D80 vnm 1866 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 00005^3^34 ^ ■ w . >r^h, 9 v ^ <£* »'£Kfe*< ^ ^ • .**%. %«<&' : -^ •fa? A*** Vu % • "** .* y \*^*v ^ ^ *• V THE CLASSICAL MANUAL: AN EPITOME OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY, GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY, ANTIQUITIES, AND CHRONOLOGY. CHIEFLY INTENDED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. COMPUTED HY JAMES S. S. BAIRD, TRINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN, ASSISTANT CLASSICAL MASTER, KING'S SCHOOL, GLOUCESTER. PHILADELPHIA: HENRY C. LEA. 1866. Exchange IQniv. of Mich. $gT 1 4 1933 VO THB REV THOMAS EVANS, D.D. HEAD MASTER OF KING'S SCHOOL, GLOUCESTER, THIS LITTLE WORK GEOGRAPHY. EUROPE. COUNTRIES. — II i span i a, Spain; Lusitania, Portugal; Gallia, France and West of Switzerland; Germania, Germany; Cimbrica Chersonesus, Denmark; Scan- dinavia, Norway and Sweden; Sarmatia Europaea, Russia and Poland; Rhsetia, East part of Switzerland and the Tyrol; Vindelicia, Bavaria S. of Danube; Panno- nia, Hungary; Illyricum, Illyris, Illyrica, Croatia, Dalmatia, and part of Turkey; Italia, Italy; Graecia, Greece, and part of Albania and Roumelia in Turkey ; Macedonia, Western part of Roumelia ; T h r a c 1 a, East- ern part of Roumelia; Mcesia, Servia and Bulgaria; Dacia, Transylvania, Wallacliia, and Moldavia, SEAS. — N. : Mare Pigrum, vel Cronium, Frozen Ocean ; Oceanus Germanicus, North Sea. W. : Atlanticum Mare, Atlantic. E.: Palus Mseotis, Sea of Azov; Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea; Propontis, Sea of Marmora; iEgeum Mare, Archipelago. S. : Mare Internum, Mediterranean ; Mare Ionium, W. of Greece ; ^Mare Inf erum, Tyrrhenum, vel Tuscum, Tuscan Sea, W. of Italy ; Mare Hadriaticum, vel Superum, Gulf of Venice. GULFS, STRAITS, &c — Sinus Codanus, vel Mare Sue- vicum, Baltic; Fretum Britannicum, vel Gallicum, Straits of Dover; Oceanus Cantabricus, Bay of Biscay ; Fretum Gaditanum, Straits of Gibraltar; Gallicus Sinus, Gulf of Lyons; Sinus Ligusticus, Gxdf of 2 (13) 14 GEOGRAPHY. Genoa; Tergestlnus Sinus, Gulf of Trieste; Fossa, Straits of Bonifacio ; Fretum Siculum, Straits of Mes- sina ; Hellespontus, Straits of the Dardanelles ; Bos- porus Thracius, vel Thracicus, Straits of Constanti- nople; Bosporus Cimmerius, Straits of Kaffa. RIVERS.— Flowing into the Baltic: Vistula, Vistula; Via- dus, Oder. Flowing into the North Sea: A Ibis, Elbe; Visurgis, Weser ; Scaldis, Scheldt; Rhenus, Rhine; Tamesis, Thames. Flowing into the Atlantic: Sequana, Seine; Liger, Loire; Garumna, Garonne; Durius, Douro ; Tagus, Tago ; Anas, Guadiana ; B set is, Guadal- quivir. Flowing into the Mediterranean : I b e r u s, Ebro ; Rhodanus, Rhone ; Arar, Saone; Arnus, Arno ; Tibe- ris, Tiber; Athesis, Adige ; Pad us, Po. Flowing into the Black Sea: Ister, Danube; Tyras, Dniester; Borys- thenes, Dnieper; Tanais, Don. Falling into the Caspian Sea: Rha, Volga. MOUNTAINS. — Sevo Mons, Dofrefield Mts.; Pyrensei Montes, Pyrenees; Alpes, The Alps; Apenninus Mons, Apennines ; Carpates vel Bastarnicee Montes, Carpathian Mis.; Hasmus Mons, Hozmus, or the Balkan; Hyperborei vel Rhipsei Montes, Ural Mts. LAKES. — Lacus L em an us, L. of Geneva; L. Brigan- tinus, Boden See, or L. of Constance; L. Verb an us, Lago Maggiore; L. Larius, Lago di Como; L. Benacus, Lago di Gar da; L. Copais, L. Topolias. ISLANDS. — In the Atlantic: Britannia vel Albion, Bri- tain; Hibernia, Ireland; Hebtides vel Ebtides, He- brides; Orcades, Orkneys; Thule, Iceland (?). In the Mediterranean: Pity usee Insulae; among these Ebusus, Ivica; Baleares Insulae (vel Gymnesiee), Balearis Major, Majorca; Balearis Minor, Minorca; Sardinia vel Sardo, Sardinia; Corsica vel Cyrnos, Corsica; iEthalia vel Ilva, Elba; Trinacrla vel Sicilia, Sicily; Me lit a, Malta. In the Ionian Sea: Corcyra, Corfu; GEOGRAPHY. 15 Leucadia vel Leucas, Santa Maura; Ithaca, Thiaki; Cephallenia, Ceplialonia ; Zacynthus, Zante ; Cy- th era, Cerigo. In the iEgean Sea: Creta, Candia ; Cyclades, Cyclades; Euboea, Negropont. HISPANIA. Spain and Portugal. BOUNDARIES.— N.. Oceanus Cantabricus, Bay of Bis- cay, and Pyrensei Montes; E. and S.E., Mare Inter- num, Mediterranean; W., Mare Atlanticum, Atlantic. MOUNTAINS.— N., -Pyre nee i Montes, Pyrenees; Mons I dub e da, Sierra D' Oca and Sierra Molina; Mons Her- minius, Sierra d' Estrella ; Marianus Mons, Sierra Mo- rena ; Orospeda Mons, Sierra Segura. RIVERS. — Falling into the Atlantic: Minius, Minho; Du- rius, Douro ; Tagus, Tagus ; Anas, Guadiana; B set is, Guadalquivir. Falling into the Mediterranean: Iberus, Ebro (which receives from the N. Cinga, Cinca, and Sicoris, Segre, and from the S. Salo, Xalon); Turia, Guadalaviar; Sucro, Xucar ; Tader, Segura. PROMONTORIES. — A rtabr urn Prom., Cape Finisterre; Magnum Prom., Cape La Roca; Sacrum Prom., C. St. Vincent; Junonis Prom., C. Trafalgar; Calpe, Rock of Gibraltar (which, with Abyla on the African coast, formed the Pillars of Hercules) ; Scombraria Prom., C. de Palos; Dianium Prom., C. La Nao; Prom. Pyre- nseum, Cape Creux. DIVISIONS. — Hispania Citerior or Hither, afterwards called Tarraconensis ; and Hispania Ulterior or Further, divided into Lusitania, Portugal, in the West, and Boetica, Andalusia, in the South. TRIBES. — In Tarraconensis: Callaici, Astures, Cantabri, Vaccaei, Vascones, Arevaci, Jacetani, Vessitani, Lacetani, 16 GEOGRAPHY. Ilergetes, Cosetani, Arevaci, Carpetani, Celtiberi, Ede« tani, llercaones, Oretani, Contestani, Bastitani. In Lusi- tania: Lusitani, Vettones, Celtici. In Baetica: Turduli, Turdetani, Bastuli, Poeni. TARRACONENSIS. — Cities. — On the Ebro: Caesar Au- gusta, Saragossa. On the Salo: Bilbllis (the birth-plact of Martial). On the E. coast: Tarraco, Tarragona, th* Capital; Saguntum, Murviedro (its destruction by Han nibal, b.c. 219, gave rise to the second Punic war); Va lentia, Valencia. Near Scrombraria Prom., CapePalos: Carthago Nova, Carthagena (taken by Scipio Africanus b.c. 210). On the Tagus: Toletum, Toledo. Near the source of the Douro: Nuniantia (destroyed by Scipio the Younger, b.c. 133). At the mouth of the Douro: Calle, Oporto. LUSITANI A. — Cities. — Sal am an tic a, Salamanca, on a tributary of the Douro ; Norba Caesarea, Alcantara, on the Tagus ; 1 i s I p o, Lisbon, near the mouth of the river ; Emerita Augusta, Merida, on the Anas, Guadiana (colonized by Augustus with the veterans [Emeriti) of the fifth and tenth legions). BiETICA. — Cities. — Illiturgi, on the Bsetis (destroyed by Scipio, b.c. 210) ; below it, Cor dub a, Cordova, surnamed Patricia (the birth-place of the two Senecas and Lucan) ; Italic a, Sevilla la Vieja (the birth-place of the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian) ; Hispalis, Seville; Tartessus, on the coast; Gades, Cadiz, on a small island, one of the chief seats of commerce of the Phoenicians ; M u n d a, Monda, on the South coast (battle b. c. 45, Csesar defeated the sons of Pompey). ISLANDS. — In the Mediterranean: Pityusae Insula, comprising E bus us, Iviga, and Ophiusa; Baleares [or Gymnesiae) I n s u 1 oe, Balearic Isles, comprising M aj o r Insula or Majorca (Cap. Palma, Palma), and Minor In- sula, Minorca, Cap. Mago, Port Mahon. GEOGRAPHY. 