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 COPYRIGHT DEPOSrT. 
 
SPIRAGO'S METHOD 
 
 OF 
 
 CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE 
 
 3 JHattual 
 
 FOR PRIESTS, TEACHERS, AND PARENTS 
 
 EDITED BY 
 THE RIGHT REV. S. G. MESSMER, D.D., D.C.L. 
 
 BISHOP OF GREEN BAY, WISCONSIN 
 
 | ) j 
 
 NEW YORK, CINCINNATI, CHICAGO 
 
 BENZIGER BROTHERS 
 
 PRINTERS TO THE HOLY APOSTOLIC SEE 
 
 1901 
 

 b'ft 
 
 imprimatur. 
 
 4< MICHAEL AUGUSTINE, 
 
 Archbishop of New York. 
 
 New York, April 6, 1901. 
 
 THE LIBRARY OF 
 ;*fc€>N(3RCS6 , ,. | '* 
 
 Twc*<5o*fca !Rfct(veo 
 
 'oct: \ *i§br 
 
 COPVRHSHT ENTRY 
 
 CLASS <X XXc N». 
 
 copy a 
 
 Copyright, 1901, by Benziger Brothers. 
 
TO THE MEMBERS 
 OF THE 
 
 SUNDAY-SCHOOL CONFERENCES 
 
 AT THE 
 
 Columbian Catfjoltc Skimmer J&rfjoal 
 Detroit, July, 1900 
 
 A FRIENDLY GREETING 
 FROM 
 
 THE EDITOR 
 
EDITOR'S PREFACE 
 
 The Rev. Francis Spirago, the author of this work, is 
 Professor of Religion at the Normal School in Trautenau, 
 Austria. Some time ago he published a popular explanation 
 of the Catechism (" Volkskatechismus "), which in a few 
 years had an astonishing sale. It was translated into Eng- 
 lish under the title "The Catechism Explained," and is very 
 popular with priests and lay catechists wherever English is 
 spoken. Last year Spirago published the " Handbuch der 
 Specialmethodic des Katholischen Religionsunterrichtes," 
 the present work. But as he tells us in his preface, it was 
 written nearly ten years ago, during which time he has kept 
 revising and improving the book, giving it the benefit of 
 ten years' experience in teaching Religion. He says fur- 
 ther, " I have endeavored to apply to religious instruction 
 the principles of modern pedagogics, which, on the whole, 
 have produced great results in the field of education." 
 
 In regard to the need of following a certain method 
 specially adapted to the teaching of Catholic truth to chil- 
 dren and other uninstructed persons, the author remarks : 
 "Religious instruction closely resembles the practice of 
 medical science. We pity the man who would enter upon 
 a course of healing diseases totally heedless of the advice 
 of practical and able physicians and the experience of past 
 centuries. Still more would we pity the patients falling 
 into the hands of such a quack whose maxim is : Experi- 
 ment is better than study. What applies to physicians and 
 the care of the body likewise holds good for the teacher 
 of religion and the care of the souls of the young. It is 
 
 5 
 
6 Editor s Preface 
 
 therefore a duty incumbent on every Catechist to acquire 
 the knowledge provided by the accumulated counsels of 
 able teachers and the experience of many centuries in the 
 province of religious instruction." The necessity for Cate- 
 chists to be properly acquainted with certain principles and 
 rules to be followed in teaching Christian Doctrine has 
 always been recognized in the Church. While ail instruc- 
 tion of whatever kind is necessarily governed by some gen- 
 eral principles, there are special principles which apply either 
 exclusively or at least more widely to the teaching of some 
 particular branch of knowledge. These principles, when 
 applied, constitute the method of teaching. What may be 
 the correct and appropriate method of teaching depends 
 on the nature of the matter to be taught, on the aim and 
 purpose to be attained, and on the character and capabil- 
 ity of the person to be instructed. Other principles gov- 
 ern historic instruction, others, mathematical instruction, 
 others again the teaching of physical, others that of meta- 
 physical and philosophic science. All educators are more- 
 over of one mind that the same method of teaching can not 
 be applied when teaching children and the ignorant as when 
 teaching the adult and the intelligent. Religion, which is 
 the highest and noblest branch of all knowledge given to 
 man, and at the same time the most highly speculative and 
 most directly practical science, differing from all other knowl- 
 edge in origin, objects, and aim, demands most assuredly 
 special principles and rules, a special method to be followed, 
 when it is taught to man. 
 
 The systematic treatise on this method, when applied 
 to the religious instruction of adults or grown people, is 
 usually called " Homiletics," also "The Theory and Method 
 of Preaching," or " Sacred Eloquence." When it refers to 
 the religious instruction of children, or of youth, or of 
 illiterate and uninstructed adults, it is called " Catechetics," 
 or the "Theory and Method of Catechizing," or also the 
 
Editor s Preface 7 
 
 " Method of Christian Doctrine." It might also be called 
 the "Method of the Catechism," inasmuch as the term 
 " Catechism " is being more generally used in our days by 
 English-speaking Catholics to indicate, not only the religious 
 text-book for the use of the children, written in the form 
 of questions and answers, but also the familiar instruction 
 or lesson explaining the book. Such was indeed the origi- 
 nal meaning of the Greek term " Katechismos," used in the 
 primitive Church to indicate the first and rudimentary in- 
 struction in Christian Doctrine given by word of mouth 
 (Katechein = to sound unto one, to speak to one) to the 
 converts from paganism or Judaism (perhaps in allusion to 
 i Cor. xiv. 19, Greek text). Hence "to catechize" meant 
 to teach the elementary and fundamental Christian truths 
 by way of simple and familiar oral instruction, usually given 
 in the form of questions and answers. While the term 
 "Catechism" is still universally used in the French lan- 
 guage to indicate this elementary religious instruction of 
 children, in other languages the term " Christian Doctrine " 
 has been more common, especially before Luther attempted 
 to appropriate the term " Catechism " for his book. The 
 Italians and Spaniards, retaining the ecclesiastical termi- 
 nology, simply call it "La Dottrina Cristiana," which is 
 literally the same as " Christenlehre " used by German 
 Catholics. We have preferred the title " Method of Chris- 
 tian Doctrine " as being more in harmony with the official 
 language of the Church. 
 
 As we shall often mention the term " Sunday-school," a 
 few remarks on the subject may not be out of place. 
 
 It is commonly claimed that the modern Sunday-school 
 owes its origin to Robert Raikes, the English printer, who 
 established his first Sunday-school at Gloucester, England, 
 in 1780. But the honor belongs to St. John La Salle, who 
 opened his "£cole Dominicale " at Paris in 1699, nearly a 
 hundred years before Raikes. Seeing that so many boys, 
 
8 Editor s Preface 
 
 engaged at work all the week, received no instruction, either 
 religious or secular, La Salle resolved to gather them on 
 Sundays, their only free day. With his brethren he taught 
 those boys from twelve to three o'clock the various secular 
 branches, among them geography, drawing, geometry, book- 
 keeping, and always closed the class with religious in- 
 struction or the catechism. This was really the first 
 Sunday-school of this kind in Europe. Later on the secular 
 instruction, as a feature of the Sunday-school, disappeared, 
 just as it happened with the Protestant system, and we now 
 understand by Sunday-school " a school for religious instruc- 
 tion on Sunday, more particularly the instruction of children 
 and youth" (Century Dictionary). Taken in this sense, the 
 first notice of a formal school class in Christian Doctrine on 
 Sunday is the programme published in May, 1557, for the 
 Jesuit college at Cologne, which orders the pupils of the 
 higher classes to attend instruction on the larger catechism 
 of Canisius every Sunday afternoon at four o'clock, while 
 the lower classes had to learn the smaller catechism of the 
 same author every Saturday at four o'clock p.m. 
 
 If by Sunday-school is simply meant the special cate- 
 chetic instruction given to children on Sundays and feast- 
 days, it is surprising, indeed, to hear from our latest ency- 
 clopaedias that Sunday-schools began only with the Protestant 
 Reformation. It betrays a stupendous ignorance of the 
 history of Christian Doctrine in the Catholic Church, when 
 McClintock's Cyclopaedia says in regard to the Middle Ages 
 that " hundreds of years then went by without any general 
 effort on the part of the Church for the religious instruction 
 of children." Several synods of the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries, in Hungary, France, and Italy, ordain that on 
 Sundays and feastdays parents shall bring their children 
 of from seven to fourteen years old to church in order to 
 be instructed in the Catholic faith. A similar ignorance is 
 shown by the same writer when he says of the times follow- 
 
Editor s Preface 9 
 
 ing the Reformation that " although in numerous instances 
 previously catechization had been practised on the Lord's 
 Day, . . . yet nothing like a general system of teaching the 
 young on Sundays, whether m secular or religious learning, 
 was known prior to 1780." This in the face of the Council 
 of Trent, St. Charles Borromeo, Popes Clement VIII., 
 Benedict XIII. and XIV., the numerous sodalities of Chris- 
 tian Doctrine, and the many provincial councils East and 
 West, who all repeated with one voice the old Catholic rule, 
 Teach the children the Christian Doctrine on Sundays and 
 feastdays. The Sunday-school, as a school of religious 
 instruction, belongs, name and all, to the Catholic Church. 
 We claim it with the same right that we claim the Catechism, 
 although Luther may have been the first to apply this name 
 to the particular text-book of Christian Doctrine. But the 
 book itself, the Catechism, is ours. According to the Ency- 
 clopaedia Britannica, " the earliest of the catechisms of this 
 Church {i.e. the Roman Catholic) appear to be that of Kero, 
 a monk of St. Gall, who lived in the eighth century, and 
 that which is ascribed to Olfried, a monk of Weissenburg in 
 the ninth century." We see no reason why.Catholics should 
 not use the term " Sunday-school " simply because it has 
 been more commonly used by Protestants than by Catholics. 
 If it be objected that the term implies the idea of teaching 
 religion by laymen, we reply that this is perfectly consistent 
 with Catholic Doctrine, as will be shown below on pp. 67 ff. 
 Thus while there is no valid objection to the term, it very 
 aptly serves to distinguish between the religious instruction 
 given to the children in the school on weekdays and that 
 given on Sundays to those who do not attend the Catholic 
 school. 
 
 It remains to state what our work has been in preparing 
 this American edition. When we examined the English 
 translation sent to us, it became at once evident that the 
 work needed a partial revision to make it more American, 
 
to Editor s Preface 
 
 i.e. adapted to the needs and wants of Catechists in Amer- 
 ica. Hence we have omitted some things well enough 
 suited to European conditions, but of no interest and of no 
 use to American readers. In their place American Councils 
 and writers have been laid under contribution, perhaps to a 
 greater extent than some critics would allow. In this our 
 object was to let better and more experienced men than 
 ourselves speak to the reader, and to show the haruiony and 
 concord of American Catholic educators with the catecheti- 
 cal tradition of the old Catholic world. If any further proof 
 were needed besides these frequent references to show that 
 the Catholics of America are fully alive to the necessity of 
 providing for their children a thorough and solid instruction 
 and training in Holy Religion, which is not to be confined 
 to the four church walls and is not to be intrusted to any 
 unskilled and inefficient teachers, no matter how pious and 
 well-intentioned, it is the fact that of late " Sunday-school 
 Conferences " have been made a regular feature of our 
 Catholic Summer Schools, where this important work in the 
 Church and the best methods of promoting it are discussed 
 with the greatest interest and a genuine Christian zeal by 
 priest and layman. Let us hope it is a revival in the United 
 States of the once great and powerful work of the " Chris- 
 tian Doctrine Sodalities " in Europe. The movement cer- 
 tainly deserves to be recorded in the annals of Christian 
 Doctrine in America. 
 
 American Catholics, at least the English-speaking, are for 
 more than one reason united in a bond of closer interest 
 and sympathy with their brethren of the faith in Canada, 
 England, and Ireland. The reader of the article on 
 " Church Legislation " and on Christian Doctrine in " The 
 Nineteenth Century " will not fail to see how the work of 
 Christian Doctrine with us and with them moves on har- 
 monious lines. 
 
 No apology need be made for the many references to 
 
Editor s Pi^eface 1 1 
 
 "The Ministry of Catechizing" by Bishop Dupanloup. 
 Translated from the original French, it is the only Catholic 
 standard work on this subject in the English language, a 
 work that, in our opinion, ought to be studied day and night 
 by every priest of the land called to exercise that great 
 ministry. It may not be possible, nor, perhaps, always 
 advisable, with us in America, to carry out exactly the rules 
 and wishes laid down by the zealous Bishop of Orleans. 
 Yet no Catechist, desirous of improving his work so as to 
 make it yield a richer harvest, can read Dupanloup's book 
 without learning the most useful lessons of catechetic prac- 
 tice, and rekindling in his heart the fire of an apostolic love 
 for his children, — the two indispensable requisites of a good 
 Catechist. We know of no other book in the English lan- 
 guage where the pernicious system, by which the Catechism 
 or Christian Doctrine is made a mere school task or memory 
 drill, is treated more unmercifully, or where the necessity 
 and method of making Catechism an education, a training 
 of mind and heart and character, is more clearly explained 
 and more urgently demanded. In several places of our 
 own little work we have tried to call attention to this all- 
 important point. For, we believe with the " Catholic 
 Bishop" who wrote those most opportune articles on "Our 
 Failures in Religious Education" {Ave Ma?ia, 1891, March 
 16 and May 25) that these failures are due in a very great 
 measure not so much to defective Catechisms, but to the 
 defective system and method followed in teaching Cate- 
 chism, especially to the neglect of a thorough cultivation 
 of religious sentiment and affections in the hearts of the 
 children. This applies, unfortunately, not only to lay Cate- 
 chists, but also to the clergy. 
 
 In this connection we do not hesitate to say that as far as 
 our information goes, too little attention is given to theo- 
 retical as well as practical " Catechetics " in our seminaries. 
 The desire expressed by our last Plenary Council in Balti- 
 
12 Editoi : s Preface 
 
 more (no. 173 and 201) that this science and art should 
 be taught in these institutions, becomes more urgent every 
 day. It is no presumption when the author and the editor 
 of this present work express their opinion that " it might 
 well be used as a text-book or manual in those institutions 
 where candidates for the priesthood and for the teacher's 
 profession are being educated." It is the only work of this 
 kind published in the United States. 
 
 Although the integral part of Spirago's original has been 
 retained, with but few exceptions, we have made so many 
 additions, short and long, that it became impracticable to 
 distinguish the editor's work from that of the author. How- 
 ever, we are willing to take the responsibility for every 
 statement made in the book. In two or three instances 
 where we differ from Spirago, both opinions are given. 
 
 Secondly, while we have followed substantially the origi- 
 nal arrangement of the matter, we have endeavored to put 
 a great many details and paragraphs into more logical 
 order, thereby avoiding needless repetitions found in the 
 German work. For this purpose we have subdivided the 
 chapters into articles and sections (A, B, C). 
 
 In sending forth this little volume our ardent desire is 
 that it may be another help to priests and laymen engaged 
 in the great ministry of catechizing, and that " Spirago's 
 Method " may, by the blessing of God, do as much good 
 for immortal souls as " Spirago's Catechism " has done and 
 is still doing. 
 
 * S. G. MESSMER. 
 
 Menominee Indian Reservation, 
 
 Keshena, Wis., 
 
 Corpus Christi, 1901. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. — CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE IN GENERAL 
 
 6. 
 
 Purpose and Aim . 
 Necessity and Importance 
 Modern Church Legislation 
 
 A. United States . 
 
 B. British Empire 
 Main Parts or Branches 
 
 A. Doctrinal Subjects . 
 
 B. Religious Practices . 
 The Catechetical Office 
 
 A. Its Excellence . 
 
 B. Its Officials . 
 Qualities of the Catechist 
 
 A. Moral Qualities 
 
 B. Intellectual Qualities 
 Conditions of Success . 
 Difficulties and their Remedies 
 
 PAGE 
 
 19 
 28 
 
 37 
 39 
 45 
 5o 
 5i 
 66 
 
 7i 
 7i 
 73 
 80 
 81 
 90 
 96 
 105 
 
 CHAPTER II. — THE COURSE OF CHRISTIAN DOC- 
 TRINE 
 
 1. General Principles 
 
 
 
 
 112 
 
 2. Bible History 
 
 
 
 
 119 
 
 3. Catechism 
 
 
 
 
 *33 
 
 4. Church History 
 
 
 
 
 143 
 
 5. Liturgy .... 
 
 
 
 
 148 
 
 6. Class Programmes . 
 
 
 
 
 155 
 
 A. Full Graded Schools 
 
 
 
 
 155 
 
 B. Smaller Schools 
 
 
 
 
 161 
 
 C. American Parochial Schools 
 
 
 
 163 
 
 D. Catholic Sunday-schools 
 
 
 
 
 170 
 
M 
 
 Contents 
 
 CHAPTER III. — THE MODE OF TEACHING 
 
 
 
 TIAN DOCTRINE 
 
 ART 
 I. 
 
 Qualities of the Instruction 
 
 
 A. 
 
 Perspicuity 
 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 Uniformity 
 
 
 
 
 
 C. 
 
 Psychological Fitness 
 
 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 Practicalness . 
 
 
 
 
 
 E. 
 
 Attractiveness . 
 
 
 
 
 
 F. 
 
 Ecclesiastical Spirit . 
 
 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Forms of Instruction . 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 The Lecture Form 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 The Question Form . 
 
 
 
 
 
 C. 
 
 The Object Form 
 
 
 
 
 3- 
 
 Stages of the Instruction 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 Bible History . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 l. Notice of the Subject 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. The Narration . 
 
 
 
 
 
 3. Repetition and Explanation 
 
 
 
 
 4. Exposition or Commentary 
 
 
 
 
 5. Practical Application 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 Catechism .... 
 
 1. Notice of the Subject 
 
 2. Development and Definition 
 
 3. Explanation 
 
 4. Argument or Proofs . 
 
 5. Practical Application . . 
 
 6. The Sixth Commandment . 
 
 
 
 C. 
 
 Church History and Liturgy 
 
 
 4- 
 
 Aids 
 
 to Instruction 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 Impression and Memorizing 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 Attention and Discipline . 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 Rewards and Punishments 
 
 
 5- 
 
 A Summary View 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 Correct Mode . 
 
 
 
 B. 
 
 Wrong Mode . 
 
 
 
 
 CHRIS- 
 
Contents 
 
 15 
 
 CHAPTER IV. — EDUCATIONAL TOOLS IN CHRIS- 
 TIAN DOCTRINE 
 
 ART. 
 I. 
 
 6. 
 
 Religious Pictures . 
 
 A. Educational Value . 
 
 B. Requisite Qualities . 
 
 C. Use in Class . 
 Wall Maps 
 
 The Blackboard 
 Text-books 
 The Catechism 
 
 A. Requisite Qualities . 
 
 B. Defects . 
 
 C. Catechetical Formulas 
 The Catholic Library . 
 
 A.. Selection of the Books 
 B. Use of the Books 
 
 302 
 302 
 308 
 310 
 
 3H 
 3i6 
 
 33 l 
 339 
 339 
 347 
 35o 
 358 
 360 
 366 
 
 2. 
 
 CHAPTER V. — PIOUS PRACTICES IN CHRIS- 
 TIAN DOCTRINE 
 Prayers 
 
 A. Educational Importance . 
 
 B. Forms of Prayer 
 
 C. Method of Teaching Prayer 
 Sacred Hymns 
 
 A. Educational Value and Use 
 
 B. Requisite Qualities . 
 
 3. The Holy Sacrifice of the Mass 
 
 A. Hearing Mass . 
 
 B. The Homily 
 
 C. Serving Mass . 
 
 4. First Holy Confession . 
 
 A. Educational Advantages . 
 
 B. Preparatory Instruction . 
 
 C. Main Parts of Confession 
 
 I. Examination of Conscience 
 
 37i 
 
 37i 
 374 
 380 
 3 88 
 388 
 
 395 
 
 400 
 400 
 410 
 
 414 
 419 
 419 
 422 
 
 427 
 427 
 
 II. Contrition and Purpose of Amendment 440 
 
i6 
 
 Contents 
 
 6. 
 
 III. Confession (The Accusation of Sins) 
 
 IV. Satisfaction (Penance) 
 D. External Circumstances . 
 
 First Holy Communion . 
 
 A. The Preparatory Instruction 
 
 B. The External Celebration 
 Holy Confirmation 
 
 445 
 447 
 448 
 45 2 
 45 2 
 463 
 467 
 
 CHAPTER VI. — HISTORICAL SKETCH OF CHRIS- 
 TIAN DOCTRINE 
 
 5- 
 
 The Messianic Days 
 
 A. Jesus Christ .... 
 
 B. The Apostles .... 
 The Ancient Church . 
 
 A. The Catechumens 
 
 B. Celebrated Catechists 
 
 The Middle Ages .... 
 
 A. Character of the Instruction 
 
 B. Celebrated Teachers . 
 Modern Times .... 
 
 A. Modes and Agents of Instruction 
 Catechetic Writers . 
 
 1. Method of Catechising 
 
 2. Catechisms 
 Nineteenth Century 
 Various Tendencies . 
 European Continental Writers . 
 American and English Writers 
 
 B. 
 
 The 
 A. 
 B. 
 C. 
 
 Appendix 
 Index . 
 
 The Catechist's Library . 
 
 476 
 47S 
 483 
 487 
 487 
 498 
 5°4 
 5°4 
 5ii 
 5i7 
 5i7 
 524 
 524 
 532 
 539 
 539 
 546 
 556 
 
 569 
 579 
 
SPIRAGO'S METHOD OF CHRISTIAN 
 DOCTRINE 
 
Spirago's Method of Chris- 
 tian Doctrine 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE IN GENERAL 
 
 Art. i. — Purpose and Aim 1 
 
 What the purpose and aim of all religious 
 instruction must be follows clearly from the 
 nature of Religion itself, which in its full sense 
 is not merely the knowledge of God and His 
 holy will, but also a divine worship and a con- 
 duct of life in accordance with that knowledge. 
 Consequently the aim of Christian Doctrine 
 must be twofold, namely, to impart Christian 
 knowledge and to instil Christian life ; it is not 
 instruction only, but above all education. 4l In- 
 struction provides the mind with the knowledge 
 of certain things ; education lifts up the whole 
 soul. Instruction addresses itself directly only 
 
 1 Dupanloup, pp. I ff. Lambing, pp. I ff., 26 ff. Irish Eccl. 
 Record, 1893, pp. 150 ff. This splendid article on "The Nature of 
 Catechistic Work " is also found in the appendix to Gerson's beautiful 
 little book. 
 
 19 
 
20 Christian Doctrine 
 
 to the understanding; education forms at the 
 same titne the understanding, the heart, the 
 character, and the conscience. . . . To do 
 the work of the Catechism, then, is not only to 
 teach children Christianity; it is to educate them 
 in Christianity " (Dpi. p. 2). " The question is 
 not only how to instruct or how to make re- 
 ligion understood ; but how to touch souls, to 
 convert them, to make them love God and 
 Jesus Christ; how to root out all the evil in- 
 clinations of these young hearts and to sow in 
 them the seeds of all virtues; how to inspire 
 them with a horror of evil and with the love of 
 good. This is the end always to be kept in 
 view " {Id. p. 1 26). 
 
 1. Children must be led to the knowledge 
 of God. This is done when the Catechist 
 makes known to the children the truths of 
 faith revealed by God. It would, however, 
 be a mistake on the Catechist s part to attach 
 the main importance to an exact knowledge 
 and rehearsing of the words of the Catechism. 
 
 Of course, importance must be attached to 
 correctness and precision of expression, like- 
 wise to exact definitions, for without these an 
 exact and clear conception of the subject is im- 
 possible. A knowledge of the words is, never- 
 theless, not the principal thing, since it is quite 
 possible to express one and the same thought 
 
Christian Doctrine 21 
 
 in different ways. Religion must not be con- 
 fined within the narrow limits of the letter, 
 since Christ Himself declares it to be " spirit 
 and life" (John vi. 64). Christ said to the 
 Samaritan woman, " God is a Spirit, and they 
 that adore Him must adore Him in spirit and 
 in truth " (John iv. 24). And St. Paul says, 
 " The letter killeth, but the spirit quickeneth " 
 (2 Cor. iii. 6). It would be degrading rational 
 beings were nothing further required of them 
 than is required of parrots, which can learn to 
 repeat certain words without knowing the mean- 
 ing of what they say. 
 
 (a) The Catechist must therefore strive, first 
 of all, to make the children grasp the sense of 
 the words and understand the truths of faith. 
 
 St. Augustine says, " The best way to teach 
 is this : to make the listener hear the truth, and 
 understand what he hears." For this reason 
 the Catechist must avoid as far as possible all 
 dry lecturing, and make his teaching as plain 
 and perspicuous as possible, so that the children 
 may, so to speak, see the dogmas with their very 
 eyes. This was Our Lord's manner of teach- 
 ing ; He spoke in parables and pithy sentences. 
 Hence it was that the people came to Him in 
 crowds and listened for whole days to His 
 words. If He had discoursed in a dry and 
 uninteresting manner, His words would have 
 
22 Christian Doctrine 
 
 wearied the people, and they would soon have 
 gone away. 
 
 In order that the children may understand the 
 truths of faith, the Catechist must adapt himself 
 to their capacity and put himself on a level with 
 them ; this is done by using simple and every- 
 day expressions and short sentences. Scholas- 
 tic and technical terms used in theology are to 
 be avoided as much as possible in school in- 
 struction. Hence it is not without reason that 
 St. Paul calls early religious instruction " the 
 giving of milk" (i Cor. iii. 2). 
 
 (b) Again, this knowledge and understanding 
 of the truths of religion alone does not suffice ; 
 the Catechist must train his scholars to a lively 
 and energetic faith, and for this reason he must 
 seek to convince them of the truth of the 
 doctrines of faith. 
 
 If nothing further is required from the chil- 
 dren than a mere belief on the authority of the 
 teacher, they are liable later on to allow them- 
 selves only too easily to be shaken in their faith 
 on the authority of other men. The children 
 must be told to believe upon the authority of 
 God, speaking to us through Holy Church, in 
 whose name the Catechist now instructs them. 
 In order to convince children that God has 
 spoken and revealed to us the doctrines of our 
 holy faith, the Catechist must bring forward 
 
Christian Doctrine 23 
 
 evidences ; for example, the utterances of Our 
 Lord, the definitions of the Church and her 
 universal belief, facts from Bible History. See 
 the excellent remarks by Schuech, pp. 264 ff. 
 (See below, Ch. 111. pp. 252 ff.) 
 
 Moreover, he must bring into his class relig- 
 ious practices, " acts of religion," more espe- 
 cially acts of faith. For instance, in treating of 
 the doctrine of Our Lord's Divinity, he will let 
 the children stand up, and say with joined 
 hands and looking at the crucifix, " We believe, 
 Lord Jesus Christ, that Thou art the Son of 
 God." It is by means of such acts of faith that 
 man corresponds with the grace of God, and 
 gains more easily that clear insight and convic- 
 tion which is necessary to faith, according to 
 the words of St. Augustine, " I believe, that I 
 may understand." By introducing acts of relig- 
 ion, religious instruction becomes in a meas- 
 ure religious worship. (See pp. 66 ff.) 
 
 2. But mere knowledge of and belief in relig- 
 ion, however reasonable, is worthless before 
 God, according to the words of St. Paul : " If I 
 should have prophecy, and should know all 
 mysteries and all knowledge, and if I should have 
 all faith, so that I could remove mountains, and 
 have not charity, I am nothing " (1 Cor. xiii. 2). 
 
 What would it avail to know, for instance, 
 what contrition is, and vet to be without it ? 
 
24 Christian Doctrine 
 
 For this reason Thomas a Kempis says : " I 
 would rather feel compunction than know its 
 definition " (Bk. I. ch. i. n. 3). Hirscher rightly 
 says : " He who believes the fundamental truths 
 of Christianity and bears in his heart the senti- 
 ments of a true Christian, though perhaps less 
 in the sight of man, is greater before God than 
 one who can answer the hundred questions of the 
 Catechism and is devoid of a living faith. " There- 
 fore a Catechist who would attach importance 
 to learned words rather than to understanding 
 and heartfelt conviction, would be like a father 
 giving a stone to his child who asked for bread 
 (Luke xi. 11). 
 
 Hence, children must be led on to a conduct 
 of life in accordance with God's will. For this 
 reason the Commandments of God must be 
 made known and explained to them. The 
 knowledge of the Commandments is all-impor- 
 tant. Even the Romans had a saying : l< The 
 will can not desire that of which the mind has 
 no knowledge." Yet the bare knowledge of 
 the Commandments and their respective defini- 
 tions is not in itself sufficient. What would it 
 profit a boy to know a learned definition of 
 theft, if notwithstanding he steal ? What he 
 needs besides the definition is a real horror 
 of theft and a firm purpose never to steal. It 
 is the same here as in teaching arithmetic. 
 
Christian Doctrine 25 
 
 What good will it do the children to know the 
 meaning of numbers, of addition and subtrac- 
 tion, and yet to be unable to solve the simplest 
 problem? The knowledge of the precept or 
 the rule is, as it were, the shell, but the carry- 
 ing out of the precept is the kernel. 
 
 Referring to 1 Tim. i. 5, " Now the end of the 
 commandment is clearly from a pure heart and 
 a good conscience and an unfeigned faith," 
 St. Augustine (ch. 111. n. 6) says that not only 
 ought our own eye to be kept fixed on that end 
 in all things, and all that we utter be made to 
 refer to it ; " but in like manner ought the gaze 
 of the person whom we are instructing by our 
 utterance to be moved toward the same, and 
 guided in that direction." And he concludes 
 with the well-known words : " Take this love, 
 therefore, as the end that is set before you, to 
 which you are to refer all that you say, and 
 whatever you narrate, narrate it in such a man- 
 ner that he to whom you are discoursing, on 
 hearing may believe, on believing may hope, on 
 hoping may love " (ch. iv. n. 8). 1 
 
 But as the practice of religion is a matter of 
 the will, the Catechist must seek to turn the 
 children's will toward good and to restrain it 
 from evil. (See the beautiful remarks of Schuech, 
 
 1 Reference is thus made to St. Augustine's work : " On the Cate- 
 chizing of the Uninstructed." 
 
26 Christian Doctrine 
 
 pp. 275 ff.) While it is important to remember 
 that " it is with the will that man serves the 
 Creator, not with the feelings " (Lbg. p. 27), yet 
 the Catechist must arouse in the children those 
 feelings and affections which serve to move the 
 will in the right direction. This is mainly done 
 by bringing forward motives, i.e., reasons to 
 move the will. (See Ch. in., pp. 260 ff.) The 
 Catechist points to the will of God and the good 
 or evil consequences of an act. He should 
 further show the beauty of virtue by means of 
 examples which exercise a powerful influence 
 on the young mind. Other examples wisely 
 chosen may bring before the children the ugli- 
 ness of sin and fill them with a horror of vice. 
 The proverb, " Example teaches better than pre- 
 cept," finds its application here. Pope Gregory 
 the Great says explicitly : " The greater part 
 of mankind is moved to desire after heavenly 
 goods more by example than by reasoning." 
 It is by means of examples that desires, appe- 
 tites, and the creature's imitative instincts are 
 stimulated. Here, again, the Catechist must 
 introduce acts of religion. For instance, the 
 children make the solemn promise to keep, for 
 the future, the Commandment in question. 
 After the Fourth Commandment has been 
 treated of, the children might stand up and say, 
 with joined hands and looking at the crucifix : 
 
Christian Doctrine 27 
 
 ki Lord Jesus, we promise always to honor our 
 parents. Help us to carry out this resolution." 
 St. Francis Xavier, the Apostle of the Indies, 
 acted in this manner when instructing the 
 heathen, and obtained very great results. (See 
 below, Ch. in. pp. 238 ff., 264 ff.) 
 
 3. Children must further be instructed in all 
 concerning the worship of God, especially prayer, 
 the Holy Mass, and the Sacraments. 
 
 Here again mere instruction is not sufficient. 
 The Catechist must lead the children on to the 
 use of the above means of grace provided by 
 the Church. To teach religion without teach- 
 ing the practice of it, is like attempting to 
 train an organist by mere instruction, without 
 letting the pupil exercise upon the instrument. 
 In giving religious instruction the Catechist 
 must not be like a lifeless finger-post which 
 points out the way, it is true, but does not go 
 itself. " Be very certain that nothing which you 
 put only into the mind of your children will 
 remain there, unless you lay a foundation of 
 Christian practices in their life. . . . Theory, 
 for children above all, goes for nothing; prac- 
 tice is everything. With practice instruction 
 will be remembered ; without it, it will be as 
 flowing water" (Dpi. p. 196). 
 
 Religious instruction must £0 hand in hand 
 with religious education. The Catechist must 
 
28 Christian Doctri. 
 
 ne 
 
 be at once a teacher and an educator. Relig- 
 ious education is more important than religious 
 instruction, yet this latter is not to be under- 
 valued, for it is, so to say, the root. If the root 
 be not good, the stem which, in this case, is edu- 
 cation, must suffer on that account. Here we 
 may apply Our Lord's words : " Do these things, 
 and do not leave those undone " (Matt, xxiii. 23). 
 
 Art. 2. — Necessity and Importance x 
 
 We are not concerned with the necessity and 
 importance of the Christian religion for man in 
 general. The question here is, whether it is 
 important, nay, positively necessary, that chil- 
 dren, the young, should from their early years 
 be taught the knowledge of God and trained 
 in His holy service. 
 
 The French philosopher and freethinker, 
 Rousseau, maintained that religion should be 
 completely banished from the education of 
 youth ; only when they have arrived at a more 
 mature age should young persons be helped to 
 find the true religion. His impious and foolish 
 doctrine has found a host of defenders ever 
 since it appeared. 
 
 But the Church of God and the sound com- 
 mon sense of mankind have always and strongly 
 
 1 Sch. pp. 200 ff. ; Lbg. pp. 4 ff. ; Dpi. pp. 266 ff. 
 
Christian Doctrine 29 
 
 maintained the contrary. The history of Chris- 
 tian Doctrine in the Catholic Church (see Ch. vi.) 
 and the Church's positive and strict laws in this 
 regard (see Art. 3, pp. 37 ff.), prove the truth of 
 Dupanloup's remark : " There has never been 
 any change in the Church as to the necessity 
 and the incalculable benefit of the Catechism, 
 understood and practised as we have just de- 
 scribed " (p. 14). Says Lambing (p. 6), "The 
 spirit of the Church has ever been that of her 
 Divine Founder. For this reason she has 
 always regarded the young with the most ten- 
 der solicitude. . . . Her bishops, popes, and 
 councils have not thought it beneath their dig- 
 nity to pay the most scrupulous attention to 
 whatever relates to the religious training of the 
 young." At no time has the Church more 
 loudly proclaimed the absolute necessity of 
 Christian Doctrine for the young, than since 
 the pernicious principle of Rousseau has shaped 
 the policy of modern States in regard to popu- 
 lar education by introducing the so-called " neu- 
 tral " or " unsectarian " school. Nor has she 
 spoken less clearly and powerfully in these 
 United States of America. From the time 
 when Bishop Carroll, in the first diocesan 
 synod ever held in this land (Baltimore, 1 791), 
 admonished the pastors " to use every effort in 
 order to have the children properly taught in 
 
30 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Christian Doctrine before they made their first 
 communion," until the Third Plenary Council of 
 Baltimore (1885) published its ample decrees 
 on " The Catholic Education of Youth " (pp. 99 
 ff.) and on "The Catechism" (p. 118), it has 
 been the one cry : teach your children the truth 
 and the practice of our holy faith. The grand re- 
 sponse of the Catholic American people in rais- 
 ing and supporting at immense cost a splendid 
 system of Catholic schools shows how clearly 
 and deeply they realize the absolute necessity 
 of Christian Doctrine for children. 
 
 That religious instruction should begin with 
 little children is clear from the following 
 reasons : — 
 
 (a) Experience teaches that the young grow- 
 ing up without it become coarse and unre- 
 strained, and are remarkable for the number of 
 their crimes. When religious instruction was 
 done away with in France, there was a striking 
 increase in the number of youthful criminals. 
 Count Portalis accounted for it in this way : 
 " With the abolition of religious instruction the 
 idea of right and wrong has disappeared ; our 
 children become vagabonds and robbers, our 
 morals become fierce and barbarous." The Bel- 
 gian patriot Ducpeteaux declares : " Whoever 
 has occupied himself with the examination of 
 criminals has also found ample opportunity of 
 
Christian Doctrine 31 
 
 proving that the worst amongst them are those 
 who are possessed of some knowledge, but have 
 had no religious education." 
 
 (b) In youth man is more easily impressed by 
 moral lessons and led to a moral way of living 
 than in later years. The child's mind is like 
 wax, which easily receives any impression and 
 can be moulded at will. Through early relig- 
 ious instruction a firm foundation is laid for 
 the whole life. The good lessons and habits of 
 youth do not disappear so easily, thus showing 
 the truth of the popular proverb, " As the boy, 
 so the man." The Bible says : " A young man 
 according to his way, even when he is old, he 
 will not depart from it" (Prov. xxii. 6). 
 
 Religious instruction would be of little or no 
 avail if it were delayed until mature age, for 
 then the maxim would find its fulfilment, 
 " What we do not learn in youth, we never 
 learn." Then evil inclinations, which blunt the 
 perceptions, are already deeply rooted ; man is 
 affected with prejudices ; moreover, the cares of 
 life step in and hinder him from attending to 
 his religious education. It is as difficult to 
 reform a grown-up person by means of relig- 
 ious instruction as to bend a full-grown tree. 
 
 Seneca, the philosopher, says, " It is easy to 
 guide tender minds, but very difficult to root 
 up vices which have grown up with us." And 
 
32 Christian Doctrine 
 
 the heathen Ouintilian says : " The young must 
 be trained and educated, for once evil has taken 
 root, one can easier break than bend." " You 
 must use all diligence that your children be 
 instructed at an early age in the saving truths 
 of religion" (V. Prov. C. Bait, 1843). "Few, 
 surely, will deny that childhood and youth are 
 the periods of life when the character ought 
 especially to be subjected to religious influ- 
 ences " (III. Plen. C. Bait., Past. Letter). 
 
 (c) Man consists of soul and body. It would, 
 therefore, be a mistake to neglect the needs of 
 the soul, which are relieved by religion. One 
 must sooner or later pay the penalty of such a 
 one-sided education. " Every day's experience 
 renders it evident that to develop the intellect 
 and store it with knowledge, while the heart 
 and its affections are left without the control of 
 religious principle sustained by religious prac- 
 tices, is to mistake the nature and object of 
 education, as well as to prepare for parent and 
 child the most bitter disappointment in the 
 future, and for society the most disastrous re- 
 sults " (Pastoral II. Plen. C. Bait, 1866). 
 
 The pedagogue William Pfeifer opposes the 
 theory of Rousseau in the following manner: 
 " We protest against it in the name of Peda- 
 gogy, which, in losing religious instruction, 
 would lose the sun from its day and the pearl 
 
Christian Doctrine 33 
 
 from the subjects of instruction ; it would surren- 
 der the greatest and most valuable means of 
 discipline." 
 
 (d) Religious instruction most of all con- 
 duces to the religious and moral education of 
 the young. Whilst other subjects of instruc- 
 tion in the school train rather the understand- 
 ing of the child, religious instruction is directed 
 chiefly toward ennobling the child's mind and 
 will, and leading him on to a moral and vir- 
 tuous life. 
 
 (e) Of all subjects of school instruction, 
 religion most conduces to the acquisition of in- 
 ward contentment and earthly happiness. It is 
 to the soul what food is to the body ; it alone 
 can satisfy the soul's hunger ; hence the words 
 of St. Augustine: "Our heart is restless, so 
 long as it does not rest in Thee, O God." 
 Earthly knowledge — reading, writing, arithme- 
 tic, etc. — alone, is not able truly to satisfy man. 
 Therefore St. Augustine exclaims: "Unhappy 
 the man who knows all things but does not 
 know Thee, O God." " Should not the experi- 
 ence of all times convince us that mere human 
 knowledge is not always virtue and happiness 
 to man, and that the possession of the highest 
 talents and the most extensive acquirements 
 are often found to be associated in the same 
 individual with the greatest misery and most 
 
34 Christian Doctrine 
 
 deplorable degradation ? . . . See that the chil- 
 dren committed to your care be well grounded 
 in the Christian Doctrine, which is the foun- 
 dation of real knowledge and true happiness 
 for time and eternity" (Pastoral II. Prov. C. St. 
 Louis, 1858). 
 
 {/) Schools are meant to teach children all 
 the things which will enable them to become 
 useful citizens. But it is religion which most 
 of all conduces to the welfare of the State. 
 This has been recognized by all great statesmen. 
 Even Napoleon said : " Without religion no 
 State can be governed." Guizot, quoted in the 
 Pastoral Letter of the X. Prov. C. Bait., says, " In 
 order to make popular education truly good and 
 socially useful, it must be fundamentally relig- 
 ious." The Fathers of our last Plenary Council 
 say in their Pastoral Letter : " A civilization 
 without religion would be a civilization of ' the 
 struggle for existence and the survival of the 
 fittest,' in which cunning and strength would 
 become the substitutes for principle, virtue, 
 conscience, and duty. . . . Hence education, 
 in order to foster civilization, must foster 
 religion." " The children are the hope of the 
 Republic and of the Church in the next genera- 
 tion, after we ourselves shall have been gathered 
 to the tomb, and as we will rear them up so they 
 will be in mature life, both as citizens and as 
 
Christian Doctrine 35 
 
 Christians" (Pastoral III. Prov. C. Cine. 1861. 
 See also Dpi. pp. 43 ff., " Children are the Men 
 of the Future "). 
 
 {g) There is yet another reason to show the 
 paramount importance of Christian Doctrine 
 in church and school at the present time. It is 
 this : in our days children no longer receive that 
 religious training in the bosom of the family 
 that they received in the days of old. See the 
 plaintive and touching chapter on " The Family 
 at the Present Day," in Dupanloup, pp. 51 ff. 
 The same observation is made by the author of 
 the " Manual," pp. xi. f. Although speaking of 
 England, what he says can well be applied to 
 America. " There were many countries, and 
 there are still some, in which the influence of 
 good homes and the spirit and tradition of the 
 place are sufficient to bring young people into 
 a practical acquaintance with at least all that is 
 necessary for them in order to save their souls. 
 They fall naturally into the [Catholic] ways 
 and feelings of those among whom they live. 
 But with us it is not so. The spirit of the times 
 is irreligious and infidel. The traditions of this 
 country are against Catholic feeling and prac- 
 tice. The influences of home are not unfre- 
 quently evil influences. Hence children have 
 to learn the knowledge and practice of religion 
 from their teachers, or very frequently they do 
 
3 
 
 6 Christian Doctrine 
 
 not learn it at all." * Many of the interesting- 
 remarks of Furniss on the state of the chil- 
 dren in Ireland (pp. i ff.) are only too true in 
 regard to hundreds of Catholic children in 
 America, children removed from every religious 
 influence, unless it be heretical or infidel, while 
 at the same time exposed to all kinds of corrupt- 
 ing influence, "children left all day to them- 
 selves, with a filthy alley, court, or back street 
 for their playground, associated with other 
 children already but too probably corrupted, 
 hearing the riot of the tavern, . . . hearing the 
 most obscene and blasphemous language." (See 
 also Gerson, p. 16, 2d Reflection.) 
 
 Nor may we lose sight of those other numer- 
 ous children who, being sent either to the 
 public school or to no school at all, are 
 deprived of the Catholic influence of the paro- 
 chial school, and equally in too many cases of 
 the sweet but more powerful influence of the 
 Catholic home. For all these Christian Doc- 
 trine in the church and Sunday-school is their 
 only Christian salvation, and becomes the more 
 important for them the less it is supported by 
 other Christian forces. Cardinal Gibbons says 
 in regard to these children that "the heart of 
 the priest should never be indifferent toward 
 them, much less steeled against them. They 
 
 1 Manual of Instruction in Christian Doctrine. 
 
Christian Doctrine 37 
 
 should ever be the objects of his vigilant care 
 in the catechetical instructions. Indeed, the 
 more vicious and refractory they are, the more 
 they have need of his tender forbearance and 
 fatherly solicitude. ... I can find no words 
 strong enough to express my reprobation of the 
 priest who would despise or ostracize these err- 
 ing little ones. ... If it is a fault not to seek 
 for them when they wander away; if it is a 
 reproach to be harsh and cold toward them 
 when they do come, — how shall we characterize 
 the act of repelling them from the fold like 
 infectious lambs when they do present them- 
 selves, and of treating them as Pariahs and out- 
 casts from the circle of the Sunday-school?" 
 (Ambassador of Ch., p. 309). 
 
 Art. 3. — Modern Church Legislation 
 
 A short review of the laws of the Church in 
 modern times on the teaching of Christian 
 Doctrine will show what importance she at- 
 taches to this work. There were many and 
 very detailed rules concerning elementary Chris- 
 tian instruction in the early ages (see below, 
 Ch. vi. p. 487). In the Middle Ages a strict 
 legislation in this regard seemed unnecessary, 
 as Christian Doctrine was taught in most 
 diverse ways and by many agencies, even before 
 printing was invented ; it was preached in 
 
2,8 Christian Doctrine 
 
 church and school, in the family and in the 
 public square, at the cross-road and on the 
 hillside. (See p. 504. Also Jansen, " History of 
 the German People before the Reformation " ; 
 Gasquet, " On the Eve of the Reformation.") 
 But when faith among Catholics became colder, 
 and morality loose, when Protestantism made 
 its inroads upon Catholic nations, and French 
 infidelity attempted to wrest Catholic youth 
 from the bosom of the Church, then it became 
 her duty to call upon the pastors, bishops and 
 priests, and upon Catholic parents, to rise and 
 save this her most precious treasure. 
 
 The Council of Trent ordained that not only 
 shall the people in church be taught the Sacred 
 Scripture and the Divine Law on all Sundays 
 and feastdays, and during Lent and Advent on 
 every day (or at least on three weekdays), but 
 pastors " shall also, at least on Sundays and 
 holy-days, teach the children of every parish the 
 rudiments of faith, obedience to God and their 
 parents." Should it be necessary, bishops may 
 compel their priests, by ecclesiastical censures, 
 to fulfil that duty (Sess. xxiv. ch. 4). This 
 decree of the great Tridentine Synod has be- 
 come the foundation upon which the popes, 
 bishops, and councils of the succeeding centu- 
 ries established a more detailed legislation. 
 (See Dpi. pp. 16, 17.) 
 
Christian Doctrine 39 
 
 Inasmuch as religious teaching and training 
 is the main object of the Catholic parish school, 
 special attention might also be called to the laws 
 imposing upon the clergy and laity the grave 
 duty of providing such schools for the children 
 wherever possible. It must suffice for our pres- 
 ent purpose to give here a few of the many reg- 
 ulations made directly in regard to Christian 
 Doctrine classes by the hierarchy of the United 
 States assembled in councils, provincial and 
 plenary. Some extracts from councils of other 
 English-speaking countries will put forth the 
 perfect uniformity of rule and sentiment in this 
 matter of paramount importance. 
 
 A. United States 
 
 I. Prov. C. Bait. (1829) n. 29: "Let priests 
 see to it, according to the decrees of the same 
 synod (Trent), that on the same days (Sundays 
 and feasts) or at other opportune times, the 
 untaught children be instructed in the rudi- 
 ments of faith ; this the pastors must do them- 
 selves, in an easy and familiar manner." (This 
 decree is adopted by many other provincial 
 councils and by the II. Plen. C. Bait.) 
 
 I. Plen. C. Bait. (1852) n. 12: "Bishops 
 ought to admonish the priests in charge of souls 
 that they must themselves teach Christian Doc- 
 trine to the young, and that they may not neg- 
 
40 Christian Doctrine 
 
 lect any part of this duty by letting others carry 
 the whole burden of teaching young and igno- 
 rant people the elements of faith and morals." 
 (Repeated by the II. Plen. C. n. 115.) 
 
 The I. Prov. C. New York (1854), adopting 
 the respective decrees of the Baltimore synods, 
 admonishes priests, in the name of Our Lord 
 and Saviour, " to watch with the greatest care 
 over the faith and morals of her children and 
 their Catholic education." And in their Pas- 
 toral the bishops thus address the pastors: 
 " We exhort you, therefore, to leave nothing 
 undone, either on your own part or on that of 
 the parents in your respective congregations, to 
 provide, at whatever sacrifice, sufficient instruc- 
 tion in the Christian Doctrine for the children 
 to be found under your pastorship in one place 
 or another. These are the little ones intrusted 
 to our care. In so far as we are enabled to 
 provide the aliment of Christian Doctrine for 
 their tender minds, God will hold us and the 
 parents conjointly responsible for the neglect 
 of our duty." 
 
 The I. Prov. C. New Orleans (1856) admon- 
 ishes priests sedulously to teach children the 
 Christian Doctrine, and as soon as possible to 
 build parochial schools for them. 
 
 The III. Prov. C. New York (1861) reminds 
 pastors "to be fully convinced that it is their 
 
Christian Doctrine 41 
 
 principal duty to personally superintend the 
 teaching of Christian Doctrine to the boys and 
 girls in the Catholic school." In the Pastoral 
 Letter the bishops most earnestly exhort the ven- 
 erable clergy frequently to visit their schools in 
 person. " This we more especially urge, and 
 urge in the Lord, upon all pastors of souls as 
 regards Sunday-schools and Catechism classes. 
 For them there is no duty more sacred and im- 
 portant than to see that the children intrusted 
 to their care are thoroughly instructed in the 
 Christian Doctrine, and deeply imbued with the 
 true spirit of Catholic faith and piety." 
 
 The II. Plen. C. Bait. (1866) devotes the 
 whole Title IX. to " The Instruction and Relig- 
 ious Education of Youth." Her divine mis- 
 sion (n. 423) to teach all nations, the Church 
 has nowhere put forth in stronger and more 
 beautiful light than in her never varying zeal 
 and ardent love for youth, the greatest hope of 
 Christianity (n. 424). "Hence the Fathers of this 
 Plenary Council can not refrain from professing 
 most clearly and publicly that the care to be 
 bestowed upon the Christian education of chil- 
 dren and youth is one of the principal duties 
 of the pastoral office, and this all the more, 
 since to-day the enemies of our holy religion 
 combine all their artful devices to corrupt the 
 minds of youth from its very earliest days " 
 
42 Christian Doctrine 
 
 (n. 425). They then propose Catholic parish 
 schools as the best, nay, the only effective, 
 means of carrying out that great work and 
 counteracting the evil influence of the public 
 school system (nn. 426-434). But as this can not 
 be done in all parishes, and many children 
 will have no choice but the public school, it 
 becomes still more urgent to use all possible 
 precaution against any dangers to Catholic 
 children. This must be done by catechetical 
 instructions and schools of Christian Doctrine. 
 " Let, therefore, pastors call the boys and girls 
 to their own church on Sundays and feastdays 
 and sometimes oftener, and teach them with 
 zeal and earnestness the elements of Christian 
 Doctrine " (n. 435). Having then referred to 
 the commands of Popes and Councils, and the 
 example of illustrious men like St. Charles Bor- 
 romeo, the Fathers continue : " Let the guide of 
 souls listen to the admonitions and commands 
 of the Church ; animated by the example of 
 holy men and of the great Shepherd, Christ 
 Himself, let him embrace with especial love 
 and guard with anxious care the little ones, the 
 hope of the flock intrusted to him. . . . Let 
 him so teach and train them that the visits to 
 the house of God and His holy temple will be 
 for them a joy. When gathered there, imbue 
 them with the precepts of holy life and conduct, 
 
Christian Doctrine 43 
 
 and instil into their still tender minds the first 
 elements of faith and piety," etc. (n. 436). Par- 
 ents must be led by every means, by admoni- 
 tions, threats, pleadings, to send their children 
 at the proper time to Catechism in church. 
 The children themselves must be encouraged 
 by presents and prizes to come and to learn 
 cheerfully (n. 437). " Nor may the pastor, as 
 neglectful men are wont to do, carry on this 
 work through others ; he must do it himself. 
 The duty of instructing children in the rudi- 
 ments of Christian faith is so closely entwined 
 with the pastoral office, that whoever, either by 
 ignorance or by indolence, would refuse it or 
 throw it upon others, could not escape the 
 charge and responsibility of a broken trust " 
 (n. 438). In nn. 440 ff. the Fathers adopt the 
 decrees of the II. and III. Prov. Councils of Cin- 
 cinnati (1858, 1 861) concerning the careful pre- 
 paratory instructions for first confession and 
 communion, stating in particular (n. 440) that 
 parents neglecting their duty herein must be 
 refused the Sacraments. 
 
 The I. Prov. C. of San Francisco (1874) says 
 in its Pastoral Letter that it "is the duty of par- 
 ents and guardians who have not the advan- 
 tages of such educational establishments [i.e. y 
 Catholic schools] to see that their children and 
 wards are properly instructed at home, and 
 
44 Christian Doctrine 
 
 that they attend regularly the Sunday-schools 
 of their respective parishes." 
 
 The IV. Prov. C. New York (1883) demands 
 from the parish priest an annual report con- 
 cerning the teachers, pupils, and work of the 
 Sunday-school. 
 
 Our last (III.) Plenary Council of Baltimore 
 (1884) devotes Title IV. to " The Catholic Edu- 
 cation of Youth," and Title VII. to " Christian 
 Instruction," where ch. 11. treats of " The 
 Catechism." In n. 217 the Council states and 
 repeats the grave duty of priests to devote 
 themselves to this work in person. "The pas- 
 tors of souls must themselves feed the lambs 
 of their flock. . . . Lay teachers, whether relig- 
 ious or secular, are certainly of great help in 
 teaching the young ; but the office of teaching 
 the word of God they can not claim as their 
 own." In the next number (218) a few short 
 rules are given concerning the preparation of 
 children for first holy communion and for 
 confirmation. Rectors of parishes must try to 
 keep boys and girls for two years after first 
 communion in the Christian Doctrine class. 
 (This same rule was adopted by the Diocesan 
 synods of Cincinnati (1886) and of St. Louis 
 (1896), where parents are made to promise that 
 they will send their children for the two years 
 mentioned.) In their Pastoral Letter the 
 
Christian Doctrine 45 
 
 Fathers of this Council tell Catholic parents : 
 " See that the children not only hear Mass, but 
 also attend the Sunday-school. It will help 
 them to grow up more practical Catholics. In 
 country places, and especially in those which 
 the priest can not visit every Sunday, the Sun- 
 day-school ought to be the favorite place of 
 reunion for young and old. It will keep them 
 from going astray and will strengthen them in 
 the faith. How many children have been lost 
 to the Church in country districts, because 
 parents neglected to see that they observed 
 the Sunday properly at home and at Sunday- 
 school." 
 
 B. British Empire 
 
 The I. Prov. C. Quebec (185 1), n. 12, ordains 
 that Catechism be taught in every parish church 
 on Sunday all the year round. Children must 
 be prepared for first confession and communion 
 by frequent and carefully prepared catechetic 
 instructions. After first communion, children 
 should attend the Sunday Catechism for a year. 
 
 The II. Prov. C. Quebec (1854) repeats the 
 above injunction, and adds that Christian Doc- 
 trine should be taught " with so much more 
 ardent zeal, the colder and more neglectful 
 so many parents show themselves in this 
 matter " (xv. 9). 
 
46 Christian Doctrine 
 
 I. Prov. C. Halifax (1857): "Let priests put 
 forth their greatest solicitude in providing for 
 the Christian education of the children, who 
 must be taught Christian Doctrine in church 
 as well as in school by the priest and by others 
 deputed by him" (ix. 1. 4). The Council highly 
 recommends the Sodality of the Christian 
 Doctrine (xm. 5). 
 
 The I. Prov. C. of the West Indies, held at 
 Port of Spain (1854), exhorts parish priests to 
 use every means to have the children well 
 instructed in Christian Doctrine. Lady Cate- 
 chists must be approved by the Ordinary, and 
 in the discharge of their office follow the rules 
 laid down by him (§ in. n. 7). 
 
 The II. Prov. C. of the West Indies com- 
 mands priests to examine and admonish parents 
 and guardians, in confession, about their duty 
 of sending their children to Catechism (Art. 
 vi. 1.). 
 
 The National Council of Thurles (1850) calls 
 upon the clergy of Ireland " to organize and 
 direct pious associations for the diffusion of 
 catechetical knowledge," etc. 
 
 Prov. C. of Cashel (1853) : Frequent Cate- 
 chism should be given to the children and 
 ignorant people on Sundays and feasts. Pious 
 sodalities of men and women should be estab- 
 lished to teach Catechism (Tit. I.). Later on 
 
Christian Doctrine 47 
 
 (Tit. III.) it adds this important warning: 
 " After the children have made their first con- 
 fession and communion and received confirma- 
 tion, let not pastors allow themselves to think 
 that further catechetical instruction is no longer 
 needed for them. Rather let the pastor be still 
 more solicitous for those children who are now, 
 as a rule, subject to so many temptations, and 
 establish for them so-called Catechisms of Per- 
 severance," etc. 
 
 The II. Prov. C. of Tuam (1854), n. xvii., says 
 that the priest ought to devote himself wholly 
 to this religious instruction of the children, that 
 he should try by all means to establish in the 
 parish sodalities of men and women who would 
 help at least on Sundays and feastdays to in- 
 struct boys and girls in church, divided in dif- 
 ferent classes. (The same is repeated by the 
 III. Prov. C. of Tuam (1858), with the re- 
 mark that the priest must personally teach the 
 children the Catechism, especially when they 
 prepare for first holy communion. Ch. vn. 
 n. 1.) 
 
 Plen. C. of Maynooth (1875): " Priests ought 
 in a special manner to devote their efforts to 
 instruct boys and girls in the rudiments of the 
 Christian faith and to fill them with Christian 
 virtue, and to labor most zealously in keeping 
 them all at Christian Doctrine till the fifteenth 
 
48 Christian Doctrine 
 
 year, though they may have received commun- 
 ion and confirmation." 
 
 The I. Prov. C. of Westminster ordains that 
 Catechism be taught not only every day in 
 school, but also in church every Sunday. It 
 insists that this is a personal duty of the priest 
 (vin. 1, 3); but he may have others to help 
 him, especially the Sodality of Christian Doc- 
 trine (which is greatly recommended, villi 1 1), 
 whose work, however, he must himself super- 
 intend. Rectors are exhorted to establish week- 
 day and Sunday schools, also night schools, 
 where the members of that sodality may 
 teach the pupils (xxv. 9). (The same is 
 repeated by the IV. Prov. C. Westm., 1873, 
 which adds that Catechism must be taught on 
 Sundays by the priest or his assistants in every 
 mission.) 
 
 The I. Prov. C. Australia (Sidney, 1844) for- 
 bids the priest to leave the catechism of chil- 
 dren to lay people ; he must teach it himself in 
 presence of the congregation on Sundays and 
 feastdays (xiv.). 
 
 The Plen. C. of Australia (1885) ordains 
 in n. 17 that Catechism shall be taught every 
 day in school, and also every Sunday in church, 
 and this by the priest himself. In n. 231 the 
 bishops beseech parents and others to whom 
 the care of children is given, to look most dili- 
 
Christian Doctrine 49 
 
 gently to their Catholic education " so that they 
 may be properly instructed in faith and morals 
 and fully trained to a life conformable to the 
 commands of our holy faith." For this reason 
 the children must be taught the Christian 
 prayers from their most tender age, and from 
 their first years begin to learn Christian Doc- 
 trine or the Catechism. In nn. 235 ff. the 
 bishops remind parents and guardians of their 
 personal duty to teach their children the prin- 
 cipal doctrines of our faith, and, moreover, to 
 send them to Catholic schools. In the parish 
 report to the bishop must be stated whether or 
 not primary Christian instruction is given to the 
 children on Sundays and holy-days. 
 
 From the above review of modern Church 
 laws we may draw the following conclusions : — 
 
 1. Christian Doctrine for children is of ab- 
 solute necessity, and must be taught in school 
 and in church at least every Sunday and feast- 
 day. 
 
 2. To teach Christian Doctrine is the personal 
 duty of the priest. But he may need the help 
 of lay teachers, whom he must instruct and 
 guide in this work. 
 
 3. Parents and guardians are in conscience 
 bound to send their children to Christian 
 Doctrine. 
 
50 Christian Doctrine 
 
 4. Boys and girls ought to attend the higher 
 classes or grades of Christian Doctrine for at 
 least two years after their first holy communion. 
 (See p. 71, Art. 5.) 
 
 Art. 4. — Main Parts or Branches 
 
 The work of Christian Doctrine or Catechet- 
 ical Training is, as follows from its aim and 
 purpose (see above, pp. 19 ff.), not mere doctrinal 
 instruction. It were a serious mistake, fraught 
 with disastrous consequences, if either priest or 
 layman should have this narrow and most im- 
 perfect idea of Christian Doctrine. It is much 
 more ; for the children it is Christian prac- 
 tice, it is Christian life. This alone makes 
 Christian Doctrine a living and powerful Chris- 
 tian education. Doctrinal teaching or instruc- 
 tion must lay the foundation, and will be, 
 therefore, the prominent feature of the Christian 
 Doctrine class ; but practice holds as important 
 a place, being, as it were, the material out of 
 which the whole structure of Christian virtue 
 is erected upon the foundation laid. Just as 
 little as it may be left to the children to lay the 
 foundation by learning without instruction, so 
 neither can they build up Christian life without 
 being trained and guided by the Catechist 
 (Dpi. p. 125, "The General Idea"). Hence in 
 setting forth the main parts of Christian Doc- 
 
Christian Doctrine 51 
 
 trine one must, of necessity, take into account 
 the mere doctrinal instruction as well as the 
 religious practices in which the children are to 
 
 be trained. 
 
 A. Doctrinal Subjects 
 
 It is important to understand at once that 
 these are not to be really separate and divided 
 branches, although they treat of distinct sub- 
 jects. Classes may be said to be divided ac- 
 cording to these branches, in so far only as 
 one predominates greatly above the other. In 
 Christian Doctrine they must, indeed, be con- 
 tinually brought together so that in the cate- 
 chetic lessons the waters of eternal life are drawn 
 at the same time as from a fourfold fountain of 
 Christian truth. These branches simply pre- 
 sent different sides or views of Christian Doc- 
 trine ; they are organic parts of the same body 
 of religion. 
 
 1. Catechism is the elementary, concise, and 
 systematic presentation of the doctrines of faith 
 and morals revealed by God. It is, at the same 
 time, the strong framework, the great center, 
 and the guiding principle of the whole of Chris- 
 tian Doctrine, so that all its other branches, 
 Bible History even more than the rest, are but 
 auxiliaries of the Catechism class. This lead- 
 ing and predominant character of Catechism 
 lessons will appear more clearly from the beau 
 
52 Christian Doctrine 
 
 tif ul words of Dupanloup (p. 1 34), who says : 
 " The Catechism is an exposition, abridged, 
 but yet complete, of the truths of the Catholic 
 faith, and every word has been so well weighed 
 that this book contains, if I may so express 
 myself, the very purest essence of the dogmas 
 and of the morality of Christianity. It is an 
 entire theology, elementary, no doubt, but deep, 
 and brought within reach of every understand- 
 ing. It is also a course of high philosophy, the 
 most learned, and at the same time the most 
 simple, that human wisdom can take counsel 
 of ; for, as the celebrated and unhappy Jouffroy 
 so clearly perceived, it leaves unanswered none 
 of the great questions which interest humanity. 
 The knowledge of the letter of the Catechism, 
 then, though it may seem unimportant, is not a 
 knowledge to be despised ; no, it is immense, 
 for all religion is comprised in it; it is very 
 decided, for each one of its formulas contains 
 an exact truth ; and it is almost indelible, for 
 everything is expressed in such clear and forci- 
 ble terms that, once engraven in the memory, 
 they remain there for life." 
 
 Whatever has been said above on the neces- 
 sity and importance of Christian Doctrine 
 applies principally and in its fullest bearing to 
 the Catechism class. The other branches of 
 Christian Doctrine only serve either as a his- 
 
Christian Doctrine 53 
 
 torical basis or as so many different sources of 
 proofs, illustrations, and explanations of the 
 revealed truth, or as living indications, motives, 
 examples, and forms of Christian life. This 
 will be understood more fully in the course of 
 the following chapters. 
 
 2. Bible History may be described as a com- 
 pendious narrative, in short, chronologically ar- 
 ranged sketches, of the main events and divine 
 revelations recorded in the Holy Scriptures. 1 
 
 I. All Christian educators are unanimously 
 of the opinion that in the religious instruction of 
 little children stories must occupy a prominent 
 place. Now there are no more suitable and 
 excellent stones than those furnished us by the 
 Bible. 
 
 (a) Experience teaches that an evident bless- 
 ing rests on Bible History instruction. Bible 
 stories have a special power for spiritual edifica- 
 tion. Other stories may afford as much delight, 
 but they have not the vital force which is the 
 special characteristic of God's word in the Bible. 
 
 (b) Bible History trains the affections and 
 the will more than the other branches of Chris- 
 tian Doctrine. By the words of the Catechism 
 it is more the understanding that is enlightened, 
 but examples from the Bible spur on to imita- 
 
 2 Dpl. p. 287, "Historic Teaching"; Sch. p. 214; Knecht, 
 Introd. n. 2. 
 
54 Christian Doctrine 
 
 tion. Therefore Bible History is more helpful 
 in the education of the young. 
 
 (c) The plain and vivid manner in which the 
 Bible tells its stories renders them most suitable 
 to children ; this made even the stern critic 
 Lessing (in his " Laokoon ") say that every line 
 in the Bible affords material for a painting. The 
 Bible narrates in a simple and unaffected man- 
 ner, with plain words and short sentences, which 
 can be easily grasped by children. Further- 
 more, it narrates in a familiar tone which is 
 calculated to appeal to the heart. There is a 
 childlike tone running through it such as one 
 child would use in speaking to another. Add 
 to this the great number of pictures, which pre- 
 sent much variety and suit the vivacity of the 
 child. 
 
 (d) All that is contained in the Bible is of 
 the greatest value in education. It portrays 
 the incomparable character and image of the 
 Son of God. Nothing on earth is so capable of 
 forming the child's moral character as the life 
 of Our Lord. Besides this, the Bible, by 
 describing the holy personages of the Old 
 Testament, affords us the most sublime ex- 
 amples of virtue in the history of the world. 
 Again, all the doctrines of faith and morals are 
 explained and illustrated by means of beautiful 
 stories, whilst the individual virtues and their 
 
Christian Doctrine 55 
 
 good effects are brought out in all their loveli- 
 ness, and vice with its evil consequences is made 
 to stand out in all its loathsomeness. 
 
 (e) Bible History is important for the edu- 
 cator himself ; for it shows him how the Great 
 Teacher, Almighty God, has educated mankind. 
 The whole revelation is, after all, nothing else 
 but the divine education of the human race. 
 From God surely every educator can learn. 
 
 (/) Although the Bible is so important, yet 
 all its stories are not suitable for children ; for 
 the Bible contains milk and strong meats. 
 Many of the narratives are suitable lessons for 
 married people, but not for children. There- 
 fore a proper selection must be made, and only 
 a compend arranged expressly for children may 
 be put into their hands. Hence it is a serious 
 error from an educational point of view to place 
 the whole original text of the Holy Scriptures 
 in the children's hands, as is done in Protestant 
 schools. In the unabridged text they learn 
 things — as is testified by certain well-thumbed 
 pages — which must be hurtful to their innocent 
 minds. 
 
 II. Bible History is of the greatest help in 
 Catechism ; the two branches should be, as 
 much as possible, combined and interwoven. 
 
 (a) Bible History and the Catechism com- 
 prise the same subjects, viz., divine revelations ; 
 
56 Christian Doctrine 
 
 but in Bible History they follow in chronological 
 order in connection with historical facts, while 
 in the Catechism they are classified in topical 
 order. Bible History contains the divine revela- 
 tions in narrative form, the Catechism in the 
 form of doctrinal statements. 
 
 (b) Bible History is the root out of which 
 the Catechism grows. It is, therefore, the 
 dominating subject of early religious instruc- 
 tion. The reasons are: (i) The mind of man 
 proceeds from the concrete to the abstract, from 
 external objects to ideas and concepts, and not 
 vice versa. Therefore to give Catechism instruc- 
 tion to little children is to offend against all the 
 laws of man's mental development. (2) Cate- 
 chetical instructions would bear no fruit with 
 little children, who are not yet possessed of 
 the required intellectual power. But stories 
 they easily understand, and listen to with the 
 greatest interest. (3) Instruction in the Cate- 
 chism is considerably facilitated if its founda- 
 tion has already been laid by first teaching 
 Bible History. " The Christian religion is 
 primarily and essentially a fact, with a clearly 
 defined and authentic history, and no right 
 theory of it can either be formed or taught 
 unless it be made to rest upon this historic 
 basis" (Bp. Spalding). 
 
 (c) Bible History and the Catechism must 
 
Christian Doctrine 57 
 
 constantly be combined in such a way that the 
 doctrines of faith and morals contained in every 
 Bible story are clearly brought out, explained, 
 and impressed upon the mind, while at the 
 catechetical instruction the several moral or 
 doctrinal lessons are derived from and illus- 
 trated by Bible stories. A mere recital of 
 stories would not be religious instruction, which 
 is intended to raise man morally, and furnish 
 him with solid principles for his conduct. The 
 form of the Bible story only prepares the way 
 to the mind and heart of the children; it is not 
 the end in itself, but only a means to the end. 
 On the other hand, Catechism without Bible 
 History would be too dry and terribly tedious 
 for children, and liable to produce disgust and 
 aversion for religion. 
 
 (d) Bible History renders many services to 
 catechetical instruction : (1) It serves to illus- 
 trate the ideas contained in the Catechism. The 
 Catechism presents the truth in a set form of 
 words; Bible History puts before us the same 
 truth by means of a concrete example. (2) It 
 supplies the arguments for the doctrines of the 
 Catechism. (3) It furnishes practical examples, 
 showing how the moral doctrines taught in the 
 Catechism must be applied in life. (4) It often 
 furnishes clear, strong lessons of morality which 
 are only lightly touched upon in Catechism. 
 
58 Christian Doctrine 
 
 The advantages of combining Catechism 
 with Bible History are very aptly stated by 
 Archbishop Purcell : " Never was the thorough 
 and intelligent teaching of the Catechism more 
 needed than at the present day ; and the Cate- 
 chism of Christian Doctrine can neither be well 
 taught nor properly understood without the 
 Catechism of the Bible" (Preface to Gilmour's 
 "Bible History"). 
 
 3. Church History here means a short and 
 clearly arranged epitome of the history of the 
 Catholic Church, its spread over the world, 
 its fortunes, its triumphs and trials, its con- 
 stitution and organization. It is evident that 
 a class, however elementary, of Church History- 
 can be established only in the higher grades, 
 no matter whether it be arranged upon a chrono- 
 logical or topical order. But single events, 
 facts, occurrences in Church History not only 
 can, but must be, brought into Christian 
 Doctrine. After all, the revelation of God's 
 truth, wisdom, providence, and almighty power, 
 begun in Bible History, is continued in the 
 history of God's holy Church, which begins 
 the account of God's kingdom on earth where 
 the Bible leaves off. " God's supernatural deal- 
 ings with mankind are but partially recorded 
 in Holy Writ. The Catholic Church, in its 
 origin and growth, in its progress and diffusion 
 
Christian Doctrijie 59 
 
 through the world from age to age, is the sup- 
 plement and continuation of the Bible History, 
 which without this would be but an unintel- 
 ligible fragment " (Bishop J. L. Spalding). 
 
 Church History, therefore, (1) strengthens our 
 Catholic conviction, as it brings before our eyes 
 God's own testimony for His kingdom by pro- 
 tecting, preserving, and extending it in the face 
 of all its enemies; (2) it awakens in us sym- 
 pathy and interest in the fortunes of the 
 Church; it spurs us on to a virtuous life by 
 the admirable example of her saints, by her 
 splendid works of charity, by the zeal of her 
 apostolic men and missionaries; (3) it informs 
 us on the origin and object of many ecclesias- 
 tical institutions and laws, religious orders, 
 hierarchic degrees, feasts and fasts, etc. ; (4) it 
 is a wonderful and living illustration of the 
 doctrines and a powerful motive for the prac- 
 tice of the precepts taught in Catechism. 
 
 For these reasons all experienced teachers of 
 Christian Doctrine have gladly acknowledged 
 its important usefulness in religious instruction, 
 and many writers of catechisms have added a 
 short summary of Church History to their work, 
 thus, e.g., Deharbe. The English translator of 
 his catechism, Rev. J. Fander, says in this 
 connection : " This Catechism carries out the 
 advice of St. Augustine, who repeatedly admon- 
 
60 Christian Doctrine 
 
 ishes Catechists to give a brief account to the 
 ignorant of the whole history from the creation 
 4 to the present time of the Church ' (' On Cate- 
 chising,' ch. iii. 6). It is indeed to be regretted 
 that this advice of the great doctor has been so 
 sadly neglected in later times. Why are Prot- 
 estants so prejudiced against the Catholic 
 Church, and why is it so difficult to convert 
 them ? It is because from infancy the minds 
 of their children have been impressed with a 
 false view of the history of their religion. . . . 
 Why should not Catholics with equal and even 
 greater effect confirm our children in their at- 
 tachment to the Church by showing them how 
 to trace her to the times of the Apostles and 
 even to the creation of the world ? Is it not, 
 then, of the greatest importance to teach them, 
 together with their Catechism, the history of 
 their religion ? History is a safeguard against 
 internal doubts, and a bulwark against all ex- 
 ternal attacks." Again, speaking of Church 
 History as a part of the Catholic education of 
 children, Bishop Spalding says : " Teaching 
 Catechism, as this is commonly understood 
 and practised, must be considered as little less 
 than a waste of strength and time. Surely 
 little good can come of making children learn 
 by rote mere abstractions to which they can 
 not possibly attach any intelligible meaning, 
 
Christian Doctrine 61 
 
 and which, if remembered at all, do not nourish 
 the mind and enter into the mental growth by 
 which the child is developed into the man. 
 The young, if they are to be rightly educated, 
 must be made familiar with deeds rather than 
 with thoughts. . . . They are influenced more 
 by example than by precept. . . . After the 
 lives of those with whom they [the children] 
 are thrown into actual contact, nothing has 
 such power to educate them as a knowledge 
 of the lives of heroic and godlike men. . . . 
 Let us then return to natural methods: attach 
 less weight to filling the memory with definitions 
 of religious doctrines, and labor rather to famil- 
 iarize the mind with facts and deeds out of 
 which those doctrines have grown, and in 
 which they are embodied in a way easily in- 
 telligible to the young." 
 
 The III. Plen. C. Bait, tells Catholic parents: 
 " Train your children to a love of history and 
 biography. Inspire them with the ambition 
 of becoming so well acquainted with the his- 
 tory and doctrines of the Church as to be able 
 to give an intelligent answer to every honest 
 inquirer." 
 
 4. Liturgy means here an elementary 
 course of liturgy properly so called and of litur- 
 gies. The first describes the clerical officers 
 and their functions (words and actions), the 
 
62 Christian Doctrine 
 
 sacred places and seasons, in fact, everything 
 concerned in the divine worship of the Church, 
 while the latter explains their origin, reasons, 
 and meanings. Although there may not be 
 room enough for a separate class of liturgy 
 (rather liturgies) in the usual course of Christian 
 Doctrine, there can be no doubt that it may 
 claim a decided recognition all through that 
 course, from the lowest to the highest grades. 
 A Catechist who is well versed in liturgy and 
 knows how to handle his subject will find in it 
 not merely an inexhaustible source of sacred 
 object-lessons to illustrate the profoundest mys- 
 teries of our holy religion, but also a most 
 effective means of making his lessons in cate- 
 chism attractive and interesting for the children. 
 In many ways can liturgy be made a powerful 
 educational factor to enlighten the minds of 
 children as well as to influence their hearts and 
 arouse their emotions. What the Council of 
 Trent, XXII. Session, ch. 5., says of the cere- 
 monies of holy Mass applies to the whole 
 liturgy : " As it is the nature of man that he 
 can not, without external helps, easily rise to 
 the contemplation of divine things, the Church, 
 as a loving mother, has instituted some rites, 
 e.g., that some things are spoken in a subdued, 
 others in a loud voice. She also makes use of 
 ceremonies, . . . many of them being handed 
 
Christian Doctrine 63 
 
 down from the Apostles, by which the majesty 
 of this great sacrifice should more clearly ap- 
 pear and the minds of the faithful should, by 
 these visible signs of religion and piety, be 
 excited to behold the higher things hidden 
 in this sacrifice." 
 
 It is a great and serious mistake to think 
 that liturgical explanations can be understood 
 only by the educated or intelligent class, when, 
 in fact, the ceremonies and feasts of the Church 
 are meant by her to be " the book of the igno- 
 rant." It is another mistake to think that chil- 
 dren, in particular, can not see through the veil 
 of these symbols and holy signs before they 
 have mastered the whole Catechism. It is true, 
 sacred mysteries and deep doctrines are hidden 
 under that veil. But we forget too easily that 
 it needs only to be lifted by the hands of the 
 Catechist in order that the hidden beauty may 
 be seen by the eye of divine faith planted in 
 the souls of these children at baptism. Pro- 
 vided the Catechist adapts himself, in subject 
 as well as in manner, to the mental capacity of 
 his audience, he will soon find that children 
 hang on his lips to catch every word telling 
 them of the beautiful things they have seen so 
 often without understanding. Lambing says 
 truly (p. 125): "We forget to profit by that 
 curiosity so natural to children which desires 
 
64 Christian Doctrine 
 
 an explanation of every object that comes under 
 the eye. . . . Nothing else will so much en- 
 dear him [the teacher] to them or enable him 
 to arrest their flagging attention, as explana- 
 tions like these. The moment they begin to 
 look upon him as a repertory of liturgical knowl- 
 edge, a sort of walking dictionary of ecclesiasti- 
 cal lore, if his kindness be proportionate to 
 his learning, he is master of their hearts and 
 can teach them with pleasure and profit." 
 Knowing that the liturgy of the Church is only 
 the outward vehicle of the breath and the 
 power of the Holy Spirit, why forget that there 
 are also three corresponding powers in the soul 
 of every baptized child, the divine, infused vir- 
 tues, which are not lifeless ornaments, however 
 beautiful, but vital principles of light and heat, 
 that is, faith and love. To set them in action 
 it needs merely to bring them in touch with the 
 divine spark. The Catechist must establish 
 this needed connection by his liturgical in- 
 terpretation. Speaking of the feasts of the 
 Church, Dupanloup (p. 69) observes: "What 
 is this admirable liturgical year? You know 
 well and I am not afraid to repeat it, that 
 it is one of the most beautiful institutions of 
 the Church. There is nothing more beauti- 
 ful, nothing more captivating. It is all a poem, 
 a sublime poem, the great Christian poem, 
 
Christian Doctrine 65 
 
 which God Himself conceived in His thought 
 and executed by His power. The whole of 
 Christianity is there ; all the mysteries, all the 
 divine actions, all gospel teaching, everything 
 which enlightens souls and sanctifies them; 
 and all this grouped around the Sacrifice, the 
 center and soul of all Catholic worship; all 
 shown and celebrated in the hymns, the psalms 
 and the canticles, and in the teachings which 
 accompany every festival by the mouth of the 
 priest. Without any doubt it is one of the 
 grandest inspirations of the Spirit of God, and 
 perhaps has a more powerful influence over 
 souls than one can even imagine." Then, point- 
 ing to a most excellent practical purpose, he 
 continues : " Well, all the festivals of the litur- 
 gical year, or at all events the most beautiful 
 and the most solemn, are to be found at the 
 Catechism and are there celebrated ; they are 
 brought within reach of the children, they are 
 proportioned to their age, to their character, to 
 their tastes and their imagination, to their ideal, 
 if I may so express myself." Read also his re- 
 marks on the Offices, i.e., vespers and devotions, 
 (p. 482). The more fully the children are led to 
 understand, according to their mental capacity, 
 the sacred liturgy of the Church, so much the 
 more will the knowledge as well as the practice 
 of holy religion be for them a joy. 
 
66 Christian Doctrine 
 
 B. Religious Practices 
 
 i. It is a matter of deep regret and grave 
 apprehension that in many classes of Christian 
 Doctrine, whether held on Sundays (Sunday- 
 schools) or weekdays (in the parochial school), 
 religious practices, this important part of the 
 whole course, are greatly, if not entirely, 
 neglected. There are priests and teachers who 
 confine themselves exclusively to explaining the 
 letter of the Catechism and making the chil- 
 dren memorize their lessons ; but they never 
 dream of making the practice of the religion 
 taught as much a living feature and essential 
 part of the Christian Doctrine as the im- 
 parting of religious truth. Archbishop Elder, 
 speaking of this subject, says, " This part of 
 Catechism is perhaps too often overlooked. . . . 
 This exercise of applying their knowledge to 
 practice makes the lessons much more interest- 
 ing to the children and to the teachers, more 
 clearly understood, and more deeply impressed 
 on their memory. . . . And then it elevates 
 the work of teaching Catechism into a super- 
 natural work, under the immediate flow of 
 grace, and thus gives it for both teacher and 
 pupil the highest possible interest and dignity, 
 and the immediate help of the Holy Ghost" 
 (Preface to Schuech). Aside from the considera- 
 
Christian Doctrine 67 
 
 tion, first, that religious instruction is only a 
 means toward the all-important end — religious 
 practice, — and secondly, that the will of the 
 child must be trained by exercise as soon as 
 its mind is able to receive the needed instruc- 
 tion, there are reasons of sound Christian 
 pedagogy why religious practice should ac- 
 company, step by step, like a guardian angel, 
 the religious teaching. 
 
 (a) There is an axiom known to the philos- 
 opher in the chair as well as to the laborer in 
 the ditch, " Passion makes a man blind," and 
 again, in different words, " Man's will makes 
 him see what it pleases." The powerful influ- 
 ence of the will and the emotions, of practice 
 and habit, upon man's intellect and reason, is 
 one of the most widely recognized phenomena 
 of the mysterious relations between man's men- 
 tal faculties, a phenomenon which no true edu- 
 cator may overlook without the most disastrous 
 consequences to his pupil. This undoubtedly 
 applies to the child as much, if not in a higher 
 degree, as to the grown person. But it applies 
 with still greater force to the supernatural 
 vision of man, child or adult, because of the 
 ever ready influence of the Holy Ghost sending 
 a brighter ray of His light into the mind more 
 fully opened to it by the corresponding action 
 of the soul already following j-Jis voice. The, 
 
68 Christian Doctrine 
 
 child must gain the true and fuller understand- 
 ings of Christian truth by his own spiritual 
 activity, by realizing that truth in pious prac- 
 tice ; not by the sounding voice of the teacher. 
 The Catechist may tell him what prayer is, but 
 the child will not understand it till he prays ; 
 he may be told all about the real presence of 
 Christ in the Blessed Sacrament, but he will 
 not catch its meaning till he kneels before the 
 tabernacle and sends forth his childlike song of 
 praise to the sweet Saviour. Practice will make 
 him see the truth. Religious exercises, follow- 
 ing steadily in the path of religious instruction, 
 will lead the child more quickly and more surely 
 to a right knowledge of Christian Doctrine than 
 the best explanations alone can ever do. 
 
 (b) Religious exercises, moreover, furnish an 
 everlasting supply of means and ways to make 
 Christian Doctrine interesting and attractive. 
 While they break the monotony and tiresome 
 sameness of recitation, explanation, and repe- 
 tition, they do not, as other diversions and 
 distractions might do, interfere with the main 
 object of the class ; but rather, as already 
 stated, they wonderfully help it. These pious 
 and religious practices, wisely chosen and 
 systematically arranged over the whole course, 
 according to the capabilities and needs of the 
 respective grades, and being skilfully min- 
 
Christian Doctrine 69 
 
 gled with the doctrinal lesson, impart to a 
 Christian Doctrine class that peculiar charm, 
 sweetness, and warmth which irresistibly at- 
 tract the hearts of children and make them 
 unconsciously feel the breath of the Holy 
 Ghost. No trace here of a cold and soulless 
 atmosphere to chill the young heart at the 
 thought of having to go to Catechism and mak- 
 ing it long for the moment, still so far away, 
 when it shall be free from Catechism and 
 Sunday-school. The moments devoted to 
 these religious exercises by Catechist and chil- 
 dren are not idly thrown away ; they become 
 most precious hours in the years of Christian 
 Doctrine. 
 
 2. Religious practices which are to be an 
 essential part of Christian Doctrine or Sunday- 
 school, not simply as matters to be taught by 
 the teacher, but as things to be done by the 
 children under his actual guidance, may be 
 divided under the following heads : (a) Prayers ; 
 (b) Sacred Songs; (c) the Sacrifice of the Mass; 
 (d) the Sacraments of Penance, Eucharist, and 
 Confirmation ; (e) Religious Festivals. These 
 subjects will be spoken of separately in Chap- 
 ter V., where occasional hints will be given how 
 to combine them with the religious instruction. 
 Suffice it to say here that a Catechist animated 
 with an affectionate love for the children and a 
 
jo Christian Doctrine 
 
 holy zeal for their innocent souls will have 
 no difficulty in finding the right exercise for 
 the right hour. He will know when to make 
 the children pour forth in a common prayer or 
 sacred hymn the religious emotions and feel- 
 ings aroused in them by his words ; when to 
 lead them to the tabernacle for a three or four 
 minutes' adoration; when to visit one or another 
 of the Stations of the Cross ; when to kneel 
 before the image of a saint or guardian angel ; 
 when to replace the formal lesson with a short 
 programme (reading, recital, homily, hymn) suit- 
 able to the feast of the day ; when to make a 
 short examination of conscience together with an 
 act of contrition for sins committed, or a prayer 
 of thanksgiving for victory over temptation, 
 and for the good accomplished. Where the 
 rule obtains to have children between eight and 
 twelve years go to confession at regular times, 
 e.g., during the Ember days, the Catechist will 
 not be satisfied with the cold, formal announce- 
 ment " to be ready for confession next week," 
 but for two or three weeks ahead he will repeat 
 with them now one, then another, of the differ- 
 ent preparatory acts, just as they did when 
 preparing for their first holy confession. Nor 
 will he exclude from this exercise the children 
 that have made their first communion, if they 
 are in the same class. 
 
Christian Doctrine 71 
 
 Here is, indeed, diversion, variety, and change, 
 and yet an uninterrupted, continuous religious 
 storing and shaping of mind and soul, ever 
 increasing in power as the hours and years of 
 Christian Doctrine pass on. It may not be 
 useless to observe that these religious exercises 
 may be performed with the children by the lay 
 person who conducts a Christian Doctrine 
 class, although it must be done with the advice 
 of the priest and in a manner not to interfere 
 with the other classes of Christian Doctrine or 
 the Sunday-school. 
 
 Catechists desirous of obtaining a correct 
 idea of the place and bearing of these religious 
 practices in Christian Doctrine ought to study 
 carefully the corresponding chapters in Dupan- 
 loup's inspiring book, pp. 69, 113, 125, 161 ff., 
 272, 315. Compare also Schuech, pp. 289 ff. ; 
 Hamon, pp. 93, 131 ; Furniss, pp. 27 ff. 
 
 Art. 5. — The Catechetical Office 
 
 A. Its Excellence 
 
 1. The singular sublimity and dignity of 
 the catechetical office can easily be understood 
 from the nature of the subjects to be taught 
 and of the object to be attained. One is Divine 
 Truth and Grace, the other Christian Virtue 
 and Eternal Salvation. Whilst other branches 
 
72 Christian Doctrine 
 
 of knowledge treat of the creature, Christian 
 Doctrine treats of the Creator, His perfections, 
 His works, and His holy will. It presents us 
 with doctrines made known to us by God Him- 
 self, while other sciences deal with doctrines, 
 certain and doubtful, discovered by human re- 
 flection and experience. In Christian Doctrine 
 children are given the Bread of Life that Jesus 
 brought from heaven ; in secular doctrine they 
 are given food made on this earth. In thus 
 giving to religious knowledge the first place, 
 we do not despise human science, which not 
 only supplies us with information necessary 
 and useful for this temporal life, but, rightly 
 taught and understood, will lead to a better 
 knowledge of the Creator. 
 
 2. The high character of the catechetical 
 office appears also from the sublime example of 
 the Divine Friend of children, who, notwith- 
 standing the greatest fatigue, would not let the 
 children be kept away from Him (Matt. xix. 14). 
 Is it meet that the Catechist should treat with 
 contempt those whom his Master loved so 
 dearly ? " And if he finds it difficult to stoop 
 to children, let him take as his model Him who 
 descended from heaven and became a child in 
 our midst " (St. Augustine). " With the beau- 
 tiful example of Christ before them, we are not 
 surprised to find that the most learned and 
 
Christian Doctrine 73 
 
 eminent fathers, bishops, doctors, and apostolic 
 missionaries of the Church have been animated 
 by an apostolic zeal, particularly devoted to the 
 Christian instruction of youth " (Card. Gibbons, 
 I.e., p. 302). 
 
 3. By a faithful discharge of his office the 
 Catechist fulfils the office of a guardian angel, 
 because he makes known to the children those 
 lessons which save them from temporal and 
 eternal ruin, and lead them to happiness in 
 this life and eternal bliss in the next. 
 
 Hamon (p. 6) truly says, " It is an egre- 
 gious error to look upon the office of Catechist 
 as low and unworthy a man of talent ; nothing, 
 on the contrary, in the ecclesiastical ministry is 
 more excellent, more honorable." To the de- 
 fence of this thesis Gerson devotes the whole 
 fourth reflection or chapter (pp. 48-84). Read 
 the beautiful and instructive second and third 
 discourses ("Great Examples," p. 14; "The 
 Supreme Example," p. 28), in Dupanloup ; 
 Lambing, ch. v. ; Card. Gibbons, p. 300 ff. 
 
 B. Its Officials 
 
 1. Bishops alone have the right to preach 
 the Holy Gospel, for, at His Ascension, it was 
 only to the Apostles and their successors that 
 Our Lord transmitted the authority to teach. 
 It is true that even Bishops are only Our Lord's 
 
74 Christian Doctrine 
 
 ministers and instruments in the distribution 
 of heavenly bread, the true dispenser of which 
 is the Son of God Himself. Bishop Ketteler, in 
 referring to the miraculous multiplication of the 
 loaves, says, " Our Lord did not give with His 
 own hands the earthly bread in the desert by the 
 lake of Genesareth, but through those of His 
 disciples ; so in like manner has He bequeathed 
 the heavenly bread of His doctrines and sacra- 
 ments to the Apostles, and commanded them 
 to dispense it to the people." Since the Bishops 
 only are the divinely appointed, and therefore 
 primarily responsible, preachers of the Gospel, 
 no one has a right to give religious instruction 
 in church or school, that is, in any public man- 
 ner, so long as he has not received from the 
 Bishop of the diocese the power (canonical mis- 
 sion) of doing so. All who teach religion in 
 the diocese are only helpers or auxiliaries of 
 the Bishop, and in exercising their catechetical 
 office are under his spiritual control and super- 
 vision. 
 
 2. By reason of position or appointment 
 the following persons are such auxiliaries of 
 the Bishop in teaching Christian Doctrine. 
 
 (a) The parish priest and his assistants. 
 This in virtue of their explicit canonical mis- 
 sion as official preachers of the Gospel, teach- 
 ing in the name and with the authority of the 
 
Christian Doctrine 
 
 75 
 
 Church. It is for this very reason that they 
 are specially bound, by a peculiar obligation 
 quite distinct from that of others, namely, the 
 charge of souls, to perform their office of cate- 
 chists with faithful care. " From these observa- 
 tions it follows that a parish priest wishing to be 
 relieved of the trouble of giving Catechism by 
 employing a schoolmaster or mistress to teach 
 the word of the book, must always explain it 
 himself, or another ecclesiastic in his stead, so 
 that the sense may be perfectly understood. 
 Teaching Catechism is essentially a sacerdotal 
 function that cannot be intrusted 1 to any lay 
 person. Giezi applied the prophet's stick to the 
 dead child of the Sunamitess, but the child did 
 not rise. It was necessary for Eliseus to go in 
 person and ' put his mouth upon his mouth, 
 and his eyes upon his eyes, and his hands upon 
 his hands, and he bowed himself upon him, and 
 the child's flesh grew warm ' (4 Kings iv. 29 
 ff.). This is a touching picture of the priest 
 who ought himself, and not by another, to im- 
 part new life to children by instructing them 
 and becoming a child with them and for them " 
 (Hamon, p. 5). There was (and unfortunately 
 still is) good reason why the Council of Trent 
 
 1 That is, exclusively and independently of the priesfs super- 
 vision and his actual assistance given in one way or another. — 
 Editor. 
 
76 Christian Doctrine 
 
 and our American Councils insist so frequently 
 on saying that catechising is a personal duty 
 of the priest (see p. 37 ff.). 
 
 (b) Parents, in virtue of the Sacrament of 
 Holy Matrimony, which devolves upon them a 
 strictly religious duty to educate their children 
 in the Christian Doctrine, a duty based not 
 merely on the natural relation to their children, 
 but upon the supernatural relation between the 
 sacramental state of Christian wedlock and the 
 baptismal character of its offspring, a divinely 
 established order too much forgotten in this 
 age of connubial degeneration. Christian par- 
 ents have a Christian mission to teach their 
 children. Hence St. John Chrysostom cries 
 out to them, " You are to- be apostles to your 
 children ; your house must be a church." The 
 Fathers of the I. Plen. Council of Bait, cry out : 
 " To you, Christian parents, God has committed 
 His children, whom He permits you to regard 
 as yours; and your natural affection toward 
 them must ever be subordinate to the will of 
 Him 'from whom all paternity in heaven and 
 on earth is named.' Remember that if for them 
 you are the representatives of God, the source 
 of their existence, you are to be for them de- 
 positories of His authority, teachers of His law, 
 and models by imitating which they may be 
 perfect, even as their Father in heaven is per- 
 
Christian Doctrine 
 
 77 
 
 feet. You are to watch over the purity of their 
 faith and morals with zealous vigilance, and to 
 instil into their young hearts principles of vir- 
 tue and perfection." " Parents, and especially 
 mothers, are, in the order of Providence, the 
 first natural guardians and teachers of their chil- 
 dren" (X. Prov. C. Bait. 1869). " Appointed by 
 Divine Providence the guardians of the souls of 
 your little ones, that have been made to the 
 image of the living God, and redeemed by 
 the blood of Jesus Christ, the first and most 
 onerous of all your obligations consists in secur- 
 ing their religious training and instruction at 
 all pains and sacrifices" (C. Prov. Dublin, 
 
 1853). 
 
