 
 there all the time, or come out and cannot find their way back. 
 Unlike young chickens, they are particularly stupid in learning 
 
558 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 how to eat or drink without the aid of a hen, consequently they 
 soon pine away and die. They do not seem to have the imita- 
 tive ways of other young fowls, and in many respects they re- 
 semble young turkeys. 
 
 Experiments have been made by placing newly hatched chick- 
 ens with the young guineas, with the hope that the guineas 
 would learn how to eat and drink from their companions and 
 become hover broken; but not so. The guineas stood around 
 until they were weakened by cold and hunger, while the chickens 
 thrived. Apparently, the only other way to raise guinea chicks 
 is under chicken hens, and this may be done very successfully. 
 
 Hatching with Chicken Hens. — The eggs should be given to 
 reliable sitting hens, such as Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes — ■ 
 about sixteen eggs to each hen, or the eggs may be started in 
 an incubator and later given to the hens. From twenty-six to 
 twenty-eight days are required to hatch guinea eggs, and true 
 to their heritage of fear, as soon as they leave their shells the 
 little fellows sti0£ into corners of the nest away from the prying 
 eyes of the attendant. Naturally, their foster-mother's call is a 
 foreign language^ to them, which they find difficult to understand 
 at first, and until they get to know the meaning of cluck, and 
 the hen becomes accustomed to their peculiarities, they must 
 not be allowed to roam. 
 
 Care should be taken at the beginning to see that the hen 
 accepts her responsibility kindly, for sometimes chicken hens are 
 antagonistic to young that is not their own, and will kill the 
 guineas. When the hen has proved her dependability she may 
 be given twenty chicks; she can easily take care of this number; 
 and if she is a very large hen, twenty-five chicks are not too 
 many. 
 
 The hen and her brood must be confined in a coop for the 
 first few days, after which they may be given the freedom of a 
 small yard. Later, after the attendant has observed that the 
 chicks respond to their foster-mother's guidance, they may be 
 allowed complete freedom with the hen. Do not confine the hen 
 within a slatted coop and allow the chicks to run abroad, as is 
 
559 
 
560 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 the custom with young chickens, for unlike young chickens, the 
 guinea chicks will not always return to the hen in the coop. 
 
 Furthermore, it is important to keep the chicks off the wet 
 grass and out of the rain for the first month, for like young 
 turkeys, dampness is fatal. Failure to appreciate this fact is 
 responsible for the heavy losses among broods reared by guinea 
 hens. They have been known to start out in the morning with 
 large healthy broods, and return at night without a single chick 
 ■ — the entire flock having perished along the route from exposure 
 and exhaustion. 
 
 Guinea chicks are ravenous little creatures, and for the first 
 week they should be fed five or six times a day. If allowed to 
 become too hungry they will over-eat, and digestive troubles 
 may result. They thrive on bread crumbs and rolled oats, mixed 
 with hard-boiled egg, or on fine ground chick-food. Sour or 
 fresh milk may be substituted for the egg. Owing to its insec- 
 tivorous nature, the guinea requires a large proportion of animal 
 food, also green food, and they must have plenty of water to 
 drink, grit and charcoal. As soon as they are large enough to 
 be given free range, which should be done at the earliest possible 
 moment, for guineas do not thrive well in confinement, they will 
 forage for the greater part of their keep. At such times they 
 may be fed a coarser chick-feed, wheat, and later, corn. 
 
 Maturity. — Broods hatch from May to September, and in 
 three or four months they will reach the marketable weight of 
 one and a half to two and a half pounds. They rarely suffer 
 from any of the countless diseases that poultrydom is heir to, 
 and no houses are essential for their comfort, except during the 
 brooding season. The hens are prolific layers, and as the chicks 
 reach a marketable size at an early age, they yield a quick return 
 for their feed and care. The one serious problem is in raising 
 the chicks for the first month, after which success is assured. 
 
 Guineas should be killed by sticking — severing the blood- 
 vessels on the inside of the throat, so that no cuts are visible, 
 and after the birds are dead and have finished bleeding, all 
 blood clots and smears should be carefully washed off, that they 
 
DISTRUSTFUL NATURE 561 
 
 may present an attractive appearance when marketed. Guineas 
 are almost always shipped without removing any of the feathers, 
 which is another factor in favor of the producer. Ninety cents 
 a pair is probably the average price in the large Eastern markets, 
 and at this figure there is a nice profit for the producer. 
 
 Distrustful Nature. — In no other fowl does the instinct of dis- 
 trust seem such a conspicuous characteristic as in the guinea, 
 and this timorousness is responsible for its hitherto limited list 
 of friends; yet for all this senseless hysteria and shyness, they 
 can be made to yield a certain amount of confidence to the 
 attendant who treats them kindly and feeds them regularly, and 
 in so doing there is both profit and interest in their culture. To 
 frighten or treat them roughly is to alienate them beyond hope, 
 and their propensity for flying makes them exceedingly difficult 
 to capture; in which case they will have to be shot. In this 
 wild state they are likely to be pugnacious, and to frighten and 
 drive off other poultry. It is also found that the wilder they 
 are the noiser they will be; hence it behooves those who raise 
 guineas, for their own peace of mind, to treat them as gently 
 and sympathetically as possible. 
 
 The guinea may shriek hysterically at a shadow, and it is 
 subject to peculiar nightmares — seeing ghosts and goblins; never- 
 theless they are excellent guards, and for this reason alone they 
 are a valuable adjunct to the barnyard. 
 
 In buying mature guineas, the poultryman should confine them 
 for about two weeks, so that they may become accustomed to 
 their new home; otherwise, on giving them their freedom, they 
 are very apt to take flight and never come back. The best plan 
 is to purchase eggs from a reliable breeder and to raise one's 
 own stock. 
 
 36 
 
CHAPTER XLIV 
 PIGEONS 
 
 Fad. — Some years ago there was a big boom in the squab in- 
 dustry; it became quite a fad and received a great deal of pub- 
 licity. Many failed, and considerable money was lost before 
 people awakened to the fact that the profits in the business had 
 been greatly over-estimated, and that the care required by the 
 birds, the necessary skill, was greatly underestimated. Further- 
 more, there was not the demand for their products that begin- 
 ners were led to expect. High prices were not sustained. 
 
 Failures. — It is quite likely that more money has been lost 
 on plants erected for the production of squabs on a large scale, 
 than in any other branch of the poultry business. Stories were 
 told of the. great success of a few breeders ; they were plausible, 
 and the figures were so seductive that many unfortunate men 
 and women were led to invest all their savings in ventures they 
 were in no way equipped to operate. Failures became so numer- 
 ous that the business was viewed askance, as a sort of joke, and 
 detracted much from its real credit. If one spoke of being in the 
 squab business he was apt to be regarded with suspicion. Most 
 of this feeling has passed, along with the boom spirit, and left 
 in its wake a great deal of knowledge of practical value. 
 
 Profits. — There is profit to be made from the breeding of 
 pigeons, just as there is a profit to be had from chickens or from 
 ducks, but we would not advise the amateur to expect to make 
 a fortune or even a good living at producing squabs, unless he 
 is trained and equipped to operate a fairly large plant. From 
 my observation, only large lofts return substantial profits, and 
 most of the successful pigeon farms make a business of selling 
 breeding stock, and are not devoted primarily to the production 
 of squabs for market. 
 
 562 
 
PROFITABLE AS SIDE LINE 
 
 563 
 
 My advice to the beginner would be to start with a few pairs 
 of birds, and not attempt to engage in the business on a com- 
 mercial scale unless experiments with a few pigeons clearly indi- 
 cate a worthwhile profit and success. Fifteen pairs can be 
 handled nicely in a back lot, and will help the beginner to splen- 
 did working knowledge, furnish squabs for home use, and add 
 to the future mating-pen. Do not plunge into the enterprise 
 under any circumstances, especially if you have never had actual 
 experience with livestock, and fail to appreciate that careful 
 
 Fig. 337. — Homer pigeon. 
 
 attention to details and the most exacting personal supervision 
 are required. 
 