17 GALLIA. France, Belgium, and West of Switzerland. BOUNDARIES. — N. : Oceanus Britannic us, English Channel; F return Gallicurn, Straits of Dover; and Oceanus Germanicus, (?m»«?i Occaw. E. : Rhenus, Rhine, and Alpes, The Alps. S. : Mare Internum, Mediterranean, and Pyrenaei Monte s, Pyrenees. "W. : Atlanticum Mare, Atlantic. MOUNTAINS. — Pyrensei Monte s, Pyrenees; Alpes, Alps. RIVERS. — Falling into the North Sea and English Channel : Rhenus, Rhine (with its tributaries, Mosella, Moselle, and Mosa, Meuse) ; Scald is, Scheldt; Samara, Somme; Sequana, Seine (with its tributaries, Matron a, Marne, and Axona, Aisne, Isara, Oise). Falling into the Bay of Biscay: Liger, Loire (and its tributary, Elaver, Allier) ; Garumna, Garonne, with Duranius, Dordogne, and Aturus, Adour. Falling into the Mediterranean: Rho- danus, Rhone (with its tributaries, Arar, Saone, Isara, Isere, and Druentia, Durance). LAKE. — L. Lemanus, Lake of Geneva. DIVISIONS. — Gaul was originally divided among the BELG/E (between the Rhine and Seine) ; CELTiE (be- tween the Seine and Garonne) ; and AQUITANI (between the Garonne and the Pyrenees). About B.C. 120, Gaul was divided by the Romans into Provincia, or Gallia Braccata, and Gallia Comata; and again, B.C. 27, into, I. Provincia, or Gallia Narbonensis, in the S.E. ; II. Aquitania, in the S.W. ; III. Gallia Celtica, or Lugdunensis, in the N.W. ; IV. Gallia Belgica, in the N.E. NARBONENSIS, divided into Narbonensis Prima, Narbo- nensis Secunda, Viennensis, Alpes Maritimce, and Alpes 2* 18 GEOGRAPHY. Graice et Pennince. — Towns. — In Narbonensis Secunda and Viennensis: Massilia, Marseilles, on the coast (founded about b. c. 600, famous for its literature and commerce) ; Aquae Sextiae, Aix (Marius defeated the Teutoni, b.c. 102); Telo Martius, Toulon, on the coast; E. of -which Forum Julii, Frejus (the birth-place of Agricola) ; Ge- neva, Geneva, on L. Lemanus ; Vienna, Vienne, on the Rhone (the chief town of the Allobroges) ; Cularo, Gre- noble; Valentia, Valence; Dea, Die; Arausio, Orange (a Roman colony) ; Avenio, Avignon; Arelate, Aries (a Roman colony, founded by the soldiers of the sixth Legion). In Narbonensis Prima: Nemausus, Nismes; on the coast, Agatha, Agde; Narbo Martius, Narbonne, the Capital of Gallia Narbonensis. On the Garonne : Tolosa, Toulouse (surnamed Palladia, a large and wealthy city). On the coast : R u s c i n o, near Perpignan. AQUITANIA, divided into Novempopidana, S. ; Aquitania Prima, E. ; Aquitania Secimda, W. Towns. — In Nbvempopulana: Climber r is, Audi. In Aquitania Prima: Albiga, AIM; on the Dordogne, Uxel- lodunum, Puecli oVIssola; near the Elaver, Allier, Ger- govia; West of this, Aug us tori turn, Limoges; in the N., Avaricum, Bourges. In Aquitania Secunda : on the Garonne, Burdigala, Bordeaux (the birth-place of Auso- nius) ; in the N., L i m o n u m, or Pictavi, Poitiers : M e d i o- lanum, or Santones, Saintes. LUGDUNENSIS, divided into Lugdunensis Prima, Secunda, Tertia, and Quarta. Towns. — In Lugdunensis Prima: Lugdunum, Lyons, the capital, at the junction of the Rhodanus and Arar, Saone (the birth-place of the Emperor Claudius) ; N. of this, Bibracte, or Augustodunum, Autun, and Alesia, Alise (destroyed by Caesar, b.c. 52). In Lugdunensis Quarta: on the Sequana, Seine, Augustobona, or Tri- c asses, Troyes ; Agendicum, Sens, the Capital of the Senones; and Lutetia, or Parisii, Paris; Genabum, Cen r bum, or Aureliani, Orleans, on the Liger, the Cap. of ' GEOGRAPHY. 19 Oarnutes. In Lugdunensis Secunda: Rotomagus, Rouen. In Lugduncnsis Tertia : on the Loire, Csesarodunum, Tours, Cap. of the Turones; in the N.W., Brivates Por- tus, Brest. GALLIA BELGICA, divided into 1. Belgica Prima; 2. Bel- gica Secunda; 3. Germania Prima ; 4. Germania Secunda; 5. Maxima Sequanorum. Towns. — On the Mosella: Tullum, Toul; Divodiirum, Metz; Augusta Treverorum, Treves. On the Matrona, Marne: Durocatalaunum, Chalons; N. of this Duro- cortorum, Rheims, the Cap. of the Remi. On the Axona, Aisne: Augusta Suessionum, Soissons. On the Sa- mara, Somme: Samarobriva or Ambiani, Amiens. On the coast: Gesoriacum or Bononia, Boulogne, and Itius Portus (from which Caesar set sail for Britain). On the Scaldis: Turnacum, Toumay. On the Rhine: Argentoratum, Strasburg (Julian defeated the Ale- manni, a.d. 357); Borbetomagus, Worms; and Mogon- tiacum, Alentz; at the junction of the Rhenus and Mo- sella, Confluentes, Coblentz. On the Rhenus: Colonia Agripplna, Cologne; Noviomagus, Nimeguen; Lug- dunum Batavorum, Leyden. On the Dubis, JDoubs : Ve- sontio, Besangon; S.E. of this Aventicum, Avenche. TRIBES. — In Narbonensis: Salyes or Saluvii, Allo- broges, Volcae Arecomici, Volcae Tectosages. In Aqui- tania: Bituriges Cubi, Lemovices, Arverni, Pictones, Santones, Bituriges Vivisci. In Gallia Lugdunensis: Am- barri, ^Edui, Lingones, Senones, Carnutes, Veneti, Osismii. In Gallia Belgica: Treveri, Mediomatrici, Leuci, Remi, Suessiones, Bellovici, Atrebates, Nervii, Morini, Helvetii (people of Switzerland), Sequani, Rauraci, Ubii, Tungri, Menapii, Batavi. ISLANDS.— On the W. Vindilis, Belleisle; Uxantis, TJshant; Caesarea, Jersey ; Sarnia, Guernsey ; Riduna, Alderney. 20 GEOGRAPHY. GERMANIA. Germany and Prussia. BOUNDARIES. — K, Codanus Sinus and Mare Suevi. cum, Baltic, and Oceanus Germanicus; E., Vistula, R. Vistula, and Carpates Monte s, Carpathian Moun- tains; S., Danubius, R. Danube; W., Rhenus, R. Rhine. MOUNTAINS. — Hercynii Montes, all the mountains in the south and centre of Germany. In the centre : H e r- cynia Silva, an immense forest which took Csesar nine days to cross. ftl VERS. — Falling into the Baltic : Vistula, Vistula; and Viadrus, Oder (with its tributary Varta, Wartlia). Fall- ing into the German Ocean: Alb is, Elbe (and its tributary Sala, Saale); Visurgis, Weser; Am a si a, Ems; Rhenus, Rhine (with its tributaries Nicer, Neckar ; Moenus, Main; Lupia or Luppia, Lippc) ; Ister or Danubius, Danube. DIVISIONS. — 1. Vindeli or Suevi, N. of the Elbe to the Baltic; 2. Hermiones, N. of the Danube; 3. Istsevones, E. of the Rhine. TRIBES, &c. — Among the Vindeli or Suevi: Lemovii, Lon- gobardi, Burgundiones, Gothones, Semnones. Among the Hermiones : Cherusci, Catti, Hermunduri, Boii, Marcomanni. Among the Ista3vones : Frisii, Chauci (divided into Minores and Majores), Bructeri, Marsii, Sicambri, Tencteri, Mattiaci, Sedusii, Marcomanni, Alemanni, in the S. Decumates Agri, whose inhabit- ants paid a tithe of their produce to the Romans. N. of Germany: Saxones, Angli and Cimbri, inhabit- ing Cimbrica Chersonesus, Jutland; Hilleviones, Sui- ones, and Sitones, inhabiting Scandinavia or Scandia, Norway and Sweden. N. B. The Teutones, probably dwelt in the N. of Ger- many, on the coast of the Baltic. GEOGRAPHY. 21 VINDELICIA, KHJETIA, NORICUM, PANNONIA, ILLYRICUM. Bavaria ; East of Switzerland, Tyrol ; Austria, South of the Danube; Hungary ; Illyria, Croatia, Dalmatia, and pari of Turkey. YlNDELICIA. Bavaria. BOUNDARIES. — N. and W., Danubius, R. Danube; E., R. iEnus, Inn; S., iEnus, Fl. Rhaetia, and Brigan- tinus Lacus, Lake of Constance. RIVERS. — Isarus, Iser; Lie us, Lech. TRIBES. — Brigantii, Genauni, Estiones. TOWNS. — Augusta Vindelicorum, Augsburg; Brigan- tia, Bregentz ; Reginum, Ratisbon. Rh^tia. East of Switzerland and the Tyrol. BOUNDARIES. — N., Brigantinus Lacus, R. ^Enus, and Vindelicia; E., Noricum; S., Gallia Cisalpina; W., the Helvetii. RIVERS. — Rhenus, Rhine; iEnus, Inn; Addua, Adda; Ticinus, Ticino; A the sis, Adige (all these rise in Rhaetia). TRIBES. — Lepontii, Cap. Oscela; Sarunetes, Cap. Curia, Coire; Brenni, Vennones, Tridentini. Noricum. Austria, South of the Danube. BOUNDARIES. — N., Danubius; E., Mons Cetius and Pannonia; S., Illyricum, R. Savus, Save t and Alpes Carnicae; W., Rhaetia and R. iEnua. 22 GEOGRAPHY. RIVERS. — Juvavus, Salza ; Anisus, Enns ; Murus, Muhr ; Dravus, Brave (all these rise in Noricum). TOWNS. — Juvavum, Saltzburg ; Boio durum, near Pas- sau, on the Danube, and Lauriacum, the station of a Roman fleet; Noreia, NeumarJct, near the centre (battle B. c. 113, the Consul Carbo defeated by the Cimbri) ; S.E. Celeia, Cilly. Pannonia. Hungary, Slavonia, and part of Croatia and Turkey. BOUNDARIES. — N. and E., Danubius PL; S., Illyri- cum; W., Noricum. RIVERS. — Arab on, Raab; Dravus, Drave; Savus, Save. LAKES. — Volcea Palus, Plaiten See; Peiso L., Neu- siedler See. DIVISIONS. — Pannonia Superior and Inferior. TOWNS. — On the Danube: Vindobona, Vienna; Car- nuntum (E. of Vienna); Acincum or Aquincum, Buda; Contra Acincum, Pestli; Pseto via, near Pettau, on the Drave; Mursa, Esseck, near the junction of the Drave and Danube. On the Save: Siscia, Sissek; and Sirmium. Illyricum. Illyria, Dalmatia, Croatia, and part of Turkey. BOUNDARIES. — N., Noricum; E., Pannonia and Mo> sia; S.W., Mare Hadriaticum and Histria. MOUNTAIN. — Albius Mons. DIVISIONS. — N. 1. Liburnia (inhabited by the Liburni and Japydes) ; 2. Dalmatia. The Liburni were famed as bold and skilful sailors, their vessels were remarkable for their swiftness ; hence, vessels after their models were te>"*- ed Libumicoe, Naves. GEOGRAPHY. 23 TOWNS. — iEmona, Laybach; Scar don a, Scardona, the Cap. of Liburnia ; Salona, Spalatro (the birth-place of Diocletian) ; Narona, on the Naro, Narenta ; S. of which Epidaurus, Old Ragusa; Scodra, Skutari, on Labeatis Palus, Lake of Skutari ; S. of this, Lissus, Alessio. ISLANDS. — W. of Illyricum: Scardona, Isola Grossa; Pharus, Lesina; Corcyra Nigra, Curzola; Melita, Melida. ITALIA. Hesperia, (Enotria, Ausonia, Saturnia. Italy. BOUNDARIES. — N. and N.W., Alpes, The Alps; E., Ha- driaticum Mare vel Superum, Adriatic Sea, or Gulf of Venice; S., Mare Internum, Mediterranean; W., Mare Tyrrhenum, Tuscum, vel Inferum, Tuscan Sea, GULES.