 (c) Teachers appointed by the parish priest 
 to teach Christian Doctrine. The teachers in 
 most of our parochial schools are members of 
 religious communities, and are, as a rule, in con- 
 sequence of the training previously received in 
 the order, well qualified to teach Christian Doc- 
 trine in the different grades of the school, though 
 always under the supervision of the pastor or his 
 assistant. But in parishes and missions de- 
 prived of a Catholic school it would often be 
 impossible for the pastor to provide sufficiently 
 for the religious instruction of the children, were 
 it not for the valuable help given him by noble- 
 souled lay persons who volunteer, under his 
 
j8 Christian Doctrine 
 
 leadership, to teach Catechism and Bible His- 
 tory on Sundays and even on weekdays. Too 
 much can not be said in praise of these lay 
 teachers in our Sunday-schools, who sacrifice 
 their time and pleasures to serve the Lord in 
 His little ones. It is true, as Lambing well 
 remarks : " No person can adequately take the 
 place of the priest or of the parent, supposing the 
 latter is in all cases what the name implies ; for, 
 granting that others have acquired, or with a 
 moderate expenditure of time and study can ac- 
 quire, the necessary amount of knowledge, they 
 have not the affection and the opportunities of 
 good parents, nor the authority and divine right 
 to teach which are inherent in the priestly dig- 
 nity, and which the youngest child in the school 
 instinctively acknowledges and respects. Yet 
 the zealous teacher performs a work worthy 
 of all praise, and, with his opportunities, actually 
 effects more than the vast majority of parents " 
 (p. viii). And again he says of the Sunday- 
 school teachers : " Without a divine commis- 
 sion they teach the same truths as those which 
 once fell from the inspired lips of the Apostles. 
 Though not permitted to mount the pulpit, 
 their work is of a kindred nature with that of 
 those who are. The doctrines which they ex- 
 plain, and the principles of morality which they 
 inculcate, are as necessary for salvation as those 
 
Christian Doctrine 79 
 
 which flowed in streams of golden eloquence 
 from the lips of a Chrysostom, an Augustine, a 
 Vincent Ferrer, or a Bossuet . . . The Church 
 recognizes the teacher's dignity, acknowledges 
 her obligation to him, and rewards him by 
 granting him numerous indulgences in return 
 for the favor he bestows upon her" (pp. 41, 
 42). Not to speak of the Archconfraternity of 
 Christian Doctrine (seep. 520), indulgences are 
 also granted by the Popes to all, though not 
 members of a sodality, who devote themselves 
 to teaching children in the Catholic religion. 
 Plenary and provincial councils have ad- 
 monished pastors to choose fit and good per- 
 sons (personas habiles et honestas), men and 
 women, as assistants in teaching Christian 
 Doctrine. How well the Church understands 
 the importance and excellence of the office of 
 the lay Catechist may be seen from the minute 
 rules laid down in this regard for missionary 
 countries like India and China, and from the 
 ceremonies with which she surrounds their in- 
 stallation. A writer in the Irish EccL Record, 
 August, 1890, suggests that with us, too, "the 
 ceremony of enrolment should be performed 
 with a certain amount of solemnity " (" How to 
 make a Sunday-school Successful "). 
 
 From the nature of the work to be done, and 
 from the qualities required in the. Catechist (see 
 
80 Christian Doctrine 
 
 next article), it follows necessarily that the pas- 
 tor must be very careful in selecting the lay 
 teachers for his Christian Doctrine. " Fit and 
 good " — fit to instruct, good to educate. There 
 are persons fit to teach children, but their char- 
 acter is not one to recommend them for such 
 an exalted position as that of a religious edu- 
 cator. Others are good and pious, and real 
 examples of Christian virtue, but entirely unfit 
 to teach children. " Those who think, and they 
 are, I imagine, the vast majority, that any one 
 who can read and write, who knows something 
 of arithmetic, geography, and history, is com- 
 petent to educate young children, have not even 
 the most elementary notions of what education 
 is " (Bp. Spalding, " Means and Ends of Educa- 
 tion"). See the remarks of Father Lavelle on 
 " The Selection and Training of Teachers " for 
 Sunday-schools (A. EccL R., October, 1896, p. 
 381) and of Father Lambing on the same sub- 
 ject (lb. October, 1897, p. 397). 
 
 Art. 6. — Qualities of the Catechist 1 
 
 He who wishes to become an architect and 
 builder must first study and qualify himself for 
 it; in like manner, he who wishes to instruct 
 children in their religion must first become pos- 
 
 1 Hamon, pp. 31 ff. ; Lambing, pp. 67 ff. ; Irish Eccl. Record^ 
 July, 1869, 
 
Christian Doctrine 
 
 81 
 
 sessed of the requisite qualities. What is true 
 of the orator is true of the Catechist, Non nas- 
 citur sed fit. He is not born with the requisite 
 qualities, but must acquire them. 
 
 A. Moral Qualities 
 
 i. He must be fully imbued with the truth 
 and spirit of the Catholic religion. It is quite 
 possible, without this living conviction, to repre- 
 sent the doctrines of religion with theological 
 accuracy; but it is impossible to convince the 
 children of the truth of these doctrines, since, in 
 order to be able to give a thing to others, one 
 should possess it one's self, and only that which 
 proceeds from the heart is capable of reaching 
 the heart. Besides, children quickly detect 
 if the Catechist really means what he says. 
 Rightly does Overberg remark, " A few words 
 from the mouth of a teacher who has himself 
 experienced the sweet and comforting power of 
 religion have much greater influence on chil- 
 dren than the finest discourse of another." It 
 is this deep religious conviction that will beget 
 in the Catechist the strong persevering zeal and 
 holy fervor, the self-sacrificing spirit, so abso- 
 lutely necessary in the Catechist who would 
 "gain the children for Jesus." 
 
 2. The Catechist must be a model of Chris- 
 tian virtue. He must act like the skilful general 
 
82 Christian Doctrine 
 
 who encourages his soldiers to bravery by plac- 
 ing himself at the head of the army and advanc- 
 ing intrepidly to meet the enemy. He who does 
 not do what he teaches pulls down with one 
 hand what he builds up with the other. " The 
 eye of the body in children sees more readily 
 than the eye of the mind ; and action leaves a 
 deeper and more lasting impression than words. 
 Children are apt to institute a comparison be- 
 tween their own conduct and that of a person 
 whom they regard as a model " (Lbg.). More- 
 over, in such a case, religious instruction be- 
 comes disagreeable to the Catechist, since his 
 words are a continual reproach to his own con- 
 duct. It is a difficult task to speak of the love 
 of our neighbor with a heart devoid of feeling, 
 or of humility with a heart full of pride, or of 
 peaceableness with a quarrelsome spirit, or of 
 mercy with a merciless soul. 
 
 3. The Catechist must be distinguished by 
 his demeanor. His whole appearance should 
 be in keeping with the dignity and sublimity of 
 the subject. There must be nothing ridiculous 
 in his words, in his bearing, in his gait, or in his 
 dress ; he must avoid peculiarities and eccentric 
 habits, otherwise the children will pass mock- 
 ing remarks, and lose their respect for him. 
 He ought, also, to avoid everything which 
 might provoke uncontrollable laughter. " The 
 
Christian Doctrine 
 
 h 
 
 Catechism does not demand the gravity of the 
 pulpit ; still it does not admit of ridiculous anec- 
 dotes, or laughable stories, or common and un- 
 seemly jokes " (Dpi.). Of this dignified and 
 reverent conduct Lambing says it is one of the 
 most important and necessary characteristics 
 of a good Catechist. " To perform his duty 
 faithfully, he should be reverent in his language 
 and deportment. ... In class his look should 
 be grave, but not austere ; his tone of voice 
 pleasing, but subdued ; and his bearing easy 
 and affectionate, but without levity. But most 
 of all should reverence appear in the language 
 he uses when treating of holy things. He 
 should studiously avoid all irreverent, humor- 
 ous, or jocose remarks " (pp. j8 ff.). 
 
 The dignity of the Catechist, as well as of his 
 office, should also be reflected by the dress he 
 wears when teaching Christian Doctrine. He 
 should be careful about the cleanliness of his 
 dress, which is of no small concern, as the 
 world, children perhaps more than grown 
 people, usually believes in the saying that " The 
 apparel oft proclaims the man." In this regard, 
 Catholic Catechists, lay and clerical, may learn 
 a lesson from the teachers in our American 
 public schools. It is well understood that the 
 cassock is the only suitable dress for the priest 
 when teaching Catechism. It is the mark of 
 
84 Christian Doctrine 
 
 his priestly office and authority, and will help 
 to impart to the Christian Doctrine class a more 
 pronounced religious and holy character. 
 
 4. The Catechist must be a lover of children 
 and by that means win the love of his pupils. 
 If the children love him, they will receive his 
 words with joy, their hearts being then like 
 fruitful soil. But if the children fear the Cate- 
 chist because of his heartless and cold manners, 
 he will not produce any lasting results. To 
 him may be applied the words of St. Gregory, 
 " Those who are not loved are not willingly 
 listened to." But nothing will gain him the 
 love of the children if his heart is not filled 
 with a love for them. Next to the love of God 
 and zeal for His honor, a sincere love of the 
 children is the one indispensable requisite for a 
 good Catechist. Read the truly touching chap- 
 ter in Dpi. p. 87, on the paternal and maternal 
 love of the Catechist. A simple means of quickly 
 winning the love and affection of children is 
 this : Let the Catechist speak in a friendly way 
 to the child whom he happens to meet out of 
 school, call him by his Christian name, inquire 
 after the occupation or health of his parents, 
 etc. In this way, besides the love of the child, 
 he will also win that of the parents. But it 
 would be a mistake for him to carry familiarity 
 too far. He must, it is true, be childlike with 
 
Christian Doctrine 
 
 85 
 
 the children, but not childish. Notwithstand- 
 ing all his kindness, a certain paternal gravity 
 must be visible in him, which will win for him 
 respect and reverence. It would be a sad thing 
 if, in later life, the children were to say : " We 
 did not learn anything with that Catechist, he 
 was too kind." 
 
 5. The Catechist's love for the children will 
 also make him mild and gentle, and will not let 
 him be carried away by any outburst of anger. 
 Through meekness he appears as an angel 
 before his scholars, whose reverence and re- 
 spect he commands. An unmistakable bless- 
 ing rests upon meekness. The more indulgence 
 and patience one shows to the weaker pupils, 
 and the harder the teacher works with them, 
 the more the children advance. Besides, the 
 Catechist must bear in mind that he has before 
 him w r eak creatures whose minds are childish 
 and flighty — a fact which he can not alter. 
 For this reason, skilful Catechists have easily 
 passed over in children things which resulted 
 from mere youthful thoughtlessness and were 
 in no way sinful. St. Philip Neri would never 
 complain, no matter how much noise the chil- 
 dren made playing under his window. He even 
 encouraged them, saying, " Be gay, and go on 
 playing, only do not commit sin." When some- 
 body once reprehended him for his great indul- 
 
86 Christian Doctrine 
 
 gence, he said, " As long as the children do not 
 sin, they may chop sticks on my back if they 
 like." And yet the saint obtained astonishing 
 results in his religious instruction. True love 
 for the children will also make the Catechist 
 avoid rude invectives, nicknames, making fun of 
 the children with jokes and puns, or taunting 
 them about their origin, their parents, their 
 names, defects of mind and body, etc. He will 
 also abstain from censuring right and left, and 
 quarrelling with the whole class. In a word, he 
 must avoid everything which might discourage 
 the children, or hurt and wound their feelings ; 
 but, on the contrary, strive by all means to win 
 their hearts and good will. 
 
 6. True love for the children will make the 
 Catechist impartial to all. It would be a serious 
 fault to be kind only with the children of better 
 families and pay less attention to the poor, a 
 conduct directly opposed to the spirit of Our 
 Lord, who showed special compassion to the 
 poor. (Cf. Lbg. pp. 152, 183.) To neglect the 
 weaker pupils and the less talented in order to 
 advance more quickly with the more gifted ones 
 would be against the demands of conscience. 
 Hence, too, the Catechist must not be partial 
 to the girls, who are usually more diligent and 
 quicker in mental development than boys. On 
 the contrary, a conscientious Catechist will 
 
Christian Doctrine 
 
 87 
 
 bestow special attention upon the boys, pre- 
 cisely because they are in this respect behind 
 the girls, while yet in later life they will take a 
 more prominent and influential position. Du- 
 panloup (p. 100) says there is much prudence 
 and experience in the rule that in Catechism 
 there should be a difference between the man- 
 agement of girls and that of boys. " For boys 
 there should be a great amount of firmness 
 when they are addressed together, and great 
 kindness when any one of them is spoken to 
 separately. But, on the other hand, with the 
 girls there should be great kindness when 
 speaking to them all, but a great reserve when 
 they are spoken to separately." He observed 
 before (p. 99), " that Catechists can not be too 
 much on the watch against a certain natural 
 love which is too often felt toward some chil- 
 dren on account either of their appearance, 
 their birth, their fortune, or of a sympathy of 
 disposition and character. This entirely human 
 affection generally causes excessive attentions 
 and sometimes grievous partiality." On this 
 important subject Lambing (p. 156) says that 
 " children are remarkably quick in discovering 
 any show of partiality ; and the feelings of 
 jealousy with which the success of the diligent 
 and talented child is naturally calculated to 
 inspire them will impart additional keenness to 
 
SS Christian Doctrine 
 
 their perception and make them notice the re- 
 motest approach to favoritism. Nothing could 
 be more fatal. ... It is a poison which it is 
 extremely difficult to counteract, and hence the 
 only safety for the teacher is found in avoiding 
 the least semblance of it." The danger and 
 the fault are unfortunately common enough to 
 justify us in quoting still another authority: 
 " It is very natural for one to be more attracted 
 to a child who is handsome and well dressed 
 than to one who is ill clad and who exhibits in 
 his person, his language, and his whole deport- 
 ment the marks of that poverty and indigence 
 in which he has been reared. Now, if the 
 Catechist so far forget himself as to be influ- 
 enced by these merely human instincts ; if he 
 show more affection for the rich than for the 
 poor, for the well dressed and genteel than for 
 the shabby or the ragged ; if he speak more 
 gently to the one than to the other ; if he re- 
 ward the respectable child without being equally 
 liberal to the poor one, who may be just as 
 meritorious, — he will inflict an irreparable in- 
 jury upon the work of his ministry." {Irish 
 EccL R., 1. c.) 
 
 7. The Catechist should also be a man of 
 peace. Peace and harmony make life beautiful, 
 raise the dignity of the teacher in the eyes of 
 the children, and bring about better and more 
 
Christian Doctrine 89 
 
 lasting results in education. The Catechist, 
 priest or layman, must therefore avoid every- 
 thing that might disturb harmony and con- 
 cord among his fellow-teachers. Here, as in 
 other things, the axiom holds good, " In union 
 is strength," and union in a good work always 
 brings blessing. Dupanloup (p. 100 ff.), speak- 
 ing of the importance of this perfect agreement 
 and harmonious cooperation among the Cate- 
 chists of the same Christian Doctrine class, 
 which implies order and subordination, remarks 
 that it is on that very account no easy matter 
 to find able persons for this work. 
 
 8. All the foregoing qualities of the Cate- 
 chist will never make his work truly successful, 
 if he is not also a man of prayer, possessed with 
 the real spirit of prayer. Prayer is for his 
 work what the fertile rain from heaven is for 
 the field which the farmer tills in the sweat of 
 his brow. All men who were famous as relig- 
 ious teachers of young and old, children and 
 adults, never forgot to implore, before all things, 
 God's blessing upon their endeavors. " Unless 
 the Lord build the house, they labor in vain 
 who build it" (Ps. cxxvi. 1). " Neither he that 
 planteth is anything, nor he that watereth : but 
 God that giveth the increase " (1 Cor. iii. 7). 
 Dupanloup observes that " for the work of win- 
 ning souls redeemed by the blood of Christ, 
 
90 Christian Doctrine 
 
 piety, the spirit of grace, and prayer are indis- 
 pensable. . . . Catechism is not a matter of 
 high intellect, but of fervent piety. How many 
 Catechists who have said a great deal through- 
 out the course, have not once succeeded in 
 touching the heart of the children, have never 
 produced in those young souls the least move- 
 ment of compunction or of the love of God. 
 Let us do a little less and pray more; let us 
 become saints and nothing can resist us " (pp. 
 97 ff.). St. Augustine remarks that it is often 
 more necessary for the Catechist to speak to 
 God of the children than to speak to the chil- 
 dren of God (" On Catechising," n. 18. See also 
 Lambing, p. 90). " We may readily judge how 
 essential a tender spirit of piety is to him who 
 has to deal with the young or the ignorant. 
 Piety may, in some sense, and to some degree 
 at least, supply the want of learning ; but no 
 amount of learning can ever take the place of 
 that spirit of piety which is such an essential 
 qualification in him who undertakes the work 
 of God." (Irish Eccl. R., 1. c.) 
 
 B. Intellechial Qtcalities 
 
 1. Knowledge of theology. The Catechist 
 must not only know and clearly understand the 
 subjects which he will teach the children, but 
 he must also be able to illustrate every truth of 
 
Christian Doctrine 91 
 
 religion by suitable examples, comparisons, and 
 maxims. Yet in school he must not parade all 
 his scientific knowledge, because the children 
 are not to be made theologians, but Christians. 
 The theological science which the Catechist 
 possesses is the capital which he must keep 
 for himself; to the children belong the inter- 
 ests. " Only those who are complete masters of 
 their science can make it simple and easy to 
 others. ... If a thorough knowledge and con- 
 tinual study is requisite for teaching any sub- 
 ject well, it is not least so in the case of religious 
 instruction " (Manual, p. xii.). " The successful 
 Catechist must possess clear, solid, and exact 
 ideas, and be thoroughly read up in what we 
 may call the essential portions of theology. He 
 is bound by the obligations of his ministry to 
 explain all these matters with clearness and pre- 
 cision ; to adapt his explanations to the capacity 
 of the young, the simple, and the ignorant ; to 
 vary his expressions and to modify his turn of 
 thought, as occasion may require, without ob- 
 scuring the clearness of his teaching. How 
 can he do all this, if his own mind be a chaos 
 of uncertainty and confusion ? To be a suc- 
 cessful Catechist requires more than a mere 
 superficial knowledge of the subject." {Irish 
 EccL R., 1. c.) 
 
 2. Knowledge of pedagogy, i. e., a knowl- 
 
92 Christian Doctrine 
 
 edge of the general principles of education ; 
 the principles of method for religious instruc- 
 tion and the most important school regulations. 
 Listening to good and experienced Catechists 
 at their work is likewise of great value ; from 
 this one may often learn more than from books. 
 Finally, early practice in the art of catechising 
 is necessary, according to the principle " Prac- 
 tice makes perfect." Without this knowledge 
 of pedagogy, the Catechist's office would soon 
 become a burden. He would talk in a manner 
 so much above the children's minds that at the 
 close of the lesson, not even the quickest and 
 cleverest would know what he had been talking 
 about. The Catechist must understand how to 
 prepare the food of the soul, otherwise he is 
 like a bad cook who spoils good food and 
 undermines the health. Nowadays, in train- 
 ing and normal colleges, great importance is 
 attached to the hearing of skilled teachers, and 
 to practice in catechising. " What should we 
 say of a person trying to teach another the art 
 of swimming by giving him directions within 
 the four walls of the schoolroom, and after- 
 wards saying, ' Now you know everything, go 
 and swim ' ? " (Kehr.) Practice must come early 
 to the aid of theory. Do we not find in the 
 medical faculty that young doctors have to 
 practice the art of healing under the guidance of 
 
Christian Doctrine 93 
 
 their masters? The "Manual" (p. xiii.), speak- 
 ing of the progress made in past years in the 
 art of teaching, demands " that religion, the most 
 important of all subjects, should be taught with 
 at least equal care and skill, that the same 
 pains and perseverance, the same art and 
 ingenuity, which are brought to bear on the 
 teaching of arithmetic and geography, should 
 be exerted in the case of religion. Yet who 
 that is acquainted with our schools has not 
 seen religion taught in a way that must result in 
 giving the children a thorough distaste for it." 
 
 3. The Catechist must work continually at 
 his own self-improvement (Lbg. p. 83). He 
 who does not advance goes back. For this 
 reason he must study suitable books on the 
 Catechism, and read periodicals devoted to 
 Catechetics and pedagogy. The examination 
 of the mental capabilities and talents of his 
 scholars also tends to his improvement. A 
 Catechist who seeks to know the mental apti- 
 tude of his children is like the Good Shepherd, 
 who said, " I know My sheep and Mine know 
 Me" (John x. 14). 
 
 It is of the utmost importance for the Cate- 
 chist to study the character, the tastes and dis- 
 positions, the faculty and the good traits of his 
 pupils. There is as great a variety in all these 
 things as there is in creation at large. Cardinal 
 
94 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Gibbons says, in this connection, that no two men 
 are of the same mental capacity or moral disposi- 
 tion. " One may excel in solid judgment, an- 
 other in tenacity of memory, and a third in 
 brilliancy of imagination. One is naturally 
 grave and solemn, another is gay and viva- 
 cious. One is of a phlegmatic, another of a 
 sanguine, temperament. One is constitution- 
 ally shy, timid, and reserved, another is bold 
 and demonstrative. One is taciturn, another 
 has his heart in his mouth. The teacher should 
 take his pupils as God made them, and aid them 
 in bringing out the hidden powers of their soul. 
 If he tries to adopt the levelling process by cast- 
 ing all in the same mould, his pupils will be- 
 come forced and unnatural in their movements ; 
 they will lose heart, their spirit will be broken, 
 their manhood crippled and impaired. . . . 
 Instead of laboring to crush and subdue their 
 natural traits and propensities, he should rather 
 divert them into a proper channel. The admo- 
 nition which would be properly administered 
 to a sullen or obstinate youth, deliberately 
 erring, might be excessive if given to one of an 
 ardent or sensitive nature acting from impulse 
 or levity " (The Ambassador of Ch., p. 51). 
 
 4. The Catechist, especially in the early 
 years of his work, must always carefully prepare 
 each and every lesson of Christian Doctrine. 
 
Christian Doctrine 95 
 
 In doing so, he must first fully master the text 
 to be explained ; he ought to know by heart 
 the very words of the text-book. Then he must 
 clearly and fully arrange and prepare, not only 
 the contents of his lesson, but their order, 
 sequence, treatment, and form of statement or 
 expression. Finally, the lessons thus mentally 
 prepared should be written out in full, though 
 in case of necessity, or later, after a few years' 
 practice, a sufficiently comprehensive sketch or 
 synopsis may suffice. Bishop Dupanloup re- 
 marks (p. 144) that "it is impossible to give 
 a good catechetical instruction without having 
 prepared it with the greatest care. ... A 
 good catechetical instruction demands of the 
 most skilful four, five, or six hours of prepara- 
 tion. I have sometimes had two or three days 
 of continuous work, sometimes a whole week, in 
 preparation for certain very difficult or very 
 special instructions." He goes on to say that 
 for at least four years he wrote out in full all 
 the lessons and the little sermons in his class 
 of Christian Doctrine. At the same time (on 
 p. 153), he warns the Catechist not to make 
 himself the slave of his poor manuscript, and 
 not to deliver or repeat his lesson by heart. 
 He who does not prepare for his work finds no 
 pleasure in going into school, and in his relig- 
 ious instruction is sure to be disagreeable and 
 
96 Christian Doctrine 
 
 to make things tedious for himself and the 
 children. Many maintain that the number of 
 good preachers exceeds that of good Catechists 
 for the simple reason that sermons are better 
 prepared. This is done on the plea that a poor 
 sermon will surely be criticised by the grown 
 people, but what do children know whether a 
 lesson be well or badly taught ? What a frivo- 
 lous excuse ! Children instinctively feel the 
 difference, and any careful observer can at once 
 notice the effect of a good or a bad instruction. 
 In fact, a catechetic instruction ought to be 
 better prepared than a sermon. Before enter- 
 ing the schoolroom or church the Catechist 
 ought to put himself in a cheerful frame of 
 mind by raising his eyes to God and banishing 
 all other cares. By means of this pious aspira- 
 tion before class, the Catechist acts like a 
 musician who tunes his instrument before he 
 begins to play. The prayer of the Catechist is 
 of great value ; it increases his zeal and love for 
 the children, raises his courage, and draws down 
 the divine blessing. A Catechist who knows 
 how to pray well, knows also how to teach well. 
 
 Art. 7. — Conditions of Success 
 
 The true test of successful religious teaching 
 is not the ability of the pupils to repeat word 
 for word the Catechism text, but their increased 
 
Christian Doctrine 97 
 
 piety and improved moral character, both 
 springing from religious convictions. We may 
 here apply Our Lord's words, " By their fruits 
 you shall know them" (Matt. vii. 16). For this 
 reason those are not necessarily the best 
 scholars who are capable of repeating the text 
 with the greatest accuracy. 
 
 Among the many circumstances upon which 
 depends the success of Christian Doctrine are 
 the following : — 
 
 1. The personal fitness of the Catechist for 
 his office. 
 
 (a) First, he must be deeply imbued in mind 
 and heart with the spirit of the Christian Doc- 
 trine ; for one can not give that which one does 
 not possess. " Life proceeds from life, and relig- 
 ion, which is the highest power of life, can pro- 
 ceed only from God and religious souls " (Bp. 
 Spalding). A Catechist who has not fully en- 
 tered into the spirit of religion will, from " pure 
 conscientiousness," insist upon the exact repeti- 
 tion of subtle definitions, and attach greatest 
 importance to the knowledge of the words of the 
 book, and the committing of these to memory ; 
 but he will fail to awaken a living faith and a true 
 moral character. He who is himself blind can 
 not lead blind children to the light; and he 
 who is cold can not warm the heart of another. 
 But the Catechist who has seized the spirit of 
 
98 Christian Doctrine 
 
 the Christian doctrines, who is convinced of 
 their truth, and inspired by their beauty, will 
 teach " as one having power, and not as the 
 Scribes and Pharisees " (Matt. vii. 29. See 
 the preceding Art, p. 81). 
 
 (b) A knowledge of method and system is of 
 much greater moment to the Catechist than a 
 profound theological learning. A Catechist 
 without method does not know how to impart 
 his knowledge ; he is like a merchant who has 
 many good wares, but does not understand how 
 to display them to advantage. " A person may 
 be a scholar, but it does not follow on that ac- 
 count that he is a teacher. There are excep- 
 tionally able scholars who are decidedly bad 
 teachers, and on the other hand, there are very 
 skilful teachers who can in no way lay claim to 
 the title of scholar " (Kehr). Therefore the Cate- 
 chist who has a comparatively limited knowl- 
 edge, but possesses the art of imparting the 
 truths of religion in an excellent manner, will 
 obtain far better results than the learned theo- 
 logian who is lacking in method and practical 
 skill. In everything method means the quickest 
 and surest way of attaining an object. To cate- 
 chise without method would be losing time and 
 doing nothing ; to catechise with a bad method 
 is doing harm (Dpi. p. 250. See preceding 
 Art., pp. 91 ff.). 
 
Christian Doctrine 99 
 
 It is often said that one can learn the right 
 method by practice, without any special study. 
 Now, while it is certainly true that one may 
 gradually arrive at the right method by long 
 and constant exercise, yet the result is obtained 
 only after many mistakes have been made and 
 much mischief caused by wrong methods. 
 For the most part people do not light upon the 
 right method at all ; they get disgusted and lay 
 the blame of ill success on others. To say that 
 the right method comes naturally to any one is 
 as foolish as to maintain that a man need not 
 learn how to swim, since it would come to him 
 naturally if he fell into the water. Again, one 
 often hears the objection that method is con- 
 cerned about mere trifles. This may be true, 
 but these are the trifles of which St. Augus- 
 tine says, " Would you be great, begin by little 
 things." 
 
 The Third Plenary Council of Baltimore, 
 convinced of the necessity of methodic skill 
 in the Catechist, ordained that the theological 
 students in our seminaries should not only be im- 
 pressed with the supreme importance of Chris- 
 tian instruction for children, but should also 
 prepare to become skilful Catechists by paying 
 due regard to this work while studying psychol- 
 ogy, pedagogy, and pastoral theology ; that, 
 
 moreover, they ought to be practically instructed 
 • t.oFC. 
 
ioo Christian Doctrine 
 
 in the right way and method of teaching Cate- 
 chism and Bible History in a clear and solid 
 manner (n. 201). In regard to the much de- 
 spised " details," Dupanloup says : " Theory 
 is necessary . . . but the more beautiful the 
 theory, the more is it necessary, if it is to be 
 realized, that we should be thoroughly instructed 
 in practical details ; for in this case the details 
 alone contain a real teaching, they have an un- 
 doubted use of their own. ... I can declare 
 that all these details are absolutely necessary, 
 though too often neglected, and that they have 
 a very real importance for the salvation of 
 souls" (pp. 191, 199). 
 
 2. The pedagogical value of the text-book. 
 No one can work well with bad tools. The 
 best penman can not write well with a bad pen ; 
 neither can a good teacher instruct well with 
 a bad text-book. Some may argue that a skilful 
 Catechist can make good use of even an infe- 
 rior book. But where are such distinguished 
 Catechists, such wonder-workers, to be found ? 
 Unfortunately, when a new religious text-book 
 appears, criticism is almost always directed to 
 theological accuracy alone, and very little atten- 
 tion is paid to its pedagogical usefulness. 
 
 3. The cooperation of the parents and of the 
 school-teachers. 
 
 (a) When parents set no value upon relig- 
 
Christian Doctrine 101 
 
 ious instruction and instil into their children 
 the spirit of worldliness and even hatred or 
 contempt of religion ; when by their bad ex- 
 ample at home they teach the children the 
 very contrary of what the Catechist declares to 
 be a Christian duty, all labor on the part of the 
 Catechist is in vain. Having spoken of the 
 great care a pastor should have of the Sunday- 
 schools and Catechism classes, the Fathers of 
 the III. Prov. C. of New York say, "But the 
 efforts of the most zealous pastor will be, and 
 too frequently are, defeated by the negligence 
 and bad example of parents." Lambing says 
 (p. 12): " So necessary is the cooperation of 
 parents, that without it it is impossible to train 
 up a child in a proper manner. It is in their 
 power either to confirm or undo the work of 
 all others engaged in the training of their chil- 
 dren.'' See the very practical remarks of the 
 same author (pp. 19 ff.) on " Parents and the 
 Sunday-school." 
 
 Parents must cooperate with the Catechist in 
 many ways: (1) by their own good example and 
 Christian life; (2) by sending their children 
 regularly to Christian Doctrine ; (3) by examin- 
 ing them as to their success in learning ; (4) by 
 helping them (by explaining) to understand the 
 lessons and to memorize them ; (5) by inquiring 
 of the Catechist concerning the attendance, con- 
 
102 Christian Doctrine 
 
 duct, and application of their children ; (6) by 
 always upholding the authority of the Catechist 
 and the respect due to him. 
 
 On the other hand the Catechist, priest or 
 layman, should be in contact with the parents 
 and keep them informed about the children. 
 Often, instead of scolding or punishing the 
 delinquent child, the Catechist will visit the 
 parents to have the fault remedied. Negligence 
 or indifference of parents may often be over- 
 come by the personal influence of the Catechist 
 brought to bear upon them. (See in this 
 connection Lambing, p. 182, " Visiting the 
 Children/') 
 
 (6) The work of the Catechist may be 
 greatly helped and fostered, or on the other 
 hand seriously impeded, and in fact neutral- 
 ized, by the secular teachers of the children. 
 That the parochial Catholic school is of im- 
 mense advantage to the teacher of Christian 
 Doctrine is evident. The whole atmosphere 
 of the school is religious, the teachers all exer- 
 cise a Catholic influence, the readers are filled 
 with Catholic instruction of every kind ; every- 
 thing helps to strengthen and develop, or pre- 
 pare for, the instruction given by the Catechist. 
 
 But quite different is the case where there is 
 no Catholic school and where the children must 
 attend public school, whose influence, if not 
 
Christian Doctrine 103 
 
 against the Catholic religion, is at least not 
 favorable to it. Happy the Catechist if by his 
 prudence and tact he succeeds in engaging the 
 interest and sympathy of some Catholic teacher 
 in the public school who may volunteer to 
 " keep an eye " on the Catholic children, to ad- 
 monish them to attend the Sunday-school or 
 Saturday Catechism, and possibly come to as- 
 sist the pastor in teaching the Christian Doc- 
 trine class on these days. This becomes even 
 more important in so-called mission places, 
 where no priest resides. The help and assist- 
 ance of a Catholic teacher in such a place is 
 worth all the efforts and endeavors on the part 
 of the Catechist to get his good will and favor 
 (Dpi. p. 430). 
 
 4. The proper organization of the Christian 
 Doctrine class. There is no difficulty in this 
 regard where the children receive their religious 
 instructions at regular hours, and according to 
 the regular programme embodied in the annual 
 plan or work of the Catholic school. But where 
 there is no parish school, or in the separate 
 Christian Doctrine class (Sunday-school) for 
 the children who have already left the school, 
 there it becomes all-important for the success- 
 ful teaching of Christian Doctrine to have the 
 different classes properly organized and have ap- 
 propriate programmes or courses laid out for the 
 
104 Christian Doctrine 
 
 different classes. Not only this, but where there 
 is a large number of children, and consequently 
 a large number of teachers or Catechists, the 
 order and work of the different teachers and 
 their relations with one another ought to be 
 clearly determined. No need of saying that in 
 Christian Doctrine or Sunday-school the parish 
 priest is the supreme ruler. He must be the 
 very soul of the Sunday-school, and should 
 never be absent from it, except for very urgent 
 reasons. Inasmuch as the priest ought person- 
 ally to teach the higher class, or those immedi- 
 ately preparing for the sacraments, and can 
 not, therefore, attend to all the other classes, 
 it may become necessary in a large Sunday- 
 school to have a superintendent who will look 
 after the discipline and the exact carrying out 
 of the programme. But such superintendent 
 must be under the direct and full control of 
 the priest. Frequent meetings or conferences 
 of priest and teachers are of immense value 
 for the Sunday-school. (On the organization 
 of a Sunday-school see Lbg. pp. 31 ff. ; Furniss, 
 pp. 55 ff.) Father Lavelle, in a splendid 
 article on " The Scope and Organization of 
 Sunday-schools," in the A. EccL R., October, 
 1896, says that such organization "is a very 
 large and difficult subject. It includes (1) proper 
 gradings ; (2) the selection of the right kind of 
 
Christian Doctrine 105 
 
 teachers and often the training of the same ; 
 (3) the best methods of teaching; and (4) the 
 wise and tactical placing of responsibility." 
 Each point is there carefully and wisely ex- 
 plained. (See also Dpi, p. 100, on the agreement 
 and necessary subordination among Catechists.) 
 
 Art. 8. — Difficulties and their Remedies 
 
 1. In the opinion of competent judges it is 
 more difficult to teach Christian Doctrine suc- 
 cessfully in elementary schools than to teach 
 any of the secular branches. In these, visible 
 objects are discussed or made use of, such as 
 animals, plants, stones, letters, numbers, models, 
 and so forth, whilst in religious instruction 
 things come under discussion which can not be 
 perceived by the senses, and which sometimes 
 can not be grasped even by the understanding. 
 Just as it is far more difficult to write a Cate- 
 chism for children than a religious treatise for 
 grown-up persons, so it is far more difficult to 
 teach Christian Doctrine than to preach a good 
 sermon. The reason of this is that adults can 
 more easily be made to understand things than 
 can children, who have a limited vocabulary, 
 are flighty and inattentive, and as yet can not 
 take life seriously. Again, the Catechist, having 
 had the benefit of a higher education, finds it 
 difficult to stoop to the children's minds and to 
 
io6 Christian Doctrine 
 
 enter into their thoughts and feelings. Other 
 difficulties which are well calculated to discour- 
 age the Catechist arise from the children, their 
 natural levity and inattention, their frequent 
 absence or very irregular attendance, their poor 
 training and dull understanding, the careless- 
 ness and indifference of their parents, etc. (see 
 Schuech, p. 207). St. Augustine devotes five 
 chapters ( 1 o- 1 4) of his book on " Catechising the 
 Ignorant " to the subject of this article. 
 
 There are special difficulties lying in the way 
 of the parish priest who has to teach Christian 
 Doctrine. It not unfrequently happens, par- 
 ticularly in large parishes, that at the hour 
 when he ought to give instructions the priest 
 has to perform some pressing ecclesiastical duty 
 that can not be postponed, such as to admin- 
 ister the Sacraments to a dying person, or 
 to give private baptism, and so forth. When 
 the religious instruction is deferred till an- 
 other time certain disadvantages always follow. 
 The class, for instance, will be given later in 
 the day, but some children have forgotten their 
 books, others again are not ready, and make all 
 kinds of excuses; occasionally, with the best 
 will, the priest finds it impossible to make 
 up for the lost hour. At another time he may 
 have to give instruction when exhausted by 
 fatigue. Perhaps he has had to walk or drive 
 
Christian Doctrine 107 
 
 a long distance, possibly in bad weather, or he 
 is still fasting, since he is going to say a later 
 Mass, or else he has already fatigued himself 
 from the early morning in the exercise of his 
 pastoral office, for example, at Easter time in 
 the confessional. Moreover, a parish priest is 
 in a much more difficult position than he whose 
 duties are confined to the school. In the cure 
 of souls he has to deal almost exclusively with 
 grown-up people ; hence, when going to Chris- 
 tian Doctrine he must suddenly change his 
 manner of speaking, his demeanor, his whole 
 being, so as to become a child with children. 
 As he gives instructions in many classes, he 
 must learn to know the names and dispositions 
 of a great number of pupils ; and in every class 
 he must adapt himself to its peculiar character, 
 usually stamped upon it by its own teacher. 
 
 2. Great as these difficulties are, yet the 
 Catechist will courageously meet them. Just 
 as the skilful general is not deterred from fight- 
 ing although the enemy's forces are superior, 
 so the Catechist will not allow difficulties to 
 discourage him. Let him rouse his courage by 
 means of the following considerations. 
 
 (a) The great value and usefulness of solid 
 religious instruction, which is a source of bene- 
 diction not only to the children, but to their 
 parents and future generations. It is true that, 
 
108 Christian Doctrine 
 
 with children, we do not always see immediately 
 the desired results. God's word is like the 
 seed of grain in nature, which requires a whole 
 year to develop. The results of religious in- 
 struction often show themselves only in later 
 life, sometimes even on the bed of sickness or 
 in the hour of death. The Catechist is only 
 the sower and the instrument in God's hand, 
 but it is God who gives the increase (i Cor. 
 iii. 6, 7). Sometimes it only seems as if our 
 instructions were fruitless ; we can not look into 
 the children's hearts nor see their future life, to 
 judge of the results of our work. What seems 
 to us weak is sometimes very powerful in God's 
 hands, whilst what we, in our self-complacency, 
 think most successful, remains in reality in- 
 effectual. 
 
 Religious instruction often proves more bene- 
 ficial to the parents than to the children them- 
 selves. Small birds often carry a seed to the 
 top of some high tower or to an unapproach- 
 able rock, where, in consequence, a beautiful 
 plant, or even a little tree, springs up. Chil- 
 dren do in like manner. They take, many a 
 seed of the divine word from school home to 
 their parents and others living with them, to 
 whom, in their simplicity, they relate every- 
 thing. Such a seed often sinks into the hearts 
 of parents, where it bears more abundant fruit 
 
Christian Doctrine 109 
 
 than with the children. Besides this, the Cate- 
 chist, by his zealous work for the children, 
 makes friends of their parents. Even the 
 coarsest parents are sensible of what is done 
 for their children and are grateful for it. 
 Now gratitude is a virtue which makes even 
 the hardest heart accessible to noble feelings, 
 and therefore capable of receiving the truths of 
 religion. (See Cardinal Gibbons, 1. c, p. 307 f.) 
 
 (b) On the other hand, let the Catechist well 
 consider what a terrible harm is done where 
 religious instruction is badly given or neglected, 
 a harm which can never be entirely remedied. 
 Whoever teaches Christian Doctrine badly is 
 just as culpable as an architect who lays the 
 foundations of a house badly, thereby caus- 
 ing the building to fall and to bury the men 
 beneath its ruins. 
 
 (c) Let the Catechist think of the reward 
 which he may expect from God for strenuous 
 work in giving religious instruction. St. 
 Augustine calls religious instruction a work of 
 mercy to which are applicable the words of 
 Holy Scripture, " As water extinguishes fire, so 
 do alms blot out sin." To the Catechist like- 
 wise these words of Our Lord apply, " So long 
 as you did it to one of these My least brethren 
 you did it to Me " (Matt. xxv. 40). (See Lambing 
 pp. 198 ff., " The Sunday-school Teacher's Re- 
 
1 10 Christian Doctrine 
 
 ward.") On the advantages of Christian Doc- 
 trine for the Catechist himself see Dpi., ioth 
 disc, pp. 105 ff. He sums it all up by saying: 
 " Yes, I have owed everything to the Catechisms 
 [he means, to teaching Catechism], everything 
 for my soul, everything for my ministry, every- 
 thing for my heart, I would say everything for 
 my career, if that were a sacerdotal word." 
 (See also Cardinal Gibbons, I.e., pp. 310 f. 
 321. Hamon, p. 28.) 
 
 (d) The Catechist may also consider that 
 all priests who are zealously fulfilling the duties 
 of their vocation must be prepared for contra- 
 diction and opposition, for Our Lord Himself 
 did not escape this lot. " It would be an illu- 
 sion for the servant of Christ to seek times or 
 places where he could work without any hin- 
 drance. How shameful if the laborer should 
 work more to earn earthly bread than the 
 Catechist to dispense that which is heavenly " 
 (Ketteler). 
 
 (e) Lastly, let the Catechist place before his 
 soul the excellence and dignity of his holy office, 
 the importance of his work, and the great ex- 
 amples of Christ and His saints. It will in- 
 spire him with a holy courage which, supported 
 by prayer, the most powerful weapon, will make 
 him easily overcome all difficulties. It will 
 fill him with a strong and fervent zeal which 
 
Christian Doctrine 1 1 1 
 
 is the only guarantee of persevering efforts. 
 " Unless his labors be inspired and animated 
 by this spirit of zeal, they will soon become 
 insufferably tedious and distasteful to him. 
 The levity and indocility of the children, the 
 grossness and stupidity of the ignorant, will 
 soon fill him with such a disgust for instructing 
 them, that he will undertake this duty with the 
 utmost repugnance, and, as a necessary conse- 
 quence, discharge it without interest and with- 
 out fruit. But on the contrary, if he be 
 inspired by a lively zeal and a great love of 
 God, the Catechist will in this very spirit of 
 zeal find that courage which will enable him 
 to triumph over all difficulties. It will supply 
 him with an invincible spirit of patience to con- 
 quer the natural ennui and disgust which he 
 may find in the discharge of his office. It will 
 encourage him to persevere, and stimulate him 
 to employ all the diligence in the preparation 
 of his instructions which is absolutely necessary 
 for their success " {Irish EccL R. I.e.). 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE COURSE OF CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE 
 
 Art. i. — General Principles 
 
 By the course of Christian Doctrine is meant 
 the selection of the matter to be taught, its dis- 
 position or orderly arrangement for the differ- 
 ent classes of children and the various grades 
 into which they are divided. The whole 
 chapter, therefore, naturally presents three 
 different views, namely, the general principles 
 by which the Catechist must be guided, the 
 different subjects to be taught, and the different 
 classes in which Catholic Doctrine is explained. 
 (See Dpi. pp. 255 ff . ; Sch. pp. 211, 220 ff.) 
 
 1 . The standard according to which children 
 are grouped for religious instruction differs 
 from that in other subjects. Bishop Dupanloup 
 rightly takes the reception of the Sacraments 
 as the basis of classification. Therefore, in 
 Christian Doctrine the lower class (1st and 2d 
 school years) will comprise those children who 
 have not yet approached the Holy Sacraments ; 
 the middle class (3d and 4th school years) those 
 
 112 
 
Christian Doctrine 113 
 
 who are being prepared for the reception of the 
 Holy Sacraments; the upper class (5th to 8th 
 school years) those who have already made 
 their first communion. 
 
 In the lower grade the foundation is laid and 
 the way prepared for Catechism instruction. 
 This is done by the narrative of the life of 
 Our Lord, and those scriptural persons who 
 either prepared the way for Our Lord or con- 
 tinued His work. Accordingly, in this class, 
 the Old and New Testaments will be treated of. 
 
 In the middle class the children will be 
 gradually prepared for the reception of the 
 Holy Sacraments, and led on to assist regularly 
 at the holy sacrifice of the Mass. This is done 
 by treating of the Commandments and of the 
 means of grace. Amongst the means of grace, 
 the holy Mass and the Sacraments of Penance 
 and the Holy Eucharist must be thoroughly 
 entered into. The Commandments are to be 
 explained because the children are now of an 
 age when they can distinguish good from evil, 
 and must approach the Sacrament of Penance. 
 
 Scholars of the upper class are to be brought 
 to a firm conviction of the truth of the Catholic 
 religion, inspired with love for it and for the 
 Church, and prepared to meet the more com- 
 mon objections against the Catholic faith. For 
 this reason the doctrines of faith and morals 
 
1 1 4 Christian Doctrine 
 
 are to be more thoroughly entered upon here, 
 and the Liturgy of the Church to be explained 
 more fully, and her history to be related more 
 in detail. 
 
 In the foregoing classification the author 
 follows exactly the three kinds of Catechisms 
 explained in every detail in the Third Book of 
 Dupanloup's work : the " Little Catechism " to 
 which children are admitted at seven or eight 
 up to ten or eleven (pp. 265 ff.) ; the " Week- 
 day or Communion Catechism " preparatory to 
 that great act (pp. 299 ff.) ; and lastly the " Cat- 
 echism of Perseverance," or the great Catechism 
 for children from twelve to eighteen years 
 (pp. 453 ff.). 
 
 The author of the " Manual " proposes an- 
 other division (pp. xvii. ff.), viz. (a) Infants, i.e., 
 children just come to the age of reason ; (b) 
 children from eight to ten ; (c) older and more 
 advanced children. In the first division they 
 are to learn only the ordinary prayers and some 
 hymns. Explanations of doctrines they can not 
 take in. But facts, great facts and truths, 
 illustrated and pointed at by the wonderful 
 events of sacred history, these they take in with 
 eagerness and awe, and so deeply that the im- 
 pression still lives for years after. In the 
 second division the children begin to be able to 
 learn the Catechism and comprehend its mean- 
 
Christian Doctrine 1 1 5 
 
 ing. In the third division they should obtain 
 a thorough and ample knowledge of the Cate- 
 chism as a system of Christian Doctrine ; they 
 may learn the meaning of the feasts and devo- 
 tions and practices of piety ; and especially 
 they may be shown the connection between 
 faith and practice. 
 
 Schuech (pp. 220 ff.) proposes still another 
 arrangement, by which four main classes are 
 formed, each comprising two school years, ex- 
 cept the first, which consists of children of the 
 first year only. 
 
 We prefer the grading explained by Father 
 Lavelle in the A. Eccl. R., October, 1896, p. 377. 
 He proposes five grades. " The first for the 
 children who do not yet know their prayers ; 
 the second for those who are preparing for their 
 first confession ; the third for those soon to 
 receive their first communion ; the fourth for 
 those who expect to be confirmed ; the fifth for 
 children after confirmation." According to 
 these grades the proper subjects of Christian 
 Doctrine are arranged in the special pro- 
 grammes. 
 
 It is easy to see that, notwithstanding 
 the apparently radical differences between the 
 above systems, they can all be reduced to the 
 author's triple class, the lowest for the first be- 
 ginners, the middle one for those going to con- 
 
n6 Christian Doctrine 
 
 fession, and the highest one for those having 
 made their first communion. (See pp. 155 ff.) 
 2. A definite and full course of Christian 
 Doctrine, to be gone through by the children 
 of the parish, together with a clear programme 
 arranged for each class and grade, is positively 
 necessary, no matter what the conditions and 
 circumstances of the place and children may 
 be, and whether there is a Catholic school or 
 not. In laying out his course the priest must 
 keep in view especially the length of time or 
 number of years during which the children 
 usually come to Christian Doctrine, and the 
 amount of time and number of hours placed at 
 his disposition. Such a regularly planned 
 course guards against loss of time and compels 
 the Catechist to finish the prescribed matter 
 within the required time. It urges him to pre- 
 pare thoroughly, and prevents him from stay- 
 ing too long with certain parts through lack of 
 preparation. Besides, by means of a fixed 
 course, we succeed in obtaining uniformity in 
 the different schools (a most desirable thing), 
 so that if children go from one place to another, 
 or if the Catechists are changed, there need be 
 no real interruption in the instructions. What 
 the plan of building is to the architect, the 
 course of study is to the Catechist. However, 
 this course must not be a strait-jacket, and so 
 
Christian Doctrine 1 1 7 
 
 confine the Catechist as to make him lose his 
 individuality and make no account of local 
 needs. 
 
 The Bishop may prescribe a course of Chris- 
 tian Doctrine for his diocese, which usually 
 gives only the general outline and allows — to 
 the advantage of instruction — the Catechist 
 plenty of free room for action. For this rea- 
 son, the Catechist should draw up for himself 
 a detailed programme, in which regard must be 
 paid, not so much to the number of pages in 
 the text-book, as to the nature and importance 
 of the several subjects, the capacity of the chil- 
 dren, the attendance at school, to holidays, vaca- 
 tions, and to local needs. 
 
 In any case, where no definite diocesan 
 course is given, let the Catechist draw one up 
 for himself and submit it to his ecclesiastical 
 superior. It will be a safeguard to the Cate- 
 chist. In some dioceses there are courses ready 
 printed, sometimes even detailed, which, how- 
 ever, are as little suited to all schools as one 
 last is to all boots. 
 
 The course of Christian Doctrine must also 
 take into account the following fundamental 
 principles : — 
 
 (a) The principal subject of the first relig- 
 ious instruction is Bible History, for catecheti- 
 cal instruction would be to no purpose with little 
 
1 1 8 Christian Doctrine 
 
 children, (b) The Catechism instruction must 
 be spread out over two years at least ; for it is 
 impossible, as experience has shown, to go 
 through it in a shorter time, (c) The Cate- 
 chism is to be gone through at least twice. 
 Repetition and recapitulation is the mother of 
 all learning; without it, lasting results are 
 nowhere obtained. Besides, by means of a 
 second or more detailed repetition, religious 
 truths are more clearly grasped. But it stands 
 to reason that this repetition must not be a 
 bare recapitulation, but a more detailed presen- 
 tation of the matter already known. A mere 
 repetition would only weary the children, and 
 be of no avail. 
 
 3. In regard to places (so-called missions) 
 where there is no resident priest and where the 
 people are too far away from a church to attend 
 regularly, and where a priest comes only at 
 stated times, it may be difficult for him to lay 
 out a " course " of Christian Doctrine for those 
 children. Yet, where a priest comes at regular 
 times, even this is possible ; in fact, here a cer- 
 tain programme becomes even more necessary. 
 If the priest knows how often a year, a month, 
 he must visit that mission and for how long 
 every time he may have the children, or also, 
 how often a lay person of the place will teach 
 the children Catechism during that time, he 
 
Christian Doctrine 1 1 9 
 
 will be able to draw up some kind of a definite 
 programme and make provisions for a regular 
 selection and arrangement of the matter that 
 the children must learn each year. Only with 
 the help of such a programme can the few 
 lessons given during the year do some effective 
 work ; without it the instructions will either be 
 turned into special preparations for the Sacra- 
 ments, or become an aimless and shifting series 
 of religious talks. In this connection Schuech 
 says (p. 225): "On the missions that can be 
 visited but rarely by the priest, it is necessary 
 to appoint the most sensible lay person to act 
 as Catechist, and to point out to him, or to sup- 
 ply him with, such books and helps as will 
 qualify him for his sublime task." However, 
 these books and helps will avail the teacher 
 little, if his work is not properly laid out in a 
 programme suited as well as possible to the cir- 
 cumstances of the place. 
 
 Art. 2. — Bible History 
 
 With the limited number of hours allotted to 
 Christian Doctrine it is impossible, in the 
 course of the school year, to deal with all the 
 narratives contained in the Bible History. The 
 Catechist must, therefore, choose out of this 
 great number the most suitable ones, and con- 
 nect them in a fittino- manner. 
 
120 Christian Doctrine 
 
 I. In regard to the selection of the matter, 
 the Catechist must attend to the following 
 rules : — 
 
 i. Non multa sed multurn, not many things 
 but much, — that is to say, it is better to go 
 through less matter, taking only what is most 
 necessary and important, but this little must be 
 thoroughly impressed upon the mind. It is to 
 no purpose to go hastily through a great number 
 of stories. Overberg rightly remarks : " Do not 
 overwhelm children with narratives. It is better 
 to learn and retain ten than to hear a hundred and 
 forget them." Moreover, the principal aim of 
 Bible History is not to make the children learn of 
 many biblical events, but to ennoble their moral 
 life, and lay a foundation for the future Cate- 
 chism lessons. For this reason the lessons of 
 faith and morals contained in every Bible story 
 should be drawn out, and applied to the life of 
 the children. This will sometimes require from 
 one to two hours for some parts from Bible His- 
 tory. Where the diocesan programme fixes a 
 certain number of Bible stories, thirty or forty a 
 year, the Catechist must determine in the begin- 
 ning of the course how much time he may allow 
 for each of the stories, as the more important 
 events evidently demand a fuller treatment. It 
 were utterly absurd to give the same time and 
 work to each narrative. 
 
Christian Doctrine 1 2 1 
 
 2. In this selection of his material the Cate- 
 chist must be guided also by the length of the 
 course, that is, whether a separate Bible History 
 class be taught only for one or two or more 
 years. In some schools in Germany Bible His- 
 tory is taught in concentric cycles from the 
 lowest to the highest classes, like the Catechism. 
 While it is true that in the succeeding Catechism 
 class many an opportunity is given to impart 
 to the children a fuller knowledge of some one 
 biblical story already explained in the preceding 
 Bible History class, yet the course should be so 
 arranged that the children, as they advance to 
 higher grades, repeat the Bible lessons heard in 
 the lower grades. " This," says Knecht, an 
 acknowledged authority, ■' is absolutely neces- 
 sary if Bible History is to do any lasting good. 
 Without repetition children will soon forget 
 what they have learned ; moreover, at the first 
 instruction, in the lower grade, the rich and 
 profound contents of many numbers can be set 
 forth only very imperfectly. Hence, the repeti- 
 tion is not merely to refresh the memory, but it 
 ought especially to lead to a fuller and better 
 understanding of the subject." 
 
 3. The following Bible stories must not be 
 passed over, but ought to be more thoroughly 
 explained and learned than others. 
 
 (a) Those which are necessary for the expla- 
 
122 Christian Doctrine 
 
 nation of the articles of faith contained in the 
 Apostles' Creed. 
 
 (b) Those which are necessary in order to 
 understand the feasts of the ecclesiastical year, 
 as, for example, the story of Our Lord's trium- 
 phal entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday. 
 
 (c) Those which have to be prominently men- 
 tioned and made use of in the later Catechism 
 class. 
 
 (d) Those which are read at the services on 
 Sundays and feastdays (Epistles and Gospels). 
 
 (e) Those which afford an opportunity of 
 teaching the children their particular duties at 
 home, in church, and at school ; examples of 
 holy children (Abel, Isaac, Joseph, Samuel, 
 Tobias), or of wicked and disobedient children 
 (sons of Heli, Absalom, Cain). 
 
 (/) Those which are interesting and cal- 
 culated to rivet the attention, and by which 
 religious instruction is made pleasing to the 
 children. 
 
 (g) Those which set before us noble examples 
 or show the way of true conversion. 
 
 The Catechist must also explain those Bible 
 stories which will serve as a warning against 
 sin, showing the evil consequences of sin, the 
 punishment by God, the ugliness of sin. It is 
 foolish when teachers skip over these narratives 
 for fear the children would learn evil thereby. 
 
Christian Doctrine 1 2 3 
 
 These people forget that ignorance can not save 
 the sinful children of Adam from either folly or 
 wickedness. However, what stories of this kind 
 to select, and in what manner to explain them, 
 will depend a great deal on the character of the 
 class, or on the mental state of the pupils. (See 
 examples below, pp. 128 ff.) 
 
 (h) " It is regrettable when Catechists leave 
 out the later events of the New Testament. 
 These narratives (the healing of the lame 
 beggar, the persecution of the Apostles, St. 
 Stephen, the confirmation at Samaria, the 
 conversion of Saul, Peter in prison, the coun- 
 cil at Jerusalem) are of great importance and 
 significance in Catholic faith. ... It is certainly 
 a mistake to devote nearly half the time to the 
 preparatory history of the Christian Church, 
 i.e., the Old Testament, and not leave suf- 
 ficient time for the no less important and in- 
 structive history of the Church of the Apostles 
 and its development "(Knecht). 
 
 II. With regard to the arrangement of the 
 Bible stories the following principles hold 
 good : — 
 
 1. Bible stories of the New Testament 
 must precede those of the Old Testament for 
 the following reasons : (a) they are easier and 
 more intelligible to little children, since they 
 are all grouped round the person of Our Lord ; 
 
1 24 Christian Doctrine 
 
 (b) it is more important that Christian children 
 should know first the life of Our Lord than the 
 lives of the personages of the Old Testament ; 
 
 (c) the New Testament leads them sooner and 
 quicker to understand the principal Christian 
 festivals and the truths of the Christian re- 
 ligion ; the Church also attaches greater 
 importance to the New Testament, for in 
 her services on Sundays and feasts, she reads 
 almost exclusively the New Testament; (d) 
 without a knowledge of the New Testament 
 the Old can not be rightly understood. " In the 
 Old Testament there is a veiling of the New, 
 and in the New Testament there is a revealing 
 of the Old " (St. Augustine). Hence, in most 
 dioceses, the programme of study prescribes 
 instruction in the New Testament for the 
 earliest school age. 
 
 2. The Bible stories of the New Testament 
 must be so fitted into each other that the life 
 of Our Lord may appear as a connected whole. 
 Children understand the life of Our Lord much 
 better when they get a good view of the whole. 
 They must not be kept too long at the mir- 
 acles and parables of Our Lord, so that the 
 thread of His life may not be broken. Most 
 of the miracles and parables can be dealt with 
 after the life of Our Lord has been completed. 
 Again, these lessons should keep pace with the 
 
Christian Doctrine i 2 5 
 
 ecclesiastical year, which follows the chrono- 
 logical order from His birth (Christmas) to His 
 Ascension (in May). 
 
 3. The Bible stories of the Old Testament 
 must follow each other in chronological order, 
 so that the children may clearly understand 
 how mankind has been prepared for the com- 
 ing of Christ. St. Augustine, in his work, " On 
 Catechising," lays down the rule that the 
 thread of the narrative should not be broken. 
 Bishop Ketteler confirms this, since he says: 
 " Every detached historical fact can be made 
 more or less improbable. So it is with the 
 truths of faith." The chronological order and 
 connection of the different stories helps to make 
 them better understood and more easily re- 
 tained. Yet it may be very useful to inter- 
 rupt the chronology at certain times, and bring 
 narratives of a different time together in order 
 to put into clearer light a great truth, pointed 
 out by those different facts. This applies prin- 
 cipally, if not exclusively, to the Messianic 
 prophecies, whether expressed in words or in 
 types. While it is true that the history of the 
 Jewish people has an interest of its own, being 
 that of the only nation of antiquity which had 
 the true knowledge and worship of God, yet 
 for Christian children the great importance 
 and significance of Old Testament history lies 
 
126 Christian Doctrine 
 
 in the fact that it reveals to them the divine 
 preparation of Christ's kingdom among men. 
 The Catechist must always remember that the 
 Old Testament class is part of the Christian 
 Doctrine class ; in Bible History Christ Jesus 
 and His kingdom must be the one great and 
 most prominent figure of the Old and the New 
 Testament. " The typical character, so grand 
 and wonderful, of the Old Testament, furnishes 
 religious education with a most precious treas- 
 ure which may not remain locked up for our 
 pupils" (Knecht). By sometimes grouping types 
 and prophecies together, e.g., Abel, Melchise- 
 dech, Isaac, Joseph, Moses (Christ), Noe's Ark, 
 the Tabernacle, the Temple (the Church), Mel- 
 chisedech's sacrifice, the Paschal Lamb, the 
 Manna, the Show-breads, the food of Elias 
 (Holy Eucharist), these typological explana- 
 tions will gain in clearness and strength. The 
 same holds good in regard to prophecies strictly 
 so called. An excellent example of this kind 
 of " grouping " is furnished in the " Scripture 
 History for the Confraternity Class " by the 
 Rev. M. F. Glancey. 
 
 4. The question whether Bible History 
 should be taught in a chronological or in top- 
 ical order seems to be widely agitated by cate- 
 chetical writers. 
 
 While Bishop Knecht follows closely the 
 
Christian Doctrine 1 2 7 
 
 chronology in the manifold and most helpful 
 programmes drawn up by him, Father Glancey, 
 the writer of the preface to the English transla- 
 tion of his work (n. 2) maintains that all the con- 
 fusion between the Bible History class and that 
 of the Catechism "comes from being enslaved 
 to the chronological system. This is the root 
 of the evil to which the axe must be laid," and 
 he relegates that system to " our upper schools 
 and colleges." With him, at least for the 
 lower grades, " the Scripture history should be 
 grouped round the central doctrines of our 
 faith." Examples are then given regarding 
 the doctrines of the Holy Eucharist and the 
 Church, to illustrate " the unification or concen- 
 tration of subject" in Bible History and Cate- 
 chism along parallel lines. For this topical 
 system demands that the same subjects be 
 treated at the same time in the Bible History 
 and the Catechism class. 
 
 The apparently opposing theories may pos- 
 sibly be reconciled by distinguishing different 
 phases and times of Bible History instruction. 
 Where the facts from Bible History are 
 brought forward in Catechism to illustrate and 
 prove some truth or mystery of faith, these 
 facts must naturally be selected and told upon 
 the topical plan. But this is really a Cate- 
 chism class, although the explanation of the 
 
128 Christian Doctrine 
 
 different biblical facts may run through sev- 
 eral hours. The class of Bible History, being 
 something distinct from the Catechism class, 
 must not be confounded with the use of Bible 
 stories in the latter. The principle demanding 
 a close connection, in fact, an interpenetration 
 of Bible History and Catechism, is sufficiently 
 guarded by the manner indicated above (Ch. 
 i., pp. 55 ff.). But in the class of Bible History 
 the traditional way of following its chronology 
 is preferable. (See the suggestion in A. Eccl. 
 R., February, 1897, p. 187.) 
 
 III. The following sample arrangements of 
 Bible History may give Catechists some help 
 in making out their own programme. They 
 also serve to show how doctrinal explanations, 
 catechetical and liturgical instructions, may be 
 opportunely joined with the story. The letters 
 A.C. mean the articles of the Apostles' Creed. 
 
 1. The first school year. 
 
 Old Testament. (1) The creation of the 
 world. (1 A.C. The Our Father) (2) Creation 
 of the angels and their trial. (Prayer to Guar- 
 dian Angel) (3) Creation of man. Garden of 
 Paradise. (4) The Fall. Promise of the Re- 
 deemer. New Testament. (5) Announcement 
 of the birth of St. John the Baptist. (6) An- 
 nunciation of Our Lord's birth. (2, 3 A.C. 25 
 March. Angelus.) (7) Mary visits St. Eliza- 
 
Christian Doctrine 129 
 
 beth. [The Hail Mary) (8) The birth of St. 
 John the Baptist and his youth. (9) Nativity 
 of Our Lord and the shepherds. (3 A.C. 
 Christmas) (10) Presentation of Jesus in the 
 Temple. [Candlemas Day) (11) The three 
 Magi, [Epiphany) (12) The flight into 
 Egypt. (13) Jesus in the Temple at the age 
 of twelve years. [The joyful decades of the Ro- 
 sary) (14) St. John the Baptist and Our Lord's 
 baptism. [Blessed Trinity) (15) The mar- 
 riage at Cana. (16) The storm on the lake. 
 (17) The. feeding of the five thousand. (18) The 
 cure of the centurion's servant. (19) The rais- 
 ing of Lazarus. (20) The entry of Jesus in 
 Jerusalem and the driving out of the sellers 
 in the Temple. [Palm Sunday, Holy Week.) 
 (21) The institution of the Blessed Sacrament. 
 [Holy Thursday, Corpus Chris ti) (22) Jesus 
 on the Mount of Olives. The betrayal of 
 Judas. (23) Jesus before the chief priests. 
 (24) St. Peter's denial and the despair of Judas. 
 [The Ten Commandmeitts) (25) Jesus before 
 Pilate. (26) The scourging and crowning with 
 thorns. Ecce Homo. (4 A.C.) (27) The Con- 
 demnation of Our Lord. (28) The journey to 
 Calvary and the crucifixion. [Good Friday) 
 (29) The seven words on the Cross and the 
 death of Our Lord. (5 A.C. The Way of the 
 Cross. The five sorrowful mysteries of the Ro~ 
 
130 Christian Doctrine 
 
 sary.) (30) The burial of Our Lord. (31) The 
 resurrection. (5 A.C. Easter) (32) Jesus at 
 Emmaus. (33) Jesus appears twice to the 
 Apostles in the upper room at Jerusalem. 
 (34) The Ascension. (6 A.C.) (35) Our Lord's 
 account of the last judgment; the blessed and 
 the damned. (7 A.C. Works of mercy) (36) 
 The descent of the Holy Ghost. (8, 9 A.C. 
 Pentecost. The glorious mysteries of the Ro- 
 sary) (37) The miracle at the beautiful gate 
 of the Temple. (38) Peter receives the power 
 of the keys. (39) Peter receives the charge of 
 the lambs and the sheep. (40) St. Peter in 
 prison; his death in Rome. (9 A.C. 29 June.) 
 (41) St. Stephen. (42) Conversion of Saul 
 and his death in Rome. (43) The prodigal 
 son. (10 A.C.) (44) The raising to life of 
 the young man at Nairn. (11 A.C.) (45) The 
 raising of Jairus' daughter. (46) The rich man 
 and Lazarus. (12 A.C.) (47) The good Samar- 
 itan. ( The two precepts of charity) (48) The 
 dispute among the Apostles as to who should 
 be greatest. Jesus blesses the children. {Ad- 
 dress to the children at the close of school year) 
 
 2. The second school year. 
 
 Bible History of the Old Testament. (1) 
 Creation of the world. (Repetition and explana- 
 tion of the Our Father) (2) The angels. (3) 
 The creation of man. The Garden of Paradise. 
 
Christian Doctrine 131 
 
 (4) The Fall. (Sin.) (5) Cain and Abel. (6) 
 The Deluge. (7) Noe's thankoffering. (8) 
 Abraham's obedience and peaceableness. Mel- 
 chisedech. (The Holy Sacrifice of the Mass 
 and the Seven Sacraments) (9) Abraham's 
 hospitality and intercession. (10) Destruction 
 of Sodom. (11) Isaac's sacrifice. (Faith: re- 
 petition of the Apostles' Creed) (12) Esau and 
 Jacob. The ladder reaching to heaven. (13) 
 Joseph is sold. (14) Joseph's elevation. (15) 
 Joseph's brethren twice in Egypt. (16) Joseph 
 makes himself known. (17) Jacob's journey 
 to Egypt. (Repetitio7t of the Ten Command- 
 ments) (18) The patient Job. (19) Moses 
 saved from the waters. (Works of Mercy) 
 (20) The burning bush. (21) The paschal 
 lamb and the exodus from Egypt. The pas- 
 sage through the Red Sea. (22) The wonders 
 of the desert : the manna from heaven, the 
 water from the rock, the prayer of Moses, the 
 brazen serpent. (23) The giving of the law on 
 Sinai. ' ( Very brief explanation of the Ten 
 Commandments with regard to the examination 
 of conscience) The golden calf. (24) The 
 spies. (25) Moses' doubt and death. The 
 passage of the Jordan. (26) Heli's sons. (27) 
 David and Goliath. Saul's anger. (The seven 
 capital sins) (28) David's twice-repeated mag- 
 nanimity toward SauL (The commandment 
 
132 Christian Doctrine 
 
 to love our enemies) (29) Absalom {Fourth 
 Commandment) Solomon's judgment. (30) 
 The widow of Sarephta. Elias's sacrifice on 
 Mount Carmel. (31) Naboth stoned though 
 innocent. (32) Elias taken up into heaven. 
 (33) Eliseus and the boys. {Reverence to old 
 age.) Naaman the Syrian. {Confession) (34) 
 Tobias. {Good works) (35) The three chil- 
 dren in the fiery furnace. (36) Baltassar. (37) 
 Daniel overthrows the idol Bel. (38) Daniel 
 in the lion's den. (39) The seven Machabees 
 and Eleazar. ( The six commandments of the 
 Church) (40) Judas' offering for the dead; 
 {Requiem Mass. The De Profundis bell) ; his 
 victory. The miserable d§ath of Antiochus 
 Epiphanes. 
 
 New Testament History. As far as time will 
 allow new stories should now fill up the New 
 Testament narrative given last year. Such por- 
 tions will be selected as will later come up in 
 the Catechism class, and which afford a pos- 
 sibility of dealing with the division and the 
 fundamental formulae of the Catechism (see 
 Ch. iv. p. 350). (1) Our Lord's transfiguration 
 on Thabor. {Eternal happiness is our end) 
 (2) Mary and Martha. {But one thing is neces- 
 sary) (3) The parable of the great feast or 
 supper (Luke xiv. 16). {Man is forgetful of his 
 last end) (4) Jesus and the Samaritan woman. 
 
Christian Doctrine 133 
 
 ( The knowledge of God through faith) (5) Jesus 
 walks on the sea and calls Peter. {Hope, con- 
 fidence) (6) Our Lord and the rich young 
 man. (The Commandments.) (7) Jesus heals 
 the ten lepers. (Confession.) (8) The un- 
 merciful servant. (Law of charity.) (9) The 
 centurion Cornelius at Cassarea. ( Good works.) 
 (10) The sermon on the lake and the miracu- 
 lous draught of fishes. (Mission of the Apostles. 
 The Church.) (11) The penitent Magdalen. 
 (Penance) (12) The promise of the Blessed 
 Sacrament in the synagogue at Capharnaum. 
 (The Blessed Sacrament) (13) The Pharisee 
 and the publican in the Temple. (Prayer) 
 (14) The Chanaanite woman. (Qualities of 
 prayer) (15) The blind man on the road 
 to Jericho. (16) The friend at midnight. 
 (17) The laborers in the vineyard. (Practice of 
 religion) 
 
 Art. 3. — Catechism 
 
 The Catechist must proceed as an archi- 
 tect or builder does who first lays a firm foun- 
 dation and then builds up the walls. In doing 
 so one stone is laid upon another, and all of them 
 firmly joined together. So does the Catechist 
 in Christian Doctrine. Having laid the founda- 
 tion through Bible History, he begins to build 
 the walls by the Catechism. As the builder does 
 
134 Christian Doctrine 
 
 with the stones, so must the Catechist fit the 
 Catechism lessons in their proper order and 
 connect them with one another. The necessity 
 of this manner of procedure follows from the 
 nature of the Catechism, which is, as Bishop 
 Ketteler says, " a wonderful, intrinsically con- 
 nected system of revealed fundamental truths." 
 Accordingly, of this holy temple of divine 
 truths, the children are to know, not merely 
 a piece here and there, like stones broken 
 out from the wall, but the whole grand and 
 heavenly building in its internal unity. 
 
 I. The Catechist (but much more the Cate- 
 chism) must adhere to the following general 
 principles. 
 
 i. He must begin with those doctrines 
 which are necessary to a right understand- 
 ing of others. For example, the doctrine of 
 grace must precede that of the Sacraments. 
 We must not, however, understand by this that 
 no subject at all may be mentioned which has 
 not been previously dealt with (though this is 
 the usual course to pursue) otherwise religious 
 instruction would be quite impossible. Certain 
 fundamental ideas (Church, sin, redemption, 
 etc.) are, on account of the internal connection 
 of all sacred truths, interwoven throughout the 
 whole Catechism; but then, these are known 
 to the children in consequence of their former 
 
Christian Doctrine 135 
 
 instructions in Bible History. Only when a 
 thorough treatment of a subject is neces- 
 sary in order to make it understood, should 
 a full explanation of all ideas and terms 
 precede it. 
 
 2. Connected or allied doctrines should be 
 treated of side by side, for by this means their 
 internal connection will be better grasped. The 
 truths of faith are to be treated of one after 
 the other in immediate succession, likewise 
 the Commandments and the Sacraments. 
 
 It is bad from a pedagogical point of view if 
 a Catechism introduces the doctrine of the 
 Commandments or the Sacraments when treat- 
 ing of the articles of the Creed, or if related 
 subjects (grace, prayer, and Sacraments, Com- 
 mandments and Christian righteousness) are 
 separated. 
 
 3. Things opposed to each other must 
 likewise be placed side by side, according to 
 the principle, Contraria juxta se posita magis 
 elucescunt — Contraries are better grasped when 
 they are placed side by side. Thus, humility 
 and pride, meekness and anger, are to be 
 treated of in immediate succession. (See below, 
 p. 141.) 
 
 4. We ought also to consider the order 
 and course in which the truths of religion have 
 hitherto been usually explained by the Church. 
 
136 Christian Doctrine 
 
 (See Catechism of Trent.) Here as elsewhere 
 history is the best guide. Thus we find that 
 in the course of time the contents of the Cate- 
 chism have been grouped in four principal 
 parts placed in the following order, viz,: (1) the 
 twelve Articles of the Creed; (2) the Com- 
 mandments ; (3) the seven Sacraments ; (4) the 
 seven petitions of the Our Father. 
 
 II. In addition to these general principles, 
 the following special rules ought to be observed. 
 
 1. In the beginning of the Catechism, the 
 Catholic Rule of Faith must be taught. This 
 is necessary in order that the children may 
 know who it is that makes known to us the 
 truths revealed by God, and from what source 
 they are drawn. Hence, the first subjects to 
 be taught are the teaching Church, Holy 
 Scriptures, and tradition. By this means, the 
 truths which follow appear as the teaching of 
 the infallible Church established by Christ, in 
 contradistinction to the doctrines of heretics. 
 
 2. The Apostles' Creed must be explained 
 before the Commandments. 
 
 Faith is the foundation of morals, since it 
 contains the motives for the observance of the 
 moral law. Morality bears the same relation 
 to faith as the trunk does to the root. This, 
 however, does not mean that the laws of moral- 
 ity are subordinate to the doctrines of faith or 
 
Christian Doctrine 137 
 
 vice versa. Both are invested with the same 
 divine authority. It is true, modern philoso- 
 phers, the so-called Rationalists, say that faith is 
 secondary, that the all-important point consists 
 in living aright. Hence, before all things they 
 insist upon the explanation of a system of 
 ethics based on reason. Luther falls into the 
 opposite error, and advocates the principle, 
 " Faith alone saves ; good works are second- 
 ary." Hence Luther makes everything consist 
 in faith. The Catholic Church considers the 
 doctrines of faith and of morals equally impor- 
 tant. As root and stem are necessary to pro- 
 duce fruit, so are the doctrines of both faith 
 and morals necessary to live a virtuous life. It 
 is certain that faith strongly influences our 
 moral life. Hence the saying : — 
 
 " What manner of God thou believest, 
 That manner of life thou leadest. 
 This warning truth pure eyes behold 
 In the nations' story, new and old." 
 
 Even Kant had to admit that " Without a God 
 and the hope of a future, though as yet invisi- 
 ble, world the noble ideas of morality may be 
 indeed subjects of applause and admiration, 
 but not motives for resolution and action." 
 
 3. After the Apostles' Creed has been ex- 
 plained hope must be treated of, since the proper 
 
1^8 Christian Doctrine 
 
 o 
 
 order of the three theological virtues demands 
 this. Hence, most famous writers of Catechisms, 
 such as Canisius and Bellarmin, have taken up 
 hope immediately after the Creed, and only 
 after hope the virtue of charity and the 
 Commandments. 
 
 Spirago and some other writers consider it a 
 mistake to treat of prayer under the head of 
 hope, on the plea that prayer is not an object 
 of hope but a means of grace. 
 
 In- reply it may be said that while this is true, 
 prayer as usually practised among Christians is 
 the most common and ordinary exercise of 
 hope, the form under which that virtue mostly 
 manifests itself. So is the reception of the 
 Sacraments; for were it not with a view and 
 in the hope of receiving the grace needed for 
 our salvation, there could be no reason for 
 using the Sacraments, which are special chan- 
 nels through which grace, one of the great 
 objects of hope, is given to us. Moreover, 
 in the most noble form of prayer, the Our 
 Father, all the objects of divine hope are 
 indicated. " Whatever man can wish and 
 hope and profitably pray for, is contained in 
 the Lord's Prayer " (Cat. of Trent, Preface). 
 There is an immediate and direct connection 
 between the practice of hope and divine grace, 
 prayer and the Sacraments. It is not illogi- 
 
Christian Doctrine 139 
 
 cal, therefore, to treat of these subjects immedi- 
 ately after the Apostles' Creed. The question 
 is, is it according to sound pedagogics ? The 
 Catechism is for children, not for philosophers 
 or theologians. By trying to be strictly logical 
 some writers of Catechisms have made their 
 books unsuited and useless for any practical 
 purpose with children. 
 
 The editor of this work dissents from the 
 view of its author above stated, and believes 
 that in Christian Doctrine the Commandments 
 should follow immediately after the Apostles' 
 Creed, according to the saying, Primum ere- 
 denda, tunc facienda, demnni media ad titrum- 
 que utenda — (First the things to be believed, 
 then the things to be done, and lastly the 
 means to accomplish both). 
 
 4. In treating of the Commandments the two 
 great precepts of charity, the love of God and 
 love of the neighbor, must precede the Deca- 
 logue. This twofold precept is the foundation 
 of the Decalogue, since the whole of the Ten 
 Commandments can be reduced to the precepts 
 of charity. Christ Himself says, " On these 
 two commandments dependeth the whole law " 
 (Matt. xxii. 40). 
 
 Immediately after the explanation of the 
 precept of charity should come the Works of 
 Mercy. The prohibition against injuring our 
 
140 Christian Doctrine 
 
 neighbor, contained in the last six Command- 
 ments, is amplified by the commandment to 
 help him in his need. The Works of Mercy 
 must by all means be treated of in direct con- 
 nection with the commandment to love our 
 neighbor, since they are the practical exercise 
 and proof of that love. As they are strictly 
 enjoined by Christ (Matt. xxv. 41 ff.) they are 
 not mere counsels, but evidently belong to 
 that commandment and must not be separated 
 from it. 
 
 After the Works of Mercy, the Decalogue (i.e., 
 the Commandments of God) and the Six Com- 
 mandments of the Church will be dealt with. 
 The latter might be discussed immediately 
 after the Third Commandment, to which they 
 are related and which they appear to complete. 
 However, with children it is preferable to finish 
 the chapter on the Decalogue before treating 
 of the Commandments of the Church. 
 
 5. After the Commandments follows the 
 doctrine of virtue (good works) and sin. 
 
 This part, which Canisius calls the doctrine 
 of " Christian Justice," deals with the observance 
 and the violation of the Commandments, and 
 belongs therefore as a supplementary part to the 
 treatise on the Commandments. 
 
 Instruction on good works and virtues must 
 precede that on sins. One can rightly under- 
 
Christian Doctrine 141 
 
 stand the loathsomeness of sin then only when 
 he has grasped the beauty of the opposite vir- 
 tue. Hence Hirscher says, " Instruction on 
 sin is fruitless if it is not based on the teaching 
 and knowledge of the opposite virtues." More- 
 over, virtue must be treated of in connection 
 with the contrary vice according to the peda- 
 gogical principle above stated (p. 135). It is a 
 great mistake to treat first of the principal vir- 
 tues alone, and then of the capital sins alone, 
 instead of explaining, for instance, pride imme- 
 diately after humility. 
 
 At the close of the doctrines of morality 
 follows the doctrine of Christian perfection and 
 its practice. Here we deal with the three 
 evangelical counsels and the eight beatitudes. 
 Thus we gradually follow in the doctrine of 
 morals the steps which lead to holiness. 
 
 6. The holy sacrifice of the Mass must be 
 dealt with before the Sacraments, not only 
 because it is the central point of the whole of 
 divine worship, but still more because it is the 
 continuation and mystical renewal of the sacri- 
 fice of the Cross, the source of all grace and 
 Sacraments, which must be also explained in 
 this connection. When it is said that the Mass, 
 implying the real presence of Christ, should be 
 treated of after the Eucharist or in connection 
 with that Sacrament, it may be replied that 
 
142 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Transubstantiation is the essential part of the 
 sacrifice, and that without it there would be no 
 Blessed Sacrament. Moreover, the treatise on 
 the sacrifice of the Cross and of the Mass turns 
 upon ideas altogether different from that of the 
 Sacrament, and it is wrong, from a pedagogic 
 point of view, to mix them up. The subject 
 needs a separate treatment. 
 
 7. The treatise on the Sacraments follows 
 after that on faith and morals. 
 
 The Sacraments can not be properly under- 
 stood without a thorough knowledge of the 
 doctrine of the Redemption, grace, the Com- 
 mandments, and sin. In teaching the Sacra- 
 ments, the order fixed by the Council of Trent 
 and observed since that time must be followed. 
 According to this order the Sacraments neces- 
 sary for every person come first, and last the two 
 Sacraments needed for the Church of God at 
 large. It may also be remarked that the first 
 Sacraments are received in earlier years, and 
 that in fact the first three were simultaneously 
 administered in the early Church. Again, an 
 internal connection may be seen between Bap- 
 tism, Confirmation, and the Eucharist, between 
 Confession and Extreme Unction, between the 
 Priesthood and Matrimony. But the Catechist 
 must be careful not to indulge in fanciful spec- 
 ulations concerning these things. 
 
Christian Doctri 
 
 ne 
 
 143 
 
 8. The doctrine of prayer and worship is 
 suitably placed at the end of the Catechism. 
 
 Since children are familiar with the essential 
 doctrine of prayer from the constant use of the 
 forms of prayer, this last part of the Catechism 
 is more of a recapitulation and less urgent. A 
 celebrated Catechist of antiquity, St. Cyril of 
 Jerusalem, treats of prayer in the last place, 
 and declares that thus the crown is placed 
 upon catechetical instruction. 
 
 Art 4. — Church History 
 
 1. Already in the Catechism class facts 
 from Church History ought to be mentioned, 
 especially when explaining and proving the 
 several religious truths. It is likewise useful 
 before the feasts of certain saints, such as the 
 Apostles, great missionaries — St. Patrick, St. 
 Boniface, St. Francis Xavier, Bl. Peter Claver — 
 St. Nicholas, St. Martin, St. Aloysius, St. John 
 Nepomucene, and others, to relate briefly their 
 lives ; also on the anniversary of important 
 historical events to read the respective pass- 
 age from the Church History, e.g., before the 
 Feast of the Holy Name of Mary, the deliver- 
 ance of Vienna from the Turks ; before the 
 Feast of the Invention of the Holy Cross (3d 
 May), the history of St. Helena; before the 
 Feast of the Immaculate Conception, the Ap- 
 
144 Christian Doctrine 
 
 paritions of Our Lady of Lourdes. Even in 
 the lower grades the Catechist will find op- 
 portunities to carry out Dupanloup's advice 
 (p. 480), viz., that " he ought to accustom the 
 children to know the saints and, if I may say 
 so, to live with them ; every Sunday he ought 
 to tell them something out of the grand lives 
 of any of the saints whose day falls in the week, 
 or tell them something interesting out of the 
 history of the Church." Short, animated, and 
 graphic sketches of other famous Christian men 
 and women, though not saints, from clergy and 
 laity, may find a place here. 
 
 2. The real class or systematic instruction in 
 Church History begins in the upper grade only, 
 that is, with more advanced children, toward 
 the end of their common school education. If 
 this instruction is to be of any profit, the follow- 
 ing points must be attended to. 
 
 (a) A multiplicity of names and dates and 
 numbers is to be avoided, for these only serve 
 to burden the memory to the prejudice of the 
 heart and mind, and make instruction tedious 
 and hateful. Whether a date or number is to be 
 learned by heart depends on the importance of 
 the event, and likewise on the ease or difficulty 
 of memorizing the former. In many cases it is 
 sufficient if the children can give the dates ap- 
 proximately. It is better, e.g., to remember the 
 
Christian Doctrine 145 
 
 century only, but for a long while, than the exact 
 date for a moment only. 
 
 (6) As a rule, there is no need to insist on the 
 chronological succession of separate events and 
 the strictly orderly (synchronic) enumeration of 
 contemporary facts. It would be without any 
 practical result to make the children enumerate 
 in strict order the single Christian persecutions 
 under the Roman emperors, or the Crusades 
 of the Middle Ages ; nor would it profit the 
 children if they were able to say the ten 
 plagues of Egypt in their order. Rather bring 
 out what is common to the allied facts, and 
 wherein each differs from the other, emphasiz- 
 ing those only which are particularly important. 
 
 (c) Church History, like Bible History, pre- 
 sents us with beautiful finished pictures which 
 are interesting and instructive, and easily re- 
 main in the memory. For this reason the 
 schoolbook of Church History should, like a 
 religious reading book, contain interesting selec- 
 tions rather than a continuous, strictly chrono- 
 logical, or coherent recital of the whole history. 
 A certain historical order may still be observed 
 in arranging or grouping these selections. Such 
 a book will be read with pleasure by children 
 and grown-up persons. 
 
 (d) Such stories as fill us with enthusiasm 
 for religion and the Church deserve the prefer- 
 
146 Christian Doctrine 
 
 ence. The history of heresies deserves less 
 consideration. Members of a family will often 
 talk with pleasure of events which redound to 
 their joy and honor, while unpleasant strokes of 
 misfortune are not so willingly recalled. In like 
 manner we proceed here in describing the for- 
 tunes of the Church, giving the preference to 
 those facts which distinctly prove the power and 
 work of the Holy Ghost in the Church, and show 
 the truth of the words of Christ, " I am with you 
 all days, even to the consummation of the 
 world," and " The gates of hell shall not pre- 
 vail against it." In this way enthusiasm for 
 religion will be awakened. The history of 
 heresies has a contrary effect, unless it be set 
 into clear and striking contrast with that of the 
 Church, a matter which even children of the 
 higher grades can not yet appreciate. Subjects 
 which do not contribute to deepen Catholic con- 
 viction may be considered only when a knowl- 
 edge of them is necessary to understand the 
 chain of events or desirable for local reasons. 
 
 (e) Events of Church History which con- 
 cern one's own country and nation should be 
 emphasized. By her feasts of national saints 
 and patrons the Church gives the Catechist a 
 valuable hint. The history of Catholic Mis- 
 sions should not be neglected. 
 
 (f) Many of the rules given above (p. 119), 
 
Christian Doctrine 147 
 
 when speaking of Bible History, must be ap- 
 plied also in the class of Church History. 
 Special attention, however, should be given to 
 biography, which is now recognized as the great 
 pedagogical method of teaching history in lower 
 school grades. " Biography renders things and 
 events more real ; they lose their abstraction 
 when clustering around a person, and awaken 
 sympathy because the actor is one of our kind. 
 Children will listen for hours with eager souls 
 entirely absorbed in the exalted deeds, the 
 striking situations, and the patient suffering 
 and Christian resignation of a typical person- 
 age. It has been observed by educators that 
 the great charm of Bible History lies in the 
 fact that it is a series of biographies held to- 
 gether by a thread of narrative " (" Cleveland 
 Conspectus," p. 26). There will be no difficulty 
 in choosing from every age and century of the 
 Church some notable personages, men and 
 women, popes and kings, clergymen and lay- 
 men, around whom the principal events of that 
 epoch may be grouped, by which means the his- 
 tory of this epoch remains deeply impressed on 
 the child's imagination. As in Bible History, 
 so also in the class of Church History, refer- 
 ence must be made to the corresponding doc- 
 trines of faith and morals connected with the 
 story told. Reference may also be made to the 
 
148 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Liturgy of the Church and to any similar facts 
 related in the Bible. 
 
 (g) Finally, it is not useless to observe that 
 the lives of the Saints and their sayings, the 
 works and doings of the Church, ought to be 
 clearly distinguished in their character from the 
 lives and sayings of ordinary men, however fa- 
 mous, and from purely secular events or occur- 
 rences in history. The supernatural element in 
 the Church and her saints ought to be set forth 
 before the children. 
 
 Art. 5. — Liturgy 1 
 
 1. The Catholic Church frames her religious 
 instructions on the plan of the ecclesiastical 
 year. The Catechist should do the same. In 
 going through the New Testament in the first 
 class, he will speak before Christmas of the 
 birth of Our Lord, before Easter of His Passion 
 and Resurrection, before Whitsuntide on the 
 sending of the Holy Spirit, before the feast of 
 SS. Peter and Paul of the labors of these princes 
 of the Apostles. This method is quite natural, 
 and observed in teaching other subjects, for 
 example, Natural History, where plants and 
 flowers are discussed in the school at the time 
 when they are in bloom. As instruction brought 
 
 1 See Dpi. p. 69; Sch. p. 124. 
 
Christian Doctrine 149 
 
 into contact with nature awakens and quickens 
 interest in nature, so when religious instruction 
 clings to the feasts and ceremonies of the eccle- 
 siastical year, it likewise awakens the children's 
 interest in matters of religion and of the Church. 
 It is true, that with this method special instruc- 
 tions in Liturgy would be superfluous. In the 
 higher classes the Bible stories proper to the 
 individual feasts and seasons of the Church must 
 be repeated first, after which the ceremonies of 
 the Church and their meaning may be more fully 
 explained. Thus, for example, before Christ- 
 mas, the history of Our Lord's birth will be 
 repeated and then the following explained : 
 the fast on Christmas eve, the midnight Mass, 
 the three Masses, the Christmas tree, the crib, the 
 names "Christmas," " Holy Night," "Yuletide," 
 the hymn " Venite Adoremus," the date (Decem- 
 ber 25). At Easter, recite the history of the 
 Passion and Resurrection of Our Lord, and 
 explain the meaning of the repository (sepul- 
 cher), the adoration of the Cross, the proces- 
 sion on the eve of Easter (in some places), the 
 paschal candle, the Easter eggs, etc. The 
 different blessings and processions on Candle- 
 mas, on Ash Wednesday, on Palm Sunday, on 
 All Souls' Day (cemetery), at the Forty Hours, 
 the blessing of St. Blase, the Angelus, the toll- 
 ing for the dead — all these should be briefly 
 
150 Christian Doctrine 
 
 explained on fitting occasions, whether in Bible 
 History or Catechism class. The same may be 
 done at Pentecost and other feasts of the Church. 
 Again, in the course of the Old Testament, the 
 Catechist might explain, before Christmas, the 
 types referring to Christ the Messias ; before 
 Easter, the types of the bloody sacrifice on the 
 Cross and of the Resurrection ; before Pente- 
 cost, the types of the Holy Ghost, and the diffu- 
 sion of His grace ; before Corpus Christi, the 
 types of the Holy Eucharist ; before the feast 
 of SS. Peter and Paul, the types of the Apostles 
 and of the Church. 
 
 Lambing says that these explanations " will 
 give the children a more intelligent view of 
 many of the ceremonies and pious practices of 
 the Church, and will serve at the same time to 
 interest and entertain the class, when, for some 
 reason, the teacher may have leisure at his com- 
 mand. He should even vary the exercises by 
 occasionally taking a little time for such expla- 
 nations." (See Chap. in. p. 276.) 
 
 In the practice of religious devotions, likewise, 
 the Catechist must consider the ecclesiastical 
 year. Here, also, the words of St. Augustine 
 apply : " He prays best who prays with the 
 Church." Therefore, before Our Lady's feasts, 
 or during the month of May, the Catechist 
 must pray with the children to Our Lady ; at 
 
Christian Doctrine 151 
 
 Pentecost, to the Holy Ghost ; in March, to St. 
 Joseph ; in June, to St. Aloysius ; in Septem- 
 ber to the Holy Angels ; in October, the Ro- 
 sary ; in January to the Holy Family ; in 
 November for the dead ; on Friday to the dying 
 Saviour; on the first Friday of the month to 
 the Sacred Heart. As a teacher (Pfeifer) says, 
 " This will help to prevent regularly recurring 
 school prayers from degenerating into a thought- 
 less compulsory service." The more usual sacred 
 hymns also can be memorized, explained, and 
 sung in connection with the ecclesiastical year. 
 
 2. Systematic instruction in Liturgy is suit- 
 able only for advanced children, hence in the 
 higher grades. To make it really profitable, 
 those things must be explained first of all 
 which it is necessary and truly useful for a 
 Christian to know. Ceremonies which are 
 exceptionally rare need not be explained (for 
 instance, the consecration of a Bishop), unless 
 when children have an opportunity of seeing 
 them. Moreover, it is useless to explain in 
 detail ceremonies which only the priest needs 
 to know fully, as, for example, the individual 
 ceremonies of the Mass. 
 
 Here, also, the principle of unity in Christian 
 Doctrine holds good. Facts from Bible and 
 Church History, dogmas and moral doctrines 
 which are symbolized by the respective cere- 
 
152 Christian Doctrine 
 
 monies or are the cause of some particular 
 liturgical celebration, should be brought out. 
 