 Side Line. — On general farms, where a flock of pigeons may 
 obtain the greater part of their living from the fields, they will 
 return a nice revenue, at very little expense or trouble to their 
 keeper. The one difficulty with a flock at large, the pigeons may 
 be a nuisance to neighbors, or losses may occur by shooting and 
 by cats and hawks. Many pigeons are kept as a side issue on 
 general farms in the Middle West, but they are mostly of com- 
 
564 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 mon origin and, therefore, not worth much as squab-producers. 
 Common pigeons are not so prolific, and they produce small 
 squabs of poorer quality. In consequence, the average value of 
 pigeons in the Middle West and in the South is only from fifteen 
 to twenty-five cents apiece. Compared with the prices received 
 by reliable specialty breeders, the foregoing figures are insignifi- 
 cant. If a little more attention was paid to these general farm 
 flocks, and a fresh supply of properly bred stock was introduced, 
 they could easily be converted into a profitable side line. 
 
 The squab is a young pigeon just before it leaves the nest, 
 and is considered quite a delicacy. It makes a delicate food for 
 invalids, and is used to replace the supply of game, notably the 
 quail. There |s a fairly uniform demand for squabs in the large 
 cities, and they bring from two dollars to six dollars per dozen, 
 depending on quality and the season of the year. 
 
 Weights cf squabs run from six to eighteen pounds to the 
 dozen, with nine pounds as a good average. Four to six weeks, 
 depending upon the variety, the stamina of the flock, and the 
 care they receive, is the time required to bring squabs to market- 
 able size. When the down disappears from the head and they 
 are fully feathered under the wings, these are indications of the 
 correct time for killing. At this stage they are plumpest and 
 heaviest. If allowed to pass this period their fat decreases, and 
 the flesh that was once tender becomes hardened. They soon 
 learn the use of their wings and are likely to leave the nest. 
 
 There is a feeling that squabs must be kept stuffed with food 
 from hatching time until they are ready for market. It is mar- 
 velous the quantities of food they can consume without ill effects 
 from lack of exercise. They just sit contentedly in the nest, 
 while the parent birds feed patiently and faithfully. 
 
 Varieties. — There are a great many varieties of pigeons, and 
 though all will give squabs, only a few breeds aie used exten- 
 sively for squab culture. Of these the Homer was generally 
 considered the most desirable variety. See Fig. 337. It is the 
 popular standard breed, hardy, prolific and of fair size. Lately 
 it is being supplanted by the Carneaux. See Fig. 338. Several 
 
MOST POPULAR VARIETIES 
 
 565 
 
 other varieties, such as the King, Dragoon, Runt (see Fig. 339) 
 and Maltese, which are larger than the Homer, are used in cross- 
 ing to increase the size of the squabs. Crosses produce the largest 
 squabs, and the practice seems to prevail. See Figs. 340 and 
 341. Too much inbreeding results in degenerates and under- 
 sized stock. 
 
 The Homer derives its name from the fact that it will usually 
 find its way home from distant points, even when taken under 
 cover for hundreds of miles. Records of the flights of racing 
 
 Fig. 338. — Carneaux pigeon. 
 
 pigeons are wonderfully interesting. This characteristic makes 
 it essential to confine Homers very carefully if they are pur- 
 chased. They are bred very largely for racing as well as squabs, 
 and come in a variety of colors. 
 
 Strain. — As with all forms of livestock, good breeding birds are 
 one of the chief essentials to success; in fact, they are the founda- 
 tion of profit or loss. The beginner should secure his stock from 
 reliable breeders, and wherever possible from those who will 
 guarantee their products. The age and sex of pigeons are hard 
 
566 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 to determine by casual observation, and when one considers the 
 delay and loss likely to occur from unmated birds, or from stock 
 so old as to be past their period of prolificacy, it becomes apparent 
 that much depends upon the word of the seller. 
 
 Unmated birds will cause a lot of trouble in a loft. Unlike 
 poultry, pigeons are monogamous; they mate in pairs, and 
 usually remain devoted for life. Obviously, the experienced 
 breeder sees to it that his birds are properly mated, either 
 
 Fig. 339. — White runt, female pigeon. 
 
 naturally or by special methods. The presence of unmated 
 males means fighting and jealousy. 
 
 Unscrupulous dealers sell anything as mated birds. Some 
 claim that so long as there is a male and a female they are re- 
 lieved of any responsibility for further devotion. An authority 
 on squab raising has this to say about mated pigeons: "A mated 
 pair of pigeons consists of a male and female that have built a 
 nest, laid eggs and hatched a pair of squabs which are fit for 
 market in four weeks from the time of hatching. The only safe 
 way in buying breeders is to get a written guarantee that they 
 
AGE OF BREEDERS 
 
 567 
 
 are mated, and a list showing the pairs. The purchaser who buys 
 birds thus represented has a right to expect that they have 
 actually been mated, and will prove it by going to work and 
 rearing squabs." 
 
 Production Age. — Pigeons are most productive between the 
 age of two and six years. The larger varieties will breed at the 
 age of eight months, smaller breeds at six months. They are 
 sometimes serviceable as old as ten years, but this is the excep- 
 tion. A good rule is dispose of old breeders at regular intervals. 
 
 Fig. 340. — Runt cross pigeon. 
 
 If one does not wish to buy mated birds, a good plan is to 
 secure young stock, about eight weeks old, and mate them at 
 the proper age. Squabs intended for breeders should be leg- 
 banded before they are old enough to leave the nest, and a rec- 
 ord kept of their breeding. Otherwise it is difficult, and a matter 
 of chance, to prevent inbreeding. Later, when the sex is defi- 
 nitely determined, the males are banded on one leg, usually the 
 
568 
 
 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 right leg, and the females on the left leg, to distinguish the sex 
 of the birds in the pens. 
 
 The mating-pen is a separate compartment through which new 
 pairs are added to the regular lofts. In it the young pigeons, 
 males and females, are placed, also the doubtful pairs. Here the 
 young birds reach maturity, and after an interesting courtship 
 they choose partners. This is usually indicated by the male 
 
 Fig. 341. — Runt cross pigeon. 
 
 driving and pecking at the female. If properly mated, the pair 
 will start to erect their nest, and they will be found together at 
 night, whereas unmated members of the pen generally remain 
 alone. 
 
 Discerning Sex. — It takes a very keen observer and one in- 
 timately versed in pigeon ways to discern the sexes before pair- 
 ing, and even after the courtship has started experienced breeders 
 
LIVING QUARTERS ARE SIMPLE 569 
 
 are sometimes deceived in their selection of the male bird. The 
 male is apt to be larger and more active in the love-making, and 
 his voice is more guttural and his expression more masculine — 
 more determined. 
 
 It is customary for the first squabs to be reared in the mating- 
 pen, after which the parent birds are permanently leg-banded 
 and numbered and removed to their permanent quarters on 
 the farm. This is the natural method of mating birds. 
 
 The forced method of mating consists in confining a male and 
 female in a mating coop, a cage about three feet long and twelve 
 to fifteen inches high and the same in depth, with a wire parti- 
 tion in the center which can be removed or hinged back as 
 desired. The hen is placed in one side and the cock in the other, 
 where they can watch and study each other at close range for 
 a week or ten days, and become enamoured of each other's charms. 
 The partition is then removed, and if they take to each other's 
 society and the mating is successful, they are taken from the 
 mating coop and given their freedom in one of the regular pens. 
 This method is used successfully, and is of practical benefit 
 where special matings are desired. For example, some matings 
 produce undesirable qualities in the squabs, in which case it 
 becomes necessary to cull the flock and remate along other lines. 
 