— E., Tergestinus Sinus, Gulf of Trieste : S., Ta- rentinus Sinus, Gulf of Taranto ; Scylacius Sinus, Gidf of Squillace: W., Terinaeus Sinus, Gulf of St. Eufemia ; Laus Sinus, Gulf of Policastro ; Passtanus Sinus, Gulf of Salerno; Cumanus vel Puteolanus Sinus, Bay of Naples; Cajetanus Sinus, Gulf of Gaeta: S. of Liguria, Ligusticus Sinus, Gulf of Genoa. STRAIT. — Fretum Siculum, Straits of Messina. MOUNTAINS. — Alpes, The Alps, in the North, divided into three principal chains. I. The Western: Alpes Maritimae, Maritime Alps; Alpes Cottiaa, Mt. Cenis, and Mt. Genlvre ; Alpes Graiae, Alps of Sa- voy, including Little St. Bernard and Mt. Blanc. II. The Central Alps: Alpes Pennine?, Alps of Valais, including Great St. Ber- nard, Mt. Rosa, and St. Gothard ; Alpes Lepontiaa, Alps of the Grisons ; Alpes Rhseticae, Alps of Tyrol. III. The Eastern Alps: Alpes Noricae, Alps of Styria; Alpes Carnicse, Carnie Alps ; Alpes Juliae, Julian Alpe, 24 GEOGRAPHY. Appenninus Mons, The Apennines, running the whole length of Italy. Principal Elevations: Mons Soracte, S. Oreste, in Etruria; Mons Sacer, in Sabinum; Mons Albanus, in Latium (on which the Ferise Latinse were celebrated); Algidus Mons, in Latium; Mons Massi- cus, in Campania, near the coast (famous for its wines) ; Vesuvius, the celebrated volcanic mountain (the first eruption occurred Aug. 24, a.d. 79, which destroyed Pom- peii and Herculaneum) ; Garganus, Mte. Gargano, in Apulia; and Mons Vultur. RIVERS. — In Gallia Cisalpina: Padus, or E rid anus, Po; it rises in Mons Vestilus, Monte Viso, flows east, and falls into the Adriatic. Chief tributary streams from the N. : Duria Major, Dora Baltea ; Ticinus, Ticino (Hannibal defeated P. C. Scipio, b.c. 218), from L. Verbanus, Lago Maggiore; Addua, Adda, from L. Larius, Lago di Gar da; and Mincius, Mincio, from L. Benacus, Lago di Garda. From the S. : Tanarus, Tanaro ; Trebia, Trebia (Han- nibal defeated the Romans, b.c. 218). Athesis, Adige, N. of the Po; Rubicon, Fiumicino, between Cisalpine Gaul and Umbria ; Metaurus, Metauro, in Umbria (Has- drubal defeated, b.c. 207); and Aufldus, Ofanto, in Apulia, all fall into the Adriatic. Running into the Tus- can Sea: Arnus, Arno, in Etruria; Tiber is, Tivere — it receives, on the left, Clanis, Chiano, and Cremera (300 Fabii destroyed, b.c. 477); on the right, Tinia, Tinia, and its tributary Clitumnus, Clitumno ; N a r, Nera, and Vellnus, Velino, its tributary; Alii a (Gauls overcome the Romans, b.c 390) ; and Anio, Teverone. In the S. of Latium: Liris, Garigliano. In Campania: Vulturnus, Volturno; Silarus, Silaro (victory of Crassus, B.C. 71). LAKES. — In Cisalpine Gaul: L. Verbanus, Lago Mag- giore; L. Larius, Lago di Como ; L. Benacus, Lago di Garda. In Etruria: L. Trasimenus, Lago di Perugia (Hannibal's third victory, B.C. 217); L. Vulsiniensis, L, Bolsena. In Sabini: L. Fucinus, Lago di Celano. GEOGRAPHY. 25 In Latium : L. Regillus, Lago di Regillo? (battle ■B.C. 498); L. Albanus, Lago di Albano. In Campania: L. A vermis, Lago Averno, and L. Lucrlnus, famed for its oysters. CAPES. — In Etruria: Populonium Prom. In Latium: Circeium Prom., Monte Circello. In Campania: Mise- num Prom., Cape Miseno., and Minervse Prom., Cape CampaneUa. In Lucania : PalinurumProm., Cape Pa- linuro. In Apulia: Garganum Prom., Cape Gargano; Iapygium vel Salentinum Prom., Cape Leuca. In Bruttii: Lacinium Prom., Cape Colonne ; Herculeum Prom., Cape Spartivento ; Leucopetra "Prom., Cape Armi. DIVISIONS. — North: I. Liguria; II. Gallia Cisal- pina, vel Togata; III. Venetia, Carni, and Histria. Middle: IV. Etruria, vel Tuscia; V. Umbria; VI. Picenum; VII. Sabinum; VIII. Latium; IX. Sam- nium; X.Campania. South: XI. Apulia; XII. Lu- cania; XIII. Bruttii. LIGURIA.- — Nice, Genoa, and part of Piedmont. — Boundaries: N., R. Padus, Po, and Gallia Cisalpina; E., Gallia Cisal- pina ; S., Sinus Ligusticus, Gulf of Genoa ; W., Alpes Maritimse and Gallia. Cities. — Genua, Genoa, at the N. of the Gulf of Genoa; Pollentia, Polenza, on the Tanarus. Tribes. — N. of Apennines: Vagienni, Statielli, Fri- niates, Montani, Ligures. South: Intemelii, In- gauni, Apuani. GALLIA CISALPINA, vel TOGATA. — Part of the king- dom of Sardinia, Lombardy, Parma, Modena, and part, of States of the Church. Divisions.— I. GALLIA CISPADANA, inhabited by the Boii and Lingones. Cities: Placentia, Placenza, near the junction of the Po and Trebia., (founded by Romans, 219 B.C.) ; Mutina, Modena (M. Antony defeated, b.c. 43); Ravenna, Ra- venna; Bononia, Bologna. 3 26 GEOGRAPHY. II. GALLIA TRANSPADANA, inhabited by the Tau- rini, Salassi, Instibres, Cenomani. Cities: Augusta Taurinorum, Turin, on the Padus ; Vercella, Vercelli, near which Raudi Campi, (where Ma- rius defeated the Cimbri, B.C. 101) ; Ticinum, Pavia, on the Ticinus ; Mediolanum, Milan, the capital of the In- stibres; Co mum, Como, on L. Larius ; Cremona, Cre- mona, on the Po, (founded by Romans, B.C. 219) ; Mantua, Mantua, on the Mincius, (near which Virgil was born, B.C. 70). VENETIA, CARNI, et HISTRIA. — Eastern part of Vene- tian Lombdrdy and Istria. Boundaries. — N. and N.E., Alpes Carnicae, vel Juliae, and Rhaetia ; E., Liburnia ; S., Mare Hadriaticum and R. Padus ; W., R. Athesis, Adige, and Gallia Transpadana. Cities. — Verona, Verona, on the Athesis; E. of Verona, Patavium, Padua, (Livy born, B.C. 59); Aquileia, Aquileia, near the coast, (destroyed by Attila, king of the Huns, a.d. 452) ; E. of Aquileia, Tergeste, Trieste. ETRURIA, TUSCIA, vel TYRRIIENIA. — Tuscanij, and part of States of the Church. Boundaries. — N., R. Macra, Magra, and Apenninus Mons ; E. and S., R. Tiber ; W., Tuscum Mare. Cities. — P i s ae, Pisa, and Florentia, Florence, both on the Arnus. Luc a, Lucca, on the Auser, Serchio. Fae- sulae, Fiesole ; Pis tori a, Pistoia, (Catiline defeated, B.C. 62); Portus Herculis, Labronis, vel Liburni, Leg- horn; on the coast. Populonium, or ia, the chief sea- port of Etruria. CentumCellae, Civita Vecchia; on the coast, with a fine harbour. The following were probably the twelve confederate cities of Etruria Proper. V o 1 a t e r r ae, Volaterra. V e tu 1 o n i i, to the E. of Popu- lonia. Rusellae, on the Umbro. Tarquinii, Corneto. Agylla, or Caere, Cerveteri, (where the Vestal Virgins took refuge on the destruction of Rome by the Gauls, b. c. 390). Veii, Isola, on the Cremera, twelve miles from GEOGRAPHY. 27 Rome, (the most powerful city of Etruria). Falerii, or lum, (taken by Camillas, b.c. 394), near Mt. Soracte. Vulsinii, Bolsena, on L. Volsiniensis, (the birth-place of Sejanus, the favourite of Tiberius). Clusium, Chiusi, near the Clanis, (the residence of Porsena). Perusia, Perugia, E. of Clusium, on the Tiber. Cortona, Cortona, N.W. of Trasimene Lake. Arretium, Arezzo, (the birth- place of Mascenas). UMBRIA. — States of the Church. Boundaries. — N., Gallia Cispadana; E., Mare Hadriati- cum and Picenum ; S., Sabini ; W., R. Tiber. It was in- habited in the N. by Galli Senones. Cities. — Ariminum, Rimini ; Sena Gallic a, Senir gaglia, on the coast; in the interior, Sentinum, (battle, B.C. 294, Samnites defeated); Spoletium, or Spoletum, Spoleto, in the South. PICENUM. — Part of States of the Church. Bomidaries. — N., R. iEsis, Esino ; E., Mare Hadriati- cum ; S., Vestini, in Sabinum ; W., Umbria and Sabini. Cities. — Ancona, Ancona, in the N. ; Asctilum Pice- num, Ascoli, (taken, b.c. 89, in the Marsic or Social War). Tribe. — Praetutii, in the South. SABINUM. — Part of States of the Church, and part of Naples. Boundaries. — N., Umbria and R. Nar ; E., Apenninus Mons and Hadriaticum Mare ; S., Samnium ; W., Latium and R. Tiber. Cities. — Re ate, Rieti, in the W. ; Cures, Correse, (the native city of Numa, and capital of the Sabines) ; Fidenae, Castel Giubileo, and Crustumerium, between the Anio and Tiber; Amiternum, in the E., on the borders of the Vestini, (Sallust born, b.c. 86); Alba Fucentia, Alba, N. of L. Fucinus ; Marruvium, chief city of the Marsi ; Sulmo, Sulmona, in the country of the Peligni, (Ovid born, b.c 43) ; Corflnium, the chief city of the Peligni. 