 3. A regular class of Liturgy ought to em- 
 brace all the main parts of this subject. Conse- 
 quently (a) the holy seasons and feasts of the 
 ecclesiastical year, where it is well to explain 
 distinctly, first, the mystery and event commem- 
 orated by the feast or the character of the season, 
 then the history and origin of the feast, lastly, 
 its allegorical meaning in regard to the Christian 
 life, (b) Sacred ceremonies and functions, e.g. y 
 the Mass, Sacraments, blessings, processions, the 
 sacramentals, and pious customs, like the Ange- 
 lus, burials. In all these the historical as well as 
 the symbolical elements may be explained suita- 
 bly to the capacity of the pupils, (c) Sacred per- 
 sons and places and things ; thus the hierarchic 
 degrees or orders and their functions, the church 
 edifice and all its parts; again, the sacred vessels, 
 vestments, statues, images, etc. Explain their 
 use and meaning, (d) Lastly the public prayers, 
 devotions, and chants of the Church. Here may 
 be mentioned the Angelus, Rosary, Stations of 
 the Cross, Litanies, Forty Hours' Devotion; 
 again, religious confraternities, devotions to the 
 Sacred Heart in June, to Our Lady in May, to 
 St. Joseph in March, to the Holy Angels in 
 September, to the Poor Souls in November, and 
 so on. The more common hymns or sacred songs, 
 
Christian Doctrine 153 
 
 whether liturgical or otherwise, sung in church, 
 especially those used by the children, ought to 
 be well explained. (See below, Ch. v. pp. 392 ff.) 
 
 4. To this liturgical instruction belongs also 
 the liturgical exposition of the Epistles and 
 Gospels read at divine service on Sundays and 
 feastdays (the pericopes). In the Jewish syna- 
 gogues, passages from Holy Scriptures were 
 read on the Sabbath. The early Christians 
 imitated this custom. On all Sundays, before 
 Mass, passages from the Apostles and the 
 Prophets, suited to the sacred season, were 
 read, and then explanations and exhortations 
 added. In the year 380, St. Jerome, in accord- 
 ance with the Pope's wish, compiled the series 
 of Epistles and Gospels now in general use. 
 
 (a) The pericopes are to be explained in the 
 Christian Doctrine class preceding the Sunday 
 or holy day on which they will be read. Since 
 they were arranged with close regard to the 
 ecclesiastical year, they afford the Catechist an 
 opportunity of explaining the signification of 
 the respective Sundays and feastdays. As the 
 explanation is to be mainly liturgical and is 
 not to form a Catechism class, the religious 
 truths contained in them will not be discussed 
 in detail. A fuller explanation of that kind 
 can best be given in the school homily. Gos- 
 pels containing a doctrinal discourse of Our 
 
154 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Lord, unless it be an easy parable, are, as a 
 rule, difficult for children to understand, and 
 a doctrinal explanation of them would require 
 too much time, hence can not be entered into. 
 In a word, our exposition of the pericopes here 
 is not meant to increase doctrinal knowledge, 
 but to give the children a liturgical knowledge 
 and make them understand the ecclesiastical 
 year and the ceremonies of the Church. (See 
 Dpi. p. 161, I.; Sch. p. 301.) 
 
 (b) While many of the Gospels are of an his- 
 torical character and familiar to the children 
 from the class of Bible History, the Epistles are, 
 as a rule, far too difficult, being mostly extracts 
 either from the epistles written by the Apostles, 
 or from the prophetic and sapiential books of 
 the Old Testament. Still, there are a number 
 of Epistles containing a biblical story or event 
 which can easily be explained to the children, 
 and may serve to make them understand the 
 historic or allegoric meaning of the Sunday or 
 feast. The following list may be a help for 
 Catechists not sufficiently acquainted with the 
 Roman Missal: — 
 
 Tuesday of the second week in Lent = Elias and the widow of 
 
 Sarephta. 
 
 Friday " " " " = Dream of Joseph of Egypt. 
 
 Saturday " " " " = Esau and Jacob. 
 
 Monday " third " " = Naaman the Syrian. 
 
 Tuesday " " " " = Eliseus and the vessels 
 
 filled with oil. 
 
Christian Doctrine 
 
 155 
 
 Friday of the third week in 
 
 Lent 
 
 ; = Moses bringing water from 
 the rock. 
 
 Saturday " " " 
 
 u 
 
 = Susanna. 
 
 Monday " fourth " 
 
 a 
 
 == Solomon's judgment. 
 
 Thursday " " " 
 
 a 
 
 = Eliseus and the Sunamite 
 woman. 
 
 Friday " « " 
 
 a 
 
 = Elias raising the widow's 
 son to life. 
 
 Monday " Passion Week 
 
 
 = Jonas in Ninive. 
 
 Tuesday " " « 
 
 
 = Daniel in the lions' den. 
 
 Easter Sunday 
 
 
 = The pious women at the 
 sepulcher. 
 
 " Thursday 
 
 
 = Philip and the Egyptian. 
 
 Ascension 
 
 
 = Ascension of Christ. 
 
 Vigil of Pentecost 
 
 
 = Baptism and confirmation 
 at Corinth. 
 
 Pentecost Sunday 
 
 
 = Coming of the Holy Ghost. 
 
 " Monday 
 
 * 
 
 = Peter's sermon in Jeru- 
 salem. 
 
 " Tuesday 
 
 
 = Confirmation at Samaria. 
 
 " Thursday 
 
 
 = Philip preaching at 
 
 Corpus Christi 
 
 St. Paul's Conversion. Jan. 25 
 
 St. Matthias. Feb. 24 
 
 St. Barnabas. June 11 
 
 Vigil of SS. Peter and Paul. June 28 
 
 SS. Peter and Paul. June 29 
 St. Dionysius. Oct. 9 
 
 St. Stephen. Dec. 26. 
 
 Samaria. 
 
 Last Supper at Jerusalem. 
 
 Paul's conversion. 
 
 Election of Matthias. 
 
 Barnabas at Antioch. 
 
 The lame beggar at the 
 golden gate. 
 
 Peter led out from prison. 
 
 Paul before the Areo- 
 pagus. 
 
 St. Stephen's martyrdom. 
 
 Art. 6. — Class Programmes 
 
 A. Full Graded Schools 
 
 The following programme is that for a com- 
 plete common school including a high school 
 
156 Christian Doctrine 
 
 department. In a school of this kind the 
 material for Christian Doctrine can be some- 
 what exhaustively dealt with, whereas in other 
 elementary schools it must be more or less 
 restricted according as the number of classes 
 is greater or less. 
 
 /. Class. — Bible History of the New Testa- 
 ment in connection with the ecclesiastical year, 
 and with the Apostles' Creed as the basis. A 
 few stories from the Old Testament, such as 
 the Creation and the Fall, must precede in order 
 that the children may understand the work of 
 Redemption. Before Christmas, stories must 
 be told about the Birth of Our Lord ; before 
 Easter, about His Passion and Resurrection ; 
 before Pentecost, about the sending of the Holy 
 Ghost ; before SS. Peter and Paul (June 29) 
 about the works of the princes of the Apostles. 
 
 Toward the close of the school year must be 
 explained a few of the miracles and beautiful 
 parables of Our Lord, which were passed over 
 before so as not to break the continuity of 
 Our Lord's life. The Catechist may also set 
 forth examples of virtue to be imitated or of 
 sin to be shunned ; for instance, the Blessed 
 Virgin and St. Joseph (perfect service of God), 
 SS. Zachary and Elizabeth (piety), St. John 
 Baptist (mortification), St. Peter's fall and con- 
 version ; conversion of Mary Magdalen ; Mar- 
 
Christian Doctrine 157 
 
 tha, Veronica, and the pious women (charity) ; 
 the Pharisees (hypocrisy), Judas (avarice, de- 
 spair); the young man, Matt. xix. 16 (worldli- 
 ness), etc. The lessons of faith and morals 
 contained in every Bible story must be brought 
 out, and, having been very briefly explained, 
 must be impressed on the children as much as 
 possible in the fixed form of the Catechism text. 
 
 In this way, one part of the Catechism, the 
 dogmatic doctrine in its essential outlines (God, 
 the Creation, the Fall, Christ and His Redemp- 
 tion, the Holy Ghost, the Apostles, and the 
 Church), will be gone through in the first class. 
 As a matter of course, the most important 
 prayers are also to be taught in the first class: 
 — such as the Our Father, Hail Mary, the Apos- 
 tles' Creed, the Angelus, and, in addition to 
 these, the morning and evening prayers, grace 
 at meals, a prayer to the guardian angel, prayers 
 for parents, and so on. 
 
 II. Class. — Bible History of the Old Testa- 
 ment. Examples of virtue must be brought 
 forward ; for instance : Abel (worship) ; Noe 
 (obedience to God, reward); Abraham (faith, 
 meekness) ; Jacob (trust in the providence of 
 God); Joseph (purity and its reward); Moses 
 (faithful service of God); David (humility, for- 
 giveness, contrition for sin); Job (patience); To- 
 bias (works of mercy, fear of God) ; Daniel and 
 
158 Christian Doctrine 
 
 the three youths of Babylon (profession of faith, 
 fear of God, trust in God) ; Machabean brothers 
 (love of God, fear of sin, suffering for holy faith) ; 
 Judas Machabeus (zeal for God's honor). Then 
 tell of examples showing forth the loathsome- 
 ness and evil consequences of sin ; for instance, 
 Cain (anger, envy) ; the Deluge (punishment of 
 sin), Sodom (impurity and its punishment) ; the 
 Tower of Babel (pride) ; Pharao (hardness of 
 heart) ; sons of Heli (irreverence) ; Absalom 
 (disobedience) ; Baltassar (blasphemy) ; Giezi 
 (avarice) ; Achab and Jezebel (injustice). 
 
 With the help of these and similar examples 
 the Catechist has the best opportunity of treating 
 Moral Doctrine in its outlines. 
 
 The lives of the patriarchs and the prepara- 
 tion of mankind for the Redeemer offer an 
 opportunity for explaining the most important 
 doctrines of hope. (Hope is in a certain 
 measure the completion of faith.) Besides this 
 the Bible History of the New Testament will be 
 repeated, as the different seasons and feasts of 
 the ecclesiastical year may suggest, and toward 
 the close of the school year it will be amplified 
 by new and fresh stories. 
 
 As a further foundation must be laid here 
 for the catechetical instruction which is to follow, 
 the hitherto unknown formulae which make up 
 the skeleton of the Catechism are to be im- 
 
Christian Doctrine 159 
 
 pressed on the mind and briefly explained (two 
 precepts of charity, works of mercy, capital sins 
 and their contrary virtues, sacraments, etc.). 
 Additional prayers from the Catechism are to 
 be learned. (See below, pp. 350 ft.; pp. 374 ft.) 
 IIL Class, — Here begins the Catechism 
 class properly so called, although the Catechism 
 will not as yet be gone through in full detail, as 
 with grown children, but only in an abbreviated 
 form. In choosing the matter to be taught, 
 one is to remember that the pupils of this class 
 already go regularly to the children's Mass, and 
 in some places are even led to the Holy Sacra- 
 ments (at least Penance). The means of grace 
 will, therefore, be taught (in other words, the 
 doctrine of grace and of divine worship). After 
 a short repetition of the doctrine of grace, the 
 sacrifice of the Mass and then the Sacraments 
 will be treated of ; the Sacraments of the Holy 
 Eucharist and Penance must be dwelt upon 
 longer. In the same class possibly the special 
 preparatory instructions for first confession and 
 communion must be given. The treatise on 
 the Sacraments will probably be finished after 
 the children have been admitted to the Sacra- 
 ments, at least to confession. Then follows 
 the doctrine of prayer. Such was the order 
 of instructions given to the Catechumens in 
 the time of the early Christians. 
 
i6o Christian Doctrine 
 
 All Catechism teaching should, as far as pos- 
 sible, be developed upon the basis of biblical 
 stories. 
 
 On the occasion of feasts, solemnities, and 
 seasons of the ecclesiastical year, the necessary 
 liturgical lessons ought to be given, the corre- 
 sponding Church hymns explained and prac- 
 tised, the lives of the saints to be sketched. 
 The same holds good for the following classes. 
 
 IV. Class. — Here the doctrine of faith 
 (dogma) will be taught in an abbreviated form. 
 
 V. Class. — - The doctrine of morals in an 
 abbreviated form. 
 
 Pupils who now leave school have worked 
 through the whole Catechism once, and, indeed, 
 twice through the parts on faith and morals. 
 
 /. Class in the High School. — The doctrine 
 of grace (doctrine of sacrifice of the Mass, of 
 the Sacraments, and prayer) is to be treated in 
 detail, that is to say, all doctrines are to be more 
 thoroughly demonstrated and more fully ex- 
 plained by means of new examples, parables, and 
 by references to Liturgy and Church History. 
 
 Pupils who leave at this stage have gone to 
 some extent twice through the whole Cate- 
 chism ; the doctrine of faith and morals, it is 
 true, they have learned once in outline only, but 
 the doctrine of grace, which is all important for 
 living religiously, twice thoroughly. 
 
Christian Doctrine 161 
 
 II. Class in High School. — Doctrine of faith 
 in detail. 
 
 III. Class in High School. — Doctrine of 
 morals in detail. 
 
 In schools where too little attention has been 
 paid to Liturgy and Church History in the 
 Catechism class of the lower grades, these two 
 branches must receive fuller treatment in the 
 upper grades. Pupils who have thus passed 
 through the whole high school department 
 have now learned thoroughly the whole Chris- 
 tian Doctrine at least twice. Besides, by this 
 plan the regular order of the main parts of the 
 Catechism (faith, Commandments, means of 
 grace) has been observed even from the lowest 
 classes to the highest. 
 
 B. Smaller Schools 
 
 i. Schools with only one class, though differ- 
 ent grades. 
 
 In a school of this kind, the children are in 
 the same room for the whole school course, and 
 are all taught in common. Here two divisions 
 ought to be formed, each of which ought to get 
 either two half hours or one whole hour, weekly. 
 
 The pupils of the lower division (from six 
 to nine years old) learn the New Testament one 
 year and the Old Testament the next year, in 
 the manner laid down under A. pp. 156 ff, 
 
1 62 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Pupils of the upper division (from ten to 
 fourteen years) go through one part of the 
 Catechism every year. Thus the first year, the 
 doctrine of faith (Apostles' Creed), the second 
 year, the doctrine of morals (Commandments) 
 and the third year, the doctrine of the means of 
 grace (Mass, Sacraments, Prayer); hence the 
 whole Catechism in three years. 
 
 2. Schools with two classes. In the first class 
 (first to third year) the arrangement will be the 
 same as in the lower division of schools with 
 one class, i.e., Bible History. In the second 
 class (fourth to eighth year) it will be as in the 
 upper division of the same year, i.e., Catechism. 
 
 3. Schools with three classes. 
 
 In the first class (first and second school 
 year), one year is to be devoted to the New 
 Testament and the other to the Old Testa- 
 ment. In the second class, every year one 
 part of the Catechism in an abbreviated form 
 will be completed. In the third class, every 
 year one part of the Catechism must be taught 
 and learned more in detail. 
 
 Note. — It will be seen that whatever the condition or com- 
 plexion of the school may be, we insist on the principle : in the 
 first and second school year teach Bible History : only then 
 begin Catechism and make the pupils learn it twice, first in 
 a shorter, then in a more extended form. Where there is 
 room for it, Bible History ought to be repeated in the higher 
 
Christian Doctrine 163 
 
 classes, bringing into the lessons biblical geography, antiqui- 
 ties, and so-called questions of biblical introduction concern- 
 ing the inspiration or sacred character of the books, their 
 authors, and the origin and history of the canon. Another 
 important principle will be carried out in the course of Chris- 
 tian Doctrine, namely, wherever possible it ought to grow in 
 a concentric expansion, so that the whole Catechism is sub- 
 stantially gone over in every cycle of two or three years. In 
 this way the higher grades will repeat, or learn anew if for- 
 gotten, what they have seen in the lower grades in mere 
 outlines, while at the same time a fuller and deeper under- 
 standing will be given to them by the fact that the Cate- 
 chist will now offer more detailed explanations and bring 
 forth new matter passed over in the first course. 
 
 C. American Parochial Schools 
 
 For the sake of further information the course 
 or programme of Christian Doctrine followed 
 in some Catholic parochial schools in the United 
 States is herewith given. 
 
 1. Archdiocese of New York. 
 
 The schools are supposed to have seven 
 grades, each grade corresponding to a full year, 
 but being divided in two sections (A, B), each 
 for one half year. In the following scheme, 
 therefore, Grade 1 A means the pupils of the 
 first half of the first school year. O. I. stands 
 for oral instruction. 
 
 Grade 1 A. — The Sign of the Cross. 
 Memorize the Lord's Prayer and the Angeli- 
 cal Salutation. O. I. on God the Creator, the 
 
164 Christian Doctrine 
 
 angels (good and bad), especially the guardian 
 angels. 
 
 Grade 1 B. — Memorize Apostles' Creed. 
 Review and develop the subjects of the previ- 
 ous grade. O. I. on the creation of Adam and 
 Eve and their fall ; on the promised Redeemer. 
 
 Grade 2 A. — History of the origin of the 
 above prayers learned. Memorize Confiteor and 
 Act of Contrition. Lessons 1-9 incl. from the 
 Introductory Catechism. O. I. on the Annun- 
 ciation, the Visitation, the Birth of Our Lord, 
 the flight into Egypt. 
 
 Grade 2 B. — Memorize Acts of Faith, Hope, 
 and Charity. Lessons 10-18 of Introductory 
 Catechism. O. I. on the return from Egypt to 
 Nazareth; rinding Jesus in the Temple; the 
 diligence, industry, modesty, humility, and obe- 
 dience of Jesus in His hidden life. 
 
 Grade 3 A. — Review of all the prayers 
 learned so far. The Ten Commandments. Les- 
 sons 19-27 of Introductory Catechism. O. I. 
 on St. John the Baptist, the baptism, fast, temp- 
 tation of Christ; the testimony of St. John, the 
 calling of the Apostles; the wedding feast of 
 Cana ; Christ and the children. 
 
 Grade 3 B. — Review of prayers. Indul- 
 genced prayers, e.g., " Glory be to the Father " 
 (; We fly to thy patronage." Lessons 1-23 
 Bait. Catech. No. 1. O. I. on the principal 
 
Christian Doctrine 165 
 
 miracles of Our Lord ; also on His Passion, 
 Death, Resurrection, and Ascension. 
 
 Grade 4 A. — Review of prayers. More 
 Indulgenced prayers, e.g., The Memorare, The 
 Angelus. Lessons 1-11, Bait. Catech. No. 2. 
 O. I. on the election of Matthias ; the descent 
 of the Holy Ghost and its effect on the Apos- 
 tles ; the early Christians in Jerusalem ; the 
 preaching of the Apostles ; the conversion of 
 St. Paul ; the spread of the Church. 
 
 Grade 4 B. — Review of prayers. Introduce 
 the Salve Regina and the Regina Cceli. Les- 
 sons 12-23 Bait. Catech. No. 2, and review 
 work of Grade 4 A. O. I. on the persecu- 
 tions of the first three centuries, the martyrs, 
 growth of the Church and her triumph after 
 Constantine's conversion. Great saints of this 
 period. 
 
 Grade 5 A. — Review of prayers. Explain 
 the Rosary. Lessons 24-29 Bait. Catech. No. 
 2, and review of Grade 4. O. I. on St. Helena 
 and the Invention of Holy Cross; SS. Paul and 
 Anthony the hermits ; the holy doctors of the 
 Church. St. Patrick. 
 
 Grade 5 B. — Review of prayers. Explain 
 the u En ego" ("Behold, O kind and most 
 sweet Jesus"). Lessons 30 -end Bait. Catech. 
 No. 2. Review work of Grade 5 A. O. I. 
 on England's conversion, Irish missionaries ; 
 
1 66 Chris tiaii Doctrine 
 
 the Exaltation of the Holy Cross; Iconoclasts; 
 Charlemagne and the Holy Roman Empire; 
 St. Benedict ; Alfred the Great and Alcuin. 
 
 Grade 6 A. — Explain the Scapular of Mt. 
 Carmel, the Apostleship of Prayer, the prayers 
 of preparation and of thanksgiving for holy 
 communion. Review the whole of Bait. 
 Catech. No. 2. O. I. on St. Stephen of Hun- 
 gary, Gregory VIL, the Countess Mathilda, St. 
 Anselm, the Carthusians, St. Bernard and the 
 Cistercians, Godfrey de Bouillon and the first 
 Crusade, St. Thomas of Canterbury, St. Louis 
 of France, origin of the Inquisition, St. Domi- 
 nic, St. Francis Assisi, St. Clare, St. Thomas 
 Aquinas, the Scholastics. 
 
 Grade 6 B. — Review thoroughly all the 
 prayers and devotions thus far recommended. 
 Teach the children how to meditate. For 
 Catechism instruction use as text-book the 
 " Advanced Catechism," Gaume's " Catechism 
 of Perseverance" (abridged), Power's Cate- 
 chism. O. I. on St. Bridget of Sweden, St. 
 Catherine of Sienna, St. Vincent Ferrer, St. 
 Capistran, Thomas a Kempis, Joan of Arc, 
 Columbus, Savonarola, St. Ignatius Loyola, 
 St. Francis Xavier, St. Charles Borromeo, and 
 others. Also on the German and English 
 Reformers (so called) ; on American saints, e.g., 
 Rose of Lima; on earlv missionaries in America; 
 
Christian Doctrine 167 
 
 the reductions of Paraguay, the Acadians, his- 
 tory of the Church in the United States. 
 
 Grade 7 A. — Prayers, devotions reviewed, 
 meditation continued. Review of first half of 
 extended text-book on Christian Doctrine. O. I. 
 adapted to the children of this class on man's 
 origin and original condition, destiny, obliga- 
 tion, and future. Promised Redeemer. Types 
 and prophecies of Christ as far as Abraham. 
 
 Grade 7 B. — Same as above and second 
 half of text-book. O. I. on the Messianic types 
 and prophecies from Abraham to Christ. 
 
 It is to be noticed that in the New York 
 course of studies the geography of Egypt and 
 Palestine in regard to Bible History is taught 
 in Grade 4 A, while it is part of the advanced 
 geography in Grade 6 B to speak of the spread 
 of mankind over the earth, and with it of the 
 great religious divisions of the race, the Patri- 
 archs and the Jews, Paganism, Christianity. 
 The course of history speaks in Grade 4 A 
 of the Creation as told in the Bible, of Cain 
 and Abel, the Deluge, the Tower of Babel, 
 Joseph, the bondage and liberation of the He- 
 brews ; then of the early Jesuit missionaries in 
 America. Grade 5 A mentions the Jesuits 
 Brebceuf, Jogues, and Marquette ; the Francis- 
 can missionaries on the Pacific slope. Grade 
 7 A gives the outline of Church History from 
 
1 68 Christian, Doctrine 
 
 the Apostles to the Reformation; Section B 
 of the same grade continues the subject to the 
 present day. It will be seen that a very promi- 
 nent place is given to Church History, first in 
 biographic form (from the fourth to sixth grade), 
 then in systematic form (Grade 7). The ex- 
 planations of the Messianic types and proph- 
 ecies in this same seventh grade will cover the 
 greater part of the Old Testament History. 
 Thus, with the exception of Liturgy, all the 
 main parts of Christian Doctrine find ample 
 room upon this splendid programme. 
 
 2. Archdiocese of Philadelphia. 
 
 /. Grade. — First half year. Prayers and 
 pious practices. Bible History stories. Balti- 
 more Catechism, ch. 1-3. 
 
 Second half year ; the same. Catechism, ch . 4-6. 
 
 II. Grade. — First half year ; the same. 
 Catechism, ch. 7-10. Also the Command- 
 ments and Precepts. 
 
 Second half year; the same. Catechism, ch. 
 1 1-16. 
 
 III. Grade. — First half year ; the same. 
 Catechism, ch. 17-21. Also the principal feasts 
 of the year. 
 
 Second half year ; the same. Catechism, ch. 
 22-27. 
 
 IV. Grade. — First half year ; the same. 
 Catechism, ch. 28-32. 
 
Christian Doctrine 169 
 
 Second half year; the same. Catechism, ch. 
 
 33-37- 
 
 V. Grade. — One year. Advanced Cate- 
 chism. Bible History from the Creation to 
 the Judges. Memoriter lessons not allowed. 
 Scripture readings. 
 
 VI. Grade. — One year; the same. Bible 
 History, the Kings, the Captivity, and the 
 Restoration. Scripture readings. 
 
 VII. Grade. — One year ; the same. Bible 
 History, the New Testament. Scripture read- 
 ings. 
 
 VIII. Grade. — One year. Advanced Cate- 
 chism. Outline of Church History. Scripture 
 readings. 
 
 High School Grade. — Chal loner's " Catholic 
 Christian Instructed." Sacramentals of the 
 Church. Outlines of Church History. 
 
 " Church Hymns " are on the programme of 
 Vocal Music in all grades. "The Growth of 
 the Catholic Church in the United States" is 
 set down under United States History in the 
 seventh grade, and "The First Catholic Mis- 
 sions in Pennsylvania " in the eighth grade. 
 
 In the course of geography we miss the 
 "Holy Land." 
 
 3. The compiler of " A Course of Study for 
 Parochial Schools" (N.Y., 1895), writing for a 
 school of eight grades, each comprising a full 
 
170 Christian Doctrine 
 
 year, makes the following provisions for " Chris- 
 tian Doctrine'': Two classes. One daily recita- 
 tion each, at an early hour. (Excellent remark !) 
 In the first grade oral lessons, prayers, simple 
 questions. In the second grade the first two 
 chapters of the Catechism. In the third to 
 fifth grades continue the Catechism. In the 
 sixth to eighth grades use Catechism No. 2. 
 Where there are still higher classes teach them 
 " Christian Doctrine or Church History." Of 
 the fifth to eighth grades it is said, " Aside 
 from the lessons in the Catechism and Bible 
 History, instruct the pupils regarding the 
 ceremonies and pious practices of the Church." 
 No mention is made of the grades in which 
 Bible History should be taught. 
 
 D. Catholic Sunday-schools 
 
 1. The Stmday Companion, an excellent Sun- 
 day-school paper, lays out the following course. 
 (a) The " Kindergarten Division," for children 
 who can not yet read, will develop in them the 
 knowledge and love of God, teach them the 
 ordinary Catholic prayers, and how to behave 
 in church, (b) The " First Confession Divi- 
 sion " will aid the child in the formation of a 
 right conscience, so that he may distinguish 
 between right and wrong ; teach him about the 
 
Christian Doctrine 171 
 
 Sacraments of Baptism and Penance, sin and 
 its consequences, and prepare him for a good 
 confession, (c) The " Communion Division " 
 teaches in the first year lessons 1-24 Bait. 
 Catech. No. 1, and Lives of the Saints; in the 
 second year all of the Bait. Catech. No. 1 during 
 the first five months ; in the second session 
 Lives of the Saints, and how to assist at Mass. 
 (d) The " Confirmation Division," lessons 1-20 
 of Bait. Catech. No. 2, and Lives of the Saints 
 in the first year. Next year the Catechism is 
 finished and more attention given to the Lives 
 of the Saints, and to other Christian men and 
 women who have influenced the thought of the 
 world, (e) The " Senior Division " will work 
 mainly on historical lines, the history of the 
 common prayers and devotions, of the Holy 
 Mass, important events in the New Testament 
 and in the Church. 
 
 If this programme allows two years for the 
 First Confession Division, and one year for 
 the Senior Division, as we suppose it does, 
 the whole course will run through eight years, 
 during which time the Catechism is repeated 
 once at least. Evidently, though no mention 
 is made of it, special attention to holy com- 
 munion and confirmation will be given in the 
 corresponding divisions. But where is the his- 
 tory of the Old Testament told to the children ? 
 
172 Christian Doctrine 
 
 We imagine partly in the first and partly in the 
 second division; in the latter, in connection 
 with select oral instructions on the Creed and 
 the Commandments. 
 
 2. At the Sunday-school Conference held 
 in Detroit, July, 1900, under the auspices of 
 the Catholic Columbian Summer School, the 
 following programme of a large Sunday-school 
 in the West found great favor. 
 
 I. Grade. — Non-readers ; ages 5, 6, 7, 8. 
 Sign of the Cross, common prayers, genuflec- 
 tion, use of holy water. 
 
 II. Grade. — Children who read ; ages 7, 8, 
 9. Same as before ; Act of Contrition. Bait. 
 Catech., lessons 1-10. Prepare for confession. 
 
 III. Grade. — Age 10. Review Catechism, 
 lessons 1-10. Acts of Faith, Hope, and Charity. 
 Catechism, lessons 11-20. 
 
 IV. Grade. — First Communion Class, age 
 1 1. Prayer to Guardian Angel. Catechism, 
 lessons 21-37. Review Catechism with the 
 priest's class, and prepare for first communion. 
 
 V. Grade. — Confirmation Class ; age 1 2. 
 All the Acts and Prayers. The whole Cate- 
 chism. Catholic Worship, Part I. Prepare 
 for confirmation. 
 
 VI. Grade. — Post-confirmation Class ; age 
 1 3. Catholic Worship, Part I. continued. Bible 
 History (New Testament). 
 
Christian Doctrine i j$ 
 
 VII. Grade, — Age 14. Catholic Worship, 
 Part II. Bible History (Old Testament), with 
 maps and illustrations. 
 
 VIII. Grade. — Age 15. Bible History 
 (New Testament). Passages from the New 
 Testament read. Maps and illustrations. 
 Church History. 
 
 Graduation and diploma at the age of 16. 
 
 3. Lastly, we give the programme followed 
 in a large Sunday-school with some three hun- 
 dred children, where, for the present, a parochial 
 school can not be established. 
 
 I Grade. — Age about 7 years. No text- 
 books. The common prayers, genuflection, 
 and use of holy water, simple Bible stories. 
 
 II. Grade. — Age from 8 to 9. First half 
 of " Introductory Catechism." Acts of Faith, 
 Hope, and Charity. The Angelus, and some 
 pious ejaculation. More Bible stories. The 
 substance of the Commandments. Prepare 
 for confession. 
 
 III. Grade. — Age about 10. Finish " Intro- 
 ductory Catechism," and review first part of it. 
 Review former Bible stories, and learn new ones. 
 
 IV. Grade. — Age 11. All of Bait. Catech. 
 No. 1. Selections from the Lives of the Saints. 
 
 V. Grade. — Age 1 1-1 2. First Communion 
 Class. All of Bait Catech. No. 2. Prepare for 
 holy communion. 
 
174 Christian Doctrine 
 
 VI. Grade. — Age 12-13. History of the 
 New Testament. Supplementary reading from 
 " Catholic Belief " and from " Catholic Prac- 
 tice." Prepare for confirmation. 
 
 VII. Grade. — Ages 13-14. Old Testa- 
 ment history. Supplementary reading from 
 "Faith of Our Fathers." 
 
 VIII. Grade. — Ages 14-15. " New Testa- 
 ment Studies," by Mgr. Conaty. 
 
 A comparison of the foregoing programmes is 
 most instructive. While each has some good 
 feature, each leaves something to be desired. 
 Without fear of trespassing upon either the 
 needs of local conditions or upon the required 
 liberty of discretion and judgment of the pastor 
 or teacher, or, lastly, the demands of some ex- 
 traordinary occasions, a perfect class programme, 
 diocesan or parochial, ought to be altogether 
 definite and detailed. It should indicate, not 
 only the general divisions of the school, and 
 the general character of the matter, but also 
 (1) each particular grade and its sections ; (2) the 
 duration of each grade (how many months) 
 and the average age of the children in that 
 grade ; (3) the particular subject or subjects to 
 be taught in each grade (section) ; (4) the num- 
 ber of hours or half hours per day or week or 
 month allowed for each subject ; (5) the grade 
 in which, and the time during which (months 
 
Christian Doctri7ie 175 
 
 or weeks and hours) the special preparatory 
 instructions for first confession, first com- 
 munion, and for confirmation will be given. 
 But whatever it be, by all means have a pro- 
 gramme for Christian Doctrine. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE MODE OF TEACHING CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE 
 
 Art. i. — Qualities of the Instruction 
 
 St. Francis of Sales says, "You may say 
 what is true and good and beautiful as much as 
 you will, but if you do not say it in the right 
 manner, you have said nothing." And Over- 
 berg says, " If in endeavoring to lead the young 
 toward good, we go about it in the wrong way, 
 it will do more harm than good." Therefore 
 in teaching Christian Doctrine due regard 
 must be paid to the demands of sound peda- 
 gogy. These demands spring, on the one 
 hand, from the nature of the child, his course 
 of development, his powers and his needs, and, 
 on the other hand, from the character of Chris- 
 tianity and the nature of the truths of religion. 
 Hence we may lay down as a general prin- 
 ciple that instruction in Christian Doctrine 
 must be (i) perspicuous, (2) uniform, (3) psy- 
 chological, (4) practical, (5) attractive, (6) eccle- 
 siastical 
 
 176 
 
Christian Doctrine 177 
 
 A. Perspicuity 
 
 1. The doctrines of religion are for the most 
 part supersensible and abstract, that is to say, 
 they can not be perceived by the senses ; indeed 
 some of them (such as eternity, God's omni- 
 presence, the Blessed Trinity, etc.) can not be 
 fully grasped even by the understanding. For 
 this reason teaching Christian Doctrine is more 
 difficult than teaching other subjects. For in 
 reading we have letters, in arithmetic num- 
 bers, in drawing models, in natural history 
 plants, stones, and animals ; in natural science, 
 experiments, and so on; — but in Christian Doc- 
 trine the truths which are taught can be neither 
 seen nor shown. Now, since the mind of man, 
 and more especially that of the child, clings 
 to sensible objects, and consequently grasps 
 much more easily whatever he can be made " to 
 see," the following rule arises for religious 
 teaching: Everything must be made as clear 
 and perspicuous as possible (Dpi. p. 147), that 
 is to say, it must be brought near to the senses. 
 Biblical events will be made palpable by the 
 use of scriptural pictures (see below, Ch. iv. 
 pp. 302 f.), while dogmatic doctrines must be 
 illustrated chiefly by comparison with the 
 visible things of creation. These comparisons 
 are easily made, since the Christian religion, as 
 
178 Christian Doctrine 
 
 well as the visible creation, is the work of the. 
 same God, hence both bear a striking resem- 
 blance in many things. How beautifully does 
 the white ray of light with its three component 
 colors call to mind the mystery of the Blessed 
 Trinity ; or the influence of the sun, the work- 
 ing of the grace of the Holy Ghost ; or spring, 
 and our awakening from sleep, the resurrec- 
 tion of the body or the rising of the soul from 
 sin, etc. Just as man is God's image and like- 
 ness, so is the visible creation a reflection of 
 the Godhead. 
 
 The moral doctrines will be made clear 
 chiefly through examples ; for instance, the 
 virtue of patience in Job and Tobias. 
 
 2. In regard to perspicuous, clear, and lucid 
 teaching Our Lord is the master teacher. Proof 
 are His many beautiful parables, His many 
 references to objects in nature, the outward 
 signs which He employs, especially in the 
 Sacraments. (See below, Ch. vi. pp. 476 f.) 
 
 The Church likewise makes her teaching 
 clear and perspicuous by illustrations ; for all 
 the rites in her ecclesiastical functions have for 
 their object to make the human mind appre- 
 hend by natural signs what is spiritual and 
 supernatural. There is a special study, called 
 Liturgies, which explains to us the signification 
 of the ceremonies. 
 
Christian Doctrine 179 
 
 3. The Catechist must strive in this respect 
 also to imitate his Divine Model, Jesus Christ, 
 and his spiritual mother, the Church. Observe 
 therefore : — 
 
 (a) Where it is possible to show the actual 
 things which are to be explained, this should 
 be done. Liturgical lessons may offer such 
 occasions. The altar and its parts, the Stations 
 of the Cross, sacred utensils and vestments, and 
 the like, can be shown and their use and mean- 
 ing explained, not in the school, however, but in 
 church. In doing this the Catechist is like the 
 secular teacher who, the better to teach his 
 children nature and its wonders, takes them 
 out on a ramble through forest and meadow. 
 
 (6) If there are at hand pictures of things 
 unknown to the children, or representations of 
 biblical events, they must be shown. Hence, 
 the use of scriptural, liturgical, and other relig- 
 ious pictures is much to be recommended as 
 an object-lesson. The Catechist can also draw 
 such pictures on the blackboard, for instance, 
 a chalice, a host, the outlines of an altar or a 
 church, and so on. (See Ch. iv. pp. 302 ff.) 
 
 (c) The Catechist must employ similitudes 
 and comparisons, examples, contrasts, maxims, all 
 of which are to be found in good reference and 
 collective books. (See Sch. pp. 2391!.; Hamon, 
 p. 115.) In a comparison we put two objects 
 
180 Christian Doctrine 
 
 side by side to see the striking resemblance 
 between them. The comparison in the form 
 of a narrative is called a parable or an allegory, 
 and differs from an example in that this latter 
 refers to something real, whilst the former usu- 
 ally implies a mere fiction (Sch. p. 112). The 
 types of the Old and New Testament are simil- 
 itudes and of great importance in religious in- 
 struction. Because similitudes and comparisons 
 considerably facilitate a clear grasp of ideas, Our 
 Lord made use of them, as likewise did the 
 Fathers of the Church. Of course, holy things 
 must not be compared with anything unworthy. 
 Example is the presentation of an occurrence 
 from the life of a person or persons to explain 
 the truth or meaning of some moral doctrine 
 or rule. The example often takes the form 
 of a narrative when the event is vividly rep- 
 resented. Example aids the understanding 
 because it represents abstract doctrines in con- 
 crete pictures. It moves the will, and spurs 
 on to imitation, hence the Latin proverb: 
 Words move, but examples draw, i.e., examples 
 are stronger than words. Beautiful examples 
 remain long in the memory and impress relig- 
 ious truth more deeply on the mind. They 
 also help to keep up attention. As children 
 like to hear stories, their restlessness can be 
 easily checked by beginning to relate an exam- 
 
Christian Doctrine 1 8 1 
 
 pie. In Christian Doctrine examples from 
 Bible History deserve the preference over 
 others ; however, examples may be drawn from 
 the Lives of the Saints, from Church History, 
 from profane history, especially from the his- 
 tory of our own country, also from the lives 
 of celebrated men. Fiction, too, under certain 
 circumstances can be employed, but these 
 stories should at least appear probable. When 
 using books or collections of examples, one 
 must proceed very cautiously, as there are un- 
 fortunately only too many marvelous stories 
 among them which are improbable and ridicu- 
 lous, and which only bring derision on religion. 
 
 Contrast is the placing side by side of two 
 objects, whether of the same or another kind, 
 to show the difference and dissimilarity or 
 contrariety of their natures or qualities. Just as 
 light and shade throw each other into relief, so 
 two dissimilar objects, when compared, stand out 
 all the more prominently. We find that Our 
 Lord also made use of contrasts. He placed the 
 proud Pharisee in the Temple in opposition to 
 the contrite publican, the rich man to the poor 
 Lazarus, the good shepherd to the hireling, the 
 two heartless Jews to the good Samaritan. 
 
 Contrasts are generally made use of in treat- 
 ing of the dogmas of faith in order to show 
 what they do not mean ; when dealing with 
 
1 82 Christian Doctrine 
 
 virtue and vice, to show the beauty of the first 
 and the ugliness of the latter; again, in ex- 
 plaining things which are more easily under- 
 stood by showing what they are not, as eternity, 
 God, heaven ; finally, in treating of subjects 
 of which the Catechist can not say much, for 
 example, blasphemy, sacrilege, impurity. 
 
 Distinction brings out first the similarities, 
 and then the dissimilarities or distinguishing 
 characteristics (qualities), of two objects that 
 may easily be confounded, such as calumny 
 and detraction. (See Sch. p. 261.) 
 
 Proverbs, sayings, and maxims express an 
 important lesson in a short sentence. They 
 are the result of reflection and experience. By 
 their means religious truth is made clearer and 
 more perspicuous. On account of their brevity 
 and pithy speech they are easily caught, and, 
 together with the religious truth connected 
 with them, remain a long time in the memory. 
 They have a convincing, determining influence 
 on the will and actions of man, as is shown by 
 the way in which crowds are often guided or 
 misled by a simple catchword. A good proverb 
 or a maxim must be very short, easy to under- 
 stand, suited to the dignity of religion, and, where 
 possible, should rhyme. The following are ex- 
 amples : " He always wins who sides with God." 
 " God's blessing gained, all is obtained." 
 
Christian Doctrine 18 
 
 o 
 
 Our Lord also introduced short pithy sayings 
 into His discourses ; for instance, " No man can 
 serve two masters ; " " Physician, cure thyself ; " 
 " They that are whole need not the physician, 
 but they that are sick ; " " The first shall be last 
 and the last first ; " " He that exalteth himself 
 shall be humbled, and he that humbleth himself 
 shall be exalted." 
 
 (d) The Catechist must refer in many ways 
 to the visible things of creation. By this 
 means the children will be led to seek the 
 Creator in the creatures, which they will con- 
 sider as messengers of the Divine Majesty. 
 (St. Paul, Romans i. 20 ; Wisdom xiii.) 
 
 (e) The Catechist must avoid abstract speech, 
 at least where it is possible to use concrete 
 expressions. This applies chiefly to definitions. 
 Instead of " Meekness is . . ." it is better to 
 say, " To be meek is . . ." Instead of " The 
 profession of one's faith is necessary, because 
 . . ." it is better to say, " The Christian must 
 profess his faith because . . ." (Of course it 
 must be the same in the Catechism.) Like- 
 wise in telling stories direct speech should be 
 used in preference to indirect. (Sch. pp. 280 f.; 
 Lbg. pp. 50 f.) 
 
 (/) Finally, the Catechist must, wherever 
 possible, employ the objective method of teach- 
 ing. (See below, pp. 226 ff.) 
 
184 Christian Doctrine 
 
 B. Uniformity 
 
 The principle " Unity strengthens, division 
 weakens," holds good everywhere. In religious 
 instruction most of all, because the Catholic 
 Church holds fast to the principle of unity. 
 Hence, the principle: Christian Doctrine must 
 be uniform and connected. 
 
 1. In regard to the other subjects taught in 
 school. Since all teaching in school, if it is to 
 succeed, must be uniform and connected, the 
 religious instruction should on suitable occa- 
 sions be brought into connection with other 
 subjects of study, and these, again, with re- 
 ligion. This is so much easier because Natu- 
 ral History, Natural Science, and History have 
 many points of contact with religion. Nature 
 shows us the existence of a Supreme Being, 
 His omnipotence, wisdom, and majesty. His- 
 tory, on the other hand, shows us the divine 
 providence. For this reason the Catechist 
 should examine the different text-books in use, 
 seek out and note down the points of contact, 
 in order to make use of them to the advantage 
 of religious instruction. This will be easy 
 where Catholic readers, geographies, and his- 
 tories are used in school. 
 
 2. With regard to the branches of Christian 
 Doctrine. All these branches (Ch. 1. pp. 50 ff.), 
 
Christian Doctrine 185 
 
 viz.: Catechism (doctrine of faith and morals), 
 Bible History, Liturgy, Church History, must 
 be brought continually into connection with 
 one another, as the doctrines, historical events, 
 and institutions of the Church form an organic 
 whole, and are most intimately connected. 
 Consequently, in Christian Doctrine, there 
 ought to be no such thing as an exclusively 
 doctrinal (Catechism) or historical (Bible, 
 Church) or liturgical treatment of the sepa- 
 rate branches. 
 
 A new branch of instruction should never 
 be begun before the earlier one is finished. It 
 is therefore wrong from a pedagogical point of 
 view to teach the same class in one hour Cat- 
 echism, in the next, Liturgy, and so on. If 
 Catechism and Liturgy have both to be taught 
 in one year, then half the year should be de- 
 voted to Catechism, the other half to Liturgy. 
 This also holds good for the different parts of 
 the Catechism. Thus, before the chapter on 
 the Sacraments is finished, one should not be- 
 gin with that on prayer. 
 
 3. With regard to the matter of instruction. 
 If, at the same time, several classes or sections 
 are being instructed in the same room, the 
 Catechist must try to make one and the same 
 subject-matter bear fruit with all. Our Lord 
 in His discourses strove to influence at one 
 
1 86 Christian Doctrine 
 
 and the same time the different classes of 
 hearers. The priest, too, in his sermon, treats 
 of the same subject for all alike, although 
 hearers of different stations and ages are pres- 
 ent. In every half or full school year a con- 
 nected whole must be taught. In this way, 
 religious truths which are intimately connected 
 can be brought into suitable relationship ; the 
 children likewise get a better view of the 
 whole. What is true of the school year is true, 
 in a certain sense, of every lesson on religion, 
 which must be like the link in a chain. 
 
 4. With regard to text-books. Even where 
 the same Catechism is not employed in all the 
 classes, the children going up into the higher 
 classes should not have a book with an alto- 
 gether different arrangement and wording put 
 into their hands. (See Ch. iv. pp. 334 f.) If books 
 written on different plans are used in the same 
 school, instruction is rendered considerably more 
 difficult, because they confuse the children. The 
 Catechist would be like an architect building the 
 house on a different plan than that for which 
 the foundations had been laid. One must 
 rather proceed as nature does. When the tree 
 grows, neither trunk nor branches change ; 
 neither do the limbs in growing man. In the 
 instruction by which the Christian is to grow 
 in the knowledge of the truths of religion (2 
 
Christian Doctrine 187 
 
 Pet. iii. 18), the foundations on which this 
 knowledge rests must not be altered. The 
 religious knowledge of trie Christian must, in 
 the course of his school years, be amplified and 
 strengthened upon the same foundations. 
 Thus, each succeeding new book should be an 
 enlargement of the preceding. In this way 
 the doctrines of religion will be indelibly im- 
 printed on the mind of the scholar, of whom 
 it may be said at the end of his school life, 
 "I fear the man of one book." For the same 
 reasons text-books must not be changed with- 
 out an urgent reason. 
 
 In our day, when the easy means of commu- 
 nication favor an ever-increasing transit from 
 one diocese to another, and when, especially in 
 manufacturing towns, the working classes often 
 change their residence or domicile, a uniform 
 set of text-books and a uniform programme of 
 Christian Doctrine are absolutely necessary 
 for a country or a nation that speaks the 
 same language. (See below, Ch. iv. pp. 335 f., 
 
 346.) 
 
 5. With regard to the scholars' mental 
 powers. In Christian Doctrine all the powers 
 of the soul should be harmoniously developed 
 and ennobled. It would be wrong if the 
 Catechist insisted merely on definitions and 
 expositions of the matter in order to enlighten 
 
1 88 Christian Doctrine 
 
 the understanding and increase knowledge. 
 Through such a religious instruction the 
 children would be given a stone instead of 
 bread (see Luke xi. n), and religion would 
 be rendered hateful to them. It is rather the 
 heart and the will of the children that are 
 to be formed and to be gained for God. 
 
 The Catechist would likewise err by insisting 
 on the learning of the book by heart, and caring 
 little for the understanding of it. 
 
 The Catechist should always keep before the 
 children a general view of the whole matter of 
 instruction and the arrangement of all its parts. 
 By this means he furthers a better understand- 
 ing of the simple doctrines of religion. This is 
 true also of Bible History. See before all 
 things that the children keep in mind the 
 thread of Our Lord's life. In Catechism class 
 this general view becomes so much the easier, 
 as the Catechism presents an intrinsically and 
 wonderfully connected system of divine truths 
 which may easily be compared with a beauti- 
 ful and well-arranged building. 
 
 At the beginning of every school year, and of 
 every term, one should give a summary of the 
 matter to be gone through. Likewise before 
 every Bible story and lesson of the Catechism, 
 the subject of the instruction should be briefly 
 announced. 
 
Christian Doctrine 189 
 
 C. Psychological Fitness 
 
 Since our mental powers, no less than inan- 
 imate nature, depend on certain unchangeable 
 laws, religious instruction must keep in view 
 these laws of the mind. To neglect them 
 would render instruction ineffectual. Nature 
 is stronger than man and obeys him only who 
 first obeys her. For this reason the Catechist 
 must pay attention to the following principles: — 
 
 1. Early religious instruction must be histor- 
 ical, not doctrinal. The mind of man reaches 
 the abstract through the concrete ; from 
 perceptions he goes to ideas, not vice versa. 
 Hence, to use a small catechism for first 
 beginners or little children is against sound 
 pedagogy, as it rests on the false supposition 
 that abstract doctrine must go before con- 
 crete teaching. " To make them [i.e., little chil- 
 dren] learn by heart chapters of the Catechism 
 which they can not possibly be made to under- 
 stand, is simply to weary and disgust them. 
 The only thing they should learn by heart is 
 their prayers and some hymns, not as an exer- 
 cise of their intellect, but that they may gain 
 the habit of saying them, and that carefully and 
 reverentially, as a duty to God. With this they 
 should receive oral instructions on the great 
 truths of religion . . . illustrated by stories from 
 
190 Christian Doctrine 
 
 the Bible. Explanations of doctrine little chil- 
 dren can not take in " (Manual, p. xvii.). For 
 this reason, in explaining the doctrine of the 
 Catechism, we should set out from concrete 
 objects ; hence, where possible, with Bible 
 stories, but by no means with the Catechism 
 text. 
 
 2. In explaining unknown things begin with 
 those that are known. This Our Lord did. 
 Wishing to make known to His hearers a truth 
 heretofore unknown to them, He begins with 
 something familiar, particularly with something 
 very near their eyes and experience. Hence 
 His many references to the objects of nature. 
 (See below, Ch. vi. p. 477.) In this way the 
 truths of religion will find entrance, not only to 
 the understanding, but to the hearts of the 
 children. For the same reason, the Catechist 
 must go from what is near to what is more 
 remote. He must make children understand 
 those things of religion and the Church which 
 come under their immediate observation. There- 
 fore in Bible History he must go through the 
 New Testament before the Old. Teachers 
 observe the same principle in geography, where 
 towns, territories, mountains, rivers belonging 
 to our native land are dealt with first. In nat- 
 ural history, first come animals and plants found 
 at home, and only after them the foreign ones. 
 
Christian Doctrine 191 
 
 3. Explanation must always precede mem- 
 orizing. Learning by heart without previous 
 explanation is at variance with the Christian 
 principle, "Faith comes by hearing" (Rom. x. 
 17), and is a misuse of the truths of religion. 
 If things are explained only after the children 
 have learned them by heart, they will pay 
 no attention to the explanation, as they 
 know that at the test it is quite sufficient 
 to know the answer by heart, and memorizing 
 will engage their whole attention. To make 
 children first learn a thing by heart, to be ex- 
 plained later, is not ps3^chological, but a crime 
 against the mind of man. Memorizing is only 
 a means to make the truth already understood 
 by the mind a lasting possession. Words 
 memorized, but not understood, are like a veil 
 hiding heavenly truth from the mind, like a 
 closed door denying access to the food of the 
 soul. If a truth has been well explained, the 
 learning of it by heart makes little trouble ; 
 moreover, what is thus learned remains more 
 firmly fixed in the mind, just as the ground 
 receives the seed more easily when it has been 
 previously worked with the plough. Only in 
 the case of prayers is an exception to be made. 
 It is quite impossible, for instance, to make 
 clear to a little child the meaning of every 
 petition of the Our Father. And yet the 
 
192 Christian Doctrine 
 
 child must pray, and likewise know by heart 
 the formulas of prayer. He need not know 
 the meaning of every word and sentence ; it is 
 enough for him to know that he is speaking to 
 God. How greatly does the father value the 
 short speech which his little girl has learned by 
 heart with so much trouble, and which she says at 
 New Year's or on the father's feastday, although 
 she pays more attention to the way the words 
 follow than to their meaning, which she prob- 
 ably does not understand at all. It is the same 
 with God. The mother and the Catechist 
 therefore do not make any mistake when they 
 exercise the child first in the formulas of prayer, 
 which they will explain to him later. 
 
 4. The following method is positively harm- 
 ful and injurious. First of all, the text of the 
 Catechism is read, then one word or another 
 explained, then the text is repeated over and 
 over until the children can say it almost by 
 heart. Next the article or chapter thus handled 
 must be memorized at home. In the next 
 hour the lesson is asked word for word. 
 Should a child fail to answer immediately, he 
 will be prompted with the first word. This 
 method, undoubtedly, saves the Catechist much 
 trouble, work, and inconvenience; the text- 
 book alone is sufficient for him, and he ne£d 
 not prepare for his instruction nor read corre- 
 
Christian Doctrine 193 
 
 sponding manuals, reference books, nor any 
 books on method. But such instruction fills 
 the children with fear and disgust of religion, 
 as they look forward to every class with dread 
 and alarm. This may even lay the beginning 
 for hatred of religion and enmity to the Church 
 in later life. As this method lays the chief 
 importance on the dead letter, the children can 
 not enter into the spirit of religion. The sav- 
 ing doctrines of Christianity remain for them 
 a closed book. Even the sentences so pain- 
 fully hammered into them will soon be forgot- 
 ten ; for only what is well understood remains 
 firmly in the memory. This method likewise 
 tends to make the mind coarse. When the 
 children come to repeat these phrases which 
 they do not understand, they are liable to utter 
 them in such a frivolous, thoughtless, and heart- 
 less way that it may be hard to know whether 
 they are prayers or blasphemies. And if pray- 
 ing with the lips only js sinful (Mark vii. 6), so 
 is the senseless repetition of religious truth. 
 It is a direct degrading of religion. The Cate- 
 chist, also, must before long become disgusted 
 with such a method. Only intellectual activity, 
 and not mechanical drudgery, affords real pleas- 
 ure. Away then with such a shameful method, 
 which, to say the least, revenges itself in barren 
 results. 
 
194 Christian Doctrine 
 
 5. The Catechist must not overburden the 
 children with work ; he must not give them 
 more than their minds can digest. With learn- 
 ing it is exactly the same as with eating ; it is 
 not a question of the amount eaten, but of 
 digestion. The better the digestion, the more 
 the food nourishes. Thus in religious instruc- 
 tion it is not so much the amount learned as 
 the proper digestion of the matter. If, how- 
 ever, too much be gone through, there can be 
 no question of mental digestion, because such 
 instruction can be given only superficially. A 
 Catechist, burdening his scholars with work — 
 since these have in addition many other sub- 
 jects to learn — would be like a driver laying 
 fresh loads upon a heavily laden wagon, till 
 the horse can not pull it any farther. To over- 
 burden the children with work lessens their 
 pleasure in learning, and produces an aversion 
 toward religion. Hence, even the Romans 
 said " Non multa sed multum " — Better little 
 well known than much badly learned. 
 
 6. An important means to help the intellect 
 as well as the memory of the children are clear 
 and correct divisions of the subject. They 
 need not always be put before the children in 
 the formal manner as in a philosophy class ; 
 but they must be clearly present in the mind 
 of the Catechist and must be expressed in one 
 
Christian Doctrine 195 
 
 way or another in the instruction given. Of 
 these divisions, Dupanloup says (pp. 146 f.): 
 " This is the important point, if you would be 
 short, clear, interesting, and sound. You should 
 begin by recapitulating clearly and briefly the 
 subject and the divisions of the last instruction. 
 Then give out with the same clearness and 
 very slowly the subject of the new instruction ; 
 then point out very distinctly the divisions into 
 two, three, or four heads, generally in the form 
 of questions. . . . Divisions presented in this 
 way are much more easily caught by the 
 children than if put in abstract form," etc. 
 However, the Catechist must be careful not 
 unduly to multiply divisions or to use them 
 as a sort of plaything. This would do positive 
 harm. 
 
 7. Because the Christian forms of prayer 
 (Creed, Our Father, Ten Commandments) con- 
 tain all that a Christian must believe, hope for, 
 and do, and hence are an abridgment of the 
 whole of the doctrines of religion, the Catechist 
 must impress these forms on the children at an 
 early age. It is worthy of note that missionaries 
 are accustomed to begin their instruction of the 
 heathen by impressing on them the forms of 
 prayer, in order to lay a solid foundation ; this 
 was the method of St. Francis Xavier, the 
 apostle of the Indies. 
 
1 96 Christian Doctrine 
 
 D. Practicalness 
 
 The Romans used to say, " Non scholcz sed 
 vitcz discimus" i.e., we do not learn for school 
 but for life. This sentence also holds good for 
 Christian Doctrine, where only those things 
 should be taught which the children can turn 
 to good use and advantage in later life. (Sch. 
 p. 237.) Therefore the Catechist must pay 
 attention to the following : — 
 
 1. Names, numbers, and sayings, etc., which 
 only burden the children's memory without serv- 
 ing any practical purpose, are to be omitted. It 
 would be folly on the part of the Catechist to 
 make the children enumerate in order Job's 
 sheep, camels, oxen, and asses, the names of the 
 twelve Apostles, the twelve sons of Jacob, the 
 twelve minor prophets, the ten plagues of Egypt, 
 the nine choirs of angels, the books of Holy 
 Scripture. Such things only burden the mem- 
 ory and produce disgust for religious lessons. 
 It is chiefly in Church History that one is liable 
 to err against the above principle. Here, as 
 well as in Bible History, "one of the dangers 
 to be avoided is the lavish use of chronology. 
 The dates of the most important events are of 
 course a necessity ; but the number should be 
 made as small as possible. The exact date of 
 events is of much less importance than their 
 
Christian Doctrine 197 
 
 orderly succession and continuity. The unity 
 of history is the great principle which should 
 guide all historical study, even the most ele- 
 mentary" (Philadelphia Course, p. in). 
 
 2. Matters, the knowledge of which is neces- 
 sary for theologians and priests, but of no special 
 importance for Christians in general, are to be 
 omitted. It is chiefly in Liturgy that one is 
 liable to sin against this principle. Why need 
 a child have a thorough knowledge of the Mass 
 prayers ? Or why need he have a detailed 
 knowledge of the ceremonial of the consecra- 
 tion of a bishop, or the ordination of a priest, or 
 of the blessing of churches, cemeteries, bells, 
 and so on ? If he ever should have occasion in 
 later life to assist at such functions, the signifi- 
 cation of each ceremony would by that time 
 have been long forgotten. A general knowl- 
 edge of such ceremonies, their origin and sym- 
 bolic meaning, is quite enough for the children 
 of the higher grades. 
 
 It is evident, also, that in matters of history, 
 sacred or ecclesiastical, it is enough for children 
 to know the facts brought before them without 
 entering into questions of causes and effects, as 
 in a philosophy of history. A similar remark 
 must be made in regard to doctrine, dogmatic 
 or moral. Controversies and polemics are out 
 of place in a course of Christian Doctrine for 
 
198 Christian Doctrine 
 
 children. Even when so-called controversial 
 points are to be treated, it will be in the form 
 of positive statement, not by way of attack and 
 defence. This applies also to the matter men- 
 tioned in the following n. 6. 
 
 3. The truths of religion are not to be pre- 
 sented mainly as matters of knowledge and 
 learning, but rather as motives impelling the 
 children to regulate their lives according to the 
 doctrines of religion. Therefore it is unprac- 
 tical to use in the school learned expressions and 
 technical terms as they occur in theological 
 works, and to heap on definitions and divisions. 
 Christian life, not science, is the chief thing in 
 Christian Doctrine. Technical words and 
 scholastic definitions are for children like the 
 unwholesome ingredients used in adulterating 
 food, which impede digestion and cause illness. 
 
 4. Such religious truths as are, in a measure, 
 the foundation of others, and hence of great 
 importance in awakening religious convictions 
 and raising the moral character, are to be dealt 
 with more exhaustively. He who must save 
 time on account of the fewness of lessons, 
 should save it when treating of non-essential 
 matters, not when teaching essentials. The 
 following religious truths are specially impor- 
 tant : The end of man, heaven and hell, judg- 
 ment after death, the resurrection of the dead, 
 
Christian Doctrine 199 
 
 the omniscience of God and His justice, 
 Divine Providence, the Divinity of Our Lord, 
 the Catholic Church, the command to love our 
 neighbor. Such truths should stand out like 
 mountains in the minds of the children. 
 
 5. Those doctrines which teach the duties 
 of children and warn against the sins of youth, 
 are to be specially insisted upon ; for instance, 
 piety, obedience, gratitude, purity, kindness to 
 men and animals, etc. (See Lbg. pp. 123 f.) 
 
 6. Likewise doctrines which have become 
 more important on account of particular condi- 
 tions of time or place are to be specially con- 
 sidered. Rightly says Hirscher: "To teach only 
 what was taught a hundred years ago or more, 
 and in the manner it was then taught, would be 
 to aim without hitting the mark, and the children 
 of this world would pass by us with contempt. 
 We must keep pace with our times if we are 
 to exert any influence upon them." Nowadays, 
 when the people, by means of the elections, 
 have the good of the State in their own hands, 
 when social democracy sets itself up in oppo- 
 sition to religion, when the press is a power, 
 when a mighty system of unions and federa- 
 tion of classes is fast developing, when work- 
 men are often treated as merchandise, when 
 the national feelings of the people are being 
 powerfully aroused, when women claim equal 
 
200 Christian Doctrine 
 
 rights with men, it would be shortsightedness 
 not to call the attention of the more advanced 
 pupils to the bearing of Catholic doctrine on 
 these questions of the age. Local circum- 
 stances must likewise be taken into account, 
 such as the usual local civil and ecclesiastical 
 festivities, the history of national and local 
 saints, the order of divine worship and pub- 
 lic devotions in the parish church, religious 
 observances and traditions in the parish. 
 Again, bad customs and vices prevalent in the 
 place and surrounding country must not be 
 passed over. In places where different de- 
 nominations exist, the main points of con- 
 troversy are to be specially considered and 
 more exhaustively treated, so as to furnish the 
 children with ready answers in defence of their 
 religion. Of course, great care must be taken 
 to keep strictly to the point, that is to say, to a 
 defence of the Catholic religion, avoiding all 
 personal allusions and attacks on the followers 
 of other creeds. All this evidently refers only 
 to the highest grades in the school. 
 
 7. The preceding points call attention to 
 the selection of the matter which must make the 
 lesson practical, i.e., serviceable for a practical 
 Christian life in childhood as well as in later 
 years. But this is not enough. Christian 
 Doctrine must be made practical, not only by 
 
Christian Doctrine 201 
 
 teaching what is to be done, but equally by 
 training the children to do it. This immedi- 
 ate practical purpose must be kept in view in 
 each and every lesson. The child must be 
 trained continually in the practice of what it 
 has learned. This implies two distinct func- 
 tions of the Catechist: First, he must explain 
 how or in what manner the Christian faith is 
 to be practised. This is done by the practical 
 application of the lesson. (See below, pp. 238, 
 264.) Secondly, he must make the children 
 actually perform those religious practices im- 
 mediately, according as the circumstances 
 allow and the lesson demands it. " It is a 
 most difficult thing for a child to reduce to 
 practice what it hears. We must actually 
 make the child do the thing, there and then 
 on the spot " (Furniss, p. 43). 
 
 These practical instructions " should not be 
 given formally in so many lectures, but should 
 be made to flow naturally out of the explana- 
 tions of these subjects when the children are 
 engaged in studying those parts of the Cate- 
 chism " (Lbg. p. 124). These immediate prac- 
 tical instructions are in fact the same as the 
 famous " Admonitions " to which Dupanloup 
 devotes the whole fifth chapter (p. 172). "All 
 that I have just said will suffice to show you 
 that the Admonitions must be well prepared, 
 
202 Christian Doctrine 
 
 and to a certain extent arranged according 
 to a plan drawn out beforehand, which will be 
 in accord with the course of the Catechism and 
 the whole Christian year" (lb. p. 175). 
 
 In regard to the Christian practices imme- 
 diately connected with the Christian lesson, 
 Schuech (pp. 291 f.) remarks that their impor- 
 tance, ay, indispensable necessity, is evident. 
 They are demanded by the nature of the 
 child, which spontaneously gives expression 
 to its feelings and convictions ; they exercise 
 a powerful influence upon the will and affec- 
 tions of the child ; they make the child under- 
 stand that religion is not simply a " lesson " to 
 be learned, but a " life " to be led. 
 
 See on this practical work and character of 
 the religious instruction, Dpi. 1. c. ; Furniss, pp. 
 41 ff. ; but especially Schuech, pp. 289 ff., where 
 most excellent and detailed directions are given. 
 
 E. Attractiveness 
 
 The question here is not how to attract chil- 
 dren to Christian Doctrine or the Sunday-school. 
 This will be answered elsewhere. But the 
 question here is in particular: " How to make 
 each lesson or instruction attractive and inter- 
 esting for the children." To do so is abso- 
 lutely necessary, as it is the only means of 
 
Christian Doctriiie 203 
 
 securing the proper attention of the children to 
 what is being explained. Reward and punish- 
 ment may be a sufficient motive for a larger 
 child to apply his mind to the lesson ; but this 
 will still be hard work all along the line, and 
 nothing but tiresome drudgery, if the lesson 
 itself is not made interesting. The matter 
 forced into the child's mind by a sort of " cate- 
 goric imperative " will not easily take root in 
 the soul, and will soon be lost to memory. 
 Only where the soul of the child has gladly and 
 joyfully drunk the milk of Christian truth will 
 that truth remain and become a life-giving food. 
 Modern educators have come to recognize the 
 truth of the old Jesuit axiom, that the best way 
 of teaching children is to make their educa- 
 tion "a most joyful affair, which might even be 
 called a ' play." Unless the Catechist makes 
 his lesson attractive and pleasant, so that the 
 child's mind is involuntarily and unconsciously 
 drawn to it, and kept there by a lively interest, 
 half his work is lost. Nay more ; great cate- 
 chetical writers say that positive harm is being 
 done to the children if religious instruction is 
 not made a pleasure for them. " Not to know 
 how to shed any charm on a Catechism, when 
 both the nature of children and the religious 
 subjects so wonderfully lend themselves to it ; 
 always to present it as an austere thing ; always 
 
204 Christian Doctrine 
 
 to have only a dry and hard manner ; to make 
 the Catechism a sad, wearisome thing, without 
 any attraction or life, — this is not only a great 
 mistake and a great want of skill : it is also to 
 put in immense peril the future of these little 
 children. For do not forget, it is at the Cate- 
 chism that children receive their first impres- 
 sions of religion, impressions which can never 
 be effaced ; and if these impressions are of 
 weariness and dislike, when, I ask you, w T hen 
 will religion appear to them as lovable ? All 
 their life they will feel a secret and perhaps 
 insurmountable aversion to it " (Dpi. p. 203). 
 Of such unattractive and uninteresting instruc- 
 tions in Catechism Fleury says (ibid) : " After 
 such teaching, all discourses on religion seem 
 melancholy and wearisome. If they listen to 
 sermons, if they read books of devotion, it is 
 with dislike and against the grain, as we may 
 take medicines which are good for us, but dis- 
 agreeable. . . . This is what makes infidels. 
 . . . This is what the bad effects of disagreea- 
 ble instructions may come to." 
 
 There are three factors from which a deep 
 and lively interest in the religious lesson must 
 arise : the Catechist's manner, the subject pre- 
 sented, and the children's mind. 
 
 1. The Catechist's manner must be cheerful. 
 St. Augustine makes cheerfulness in the Cate- 
 
Christian Doctrine 205 
 
 chist the principal condition of success in gain- 
 ing the pupils' attention. Not inaptly have 
 children been compared to travelers. In 
 stormy weather the traveler is not in a good 
 humor, and wraps himself up as well as he can. 
 But when the air is calm and the sky clear, he 
 looks up joyously, takes off his cloak, and feels 
 a real pleasure in his journey. Similarly with 
 instruction. If the Catechist is disagreeable, 
 the children are sullen, and lose confidence in 
 him ; if he is passionate, the children will be 
 frightened or angered and become obstinate. 
 If, on the contrary, he is cheerful and calm, the 
 children are the same ; they look up to him with 
 joy, and eagerly listen to his words. 
 
 With reference to this, Bishop Sailer says, 
 " When I come into school all joyous, my chil- 
 dren are angels, and everything goes on splen- 
 didly." And Salzmann, an experienced teacher, 
 declares, " In a cheerful lesson one is all-power- 
 ful amongst children." St. Augustine likewise 
 refers to the future reward of such a Catechist, 
 when he says, " If even in corporal alms God 
 loves the cheerful giver, how much more must 
 this be the case with spiritual alms." Sickinger 
 works out this precept more fully, and says: 
 " Therefore the priest in the religious instruc- 
 tion of children must not put on official airs, 
 nor a careworn face, nor continually speak of 
 
206 Christian Doctrine 
 
 and warn against the wickedness of the world, 
 nor sit on his chair with the authority of a 
 university professor. He must come down to 
 the children's level, forget, whilst with them, the 
 cares and troubles of life, and think that for an 
 hour he is with the angels of God. Of course 
 he must take care, on the other hand, that his 
 authority is maintained, and that the children 
 bear him a reverential love." " The great art is 
 to be one's self, at one's ease, to look bright, to 
 have a cheerful voice and a natural manner. 
 Then the children will themselves be at ease, 
 they will attend joyfully, and without any effort 
 their hearts and minds will open. . . . Some- 
 times we must surprise and refresh them pleas- 
 antly by some unexpected sally ; we need not 
 even, now and then, avoid a word which will 
 make them smile, only there must still be calm- 
 ness and propriety" (Dpi. p. 150). 
 
 The Catechist's manner must be animated. 
 Only when there is life in the teacher's delivery 
 will it call forth life in the pupil's mental atti- 
 tude. " Those children are deserving of pity 
 who are forced to listen for the space of an hour 
 or more to questions and explanations delivered 
 in a death-warrant style, and we need not be 
 surprised to see them grow restless and dis- 
 gusted " (Lbg. p. 54). 
 
 Finally, the Catechist must often change the 
 
Christian Doctrine 207 
 
 form of .his instruction, passing from the lecture 
 or discoursive form to questions, or again to the 
 objective form, properly or improperly so called. 
 It is especially by well-chosen, quickly given, or 
 unexpected questions that the interest of a 
 whole class can be easily kept alive. Dupan- 
 loup suggests that sometimes the Catechist 
 may on purpose give a wrong decision or an- 
 swer in order to make the children set him 
 right. " Nothing pleases them more." 
 
 2. In regard to the subject, the Catechist 
 must so select and present it to the children 
 that it will appeal principally to their imagina- 
 tion and to their feeling. By these passages it 
 will surely and quickly reach the understanding. 
 
 To appeal to the imagination the value of 
 stories and vivid descriptions can not be over- 
 estimated. " Above all, multiply stories, . . . 
 and when you tell them be short and pictur- 
 esque, leaving out all useless details and seizing 
 on the striking features and those which will 
 bring the thing before their eyes. The chil- 
 dren will be quite indifferent to a coldly recited 
 story ; but if it is animated they are transported " 
 (Dpi. p. 280). Appealing to imagination, the Cat- 
 echist must make use of beautiful examples and 
 attractive comparisons. If the Catechist under- 
 stands how to clothe the serious truths and doc- 
 trines of religion in a beautiful garment, the 
 
208 Christian Doctrine 
 
 children will not think of chattering or occupy- 
 ing themselves with other things, but rather 
 welcome more heartily the sacred doctrines and 
 more cheerfully live up to them. He is like the 
 physician who gives the bitter pill to the patient 
 under a coat of sugar. But it is a great fault 
 when the Catechist instructs the children con- 
 tinually in abstract language which fatigues the 
 mind. Just as in the most beautiful picture 
 gallery people will soon get tired and long to 
 get away if there are no seats to rest, so chil- 
 dren soon get tired and lose all attention in 
 listening to a discourse which is not intermin- 
 gled with beautiful examples and comparisons, 
 which are, as it were, resting-places for the 
 mind. 
 
 Let the Catechist choose his comparisons 
 from things with which the children are familiar 
 and in which they may have some natural inter- 
 est, — things in the church or school or at home, 
 things connected with the people they know 
 in the town or country. Thus their hearts and 
 fancy will both be engaged in the subject. It 
 is a remarkable feature of Christ's discourses 
 that for comparisons He always chooses the 
 most common and familiar things, now a father 
 of the family, a son, a servant, an officer ; then 
 a banquet, a little flour, a torch, a field, a seed, 
 a bee, a flower, a sparrow, a coin, etc. 
 
Christian Doctrine 209 
 
 The " Manual " (p. xv.) points to another 
 means of engaging the children's interest, 
 namely, by making them feel how much the 
 subject concerns themselves, their own good 
 in this life and in the next, and how the 
 truths learned by them must become the light 
 and the way in their every-day life. The 
 practical application actually made by the chil- 
 dren in the different religious exercises mixed 
 up with the lesson will add a new interest to 
 the instruction. In this connection it is im- 
 portant to remember that religion, as Fenelon 
 demands, must be shown to the children as 
 something beautiful, lovable, and imposing. 
 Not only the beauty of the divine mysteries, 
 but the beauty of Christian virtue, ought to be 
 brought before the children, so that the prac- 
 tice of religion will not appear to them as a 
 series of sad, cheerless, and hard self-denials and 
 mortifications, while all pleasure and joy is to 
 be seen on the side of a wicked world. 
 
 3. In regard to the children, the great prin- 
 ciple is : Keep their minds busy with your sub- 
 ject. Make them think and inquire, ask and 
 answer, feel and act with yourself. This is the 
 great art of a perfect teacher. Children are 
 naturally active and want to be busy. It is, 
 then, of utmost importance to concentrate their 
 activity upon the lesson. To make them do 
 
210 Christian Doctrine 
 
 so, have them talk about it. Hence the golden 
 rule for the Catechist: Speak little and make 
 the children speak much. Lambing remarks 
 with Dubois that " almost all Catechists are 
 great talkers ; this is a crying abuse." There 
 is a great pedagogical truth in the saying, " To 
 make the children speak, the teacher must know 
 how to be silent himself." There is nothing 
 which tires children quicker than "a long talk." 
 Hence the importance of questions in class. 
 
 Again, children want change and variety. 
 It is their nature. Consequently the exercises 
 in class must change. A hymn or song, a 
 prayer or another religious exercise, even a 
 short gymnastic exercise or change of position 
 (see Lbg. p. 68), a so-called concert recitation, — 
 all these things will help wonderfully to keep 
 the mind of the children busy. If all these 
 diversions are properly chosen, they will not dis- 
 tract attention from the main subject, but rather 
 keep the mind continually riveted on it, now in 
 one, then in another way. Concert recitation 
 or class recitation in common must not be used 
 too often, and only in the lower grades. It 
 will enliven the lesson, keep off shyness, and 
 guard against weariness. It is well to indicate 
 the necessary pauses by a slight movement of 
 the hand. The children must not be allowed 
 to scream. 
 
Christian Doctrine 211 
 
 Finally, " Another way of gaining the atten- 
 tion of children, very important but too often 
 forgotten, is to work upon their passion, to set 
 them in motion" (Dpi. p. 150); in other words, 
 to arouse the feelings of the children corre- 
 sponding to the subject of the lesson, — love of 
 God and hatred of His enemies ; love of virtue 
 and hatred of sin ; gratitude for benefits re- 
 ceived and contrition for offences committed, 
 etc. Call forth the sympathy of the children 
 for the persons of whom you speak to them, — 
 feelings of admiration for good actions, abhor- 
 rence of evil deeds, and so on. 
 
 On this question of "attraction" see also 
 Furniss, pp. 16 ff. 
 
 F. Ecclesiastical Spirit 
 
 Catholic religious instruction must be given 
 in the spirit of our divine Lord and His holy 
 Church, and ought to fill the hearers with the 
 same spirit. 
 
 1. In the general method of teaching Chris- 
 tian Doctrine, the Catechist must not venture 
 out into new paths and pedagogical experi- 
 ments, as he might sometimes be led to do by 
 the flaring light of modern educational theories. 
 He must be shy of innovations, and not try to 
 originate new catechetical methods. But, like 
 
212 Christian Doctrine 
 
 his great examples of modern times, St. Francis 
 de Sales, Fenelon, Canisius, Dupanloup, he will 
 carry out the method and universal practice of 
 the Church. Where it has been turned away, 
 there he himself must " return to the method 
 of the primitive days, namely, to an apostolic 
 tenderness, devotion, and, allow me to say, 
 common sense as well as zeal" (Dpi. p. 160). 
 Just as Leo XIII. found it necessary to warn 
 against certain modern ways and theories in 
 preaching the Word of God to man, so it is not 
 altogether inopportune to warn very strongly 
 against theories which tend to modernize 
 methods in teaching the Word of God to the 
 young, i.e., in Christian Doctrine. 
 
 This same traditional character, and hence 
 conservative spirit, must guide the Catechist in 
 explaining the Catechism and Bible History. 
 There must be absolutely no place in Christian 
 Doctrine for so-called liberal, modernizing, 
 minimizing, and criticising opinions and views. 
 It would be a crime against the trusting sim- 
 plicity of faith in the Catholic child. Nothing 
 but the pure and undefiled food of Catholic 
 truth as taught by the Church and by her 
 schools of theologians is to be laid before the 
 children. If in the higher classes matters still 
 open for discussion are to be mentioned, even 
 there only the more common and safer doc- 
 
Christian Doctrine 213 
 
 trines, those more in harmony with the tradi- 
 tional view of the matter, ought to be mentioned; 
 not simply some pet theory of the Catechist, or 
 the singular view of one or a few favorite 
 authors of his. For the same reason, none other 
 but correct text-books, approved by ecclesiastical 
 authority, may be used in Christian Doctrine. 
 
 2. The Catechist must also preserve the 
 ecclesiastical spirit and tone in Christian Doc- 
 trine by using the " ecclesiastical language " as 
 far as the mental capacity of the children or of 
 the class allows. Of this subject Dupanloup 
 says : " The Catechist has to teach his children 
 the whole of an unknown, difficult, and mysteri- 
 ous language, the language of the Church. This 
 language, which speaks of all the mysteries, all 
 the most august truths, both dogmatic and 
 moral, is all contained in this little book which 
 is called the Catechism. To teach the Cate- 
 chism is therefore to teach the language of the 
 Church ; it is to teach the children readily to 
 understand and to speak this sublime, unique, 
 and immortal language. . . . The principal 
 work of the Catechist, therefore, is to explain 
 the meaning of every word of the Catechism, 
 and never to let one pass without being certain 
 that the children quite understand it. In this 
 respect, the most skilful Catechists deceive 
 themselves ; they conclude too easily that the 
 
214 Christian Doctrine 
 
 children understand the meaning of the words. 
 . . . My long experience has convinced me 
 that the children both in town and country do 
 not of themselves thoroughly understand the 
 precise meaning of any expression in the Cate- 
 chism " (p. 138). 
 
 It is true that in the lower grades and in the 
 small or introductory Catechism, things are as 
 much as possible to be put in " plain English," 
 " good Anglo-Saxon." But it would be a very 
 serious mistake not to acquaint the children in 
 the higher classes with the peculiar terms, 
 phrases, modes of expression, etc., generally 
 used in Catholic books of instruction and de- 
 votion, in sermons and religious exercises, in 
 larger Catechisms and popular handbooks of 
 religion, in the lives of the Saints, in the gen- 
 eral laws or regulations of Church discipline, 
 and so on. Religion always and everywhere 
 has its own language, as every science and 
 every art and every profession in life has. So 
 also has the Catholic Church, and every loving 
 and loyal child of hers ought to know and 
 understand, as far as needed, the language of 
 its spiritual mother. If children do not become 
 acquainted with this peculiar ecclesiastical 
 language as they advance in the study of Chris- 
 tian Doctrine, many of the most beautiful and 
 ennobling things in Catholic sermons and 
 
Christian Doctrine 215 
 
 books will be forever hidden from them. They 
 will not even be able to pray intelligently with 
 the Church at the public functions or devotions. 
 Hence the necessity of explaining to the chil- 
 dren, not merely the figurative, symbolic mean- 
 ing of the prayers and hymns of the Church, 
 but first of all their literal meanings. Many 
 of the terms and phrases can be explained to the 
 children from etymology, history, customs and 
 practices of olden times, local circumstances, etc. 
 
 In all this, however, let the Catechist follow the 
 principle : first, explain the thing itself in good, 
 plain, and clear English, and only then explain 
 the term or phrase. (See Schuech, pp. 282 f.) 
 
 3. The Catechist should also strive, by the 
 manner of stating and proving the various doc- 
 trines during the years of Christian Doctrine, 
 gradually to make the children feel and realize 
 that they believe everything on the authority 
 of the Church. They ought to be accustomed 
 to the thought that they accept even the word of 
 God in Holy Writ because the Church assures 
 them it is God's word and gives them the true 
 understanding of it. This habitual submis- 
 sion to the Church's masdsterium, or teaching 
 authority, is the only true spirit of Catholic 
 faith, and must be planted and fostered in the 
 child's heart from the very start. The sooner 
 and the stronger a child learns to feel, though 
 
216 Christian Doctrine 
 
 it may not yet understand, that holy and 
 blessed security of faith based on the infallible 
 promises made by Christ to His Church, the 
 sooner and more strongly will the habitual vir- 
 tue of faith, poured into the soul at baptism, 
 break out into an uninterrupted exercise of 
 Catholic faith, and become for the grown-up 
 person a most powerful guard against all the 
 attacks upon his religion. This trust and con- 
 fidence in the infallible authority of the Church 
 must be deeply impressed upon the children, 
 not so much by explaining once for all the 
 ninth article of the Creed and its teaching 
 about the Church, but more by the spirit 
 imparted by the Catechist to his lessons, his 
 words and manners, all through the course of 
 Christian Doctrine. 
 
 4. With this spirit of Catholic faith, the 
 spirit of Catholic life and sentiment, love and 
 affection for God's holy Church must also be 
 planted in the hearts of the children. This 
 can be done very effectively if the Catechist 
 will always connect the truths or rules of the 
 Catechism with the history, liturgy, feasts, and 
 hymns of the Church. (See Ch. 11. pp. 58 ff.) In 
 these the mission, the life and works of the 
 Church, her saints and her prayers, her blessings 
 to mankind, are all brought before the pupils, 
 who will be naturally and powerfully attracted 
 
Christian Doctrine 217 
 
 to the Church and pride themselves on being 
 her children. 
 
 This will also help the Catechist to implant 
 in the children the spirit of religious rever- 
 ence, reverence not only for God and things 
 divine, but also for holy Church and holy things. 
 " What more holy than the doctrines, sacra- 
 ments, ceremonies, and pious practices of the 
 Church ? The Council of Trent has with good 
 reason declared that holy things should be 
 treated with reverence. ... If there was any 
 period in the history of the Church in which it 
 was more necessary to insist upon this rever- 
 ence than another, it is certainly the present. 
 Attribute it to what cause you will, . . . the 
 fact stares us boldly in the face and can not for 
 a moment be called in question, that there is 
 in many of our children and youth a most 
 lamentable want of reverence for holy things. 
 . . . It is the reverence, in word and action, 
 of the teacher that must act immediately upon 
 the children, giving this reverential tone to 
 their language and conduct " (Lbg. pp. 76 ff. ; 
 see also " Manual," p. xiv.). 
 
 Art. 2. — Forms of Instruction 
 
 Form in teaching means the external man- 
 ner of conveying knowledge to another. Three 
 principal forms may be mentioned for our pur- 
 
218 Ckristia7i Doctrine 
 
 pose: the lecture form or discourse, where the 
 teacher alone speaks and explains the subject 
 in coherent discourse while the pupils listen ; 
 the question form or dialogue, where the 
 teacher asks questions to be immediately an- 
 swered by the pupils, hence both speaking in 
 turn; the object form, where the teacher ex- 
 hibits to the eyes of the children the matter to 
 be learned. When teaching children, no one 
 of these forms may be used exclusively, but 
 now one, then another, just as the Catechist 
 perceives that at the time being this or another 
 will serve his purpose best. As a rule, the 
 lecture and question forms should go together. 
 Basedow, the rationalist, quite consistently 
 would have only the question method for relig- 
 ious instruction. Pestalozzi answered him by 
 comparing such a teacher to a bird of prey 
 trying to get eggs from a nest in which none 
 had yet been laid. (See Sch. pp. 284 ff.) 
 
 A. The Lecture Form 
 
 1. In Christian Doctrine the lecture form 
 must prevail above any other. It has the fol- 
 lowing advantages : — 
 
 (a) It is the form most suited to the teaching 
 of faith. St. Paul says, " Faith cometh by hear- 
 ing, and hearing by the word of Christ" (Rom. 
 
Christian Doctrine 219 
 
 x. 1 7). The living word of the Catechist is the 
 principal thing in religious instruction, not ques- 
 tioning, nor reading, nor memorizing. Du- 
 panloup, having spoken of the importance of 
 questioning the children, warns the Catechist: 
 " Not that he must let the instruction consist en- 
 tirely of questions and answers ; the instruction 
 [discourse] is the solemn teaching of religion, 
 and it would not come thus [i.e., by questions] 
 with -sufficient authority. No, the speaking and 
 teaching must come first, ' tamquam potestatem 
 habens! and then the questioning of the chil- 
 dren. This was Our Lord's own way " (Dpi. 
 
 P- 151)- 
 
 (b) The Catholic religion comprises, for the 
 
 most part, historical facts and such revealed 
 truths as can not be discovered by means of 
 questions, but which must be first told. 
 
 (c) In religious instruction the great point 
 is forcibly to influence the feelings and the will. 
 This, again, is done only by means of the lec- 
 turing method. 
 
 (d) Moreover, the Catechist has little time, 
 only a few hours, at his disposal. Therefore 
 he must not go out of his way for the purpose 
 of eliciting the truth by many questions ; but 
 rather state at once what the child can find 
 out only by roundabout ways. 
 
 The lecturing form will be used most exten- 
 
220 Christian Doctrine 
 
 sively in the lower classes, where Bible History 
 is taught by oral instruction. Moreover, these 
 children are not sufficiently developed in mind 
 for the question form of the heuristic kind. 
 
 2. A good discourse must be (a) dignified, 
 (6) clear, (c) slow, (d) graphic and lively. 
 
 (a) Dignified, that is to say, all vulgar expres- 
 sions, childish talk, dialect and slang, faults 
 against grammar, must be avoided. Still, it may 
 be necessary now and then to use a dialect or 
 a slang expression where the children do not 
 understand the correct term. But once they 
 are told this, dialect and slang must no longer 
 be allowed. For this reason the children's 
 Christian names must not be disfigured when 
 called out. However, the Catechist may allow 
 himself now and then a good-natured joke, or 
 may introduce into his discourse a cheerful 
 story ; he even ought to do this when he sees 
 the children are being tired by the serious dis- 
 course. Hence, St. Augustine says : " It not 
 seldom happens that the listener who was 
 attentive in the beginning gradually grows 
 tired. As soon as we notice this, we must 
 refresh his mind, either by bringing forward 
 something seasoned with a suitable hilarity, or 
 what calls forth wonder, astonishment, or even 
 grief and lamentation " (" On Catechising," ch. 
 13, n. 19). But the smaller the children, the less 
 
Christian Doctrine 221 
 
 are they susceptible of such things, because 
 they have not sufficient sense to see a joke. 
 
 (b) The discourse must be clear, i.e., the 
 Catechist must speak in short sentences and 
 use expressions which are easily understood, 
 as Our Lord did. Should he do otherwise, he 
 would resemble a mother trying to nourish her 
 child with hard and indigestible food. How- 
 ever, the Catechist will not be able to avoid 
 those foreign words which are peculiar to the 
 language of the Church, such as Messias, 
 Sabbath, and the like. 
 
 (c) Slow, i.e., he must pronounce every word 
 and every syllable distinctly, and not hurry. 
 Even grown-up people, to say nothing of chil- 
 dren, are incapable of following quick speech. 
 
 (d) Graphic, expressive, and lively. What 
 the Catechist says, and still more what he 
 thinks and feels, should be expressed in the 
 tone of his voice, in his gestures and bearing. 
 Instead of abstract terms, let him rather use 
 concrete examples (for instance, instead of 
 " Humility is ... " let him say " A humble 
 person is . . . "), and instead of indirect let 
 him use direct speech. The young Catechist, 
 therefore, should read good Catechism lessons 
 (e.g., by Dr. J as. Schmitt, Dr. Powers, Perry, 
 Kinkead), and now and then listen to experi- 
 enced Catechists in the school. 
 
222 Christian Doctrine 
 
 3. Everything communicated in lecture form 
 must each time be tested by questioning, in 
 order: (a) to keep up the attention, especially 
 with little children. (5) To see whether the 
 children have understood what has been said. 
 He who puts no questions after his discourse 
 is like a man pouring water into a vessel with- 
 out making sure whether it leaks or not. To 
 lecture first, then tell the children to memorize 
 it, and later on examine them, is certainly very 
 convenient, but not conscientious. Question- 
 ing, on the contrary, is difficult ; but it greatly 
 helps the understanding, (c) To recapitulate 
 at once, and impress on the mind what has 
 been said. By questioning during the dis- 
 course the Catechist acts as one striking a 
 nail repeatedly in order to make it hold. If 
 teaching by discourse may be likened to bring- 
 ing food to the stomach, questioning is like 
 digestion. 
 
 Questioning must not, however, follow upon 
 every word or sentence, otherwise the answers 
 of the children become a thoughtless repetition 
 of words. Furthermore, there must be a re- 
 capitulation by means of questions, (a) at the 
 end of the lesson, in order to summarize the 
 material gone over, and to gather up and con- 
 nect its parts; (6) at the beginning of the 
 lesson, examining about the matter spoken of 
 
Christian Doctrine 223 
 
 in the last lesson. To omit this repetition 
 makes the children careless about learning. 
 This examination of the preceding lesson should 
 not be made at the end of the present lesson, 
 otherwise many children will not pay attention 
 to the lesson, but think of the dreaded exami- 
 nation, or steal a glance at the text-book to pre- 
 pare for the test. (See Lbg. pp. 54 ff.) 
 
 B. The Question Form 
 
 Questions are principally of two kinds : 
 teaching questions, by which the children are led 
 step by step to discover the truth, doctrine, or 
 fact by their own thinking (heuristic questions) ; 
 testing questions, drawing out from the chil- 
 dren the matter communicated to them, whether 
 orally or through the text-book. These exam- 
 ining questions will show whether the children 
 learned and understood the subject explained 
 by the lecture or discourse. 
 
 Questioning on the text of the Catechism 
 and Bible History, or on the subject previously 
 explained, is absolutely necessary. Dupanloup 
 calls it a principal exercise, which " can be very 
 dull for the Catechist and wearisome to the 
 children if it is conducted in a dry and monot- 
 onous manner. But it can be very interesting 
 and even amusing, if there are children who 
 
224 Christian Doctrine 
 
 repeat well and a Catechist who knows how to 
 question. But this is very rare" (p. 135). 
 
 In questioning, the more important rules are 
 as follows : — 
 
 1. The Catechist must address the question to 
 all the children together and only after the ques- 
 tion call upon some one child. If the Catechist 
 first called on a child and then questioned him, 
 the other children would pay no more atten- 
 tion, knowing it was not their turn. This 
 would greatly weaken discipline. 
 
 2. After the question he may sometimes, 
 except in the case of quite easy questions, let 
 the children indicate their ability to answer 
 by raising their hand. But he must not 
 allow them to call out, " Please, sir," or " I 
 know." Those who do must be punished by 
 not being called upon. This will suffice to 
 break them of that bad habit. To punish them 
 more severely would be unwise, as the fault 
 indicates, after all, a praiseworthy ambition. 
 
 3. That interrogative which points out the 
 object in question must be specially emphasized, 
 and ought to be at the head of the question. 
 Ask, " What did God create on the first day ? " 
 not, " On the first day, what did God create ? " 
 With questions that can be answered by " yes " 
 or " no," the verb must be at the head of the 
 sentence. Ask, " Is your soul immortal ? " 
 
Christian Doctrine 225 
 
 not, " Your soul, is it immortal ? " Easy ques- 
 tions which require no mental effort are for 
 very little or backward children. In asking 
 such questions it is advisable, after the answer, 
 to ask for the reason or an explanation of it. 
 
 4. The Catechist must not allow the children 
 to answer in curtailed sentences, or to answer 
 without being asked, or to prompt others. 
 When the Catechist asks, " Who made the 
 world ? " the answer must be, " God made the 
 world." The single word " God " must not be 
 allowed, otherwise the children never learn to 
 answer properly. 
 
 5. When a child gives a wrong answer, the 
 Catechist must not interrupt nor scold him, 
 but let him finish speaking, and then skilfully 
 try to utilize the wrong answer in leading up 
 to the right one. By this gentle method he 
 will gain the confidence of the children. But 
 if the question has been faulty, he must repeat 
 it in a correct form. In questioning, the Cate- 
 chist must resemble a skilful general, who does 
 not immediately lose his composure when he 
 sees his plan thwarted by the enemy, but 
 takes up at once a new position in order to 
 attain his end in another way. So must the 
 Catechist skilfully make use of wrong answers 
 in order to reach by another road the end he 
 had in view when asking the question, For 
 
2 26 Christian Doctrine 
 
 instance, should a child answer the question, 
 " What did Judas receive for his betrayal ? " 
 by saying, " Thirty dollars," the Catechist can 
 straightway say, " Yes, he received silver coins 
 similar to our dollars. But they were not dol- 
 lars. We say, he received thirty pieces of sil- 
 ver." After getting the correct answer, it is 
 well to have it repeated by the child who gave 
 the wrong one. 
 
 6. Every question which is not simple and 
 definite is bad. The question must be simple, 
 i.e., different things must not be asked in one 
 question. Thus it is bad to ask, " When and 
 why do we keep the feast of Christmas ? " 
 There ought to be two questions. The ques- 
 tion must be definite, i.e., it must admit of only 
 one correct answer. The question, " What has 
 man got?" is bad, because the answer here may 
 be, " Man has a soul, a body, feet, eyes, clothes, 
 etc." (On the question form see Dpi. I.e. ; Lbg. 
 pp. 1 33 ff . ; Furniss pp. 62 ff., 184 ff.) 
 
 C. The Object Form 
 
 Object-lessons are so much spoken of nowa- 
 days in educational writings and teachers' in- 
 stitutes, that there is danger of their becoming 
 a mere fad. Yet the principle implied is as 
 sound as any in pedagogy and as old as the 
 
Christian Doctrine 227 
 
 human family. It is the very earliest and most- 
 natural, at the same time the most easy, form of 
 child-teaching, that of presenting the object 
 thus far unknown to the immediate view of the 
 child ; that of making his mind see the thing 
 by the help of his bodily sight, the most per- 
 fect organ of sense-perception. Such a power- 
 ful and easy means may not be neglected in 
 imparting Christian instruction. Hence we 
 find that the Church has made use of this form 
 of instructing the faithful from most ancient 
 times. In fact, before the art of printing had 
 been invented, the Church taught her faithful 
 children by means of all kinds of external, objec- 
 tive representations, placing before their very 
 eyes the principal facts, doctrines, and rules 
 of the Christian religion. (See below, Ch. vi. 
 p. 504.) The Catechist, therefore, should look for 
 every opportunity where this form of instruc- 
 tion can be appropriately used. It is true, as 
 Schuech remarks (p. 242), there are compara- 
 tively few objects in Christian Doctrine which 
 can be shown in themselves, in their own proper 
 being, to the children. But in very many cases 
 it can be done mediately through sufficient 
 representation, pictorial and rhetorical (vivid 
 description, see Lbg. p. 60), by so-called word- 
 painting, or by striking comparisons from 
 nature. 
 