 Quarters. — Pigeons are accommodating creatures; they will 
 adapt themselves to almost every condition, from the eaves of 
 the barn to the nests of a well-appointed loft. They do best, 
 of course, in quarters that are fairly roomy, dry, well-ventilated 
 and sunshiny. Almost any style of building can be converted 
 into a satisfactory pigeon loft with very few modifications. To 
 avoid dampness the location should be well drained. A southern 
 or southeastern exposure is best, and the same general principles 
 that apply to hen houses also apply to pigeon lofts. The walls 
 and roof should be tightly constructed to prevent leaks and drafts, 
 and above everything else the house must be proof against rats. 
 These pests are notorious thieves in a pigeon loft, killing hun- 
 dreds of young birds and destroying the eggs. 
 
 Arrangement of House. — It is customary to divide the house 
 
570 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 into pens holding from twenty to seventy-five pairs, and to have 
 a narrow passageway or alley in the rear of the building con- 
 necting with the pens, feed-house and other conveniences. Two 
 to three square feet of floor space per pair is sufficient room if a 
 number of pairs are kept in the pen. When pigeons are confined, 
 which is customary on the large squab plants, outdoor flyways 
 or covered yards are necessary. These are generally located on 
 the south side of the building, and are made eight or ten feet 
 high, twenty to thirty feet deep, and extend across the widths of 
 the pens. They should be covered on top and sides with inch 
 mesh netting to keep out the sparrows, which will otherwise 
 come in swarms and eat much of the food. 
 
 Alighting Boards. — A six-inch board or shelf should be placed 
 along the two ends and possibly one side of the flyway, for the 
 pigeons to alight upon, but it is not considered advisable to erect 
 roosts across the center of the flyway. The pigeons are apt to 
 strike against them and be injured. A few holes are cut in the 
 front of the house at a convenient height, say, about five feet 
 from the ground, for the pigeons to enter and leave the building. 
 These need only be about four inches high and three inches 
 wide, and three or four to a pen are sufficient. Lighting boards, 
 six inches wide, similar to the perches in the flyways, should be 
 placed in convenient relation to these holes, on the inside and 
 outside of the house. 
 
 The other interior fixtures are very simple, and they should 
 be made as easy to clean as possible. Two nest boxes are pro- 
 vided for each pair, in recognition of the fact that they often 
 run two families at one time. They frequently start to lay eggs 
 in the second nest, while ministering to the needs of a pair of 
 squabs in the first nest. It is a good plan to have a few extra 
 nests. 
 
 Each nest should be not less than twelve inches square. They 
 may be built in tiers, but not made to extend above the level 
 of the eye, else it will be difficult to clean and inspect them. 
 Undersized nests offer cramped quarters and are a source of 
 trouble to birds and attendant alike. 
 
FEEDING METHODS 571 
 
 Cleanliness is the slogan in pigeon raising, the same as in 
 keeping any form of livestock. An abundant supply of drinking 
 water must be kept before the birds at all times, and it must be 
 pure and fresh. All food must be placed before the birds in a 
 wholesome condition, and they must have grit, oyster shells 
 and charcoal, also salt. Fountains in which the pigeons cannot 
 bathe are best for drinking vessels, while a galvanized iron pan 
 three or four inches deep and about twenty inches in diameter 
 makes a good bath pan. Baths are usually furnished about three 
 times a week, and except at these times the pans are removed. 
 
 Feeding. — Many varieties of grains are used in feeding pigeons. 
 A good grain ration may be made from the following: equal 
 parts by weight of cracked corn (sifted), hard red wheat, kafir 
 corn and Canada peas, with a small quantity, perhaps ten per 
 cent, of hemp and millet seed added during the molting season. 
 Canada peas are expensive, but for best results they seem to be 
 indispensable, especially during the breeding season. They 
 seem to take the place of green feed. Other grains which may 
 be added to the ration are peanuts, which are used to some 
 extent in place of Canada peas, hulled oats, Egyptian corn, 
 barley, cowpeas, and milo maize. In addition to these a small 
 amount of stale bread, rape, rice, vetch and sunflower seed may 
 be fed for variety. Lentils are sometimes fed as a tonic to 
 breeding birds during the molting period. 
 
 The grain may be fed on the floor of the pen, in troughs or 
 kept before the birds in hoppers. It is not well to feed the grain 
 outdoors on the ground for fear that it may become moldy and 
 sour. 
 
 The young of pigeons are fed by the parent birds on a thick, 
 creamy mixture, called pigeon milk, which is secreted in the 
 crops of the pigeons. The squabs are usually fed shortly after 
 the grown birds have eaten, consequently great care should be 
 exercised not to disturb the breeders at this time. In fact, all 
 the work about the pens should be accomplished in a quiet, 
 orderly manner, and in as few visits as possible, for pigeons are 
 easily alarmed. It is poor judgment to enter the lofts at night, 
 
572 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 especially with a light. The hen pigeons are likely to be fright- 
 ened from their nests, and in the darkness fail to find them again, 
 consequently chilled eggs and fewer squabs will result. 
 
 Squabs intended for market should be caught in the morning 
 before they are fed by their parents, so that their crops will be 
 empty. They are killed in the same manner as poultry, by cut- 
 ting the arteries in the back of the roof of the mouth and pierc- 
 ing the brain, then bled, after which the feathers and down are 
 plucked clean, with the exception of the head. To pluck eight 
 squabs an hour is good work, though there are some experts 
 who claim a record of fourteen. 
 
 Packing. — Squabs should be cooled the same as other poultry, 
 either by plunging them in cold water, or by hanging them in a 
 cool place. If the crops contain any food, it may be advisable 
 to cut them open and clean it out. When the birds are thor- 
 oughly chilled they are carefully graded as to size and color, 
 and packed for shipment in buckets with perforated bottoms. 
 Pack them with their breasts up, in layers, with paraffin paper 
 between the layers, and a generous supply of cracked ice through- 
 out the entire package. 
 
 Naturally, the production of squabs from each pair of breed- 
 ers varies widely, much the same as the egg yield will vary on a 
 chicken farm. They are known to yield ten or twelve pairs a 
 year. This is exceptional; a fair average would be seven pairs. 
 They sell at the highest prices during cold weather, for pigeons 
 do not breed so freely in the winter months. 
 
CHAPTER XLV 
 ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING 
 
 Period of Heaviest Egg Production. — The hen lays two-thirds 
 of her yearly supply of eggs during the six months beginning 
 March first, and only one-third during the remaining six months. 
 Frequently all of a hen's eggs are laid in the first six months' 
 period. 
 
 Longer Days in the Spring. — Spring, of course, is the natural 
 breeding season, hence the heaviest production. But there is 
 another reason for this unbalanced production. In the spring 
 there are from fourteen to fifteen hours of daylight each day, and 
 about eight hours of darkness. In the fall and winter months the 
 reverse is true. There is darkness for about fifteen hours, and 
 light for about nine hours. Fowls do not go abroad in the dark. 
 They remain on their roosts. They are idle. And being idle, 
 naturally they are not so productive. 
 
 If we humans were idle, if we laid abed for fifteen hours a day, 
 we would not get very much accomplished. And in the fall and 
 winter months most of us would have to remain idle for fifteen 
 hours each day, except for artificial light. Artificial light makes it 
 possible for us to do things on the short days. Our production is 
 about the same month in and month out. By means of artificial 
 light we add a couple of hours in the morning, and another couple 
 of hours in the evening, to our day's activities. 
 