28 GEOGRAPHY. Tribes. — iEqui, Marsi, Peligni, Marruciiii, Ves» tini. LATIUM. — States of the Church. Boundaries. — N., R. Tiber and Anioj E., Sainnium and Campania ; S. and W., Mare Tuscum. Cities. — 'Roma, Borne, on the Tiber, (founded by Ro- mulus, b. c. 753, on the Palatine Mount) ; built on seven hills, Palatinus, Capitolinus, Quirinalis, Vimina* lis, Esquilinus, Cselius, and Aventinus, to which were afterwards added Janiculum, Vatieanus, and Collis Hortulorum (Public Buildings, &c, vide Topo- graphy). Ostia, Ostiaj at the mouth of the Tiber. Lau- ren turn, on the coast. Lavinium, built by JEneas. Ardea, the city of Turnus. Antium, Porto d'Anzo, on the coast. Tibur, Tivoli, on the Anio, (a favourite resi- dence of the Roman nobles). S. of this Gabii. Tuscu- lum, near Frascati, surrounded by numerous villas. Alba Long a, on the border of L. Albanus, founded by Ascanius (a legend). Praeneste, Palestrina. Velitrae, Velletri, (the native city of the Octavian family). Corioli, (which gave to C. Marcius the surname Coriolanus). Aqulnum, Aquino, (birth-place of Juvenal). Anagnia, Anagni, the capital of the Hernici. Eastward: Arpinum, Arpino, (birth-place of Cicero and Marius) ; Anxur, or Tarra- cina, Terracina; Suessa Pometia, (stormed by Tarq. Superbus). Cajeta, Gaeta; Formiae, Mola, (famous for its wine) ; and Minturnse ; on the coast. Tribes. — Latlni, iEqui, Hernici, Rutiili, Volsci. SAMNIUM. — Part of Naples. Boundaries. — N., Sabinum and Mare Hadriaticum; E., Apulia; S., Campania and Lucania; W., Campania and Sabinum. Cities. — Beneventum, Benevento, (Pyrrhus defeated, B.C. 275). S.W. of Beneventum : Caudium, near which the pass called Furculae Caudinae, or Caudine Forks (where the Roman army, overcome by the Samnites, GEOGRAPHY. 29 passed under the yoke, b.c. 321); Bovilnum, Bojano, (chief city of the Pentri). Tribes— -N., Frentani; Middle, Pentri; S., Hirpini. CAMPANIA. — Part of Naples. Boundaries. — N., Latium and R. Liris; E., Samnium ; S., R. Silarus ; W., Tyrrhenum Mare. Cities. — On the coast : C u m se, the most ancient Greek colony in Italy; Baise, (famed for its baths) ; Misenum, the principal station of the Roman fleet in the Tyrrhene Sea; Ptitedli, or Dicsearchia, Pozzuoli ; Neapolis, Naples, founded on the site of the ancient Parthenope ; Herculaneum (over which stand Portici and Besina), Pompeii, and Stabise, (destroyed, a.d. 79, by an eruption of Vesuvius) ; Salernum, Salerno. In the Interior: Ve- nafrum, Venafro, (noted for its olives); Capua, Capua, (which espoused the cause of Hannibal, and, when taken by the Romans, b. c. 211, suffered the vengeance of the conquerors); Nola, Nola, (here Augustus died, a.d. 14). In the N. : Mons Massicus and Falernus Ager, both noted for wine (Massic and Falernian). Tribes. — N., Aurunci; S., Picentini. APULIA. — Part of Naples. Boundaries. — N. and E., Mare Hadriaticum ; S., Taren- tinus Sinus ; W., R. Bradanus, Brandano, and Samnium. Divisions. — Daunia, Peucetia, Messapia or Iapy- gia, Calabria. Cities. — Luceria, Lucera, (noted in the Samnite wars); Argyrlpa or Arpi, Arpi. On the Aufldus: Canusium, Canosa, and Cannae, Canne, (battle, B.C. 216, Romans defeated by Hannibal) ; Asculum Aptilum (Romans defeated by Pyrrhus, b.c. 279); Ventisia, Venosa, (the birth-place of Horace, b.c 65). In Calabria: Brundti- sium, Brindisi, (the usual port of embarcation for Greece) ; Hydruntum or Hydrus, Otranto; Tarentum or Taras, Taranto, (a flourishing and opulent city). Tribes. — Pediculi, Salentini. 3* 80 GEOGRAPHY. LUCANIA. — Part of Naples. Boundaries. — N., Campania, Samnium and Apulia ; E., Tarentinus Sinus ; S., Bruttii and R. Laus ; W., Tyrrhenum Mare. Cities. — In the E. : Metapontum; Heraelea, on the Aciris; Sybaris (proverbial for the luxury of its inhabit- ants) ; Thurii, (founded by the Athenians, B.C. 443, with whom were Herodotus, and Lysias the orator). In the "W., also on the coast: Psestum, vel Posidonia, (noted for its roses) ; Elea, Helia, or Veil a, (the birth-place of Zeno and Parmenides, the founders of the Eleatic School of Philosophy). In the Interior: to the E., Pandosia; Potentia, Potenza. BRUTTIUM.— Part of Naples. Boundaries. — 1$., Lucania; E., Ionium Mare; S., Mare Siculum ; W., Tyrrhenum Mare. Cities. — On the East: Croton, Cotrone, (the residence of Pythagoras, who here founded his school, and of Milo, the most famous athlete of antiquity) ; Scylacium, Squil- lace; Locri Epizephyrii, (the city of Zaleucus, the law- giver). On the West: Consentia, Cosenza, the Capital; Temesa or Tempsa. On the coast further South: Rhe- gium, Beggio, N. of Rhegium, the Rock Scylla, opposite toCharybdison the Sicilian coast. Islands. SICILIA or TRINACRIA, Sicily, (inhabitants the Sicani) Mountain. — ^Etna, Monte Gibello. Rivers. — Symaethus, Giaretta, in the E. ; Himera, Salso, in the S. Capes. — Pelorum Prom., Cape Faro; Pachynum Prom., Cape Pas- saro; Lilybseum Prom., Cape Boeo. Cities. — E. Messana, Messina; Tauromenium, Taormina; Cat an a, Catania; Syracuse, Syracuse or Siragossa, consisting of five towns, 1. Ortygia, (or Nasos, the Island), 2. Achradina, 3. Tyche, 4. Neapolis, and 5. the superb Epipolae: in the S. A grig en turn, Girgenti, (famed for its temple of Zeus Olympius); Selinus, ruins : in the W. Lilybaeum, GEOGRAPHY. 31 Marsala; Drepanum, Trapani: in the N. Segeste or ^E g e s t a, near Alcamo ; Panormus, Palermo. Himera, (battle, b.c. 480): in the centre Henna or Enna, Castro Giovanni, (from which Pluto carried off Proserpine). North from Sicily, iEoliae vel Vulcanise Insulae. Lipari Islands, the largest of which Lipara; Strongvle. Stromboli: W. iEgates Insulae, (battle, b.c. 241, Car- thaginians defeated): S. Cossyra, Pantelearia ; Mel it a. Malta; G a u 1 u s, Gozzo. W. of Etruria : IlvaveliEthalia. Elba, (famed for its iron-mines); Corsica. Corsica. ChieJ Towns. — Mariana, and Alalia or Aleria. a Roman colony S. of Corsica: Sardinia vel Sardo, Sardinia, Cap. Ca ralis, Cagliari, in the S. MCESIA. Servia and Bulgaria. BOUNDARIES.— N., R. Danubius or Ister; E., Pontus Eux inus, Black Sea ; S. f Haemus Mons ; W., Illyricum and R Drinus, Drino. DIVISIONS. — W., Moesia Superior, including Dacie Aureliani; E., Moesia Inferior, including Scythip Parva. TRIBES. — M oe si, Scordisci, Dardani, Triballi. RIVERS. — Drinus, Drino; Margus, Morava; (Escus, Isker ; Iatr us, Iantro ; all tributaries of the Danube. TOWNS. — In Moesia Superior: Singidunum, Belgrade, Margus, near the Margus; Naissus, Nissa, on the Mar- gus. In Moesia Inferior: Sardica on the (Escus, S.E. of which Tauresium, (the birth-place of Justinian). On the Danube: Nicopolis, Nicopoli, built by Trajan. On the borders of the Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea: Tomi, (to which Ovid was banished by Augustus), to the South of this Odessus, Odessa, W. of which Marcianopolis, founded by Trajan. *2 GEOGRAPHY. DACIA. Transylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia, Bessarabia. BOUND ARIES.— N., Mons Carpates vel Bastarnicae, and R. Tyras, Dniester; E., Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea, and Sar- matia ; S., R. Danubius ; W., R. Tibiscus, Theiss. RIVERS. — Tibiscus, Theiss; Aluta, Aluta; Ardiscus, Argish; Ararus, Sereth ; Porata or Hierasus, Pruth; all falling into the Danube. TRIBES. — Getae vel Daci, (chief city Sarmizegethusa or Ulpia Trajana) ; Jazyges, in the West. SARMATIA. Part of European Russia. BOUNDARIES.— E., R. Tanais, Don; S., Palus Maeotis, Sea of Azov, and Pontus Euxinus; W., R. Tyras, Dniester. TRIBES. — Bastarnae, Jazyges, Roxolani, Hamaxobii, Alani, Venedi, &c. &c. TOWNS, &c. — Olb i a, near the junction of the Borysthenes, Dnieper, and Hypanis. S. of Sarmatia: Chersonesus T auric a, Crimea; on the W. coast of which* Cherso- nesus; on Bosporus Cimmerius, Straits of Kaffa, Panticapaeum, Kertsch, the residence of the Greek kings of the Bosporus. MACEDONIA. Part of the Roumelia in Turkey. BOUNDARIES.— N., Mcesia; E., Thracia; S., Mare ^Egeum and Thessalia ; W., Illyris Graeca, included in Macedonia under the Romans. G E G R A I- II Y . 