228 Christian Doctrine 
 
 i. The doctrines of the Catechism, dog- 
 matic and moral, may often be made more 
 easily intelligible to the children by the help of 
 an appropriate picture, as is done in the so-called 
 pictorial Catechism, or Catechism illustrated. 
 To a certain extent object-lessons may be given 
 on the Sacraments by showing the children 
 how they are administered and explaining their 
 different ceremonies and prayers ; by taking 
 the class to the baptismal font in the church, 
 to the confessional, the communion rail, and 
 altar, where the sacrifice of the Mass can also 
 be illustrated by showing and explaining the 
 use and meaning of the sacred vestments, ves- 
 sels, and other holy things. The symbolism 
 of the church edifice also supplies ample ma- 
 terial for an object-lesson in Catholic Doctrine. 
 
 2. This object form can be most success- 
 fully used when explaining the Liturgy of the 
 Church, sacred or religious external functions 
 and practices, certain actions (miraculous or 
 otherwise important) related in Bible History. 
 When telling the children of the common re- 
 ligious observances among Catholics, like the 
 sign of the Cross, folding the hands at prayer, 
 striking the breast at the Confiteor or the 
 Communion, the genuflection, the way of going 
 to confession, to holy communion, and so on, 
 the Catechist should show at once in his 
 
Christian Doctrine 229 
 
 own person how it is to be done. The whole 
 public worship of the Church can be explained 
 to the children in this objective method. It 
 will add clearness, variety, interest, and pleas- 
 ure to the Christian Doctrine class. 
 
 3. How comparisons with external well- 
 known things can be made into a sort of 
 object-lesson, see in Schuech, pp. 244 ff. 
 
 Art. 3. — Stages of the Instruction 
 
 Bodily food must first be suitably pre- 
 pared, otherwise it remains undigested and 
 brings on illness. The grains of wheat, for 
 instance, which grow in the field can not be 
 eaten as they are, but must first be ground, 
 made into dough, and then baked. So it is 
 with other foods. The same holds orood for 
 the bread of the soul. This also must be skil- 
 fully prepared. This preparation of the re- 
 ligious material which the children are to take 
 in we call the stages of the instruction. Just 
 as bread is differently prepared from meat, and 
 differently again from coffee, so the steps in 
 teaching Bible History are different from those 
 in Catechism. These gradual stages must be 
 regulated according to the intrinsic nature of 
 the matter to be taught. And just as food 
 well prepared nourishes and strengthens ten 
 
230 Christian Doctrine 
 
 times more than what is ill prepared, so more 
 is attained in one lesson properly arranged and 
 developed than in many lessons poorly done. 
 Hence a skilful teacher, under certain circum- 
 stances, can accomplish more in a week with 
 only two lessons than an indifferent teacher 
 can in the same time with an hour a day. The 
 quality of the religious instruction can always 
 compensate for what is lacking in quantity. 
 
 A. Bible History 
 
 Catholic writers are not agreed as to the 
 number and order of the various stages or 
 parts of Bible History lessons. We shall 
 adopt the following five, and treat of them in 
 the order to be kept in the lesson : — 
 
 1. Notice of the Subject. The biblical fact 
 or event which is to be the subject of the pres- 
 ent lesson must be shortly and clearly an- 
 nounced in a complete sentence. In doing 
 so, concrete terms rather than abstract ones, 
 verbs rather than nouns, ought to be used. 
 Thus the Catechist will say, " Children, I 
 am going to tell you how Our Lord raised 
 Lazarus " (not, " I am going to tell you of the 
 raising of Lazarus"). The introduction is of 
 great importance. It would be almost unnat- 
 ural for a child to trouble itself without know- 
 
Christian Doctrine 231 
 
 ing about what. By means of this introduction 
 his attention is drawn off from other things 
 and directed toward the subject of the lesson. 
 2. The Narration. The story will now be 
 told in this way : — 
 
 (a) In order that the children may get a view 
 of the whole, the entire story must be told, and 
 not merely some parts of it. To do the latter 
 at this stage of the lesson is like showing vari- 
 ous parts of a picture without showing the 
 whole. 
 
 (b) It must be freely told, without looking 
 into the book or reading from it. Using the 
 book is a sign of bad preparation, and weakens 
 discipline. By keeping his eye on the children 
 the Catechist compels them to attend, since the 
 eye is a means of keeping up discipline. 
 
 (c) It must be continuous, i.e., the narration 
 must not be interrupted by questions, other- 
 wise the thread of the story would be broken 
 and the narration lose in strength. 
 
 (d) It must be faithful and pay as much 
 regard as possible to the wording of the book. 
 For two reasons : first, not to offend against 
 the true facts ; second, not to confuse the chil- 
 dren, who will later read the story in the book. 
 Experience also shows that children are most 
 attentive when a story is told in the words of 
 the Bible. They are the very words of the 
 
232 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Holy Ghost and a special power dwells in them. 
 This, however, does not mean that the Cate- 
 chist must slavishly keep to the words of the 
 book. It is even advisable to abbreviate in some 
 places. 
 
 (e) It must be vivid, i.e., the Catechist must 
 chain the children's imagination by a spirited 
 recital, by corresponding gestures, by the modu- 
 lation of his voice, by pausing, by using direct 
 instead of indirect speech, and by speaking in a 
 truly narrative form, that is, the " historic 
 present." Such a narration pleases the children 
 and has a great influence on them, because they 
 are by nature bright and gay, and long for every- 
 thing lively. What is to live in the children's 
 mind must first be living in the teacher. The 
 most beautiful story told without vividness and 
 freshness is like a beautiful drawing-room in 
 the winter with no fire. Yet, in all this the 
 Catechist must beware of exaggeration ; he may 
 not play the actor; religious instruction must 
 always be dignified. 
 
 (_/*) It must be slowly told, so that the chil- 
 dren, with their weak capacity, can follow the 
 thoughts. We know from experience how 
 difficult it is even for grown-up persons to 
 follow a hurried discourse. 
 
 (g) It must be distinct, i.e., the Catechist 
 must speak loud enough to be heard by all the 
 
Christian Doctrine 233 
 
 children, and pronounce every word and syllable 
 distinctly, without slurring over any. Speech 
 is the clothing of our thoughts. However, 
 the Catechist must not raise his voice unduly, 
 otherwise the children become noisy and begin 
 to talk amongst themselves, knowing that their 
 voices will not be heard. By observing the 
 children one can tell whether the Catechist 
 relates well ; during a good recital they do 
 not stir. 
 
 3. Now follows the repetition and explanation 
 of the story by the Catechist and the children. 
 
 (a) It is told over again, but only one part 
 after the other. When the children hear a 
 beautiful story, the same thing happens as with 
 us when we visit a picture gallery for the first 
 time. Although we have been delighted by 
 the sight of the pictures, we are not able to give 
 a detailed account. Only repeated observation 
 renders us capable of doing so. In like manner, 
 when children have to repeat a story, they must 
 hear it twice. He who objects that repeating 
 the same story wearies the children does not 
 understand their nature. In this second recital 
 care must be taken to use the same words as 
 before, otherwise the children get confused, and 
 the Catechist lays himself open to be corrected 
 by them. 
 
 (b) Having told one part of the story, he lets 
 
234 Christian Doctrine 
 
 a pupil repeat it. If there are quick children 
 in the class, they will be able with a little help 
 from the Catechist to relate the story. But in 
 classes where most of the children are less gifted, 
 the Catechist must question them on every 
 point, and, if need be, tell the points a third or 
 a fourth time. This repetition with the chil- 
 dren will clearly show where a word or fact is 
 not understood, and where explanation is 
 needed. Explanation must be coupled with 
 the repetition. Often it is only words that 
 need to be explained. Words unknown to the 
 children (such as spy, interpreter, scribe, cen- 
 turion, Levite, Orient, talent, etc.) will be simply 
 replaced by other words with which the chil- 
 dren are familiar. Now and then things will 
 need explanation. For instance, when one has 
 been speaking of the grave of Lazarus, or of 
 Our Lord, it will be necessary to say that the 
 graves of the Jews were quite different from 
 ours. Of course, all explanations must be 
 short, for Christian Doctrine must not be 
 turned into a lesson on etymology and archae- 
 ology. In exceptional cases the explanation 
 must precede the recital ; that is, when it is 
 necessary to understand the story in question. 
 For instance, before relating the story of the 
 good Samaritan, the children might be told 
 how and why the Jews hated the Samaritans. 
 
Christian Doctrine 235 
 
 As a rule, explanations should not be given 
 before or during the first recital, because the 
 impression of the story would be lost, and the 
 attention of the children turned to secondary 
 matters. But when the children have heard 
 the story once and are familiar with the whole 
 substance of it, they will be able to give their 
 full attention to the explanation, which has 
 therefore its place in the repetition. 
 
 (c) After the several parts and the whole 
 story have been repeated to the pupils, the 
 Catechist ought to show a picture representing 
 the story. A pupil points out with a small 
 stick and explains what is to be seen in the 
 picture. The Catechist helps with questions, 
 but in a way to summarize the whole story. 
 Geographic explanations must not be entirely 
 neglected. 
 
 4. The Exposition or Commentary. Every 
 Bible story tells not only of some fact, but is 
 at the same time a living sermon, as it puts 
 before our eyes certain truths of religion in 
 regard to both faith and morals. Bible His- 
 tory also contains the germs of most of the 
 worship, ceremonies, and institutions in the 
 Church. It is the duty of the Catechist to 
 bring these truths of religion and the ritual 
 and social analogies prominently before the 
 children, to impress them deeply on their 
 
236 Christian Doctrine 
 
 memory. In this way a solid foundation will 
 be laid for the Catechism lessons. By this com- 
 mentary the Catechist must also bring out the 
 typical (typological) character of persons, saints, 
 and institutions in the Old Testament and 
 show their fulfilment in their antitypes in 
 the New Law. The meaning of the parables 
 and the symbolical character of the miracles of 
 Our Lord must be explained. If the Catechist 
 will bear in mind what Catholic theologians 
 teach concerning the manifold sense of Holy 
 Scripture (literal, allegorical, tropological or 
 moral, and anagogical), he will perhaps realize 
 that to teach Bible History is more than only 
 to make the children understand the dry facts, 
 and that the great and principal work of this 
 class is the commentary. Herein it is impor- 
 tant to remember that this commentary must 
 possess three qualities : it must be theologi- 
 cally correct, of a properly catechetical nature 
 (not a learned essay), and adapted to the mental 
 capacity of the class. 
 
 As regards the mode of commenting on the 
 Bible narrative observe the following points : — 
 
 (a) Doctrinal truths should be brought out 
 by the help of questions. The children may 
 be asked : " What pleases you in this person ? " 
 " What displeases you in that one ? " " What 
 ought he to have done? " and the like. Again, 
 
Christian Doctrine 237 
 
 " What does this story teach you of God, His 
 goodness, wisdom, justice, providence ; what of 
 Jesus Christ, of the angels, of the Apostles, of 
 the Church ? " etc. Let them also state the 
 reason of their answer. The children are 
 thus compelled to think and to work with the 
 teacher instead of remaining mere passive and 
 inattentive listeners. Moreover, their judgment 
 is sharpened and their interest awakened in 
 the subject. 
 
 (b) The religious truths thus brought into 
 relief must be clothed in a set form of words 
 and phrases borrowed as far as possible from 
 the Catechism, which is truly " the casket 
 containing in clearly stamped coins the ster- 
 ling metal discovered by master and pupils in 
 Christian Doctrine " (Kellner). 
 
 (c) These phrases, sentences, and maxims of 
 the Catechism drawn from the Bible story (like- 
 wise short sayings of Our Lord or other bibli- 
 cal persons) will be simultaneously repeated by 
 all the children (concert-recitation). 
 
 Examples. — From the history of the Magi 
 or Three Kings, the following can be drawn : 
 The Magi adore Jesus. (The Child of Mary 
 is the Son of God. Adoration. Morning and 
 Evening Prayer.) Herod was false (lying 
 and hypocrisy) and wanted to kill the Child. 
 (Fifth Commandment. Feast of the Epiphany. 
 
238 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Visit to the Crib.) The angel warns the 
 Magi and St. Joseph (Gods providence, 
 omniscience, angels the messengers of God). 
 
 From the Parable of the Good Samaritan: 
 Love of our neighbor and of our enemies; 
 Works of Mercy, Fifth Commandment, Ex- 
 treme Unction. 
 
 From the History of David and Goliath: 
 Divine Providence. Our works must begin 
 with God. Even the strongest is powerless 
 without God's help. David, a type of Our 
 Lord, who saved us from Satan, our wicked 
 and powerful enemy. 
 
 5. Practical Application. Every Bible story 
 is written either for our encouragement or 
 our warning, and therefore conveys some 
 fundamental religious or moral idea. Now, it 
 is the duty of the Catechist to apply these 
 fundamental thoughts to the practical life of 
 the children. He may close the lesson some- 
 what in this way, " From this story you ought 
 to learn the following truth for your own 
 Christian conduct," etc. The application must 
 have the following qualities : — 
 
 (a) It must be directed to one point, to only 
 one practical lesson. He who proposes to him- 
 self too much generally accomplishes nothing. 
 It fares with him as with a man who tries to roll 
 several large stones up-hill at the same time. 
 
Christian Doctrine 239 
 
 (6) It must follow naturally from the narra- 
 tive, and must not, as the saying is, be dragged 
 in by the head and shoulders. 
 
 (c) It must be particular. Mere general and 
 indefinite phrases, such as, " Children, you must 
 be good, pious, virtuous," are of no value. The 
 children are as wise afterward as before. 
 
 (d) It must be practical, i.e., suited to the 
 special inclinations, good and evil, the usual 
 faults, and the external condition of the children. 
 
 (e) It must be short, and may not be turned 
 into a sermon, otherwise the children do not 
 catch the special point drawn from the story, 
 to be practised by them. Moreover, much 
 talk by the Catechist argues a poor preparation. 
 
 (/) Whenever possible, the practical lesson 
 ought to be carried out immediately, according 
 to the saying, " Strike the iron while it is hot." 
 Thus the story of the prodigal son affords an 
 example of contrition. Hence, at the close of 
 the lesson, the children are not to be merely 
 admonished to make frequently acts of contri- 
 tion, but they should do so at once together 
 with the Catechist. 
 
 The raising of Lazarus ought to strengthen 
 in us the hope of our own resurrection. The 
 children stand up, hands joined, and, looking 
 up at the crucifix, say, "We believe, O Lord 
 Jesus, that after our death Thou wilt raise us 
 
240 Christian Doctrine 
 
 also to life again." In like manner we may 
 proceed where the practical applications lead 
 to an act of faith, hope, charity, or some resolu- 
 tion of self-denial, charitable work, etc. 
 
 (g) The application may be expressed with 
 great advantage in a brief and pithy saying. 
 For example, " With God begin, and thou shalt 
 win." " Pride comes before the fall." " He 
 always wins who sides with God." Experience 
 shows that pithy sayings, especially in rhyme, 
 remain firmly in the memory long after school 
 life is completed. 
 
 One may also express the application in some 
 well-known passage of the Bible, or in a verse 
 of some hymn in use, or in the form of an 
 extempore prayer. This prayer and the sing- 
 ing of a hymn, as a rule, exert a powerful influ- 
 ence on children's minds. 
 
 (h) The application need not always come at 
 the end of the hour. It may be put in sooner, 
 when the children are seen to be struck or 
 moved by what is said or related. 
 
 See on this whole subject (A) the excellent 
 remarks of Father Glancey in his preface to 
 Knecht's " Commentary." 
 
 B. Catechism 
 
 The Catechism lesson, properly so called, 
 begins only in the third school year. It em- 
 
Christian Doctrine 241 
 
 braces (1) the notice of the subject, (2) the 
 development and definition of terms, (3) the 
 explanation of the subject, (4) the argument 
 or statement of reasons, (5) the practical 
 application. 
 
 The younger the children are, the shorter 
 will be the explanation and the argument. The 
 above order need not always be slavishly kept. 
 It is sometimes advisable to give the proofs 
 before explaining the matter; the application, 
 also, can be made sooner, when one sees the 
 children deeply moved, and may thus hope for 
 better results. 
 
 1. Notice of the Subject. The Catechist 
 ought to proceed as the priest does in the pul- 
 pit. Before the sermon the text is given, which 
 briefly suggests the subject. In like manner, 
 let the Catechist at the very beginning announce 
 in a short sentence the subject of the present 
 lesson. 
 
 2. The Development of the Subject and its 
 Definition. (See Schuech, pp. 239 ff.) The 
 priest in the pulpit usually reads, before the 
 sermon, suitable passages from Holy Scripture, 
 viz., the Epistle and the Gospel. This is gen- 
 erally his starting-point. The Catechist ought 
 to do likewise. 
 
 (a) Let him choose a suitable Bible story 
 for a starting-point, i.e., a story from which the 
 
242 Christian Doctrine 
 
 doctrinal subject in question can easily be 
 drawn out. Thus, in treating of Baptism, he 
 may begin with the Baptism of Our Lord ; of 
 Confirmation, with Pentecost ; of the Eucharist, 
 with the Last Supper; and so on. The Bible 
 story in question must be told, not in a mere 
 superficial manner, but in detail, so that the 
 children may clearly see how the correspond- 
 ing doctrine of the Catechism results from it. 
 Although the children may have heard the 
 story before, still, the Catechist ought to relate 
 it, or, by way of exception, have it read from the 
 book. It is not advisable to let the children 
 relate it to him, as they generally make mis- 
 takes which must be corrected, all resulting in 
 confusion and loss of time. If no suitable 
 Bible story can be found to start with, one may 
 choose some similitude or example from nature 
 and everyday life, or better still, from the lives of 
 the saints, or from history, sacred and profane. 
 
 Thus sanctifying grace may be very beauti- 
 fully explained by comparing it with the iron 
 glowing in the fire ; or spiritual communion 
 by referring to the mental state of a man con- 
 demned to die of starvation. 
 
 As a rule, one Bible story, one example, etc., 
 is sufficient. Sometimes, however, it will be 
 useful or necessary to bring in several exam- 
 ples, especially when the subject is difficult to 
 
Christian Doctrine 243 
 
 understand, or if it contains many and adverse 
 elements. Thus the idea " Contrition " will be 
 perfectly understood only when it is explained 
 by different examples, as the prodigal son, St. 
 Peter, David, Mary Magdalen. The long defi- 
 nition of the idea " Baptism " requires several 
 Bible stories, — the Baptism of Our Lord, the 
 passage of the Israelites through the Jordan, 
 the healing of Naaman the Syrian. 
 
 Of course the story told or read should be 
 forthwith repeated by the children. It is a 
 grave psychological blunder to begin the Cate- 
 chism lesson by reading the Catechism text. 
 In doing so, one reverses the order laid down 
 by God for the acquisition of knowledge. By 
 such a method the children will only get empty 
 words, but never grasp the idea. Their relig- 
 ious knowledge will be nothing more than a 
 parrot-like repetition of sentences which they 
 do not understand. 
 
 The reason why the Catechist must start with 
 a story is because : (1) In this way the truths of 
 faith are easier grasped by the feeble under- 
 standing of the young ; (2) this manner cor- 
 responds with the nature of our religion, which 
 is revealed, and hence rests on historical facts ; 
 (3) the laws of the mind require that we pro- 
 ceed from perception to concept, from concrete 
 to abstract words or dogmas. 
 
244 Christian Doctrine 
 
 (6) The story told must now be used in the 
 following way : The characteristic notes, marks, 
 qualities, elements, of the subject or idea are 
 brought out clearly and definitely, then written 
 on the blackboard, joined together, and there 
 preceded or followed by the name or the idea 
 of the whole. The Catechist will forthwith 
 give the characteristics again and ask for the 
 name of the whole, or he may give the name of 
 the subject and ask for the characteristics. 
 
 In regard to definition the following remarks 
 may be useful. The child sees a sparrow, a 
 swallow, a pigeon, and so on, and notices that 
 all these things have certain characteristics 
 (they fry in the air, they have wings, feathers, 
 a beak, etc.) in common. In this way the child 
 arrives at the idea "bird." The enumeration 
 of the essential characteristics of an idea is 
 called "definition." A good definition must 
 be: (i) exact, i.e., no essential characteristics may 
 be omitted (or it is too wide), and no other may 
 be added (or it is too narrow). It must be co- 
 extensive with the thing defined. (2) It must 
 be brief and to the point, i.e., it must not con- 
 tain any superfluous words. Hence such a 
 definition as the following is bad : " Angels are 
 pure spirits with free will and understanding, but 
 without body." " Pure " is superfluous, as it is 
 contained in " without body." For this reason 
 
Christian Doctrine 245 
 
 the human soul is not a pure spirit. (3) The 
 definition must be clear, i.e., it must not con- 
 tain any expressions difficult to understand. 
 Its terms must be clearer than the subject 
 defined. Some ideas comprise others, which 
 again contain others. The first are called 
 generic ideas, the latter specific. For instance 
 " virtue " is the " generic " because it comprises 
 the " specific ideas " of theological virtues, 
 which again contain the ideas of faith, hope, 
 and charity. 
 
 Example of a Definition. — The idea " Holy 
 Eucharist " or " Blessed Sacrament " might be 
 developed in the following way: The history 
 of the Last Supper is told. Then the question 
 is asked, " What did Our Lord take into His 
 hands ? " (Answer, " bread." Write this on 
 the blackboard to your right.) " What words 
 did He speak at the same time ? " (" Take ye 
 and eat, for this is My body.") " What had Our 
 Lord in His hands then?" ("His body." 
 Write " body of Christ " at a little distance to 
 the left of the word "bread.") If a child 
 should answer " bread," the Catechist must say, 
 " How can Our Lord have bread in His hands, 
 when He Himself said, ' This is My body ' ? " 
 So He had His body, His flesh, in His hand. 
 Now this flesh of Our Lord still looked the 
 same as it did before. It had all the appear- 
 
246 Christian Doctrine 
 
 ances, the color, the taste, the weight, the smell, 
 of bread. We say, in short, it had the appear- 
 ance of bread. (Write " appearance " between 
 'body of Christ" and "bread.") Then refer 
 to the chalice, and ask " What was in the chal- 
 ice at first?" ("Wine." Write this below 
 " bread.") " What words did Our Lord pro- 
 nounce over the wine ? " (" This is My 
 blood.") " What was in the chalice now ? " 
 (" The blood of Christ." Write this below 
 "body of Christ") Should a child answer 
 " wine," the Catechist must say : " How can 
 there be wine in the chalice when Christ says 
 'This is My blood ' ? " So in the chalice was 
 the blood of Christ. Yet the blood looked 
 the same as before ; it had the appearance, the 
 color, smell, taste, of wine. We say, in short, 
 it had the appearance of wine. (Write "ap- 
 pearance " below the same word on black- 
 board.) Now see, children, instead of " body 
 of Christ under the appearance of bread," and 
 "blood of Christ under the appearance of 
 wine," we say more briefly " Blessed Sacra- 
 ment " or " Holy Eucharist." Write this on the 
 board, and fill out as in the following sketch : 
 
 Blessed Sacrament 1' Body of Christ under the appearance of bread. 
 (Holy Eucharist) '[ Blood of Christ under the appearance of wine. 
 
 (c) It is difficult to define an abstract idea 
 for children. Better change it into a concrete 
 
Christian Doctrine 247 
 
 idea. (Instead of " Humility is ... " say " A 
 humble person is one who . . . " — or " He is 
 humble who ..." or a verb is put to the ab- 
 stract idea, " Humility consists in . . ."). 
 
 Subjects which contain no important moral 
 or religious ideas need not be defined. Chris- 
 tian Doctrine is not a language lesson. Such 
 subjects will be simply described by means 
 of familiar terms or by clearer synonymous 
 expressions. 
 
 3. Explanation of the Subject. The chil- 
 dren must thoroughly understand the subject. 
 Hence one must clearly explain to them its 
 characteristics, marks, qualities, properties, ele- 
 ments, and everything belonging to it ; then 
 its species and different kinds ; further on its 
 connection with other religious truths, but es- 
 pecially with Christ and His Church. 
 
 The first can be done by the help of stories, 
 examples, comparisons, and contrasts. Stress 
 must be laid on the connection with other 
 religious truths, because by this means every 
 individual truth will be better understood, and 
 the sublimity of the Christian religion more 
 clearly recognized ; again, the doctrine in ques- 
 tion will, by this means, not be so easily for- 
 gotten. For the same reasons, every doctrine 
 must be brought into relation with Our Lord 
 and the Church, for our Christian religion is 
 
248 Christian Doctrine 
 
 a harmonious system of heavenly truths whose 
 central point is the Saviour of the world, and 
 whose only infallible teacher on earth is the 
 Church. (See Dpi. p. 158.) 
 
 It is particularly necessary to connect the 
 doctrines of faith and morals. 
 
 In dealing with a doctrine of faith we must 
 show what moral doctrine flows from it, while 
 in treating of a doctrine of morality we ought 
 to show what corresponding dogma or doctrine 
 of faith is the reason of the moral law or coun- 
 sel, and the motive for its observance. This 
 for the following reasons: (1) The doctrines of 
 faith, without those of morals, produce no 
 fruit, while moral doctrine without dogma is 
 devoid of strength. (2) Faith without works is 
 dead, and works without faith have no merit 
 for heaven. (3) This union of the doctrines of 
 faith and morals leads to the internal Christian 
 life of every individual, and prevents Christian- 
 ity from becoming a mere external religion 
 consisting of empty forms and ceremonies. 
 
 The length to which one may and ought to 
 go in explaining the subject depends upon the 
 grade or class to be instructed. In the higher 
 grades, the explanation must be more thorough. 
 Just as a tree increases in thickness as it grows, 
 so must the explanation become more detailed 
 in every higher class. 
 
Christian Doctrine 249 
 
 Example. — Explanation of Christian " Bap- 
 tism." 
 
 (a) Its parts and effects — " Washing with 
 water. 1 ' 
 
 Water. — It must be pure, whether it be rain, 
 river, spring, or well water; neither vinegar, 
 wine, spirits, cider, and so on, can be used. 
 The water must be blessed, hence the blessing 
 of the baptismal water on Holy Saturday and 
 Whitsunday Eve. In case of necessity, how- 
 ever, unblessed water suffices. 
 
 Washing. — Water is thrice poured on the 
 head of the person in the form of a cross. In 
 case of necessity the water may be poured on 
 any part of the body ; it also suffices to sprinkle 
 the person with water, provided it touches the 
 skin. A threefold immersion was formerly the 
 custom ; for this purpose there were baptismal 
 fonts. This is still the custom in the Greek 
 Church. 
 
 (b) At the same time the words instituted 
 by Our Lord are said. These run as follows : 
 " I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and 
 of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." 
 
 Reference must be made to the words of 
 Our Lord at His Ascension (Matt, xxviii. 19), 
 and to the manifestation of the Three Divine 
 Persons at His Baptism (Luke iii. 21, 22). 
 Baptism would be invalid if one should say, 
 
250 Christian Doctrine 
 
 " I baptize thee in the name of the Saviour," 
 or " I baptize thee in the name of the Holy 
 Trinity," and so on. The words ordained by 
 Our Lord must be pronounced at the same 
 time that the water is being poured. It would 
 be wrong to pour the water first and then say 
 the words, or vice versa. 
 
 (c) Our Lord wished to illustrate the effects 
 of Baptism (cleansing from sin, sanctifying 
 grace, child of God, heir of heaven, and mem- 
 ber of the Church), partly by the use of water ; 
 the Church does it also by the use of her cere- 
 monies. The effects of Baptism may now be 
 compared with the effects of water, and ex- 
 plained more fully by the meaning of the cere- 
 monies. 
 
 The Effects of Water. — It purifies the body 
 from stains ; Baptism removes those of the 
 soul: original sin and all other sins. Water 
 extinguishes fire ; Baptism delivers from the 
 flames of hell and purgatory, taking away all 
 punishment. It also dampens the fire of evil 
 concupiscence. Water turns flour into dough ; 
 Baptism unites us in the communion of the 
 Church and of the Saints, and so on. 
 
 The most important ceremonies at Baptism : 
 The white robe signifies sanctifying grace and 
 innocence ; the anointing of the head (which is 
 usual at the coronation of kings) that the bap- 
 
Christian Doctrine 251 
 
 tized is a son of the heavenly King, that is, he 
 has become a child of God; the lighted taper, 
 that he has received the light of the Holy 
 Ghost, holy faith, and in his journey to heaven 
 is like a traveler with a light on the dark 
 way. The leading into the Church from the 
 porch signifies that the baptized one is made a 
 member of the Church, and so on. 
 
 The Catechist will now explain the two 
 kinds of Baptism, the solemn Baptism in the 
 Church, and private Baptism ; likewise, at what 
 times solemn Baptism was originally given 
 (Liturgy), when and by whom private baptism 
 is to be administered. Further, the terms," bap- 
 tism of water," " baptism of desire," " baptism 
 of blood," will be explained and illustrated by 
 examples. Reference will also be made to the 
 just men of the Old Testament, to the death 
 of the innocents of Bethlehem, St. John the 
 Baptist, the seven Machabees, to Christians 
 martyred before being baptized. 
 
 Then the Catechist will explain the con- 
 nection of " Baptism " with other Christian 
 truths, paying special attention to original sin 
 and to sanctifying grace. Reference will be 
 made to the Baptism of Our Lord, showing its 
 typical meaning and explaining the similarity 
 between His and our baptism ; for instance, 
 the Holy Ghost came down upon Our Lord, 
 
252 Christian Doctrine 
 
 we also receive sanctifying grace ; God the 
 Father cried out, " This is My beloved Son," 
 here He adopts us as His children ; the 
 heavens were opened, we are made heirs of 
 heaven. Finally, the command of Our Lord 
 at His Ascension (Matt, xxviii. 19, Mark xvi. 15, 
 16), "Go . . . baptize them," etc., as well as 
 His words (John iii. 5), " Unless a man be 
 born again of water and the Holy Ghost, he 
 can not enter into the kingdom of God," will 
 show the necessity of Baptism, while a short 
 recapitulation will explain its great value. 
 
 4. The Argument or Proofs. 
 
 I. In General. — (a) Argument is necessary; 
 without knowing the reasons of our faith, as well 
 as of our conduct, both would be unreasonable. 
 Now God requires from us a reasonable ser- 
 vice (Rom. xii. 1). The Divine Teacher Him- 
 self gave reasons : He referred with special 
 pleasure to the word of God ; also to the dic- 
 tate of common sense — (for example, when He 
 showed that one might do good on the Sabbath 
 day [Luke xiii. 15 ; Matt. xii. 11], and that He 
 Himself did not work by the help of the devil 
 [Matt. xii. 27]); to the judgment of the people, 
 when He made use of proverbs. He often put 
 the reward of eternal blessedness before those 
 who would follow His doctrines. 
 
 If one should object that formal reasoning or 
 
Christian Doctrine 253 
 
 argument is unsuited for children, who are not 
 able to follow rigorous formulas of theological 
 proofs, Dupanloup, p. 148, answers that this is 
 perfectly true in regard to the outward form or 
 formula; but that it is not in regard to the 
 thing itself; "good reasons must always be 
 given for this, even with children." Schuech, 
 p. 264, also observes that " it would be a serious 
 mistake to let children grow up without fur- 
 nishing them with any arguments in support of 
 their religious convictions." 
 
 (b) It is important to remember that argu- 
 mentation differs somewhat according as it is 
 used in dogma or in morals. In the first case 
 we must give reasons for believing these doc- 
 trines, proving them to be true; in the second, 
 we give reasons for practising the moral teach- 
 ings, showing them to be good. Yet, we must 
 not forget that the divinely revealed laws of 
 Christian morality are also objects of belief. 
 The infallible word of God reveals in the 
 moral teaching of the Church His holy will, 
 which is in turn the supreme motive of our 
 obeying those laws, another reason why dogma 
 and morals must be joined in Christian Doc- 
 trine. With this in view it may be correctly 
 said that in dogma we give reasons of belief, 
 in morals motives of conduct. Yet the differ- 
 ence of treatment is not due to any difference 
 
254 Christian Doctrine 
 
 in the source from which either the truths of 
 Christian religion or the laws of Christian 
 morality flow ; both come from the same divine 
 revelation. It is due to the different nature 
 and object of the respective doctrines. This 
 supernatural character of Christian morality 
 must be clearly impressed upon the children, 
 although natural reasons and motives may not 
 be despised, just as in dogma we call upon 
 natural reason to help our supernatural belief. 
 
 (c) In regard to the method of argumentation, 
 Schuech gives the following sound advice. The 
 Catechist must not demonstrate everything, 
 nor advance difficult arguments. Let him re- 
 member that he has children to teach, and must 
 make matters for them as plain and easy as 
 possible ; also that the religious conviction 
 of the children does not proceed from his 
 arguments alone, but still more from divine 
 grace and free will. Finally, the Catechist 
 may not forget that the children ought not only 
 to understand the proofs, but also to remember 
 them. He must, therefore, test the pupils on 
 the proofs given, and help them to impress these 
 on their minds (pp. 264 ff.). 
 
 II. In Dogmatic Doctrines. — The truth of 
 the doctrines of faith must be established by 
 adducing proofs. But we must not say to the 
 children, " I will prove to you that it is true ; ' 
 
Christian Doctrine 255 
 
 this would awaken doubts against faith and 
 bring about a result contrary to that for which 
 we are striving. Moreover, the proofs must 
 not be too difficult, but simple and easy to 
 understand. Theological proofs would be as 
 unsuited to children as the iron armor was to 
 the young David. For the same reason one 
 must not give too many proofs. But the argu- 
 ment may be more fully detailed before more 
 advanced pupils. Proofs may be taken from 
 the following sources : — 
 
 (a) The word of God contained in Holy 
 Scripture. This must always be brought for- 
 ward in the first place, because, as the written 
 word of God, it has the greatest authority. 
 The Bible has many advantages ; it is for the 
 most part illustrative and concrete, appealing to 
 the heart and striking in its force. However, 
 the Catechist must not distort the words of the 
 Bible, but quote them as exactly as possible. 
 In order to make them more easily remembered, 
 he must state the circumstances of place, time, 
 and person, under which they were spoken. 
 Again, let him spare the children long or mul- 
 tiplied quotations. Here, as everywhere else, 
 the master is shown by his capacity to make a 
 good selection. 
 
 (b) The word of God as contained in the 
 teaching of the Church. Nor must the Cate- 
 
256 Christian Doctrine 
 
 chist confine himself to the solemn definitions 
 of the Church. Her living magisterium speaks 
 in the consonant teaching of her bishops, in the 
 common opinion of the theological schools, in 
 the universal belief of the faithful. It has been 
 observed before how necessary it is to make the 
 children understand this teaching and infallible 
 authority of the Church, and willingly to accept 
 from her whatever she proposes for our belief. 
 
 (c) Historical facts, i.e., facts from Bible His- 
 tory, from Church History, from Profane His- 
 tory, and also from the Lives of the Saints. 
 (See Schuech, pp. 271 ff.) 
 
 Our Lord referred to His works in proof of 
 His words, when He said, " Though you will not 
 believe Me (i.e., My words) believe the works " 
 (John x. 38). Deeds have, as a rule, greater 
 power than words. This is seen particularly in 
 education, for by good example the teacher can 
 often effect more than by the most beautiful 
 discourses. In religious instruction facts must 
 often be mentioned, for the simple reason that 
 God has revealed Himself more through fact 
 than words. Finally, historical facts help to 
 illustrate the truths of religion ; for this reason 
 they are not to be merely touched upon or 
 mentioned in passing; but they ought to be 
 graphically told and brought into clear and 
 easy connection with the doctrine in question. 
 
Christian Doctrine 257 
 
 (d) Proverbs and pithy sayings which express 
 the general judgment of the people, and utter- 
 ances of celebrated or holy men. This human 
 testimony serves only to support and explain 
 other proofs. Quoting the utterances of justly 
 celebrated men may inspire children with 
 respect toward those who have deserved well of 
 mankind. 
 
 (e) Human reason. Reason is the eye of the 
 soul. By its means we can see the truth of 
 many a Christian dogma. Our Lord likewise 
 made use of these proofs. They will be, how- 
 ever, used more in the higher classes, where the 
 children are more intelligent. In the higher 
 grades some doctrines will have to be defended 
 against the attacks of non-Catholics, or against 
 the false principles of the world. However, 
 this defence or apology must not degenerate 
 into controversy or polemics. The Catechist 
 has no enemies of religion before him ; and his 
 principal aim in this regard will be to enable 
 the children to answer readily and properly any 
 scoffer of religion. In refuting the attacks of 
 sectaries or infidels, special reference must be 
 made to their prejudices by showing that our 
 Catholic doctrines have not the meaning which 
 those outside the Church attribute to them. 
 Thus it is false that we invoke the Saints out 
 of mistrust in Our Lord, that we adore the 
 
258 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Blessed Virgin Mary and images, that we seek 
 forgiveness of the greatest sins through an 
 indulgenced prayer, that we consider the Pope 
 faultless in all matters, that we look upon all 
 persons of other creeds as damned, and so on. 
 False principles of the world are such as 
 these : " What I can not see, I do not believe," 
 " One religion is as good as another," " The 
 workman has no time to pray," and so on. 
 On Catechetical Refutation, see Schuech, 
 p. 272. 
 
 Example of an Argument. — The immortal- 
 ity of the soul can be proved : — 
 
 (a) By the words of Christ, " Fear ye not 
 them that kill the body and are not able to kill 
 the soul " ; the words of Christ to the good 
 thief ; the parable of the rich man and Lazarus. 
 
 (b) By historical facts. Appearance of the 
 dead Moses on Thabor, the apparitions at the 
 death of Our Lord. 
 
 (c) By the belief of the nations, for example, 
 the Jews (the sacrifice of Judas Machabeus 
 for those fallen in battle ; the words of Jacob, 
 mourning over the death of Joseph), the Greeks 
 (Tartarus and Elysium), the Egyptians (trans- 
 migration of souls). 
 
 (d) By reason, yearning after happiness in 
 mankind, justice of God, and the like. 
 
 III. In Moi'al Doctrines. — Moral doctrines 
 
Christian Doctrine 259 
 
 are mostly established by bringing forward 
 the grounds of our obligation, together with 
 motives. 
 
 (a) As the basis of our obligations must be 
 given the will of God. It is of the greatest 
 importance to lay particular stress on the will 
 of God in the first place. This will lead the 
 children to direct all their actions toward 
 Him, and by this means to make their works 
 meritorious. Moreover, the will of God is, es- 
 pecially for children, the motive easiest to 
 understand. It is also the most effectual, be- 
 cause not so easily shaken by the sophisms of 
 corrupt reason and the pretexts of our depraved 
 will. Even Christ, Our Lord, at the time of 
 His temptation, appealed to the will of God 
 (Matt. iv.). 
 
 It ought also to be explained that upon this 
 will of God is based all human authority, eccle- 
 siastical, civil, and parental ; that from it arise 
 all mutual obligations between men. The will 
 of God is made known either by supernatural 
 revelation or by the nature of things created. 
 The more children are accustomed to see 
 God's holy will in everything, the more easily 
 will they submit to His holy law in all things 
 and lead good Christian lives. They must be 
 told also that our conscience is for us the voice 
 of God ; it leads us on by approving the good 
 
260 Christian Doctrine 
 
 we do and reproving our evil deeds. By fol- 
 lowing our conscience we shall always do 
 God's will, but by going against that internal 
 voice, we always offend God. It is most im- 
 portant to teach children to listen to their 
 conscience and to obey it. 
 
 (b) Motives of conduct are necessary not 
 only because man's will does not act freely 
 unless it sees a reason to act or an object to 
 be attained, but also because every one is 
 more or less selfish and will ask himself, when 
 self-denial and sacrifice are demanded of 
 him, What do I gain by it? Hence religion 
 supplies man with an abundance of diverse 
 motives for his good conduct, z>., for the 
 observance of God's will. 
 
 The highest and supreme motive is the love 
 of God, arising from a consideration of His 
 infinite goodness in Himself, His all-merciful 
 love toward us. There is also the motive 
 flowing from a consideration of the beauty of 
 Christian virtue and the loathsomeness and 
 ingratitude of sin. Finally there are the pow- 
 erful motives of reward or of punishment, of 
 good or of evil consequences. (See Schuech, pp. 
 278 ff.) 
 
 It is a most serious mistake on the part of 
 the Catechist to neglect the motives of the love 
 of God and the beauty of virtue on the false 
 
Christian Doctrine 261 
 
 and pernicious theory that children can not 
 understand or appreciate these motives, and 
 that the only effective motives with them are 
 rewards and punishments. He thus forgets 
 that he deals with Christian children, in whose 
 souls the Holy Spirit dwells with the infused 
 gifts of Faith, Hope, and Charity. Children 
 are more easily led by the love of God than 
 grown people are. All that the Catechist has 
 to do is to cultivate in the hearts of his chil- 
 dren this sincere and childlike love of God. 
 The same is true, to a certain extent, in regard 
 to the beauty and loveliness of Christian vir- 
 tue. The sense of spiritual beauty can and 
 must be developed in the children by the skil- 
 ful and zealous Catechist with the help of 
 striking examples from the lives of Christ and 
 the saints, before it is stunted by contact with 
 moral depravity. At the same time, the pros- 
 pect of good or evil results, of reward or pun- 
 ishment, is a powerful lever for the weak will of 
 child and adult, and is used in every system of 
 education. 
 
 (c) Good and evil consequences of an action 
 may be natural (which follow in the natural 
 course of things), such as advantages or injuries 
 to the mind, body, honor, property, etc. ; or 
 supernatural (which may be known only by 
 faith), such as recovery or loss of sanctifying 
 
262 Christian Doctrine 
 
 grace, loss of merit, happy or unhappy death, 
 reward or punishment 'after death. However, 
 children ought to be taught that often natural 
 consequences are either simply permitted or 
 then positively sent by God in His wonderful 
 providence either as a reward for good or a 
 punishment for evil ; though of this it is hard 
 to judge in particular cases. 
 
 It is quite surprising to see how often and 
 how forcibly God places before the Jewish people 
 reward and punishment as a motive to make 
 them abide by His law. The so-called sapien- 
 tial books (Wisdom, Proverbs, the Preacher, 
 Sirach) are replete with such motives. Our 
 divine Lord and His Apostles follow the same 
 method (Matt. v. 9 ff. ; Mark ix. 42 ff.; Luke 
 xii. 5; Rom. viii. 18; 1 Peter ii. 11, 12, 18 ff.). 
 
 Natural motives may be used in union with 
 the supernatural ; alone they are not sufficient. 
 Not only would there be no supernatural merit 
 in the good done, but in the fire of temptation 
 they would " melt away like heaps of snow " 
 (Stolz). However, a barren enumeration of the 
 good or evil consequences is not enough ; it 
 will only burden the memory and leave the will 
 unmoved. The consequences must be very 
 vividly depicted, and that, too, by means of 
 stories. Although fear of punishment is an 
 effectual motive with children, evil consequences 
 
Christian Doctrine 263 
 
 must not be too much insisted on ; otherwise 
 the children might consider religion as some- 
 thing to be feared. Again, the evil consequences 
 of an action should not be shown too frequently 
 on persons of exalted condition, because this 
 might lead to a contempt of their office or dig- 
 nity, or to an excuse for sin. 
 
 (d) In many cases an effectual motive may be 
 derived from the corresponding or underlying 
 truth of faith. When people pronounce the 
 name of God lightly, it generally proceeds from 
 a want of recognition of His majesty. There- 
 fore in dealing with the Second Commandment, 
 the Catechist must carefully put before the 
 children the infinite majesty and omnipotence 
 of God and thus produce in them a deep rever- 
 ence for God. In treating of the Eighth Com- 
 mandment, he must point out the infinite truth 
 of God ; in treating of the love of God, His 
 infinite goodness, and the like. 
 
 (e) Man is also urged to live up to the doc- 
 trines of morality through exalted examples or 
 models. Such models are, before all, Christ 
 and the saints (Schuech, p. 278). It is the 
 same as in secular instruction. In writing, 
 drawing, and singing, the child exercises him- 
 self on given models; in language lessons, he 
 has the correct language of the teacher and of 
 the school-book for a model. In former times, 
 
264 Christian Doctrine 
 
 there were more definitions in the school, but 
 to-day the principal point is practice and the 
 imitation of the model. 
 
 {/) Lastly, proverbs and pithy sayings, or 
 rather the truths expressed by them, exert a 
 magical influence over the mind and will. 
 
 Example of an Argument. — The Command- 
 ment to Fast. (1) Obligation : the will of God ; 
 the Church's command to fast. (2) Motives: 
 the natural advantage of fasting for the soul (en- 
 lightening of the understanding and strength- 
 ening of the will) and body (furthering of health, 
 lengthening of life). The supernatural advan- 
 tages (pardon of sin, quick answers to prayer, 
 reward after death). (3) Examples : Our Lord, 
 Daniel, Ninive, Cornelius the centurion, Moses, 
 Elias, also Hippocrates, the father of physi- 
 cians. (4) Pithy sayings: "By fast we must 
 return to paradise lost by gluttony " (St. Basil). 
 
 " But health consists with temperance alone ; 
 And peace, oh virtue ! peace is all thine own." 
 
 — Pope. 
 
 5. The Practical Application. Since the 
 truths of religion are not simply subjects of 
 knowledge and observation, but must be above 
 all followed up in life, the Catechist will seek 
 to apply every religious truth to practical life. 
 This may be done by inducing the children to 
 practise at once, if possible, the duties following 
 
Christian Doctrine 265 
 
 from the doctrine just explained. Generally, it 
 will be possible only in the case of interior vir- 
 tues. It must, of course, be left to the wisdom of 
 the Catechist which way to take up this practice. 
 For example, if prayer of thanksgiving or the 
 duty of gratitude is spoken of, a prayer of 
 thanksgiving may be said at once ; in treating 
 of the love of God, an act of love ; in treating 
 of hope, an act of hope ; of adoration, an act of 
 adoration, and so on. Here the application 
 will best take the form of a prayer. If the 
 prayer is short, the Catechist might say it first, 
 then let it be said by all. If it is long, the 
 Catechist can say it first in parts, and let the 
 children repeat them after him, or he can simply 
 pray aloud while the children pray with him 
 in silence. But he will take care to impress on 
 the children that this is not a drill or memory 
 exercise, but a prayer of the heart. It will be 
 a good thing to vary these ways of praying. 
 Such prayers make a deep impression on chil- 
 dren's minds and contribute to make the lesson 
 on Christian Doctrine an hour of Christian 
 edification. They also serve to make clear to 
 the children what was before obscure. The 
 act of contrition must be practised with the 
 children to make them best learn the meaning 
 of it. Let the Catechist make with them an 
 act of ho De, or of the love of God ; by this they 
 
266 Christian Doctrine 
 
 will quickly know what it is. Where the duty 
 taught can not be at once put in practice dur- 
 ing or at the end of the instruction, the Cate- 
 chist ought to point out some particular cases 
 which occur more frequently in the life of the 
 children, and where the moral doctrine in ques- 
 tion is to be complied with. For instance, the 
 Catechist speaks of the virtue of self-denial and 
 self-control. In order to make the instruction 
 profitable, a few cases should be mentioned 
 where the children must practise self-restraint. 
 They may be told not to eat their food greed- 
 ily, to keep news to themselves, not to laugh 
 too loud, not to complain immediately of 
 trifles. He who does not urge the children 
 to fulfil their duties is like a builder who 
 brings together stone, lime, wood, and other 
 materials, but never starts to build. The re- 
 marks on pp. 238 f. of this article apply fully to 
 the present subject. (See also Art. 1., pp. 200 ff. 
 of this chapter.) 
 
 6. The difficulties connected with the in- 
 struction on the Sixth and Ninth Command- 
 ments or on the capital sin of luxury demand 
 special notice here. It is a most delicate mat- 
 ter, which requires much prudence and prepa- 
 ration. The following may serve the Catechist 
 as guiding principles. 
 
 (a) On the one hand he must not slur over 
 
Christian Doctrine 267 
 
 the subject with meaningless expressions and 
 general phrases, while on the other hand he 
 must not say too much, or the lesson will only 
 do harm. Here, as everywhere, the principle 
 holds good : the middle course is the best. 
 
 It would certainly be most convenient to say 
 simply, " Children, you must not do anything 
 which you would be ashamed to do before your 
 parents or teachers." But this is neither cor- 
 rect nor definite enough. Experienced Cate- 
 chists ascribe many sins committed against the 
 Sixth Commandment to the circumstance that 
 " out of false shame one has hesitated to speak 
 of the holiness of a matter, the unholiness of 
 which is preached and displayed by boys in 
 the street" (Hirscher). "I consider it blind- 
 ness on the part of parents and priests to think 
 that the surest way to guard the innocence of 
 the children confided to them is never to men- 
 tion this kind of sin ; as if the darkness of 
 ignorance could guard against a sin which 
 loves darkness above all things, which needs 
 darkness, and in which it flourishes most lux- 
 uriantly " (Stolz). " The impression that a 
 child must not be instructed concerning sins 
 against the Sixth Commandment is certainly 
 erroneous" (Sch. p. 229). 
 
 (b) The Catechist should weigh well before- 
 hand every word relating to this matter, for 
 
268 Christian Doctrine 
 
 which reason it is advisable to write out the 
 instruction in full. Moreover, he must show 
 by his gravity of countenance and voice that 
 herein is no question of a light, but of a very 
 important, matter. At the same time he must 
 positively avoid any mysterious or embarrassed 
 air, and feel perfectly at ease. This can be 
 attained by a thorough and pious preparation. 
 
 (c) Whether the instruction shall be more 
 or less detailed depends on the age and physi- 
 cal development of the children and the moral 
 tone or character of the class. It is unnecessary 
 to say that the difference of sex need not and 
 must not enter into this instruction for chil- 
 dren. As they grow up the natural instinct 
 as well as social habits make the sexes separate; 
 boys will associate with boys and girls with 
 girls. It is quite enough if the Catechist un- 
 derstands how to use these natural safeguards 
 in order to impress on growing-up pupils the 
 impropriety of boys associating too much or 
 making free with girls, and vice versa. 
 
 (d) Impurity or immodesty is best explained 
 by means of the contrary virtue. One can say, 
 for instance, what is not to be understood 
 under this word ; then one can point out how 
 a chaste, modest child conducts himself. A 
 definition, properly so called, of immodesty 
 must not be ventured upon. The Catechist 
 
Christian Doctrine 269 
 
 has perhaps to explain the idea "immodest 
 words." He will speak somewhat in the fol- 
 lowing manner: Immodest words are not in- 
 suits, or cursing, or lying, but other words, also 
 very sinful ; they are words which a good child 
 never utters, nor even listens to. When any 
 one speaks such words a good child goes away. 
 The idea " immodest acts " will be explained 
 somewhat as follows: Immodest acts do not 
 mean disobedience to parents, fighting, theft, 
 or intemperance in eating and drinking, but 
 quite other acts, which bring disgrace upon a 
 child, and of which he has cause to be ashamed. 
 Happy, exceedingly happy is the child who is 
 chaste and pure. I will tell you how a chaste 
 and modest child conducts himself. He does 
 not run about naked, not even in his bedroom, 
 when getting up or going to bed ; he does not 
 put his hands in his pockets, either in walking 
 about or in sitting down ; he does not relieve 
 nature in public places, as many shameless and 
 immodest boys do; a modest child does not 
 bathe without some bathing suit or tights or a 
 cloth around him in places where people pass 
 by. Such a child is pleasing to God. Illustrate 
 with the example of SS. Aloysius and Stanis- 
 laus. If the lesson has been well prepared, it 
 becomes unnecessary to ask the children ques- 
 tions. " Those who are innocent might per- 
 
270 Christian Doctrine 
 
 haps give some very awkward answers and 
 provoke improper laughter. The more mature 
 have understood it, and will make the applica- 
 tion for themselves " (Schoberl). 
 
 (e) Although there are Catechists who with 
 Spirago are of opinion that this instruction 
 should not be given before boys and girls to- 
 gether, others maintain, and with better reason, 
 that such a policy would do more harm than 
 good. This singular proceeding of separating 
 the sexes would be the very means of awaken- 
 ing an unwholesome curiosity and a disastrous 
 suspicion of something which " the others " 
 ought not to know. 
 
 (/) Let the Catechist study the instructions 
 on this subject given by well-known catecheti- 
 cal writers. (See also Hamon, pp. 48, 129.) 
 
 EXAMPLES OF A CATECHETICAL LESSON 
 
 I. The Resurrection of the Dead 
 
 1. Notice of the Subject. Recite the elev- 
 enth article of the Apostles' Creed and write 
 on the blackboard, " Resurrection of the Body." 
 
 2. Development of the Subject. The Cate- 
 chist relates, or in the higher classes a pupil 
 reads, the Bible story of the raising of Lazarus 
 from the dead. It will be immediately re- 
 peated freely by another pupiL Then I say: 
 
Christian Doctrine 271 
 
 Just as Christ raised Lazarus, so will He raise 
 the dead bodies of all men at the Last Day, 
 and I write on the blackboard the following 
 catchwords after the words previously written. 
 
 f Christ will raise 
 Resurrection of the body \ the dead bodies 
 [ on the Last Day. 
 
 In spring the Catechist might open with the 
 description of the reawakening or revival of 
 nature. 
 
 3. The Argument (which may be taken be- 
 fore the explanation in this case, as the subject 
 is even now sufficiently understood to see the 
 bearing of the proofs). Whence do we know 
 that Our Lord will one day raise the dead 
 bodies of all men? (a) From the words of 
 Our Lord (Matt. v. 29; xxvii. 52; Mark xii. 
 23 ff. ; John v. 25, 29; vi. 39). Moreover, Our 
 Lord often calls death only a sleep. Why? 
 Because the sleeper wakes up again. So will 
 it be with the dead. Hence they are said " to 
 sleep in the Lord," and the burial place is called 
 " cemetery," which means a sleeping room 
 (1 Thess. iv. 12). By His own Resurrection 
 and His miracles Christ proved that He has the 
 power of raising the dead to life. Reference 
 may be here made to the feast of the Assump- 
 tion of the Blessed Virgin (15 Aug.) (5) From 
 the words of the Apostles (e.g. % Rom. viii. 1 1 ; 
 
2J2 Christian Doctrine 
 
 i Cor. xv. 42; 1 Thess. iv. 12; Phil. iii. 21). 
 (c) From the belief of the Jews (2 Mach. vii. 9 ; 
 Job xix. 26). Heathen nations also believe in 
 the life of the body after death, Olympus, 
 Hades, (d) By many facts in nature God fills 
 our minds with the thought of a coming resur- 
 rection of the body. We are reminded of it 
 by our awakening from sleep, by the rising of 
 the sun, by nature's reawakening in spring. 
 Refer to the caterpillar (man on earth), to the 
 chrysalis (the dead body or corpse), and to the 
 butterfly (the risen body). The meaning of 
 the Easter egg can be explained (as the young- 
 chicken comes out of the shell, so will the dead 
 man hereafter rise out of the grave). One can 
 also draw attention to the grain of wheat which 
 seems to perish in the ground, but yet the blade 
 comes up (1 Cor. xv. $j, 42 ff.). Not without 
 reason is the churchyard called " God's acre." 
 
 4. Explanation of the Subject. With re- 
 gard to the words on the blackboard, the fol- 
 lowing questions are put and answered by the 
 Catechist : — 
 
 (a) Who will raise the dead to life ? Christ 
 or the angels who come with Him ? 
 
 (b) What will Christ raise to life, body or 
 soul? (Body.) Why not the soul? What 
 bodies shall we have, the same or others ? 
 (The same ; it would be unreasonable to reward 
 
Christian Doctrine 273 
 
 or punish a strange body. Can the teacher 
 give a good place, which is due to the diligent 
 child, to the lazy one ? ) One can refer to the 
 words of the patient Job, the seven Macha- 
 bees, or to those of St. Perpetua in prison : 
 " Look at us well now, so that you may recog- 
 nize us on the day of resurrection." In what 
 condition will the risen bodies be ? They will 
 be perfect, i.e., the traces of old age and illness 
 will not be seen, and they will be in possession 
 of lost limbs. The wounds of the martyrs will 
 shine and serve for their glorification, like the 
 wounds of the risen Saviour. The risen bodies 
 of the just will be glorified like the body of 
 Christ (bright, subtile, agile, impassible). The 
 bodies of sinners will not be glorified. 
 
 (c) When will all this happen ? (On the Last 
 Day.) Why is it called the Last Day ? (There 
 will be no more days and nights by the rising 
 and setting of the sun. It will be the last day 
 in the history of the present human race upon 
 earth.) 
 
 5. Application. This doctrine offers conso- 
 lation at death, especially at the death of rela- 
 tions. Hence at funerals there should be no 
 excessive lamenting and crying, as with the 
 heathen (1 Thess. iv. 12). It is also a power- 
 ful motive to respect the body and avoid im- 
 purity. 
 
274 Christian Doctrine 
 
 II. The Last Judgment 
 
 i. Notice of the Subject. Christ will judge 
 risen man. On the blackboard are written the 
 words : Last (General) Judgment. 
 
 2. Development of the Subject. The history 
 of Our Lord's Ascension is told, stress being 
 laid on the words of the two angels (Acts 
 i. n), speaking of His second coming. The 
 children will repeat the history immediately 
 after ; then is read the prophecy of Our Lord 
 (Matt. xxv. 31-46), giving the details of the 
 Last Judgment. This also is to be repeated 
 by the children. Then the following words go 
 on the blackboard : — 
 
 (Christ in glory 
 will judge all men 
 at the Last Day. 
 
 3. The Argument. Whence do we know that 
 there will be a Last Judgment? Christ and 
 the two angels said it. (See the Bible story 
 as related in 2.) What are the words of the 
 two angels, and what the words of Our Lord ? 
 
 4. Explanation of the Subject. With refer- 
 ence to the words on the blackboard, the Cate- 
 chist will put the following questions, and 
 answer them at first himself, (a) Why do we 
 say " the Last Judgment " ? Because it will take 
 place on the last day of the world, and will be 
 
Christian Doctrine 275 
 
 the last for every one. It is also called the 
 General Judgment, because all men and all bad 
 angels will be judged on that day. Is there 
 also another judgment? Yes, the particular 
 judgment. What is known about this? (b) 
 Who will be the Judge at the Last Judgment ? 
 Christ. See John v. 22, 27; 2 Tim. iv. 1 ; Acts 
 xvii. 31. Why will Christ hold the Last Judg- 
 ment, and not an angel ? Because Christ, in 
 becoming man, has been made the head and 
 king of mankind. Because Christ is Our Sa- 
 viour, who redeemed us at a great price, His 
 precious blood. Because He knows by His 
 own experience what human nature is, and will 
 be merciful (Heb. iv. 15). Finally, in order 
 that the honor which Pilate, the Jews, sinners, 
 and unbelievers refused Him, may be solemnly 
 vindicated for Him before the world, (c) How 
 will Our Lord come to the judgment? In the 
 poverty and obscurity of Bethlehem ? No, but 
 in power and glory, sitting on His throne, sur- 
 rounded by angels, and having the nations 
 assembled before Him. (d) What will Christ 
 do at the judgment? a He will first of all dis- 
 close everything (comparison with a World's 
 Fair or an International Exhibition), ft He will 
 require an account from all men of their lives, 
 thoughts, words, and deeds (Matt. xxv. 35-46 ; 
 xii. 36, 37; xv. 18, 19). y He will separate the 
 
276 Christian Doctrine 
 
 good from the bad forever (simile of the sheep 
 and the goats (Matt. xxv. 32), of the wheat and 
 the cockle (Matt. xiii. 25), of the good and bad 
 fishes (Matt. xiii. 47); reference to Calvary, as 
 a type of the Last Judgment, since here on 
 the right hand is the good, and on the left, 
 the wicked thief. § Lastly, He will pronounce 
 sentence, (e) When will be the Last Judg- 
 ment? Day and hour are unknown even to 
 the angels (words of Christ, Matt. xxiv. 36, y t ). 
 But certain signs of it are known. Which ? 
 
 5. Application. In order that we may not 
 be rigorously judged on the Last Day, let us 
 judge ourselves now by means of a careful 
 examination of conscience, and a sincere ac- 
 knowledgment of our sins in confession. " If 
 we would judge ourselves, we should not be 
 judged" (1 Cor. xi. 31). 
 
 C. Church History and Liturgy 
 
 It is unnecessary to say more in regard to 
 these two branches than what has been said 
 above in Ch. 11. pp. 143, 148. Some rules laid 
 down in this article (sub. A, p. 230) in regard to 
 Bible History apply as well to Church History. 
 In Liturgy the Catechist will generally describe 
 the sacred feast, function, person, or place ; then 
 explain its use or purpose ; afterward give a 
 
Christian Doctrine 277 
 
 historic notice of it; and lastly, unfold and 
 illustrate its symbolical meaning. 
 
 Art. 4. — Aids to Instruction 
 A. Impression and Memorizing 
 
 These two functions may be rightly called 
 aids to religious instruction, as without them 
 it would never attain its end, which is to con- 
 vey a lasting knowledge and practice of religion 
 to the children. Even the Romans used to say, 
 " We know only as much as we hold in the 
 memory" (Tantum scimus, quantum memoria 
 tenemus). This is likewise true of religious 
 instruction. Hence, if the Catechist wishes to 
 make the truths of faith a lasting possession 
 of the children, he must impress them on their 
 memory. 
 
 This brings up two questions : first, how or 
 by what means can the lessons be impressed 
 upon the mind of the children ; secondly, what 
 parts of Christian Doctrine must be learned by 
 heart or memorized verbatim. 
 
 1. To make the children remember the 
 subject-matter of his instructions the Catechist 
 must observe the following: (a) He must see 
 before all that the children properly under- 
 stand the truths of religion, for what is not 
 understood does not remain long in the mem- 
 
278 Christian Doctrine 
 
 ory. (b) The Catechist must make instruction 
 interesting and pleasant to the children, espe- 
 cially by introducing beautiful examples. Any- 
 thing that has become dear to the child is 
 not so easily forgotten. (See above, Art. 1, E, 
 p. 202.) (c) When treating of cognate doctrines 
 and facts, the Catechist must always bring into 
 prominence the internal connection existing 
 between them. In this way any religious truth 
 can become the means of refreshing in the 
 memory the other connected truths, which are 
 then like the firmly joined stones of a building, 
 all supporting and holding fast one another. 
 (d) The Catechist must assiduously recapitu- 
 late, and indeed, at the end of every lesson, 
 ought briefly to sum up the matter gone over, 
 test it at the beginning of the next lesson, and 
 make a general review of the whole at the end 
 of a school term or session. Not very seldom 
 we find that the children of schools with one 
 class remember the truths of religion better 
 than those belonging to schools with several 
 classes. This is due to the fact that in the 
 former religious instruction must be confined 
 to what is necessary, and the same matter is 
 gone over anew every year, and hence is better 
 impressed on the memory, (e) Testing either 
 by oral questions or by written exercises is a 
 wonderful means of impressing a lesson on the 
 
Christian Doctrine 279 
 
 child. " It arouses interest, increases attention, 
 and adds an increased energy and persistence 
 to mental action " (White). In regard to 
 written exercises the Catechist will find some 
 valuable hints in Dpi. ch. 10, pp. 226 ff., " The 
 Analyses." (f) Finally, it will greatly help to 
 impress religious truth in the mind if the chil- 
 dren are made to feel how important it is for 
 them to be well instructed (" Manual," p. xv.), 
 and to see how closely the knowledge and the 
 practice of religion must be united if it is to 
 be a means of salvation. 
 
 2. In regard to the question what must be 
 learned by heart or verbally memorized in Chris- 
 tian Doctrine, Catechists are not entirely agreed. 
 Some require that everything in Bible History 
 and Catechism should be learned by heart. 
 Dupanloup (p. 133) insists on the importance 
 and necessity of making the children study 
 carefully the letter of the Catechism, and re- 
 peats (p. 135) that "the lessons should be short, 
 but always learned by heart exactly." Lambing 
 having observed that the lessons ought to be 
 short, as they will be more easily retained by 
 the memory and afford more room for explana- 
 tion, says : " Whatever be the length of the 
 lesson, it should be entirely committed to mem- 
 ory by the class " (p. 1 1 2). He quotes the Abbe 
 Dubois, saying, " Make all your children learn 
 
280 Christian Doctrine 
 
 the text of the Catechism : it is a matter far 
 more important than is generally supposed." 
 
 Other catechetic writers with Spirago lay 
 down the following rules : — 
 
 i. Only the most important matters are to be 
 learned by heart, (a) In Bible History the 
 child ought to learn by heart certain words of 
 God, for example, the sentence of condemna- 
 tion in Paradise, the words of Almighty God at 
 Our Lord's Transfiguration and Baptism ; fur- 
 ther, utterances of Our Lord ; for example, the 
 words to St. Peter in committing to him the 
 power of the keys, His words at the institution 
 of the Blessed Sacrament, at the Ascension, 
 etc. ; lastly, the utterances of prominent biblical 
 characters, for instance, the Patriarchs, Raphael, 
 Gabriel, Our Lady, the Apostles, and so on. 
 
 Great importance must be attached to the ex- 
 act knowledge of Our Lord's discourses, because 
 later on in Catechism and sermons they often 
 serve as proofs ; they also afford courage and 
 consolation to the grown-up person in the dif- 
 ferent circumstances of life and keep him from 
 going astray. As experience teaches, the child 
 learns nothing more easily than the words 
 spoken by Our Lord. In the Catechism, defini- 
 tions and divisions are to be learned by heart, as 
 also the great formulas which form the skeleton 
 of the Catechism. (See below, Ch. iv., p. 350.) 
 
Christian Doctrine 281 
 
 (b) There is no reason why children may not 
 be allowed in other matters of either Bible 
 History or Catechism to express themselves in 
 their own words. By doing so they show 
 whether they understand what has been taught 
 and afford the Catechist a good opportunity of 
 correcting mistakes. The Philadelphia course 
 positively provides that the Bible History les- 
 sons in the grades 5, 6, and 7 should not be 
 learned by heart. On the same principle it tells 
 the teachers of history: "Instead of requiring 
 the pupils to memorize portions of the text-book 
 for verbatim recitations, the pupils should be 
 trained to use it as the source of information 
 upon that portion of the Syllabus which the class 
 is studying. The habit of stating in their own 
 language what they have learned from the book 
 should be sedulously cultivated" (p. no). 
 Really, the main thing is that the children 
 have a correct knowledge of the subject, not of 
 the letter. One must not frighten the children 
 by announcing in the beginning of the year that 
 they will have to learn the whole Catechism by 
 heart from the first to the last page. Rather 
 encourage them by saying that they know 
 already a great part of the Catechism, having 
 learned it in Bible History. 
 
 2. Memorizing should be begun early in 
 school, so that the children become familiar 
 
282 Christian Doctrine 
 
 with its right method. Besides, one knows 
 from experience that children learn little at 
 home, and that it is a good thing to lighten 
 their home work. As learning by heart is after 
 all a somewhat mechanical and therefore fa- 
 tiguing work, it must be taken up as far as 
 possible (as in exercising the formulas of 
 prayer) at the end of the lesson, and too much 
 time must not be given to it. Here one must 
 be guided by the proverb, " The drop of water 
 hollows out the stone not by force, but through 
 falling often." Of course, after explaining a 
 definition, it must be impressed on the mind at 
 once, not at the end of the lesson. This causes 
 only half the work, according to the prov- 
 erb, " Strike the iron while it is hot." If the 
 matter to be memorized is only one sentence, 
 the Catechist will say it, and let it be repeated, 
 first by some individual pupils, and then simul- 
 taneously by the class. With longer passages, 
 prayers, or formulas, the first sentence will be 
 practised in the way just mentioned, then the 
 second, and so on. To make it easier, some 
 catchwords may be written on the blackboard. 
 Having been learned, they will be rubbed out 
 and then repeated by the pupils. If the matter 
 to be learned is in the book it may be read out 
 several times, and then, closing the books, the 
 Catechist may test the pupils' memory. 
 
Christian Doctrine 283 
 
 Finally, let the Catechist always remember 
 the following rules regarding memorizing : 
 First, never make the children memorize what 
 has not been previously explained. (See above, 
 Art. 1, p. 191.) Secondly, let the children 
 first memorize the subject, then only the letter. 
 Once they remember the thing the correct 
 words will follow. Thirdly, tell them to fix 
 in their mind, first, the main part of the subject 
 or lesson and afterward the mere accessory 
 parts. Lastly, show the children practically, 
 especially in more difficult subjects, " how to do 
 it." See Lbg. p. 108, " The Cultivation of the 
 Memory." 
 
 B. Attention and Discipline 
 
 Successful instruction is not possible if the 
 scholars are inattentive. What water is to the 
 mill, attention and discipline are to instruction. 
 The Catechist succeeds in gaining attention 
 chiefly through his own conduct. Experience 
 teaches that the same children, who during the 
 lesson of one teacher are quiet and attentive, 
 give another teacher continual cause to com- 
 plain of their noisiness and inattention. Thus 
 much depends on the teacher. Let the Cate- 
 chist, then, attend to the following hints : — 
 
 1. He should occupy in the schoolroom a 
 fixed place, and, where possible, a raised seat. 
 
284 Christian Doctrine 
 
 He must see the whole class, and govern it with 
 his eye. The eye of the teacher is the best 
 means of discipline. As soon as the teacher 
 begins to walk about the schoolroom, the chil- 
 dren, who are by nature flighty, immediately 
 become noisy. Therefore he should leave his 
 place only for urgent reasons. It is noteworthy 
 that in many Religious Orders Catechism is 
 given sitting, and the lecturer's chair looked 
 upon as the pulpit. Moreover, is it not said of 
 Our Lord in Holy Scripture that He taught 
 sitting (Luke v. 3, 17)? At Sunday-school in 
 church, particular conditions of place and 
 classes will determine where the priest and his 
 lay Catechists will have their fixed positions. 
 
 2. The Catechist must not speak too loud. 
 For if he talks so loud that he can be heard 
 outside, some children begin to talk with their 
 neighbors, knowing very well that their talking 
 is not heard on account of the loud voice of the 
 Catechist. If, on the other hand, he speaks in 
 a low tone, the children are obliged to pay 
 attention in order to understand him, and if 
 now and then he raises his voice, these words 
 will become more impressive. Besides, during 
 religious instruction a reverent silence, in keep- 
 ing with the subject, should reign. The words 
 of Bishop Wittmann apply here : " Shouting 
 does not come from the Holy Ghost, and only 
 
Christian Doctrine 285 
 
 brutalizes the minds of the young." (See Fur- 
 niss, p. 65.) The Catechist must likewise be on 
 his guard against much speaking, particularly 
 against talking too long at a time. He must 
 mingle questions with his discourse in order to 
 arouse the interest of the children. (See Lam- 
 bing, pp. 56 ff.) Besides, all his orders and ad- 
 monitions must be short. Where a look, a sign 
 (a ring with the little bell, a wave of the hand, 
 tapping with the pencil, etc.) is sufficient, let 
 him spare his words. Where a word is enough 
 (silence, attention, sit down, stand up), he need 
 not preach a sermon. Some teachers trace a 
 circle with their finger when the children 
 answer in disjointed words ; the children have 
 already been instructed, and know that this 
 sign means "Answer in a complete sentence." 
 Experience shows that a teacher of few words 
 accomplishes more in school discipline and in 
 instruction than one who is talkative. (See 
 p. 210). The centurion of Capharnaum, with 
 his concise but kind " Go," " Come," " Do this," 
 is a model to us to be sparing in our words. 
 
 3. During the instruction the Catechist 
 must force the children to work and think with 
 him. He must let them discover for them- 
 selves what they are capable of finding without 
 much difficulty. Let them find out for them- 
 selves synonymous expressions, familiar simili- 
 
286 Christian Doctrine 
 
 tudes, or apt biblical examples; let them draw 
 the conclusion from examples gone over, and 
 settle doubts or difficulties proposed by him. 
 In this way the Catechist, stooping down to 
 the children and learning as it seems from 
 them, will gain their confidence. In order to 
 compel them to think, he must put every ques- 
 tion to the class, and only then call upon a 
 child to answer. When the children do not 
 respond freely, he must call on them. He 
 ought to avoid the frequent use of questions 
 which require only " yes " or " no " in answer. 
 Such questions make the children lazy-minded 
 and inactive. He must combat energetically 
 all prompting, for where this pest comes into a 
 school, there will be neither attention nor fruit- 
 ful teaching. 
 
 4. A great means of keeping the children 
 attentive in class is to make the instruction 
 pleasant and interesting. (See above, Art. 1, 
 pp. 202 ff.) 
 
 5. The Catechist must pay attention to the 
 seats and benches, the hands, eyes, and books 
 of the children. 
 
 (a) There must be, first of all, a certain order 
 in regard to places. The children must sit in 
 such order that the Catechist can easily see 
 them all from his seat. No child may be 
 allowed to hide behind another's back. Nor, 
 
Christian Doctrine 287 
 
 for very obvious reasons, may they sit too close 
 to each other. It is advisable to let children 
 sit behind one another in uneven rows, so that 
 no child sits immediately and straight behind 
 the other. The words, " your places," ought to 
 be sufficient to call attention to this order of 
 sitting. 
 
 (b) It must not be a matter of indifference to 
 the Catechist where the hands of the children 
 are ; he may allow them for a time to put their 
 hands on the desk, then to put them behind 
 their backs, and so on. At all events they 
 must sit up straight, and rest their backs 
 against the bench. With many teachers the 
 children have to put their hands on the bench, 
 but experience shows that the children have 
 thus a good opportunity for playing, and teasing 
 one another. Besides, this manner of holding 
 the hands must be somewhat of a hindrance 
 to their free breathing. In church when the 
 children are sitting, their hands should rest on 
 the knees, or be folded on the breast. 
 
 (c) The children must not look about nor 
 turn around. Hence the Catechist must fre- 
 quently tell them to fix their eyes on him. 
 
 (d) The text-books of the children (Catechism 
 and Bible History) must be closed during the 
 discourse, and during examination or testing; 
 they must lie on the desk in such a way that 
 
288 Christian Doctrine 
 
 the back is turned toward the children, and the 
 front edge toward the Catechist. The children 
 will thus be shielded from the temptation to 
 open the books without permission. At the 
 same time one can see better whether all the 
 children have brought their books, than when 
 these are under the desk. 
 
 At the very beginning of the lesson the Cate- 
 chist must see that his regulations in this four- 
 fold respect are carried out by the children. 
 
 6. It is of great importance that the Cate- 
 chist get perfect quiet and silence in the class 
 from the very start. He should not begin the 
 instruction till there is perfect quiet. He must, 
 therefore, avoid, at the beginning, every inquiry 
 (investigation), every infliction of punishment ; 
 moreover, his manner ought to be as serious as 
 possible. If a pupil disturbs the discourse, he 
 must stop for a moment, and look at him fixedly 
 but without calling his name. An inattentive 
 pupil may be called to answer a question con- 
 nected with the matter just gone over. Gen- 
 eral restlessness may be stopped by relating a 
 pretty story suited to the subject, by concert 
 (class) recitation, or by an exercise in gymnas- 
 tics : for instance, standing and sitting down, 
 moving the arms forward, up, down, rubbing 
 the hands, stretching the body, and the like. 
 Such exercises not only banish distractions, but 
 
Christian Doctrine 289 
 
 are good for the health. The Catechist must 
 particularly keep an eye on the inattentive and 
 distracted, and frequently call upon them with 
 easy questions in order to take away from them 
 the opportunity of chattering and being noisy, 
 and to impart to them at least what is most 
 necessary. 
 
 7. It is of great importance, also, that Chris- 
 tian Doctrine should not be taught at an hour 
 when the children are already tired. Hence, 
 where Catechism is given in connection with the 
 Mass on Sundays, it should be done before the 
 Mass, not after it. Many school authorities 
 have, for the same reason, expressed a wish that 
 in drawing up the programme of study religious 
 instruction should be assigned to the morning 
 hours. Some excellent remarks on this subject 
 of attention and discipline in Christian Doctrine 
 or Sunday-school can be found in Dpi. ch. 11, 
 pp. 236 ff. ; Lbg. pp. 92 ff. ; Furniss, pp. 64 f., 
 69 ff. ; Hamon, pp. 58 ff. 
 
 C. Rewards and Punishments 
 
 In order to animate the zeal of the children, 
 the Catechist must make use of rewards and 
 punishments. But much depends on the right 
 use of this means of education. Let the Cate- 
 chist attend to the following : — ■ 
 
290 Christian Doctrine 
 
 1. He must be sparing with rewards and 
 punishments ; when used too often they no 
 longer make any impression. It is here as 
 with medical remedies, when used too often 
 they have no power. If children are rewarded 
 too frequently and too easily, it may prove 
 harmful in later life by making them discon- 
 tented ; for, on the one hand, people are not 
 always rewarded for every good action, while, 
 on the other hand, it is precisely to the virtuous 
 that God sends sufferings and persecutions. 
 Even in school, children who are too often 
 rewarded become discontented and impudent, 
 being prepossessed with the idea that a recogni- 
 tion is due to them for every act that does not 
 happen to be bad. The younger and shyer the 
 children are, the more frequent may be the 
 rewards. With poor children who are in need, 
 and treated harshly at home, or those who 
 through want of capacity remain behind the 
 others, praise is a real alms, and a work of 
 mercy (Alban Stolz). 
 
 2. The Catechist must use rewards more 
 frequently than punishments. For the preacher 
 of the religion of love this way of acting is 
 much more suitable than great severity. More- 
 over, it would be folly to force through severity 
 what can be done through kindness. Besides, 
 a gentle manner of acting awakens in the chil- 
 
Christian Doctrine 291 
 
 dren noble sentiments, especially good will and 
 gratitude toward the teacher, while he who 
 punishes too much is hated by the children. 
 Joyous and grateful children do willingly all 
 that is told them ; the thought of pleasing him 
 who has given them pleasure urges them to 
 anticipate all his wishes (Alban Stolz). 
 
 3. Rewards and punishments must be safe 
 and without risk as regards health and morals. 
 
 For this reason the following punishments 
 are to be condemned, (a) Invective and abuse. 
 (b) Keeping in school over noon, thus depriving 
 the children of their meal, (c) Making the 
 children kneel down (religious exercises should 
 not be degraded to the level of punishments). 
 (d) Writing out the Catechism lesson (because 
 by this means the Catechism and religion are 
 made hateful). (e) Other foolish punishments 
 are tying the arms, sitting on the floor, holding 
 out the arms horizontally (so that they hurt), 
 putting the child outside the door, and the like. 
 These modes of punishment, moreover, provoke 
 the tantalizing laughter of the other pupils. 
 
 In regard to prizes and premiums opinion 
 is divided. Thus, the author of this book is 
 against them, while the editor is decidedly in 
 their favor. See the question very ably dis- 
 cussed by Lambing, pp. 1 74 ff. To give money 
 or candy as a reward is a policy to be condemned. 
 
292 Christian Doctrine 
 
 4. Rewards and punishments must be just, 
 i.e., they must be given only for real merit or 
 demerit. Hence, talents and other gifts of 
 nature are not to be rewarded ; but application 
 may be. Weakness of mind, a defective organ, 
 or a poor memory, which are no fault of the 
 individual, are not to be blamed ; but lazi- 
 ness and frivolity are. Moreover, punishments 
 should never be inflicted out of ill humor, nor 
 rewards given through partiality ; this would 
 beget secret hatred against the Catechist, and 
 render the undeserving favorites arrogant and 
 ungrateful. 
 
 5. In this matter, regard must be had for the 
 individuality of the children, their age, their sex, 
 their sense of honor and ambition, their sensi- 
 bilities. A slight reprimand may be sufficient 
 for one, whilst with another a more palpable 
 and impressive means must be employed. 
 
 6. Rewards and punishments must be wisely 
 graded, and the impression made by them must 
 always be noted. If a child has been sufficiently 
 punished by the natural consequences of his 
 act, or if he shows a sincere sorrow and prom- 
 ises amendment, then the punishment which, 
 after all, is only intended to correct, can be dis- 
 pensed with. Sometimes, when fellow-pupils 
 beg forgiveness for a guilty child, the Catechist 
 may also be indulgent. 
 
Christian Doctrine 293 
 
 7. It is most important that the Catechist 
 should, from the very beginning both of the 
 school year and of the lesson, show true 
 earnestness, and severely put down any mis- 
 chief. Many punishments will be spared in 
 the future if the first offence is deservedly pun- 
 ished in a manner not to be forgotten. This 
 will stop all desire to reattempt what brings 
 such punishment. Here, also, the proverb 
 holds good, Principiis obsta — Withstand the 
 beginnings. 
 
 8. Rewards to be made use of are : praise 
 (showing satisfaction through looks, bearing, 
 or words), a good note or testimonial, the gift of 
 a suitable picture or useful book. However, a 
 reward must never be promised so as to make 
 it become the sole motive of action. 
 
 9. Punishments to be used are: (a) The 
 expression of dissatisfaction by a grave look, 
 or a serious manner, or by passing one over in 
 reading, (b) Words of rebuke. If these are 
 to be effectual, they must always be short, and 
 must not degenerate into a lecture. The re- 
 proof appears milder, but becomes, at the same 
 time, more painful and more impressive when 
 the teacher first recognizes the good behavior 
 in the past, then animadverts upon the fault, 
 and ends by expressing his hope of a speedy 
 amendment, (c) Making a child stand up for 
 
294 Christian Doctrine 
 
 a while in his place, (d) Making a child stand 
 outside the bench, but where the teacher can see 
 him. (e) Keeping back the child in school under 
 proper supervision. (/) Serious reproof in pri- 
 vate. The two last-mentioned punishments are 
 the most effectual. Keeping back in school, 
 especially over meal-time, should be used but 
 rarely, as children need regular food and out- 
 door exercise, and as it always requires some 
 teacher to watch. 
 
 The punishment of being sent away from 
 Christian Doctrine, or of being put back to a 
 lower class or grade, must be resorted to only 
 after all others have failed. But when it becomes 
 necessary, it must be unhesitatingly carried into 
 effect, and never be allowed to remain a mere 
 empty threat (Dpi. p. 247, where the form of a 
 letter is given to be sent to the parents of a 
 child threatened with this greatest punishment). 
 With obstinate children the help of their parents 
 must be sought. Finally, the Catechist may 
 under no conditions inflict a corporal punish- 
 ment on the child. This may be done, at his 
 request, first by the parents or then by some 
 one authorized by them ; but never by the 
 Catechist. 
 
 On this subject of rewards and punishments 
 consult Lbg. pp. 1 69 £f. ; Dpi. pp. 2i8ff., 233 ff., 
 244 ff. ; Hamon, pp. 84 ff. ; Furniss, pp. 77 ff. 
 
Christian Doctrine 295 
 
 Art. 5. — A Summary View 
 
 A. Correct Mode 
 
 In every Christian Doctrine lesson the 
 Catechist ought to observe the following 
 counsels : — 
 
 1. Never enter the schoolroom without a 
 previous aspiration to God, and a short prayer 
 for His blessing and help. For " God's bless- 
 ing gained, all is obtained." 
 
 2. Teach with the greatest possible cheer- 
 fulness of mind. 
 
 3. Keep your peace of mind undisturbed, 
 and never be impatient or passionate. 
 
 4. Strive to make every religious instruc- 
 tion agreeable and dear to the children, and as 
 much as possible show them the pleasant side 
 of religion. 
 
 5. In every lesson set forth a connected 
 whole, and do not wander away, purposeless, 
 from the subject. To this end make the chil- 
 dren clearly understand the relation of the 
 single doctrines (or of the stories from Bible 
 and Church History) to the whole of religious 
 truth, so as to get a good general view of the 
 truths of religion. 
 
 6. In every lesson join the branches of 
 Christian Doctrine, i.e., Catechism, Bible and 
 
296 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Church History, Liturgy, and so on, into a 
 single discourse. 
 
 7. Instead of discoursing for a long time, 
 combine the questioning with the lecturing 
 method. 
 
 8. Leave nothing unrepeated, and after 
 every discourse make sure that you have been 
 understood. Also begin every new lesson with 
 a short repetition of the preceding one. 
 
 9. Distribute your questions in such a way 
 that as far as possible every child is called upon 
 at least once in each lesson. 
 
 10. In every lesson you must not only in- 
 struct, but likewise educate, that is, give the 
 children a religious and moral training by 
 directing their mind and will to God and His 
 works, and often making with them the relig- 
 ious acts of faith, hope, charity, contrition, 
 adoration, confidence, and so on. 
 
 n. Always begin with what is already 
 known ; go from precepts to concepts, from the 
 concrete to the abstract, from easy to difficult 
 matter, from the known to the unknown truth. 
 
 12. Strive, as far as possible, to illustrate the 
 truths of religion by the use of sacred pictures, 
 by examples, comparisons, and contrasts ; make 
 the discourse more perspicuous by direct speech 
 or address, by change of the voice, by gestures, 
 and so on. 
 
Christian Doctrine 297 
 
 13. At the beginning, or at the close of 
 every lesson, or at a longer pause, repeat one 
 or another of the catechetical formulas. (See 
 below, p. 350.) These formulas can first be 
 said by some pupil, and then be recited by all 
 simultaneously. Now and then you may at 
 once explain the catechetical formula just re- 
 cited by paraphrasing it as you go along. 
 
 14. Before beginning the class, ask your- 
 self the question, " What have I to tell or to 
 explain with reference to the ecclesiastical 
 year ? " Do not begin the lesson before 
 answering this question. The answer will 
 often furnish an excellent means of gaining 
 the closest attention of the class from the 
 very start. 
 
 15. Lay the greatest stress on that which it 
 is necessary for the children, as such, to know, 
 and omit everything which has no practical 
 value for the life of a Christian. Teach religion, 
 not theology. 
 
 16. Keep to the text-books officially pre- 
 scribed for the Christian Doctrine. 
 
 17. Throughout be guided by the rule, 
 " The golden mean is the best " {In medio vir- 
 tus). This principle applies equally to explain- 
 ing, arguing, questioning, memorizing; to the 
 strength of the voice, gestures, punishments, 
 and rewards. 
 
298 Christian Doctrine 
 
 B. Wrong Mode 
 
 If religious instruction is given in a bad way, 
 harm is done instead of good. Overberg 
 rightly says : " To discourse on good doctrines 
 without a right method, is just as useless toil 
 as for a sower to sow good seed without first 
 ploughing the soil, and afterward harrowing 
 the seed under. Wrong methods easily cause 
 the children to hate, not only learning, but the 
 things to be learned. If in attempting to lead 
 toward the good, one goes the wrong way, the 
 young are made rather worse than better." 
 This is done unfortunately in the following 
 cases : — 
 
 1. When the children are given too much 
 to learn, so that they can not master it. 
 
 2. When the children are kept at long 
 prayers in the school, or at many, long, or 
 (through long kneeling) fatiguing religious ex- 
 ercises out of school. Every excess is harmful, 
 and what the children do with repugnance is 
 fruitless. It is noteworthy that the Jesuits 
 especially have been guided by the principle 
 that religious training must not be pushed to 
 disgust and weariness. This explains why in 
 their programmes they assign few lessons to 
 religious instruction proper. True enough, a 
 small number of religious lessons suffices, 
 
Christian Doctrine 299 
 
 where the whole teaching or course is pervaded 
 by the spirit of religion. 
 
 3. When the Catechist comes before the 
 children with a gloomy countenance, with no 
 friendly look to cheer them ; never a word of 
 praise, but always scolding. u The Catechist 
 assumes an air of severity and rigor; he is 
 harsh in his rebukes, cold and distant in his 
 manner, stern in his bearing; he speaks in 
 angry, bitter, or ironical language ; he demands 
 from the children more than they can reason- 
 ably be expected to know; he covers them 
 with shame and confusion before their fel- 
 lows, perhaps before the whole congregation of 
 the church, on account of their ignorance or 
 incapacity ; he neither makes allowance for the 
 levity and inconstancy of the childish heart, nor 
 the grossness and stupidity of the poor adult 
 who has grown up in ignorance, neglect, and 
 sin. The inevitable result is that he never gains 
 the confidence of those whom he is bound by 
 so many titles to win to God. He never suc- 
 ceeds in winning their love and esteem, and 
 thus never succeeds in laying the foundation 
 of all true influence over them " {Irish Eccl. R.). 
 
 4. When he is continually threatening the 
 children with hell, and the punishments of 
 God, whom he thus represents as a severe and 
 heartless Master ; when he never brings out the 
 
300 Christian Doctrine 
 
 power of the Christian religion to make man 
 happy, by referring to the great temporal and 
 eternal happiness of a truly religious man, 
 never shows the beauty and loveliness of our 
 holy faith. No one can be made truly relig- 
 ious through compulsion and fear, least of all, 
 children. 
 
 5. When the Catechist insists on a mechani- 
 cal, meaningless, and foolish memorizing. 
 
 6. When the Catechist teaches in a barren, 
 dry manner, without attempting to illustrate the 
 different doctrines and to enliven the subject. 
 
 7. When the Catechist only instructs, but 
 does not educate, i.e., when he treats religion, 
 especially morality, merely as matters of knowl- 
 edge, and does not concern himself about the 
 ennobling of the heart and the will. 
 
 8. When the lesson or instruction is carried 
 to such a length that the children get tired and 
 lose all interest in it. " Length in instructions 
 is a very common fault, but a very sad one, and 
 this fault generally arises from want of prepara- 
 tion " (Dpi. p. 145. See also Hamon, p. 104; 
 Furniss, p. 1 38). 
 
 The Catechist can easily tell if his mode of 
 teaching is a bad one. It is always shown by 
 the fact that the children do not look forward 
 with joy to the class of Christian Doctrine, that 
 they are indifferent to it, and even afraid of it. 
 
Christian Doctrine 301 
 
 If this is the case, the Catechist has good rea- 
 son to examine seriously where the fault lies. 
 " May God give every Catechist this grace — 
 that the children look forward with joy to his 
 instructions. Alas ! it is sad when the cate- 
 chetical instruction is hated by the children, 
 when they fear that lesson most in which they 
 have to learn the holiest and most necessary 
 things " (Amberger). 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 EDUCATIONAL TOOLS IN CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE 
 
 Art. i. — Religious Pictures 
 
 A. Educational Value 
 
 " From the first centuries of her existence 
 has the Catholic Church well understood how 
 to lead man to the knowledge of the mysteries 
 of religion, not only by the spoken word or the 
 written letter, but also by the works of repre- 
 sentative art. Important events of the Old and 
 New Testaments were brought before the peo- 
 ple in biblical pictures ; the blessings of the 
 New Covenant were explained to them in 
 typological representations ; the sacred mys- 
 teries of faith appeared before their eyes in 
 sacred symbols and emblems. This objective 
 method of teaching the Church followed at all 
 times, being convinced that pictures and images 
 were all the more necessary for the instruction 
 of the people where their mental powers were 
 less developed, and where the mysteries to be 
 learned were so great and sublime. It is 
 
 302 
 
Christian Doctrine 303 
 
 therefore in perfect accord with the wishes 
 and practice of the Church to make use of 
 religious pictures in Christian Doctrine. They 
 are a most important educational means " (Dean 
 Langthaler). Schuech and Furniss insist very 
 strongly on the use of religious pictures in 
 Christian Doctrine, it being the most natural, 
 and, therefore, the best method with chil- 
 dren. 
 
 Cardinal Wiseman, speaking of Couisinier's 
 " Pictorial Catechism," published in London, 
 says the work is " most valuable for the instruc- 
 tion of the illiterate and of children. ... It 
 will be one more means at the command of 
 those engaged in Catholic education for facili- 
 tating sound instruction, diffusing good taste, 
 and blending recreation with solid improve- 
 ment." 
 
 We greatly fear that up to the present day the 
 importance and value of religious pictures as a 
 means of teaching Christian Doctrine has been 
 very much underrated in our Catholic schools. 
 W 7 hile Bible History and Catholic Readers are 
 being more fully and more perfectly illustrated, 
 there has been only one timid attempt at an illus- 
 trated small Catechism. While other countries 
 have their pictorial Catechisms and regular sets, 
 cycles, or series of Catholic religious pictures 
 for the use of schools, the Catholic schools of 
 
304 Christian Doctrine 
 
 America are still deprived of these educational 
 helps, and our Catechists are forced to select at 
 random from the catalogues of Catholic and 
 even Protestant firms, such religious pictures 
 as may help them in their sacred work. There 
 is no reason why the Catholic Catechism might 
 not be made more attractive as well as instruc- 
 tive for our children by being illustrated with 
 religious pictures and sacred emblems. " Illus- 
 trations from the Bible and Church History 
 would have fully as great a power of instruc- 
 tion in the religious Catechism as similar ones 
 for secular readers " (A. Eccl. R., February, 
 1897, p. 186). 
 
 The educational value of religious pictures 
 in Christian Doctrine may be reduced to the 
 following points : — 
 
 1. Religious pictures impress the story or 
 doctrine more deeply on the mind and memory. 
 What is seen remains longer in the mind than 
 what is heard. Narrative and explanation con- 
 vey the subject by the sense of hearing, but the 
 picture, in addition to this, by the sense of 
 sight. Hence, pictures are of great help, not 
 only at the first lesson on the subject, but also 
 at the repetition, as the sight of it will quickly 
 recall the subject. 
 
 2. Pictures help to make the doctrine or 
 story more definite and concrete, hence, more 
 
Christian Doctrine 305 
 
 perspicuous and lucid. " Whoever has made 
 use of this means in school knows how easily, 
 by a faithful image, things may be imparted to 
 the child's mind which it could never learn by 
 the most exact explanation ; how easily and 
 quickly a biblical story or an event in the life 
 of a saint or in the history of the Church will 
 find its way to the child's memory, when seen 
 in a good picture ; and how deeply and last- 
 ingly noble sentiments and principles of con- 
 duct will impress themselves on the child when 
 set before his eye in a fitting pictorial represen- 
 tation" (Dean Langthaler). 
 