 Give the hen the same opportunity and she will be more pro- 
 ductive. Give her light and she will stay abroad, and being abroad 
 she will eat and exercise, and these two factors will yield eggs. 
 They must yield eggs, all other things being equal. Such is the 
 secret of artificial lighting of poultry houses. It is not a secret, 
 really; it is just common sense. And the wonder of it is that poul- 
 
 573 
 
574 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 trymen did not awaken to this simple truth many years ago, in- 
 stead of just recently. 
 
 Investigations have shown that when hens are fed the last meal 
 at four o'clock in the evening, which is customary on winter days, 
 the crops of these hens are entirely empty by midnight, or sooner. 
 From then until about seven o'clock in the morning their digestive 
 tracts are idle. They have no nourishment to pass on and be 
 converted into eggs. The egg-making machinery is at a standstill. 
 
 In addition to having a shorter day in which to consume food, 
 more of this decreased food supply is required to maintain the 
 wear and tear on the body in cold weather. Nature takes care of 
 the body first. Any surplus of nourishment is available for eggs. 
 In other words, in the winter months, when hens should have more 
 nourishment with which to combat the cold and exposure, they 
 really have less, because of the short hours of daylight — feeding 
 and exercising hours. Small wonder, then, that the hen lays the 
 bulk of her eggs in the spring and early summer, when conditions 
 are favorable. 
 
 This condition is easily remedied by artificially lighting the 
 poultry house about two hours in the morning and from two to 
 three hours in the evening. Within recent years, particularly on 
 the Pacific Coast, this scheme has been used successfully, and is 
 now being adopted more or less generally in all sections of the 
 country. 
 
 Various methods of artificial lighting have been under observa- 
 tion by different Experiment Stations for a number of years. And 
 without exception, where the lighting was intelligently used, the 
 reports showed remarkable increases in egg production. Not only 
 were the egg yields increased, but the net returns from the flocks 
 were substantially increased. In other words, the additional eggs 
 more than paid for the additional cost of labor and material. 
 
 Tests at Cornell with ioo White Leghorn hens and pullets 
 showed that for a period of forty-eight weeks the net gain in pro- 
 duction was 135.37 dozen eggs, which represented a gain in value 
 of $71.88. In these tests lights were used from twilight to nine 
 o'clock in the evening. 
 
REMARKABLE INCREASES ARE SHOWN 
 
 575 
 
 The beneficial influence of the lengthened day is beyond dis- 
 pute. If it does not increase the total annual production very 
 much, at least it gets the hens to lay more eggs in winter, when 
 eggs are worth considerably more, thereby adding greatly to the 
 profits of the poultryman. 
 
 On a farm in western New York accurate records were kept for 
 a two-year period, and not only was the total egg production in- 
 creased 18 per cent by artificial light, but the winter part of the 
 production, from December to March, was increased 70 per cent. 
 
 4> 4k 
 
 {Courtesy Washington Experiment Station) 
 
 Fig. 342. — Fixtures for artificial lighting. Left-hand diagram shows tube 
 system of gasoline mantle lights. By the operation of a needle valve in the 
 generator any degree of illumination may be produced throughout all the 
 lights at the same time. Right-hand diagram shows portable gasoline mantle 
 lantern, suitabh for small house. 
 
 Lights were used morning and evening, from the middle of 
 November to the first of April. 
 
 Other Essential Factors. — Though artificial lighting is the im- 
 portant factor in obtaining and keeping a uniform schedule of egg 
 
576 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 production throughout the year, with it must go proper feeding 
 and living conditions. The hens must be given the comforts of 
 summer in winter, which means that the supply of bugs and 
 worms, animal food, must be substituted with milk or meat 
 scraps; green food found on the summer range must be supplied 
 by cabbage, pulped vegetables, mangels or sprouted oats; the 
 birds must be induced to exercise, and the living accommoda- 
 tions must be dry, well ventilated and sanitary. 
 
 Not Forced Feeding. — In short, the aim of artificial lighting is 
 not to force egg production by condiments and highly concen- 
 trated foods, which are dangerous expedients, rather to feed a 
 normal ration, as in the summer time, and to give the flock a 
 longer period in which to partake of this normal ration, in which 
 event the birds will eat more, thus stimulate their body more and 
 have a surplus for egg production. 
 
 Means Better Health. — It is believed that artificial lighting can 
 be made to improve the health and vitality of a flock for many 
 reasons. The best hen is the laying hen. She is happiest when she 
 is in a laying condition. She is active. She works early and late. 
 
 During the long nights fowls get cold and hungry about mid- 
 night, when fed the last meal about 4 o'clock. In this state they 
 must wait for about seven hours, until the ordinary feeding hour 
 of seven o'clock in the morning. If they were fed at eight or nine 
 o'clock in the evening, and again at five o'clock in the morning, 
 there would be no interval of an empty crop, or at best a very 
 short one. This is a healthful condition of affairs. 
 
 Probably the most beneficial effect of all is that, by using 
 lights and distributing the hen's egg production more uniformly 
 throughout the year, instead of massing the egg yield during a 
 short period, the wear and tear on the bird is less. 
 
 The use of artificial light can be abused — used to excess, of 
 course. The day must not be lengthened too long or the purpose 
 will be defeated. Every method for increased egg production 
 must be practiced with moderation. Hens must have sufficient 
 time on the roost for rest, or they will break down. The aim 
 should be to maintain an egg production of from fifty to sixty per 
 
EXCESSIVE LIGHTING IS BAD 577 
 
 cent (50 to 60 eggs daily from 100 hens) throughout the winter 
 months, which yield is not a tax on the flock if the birds are 
 properly fed. 
 
 Types of Lights. — Any sort of a system of illumination will an- 
 swer the purpose of lighting poultry houses, but the most com- 
 monly used lights are gasoline and electricity, because of their 
 convenience. 
 
 There seems to be no doubt that electric light is the simplest 
 and safest method of illumination, and where current can be had' 
 this method is to be recommended. Sometimes the cost is greater 
 than other lights, but in no case is it very great considering the 
 benefits that may be derived. The Washington Experiment Sta- 
 tion found that one extra egg per day will pay for the lighting of 
 100 birds. 
 
 Electric lights should be spaced about 15 feet apart through the 
 entire length of the house, and well toward the front of the build- 
 ing, so that the illumination will cover all of the floor under the 
 droppings boards and such like. Wherever possible avoid hang- 
 ing the lights where they will cause deep shadows. 
 
 Where electrical current is not obtainable, though nowadays 
 many farmers and poultrymen find it economical to install their 
 own electric light plants, gasoline lamps are recommended. These 
 have enormous candlepower, and are widely used on the Pacific 
 Coast for lighting poultry houses. 
 
 Gasoline mantle lamps come as individual lanterns which are 
 portable, or a number of lamps can be connected with a central 
 generating plant. The single lanterns are convenient for small 
 houses, whereas the central plant system is to be recommended 
 for long houses, requiring four or more lamps. 
 
 Backyard poultry raisers and those who wish to experiment 
 with artificial lighting can try out the scheme with an ordinary 
 kerosene lamp or two. The disadvantages of this method of 
 lighting are that the kerosene lantern does not give forth a great 
 deal of illumination, and it requires constant refilling and clean- 
 ing. The fuel cost is also greater than electricity or gasoline for a 
 given amount of brilliancy. 
 
578 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING 
 
 In using artificial light the caretaker should clearly understand 
 the function of these extra hours of light. The lights should be 
 turned on so that the length of the short day is made equal to the 
 length of the spring day. 
 