33 GULFS. — S. Thermalcus Sinus, Gulf of Salo?iiki ; Toro- naicus Sinus, Gulf of Cassandra ; Singitlcus Sinus, Gulf of Monte Santo; Strymonicus Sinus, Gulf of Contessa. MOUNTAINS. — N., Mons Orbelus, Scardus Mons, separating Macedonia from Mcesia; S.W. of the Penin sula Acte, Mons Athos, Monte Santo. RIVERS. — Strymon, Struma or Carassou, flowing into Strymonic Gulf; Axius, Vardari (with its tributary Eri- gon), and Haliacmon, Vistriza, flowing into the Ther- maic Gulf. DIVISIONS. — S., Pieria, Elymiotis, ^Emathia, Chal- cidice, with the Peninsulas Pallene, Sithonia, and Acte; E., Mygdonia and Sintica. In the centre: Pelagonia; N., Pseonia; W., Lyncestae and Eordaea. CITIES. — Pydna, Kitron, near the Haliacmon, (battle, b.c. 168 ; iEmilius Paulus routs Perseus, the last king of Mace- donia) ; Pel la, Alaklisi, the Capital; Thessalonica or Thermia, Saloniki, on the Thermaic Gulf; Potidaea, Pinaka, on the Isthmus of Pallene; Olynthus, ruins, on the Toronaic Gulf, (destroyed by Philip II., b.c. 347); Amphipolis, at the mouth of the Strymon, (taken from the Athenians in the Peloponnesian War by Brasidas, B.C. 424) ; Eastward Philippi, Philippi, (battle, b.c 42; Brutus and Cassius defeated and slain by Antony and Octavianus). The tract of country called ILLYRIS GR^ECA (bounded N. by Drinus, R. DHno ; E., Macedonia; S., Epirus; "W., Hadriaticum Mare); inhabited by various tribes of Illyrian origin, was incorporated with the Roman pro- vince of Macedonia. Chief Towns. — On the coast : E p i» damnus vel Dyrrachium, Durazzo, (the usual landing- place for persons who crossed over from Brundusium, in Italy). Inland: Apollonia, (celebrated as a place of commerce and learning ; here Augustus for some time studied literature and philosophy). 34 GEOGRAPHY. THRACIA. Roumelia. BOUNDARIES.— N., Haemus Mons and Moesia; E., Pontus Euxinus and Bosporus Thracius ; S., Propontis, Helles- pontus and iEgeum Mare ; W., Macedonia. WATERS OF THRACE. — Hellespontus, Dardanelles; Propontis, Sea of Marmora ; Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea; Bosporus Thracius, Straits of Constantinople; Melas or Melanes Sinus, Ghilf of Saros. MOUNTAINS. — N., Hsemus, Balkan; W., Pangseus, Pangea, east of which Rhodope, sacred to Bacchus. RIVERS. — In the W. Nestus, Nesto, rising in the N.W. and flowing S. into the iEgean Sea; Hebrus, Maritza. CITIES. — Abdera, at the mouth of the Nestus, (the birth- place of Democritus) ; Adrianopolis, Adrianople, on the Hebrus ; Chersonesus, in the S. between the Gulf of Saros and the Hellespont, (colonized by Athenians under Mil- tiades) ; Lysimachia, Eksemil, at the Isthmus; S. of this Sestos, (between which and Abydos, Xerxes formed a bridge of boats) ; iEgos Potamos, (near which Lysan- der defeated the Athenian fleet, b.c. 405); Byzantium, Constantinople, on the Thracian Bosporus, (made the Capital of the Roman empire under Constantine, a.d. 330). GRiECIA — HELLAS. Greece. BOUNDARIES. — N., Macedonia and Illyria; E., JEgeum Mare, Arcliipelago, and Myrtoum Mare; S., Mare Internum, Mediterranean; W., Ionium Mare, Ionian Sea. GEOGRAPHY. 35 GULFS. — E., Therm aicus Sinus, Gulf of Saloniki ; Pa- gasaeus Sinus, Gulf of Volo; Maliacus Sinus, Gulf of Zeitoun; Saronicus Sinus, Gulf of JEgina ; Argo- licus Sinus, Gulf of Napoli. S., Laconlcus Sinus, Gulf of ColokytJiia ; Messeniacus Sinus, GulfofKoron. W., Cyparissius Sinus, Gulf of Arcadia ; N. of Achaia and Corinthia, Sinus Corinthiacus, Gulf of Lepanto ; S. of Locris, Crissaeus Sinus, Bay of Salona; S. of Eplrus, Ambracius Sinus, Gulf of Arta. STRAIT. — Eurlpus, Cliannel of Negropont, between Boeotia and Euboea. MOUNTAINS. — In Thessalia: N., Cambunii Montes, Bolutza Mts.; W., Olympus, Elymbo ; Ossa, Kissovo ; Pelion, Plesnia; S., Othrys, Othrys; W., Pindus, Pindus. In Epirus : N.W., Acroceraunii vel Ceraunii Montes, Chimera. In Phocis: N., (Eta Mons, Katavothra; W., Parnas- sus, Lyakouri. In Bosotia: S.W., Helicon, Zagora, (a haunt of the Muses). On the borders of Attica and Megaris, Cithae- ron, Cithairon. In Attica: N., Parnes Montes, Nozia; N.E., Pen- telicus, Pentele, (celebrated for its marble); S. E. of Athens, Hymettus, Telovuni; at the S. extremity of Attica, Laurium, (famed for its silver-mines). On the Borders of Achaia: Cyllene, Zyria, (Mercury born). In Laconia : Taygetus, "West of the Eurotas. In Arcadia: in the S.W., Lycaeus Mons; in N."W., Erymanthus, (here Hercules slew the wild boar); to wards the S., Maenalus, Roino ; Parnon, Malevo. RIVERS. — In Thessalia: 1. Pen e us, Salambria, from Mt. Pindus, flowing through the lovely vale of Tempe, falls into the Thermaicus Sinus, Gulf of Saloniki ; it receives on the 36 GEOGRAPHY. North the Titaresius, on the South the Enipeus and Apidanus. 2. Spercheus, JEllada, from the West, falls into Sinus Maliacus, Bay of Zeitoun. In Epirus: 1. Aracthus, Arta, from the N., falls into Sinus Ambracius, Gulf of Arta. 2. Acheron, and its tributary Cocytus, fall into the Glykys Portus or Har- bour. Northward, Thy am is, Kalamas, falls into the Ionian Sea, opposite to Corcyra, Corfu. In Ac arn ani a : A c h e 1 o u s, Aspro Potamo, from Mt. Pindus, flows southward, divides iEtolia from Acarnania, and falls into the Gulf of Patras. In iETOLiA: Evenus, Fidhari, from Mt. (Eta, falls into the Gulf of Patras. In Doris: Cephisus Major, Mavsronero, flows through Phocis and Boeotia, and falls into Copais L., Lake Topo- lias. In Bosotia: Asopus, Asopo, falls into the sea opposite to Eubcea, the island Negropont. Ismenus, into which the brook Dirce flows, falls into L. Hylica. Permessus and Hippocrene, or "fountain of the horse," falls into Copais L. In Attica: Cephisus Minor, from Mons Pentelieus, and Ilissus, from Mons Hymettus, flow South into Saro- nicus Sinus. In Achaia : Crathis, Grata, (into which the Styx flows), and Selinus, Vostitza, fall into the Corinthian Gulf. Pirus, Kamenitza, falls into the Gulf of Patras. In Elis: Peneus, Waco, from Mons Erymanthus, falls into Ionium Mare. Alpheus, Rouphia, rising in Arcadia, and receiving from the North the La don and Helisson, falls into the Ionian Sea. In Messenia: Pamisus, Pirnatza, from Mt. Lycaeus, and Neda, Buzi, between Elis and Messenia, fall into the Ionian Sea. In Laconia : Eurotas, Basilipotamo, from the N., falls into Laconicus Sinus, Gidf of Kolokytliia. In Argolis : Inachus, Banitza, falls into Argolicus Sinus, Gulf of Napoli. GEOGRAPHY. 37 JJAKES. — Copais L., Lake Topolias, in Boeotia, (famed for its eels, and subterranean communication with the Euboean Sea) ; Acherusia L., in the S.W. of Epirus ; L. Tricho- nis, in iEtolia; L. Baebeis, in the East of Thessaly; L. Stymphalis, in the North of Arcadia. PROMONTORIES. — S.E. of Thessalia, Magnesiae Prom., Cape St. George; S.E. of Attica, Sunium Prom., Cape Colonna; S.E. of Argolis, Scyllagum Prom., Cape Skillo; S.E. of Laconia, Malea Prom., Cape Maleo or St. Angelo; S.W. of Laconia, Taenarum Prom., Cftpe Matapan; S.W.. of Messenia, Acritas Prom., Cape Gallo ; N.W. of Elis, Chelonatas Prom., Cape Tornese; N.W. of Achaia, Araxus Prom., Cape Kologria ; N. of Achaia, Chium Prom., Castello di Morea, opposite to this in the S. of iEtolia, Anti-Rhium Prom., Castello Rumeli; N.W. of Acarnania, at the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf, Ac- tium Prom., La Punta, (battle, B.C. 31, Augustus defeats Antony and Cleopatra.) DIVISIONS. — Northern Greece.— 1. Thessalia; 2. Epi- rus. Central Greece. — 1. Acarnania; 2. iEtolia; 3. Doris; 4. Locris; 5. Phocis; 6. Boeotia; 7. Attica; 8. Me gar is. Southern Greece or Peloponnesus, Morea. — 1. Achaia; 2. Elis; 3. Messenia; 4. Laconia; 5. Argolis; 6. Arcadia; 7. Sicyonia; 8. Corinthia. THESSALIA. — Boundaries. — ^., Macedonia; E., ^Egeum Mare ; S., Phocis, Doris, iEtolia ; W., Epirus. Divisions. — N., Pelasgiotis; E., Magnesia; S.E., Phthiotis; S., iEnianes; S.W., Dolopia; N.W., Hes- tiaeotis; in the Centre, Thessaliotis. Cities. — Larissa, Larza, the Capital, on the Peneus. Pharsalus, Pliarsa, (battle, B.C. 48, Caesar defeated Pom- pey). Cynocephalae, (battle, b.c. 197, Philip defeated by Cons. Flaminius). Anticyra, at the mouth of the Spercheus. Pherse, Valestino ; noted for its tyrants. Lamia, Zeitoun; near the mouth of the Spercheus, (war between Antipater and the Athenians, B.C. 323). Iolcos, 4 88 GEOGRAPHY. N. of the Pagasasus Sinus, (the city of Pelias and Jason, from which the Argonauts sailed in quest of the Golden Fleece). EPIRUS. — Boundaries. — N., Illyria; E., Macedonia and Thessalia ; S., Acarnania ; W., Ionium Mare. Divisions. — N.W., Chaonia; S.E., Molossis; S.W., Thesprotia. Cities. — Ambracia, Arta, (the residence of Pyrrhus), on the Aracthus. Nicopolis (built by Augustus, in me- mory of his viotery at Actium). Dodona, on the borders of Molossis and Thesprotia, (famed for its oracle of Zeus, the most ancient in Greece). ACARNANIA. — Boundaries. — N., Ambracius Sinus and Epirus ; E., River Achelous ; W., Ionium Mare. Cities. — Stratus, on the Achelous, the Capital. Ac- tium, on a promontory of the same name, (near which Augustus defeated Antony and Cleopatra in a naval en- gagement, B.C. 31). iETOLIA. — Boundaries. — N., Thessalia and Epirus; E., Doris and Locris ; S., Sinus Corinthiacus ; W., R. Achelous. Cities. — Therma vel Thermum, the place of meeting of the iEtolian league. Calydon, the city of Tydeus and Diomedes, (in the vicinity of this city the celebrated Caly- donian hunt took place). DORIS. — Boundaries. — N., Thessalia; E., Phocis; S., Locris; W., ^Etolia. Cities. — Four small cities which gave the name of Te- trapolis to the country, Erineus, Boium, Pindus, Cytinium. LOCRIS was divided into two districts, inhabited by three tribes. DISTRICT I.