 3. Pictures are a powerful means to make the 
 lesson more interesting and attractive. Chil- 
 dren will always look at a picture with an eager 
 curiosity and listen with close attention to a 
 vivid explanation of it. 
 
 4. Pictures in a sense supply the place of 
 books with children who can not read at all 
 or do so only very imperfectly. Hence, the 
 famous saying of Pope Gregory the Great, 
 " What the book does for the reader, the pic- 
 ture does for the unlearned beholder." Car- 
 dinal Gibbons says : " Religious paintings are 
 the Catechism of the ignorant. . . . Descrip- 
 tive pictures will teach them what books make 
 known to the learned. ... By means of relig- 
 ious emblems St. Francis Xavier effected 
 
306 Christian Doctrine 
 
 many conversions in India ; and by the same 
 means Father De Smet made known the Gos- 
 pel to the savages of the Rocky Mountains " 
 (" Faith of Our Fathers," p. 243). Hence the 
 universal use of religious pictures in the Middle 
 Ages. (See below, pp. 505 ff.) 
 
 5. Sacred pictures help to quicken and cul- 
 tivate the feelings, especially the religious feel- 
 ings and emotions of the children. When 
 certain pictures are shown, the children invol- 
 untarily break out into expressions of compas- 
 sion, pain, joy, astonishment, and the like. It 
 would be a great mistake to condemn or to 
 repress the feelings thus aroused, as they afford 
 the Catechist a precious opportunity to form 
 the heart and character of the children. Of 
 this religious educational value of sacred pic- 
 tures, Cardinal Gibbons (I.e., p. 246) says most 
 appropriately : " Is not our country flooded 
 with obscene pictures and immodest represen- 
 tations which corrupt our youth ? If the 
 agents of Satan employ such vile means for a 
 bad end, if they are cunning enough to pour 
 through the senses into the hearts of the unwary 
 the insidious poison of sin by placing before 
 them lascivious portraits, — in God's name, why 
 should not we sanctify the souls of our chil- 
 dren by means of pious emblems ? Why 
 should not we make the eye the instrument of 
 
Christian Doctrine 307 
 
 edification, as the enemy makes it the organ of 
 destruction ? " 
 
 6. Religious pictures in the school are of 
 importance for later life. Children who get 
 accustomed in school to study sacred pictures 
 and talk over them, will contemplate the relig- 
 ious images in the Church with great profit. 
 Grown up, they will not procure for their homes 
 every gay-colored picture, but only impressive 
 and thoughtful representations worthy of the 
 saints and holy things. Moreover, in many a 
 circumstance of life they may recall a religious 
 picture to mind, and, by this means, be pre- 
 served from a false step, or be encouraged to 
 some pious and good work. Thus, the poet 
 Goethe, when his ship was about to strand on 
 the Island of Capri in May, 1787, vividly re- 
 called the picture of the storm on Lake Gen- 
 esareth. He then reminded the weeping people 
 of the desperate situation of the Apostles in the 
 storm, and called upon them to pray. 
 
 Because sacred representations are produc- 
 tive of such advantages, the Teacher of Nations, 
 the Catholic Church, has always adorned God's 
 house with beautiful pictures, and defended 
 the private and public use of religious pictures 
 against the Iconoclasts at the II. Council of 
 Nice in 787, and later against Luther at the 
 Council of Trent, Sess. xxv. 
 
308 Christian Doctrine 
 
 B. Requisite Qualities 
 
 One can not do much with a bad tool ; the 
 same may be said of a poor picture. Hence a 
 picture for use in school should possess the 
 following qualities : — 
 
 i. It must be sufficiently large, so that all 
 the pupils of a class may see quite distinctly, 
 not only the whole, but also its different parts. 
 To pass a picture around or to go with it from 
 one group to another entails great inconven- 
 ience, loss of time, and harm to discipline. 
 
 2. When possible, it should be colored, for a 
 colored picture approaches nearer to reality and 
 works more powerfully on the eye than others. 
 An uncolored picture, because it needs to be 
 studied more closely, requires judgment and is 
 therefore unsuited to helpless children. The 
 artist, of course, will prefer the latter ; not so the 
 teacher, who must look to the pedagogic help 
 of the picture. 
 
 3. It must be definite in design and color. 
 It must not be overcrowded with persons and 
 objects, or contain anything superfluous, other- 
 wise it will confuse and make it difficult for one 
 to find easily the main or essential idea. His- 
 torically it ought to represent that moment of the 
 story from which previous and subsequent inci- 
 dents may be easily divined. It should likewise 
 
Christian Doctrine 309 
 
 bear its own individual character, so as to be 
 easily distinguishable from other similar repre- 
 sentations of the subject. 
 
 4. It must be dignified and becoming, appro- 
 priate to the sacred persons, mysteries, facts, and 
 things which it represents ; at the same time 
 it must not contain anything which could in the 
 least hurt the innocence and pure eye of the 
 child. Hence there should be no caricatures, 
 ludicrous or distorted faces, stupid or savage 
 expressions in pictures of holy and venerated 
 persons. Children are quick to detect this and 
 draw conclusions, as, for instance, in the follow- 
 ing case, which actually happened. A small 
 boy was shown a picture of the crucifixion with- 
 out being told what it meant. Involuntarily he 
 exclaimed, " Those were bad men." When told 
 that the one in the middle was our dear Lord, 
 he replied in astonishment, " But just look at 
 His face ! " 
 
 Moreover, the picture must not represent ob- 
 jectionable nudities. Hence the Catechist must 
 be careful in regard to pictures of Adam and 
 Eve, the Deluge, Noe and Cham, Susanna, Mary 
 Magdalene, and a few others. Entirely nude 
 pictures of the holy child Jesus are an abomi- 
 nation, notwithstanding the fact that great mas- 
 ters have so represented Him. It is in evident 
 contradiction to the infinite holiness of the 
 
310 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Child and the supreme purity of His blessed 
 Mother. 
 
 5. The picture must be true, that is, if histori- 
 cal, in harmony with history and archaeology; 
 if symbolical or allegorical, in harmony with the 
 idea or truth expressed. In regard to this kind 
 of pictures the words of a well-known German 
 writer on ecclesiastical art deserve to be remem- 
 bered here in America. He says : " Those 
 costly Parisian pictures, with or without lace, 
 but usually representing some fanciful, soft, and 
 amorous allegory, with sweet little prayers and 
 verses, not only shock the correct ideas of 
 Christian and ecclesiastical beauty, but, instead 
 of filling the heart with a sound and solid piety, 
 bring to it a kind of coquettish sentimentality 
 not unlike the languishing and yearning, nerve- 
 strung melodies of modern music " (Jacob). 
 
 C. Use in Class 
 
 A good tool badly employed may do more 
 harm than good, and the same must be said of 
 religious pictures. Hence the following rules 
 ought to be observed : — 
 
 1. Pictures should never be shown before or 
 during the narrative or explanation, but only 
 afterward ; otherwise they will not be under- 
 stood by the children, who would only become 
 
Christian Doctrine 3 1 1 
 
 distracted by the picture and pay no attention 
 to the speaker. The Catechist must see that the 
 story exactly agrees with the picture, and that it 
 fits the doctrine or mystery symbolized. Things 
 which the painter has introduced of his own 
 fancy must be mentioned in the narrative, other- 
 wise the children may subsequently (to the 
 Catechist's discomfiture) call his attention to 
 certain omissions. For instance, in the picture 
 of the prodigal son we may see a dog running- 
 out to meet him and the angels of heaven rejoic- 
 ing ; in some pictures we see the three Magi on 
 camels, in others on horses ; another shows the 
 smoke of Abel's sacrifice ascending to heaven, 
 and that of Cain falling to the earth. Such 
 things should be noticed in the story; hence 
 the Catechist must study the picture beforehand. 
 
 2. When showing the picture, it is not advis- 
 able to go round the class between the benches. 
 This interferes with order and discipline. Either 
 hold it in the hand or hang it up ; or let it be 
 passed around after class is over. 
 
 3. The picture must be properly explained. 
 This is the main thing, and demands no little 
 preparation on the part of the Catechist. Un- 
 less he has first thoroughly studied the picture 
 himself and clearly noted in his own mind the 
 special parts and features to be explained, the 
 picture lesson will not produce one-tenth of 
 
312 Christian Doctrine 
 
 the result it otherwise would. Schuech (pp. 
 242 f.) gives some excellent advice in this re- 
 gard. He says: (a) Treat the picture as if it 
 were the object or thing itself; present it to the 
 view of the child, gradually lead him to notice 
 the individual parts, and finally let him describe 
 it; (b) whatever reality in the object is not 
 expressed in the picture, let the Catechist sup- 
 ply by oral explanation, and have the child 
 repeat it ; (c) finally the Catechist combines 
 the idea of the picture with the explanation 
 previously given, and, to impress it better, ques- 
 tions several children on the whole object. 
 
 After the picture has been explained by the 
 Catechist, a child may be called on to point 
 out the different objects represented. The 
 Catechist should help by means of questions, 
 and see that, in describing the picture, the 
 whole story or doctrine is briefly summarized. 
 Should the child come to something he can 
 not answer, the class ought to -be appealed to 
 in order that the other children may not sit 
 idle. This, in fact, ought to be done often, 
 even when the child knows the picture well. 
 It will keep alive the attention of the class. 
 
 4. The picture should be left on the wall for 
 some time, in order that the story or doctrine 
 may be more deeply impressed on the children's 
 memory. It ought not, however, be left there 
 
Christian Doctrine 313 
 
 too long, as the children are liable to become 
 indifferent and pay no further attention to it. 
 
 5. There is no necessity to have a picture for 
 every doctrine and story, though this is very 
 useful in Bible History. Yet it is very desira- 
 ble to impress on the minds of the pupils, by 
 means of a corresponding picture, important 
 mysteries, moral laws, biblical and Church 
 events, saintly and famous personages. A 
 remark made by Rev. P. Furniss in a footnote 
 on p. 51, shows how well he understood the use 
 of pictures in Christian Doctrine. It implies 
 an important pedagogical principle. He says : 
 " It would be most useful if there were a series 
 of pictures explanatory of the different parts of 
 the Catechism. These pictures should be ar- 
 ranged together in order, each with its title and 
 explanation. The objects in these pictures 
 should be strong and striking, rather than 
 highly finished, — the children would thus cer- 
 tainly have much more distinct ideas about the 
 words of the Catechism." There ought to be 
 different, well-arranged series, each illustrative 
 of one of the great catechetical formulas, the 
 whole collection being a regularly planned illus- 
 tration of the main parts of the Catechism. 
 There are such Catholic works, large and 
 small, with an explanatory text, in German and 
 in French, but not in English. 
 
314 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Art. 2, — Wall Maps 
 
 1. It is very useful to make the children 
 familiar with the geography of Palestine. By 
 this means faith is strengthened and Bible 
 stories cease to be mere legends or fables. Many 
 biblical events are better understood as geog- 
 raphy is the playground of history. Interest 
 in Bible History is increased. Finally, love 
 and reverence for the Saviour of the world 
 demand that we learn to know accurately the 
 land sanctified by His presence, His work, and 
 His blood. 
 
 A systematic course of biblical geography 
 will be given only in the higher grades, when 
 the Bible History class, properly so called, is 
 drawing to a close. A general review of the 
 Bible History can thus easily be made quite 
 interesting by means of the map. In Catholic 
 schools biblical geography may be taught in the 
 regular course of geography, where it will serve 
 as a repetition of Bible History. Of course 
 the Catechist must not be satisfied with a dry 
 enumeration of names. He should always show 
 where the name of the particular place, river, 
 lake, mountain, etc., has been previously men- 
 tioned in Bible History. In this way the cor- 
 responding scriptural facts will be refreshed in 
 
Christian Doctrine 
 
 3 l 5 
 
 the children's memory and a recapitulation 
 made of Sacred History. 
 
 Everything superfluous, i.e., whatever has not 
 been previously mentioned in Bible History 
 or what has no reference to it at all, must be 
 omitted ; for in Christian Doctrine geography 
 is only the handmaid of the history of our 
 religion. 
 
 2. If the children are to be helped to a better 
 knowledge of Bible History by the discreet use 
 of a map of the Holy Land, their knowledge 
 of Church History, as far as it enters a Chris- 
 tian Doctrine class, would undoubtedly be 
 greatly facilitated and made more interesting 
 by the use of a map or maps, showing the 
 gradual expansion of the Church of God in 
 times past and present. A large map, for 
 instance, of the ecclesiastical provinces, dioceses, 
 and vicariates of the Church in the United 
 States, of the Catholic foreign missions among 
 pagan nations, would most assuredly prove a 
 very interesting matter for the pupils of more 
 advanced classes, and help to awaken a warmer 
 loyalty in the hearts of our Catholic youth 
 toward holy mother Church. With the help 
 of Werner's " Catholic Church and Mission 
 Atlas," it would be no difficult undertaking for 
 a Catechist to make an outline wall map serv- 
 ing all the purposes of a Sunday-school, and 
 
3 16 Christian Doctrine 
 
 supplying a means of interesting and most 
 useful religious instruction. The same may 
 be said of the ecclesiastical map annually pub- 
 lished in " The Catholic Directory " for the 
 United States. 
 
 Art. 3. — The Blackboard 
 
 1. The blackboard has been recognized, in 
 these latter times, as a most helpful tool of 
 religious instruction, not only by Protestants 
 in their Sunday-schools, but also by Catholics 
 in their Christian Doctrine classes. Priests 
 and Catechists in Europe have published books 
 to help the Catholic teacher in the use of the 
 blackboard when teaching Catechism. Here 
 in the United States we are forced to have 
 recourse to similar books written by Protestant 
 authors, from which, we gladly admit, many 
 valuable hints may be obtained, although not a 
 few of them greatly " overdo " the work, and 
 turn it into fanciful play and a series of ingen- 
 ious tricks, a danger against which every teacher 
 should be on his guard. But when used with 
 discretion and with a firmly fixed aim at in- 
 struction, not mere amusement, drawing and 
 writing on the blackboard will greatly help the 
 memory as well as the intellect of smaller chil- 
 dren ; it will impress the subjects more deeply 
 
Christian Doctrine 317 
 
 in their minds, hold their attention more 
 strongly, and check their restlessness far more 
 effectually than either punishment or reward. 
 There is no reason, indeed, why the black- 
 board should not prove as many-sided a tool in 
 Christian Doctrine as in many of the other 
 branches taught in the schools. 
 
 2. In drawing, one must attend to the follow- 
 ing points : (a) The drawing must be as simple 
 as possible. Everything complicated is to be 
 avoided, for it consumes time, is not easily 
 remembered, and hinders rather than assists a 
 clear conception of the subject, (b) Exaggerated 
 care must not be bestowed upon the drawing, 
 otherwise much time is lost, and the minds of 
 the children being all engrossed upon making 
 a good drawing, they neglect the subject itself. 
 
 (c) Of course, on the other hand, the drawing 
 must not be so badly and poorly done as to 
 cause derisive remarks, and make the Cate- 
 chist's authority suffer. For this reason he 
 should practise beforehand whatever drawings 
 he intends to make. He may likewise allow a 
 bright pupil to make the drawing on the board, 
 and after class get some children to copy it. 
 
 (d) The use of different colored chalks is very 
 much to be commended. It serves to engage 
 attention as well as to impress the subject more 
 clearly on the mind. 
 
318 Christian Doctrine 
 
 3. Drawing may be done on the board in 
 the following cases : (a) When one has to 
 acquaint children with objects unfamiliar to 
 them, as, for instance, a chalice, a monstrance, 
 a stole, and so on. (b) When it is necessary to 
 impress deeply on the memory important 
 names, dates, and numbers, as the names of the 
 Evangelists, the books of Holy Scripture, also 
 names difficult to pronounce, such as Melchise- 
 dech, Jerusalem ; the numbers of the Com- 
 mandments, Sacraments, Works of Mercy, etc. 
 (c) When a definition is being developed, the 
 characteristics, i.e., the essential elements, of 
 the idea may be written on the board in order 
 to give the children a clear and distinct knowl- 
 edge, e.g., when explaining the idea " Sacra- 
 ment " write down the three characteristics, 
 (1) the outward sign, (2) inward grace, (3) the 
 institution by Christ. (See also above, pp. 246, 
 271, 274.) (d) With divisions and classifica- 
 tions, some catchwords, or simply the initial 
 letters of the corresponding words, may be 
 written on the board in order to give a general 
 view of the matter and to lighten the work of 
 memorizing, (e) The succession, the connec- 
 tion, the effects, of certain facts and events may 
 be indicated by means of lines or bars ; the 
 consequences of virtue and of sin, the parts of 
 the Mass or of some Sacrament, etc., can all 
 
Christian Doctrine 319 
 
 be indicated on the board. (/) Geographic 
 outlines, the respective distance and site of 
 places, can often be more clearly drawn on the 
 board than on the finest wall map. Diagrams 
 will give a clear idea of the spread of the 
 Gospel, the growth of the Church, the extent 
 of her foreign missions, similar to diagrams 
 used in geography books, showing the com- 
 parative extent of countries, the number of 
 their populations, or the distribution of races 
 and of religions over the world, (g) Diagrams 
 and outline sketches will also be very useful in 
 liturgical explanations, (k) Lastly, the black- 
 board offers a ready means for impressing 
 some religious truth, especially moral lessons, 
 upon the children by the help of emblems, 
 symbols, and allegorical drawings (such as are 
 often found in French pictorial catechisms), 
 of alliterations, acrostics and anagrams. But 
 it is here particularly where lurks the danger 
 of abuse. What Mr. Beard says of alliteration 
 applies to them all : they are " good when used 
 in moderation and for the purpose of assisting 
 the memory ; but complicated rebuses and far- 
 fetched ingenuity are abominations in the 
 Sunday-school." 
 
 4. Where local needs leave no other choice, 
 we would not object to the blackboard in the 
 church if it helps the lesson. 
 
320 
 
 Christian Doctrine 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 
 I. The doctrine of the Blessed Trinity can 
 be illustrated by referring to the fact that in 
 
 the white ray of light there are three colors, for 
 when it passes through the prism it is decom- 
 posed into the three primary colors, yellow, red, 
 and blue. 
 
 This triangle is a fitting, though imperfect, 
 representation of the Blessed Trinity. There 
 
 Three triangles as you look from each base line ; 
 yet all three but one ; distinct but not separate. 
 
 is a complete and perfect triangle arising from 
 each of the three base lines, three distinct tri- 
 angles, and yet the three in reality are but one 
 
Christian Doctrine 
 
 3 21 
 
 triangle, an image of one divine nature and yet 
 three distinct (not separate) persons. 
 
 Shamrock 
 
 3 leaves but one plant 
 
 The sign by which St. Patrick explained 
 the Trinity to the pagan Irish king. 
 
 The relation and processions of the Divine 
 Persons can be illustrated by means of the tree. 
 
 
 As the trunk comes from the root, and from both 
 proceeds the crown on which grow the fruits,, 
 so the Son (2) proceeds from the Father, (1) and 
 from both proceeds the Holy Ghost, (8) whose 
 fruits in souls are the twelve virtues mentioned 
 by St. Paul, Gal. v. 22, 23 
 
322 
 
 Christian Doctrine 
 
 2. The hypostatic union of two natures in 
 Christ, and their properties (Athanasian Creed : 
 soul and body = one man ; God and man = one 
 Christ). 
 
 Man 
 
 r spiritual . 
 . J invisible . 
 j immortal . 
 ^ life-giving 
 r material . 
 visible 
 
 body 
 
 mortal 
 
 eternal 
 
 invisible 
 
 impassible 
 
 principle of grace 
 
 temporal 
 
 visible 
 
 passible 
 
 divinity 
 
 humanity J 
 
 ^Christ 
 
 life-receiving instrument of grace 
 
 3. The two Precepts of Charity as the foun- 
 dation of the other Commandments (see pp. 1 39, 
 352, 356): — 
 
 
 §\< 
 
 \. ,. 
 
 <# ^v 
 
 N^s^^J 
 
 Vvs 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 . > 
 
 
 r s 4 Corporal Works of Mercy 
 7 
 
 : |Spi'rituat Works of /"Aercy 
 
 4. The Ten Commandments are well ar- 
 ranged on two tables, as mentioned by Moses 
 in Deut. x. 3, 4, which, however, were written 
 upon on both sides, Exod. xxxii. 15 : — 
 
Christian Doctrine 
 
 323 
 
 G0<U *«ct S: 
 
 '^and 
 
 I- Ado 
 ******* 
 
 ****** 
 
 li^ntativs 
 
 5. The introductory part of the Mass. 
 
 injury'^" 5 
 jj.lnnocence 
 
 UIL Honor 
 
 hold 
 
 GoapelC 
 
 Cre-t-do 
 
 Gloria 
 
 Colled 
 
 Epiotie 
 
 Wail. 
 
 twtraiM 
 
 I Prayer at the attar steps. Confiteor. 
 
 6. The doctrine that all grace comes from 
 the bloody sacrifice of the Cross can be illus- 
 trated as follows : — 
 
 n 
 
 S&crifi 
 
 7Sacrame.nfs 
 
324 
 
 Christian Doctrine 
 
 or by the well-known picture showing the blood 
 flowing from the Cross upon the altar at w T hich 
 a priest is offering the sacrifice of Mass. From 
 there the stream of the waters of life flows to a 
 large fountain basin, from which they run out 
 in seven channels at which the faithful come 
 to drink. 
 
 7. The typological character of the Mosaic 
 tabernacle, or the Jewish temple, according to 
 St. Paul to the Hebrews, ch. ix. (Figure I.), and 
 its analogy with a Catholic church-building 
 (Figure II.), may be thus represented: — 
 
 I. 
 
 1 
 
 The Court 
 
 
 
 3 The Holy of Holies 
 Heaven 
 
 1 The Holy 
 The Church 
 
 
 
 The World 
 
 
 8. The following diagrams may serve to 
 illustrate the order of the ecclesiastical year. 
 On the blackboard the three cycles can be set 
 
Christian Doctrine 
 
 325 
 
 H. 
 
 3 The altar arvd 
 Tabernacle « ■ 
 
 The Holy of Holies* 
 
 1. The Court 
 
 The MM 
 
 side by side to give a general view of the year 
 at one glance. It comprises the three cycles 
 of Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost, each of 
 these feasts being the central point between a 
 preparatory and supplementary period. In 
 these diagrams the Sundays are indicated by 
 the shorter, feastdays by the longer, lines or 
 bars. The wavy lines indicate Ember Days, 
 and dotted lines mean that such Sundays or 
 feasts are changeable, that is, do not always 
 occur at the same place in the order of the 
 ecclesiastical year. 
 
326 
 
 Christian Doctrine 
 
 
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 0) 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 JC 
 
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 a. 
 
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 — <£ 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 lO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 </5 
 U 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , £ 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 
 "« 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 * 
 
 I. Christmas Cycle 
 
 Christmas, 25th December, is preceded by 
 the four Sundays of Advent, the first of which 
 is always the Sunday nearest the feast of St 
 Andrew (30th November). It can not be earlier 
 than the 27th November nor later than the 
 3d December. The feast of the Immaculate 
 
Christian Doctrine 327 
 
 Conception (8th December) may fall within the 
 first or the second week of Advent. Epiphany 
 
 5SI& 
 
 & 
 
 & 
 
 
 to 
 
 «5 
 
 O 
 
 to 
 
 c 
 <y« 
 
 w 
 < 
 
 _sr 
 
 CO CO * 
 g 
 
 <£ 
 
 © 8 
 
 SIB S|H 
 
 5 
 
 < 
 
 «- 
 
 CO 
 
 BH* i 
 
 
 
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 "55 
 
 
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 »— 
 
 O 
 
 —J 
 
 ' 1— 
 
 >0 
 
 •• •«• 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 .0 
 
 CO 
 
 to 
 a. 
 
 (6th January) may be followed by six Sundays. 
 Yet if any of these are crowded out by Sep- 
 
328 Christian Doctrine 
 
 tuagesima, they must be inserted between the 
 twenty-third and twenty-fourth Sundays after 
 Pentecost, to keep the number of fifty-two 
 Sundays in the year. (See p. 330.) Purification 
 B. V. M., or Candlemas (2d February) may fall 
 within the third or fourth week after Epiphany 
 or come after Septuagesima. The Christmas 
 Ember Days are always in the third week of 
 Advent. 
 
 II. Easter Cycle 
 
 The Easter Cycle begins with Septuagesima 
 Sunday (Sept.), which may fall anywhere be- 
 tween 1 8th January and 2 2d February. Then 
 follow Sexagesima (Sex.), and Quinquagesima 
 (Quinq.), with Ash Wednesday (between Feb- 
 ruary 4 and March 11), and the six Sundays 
 of Lent, the two last being Passion and Palm 
 Sundays. The Annunciation B. V. M. may 
 come anywhere between the second Sunday 
 of Lent and the third day after Easter, while 
 St. Mark's Day may fall as well on Easter 
 Sunday as on the first Rogation Day, or any 
 day between these two. The Spring Ember 
 Days always follow the first Sunday of Lent. 
 The feast of Easter, between the 2 2d March 
 and the 25th April, is always on the first Sunday 
 after the first full moon following the 21st 
 March, or the vernal equinox. This feast 
 
Christian Doctrine 
 
 329 
 
33° Christian Doctrine 
 
 regulates the greatest part of the ecclesiastical 
 year, as Pentecost with its cycle follows with 
 mathematical regularity, i.e., fifty days after 
 Easter. The Rogation Days are Monday, 
 Tuesday, and Wednesday of the fifth week 
 after Easter, Thursday being Ascension Day. 
 From Ash Wednesday to Easter are six 
 weeks plus four days, being forty-six days; 
 taking off the six Sundays leaves forty fast 
 days. From Easter to Ascension are five 
 weeks plus five days, being altogether forty 
 days. 
 
 III. Pentecost Cycle 
 
 After the feast of the Ascension (forty days 
 after Easter, Acts i. 3) the Pentecost Cycle 
 begins. Whit Sunday falls on the fiftieth 
 day after Easter, hence Pentecost (Acts ii. 1). 
 The next Sunday is Trinity Sunday A and 
 the Thursday after this the feast of Corpus 
 Christi ©. Then follow from twenty-four to 
 twenty-eight Sundays, according as it becomes 
 necessary to fill out the time between the 
 twenty-third Sunday after Pentecost and the 
 first Sunday of Advent, which depends princi- 
 pally on the earlier or later date of Easter, 
 which equally regulates the number of Sun- 
 days after Epiphany (see Christmas Cycle). 
 The Summer Ember Days fall within Pente- 
 
Christian Doctrine 331 
 
 cost week; those of Fall follow immediately 
 after the feast of the Exaltation of the Holy 
 Cross (14th September). The more notable 
 feasts of this season are indicated in the 
 diagram together with their dates. The cen- 
 tral feast, Pentecost, may fall on any day 
 between the 8th May and the 13th June. 
 
 Art. 4. — Text-books 
 
 History bears witness to the great utility of 
 text-books in Christian Doctrine, especially of 
 the Catechism. The advantages of a text-book 
 are the following : (a) It gives the Catechist an 
 assurance that he teaches the essential truths 
 of religion in their integrity and doctrinal 
 purity, without serious omission and without 
 admixture of falsehood, (b) It relieves the Cate- 
 chist from considerable labor in impressing the 
 subject-matter on the minds and memories of 
 the children. He can devote more time to 
 solid explanation ; the children can memorize 
 from the book, (c) It enables him quickly to 
 recall to the memory and attention of the chil- 
 dren matter previously learned, (d) It enables 
 parents to help their children to learn at home. 
 (e) It insures uniformity of religious instruction 
 in all schools of the diocese or province, so that 
 a change of teacher or of parish causes no harm 
 
3$2 Christian Doctrine 
 
 or loss to the religious instruction of the chil- 
 dren. 
 
 Inasmuch as in the ordinary Christian Doc- 
 trine class or Sunday-school, no text-books are 
 used in Church History or Liturgy, unless in 
 the highest grades, the question at present turns 
 particularly on Catechisms and manuals of 
 Bible History. Those text-books, as in fact all 
 class-manuals, must be used in a suitable man- 
 ner, or they will do more harm than good. The 
 Catechist should bear in mind what follows : — 
 
 i. The manual, or text-book in Christian 
 Doctrine, is not a finished treatise or full in- 
 struction, since it is not destined to take the 
 place of the free and living word of the Cate- 
 chist. It is not the book, but the Catechist, who 
 teaches, for " faith comes by hearing," not by 
 reading. The manner in which Our Lord, and, 
 after His example, the Apostles, taught must 
 be the Catechist s criterion. It is only after 
 the children have been brought to understand 
 the truths of religion (perhaps at the end of the 
 lesson) that the corresponding paragraph should 
 be read from the book. Hence the Catechist 
 commits a great fault when he sets too high a 
 value on what is printed, or when, out of indo- 
 lence, he prefers the book to oral instruction. 
 
 2. Text-books for Christian Doctrine classes 
 are nothing more than study books, or memory 
 
Christian Doctrine 333 
 
 aids, whose object is to assist the children in 
 recapitulating and committing to memory the 
 matter gone over in school. This must not, 
 however, diminish the respect due to the Cate- 
 chism, which is the handbook officially pre- 
 scribed by the Church as a safe guide for the 
 Catechist in giving religious instructions. 
 
 3. Children who can not read well should 
 have neither a Bible History nor a Catechism, 
 i.e., they should not use a book. At least they 
 must not be allowed to read these books in class, 
 for precious time would be uselessly spent in 
 spelling exercises, and, besides, the children 
 would not be able to grasp the thoughts con- 
 tained in what they read. Moreover, a book 
 which causes them so much labor and trouble 
 can not be pleasing and agreeable to them. 
 
 4. If, however, the children can read well, 
 and hence are in possession of a text-book, the 
 Catechist must, as far as possible, keep to the 
 wording and order of the book, especially of 
 the Diocesan Catechism. For only in such a 
 case can he be sure that the Christian doctrines 
 are taught free from error, and that nothing 
 essential or important is omitted. A Catechist 
 who would set aside the official Catechism on 
 account of its defects, and teach the children 
 according to his own fancy, would not be acting 
 rightly. Even an imperfect book can be made 
 
334 Christian Doctrine 
 
 serviceable for good instruction, for the value of 
 the book depends, in a measure, upon the skill 
 of the teacher. Bishop Sailer rightly says, " No 
 Catechism is capable of doing what alone the 
 living word and example, and still more the living 
 Spirit of truth, can accomplish." Certainly, it 
 can not be denied that more can be effected by 
 a good Catechism than by an inferior one, just 
 as work can be done better and more easily 
 with a good tool than with a bad one. 
 
 5. Text-books must not be changed too 
 often, for this is very hurtful to the progress of 
 the children. Rev. A. A. Lambing, p. $7) 
 strongly insists that the Catechist be especially 
 on his guard against changing the text-books. 
 Should the question arise, it is his duty to com- 
 pare the new book with the old and examine 
 carefully into their relative merits. And should 
 the new one be found to be the better, a further 
 question remains to be settled, viz., whether the 
 benefit of the new book fully repays the expense 
 and inconvenience consequent upon a change. 
 He wisely observes, " The number of our Cate- 
 chisms and the numerous faults that abound 
 in them ; the readiness with which we take to 
 anything new; the requests of teachers, . . . 
 and all the other circumstances that may seem 
 to argue in favor of a change, must be regarded 
 with caution and distrust. Of this much, how- 
 
Christian Doctrine 335 
 
 ever, he may be certain : that there are always 
 disadvantages to be met, while the advantages 
 are at most doubtful. For these reasons let 
 his changes, if any, be few, and adopted after 
 mature deliberation." 
 
 For the same reason it is not advisable to 
 use a small and a large, and, perhaps in addi- 
 tion to these, a middle or intermediate, Cate- 
 chism, each different from the other, so that 
 the children are forced to learn the truths of 
 religion now in one form and again in another. 
 The objection does not apply where those 
 Catechisms are in reality but one and the same 
 Catechism in three successive stages of growth, 
 retaining each the same arrangement and ex- 
 pression or wording. 
 
 For pedagogical reasons it is most desirable 
 to keep the same text-book as long as possible, 
 so that the children may become thoroughly 
 familiar with it and with its forms and expres- 
 sions. 
 
 6. In view of the principles laid down in 
 Ch. in. p. 184, two special questions pre- 
 sent themselves, namely, the uniformity of 
 the text-books used in some one school of 
 Christian Doctrine or Sunday-school; secondly, 
 the uniformity of such text-books in all the 
 Catholic schools and Sunday-schools of the 
 country. In regard to the first a writer in 
 
336 Christian Doctrine 
 
 the A. EccL R., February, 1897, PP- ^4 U 
 proposes a graded series of catechetical text- 
 books, "from the lowest to the highest class- 
 book, after the style of school readers or 
 similar books now in general use. The Balti- 
 more Catechism, Deharbe, Gaume, and several 
 other works of the kind are now used, with 
 a Bible History and a final year of Jouin, 
 Schouppe, or other like compendiums. ... It 
 is certainly desirable that the study of religion 
 for the young should be made progressive, and, 
 in the better sense of the word, popular; but 
 it is difficult to comprehend how the results 
 can be attained under the present diverse 
 methods." The idea here proposed deserves 
 the fullest consideration from the hierarchy 
 and the clergy at large. While new, it cer- 
 tainly embodies an important pedagogical prin- 
 ciple ; and while at first sight it appears 
 difficult, it is not impossible, and if properly 
 realized must lead to splendid results in Chris- 
 tian Doctrine classes. 
 
 To introduce an absolute uniformity of relig- 
 ious text-books in all the Catholic schools of 
 the United States is utterly impossible. Many 
 efforts have been made in regard to the Cate- 
 chism. Each of our Plenary Councils of Amer- 
 ica, in view of the immense advantages of such 
 a uniformity and of the equally great disadvan- 
 
Christian Doctrine 337 
 
 tages of the diversity of Catechisms with us, 
 tried to attain the much desired result, and 
 each failed. It is well known that the Vatican 
 Council attempted to do the same for the 
 world, but that great obstacles arose against 
 the project. It is impossible to say whether 
 a decree, prescribing a uniform Catechism for 
 the whole Catholic world, would have been 
 adopted, had the Council been able to finish its 
 work. There can be no doubt whatever that 
 " uniformity in Christian Doctrine, which is of 
 great importance at all times and places, is 
 especially so in our own time and country" 
 {A. Eccl. R., November, 1895, p. 383, referring 
 to the question about the Baltimore Cate- 
 chism). While truth and unity of faith or 
 belief is the all-important and absolutely neces- 
 sary thing, uniformity of discipline in the 
 expression and profession of faith comes next, 
 and ought not to be sacrificed for mere con- 
 sideration of disposition, method, and form. 
 Where a uniform Catechism is prescribed in 
 the diocese, no pastor or Catechist ought to 
 introduce another Catechism without the ex- 
 plicit permission of the Ordinary. The same 
 applies, as observed already, to other text- 
 books officially ordered to be used in Christian 
 Doctrine. 
 
 7. As regards the external make-up and ap- 
 
338 Christian Doctrine 
 
 pearance of text-books in Christian Doctrine, 
 they ought herein to correspond with the dignity 
 and high character of the subjects contained in 
 them. Pearls and jewels are set in gold. It 
 is, therefore, an insult to the text-book and the 
 sacred truths it contains when everything about 
 it, print and paper and binding, is bad or of a 
 cheap sort. All this ought to be good and 
 attractive, as the book is intended to last a life- 
 time, and to be used even w r hen school years 
 are over. The endeavor to produce cheap text- 
 books should not be carried so far that a Cate- 
 chism can be bought for the price of a daily 
 newspaper. To a child a shabby book conveys 
 the idea of worthless contents. 
 
 With regard to print, only large and clear 
 type should be used, to make the lines easily 
 legible. What can not be read with comfort, 
 injures the eyesight and fills the reader with 
 disgust for the book. Dupanloup (p. 163) makes 
 the same remark in regard to the book of the 
 Epistles and Gospels. " It is often printed on 
 poor paper from illegible type, and almost always 
 unsuitably bound ; it is easy to see why the chil- 
 dren do not sufficiently respect it, why too often 
 they mix it up with their commonest books, 
 and reckon the study of it as among the least 
 important and the most wearisome." A proper 
 and judicious choice of different types for head- 
 
Christian Doctrine 339 
 
 lines will help to make the arrangement and 
 divisions more perspicuous. Moreover, the 
 varying degrees of importance of the text 
 should be forcibly brought out by printing the 
 sentences or parts of primary and essential im- 
 portance in larger type. But everything likely 
 to confuse children, such as stars, crosses, brack- 
 ets, etc., should be carefully avoided. Cate- 
 chisms are usually arranged in the form of 
 questions and answers, which should be dis- 
 tinguished by different type. In regard to 
 illustrations, there can be no doubt that, if dis- 
 creetly selected and arranged, they will greatly 
 enhance the pedagogic value and usefulness of 
 any religious text-book written for the use of 
 children. (See above, pp. 302 ff.) 
 
 Art. 5. — The Catechism 
 A. Requisite Qualities 
 
 1. A good Catechism must be easy to learn, 
 because it is written first of all for children and 
 the unlearned. 
 
 (a) The expressions used must be simple ; 
 theological, that is to say technical, terms must 
 be avoided as much as possible, as well as for- 
 eign, old-fashioned, or obsolete words. This, 
 however, does not strictly apply to terms and 
 
340 Christian Doctrine 
 
 phrases which, though not used in everyday 
 conversation, still have a traditional value and 
 place in religious parlance. (See pp. 203 f.) 
 
 When learned and foreign words are used, 
 the children are offered, not bread, but a stone. 
 Many of the religious text-books, especially 
 those for higher grades, teem with technical 
 expressions. How much harm is done by 
 these books is proved by the dislike, which, 
 sooner or later, is manifested for them by 
 the pupils. How great a mistake the use of 
 incomprehensible words is, is shown by con- 
 trasting such books with the teaching of the 
 Saviour Himself and of the Holy Scriptures. 
 Both speak in ordinary, everyday language ; 
 they appeal directly to the understanding and 
 the heart of humanity. In a word, simple lan- 
 guage is the language of the heart. 
 
 For this reason a Catechism should not be 
 an abridgment of a theological text-book, nor a 
 manual of religious science. 
 
 There are other reasons why theological com- 
 pendia are not suitable even for higher grades 
 in school. Candidates for the priesthood, whose 
 intellects are more developed and whose needs 
 are quite different, require and receive very dif- 
 ferent teaching from that of ordinary people. 
 It is superfluous to give to children more re- 
 ligious instruction than is necessary for them 
 
Christian Doctrine 341 
 
 to lead a Christian life. The only aim of the 
 theological manual is to increase knowledge, 
 not to train the heart and mind to noble en- 
 deavor ; other means are adopted in theological 
 colleges for the training of the character and 
 the will. A Catechism which is simply a theo- 
 logical compendium makes religion a mere 
 matter of reason. 
 
 (b) A Catechism should have short sentences 
 and no long paragraphs. 
 
 (c) Its contents should, moreover, be so 
 arranged and divided that the whole matter can 
 easily be seen at a glance. By this the children 
 get a much clearer hold of the subject treated. 
 A simple, practical division of subject is easy to 
 achieve, because all the great truths of religion 
 are linked together, and form, as do the limbs of 
 our bodies, one organic whole. In a Catechism 
 the simplest division is always the best. 
 
 The best division, no doubt, is that of De- 
 harbe's Catechism. It begins by stating the 
 end of man, which is attained (1) when he 
 believes the truths revealed by God ; (2) when 
 he keeps God's Commandments ; (3) when he 
 uses the Means of Grace — the Sacraments and 
 Prayer. The three divisions of the Catechism 
 are, therefore : Faith, the Commandments, and 
 the Means of Grace, a mode of dividing the 
 subject of religious instruction which has always 
 
34 2 Christian Doctrine 
 
 been customary in the Church. This is proved 
 by the Catechisms in use in the Middle Ages 
 as well as the Catechism of the Council of 
 Trent. All explain the twelve articles of the 
 Creed, the Ten Commandments of God, the 
 Seven Sacraments, and the seven petitions of 
 the Lord's Prayer, though not always in the 
 same order of sequence. With such a division 
 Christian Doctrine is practically built upon the 
 foundation of certain religious formulas which 
 the children have already learned at home. 
 When the " end of man " is placed at the very 
 beginning of the Catechism, as the keynote of 
 its contents and the basis of its divisions, it is in 
 full accordance with the teaching of the Saviour, 
 whose discourses were all summed up in the 
 " one thing needful " ; moreover, in this day of 
 materialism, it is of the utmost importance that 
 great stress be laid on the final reason of man's 
 life on earth. 
 
 Catechisms with ingenious and artful divi- 
 sions have never had a long existence, because 
 they were soon found to be utterly unpractical 
 for children. It may also be observed here, with 
 the editor of " Le Catechisme de Leon XIII.," 
 p. 112, that for the smaller children the divi- 
 sion of the Catechism is of little or no impor- 
 tance ; what they need first of all are particular 
 ideas or- truths with some particular rules of 
 
Christian Doctrine 343 
 
 Christian life, a few concrete notions suited to 
 their age and understanding. Only later, when 
 they have learned the portions of the Catechism 
 piece by piece, and when their minds are more 
 developed, must their attention be called to the 
 arrangement or division of the Catechism and 
 the connection of its different parts. 
 
 (d) The text proper of the Catechism must 
 not comprise too much, otherwise it becomes 
 unsuitable for children. It is noteworthy that 
 the shortest Catechisms have had the longest 
 life. That of Bellarmin, with only ninety-five 
 questions, has been in use in Italy for three 
 hundred years. It is said of Canisius that dur- 
 ing the last years of his life he began to shorten 
 his Catechism. 
 
 2. A Catechism should also serve for Chris- 
 tian edification, so that it will be a pleasure to 
 recur to it in later life. The actual text of a 
 Catechism may be short and dry ; but it should 
 always have explanations in small type to elu- 
 cidate the text and make it interesting. 
 
 In these explanations prominence should be 
 given to the word of God ; the sayings of Christ, 
 especially, should be introduced with other 
 striking quotations from the Holy Scriptures. 
 As experience proves, an evident blessing 
 rests upon quotations from the Bible. Protes- 
 tants, who cling so strongly to the Bible, owe 
 
344 Christian Doctrine 
 
 much to the use of quotations from it. Christ 
 Himself is our example in this respect, for He 
 loved to refer to the Holy Scriptures. All 
 other expressions, no matter how famous or 
 beautiful, can not compare in worth and power 
 with the word of God. The words of Christ 
 should not be quoted wrenched from their con- 
 text; but it should also appear when and in 
 what connection they were spoken. 
 
 In addition to Bible quotations, the explana- 
 tions in smaller type should include similes, 
 antitheses, and sayings from the lives and writ- 
 ings of saintly and celebrated men. Such ex- 
 planations help much to lighten the labor of 
 the Catechist, especially in the first few years 
 of his work ; they prevent the children from 
 forgetting, after class, the moral and edifying 
 parts of the lesson received ; they stamp that 
 religious doctrine more deeply on the mind, 
 because every one remembers well what takes 
 his fancy ; moreover, they often lead grown 
 people to take the book up again in later years. 
 Hence, in a certain sense, the Catechism should 
 be a book for the people. 
 
 The advocates of a bare and small Catechism 
 argue that it is only meant for school children. 
 On this point Bishop Ketteler says : " This 
 idea was sown by the spirit of darkness. The 
 Catechism should be in the hands of children 
 
Christian Doctrine 345 
 
 and parents, of the learned and the ignorant, of 
 rulers and subjects ; it should be the first and 
 most important book in every home." Again 
 he says, " He who dares to say he can learn no 
 more from the Catechism, will be convicted of 
 falsehood by the very angels of heaven; for 
 even they, in the light of the glory emanating 
 from God Himself, may yet grow in the knowl- 
 edge of the truths contained in the Catechism." 
 Another bishop, Giraud of Rodez, declared: 
 " This little book is not sufficiently esteemed ; 
 people forget that its few pages enshrine all the 
 treasures of wisdom. If a Catechism had fallen 
 into the hands of a Socrates, a Plato, or an 
 Aristotle, with what astonishment and admira- 
 tion would these men have been seized." If, 
 therefore, the Catechism is to have some attrac- 
 tion for grown people, it ought not to repel the 
 reader by its dryness, but should clothe religious 
 truth in a pleasing garb. 
 
 3. A Catechism should be opportune or 
 seasonable, i.e., adapted to the spirit and the 
 needs of all who are to use it. Hence it must 
 keep in view the errors and evils of the day, 
 and the assaults made upon religion and the 
 Church. Naturally, this applies to the text- 
 book used in the higher grades. A Catechism 
 which at the present time is silent on dueling, 
 anarchy and socialism, cremation, Christian 
 
346 Christian Doctrine 
 
 education, Church and State, secret societies, 
 reading of light literature, labor and wages, etc., 
 is not worth much. For this reason it is impos- 
 sible, as time goes on, to use one Catechism, 
 without any change at all. Just as the soldier, 
 as the years roll by, must be provided with new 
 weapons, just as the physician must adopt new 
 remedies for the new diseases constantly devel- 
 oping, — so must the priest as a good soldier of 
 Christ, in the awful conflict between the king- 
 dom of God and the kingdom of this evil world, 
 arm himself with new weapons, and, as a good 
 physician of spiritual maladies, have recourse to 
 new remedies. For the same reasons it is not 
 possible to use an absolutely uniform Catechism 
 for all countries and nations of the earth, where 
 the circumstances, spiritual and temporal, differ 
 so much. It is indeed most desirable, and may 
 not be quite impracticable, to have one and 
 the same Catechism for Catholics of the same 
 countries and the same language. In fact, a 
 Catechism might be made for the whole Chris- 
 tian world, substantially uniform in all its main 
 parts and subjects, and at the same time leaving 
 room for special matters according to the 
 special or particular needs of certain countries 
 or nations. Such was the opinion which pre- 
 vailed in the Vatican Council on the Cate- 
 chism question. 
 
Christian Doctrine 347 
 
 4. A Catechism must be correct, whether 
 viewed from the theological or from the peda- 
 gogical standpoint. There must be absolutely 
 no error or misstatement in matters of faith or 
 of morals ; every doctrine stated must be the 
 same as taught by the holy Catholic Church. 
 For this reason the Church requires that every 
 Catechism (like all other books on religious sub- 
 jects) should be approved by ecclesiastical au- 
 thority, i.e., bear the " Imprimatur." Moreover, 
 Catechisms to be used in the schools must have 
 the sanction of the Bishop of the diocese. 
 
 Furthermore, a Catechism must not ignore 
 the principles of education and of its right 
 methods, — it must in this regard have the same 
 qualities as the instruction given by the Cate- 
 chist. (See above, p. 176.) To the Catechist 
 who neglects the correct methods of teaching, 
 the most perfect loyalty to the teachings of the 
 Church and solid theological knowledge are of 
 no more use than are stores and commodities to 
 the merchant who does not know how to bring 
 his wares to market. 
 
 B. Defects 
 
 The following are the chief faults of many 
 modern Catechisms : — 
 
 1. They contain too many technical terms 
 and phrases unintelligible to the child, though 
 
348 Christian Doctrine 
 
 suitable enough in a higher class. To the 
 undeveloped mind of the very young they are 
 like artificial food adulterated with unwhole- 
 some matter. Some expressions are too diffi- 
 cult and technical for small children ; yet these 
 expressions must be explained and learned later 
 on in the higher grades, as they are " naturalized " 
 in the religious language and used in the ordi- 
 nary instructions for grown people. Every adult 
 Catholic ought to know their meaning. Such 
 phrases are, for instance, " sacramental " grace, 
 the " ordinary " minister of the Sacraments, 
 " reborn " in Baptism, " practical " Christianity, 
 Christ is u substantially " present, etc., not to 
 mention " regeneration," " sanctification, " in- 
 carnation," " redemption," etc. 
 
 2. Their sentences are too long. Some para- 
 graphs are, indeed, of such forbidding length 
 that they seem to have been constructed with 
 a view to worrying the children, making teach- 
 ing a burden to the Catechist, and rendering 
 religion hateful to all alike. 
 
 3. They contain too many useless words and 
 questions. Many things might be put much 
 more concisely. 
 
 4. They have too many divisions, which 
 children, with their immature intelligence, are 
 quite unable to understand. It is forever 
 first, second, third, and so on. If the state- 
 
Christian Doctrine 349 
 
 ment, "Qui bene distinguit bene docet" (He 
 teaches well who distinguishes well) be true, 
 equally true is the saying, " Simile confuso est 
 quidquid in pulveretn sectum est" (What is 
 ground to powder will get mixed up). 
 
 5. They do not take into account the ten- 
 dencies, circumstances, and needs of the pres- 
 ent times, and deal only with things of the 
 past. The only improvement made upon 
 earlier Catechisms is the modern spelling and 
 grammar. 
 
 6. Questions and answers are often quite 
 incorrect : (a) because the answer gives more 
 than has been asked for; (b) the answer does 
 not correspond with the question, especially 
 where the same word should be used ; (c) the 
 questions, being often childish and ridiculously 
 easy, encourage inattention and thoughtlessness 
 in the pupil. 
 
 7. The following are the reasons for the 
 failure of most of the Catechisms produced in 
 the eighteenth and early nineteenth century: 
 (a) the mode and manner of treatment observed 
 in old Catechisms were in nearly every case slav- 
 ishly copied, — any improvements were purely 
 verbal ; (b) the principles of true pedagogy, to 
 make teaching perspicuous and uniform, at- 
 tractive and not merely instructive, etc., were 
 too little considered ; (c) little account was taken 
 
350 Christian Doctrine 
 
 of the special circumstances and needs of the 
 day; (d) the chief stress was laid on hard and 
 dry definitions to be learned by heart, as if 
 religious instruction were an exercise of the 
 intellect only. This applies equally to their 
 treatment of moral doctrines, which, more than 
 others, appeal to the heart and feeling. 
 
 There is in many regards a decided improve- 
 ment in Catechisms more recently published. 
 
 C. Catechetical Formulas 
 
 The following are the most important for- 
 mulas which constitute the skeleton of the 
 Catechism. Besides these there are others, 
 mostly in the form of enumerations to serve 
 the memory, for instance the three theological 
 virtues, the four cardinal virtues, the eight 
 beatitudes, the six sins against the Holy Ghost, 
 the four sins crying to Heaven, the three Evan- 
 gelical counsels, the four last things, the nine 
 ways of sharing another's sin, the seven gifts 
 and the twelve fruits of the Holy Ghost. (See 
 above, pp. 158 f., 280.) 
 
 1. The Apostles' Creed. This Creed has 
 been used from the first as the foundation of 
 Christian Doctrine because it sums up, in proper 
 sequence, all the important articles of faith, or 
 at least it implies them all. (See p. 157.) 
 
Christian Doctrine 351 
 
 Only the leading clauses of this Creed come 
 from the holy Apostles. During the first five 
 years of the Christian era, according to the 
 necessities of the times, explanatory clauses 
 were added to the words of the original pro- 
 fession of faith. It was not until the sixth 
 century that the Apostles' Creed assumed its 
 present form. Although the usual number, 
 twelve, of the articles of the Creed has no 
 necessary connection with that of the Apostles, 
 yet it was evidently used with a view to indicate 
 its authors, as the name also implies. 
 
 The Apostles' Creed was used as the profes- 
 sion of faith at baptism, and was originally an 
 abridgment of the preaching of the Apostles, 
 and perhaps of the previous preparatory instruc- 
 tion of the candidate. 
 
 While some distinguish three different parts 
 in the Apostles' Creed, namely the doctrine of 
 God the Father and the Creation (a. 1), of God 
 the Son and the Redemption (aa. 2-7), of God 
 the Holy Ghost and the Sanctification (aa. 8-1 2), 
 others consider aa. 1 1 and 1 2 to form a fourth 
 part, the consummation of all things. Bishop 
 Dupanloup divides it into five parts ; namely, 
 the doctrines of the Father (a. 1), the Son (aa. 
 2-7), the Holy Ghost (a. 8), the Church (aa. 9, 
 10), and Eternal Life (aa. 11, 12). 
 
 2. The Ten Commandments. The moral 
 
352 Christian Doctrine 
 
 doctrine of the Church has from the first been 
 founded upon the Ten Commandments, because 
 they sum up in orderly sequence the most im- 
 portant duties of the Christian. No human 
 code of morality could aspire to vie with that 
 compiled and given forth by the all-wise God. 
 The formula of the Ten Commandments as 
 used in the Catholic Catechism does not ex- 
 actly correspond with that delivered to Moses, 
 Ex. xx. and Deut. v. It presents rather an 
 abbreviation of the Jewish Decalogue, retain- 
 ing the mere substance of the law and leaving 
 out its reasons and motives. 
 
 The Ten Commandments of God divide 
 naturally into three parts: (a) the three first 
 Commandments, which all refer directly to God 
 Himself; {&) the fourth Commandment, which 
 deals with our duties toward the representa- 
 tives of God on earth ; (c) the last six Com- 
 mandments, which refer to our duties toward 
 ourselves and our neighbors. In the absence 
 of all certain information, and in view of Ex. 
 xxxii. 15, it is positively useless to dispute about 
 the order and division of the Ten Command- 
 ments on the stone tables which Moses brought 
 from Mount Sinai. Some try to prove that the 
 two tables were divided at the fifth Command- 
 ment, by the fact that Our Saviour, in summing 
 up our duties to our neighbor, begins with the 
 
Christian Doctrine 353 
 
 fifth Commandment of God. (See St. Matt. xix. 
 18, and St. Luke xviii. 20.) 
 
 The connection between the first three Com- 
 mandments is as follows : God, as king of kings, 
 demands in the first worship and faith, in the 
 second honor, and in the third service. Many 
 are of opinion that these first three Command- 
 ments demand that God should be honored in 
 spirit, in word, and in deed, or in the opinion 
 of St. Thomas Aquinas, in the reverse sequence, 
 in deed, in word, and in spirit. St. Augustine 
 refers them to the Unity, the Truth, and the 
 Goodness of God. Others connect them with 
 the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. But all these 
 explanations are too fanciful to be suitable for 
 a school-book. 
 
 In the last six Commandments God protects 
 the highest good of man, — in the fifth his life, in 
 the sixth his purity, in the seventh his property, 
 in the eighth his honor, and in the ninth and 
 tenth all his household. 
 
 3. The Six Commandments of the Church. 
 There are in the actual legislation of the Church 
 a great many laws and commandments binding 
 under pain of sin. But they mostly relate to 
 certain persons and classes only, or certain 
 places and countries. There are comparatively 
 few ecclesiastical laws which refer to all the 
 faithful alike, and either absolutely or with 
 
354 Christian Doctrine 
 
 slight variations bind Catholics all over the 
 world. On account of their universal character 
 these are sometimes called the chief command- 
 ments of the Church, and they alone are the 
 object of the corresponding catechetical formula. 
 Although this formula, in regard to the order 
 as well as to the number, varies very greatly in 
 Catechisms written at different times and in 
 different countries, yet for the last three hun- 
 dred years it has been substantially the same as 
 regards its contents. Pope Celestine V. (1294) 
 enumerates four commandments: (1) fast and 
 abstinence; (2) annual confession and com- 
 munion ; (3) the forbidden times ; (4) paying 
 of tithes. Bellarmin in his Catechism (1598) 
 established the following six: (1) Mass on Sun- 
 days and holy days; (2) annual confession; (3) 
 Easter communion; (4) fast; (5) abstinence; 
 (6) forbidden time for marriage. While the 
 law of tithes, tolls, and taxes in support of 
 the Church is still found in many old and 
 new Catechisms, Catechisms published in the 
 United States instead of it add the law of sup- 
 porting the Church, together with the other one 
 " prohibiting membership in a secret society." 
 This is undoubtedly a most wise and necessary 
 innovation. 
 
 Children will conceive a greater regard and 
 reverence for the commandments of the Church 
 
Christian Doctrine 355 
 
 if the Catechist can make them see how by 
 their help she leads us on to a correct and more 
 perfect observance of the Commandments of 
 God and the Christian law. 
 
 4. The Seven Sacraments. The usual enu- 
 meration of the Seven Sacraments is that 
 adopted at the Council of Trent. It is very 
 thoughtfully arranged, showing at once their 
 internal connection. The formula may be 
 divided into three parts. To the first belong 
 Baptism, Confirmation, and the Holy Eucha- 
 rist, which were always administered in this 
 same order in the first centuries of the Chris- 
 tian era. The spiritual life begun in Baptism 
 was increased and strengthened in Confirma- 
 tion, and gradually brought to final perfection 
 in the Sacrament of the Altar. 
 
 To the second part belong Penance and 
 Extreme Unction, the former to restore the 
 spiritual life lost through mortal sin, the latter 
 the complement of the Sacrament of Penance 
 in danger of death by sickness. To the third 
 part belong Holy Orders and Marriage. Un- 
 like the foregoing, these two Sacraments can not 
 be received by all, but only by certain persons, 
 and serve not so much to insure the perfection 
 of the individual as that of the whole Christian 
 Church. Holy Orders, being the more worthy 
 and honorable, takes precedence of Marriage. 
 
356 Christian Doctrine 
 
 5. The Lord's Prayer, Hail Mary, and the 
 Angelus. The form of prayer taught by Jesus 
 Christ Himself (Matt. vi. 9) is made a chief 
 feature of every Catechism, because it includes 
 everything which man can ask from God, and 
 is the best possible model from which a child 
 may learn how to pray. 
 
 Tertullian (240) calls the Lord's Prayer a 
 compend of the Gospel. The division of the 
 formula is quite perspicuous. After the open- 
 ing address (" Our Father, who art in heaven," 
 reminding us of the fatherhood and majesty of 
 God, the chief ground of all prayer) follow the 
 seven petitions, the first three referring to the 
 honor due to God by all men, the last four indi- 
 cating the various helps needed by man from 
 God. 
 
 The Hail Mary and the Angelus are forms 
 of prayer consecrated by the universal prac- 
 tice of the Church of God from the earliest 
 ages. They must be explained to the children 
 in the light of Bible History, in such a way as 
 to make them understand the intimate relation 
 between the Virgin Mother and her Divine 
 Son. This will heighten their confidence in, 
 as well as their love for, the Mother of God. 
 
 6. Works of Christian Mercy. These for- 
 mulas serve to impress upon the children the 
 different ways in which the love of our neigh- 
 
Christian Doctrine 357 
 
 bor must come to the relief of his bodily and 
 spiritual needs. Until the end of the Middle 
 Ages only six corporal works of mercy are 
 mentioned, namely, those referred to by Christ 
 in His discourse on the Last Judgment (Matt. 
 xxv. 35). Later, however, in view of Tobias 
 xii. 12 and Ecclus. xxxviii. 16, the burial of the 
 dead was added to the list. 
 
 The seven spiritual works of mercy are not 
 enumerated together in any one place in the 
 Bible, but are gathered from passages scattered 
 throughout the Old and New Testaments. 
 
 7. The Seven Capital Sins and the Opposite 
 Virtues. The present formula is of recent 
 date. Originally capital or chief sins was a 
 term applied to those serious transgressions of 
 the Commandments mentioned in Gal. v. 19. 
 Pope Gregory the Great enumerates eight 
 chief evil thoughts as the root of all sins. Since 
 that time the term " Capital Sins " is used to 
 indicate those evil inclinations in man which 
 are the cause of all other sins. 
 
 The various formulas, though differing from 
 one another, agree in putting pride in the first 
 place, and in counting only such as can be easily 
 reduced to the threefold concupiscence men- 
 tioned in 1 John ii. 16. There is nothing in 
 the sequence of the various formulas to suggest 
 any internal connection between the different 
 
35 8 Christian Doctrine 
 
 sins. The formula of the seven capital virtues 
 was devised long after that of the capital sins, 
 and was evidently suggested by the idea of 
 their contrast. 
 
 Art. 6. — The Catholic Library 
 
 The reading of good or bad literature exer- 
 cises a powerful influence upon the moral and 
 religious life of man. With good reason has 
 the press been called " a power," for by means 
 of bad reading man can be completely cor- 
 rupted, as by good reading he will be spiritu- 
 ally ennobled. This applies still more fully 
 and with far greater force to children and 
 youth, whose minds and hearts are by nature 
 far more sensitive to every kind of moral influ- 
 ence. Again, it applies to all forms of literature, 
 to books as well as periodicals and newspapers, 
 to serious as well as light literature. 
 
 The apostolic warning of the Fathers of the 
 III. Plenary Council of Baltimore, addressed to 
 Catholic parents, should also inspire the Cate- 
 chist with an earnest desire to help in realizing 
 its wholesome lesson with his Christian Doc- 
 trine class. They say : " Not only should the 
 immoral, the vulgar, the sensational novel, the 
 indecently illustrated newspaper, and publica- 
 tions tending to weaken the faith in the relig- 
 
Christian Doctrine 359 
 
 ion and the Church of Jesus Christ, be abso- 
 lutely excluded from every Christian home, 
 but the dangerously exciting and morbidly emo- 
 tional, whatever, in a word, is calculated to im- 
 pair or lower the tone of faith and morals in the 
 youthful mind and heart, should be carefully 
 banished. . . . Let the family bookshelves be 
 well supplied with what is both pleasant and 
 wholesome. . . . Remember that the develop- 
 ment of the youthful character is intimately 
 connected with the development of the taste 
 for reading. Of books as well as of associa- 
 tions may be held the wise saying, ' Show me 
 your company and I will tell you what you are.' 
 See, then, that none but good books and news- 
 papers, as well as none but good companions, 
 be admitted to your homes " (Pastoral Letter). 
 
 A well-selected and properly managed library 
 for the use of the Christian Doctrine or Sunday- 
 school class is one of the most powerful helps 
 in the religious instruction of youth. Many 
 excellent and most useful practical remarks on 
 this subject may be found in Lambing (pp. 
 189 ff.) and especially in the series of articles 
 on juvenile literature which appeared in the 
 A. EccL R., December, 1896. 
 
 In this matter two points deserve special 
 attention, first, the selection of the books for 
 the library; secondly, their use for the pupils. 
 
360 Christian Doctrine 
 
 A. Selection of Books 
 
 We would lay it down as a principle that " a 
 limited collection of suitable books is more to 
 be desired than filling the shelves of the library 
 with every book for the young that can be found 
 in publishers' catalogues. . . . For this reason 
 great care should be taken in purchasing books V 
 (Lbg., I.e.). Hence the Catechist ought to keep 
 in view the following guiding principles : — 
 
 1. No book must be allowed a place in this 
 library the contents of which are not in strict 
 conformity with Catholic doctrine and spirit. 
 " Not all books that bear the imprint of a 
 Catholic publisher possess the essential * Im- 
 primatur ' of Catholic tone and spirit ; indeed, 
 there are books having the distinct title of 
 Catholic which nevertheless are anything or 
 everything but Catholic. Let the quality, not 
 the name or cheapness, of Catholic literature be 
 the gauge of our selection" (A. EccL R„ I.e., 
 p. 614). The main stock of the library ought 
 to be books apt to arouse and foster the relig- 
 ious, moral, and patriotic sentiments of the 
 children. While the books need not be exclu- 
 sively ascetic and moralizing, or purely doc- 
 trinal, they ought not to be exclusively amusing ; 
 but even works of fiction in such a library 
 ought to be such as convey a doctrinal or moral 
 
Christian Doctrine 361 
 
 lesson under an entertaining form, thus com- 
 bining the agreeable with the useful. Again, it 
 is easily understood that the books should con- 
 tain more of what is worthy of imitation than 
 shocking examples of vice and sin to be avoided. 
 It is better to draw the young to the love of vir- 
 tue by showing its beauty and merit, than to the 
 hatred of vice by the sight of its horrible loath- 
 someness, although this latter means of Chris- 
 tian instruction may serve its purpose when 
 wisely used, just as the black background of 
 the painting brings out more strongly the 
 beauty of the main figure or object. Again, 
 the Catechist who selects the books for his Sun- 
 day-school library should remember that their 
 principal aim is religious training, not the teach- 
 ing of the English language. On this point 
 the A, Eccl. R., I.e., p. 571, very appropriately 
 remarks : " The sensational fiction of the day 
 we can well dispense with. Not so, however, 
 with a large store of literature which, while not- 
 equal in form or ideal conception to the best 
 works of literary art, are nevertheless rightly 
 instructive and capable of engaging the childish 
 imagination in behalf of what is true and beau- 
 tiful according to the highest wisdom of Chris- 
 tian teaching. Our zeal for modernizing makes 
 us far too exacting, and we cast aside as chaff 
 the grain which still nourishes, although it may 
 
362 Christian Doctrine 
 
 not be of the richest or the latest production of 
 the field. The freshest is not always the most 
 healthful, despite the fact that the new theory 
 insists upon its being so. Let us be glad to 
 hold on to the good old store of Catholic books, 
 and welcome their simple and at times inferior 
 diction for the sound food which they furnish 
 to the mind and the heart. Exact grammar 
 and exalted expression, though very desirable 
 features of a nineteenth-century education, are 
 not the elements which educate or even refine ; 
 they make the child neither thoughtful nor 
 moral." The same writer demands and explains 
 that books for children ought to be instructive, 
 elevating, and interesting. 
 
 2. In regard to the contents of the books 
 for a Sunday-school library, it is evident that 
 those of a historical and narrative character are 
 the first on the list, no matter whether they 
 refer to real facts or fiction. Events from 
 Sacred and Church History, lives of Christ 
 and His blessed Mother, of the saints in the 
 Old and New Testament, biographies of holy 
 and celebrated persons ; then, also, the history 
 of the country and its famous men, — all these 
 books, written for children, should find a place 
 in the Sunday-school library. As regards 
 fiction, only a blind man who can not see the 
 actual condition and happenings of the day, 
 
Christian Doctrine 363 
 
 could exclude it from a Christian Doctrine 
 library. The great writer of American Cath- 
 olic juveniles, Rev. F. J. Finn, S.J., closes an 
 excellent article on the subject in the A. 
 Eccl. R., I.e., with these words : " Catholic 
 stories for the young are, under present con- 
 ditions, of the utmost importance, inasmuch as 
 they supplement the training at school and at 
 home ; inasmuch as they divert our young 
 people from dangerous, or at least useless, 
 literary channels ; inasmuch as they furnish 
 God's beloved little ones with high ideals, 
 which are received into minds the most plastic, 
 the most open, the most sympathetic " (p. 580). 
 Considering that a Sunday-school library ought 
 to include books suited for the pupils of the 
 lower and of the higher grades, it ought to 
 include books adapted to the mental capabil- 
 ities of the children, explanatory of Christian 
 doctrines, of the Liturgy of the Church, of the 
 constitution and external organization of the 
 Church, of Christian life and its diverse phases 
 (ascetics), etc. Even controversies and polemics 
 in popular form may be sparsely represented, 
 as they can do a great deal of good with the 
 pupils of advanced classes. 
 
 3. A Christian Doctrine or Sunday-school 
 library ought also to contain a sufficient num- 
 ber of books necessary and useful for the Cate- 
 
364 Christian Doctrine 
 
 chists, be they religious or lay persons. These, 
 as we remarked in The Sunday Companion, 
 November 4, 1900, may be divided into four 
 classes : — 
 
 (a) Books on Pedagogy. There are certain 
 general principles and rules which apply uni- 
 versally to the instruction of children and the 
 education of youth, whether secular or relig- 
 ious; certain methods of instruction, whether 
 the knowledge to be imparted be truths revealed 
 by God or found by the unaided reason of man ; 
 laws of morality and conduct of the natural as 
 well as the supernatural order. Again, there 
 are some general rules and methods of keeping 
 order and discipline in a class of children which 
 apply equally to every kind of school, whatever 
 the object for which the children come there. 
 
 It will, therefore, be of great help to every 
 Catechist if he has some acquaintance with 
 these general rules and methods of teaching a 
 class of children, just as our teachers in public 
 or parochial schools are supposed to have a 
 sufficient knowledge of pedagogics. 
 
 Unfortunately we have not a single book on 
 pedagogics written in English by a Catholic 
 author and from the Catholic standpoint, that 
 is, in the light of Catholic faith ; while the 
 current non-Catholic pedagogical literature is 
 saturated with Protestant and materialistic doc- 
 
Christian Doctrine 365 
 
 trines. And yet the Catholic religion alone 
 can teach the true principles of education, as 
 it alone teaches the true doctrine of man's 
 moral nature. A most interesting and highly 
 instructive article on " The Literature of Peda- 
 gogics," written by a thorough scholar, Rev. 
 Thomas A. Hughes, S.J., may be read in the 
 A. EccL R., July, 1895. 
 
 (o) Books of Catholic Information in Gen- 
 eral. No one can impart to another mind 
 what his own does not first possess. More- 
 over, to make children " learn," that is, know 
 and understand their religion, — the facts, 
 truths, and laws of holy faith, — demands in the 
 teacher a whole treasure house of religious and 
 secular information from which he may draw 
 whatever he needs for the purpose of explana- 
 tion, illustration, comparison, argument, and 
 persuasion. The Catechist ought not to be 
 satisfied with being correctly informed on that 
 subject only, whether in Catechism or Bible 
 History, which the child is actually going to 
 learn. He ought to know many other things 
 that will help and assist him in making his 
 teaching as attractive, interesting, useful, and 
 easy for the child as it possibly can be made. 
 Hence, he ought to have access to fuller exposi- 
 tions of Catholic faith or belief, the Command- 
 ments of God and of the Church, the Mass and 
 
366 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Sacraments, the liturgy, feasts, and ceremonies 
 of the Church, the history of the Church, her 
 organization, her religious orders, her foreign 
 missions, her saints, etc. A Catechist's library 
 should also contain a Catholic Dictionary, an 
 Introduction to Holy Scriptures, some books 
 on Catholic Controversy, an Apology of the 
 Christian Religion, and Evidences of the Cath- 
 olic Church. 
 
 (c) Manuals of Religious Instruction for 
 Children. These books are to serve the Cate- 
 chist as practical models, or examples and 
 guides in the manner and method of explain- 
 ing and imparting Catholic truth to children 
 or classes of Christian Doctrine. 
 
 {d) Books explaining the method and man- 
 ner of teaching Sunday-school or of conducting 
 Christian Doctrine classes, telling the Cate- 
 chist how to teach Christian Doctrine, what 
 principles to follow and what means to use in 
 order to make his ministry successful. 
 
 A number of books referring to the above 
 four classes will be mentioned in the Appendix. 
 
 B. Use of the Books 
 
 When the Catechist has been successful in 
 establishing a library for his school, it then be- 
 comes his further duty to urge the children to 
 
Christian Doctrine 367 
 
 the right use of those books, and to guide and 
 lead them in their readings. Therein he should 
 follow these principles : — 
 
 1. Give to them or let them choose only 
 such books as are adapted and suited to their 
 age, their mental condition, and their particular 
 need. Spirago is of opinion that books should 
 be given only to older children. He quotes 
 Engelbert Fischer, an authority on juveniles, 
 as saying : kl Before the age of ten reading- 
 can not do much good, though it may do no 
 harm. Children below ten should rather have 
 outdoor exercise, play under the teachers or 
 parent's guidance, study good pictures, and 
 listen to stories." Kellner, another authority, 
 observes that "viewed from a pedagogic stand- 
 point books for children from seven to eight 
 years are, as a rule, abortions." While this 
 may be perfectly correct in theory, American 
 Catholics are placed before the actual con- 
 dition that with them even small children of 
 the above ages will and do read. Hence some 
 provision must be made for them. Again, chil- 
 dren must not be allowed to select the books 
 from the library themselves ; they must ask for 
 a book from the Catechist or the person in 
 charge of the library. By his wise and gentle 
 guidance he will be able gradually to plant and 
 foster in his pupils a taste for religious reading. 
 
368 Christian Doctrine 
 
 2. In the same spirit the Catechist must 
 guard against the twofold danger to which chil- 
 dren left to themselves are exposed : first, that 
 of reading too much, and without thought and 
 profit, and secondly, of reading fiction rather 
 than facts, secular books rather than religious 
 ones, and, as Lambing says, the story-book 
 rather than the Catechism. 
 
 3. The Catechist ought to be well acquainted 
 with the books in the library, in order to be able 
 to recommend to the children those best suited 
 for them. Let him also get acquainted with 
 the books in the public library of the place. 
 It is a well-known fact that not only Catholic 
 adults, but also Catholic children, apply for 
 books at the public libraries. It is of little use 
 to tell them : don't read any books from the 
 public library. Better train them to bring you 
 the book they have got, or mention the one 
 they desire to get, from the public library, and 
 then tell them whether they may read it or not. 
 Older children must be taught to discriminate 
 between books that are good, such as are bad, 
 and such as are indifferent. There is a great les- 
 son for the Catechist in the words of the A. 
 Eccl. R., I.e., pp. 619 f . : "In conditions of 
 society which are unfortunately past, it was 
 possible to educate a child in the knowledge 
 of what is good only, and to fortify it against 
 
Christian Doctrine 369 
 
 evil by habituating it to shun all inquiry into 
 what is doubtful or wrong. To-day the spirit 
 of curiosity is challenged by every scrap of 
 newspaper, by countless books in every guise of 
 intellectual and moral culture, by lectures and 
 plays, which the child can not escape or avoid. 
 The strength of true education is found no 
 longer in knowing the right and ignoring the 
 wrong ; but in knowing that there is good and 
 evil, that we must face and fight the evil." Once 
 the Catechist finds an evil book in the hands 
 of any of his pupils, he should not hesitate to 
 warn the whole class against that book. It is 
 foolish to fear that such an earnest denuncia- 
 tion will only arouse the curiosity of the chil- 
 dren and make them ask for the book ; as well 
 might the father fear to warn his children 
 against associating with a corrupt boy or girl 
 of the neighborhood. 
 
 4. Occasionally the Catechist ought to ask 
 the children privately what books and papers 
 they read at home and give them suitable ad- 
 vice and warning. By these confidential inquir- 
 ies he will often make surprising discoveries, 
 and be enabled to do much good and remove 
 much evil. 
 
 The parish priest or the head teacher of 
 the Christian Doctrine class or Sunday-school 
 should also have some resources from the 
 
370 Christian Doctrine 
 
 parish treasury or from parish contributions, 
 which would enable him to reward diligent and 
 deserving pupils by presenting them with suit- 
 able books. Evidently a great deal of good can 
 be accomplished in this way by bringing Cath- 
 olic literature into Catholic families for the 
 benefit of the children no less than that of the 
 grown members, who will undoubtedly read 
 the books given to their children or their 
 younger brothers and sisters. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 PIOUS PRACTICES IN CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE 
 
 Art. i. — Prayers 
 
 A. Educational Importance 
 
 " Let this be well understood, gentlemen : 
 till you have seen your children pray at the 
 Catechism ; pray really, till the spirit of prayer 
 has descended on them, taken possession of 
 them, penetrated them in such a way that they 
 say a prayer which is not only in their book 
 and on their lips, but in their hearts, — you 
 have done nothing yet. It is when they pray, 
 and then only, that the work of God begins to 
 develop in their souls" (Dpi. pp. 193 f.). Fur- 
 niss (p. 45) opens his chapter on "Prayer" in 
 the Sunday-school with the categoric statement, 
 " It is of the highest importance for children 
 to learn to pray well." Prayer holds such a 
 prominent place in Christian Doctrine not 
 only because of its absolute necessity for all, 
 — being the universal means of salvation for 
 every one, — but also because of its great educa- 
 tional value. " Prayer is one of the most effica- 
 
 371 
 
372 Christian Doctrine 
 
 cious means of religious-moral education. It 
 greatly assists the instruction and education of 
 the child, and exercises a supreme influence 
 upon the religious life, even in later years " 
 (Sch. p. 45). All Christian educators are 
 agreed, moreover, that this instruction must be 
 given to children in their early years, so that 
 their hearts and wills may be trained to cherish 
 and practise prayer, from the very moment 
 when their reason awakens, and by prayer in 
 turn to be ennobled, strengthened in innocence, 
 and protected against the first temptations. It 
 is true that children ought to learn their first 
 prayer from their mother at home, and many 
 (Spirago thinks that nowadays it would be 
 nearer the mark to say " some ") know the 
 usual prayers long before they come to Chris- 
 tian Doctrine. Yet how many of our young 
 children do not pray at all ; how many pray 
 badly, either because they have never learned to 
 pray well, or, if they have, have forgotten it by 
 reason of the thoughtlessness and the restless 
 activity of their nature. Let the Catechist try 
 the experiment; let him ask the children just 
 entering the first grade of his class what prayers 
 they know, what prayers they actually do say, 
 and how they say them. The result will often 
 be quite surprising, and give him a great many 
 practical "points." In doing this, however, let 
 
Christian Doctrine 373 
 
 him show extreme kindness to the neglected 
 children, and be very careful not to blame or 
 censure their parents. His first duty is to gain 
 the confidence and goodwill of these poor neg- 
 lected children, and he will have no difficulty in 
 teaching them to pray. 
 
 Prayer must be an integral part of Christian 
 Doctrine throughout the whole course, no mat- 
 ter how many grades it comprises. Moreover, 
 it must be not only practised in all classes, but 
 it ought to be taught as well. We consider it 
 to be a serious mistake to think that " only the 
 small children must be taught prayers." In 
 Christian Doctrine our Catholic children must 
 gradually be instructed in all the usual prayers 
 and forms of Catholic devotion. It is there- 
 fore a great improvement upon our former pro- 
 grammes, when the Philadelphia, New York, 
 and Buffalo courses make " prayers and devo- 
 tional exercises " and their explanations a stand- 
 ing subject for at least the first five years. 
 The New York course introduces " indulgenced 
 prayers" in the third year; the so-called greater 
 antiphons of the B. V. M. in the fourth year; 
 the Rosary in the fifth year ; the scapular of the 
 B. V. M. and the Apostleship of Prayer in the 
 sixth, together with simple " meditation," which 
 is continued in the seventh year — a most 
 praiseworthy innovation. 
 
374 Christian Doctrine 
 
 It is unnecessary to say that in all these 
 things the one great object to be attained is 
 not the memorizing of some stereotyped forms 
 of prayer, nor the mere intellectual understand- 
 ing of their meaning, but the devout practice 
 and spirit of prayer in the children. " Teach 
 the children not only to know their prayers, but 
 to say them prayerfully" (Buffalo course, p. 4). 
 
 B. Forms of Prayer 
 
 The question to be answered is what kind of 
 p ayers should be taught in Christian Doctrine. 
 While there will naturally be some difference 
 of opinion in regard to particular prayers, yet 
 the following may be accepted as general 
 rules : — 
 
 1. The children are to be taught only the 
 more necessary prayers, that is, those which are 
 to be said daily and others which are frequently 
 used by Catholics. Prayers which are the most 
 frequently used may be printed in the Cate- 
 chism, and as they form its very groundwork 
 and skeleton, ought to be given a place in the 
 beginning, not at the end of the book. How- 
 ever, the Catechism must not be made a prayer- 
 book, and children must not be allowed to take 
 it to church on the plea of learning their prayers 
 from it. 
 
Christian Doctrine 375 
 
 2. The prayers should be learned by the 
 children in the order in which they are first 
 needed, for instance, in the very beginning the 
 common Catholic prayers, z>., the sign of the 
 Cross, the Our Father, Hail Mary, Apostles' 
 Creed, and the Angelus. Then the Acts of 
 Faith, Hope, and Charity, of Contrition, the 
 Confiteor, the so-called daily prayers for morn- 
 ing and evening, the Christian salutation, 
 " Praised be Jesus Christ : Forever, Amen," the 
 prayer to the Guardian Angel and the Patron 
 Saint, grace before and after meals. In the 
 succeeding grades they should learn pious aspi- 
 rations and prayers corresponding to the more 
 favored devotions practised in the Church and 
 enriched with indulgences. Also prayers to 
 be recited in concert when at Mass, or be- 
 fore and after confession and communion. All 
 these prayers must be plain in expression, 
 simple in thought, and short in form, although 
 all need not be learned by heart. Long forms 
 of prayer for children are an abomination when 
 viewed from the point of pedagogy. The Sta- 
 tions of the Way of the Cross are an exception ; 
 they are a great favorite with children when 
 said in common, being in fact nothing but a 
 series of short meditations and prayers which 
 can easily be explained. The same is true of 
 litanies. In this connection Dupanloup men- 
 
376 Christian Doctrine 
 
 tions " a holy device " which he deems truly 
 excellent, namely, a litany to be composed by 
 the Catechist, containing the names of all the 
 patron saints of the children and having that 
 litany recited from time to time in class. " You 
 will understand that to hear one's baptismal 
 name pronounced and then to hear one's patron 
 saint invoked, has something in it which is 
 pleasant to every child. Besides, the story of 
 each of the saints invoked can be related to the 
 children one by one, or at least some striking 
 fact in his life. This interests the children; 
 it leads them to imitate the saints, and inspires 
 them with a real confidence in their protection " 
 (pp. 337 f.). It would be a most excellent prac- 
 tice, and one that could be made without much 
 labor or research, to say before the lesson a 
 short prayer (taken from the Breviary or Missal) 
 in honor of the saint whose feast happens to 
 fall on the day or days when Christian Doc- 
 trine is held. The children learning the saint's 
 name might be asked about him, and if they 
 answer well be rewarded with a picture of the 
 saint (if it can be had, otherwise with another 
 one). The cost is a trifle, the gain for child 
 and Catechist immeasurable. In this way Cath- 
 olic children would be trained to honor their 
 patron saints and to observe the old and 
 genuine Catholic custom of observing their 
 
Christian Doctrine 377 
 
 patron saint's day, instead of following the 
 essentially Protestant custom of celebrating 
 one's birthday. 
 
 3. Where there are certain definite forms 
 or formulas of prayers, whether officially pre- 
 scribed or established by ecclesiastical custom, 
 general or national, these formulas ought to be 
 strictly followed. " Although the formulas of 
 prayer are something merely external, , they 
 must by no means be neglected. Christ Him- 
 self taught us this by teaching His Apostles a 
 definite formula, and the Church follows His 
 example. Such a formula is far more neces- 
 sary for children than for adults" (Sch. p. 
 297). Dupanloup, speaking of the Acts of 
 Faith, Hope, and Charity, says : "Some one will 
 say, perhaps, that for these acts there is no 
 absolute need of prescribed formulas, nor of a 
 particular set of words. Leave all that, gentle- 
 men, for theorists. For you, who are, above 
 all, practical men, do you maintain that forms 
 are not only needful for all, but that they are 
 even necessary to most men. ... Be very 
 anxious, therefore, that there shall not be a 
 single child in your Catechism class who does 
 not know by heart the words of all these Chris- 
 tian Acts." The rule laid down in the New 
 York course in regard to the Act of Contrition 
 applies equally to the three theological acts: 
 
378 Christian Doctrine 
 
 " The form of words in which the latter is 
 taught in this grade (II.) should not be changed 
 for any other during the school life of the 
 children." In other words, use the same for- 
 mulas throughout the whole course of Christian x 
 Doctrine. We are inclined to extend this rule 
 to all the prayers which are learned in this 
 class. In the upper grades, beginning with 
 the first confession grade, they ought to be 
 such in thought and expression that they may 
 still be used by the children after having grown 
 to adult life. Sentimental thought and phrase 
 must be avoided. Diminutives and "baby 
 talk" are out of place in prayer. Such phrases 
 leave no impression, and become utterly un- 
 suited to grown up children, who, not know- 
 ing any other forms, will be tempted to omit 
 these prayers altogether. 
 
 4. With very small children preference may 
 be given, by way of exception, to prayers in 
 rhyme. They are more easily remembered, 
 and the children like them better. If forms of 
 prayer are attractive, children are more easily 
 won to use them. The use of rhymed prayers 
 is entirely in accordance with the spirit of the 
 Church, which loves to praise God in hymns 
 and songs. Schoberl says very truly : " There 
 is nothing prosaic about the holy Catholic 
 Church ; almost involuntarily all her praying 
 
Christian Doctrine 379 
 
 turns into song and rhythm. Even her prayers 
 written in prose, and the readings from the 
 Holy Scriptures, she recites in musical intona- 
 tion. The Creed and the Our Father, two 
 chief items of every Catechism, are sung in 
 every High Mass. In fact, whenever the 
 Church prays, she breaks out into poetry, and 
 sends forth her aspirations to Heaven in psalms, 
 in hymns, and in canticles. Will it not, there- 
 fore, be truly fitting that the small Catechism 
 should clothe in the poetic guise of verse the 
 prayers used daily by the children, and call 
 beautiful music to aid it in making those prayers 
 still sweeter and more harmonious in the ears 
 of God as well as of the child ? " (See also 
 Eph. v. 19; Col. iii. 16.) 
 
 5. Children of the higher grades, say from 
 the fourth year, ought to be instructed in the 
 use of free and spontaneous prayer, indepen- 
 dent of formula or book ; they ought to be 
 shown and trained how to pray to God in their 
 own words just as and when their heart 
 prompts them. Explain it by the example of 
 Christ in the Garden of Olives or on the Cross ; 
 other instances can be found all through Bible 
 History. Let the Catechist use occasions when 
 the children are more deeply moved and af- 
 fected, for instance, at a funeral, during a 
 storm, at the news of a great disaster, at a 
 
380 Christian Doctrine 
 
 special celebration or feast. Let him say a 
 corresponding short prayer and make the chil- 
 dren repeat it. These are truly object-lessons 
 in prayer. 
 
 C. Method of Teaching Prayer 
 
 1. The most important and more usual pray- 
 ers must be learned by heart, as children, and, 
 in fact, most adults, are unable to express them- 
 selves in their own words. It may be done 
 in the following manner : the Catechist recites 
 the first sentence very clearly; it is then 
 repeated by a few pupils, singly, and then by 
 all the children in concert. Then he re- 
 cites the second sentence, which is repeated like 
 the first, and so on, until the whole is learned. 
 As this work is very tedious and wearisome, it 
 should not be continued long. After going 
 once through some prayers in this manner, it 
 is better to turn to something else, and resume 
 the former exercise at a later hour. Here the 
 proverb is applicable : " Gtttta cavat lapidem 
 non vi sed scepe cadendo " (Not the weight of 
 the drop, but its constant dripping, wears the 
 stone). As mere mechanical recitations of 
 formulas demand no mental effort, they are 
 best kept for a time when the children are tired 
 of a lesson and need a change. 
 
Christian Doctrine 381 
 
 2. The Catechist should be particular to see 
 that the children accustom themselves to make 
 the sign of the Cross correctly and reveren- 
 tially. The first exercise will be somewhat of 
 a class exercise in gymnastics. The children 
 place their left hand at the lower end of the 
 breast ; then let them move the right hand up 
 and down a few times, from the forehead to the 
 breast, then again a few times from the left to 
 the right shoulder across the breast. The 
 thumb of the right hand should be a little 
 parted from the fingers, which must be neither 
 spread out in every direction nor held as stiff 
 as a board ; neither must the hand form a fist 
 with the thumb sticking out. After these 
 preliminary exercises, and having previously 
 learned the words, let them make the full sign 
 in this way: First join the hands before the 
 breast, separate them, and place the left below 
 the breast ; with the right hand touch the fore- 
 head, saying, "In the name of the Father"; 
 then touch the breast, saying, " and of the 
 Son " ; then touch the left and right shoulder, 
 saying, "and of the Holy Ghost"; at the 
 "Amen" join the hands again before the breast. 
 
 The children should also be taught the so- 
 called triple Cross, which the Church orders us 
 to make at the beginning of the Gospel in the 
 Mass, and which ought to be made also, as is 
 
382 Christian Doctrine 
 
 evident, at the reading of the Gospel before the 
 •sermon. This consists in making a small cross 
 on the forehead, over the closed mouth, and on 
 the breast. Its extremely simple yet profoundly 
 rich meaning is that by the Cross of Christ we 
 beg for the grace to understand His word by 
 our mind, to profess it with our mouth, and to 
 practise it with our heart. 
 
 If there are so many children and young 
 people who make the sign of the Cross in a 
 most irreverent manner, no little of the blame 
 must be charged to careless Catechists. How 
 often, when watching a school of children 
 file into church, are we reminded of the fol- 
 lowing passage in Lambing's excellent book 
 on " The Sacramentals ": " If a person were to 
 stand fifteen minutes at the door of almost any 
 of our churches on a Sunday morning, and 
 look at the motions gone through by not a few 
 of those who enter, he would be safe in conclud- 
 ing that if they were reproduced on paper they 
 might as readily be taken for a Chinese manu- 
 script as for anything else ; but it would re- 
 quire a stretch of imagination to see in many 
 of them what they were intended to represent " 
 (Ch. v. " The Sign of the Cross," p. 67). 
 
 3. Although it is not necessary, as we have 
 remarked before, that children should under- 
 stand exactly the prayers they recite, yet it is 
 
Christian Doctrine 383 
 
 evidently of the greatest advantage if they have 
 at least some knowledge of what those prayers 
 are and mean. Hence they ought to be ex- 
 plained as far as the children are able to under- 
 stand them. These explanations will, therefore, 
 differ in extent as well as in form, according to 
 the different grades and the greater or less 
 capacity of the children. It will be necessary 
 to explain words and terms as well as sentences. 
 Sometimes the origin and history of the prayer, 
 the different uses of it in Liturgy, will help to 
 make the instruction more interesting. 
 
 The prayers learned and explained must be 
 often reviewed. Children easily forget what 
 they have memorized, unless the matter be con- 
 tinually kept before their minds. Such reviews 
 may be made at the end of a lesson or when 
 there is a pause or interruption. Not only the 
 form or words should be repeated, but also 
 there should be an explanation. This can 
 best be done by questions testing the chil- 
 dren's understanding. 
 
 But all this learning, reviewing, and testing 
 of prayers must be most carefully distinguished 
 from the devout act of praying. The children 
 must be made to know and feel this important 
 difference between the mere " drilling " and 
 the external expression of internal devotion. 
 Hence, while exercising or practising only, 
 
384 Christian Doctrine 
 
 they should not be allowed to fold their hands 
 as when in the act of praying. 
 
 4. The Catechist must, therefore, teach the 
 children also what devotion is and how it may be 
 excited in the heart ; in other words, he must 
 teach them, in a way adapted to their mental 
 condition, the nature and motives of prayer 
 long before he reaches that chapter in Cate- 
 chism. He must not merely drill and train 
 the children how to say prayers ; he must 
 make them actually pray with attention and 
 devotion, in and out of class. In class, he 
 must himself pray with them before and 
 after, and as occasion may call for it, also 
 during the lesson. These prayers in school 
 should all be said aloud, because the Catholic re- 
 ligion exacts the public profession of faith, and 
 because most of the children could not easily 
 pray in silence while together in class. As an 
 exception only, the Catechist or some one child 
 may pray aloud whilst the other pupils follow 
 the prayer silently. When saying these prayers 
 the children should speak neither too loud nor 
 too low, but should pronounce every word rev- 
 erently and distinctly. They should stand with 
 their hands folded on their breasts and their 
 eyes reverentially fixed on the crucifix. The 
 Catechist should maintain the same position. 
 School prayers should not be long, and the 
 
Christian Doctrine 385 
 
 younger children should have shorter prayers 
 than the more advanced pupils. 
 
 The Catechist should also see that children 
 make prayer a regular practice at home, remind- 
 ing them to say their daily prayers regularly 
 every morning and evening; asking them now 
 and then whether they have said their prayers, 
 and if so what prayers. If a child hesitates 
 a while before being able to tell what his daily 
 prayers are, the suspicion is well founded that 
 he has not said any at all. 
 
 Herein, however, let the Catechist beware 
 that he does not overburden the children. Fol- 
 low as a principle : Rather a little than too 
 much. Father Furniss offers some excellent 
 practical advice on the subject (pp. 38 ff .) : " If 
 I prescribe to a child for its daily use a morn- 
 ing offering half a page long, or an examination 
 of conscience of bewildering length, or long 
 prayers, or prayers of hard words and long 
 sentences, ... in all these cases a child is sup- 
 posed to do what morally speaking it can not 
 do. What then is the consequence ? The case 
 of the child will be like that of a beast of 
 burden. . . . Lay upon it a load which is 
 above its strength, and the beast will kick it off 
 and escape. ... If I want, then, to regulate 
 the pious practices of children, the right way is, 
 not for me to sit down and write what I might 
 
J 
 
 86 Christian Doctrine 
 
 speculatively suppose it would be reasonable 
 for them to do, but I should go and be in per- 
 sonal communication with the children for 
 years, and understand them and know their 
 ways, and see with my own eyes and by my 
 own experience what they do and can do and 
 will do, considering all circumstances." 
 
 5. Let the Catechist remember that, in teach- 
 ing children how to pray well, "example will be 
 the best instructor " (Buffalo course, p. 4). " The 
 example of a teacher is the best guide for chil- 
 dren in the manner of praying " (Sch. p. 298). 
 Says Lambing (p. 163) : " Teachers of the prayer- 
 class should be careful to recite the prayers 
 and especially sacred names with becoming 
 reverence. How sad it is, if not scandalous, 
 to hear teachers recite prayers in a tone that 
 sounds more like upbraiding than supplicating 
 Heaven, and repeating the holiest names with 
 an indifference that savors more of the street 
 rabble than of the sanctuary ! " A very impor- 
 tant observation, too little noticed by many 
 priests, is here made by Dupanloup (p. 199). 
 If the children of the Catechism are to learn 
 how to say prayers devoutly and reverently, 
 all the teaching and example of the Catechist 
 will avail nothing when priest and people of 
 the parish destroy, by their bad example, what 
 he has built up. " In many parishes not only 
 
Christian Doctrine 387 
 
 do the people respond badly in the prayers, 
 hurriedly and confusedly, and murmuring the 
 words rather than articulating them ; but even 
 the part said by the priest, is it always recited 
 as it ought to be ? Is it clear, distinct, the 
 spirit of faith breathing in it? Is it done so 
 that the people can hear well what the priest 
 says? How deeply is it to be regretted, if it 
 is the priest himself who sets the example of 
 unbecoming haste." These words apply in a 
 very particular manner, unfortunately, to far 
 too many Catholic parishes in America. What 
 wonder if the children of such places do not 
 know how to pray. 
 