 Do not allow the fowls to go to roost in the late afternoon, and 
 then encourage them to leave the roosts in the middle of the night, 
 for extra feed, by switching on the lights. As the daylight fades, 
 along about four or five o'clock, turn on the lights and keep them 
 burning for two or three hours. This prolongs the day naturally. 
 When you want the hens to go to roost, turn off the lights, or dim 
 the illumination, giving the birds just enough light to find their 
 perches. 
 
 In the morning the lights are turned on about five o'clock, 
 whereupon the birds leave their perches and start the day's 
 activities. So long as the hens have from fourteen to fifteen hours 
 of light, there is no difference in commencing a little earlier or 
 later. Some poultrymen burn lights at the close of the day only; 
 others use illumination at both ends of the day; both plans give 
 about the same results. 
 
 A great many poultry houses are so poorly constructed that at 
 best they have very little light, especially on overcast days. In 
 stormy weather, when the birds are kept indoors, this means such 
 gloomy conditions that often the hens are off the perches for only 
 six hours. The alternative is to go out in the storm, which ex- 
 posure is even worse than remaining on the perches. 
 
 Blame yourself, not the hens, if they do not yield eggs under 
 these circumstances. Chickens like cheerful conditions, much as 
 do humans. They dislike darkness. They are suspicious and 
 fearful of it. They never sing in the dark, only in the light. Take 
 the song away from the hen and you put an end to her egg produc- 
 tion. Farmers are the most conspicuous offenders in causing their 
 hens to hibernate for the winter months. And they seldom get 
 any eggs from August to March, which accounts for the scarcity of 
 eggs in cold weather and consequent high prices. 
 
 Some of the foremost authorities on poultry culture pronounce 
 the artificial illumination of poultry houses as one of the most 
 important discoveries in the history of the industry. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abnormal eggs, 402 
 Accounts, record of, 95 
 Aconite, tincture, 475 
 Adaptable hovers, 301 
 Advertising, value of, 82 
 on egg cases, 91 
 African geese, 530 
 Agglutination test, 508 
 Ailments, poultry, 471 
 Air cell in egg, 269 
 Albumen, egg, 395 
 Alfalfa pasture, 227 
 
 shredded, 222 
 American class, breeds, 53 
 Analysis of breeds, 1 1 
 Anatomy of fowl, 458 
 Anconas, 34 
 
 Andalusians, 33 
 
 Animal foods, 215 
 
 Appetite, 185 
 
 Appliances, poultry, 144 
 
 Artificial brooding, 295 
 incubation, 235 
 lighting, 573 
 
 Asafetida, 482 
 
 Aseels, White, 40 
 
 Ash feeds, 188 
 
 Asiatic class, breeds, 46 
 
 Asparagus chickens, 351 
 
 Assimilation of food, 189 
 
 Asthenia, 477 
 
 Automatic feeders, 151, 180 
 
 Aylesbury ducks, 524 
 
 B 
 
 Baby chick industry, 270 
 Backyard plant, 10 
 Bacterium pullorum, 502 
 Bagging down, 478 
 Baking soda, 474 
 Balanced rations, 184 
 Baldness, 479 
 Bantams, 70 
 
 Barley feed, 199 
 
 ground, 212 
 Barrels, water, 149 
 Beard, 68 
 
 Beet pulp, dried, 223 
 Beets, mangel, 229 
 Bench picking, 434 
 Bi-carbonate of soda, 474 
 Bird pox, 480 
 Bismuth nitrate, 475 
 Blackhead, 478 
 Black Spanish, 32 
 Black turkey, 542 
 Bleeding fowls, 354 
 Blood clots, 404 
 Bloody eggs, 404 
 Bloom on egg shell, 395 
 Bone cutter, 181 
 
 granulated, 217 
 
 green cut, 217 
 Booted shank, 69 
 Bourbon Red turkey, 541 
 Braekels, 41 
 Brahmas, Dark, 48 
 
 Light, 47 
 Bran, 209 
 Brassiness, 64 
 Bread crumbs, 316 
 Breaking up broodiness, 339 
 Breeding, aim in, 372 
 
 capacity, 378 
 
 color tests, 380 
 
 conduct, 382 
 
 cross, 374 
 
 depth of abdomen, 378 
 
 heavy-laying strain, 377 
 
 hybrids, 374 
 
 importance of male, 382 
 
 late molters, 382 
 
 line, 372 
 
 Maine experiment, 385 
 
 mongrels, 376 
 
 naked truths, 387 
 
 number of males required, 
 385 
 
 579 
 
580 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Breeding, out-, 373 
 
 pelvic bones, 378 
 
 prepotency, 384 
 Brewers' grains, 212 
 Broiler plant, 129 
 Broilers, squab, 351 
 Bronchitis, 478 
 Bronze turkey, 540 
 Brooders, careless operation, 298 
 
 colony, 301 
 
 common defects in, 298 
 
 fireless, 300 
 
 fuel for, 306 
 
 hot water, 300 
 
 houses, 307 
 
 hovers, individual, 301 
 
 stoves, 303 
 
 thermometer, 310 
 Broodiness, 339 
 
 coops for breaking up, 345 
 
 loss of plumage in, 344 
 
 time lost in, 343 
 Brooding, artificial, 295 
 
 hover breaking, 310 
 
 methods of, 299 
 
 requirements of, 298 
 
 systems, 296 
 Broody hen coop, 141 
 Broom corn seed, 201 
 Buckeyes, 61 
 Buckwheat, 200 
 
 bran, 212 
 
 middlings, 212 
 Buff turkey, 542 
 Building construction, 109 
 Bulky food, need for, 207 
 Bumble foot, 479 
 Business principles, 82 
 Buttercups, Sicilian, 81 
 By-products, poultry, 445 
 
 C 
 
 Cabbage, 229 
 
 Cabinet, egg, revolving, 260 
 Calluses, corns, 479 
 Calomel, 475 
 Camphor, spirits of, 475 
 Campines, 38 
 Canadian geese, 531 
 Canker, 480 
 Cannibalism, 324 
 Capacity, abdominal, 378 
 Caponizing, 358 
 
 Caponizing, best breeds for, 361. 
 dressing capons, 362 
 instruments, 363 
 losses, 368 
 operation, 364 
 slips, 369 
 
 Carbohydrates, 191 
 
 Carbolated vaseline, 475 
 
 Carneaux pigeon, 565 
 
 Castor oil, 474 
 
 Castration, 358 
 
 Catarrh, 480 
 
 Catching hook, 162 
 
 Cellar, incubator, 243 
 
 Cement floors, 119 
 
 Census, poultry, 1910, 3 
 
 Chalaza, 395 
 
 Charcoal, 221 
 
 Chart of poultry production, 4 
 
 Chicken pox, 480 
 
 Chickens, origin of, 1 
 
 composition of, 186 
 
 Chicks, care of, 325 
 
 destroy dead bodies, 333 
 essentials to health, 322 
 feeds for, 312 
 growth of, 313 
 habits, bad, 323 
 learning to eat, 315 
 on range, 325 
 over-crowding, 326 
 over-feeding, 313 
 rations for, 321 
 runs and yards, 131 
 scavengers, 333 
 scratch grains for, 318 
 unlimited feed, 328 
 water for, 322 
 