— Boundaries.— N., Doris; E., Phocis; S., Sinus Corinthiacus; W., iEtolia. Inhabited by OZOLIAN LOCRIANS. Chief Cities. — Amp hiss a, Salona; Nau- p act us, Lepanto. GEOGRAPHY. 39 DISTRICT II.— Boundaries.— N., Thessaly ; E., Euboean Sea and Malian Gulf; S., Phocis ; W., Doris and Phocis. Inhabited S. by OPUNTIAN LOCRIANS. City: Opus, Talanda. Inhabited N. by EPICNEMIDIAN LOCRIANS as far as Thermopylae, (a celebrated pass, where Leo- nidas and 300 Spartans fell, after a gallant defence against the mighty army of Xerxes, b.c. 480). Cities: Phronium, JZomani, Nlcaea, and Scar phi a. PHOOIS. — Boundaries. — N., Locri Epicnemidii and Doris; E., Tioeutia ; S., Sinus Corinthiacus ; W., Locris. Citito. — Delphi, or Pytho, Castri, on the western de- clivity oi Mt. Parnassus, between its two peaks, (famed for the "infallible" oracle of Apollo, and celebrated as the place of meeting of the Amphictyons, and of the cele- bration of the Pythian games) ; Crissa, or Crisa, S.W. of Delphi; Eiatea, ElepMa, N. of the Cephissus ; Anti- cyra, Aspra Spitia, in the South, on the coast, (famed for its hellebore, the cure for madness among the ancients). BCEOTIA. — Boundaries. — N. and E., Euboicum Mare; S., Mountain-chain of Parnes and Cithseron, separating Boeotia from Attica ; W., Phocis. Cities. — Thebae, Thibai (founded by the Phoenicians under Cadmus, thence called Cadmea ; it was destroyed by Alexander, b.c. 335). Orchomenus, Scripu, near the Lake Copais, with a temple of the Graces, (victory of Sulla, b.c. 86). Plataeae, or Plataea, Kokla, near Mt. Cithaeron, (battle, b.c 479, Mardonius defeated). Thespiae, at the foot of Mt. Helicon, sacred to the Muses. Le uctra, Lefka, S.E. of Thespiae, (battle, b.c 371, Thebans overcame the Spartans). Tanagra, Grimada, E. of Thebae, (battle, b.c 457, Athenians defeated). Delium, Dilessi, on the E. coast, (battle, b.c 424). Haliartus, Mazi, on Lake Copais, (battle, b. c 395 ; destroyed by the Romans, b. c 171). Coronea, S.W. of Lake Copais (Boeotians over- came Athenians, b. c 447 ; Agesilaus defeated allied Greeks, b.c. 394). Chseronea, Capurna, on the Cephissus, 4C GEOGRAPHY (battles, b.c. 447; Philip conquers the Greeks, b. c. 338 -^ Sulla's victory, b.c. 86). As era, near Mt. Helicon, the "birth-place of Hesiod. ATTICA. — Boundaries. — N., Boeotia ; E., JEgeum Mare, S., Saronicus Sinus ; W., Megaris. Cities. — Athenae, Athens, between the rivers Cephissua and Ilissus, the most celebrated city of antiquity for learn- ing and the liberal arts ; it consisted of two parts, viz. : — 1. The City; 2. Its three ports, Piraeus, Pirceus, Pha- lerum, and Munychia, united to the city by two long walls, called "Longi Muri," sixty feet in height (vide "Topography" for an account of Public Buildings, &c). E leu sis, Lepsina, N.W. of Athens, famous for its temple and mysteries of Demeter or Ceres. Marathon, Mara- thona, N.E. of Athens, (celebrated battle, Athenians and Plataeans, under Miltiades, routed the Persians, b.c. 490). Phyle, Fili, N.W. of Athens, (here Thrasybulus assem- bled the Patriots opposed to the thirty Tyrants, b.c. 404). Sunium, Colonna, on a prom, of the same name in the extreme S. of Attica. MEGARIS. — Boundaries. — N., Bceotia ; E., Attica and Sa- ronicus Sinus ; S., Corinthia ; W., Sinus Corinthiacus. Cities. — M e g a r a, Megara ; N i s as a, on the coast. Peloponnesus. ACHAIA. — Boundaries. — N., Sinus Corinthiacus ; E., Co- rinthia ; S., Arcadia and Elis. Cities. — Helice, on the north coast, the ancient Capital, (engulphed by an earthquake, b.c 373); iEgium, Vos« titza, (here the meetings of the Achaean league were held) ; Patrae, Patras, a sea-port. ELIS. — Boundaries. — N., Achaia; E., Arcadia; S., Mes« senia ; W., Ionium Mare. Divisions. — 1. Elis Proper, N. ; 2. Pisatis w*#f Olympia, Middle; 3. Triphylia, South. GEOGRAPHY. 41 Cities. — Elis, on the Peneus. N.W., Cyllene, on the coast. Pisa, on the Alpheus, (near this the plain of OLYMPIA, where the Olympian games were celebrated. Here was the sacred grove "Altis," which, with the neighbourhood, were adorned with temples, statues, &c. The "Altis" was inclosed by a wall; it contained the fol- lowing temples: I. The Olympieum, in which was the famous statue of Zeus, by Phidias, made of ivory and gold; II. The Heraeum, or Temple of Juno; III. The Metroum. Public buildings: The Thesauri of the states ; The Pry- tan eum, in which the Olympic victors dined; The Bo u- leuterion, or council-hall, in which all the regulations were made. The chief buildings without the Altis were the Stadium, for gymnastic exercises, and the Hippo- dromus, for racing). Pylos, in Triphylia. MESSENIA. — Boundaries. — N., Triphylia and Arcadia; E., Laconia ; S., Messeniacus Sinus ; W., Mare Ionium. Cities. — Pylos, Navarino, in the S.W., (the city of Nestor) ; Ithome, in the centre, on a hill of the same name ; near which was Messene, ruins, the Capital, built by Epaminondas ; Ira, in the N., (which Aristomenes defended against the Spartans for eleven years). LACONIA. — Boundaries. — N., Arcadia and Argolis ; E., Myrtoum Mare ; S., Lacomcus Sinus ; W., Messenia. Cities. — Lacedsemon, or Sparta, Sparta, on the Eurotas, the Capital of the most powerful state in Greece, (the city of Lycurgus, the lawgiver) ; S. of Lacedseinon, Amyclae, with a temple to Apollo; Helos, near the mouth of the Eurotas, (its inhabitants, the Helots, were reduced to slavery by the Spartans); Sellasia, (battle, b. c. 222, Athenians, under Antigonus Doson, defeated Cleomenes, king of Sparta). ARGOLIS. — Boundaries. — N., Corinthia and Saronicus Si- nus; E., Myrtoum Mare; S., Argolicus Sinus and Laconia; W., Arcadia. 4* 42 GEOGRAPHT, Cities. — Argos, Argos, on the Inachus, one of the most ancient cities in Greece; S.E. of Argos, Nauplia, Napoli di Romania, the port of Argos; N. of Argos, Mycenae, ruins, (the city of Agamemnon, noted for its Cyclopean walls; destroyed by Argives, B.C. 468); Tlryns, ruins, S.E. of Argos, (Hercules educated here, hence called Ti- rynthlus) ; N erne a, ruins, N.W. of Mycenae, (Hercules killed the lion, vide first labour; triennial games cele- brated in consequence); Epidaurus, Epidauro, in the district of Epidauria, on the Saronic Gulf, (famed for a temple of JEsculapius) ; Troezene, Demala, in the district Troezenia, in the S.E. of Argolis; Hermione, Kastri, in the district Hermlonis, in the South. ARCADIA. — Boundaries. — N., Achaia; E., Corinthia and Argolis ; S., Laconla and Messenia ; W., Tryphylia and Elis. Cities. — Man tine a, Paleopoli, in the East, (battle, B.C. 418, Athenians defeated ; battle, b. c. 362, Epaminondas slain); Tegea, Piali, S.E. of Mantinea; Megalopolis, ruins, on the Helisson, founded, by the advice of Epami nondas, b.c. 371, (the birth-place of Polybius). CORINTHIA. — Boundaries. — N., Megaris and Sinus Corin thiacus ; E., Saronicus Sinus ; S., Argolis ; W., Achaia. Cities. — Corinthus, Corinth, the Capital, built at th* foot of a steep mountain, on which stood the Acro-Corin- thus, the strongest citadel in Greece, the key of the Pelo- ponnesus ; (destroyed by Mummius, the Roman Consul, b.c. 146). At the narrowest part of the Isthmus stood Fanum Neptuni, a temple of Neptune, near which the Isthmian games were celebrated (vide Antiq.). On the Asopus: Phil us, the Capital of the independent state, Phliasia. SICYONIA. — Boundaries. — N., Sinus Corinthiacus ; E., Co- rinthia ; S., Arcadia ; W., Achaia. City. — S i c y o n, ruins, on the north coast, at the mouth of the Asopus. GEOGRAPHY. 