 On the necessity of teaching children not 
 only devotion but also reverence and the "fear 
 of the Lord," see Manual, pp. xiv. f. 
 
 6. Lastly, it belongs to this part of Chris- 
 tian Doctrine to teach children how to use 
 the prayer-book aright and with profit (Dpi. 
 p. 195), and to help them in the selection of 
 books suited for them. It can be safely stated 
 that of all the children's prayer-books in the 
 market one-half ought to be " cremated." A 
 Catechist guided by the rules given in 
 this and the following articles, and above in 
 the article on Liturgy (p. 148) will easily know 
 what a good prayer-book for children ought 
 to be. 
 
$88 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Art. 2. — Sacred Hymns 
 
 A. Educational Value and Use 
 
 i. The singing of hymns has a great edu- 
 cational power. This truth can be attested 
 especially by missionaries who work amongst 
 barbarous nations. Religious chant disposes 
 to devotion and moves the heart, since it is 
 characteristic of the different tones of the voice 
 and of music to call forth corresponding emo- 
 tions in man. St. Augustine assures us that 
 he was even moved to tears while listening 
 to the singing of sacred hymns and psalms. 
 Again religious chant awakens in us a long- 
 ing after heavenly things, and excites in us a 
 loathing of the sinful enjoyments of the earth. 
 Lastly, it renders the assistance at divine wor- 
 ship pleasant, and draws us powerfully to the 
 house of God. For this reason the saints can 
 not find words enough to extol the importance 
 of the sacred chant, and many celebrated and 
 learned servants of God, such as King David, 
 St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, Pope St. Greg- 
 ory the Great, have bestowed much care on 
 the cultivation of sacred hymns and sacred 
 song. St. Paul, too, repeatedly exhorted the 
 Christians to the singing of hymns (Eph. v. 19; 
 Col. iii. 16). On this religious influence which 
 
Christian Doctrine 389 
 
 the singing of sacred hymns exerts upon the 
 faithful in general, see the beautiful chapter 
 " On Congregational Singing," by Cardinal 
 Gibbons in " The Ambassador of Christ." 
 
 Dupanloup devotes a whole discourse (pp. 
 179 ff.) to the singing of hymns in Chris- 
 tian Doctrine. Speaking of its educational 
 advantages he says : " The singing of hymns 
 during the Catechism is one of the most 
 powerful means for at the same time instruct- 
 ing the children soundly, touching their heart, 
 lifting up their soul, and converting them. . . . 
 They have, further, this very great advantage, 
 that they oblige the children at the same time 
 to make all sorts of religious acts, acts of faith, 
 of hope, of love, of contrition, of good resolve, 
 etc. All these acts, in fact, are to be found in 
 the hymns. . . . Besides, in the Catechism one 
 is not confined to having the hymns sung ; they 
 are explained, they are developed, their beauty 
 is shown to the children, who are made to feel 
 their force and unction ; and there is no kind 
 of discourse to which they are more alive. . . . 
 If well arranged and alternating with other 
 parts of the Catechism, the singing prevents 
 weariness in the children, it refreshes them, it 
 rests them after the more serious exercise just 
 finished. . . . Finally, singing the hymns helps 
 to keep order and silence, and prevents the 
 
390 Christian Doctrine 
 
 distraction of children at certain moments 
 which is almost inevitable." 
 
 Father Furniss, speaking of his wide experi- 
 ence with children, says : " Frequent singing 
 for a very short time had the very best influ- 
 ence with children. But it was found that 
 singing could be employed not only to attract 
 and please the children, but to a considerable 
 extent as a substitute for the painful task of 
 learning by heart. . . . Singing of the myste- 
 ries and prayers was tried instead of, or rather 
 in addition to, learning by heart, and the object 
 was accomplished with tenfold facility" (p. 19). 
 He strongly recommends, as an easy and quick 
 method of learning the essentials of Chris- 
 tian Doctrine the singing thereof in class. 
 " It has been tried in a number of Sunday- 
 schools and has been found to be very 
 successful. ... To learn by repetition only 
 the prayers, principal mysteries, sacraments, 
 commandments, etc., is to a child a fatiguing 
 and distasteful task ; to learn them by singing 
 is a child's delight" (pp. 23 ff.). Book IV. is 
 wholly devoted to a detailed statement of this 
 method of u Singing the Christian Doctrine," 
 and most excellent and practical directions are 
 given in Chapter 1., which we heartily recom- 
 mend to the attention of Catechists. 
 
 The Conspectus for the examination of teach- 
 
Christian Doctrine 391 
 
 ers in the Diocese of Cleveland says upon this 
 point : " Music induces a spirit of devotion, and 
 song combined with religious feeling receives 
 its holiest sanction and its highest significance. 
 For the impressiveness and beauty of our Cath- 
 olic service, singing in schools becomes incon- 
 trovertibly of prime importance. ... It is 
 perhaps not necessary to remind teachers that 
 church and religious songs must needs form 
 the main part of the chosen songs, not merely 
 for the aim of induction into taking part in 
 religious service, but also to show the child 
 the close connection between church and 
 school, as in Catechism." The Teacher's 
 Manual of the Diocese of New York, p. 106, 
 gives a list of hymns which " should be learned 
 by all the children of all the schools for use in 
 congregational singing." The Philadelphia 
 course prescribes the singing of " church hymns 
 and national songs " for every grade. 
 
 2. Naturally, where these regulations are 
 observed in the Catholic schools, it will be an 
 easy matter for the Catechist to make the sing- 
 ing of hymns a regular feature of Christian 
 Doctrine, and he need not lose much of his 
 valuable time in first teaching the children the 
 sacred songs ; possibly the only thing left to him 
 in this respect may be the explanation of the 
 text. But where there is no Catholic school, 
 
39 2 Christian Doctrine 
 
 it will often be the duty of the priest or Cate- 
 chist to teach the children some sacred hymns. 
 Happy if he have some musical training ena- 
 bling him to do this work, or if he find some 
 good person, man or woman, willing to do it 
 for him. In this the following rules ought to 
 be observed : — 
 
 (a) Only those hymns should be learned 
 and practised that are usually sung in church, 
 whether regularly or only at certain seasons, 
 whether by the children alone or by the whole 
 congregation. It would be a loss of time to prac- 
 tise such hymns exclusively which the children 
 will never sing after leaving school. Before prac- 
 tising the melody and learning the text by heart, 
 the latter should be explained to the children, so 
 that they may understand the meaning of the 
 words they sing; they may also be told the 
 history of the hymn ; its liturgical character and 
 use might also be explained when children are 
 sufficiently advanced to profit by such lessons. 
 As a rule, the text of at least the first few 
 strophes ought to be learned by heart and that, 
 if possible, before the children are taught its 
 melody. They ought to be taught by the liv- 
 ing voice of the teacher, not by the organ or 
 the violin. It may be well first to train a few 
 children who have a good ear and voice ; the 
 rest will learn by listening and will more easily 
 
Christian Doctrine 393 
 
 follow the lead of those few when practising 
 themselves. 
 
 (b) Variety and change can be brought into 
 the class by alternating between boys and girls, 
 between one side of the class-room or church 
 and the other, between a sort of choir and the 
 whole class. While the children must be trained 
 to sing with a loud, clear voice, they must not 
 be permitted to scream. There should be 
 neither too much of a hurry, nor, on the other 
 hand, any dragging along, which makes singing 
 heavy and tedious. (See the excellent rules 
 given in Furniss, pp. 84 ff.) The Catechist, 
 or whoever practises with the children, must 
 always lead and direct them, like the leader of 
 an orchestra. " A Catechist who does not sing 
 with the children surprises them and does them 
 no good. . . . Either zeal or piety is wanting 
 in him, or health" (Dpi. p. 183). If ear and 
 voice are wanting, he ought at least to show his 
 interest by teaching the children the words and 
 meaning of the hymns. 
 
 (c) The hymns learned should be turned to 
 good account at suitable times in Christian 
 Doctrine. For instance, a hymn suited to the 
 season of the Church might be sung now and 
 then, instead of the usual prayer. Moreover, 
 during the instruction itself an appropriate 
 hymn might be sung in order to let the chil- 
 
394 Christian Doctrine 
 
 dren pour out the religious feelings just awak- 
 ened in them. 
 
 The Catechist must make sure that all the 
 children have the hymn-book used in the parish 
 or in the diocese. It ought to be a prayer-book 
 too, containing the usual prayers for Mass and 
 for the reception of the Holy Sacraments. He 
 must have the book shown to him from time to 
 time. In doing this he will occasionally find that 
 some of the children, having thrown away or lost 
 their books, use a hymn-book which perhaps is 
 not even Catholic. The Catechist must take care 
 that the poorer children get their hymn-books, 
 as well as their other school-books, free. More- 
 over, he must see that the children know the 
 hymn-book well, and that they always bring it 
 with them to church and Christian Doctrine. 
 
 (d) The cultivation of sacred singing becomes 
 thus a part of Christian Doctrine. Since a good 
 hymn possesses an irresistible force and exer- 
 cises a powerful charm, all authors of new relig- 
 ious or political creeds have sought to get an 
 entrance for their principles by means of songs. 
 Hence the knowledge and love of sacred hymns 
 on the part of the children must not be a matter 
 of indifference to the Catechist, particularly as 
 the reform of Church singing can only succeed 
 when it is begun by the school children, who 
 must be the teachers of the people in Gods 
 
Christian Doctrine 395 
 
 house. See Cardinal Gibbons (I.e., pp. 359 f.), 
 where he quotes the III. Council of Baltimore, 
 expressing its desire that the children in our 
 parochial schools should be taught and exer- 
 cised in sacred chant. 
 
 B. Requisite Qualities 
 
 1. The hymn must be a song and not a ser- 
 mon. The primary object of a song is to mani- 
 fest the emotions and feelings already aroused 
 in the heart, and to inflame them still more. It 
 is not its aim first to awaken such emotions. 
 To excite the feelings is the work of the dis- 
 course or, as the case may be, of the sermon. 
 When the sentiment is awakened through the 
 discourse, it generally finds expression in song : 
 we like a hymn after a striking sermon. It is, 
 therefore, the expression of the sentiment awak- 
 ened. A good hymn must be so constituted as 
 to compel one involuntarily to sing. Even be- 
 fore the composer has set it to a melody it must 
 be music, viz. : music of the language, hence the 
 lyric poet is called a singer, and the " bard " of 
 old is the poet who sang his own poems. It is 
 a great fault when the hymn is turned into a 
 sermon on faith or morals, when it offers advice 
 or even reproach to those who listen. 
 
 There is another reason why a sermonizing 
 
396 Christian Doctrine 
 
 hymn is an unnatural thing : the true hymn is a 
 kind of prayer and is addressed to God. When 
 it assumes to preach, it preaches to God. Such 
 hymns, by some one aptly called " lyrical drift 
 ice," do not bear any fruit, because man feels 
 repelled by them, since he is lectured out of 
 place. 
 
 2. The air (melody) must be solemn, as in 
 plain chant, and lively as in a popular song. 
 From the first it borrows its sublime gravity 
 and earnestness, which does not mean a heavy 
 and slow dragging of notes ; from the second 
 its liveliness and mobility, which does not mean 
 the gay and flighty ditty. Hence it is absolutely 
 unbecoming when hymns are set to secular 
 airs, which cater to passion or sensuality. If 
 to use sacred vessels for secular purposes de- 
 serves punishment (King Baltassar), it is a crime 
 to sing holy words to worldly melodies. By 
 means of the melody, the words are transposed 
 into fitting tones, that is, into music. These 
 tones must be in perfect accord with the devo- 
 tional sentiments expressed in the text, and 
 strengthen its effect; otherwise the hymn is 
 ineffectual. 
 
 3. The text of the hymn ought to breathe 
 the spirit of the Church, be dignified, and 
 calculated to edify; it must not contain any- 
 thing offensive to faith or morals, or any ridicu- 
 
Christian Doctrine 397 
 
 lous expressions or worldly sentiments. Again, 
 the contents and the form of expression of the 
 hymn should be popular. A Church hymn 
 should not express the individual sentiments of 
 only one person, which might differ greatly from 
 those of the majority of other men ; it must 
 express the common religious thoughts and 
 feelings, the sentiments of the whole Christian 
 people. Moreover, the expressions and lan- 
 guage of the Church hymn should be borrowed 
 from the ordinary, plain, and expressive speech 
 of the people (not indeed slang nor yet scien- 
 tific language). For this reason, the best hymns 
 are those which have stood the test of centuries, 
 the worst, as a rule, those which are borrowed 
 by translations. Therefore let the old hymns 
 be cultivated. In them prayer finds a natural, 
 simple, and popular expression. In olden times 
 people seem to have understood how to com- 
 pose standard hymns, while our age, being more 
 industrial and political, is less capable of doing 
 it. Moreover, the old Church hymns should 
 find favor with us out of piety toward our fore- 
 fathers. There is something noble in the fact 
 of the people singing exactly the same holy 
 songs that their fathers sang in olden times. 
 Some of the most beautiful Catholic hymns 
 were retained by the Protestants at the Refor- 
 mation ; though they are now used by those of 
 
398 Christian Doctrine 
 
 other creeds, they have not, by that circum- 
 stance, lost any of their beauty and value. 
 There are also beautiful hymns composed by 
 Protestants, against which hymns there is not 
 the slightest objection from a Catholic stand- 
 point. In old hymns, however, a revision of 
 the text is necessary here and there, as there 
 are sometimes words in them which are no 
 longer in use, or which have now a different 
 meaning. Yet this revision must never be 
 made at the expense of the thoughts contained 
 in the hymns. A little want of smoothness in 
 the verse or rhyme must be allowed to pass, 
 rather than have the character of the hymn 
 changed or disfigured. 
 
 4. Hymns sung at Mass must be short. 
 Long hymns (during Mass) are to be condemned 
 because they leave no room for the silent de- 
 votion of the heart. . . . This constant sing- 
 ing (the Protestant manner of praying) is not 
 Catholic, and does not promote devotion, but 
 rather disturbs it. He who is continually sing- 
 ing can not enter into the spirit of the mysteries 
 which are being solemnized on the altar, and 
 which require a silent and calm reflection. " He 
 who is continually singing at - divine worship 
 never learns to pray " (Bede Weber). " Those 
 who pray most fervently are, as a rule, not the 
 most assiduous singers" (Thalhofer). The chief 
 
Christian Doctrine 599 
 
 thing in assisting at the holy sacrifice of the 
 Mass is always the silent devotion of the heart, 
 which only at certain moments breaks forth in 
 sacred song. Hence, the children must have 
 an opportunity to pray as well as to sing. To 
 both, prayer and song, the principle " Enough 
 is as good as a feast," equally applies with the 
 other, " Too much is hurtful " (Omne nimium 
 vertitur in vitium). 
 
 5. It is important for the Catechist to re- 
 member that not every good hymn is suitable 
 for children. Just as there is a difference in the 
 prayer of the grown person from that of the child, 
 and as we speak in different words and tones 
 when addressing children than when speaking 
 to adults, so there ought to be some difference 
 between the hymns adapted more for children, 
 and those better suited for the whole congre- 
 gation. While children's hymns may easily be 
 sung by the congregation, the reverse is not 
 always true. Yet, while undoubtedly thought 
 and melody must be adapted to the nature of 
 children, it is a serious mistake (though un- 
 fortunately widespread) to think that children 
 can not learn and relish a serious and grave 
 melody, and that only very easy and pleasing, 
 soft and sentimental, melodies are fit for them. 
 Again, it is positively false to say that hymns 
 expressing great Christian mysteries and high 
 
400 Christian Doctrine 
 
 and noble Christian sentiments are unsuited for 
 children. The heart of the child, in which the 
 Spirit of Truth dwells, offers a home for every 
 Christian mystery and prayer. Though the 
 meaning of the hymn be not fully understood, 
 that Christian soul unconsciously divines the 
 hidden truth. It is not so much the contents 
 of the sacred hymn that must decide its selec- 
 tion for the children, but rather the form and 
 mode of expression, and its language, which 
 must be that of the heart, not of the intellect. 
 The sacred hymn on the lips of the child is not 
 a class recitation : it is prayer and worship. 
 
 Art. 3. — The Holy Sacrifice of the Mass 
 A. Hearing Mass 
 
 I. The importance of the devout assistance 
 at the holy sacrifice of the Mass as a most 
 weighty factor in the religious and moral edu- 
 cation of the young can not be overlooked. 
 
 1. Not to mention the spiritual grace and 
 direct supernatural effects produced in the 
 soul of the devout worshiper, even the exter- 
 nal celebration of this mystery suggests to the 
 minds of children wholesome thoughts, as it 
 brings forcibly to their hearts the great sacri- 
 fice and oblation offered up by the Saviour of 
 the world, and reminds them of the infinite 
 
Christian Doctrine 401 
 
 justice and abounding mercy of God the 
 Father. The fact that the child must observe 
 interior recollection, attention, and a reverent 
 attitude during the service, is a religious train- 
 ing in self-control and humility. In church, 
 where rich and poor sit and kneel together, 
 without distinction, he is forcibly taught that 
 in the sight of God all men are equal. In the 
 sacrifice of the Mass, so often offered for those 
 who have passed from this life, the child will 
 learn piously to remember the dead. The 
 common prayers, the hymns and psalms, during 
 divine service, will exercise an ennobling influ- 
 ence upon him, while the sacred pictures in the 
 church will call to his memory many a solemn 
 and sacred truth learned in Catechism. " If the 
 whole of religion, the Incarnation, Redemption, 
 all our highest mysteries, are included in the 
 Holy Sacrament of the Altar; if there are 
 brought into practice the highest religious acts, 
 adoration, prayer, gratitude toward God, thanks- 
 giving, atonement for sins, — how important it 
 is that the children should be made to under- 
 stand all this, that they should be given the 
 habit of assisting at holy Mass with great- 
 faith and real devotion" (Dpi. p. 316). " It is 
 no less necessary that the children should very 
 early know how to listen to the Mass, that they 
 should know what the holy Mass is. In the 
 
402 Christian Doctrine 
 
 little Catechism we have the leisure to explain 
 the holy Mass to them, bit by bit, and thus 
 to teach them, together with a just and true 
 idea of this great sacrifice, the right way of 
 assisting at it " {lb. p. 274). Clearly, the ex- 
 planations here mentioned in regard to the 
 Mass are not the full and systematic lessons 
 of that part in the Catechism, but precisely 
 " bits of information " given at opportune 
 moments in a free and familiar way, beginning 
 in the first grade, and being continued and en- 
 larged through the succeeding grades. While 
 to the unobservant mind of the children there 
 may be no orderly connection between these 
 short explanations, there must be "system" 
 in their succession as laid out in the teacher's 
 mind. 
 
 2. Children must be made to attend regu- 
 larly at Mass on Sundays and feastdays of 
 obligation, to comply with the law of the 
 Church. But they should be taught to assist 
 also on weekdays, being led to do so by the 
 strong religious motives supplied by the great 
 mystery, its majesty, beauty, and treasures. 
 Here the question arises : Is it well to have a 
 special children's Mass on Sunday, where only 
 the children and youth of the parish, but no 
 grown people, will be admitted ? We answer : 
 By all means give the children their own Mass, 
 
Christian Doctrine 403 
 
 whenever and wherever possible. The earnest 
 chapter by Father Furniss, that zealous apostle 
 of the Catholic children of Ireland, on this sub- 
 ject (p. 269) applies to our American conditions 
 as fully as to any other country. " From expe- 
 rience we have no hesitation in saying that 
 when there is a special Mass for the children, 
 and a proper means adapted to make the chil- 
 dren hear Mass well, and with knowledge of 
 what they are about, the number of children 
 who hear Mass on Sunday will be greater by 
 two-thirds than in ordinary circumstances. 
 Moreover, such a large number of children 
 will never be got together either at day school 
 or night school, Sunday-school or any other 
 time. At such a Mass alone, a priest will have 
 before him the children of the parish. . . . We 
 conclude this subject by affirming three facts : 
 
 (1) If there be not a special Mass on Sundays 
 for children in populous places, great numbers 
 of them will not hear Mass at all, because the 
 most powerful means which can be employed 
 to attract children, the power of association and 
 sympathy of numbers, is not employed. . . . 
 
 (2) If the children during this Mass are left to 
 themselves, the greater number of them will 
 do nothing, or worse than nothing ; for they 
 will misbehave. ... (3) If they are assisted in 
 the manner indicated, those latent good dispo- 
 
404 Christian Doctrine 
 
 sitions which the word of God declares to exist 
 in children will be developed, and the holy 
 Mass will become the most powerful of all 
 means to train them in virtue and Christian 
 knowledge. . . . These things are affirmed, not 
 on conjecture, but because the experience of 
 years has proved them to be true." 
 
 II. In regard to the actual attendance at 
 Mass, the Catechist must train the children to 
 regularity and reverence. 
 
 1. Children must come to Mass regularly 
 and be on time. The Catechist must insist 
 strictly on attendance at Sunday Mass ; but a 
 certain latitude may be allowed where atten- 
 dance on weekdays is the rule. Let him be- 
 ware lest children get the wrong impression 
 of being equally bound to hear Mass on week- 
 days as on Sundays. This would do harm. 
 The difference of obligation must be clearly 
 explained to them. 
 
 To secure regular attendance observe the 
 following: — 
 
 (a) The children all assemble in the school- 
 room before the set time for Mass. The teacher 
 should see that they are all there. It prevents 
 the children from that abominable habit of 
 hanging or running about the corners of the 
 church, and it insures good order and behavior 
 in going to the church. The children must 
 
Christian Doctrine 405 
 
 walk from school to the church in proper 
 order, either single or double file, as the case 
 may be. They return from church to school 
 in like manner. Under certain conditions this 
 may be also advisable after the children's Mass 
 on Sundays, when they will disband at the 
 schoolhouse. 
 
 (b) It is a good plan for the Catechist to 
 select in every class two or more pupils to 
 report to him at the next Catechism class any 
 scholars who have absented themselves from 
 Mass. Where possible the school-teachers 
 ought to be made responsible for the attend- 
 ance at Mass of all their pupils ; they must 
 report absentees to the Catechist. 
 
 (c) Children who fail to attend Mass must 
 personally report to the Catechist at the next 
 class, and state the reasons for their absence. 
 The following are good excuses : illness of the 
 child or of any member of his family circle; 
 bad, severe weather, which makes the roads 
 impassable, or which might injure the health of 
 the delicate children ; the command of parents 
 to stay at home. 
 
 Generally speaking, all that is needed to 
 remedy the evil, in case of children absenting 
 themselves from Mass, is a friendly letter or 
 note to the parents or guardians. If this does 
 not help, let the Catechist personally call upon 
 
406 Christian Doctrine 
 
 the parents. If it turn out to be the parents' 
 fault and they do not amend, a public censure 
 may be made in church, without, however, 
 in any way mentioning the name of the 
 family. 
 
 2. To insure reverence and devotion from 
 the children at Mass, to prevent them from 
 conducting themselves improperly, and to lead 
 them to join in prayer with the priest, the Cate- 
 chist should use the following means : — 
 
 (a) Beginning with the Bible History, he 
 must inculcate the honor due to the house of 
 God, when telling of Moses and the burning 
 bush (Ex. iii.), the sons of Heli (i Kings ii.), 
 Baltassar (Dan. v.), Heliodorus (2 Mach. iii.), 
 and the driving of the buyers and sellers out of 
 the temple (Matt, xxi.); he ought also to lay 
 special stress on the sublime character of the 
 sacrifice of the Mass, when speaking of the 
 sacrifices in the Old Testament (Abel, Noe, 
 Melchisedech, Abraham, and Aaron). 
 
 (6) He should take them to church when no 
 service is going on, and show them and prac- 
 tise with them how to enter the sacred build- 
 ing, to take holy water and with it to make the 
 sign of the Cross properly, how to genuflect, 
 how to take their places in the pew, how to 
 kneel, to sit down, to rise, how to come from 
 their pews, to stand in the aisle, and how to 
 
Christian Doctrine 407 
 
 leave the church when their devotions are over. 
 These are often trifles with grown people, but 
 not so with children. If it is necessary to show 
 children how to hold a slate-pencil or a pen, 
 how to make letters and figures, or how to 
 behave at home or when visiting with others, 
 surely it seems no less important to show them 
 how to pray with due honor and reverence to 
 the God of their love ; nor can we overlook the 
 powerful, though unconscious, influence of these 
 external observances upon the mind and heart 
 of children. It holds true even with grown 
 persons. At these visits to the church the 
 Catechist ought to explain to his pupils on the 
 spot the meaning of the different objects in 
 the house of God. The better the children 
 understand the signification of all they see in 
 church, the more recollected and devout they 
 will be in God's holy sanctuary, and the more 
 they will love to visit it. 
 
 (c) In church suitable seats must be pro- 
 vided for the children, and each pupil should 
 have his or her own place properly assigned. 
 They should be where the altar can be well 
 seen, and should not sit too close together lest 
 they be tempted to tease one another. They 
 should not remain in the same position for a 
 long time, and should kneel only during the 
 more important and sacred parts of divine 
 
408 Christian Doctrine 
 
 service. By these precautions they will be 
 guarded against fatigue and distraction. 
 
 (d) The children must bring their hymn- 
 book and prayer-book with them, and take part 
 in the prayers and songs, so that they may not 
 remain idle during the service. 
 
 (e) The children require supervision in church, 
 especially at Mass. Bad behavior must be pun- 
 ished. In church a quiet warning, such as an 
 earnest look, a "bst," or an uplifted finger should 
 suffice; more serious reproof or punishment 
 must be reserved for the schoolroom. 
 
 (f) In order that the children may pray in 
 union with the priest at the altar they must be 
 taught what to do or to say when the altar bell 
 rings. 1 In the intervals between the ringing of 
 the bell they must take part in the common 
 devotion then going on, be it prayer or chant. 
 
 It is a mistake to expect children to follow 
 in the vulgar tongue all the prayers of the 
 Mass said by the priest. To understand the 
 entire service of the Mass even the mature 
 
 1 We have no patience with those who will not allow the altar 
 bell to be rung except where the rubric positively demands it. At 
 Mass the altar bell is an excellent means to call the attention of 
 the worshipers present to the most important parts of the sacri- 
 fice. This is still more necessary in case of children. We believe 
 it to be fully within the spirit of the liturgy to have the little bell 
 rung at the Offertory. Sanctus, Elevation, and Communion 
 (" Domine, non sum dignus"). — Editor. 
 
Christian Doctrine 409 
 
 intellect of a grown person must have received 
 some theological training. It is sheer stu- 
 pidity to exact such a difficult task from chil- 
 dren. Some, again, want children to learn 
 a great number of short prayers suited for 
 every single part of the Mass, beginning 
 with the Confiteor, Introit, Kyrie, Gloria, 
 Collects, and finishing with the Ite missa est, 
 benediction, and last Gospel. By thus over- 
 loading the children with so many and varied 
 prayers, they miss the real spirit of the holy 
 sacrifice, which is, after all, the most important 
 matter. Just as well explain to them all the 
 ceremonies connected with the Mass as fully 
 as to a seminarian, a thing which is simply an 
 impossibility in view of the short time allowed 
 for such instructions and the undeveloped 
 intellects of young children. Others demand 
 an altogether different set of prayers for the 
 older children than those learned by the smaller 
 ones, not considering that in doing so they tear 
 up the foundation already laid instead of rais- 
 ing upon it the further structure. 
 
 On the different methods of the actual par- 
 ticipation of the children in the sacrifice of 
 holy Mass see the excellent paragraphs in 
 Sch. pp. 301 ff. ; Dpi. pp. 317 ff. ; Furniss, 
 pp. 269 ff. Also cf. A. Eccl. R., November, 
 1896, p. 544. 
 
410 Christian Doctrine 
 
 B. The Homily 
 
 The short address usually given at the 
 school Mass on Sundays is called the homily. 
 From the Apology of St. Justin we learn that 
 the preaching of the word of God has ever 
 been associated with the holy sacrifice of the 
 Mass. Suitable portions of the Scriptures 
 were read and explained before the Offertory. 
 Nowadays in all parish churches, the Gospel of 
 the day (often the Epistle too) is read in the vul- 
 gar tongue and explained on Sundays and holy- 
 days. Hence as the expounding and hearing 
 of the word of God are inseparably connected 
 with the divine worship, it is only fitting that 
 in every school Mass on Sundays the cor- 
 responding pericopes should be read and 
 explained, or that some other appropriate in- 
 struction be given. School children can not 
 profit much from the regular parish sermon, as 
 they are not able to follow the consecutive dis- 
 course of a preacher, and can not apply to 
 themselves all the subjects treated and the 
 practical admonitions made by him for the 
 adult members of the parish. Hence, this 
 school homily, to be of real use, should be 
 prepared only for the school children, espe- 
 cially the large ones, the boys and girls of the 
 upper grades. Whether they be gathered in 
 
Christian Doctrine 4 1 1 
 
 the church or in a chapel matters not. In 
 this case the preacher is in a position to adapt 
 himself to the capacity and the special needs 
 of the pupils, and is able to obtain far more 
 satisfactory results. 
 
 The following rules should be observed in 
 making the homily : — 
 
 1. The homily should be founded on the 
 Gospel or the Epistle of the respective Sunday 
 and take into consideration the season of the 
 ecclesiastical year. When children are being 
 prepared for the Sacraments, confession, com- 
 munion, and confirmation, reference can be 
 made to it in the homilies during that time. 
 
 2. The homily should aim to arouse in the 
 children lively faith, religious sentiments, and 
 earnest resolves as to future conduct. These 
 results are most readily obtained by simple and 
 plain meditations upon the sacred truths and 
 laws of religion and on Christian virtue, by 
 impressive exhortations to prayer, and by con- 
 stantly reminding them of the aim, the mean- 
 ing, of human life and of the four last things of 
 man. 
 
 3. Of course, the homily must not be a 
 dry exhortation or sermon, or a moralizing 
 treatise, which would only tend to weary 
 preacher and auditors alike. The Catechist 
 must take pains to make his exhortations most 
 
412 CJwistian Doctrine 
 
 interesting by introducing various examples, 
 similes, stories, etc. Not only is the attention 
 of children aroused and enchained when moral 
 teaching is put before them in a fascinating 
 manner, but they are also inspired with a 
 desire to practise virtue and to shun evil. 
 
 4. The homily should not, as a rule, exceed 
 twenty minutes, and never last more than 
 half an hour. It should be freely delivered 
 and not be read from notes. The latter is 
 not in accord with Catholic principles on preach- 
 ing. To read a written or printed homily 
 is undoubtedly very convenient for the Cate- 
 chist, and saves him a great deal of time and 
 preparation, but it can not be allowed at all. 
 The spoken word is always far more effective 
 and vivid than what is merely read. Indeed, 
 one may almost assert that it is only the 
 freely-spoken word which goes straight to the 
 heart of the hearer. Moreover, children always 
 listen better to spoken words, if only because 
 they know that the eyes of the speaker are upon 
 them. Hence, he who wishes to be more than 
 merely a hireling in God's holy vineyard will 
 use the form of a free address. 
 
 5. The homily should be well arranged, 
 clearly divided, and easy to understand. The 
 clearer and simpler the sermon, the more trans- 
 parent its composition and division, the more 
 
Christian Doctrine 413 
 
 easily the hearer can follow it and even later 
 on recall it to memory (Schoberl). 
 
 6. The main parts of the homily should be 
 carefully repeated by the pupils in the next 
 class of Christian Doctrine. If this be neg- 
 lected, there is danger that the children give 
 way to distractions while the homily is being 
 delivered. It is not, however, necessary that 
 each pupil should repeat the whole of the ex- 
 hortation. It is enough to let him state what 
 made a special impression on him. If a full 
 report or an exact repetition were required from 
 each pupil, the result would be that during the 
 homily the children would struggle to load their 
 memory, whilst their hearts would be closed 
 to the edifying impressions w r hich are the main 
 object. There is, moreover, a further danger 
 that during the remaining service they would 
 be trying to remember the words of the homily. 
 Nor is it advisable to make the children write 
 down the homily in class. This might lead 
 the larger pupils to make as many notes of 
 the discourse as possible right in church, 
 and thus the moral effect of the discourse 
 on their minds would be lost. " To let chil- 
 dren write out the sermon heard is well meant, 
 but in reality harmful, because it interferes with 
 the general impression to be made by the ser- 
 mon, as the listeners are continually on the 
 
414 Christian Doctrine 
 
 watch for something suitable to get down on 
 their paper " (Alban Stolz). 
 
 7. The Catechist should never omit the 
 homily. In view of the few lessons devoted to 
 Christian Doctrine, the homily is undeniably 
 of the utmost importance for the Catechist, 
 especially if he knows how to turn it to the 
 best advantage. He can, indeed, do more by 
 good exhortations than he can in all the school 
 instruction. A celebrated teacher said : " By 
 these homilies the Catechist can not only cap- 
 tivate the understanding, but also the heart of 
 the pupils. A few good addresses have more 
 effect upon their feelings than the full system- 
 atic class work of the whole school year." 
 Good homilies, moreover, win for the Catechist 
 the respect and love of his pupils. (Consult 
 Dpi., Disc. iv. and v. pp. 161 ff.) 
 
 C. Serving Mass 
 
 As those who serve at the altar are in full 
 view of the whole congregation, every unsuit- 
 able action on their part is sufficient to 
 disturb the devotion of those present. The 
 Catechist should therefore be very careful in 
 selecting the altar-boys, and always devote 
 special attention to them and to their proper 
 training, which must fit them, not only to 
 
Christian Doctrine 415 
 
 serve at Low Mass, but also at the other ser- 
 vices in Church (II. Plen. C. Bait., n. 397). 
 
 1. The following conditions should govern 
 his choice : (a) Select only those who will 
 behave well and devoutly at Mass, who bear a 
 good character, who learn their lessons well, 
 who are not deformed nor subject to periodical 
 infirmities, e.g., epilepsy, etc. (b) In order that 
 the service of the altar may not be held in light 
 esteem and be looked upon as an alms given to 
 the poor, the children of better situated families 
 should be chosen as well as those of parents in 
 a lowly station. The religious condition of 
 parents need not necessarily be taken into con- 
 sideration in this matter, for experience teaches 
 that good children often influence their parents 
 for the better. 
 
 2. Serving at the altar should be for boys 
 an education in orderly and dignified bearing, 
 and its good results should remain with them 
 for the rest of their lives. Hence: (a) The altar- 
 boys must not use the church as a " thorough- 
 fare " when it is as easy for them to go in or out 
 by the sacristy, (b) Coming and going they 
 should salute the priest with the usual Chris- 
 tian greeting, (c) They must never appear in 
 dirty or torn clothes, (d) In the sacristy they 
 must be silent, or speak only in a low whisper 
 what has to be said, (e) To prevent the sac- 
 
416 Christian Doctrine 
 
 risty from being made a place of gossip, the 
 altar-boys should come only a little before the 
 beginning of divine service, and leave it as 
 soon as possible when the service is over. 
 {/) On no account whatever are they per- 
 mitted to touch the sacred vessels or the altar 
 bread, {g) The filling of the cruet with wine 
 for Mass should never be left to them ; there is 
 danger of invalidating the Mass. (k) The 
 server must not ring the altar-bell too long nor 
 too loud, lest he disturb the devotion of the 
 faithful, (i) For the same reason, and because 
 of the reverence due to God, he must be strictly 
 forbidden to look around, to laugh, or to talk 
 when serving at the altar. (/) The same server 
 should never be employed at a second Mass 
 immediately following the first, because he can 
 not be so devout for any length of time, and is, 
 as a rule, fatigued. Pupils should never be 
 taken from class to serve in church if other 
 servers can do so without missing their lesson. 
 3. The following rules are to be observed 
 in the training and treatment of altar-boys : 
 The priest himself should teach them their 
 duties, and not intrust a work of such impor- 
 tance to the sexton of the church or to some 
 older altar-boys. Were they allowed to serve 
 at the altar without previous training, they 
 would from the very beginning get accustomed 
 
Christian Doctrine 417 
 
 to carelessness and irreverence in holy things. 
 As soon as the boys are chosen as acolytes, the 
 priest should begin to call their attention to the 
 rules made for their conduct Sometimes while 
 they are waiting in the sacristy he may speak a 
 few appropriate words of familiar advice to them 
 about the saint or mystery of the day, avoiding, 
 however, any magisterial tone or manner. Such 
 words always appeal to the boys' hearts and sel- 
 dom fail to make a good impression. After 
 Mass, having returned to the sacristy, the 
 priest should at once correct any mistake the 
 servers may have made. If they have become 
 remiss in observing the rules, he may call their 
 attention to it at certain opportune occasions, 
 e.g., at Christmas, Easter, the beginning of the 
 school year. Boys who repeatedly disobey or 
 always prove unruly must be dismissed with- 
 out mercy and without regard to family ties. 
 Careless servers may be suspended from office 
 for a time, to be taken back when sincere 
 amendment is assured. Children who have 
 thus been disciplined and reformed often prove 
 the best in the end. The priest should, more- 
 over, treat the altar-boys with affectionate kind- 
 ness, for they are still children, to whom one 
 can never be too kind or loving. For this rea- 
 son he must not grudge a word of encourage- 
 ment to those who have done well ; such words 
 
4i8 Christian Doctrine 
 
 will spur them on to further efforts. Neither 
 should the priest exact the services of altar-boys 
 for nothing. He ought to reward them well, 
 but at the very least he can give them a present 
 in the shape of useful books. It would be a mis- 
 take, however, to reward the servers too often ; 
 for this might lead them to serve for the sake 
 of the reward only. They should be rewarded 
 at regular intervals. If they are given money, 
 the priest himself should divide it among them, 
 though it is a somewhat questionable policy to 
 pay the altar-boys with money. He should 
 question them later what use they made of the 
 money or the presents received. 
 
 4. As altar-boys are usually just in the gid- 
 diest and most impressionable age, it is of the 
 utmost importance that the priest should exercise 
 a very close supervision over them, and, in every 
 way, set them a good example. Here too can 
 the proverb be applied : " Qualis rex talis grex " 
 (Like master like servant). The priest must 
 therefore avoid any noisy or excited conduct in 
 the sacristy, for the boys watch every word and 
 gesture of his with careful attention. When 
 serving at the altar he must insist upon their 
 pronouncing every word distinctly and cor- 
 rectly, and not allow them to slur over sylla- 
 bles and words through over-haste or neglect. 
 If a priest knows well how to manage his altar- 
 
Christian Doctrine 419 
 
 boys, he will sow the holy desire for the priest- 
 hood in many a heart, besides aiding the 
 devotion and edification of the worshipers in 
 the church by the exemplary conduct of the boys. 
 Sad indeed is it when through the unworthi- 
 ness and bad example of the priest, his acolytes 
 become like the tormentors and executioners at 
 the crucifixion of Christ, when the server at the 
 altar becomes a Judas instead of a John, and in 
 later life forgets his God and his conscience. 
 
 Art. 4. — First Holy Confession 
 A. Educational Advantages 
 
 " Various are the means by which children 
 can be brought into the way leading to Christ. 
 One is Catechism or public religious instruc- 
 tion ; another, personal admonition and advice ; 
 a third, the school with its teaching and disci- 
 pline. But besides these there is a fourth, — 
 one that is altogether peculiar to the Christian 
 religion, — confession. Whatever may be the 
 opinion of others, I, for my part, frankly ac- 
 knowledge that I look upon confession, when it 
 is all it ought to be, as the most direct or effec- 
 tive means for bringing children to God " (John 
 Gerson, I.e., p. 34). 
 
 The following are some of the special advan- 
 tages of confession for young children : — 
 
420 Christian Doctrine 
 
 i. In confession, the confessor can exert a 
 much more powerful influence upon the hearts 
 of the children than in school. For this reason, 
 too, the warning and admonition given in 
 private, surrounded by the sacredness of the 
 sacramental act (absolution) and the place 
 (confessional) will make a much deeper impres- 
 sion than if they had been given before the whole 
 class. 
 
 2. By confession the child learns to know 
 himself. In examining his conscience, the 
 child must compare all his words and deeds, 
 doings and omissions, with the laws of Christian 
 morality, i.e., the laws of God. This will lead 
 to a right " self-knowledge," which, as experience 
 tells, is the first condition and beginning of all 
 amendment and reform. 
 
 3. Confession strengthens the voice of con- 
 science in the child and makes him lend to it a 
 more willing ear. No other religious practice 
 brings the divine Commandments so vividly be- 
 fore the mind, and applies them so directly to 
 one's soul as the examination of conscience and 
 the accusation of our transgressions in the Sac- 
 rament of Penance. After every confession 
 properly performed, the child will more clearly 
 and constantly keep in mind the Command- 
 ments of God and more carefully avoid any vio- 
 lation of them. Not unfrequently the fear or 
 
Christian Doctrine 421 
 
 shame of the future confession will help the will 
 to follow conscience in resisting a temptation, 
 while the command to restore things unlawfully 
 gotten, to repair injuries, to ask pardon of those 
 wantonly offended, etc., is a loud reminder of 
 the law. 
 
 4. By confession the child regains his lost 
 peace of heart. As a rule it is natural for a 
 child to feel troubled, whatever the cause, over 
 the slightest wrong-doing, and he is not com- 
 forted until he has acknowledged and confessed 
 his fault. This natural uneasiness on the part 
 of the child finds a most wholesome relief in the 
 sacrament of confession. Universal experience 
 proves that it is not at all burdensome or hate- 
 ful to children, but that, on the contrary, they 
 like this sacrament, provided they have been 
 properly taught and trained. The assurance of 
 the forgiveness of sin given by the minister and 
 representative of God calms and comforts the 
 heart of the youthful sinners. 
 
 5. Confession helps to strengthen and steady 
 the moral character. The examination of con- 
 science, the accusation of sins, the penance to 
 be performed, the reparation to be made, are all 
 so many exercises of self-denial and humility, 
 well adapted to combat our innate pride, which 
 is the fertile root of most sins. Contrition and 
 the purpose of amendment must lead the will to 
 
422 Christian Doctrine 
 
 self-control and firm resistance to evil tempta- 
 tions. But self-control, self-denial, and humility 
 are the chief qualities of a strong and steady 
 character. 
 
 6. The foregoing may be considered as the 
 natural advantages of confession in the Christian 
 education of the child. But far more important 
 and superior are the supernatural results, namely, 
 the forgiveness of sin and the divine grace to 
 lead a better life. 
 
 7. It is, however, only the frequent worthy 
 confession that exerts a really strong and last- 
 ing influence upon the children and produces 
 the educational results mentioned in a fuller 
 measure. Children do not fully grasp the mean- 
 ing and import of the Sacrament of Penance till 
 they have been to confession repeatedly. By 
 confession they learn how to confess. The II. 
 Plen. C. of Bait, n. 442, ordains that children 
 seven years old, who have not yet made their 
 first holy communion, shall go to confession four 
 times a year, if possible at the Ember Days. 
 
 B. Preparatory Instruction 
 
 The first holy confession is of the greatest 
 importance in the spiritual life of the child. For 
 the confessions which succeed it are, as a rule, 
 like the first. If the child is well prepared for 
 his first confession and makes it with real con- 
 
Christian Doctrine 423 
 
 trition, and an honest accusation of his sins, 
 there is every probability that he will afterward 
 go to the confessional with the same spirit and 
 disposition to receive the holy Sacrament of 
 Penance worthily. For this reason it must be a 
 matter of deep concern to the Catechist to pre- 
 pare his children well for their first confession. 
 (See Dpi. pp. 340 ff. ; Sch. pp. 308 ff. Jaeger, in 
 the preface.) The following rules should gen- 
 erally be observed : — 
 
 1. He should begin the remote preparation 
 of the children very early by leading them on 
 to feel their moral weakness and sinfulness, and 
 by awakening in them a longing for forgiveness 
 and freedom from sin. In their early school 
 days he should on proper occasions tell them of 
 the happy day when they shall be allowed for 
 the first time to receive the holy Sacrament of 
 Penance. 
 
 2. The chapters in the Catechism on the 
 Sacrament of Penance must be thoroughly 
 explained and learned. But the younger the 
 children are, the more ought the Catechist to 
 confine himself to the strictly essential points, in 
 which case evidently a summary explanation of 
 the Ten Commandments of God, of some com- 
 mandments of the Church, of the seven capital 
 sins, of the Sacraments in general and the Real 
 Presence in particular, must precede. 
 
424 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Let him also explain in the very beginning 
 the stricter and wider use of the terms " Con- 
 fession " and " Penance." In the wider sense 
 both terms indicate the Sacrament of Penance ; 
 in the stricter sense each is only a part of the 
 sacrament, the first the accusation of sins, the 
 other the work of satisfaction imposed by 
 the confessor. 
 
 3. The proximate preparation may be en- 
 tirely based on the parable of the prodigal son 
 (Luke xv. 11). By its aid the Catechist can 
 easily explain to the children the five parts of 
 the Sacrament of Penance and satisfactorily 
 treat the whole doctrine of confession. 
 
 The prodigal son demands his inheritance 
 from his father (God and divine grace) ; he goes 
 away into a strange land, where he squanders 
 his money and leads a bad life (sin). His 
 money is soon exhausted and he has nothing 
 to live upon (fleeting pleasure of sin). Then 
 he suffers greatly from hunger. The master 
 whose swine he tends is very hard upon him, 
 and refuses him even the food provided for the 
 swine (punishment for sin). The prodigal son 
 looks into his miserable condition, and sees that 
 his shameful conduct and excesses are the cause 
 of his misfortune (self-examination). He recog- 
 nizes his faults and base ingratitude toward his 
 good father, and his heart is full of deep re- 
 
Christian Doctrine 425 
 
 morse because of his evil deeds (contrition). 
 He will go back to his father and lead a better 
 life (good resolutions). He goes back to his 
 father, falls at his feet, acknowledges his sins, 
 and prays for forgiveness (confession). The 
 prodigal son is willing to be a hired servant in 
 the house of his father and do all that his 
 father asks of him (satisfaction or penance). 
 The father embraces the son and kisses him 
 (forgiveness). The son receives a beautiful 
 robe, a ring, and new shoes (the gift of sanc- 
 tifying grace). The father has a calf killed and 
 prepares a feast (holy communion). 
 
 4. The children must not only be taught con- 
 cerning the nature of the different acts neces- 
 sary for confession (examination, contrition, 
 accusation), but must be shown how to perform 
 them. The Catechist must make them actually 
 practise those parts. It is very wrong to leave 
 the child to himself in these matters ; for ex- 
 perience proves that the right exercise of these 
 important acts is difficult enough even for 
 adults. 
 
 5. By his own assiduity and zeal, devoted 
 to this most important preparation, the Cate- 
 chist should make the children feel, so to say, 
 with what a serious matter they are concerned. 
 Holy earnestness must sustain them in their 
 long preparatory hours. He should give special 
 
426 Christian Doctrine 
 
 attention to the children of a slow mind and of 
 neglected habits, and by rewards and kindness 
 urge them on to diligent study. 
 
 6. The Catholic Church has not fixed any 
 particular age when children must go to first 
 holy confession. The IV. Council of the 
 Lateran, 12 15, merely decrees that all Chris- 
 tians of either sex who have come to the years 
 of discretion should at least once a year confess 
 their sins to an appointed priest. This law was 
 confirmed by the Council of Trent. But which 
 are these " years of discretion " ? At what age 
 do children become capable of distinguishing 
 good from evil and of committing serious sins ? 
 And when, consequently, are they bound to go 
 to confession ? Theologians generally point to 
 the seventh year of age. The II. PL Council 
 of Bait., n. 292, says that some children come to 
 the use of reason sooner, some later, and that 
 it must be left to the wisdom and zeal of the 
 pastor, who knows the children best, to decide 
 whether they are capable to receive this Sacra- 
 ment or not. Yet in n. 442 this same Council 
 says that children of seven years of age ought 
 to be prepared for confession. It is safe to 
 say that no child should be admitted before the 
 seventh, nor any be made to wait till after the 
 ninth year. Even where a child of nine seems 
 backward in school and not sufficiently devel- 
 
Christian Doctrine 427 
 
 oped in mind for confession, it ought to be 
 admitted, as such children are often more ad- 
 vanced in religious life than appears, and fully 
 able to reap the fruits of confession. But it is 
 most assuredly an intolerable abuse to make 
 children wait for their first confession till they 
 can go to first communion. 
 
 C. Main Parts of Confession 
 I. Examination of Co?iscience 
 
 1. The Catechist should advise the children 
 to say their daily prayers with the intention of 
 obtaining the light of the Holy Ghost rightly 
 to know their sins and truly to repent of them. 
 The prayers before and after class must be 
 adapted to the same pui-pose. 
 
 2. The teacher should go through the Ten 
 Commandments of Gocl, the six command- 
 ments of the Church, and the seven capital 
 sins, by using the form of questions, i.e., " Have 
 I said my daily prayers ? Have I been wilfully 
 distracted," etc. As the questions are asked 
 the children must try to find out whether they 
 have committed the sins referred to, and if so, 
 try to keep them in their memory until the time 
 for confession. Experienced teachers think it 
 wise to write all the questions on the black- 
 board and let the children copy them. The 
 
428 Christian Doctrine 
 
 questions should then several times be repeated 
 and explained to them, so that they may be- 
 come thoroughly fixed in the mind. However, 
 when testing a child by way of reviewing, one 
 should not say, " Tell me your sins against 
 this Commandment ; " but, " Tell me what sins 
 a child might be guilty of against this Com- 
 mandment." 
 
 It is a great mistake to make children con- 
 fess their sins according to the places where 
 they have committed them, e.g., in church, at 
 school, on the street or field. This adds to the 
 difficulty alike of examination and of confes- 
 sion, as by such a method the child would have 
 to go through the Decalogue not only once, 
 but at least three times. Many sins would 
 have to be told repeatedly in confession, while 
 the confessor would have no certain starting- 
 point from which he could help the child. 
 Confining them closely to the above external 
 topics of examination, the children would assur- 
 edly forget many, especially interior sins, and 
 as a result never gain any real insight into 
 the state of their souls. But if the children 
 examine themselves on each of the Command- 
 ments, they may do so according to those 
 topics, i.e., places (church, school, home, street, 
 persons, parents, teachers, neighbors, strangers, 
 the poor, and old), as this will help them to 
 
Christian Doctrine 429 
 
 remember more easily the sins against the 
 respective Commandment in thoughts, words, 
 and deeds. Another important subject for the 
 examination of conscience, even with children, 
 is the list of the nine ways by which we 
 can become accessory to the sins of others 
 (seduction, scandal, counsel). The Command- 
 ments, however, must always remain the great 
 rule and guide in this examination as well as 
 in the subsequent accusation. The greatest 
 caution must be observed in dealing with the 
 Sixth Commandment. It should be touched 
 upon only in such a way as to leave the un- 
 suspecting innocence of children undisturbed. 
 The teacher should explain that it is possible 
 to sin grievously against the Commandment, 
 not only in word or deed, but also in thought, 
 and that people are often tempted to conceal in 
 confession the sins they have committed against 
 this Commandment. (See above, p. 266.) In 
 going through the list of sins the Catechist 
 should point out particularly the sins to which 
 children and young people are especially prone. 
 There is no need in making an examination 
 on such sins as they can not or at least do not 
 commit. 
 
 In all these explanations let the Catechist 
 follow strictly and scrupulously the teaching of 
 the Church and of her theologians. To give 
 
43° Christian Doctrine 
 
 the children a false conscience would be most 
 disastrous for them. He must, therefore, clearly 
 explain the conditions required to make some- 
 thing a mortal sin, so that the children will not 
 confound venial sins with mortal ones. The 
 above applies equally to catechetical explana- 
 tions before the class as to confidential con- 
 sultations (" cases of conscience ") by the one or 
 the other pupil. (See the excellent remarks of 
 Rev. Lambing, pp. 129 f.) 
 
 3. Children must be warned not to accuse 
 themselves in the form of questions when con- 
 fessing, as is done in the examination. Hence, 
 for practice' sake, the Catechist may let some 
 children make an accusation of imaginary sins 
 by asking : " How may a child accuse himself 
 of sins against the First Commandment?" 
 Again, they must be told to confess only those 
 sins that they have really committed, but not 
 the others which were also mentioned when 
 going through the Commandments. The Cate- 
 chist must insist that they confess their sins in 
 the order he has set before them, i.e., of the 
 Commandments of God and of the Church and 
 the seven capital sins. 
 
 Many think it desirable for children when 
 confessing to mention each of the Command- 
 ments in regular order, and then tell the sins 
 committed against it. Thus, for instance, the 
 
Christia7i Doctrine 431 
 
 child will say : " The Fourth Commandment : 
 Thou shalt honor thy father and mother. I 
 have disobeyed my parents ; I have greatly 
 angered them," etc. There are certainly very 
 good reasons for this method with children. 
 By this means they acquire a steady guide for 
 an orderly accusation, a guide that will greatly 
 help their memory, and, should they be con- 
 fused for a moment, make them easily find 
 their thread again. Moreover, to mention the 
 Commandment, with a view of telling ones 
 sins against it, helps to mitigate the sense of 
 shame and to open the way to a sincere accusa- 
 tion, which holds good especially in regard to 
 the Sixth Commandment. If some Command- 
 ment has not been broken, the child may say 
 " I have not sinned against it," or he may 
 simply pass on to the next Commandment. 
 
 4. Writing down the sins committed, and 
 reading them off at confession, must be strictly 
 forbidden to those who can not yet write or read 
 with fluency. If this were allowed, confession 
 would become a mere spelling exercise and last 
 too long. Even older children should be ad- 
 vised not to write their confessions, on account 
 of the many inconveniences connected with it. 
 To force children to write down their sins is 
 an intolerable abuse, which can not be justified 
 by any theological or pedagogical principle. 
 
43 2 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Writing out their confession would fill many 
 children with prejudice against the Sacrament, 
 especially if they were forced to do it before 
 other people, even if these were their parents 
 or others of their family ; to many this would 
 be very repugnant. Moreover, these written 
 notes might easily fall into other hands, not- 
 withstanding every precaution, at a time when 
 the sacredness of the confessional secret can 
 not be too deeply impressed upon the chil- 
 dren preparing for this Sacrament. It even 
 happens that the same notes are kept for the 
 next confession, or lent to some other child; 
 again, children once accustomed to confess 
 from written notes will never feel at ease with- 
 out them ; in fact, often they will not be able 
 to make a full confession without these notes, 
 since they have not learned to use and trust 
 their memory in this matter. 
 
 In spite of all this, however, the Catechist 
 must not absolutely forbid the children to write 
 their sins, since many are dreadfully afraid lest 
 otherwise their confessions be not complete. 
 Under certain circumstances some children 
 may even be advised to do it simply as a first 
 help to memory ; but they should use very 
 little paper and should write the most impor- 
 tant sins only; this is a safeguard against 
 writing a whole litany of faults which are no 
 
Christian Doctrine 433 
 
 sins. No name should be written on the 
 paper ; nor may they mark or underline sins 
 in the table or list of sins printed in the 
 prayer-book or Catechism. But, as a rule, the 
 accusation in confession must be made freely, 
 without reading from notes. Only by way of 
 exception might this be allowed, e.g., if a child 
 were so excited and confused that it could not 
 confess otherwise. 
 
 5. Children must be taught to search for 
 definite and particular sins, and not to make 
 mere general accusations which do not indi- 
 cate any special sins and furnish no matter for 
 absolution, like the following : " I have offended 
 God. I was not pious. I was not devout. 
 I did not keep Sunday holy. I have not 
 prayed as I ought," etc. 
 
 While children must be taught to examine 
 into the number and aggravating circumstances 
 of mortal sins, they should never be required 
 to give the number of venial faults. This 
 w r ould be greatly to overburden them, when, 
 according to the Council of Trent, it is only a 
 counsel, not a command, to confess our venial 
 sins. Yet it is undoubtedly of great spiritual 
 advantage if children are accustomed to exam- 
 ine themselves as to the number of the more 
 serious venial sins, provided they fully under- 
 stand that there is no obligation to confess 
 
434 Christian Doctrine 
 
 them. In general, the teacher must avoid 
 making confession a burden to the children. 
 
 Here Hirscher's words are worthy of atten- 
 tion : " In the instruction for the examination 
 of conscience great stress should be laid (but 
 as a rule, is not) on finding out those failings 
 and sins which, in our hypocrisy, we conceal 
 from ourselves. I doubt if there be a sin (gross 
 sins, of course, excepted) from which most 
 men, though guilty, do not consider themselves 
 free, or for which they do not find an excuse. 
 For instance, one is entirely given up to earthly 
 things, to the neglect of the spiritual, but he 
 does not know it ; there is another who lives 
 in discord and strife, but if you listen to him 
 all is well with him ; a third is full of self-love, 
 vanity, inordinate love of praise, faults that he 
 clearly sees in others but never in himself. As 
 confession is absolutely no good as long as 
 self-deception, hypocrisy, and self-complacency 
 are not put away (for a man can not confess that 
 of which he is not aware and he will not amend 
 where he thinks himself right), it is of the 
 greatest importance, when speaking of the 
 examination of conscience, to teach children 
 how to look into themselves, into their very 
 souls, and to search very closely into their 
 secret or inner feelings, passions, and inclina- 
 tions ; in a word, it is important to plant into 
 
Christian Doctrine 435 
 
 their hearts the earnest desire of 'knowing 
 themselves as they are."' Schoberl says 
 rightly, " What the Catechist soweth with 
 patient labor in his instructions on the exam- 
 ination of conscience, he will reap with joy 
 in the confessional." 
 
 6. Children should be told to choose a 
 quiet and secluded place to make their exam- 
 ination of conscience, in which they may avail 
 themselves of a " Mirror of Conscience." ^ 
 
 (a) Many catechetical writers are of opinion 
 that no " Mirror of Conscience," i.e., no printed 
 list or catalogue of sins, should be used by 
 children preparing for confession ; other writers 
 are in favor of that practice. 
 
 The first base their view on these reasons : 
 When children are trained to find out their 
 sins without the aid of a printed guide to the 
 examination of conscience, they gain greater 
 independence and self-reliance, and are en- 
 abled in later life to examine their conscience 
 freely without any external assistance. More- 
 over, the utility of such a guide is doubtful, 
 
 1 Most English prayer-books call such a list of sins either the 
 " Table of Sins," or the u Examination of Conscience.* 1 While 
 the first phrase is correct enough, the latter is absolutely false. 
 What objection is there to calling it " Mirror of Conscience, 11 a 
 mirror in which our conscience tries to see itself as it is before 
 God ? In other languages we find this phrase side by side with 
 that of " Mirror of Sins," " Mirror of Confession. 11 — Editor. 
 
436 Christian Doctrine 
 
 because it makes the all-important and natu- 
 rally arduous task of serious thought and 
 reflection all too easy, and enables children to 
 examine their sins without any special effort 
 of their own. Furthermore, it can not be 
 denied that no one form of accusation can 
 possibly be fully and equally suited for all 
 grades in a school (for little and big children), 
 or can meet the requirements of town and 
 country. Lastly, a special guide to examina- 
 tion can not be necessary, because the Catechism 
 itself in the part relating to the Command- 
 ments really contains a full list of sins. Let 
 the children learn to use their Catechism as a 
 Mirror of Conscience. 
 
 Others reply that, however good this theory 
 may appear to be, it does not work well in 
 practice. First of all, experience proves that it 
 is impossible in a school, including many chil- 
 dren of limited abilities, to prepare all for con- 
 fession without the aid of such a list of sins. 
 Moreover, the method suggested above means 
 a considerable waste of time, and is quite im- 
 practicable in view of the few hours given to 
 those religious instructions. Finally, where 
 shall we find such a perfectly well-arranged 
 Catechism as will make a special guide to ex- 
 amination superfluous ? Here, too, we must 
 "follow the middle course." On the other 
 
Christian Doctrine 437 
 
 hand, experience proves that special advantages 
 attend the use of a Mirror of Conscience. No 
 doubt it greatly lightens the labor of the Cate- 
 chist and makes it easier for children to pre- 
 pare well for confession ; it lessens the great 
 dread they may, perhaps, have for it. 
 
 (b) To achieve these good results, and to 
 avoid the disadvantages above mentioned, two 
 conditions must be fulfilled, namely, this Mir- 
 ror of Conscience must be well arranged and 
 properly used. 
 
 It must be adapted for children. Hence: 
 (1) It must be short, that is to say, it must con- 
 tain only real sins, and furthermore, only such 
 sins as children of the respective age or class 
 are likely to commit, otherwise it will do more 
 harm than good. It would be a very great 
 mistake to recount all possible imperfections, 
 such as are implied in the questions : " Have I 
 kept God ever before my mind ? Have I said 
 the Acts of Faith, Hope, and Charity ? Have 
 I missed Mass on weekdays when I could have 
 gone ? Have I neglected to take off my hat 
 when passing in front of the church ? " etc. Still 
 worse is the mistake of adding to these and 
 to every other slight sin the question, " How 
 often ? " when the number is to be told only 
 in mortal sins. Such stupidity as this makes 
 the children over-anxious and sows the seed of 
 
438 Christian Doctrine 
 
 scrupulosity in their minds, a thing especially 
 injurious to the Christian life. This is shown 
 by the fact that children thus trained come to 
 confession to-day with a whole litany of sins, 
 and return to-morrow, just before holy com- 
 munion, heavily burdened, as they imagine, with 
 a number of fresh transgressions. Many chil- 
 dren, however, go to the other extreme. Seeing 
 that they can not get rid of their imperfections, 
 and feeling instinctively that they are not 
 serious sins, they hold these and really grievous 
 faults alike in light esteem, make no attempt 
 to overcome either, and simply confess what 
 happens to come to their mind. Others, again, 
 dwell much on their little faults, and forget 
 their serious sins. No reference should be 
 made in this list to sins of which children 
 know nothing and the suggestion of which 
 might wound their innocent and tender minds. 
 All expressions referring to sins against the 
 Sixth Commandment must be carefully chosen. 
 Again, it would be ridiculous to have chil- 
 dren examine themselves on doubts of faith, 
 on heresy, on idolatry, on perjury and murder, 
 etc. Notwithstanding this, it is well to insert 
 in the " Mirror " some few sins which children 
 do not, as a rule, commit, but against which 
 they can not be warned too early, e.g., Have I 
 worked on Sunday? Have I been drunk? 
 
Christian Doctrine 439 
 
 Have I gone to Protestant church service ? 
 (2) This Mirror of Conscience must be founded 
 on the Ten Commandments of God, the six 
 commandments of the Church, and the seven 
 capital sins. There could not possibly be a 
 better guide than the one offered us by God 
 Himself and by His holy Church. Special at- 
 tention should also be given in the guide to 
 evil practices and abuses in vogue in the re- 
 spective country or district, or at that particular 
 time. It does not matter if on this account 
 a good many local expressions or idioms have 
 to be used in it. 
 
 (c) The Mirror of Conscience must be used 
 in an intelligent manner, and must not take the 
 place of the living words of the Catechist. 
 Hence it should not be used until he has 
 thoroughly discussed, in the order of the Com- 
 mandments, the various sins and the questions 
 regarding them. Then that list may be put 
 into the hands of his pupils, with the remark 
 that probably by its help they will still find a 
 few sins which they did not remember. It is 
 mainly an aid for the beginner; older children 
 are expected to examine their conscience with- 
 out it as far as they can. Whatever prayer- 
 books the children may use, let the Catechist 
 be sure to make a careful scrutiny of their 
 * Tables of Sins." 
 
44-0 Christian Doctrine 
 
 II. Contrition and Purpose of Amendment 
 
 Leading children to contrition is the most 
 important part in preparing them for this 
 Sacrament. For there can be no forgiveness 
 of sin where there is no true contrition or re- 
 pentance. It is even more necessary than the 
 accusation of sins, as is evident from the fact, 
 that where there is a perfect sorrow, forgive- 
 ness of sins is received even before confession, 
 while the most thorough accusation without 
 supernatural contrition is useless. In the para- 
 ble of the prodigal son the father did not let 
 his son do more than express his sorrow, and 
 at once raised him up and embraced him. 
 Contrition must be actually aroused in the 
 hearts of the children, otherwise all the instruc- 
 tion given is mere outward drilling but not a 
 real preparation of the soul. True, it is not 
 so very easy to make children understand what 
 supernatural contrition is, and how they may 
 excite themselves to such a sorrow. Still, even 
 with a partial success, the preparatory instruc- 
 tion will bear good fruit. Let the Catechist 
 bear in mind the following points: 
 
 i. He must impress upon the children the 
 supernatural motives for contrition, i.e., the 
 motives founded on holy faith. (a) Bring 
 before the children the majesty of God and 
 
Christian Doctrine 441 
 
 make them see against whom they have sinned. 
 The greatness, beauty, and wonders of the uni- 
 verse, the earth, the sea, and the heavens will 
 serve the purpose, (b) Lead them in spirit to 
 Mount Calvary and tell them of the love of God 
 to man, chiefly manifested in the sufferings and 
 death of Christ upon the Cross. Lent, during 
 which, as a rule, children are prepared for con- 
 fession, is a suitable time for such meditations. 
 
 (c) Impress upon the children the fact that 
 God is our greatest benefactor, on whom we 
 depend alike for our bodily and spiritual life. 
 
 (d) Tell them of the punishment meted out to 
 the bad angels, to our first parents, to Noe's 
 contemporaries, and to others, warning the 
 children that their own sins also merit punish- 
 ment. Too much stress must, however, not be 
 laid on the temporal punishments inflicted in 
 this life, as there might be danger of awaken- 
 ing in the children a mere natural sorrow, which 
 does not bring the forgiveness of sin. The 
 punishment inflicted on the sinner after his 
 death must be especially brought before them. 
 A vivid description of the punishment of hell is 
 apt to appall the most hardened sinner. How- 
 ever, as children are usually only guilty of venial 
 sins and are not conscious of having deserved 
 the punishment of hell, the Catechist may dwell 
 more on the pains of purgatory, which they 
 
44 2 Christian Doctrine 
 
 probably have deserved. His description of 
 them should be such as to make a deep impres- 
 sion on the children, so that they may easily 
 remember it in all future confessions. 
 
 2. With the above motives as a basis, the 
 Catechist should devise and use a form of con- 
 trition to be constantly read over, memorized, 
 and practised by the children. By its help 
 they may in later life also make a devout act of 
 contrition after the examination of conscience 
 at night prayers, and if ever they are in 
 danger of death. A good formula of contrition 
 ought to have the following qualities : (a) It 
 should be short and without any unnecessary 
 words. (6) It should be simple in expression, 
 and affectionate in tone, so that its meaning 
 will readily find its way to the child's mind and 
 heart, hence it must be free from long and in- 
 volved sentences. Words coming straight from 
 the heart are always simple, and quickly affect 
 the heart, (c) It must not omit the motives of 
 an imperfect contrition, also called attrition. 
 Some children may not readily rise to the 
 heights of divine love. With a formula of con- 
 trition leaving out the motives of attrition, 
 children of a solid and tender devotion might 
 reach to a perfect contrition ; the rest would 
 have neither contrition nor attrition — not the 
 first, being incapable of it ; not the second, find- 
 
Christian Doctrine 443 
 
 ing no motives for it : so their confession would 
 be invalid, (d) The motives must be wisely 
 arranged. The higher and nobler motives 
 must be given first. Although, as shown in 
 the parable of the prodigal son, the thought of 
 the punishment of sin is generally the first 
 motive to bring fallen man back to his duty, 
 yet in the formula of contrition the nobler 
 motive should be the first. The perfect motive 
 first came from the lips of the prodigal son, 
 not the tale of his miseries. To go from the 
 perfect to the imperfect motive in the act of 
 contrition approaches more nearly to God's own 
 ways of dealing with man ; for it is only those 
 who are dead to all noble feeling that God 
 endeavors to win over to obedience of the law 
 by punishments and threats. For this reason 
 the minister of God should begin by working 
 upon the nobler feelings of children, and only 
 afterward appeal to the motive derived from 
 punishments. (e) The form of contrition 
 should be suitable to one's whole life. Experi- 
 ence teaches that old men generally still use 
 the prayers they learned as children. But 
 grown people will not use prayers or forms fit 
 only for children. 
 
 3. The Catechist must bring examples of 
 true contrition before the children and stimu- 
 late them to imitation. The biblical examples 
 
444 Christian Doctrine 
 
 of David, Peter, Mary Magdalene, the prodigal 
 son, the penitent thief on the cross, and the 
 people of Ninive, will be found very useful. 
 
 4. The Catechist must also remember that 
 contrition is more a matter of the will than 
 of feeling. Hence he will teach the children 
 that tears and other outward signs of grief, such, 
 for instance, as one may show on the death of 
 his parents, are not necessary, and that God 
 looks only to the hearts of men. He must work 
 upon the will through the intellectual and rea- 
 soning power of the children by making them 
 understand the nature of sin and its conse- 
 quences. Yet the Catechist must avoid all ex- 
 aggeration, and not make a great sin of a little 
 fault merely to frighten his pupils. He must 
 rather endeavor to fill them with confidence in 
 God and His holy grace, which will keep them 
 from grievous sins, or, if they have fallen, help 
 them to rise, if they only earnestly desire it. 
 
 5. In regard to the Purpose of Amendment, 
 children should be taught not to be satisfied 
 with a general good resolution, but to resolve 
 especially not again to commit those sins which 
 they are now about to confess. They should 
 promise in particular to avoid some special sin, 
 above all, their besetting sin. Their resolutions, 
 in order to become more efficacious, should 
 refer also expressly to some particular occasion 
 
Christian Doctrine 445 
 
 of sin, the places, persons, or things which have 
 led them to sin. Lastly, the children should be 
 advised to renew these special resolutions daily 
 at their morning prayers. 
 
 III. Confession ( The Accusation of Sins) 
 
 1. Children must be carefully taught to 
 know exactly what they are strictly bound, 
 what they are counselled, what they are for- 
 bidden, to mention in confession ; that in case 
 of doubt, they must ask the confessor; lastly, 
 the manner of confessing. (See p. 430.) They 
 should also know by heart the prayers to be 
 said in the confessional, before and after the 
 accusation. These should be short and con- 
 cise, otherwise too much time is needlessly 
 wasted. 
 
 2. The children must be shown what to do 
 in the confessional, when to kneel, to make the 
 sign of the Cross, to pray, and when to leave it. 
 The Catechist should sit on a chair in front of 
 the class and call some of the children to stand 
 on either side of him, and then let one after the 
 other go through everything as they would have 
 to do in the confessional, except the accusation of 
 sins. Any mistakes are to be corrected at once. 
 He should explain at this opportunity the necest 
 sity of their being bodily or actually present 
 while absolution is being given by the priest, 
 
446 Christian Doctrine 
 
 and impress upon them not to run away and 
 out of the confessional before they have received 
 a sign from the priest that they may go. Chil- 
 dren must be trained to the habit of renewing, 
 earnestly and sincerely, the act of contrition 
 while the priest gives absolution, and not to 
 bother about the accusation made or the pen- 
 ance imposed. 
 
 3. Children may be taught more clearly 
 how to confess properly by showing them a 
 faulty confession or accusation, either on the 
 blackboard or by word, and then having them 
 correct it. This will be another safeguard 
 against thoughtless accusations. In giving 
 such examples the greatest care must be taken 
 to prevent children from suspecting any viola- 
 tion of the seal of confession, for instance, that 
 the Catechist is speaking from his experience 
 with their fellow-pupils. Hence it is well to 
 insert sins which pupils usually do not commit. 
 
 4. In order to insure a full accusation of 
 their sins by the children, the Catechist must 
 endeavor to remove the natural dread of con- 
 fession, and tell them especially of the seal of 
 confession. He may mention in particular: 
 (a) That the confessor is bound to absolute 
 silence, and is forbidden to mention to any one 
 what he hears in confession. Refer to St. John 
 Nepomucene. (6) A sincere and open confes- 
 
Christian Doctrine 447 
 
 sion is a cause of great joy to the confessor. 
 (c) The child who makes a good confession is 
 rewarded by a great sense of peace, (d) Who- 
 ever through fear or shame conceals a mortal 
 sin in confession commits a great sin (sacrilege), 
 which becomes all the greater afterward when 
 holy communion is received unworthily, (e) 
 He who will not confess his sins on earth will 
 be made to do so after death, to suffer bitterly, 
 when, to his utter shame and confusion all 
 his sins will be shown before the whole world 
 at the Last Day. (See Furniss, p. 211.) 
 
 IV. Satisfaction (Penance) 
 
 The following points are important here : 
 the obligation of performing the penance ; the 
 omission of penance or delaying it an unlawfully 
 long while, though a new sin, does not invali- 
 date the previous confession ; the child must 
 not leave the confessional without knowing 
 clearly and distinctly what penance has been 
 enjoined by the confessor. 
 
 The children should be taught to repair 
 damage done, to restore stolen property, and 
 to make up any quarrel with their neighbors 
 before going to confession. They should tell 
 the confessor of the reparation or restitution 
 already made, to save him the trouble of asking 
 about it. 
 
448 Christian Doctrine 
 
 D. External Circumstances 
 
 i. The Catechist should exhort the children 
 to spend the evening before their first holy con- 
 fession in prayer, self-examination, acts of sin- 
 cere contrition and in solitude. 
 
 2. The children must go to confession in a 
 clean dress, taking with them the prayer-book. 
 They will first meet in the school and remain, 
 under proper supervision, in their own places, 
 quietly preparing until, at the proper time, they 
 are taken two by two to the church. It will 
 do a great deal of good if at this time the 
 Catechist reminds the children in church once 
 more of the importance of the holy function 
 they are about to perform, and again encour- 
 ages them to be candid in their confession. 
 He should then kneel down with them, and in 
 common pray with them and invoke the Holy 
 Ghost, make an act of contrition, and offer 
 good resolutions. The children may repeat 
 these prayers after him sentence by sentence. 
 
 3. After this, one part of the children, in the 
 order previously decided on, go quietly one by 
 one to the confessional. Awaiting their turns, 
 they should not stand in groups together, but 
 one behind the other, in single file, only about 
 five on each side of the confessional, not more. 
 The first should stand some little distance from 
 
Christian Doctrine 449 
 
 the confessional. If too many children stand 
 near a confessional, they will tease and push 
 one another, or chatter and whisper together, 
 making a playroom of the church, a thing 
 entirely improper for so sacred a place, and the 
 solemn nature of the Sacrament of Penance, 
 and rendering the duty of the priest hearing 
 the confessions needlessly arduous. It is quite 
 important to impress children with the holy 
 secret of confession and that, therefore, they 
 may never stand or kneel so near the confes- 
 sional as to be liable to hear what either the 
 penitent or the priest says, especially if either 
 of them were to speak somewhat loud. For 
 this reason it is preferable to let the children 
 remain in the pews or seats and there await 
 their turn for confession. 
 
 Laughing, talking, looking about, running in 
 and out of church, changing places, or pushing 
 themselves forward, must all be strictly prohib- 
 ited. The Catechist must earnestly warn the 
 children beforehand against any such offence 
 or misbehavior. 
 
 Immediately after confession each child should 
 go to the communion rail, or to the pew previ- 
 ously assigned for this purpose, where he should 
 kneel down to perform the penance imposed 
 and to make thanksgiving. 
 
 4. If it does not take too long, the children 
 
45° Christian Doctrine 
 
 can remain in the church till all have con- 
 fessed. Of course, they must not be allowed 
 to remain idle, but must pray in common or in 
 private. This has a double advantage: chil- 
 dren see that nothing is gained by pushing 
 themselves forward, and the Catechist has an 
 opportunity, when the confessions are over, of 
 reminding them to be faithful to their promises 
 and resolutions, and of concluding the whole 
 service with a prayer of thanksgiving or the 
 singing of a hymn. The work of hearing the 
 first confessions of a class should not occupy 
 more than one hour, or at most one and a half, 
 at a time. If longer, it will tire out confessor 
 and children : the priest, because to hear the 
 first confessions of children is very trying and 
 needs great patience ; the children, because 
 they, as a rule, will soon get restless and dis- 
 tracted. If the class is very large, divide it off, 
 and hear one division each day until finished. 
 
 The Catechist should ask a teacher of the 
 school, or some other fit person, to watch over 
 the children in church preparing and waiting 
 for their turn. This will insure their good be- 
 havior, and prevent anything interfering with 
 their devout preparation. 
 
 The confessions must be heard in church, 
 not in school. The latter should not be al- 
 lowed even in winter, as it can not be justified 
 
Christian Doctrine 451 
 
 either from the ecclesiastical or the educational 
 point of view. The schoolroom, where the chil- 
 dren have so often had fun or play, and, perhaps, 
 have been very naughty, is not the right place 
 for the performance of such a solemn duty as 
 confession. All the surroundings of the child 
 about to confess should be such as to promote 
 devout recollection and earnest examination of 
 his sins and evil inclinations. For this no other 
 place is suited except the house of God, nor 
 should it be considered too much of an expense 
 to heat the church for half a day in a work of 
 such importance for the parish. 
 
 5. The use of tickets by which the confessor 
 certifies to the confession of the children is a 
 shocking abuse. Supervision in this regard 
 can be had by other methods. By such tickets 
 the confessor, who is in every way bound to 
 secrecy, becomes indirectly an overseer and ac- 
 cuser. The seal of confession might become 
 seriously endangered. For this reason a similar 
 device proposed by the I. Prov. C. Bait, was re- 
 jected by the S. Propaganda, June 28, 1830. 
 Being forced to give his name to the confessor, 
 the child will no longer have that full confi- 
 dence in him which is so desirable, especially if 
 he has a serious sin to confess. Moreover, the 
 strict control over confession involved in the 
 use of tickets gives to it a character of com- 
 
45^ Christian Doctrine 
 
 pulsion which might easily make it hateful. 
 Finally, the use of tickets might in many cases 
 lead to fraud and deception. Away with con- 
 fession tickets ! 
 
 Conclusion 
 
 The Catechist must avoid everything likely 
 to make children shrink from or fear confes- 
 sion. A child naturally dreads the moment 
 when, alone and left to itself, it must appear 
 before the minister of God to confess its sins. 
 To the child this is an awful thing. Hence it 
 becomes the duty of the Catechist to encour- 
 age the child by his friendly manner, cheer- 
 ing words, and reassuring instruction. Finally, 
 everything must be avoided which would make 
 children dislike confession or render it need- 
 lessly difficult, such as threatening them with 
 confession, or compelling them to go to some 
 particular priest. 
 
 The Catechist ought to repeat with his class 
 the preparation heretofore described, as often as 
 they go to confession during the first year after 
 first confession, and especially before the first 
 communion. 
 
 Art. 5. — First Holy Communion 
 
 A. The Preparatory Instruction 
 
 1. In the first centuries of the Christian 
 Church the adult catechumens or converts 
 
Christian Doctrine 453 
 
 were prepared, during the forty days of Lent, 
 to receive the Sacraments of Baptism and the 
 Holy Eucharist at the following Easter. In our 
 day it is still the custom to admit children to 
 their first holy communion during Easter time 
 or soon after, and to prepare them for it dur- 
 ing Lent. This special preparation should not 
 extend over too long a period of time, e.g., a 
 whole scholastic year, as this would bring it 
 down to the level of the other ordinary classes, 
 and would thus detract from the sacredness 
 of this most important instruction, obliterate 
 the singular character by which it differs from 
 the rest of Christian Doctrine, and in the end 
 merely bore the pupils. The III. Plen. C. Bait, 
 n. 218, insists that this special instruction for 
 first holy communion should be given for 
 at least six weeks, with three lessons a week. 
 Here the American editor of Schuech truly 
 remarks : " But this is certainly the mini- 
 mum. In many parishes the ' First Commun- 
 ion Class ' is organized about three months 
 before the communion day, and instruction 
 given almost daily. The entire Catechism is 
 gone over with the class. This is more neces- 
 sary in our country, where so many children 
 receive their first religious instruction only 
 when they prepare to receive holy commun- 
 ion" (p. 314). Where these preparatory in- 
 
454 Christian Doctrine 
 
 structions form an integral part of the Christian 
 Doctrine course in school, and have their proper 
 place assigned on the school programme, certain 
 conditions or circumstances may sometimes de- 
 mand the organization of a separate and extraor- 
 dinary " First Communion Class." This may 
 become necessary where a number of children 
 have to remain away from the regular course 
 on account of ill-health or sickness, of long dis- 
 tance from church, or because they are sent by 
 their parents to the public school. (On these 
 public school children see the very thought- 
 ful remarks in the A. Eccl. R., December, 1895, 
 pp. 415 ff., " The Stray Sheep.") In those sec- 
 tions of the country where the winter is hard 
 and long, the pastor of a country parish ought 
 not to begin the instructions for first com- 
 munion before winter begins to break up, and 
 the roads become passable ; otherwise many of 
 his children will either not come at all or only 
 very irregularly. 
 
 2. The preparation of children for first holy 
 communion is a most important duty of the 
 Catechist, because it marks a turning-point in 
 the character of each child and often decides 
 the whole course of his or her future religious 
 life. Instances of a complete reformation of 
 children from the time of first communion are 
 by no means rare. That first holy commun- 
 
Christian Doctrine 455 
 
 ion exercises a great influence over children 
 is proved by the fact that sometimes the very 
 remembrance of it calls forth a change of sen- 
 timents. Even at the death-bed of hardened 
 sinners holy results have sprung forth by the 
 mere remembrance of their first holy com- 
 munion. The unqualified assertion that first 
 communion is the most beautiful, the most 
 important, and the most sacred act of life, must, 
 however, be characterized as an exaggeration. 
 After all, it is only the beginning, but by no 
 means the culmination, of a holy life ; later 
 communions should increase holiness in the 
 recipient and lead him on to persevere in his 
 good aim. 
 
 If the preparatory instruction for holy com- 
 munion is to attain its end, it is absolutely 
 necessary that the Catechist should clearly 
 understand its very peculiar nature, and so 
 adapt and shape his instructions that the chil- 
 dren themselves will feel how very different 
 from other instructions these are. More than 
 anywhere else ought the teacher to realize that 
 now his main and only end is to edify, not to 
 instruct ; that he must touch and inflame the 
 heart, not simply enlighten the mind. No 
 doubt, the children must be made to know and 
 understand the truths connected with the great 
 mystery of the Eucharist, they must know all 
 
456 Christian Doctrine 
 
 that a worthy preparation and right disposition 
 for holy communion demand ; at the same 
 time " it must be well understood that it is not an 
 ordinary Catechism . . . but there is a hidden, 
 a deep and strong, a persevering and continu- 
 ous, action. . . . Without this strong action on 
 souls, without this deep transformation of mind 
 and heart, nothing has been done; and if the 
 first communion is not a sacrilege, yet at least 
 the fruits of it will be very indifferent and very 
 soon nothing will remain." The meaning of 
 these words of Dupanloup (p. 306) is more fully 
 seen when later on he explains the three stages 
 or epochs of this preparation. He says : " The 
 object and proper work of each of these three 
 epochs is as follows : The first brings the child 
 out of his usual light and frivolous life, and 
 makes him enter on a serious preparation for the 
 first communion by prayer, by religious work, 
 and Christian emulation. It lasts from a fort- 
 night to three weeks. The second period con- 
 tinues the work of the first, but goes farther; 
 it trains the child in the spirit of penitence and 
 includes the immediate preparation for his 
 general confession. It lasts nearly a month. 
 The third, still continuing the work of the two 
 former, adds to it the immediate preparation 
 for the first communion. It lasts another 
 month. The retreat of three days finishes the 
 
Christian Doctrine 457 
 
 work and strikes the final blows." The super- 
 natural psychology of this preparatory process 
 and its stages is then developed in the succeed- 
 ing chapters. We would pity, indeed, the 
 children intrusted to a Catechist who could 
 see nothing but an overflowing enthusiasm of 
 French piety in the work thus outlined by the 
 great Bishop of Orleans. The fact that so 
 many first communions leave no lasting re- 
 sults in the children, is due in no small meas- 
 ure to the other fact that many Catechists do 
 not understand what is the main object of their 
 instructions for first communion, or, if they 
 do, that they do not act according to their 
 knowledge. 
 
 From the above it will also be understood 
 that, while a certain amount of religious knowl- 
 edge is required for first holy communion, 
 yet the knowledge of the Catechism on the part 
 of the children is not the main criterion to 
 decide who shall be admitted and who refused. 
 True, the Catechist will employ the greatest 
 care and spare no pains to have all the children 
 well instructed in doctrine. He will pay 
 special attention to the pupils of a weaker mind 
 and try to impart to them at least that amount 
 of knowledge which will fit them sufficiently to 
 receive the Blessed Sacrament. Good and well- 
 behaved children may be admitted without 
 
45 8 Christian Doctrine 
 
 hesitation, although they may be backward in 
 learning their lessons ; being far behind others 
 in mental capacity, they may be a long way 
 ahead of them in devout and religious senti- 
 ments, which are the more important elements 
 of a proper preparation and disposition for 
 holy communion. On the other hand, bad 
 and corrupt children must be refused, although 
 they may be bright pupils, and know their les- 
 sons to perfection. 
 
 3. These instructions of the Catechist must 
 aim particularly to insure in his pupils a 
 sufficient knowledge, purity of heart, a great 
 devotion to and love for the Blessed Sacra- 
 ment, and an ardent desire to receive it. 
 
 (a) He must teach them thoroughly that part 
 of the Catechism which treats of the Holy Eu- 
 charist, and thus lead them to a full knowledge 
 of this doctrine. The instruction should com- 
 prise the following subjects: (1) The promise 
 and the institution of the Eucharist. (2) The 
 real presence of Jesus Christ in this Sacra- 
 ment and the consequent honor and reverence 
 due to it. (3) The duty of receiving holy com- 
 munion. (4) The effect of holy communion. 
 (5) The preparation for holy communion, the 
 manner of receiving it, and the thanksgiving 
 after it. (6) Unworthy communion. (7) Spir- 
 itual communion. Some think that an apolo- 
 
Christian Doctrine 459 
 
 getic treatment of the Eucharist, replying to 
 the objections, should form a part of these 
 preparatory instructions. They forget that the 
 Catechist at this time is not to do the work of 
 a professor of theology. 
 
 (b) To make children receive first holy 
 communion with pure hearts the Catechist 
 must make them feel, as it were, how grievous 
 and terrible a sin a sacrilegious communion 
 is. At the same time he must fill them with 
 a solemn awe of that most holy and august 
 Sacrament, and he should also advise the chil- 
 dren going to first communion to make a gen- 
 eral confession of their sins or at least a kind of 
 review of their past life. 
 
 (c) That the children may from the first 
 approach the holy table with devotion, the 
 Catechist should require them to kneel before 
 the Blessed Sacrament every time they enter a 
 church, and to adore Our Lord there present ; 
 frequently to make acts of faith, hope, charity, 
 and contrition with special reference to the 
 Holy Sacrament of the Altar. For this pur- 
 pose he should use a short form of prayer and 
 let the children often repeat it ; e.g. : — 
 
 " I believe, O Lord Jesus, that Thou art truly 
 present in the Holy Sacrament of the Altar, 
 hidden under the appearance of the consecrated 
 bread. I hope that by the grace of this Sacra- 
 
460 Christian Doctrine 
 
 ment I shall one day see Thee face to face in 
 Thy heavenly glory. O Lord Jesus, I love 
 Thee more than anything else in this world 
 because of Thy goodness and because in this 
 Holy Sacrament Thou givest to me Thy sacred 
 body as a food for eternal life. O Lord Jesus, 
 be merciful to me a miserable sinner, and for- 
 give me my sins, so that I may worthily receive 
 Thy most holy body." 
 
 (d) The Catechist should arouse in the chil- 
 dren a heartfelt desire and an ardent longing 
 to receive the Most Holy Sacrament of the 
 Altar. To this end he should teach them 
 the practice of spiritual communion. Captain 
 Greeley's expedition to the North Pole, starv- 
 ing in sight of the provisions stored up in the 
 cache across Smith's Sound, offers an example 
 of the longing desire for food : explain the 
 similitude, but also the difference, when com- 
 pared to spiritual communion. Here is a 
 short and suitable form of prayer for spiritual 
 communion: "Lord Jesus, I adore Thee, who 
 art here present in the Holy Sacrament of the 
 Altar ; my soul longs for Thee and yearns to be 
 united with Thee. But as I can not receive 
 Thee now in visible form, I beseech Thee, 
 sweet Jesus, come to me invisibly. Thou 
 canst do this, for Thou art all-powerful. O 
 Lord Jesus, abide with me, and grant that 
 
Christian Doctrine 461 
 
 no sin of mine may ever separate me from 
 Thee." 
 
 (e) It is a good plan for the Catechist to take 
 the children from time to time to church when 
 the Blessed Sacrament is kept there, and make 
 them pray in common the acts of faith, hope, 
 charity, and contrition, and spiritual commun- 
 ion, after which he may leave them for a few 
 short moments to their own private devotion. 
 
 {/) The Catechist must also teach his pupils 
 the right way of making their thanksgiving 
 after communion, and how to offer to Our 
 Lord Jesus their petitions and good resolu- 
 tions. 
 
 (g) It is important that at holy commun- 
 ion the children's minds and hearts be contin- 
 ually occupied with the great mystery. They 
 must not be allowed to be idle, as the fruit of 
 holy communion depends greatly on the spirit- 
 ual activity of the communicant. Hence the 
 Catechist must point out to them the prayers 
 (printed in the prayer-book), to be used before 
 and after holy communion, and instruct them 
 how to use those prayers. 
 
 (k) The Catechist must also instruct the 
 children how to be physically prepared for 
 communion and in what manner to receive it. 
 He will remind them to fast from midnight, 
 and to come in clean though not necessarily 
 
462 Christian Doctrine 
 
 costly clothes. Girls especially must be warned 
 not to think too much of what they wear, and 
 thereby forget the all-important thing. He 
 will tell the pupils how to bear themselves at 
 the sacred act, that they should not only open 
 their mouth, but that they should also some- 
 what put out their tongue over the under lip ; 
 that they should either close their eyes or 
 piously and devoutly look at the sacred Host ; 
 but that they must not look up at the priest. 
 In the absence of a communion card or cloth 
 they may hold their prayer-book under their 
 chin whilst receiving. Children must also be 
 told that it is most unseemly to bite the holy 
 Host with the teeth, or, if it should stick to the 
 roof of the mouth, to remove it with the fingers ; 
 neither should they spit out till after the lapse 
 of some time, say about ten minutes. 
 
 (i) While preparing the children for first 
 holy communion the Catechist should try in 
 every way to engage the cooperation of their 
 parents. (See. A. Eccl. R., Dec, 1895, pp. 407 f.) 
 
 (/) It often happens that the children who 
 confessed the day before holy communion 
 want to confess again on the day itself when 
 they receive. To avoid such an unnecessary 
 annoyance and to guard them against forming 
 a false conscience or scrupulous habit, the 
 Catechist must make them understand clearly 
 
Christian Doctrine 463 
 
 that they should simply repent of any lighter 
 fault committed since the previous day ; but that 
 confession is necessary after a mortal sin only. 
 Even if they happen to remember some mortal 
 sin forgotten in confession, they are not bound 
 to confess it now before communion, as it is 
 already forgiven. But they must confess it the 
 next time. 
 
 4. In regard to the retreat immediately be- 
 fore communion, consult Dupanloup, pp. 361 ff.; 
 Schuech, p. 315. 
 
 B. The External Celebration 
 
 First holy communion should be celebrated 
 in such a manner that it will fill the hearts of 
 the young communicants with a feeling of great 
 reverence and awe for the most holy and august 
 Sacrament of the Altar, and make the day one 
 that is ever to be remembered even by the 
 most cold and impassive. Hence the Catechist 
 must bear in mind : — 
 
 1. The most suitable day for the first com- 
 munion of children is Low Sunday (the first 
 Sunday after Easter), called in Liturgy " The 
 Sunday in White." 
 
 On the day of their first communion chil- 
 dren should remember their baptism and re- 
 new their baptismal vows. Low Sunday is 
 
464 Christian Doctrine 
 
 intimately connected with baptism; for it re- 
 ceived its Latin name because in the early days 
 of the Church it was customary for the newly 
 baptized to lay aside, on the first Sunday after 
 Easter, the white robes they had received at 
 baptism. Easter Day and Whit Sunday (Pen- 
 tecost) are also days suitable for first com- 
 munion, because the solemnizing of baptism 
 formerly took place on those days. 
 
 2. The children assemble in the school, and, 
 escorted by their pastor or Catechist, march in 
 solemn procession to the church, with church 
 banners carried in front of them and amid the 
 ringing of church bells. 
 
 3. After the gospel, or after the commun- 
 ion of the priest, a short and earnest address 
 should be given from the altar to the children 
 and the grown members of the congregation 
 to impress them with the importance of the 
 day, and to arouse in their hearts sentiments 
 of faith, love, contrition, and gratitude. Natu- 
 rally, the priest who conducts this solemn ser- 
 vice should also show every sign of gravity and 
 reverence. 
 
 4. With this address should be combined the 
 renewal of the baptismal vows. As at baptism, 
 the priest will ask the children, " Do you re- 
 nounce the devil and all his works ? and all his 
 pomp and glory ? " Then comes the question : 
 
Christian Doctrine 465 
 
 " Do you believe in God, the Father ? — in God, 
 the Son ? — and in God, the Holy Ghost ? " To 
 which questions all the children answer in a 
 body. The renewal of the baptismal vows can, 
 however, take place beforehand at the baptismal 
 font. With us in America it generally forms a 
 special service held in the afternoon. 
 
 5. Before receiving, the children all recite 
 together the preparatory prayers, and immedi- 
 ately before holy communion they say three 
 times with the priest, " O Lord, I am not 
 worthy," etc. Of course, during this common 
 prayer all singing must cease in the church, as 
 well as the playing of the organ. 
 
 6. The children, first the boys and then the 
 girls, the order always observed in Church cere- 
 monies, will now go up to the communion rail, 
 which is generally covered with a communion 
 cloth. Two acolytes, bearing lighted candles, 
 may accompany the priest who gives commun- 
 ion. But to allow the communicants also to 
 carry lighted candles is a very serious mistake. 
 It will only distract the children, who must 
 watch their candles lest they soil their clothes 
 with the dropping wax or even set them on fire. 
 The whole attention of the child should be cen- 
 tered in the Blessed Sacrament. Away, then, 
 with candles at holy communion! Ardent 
 devotion of the heart must rank higher than 
 
466 Christian Doctrine 
 
 outer glory and religious pomp. The same 
 objections can be urged, in a degree, against 
 having a special candle-bearer for each first 
 communicant. If the children must have 
 lighted candles, let it be at the renewal of 
 their baptismal vows, when there is some mean- 
 ing to it as at baptism itself. 
 