 Chinese geese, 531 
 
 Cholera, 480 
 
 Cleanliness, 132 
 
 Clipping wings, 469 
 
 Clover, pasture, 227 
 
 short cut, 223 
 
 Coal ashes, 517 
 
 Cochins, 49 
 
 Cockerels, fattening, 349 
 surplus, 347 
 
 Cold storage eggs, 436 
 
 Colds, 480 
 
 Colony brooders, 301 
 
 Color breeding tests, 380 
 
 Colored Egyptian geese, 532 
 
 Composite birds, 63 
 
INDEX 
 
 581 
 
 Composition of eggs, 256 
 Concrete floors, 119 
 Condiments, 221 
 Conditioning show birds, 460 
 Contagious diseases, 471 
 Cooker, feed, 183 
 Cooling eggs, 254 
 Coop, broody hen, 141 
 Corn-and-cob-meal, 211 
 Corn feed, 197 
 
 meal, 210 
 Cornell rations, 196 
 Cornish fowls, 75 
 Cottonseed meal, 212 
 Cow peas, 201 
 Cracked peas, 223 
 Cramming, 350 
 Crate fattening, 350 
 Cremating dead fowls, 338 
 Crested fowls, 70 
 Crevecoeurs, 37, 69 
 Crop bound, 480, 486 
 
 location and function, 486 
 Cross-breeding, 374 
 Crowding chicks, 326 
 Crows, 325 
 Crude fiber, 191 
 
 oil, 5H 
 Curtain frames, 124 
 Custom hatching, 270 
 Cutter, bone, 181 
 
 hay, 182 
 
 vegetable, 182 
 
 D 
 
 Dampness, effects of, 117 
 
 Dark Brahmas, 48 
 
 Day-old chicks, 270 
 
 advantages to beginners, 275 
 appeal to farmers, 280 
 custom hatching, 270 
 development of industry, 
 
 270 
 few complaints, 281 
 guarantees, 282 
 hatcheries, 272 
 mortality, 279 
 objections to, 280 
 origin of industry, 271 
 pet shop trade, 279 
 shipping methods, 277 
 specialization, 274 
 
 Depluming mites, 483 
 
 Design of houses, 109 
 Destroying dead bodies, 333 
 Detention coop, 473 
 Devices for doors and gates, 153 
 Diagnosis of disease, 471 
 Diarrhea, 480, 502 
 Diet, controlling, 208 
 Digestible nutrients, 184 
 Digestive organs, 392 
 Dirt floor, 118 
 Diseases, 471 
 Disinfectants, 476, 516 
 Dislocation, killing by, 547 
 Doctoring poultry, 471 
 Dominiques, 61 
 Doors, 125 
 
 checks for, 160 
 
 devices for, 153 
 
 early-rising, 155 
 
 rat-proof, 158 
 
 securing stake for, 163 
 
 self-closing, 160 
 Dorkings, 67 
 Double matings, 41 
 Double-yolk eggs, 391 
 Drainage, in 
 Dressing poultry, 354 
 Dried blood meal, 217 
 Drinking vessels, 144 
 Drones, 96 
 
 Dropping-boards, 134 
 Droppings, care of, 445 
 Dry mash feeding, 206 
 Dry-picking poultry, 354 
 Dual-purpose breeds', 53 
 Dubbing game birds, 73 
 Ducks, breeding. of, 519 
 Dust bath, 143 
 Dusting sitting hens, 291 
 
 E 
 
 Early-rising door, 155 
 Economic factors, 16 
 Educational exhibitions, 457 
 Egg, bloom of, 395 
 
 bound, 394 
 
 breeds, 23 
 
 cells, 339, 390 
 
 determination of shape, 395 
 
 development, 266, 390 
 
 diagram of, sectional, 396 
 
 eating habit, 481 
 
 evaporation, 269 
 
582 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Egg, fertility, 259, 399 
 
 shell membrane, 395 
 shell texture, 396 
 shrinkage, 419 
 storage places, 408 
 testing, 263 
 trade terms, 424 
 wastage, 409 
 
 Eggs, abnormalities in, 402 
 blood clots in, 404 
 bloody, 404 
 body-held, 393 
 breakage of, 412 
 cabinet for hatching, 260 
 chalaza, 395 
 club plan of selling, 435 
 cold storage, 436 
 composition of, 186, 256, 401 
 construction of, 263 
 cooling hatching, 254 
 double-yolk, 391 
 embryology of, 263, 390 
 external influences on, 407 
 farm losses in, 421 
 freshness of hatching, 261 
 general store, 421 
 gravity test of, 409 
 heat losses in, 419 
 ideal type of, 259 
 infertile, 420 
 life germ in, 265 
 market grades of, 416 
 marketing practices, 400 
 middleman's charges, 426 
 ovary, 391 
 ovisac, 391 
 
 parcel post trade in, 433 
 prices on, 423 
 private trade in, 433 
 popular fallacies concerning, 
 
 264 
 preserving, 436 
 prolific power, 390 
 retailing troubles in, 428 
 selecting hatching, 256 
 signs of life in, 266 
 sterile hens, 390 
 tester, electric, 265 
 testers for, 268 
 turning hatching, 252 
 unscrupulous methods, 431 
 vitelline membrane, 397 
 vitellus, 398 
 water glass treatment of, 436 
 
 Egyptian geese, 532 
 Elements for success, 88 
 Emden geese, 529 
 English breeds, 61 
 Enteritis,' 481 
 Enterohepatitis, 478 
 Epsom salts, 474 
 Equipping poultry houses, 144 
 Exhibitions, poultry, 457 
 Export trade in eggs, 6 
 
 Fancier, 457 
 Farm poultry, 7 
 Fats, food, 189 
 Fattening crate, 352 
 
 methods, 349 
 Faverolles, 68 
 Favus, white comb, 482 
 Feather-eating habit, 482 
 
 pulling habit, 491 
 Feathers, by-products, 452 
 
 drying and curing, 455 
 
 goose, 537 
 
 value of, 456 
 Feed, alfalfa, shredded, 222 
 
 animal, 215 
 
 ash, 188 
 
 barley, 199 
 
 beet pulp, 223 
 
 beets, 229 
 
 bills, 98 
 
 bins, 179 
 
 bran, 209 
 
 broom corn seed, 201 
 
 buckwheat, 200 
 bran, 212 
 
 cabbage, 229 
 
 carbohydrates in, 191 
 
 charcoal, 221 
 
 clover, 223 
 
 composition of, 189 
 
 condimental, 221 
 
 cooker, 183 
 
 corn, 197 
 
 -and-cob meal, 211 
 meal, 210 
 
 cottonseed meal, 212 
 
 cow peas, 201 
 
 cracked peas, 223 
 
 digestibility of, 185 
 
 dried blood, 217 
 
 fats in, 189 
 
INDEX 
 
 583 
 
 Feed, fiber in, 191 
 
 field peas, 201 
 fish scrap, 218 
 flour, 210 
 gluten, 211 
 
 meal, 211 
 granulated bone, 217 
 green, 215 
 
 cut bone, 217 
 grit, 234 
 ground barley, 212 
 
 oats, 212 
 hominy chop, 211 
 
 meal, 211 
 houses, 175 
 kafir corn, 201 
 linseed meal, 212 
 meat scrap, 215 
 middlings, wheat, 210 
 milk, 219 
 
 albumen, 218 
 
 granulated, 218 
 
 whey, 220 
 millet, 202 
 milo maize, 201 
 mineral, 232 
 mixer, power, 181 
 mixing, 180 
 nutrients in, 190 
 oats, 198 
 oil meal, 212 
 onions, 229 
 oyster shells, 234 
 palatability of, 185 
 potatoes, 231 
 protein, 187 
 rice, 200 
 rye, 200 
 salt, 220 
 screenings, 197 
 shorts, 210 
 sorghum seed, 201 
 soy beans, 201 
 sprouted oats, 231 
 storage, 178 
 succulent, 224 
 sunflower seed, 202 
 Swiss chard, 229 
 tankage, 217 
 vegetables, 231 
 waste fruits, 23 1 
 wheat, 193 
 Feeders, automatic, 180 
 Feeding chicks, 312 
 
 Feeding, flour, 210 
 forced, 206 
 methods, 175 
 overhead track, 177 
 rations, Cal. Ex. Sta., 210 
 Cornell, 196 
 Ind. Ex. Sta., 227 
 Maine Ex. Sta., 206 
 N. J. Ex. Sta., 205 
 S. C. Ex. Sta., 211 
 Storrs, Conn., 220 
 records, 104 
 simplicity, 175 
 