43 The Greek Islands. IN THE IONIAN SEA.— Corey r a, Corfu; Cap., Corcyra. Leucadia, Santa Maura; Cap., Leucas. Ithaca, Theaki; Cap., Ithaca. Cephallenia, Cephalonia. Cities. — Ce- phallenia and Same. Zacynthus, Zante; Cap., Zacyn- thus. Teleboides Insulse, between Leucadia and Epi- rus. Cythera, Cerigo, (sacred to Venus). IN THE ^EGEAN SEA.— I. In the Western part Hydrea, Hydra. Calauria, Calauria, (Demosthenes poisoned him- self, B.C. 322). JEgina, Egina. Salamis, Colouri, (battle, b. c. 480, Persian fleet defeated by Athenians, under The- mistocles). Eubcea, Negropont, Artemisium Prom., in the N., (battle, B.C. 480); Cities: 1. C hale is, Negro- ponte, the Capital; 2. Eretria. Scyros, Skyro. II. In the Northern part. Lemnos, Lemno, (sacred to Vulcan, who is said to have fallen on this island, when hurled from heaven by Zeus). Imbros, Imbro. Samo- thrace, Samothraki. Thasos, Thaso, anciently famous for its gold-mines. Tenedos, Tenedos, near the coast of Troas. III. In the Eastern part. Lesbos, Mytiiene, (noted for its wine) ; Cities : 1. Mitylene (the birth-place of Sappho, Alcaeus, Pittacus, &c.) ; 2. Methymna. Chios, Skio, (famed for its wine). Samos, Samo; Cap., Samos ; (sacred to Juno, the native city of Pythagoras). Icaros, or -la, Nikaria, which, with the adjoining sea, derived its name from Icarus, the son of Daedalus (vide Mythol.). Patmos, Patino or Patmos, (to which St. John was banished). Leros, Lero. Cos, Kos, (the birth-place of Hippocrates the physician, and Apelles the painter). Rhodus, Rhodes; Cap., Rhodes, in the port of which stood the Colossus. Carpathus, Scarpanto, whence Car- pathium Mare. IV. In the Southern part, THE CYCLADES. Delos, Dclo, in the Centre, with Mt. Cynthus, (the birth-place of Apollo and Diana) ; Naxos, Naxo or Naxia ; (sacred to 44 GEOGRAPHY. Bacchus); Paros, Paro, (famed for its white marble). N. : Andros, Andro ; Tenos, Teno ; Ceos, Zea; Cyth- nos, Thermia ; Syros, Syr a ; Myconos, Myconi ; Serl- p h u s, Serpho. S. : M e 1 o s, Milo ; S i p h n u s, Siphno ; I os, Nio; AmorguB, Amor go; Thera, Santorin; A sty- pa lae a, Stampalia. The name SPORADES was applied to those islands not lying round Delos, but scattered apart. V. South of the Cyclades. Creta, Candia ; Cap., Gnos- sus, (the residence of Minos) ; N.W., Cydonia, Khania, (famed for its archers) ; S.W. of Cnossus, Gortyna. Mons Ida in the centre of the island ; E., Mons Dicte, in a cave »f which Jupiter was brought up. BRITANNIA or ALBION. Great Britain. BOUNDARIES. — N., Mare Pigrum, North Sea; E., Ger- manicus Oceanus, German Ocean; S., Fretum Gallicum, Straits of Dover, and Oceanus Britannicus, English Chan- nel; W., Oceanus Hibernicus, Irish Sea, and Verginium Mare, St. George's Channel. RIVERS, &c. — Tamesis, Thames; Sabrina, Severn; An- tona, Nen; Trivona, Trent; Abus, Humber ; Tina, Tyne ; I tun a, Eden; Deva, Dee. In Scotland: Bodo- tria, Forth; Glotta, Clyde; Tavus, Tay ; Metaris JEstuarium, The Wash; Bodotriae JEst., Firth of Forth; Glottae jEst., Firth of Clyde; Itunae Mst., Sol- way Frith. PROMONTORIES.— cell urn Prom., Spurn Head; Can- tium Prom., North Foreland ; Ocrlnum Prom., Lizard Point ; Bolerium Prom., Land's End. DIVISIONS. — S., Britannia Prima; Centre, Flavia Caseariensis; W., Britannia Secunda, Wales; N.. GEOGRAPHY. 45 Maxima Caesariensis ; N. of the Wall of Severus, V a- lentia, South part of Scotland; N. of the Wall of Anto- ninus, Caledonia, North part of Scotland. TRIBES. — S. of the Thames: Cantii, Kent; Regni, Surrey and Sussex; Belgae, Hants, Wilts, and Somerset; Atre- batii, Berks; Durotriges, Dorset; Dumnonii, Devon and Cornwall. N. of the Thames: Trinobantes, Middlesex and Essex; Simeni, vel Iceni, Suffolk and Norfolk; Cattieuchlani, Herts, Bucks, &c. ; Dobuni, Oxon and Gloucester; Si lures, South Wales; Ordovices, North Wales; Cornavii, Cheshire, Salop, Stafford, Worcester, Notts, &c. ; Coritani, Lincoln and Leicester ; Brigantes, York, Durham, Cumberland, and Westmoreland. TOWNS. — S. of the Thames : Durovernum, Canterbury ; Ru- tupiae, Richborough ; Venta Belgarum, Winchester; Reg- num, Chichester; Aquae Solis, Bath; Uxela, Exeter. N. of the Thames: Londinium, London; Verulamium, St. Alban } s; Glevum, Gloucester; Corinium, Cirencester; Isca Silurum, Caerleon; Lindum, Lincoln; Deva or Deona, Chester; Eboracum, York. Hadrian's Wall, between the mouth of the Tyne and the Solway Frith; erected a.d. 121. Wall of Severus; erected a.d. 209. Rampart of Antoninus, between the Friths of Forth and Solway ; erected a. d. 140. ISLANDS.— Orcades, Orkneys; Ebtides, Hebrides; Thule, Shetland Isles [1); Mona (of Caesar), Man; Mona (of Tacitus), Anglesey; Cassite rides, Scilly Isles, (famoua for their tin) ; Y e c t i s, Isle of Wight ; H i b e r n i a, Ireland; Cap., Eblana, Dublin. ASIA. COUNTRIES. — Asia Minor, Anatolia, Bourn, and Kara mania; Syria, Syria and Palestine; Arabia, Arabia; Sarmatia Asiatic a, S.E. part of Russia in Europe; Colchis, Guriel, Mingrelia, and Imeritia; Iberia, Geor- gia ; Albania, Shir van and part of Daghistan ; Armenia, Armenia and part of Georgia ; Mesopotamia, Algesira; Chaldsea, Irak Arabi; Assyria, Kurdistan; Media, N. W. part of Persia ; S u s i a n a, Khuzistan ; Persia, S.W. part of Persia ; Hyrcania and P a r t h i a, pari of Turkis- tan; Aria, E. part of Khorassan and N. part of Afghan- istan; Bactriana, Bokhara; Carmania, Kirman; Ge- drosia, S. part of Beloochistan ; Sogdiana, part of Turkistan and Bokhara; India, Hindostan, &c; Scythia, Tartary. MOUNTAINS. — Caucasus, (between Pontus Euxinus and Caspium Mare) ; Taurus Mons, in Asia Minor ; Emodi Montes, Himalayah Mountains in the N. of India. SEAS, GULFS, &c. — Mare Hyrcanum vel Caspium, Caspian Sea and Sea ofAral(t); Sinus Arabicus, Red Sea; Erythrseum Mare, Arabian Sea; Sinus Per- sic us, Persian Gulf; Gangeticus, Bay of Bengal; In- dicus Oceanus, Indian Ocean. RIVERS. — 1. Rha, Volga (flowing into the Caspian Sea); 2. Euphrates and Tigris, falling into the Persian Gulf, 3. Oxus, Jihon, 4. Jaxartes, Sihon, falling into the Sea (46) GEOGRAPHY. 47 of Aral, (but supposed by the ancients to fall into Mare Caspium) ; 5. Indus, Indus, with its five tributaries; 6. Ganges, Ganges. ISLANDS. — Cyprus, Cyprus, in -the Mediterranean; Ta- p rob an a, Ceylon, S. of Hindostan. ASIA MINOR. Anatolia, Bourn, and Karamania. BOUNDARIES. — N., Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea; E., Euphrates and Syria; S., Mare Internum, Mediter- ranean; W., iEgeum Mare, and Propontis, Sea of Marmora. GULFS. — N., Amisenus Sinus. W., Adramyttenus Sinus, Gulf of Adrymiiti; Smyrnseus Sinus, Gulf of Smyrna; S., Glaucus Sinus, Gulf of Maori; Issicus Sinus, Gulf of Scanderoon. MOUNTAINS. — Olympus, a chain extending from N.W. to N.E., passing through Galatia, Bithynia, and Paphla- gonia; Ida in Troas ; Dindymus in Phrygia, sacred to Cybele, (hence called Dindymene) ; Tmolus in Lydia (famed for its saffron and wine) ; S.W. of this My c ale, (near which the Persian fleet was defeated by the Greek, B.C. 479); Cragus in Lycia; Taurus, extending through Asia Minor, from W. to E., to the countries beyond the Euphrates; Mons Argaeus, Erdgish Dagh, in Cappa- docia. RIVERS. — Flowing into Pontus Euxinus: 1. Thermodon, Thermeh; 2. Iris, Teshel Irmak ; 3. Halys, Kisil Irmak ; 4. Parthenius; 5. Sangarius, Sakariyeh. Flowing into the Propontis: 1. Rhyndacus, Edrenos ; 2. Granlcus, (battle, B.C. 334, Alexander defeated the Persian Satraps), Flowing into the iEgean Sea: 1. Scamander or Xan- 48 GEOGRAPHY. thus, Mindereh, (joined by the Simois) , 2. Hermus, Ghiediz-Chai, (with its tributary Pact 51 us, famed for ita golden sands); 3. Caystrus, (abounding in swans); 4. Mseander, Mendereh,, (proverbial for its windings). Flow- ing into the Mediterranean: 1. Xanthus, Echen-Chai; 2. Oestrus, Ak-Su; 3. Eurymedon, Kapri-Su, (battle, B.C. 469, Cimon defeated the Persians) ; 4. Calycadnus, Giuk-Sooyoo ; 5. Cydnus, Tersus-Chai, (famed for the clearness and coolness of its water); 5. Sarus, Sihan; 6. Pyramus, Jihan. LAKE. — Tatta Palus, Tuz Got, in Phrygia, a great salt lake. PROMONTORIES.