 7. After communion all the children say a 
 thanksgiving prayer together. In reciting these 
 the Catechist may lead them. The same ap- 
 plies to the preparatory prayers. 
 
 8. It is a very useful custom to give the chil- 
 dren a beautiful picture in memory of the day 
 of their first holy communion, so that when 
 they look at it they may be reminded of this 
 very important day of their lives. When mak- 
 ing the present, the Catechist may warn the 
 children that henceforth they are bound under 
 pain of sin to receive holy communion at 
 Easter every year. 
 
 Note. — Catechists in charge of first communion classes 
 will find excellent advice and hints in Canon J. Schmitt; 
 Furniss, pp. 228 ff. \ the A. Eccl. R. y December, 1895; 
 and especially in Dupanloup, Bks. III., IV., where the 
 chapter on "First Communion in the Country," p. 422, 
 deserves attention. 
 
 Pastors and Catechists in charge of the advanced Chris- 
 tian Doctrine classes, comprising pupils who have made their 
 first communion, will do well to study Dupanloup, Bk. V. p. 
 457> "On the Catechism of Perseverance." 
 
Christian Doctrine 467 
 
 Art. 6. — Holy Confirmation 
 
 " In order that the children as well as the 
 adult persons who come to receive holy con- 
 firmation may obtain a fuller measure of the 
 grace of the Holy Ghost poured out in this 
 Sacrament, they must be well instructed regard- 
 ing its nature and fruits ; and no one may be 
 admitted who is not sufficiently instructed in 
 Christian Doctrine. We exhort priests that, 
 following a praiseworthy custom, they avail 
 themselves of this occasion and have the per- 
 sons to be confirmed fully instructed in the 
 knowledge of the Catechism." 
 
 These words of the I. Prov. C. Westminster, 
 1852, faithfully echo the sense of all modern 
 councils and synods regarding the necessary 
 preparation for this Sacrament. Certainly, the 
 state of grace is a condition required by divine 
 law. But, besides this, the law of the Church 
 also requires a sufficient knowledge of Christian 
 Doctrine, not only in regard to holy confirma- 
 tion, but also in regard to other important 
 doctrines. " Only those who are sufficiently 
 instructed in the principal mysteries of faith and 
 the elements of divine religion can be admitted 
 to this Sacrament. They ought to be prepared 
 by frequent catechetical instructions and pious 
 exhortations" (Prov. C. Cashel, 1853). 
 
468 Christian Doctrine 
 
 The Catechist can easily know his special 
 duty in preparing children for holy confirma- 
 tion from these ecclesiastical injunctions and 
 from the nature of the Sacrament. Both tell 
 him that by his instructions he must prepare 
 the mind and heart of the children. (See Sch. 
 p. 316.) 
 
 1. The main subject of the catechetic instruc- 
 tion is evidently the Sacrament of Confirmation 
 itself. "No one shall be allowed to receive 
 confirmation who is not carefully instructed 
 regarding the nature and effects of this Sacra- 
 ment." (III. Plen. C. Bait., n. 2 1 8.) This com- 
 prises the questions also concerning the minister, 
 subject, necessity of, and the required dispo- 
 sition for, confirmation. With this ought to 
 be joined a fuller explanation of the doctrines 
 concerning the divine person of the Holy Ghost, 
 His descent upon the Apostles, His work in the 
 Church of God and in the individual soul. 
 (See Cardinal Manning's books on the temporal 
 and the internal mission of the Holy Ghost.) 
 
 As the pupils of this class are now better 
 able to understand these doctrines than when 
 they heard of them the first time in going 
 through the Catechism, the Catechist has a 
 splendid opportunity to strengthen by his ear- 
 nest words the divine faith and a loyal adher- 
 ence to the Catholic Church in the hearts of 
 
Christian Doctrine 469 
 
 the children by making them understand that 
 the work of the Church is the work of the 
 Holy Ghost, and that in believing and obeying 
 her, we believe and obey the Divine Spirit of 
 Truth. 
 
 The work of the Holy Ghost in the soul 
 can not be explained without at the same time 
 explaining the doctrine of divine grace, actual 
 and habitual, by the help of which we must keep 
 the Commandments, or, in other words, practice 
 Christian virtue and avoid sin. This offers the 
 Catechist a good chance of reviewing the more 
 important practical and moral doctrines of the 
 Catechism, and of showing wherein and in 
 what manner the " soldier of Jesus Christ " 
 must "fight the good fight of faith" (1 Tim. 
 vi. 12). 
 
 Considering the usual composition and con- 
 dition of our confirmation classes, the circum- 
 stances under which these instructions are 
 given, and at the same time the Christian 
 strength and courage of intellect and will 
 needed by our young people going out into 
 a wicked world, we believe it far more neces- 
 sary that the confirmands 1 should be given a 
 
 1 When every standard dictionary of the English language 
 allows the term " ordinandi 1 meaning a person to be ordained, 
 what objection can there be to using the term " conflrmand " in 
 the sense of " one to be confirmed " ? — Editor. 
 
470 Christian Doctrine 
 
 solid and thorough instruction in some select 
 parts of the Catechism (Holy Ghost, Catholic 
 Church, Faith, Grace, Virtue, Sin) than that 
 they should review every chapter of the Cate- 
 chism, which could be done only in a super- 
 ficial manner by the Catechist, and would, in 
 all probability, prove to be a tedious and weari- 
 some task for the pupils. 
 
 2. The Catechist must prepare the hearts of 
 the children for confirmation by suitable Chris- 
 tian exhortation and advice, flowing naturally 
 from the doctrines explained, and especially 
 from the nature and effects of the Sacrament. 
 He must tell them by what pious practices 
 (daily prayers to the Holy Ghost, hearing Mass 
 on weekdays, visits to church, some spiritual, 
 i.e., internal, mortification, also slight corporal 
 mortifications, acts of charity and mercy, etc.) 
 they may render themselves more worthy of 
 this Sacrament, whose dignity, wonderful ef- 
 fects, and moral necessity (at least in our times) 
 ought to be clearly and deeply impressed upon 
 all who wish to receive it. 
 
 It is not enough, however, merely to tell the 
 children what to do ; the Catechist ought to 
 induce them to carry out his advice. By 
 kind earnestness and gentle entreaties, by his 
 example, and by actually joining in the pious 
 practices suggested, he may easily prevail on 
 
Christian Doctrine 471 
 
 the whole class to perform some appropriate 
 exercises in common, either in church or in 
 school, during this time of preparation. Even 
 older children will follow cheerfully where the 
 zealous Catechist leads. 
 
 3. From what has been said above, it is 
 easy to see how wisely some bishops have or- 
 dained that in their dioceses first holy com- 
 munion and holy confirmation should not be 
 received on the same day. Indeed, to have 
 a child receive both these Sacraments on the 
 same day is to ignore the nature of the child 
 as well as the importance of confirmation and 
 of its preparatory instruction. One of these 
 Sacraments will necessarily become of a mere 
 secondary, accidental consideration ; usually it 
 is confirmation that must suffer. From a 
 sound pedagogic point of view, with which the 
 Christian view perfectly accords, each of these 
 two Sacraments demands its own distinct men- 
 tal and moral preparation ; to combine both is 
 to overburden the child and to counteract 
 mutually whatever may be the force and in- 
 fluence of either preparation. Let them be 
 separate, and let each have its full sway over the 
 soul of the recipient. There ought to be an 
 interval of at least a full month between first 
 communion and confirmation. 
 
 4. Confirmation in the United States is usu- 
 
47 2 Christian Doctrine 
 
 ally given after first communion, not before. 
 Our conditions fully justify this policy. Hence 
 the pupils of our confirmation classes belong, as 
 a rule, to the higher school grades ; they have 
 gone through the whole Catechism before those 
 special instructions for confirmation are given; 
 their minds are more fully developed and they 
 can more easily follow a connected discourse. 
 In view of all this, the mode of these instruc- 
 tions will differ somewhat from that observed 
 in the lower grades of Christian Doctrine. 
 Although the general principles laid down in 
 Ch. in., p. 176, must be followed still, yet 
 doctrinal exposition may prevail over historical 
 lesson ; the lecture form may be used more 
 extensively ; Liturgy and Church History may 
 be given wider play ; the text-book may be 
 more fully trusted, while the blackboard and 
 picture are dispensed with. 
 
 But let not the Catechist, on this account, 
 think that he need not devote as much earnest 
 thought and assiduous preparation to these 
 preparatory instructions for confirmation as 
 he will give to his first confession class. It 
 would be a most fatal mistake. His confir- 
 mation pupils are now of an age when their 
 mind begins to think for itself and insists on 
 taking its own view and following its own way, 
 instead of trustfully accepting what is offered 
 
Christian Doctrine 473 
 
 to it, as the little child will. Hence, it needs a 
 stronger mind to impress it with the truth, and 
 a wiser hand to lead it on to virtue. The Cate- 
 chist must, therefore, arrange these confirma- 
 tion lessons upon a thoughtful plan and piously 
 prepare them all. Piously ! For, if no teacher 
 of Christian Doctrine can expect to do his 
 work rightly and to sow the divine seed in a 
 way that it will bring forth the fruit of everlast- 
 ing life, without often and fervently raising his 
 soul to the Spirit of Truth, to ask for light, 
 wisdom, and power, we believe this to hold still 
 more when the Catechist teaches and explains 
 that divine mystery which is in an especial sense 
 the Sacrament of the Holy Ghost, the Giver of 
 supernatural truth and life. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE 
 
 History shows clearest which are the best 
 principles in teaching Christian Doctrine. No 
 solid religious instruction can be given where 
 the practice of the Church, observed for ages, 
 is set aside. The Catechist should therefore 
 be acquainted with the history of Christian 
 Doctrine, which, be it observed, is not the same 
 as the history of Christian Education in general, 
 but forms only a part of it. On the other hand, 
 the history of the Christian elementary schools, 
 the common schools of the Middle Ages, and 
 that of the modern parish school furnishes a 
 large amount of most interesting material for 
 a complete " History of Christian Doctrine or 
 Catechism." 
 
 See the very interesting article, " Rise of the 
 Christian Schools" in American Cat/i. Quar- 
 terly Review, July, 1900, p. 456. 
 
 History shows, however, that the practice 
 of the Church in this matter has not always 
 been the same. In preaching the Gospel the 
 
 474 
 
Christian Doctrine 475 
 
 Church has always, in spite of the steadfast 
 unchangeableness of her faith and of her moral 
 teaching, taken into consideration the peculiar 
 characteristics and needs of different peoples 
 (see 1 Cor. ix. 19 ff.) as well as the special 
 circumstances of the time. Those who are 
 won to the fold from Judaism receive a differ- 
 ent treatment from those who are converted 
 from heathenism. The Church is like a physi- 
 cian who employs different remedies for patients 
 suffering from different diseases. Civilized peo- 
 ples, such as the Greeks and Romans, were in 
 need of a different mode of teaching from that 
 suitable to the untutored inhabitants of the 
 North. Moreover, the needed treatment varied 
 greatly in early times, when the conversion of 
 nations had only just been effected, from that 
 of a later date, when the baptism of children 
 had become universal. Then, again, instruc- 
 tion differed in mediaeval days from that given 
 after the invention of printing (1450). And yet 
 again it was modified in the time of religious 
 controversy, and altered when that controversy 
 had subsided. The knowledge of this diverse 
 and manifold practice of the Church offers to 
 the Catechist many important lessons from 
 which he may learn by what ways and means 
 Christian Doctrine can be made useful and 
 successful in our own days. 
 
476 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Art. 1. — The Messianic Days 
 A. Jesus Christ 
 
 The first, and at the same time the most 
 perfect, teacher of Christian Doctrine was the 
 Divine Founder of that religion, Jesus Christ. 
 The chief endeavor of the Saviour was that 
 His words should be clearly understood and 
 properly obeyed. With this end in view He 
 adopted the following method : — 
 
 1. He spoke in a simple and homely man- 
 ner. His sentences were short, His expres- 
 sions easy to understand, His speech plain and 
 perspicuous. Hence He uses numerous similes, 
 comparisons, and parables ; He is fond of an- 
 titheses and of outward signs, and delights in 
 drawing lessons from nature. 
 
 Here are a few examples of the similes used 
 by Christ: He likens Himself to the Good 
 Shepherd (John x. 11); Peter to a rock (Matt, 
 xvi. 18); the Pharisees to whited sepulchers 
 (Matt, xxiii. 27); or to wolves in sheep's cloth- 
 ing; the dead to sleepers, as in the case of Laz- 
 arus and of Jairus's daughter. Particularly 
 beautiful is the simile of the hen brooding over 
 her young (Matt, xxiii. 37). 
 
 Of the parables St. Matthew says plainly, 
 " Without parables He did not speak to the 
 
Christian Doctrine 477 
 
 people" (Matt. xiii. 34). Amongst these par- 
 ables the most conspicuous are those of the 
 prodigal son, the good Samaritan, the rich 
 man and Lazarus, the Pharisee and the publi- 
 can in the Temple, the laborers in the vine- 
 yard, the great supper, the unmerciful servant. 
 
 In His discourses Our Lord continually refers 
 to objects in nature and uses them to illustrate 
 His teaching. The lilies and the grass of the 
 field, the birds of the air, the sparrows on the 
 housetop, the hair of the head, the grain of seed 
 sown in the field, the wheat and the cockle, the 
 fig tree, the vineyard, the vine, the mustard 
 seed, the sheep, the shepherd, the wolf, the har- 
 vest, the house, the rock, the sepulcher, the 
 mountain, the sun, the light, the Temple, — all 
 these are objects to which Our Lord refers in 
 order to make His teaching about the kingdom 
 of heaven easier to grasp. 
 
 Christ often illustrated His doctrines by 
 means of outward signs ; thus He breathed on 
 His Apostles when He said, " Receive ye the 
 Holy Ghost," in order to illustrate the imparting 
 of the Holy Spirit, " the Divine Breath " (John 
 xx. 22). Before He healed a man born blind, 
 He spat on the ground, made clay with the 
 spittle, and laid it on the eyes of the man, whom 
 He commanded to go and wash in the pool of 
 Siloe ( John ix. 6). By this action Our Lord evi- 
 
478 Christian Doctrine 
 
 dently meant to say, " When the Living Water 
 which comes from My mouth (the Holy Gos- 
 pel) unites itself with the dust of the earth 
 (man), his spiritual blindness will be healed." 
 Likewise, in instituting the Sacraments, Our 
 Lord chose outward signs, such as water, oil, 
 imposition of hands, bread, wine, to symbol- 
 ize the graces to be imparted. By His very 
 actions, He wishes to illustrate various truths 
 of religion, so that He often speaks to us in 
 parables even when He does not open His 
 mouth. Everything which took place at Our 
 Lord's nativity (the enrolment of the people, 
 the light in the fields, the proximity of the 
 sheep and the shepherds, the crib) had its sym- 
 bolical meaning, and so had everything which 
 took place at His death (the conduct of the 
 two thieves, the eclipse of the sun, the rending 
 of the veil of the Temple, the piercing of the 
 Heart of Jesus, etc.). It is the same with Our 
 Lord's miracles ; these, too, have their deep 
 significance, as, for instance, the miracle at 
 Cana, the multiplication of the loaves, the still- 
 ing of the tempest, the raising of the dead. 
 
 Of antitheses the following may be referred 
 to : the kind master and the unmerciful ser- 
 vant; the rich glutton and the beggar Lazarus; 
 the proud Pharisee and the humble publican; 
 the good Samaritan and the heartless priest 
 
Christian Doctrine 479 
 
 and Levite. The simple but forceful sayings 
 of Christ should also be noted : " Now no man 
 lighting a candle covereth it with a vessel, or 
 putteth it under a bed, but setteth it upon a 
 candlestick that they who come in may see the 
 light " (Luke viii. 16); "The foxes have holes 
 and the birds of the air nests, but the Son of 
 man hath not where to lay His head" (Matt. 
 viii. 20) ; " Not every one that saith unto Me, 
 Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom of 
 heaven, but he that doth the will of My Father 
 who is in heaven " (Matt. vii. 21). Y ox proverbs 
 employed by Christ, note the following: " The 
 servant is not greater than his master" (John 
 xv. 20) ; " Physician, heal thyself " (Luke iv. 23) ; 
 " Wheresoever the body shall be thither will the 
 eagles also be gathered together " (Luke xvii. 
 37); "No man can serve two masters" (Matt. 
 vi. 24) ; " These things ye ought to have done, 
 and not to leave those undone " (Matt, xxiii. 23). 
 
 2. Christ leads from the known to the 
 unknown, so as to make the latter more easily 
 understood. 
 
 When, remembering the miraculous multi- 
 plication of the loaves, the people sought the 
 Saviour and in the synagogue of Capharnaum 
 again asked bread from Him, He turned the 
 opportunity to account to teach them the doc- 
 trine of the Sacrament of the Altar (John vi.). 
 
480 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Before teaching the Samaritan woman who 
 came to Jacob's well to draw water, Christ first 
 asked her to give Him to drink and then began 
 to speak about the living water (John iv.). 
 After Peter on the way to Caesarea Philippi had 
 boldly made his declaration of faith in the pres- 
 ence of the other disciples, Jesus made him the 
 head of the Church (Matt. xvi.). At the feast 
 of Tabernacles, when, after drawing water from 
 the pool of Siloe it was taken in solemn pro- 
 cession to the Temple and there poured out 
 upon the altar, while the words of the prophet 
 Isaias were sung, "You shall draw water with 
 joy out of the Saviour's fountains," Christ stood 
 forth and cried : " If any man thirst, let him 
 come unto Me and drink," etc. (John vii. 37). 
 Jesus called a little child to Him and set him 
 in the midst of His audience, and then used 
 him as an example to the Apostles of the humil- 
 ity and simplicity they should cultivate (Matt, 
 xviii.) ; after the miraculous draught of fishes 
 the Saviour said to the Apostles, " I will make 
 you fishers of men " (Matt. iv. 19). 
 
 3. With a view to making His hearers think, 
 and preventing His words from becoming mere 
 lifeless and empty forms, Christ often had re- 
 course to the rhetorical figure of hyperbole, that 
 is to say, He used expressions saying more than 
 He meant, which were not to be interpreted 
 
Christian Doctrine 481 
 
 verbally, but according to their inner meaning. 
 Hyperbole and comparisons were both used by 
 Our Saviour to punish those evil disposed per- 
 sons who would not understand (Matt. xiii. 
 11-17), and insisted on sticking to the letter of 
 the word. They scorned to seek the veiled 
 truth, and for that reason became more and 
 more incensed against the Saviour's teaching. 
 Here are some examples of hyperbole used by 
 Christ : " To him that striketh thee on the left 
 cheek offer also the other " (Luke vi. 29). That 
 this was not meant to be taken literally is proved 
 by the behavior of Christ toward the servant of 
 the high priest who struck Him in the face. 
 Our Saviour only meant to say, it is better to 
 bear insult than to seek revenge. " It is easier 
 for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle 
 than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of 
 heaven " (Matt. xix. 24). If this were to be 
 understood literally, no rich man need hope to 
 be saved. " If thine eye scandalize thee, pluck 
 it out and cast it from thee " ('Matt, xviii. 9). 
 Yet self-mutilation is a sin. Christ only meant 
 to teach that rather than commit sin any sacri- 
 fice must be made. " Lay not up for yourself 
 treasure on earth, where the rust and moth con- 
 sume," etc. (Matt. vi. 19), yet we ought to care 
 for the future. " The last shall be first and the 
 first last" (Matt. xx. 16), yet many who are 
 
482 Chris tia7i Doctrine 
 
 the first on earth will also be among the first in 
 heaven. " A little while and now ye shall not 
 see Me, and again a little while and ye shall see 
 Me " (John xvi. 16). The time before the Judg- 
 ment Day or our own death is no such little 
 while after all. " For he that hath, to him shall 
 be given, . . . but he that hath not from him 
 shall be taken away also that which he hath " 
 (Matt. xiii. 12), and yet in many cases God does 
 not withhold His mercy from the very greatest 
 sinners. Men of good will ponder upon such 
 sayings more and more seriously, and thus gain 
 an ever greater insight into their meaning. 
 
 4. Christ tries to make an impression on 
 the feelings and the will by the use of pithy 
 expressions, of forcible and urgent speech. 
 He knew well how to appeal to the heart. 
 Gregory the Great says : " It was because 
 Christ's words went home to the very heart of 
 His hearers that He was able to exercise so 
 great an influence over the people." Christ 
 sometimes gives expression to His own feelings, 
 as in the following cases: He was astonished at 
 the faith of the heathen centurion (Matt. viii. 
 10); He wondered because of the unbelief of 
 the people of Nazareth (Mark vi. 6); He wept 
 beside the grave of Lazarus (John xi. 35), and 
 over the blindness of Jerusalem (Luke xix. 41). 
 Christ arouses the feelings of His hearers by 
 
Christian Doctrine 483 
 
 such sharp expressions as : " Give not that 
 which is holy unto dogs ; neither cast ye your 
 pearls before swine " (Matt. vii. 6) ; " Cast out 
 first the beam out of thine own eye and then 
 shalt thou see to cast out the mote out of thy 
 brothers eye " (Matt. vii. 5) ; " Blind guides, 
 who strain out a gnat and swallow a camel " 
 (Matt, xxiii. 24). Impressive words indeed are 
 those with which Christ tries to influence the 
 will of His hearers : " Amen I say to you, that 
 this generation shall not pass," etc. (Matt. xxiv. 
 34 ; xxv. 40) ; " He that hath ears to hear, let 
 him hear" (Luke xiv. 35); "Go and do thou 
 in like manner" (Luke x. 37). 
 
 B. The Apostles 
 
 Treating of the method of teaching followed 
 by the Apostles, a distinction must be made 
 between their missionary teaching and the 
 preparation of candidates for baptism. 
 
 1. The aim of their missionary preaching was 
 to give a brief summary of the Christian religion, 
 and to win over their hearers to the faith of 
 Christ. The address of Peter at Pentecost and 
 that of St. Paul in the Areopagus at Athens, were 
 missionary sermons, in which these Apostles 
 acted like merchants who allow their goods to 
 be looked at and handled, while their listeners 
 
484 Christian Doctrine 
 
 resembled Moses when he went and gazed 
 down from the top of Mount Nebo upon all 
 the beauties of the Promised Land. Origen 
 makes a very sensible comparison in this con- 
 nection. He says that by the missionary ser- 
 mon men are called out of the bondage of 
 Egypt, by the preparatory instruction for bap- 
 tism they are led to Mount Sinai ; but by bap- 
 tism men are taken through the waters of 
 Jordan and brought into the Promised Land, 
 i.e., God's holy Church. 
 
 Missionary sermons when addressed to the 
 Jews were of course different from what they 
 were when addressed to the heathen. 
 
 As the Jews awaited the coming of the Saviour, 
 the Apostles spoke to them somewhat in this 
 manner: Jesus of Nazareth is the promised 
 Messias, because in Him are fulfilled the pre- 
 dictions of the prophets. Ye Jews have slain 
 the Messias. Repent, receive His teaching, 
 and be baptized ; otherwise ye will go to eter- 
 nal perdition. Compare St. Peter's sermon at 
 Pentecost (Acts ii. 14 ff.). 
 
 To the heathen, however, who worshiped 
 idols and told fables about the sons of their 
 gods, the holy Apostles said: There is but 
 one God. This God, who created the whole 
 world and is present everywhere, does not 
 allow Himself to be shut up in the form of 
 
Christian Doctrine 485 
 
 perishable idols. Idolatry, therefore, is sheer 
 stupidity. The true God sent His Son Jesus 
 into the world. We saw the wonders He per- 
 formed and were witnesses of His Resurrec- 
 tion. The Son of God will one day cause all 
 men to arise from the dead, when He will be 
 their Judge. If ye do not receive His doc- 
 trine, ye will be damned. Read St. Paul's 
 speech at the Areopagus at Athens (Acts 
 xvii. 22 ff.). 
 
 2. It was after a missionary sermon such as 
 this that many of the hearers would come to 
 the Apostles and ask, " What shall we do ? " 
 To which they replied, " Repent and be bap- 
 tized." Those willing to receive baptism were 
 then given a preparatory course of instruction, 
 in which they were briefly taught the essential 
 tenets of the faith (as embodied in the Apostles' 
 Creed), the Commandments (the Decalogue and 
 the two commandments of the love of God and 
 the neighbor), and the means of grace which they 
 were shortly to receive : Baptism, Confirmation, 
 and the Eucharist. (See Hebrews vi. 1, 2.) 
 But those doctrines of Christianity which 
 might have appeared offensive to the converts 
 (such as the doctrine of the Trinity, the Sacra- 
 ment of the Altar, etc.) were more fully ex- 
 plained to them immediately before or after 
 baptism. (See 1 Cor. iii. 1, 2; Hebr. v. 1 1 ff.) 
 
486 Christian Doctrine 
 
 3. The following are noteworthy peculiari- 
 ties of the apostolic method of teaching. 
 
 (a) The holy Apostles generally used lan- 
 guage easy to be understood. Only St. Paul, 
 a very highly educated man, sometimes ex- 
 presses himself in his epistles in a manner 
 difficult for simple folks to follow. But for all 
 that he himself claimed to have fed his hearers 
 with milk and not with strong meat. He says, 
 moreover, in 1 Thess. ii. 7, " We became little 
 ones in the midst of you." 
 
 (b) They spoke in a lucid and perspicuous 
 manner, and were fond of using comparisons 
 and illustrations drawn from nature. 
 
 St. Paul, who witnessed the prize games and 
 races on the Isthmus of Corinth, likened 
 Christian life to a race and prize fight (1 Cor. 
 ix. 24 ff.). He likened the Church to a human 
 body and Christ to the head of that body 
 (Col. i. 18.). St. Peter compared the devil to a 
 roaring lion who goeth about seeking whom he 
 may devour (1 Pet. v. 8.). St. James compares 
 faith without works to a body without a spirit 
 (Jas. ii. 26), and the tongue to the helm of a 
 boat (id. iii. 4, 5). 
 
 (c) They also join the unknown with the 
 known. 
 
 St. Paul found an altar at Athens to the 
 unknown God, so he began his missionary 
 
Christian Doctrine 487 
 
 sermon by alluding to that inscription, and 
 adding that he will make that God known to 
 the Athenians (Acts xvii. 23). 
 
 (d) In proof of the Christian faith, the 
 Apostles appeal mainly to the divinity of 
 Christ ; and to make their listeners believe this 
 mystery, they refer to the miracles and the 
 Resurrection of Christ. 
 
 Art. 2. — The Ancient Church 
 
 A. The Catechumens 
 
 In the year of Our Lord 64 began the great 
 persecutions against the Christians in the 
 Roman empire, which continued for nearly 
 three hundred years. During this time regu- 
 lar missionary sermons could not be held in 
 public. Still the Church increased, and Chris- 
 tian Doctrine was propagated, (a) Writings 
 in defence of the faith (Apologies) were pub- 
 lished by learned men, to whom the name of 
 Apologists was given, with a view to refute the 
 calumnies circulated against the Christians and 
 to inform heathens and Jews alike concern- 
 ing the doctrines of Christianity. The most 
 important of the early Apologies is that of 
 the holy martyr and philosopher St. Justinus 
 (t 166), which was addressed to the Roman 
 emperor, Antoninus Pius. (b) In addition 
 
488 Christian Doctrine 
 
 to this, Christians were eager, in their daily 
 intercourse with their fellow-men, to make 
 known to them the saving doctrines of the 
 holy Christian religion. The Christians were 
 like bees who flew out in every direction, win- 
 ning over recruits for the beehive of the Church. 
 (c) The saintly lives of the Christians and the 
 joyful deaths of the martyrs were living mis- 
 sionary sermons. (d) There were also the 
 speeches of the accused Christians in the judg- 
 ment halls, where the people were generally 
 gathered together, and where numerous con- 
 verts to Christianity were made. 
 
 At that period those who were to be received 
 by baptism into the Christian Church were 
 known as catechzwtens. Their preparatory train- 
 ing, also called the catechumenate, comprised 
 the following details : — 
 
 1. Before the reception of a catechumen an 
 inquiry, generally conducted by the bishop, 
 was made into his or her motives, mode of life, 
 position, and name. 
 
 It sometimes happened that a candidate was 
 on first application sent away with instructions 
 to amend his life and give up his evil ways. 
 As a rule, however, great forbearance was 
 shown to candidates. St. Augustine was of 
 opinion that even those who wished to become 
 Christians from temporal motives should not 
 
Christian Doctrine 489 
 
 be rejected, as their mere natural motives 
 might offer the occasion of leading them to 
 supernatural faith. Highly cultured candi- 
 dates should not be examined in an offensive 
 way; it is better humbly to remark that they 
 probably know already all that the Catechist 
 can teach them. Those, moreover, who are 
 already Christians from conviction and well 
 acquainted with the Christian Doctrine, should 
 be dealt with very briefly. Those who are 
 good and able speakers should be reminded 
 that truth is better than eloquence, and that 
 persons who think more of avoiding moral 
 faults than verbal mistakes should not be de- 
 spised. Even at the present day these hints of 
 St. Augustine as to the right treatment of 
 converts are well worthy of consideration. 
 
 2. Catechumens were always received with 
 due ceremony by the bishop. He made the 
 sign of the holy Cross upon their foreheads and 
 breasts, and laid his hands upon their heads. 
 Later it became customary also to put blessed 
 salt into their mouths as a sign that the Chris- 
 tian faith is a preservative against the stain of 
 sin. 
 
 3. Then followed the preparatory instruc- 
 tion, which was combined with prayer and 
 penitential practices. The teaching given to 
 candidates for baptism aimed not only at im- 
 
49° Christian Doctrine 
 
 parting Christian Doctrine, but also at inducing 
 them to lead a Christian life. 
 
 4. This preparatory instruction generally 
 extended over two and, in many places, over 
 three years. Sometimes, however, catechu- 
 mens were admitted to baptism sooner, for in- 
 stance, in case of serious illness, or when a large 
 number of converts joined the Christian ranks 
 at one time. Exceptions were also made in 
 favor of those who were already acquainted 
 with Christian Doctrine, or who were very well 
 educated, also for those who showed great 
 zeal for the new faith and had led a virtuous 
 life. 
 
 5. The catechumens were divided into two 
 classes, each of which received a separate 
 course of instruction. Beginners were placed 
 in the first class, the more advanced candi- 
 dates in the second. 
 
 The catechumens had their own place in 
 the church, as well as formerly in the Cata- 
 combs, hence the porch or vestibule of our 
 present churches. They were allowed to be 
 present only during the reading of the Gospel 
 and the preaching of the sermon, and had to 
 withdraw before the Offertory. Before they 
 left, however, a prayer was offered up for them, 
 and the bishop gave them his blessing. This 
 is why that part of holy Mass which precedes 
 
Christian Doctrine 491 
 
 the Offertory is still known as the Mass of the 
 Catechumens. 
 
 6. The catechetical instruction given in the 
 first and second classes of catechumens was dif- 
 ferent. 
 
 I. Those in the first class began by learning 
 the history of the Old and New Testaments. 
 They were to a certain extent led through the 
 synagogue and conducted to Christ by way of 
 Moses and the Prophets. The following was 
 the order of their instruction : (a) First of all, 
 the story of the creation of the world and of 
 man was related to them, and the reasons why 
 God created the world explained (God as Creator 
 of the world), (b) Secondly, encouraging ex- 
 amples of virtue from the lives of celebrated per- 
 sonages of the Old Testament were brought 
 before them, and their attention was called to 
 the way in which God rewarded the good and 
 punished the wicked in olden times (God as 
 Judge of the world), (c) It was pointed out to 
 them how divine Providence endeavored at all 
 times to win men back from the darkness of 
 error to the light of truth, and to bring them 
 out of their vices and sinful wanderings into the 
 path of virtue (God as Governor of the world), 
 (d) The proverbs and important sayings of the 
 Prophets were read aloud and explained, (e) 
 Lastly, they were told of the Incarnation of the 
 
49 2 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Son of God, of His life on earth, His Resurrec- 
 tion and Ascension, and of His second coming 
 in glory (God as the Saviour). 
 
 The catechumens of this class were also 
 taught the Ten Commandments of God and 
 the two commandments of love. It was abso- 
 lutely necessary that catechumens should be 
 familiar with these Ten Commandments, because 
 the moral conversion of the heathen could only 
 be effected by his observing these laws. More- 
 over, the Decalogue was known alike to Jews 
 and pagans. The Jews, of course, knew the 
 Commandments from childhood, and were com- 
 pelled to obey them by the Mosaic law. The 
 heathens also knew the Decalogue by the voice 
 of conscience, for God had written the Ten 
 Commandments in their hearts (Rom. ii. 14 ff.). 
 From the time of the Apostles, the two com- 
 mandments of love were also taught to every 
 beginner, as we learn from 1 John iii. 11. 
 
 II. During the forty days of Lent, special 
 instruction was daily given to the catechumens 
 of the second class. The chief aim was to 
 lead the hearers to recognize and to acknowl- 
 edge their sins, to repent of them, and to resolve 
 to lead a new life. These lessons, therefore, 
 spoke principally of such serious subjects as 
 the infinite justice of God, of sin and its evil con- 
 sequences, the Last Judgment, penance, etc. 
 
Christian Doctrine 493 
 
 Immediately before baptism, that is to say 
 between Palm Sunday and Easter, the catechu- 
 mens of the second class were also instructed 
 in the mystery of the Trinity ; they had, more- 
 over, to learn by heart the Apostles' Creed and 
 the Lord's Prayer, which they were expected 
 to recite at their baptism. Before being admit- 
 ted to baptism the candidates were subjected to 
 a searching examination in their religious knowl- 
 edge and their moral conduct, which examina- 
 tion was known as the Scrutinium. Candidates 
 for baptism were also exhorted to confess their 
 sins to the priest, although this confession was 
 of course not the Sacrament of Penance. At 
 baptism itself a solemn profession of faith was 
 required of those to be baptized. Turning 
 toward the west, they renounced the devil, and 
 then, turning toward the east, they confessed 
 their faith in Christ. This ceremony was called 
 the Baptismal Vow or Covenant. 
 
 The newly baptized converts were at once 
 confirmed by the bishop, who then administered 
 to them holy communion. 
 
 In the week succeeding baptism (generally 
 between Easter Day and White (Low) Sun- 
 day) the newly baptized persons received the 
 secret instruction, that is to say, they were 
 fully taught the mystery of the holy sacrifice 
 of the Mass, the doctrine of the Sacraments, 
 
494 Christian Doctrine 
 
 and the Lord's Prayer. According to St. 
 Cyril of Jerusalem, the newly baptized were 
 specially fitted to understand these doctrines, 
 as they were now enlightened by the baptismal 
 grace, and had already some personal experience 
 of their practical influence upon the soul. 
 
 There were many reasons for making this 
 later instruction secret. If catechumens had 
 been from the first taught all the mysteries of 
 Christianity, some of these mysteries might have 
 become a stumbling-block to them, and have led 
 them to change their intention of being bap- 
 tized. As sometimes heathens intruded into 
 the Catacombs, and catechumens now and then 
 went back to heathenism, it would have been 
 easy for them to hold up these doctrines of 
 Christianity to public ridicule. The Church 
 remembered the words of Christ, " Cast not 
 your pearls before swine." By withholding 
 these more difficult and deeper doctrines from 
 the catechumens until they had been baptized, 
 they were inspired with awe of the holy mys- 
 teries, and were spurred on to greater zeal in 
 preparing for admission. It was for these 
 same reasons that the catechumens were not 
 allowed to be present at the whole celebration 
 of holy Mass, but had to leave the church 
 immediately after the sermon. Even in the 
 sermon or public address very great caution was 
 
Christian Doctrine 495 
 
 observed in alluding to mysteries not yet 
 revealed to the catechumens, and veiled expres- 
 sions were used. The very inscriptions on the 
 walls of the Catacombs and churches were 
 couched in a kind of secret language : the 
 triangle stood for the Trinity, a fish for the 
 Sacrament of the Altar, a dove shadowed forth 
 the Holy Spirit, a peacock the Resurrection, and 
 so on. This policy of hiding the more myste- 
 rious doctrines of holy religion from the begin- 
 ners was called " the Law of the Secret," 
 (Disciplina Arca?ii) ; the fuller instructions on 
 these doctrines given to those admitted for bap- 
 tism were called " the Mystagogical Catechism " 
 (Catecheses mystagogicce). 
 
 7. In religious instruction the use of pictures 
 was turned to great account, as proved by the 
 number of mural paintings in the Catacombs. 
 These representations rendered all the chief 
 personages and incidents of the Old and New 
 Testaments familiar to the faithful. 
 
 8. Public instruction in those days was given 
 to grown-up persons only; children of Chris- 
 tians were taught at home by their parents. 
 That these parents performed their duty in 
 this respect in a most conscientious man- 
 ner is proved by the fact that many of the 
 great teachers of early Christian times, such as 
 Origen, St. Augustine, St, Basil, St. Chrysostom, 
 
496 Christian Doctrine 
 
 St. Gregory Nazianzen, and others speak of the 
 thorough Christian education given to them 
 by their mother or their father. The instruc- 
 tion of the catechumens was generally intrusted 
 to a special Catechist, also called " Nautologus," 
 meaning literally a nautical instructor, and used 
 to indicate that the Catechist had to teach those 
 who would board the ship of the Church (" The 
 Bark of Peter ") about their voyage to heaven. 
 These Catechists, as a rule, were priests; but 
 where enough priests could not be found, dea- 
 cons, and, for women, deaconesses, and some- 
 times even simple laymen, were chosen. 
 
 There were special schools for the training 
 of Catechists, where, besides religion, secular 
 branches were also taught. Some of these 
 schools became very famous as centers of 
 Christian learning, for instance, Alexandria, 
 Antioch, Caesarea, Edessa, Nisibis ; some of the 
 greatest Doctors of the Church taught or 
 studied at these catechetical schools of the 
 early Christian ages. 
 
 9. When the persecutions of the Christians 
 subsided, and the Church was allowed her free- 
 dom, the treatment of catechumens became less 
 strict and severe. This was a natural result of 
 the changed conditions. With the introduction 
 of infant baptism, the catechumenate at once 
 began to fall into decline, on every side. The 
 
Christian Doctrine 497 
 
 number of adults who were converted to Chris- 
 tianity constantly decreased, so that for them 
 public instruction and public prayer before bap- 
 tism was given up, and private preparation sub- 
 stituted. Candidates were, however, still publicly 
 examined before baptism. There were at first 
 three, and later seven, public examinations or 
 scrutinies held in the church, generally just before 
 Easter, when the candidates were examined as to 
 their faith and their conduct of life, and taught 
 the Christian forms of prayer. The practice of 
 these public and solemn examinations of candi- 
 dates for baptism was introduced into the 
 Church as early as the end of the fourth cen- 
 tury, and lasted in many places until the ninth 
 century. 
 
 From the times of Constantine, the Latin 
 language was universally used in teaching 
 Christian Doctrine in the Western Church. 
 
 10. The Christian school of antiquity, the 
 catechumenate of the early Church, will be for 
 all centuries a model and exemplar. That the 
 religious instruction given there was of the high- 
 est character is shown by the admirable results 
 achieved. It is easily seen that a great value 
 was set upon a solid and ample Christian knowl- 
 edge ; but as great a value also upon Christian 
 life. This it was that made even the heathen 
 to wonder at and to praise the moral purity and 
 
498 Christian Doctrine 
 
 virtuous conduct of the Christians, and enables 
 St. Justin to say: "What Plato and other 
 philosophers were once proud to know, that 
 Christians know as children." Deep religious 
 convictions were, however, combined with this 
 knowledge ; otherwise millions of Christians 
 would never have preferred a martyr's death to 
 denial of their faith. All of which goes to show 
 what may be effected by religious instruction 
 when it is imparted in the right way and by a 
 proper method. 
 
 B. Celebrated Catechists 
 
 i. Origen, the head of the Catechetical 
 School at Caesarea. He was born in the year 
 185 a.d. at Alexandria, and early distinguished 
 himself by his remarkable talent and unwearied 
 application. His father, the holy martyr Leoni- 
 das, took care that his son should receive an 
 all-round education. Origen was received as a 
 catechumen when only nine years old, and at 
 the age of eighteen he was at the head of the 
 celebrated catechetical school at Alexandria, 
 where he won the sons of many noble pagan 
 families to Christianity. In the year 231 he 
 went to Caesarea in Palestine, and there 
 founded a school which soon vied with that of 
 Alexandria. In the year 254 he suffered mar- 
 
Christian Doctrine 499 
 
 tyrdom in the city of Tyre. Origen was spe- 
 cially remarkable for his zeal and affection for 
 his pupils, and his indefatigable industry. He 
 used to work till far on in the night, and ac- 
 cording to Epiphanius he wrote six thousand 
 " books," which probably means parchment 
 rolls. 
 
 One chief peculiarity of his teaching was that 
 he explained religious truths upon the lines of 
 historical proofs, for he always connected his 
 instructions with the facts narrated in the 
 Bible. 
 
 2. St. Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem, was born 
 at Jerusalem in 315 and became Bishop there 
 in 351. He vigorously upheld Catholic truth 
 against the Arians, and for this reason was 
 several times banished by the Roman emperor. 
 He died in the year 386. 
 
 Of the twenty-nine catechetic instructions 
 written by him, only twenty-three have been 
 preserved. They give us detailed information 
 of the way in which catechumens should be 
 taught. They are of a dogmatic character and 
 treat of the Apostles' Creed, the Commandments, 
 the Holy Sacraments, and Prayer (a division of 
 subject still usual in our Catechisms). It is note- 
 worthy that St. Cyril begins by a statement of 
 the great truths of religion and then proceeds 
 to explain them. In this his mode of proce- 
 
500 Christian Doctrine 
 
 dure differs entirely from that of Origen and 
 St. Augustine, who begin with biblical history 
 and out of it evolve the truths of religion. 
 
 The following are some features of the cate- 
 chetic work of St. Cyril : (a) he joins dogma 
 and morals very closely with each other ; (b) he 
 closes each instruction with a practical applica- 
 tion ; (c) his form is the lecture form, his address 
 simple, clear, and popular, vivid and interesting; 
 (d) he gathers the proofs from the Bible and 
 from reason ; (e) he explains the doctrine with 
 the help of Bible stories ; (/) he employs the 
 object method wherever possible, and for this 
 purpose often brings in the Liturgy of the 
 Church ; (g) lastly, his instructions give due 
 attention to the needs of the time : they are 
 opportune. 
 
 3. St. Augustine, bishop of Hippo in North 
 Africa, the greatest of all the Doctors of the 
 early Church, was born in 354 at Tagasta in 
 Africa. His father, Patricius, had him trained 
 in elocution, and his mother, St. Monica, took 
 pains to sow in his heart the seeds of the Chris- 
 tian faith. But he followed evil ways until 
 converted by the prayers and tears of his de- 
 voted mother. He returned to God in his 
 thirty-third year, and allowed himself to be 
 baptized by St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, 
 whose sermons he had often listened to (389). 
 
Christian Doctrine 501 
 
 Having returned to Africa, he became a priest 
 under the holy Bishop Aurelius, and was after- 
 ward, in 396, made Bishop of Hippo, where he 
 died in 430 during the siege of the town by the 
 Vandals. 
 
 St. Augustine won great renown as a Cate- 
 chist through his book De Catechizandis Rudi- 
 bus (On the Teaching of the Ignorant) which 
 was the first Christian treatise on catechetics 
 or method of Christian Doctrine, and contains 
 excellent maxims. It was originally intended 
 for the use of a certain deacon, Deogratias of 
 Carthage, and its aim was to instruct him how 
 best to deal with those who wished to enter the 
 catechumenate ; but the book is of universal 
 value in that it contains maxims, the knowl- 
 edge of which is of importance to every Cate- 
 chist. 
 
 The following are the most important cate- 
 chetical principles laid down by St. Augustine : 
 
 (a) About the subject and course of instruc- 
 tion. (1) The Catechist must lead the cate- 
 chumen through the history of the Christian 
 religion, that is to say, the history of the Old 
 and New Testaments and of the Church. 
 This narrative must, however, be restricted to 
 the most important and interesting events, for 
 all the rest can be treated in a summary way. 
 An exhaustive account of the history of religion 
 
502 Christian Doctrine 
 
 is neither necessary nor possible (Ch. 3). 
 According to St. Augustine Bible History is 
 of great importance in Christian Doctrine. 
 (2) Side by side with Bible History the cate- 
 chumen must be taught all that is necessary to 
 salvation, briefly in the beginning, but more 
 fully as the instruction goes on (Ch. 6 and 7). 
 (That is : Bible History precedes Catechism ; 
 Catechism must be taught upon historical 
 grounds ; the course must proceed in concen- 
 tric circles.) (3) Matters explained within a 
 certain period ought to form one subject. 
 (Necessity of a definite plan.) (4) According 
 to special conditions of time and persons, cer- 
 tain doctrines must be more fully explained and 
 established. 
 
 (b) Principles regarding the mode of instruc- 
 tion. (1) The teacher should avoid all ostenta- 
 tion of eloquence. (2) He ought to use all 
 legitimate means to make his teaching as use- 
 ful and pleasant to his pupils as possible 
 (Ch. 13). (3) Due allowance must be made for 
 the differences in the character, abilities, and 
 mental powers of the pupils (Ch. 5, 8, 9, 15). 
 (4) The Catechist should ascertain whether 
 his hearers have understood him and should 
 correct faulty answers. (Lecture and question 
 form combined.) 
 
 (c) Principles regarding the catechumen. (1) 
 
Christian Doctrine 503 
 
 The catechumen must not merely learn words 
 by heart, but must endeavor to understand the 
 things and the ideas which those words express. 
 
 (2) Important facts should be impressed on the 
 memory of catechumens by constant repetition. 
 
 (3) The Catechist should not only speak to his 
 pupils about God, but should address himself 
 with them to God ; that is, he should train them 
 in religious practices. (4) The pupils must not 
 only be brought to a knowledge of the Christian 
 religion, but they must also be urged and led 
 on to practise that religion. 
 
 (d) Principles regarding the Catechist him- 
 self. (1) The Catechist should do his work 
 with the greatest cheerfulness, and should 
 avoid everything which could interfere with 
 his peace of mind (Ch. 10. ff.). (2) If he would 
 really achieve the best results, he must do all 
 his work as a true Catechist for the glory of 
 God, not for his own. 
 
 4. Several writings of Tertullian, Ambrose, 
 Rufinus, Nicenas, and others are catechetical 
 instructions intended for the use of catechu- 
 mens, while the great catechetical sermon of 
 St. Gregory of Nyssa may be considered as the 
 first essay on Christian catechetics, being an 
 instruction for Catechists how to treat learned 
 converts and how to dispel their errors and 
 prejudices. 
 
504 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Art. 3. — The Middle Ages 
 A. Character of the Instruction 
 
 After the issue in 313 of the Edict of Tol- 
 eration by Constantine the Great, which gave 
 to Christians the right of the free exercise of 
 their religion and recommended the conversion 
 of every one to Christianity, the Christian faith 
 spread throughout all the countries of the 
 Roman Empire. At the beginning of the 
 Middle Ages the larger portions of civilized 
 nations were already Christians. A great 
 change now took place in the way in which 
 religious instruction was imparted. This re- 
 sulted from the fact that infant baptism became 
 universal, and adult baptisms were of ever rarer 
 occurrence. 
 
 1. Early religious instruction during this 
 period became mostly a preparatory course of 
 Christian Doctrine, leading children to the first 
 reception of the Sacraments of Penance and 
 the Eucharist. This preparation took place 
 either in the church, at the parsonage, or in the 
 school. 
 
 The Emperor Charlemagne founded parish, 
 cathedral, and convent schools, which were at 
 first intended for the giving of religious in- 
 struction only, but later were used for teaching 
 
Christian Doctrine 505 
 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, and singing. Lay- 
 men who were employed as sacristans, or sex- 
 tons, had also to help the priest in the Catechism 
 class. This was the beginning of the common 
 schools for the people. Chief stress was laid 
 upon the explanation of the Commandments 
 and the Sacraments, while less attention was 
 paid to dogmatic doctrines, or a fuller explana- 
 tion of the Creed, as this was considered super- 
 fluous in teaching Christian children. For the 
 same reason less attention was given to Bible 
 History, and it was no longer so much used 
 as a starting-point in Christian Doctrine. This 
 might be explained by the fact that in the early 
 Middle Ages the first thing to be done was 
 to change the rough and barbarous manners 
 of the people by teaching them Christian 
 morality. 
 
 2. While the oral teaching of Bible His- 
 tory to children was neglected, everybody, 
 young and old, had plenty of opportunity to 
 learn the whole of the Bible narrative from 
 pictures and dramatic representations. 
 
 The walls of churches, cemeteries, and houses 
 were adorned with numerous biblical pictures, 
 and preachers sometimes showed similar illus- 
 trations from the pulpit. The so-called " Bible 
 of the Poor" was an outcome of this time. 
 It consisted of fifty pictures of subjects from 
 
506 Christian Doctrine 
 
 the Old and New Testaments, and it obtained 
 its name from the saying of St. Gregory that 
 " pictures are the books of the poor." 1 St. Ansgar, 
 Bishop of Bremen (t 865), is said to be the first 
 author of such a " Picture Bible." Other scrip- 
 tural representations were the cribs set up in 
 the churches at Christmas, the holy sepulchers 
 at Easter, and the fourteen pictures known as 
 the stations of the Cross. Amongst dramatic 
 representations of Bible History, however, the 
 religious plays of the Middle Ages (called Mys- 
 teries, Miracle Plays) take first rank. 2 Their 
 origin must be sought in the early centuries of 
 this period. According to the different festivals 
 of the Church year, biblical incidents, parables, 
 and events were represented by living tableaux 
 and performances: originally in church and 
 in Latin, but later also in the language of the 
 country and in the open air. In the four- 
 teenth century such plays were acted in nearly 
 
 1 " So true is it that a strong scriptural element has always pre- 
 dominated in the teaching of the Church, that the first attempts to 
 provide the poor with cheap literature of any sort were called Biblia 
 Pauperum, or the Bibles of the Poor." — Miss Drane, "Christian 
 Schools and Scholars," p. 567. 
 
 2 " Miracle plays, as they are generally called, are simple dramatic 
 representations of events recorded in Scripture. They can be traced 
 back to the earliest Christian times, for we find St. Gregory Nazianzen 
 constructing one upon the Passion. . . . They were intended to 
 instruct the unlettered people in Bible History and to bring home to 
 their simple minds the truths of faith." — Irish Eccl. Record, 1882, p. 
 457, in a very interesting article on English Miracle plays. 
 
Christian Doctrine 507 
 
 every village, and were always solemn, popular 
 festivals which greatly helped to ennoble and 
 elevate the character of the people. Gradually, 
 however, various abuses crept in, on account of 
 which these plays were prohibited. 
 
 3. The very greatest stress was laid on a 
 proper knowledge of the so-called formulas of 
 the Catechism. (See above, p. 350.) Nearly all 
 Diocesan Synods ordered that the formulas 
 of the sign of the Cross, of the Lord's Prayer, 
 the Creed, and the Ten Commandments of 
 God should be publicly recited, slowly and 
 aloud, in the vulgar tongue, before the sermon 
 on Sundays and feastdays, and be explained 
 several times in the course of a year. In many 
 dioceses the formulas of the Sacraments, the 
 capital sins, and the chief virtues had to be 
 added, together with the Acts of Contrition, 
 Faith, Hope, and Charity. After the breaking 
 out of the Albigenses and Waldenses in Italy 
 and France in the thirteenth century the An- 
 gelus was added. We may therefore confi- 
 dently assert that in the Middle Ages the 
 Catechism was taught and learned by way of 
 prayer. Speaking of parochial schools in 
 England during the fourteenth century, Miss 
 Drane (1. c. p. 550) says: " However small may 
 have been the amount of secular learning 
 acquired by the scholars, all received instruc- 
 
508 Christian Doctrine 
 
 tion in Christian Doctrine, and learnt their 
 prayers ; the duty of providing such instruction 
 for the poorer members of their flocks being 
 earnestly pressed on the parish priests in the 
 visitation articles and synodal decrees of John 
 of Peckham and other English prelates. Pray- 
 ers and instructions, both secular and religious, 
 were often taught to those who could not read, 
 in a versified form, as had been the custom in 
 Saxon times." 
 
 There were as yet no such things as text- 
 books to help either children or grown people, 
 for they would have been far too costly. The 
 place of books was taken by tablets (placards) 
 hung on the walls, on which were inscribed 
 the chief formulas of the Catechism, often with 
 pictures to explain them. Moreover, the walls 
 of schools and private houses were often 
 covered with short pious sayings, sacred verses, 
 and rhymes. 
 
 4. Learned theologians, as well as many 
 bishops, edited for the clergy explanations 
 of the Catechism formulas, written on the 
 tablets, which explanations were in reality 
 nothing: else but written Catechisms for the 
 help of the Catechist. It is a striking fact that 
 all these explanations treat of the following 
 four principal sections, even if not always in the 
 same order: I. The Creed ; II. The Ten Com- 
 
Christian Doctrine 509 
 
 mandments ; III. The Mass and the Sacra- 
 ments ; IV. The Lord's Prayer. Priests re- 
 ceived these explanations from their bishops 
 in order that they might conform to them in 
 instructing the people and the young. At the 
 parish visitations every priest had to show that 
 he was in possession of this " Explanation of 
 the Christian Doctrine." 
 
 Bible History also was arranged for the use 
 of Catechists. Theodule, an Italian philoso- 
 pher, published in 980 the so-called Ecloga 
 Theoduli, which are simply select stories from 
 the Bible. The book served as a catechetical 
 manual for fully five hundred years. Later on 
 there came books entitled " The Bible in 
 Verses " and, again, " The Bible in Stories." 
 
 Moreover, there were not wanting regular, 
 though rather short, treatises on the method and 
 manner of teaching Catechism. These were 
 generally by way of preface or introduction 
 prefixed to larger catechetical manuals. In 
 this connection it ought to be remembered, 
 however, that the term " catechetical " was 
 very often applied to sermons and instruc- 
 tions written for grown people, not for 
 children. 
 
 Thus the Catechists were sufficiently pro- 
 vided with external aids in teaching, though all 
 these books were written in Latin. 
 
510 Christian Doctrine 
 
 5. Religious instruction in the Middle Ages 
 has its bright and its dark side. Its bright 
 side is shown by the following facts : Cate- 
 chists tried, as is proved by the many sacred 
 pictures and pictorial representations which 
 have been preserved, to bring their teaching 
 visibly before their pupils. The religious plays 
 show that they endeavored to connect their 
 instruction with the seasons of the ecclesiasti- 
 cal year. The many interesting sayings and 
 popular religious songs in use tell us how they 
 endeavored to make their teaching of doctrine 
 and piety as attractive and effective as possible 
 by clothing it, whenever they could, in a poetic 
 form. By the use of classified lists and for- 
 mulas they brought forcibly before their pupils 
 the internal connection between the several 
 truths, and considerably helped them to get 
 a general view of the whole religion. 
 
 On the other hand, it must be acknowledged 
 that religious instruction was often very super- 
 ficial, and that in many instances children were 
 taught nothing but what was considered abso- 
 lutely necessary. This may be explained to a 
 great extent by the peculiar condition and state 
 of the newly converted races, the absence of 
 literary aids for the common people, and, in 
 the later period, by the decay of ecclesiastical 
 discipline. 
 
Christian Doctrine 511 
 
 B. Celebrated Teachers 
 
 On account of their efforts on behalf of relig- 
 ious education in the Middle Ages, the follow- 
 ing men won great renown : — 
 
 1. The Emperor Charlemagne, who reigned 
 from 768 to 814. This monarch not only cared 
 in a general way for the spread of Christianity 
 and the education of the people, he also gave 
 special attention to religious instruction, and 
 his efforts to promote religious culture are 
 truly astonishing. 
 
 2. Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz (t 706), did 
 much to foster the Christian schools. He in- 
 duced the cathedral canons to live together in 
 one community under the rule of the Order of 
 St. Benedict, and enforced upon each one of 
 them the duty of looking after the education 
 and training of the young. The canon in 
 charge of the direction and supervision of the 
 cathedral school was called the Scholasticus. 
 The example set by Chrodegang was not with- 
 out followers. 
 
 3. Theodulf, Bishop of Orleans (t 821), went 
 so far as to found a school in every village of 
 his diocese, and ordered that the priest should 
 in every case be the teacher. For this he re- 
 ceived no fixed salary, but had to be satisfied 
 with the voluntary contributions of the parents. 
 
512 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Theodulf also wrote a book instructing the 
 priests how to teach Christian Doctrine. He 
 dwells particularly on the articles of the Creed, 
 the Commandments, Prayer, and the Sacra- 
 ments. 
 
 4. Rabanus Maurus, O.S.B., Abbot of Fulda 
 and Archbishop of Mayence (t 856), the 
 pupil and friend of the learned Alcuin, was 
 one of the foremost promoters of schools ; 
 through his exertions popular education was 
 put into a more systematic and organized shape. 
 His writings are very numerous, and cover 
 every field of ecclesiastical science. In his 
 work, " On Ecclesiastical Discipline," he em- 
 bodies a long instruction for Catechists, follow- 
 ing the order of St. Augustine's book, " On 
 Catechising." A disciple of Rabanus is looked 
 upon as the author of the first catechetical 
 manual of the Middle Ages, w T hich contains in 
 Latin and Old German an explanation of the 
 Our Father, a list of " criminal sins " against the 
 double command of the love of God and of our 
 neighbor and against the Decalogue; then 
 follows the explanation of the Apostles' Creed 
 and that of St. Athanasius and the " Gloria in 
 excelsis." A manuscript of the year 900 con- 
 tains in Latin a " Children's Debate in Ques- 
 tions and Answers," treating of the six days' 
 creation, the nature of man and angels, the name 
 
Christian Doctrine 513 
 
 and attributes of God, the six ages of the world, 
 the meaning of the time and seasons, the Old 
 and New Testaments, the Hierarchy and the 
 sacrifice of the Mass, followed by an explanation 
 of the Creed and the Our Father. This seems 
 to have been the type of Christian Doctrine 
 from the ninth to the thirteenth century. 
 
 5. The great Doctor of the Church, St. 
 Thomas Aquinas (t 1274), not only wrote 
 theological and philosophical works, but, if we 
 may say so, he also produced a Catechism for 
 the use of Catechists. This Catechism consists 
 of his smaller writings on the Creed, the Sacra- 
 ments (which are treated in connection with 
 the eighth article of the Creed), the Lord's 
 Prayer, the Hail Mary, and the Command- 
 ments (the two commandments of love and the 
 Ten Commandments of God). The explana- 
 tions of St. Thomas are remarkable for their 
 conciseness and the simplicity of their lan- 
 guage ; they are also especially noteworthy be- 
 cause the main parts of the catechetic course of 
 instruction are brought into proper connection 
 with one another, so that they appear as one 
 harmonious whole. St. Thomas says, " Three 
 things are necessary to salvation : the knowl- 
 edge of what to believe, what to desire, and 
 what to do. The first is taught by the Creed, 
 the second by the Lord's Prayer, and the third 
 
5 H Christian Doctrine 
 
 by the Law." These writings of St. Thomas 
 formed a complete catechetical manual for the 
 clergy and school teachers, which was very 
 generally used in the thirteenth and fourteenth 
 centuries. The explanations of the Lord's 
 Prayer and of the Commandments were edited 
 in English a few years ago by the Rev. H. A. 
 Rawes, London. 
 
 6. St. Edmund of Canterbury in England 
 (t 1224), a most famous preacher of his time, 
 ought also to be mentioned here as a most stren- 
 uous worker in behalf of Christian Doctrine 
 among the people. He himself wrote familiar 
 explanations on Prayer, the Seven Deadly Sins, 
 the Decalogue, and the Sacraments, of which 
 manuscript copies are preserved in the Bodleian 
 Library at Oxford. Thoresby, Archbishop of 
 York, in 1357 published a Catechism or formula 
 of Christian Doctrine to be read in the 
 churches and taught the people. 
 
 7. John Charlier^ 1429), generally called Ger- 
 son, from his birthplace in the diocese of Rheims, 
 was one of the most celebrated Catechists of his 
 day. He was for some time Chancellor of the 
 University of Paris, but later on, after many 
 persecutions and trials, lived with his brother, 
 the Prior of the Celestine Convent, O.S.B., 
 at Lyons, where he used to gather the chil- 
 dren about him and teach them the Catechism. 
 
Christian Doctrine 515 
 
 Amongst other catechetic works he wrote the 
 admirable little book, De parvulis ad Chris- 
 tum trahendis (" Bringing Children to Christ "). 
 When Gerson felt that his last hour was ap- 
 proaching, he took the children into the church 
 and taught them to pray, " My God and my 
 Creator, have mercy on Thy poor servant, John 
 Gerson." Soon afterward he died in the midst 
 of his pupils. The above essay (English trans- 
 lation with excellent additions by the trans- 
 lator, Dublin, 1899), is divided into four parts: 
 (a) In the first (p. 6) the author advocates 
 the early religious teaching of children. It is 
 important, he says, that children whose under- 
 standings are not yet darkened by sinful pas- 
 sions should have their hearts prepared for the 
 learning of holy things. Good habits acquired 
 in childhood soon become second nature. More- 
 over, the bloom of youth should be offered to 
 God, not the faded flower of old age when we 
 do not forsake our sins, but when our sins for- 
 sake us. (b) In the second part (p. 16), Ger- 
 son dwells on the evil results of neglecting the 
 children, (c) In the third part (p. 29) he speaks 
 of the zeal and means to be employed for bring- 
 ing children to Christ ; he insists especially 
 upon a good confession, (d) Lastly (p. 48), he 
 extols the noble character of the office, Cate- 
 chist's, and explains the requisite qualities. 
 
5 1 6 Christian Doctrine 
 
 John Gerson seems to have been the first 
 to cast abroad the idea of a " children's hand- 
 book of religion," or a Catechism, which should 
 explain to them the principal doctrines of holy 
 faith and especially the Commandments. But 
 it was only in the year of his death that the 
 Synod of Tortosa in Spain (1429) issued an 
 order that a compendium of all that a Chris- 
 tian must necessarily know, be written for 
 the people ; it was to be so divided that it 
 might be gone through in six or seven lessons ; 
 and was to be repeatedly explained on Sun- 
 days during the year to the people in church. 
 
 8. The Monks of the Middle Ages helped 
 also a great deal in the promotion of religious 
 instruction, especially the Benedictines, who 
 controlled the entire school education of that 
 period. Many thousand highly educated men 
 went forth from their schools, and achieved 
 great results as missionaries abroad and as 
 teachers of the people at home. 
 
 The Mendicant Friars also, especially the 
 Franciscans, founded by St. Francis of Assisi 
 in 12 1 3, and the Dominicans, founded by St. 
 Dominic in 12 16, gave much attention to relig- 
 ious education. Although they were chiefly 
 active amongst the grown people, they also 
 taught children in schools or in public places, 
 and even went to private houses to seek out 
 
Christian Doctrine 517 
 
 the little ones and give them religious instruc- 
 tion in Christian Doctrine. 
 
 Lastly, we must mention the educational 
 order of " The Brothers of the Common Life," 
 whose founder was Gerard te Groet (Groot) 
 (t 1384). It was approved by the Pope in 
 1437, and spread chiefly in the Netherlands 
 and in northern Germany, and made the 
 religious and secular education of children 
 its main object. The Brothers employed the 
 mother tongue of their pupils exclusively in 
 the education of children, allowed them to 
 read the Bible, and gave them religious books. 
 Thomas a Kempis, the author of the " Imita- 
 tion of Christ," belonged to this order. 
 
 Art. 4. — Modern Times 
 
 A. Modes and Agents of Instruction 
 
 1. There are two great factors in the very 
 beginning of this period of history which 
 brought about a mighty change in the intel- 
 lectual and moral condition of Europe, and 
 made their influence felt also in the teaching 
 of Christian Doctrine: namely, the art of print- 
 ing and the Protestant Reformation. Printed 
 Catechisms were introduced in the schools, and 
 great stress laid on their being learned by 
 heart ; this applied especially to the great 
 
5 18 Christian Doctrine 
 
 catechetical formulas. These were now more 
 frequently recited in common, before and after 
 Catechism. The question form was more often 
 used than the lecture form, probably because 
 the text-book was generally arranged in ques- 
 tions and answers. The character of the in- 
 struction lost its former simplicity and attractive 
 historic form ; it became argumentative and 
 apologetic. This change was evidently due to 
 the religious innovation, which also explains 
 why Bible History received less attention. 
 Catechists had enough to do in explaining, 
 demonstrating, and impressing upon the chil- 
 dren's mind the Catholic dogmas attacked by 
 the reformers; they had to teach Catechism 
 strictly so called, nothing else. 
 
 2. At the time just previous to the Reforma- 
 tion there was a marked decline in religious 
 instruction. But matters became still worse 
 wherever the new doctrines of the so-called Re- 
 formers found adherents. Reverence for eccle- 
 siastical authority was completely undermined 
 by speeches and pamphlets. Priests and secu- 
 lar teachers alike were despised and insulted 
 by the people, and parents would not send their 
 children to school. As Luther himself declared, 
 the people in Protestant parishes were just as 
 bad, showing no respect for their preachers, 
 and ignorance of religion was so universal among 
 
Christian Doctrine 519 
 
 them that scarcely any one could repeat the most 
 ordinary prayers. Unfortunately contemporary 
 testimony tells us that among Catholics also 
 the Catechism, that is religious instruction of 
 children and the unlearned, was in many places 
 badly neglected " through the carelessness and 
 indolence of the clergy." While the traditional 
 formulas of the principal parts of Christian 
 Doctrine were retained, the mode of teaching 
 became simply mechanical routine, with a cor- 
 responding result in the pupils. 
 
 Later on a great improvement was brought 
 about (1) by the Council of Trent, (2) by the 
 Sodalities of Christian Doctrine, (3) by the influ- 
 ence of various newly founded religious orders. 
 
 (a) The Council of Trent (1545— 1 563) had 
 already resolved to publish a Catechism, which 
 was, however, only brought out in the year 
 1566 by St. Pius V., under the title of "Roman 
 Catechism for Parish Priests." It explains in 
 four parts the Apostles' Creed, the Sacraments, 
 the Ten Commandments, and the Lord's 
 Prayer. This Catechism of the Council of 
 Trent is not a school-book, but a manual for 
 the Catechist, on the plan of which, however, 
 all the best Catechisms of modern times have 
 been arranged. It brought about a much- 
 needed and desired uniformity of Christian 
 Doctrine. The ordinance of the Council com- 
 
520 Christian Doctrine 
 
 manding that Christian Doctrine be taught on 
 all Sundays and feastdays was carried out 
 everywhere. (See above, p. 38.) 
 
 (6) Great results in the religious education of 
 the young were also achieved by the Confra- 
 ternities of Christian Doctrine. These were 
 founded by a nobleman of Milan named Mark 
 de Cusani, who went to Rome in 1560, where, 
 in union with many other like-minded men, he 
 taught Christian Doctrine to children and 
 adults in churches, schools, and public places. 
 Pope Pius IV. at once gave the new society 
 the church of St. Apollinaris for their own use, 
 and in 1571 St. Pius V. instructed all the 
 bishops of Christendom to introduce the so- 
 dality in their dioceses. In 1607 Pope Paul V. 
 raised the sodality to the rank of an archconfra- 
 ternity with its see in St. Peter's, and enriched 
 it with many indulgences. Very early the 
 society established by Cusani divided into two 
 distinct branches : one became a religious com- 
 munity with a certain organization whose 
 members were called the "Doctrinarians" or 
 " Fathers of Christian Doctrine " (see below 
 p. 522); the other remained a society or 
 sodality, whose members lived in the world but 
 were governed by certain rules and superiors. 
 Very soon these Confraternities of Christian 
 Poctrine rose up in most of the dioceses oi 
 
Christian Doctrine 521 
 
 Italy, France, and Germany. They survived all 
 the storms which passed over the Church in this 
 period, and to this very day are doing a great 
 deal of good in the different parts of the 
 Christian world. 
 
 (c) This period is truly remarkable for the 
 many Religious Orders or communities estab- 
 lished at this time with a special view toward 
 the religious education of youth. Only a few 
 may be mentioned here. 
 
 The first place must undoubtedly be assigned 
 to the Society of Jesus, founded by St. Igna- 
 tius Loyola. This new order was approved by 
 Pope Paul III. in 1540. It endeavored to attain 
 its great aim, the greater glory of God in the 
 salvation of souls, chiefly through the religious 
 education of youth. St. Ignatius himself set 
 the example. The first forty days after the 
 papal approbation he devoted himself to the 
 instruction of children in Rome. When told 
 that no one would come to his class, he an- 
 swered, " If only one child comes to my Cate- 
 chism, it is enough of an audience for me." 
 The Society followed the example of its founder 
 with a hitherto unheard-of zeal and enthusiasm. 
 
 In the Jesuit method of Christian Doctrine 
 at that time the following features could be 
 observed: (1) The lessons were comparatively 
 few and short. (2) They had little use for the 
 
522 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Catechism as a mere text-book; the main 
 object was the training of the heart and the 
 practice of religion. (3) Pious exercises were 
 not allowed to become a burden and a cause 
 of fatigue. (4) They appealed to ambition by 
 creating posts of honor and giving prizes. 
 (5) Severity was banished from their schools; 
 punishments were mild ; corporal punishment 
 was a last resource and was never inflicted by 
 the teacher. (6) The health and cheerfulness 
 of the pupils received full attention, and proper 
 amusements and recreation were provided for 
 them. (7) In everything the teacher was to 
 set a good example and anxiously to avoid 
 whatever might cause scandal, though in itself 
 it were not wrong. 
 
 The Jesuits, moreover, developed a most meri- 
 torious activity in writing catechetical works, 
 not less than one hundred and fifty having been 
 published during the first century of their 
 existence. The Catechisms composed by Bel- 
 larmin and Canisius soon displaced all others. 
 
 Like the Jesuits, other new orders devoted 
 themselves either exclusively, or at least princi- 
 pally, to the religious education of children. 
 Such were "The Fathers of Christian Doctrine" 
 (Doctrinarians), founded in 1593 by Caesar de 
 Bus and approved by Clement VIII. in 1597; 
 " The Regular Clerics of Pious Schools " (also 
 
Christian Doctrine 523 
 
 called Piarists), founded in Rome by St. Joseph 
 Calasanctius, a Spanish priest, about the year 
 1600, and approved by Popes Clement VIII. and 
 Paul V. ; then " The Brothers of the Christian 
 Schools," founded in 168 1 by St. John Baptist 
 de la Salle, canonized by Leo XIII., whose in- 
 stitute was approved by Benedict XIII. in 1725. 
 Of the female orders we shall mention only 
 " The Ursuline Nuns," founded by St. Angela 
 Merici, in 1537; "The Congregation of Notre 
 Dame," founded by Bl. Peter Fourier in 1597, 
 of which there are now two branches, one hav- 
 ing the mother house in Namur, Belgium, the 
 other in Munich, Germany; "The Congregation 
 of Notre Dame of Montreal," founded by Mar- 
 guerite Bourgeoys, in Montreal, in 1658; "The 
 Daughters of Notre Dame," founded in 1606 
 by the venerable Jane de Lastouac and ap- 
 proved the year after by Paul V.; "The Order 
 of the Visitation," founded by St. Francis de 
 Sales and St. Jane Frances de Chantal in 16 10; 
 the society of the " English Ladies," founded by 
 Mary Ward in 1607 ; " The Ladies of Loretto," 
 founded at Munich, Germany, by English and 
 Irish ladies driven from home by religious per- 
 secution. Their institute was approved by 
 Benedict XIV. in 1749. "The Sisters of the 
 Presentation " were founded by Nano Nagle in 
 Dublin, 1775; the order was approved by Pius 
 
524 Christian Doctrine 
 
 VI. in 1793. Different from this order is " The 
 Congregation of the Sisters of the Presenta- 
 tion of Mary," founded in France by the vener- 
 able Marie Anne Rivier in 1797, with the object 
 of teaching religion to the children of the dif- 
 ferent parishes. 
 
 B. Catechetic Writers 
 1. Method of Catechising 
 
 St, Francis Xavier, the Apostle of the Indies, 
 is the very model of a true Catechist. One of 
 the first members of the Society of Jesus, he 
 was sent, in 1542, on the mission to preach the 
 gospel in the East Indies. He began his mis- 
 sionary career at the important city of Goa. 
 With a bell in his hand he used to go forth and 
 gather the children together to teach them the 
 rudiments of Christian Doctrine. When they 
 had learned their lesson he sent them back as 
 apostles to their parents, who in their turn came 
 to him to be taught. He did the same thing 
 in the cities along the coast and farther inland. 
 
 The mode of instruction adopted by St. Fran- 
 cis Xavier was quite original. It is fully ex- 
 plained in his long letter dated December 1, 
 1544, which may be considered as a short but 
 most excellent instruction and guide for Cate- 
 chists. 
 
Christian Doctrine 525 
 
 (1) He repeated to the assembled men and 
 women, boys and girls in a loud voice the 
 words used at the sign of the Cross, the Lord's 
 Prayer, the Hail Mary, the Creed, and the Ten 
 Commandments of God. All were expected to 
 repeat these prayers after him. (2) Then he 
 explained the Creed and the Ten Command- 
 ments of God, telling his listeners that those 
 who believed the doctrines embodied in the 
 Creed were called Christians, and that every 
 Christian who kept all the Commandments of 
 God would be saved ; but that he who should 
 break any one of those Commandments would 
 be eternally lost unless he repented and did 
 penance. After each article of the Creed he 
 asked his hearers if they believed in it and 
 received their assurance that they did. Like- 
 wise, after each Commandment he asked of them 
 the promise to keep it. (3) Then every article 
 of the Creed was once more repeated and a 
 prayer addressed to Jesus and Mary for the 
 grace to believe. 
 
 This was the prayer used : "Jesus, Son of the 
 living God, give us grace fully to believe this 
 article of Thy holy doctrine ; we pray to thee 
 in the words Thou Thyself hast taught us." 
 Then the Lord's Prayer was said, succeeded by 
 the petition, " Holy Mary, Mother of Our Lord 
 Jesus Christ, obtain for us from thy well-beloved 
 
526 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Son the grace to believe this article of His teach- 
 ing truly and firmly," followed in its turn by the 
 Hail Mary. The same plan was followed with 
 regard to the Ten Commandments; Jesus and 
 Mary were entreated to give the converts grace 
 to lead a Christian life. 
 
 It appears, therefore, that St. Francis Xavier 
 laid special stress (1) on the learning by heart, 
 through constant repetition, of the most im- 
 portant Christian forms of prayer; he him- 
 self says that he repeated them so often with 
 his converts that his voice sometimes failed 
 him; (2) on the true understanding of the 
 doctrinal and moral teaching embodied in the 
 Creed and in the Decalogue ; (3) on spurring 
 on his converts to religious exercises and fre- 
 quent prayer. 
 
 That his method was not a bad one is 
 proved by the immense results it achieved. For 
 all that, however, it could not be generally 
 employed by all Catechists, as it was specially 
 suited to uncivilized or at least to pagan na- 
 tions. Yet we may learn many an important 
 lesson from it. 
 
 The learned and celebrated Antouins Pos- 
 sevin, S.J., wrote in 1576 a treatise, "On the 
 Necessity, Usefulness, and Manner of Teaching 
 the Catholic Catechism," which had a wide cir- 
 culation in Italy, France, and Germany. It 
 
Christian Doctrine 527 
 
 " does not give any detailed methodical rules, 
 such as we expect to have imposed upon us 
 to-day ; but it is of a nature to arouse and en- 
 courage the genuine ' catechetical ' spirit which 
 a hundred methodical rules can not replace " 
 (Knecht). 
 
 St. Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan 
 (t 1584), is rightly venerated as the patron of 
 educators, on account of the indefatigable zeal 
 he displayed in promoting .Christian education. 
 His merits in the cause of popular education in 
 general and of religious education in particular 
 can not be overestimated. At the Council of 
 Trent he offered the motion that a uniform 
 manual for catechetical instructions to be fol- 
 lowed by the clergy of the whole Church, should 
 be published by order of the Council. He was 
 himself chosen by the Council to select the sub- 
 jects to be explained and to arrange the division 
 in parts and chapters, so that he may rightly 
 be classed as one of the authors of the remark- 
 able production. (See above, p. 519.) 
 
 While Archbishop of Milan he held no less 
 than six provincial councils, at which strict rules 
 were laid down for the management of all the 
 schools in his diocese and clearly defined regu- 
 lations issued for Catechists and other relig- 
 ious teachers. In 1566 he founded a large 
 seminary for boys in Milan, in which good Cate- 
 
528 Christian Doctrine 
 
 chists were trained under his own personal 
 supervision. He also greatly bestirred himself 
 in introducing everywhere the Confraternity of 
 Christian Doctrine. When St. Charles died, 
 the diocese of Milan, with about 600,000 in- 
 habitants, counted no less than 40,000 pupils 
 in 740 Christian Doctrine schools taught by 
 about 3,000 teachers. 
 
 Prince Elector John VII., Archbishop of 
 Treves, in 1588 published a pastoral on the 
 usefulness and necessity of Catechism, to which 
 he added a treatise on how to teach Catechism. 
 The work became quite famous in Germany 
 where it was the principal catechetical manual 
 for over a hundred years. 
 
 St. Francis de Sales, Prince- Bishop of Geneva 
 (t 1622), did much to promote religious educa- 
 tion, and was a very zealous patron of the 
 Confraternities of Christian Doctrine. The 
 enthusiasm of the saint is well illustrated by 
 the fact that he was not ashamed to go through 
 the streets at midday with a bell in his hand, call- 
 ing the children with the words, " Come to Chris- 
 tian Doctrine and you shall be shown the way to 
 Paradise." He founded the order of the Visi- 
 tation Nuns for the education of children, and 
 wrote an instruction, " On Catechising," for the 
 use of his priests. It is noteworthy also that 
 St. Francis de Sales, by his manner of preach- 
 
Christian Doctrine 529 
 
 ing, won more than seventy thousand Calvinists 
 back to the Catholic Church. 
 
 Jean Jacques Olier (t 1657), the saintly founder 
 of St. Sulpice, deserves a place here, although he 
 has not written any catechetic text-book. But 
 he may justly be considered the founder of the 
 celebrated Catechism classes of St. Sulpice in 
 Paris, and the originator of their equally famous 
 " Method." (See below, p. 554.) 
 
 Henry Mary Boudon, the famous ascetic 
 writer, published in 1687 a longer treatise on 
 catechetics which far surpasses all former writ- 
 ings of the kind, not only by its material bulk, 
 but also by the amount of excellent practical 
 advice gathered from a wide experience and 
 coupled with the most correct pedagogic prin- 
 ciples (Knecht). 
 
 Many Provincial Councils of this period 
 made not only laws regarding the office of 
 catechising, but also published formal instruc- 
 tions on the manner or method of teaching 
 Catechism. Such were the synods of Salzburg, 
 1568, and of Constance, 1609. The latter says, 
 among other things, that the lesson must be 
 sweet and pleasant, and joined with little gifts 
 to the children, so that they may be drawn as 
 in playing {per ludum) to learn the Catechism. 
 Referring to this a modern writer says, " Thus 
 spoke a Catholic synod long before the world 
 
530 Christian Doctrine 
 
 became blessed with the theories of pedagogi- 
 cal philanthropists." 
 
 The eighteenth century produced a number 
 of very good books on catechetical teaching, 
 instructions for the Catechists on the proper 
 discharge of their office, and manuals con- 
 taining complete catechetical explanations of 
 all the Catholic doctrines. The more cele- 
 brated among these writers were Colbert, 
 Bishop of Montpellier, France, " Instruction on 
 Teaching Catechism," 1 701 ; Francis Neu- 
 mayer, S.J., "Catechetical Rhetoric," 1766; 
 Ignatius Weitenauer, " Catechetical Apparatus," 
 containing no less than fifteen hundred stories 
 (examples), and being the first in the series of 
 this kind of catechetical books of references. 
 Mich. Ign. Schmid, " Method of Teaching the 
 First Elements of Religion, or of Catechising," 
 1 769, is the foremost systematic treatise on 
 catechetics in this century, but it is seriously 
 affected by the influence of rationalistic ten- 
 dencies. Half of the book is taken up with 
 definitions and their explanations ; everything 
 is analyzed by divisions and distinctions in a 
 manner to confound the child's mind ; compari- 
 sons, etc., are discarded, nothing but pure intel- 
 lectual work left. This work, though excellent 
 in many things, shows the signs of the coming 
 decline and aberrations of catechetics. 
 
Christian Doctrine 531 
 
 Feneloti, Archbishop of Cambrai (t 171 5), is 
 well known for his various writings on Chris- 
 tian education. But the work which deserves 
 special mention here is his little book, " On the 
 Education of Girls" (English edition, Baltimore, 
 1884), in which he lays down the principles to 
 be followed when teaching children Christian 
 Doctrine. 
 
 It were unjust to the memory of a great 
 Pope of the eighteenth century should we not 
 mention the learned Benedict XIV., who has 
 probably issued more letters, instructions, and 
 encyclicals on the subject of Christian Doctrine 
 or Catechism than any other Pope. Not to men- 
 tion his pastorals on the subject, published 
 when he was Archbishop of Bologna, he issued 
 a long Encyclical in 1 746 on the Archconfrater- 
 nity of Christian Doctrine, which he reorgan- 
 ized and enriched with new indulgences. On 
 February 7, 1742, he issued an Encyclical to 
 the whole Christian world, explaining the duty 
 of bishops, pastors, school-teachers, and parents 
 in regard to Christian Doctrine or the religious 
 instruction of the children and the ignorant ; 
 telling how, when, and where Catechism ought 
 to be taught ; recommending the sodalities of 
 Christian Doctrine and the use of Bellarmin'i 
 Catechism ; commanding that a short but com 
 plete formula of the Acts of Faith, Hope, ani 
 
53 2 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Charity should be recited after Mass on Sun- 
 days. In the year 1754 he addressed another 
 Encyclical on the same subject to the Patri- 
 archs, Archbishops, and Bishops of Italy. 
 
 2. Catechisms 
 
 Blessed Peter Canisius (t 1597), the first 
 German Jesuit and for a time administrator of 
 the Archdiocese of Vienna in Austria, first 
 (1554) wrote a large catechetic manual for 
 pastors, from which later on he made a com- 
 pendium ( 1 5 6 1 ) that has become celebrated 
 all over Europe under the name of " Canisius' 
 Catechism." Written in the form of question 
 and answer it treats (1) of Faith (explanation 
 of the Creed) ; (2) of Hope (explanation of 
 Prayer) ; (3) Charity (explanation of the Com- 
 mandments). To these are added the chap- 
 ters (4) on the Sacraments ; (5) on Christian 
 Justice (Sin, Virtue, Good Works, the Four 
 Last Things). The explanation of these chap- 
 ters was to serve also as a defence of Catholic 
 truth against Protestant innovations, which 
 made the Catechism most suitable for those 
 times. Hence it was soon introduced every- 
 where in Germany, and in one hundred years 
 went through four hundred editions. At the 
 same time it was translated into nearly all 
 
Christian Doctrine 533 
 
 European languages. If it is objected that the 
 division and arrangement of subjects made by 
 Bl. Canisius are not logical, and that matters 
 intimately related to one another should not 
 be separated, we may reply by repeating that 
 a strictly logical arrangement is necessary in a 
 scientific treatise, but that in a text-book for 
 children, especially in the Catechism, where all 
 doctrines are closely connected, it can be dis- 
 pensed with. The immense success of Cani- 
 sius' Catechism is an evident proof of this. 
 
 From the biography of Bl. Canisius we 
 may gather the following chief characteristics 
 of his catechetical method: (1) His fundamen- 
 tal principle was : no success without adaptation, 
 i.e., bringing one's self to the level of the pupils. 
 With children he was a child, but without imi- 
 tating their foibles. (2) He was perfectly con- 
 tent when children knew and understood the 
 chief tenets of the Christian Doctrine. At the 
 same time he was opposed to mechanical mem- 
 orizing. One of his biographers says of him : 
 "He never worried his pupils with too much 
 learning by heart ; that would be the best way 
 to make religious instruction disliked, and to 
 have the Catechism at the end of the whole 
 course flung into a corner as a tiresome school- 
 book of which the children were glad to be rid 
 at last." (3) He always maintained a cheerful 
 
534 Christian Doctrine 
 
 demeanor, the reflection of his disinterested 
 love of souls, and aimed at preserving in his 
 pupils a similar state of mind. (4) The so- 
 called " flogging system " was altogether distaste- 
 ful to him. The chief resources which always 
 helped him to success were his inexhaustible 
 patience and constant prayer. It is said he 
 was a man of continual prayer. Canisius 
 endeavored to spur on his pupils by little 
 gifts, such as pictures, crosses, medals, beads, 
 etc. He punished the lazy ones by shutting 
 them up and informing their parents of their 
 neglect. (5) He gave special individual care 
 to the weakest and poorest of the little ones, 
 and was intensely averse to any favoritism 
 shown to the children of the rich. (6) Finally, 
 it is noteworthy that Canisius strongly advo- 
 cated the frequent reception of the Holy 
 Sacraments by the children. He looked upon 
 this as a most powerful influence for good in 
 the young. 
 
 The sixteenth century beheld a real flood of 
 Catechisms, the consequence of the powerful 
 impetus given to the teaching of Christian Doc- 
 trine by the Council of Trent. We shall mention 
 only those more worthy of notice. Edmund 
 Augerius, S.J., published at Lyons, 1563, a 
 French Catechism which became very famous 
 and was soon translated into Spanish (Valencia, 
 
Christian Doctrine 535 
 
 1565), and even into Latin and Greek (Paris, 
 1569). Damasus Lindanus published a Cate- 
 chism in the Dutch language in 1560; Egid 
 Dominic Topiarius, a Flemish Catechism, at 
 Antwerp, 1576. The famous theologian of 
 the Tridentine Synod, Dominic de Soto, O.P., 
 wrote a Catechism in Spanish (Salamanca, 
 1 5 5 7)- The Spanish Catechism written by 
 Bishop Perez y Ayala, in 1552, is still in use 
 to-day. Bl. Bartholomew de Martyribus, Arch- 
 bishop of Braga, wrote a Catechism in the Por- 
 tuguese language (Lisbon, 1562). 
 
 What Bl. Canisius was for Germany, Cardinal 
 Robert Bellarmin, an Italian Jesuit (t 162 1), was 
 for Italy. He is celebrated alike for his learn- 
 ing and the holiness of his life, both of which 
 are reflected in his theological and ascetical 
 writings. His smaller Catechism alone, issued 
 at the request of Pope Clement VIII. in 1598, 
 would have been enough to establish his fame. 
 The author declared that his large work, " On 
 Contemporary Religious Controversies " (3 vols, 
 in folio), had not given him so much trouble as 
 the little Catechism. In 1603, Bellarmin pub- 
 lished the book called " Explanation of the 
 Christian Doctrine," written in the form of 
 familiar conversations and intended for the use 
 of Catechists. Bellarmin's "Christian Doctrine 
 or Little Catechism " is arranged in form of 
 
536 Christian Doctrine 
 
 question and answer, and follows exactly the 
 same division as that of Canisius. In spite of 
 its very long sentences (a disadvantage in such 
 a book) it is exceptionally short. It contains 
 only about twenty pages of the usual size of 
 Deharbe's No. 2, and has in all ninety-six ques- 
 tions. It is still universally followed in Italy, 
 although additions were made to it from time to 
 time. Thus, by order of the famous Provincial 
 Council held at Rome in 1725, under Benedict 
 XIII., special instructions were prepared for 
 those who were to make their first confession 
 and communion. Again, in 1840, by order of 
 Pope Gregory XV L, Cardinal Patrizi, then 
 Vicar of the city, published the celebrated 
 " Roman Method," a guide for Catechists in 
 the use of Bellarmin's Catechism. Pope Leo 
 XIII., when still Cardinal Archbishop of Peru- 
 gia, published a revised and enlarged edition of 
 Bellarmin's " Doctrine." It is well known that 
 at the Vatican Council (1870) it was the wish 
 of Pius IX. that Bellarmin's Catechism should 
 be adopted as the uniform and official Cate- 
 chism for the whole Catholic world. It is also 
 interesting to know that by order of Paul V. 
 this small Catechism was translated into Arabic 
 (in 161 3) for the benefit of the Catholics in the 
 Orient, where it is still used to-day. 
 Jacques Bossuet, the famous orator, published 
 
Christian Doctrine 537 
 
 in 1686 a Catechism for his diocese of Meaux in 
 France, and wrote several instructions regard- 
 ing the object of that Catechism and its use in 
 Christian Doctrine. These treatises contain 
 most valuable hints for the Catechist. The Cate- 
 chism follows the usual order of the Creed, 
 Prayer, the Commandments, and Sacraments. 
 Every lesson is preceded by a suitable histori- 
 cal narrative. Bossuet's fundamental principle, 
 upon which the Catechism is worked out, was 
 this : What you wish to impress upon the mind 
 must be made tangible to the senses, for it is 
 through these that the intellect and the will 
 must be reached. This Catechism is still widely 
 used in France. 
 
 Claude Fleury, tutor of the Bourbon princes, 
 under Fenelon, published (1679) at the latter's 
 request, a " Historical Catechism," which was 
 the first and most remarkable attempt at con- 
 structing a Catechism on the basis of Bible His- 
 tory. In fact, it might as well be called a Bible 
 History with catechetical lessons, for every les- 
 son is based upon and drawn from a Bible story. 
 The smaller Catechism contains about thirty, 
 the larger about fifty lessons, all arranged on the 
 usual plan of the Creed, Prayer, the Command- 
 ments, and Sacraments. The Catechism became 
 quite a favorite with Catechists, and was trans- 
 lated into several languages, also into English. 
 
538 Christian Doctrine 
 
 The Oratorian Francis Amat Pouget wrote a 
 triple Catechism at the request of Bishop Col- 
 bert of Montpellier in France. It was arranged 
 in three parts, one for small children, the other 
 for larger ones, the third for adult but illiterate 
 persons. An idea of its character may be gath- 
 ered from its title : " A Catechetical Instruc- 
 tion in which, by the help of Holy Scripture 
 and Tradition, a short explanation is given of 
 the history and dogmas of religion, Christian 
 morality, the sacraments, prayers, ceremonies 
 and observances of the Church. Paris, 1702." 
 
 Two names must not be passed over in this 
 sketch, names well known and famous in the 
 Christian Doctrine classes of every land where 
 the children of Irish Catholics have their paro- 
 chial or Sunday-school. These are Dr. Reilly 
 (t 1758) and Dr. Butler (t 1791). Dr. Reilly, 
 later Archbishop of Armagh, wrote his Cate- 
 chism when he was Bishop of Derry; from 
 many others written and printed at that time, 
 his Catechism, written in Irish and in English, 
 was the one most widely used, and was still 
 generally used in the northern provinces before 
 the introduction of the so-called " Maynooth " 
 Catechism some fifteen years ago (Irish Eccl. R., 
 1892, p. 569). 
 
 Dr. James Butler, Archbishop of Cashel, 
 published his Catechism in 1775. It was one 
 
Christian Doctrine 539 
 
 of the principal works during the first years 
 of his episcopate, and supplied a great want. 
 It was no sooner published than all were anx- 
 ious to have it, and many Bishops adopted 
 it for their dioceses {Irish Eccl. R., 1892, p. 317). 
 It was still extensively used in the United 
 States within our own day. When the ques- 
 tion concerning a uniform Catechism came 
 before the III. Plenary Council of Baltimore, 
 many of the Fathers were in favor of a " re- 
 vised " edition of Butler's Catechism. 
 
 Rev. Joseph Reeve wrote a history of the 
 Bible which, with the exception of English 
 translations of Fleury's " Historical Catechism," 
 was the only book of the kind used to any 
 extent in Catholic English-speaking schools, 
 until replaced by works of more recent authors. 
 Dr. Walsh of Maynooth, the present Arch- 
 bishop of Dublin, published a revised edition 
 of Reeve's book, which is said to be nearly 
 entirely rewritten by the eminent prelate. 
 
 Art. 5. — The Nineteenth Century 
 
 A. Various Tendencies 
 
 1. At the end of the eighteenth and the be- 
 ginning of the nineteenth century religious 
 education once more fell into decline. One of 
 the chief causes of this was the anti-Christian 
 
54-0 Christian Doctrine 
 
 philosophy of the eighteenth century, followers 
 of which went under different names in differ- 
 ent countries. In England those who espoused 
 the new philosophy were called Free-thinkers 
 or Deists, in France they were known as Phi- 
 losophers, in Germany as Illuminati, i.e., the 
 Enlightened. But they all may be rightly 
 classed in common as Rationalists, because they 
 claimed to believe only those things, revealed 
 or not, which man could know by the aid of 
 his own reason. Their aim was to overthrow 
 the Christian religion and substitute for it the 
 so-called " Religion of Reason." 
 
 There can be no doubt that this new philoso- 
 phy, with its hostility to religion, originated 
 in Luther's principle of private judgment, and 
 the free interpretation of the Bible, thereby deny- 
 ing all external authority in matters of religion. 
 Its real founder, however, was Spinoza (t 1677) 
 by descent a Dutch Jew, and its most powerful 
 propagator Voltaire (t 1778) who, in collusion 
 with the so-called Encyclopaedists, aimed at the 
 overthrow of the Bourbon Government in France 
 and still more zealously at the destruction of 
 Christianity. The cause of these men was 
 aided by Rousseau (t 1778), who, denying 
 original sin, started with the principle that the 
 child is by nature good and that evil comes 
 to it from outside. Hence it does not need 
 
Christian Doctrine 541 
 
 religion, and may wait until it is able to find 
 religion by its own thinking. The German 
 pedagogue Basedow (t 1790) demanded that 
 rational religion alone, free from all denomi- 
 national and sectarian bias, should be taught 
 in the schools. Kant (t 1804) taught that a 
 good life was the only thing necessary, and there- 
 fore that any worship of God was superfluous. 
 His followers maintained that religious educa- 
 tion must be confined exclusively to doctrines 
 of morality, comprising only the duties one 
 owes to himself and to his neighbor, knowing 
 no duties toward God. Furthermore the reason 
 of those duties and the motive of our actions 
 is not the will of God, but the intrinsic necessity 
 of their performance recognized by our reason. 
 Hence the Creed, Sacraments and Prayer should 
 form no part of the Catechism. These tenets 
 of the Religion of Reason were more fully 
 developed in the early part of the last century. 
 In the second half of the century Positivists 
 and Agnostics brought the seeds sown by Ration- 
 alists to maturity, and did not fail to apply their 
 doctrines to the education of youth. " As they 
 hold that there is no God, or that we can not 
 know that there is a God, they necessarily con- 
 clude that it is absurd to attempt to teach chil- 
 dren anything about God " (Spalding, " Means 
 and Ends," p. 156). 
 