 Females, number to one male, 385 
 
 Fencing, 126 
 
 Fertility in eggs, 399 
 
 Fertilizer formulas, hen manure, 451 
 
 Field peas, 201 
 
 Fifth toe, 67 
 
 Fireless brooders, 300 
 
 Fish scrap, 218 
 
 Flight feathers, 470 
 
 Flocks, large or small, 112 
 
 Floors, house, 118 
 
 Foodstuffs, grouping of, 193 
 
 Formalin for oats, 232 
 
 Foundations for poultry houses, 1 18 
 
 Framing poultry houses, 119 
 
 French breeds, 37 
 
 Frizzles, 80 
 
 Gallus bankiva, 3 
 Gaines, 72 
 
 bantams, 74 
 Gapes, worms, 482, 500 
 Gas tar, 475 
 Gastric juice, 207 
 Gate devices, 159 
 Geese, raising, 528 
 General-purpose breeds, 53 
 Gizzard, 493 
 
 action of, 207 
 Gluten, feed, 211 
 
 meal, 211 
 Going light, 477 
 Goslings, care of, 535 
 Grains, composition of, 189 
 Granulated bone, 217 
 Grasses for pasture, 228 
 Gravity test for eggs, 409 
 Gray African geese, 530 
 
 wild geese, 531 
 
584 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Green cut bone, 217 
 foods, 215 
 
 composition of, 225 
 Grit, 234 
 
 Growing stock, care of, 325 
 Guinea fowls, 554 
 
 H 
 
 Hamburgs, 35 
 Hatcheries, 272 
 Hatching, artificial, 235 
 
 natural, under hens, 283 
 Hay cutter, 182 
 Health, fowl, 471 
 Heat losses in eggs, 419 
 Heavy-laying strain, 376 
 Hen coops, 283 
 
 manure, 445 
 Homer pigeon, 564 
 Hominy chop, 211 
 Hook, catching, 162 
 Hoppers, mash, 144 
 
 plans for, 151 
 Houdans, 37 
 House, appliances, poultry, 144 
 
 artificial lighting of, 5.73 
 
 brooder, 307 
 
 cleanliness, 132 
 
 colony plan, in 
 
 construction of, 109 
 
 continuous, in 
 
 cost of, 112 
 
 curtain frames, 124 
 
 doors, 125 
 
 floors, 118 
 
 glass windows, 124 
 
 interior, 132 
 
 location of, 109 
 
 nests, 138 
 
 perches, 134 
 
 roofs, 116 
 
 size of, 114 
 
 warmth of, 113 
 
 windows, 124 
 Hover breaking, 310 
 Hovers, brooding, 301 
 Hybrids, 374 
 
 I 
 
 Icing dressed poultry, 357 
 Illness, indications of, 47 l 
 In-breeding, 372 
 Incubation, artificial, 235 
 
 Incubation, care of lamp, 246 
 
 cellar, 243 
 
 cooling eggs, 254 
 
 gas heater, 249 
 
 heat control, 248 
 
 loading trays, 251 
 
 moisture, 238 
 
 records of, 101 
 
 regulating flame, 247 
 
 selecting hatching eggs, 256 
 
 temperature, 239 
 
 thermometer, 240 
 
 turning eggs, 252 
 Incubation, natural, 283 
 
 best sitters, 288 
 
 dusting sitters, 291 
 
 feeding sitters, 292 
 
 privacy, 284 
 
 quarters for hens, 289 
 
 sitting hens, 283 
 
 stolen nests, 283 
 
 testing sitters, 288 
 
 vermin, 284 
 Incubators, erection of, 244 
 
 leveling, need for, 241 
 
 makes of, 236 
 
 mammoth, 237 
 
 oil machines, 236 
 Indian Runner ducks, 523 
 Indigestion, 482 
 Infertile eggs, 420 
 Information on breeding, 99 
 Instruments for caponizing, 363 
 Interior of buildings, 132 
 Intestinal worms, 495 
 Investment in buildings, 109 
 
 Japanese fowls, 80 
 Javas, 60 
 Jersey Blues, 34 
 Johnny-cake, recipe for, 317 
 
 K 
 
 Kafir corn, 201 
 Killing methods, 354 
 
 Labor-saving, 109 
 
 La Fleche fowls, 37, 69 
 
 Lakenvelders, 28 
 
 Lamp, incubator, 246 
 
 Lamps for artificial lighting, 573 
 
INDEX 
 
 585 
 
 Land suitable for poultry, in 
 
 Langshans, 51 
 
 Laws of breeding, 372 
 
 Lay bones, 378 
 
 Laying houses, 109 
 
 Leaks, business, 95 
 
 Leg bands, 101 
 
 Leghorns, 25 
 
 Leg-weakness, 482 
 
 Letters, business, imp N rtance of, 89 
 
 Lettuce, 224 
 
 Lice, 482, 509 
 
 powders, 513 
 Light Brahmas, 47 
 Lighting, artificial, 573 
 Limber neck, 482 
 Lime, 514 
 Line-breeding, 372 
 Linseed meal, 212 
 Litter for floors, 117 
 Litters, eggs in series, 339 
 Liver pills, 475 
 Long-tailed Yokohamas, 80 
 
 M 
 
 Magnesia, sulphate of, 475 
 Mail, importance of answering, 89 
 Maine breeding experiment, 385 
 Malays, 75 
 
 bantams, 78 
 Males, importance of, 382 
 
 number required, 385 
 Mammoth incubators, 244 
 Mange, 483 
 Mangel wurtzels, 229 
 Manure, 445 
 
 ■absorbent for, 449 
 
 acid phosphate, 449 
 
 formulas for crops, 451 
 
 kainit, 449 
 Marketing eggs, 400 
 Marking chicks, 102 
 
 poultry shipments, 357 
 Mash constituents, 208 
 
 hoppers, 144, 188 
 
 mixer, power, 182 
 Materials for buildings, 109 
 Meat breeds, 46 
 
 scrap, 215 
 
 guaranteed analysis, 
 
 216 
 testing, 216 
 Medical attendance, 471 
 Medicines, 474 
 
 Mediterranean class, 23 
 
 Mercantile Exchange, New York, 417 
 
 Mexican turkey, 539 
 
 Middlings, wheat, 210 
 
 Milk, albumen, 218 
 
 feeding, 219 
 
 for chicks, 317 
 
 granulated, 218 
 
 whey, 220 
 Millet seed, 202 
 Milo maize, 201 
 Mineral foods, 232 
 Minorcas, 29 
 Mites, 483, 509 
 Mixing feeds, 180 
 Moisture in incubators, 238 
 Molt, 344 
 Molters, late, 382 
 Mongrelism, 376 
 Mottled Anconas, 34 
 Muscovy ducks, 521 
 Muslin curtains, 124 
 
 N 
 
 Narragansett turkey, 540 
 Natural incubation, 283 
 Nests, batteries of, 171 
 
 construction of, 138 
 
 location of, 138 
 
 Maine trap, 171 
 
 single-compartment trap, 
 172 
 
 Storrs' trap, 167 
 
 trap, 166 
 
 two-compartment trap, 173 
 Nitrogen free extract, 191 
 
 in manure, 447 
 Nomenclature of fowls, 458 
 North American turkey, 539 
 Noted centres of production, 7 
 Nutrients, 190 
 Nutritive ratio defined, 184 
 Nux vomica, tincture of, 475 
 
 O 
 
 Oats, feed, 198 
 
 ground, 212 
 sprouted, 231 
 
 formalin, 232 
 mold, 232 
 rack for, 230 
 Ocellated turkey, 539 
 Oil meal, 212 
 