54 2 Christian Doctrine 
 
 It is quite remarkable to what extent princi- 
 ples and theories of rationalistic and agnostic 
 tendencies pervade a large portion of the ped- 
 agogic literature of the past century. Their 
 influence upon society in our days is beautifully 
 described by Bishop Spalding, 1. c, pp. 151 ff. 
 " The Religious Element in Education." 
 
 Rationalism, unfortunately, extended its bane- 
 ful influence also upon the field of Catholic cate- 
 chetics. Theologians, Catechists, and teachers 
 of that time were somewhat infected by that 
 poison ; even Catechisms and manuals of relig- 
 ion, not to speak of theological speculations, 
 clearly showed its symptoms. The division of 
 the Catechism aroused suspicion of its ortho- 
 doxy by being diametrically opposed to the 
 long-established Catholic tradition in this 
 matter. The method itself was changed, too, 
 by proclaiming the Socratic or heuristic form 
 of teaching as the only legitimate one, which 
 took it for granted that the truths of religion 
 were already implanted in children, and need 
 only be called forth to consciousness, a sup- 
 position which denies the supernatural and 
 revealed character of the Christian religion. 
 Finally, Christian Doctrine took more the 
 nature of a moralizing discourse or of a class 
 in pure ethics, than of an authoritative state- 
 ment of revealed dogma and law. 
 
Christian Doctrine 543 
 
 Bishop Knecht, one of the greatest living 
 authorities on catechetics, says of this period, 
 embracing the end of the eighteenth and the 
 beginning of the nineteenth century : " They 
 left the field of the well-tried catechetic tradi- 
 tion, and had without a certain guide to find 
 out and reach new ways. Many of the cate- 
 chetic writers mentioned were good and pious 
 men, looking for the best interests of the 
 Church, the School, and Youth; but they were 
 powerless to escape the spirit of the times. 
 Others, however, allowed themselves to be car- 
 ried away by the fanaticism of the ' enlighten- 
 ment,' and undermined the very foundations of 
 Catholic faith. . . . For decades Rationalism 
 reigned in church and school, proclaiming its 
 * watered ' morality, so that the Catholic people 
 would undoubtedly have lost the faith entirely 
 had it not been kept alive in them by the public 
 worship and ceremonies of the Church and by 
 the ecclesiastical formulas of the Catechism. 
 ... It is a warning example of the sad aber- 
 rations and mistakes catechetics will drift into 
 when it begins to show contempt for its ances- 
 tors, and, driven by the craving for novelty, 
 leaves the ground of ecclesiastical tradition." 
 
 2. To counteract these evil influences God 
 called forth zealous men, who raised their voice 
 in defence of true Christian education and 
 
544 Christian Doctrine 
 
 showed the way and true method by their writ- 
 ings. No century has seen such a revival of 
 Catholic catechetical literature, combining at 
 the same time a thorough Catholic spirit with 
 correct pedagogical knowledge, as the nine- 
 teenth century has. Nor has the movement 
 been confined to any one country; in Ger- 
 many, France, and more recently in Italy, 
 Christian Doctrine, that is, the elementary re- 
 ligious instruction of children, has become the 
 subject of a distinct and separate theological 
 science, called Catechetics, coordinate to Sacred 
 Eloquence or Homiletics. The science, art, 
 method, laws, and means of catechising are 
 earnestly discussed in books and special peri- 
 odicals ; catechetical manuals with full explana- 
 tions of the Catechism and of Bible History, 
 adapted to the different ages of the children or 
 grades in school, are published, which may serve 
 not merely as an external help to the Catechist, 
 but as real patterns and examples of catechetic 
 teaching. If this kind of literature is only 
 sparsely found in English, the fact is easily 
 explained by the history of the Catholic Church 
 in all English-speaking countries ; yet even here 
 we see the beginning of a new era. Let it not 
 be forgotten, however, that this increased liter- 
 ary activity is a symptom or indication of a 
 renewed and improved catechetical activity in 
 
Christian Doctrine 545 
 
 the churches and schools ; it simply supplies 
 material for the demand. The cause of this 
 general revival of Christian Doctrine all over 
 Christendom is to be sought in the urgent and 
 unceasing appeals of the Popes and Provincial 
 Councils of the nineteenth century and the 
 hearty response of the Catholic priesthood. 
 
 It is not difficult to notice the following 
 features in later catechetics, by which they are 
 clearly distinguished from those of the earlier 
 period : (a) Dogma, or revealed truth, is made 
 the foundation of all religious instruction ; 
 (b) Bible History, being the history of the 
 divine revelation, is given its due and proper 
 place in Christian Doctrine; (c) the Church, 
 being the living organ of Christian truth and 
 morality, receives more attention, her history, 
 liturgy, and organization being brought more 
 fully and frequently before the children's mind ; 
 (d) more value is set on a thorough understand- 
 ing (hence explanation) than on mere memo- 
 rizing ; (e) the heart is not neglected in favor of 
 mere reason, — practical training in religious 
 life is fostered by pious practices in Christian 
 Doctrine. 
 
 3. Lastly, the history of Christian Doctrine 
 or the religious instruction of children, must 
 necessarily dwell on the history of the religious 
 communities and congregations devoted exclu- 
 
546 Christian Doctrine 
 
 sively to this work of Christian education. 
 Again no century in the Church of God has wit- 
 nessed the birth of so many religious bodies of 
 men and women founded for this one purpose 
 as the nineteenth century. The " Kirchen- 
 lexicon," the great German Catholic Encyclo- 
 paedia, enumerates under the heading " School 
 Brothers " some twenty communities and under 
 " School Sisters " some seventy communities, 
 all founded within the last century. To these 
 must be added the many branches of Francis- 
 can and Dominican Sisters of the Third Order 
 devoted to Christian education. (See Currier, 
 " History of Religious Orders.") 
 
 B. European Continental Writers 
 
 It is evident that mention can be made here 
 of such writers only as have exercised a wider 
 and more lasting influence on Christian Doc- 
 trine or catechetical instruction during the past 
 century. 
 
 Bernard Overberg (f 1826), director of the 
 Normal School at Munster, Westphalia, and 
 later rector of the theological seminary there, 
 wrote a Bible History and a small Catechism, 
 together with a larger explanation of the latter. 
 On account of his admirable method in cate- 
 chising he was called the Master of Catechists. 
 
Christian Doctrine 547 
 
 His " Biblical Reader for Children," published 
 in 1 799, retains the biblical text and was widely 
 circulated. His Catechism was not as success- 
 ful, probably on account of his too artificial 
 division. 
 
 Overberg greatly improved the method then 
 in vogue by the following points : (a) He joined 
 Bible History with the Catechism class, this 
 being a great means to make the lesson more 
 interesting and the explanation more perspicu- 
 ous, (b) He detested mechanical memorizing 
 without understanding, this being in his opin- 
 ion one cause of the dislike of children for the 
 Catechism and of the ignorance of the people 
 in matters of religion, (c) He made his instruc- 
 tion such that it would also reach the heart and 
 the will, (d) His address was simple, plain, and 
 vivid, (e) He led the children to think and work 
 with him, thus holding their attention, (f) He 
 tried most anxiously to make the lesson pleas- 
 ing and interesting, (g) He kept the parents 
 interested in his class, (h) Finally, he laid great 
 stress on a conscientious self-examination of 
 the Catechist. 
 
 Augustin Gru6er(i 1835), Archbishop of Salz- 
 burg in Austria, devoted his best efforts to the 
 improvement of Christian Doctrine and the 
 training of Catechists. Even when Archbishop, 
 he held regular lectures before the theological 
 
548 Christian Doctrine 
 
 students of his seminary on the office and 
 method of catechising. These discourses were 
 afterward published (1830) in form of a com- 
 mentary to St. Augustine's book, " On Cate- 
 chising the Ignorant." Two years afterward 
 he published the " Practical Manual of Cate- 
 chetics," giving full catechetical instructions 
 for the first school year. The method of St. 
 Augustine of explaining religious truth in con- 
 nection with, and in the light of, the biblical 
 narrative was again brought into honorable 
 prominence by Gruber, who called it the his- 
 torical method. He strongly opposed the Ra- 
 tionalists, reminding them that the Catechist is 
 not a Socrates, but the messenger of God sent 
 to teach the children His truth and law. 
 Gruber's catechetical writings are highly valued 
 to the present day. 
 
 Christopher von Schmidt 1854), Dean of the 
 Cathedral Chapter at Augsburg in Bavaria, the 
 well-known writer of juvenile stories, published 
 in 1 80 1 a Bible History which was very widely 
 introduced in Catholic schools, its easy style 
 making it well suited for children. There 
 were, however, two objections to it: the sev- 
 eral stories were too long, and too much room 
 was given to moral reflections rather than to 
 dogma. The Catechism which he published 
 in 1834 was less favorably received, although it 
 
Christian Doctrine 549 
 
 was approved by Gregory XVI. in 1836. It 
 was defective in regard to the contents as well 
 as in regard to its form and style. 
 
 John Hirscher (t 1865), Dean of the Cathe- 
 dral Chapter at Freiburg in Baden, was un- 
 doubtedly one of the most influential writers 
 on catechetics. Indeed, his whole life seemed 
 to be devoted to this one aim : to raise still 
 higher the character of the religious instruction 
 and bring it nearer to perfection. Zealous for 
 the glory of God and for the salvation of souls, 
 he saw that Christian Doctrine as then taught 
 would not give the children the solid and fruit- 
 ful knowledge of religion that the conditions 
 of the time required. He therefore proposed 
 new ways, most of them excellent, some posi- 
 tively wrong. When he published his great 
 work on catechetics in 183 1, it created some- 
 thing of a sensation in Germany, and at once 
 made many friends and many foes. But it cer- 
 tainly gave a tremendous impulse to a revived 
 activity among catechetical writers. Strange to 
 say, the Catechism which he published in 1842 
 proved to be a complete failure. It was ingen- 
 ious in its idea, but for that very reason unsuited 
 for children ; its division was too learned, its 
 contents too theological; the Creed was ex- 
 plained last. Hirscher himself acknowledged 
 these defects later on. 
 
550 Christian Doctrine 
 
 The main principles which Hirscher wants 
 to be followed in Christian Doctrine may be 
 stated thus : (a) Bible History is the very ground- 
 work and foundation of religious instruction, 
 and should, therefore, always be combined 
 with the doctrinal explanation of the Cate- 
 chism, (b) Mere memorizing of abstract asser- 
 tions can do no good, and is really detrimental 
 to faith, (c) The Catechist must not be a mere 
 instructor ; he is an educator who must ennoble 
 the character of his pupils, and arouse their 
 ambition to do right, (d) All religious truths 
 must be brought before the mind of the child 
 in such a plain and lucid manner that they will 
 also reach their hearts. 
 
 The number and variety of Catechisms used 
 in the German dioceses had grown to be such 
 a patent evil that in 1853 the Bishops of Bavaria 
 decided to introduce a uniform Catechism in all 
 their dioceses. At their request the superiors 
 of the Jesuit province intrusted Joseph Deharbe, 
 SJ. (11871), an Alsatian, with the work. When 
 his Catechism was published, its merits were 
 soon recognized, and it quickly obtained a 
 large circulation, not only in Germany, but 
 also in England and America. There are 
 three different editions, a small, medium, and 
 large Catechism, which are uniform in the 
 order and treatment of the subjects. It is 
 
Christian Doctrine 551 
 
 especially noteworthy that Deharbe's Cate- 
 chism respects the old catechetic traditions, and 
 is admirably divided, viz., Faith, the Command- 
 ments, Means of Grace (Sacraments and Prayer). 
 It is in the form of question and answer, and its 
 chief characteristic is the simplicity of its divi- 
 sions, which have ever since the earliest ages 
 been retained in the Church. Deharbe begins 
 his Catechism with the question of man's last 
 end. He develops the answer under three heads : 
 (a) Faith (the Apostles' Creed) ; (b) The Com- 
 mandments (the two great commandments in- 
 cluding all others, love of God and love of 
 our neighbor, with the Ten Commandments) ; 
 (c) The Means of Grace (the Sacraments and 
 Prayer). Moreover, Deharbe writes in a very 
 charming style. 
 
 The defects of this Catechism are : (a) There 
 are too many questions, which crush the precious 
 seed of the word of God, so to speak, as corn is 
 crushed in a mill, (b) It contains too many 
 theological expressions unintelligible to children. 
 (c) It lays too much stress on definitions, as if 
 the main object in religious instruction were 
 the cultivation of the intellect. Well has it 
 been said by an experienced teacher: " I doubt 
 if the worthy Deharbe has ever had much to 
 do with children ; if he had, he would surely 
 have dwelt less on theology in his Catechism ; 
 
552 Christian Doctrine 
 
 he would have given fewer definitions ; he would 
 have been less abstract and more concrete ; he 
 would have made many answers simpler ; and he 
 would have left out many questions altogether." 
 
 Deharbe's Catechism has been revised and 
 improved in various dioceses of Germany and 
 America. As, however, in view of the ever 
 increasing changes and fluctuations amongst 
 the working classes, the need of uniformity in 
 Christian Doctrine was more and more felt, 
 the Cologne revision of Deharbe's Catechism 
 is used in all North Germany. 
 
 Dr. John Schuster, a priest of the Rottenburg 
 diocese in Germany, issued in 1847 a Bible 
 History for schools wherein he retained the 
 exact words of the sacred volume. Later he 
 changed the mode of expression and the style, 
 so as to make it more suitable for children, 
 while still retaining the idiom and character 
 peculiar to the Bible narrative. Since then 
 the work has been introduced in the Catholic 
 schools of nearly every civilized nation, having 
 been translated into no less than eighteen dif- 
 ferent languages. 
 
 Another Bible History for schools, which has 
 also reached a large circulation in different 
 countries, was published in 1863 by Rector 
 Businger of the theological seminary at Solo- 
 thurn, Switzerland. In 1879 he also wrote a 
 
Christian Doctrine 553 
 
 Church History for use in school and family, 
 under the title " Christ in His Church." Eng- 
 lish translations of both works were published 
 in New York. 
 
 One of the most excellent works in Bible 
 History, written for the use of Catechists, is 
 the " Practical Commentary on the Holy Scrip- 
 ture " (a mistranslation, as it ought to read 
 " on Bible History," which alone conveys the 
 true character and aim of the book), published 
 in 1882 by Dr. Frederic Justus Knecht, the 
 present Bishop-auxiliary of Freiburg, Baden. 
 Among German Catholic writers of to-day Dr. 
 Knecht may rightly be considered the highest 
 authority on catechetics and its literature. 
 
 If in the foregoing pages so much attention 
 has been bestowed on German writers, it is for 
 the reason that in the nineteenth century no 
 other country has shown such a strong and 
 constant activity on the field of catechetical 
 literature as Germany. 
 
 In France a uniform Catechism, following; on 
 the lines of Bossuet's Catechism, was in 1806 in- 
 troduced into all parishes by order of Napoleon I. 
 It bore the title : " Catechism for the use of 
 the Churches of the French Empire," and was 
 approved by the Cardinal Legate Caprara. 
 
 One of the best and most widely known 
 Catechisms of this period is the " Christian 
 
554 Christian Doctrine 
 
 Catechism " by the celebrated Bishop Dupan- 
 loup of Orleans (t 1878), which follows pretty 
 closely the arrangement of Deharbe's book. 
 But far more important for the history of Chris- 
 tian Doctrine in France is his large work on 
 the methods of teaching Catechism, published 
 under the title " The Ministry of Catechising," 
 a book to be read and studied by all upon whom 
 devolves the duty of this sacred ministry. It 
 is a fuller development of another famous book 
 that has done an immense deal of good in 
 France by its wide influence upon the religious 
 education of children, the so-called " Method 
 of St. Sulpice," published in Paris, 1832, which 
 explains in detail the admirable system of Cate- 
 chism or Sunday-school carried out in the parish 
 of St. Sulpice. It deserves notice that a few years 
 ago an Anglican clergyman, Rev. S. Jones, suc- 
 ceeded in adapting the " Method of St. Sulpice " 
 to the needs of his denomination in England 
 without seriously interfering with its Catholic 
 spirit (" The Clergy and the Catechism "). 
 
 The venerable Cardinal Capecelatro (born 
 1824), Archbishop of Capua, is perhaps the 
 foremost promoter of Christian Doctrine in 
 Italy during the last century. He is well 
 known to English readers by the translation 
 of his delightful volumes on St. Philip Neri. 
 It is said that he started the first Italian cate- 
 
Christian Doctrine 555 
 
 chetical periodical destined for the clergy, and 
 that he organized a catechetical union among 
 the priests of the kingdom of Naples. 
 
 No history of Christian Doctrine in Italy, 
 no matter how sketchy and short, can pass over 
 the name of the great Don Bosco (fi888) and 
 the Salesian Congregation founded by him in 
 Turin. The wonderful work accomplished by 
 him in the cause of the Christian education 
 of youth has become, even beyond the Italian 
 frontiers, an inspiring example for zealous Cate- 
 chists and instructors. In his method of in- 
 struction the following traits may be pointed 
 out in particular : (a) A loving and kind con- 
 duct of the teacher toward his pupils, by which 
 their confidence is to be gained, (b) Avoidance 
 of severe punishments, sheer force, or of the use 
 of humiliating and degrading means. With 
 him the most successful disciplinary means 
 were encouragement of the child, very great 
 mildness, and inexhaustible patience. It seemed 
 a principle with him not to break the will of the 
 child, but to direct it. (c) The attractive and 
 pleasant nature of the instruction, (d) Fre- 
 quent prayer and pious exercises in the school. 
 The success of this method was simply wonder- 
 ful. It is reported that of the hundred thou- 
 sand of his grown-up pupils not one was ever 
 brought before a criminal court. 
 
556 Christian Doctrine 
 
 C. American and English Writers 
 
 I. The student of the history of English 
 catechetic literature during this period soon 
 becomes aware that it presents a peculiar 
 feature in the repeated efforts made in Amer- 
 ica, England, and Ireland toward a uniform 
 Catechism. 
 
 1. As early as 1829 the Fathers of the I. Pro- 
 vincial Council of Baltimore, n. xxxiii., lamented 
 the many serious evils arising from the fact that 
 different Catechisms were used in the different 
 dioceses. They therefore decreed " that a Cate- 
 chism shall be written which shall be better 
 adapted to the circumstances of this province, 
 and shall give the Catholic Doctrine as ex- 
 plained in Cardinal Bellarmin's Catechism. 
 When approved by the Holy See, it shall be 
 published for the common use of Catholics." 
 
 At the I. Plenary Council of Baltimore 
 (1852), Bishops Reynolds of Charleston, Timon 
 of Buffalo, and Spalding of Louisville were 
 appointed to write an English Catechism or 
 to revise one of those already in use. The 
 result of their labors was to be handed to the 
 Archbishop of Baltimore, who would send it to 
 Rome in order to obtain for it the papal appro- 
 bation. This Catechism should then be used 
 in all the dioceses. In like manner the saintly 
 
Christian Doctrijie 557 
 
 Bishop Neumann of Philadelphia was appointed 
 to write or revise a German Catechism which 
 was first to be submitted to the Archbishop of 
 Baltimore and all the German-speaking bishops. 
 The Fathers further decreed very wisely that no 
 publisher should be allowed to copyright these 
 Catechisms. 
 
 At the II. Plenary Council of Baltimore (1866) 
 the same question came before the Fathers. 
 From the published Acts it would appear that 
 Dr. McCafferey's Catechism was proposed as 
 the official Catechism of the country. But 
 Bishops Tim on and Verot strenuously opposed 
 the measure, and on the motion of Bishops 
 Wood and Timon the whole matter was 
 dropped. The Fathers contented themselves 
 with repeating the decree of the I. Provincial 
 Council of Baltimore cited above. 
 
 The III. Plenary Council of Baltimore (1884) 
 gave the matter of a uniform Catechism into 
 the hands of a committee of six Bishops under 
 the presidency of Archbishop Alemany of San 
 Francisco. A printed draft of the new Cate- 
 chism was distributed among the Fathers of 
 the Council, and discussed in one or two 
 private sessions, when it soon became appar- 
 ent that the matter would take up too much 
 time. Hence the committee was instructed 
 to revise the first draft according to the 
 
558 Christian Doctrine 
 
 changes and suggestions made by the Bish- 
 ops, and submit this revision to the Arch- 
 bishops, who would meet and decide on the 
 definite form of the Catechism, which, as soon 
 as published, was henceforth to be used by 
 all pastors and teachers, whether religious or 
 laymen. Inasmuch as this Catechism was 
 not only to promote uniformity in Christian 
 Doctrine, but was to be adapted to the spe- 
 cial needs of Catholics in this country, it was 
 to be translated into other languages for the 
 use of parishes where religious instruction was 
 given in another than the English tongue. 
 But the Council recommended that in these 
 non-English schools this Catechism should be 
 taught in English as well as in the foreign 
 tongue (n. 219). The provisions of the Coun- 
 cil have been carried out partially only, as 
 the " Council Catechism " met with considerable 
 opposition. 
 
 Since that time several new Catechisms have 
 been published, one or two of them a decided 
 improvement over the Council Catechism. As 
 a consequence there is at present as great 
 and lamentable a variety and diversity of Cate- 
 chisms in Christian Doctrine classes throughout 
 the United States as there was before the 
 last Plenary Council met. It is time to recall 
 the solemn statement made by the IV. Provin- 
 
Christian Doctrine 559 
 
 cial Council of New York in 1883: "The small 
 advantage to be gained from a Catechism which 
 is possibly better arranged and more clearly 
 written than others can not make up for the 
 damage caused by a variety of Catechisms used 
 in school. For this makes it difficult for par- 
 ents to instruct their children in the faith when 
 they themselves have learned an altogether dif- 
 ferent Catechism; it, moreover, disturbs and con- 
 fuses the mind and memory of the boys and 
 girls passing from one school to another, from 
 one mission to another" (p. 16). 
 
 2. In Canada the I. Provincial Council of 
 Quebec (185 1) ordained : " That uniformity is a 
 thing most ardently to be desired holds good 
 also in regard to the manner of teaching Chris- 
 tian Doctrine. We, therefore, decree that a 
 French Catechism be written which, approved 
 by the Provincial Council, shall be used by all 
 the faithful speaking French ; those who speak 
 English shall use Butler's Catechism, approved 
 by the Bishops of Ireland and already extensively 
 used in our country." The work was intrusted 
 to a committee of four priests under the presi- 
 dency of Bishop Baillargeon, coadjutor to the 
 Archbishop of Quebec. The French Cate- 
 chism was published the following year, 1852. 
 After the usual Christian prayers (pp. 3-10) and 
 some preliminary questions, follows Pt. I. on 
 
560 Christian Doctrine 
 
 the Creed (pp. 14-32) ; then Pt. II. on the Sacra- 
 ments (pp. 33-58); Pt. III. on the Command- 
 ments, with a closing chapter on Grace (pp. 59- 
 72) ; Pt. IV. on Prayer (pp. 73-79) ; Pt. V. on the 
 Practice of Christian Life (pp. 80-81). Lastly 
 follows " An Abridgment of the Small Cate- 
 chism of Quebec for Little Children" (pp. i-xx). 
 
 3. In England the II. Provincial Council of 
 Westminster under Cardinal Wiseman (1855) 
 appointed a " Committee on the Catechism," 
 to revise the first or small Catechism. It con- 
 sisted of four Bishops, among them Bishop 
 Ullathorne, and fifteen theologians, among 
 whom were Faber, Manning, O'Reilly, S.J., and 
 Husenbeth. Their work, " The English Cate- 
 chism," as it is commonly called, was not 
 finished until after the Council had adjourned, 
 and was made obligatory for the dioceses of 
 England by the following Provincial Council 
 in 1859. 
 
 4. In Ireland the subject of a common small 
 Catechism was taken up by the Plenary Coun- 
 cil of Maynooth, 1875, and a draft submitted 
 to the committee on questions of faith. The 
 Fathers ordered it to be printed and distributed 
 among the Bishops. But this could not be 
 done before the close of the Council. The Cate- 
 chism was published a few years later, and is 
 known under the name of the Maynooth Cate- 
 
Christian Doctrine 561 
 
 chism. In the year 1892 Archbishop Walsh 
 of Dublin appointed a committee to prepare a 
 uniform Catechism for his diocese, which was 
 to embody several important improvements 
 explained by His Grace in a most instructive 
 article in the January number of the Irish 
 Eccl. R., 1892. The project called forth a 
 most interesting and instructive correspondence 
 in the following numbers of that excellent 
 monthly. 
 
 5. In Australia the Plenary Council held at 
 Sydney in the year 1885 also decreed that 
 a uniform small Catechism should be used 
 throughout the whole Church of Australia. 
 Cardinal Moran, the apostolic delegate presid- 
 ing over the Council, proposed to adopt the 
 Maynooth Catechism with some proper addi- 
 tions. But the Fathers preferred that a new 
 Catechism should be written, and that mean- 
 while the Maynooth Catechism should be used 
 (n. 182). 
 
 II. In regard to catechetical manuals, which, 
 although published by private authority, still 
 gained a wide influence in Catholic Doctrine 
 classes, the following may suffice here, as it is 
 impossible in this short space to enter into all 
 the details and mention the many different 
 Catechisms used in our schools. First, however, 
 due regard for its antiquity and its venerable 
 
562 Christian Doctrine 
 
 author compels us to mention what we believe is 
 the first American Catholic Catechism, " The 
 Catechism of the Diocese of Bardstown, Ky., 
 1825." It was compiled by one of the noble 
 pioneer Bishops of America, the saintly John 
 Baptist David, while Vicar-General of Bishop 
 Flaget of Bardstown, who recommended it as 
 a general class-book for catechetical instruc- 
 tion. It comprises " the first or small Cate- 
 chism " for little children (13 pages) and "the 
 second Catechism " for those preparing for first 
 communion (149 pages), which contains: Pt. I. 
 Faith (Creed); Pt. II. Grace and the means 
 of obtaining it ; P. III. Commandments, Virtue, 
 and Sin ; and Pt. IV. Feasts and Solemnities 
 of the year (Liturgy). 
 
 Of the English Catechisms written in this 
 century which gained a wider circulation than 
 others we shall mention, besides the Eng- 
 lish translation of Deharbe, which probably 
 reigns supreme, those by Rev. Michael Mueller, 
 C.SS.R. (a most prolific and very good cate- 
 chetical writer, whose series entitled, " God the 
 Teacher of Mankind," furnishes a Catechist with 
 most ample material) ; that of Rev. A. Hat- 
 tenberger, generally known as " The Dubuque 
 Catechism," and more recently that of the Rev. 
 William Faerber of St. Louis. 
 
 While the first half of the nineteenth century 
 
Christian Doctrine 563 
 
 put forth no new work on Bible History, the 
 second half paid a closer attention to this 
 branch of Christian Doctrine. Besides the 
 original works of Dr. O'Leary published in 
 1873 and of Rev. B. J. Spalding published in 
 1883 (as Part I. of the " History of the Church 
 of God ") we have the English translations of 
 the two foremost German text-books on Bible 
 History, those written by Dr. Schuster and Rec- 
 tor Businger. (See above, p. 552.) The latter 
 work was so thoroughly revised and changed 
 by Bishop Gilmour of Cleveland, Ohio (1869), 
 that it became like a new book, now generally 
 known as Gilmour's " Bible History." These 
 two books, Gilmour's and Schuster's, hold the 
 supremacy in our Catholic schools over all 
 other Bible histories. In England Canon 
 Wenham of Southwark has specially promoted 
 this part of Christian Doctrine, having been 
 "profoundly convinced that there is nothing 
 like Holy Scripture for instructing and inter- 
 esting children in religious knowledge." With 
 this view he composed the " Sacred History 
 Reading Book," which must not be confounded 
 with " Readings from the Old Testament " and 
 " The New Testament Narrative," written by 
 the same author for higher schools and more 
 advanced students. Rev. M. F. Glancey, in- 
 spector of schools in the diocese of Birming- 
 
564 Christian Doctrine 
 
 ham, and author of an excellent introduction 
 (on the teaching of Bible History) to Dr. 
 Knecht's " Practical Commentary," has pub- 
 lished a series of very useful graded booklets 
 on " Scripture History " for Confession, Confir- 
 mation, Communion, and Confraternity classes, 
 which may serve as models for catechetic in- 
 struction in Bible History. 
 
 We have already mentioned the Rev. John 
 Furniss, C.SS.R., the " Apostle of the Children 
 in Ireland" (t 1865). His work as missionary 
 and Catechist among the children was truly 
 wonderful, as we learn from the delightful 
 memoir published by Rev. T. Livius, C.SS.R.: 
 " Father Furniss and his Work for Children." 
 His " Tracts for Children " are well known. 
 Not so well known is his work " The Sunday- 
 school or Catechism," in which, as Father 
 Livius remarks, " we have a collection of the 
 principles and methods that guided him in his 
 work. The book deals with what we may call 
 his modus operandi. . . . Father Furniss here 
 descends into detail, so that those who are 
 charged with the practical management of any 
 one of these good works (z>., children's Mass, 
 Sunday-school, confession and communion, 
 singing of Christian Doctrine, libraries for chil- 
 dren, etc.) will find directions invaluable and 
 unique. These directions were the fruit of the 
 
Christian Doctrine 565 
 
 missionary's long experience and of that sure 
 instinct which came of his single-hearted de- 
 votion to the children's cause." The book is 
 certainly one of the most helpful and sugges- 
 tive manuals for a Catechist. 
 
 The only American manual giving the Cate- 
 chist detailed and most practical advice in the 
 discharge of his office and the management of 
 his class is the little book published in 1873 by 
 the Rev. A. A. Lambing under the title, " The 
 Sunday-school Teachers' Manual " which must 
 have exercised a most salutary influence on 
 the adoption of proper methods in Christian 
 Doctrine. It is excellent. 
 
 The inventive American mind and the ever 
 increasing activity of Catholic writers in the 
 field of Christian Doctrine has given us at the 
 close of the ninteenth century the " Text-books 
 of Religion for Parochial and Sunday Schools " 
 published since 1898 under the general author- 
 ship of Rev. P. C. Yorke, the accomplished 
 Catholic writer of the Pacific Coast. The aim 
 of the series is to provide manuals of graduated 
 religious instruction which will take the pupil 
 from the lowest to the highest grades. The 
 foundation of the series is the Baltimore Cate- 
 chism. Each lesson consists of a reading part, 
 the Catechism (questions and answers cor- 
 responding with the preceding reading), and 
 
566 Christian Doctrine 
 
 an appropriate short hymn. Beautiful illustra- 
 tions are copiously distributed through each 
 volume, and serve at once as most excellent 
 object lessons on the corresponding reading 
 or subjects. The plan and execution are cer- 
 tainly very ingenious, and, what is far more 
 important, the use of these graded religious 
 readers in school is perfectly feasible and 
 practicable. While the present volumes are 
 as yet an experiment, we believe they will 
 mark a new phase in the method of Christian 
 Doctrine, in combining more faithfully and 
 more perfectly the concentric progression of 
 catechetic instruction with the possibly great- 
 est unity of subjects and treatment. 
 
 Conclusion. If the preceding historic sketch 
 of the Catholic catechetic movement and litera- 
 ture in English-speaking countries is somewhat 
 meager and imperfect, allowance must be made 
 for the scarcity of material on hand from which 
 to cull such "historic bits," and for the still 
 greater scarcity of leisure moments needed for 
 researches of this kind. But we do most sin- 
 cerely desire that a person more happily situ- 
 ated in this regard than the editor of this work, 
 will, before long, give us a " History of the 
 Catechism in English-speaking Countries." The 
 late T. C. Bridget, C.SS.R., says in the Irish 
 EccL R., 1892, p. 746, that he has for a long 
 
Christian Doctrine 567 
 
 time given most serious thought to the 
 " History of the Catechism." Perhaps some 
 preparatory notes and memoranda were left 
 among the manuscripts of this celebrated 
 Catholic writer. 
 
 "JTfjeS tljat are learned sfjall sljine as tfje 
 irigfitness of tfte firmament: 
 
 "3ntr tfjeg tljat instruct mang to justice, as 
 stars for all eternitg," - daniel xn. 3. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 THE CATECHIST'S LIBRARY 
 
 The following list is presented for the benefit of the 
 reverend pastors who are willing to establish a catechetical 
 library for the use of their lay Catechists, men or women. 
 It may also serve as a guide for persons desirous of im- 
 proving themselves in teaching Christian Doctrine. It 
 comprises such books only as are meant for the teacher, 
 either exclusively or at least principally ; books written for 
 children are mentioned only when they may really serve as 
 models of catechetic instruction. Some books of pious 
 practices, for instance, indulgences, novenas, special devo- 
 tions, etc., are placed on the lists because pious practices 
 ought to be an essential part of Christian Doctrine, as we 
 maintained above, pp. 66 ft. In this matter Catechists ought 
 to follow standard works and those most closely in contact 
 with the official prayers and devotions of the Church, not 
 any prayer-book that may come into their hands. Story- 
 books are mentioned as sources where teachers may find 
 appropriate examples to illustrate the doctrines explained. 
 Again, a few books of a somewhat controversial character, 
 like Ryder and Parson, are mentioned for the benefit of the 
 higher classes in Christian Doctrine, where the Catechist 
 may often have occasion to give a short refutation of the 
 false charges made against the Catholic Church, her doctrines 
 and practices. 
 
 The list includes only Catholic works, although it must be 
 confessed that in regard to Catechetics or Sunday-school 
 classes the Protestant English literature offers much more 
 ample, and sometimes much better, help than anything 
 Catholics possess in English, especially in the line of prac- 
 tical and methodical work. 
 
 Evidently it is not necessary that all the following books 
 should at once be got to fill the shelves of the catechetic or 
 Sunday-school Library. But a few from the several depart- 
 
 5 6 9 
 
5 jo Appendix 
 
 ments, in our opinion those first mentioned in each depart- 
 ment, ought to be at the disposal of the teachers of every 
 Sunday-school or Christian Doctrine class. 
 
 Inasmuch as many of the following books are European, 
 we refrain from indicating the publishers. Any of these 
 books can be got through our principal Catholic publishing 
 firms, for instance, Benziger Brothers, New York ; B. Herder, 
 St. Louis, Mo. ; Fr. Pustet, New York ; John Murphy, Balti- 
 more. 
 
 I. Catechetics and Pedagogy 
 
 Dupanloup, Bishop. The Ministry of Catechizing. (See 
 remarks in Preface.) (Out of print.) 
 
 Lambing. The Sunday-school Teacher's Manual. (See 
 p. 565.) (Out of print.) 
 
 Furniss, J., C.SS.R. The Sunday-school or Catechism. 
 (See above, p. 564.) 
 
 Hamon. A Treatise on the Catechism. 
 
 Schuech, O.S.B. The Priest in the Pulpit. 
 
 Gerson, John. On Bringing Children to Jesus Christ. (A 
 most excellent booklet on the catechetical office to be 
 carried about by every Catechist.) (See p. 515.) 
 
 Management of Christian Schools. By the Brothers of the 
 Christian Schools. 
 
 Wenham, Canon. The School Manager. (Out of print.) 
 
 Practical Hints on Moral Training. Edited by Rev. Gall- 
 wey, S.J. 
 
 Pottier. Twelve Virtues of a Good Teacher. (Especially 
 for training girls.) (Out of print.) 
 
 Fenelon. Education of a Daughter. 
 
 Becker. Christian Education. 
 
 Poland, S.J. True Pedagogics and False Ethics. 
 
 Spalding, Bishop J. L. Means and Ends of Education. 
 
 Things of the Mind. 
 
 — — Education and the Higher Life. 
 
 Brother Azarias. Essays Educational, 
 
 The Sunday Companion. A weekly published by D. H. 
 McBride, Akron, Ohio, for the benefit of Sunday- 
 schools. The best paper of this kind with which we 
 are acquainted j adapted alike for teacher and pupil. 
 
Appendix 5 7 i 
 
 The Teacher and Organist. A Catholic monthly published 
 in Cincinnati ; an excellent periodical with most prac- 
 tical hints for Catechists. 
 
 The Catholic School Journal. Milwaukee. 
 
 II. General Reference Books 
 
 Haydock's Bible. (This Catholic edition of the Bible will 
 furnish the Catechist with a sufficiently full commen- 
 tary on the Sacred Scriptures.) 
 
 Arnold. The Catholic Dictionary. (The best Catholic 
 work of the kind in English.) 
 
 Thein. An Ecclesiastical Dictionary. (This may very well 
 find a place side by side with the preceding one, as it 
 covers a different field.) 
 
 Hunter, S.J. Outlines of Dogmatic Theology. 3 vols. 
 
 Gibbons, Cardinal. Faith of Our Fathers. 
 
 Our Christian Heritage. 
 
 Gaume. Catechism of Perseverance. 4 vols. (Very good.) 
 
 Spalding, Archbishop M. J. Evidences of Catholicity. 
 
 Catechism of the Council of Trent. (English translation.) 
 
 Hay, Bishop. The Sincere Christian. 2 vols. 
 
 The Devout Christian. 2 vols. 
 
 The Pious Christian. (Written nearly a hundred 
 
 years ago, these are still standard works of Catholic 
 catechetic instructions on the whole Christian doc- 
 trine.) 
 
 Mueller, Michael, C.SS.R. God the Teacher of Mankind. 
 9 vols. (A mine of catechetic information.) 
 
 Catholic Truth Society Publications, London. (At present 
 some forty-five very neat, handy volumes, being truly an 
 arsenal of all kinds of Catholic tracts, stories, poems, 
 biographies, — a work which we would have in every 
 Sunday-school library.) 
 
 Cox, Rev. Thomas E. Biblical Treasury of the Catechism. 
 
 Howe, Rev. G. E. The Catechist, or Headings for the 
 Explanation of the Catechism. 2 vols. (Very good 
 and very helpful.) 
 
 Vaughan, Kenelm. Divine Armory of Holy Scripture. 
 (A Bible concordance according to subjects. Very 
 useful.) 
 
572 Appendix 
 
 Clifton Tracts. 4 vols. 
 
 Searle. Plain Facts for Fair Minds. 
 
 Ryder % Catholic Controversy. 
 
 Bruno, Rev. Faa di. Catholic Belief. 
 
 Segur. Short and Familiar Answers to Objections against 
 Religion. 
 
 Thein. Answers to Difficulties of the Bible. 
 
 Klauder, Rev. A. L. A. Catholic Practice at Church and at 
 Home. (A matter with which the Catechist ought to be 
 well acquainted.) 
 
 McBride Art Series. A very ingenious plan, arranging 
 famous religious pictures in a sort of composition book, 
 where the pupils can write their notes or essays on the 
 respective pictures. 
 
 The Perry Picture Collection, published in Boston, at a 
 remarkably low price, from which Catechists can select 
 a large number of really beautiful religious and secular 
 designs well suited for Christian Doctrine. 
 
 The Woodbury Reproductions. (A large collection of pic- 
 tures, religious and profane, from which the Catechist 
 can choose some beautiful prints for the class. More 
 costly than the Perry Pictures. Catalogue to be had 
 from E. Young & Co., New York.) 
 
 The Duesseldorf and the Vienna collections of religious pic- 
 tures. (Imported by Catholic publishing firms.) 
 
 III. Catechetical Manuals 
 
 Power, Rev. P. Catechism, Doctrinal, Moral, Historical, 
 and Liturgical. 3 vols. 
 
 Spirago. The Catechism Explained. 
 
 Kinkead, Rev. T. L. Explanation of the Baltimore Cate- 
 chism. 
 
 Schmitt, Canon James. Explanation of Deharbe's Small 
 Catechism. 
 
 Instructions for First Communicants. (This is un- 
 doubtedly the best manual extant in the English lan- 
 guage.) 
 
 Schmitt, Dr. P. J. Manual of Confirmation. (Instructions 
 and devotions. Very good.) 
 
 Jaegers, Rev. F. H. Instructions for First Confessions. 
 (Very good.) 
 
Appendix 573 
 
 Gobinet, Rev, Charles. The Instruction of Youth in Piety. 
 (An old, but very excellent, book to be studied by every 
 zealous Catechist.) 
 
 Lambing, Rev. A. A. The Orphans' Friend. (Splendid 
 practical guide for moral instructions. Can be used 
 by the teacher in every Christian Doctrine class.) 
 
 Devine, Rev. A., C.P. The Creed Explained. 
 
 The Commandments Explained. 
 
 The Sacraments Explained. 
 
 Exposition of Christian Doctrine. By a Seminary Professor. 
 3 vols. (An excellent work on the whole Catechism, by 
 the Christian Brothers of France.) 
 
 Wilmers. Handbook of the Christian Religion. (A popu- 
 lar theology.) 
 
 Rolfus. Illustrated Explanation of the Creed. 
 
 Illustrated Explanation of the Commandments. 
 
 Illustrated Explanation of the Sacraments. 
 
 Gibson. Catechism Made Easy. 2 vols. 
 
 Perry, Rev. J. Full Courses of Instruction in Explanation 
 of the Catechism. 
 
 The Pictorial Catechism. (One hundred and ten original 
 designs which can easily be used by the teacher for 
 object-lessons with small children.) 
 
 Bagshawe, Rev. J. B. The Catechism and Holy Scripture 
 (i.e., the Catechism, illustrated by the corresponding 
 passages from the Bible). 
 
 Baxter, Rev. James. Manual of Biblical Truths. (Also 
 under the title, Explanation of the Baltimore Cate- 
 chism. The questions of the Catechism are answered 
 by direct quotations from the Bible.) 
 
 Carr, Canon. The Lamp of the Word. (A series of charts 
 or systematic tables presenting a clear synopsis of the 
 whole matter contained in the Catechism.) 
 
 Companion to the Catechism of Maynooth. (A guide for 
 the Catechist.) 
 
 Segur. Books for Children. (On Prayer, Confession, Com- 
 munion, etc. These short treatises are published in 
 separate and collected form. They are real gems 
 of juvenile instructions ; we have not seen a thing 
 better.) 
 
 Plues. Chats on the Commandments. 
 
 Chats on the Rosary. 
 
5 74 Appendix 
 
 Mother M. Loyola. The Child of God, or What Comes of 
 Baptism. 
 
 The Soldier of Christ. (On confirmation.) 
 
 First Holy Communion. (These books are most 
 
 excellent models of catechetic teaching.) 
 
 Wray, Winifride. Catholic Teaching for Children. (An 
 excellent model of talk for little children.) 
 
 Sadlier, Mrs. J. Catholic Anecdotes. 3 vols. (According 
 to the order of the Catechism.) 
 
 Short Stories on Christian Doctrine. 
 
 Stories for First Communicants. 
 
 Shapcote. Legends of the Blessed Sacrament. 
 
 Stewart, Agnes. Stories on the Beatitudes. 
 
 Stories on the Seven Capital Virtues. 
 
 Caddell, Cecilia. Stories on the Seven Corporal Works of 
 Mercy. 
 
 Tales of the Festivals. 2 vols. 
 
 Keller, Dr. Joseph. (This author has collected with a won- 
 derful perseverance and prudence hundreds of the most 
 striking " Anecdotes and Examples," to illustrate the 
 Catholic doctrine and practice in regard to the Blessed 
 Virgin, the Sacred Heart, the Blessed Sacrament, the 
 Poor Souls, St. Joseph, St. Anthony, etc., etc. This 
 collection ought to be a part of every catechetical 
 library.) 
 
 IV. Bible History 
 
 Knecht, Bishop F. J. Practical Commentary on the Holy 
 Scripture for the Use of Catechists. 2 vols. (The 
 most excellent and only book of the kind in English ; a 
 real treasury of the Catechist ; a book without which no 
 one should dare to teach Bible History. The Intro- 
 duction by Father Glancey contains the most valuable 
 hints.) (See p. 553.) 
 
 Glancey, Rev. M.F. Scripture History Manuals. (See p. 563.) 
 
 Gigot, Rev. F. E., S.S. Outlines of Jewish History. 
 
 Outlines of New Testament History. (Two precious 
 
 manuals of Bible History ; just what a Catechist needs 
 to make his instruction solid and interesting.) 
 
 — — The Life of Christ. (Meant especially for teachers.) 
 
 Biblical Lectures. 
 
 Richards, Rev. W. Manual of Scripture History. 
 
Appendix 575 
 
 Wenham, Canon. Readings from the Bible. (See p. 563.) 
 
 Costello. The Gospel Story. 
 
 MacDevitt. Introduction to the Sacred Scriptures. 
 
 Maas, S.J. Christ in Type and Prophecy. 2 vols. 
 
 A Day in the Temple. (Historic and archseologic.) 
 
 Coleridge, SJ. Chapters on the Parables. 
 
 Thaddeus. Mary Foreshadowed in the Types and Figures 
 of the Old Testament. 
 
 Kerr, Amabel. Before Our Lord Came. (Old Testament 
 history for the little ones.) 
 
 Reeve, Rev. Jos. History of the Bible with Moral Reflec- 
 tions. 
 
 Rohner, Rev. B., O.S.B. Veneration of the Blessed Virgin. 
 (Liturgical and historical.) 
 
 V. Church History 
 
 Any one of the manuals written by Birkhauser (1 vol.), 
 Brueck (2 vols.), Guggenberger (3 vols.), Gilmartin 
 (2 vols.). 
 
 Spalding, Rev. J. B. History of the Church of God. Part II. 
 
 Businger. Church History ; or Christ in the Church. 
 (Very good ; on the topical system.) 
 
 Parsons, Reuben, D.D. Studies in Church History. 6 vols. 
 (We place this work on our list not exactly because we 
 consider it necessary in a catechetic library, but be- 
 cause we desire to call attention to a standard work on 
 Church history written by an American priest, and a 
 work where a Catechist will find rich material if he 
 have the patience to look for those parts which will 
 serve him well in Christian Doctrine.) 
 
 Lies and Errors in History. (Ought to be in every 
 
 Catholic library.) 
 
 Desmond, H. J. Mooted Questions of History. (Very 
 good for quick orientation.) 
 
 O'Gorman, Bishop Thomas. History of the Catholic Church 
 in the United States. 
 
 De Courcey. History of the Catholic Church in America. 
 
 Shea, John Gilmary. Catholic Missions among the American 
 Indian Tribes. 
 
 Murray. History of the Church in America. 
 
 Marshall, T. W. M. History of the Catholic Missions, 2 vols. 
 
576 Appendix 
 
 Illustrated Catholic Missions. (A most excellent and inter- 
 esting illustrated monthly which will furnish Catechists 
 with abundant material to interest their classes.) 
 
 Werner, S. J. Atlas of the Catholic Church. 
 
 Atlas of the Catholic Missions. (These two works, 
 
 though not in English, will do the Catechist splendid 
 service for blackboard lessons in ecclesiastical geog- 
 raphy.) 
 
 Hergenrother, Rev. Ph. Primitive Christianity. (Illus- 
 trated ; a book on the Catacombs, from which very 
 interesting material for Christian Doctrine may be 
 gathered.) 
 
 Northcote, Canon. A Visit to the Roman Catacombs. 
 
 The Celebrated Sanctuaries of the Madonna. 
 
 De Hamme. Ancient and Modern Palestine. 2 vols. 
 (Very serviceable for biblical geography.) 
 
 Riviers, Phiipin de. Holy Places, their Sanctity and Authen- 
 ticity. 
 
 Young, Rev. A., C.P. Catholic and Protestant Countries 
 Compared. 
 
 Butler, Alban. Lives of the Saints. 
 
 Bowden, Rev. H. S. Miniature Lives of the Saints. 2 vols. 
 
 Pictorial Lives of the Saints. 
 
 Gibson, Rev. H. Short Lives of the Saints for each Day in 
 the year. 3 vols. 
 
 Fastre, SJ. Acts of the Early Martyrs. 5 vols. 
 
 Light from the Lowly. 2 vols. 
 
 The First Martyrs of the Holy Childhood. 
 
 Hatler, S.J. Flowers from the Catholic Kindergarten. 
 
 Gifts and Fruits of the Holy Ghost considered in the Lives of 
 Youthful Martyrs. 
 
 Brown, Abbie Farwell. The Book of Saints and Friendly 
 Beasts. (A Protestant book, but Catholic in tone.) 
 
 Washburn. Stories of the Saints for Children. 
 
 Starr, Eliza Allen. Patron Saints. 
 
 Pilgrims and Shrines. 
 
 Holy Archangels. (These books of the foremost 
 
 American Catholic writer on Christian Art deserve to 
 be read by every Catechist, who will find in their pages 
 most beautiful examples, and most interesting materials 
 with which to enliven and strengthen his catechetic 
 lessons.) 
 
Appendix 577 
 
 VI. Liturgy 
 
 Shadier, Rev. The Beauties of the Catholic Church. (The 
 best popular explanation of the Liturgy of the Church, 
 — a book which ought to be in every family, like that of 
 Goffine.) 
 
 Goffine. Devout Instructions on the Epistles and Gospels 
 for all Sundays and Holy Days. (An old and golden 
 book.) 
 
 Lings, Dean A. A. Sermons for Children's Masses. 
 
 Durand. Catholic Ceremonies. (Very good.) 
 
 Lambing, A. A. The Sacramentals of the Holy Catholic 
 Church. (A most useful book for the Catechist.) 
 
 Meagher, J. L. The Festal Year, or the Origin, History, and 
 Meaning of the Sundays and Feasts, explained for the 
 People. 
 
 Teaching Truths by Signs and Ceremonies. 
 
 Seven Gates of Heaven. (The Liturgy of the Sacra- 
 ments.) 
 
 Oakeley, Canon Frederick. On Catholic Worship. 
 
 On the Mass. 
 
 Butler, A. The Feasts and Fasts of the Church. 
 
 Redmond, N. M. Short Sermons on the Epistles and 
 Gospels. 2 vols. 
 
 Explanations of the Mass by Cochem, Lanslots, Andreis, 
 and others. 
 
 Handbook for Altar Societies. 
 
 Dale, Rev. H. The Sacristan's Handbook of Church Furni- 
 ture. 
 
 The Acolyte's Companion. 
 
 The Altar Boy's Manual. (Some such book as the above four 
 ought to be placed at the disposition of the Catechists, 
 especially lady teachers, who are often the best help to 
 the priest in ornamenting the altar and sanctuary, and 
 in giving the first training to altar boys.) 
 
 Bagshawe, E. G. Breviary Hymns and Missal Sequences. 
 
 Cass well. Lyra Catholica. (English translation of liturgi- 
 cal hymns.) 
 
 Orby Shipley. Annus Sanctus. (English translation of 
 Church hymns.) 
 
578 Appendix 
 
 Clement, Clara Erskine. A Handbook of Christian Symbols 
 and Stories of the Saints as Illustrated in Art. (A most 
 useful book for Catechists.) Edited by Katherine E. 
 Conway. 
 
 VII. Prayers and Pious Practices 
 
 The Roman Missal in English. 
 
 The Holy Week Book, with notes and explanations by Rev. 
 Mazzinelli. 
 
 Rolfus. Explanation of the Our Father and Hail Mary. 
 
 Formby, Canon. Book of the Holy Rosary. 
 
 Lambing, A. A. Come. Holy Ghost. 
 
 Zardetti. Devotion to the Holy Ghost. (We believe the 
 devotion to the Holy Spirit ought to be cultivated more 
 widely and more earnestly in Christian Doctrine than 
 it is actually done. It can be easily brought within the 
 powers of the child's mind if proper care is taken by 
 the Catechist.) 
 
 Lings, Dean A. A. Our Favorite Devotions. 
 
 Our Favorite Novenas. 
 
 Our Monthly Devotions. 
 
 O'Kennedy, R. Book of the Holy Angels. 
 
 Kinane, Archdeacon. (His books, "The Dove of the 
 Tabernacle," " Mary Immaculate," "The Angel of the 
 Altar," "The Lamb of God," "St. Joseph," are, in our 
 opinion, truly ideals of Catholic books of prayer and 
 piety, and will furnish the Catechist with a variety of 
 sound and beautiful forms of piety for his class.) 
 
 The Raccolta. Official Collection of Indulgenced Prayers. 
 
 Maurel, S. J. The Christian Instructed in the Nature and 
 Use of Indulgences. 
 
 Bernad. Practical Guide to Indulgences. 
 
 brie 
 .adoaawpsei 
 
 1o noitela/iBiJ ffeilafK'l 
 
INDEX 
 
 Absentees, 102, 106; from Mass, | Ancient Church, Ch.D. in, 487 ff. 
 
 405. I Angelus, the, 356, 375, 507. 
 
 Abstract matter, terms, 178, 183, I Animation, 206, 232. 
 
 208, 246. 
 Abuse, 291. 
 
 Accusation of sins, 430, 445 ff. 
 Activity of pupils, 209 f., 237, 
 
 285. 
 Acts of Faith, Hope, and 
 
 Charity, 296, 375, 377, 389, 
 
 459; contrition, 377, 442 f., 
 23, 26. See 
 
 446 ; religion, 
 Practices. 
 
 Admonitions, 94, 201. 
 
 Advantages, educational, of 
 early religious training, 30 ff. ; 
 Bible History, 53 ft. ; Church 
 History, 59 ff. ; Liturgy, 62 ff.; 
 religious practices, 66 ff. ; lec- 
 ture form. 219; sacred pic- 
 tures, 302: text-books, 331; 
 prayer, 371 f. ; hymns, 388 ff. ; 
 early confession, 419 f. ; Mass, 
 400 f. ; mirror of conscience, 
 436 f. ; history of Ch. D., 
 
 474 f- 
 Affections, emotions, 26, 53, 67, 
 
 2ii, 219, 306. See Will. 
 Age, for I. Confession, 426; 
 
 confirmation, 472. 
 Agnostics, 541. 
 Aids to instruction, 277 ff. 
 Aim of Ch. D., 19 ff., 50, 71. 
 Air, musical, 396. 
 Alcuin, 512. 
 
 Altar-bell, 408 ; A. -boys, 414 ff. 
 Amendment, purpose of, 440. 
 American EccL Review, 80, 
 
 104, 115, 128, 304, 336 f.. 359. 
 
 363 f., 368 f., 409, 454, 462. i 
 
 579 
 
 Ansgar, St., 506. 
 Answers, see Questions. 
 Antithesis, see Contrast. 
 Apologies, Christian, 487. 
 Apostles' Creed, 136, 350. 
 Apostles, their method, 483 ff. 
 Applications, practical, 200 f., 
 
 209 ; in Bible History, 238 ; 
 
 catechism, 264. 
 Approbation, eccl., 213, 347. 
 Archconfraternity of Ch. D., 
 
 79, 520, 531. 
 Argumentation, 252 ff. 
 Assistant priests, 74. 
 Attention, 203, 283 ff. 
 
 Attractiveness, of the lesson, 21, 
 
 54, 62, 68, 122, 202 ff., 278, 
 
 286, 295, 305 ; homily, 412. 
 Attrition, 442. 
 Augustine, St., 21, 25, 90, 124, 
 
 204 f., 220, 489 f., 500 ff., 548. 
 Australia, Councils, 48 ; catech., 
 
 561. 
 Authority of God, 22 ; basis of 
 
 all A., 259 ; A. of the Church, 
 
 22, 215 f.. 256. 
 Aversion to Ch D., 193, 204, 
 
 300 f. 
 
 "Baby talk,"' 378. 
 
 Baltimore, I. Dioc. Synod, 29; 
 Pro v. Councils, 32, 39, 77, 
 451, 556; I. Plenary C, 39, 
 76, 556; II. PL C, 32, 41, 
 422, 557; III. PL C, 30, 32, 
 34, 44, 61, 99, 358, 395, 453, 
 468, 539, 557. 
 
5 8o 
 
 Index 
 
 Baptism, lesson on, 249; of 
 catechumens, 493 ; of infants, 
 496, 504 ; baptismal vows, 
 463 f., 493 ; candle, 466. 
 
 Bard, a, 395. 
 
 Basedow, 218, 541. 
 
 Beauty of virtue, 26, 209, 260 f., 
 300. 
 
 Belief, see Conviction. 
 
 Bell, ringing of altar-b., 408. 
 
 Bellarmin, Card., 137, 343, 354, 
 
 535 ff-» 556. 
 
 Benedict XIII., 523, 536; B. 
 XIV., 531. 
 
 Benedictines, 516. 
 
 Bible not for children, 55 ; B. 
 of the Poor, 505 f. ; B. in 
 verse and story, 509. 
 
 Bible History, importance, 53 ; 
 help in catech., 55, 162, 241, 
 280; course, 113, 117, 119, 
 128 f., 156 ff . ; stages. 230; 
 in liturgy, 149 f., 156; for the 
 catechumens, 491, 501 ; in 
 Middle Ages, 505 f. ; books, 
 552 f., 563 f. 
 
 Biblical commentary, 235 f. ; 
 quotations, 255, 343 f. ; geog- 
 raphy, archaeology, 163, 167. 
 
 Biography, 61, 143 f., 147. 
 
 Birthday celebration, 377. 
 
 Bishops, 73. 
 
 Blackboard in Ch. D., 316 ff., 
 427, 472. 
 
 Body, resurrection of, 270 ff. 
 
 Books, selection of, 360 ; use, 
 366 ; in public library, 368 ; 
 as reward, 370. 
 
 Borromeo, St. Chas., 527 f. 
 
 Bossuet, 536, 553. 
 
 Boudon, Henry, 529. 
 
 Boys, special care, 87. 
 
 Branches of Ch. D., 50 ff., 185. 
 
 Bridget, Rev. T. C, 566. 
 
 British Empire, eccl. laws, 45 ff. 
 
 Brothers of the Common Life, 
 517 ; of the Christian Schools, 
 523 ; School Brothers, 546. 
 
 " Buffalo Course,' 1 373 ff., 386. 
 
 Bus, Cesar de, 522. 
 
 Businger's Bible History, 552, 
 
 , 563- 
 Butler's Catechism, 538. 
 
 ! Calasanctius, St., 523. 
 
 I Canada, Councils, 45 ff. 
 
 I Candles at I. Communion, 465. 
 
 J Canisius, Bl., 137, 343, 532 ff. 
 
 Capecelatro, Card., 554 f. 
 I Capital Sins and Virtues, 357. 
 
 Caricatures, 309. 
 
 Carroll, Bishop, 29. 
 
 Cashel, Council, 46, 467. 
 
 Cassock, 83. 
 
 Catacombs, pictures in, 495. 
 
 Catechetics,496, 501, 503, 508 f. ; 
 511 ff., 544 ff. 
 
 Catechism (instruction), its 
 work, 20; nature, 51; kinds, 
 114; length, 117, 300. C. 
 (the book), 339 ft'., 516, 517, 
 532 ff.; its division, 136 ft.. 
 341 f. ; official, 333 ; oppor- 
 tune, 345 ; pictorial, 303 f., 
 313. See Uniformity. 
 
 Catechist, his office, 71, 78; 
 models, 72 ; installation, 79 ; 
 qualities, 80 ff. ; dress, 83 ; fit- 
 ness, 97 ; manners, 82, 204, 
 299 ; prayers, 89 ; love of the 
 children, 69, 84, 96, 295, 473 ; 
 knowledge, 90 ff., 365 ; library, 
 364 ff., 569; in the singing 
 class, 393. Lay C, 77, 103, 
 496, 505. Lady C, 46. 
 
 Catechumens, 487 ft". 
 
 Catechumenate, 488, 497. 
 
 Censure, 86, 299, 406. 
 
 Ceremonies, see Liturgy. 
 
 Change, of subjects, 185 ; text- 
 books, 186; form of instruc- 
 tion, 206 f., 210. 
 J Charity, double precept of, 139. 
 
 See Love. 
 I Charlemagne, 504, 511. 
 I Charlier, see Gerson. 
 
Index 
 
 581 
 
 Charles Borromeo, St., 527 f. 
 
 Charts, see Maps. 
 
 Cheerfulness, 96, 204, 295. 
 
 Child study, 93 f. 
 
 Children's duties, 199; hymns, 
 399 ; Mass, 402 f. 
 
 Christian Doctrine, Confrater- 
 nity of, 46, 79, 520, 531 ; in- 
 dulgences, 79; Fathers of, 
 520, 522. 
 
 Christmas cycle, 326. 
 
 Chrodegang, Bishop, 511. 
 
 Chronology, 125 f., 145 f., 196. 
 
 Church, and Ch. D., 28; her 
 authority, 22, 215, 256; Ch. 
 History, 58 ff., 143 ff, 160, 
 267 ; language, 213 ; hymns, 
 388; loyalty to, 113, 216; 
 Ch. and Holy Ghost, 469. 
 
 Church (building), its symbol- 
 ism, 218, 324 f., 407; be- 
 havior in, 406 f. 
 
 Cincinnati, Councils, 35, 43 f. 
 
 Civilization and Ch. D., 34. 
 
 Classes in Ch. D., U2ff., 155 ff. 
 
 Clearness, see Perspicuity. 
 
 Clerics, regular, of pious schools, 
 522. 
 
 ''Cleveland Conspectus, 11 147, 
 390 f. 
 
 Colbert, Bishop, 530. 
 
 Colored pictures, 308; chalks, 
 
 317- 
 
 Columbian Catholic Summer 
 School, 172. 
 
 Commandments of God, 24, 113, 
 139, 322 f., 35 if., 423, 427 f., 
 492. C. of the Church, 140, 
 353 f. The VI. C, 266, 429. 
 
 Commentary, biblical, 235 f. 
 
 Communion, I. holy, time, 453 ; 
 preparation, 454 ; celebration, 
 463 ; souvenir, 466. Spiritual 
 C, 460. Ch. D. after I. C, 
 44 f., 47, 50. 
 
 Comparisons, 177, 179, 208, 229. 
 476. 
 
 Concert recitation, 210, 237, 375. 
 
 Concord among teachers, 89. 
 
 Conduct, Christian, 19, 24; in 
 church, 406 f., 449. See De- 
 meanor. 
 
 Confession, I. holy, 419 ff. ; 
 preparation, 70, 422 ff. ; parts, 
 427 ff. ; examination of con- 
 science, 427 f. ; contrition, 
 440 ff. ; amendment, 444 ; ac- 
 cusation, 445 f. ; penance, 
 447 ; external circumstances, 
 448 ; place, 450 f. ; tickets, 
 451; secret, 432, 446, 449; 
 warning, 452. General C, 
 
 459- 
 Confidence of pupils, 287, 291, 
 
 299>3°3, 373.452- 
 Confirmation, 467 ff. ; time, 
 
 471 f. ; age, 472. 
 Congregations, teaching, 522 f., 
 
 544 f- 
 Connection of subjects, 115, 141, 
 
 151, 184 ff, 188, 216, 247 f., 
 
 278, 295, 318, 353. 
 Conscience, voice of, 259 f ., 420 ; 
 
 examen, 420, 427 ff. ; mirror 
 
 of C, 435 ff. ; false C, 429 f. 
 Constantine the Great, 504. 
 Contrast, 135, 181 ff., 478. 
 Contrition, 440 ff. ; act of, 377. 
 Controversy, 197, 257 ; books, 
 
 363. 
 Conviction, religious, 22, 81, 
 
 254. 
 Councils, Provincial, in Middle 
 
 Ages, 529 ; in modern times, 
 
 37 ff., 55 6fT. 
 Counsels, evangelical, 140. 
 Course of instruction, H2ff. 
 Creed, Apostles', 136, 350 f., 485 . 
 Cross, sign of the, 381 f. Triple 
 
 C, 381. Way of the C, 70, 
 
 375- 
 
 Cusani, Mark de, 520. 
 Cyril of Jerusalem, St., 499. 
 
 Dates, historic, 144, 196, 318. 
 David, Bishop, 562. 
 
5§2 
 
 Index 
 
 Deaconesses, 496. 
 
 Decalogue, 140. ^Command- 
 ments. 
 
 Defects of catechist, 192, 298 ff. ; 
 catechism, 347 m 
 
 Definitions. 234, 241, 245, 280. 
 318. 
 
 Deharbe, S.J., 59, 341, 55ofF. 
 
 Deists, English, 540. 
 
 Demeanor of catechist, 82, 204, 
 299. See Kindness. 
 
 Details, 100. 
 
 Detention after class, 291, 294. 
 
 Devotion, 384. See Practices. 
 
 Diagrams, 319. 
 
 Dialect, 220. 
 
 Difficulties, 105 ff. 
 
 Dignity of Ch. D., 71, 78 ; cate- 
 chist, 82, 220. 
 
 Diocesan catechism, text-books, 
 333> 337; programme, 117, 
 120; hymn-book, 394. 
 
 Discipline in class, 283 ff., 311 ; 
 D. of the secret, 493 ff. 
 
 Dismissal from Ch. D., 294; of 
 altar-boys, 417. 
 
 Distinctions, 182. 
 
 Divisions of subject, 194 f., 318. 
 D. of the catechism, 13611". ; 
 341/., 348. 
 
 Doctrinarians, 520, 522. 
 
 Dogma and Moral, 115, 136, 
 248. 
 
 Dominicans, 516. 
 
 Don Bosco, 555. 
 
 Drama, religious. 506 f. 
 
 Drane, Miss, 506 ff. 
 
 Drawings, 316 ff. 
 
 Dress of catechist, 83 ; girls at 
 I. Communion, 461 f. 
 
 Drills, gymnastic, 210. 
 
 Drilling, pious, not devotion, 
 
 383- 
 Dublin, Council, 77. 
 Dubuque Catechism, 562. 
 Ducpeteaux, 30. 
 Dupanloup, Bishop, 19. 27, 29, 
 
 30, 52, 64, 82, 89, 95, 100, no. 
 
 114, 143, 201, 204, 206 f., 213, 
 219, 223, 252, 279, 371, 376, 
 386, 389, 401, 456, 554. 
 
 Early religious instruction, 28 ff., 
 56, 114. 117: historical, not 
 doctrinal, 189: in prayers, 
 114I'., 372 f. 
 
 Easter cycle, 327 f. 
 
 Ecclesiastical spirit, 21 1 ff. ; lan- 
 guage. 203 ; maps, 315 ; pray- 
 ers, 195, 373, 377. See Year. 
 
 Edmund of Canterbury, St., 
 
 5H- 
 
 Education and instruction, 19, 
 27 f., 50. 187 f., 300: unsec- 
 tarian E., 29. 
 
 Elder, Archbishop, 66. 
 
 Eliseus. prophet, 75. 
 
 Ember Days* confession, 70, 
 422. 
 
 Emblems, symbolic, 319. 
 
 Emotions, see Affections. 
 
 Encyclopaedists, French, 540. 
 
 England, Ch. D. in, 48 f. ; Mid- 
 dle Ages, 507 f. 
 
 • ; English Ladies," 523. 
 
 Epistles and Gospels, 122, 152, 
 154 f. 
 
 Eucharist, Bl., 68, 141, 245,423, 
 458. See Mass, Communion. 
 
 Evidences of religion, 23, 252 ff. 
 
 Examinations, in class, 222 ff. ; 
 written, 29 1 , 299 (see Testing) . 
 E. of conscience, 70, 427 ff. 
 E. of catechumens, 493, 497. 
 
 Example of priests, 386, 418. 
 
 Examples, force of, 26, 386 ; use, 
 180 f.. 263 f., 443 f. E. from 
 the Bible, 54, 122, 156 ff. 
 
 Exercises, see Practices. 
 
 Exhortation, see Homily. 
 
 Explanations, 20 f., 81, 128, 
 190 f., 214 f., 234 f., 247 f. ; of 
 pictures, 311 f . : prayers, 383 ; 
 hymns, 392 ; Mass, 401 ; lit- 
 urgy, 63 f., 148 ff., 153; in 
 catechism book. 343. 
 
Index 
 
 583 
 
 Eyes of the catechist, 231, 283 f. ; 
 pupils, 287. 
 
 Facts as proofs, 256. 
 
 Faerber, Rev. W. ; 562. 
 
 Faith, its motive and evidence, 
 
 22 ; acts, 23. F. and morals, 
 
 136, 248. 
 Familiarity with pupils, 2>j i. 
 Family influence, 35 f., 76, 100 f. 
 
 See Parents. 
 Fander, Rev. }., 59. 
 Fasting, lesson on, 264. F. for 
 
 Communion, 461. 
 Fathers of Ch. D., 520, 522. 
 Faults of catechist, 56, 66, 135, 
 
 142, 189, 191 ff., 243,255,270, 
 
 317,322, 347 f., 349. 
 Feasts, eccl., 64, 148 ff. See Lit- 
 urgy, Year. 
 Feelings, see Affections. 
 Fenelon, Archbishop, 531. 
 Fiction, 181, 360 ff., 368. 
 Finn, Rev. F. J., S.J., 363. 
 Fitness, of catechist, 97 ff. ; of j 
 
 text-book, 100 ; of instruction, j 
 
 189 ff. 
 Fleury, Claude, 204, 537. 
 Forms of the instruction, 217 ff. j 
 
 F. of prayer, 195, 374 f. 
 Formulas of the catechism, j 
 
 158 f., 280 (memorize) ; 297, 
 
 350 ff., 507 (in Middle Ages). ! 
 Fourier, Bl. Peter, 523. 
 France, national catechism, 553. 
 Franciscans, 516. 
 Francis de Sales, St., 176, 528. 
 Francis Xavier, St., 27,195, 524 ff. 
 Freethinkers, 540. 
 Furniss, Rev. J., 36, 201, 313, 
 
 385, 390, 403, 564 f. 
 
 Gentleness, see Kindness. 
 Geography, biblical, 163, 235, 
 
 314; eccl., 315. 
 Gerson, John, 73, 419, 5i4ff. 
 Ghost, Holy, in the child, 64, 
 
 66 f. ; in the Church, 146, 469 ; 
 
 devotion to, 470, 578. 
 
 Gibbons, Cardinal, 36, 73, 94, 
 
 305 f- 
 
 Giezi and Eliseus, 75. 
 
 Gilmour's " Bible History," 563. 
 
 Glancey, Rev. M. F., 126, 240. 
 563 f. 
 
 God's will, 24, 253, 259. 
 
 Goethe, the poet, 307. 
 
 Gospels and Epistles, 152 f., 
 339> 4io. 
 
 Grace, divine. 65, 69 f. 
 
 Grades in Ch. D., see Pro- 
 grammes. 
 
 Gregory the Great, 26, 84, 506. 
 
 Gregory of Nazianzen, St., 506. 
 
 Gregory of Nyssa, St., 503. 
 
 Groet, Gerard de, 517. 
 
 Grouping of facts, types, proph- 
 ecies, 125 f. 
 
 Gruber, Archbishop, 547 f. 
 
 Guardian Angel, 375. 
 
 Guardians, duty of, 49. 
 
 Guizot, 34. 
 
 Gymnastics, 210. 
 
 Hail Mary, 356,375. 
 Halifax, Council, 46. 
 Hamon, Rev., 73, 75. 
 Hands, position, 287. 
 Happiness through religion, 33. 
 Hirscher, 24, 140, 199, 267, 434, 
 
 549 f. 
 History of Ch. D., 474 ff. ; of 
 
 Apostles, 123; of heresy, 
 
 145 f. See Bible, Church. 
 Home, see Family. 
 Homily, children's, 153, 410 ff. 
 Hope, virtue of, 137 f., 158. See 
 
 Acts. 
 Hymns, sacred, 69, 151 f., 160, 
 
 169, 388 ff. ; explanation, 392 ; 
 
 Protestant, 398 ; at Mass, 398 ; 
 
 H . book, 394, 408. 
 Hyperbole, 480. 
 
 Ideas, 244 f. 
 
 Ignatius Loyola, St., 521. 
 
 Illuminati. 540. 
 
5»4 
 
 Index 
 
 Illustrated text-books, 303 f., 
 565 f. 
 
 Images, see Pictures. 
 
 Imagination, 207, 232. 
 
 Immodesty, 268. 
 
 Immortality of soul, 258. 
 
 Impartiality, 86. 
 
 Impatience, 295. 
 
 Impression, 254,277 m, 304, 319. 
 
 Impurity, 268. 
 
 Indulgences, Ch. D., 79. 
 
 Infant baptism, 496, 504. 
 
 Innovations, 211. 
 
 Instruction, see Education. 
 
 Interest, see Attention, Attrac- 
 tiveness. 
 
 Invectives, 86, 291. 
 
 Ireland, Ch. D. in, 46 f. ; cate- 
 chism, 538. 
 
 Irish Eccl. Record, 19, 79, 88, 
 90 f., in, 561, 566. 
 
 Jerome, St., 153. 
 
 Jesuits, 521. 
 
 Jesus Christ, 21, 72, 124, 208, 
 
 252, 476 ff. 
 John VIII. of Treves, 528. 
 Jokes, 220 f. 
 
 Judgment, last, lesson on, 274 ff. 
 Justice, Christian, 140. 
 Justin, St., 410, 487, 498. 
 Juveniles, 358 ff. 
 
 Kant, 137, 541. 
 
 Ketteier, Bishop, 74, no, 125, 
 
 134, 344- 
 Kindness, 85, 417, 452. 
 Knecht, Bishop, 121, 123, 126, 
 
 543, 553, 564- 
 Knowledge, Christian, 19 f. ; in 
 Catechist, 90 ff. 
 
 Lady catechists, 46, 496. 
 
 Lambing, Rev. A. A., 29, 63, 78, 
 82 f., 87, 101, 150, 201, 217, 
 279, 334, 382, 386, 565. 
 
 Land, Holy, 314. 
 
 Language, eccl., 213, 340, 348. 
 
 Langthaler, Dean, 303, 305. 
 
 La Salle, St., 523. 
 
 Lateran Council, 426. 
 
 Latin language, 497, 509. 
 
 Lavelle, Rev. M., 80, 104, 115. 
 
 Lay catechists, 71, 77^., 103, 
 496, 505. 
 
 Lecture form, 218 ff., 472. 
 
 Legislation, eccl., on Ch. D., 
 37 ff., 556 ff. 
 
 Length of course, 116; of les- 
 son, 298, 300 ; of prayer, 375, 
 384; homily, 412; confes- 
 sions, 450 ; preparation for I. 
 Com., 453. 
 
 Leonidas, St., 498. 
 
 Leo XIII., 212, 342, 536. 
 
 Lessing, 54. _ 
 
 Liberal theories, 212. 
 
 Library, Sunday-school, 358 ff.; 
 public, 368 ; catechisfs, 364, 
 569 ff. 
 
 Life of Christ, 19, 50, 54, 123L 
 
 Litanies, 375 ; Sunday-school L., 
 376. 
 
 Literature, 358 ff. 
 
 Liturgies, 61 f. 
 
 Liturgy, 61 ff, 1 13 f., 148 ff., 152, 
 i6of., 178 f., 185, 197, 228, 
 276. 
 
 Lives of the Saints, heroes, and 
 other great men, 61, 143, 146 f., 
 362. 
 
 Local Saints, 146 ; customs, 200, 
 344 ; vices, 439. 
 
 Lord's Prayer, the, 356. 
 
 "Loretto, Ladies of," 523. 
 
 Love, virtue, 25, 260; double 
 precept (charity), 139, 322; 
 1. for children, 69, 84. 
 
 Low Sunday. 463. 
 
 Loyalty to Church, 103, 216 f. 
 
 Luther, 137, 307, 5 1 8, 540. 
 
 McCafferey's Catechism, 557. 
 Manners, see Demeanor. 
 " Manual, 11 see Wenham. 
 Maps, 3i4f. 
 
Index 
 
 585 
 
 Mass, Holy, 62 f., 141, 400 ff. ; 
 weekdays, 402, 404; Child- 
 ren's M., 402 ; places, 407, 
 prayers, 408 ; hymns, 398. 
 M. servers, 41 4 if. 
 
 Matrimony, 76. 
 
 Maynooth, Council, 47 ; cate- 
 chism, 560 f. 
 
 Maxims, see Proverbs. 
 
 Mean, the golden, 297, 436. 
 
 Meditation in school, 373. 
 
 Meekness, see Kindness. 
 
 Meetings of teachers, 104. 
 
 Melody of hymns, 396. 
 
 Memory and memorizing, 61, 66, 
 97,188, 189, 191 f., 255, 277 ff., 
 300, 318, 374. 
 
 Mercy, Works of, 92, 139, 356 f. 
 
 Messianic prophecies, 125. 
 
 Method, necessity, 98 f. ; tradi- 
 tional, 128, 135, 211, 341,474, 
 543; correct, 295 f., 347; wrong, 
 192 f, 222, 243, 298 {see 
 Faults) ; in prayer, 380 ; hymns, 
 392; Mass, 409; homily, 410. 
 M. of Christ, 476 ff. ; Apostles, 
 483 ff. ; catechumenate, 490 ff. ; 
 Origen, 499; St. Cyril, 500; 
 St. Augustine, 501 ; Jesuits, 
 521 f. ; St. Fr. Xavier, 195, 
 525 ; Canisius, 533 ; Patrizi, 
 536; Overberg, 547; Hirscher, 
 550; Deharbe, 551; St. Sul- 
 pice, 554; Don Bosco, 555. 
 
 Middle Ages, 37 f., 504 ff. 
 
 Miracle Plays, 506. 
 
 Mirror of Conscience, 435 ff. 
 
 Mission, canonical, 74. 
 
 Mission-church, Ch. D. in, 45, 
 103, 118, 391 f., 454. 
 
 Missions, Catholic, 146, 315, 
 319; early M. in United 
 States, 167, 169. 
 
 Mode of instruction, 176 ff. 
 
 Modern times, Ch. D. in, 517 ff. 
 
 Money as reward, 291, 418. 
 
 Monks and Ch. D., 516 f. 
 
 Monthly devotions, 150, 152. 
 
 Morals and dogma, 136, 248. 
 
 Mortification, 266, 422. 
 
 Mosaic tabernacle, 324 ; tables, 
 322 f., 352. 
 
 Motives of faith, 22 ; morality, 
 26, 198, 248, 253, 260 if. ; con- 
 trition, 440, 442 f. ; examples, 
 443 f. ; supernatural, 261, 440. 
 
 Mueller, Rev. M., 562. 
 
 Mystagogical catechism, 495. 
 
 Mysteries (plays), 506. 
 
 Names, Christian, 220 ; difficult, 
 318. 
 
 Napoleon I., 34 ; catechism, 553. 
 
 Narration (recital), 231. 
 
 National Saints, 146, 200; cus- 
 toms, 200, 344. 
 
 Natural reasons, 254, 257 ; mo- 
 tives, 262 f. ; advantage of 
 early confession, 420; N. re- 
 ligion, 540. 
 
 Nature study, 148, 183, 477. 
 
 Nautologus, 496. 
 
 Negligence of parents, 102 ; of 
 catechist, 109. 
 
 Neumann, Bishop, 557. 
 
 Neumayer, S.J., 530. 
 
 New Orleans, Council, 40. 
 
 New York, Councils, 40, 44, 101, 
 539. " N. Y. Course," 163 ff., 
 
 373- 
 Nicknames, 86. 
 Night schools, 48. 
 Notice of subject, 188, 230, 241. 
 Notre Dame, Sisters of, 523. 
 Nudities on pictures, 309. 
 Numbers to memorize, 144 f., 
 
 196,318. N. of sins, 433, 437. 
 
 Object form (lessons), 184, 
 
 226 if. ; 380. 
 Obedience, 71. 
 Obligations, moral, 259. 
 Obstinacy, 294. 
 Official catechists, 73 ff. ; books, 
 
 333. 337- 
 Old Testament history, 125 f. 
 
5 86 
 
 Index 
 
 Olier, J. J., 529, 554. 
 Opportuneness, 199, 345 ff., 349, 
 
 385, 393- 
 
 Oral teaching. 218, 332, 412, 439. 
 
 Order of Bible Stories, 120 ff., 
 156; catechism, 134 ff., 139, 
 159, 198; Church History, 
 145 ff. ; liturgy, 152 ff. ; sacra- 
 ments, 142 ; eccl. year, 325 ff. ; 
 prayers, 375 ; confession, 430. 
 
 Orders, religious, and Ch. D., 
 516 f. ? 522 ff., 545 ff. 
 
 Organization of Ch. D., 103, 112. 
 
 Origen, 498. 
 
 "Our Father,' 1 the, 138, 356, 
 
 375- 
 Overberg, 81, 120, 176, 298, 
 
 547 f- 
 Overburdening the pupils, 194, 
 
 196, 298, 385, 409, 433. 
 
 Palestine, 314. 
 
 Parables, 21, 180, 424, 476 f. 
 
 Parents, 43, 49, 76, 100 ff., 108, 
 
 294, 405 f., 462. See Family. 
 Parish priest, 43, 47, 74, 76, 104. 
 
 See Schools. 
 Partiality, 86, 292. 
 Parts, see Branches. 
 Passion, its influence, 67. 
 Patience, 85. 
 Patrizi, Card., 536. 
 Patron Saints, 376 f. 
 Paul, St., 388, 483, 486. 
 Peace of soul, 421. 
 Peacefulness, 88. 
 Pedagogy, 67, 91, 100, 138, 141, 
 
 176, 185, 226, 335, 347, 349, 
 
 367, 375>47M books, 364 f. 
 Perfection, Christian, 141. 
 Pericopes, 152 ff. 
 Perspicuity, 21 f., I77ff, 221, 
 
 296. 
 Pestalozzi, 218. 
 Peter, St., 483 f., 486. 
 "Philadelphia Course," 168 ff., 
 
 197, 281, 373>39i- 
 Philip Neri, St., 85. 
 
 I Philosophers, French, 540. 
 ! Piarists, 522. 
 
 Pictures, religious, 179, 235, 
 302 ff.; Parisian, 310; series, 
 313; in catechism, 303, 313; 
 in catacombs, 495 ; Middle 
 Ages, 505 f. 
 
 Piety, see Practices. 
 
 Pithy sayings, 21, 183. See Pro- 
 verbs. 
 ; Placards, religious, 508. 
 
 Places, see Position. 
 
 Plan, see Programme. 
 
 Plays, miracle, passion, 506. 
 
 Polemics, 197,257; books, 363. 
 
 Poor, Bible of the, 505 f. 
 
 Poor children, see Pupils. 
 
 Portalis, Count, 30. 
 
 Port of Spain, Council, 46. 
 
 Position in class, 283, 286; in 
 church, 284, 407; at confes- 
 sion, 448 ; hands and text- 
 book, 287. 
 
 Positivists, 541. 
 
 Possevin, S.J., 526. 
 | Pouget, Fr. A., 538. 
 
 Practicalness, 1 96 ff . , 239, 297. 
 
 Practices, pious or religious, 23, 
 26, 66 ff., 201, 239, 265, 371 ff., 
 384 f., 425,470. 
 
 Praise, 293. 
 
 Prayer, 1 14 ff., 138, 142 f., 371 ff. ; 
 memorizing, 191 f., 195 ; extem- 
 poraneous, 379 ; in class, 261;, 
 373; forms, 374; daily, 385, 
 427, 445 ; at Mass, 408 f. ; con- 
 fession, 445, 448 ; communion, 
 459, 461, 466 ; at home, 372 ; 
 in rhyme, 378. 
 
 Prayer-books, 387, 408, 439. 
 
 Prayers of catechist, 89, 96, 295, 
 
 473; 
 
 Premiums, 291. 
 
 Preparation of catechist, 94 ff. ; 
 of subject, 229 ft"., 31 1 ; homily, 
 411. P. of children for the 
 sacraments, 411, 422, 452, 467. 
 
 Presentation Nuns, 523^ 
 
Index 
 
 587 
 
 Priest as catechist, 49, 74, 104. 
 Printing, invention of, 517. 
 Prizes, 291. 
 
 Processions, 113, 149, 152. 
 Prodigal Son, 424, 443. 
 Programmes, 1 1 2 ff. , 1 5 5 ff. ; 
 
 contents, 174. 
 Prompting, 286. 
 Pronunciation, 221, 233. 
 Proofs in dogma, 254 ff. ; morals, 
 
 258 ff. 
 Prophecies, 125. 
 Protestantism, 38, 517. 
 Proverbs and pithy sayings, 
 
 182 ff., 240, 257, 264, 482 f. 
 Psychological fitness, i89ff. 
 Punishments, 214, 260 f., 289 ff. ; 
 
 foolish, 291 ; remitted, 292 ; 
 
 corporal, 294 ; motive of con- 
 trition, 441 f. 
 Pupils, rich and poor, bright 
 
 and dull, 86 ff., 93 f., 290, 457. 
 Purcell, Archbishop, 58. 
 Purgatory, 441 f. 
 
 Qualities of catechist, 80 ff. ; 
 Ch. D. programme, 174; in- 
 struction, I76ff. ; discourse, 
 220 f. ; questions, 224 ff. ; ap- 
 plication, 238 ff. ; narration, 
 231 f. ; commentary, 236; 
 definition, 244 f . ; argument, 
 252 ; reward and punishment, 
 291 f. ; pictures, 301 ff. ; text- 
 books, 337 ff. ; catechism, 
 339 5 juveniles, 360 ff. ; prayer- 
 books, 387 ; hymns. 395 ff. ; 
 homily, 41 1 ; Mirror of Con- 
 science, 437 ff. ; apostolic 
 preaching, 486 ff. 
 
 Quebec, Council, 45 ; catechism, 
 
 559- 
 
 Question form, 223 ff. 
 Questions, 210, 222, 236, 286, 
 296, 312, 349- 
 
 Rabanus, Maurus, 512. 
 Raikes, Robert, ix. 
 
 Rationalism, 540, 542. 
 
 Reading (literature), 358 ff. 
 
 Reasons for belief, 254. 
 
 Recapitulation, see Repetitions. 
 
 Recitation, simultaneous, 210. 
 
 Reeve, Rev., Bible History, 539. 
 
 Reformation, Protestant, 517. 
 
 Regularity at Mass. 404 f. ; in- 
 struction, 454. 
 
 Reilly, Dr., catechism, 538. 
 
 Religion, its nature. 19; knowl- 
 edge, 20; acts, 23, 26; im- 
 portance, 28 ff. ; social effects, 
 34. R. of reason, 540. 
 I Repetitions, 188, 222, 233, 243, 
 \ 278, 296, 383, 413, 452. 
 ; Reprimands, 292 1. 
 
 Reserve, 82. 
 
 Revelation, divine, 22, 55, 58. 
 : Reverence, 217, 386 f., 406 f. 
 ' Reviews, see Repetition. 
 i Rewards, 203, 260 f., 289 ff., 426. 
 
 R. of catechist, 109. 
 ! Restlessness, 288. 
 i Rhymes, 240, 378. 
 
 Rousseau, J. J., 28 f., 32, 540. 
 
 Rome, Council (1725), 536. 
 
 Rule of Faith, 136. 
 
 Sacrament, Bl., see Eucharist. 
 
 Sacramentals, 152. 
 J Sacraments, 113, 142, 355. 
 ! Sacrifice of the Cross, 141, 323 f., 
 
 Mass, 400 ff. 
 I Saints, patron, 376 f. 
 ; St. Louis, Council, 34, 44. 
 
 Salesian Congregation, 555. 
 J San Francisco, Council, 43. 
 I Satisfaction (penance), 447. 
 I Schmid, Canon, 548. 
 
 Schmid, M. J., 530. 
 
 Scholasticus, 511. 
 
 Schools, parochial, 39, 102, 
 504 ff., unsectarian, 29 ; pub- 
 lic, 36, 102, 454. 
 
 Schuech, 1 15, 1 19, 254, 267. 312, 
 
 377- 
 Schuster, J., Bible History, 552. 
 
5 88 
 
 Index 
 
 Scripture, sec Bible. 
 Scrupulosity, 438. 
 Scrutinies, 493, 497. 
 Scolding, see Censure. 
 Seal of confession, 432, 446, 449. 
 Secret, discipline of the, 494 f. 
 Self-denial, 266, 422. 
 Self-knowledge, 420, 434. 
 Self-improvement, 93. 
 Seminaries and Ch. D., 99. 
 Severity, 299 f. 
 Sexes, the, 268, 270. 
 Shamrock, emblem, 321. 
 Sign of the Cross, 381 f. 
 Silence, 284, 288. 
 Similitudes, 476. See Compari- 
 sons. 
 Sin, 26, 140, 260; capital, 357; 
 
 table of S., 435 ; venial, 433, 
 
 462 ; forgotten, 463. 
 Sisters, see Orders. 
 Sixth Commandment, 266 ff., 
 
 429, 438. 
 Slang, 220. 
 Songs, see Hymns. 
 Spalding, Bishop, 56, 59, 60, 80, 
 
 97, 541 f. 
 Spinoza, 540. 
 Spirit of religion, 81, 97 ; prayer, 
 
 89; eccl., 211 ff. 
 Stages of instruction, 229 ff. 
 Stolz, Alban, 267, 290 f., 414. 
 Stories, 53 f., 180 f., 207, 241, 
 
 243, 247. 
 Success, conditions of, 96 ff. 
 Sulpice, St., method, 554. 
 Sunday and Ch. D., 38, 39, 42, 
 
 45> 47 f- 
 
 Sunday-school, 41, 44 f., 49; 
 teachers, 77 f., 103 ; organiza- 
 tion, 103; programmes, 170 
 ff. ; conferences, 172 ; library, 
 358 ff. ; litany, 376; super- 
 intendent, 104; origin, ix. 
 
 Supernatural element in Church, 
 148 ; motives, 254, 261 f, 440 ; 
 effects in confession, 422 ; 
 preparation I. Com., 457. 
 
 Supervision at Mass, 408; at 
 confession, 450; altar-boys, 
 418 ; in school, 294. 
 
 Symbolism, in liturgy, 152, 218, 
 407, 477; of miracles, 236. 
 
 Symbols, 319 ff. 
 
 Table of sins, 435 ff. 
 
 Tablets on walls, 508. 
 
 Talk, baby, 378 ; long, 210, 239, 
 285. 
 
 Teacher, see Lay Catechist. 
 
 Technical, see Terms. 
 
 Temple, Jewish, 324. 
 
 Terms, technical, 22, 198, 339 f., 
 347 f. ; ecclesiastical, 216, 221 ; 
 biblical, 221, 234. 
 
 Testing, 222, 254, 278, 282. 
 
 Text-books, 100, 145, 184, 186 f., 
 213, 287, 297, 331 ff. ; illus- 
 trated, 304, 566. 
 
 Theodule, Bible reader, 509. 
 
 Theodulf, Bishop, 511. 
 
 Theology, knowledge, 90 ; cor- 
 rectness, 212, 347. 
 
 Third Orders, teaching, 546. 
 
 Thomas a Kempis, 517. 
 
 Thomas Aquinas, St., 5 13 f. 
 
 Thornesby of York, 514. 
 
 Thurles, Council, 46. 
 
 Tickets at confession, 451 f. 
 
 Time for catechism, 289; con- 
 fession, 426; I. Com., 453, 
 463 ; confirmation, 472. 
 
 Tools, educational, 302 ff. 
 
 Topical order, 125 f. 
 
 Tortosa, Synod, 516. 
 
 Tradition, catechetical, 105 ff. 
 135, 212, 341 f., 474, 543. 
 
 Transubstantiation, 141. 
 
 Trent, Council, 38, 62, 142, 217, 
 426; catechism, 5 [9, 529. 
 
 Trials of catechist, 105 ff. 
 
 Trifles in method, 99. 
 
 Trinity, Bl., emblems, 320 f. 
 
 Tuam, Council, 47. 
 
 Types, Messianic, 125. 
 
 Typology, biblical, 125, 180. 
 
Index 
 
 589 
 
 Ugliness of sin, 26, 140, 260; 
 
 examples, 122. 
 Understanding, 22, 277, 332. 
 Uniformity, 51, 116, 124, 135, 
 
 147, 151, 185 ff., 295, 335 f., 
 
 346 ; 556- 
 United States and Ch. D., 29, 
 
 39 ff. ; Catholic schools, 30 : 
 
 eccl. map, 315; catechism, 
 
 354> 556 ff-> confirmation, 
 
 471 f. 
 Vnity ofCh. D., 51, 55, 295. 
 Ursuline Nuns, 523. 
 
 Variety of exercises, 71. 210, 
 229. 
 
 Vatican Council, 536. 
 
 Virtue, 140; infused, 65; theo- 
 logical, 137; capital, 357. 
 See Beauty. 
 
 Visitation Nuns, 523. 
 
 Visits to Bl. Sacrament, 70, 
 461 ; to parents of pupils, 102. 
 
 Voltaire, 540. 
 
 Vows, baptismal, 463. 493. 
 
 Walsh, Archbishop, 539, 561. 
 Way of the Cross, 70, 375. 
 Weitenauer, Ignat., 530. 
 
 i Wenham, Canon, " Manual,*' 35, 
 
 91,93,114,189^,209.; Bible 
 
 Readings, 563. 
 I West Indies, Council. 46. 
 Westminster, Council, 48, 467 ; 
 
 catechism, 560. 
 White, Sunday in, 463. 
 Will, training of, 25, 53, 67, 
 
 1 88, 2 1 9, 444. See Affections. 
 Wiseman, Card., 303. 
 ! Word of God, 255 f. 
 Words of catechism, 20 f., 24, 
 
 52, 66, 97; strange w., 221, 
 
 234. See Terms. 
 Works, good, 140; of mercy, 
 
 139 f- 
 
 Worship, divine, 27, 142. 
 
 Written preparation, 95, 268 ; 
 lessons, 291, 279, 413; con- 
 fession, 43 1 f. ; examination 
 of conscience, 427. 
 
 j Year, ecclesiastical, 64, 148, 150, 
 152, 154, 156, 160, 297; dia- 
 grams, 325 ff. 
 Yorke, Rev. P. C, 565. 
 Youth andCh. D., 27 ff. 
 
 Zeal, 81, hi. 
 
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