586 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Olive oil, 488 
 
 Onions, 229 
 
 Operation for caponizing, 364 
 
 for crop bound, 486 
 Organs, digestive, 392 
 
 reproductive, female, 390 
 Ornamental breeds, 70 
 Orpingtons, 61 
 Out-breeding, 373 
 Ovary, 391 
 
 Over-crowding chicks, 326 
 Overfeeding chicks, 313 
 Oviduct, 391 
 Oyster shells, 234 
 
 Packages, shipping, 93 
 
 Painting perches, 514 
 
 Parasites, 483, 509 
 
 Parcel post shipments, eggs, 433 
 
 Pasting-up in chicks, 483, 504 
 
 Pearl guineas, 556 
 
 Peas, feeding, 223 
 
 Pekin ducks, 519 
 
 Pelvic bones, 378 
 
 Pens, types of, 114 
 
 Perches, 132 
 
 Permanganate of potash, 476 
 
 Petaluma district, 2 
 
 Pigeons, 562 
 
 Plucking methods, 354 
 
 Plumping, 355 
 
 Plymouth Rocks, 53 
 
 Polish fowls, 70 
 
 Potatoes, 231 
 
 Poultry, aim of, 17 
 
 appliances, 144 
 
 breeds of, 1 
 
 business principles, 82 
 
 census 1910, 3 
 
 chart of production, 4 
 
 diseases, 471 
 
 distribution areas, 7 
 
 divisions, I 
 
 egg breeds, 23 
 
 export trade, 6 
 
 general discussion on, 16 
 
 general-purpose breeds, 53 
 
 house construction, 109 
 
 meat breeds, 46 
 
 ornamental breeds, 70 
 
 pasture, 126 
 
 place in animal kingdom, 1 
 
 Poultry remedies, 471 
 
 scope of industry, 3 
 Standard of Perfection, 11 
 standard varieties, 1 1 
 value of products, 5 
 weights of, 20 
 
 Poults, care of, 551 
 
 Preparing birds for exhibitions, 457 
 
 Prepotency, breeding, 384 
 
 Preserving eggs, 436 
 
 fence posts, 131 
 
 Prices on eggs and poultry, 6 
 
 Primary flight feathers, 470 
 
 Principles of breeding, 372 
 
 Printed matter, 88 
 
 Protein, 187 
 
 Publicity, 94 
 
 Pullets, growth of, 330 
 maturity, 331 
 
 Pure-bred fowls, 374 
 
 
 
 Qualifications of poultryman, 82 
 Quarters, roosting, 134 
 Quicklime, 333 
 Quinine, 475 
 
 R 
 
 Range, 325 
 
 Rape, 228 
 
 Rations, feeding for chicks, 312 
 
 for mature stock, 175 
 Rats, protection against, 158 
 Records, 95 
 Redcaps, 44 
 Red mites, 509 
 Remedies, poultry, 471 
 Reproductive organs, 390 
 Reputation, importance of, 91 
 Rhode Island Reds, 58 
 
 Whites, 60 
 Rice feed, 200 
 Road dust, 518 
 Rochelle salts, 474 
 Roofs, poultry buildings, 116 
 Roosting compartments, 132 
 
 curtains, 137 
 Rouen ducks, 525 
 Roup, 483 
 Runner ducks, 523 
 Running water, 144 
 
INDEX 
 
 587 
 
 Runt pigeons, 566 
 Rye feed, 200 
 
 Salt, 220 
 
 Scabies, 483 
 
 Scalding poultry, 354 
 
 Scaly leg, 485 
 
 Scope of poultry industry, 3 
 
 Scratch grains, 175 
 
 Screenings, 197 
 
 Secondary feathers, 470 
 
 Sections of a fowl, 458 
 
 Shade, 545 
 
 Shell boxes, 144 
 
 Shipping crates, exhibition, 467 
 
 dressed poultry, 357 
 Shorts, middlings, 210 
 Show place, 85 
 
 room, 457 
 Sicilian Buttercups, 81 
 Sickness, 471 
 Sign, advertising, 86 
 Silkies, 80 
 Sitting hens, 283 
 Skeleton of a fowl, 468 
 Skim milk, 219 
 Slate turkey, 542 
 Slips, caponizing, 369 
 Soil conditions, 1 11 
 Sore head, 485 
 Sorghum seed, 201 
 Soy beans, 201 
 Spanish, Black, 32 
 Sports, 63 
 
 Spraying disinfectants, 514 
 Squab broilers, 351 
 Squabs, pigeons, 562 t 
 Standard of Perfection, 11 
 Standard varieties, 1 1 
 Stapling netting, 130 
 Sterile hens, 390 
 Sticking and bleeding, 354 
 Stoves, brooder, 303 
 Stubs, 63 
 Success, 88 
 
 Succulence, green food, 224 
 Sultans, 72 
 Sumatras, 75 
 Sunflower seed, 202 
 Sunlight, importance of, 112 
 Surplus cockerels, 347 
 Swiss chard, 229 
 
 System of records, 96 
 
 of feeding, 175 
 
 Tankage, 217 
 
 Tapeworms, 496 
 
 Tar, gas, 475 
 
 Taste, poultryman's choice, 16 
 
 Tell-tale records, 107 
 
 Temperature of brooders, 304 
 
 of incubators, 239 
 Testicles, caponizing, 366 
 Testing hatching eggs, 263 
 
 marketing eggs, 409 
 Thermometer, incubator, 240 
 
 testing, 241 
 Thermostat, 238 
 Throw-backs, 63 
 Toe-marking, 103 
 Tonic, formula for, 476 
 Toulouse geese, 529 
 Trade-mark, 89 
 Training for exhibitions, 460 
 Trap nests, 166 
 Trays, loading incubator, 251 
 Turkeys, raising, 538 
 Turning eggs in incubation, 252 
 Turpentine, spirits of, 475 
 Types of pens, 1 14 
 
 U 
 
 Uniformity of eggs, 399 
 Unit of cost for protein, 187 
 U. S. Census, 1910, 3 
 Utility breeds, 16 
 
 Value of poultry, 5 
 Varieties, standard, 1 1 
 Vegetable cutter. 182 
 Vegetables for green food, 231 
 Vent gleet, 485 
 Ventilation of houses, 124 
 Vermifuge, 495 
 Vermin, 509 - 
 Vineland district, 7 
 Visitors on poultry plant, 86 
 Vitelline membrane, 397 
 Vitellus, 398 
 
588 
 
 INDEX 
 
 W 
 
 Walls, poultry house, 123 
 Washing show birds, 457 
 Wastage in eggs, 409 
 Water barrels, 149 
 
 fountains, 144 
 
 glass, 436 
 
 pipes, 147 
 
 supply, 145 
 
 trough system, 150 
 Web feathers, 470 
 Weights of fowls, 20 
 Wet mash, 206 
 Wheat as a poultry feed, 193 
 
 bran, 209 
 
 flour, 210 
 
 middlings, 210 
 
 screenings, 197 
 When to build, 117 
 Whey, milk, 220 
 
 White Aseels, 40 
 White-comb, favus, 482 
 White diarrhea, 485, 502 
 White-Faced Black Spanish, 32 
 White Holland turkeys, 541 
 Whitewashing, 514 
 Windows, 124 
 Wing bands, 103 
 Wings, clipping, 469 
 Wire netting, erecting, 126 
 Worms, 485, 495 
 Wyandottes, 56 
 
 Yards, base boards, 128 
 
 space required, 126 
 top rails, 128 
 
 Yokohamas, Long-tailed, 42, 80 
 
 Yolk, egg, 390 
 
 Young stock on range, 325 
 
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