— N., Car ambis Prom., Cape Karempe. At the entrance of the Hellespont: Rhoeteum and Si- geum Prom. W., Trogilium Prom., C. St. Mary, near which was the PANIONIUM, or place of assembly for the twelve Ionian states; Triopium Prom., C. Krio, with a temple of Apollo, (surnamed Triopius), the place of meeting for the six Dorian states, or " Hexapolis," after- wards reduced to five, " Pentapolis." S., Sacrum Prom., and Anemurium Prom., C. Anamur. DIVISIONS. — N., Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus; W., Mysia, Lydia, Caria; S., Lycia, Pamphylia, Cilicia; Central, Phrygia, Galatia, Cappadocia. BITHYNIA. — Cities. — Heraclea Pontica, Harakli, near which Acherusia Chersonesus, (with a cave through which Hercules is said to have descended to the infernal regions to drag up Cerebus). On the Thracian Bosporus: 1. Chrysopolis, Scutari; 2. Chalcedon, (or the city of the blind, so called from its founders having overlooked the more delightful situation of Byzantium). On the Pro- pontis: 1. Libyssa, Geibuzeh, (where was the tomb of Hannibal) ; 2. Nico media, Izmid, the Capital of the kings of Bithynia, (here Hannibal died, B.C. 183). On L. Ascanius, L. of Iznik: Nicaea, Iznik, (first Christian oecumenical council held, a.d. 325). GEOGRAPHY. 49 PAPHLAGUNIA. — Cities. — On the N. coast: Si nope, Sinoub or Sinope, (the birth-place of Diogenes, the Cynic philosopher); Cy torus, Kydros, famous for its t ox- wood. PONTUS. — Cities. — On the coast: 1. Trapezus, Tiebizond; 2. Cerasus, Kheresoun, (from which the cherry-tree was first introduced into Italy, by Lucullus) ; 3. Polemo- nium, Polemon; 4. Themiscyra, Thermeh{1) (founded by the Amazons); 5. Amisus, Samsun, (the residence of Mithridates). Inland: Zela, Zilleh, (battle, B.C. 47, Caesar conquered Pharnaces ; an account of this battle Caesar sent to the Senate in three words, viz., Veni, Vidi, Vici) ; Amasia, Amasiah, (the birth-place of Mithridates and Strabo the geographer); Magnopolis, (built by Mithri- dates and Pompey). MYSIA, with TKOAS and ^EOLIS or I A.— Cities. — In the N. : Cyzicus, Bal Kiz, (on an island of the same name, unsuccessfully besieged by Mithridates, B.C. 75). On the Hellespont: 1. Lampsacus, Lapsaki, (celebrated for its wine, and one of the cities assigned to Themistocles for his maintenance); 2. Abydos, Nagara; 3. Dardanus, from which arose the modern name Dardanelles. At the foot of Mt. Ida, Troja or Ilium, Troy, with its citadel Per- gama; at the head of a bay of the same name, Adra- myttium or eum, Adramytti. Inland, on the Caicus: Pergamus (on or os), Bergama, (celebrated for its library, where parchment (Pergamenae chartae) was first used in writing ; the library was afterwards added to that at Alexandria). LYDIA or M.TONIA with IONI A. — Cities. — On the coast: 1. Phocaea, a colony from which was founded Mass ilia, Marseilles ; 2. Smyrna, Smyrna, (one of the seven cities which claimed the honour of being the birth-place of Homer); 3. Teos, (the birth-place of Anacreon) ; 4. Colo- phon, (famed for its cavalry) ; 5. Ephesus, Ayasaluk, at the mouth of the Cayster, (famous for its temple to Diana, 5 50 GEOGRAPHY. one of the seven wonders). Inland: Magnesia, (battle, B.C. 190, Scipio defeated Antioehus) ; Sardes, Sart, on the Pactolus, (the Capital of Croesus, king of Lydia, taken by Cyrus, b.c. 546). CARIA with DORIS.— Cities. — On the Mseander: My us. On the coast: 1. Miletus, (one of the chief cities of Asia Minor, the birth-place of Thales, Anaximander, and other great men): 2. Halicarnassus, Budrum, (the birth-place of Herodotus the historian, and Dionysius the rhetorician, and celebrated for the tomb of Mausolus. Opposite to the island Cos: C nidus), (battle," b.c. 394, Pisander, the Spartan admiral, defeated by Conon, the Athenian). LYCIA. — Cities. — On the coast: Telmessus, Macru (in- habitants famed for augury). On the Xanthus: Xanthus, Gunik. Near the mouth of the river: Patara, Patara, (with a famous temple and oracle of Apollo). On the East: Phaselis, (the head-quarters of the pirates before its destruction by P. Servilius Isauricus). PAMPHYLIA with PISIDIA and ISAURIA.— Cities.— On the S. coast: Attalia. Inland: Per ga, (the birth-place of Apollonius the mathematician) ; Selga, the chief city in Pisidia; Is aura, chief city in Isauria, (taken, B.C. 75, by P. Servilius, who thence received the surname Isau- ricus). CILICIA. — Divided into Cilicia Trachea or Aspera and Cilicia Campestris. Cities. — In C. Aspera. — On the coast: 1. Selinus, Sclenti, (where the Emperor Trajan died, a.d. 117); 2. Seleucia, Selefkeh ; 3. Corycns (famed for its excellent saffron). In C. Campestris: 1. Soli, also called Pompeiopolis ; 2. Tarsus, Tersus, on the Cydnus, the Capital of Cilicia, (the birth-place of the Apostle Paul and many distinguished philosophers, cele- brated for the study of philosophy and the liberal arts) ; 3. Issus, ruins, on the Issic Gulf, (battle, b.c. 333, Alex- ander defeated Darius). GEOGRAPHY. 51 PHRYGIA with LYC AONIA. — Cities. — In the S.W. — On the Lycus: 1. Colossse, (to the inhabitants of which St. Paul addressed an epistle); 2. Laodicea; 3. Apamea Cibotus. Near the centre: 1. Ipsus (battle, b.c. 301, Antigonus and Demetrius defeated by Lysimachus and Seleucus, the two other generals of Alexander) ; 2. Syn- nada (famed for its marble). In Lycaonia: 1. Iconium; 2. Lystra; 3. Derbe (vide Acts xiv.). GALATIA. — Cities. — On the Sangarius: 1. Gordium (the ancient Capital of Phrygia, where Alexander cut the famous " Gordian knot," on which its destinies were sup- posed to depend) ; 2. Pessinus (the chief seat of the wor- ship of Cybele, whose image was removed to Rome to satisfy an oracle in the Sibylline books). Near the centre: Ancyra, Angora, (the Capital of the province in the time of Augustus). CAPPADOCIA with ARMENIA MINOR. — Cities. — Near the centre, at the foot of Mons Argaeus: Caesarea or Mazaca, Kesarieh, the chief city; S.W. of this, Tyana, in the district Tyanitis, (the city of Apollonius the im- postor). In Armenia Minor: 1. Nicopolis, Devriki; 2. Cab Ira or Sebaste, Sivas. THE SIX DORIAN STATES ("Hexapolis"), which met at the temple of Apollo at Triopium Prom., in Doris (vide Caria), were, 1. Lyndus; 2. Ialyssus; 3. Camlrus (in Rhodes) ; 4. Cos (in the island of Cos) , 5. Cnidus ; 6. Ha- licarnassus (in Caria) ; the last city was afterwards ex- cluded from the number, the remaining five being termed " Pentapolis." THE TWELVE IONIAN STATES, which held their meet- ings at the Panionium, near Mt. Mycale, in Ionia (vide Lydia), were, 1. Miletus ; 2. Myus ; 3. Priene (in Caria) , 4. Ephesus ; 5. Colophon ; 6. Lebedos ; 7. Teos ; 8. Ery- thrae ; 9. Clazomene : 10. Phocaea (in Lydia) ; 11. Chios , and 12. Samos ; Smyrna from the iEolian colony increased the number to thirteen. 52 GEOGRAPHY THE ^OLIAN LEAGUE ("Panseoli :m w ) possessed twelve cities, which met at Smyrna: 1. Cyme; 2. Larissse; 3. Neontichos; 4. Temnus; 5. Cilia; 6. Notium; 7. iEgi- russa; 8. Pitane ; 9. iEgaeae ; 10. Myrina; 11. Grynea; 12. Smyrna (which subsequently became an Ionian colony). THE "SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA." — 1. Ephesus; 2. Smyrna; 3. Pergamos ; 4. Thyatira; 5. Sardis ; 6. Phi- ladelphia; 7. Laodicea. Island. CYPRUS (sacred to Venus), separated from Asia Minor by Aulon Cilicius. Towns. — On the W. coast: 1. Paphos, Baffa; Am a thus, Limasol ; 2. Citium (the birth-place of Zeno the Stoic philosopher) ; E., Salami s, (said to have been founded by Teucer) ; N., Lapethus and Soli. Inland: 1. Tamasus (famed for its copper-mines); 2. Idalium (sacred to Venus). Mountain. — Olympus. SYRIA— PALiESTINA. BOUNDARIES.— N., Amanus Mons, and Taurus Mons; E., R. Euphrates and Arabia; S., Arabia; W., Mare Internum, Mediterranean. MOUNTAINS. — Casius Mons, Jebel Okrah; Lebanon (famed for its snowy summits and its cedars), divided into Libanus on the W. and Antilibanus on the E., to the E. Mt. Hermon. On the sea-coast: C arm el. Inland, in Galilee: Mt. Tabor, Mt. Hermon, and Mt. Gilboa. In Samaria: Mt. Ebal and Mt. Gerizim; (on the latter the Samaritans erected a temple to rival that at Jerusalem.) In Peraea: Mt. Nebo and Mt. Abarim. RIVERS. — Falling into the Mediterranean: 1. Orontes, El Asy, from the S. ; 2. Leontes. Jordanes, Jordan, from Hermon, flowing S., through, 1. Semechonltis Lacus, GEOGRAPHY. 53 Waters of Meron; 2. L. Tiberias vel L. Gennesaret, Lake Chinnereth or Sea of Galilee, falls into 3. Lac us Asphaltltes vel Mare Mortuum vel Salsum, Dead Sea or Salt Sea. DIVISIONS. — 1. Syria; 2. Phoenicia; 3. Palsestina. SYRIA. — Cities. — On the coast: Seleucia Pieria, Capital of the district; Lao dice a, Ladikeyeh. Inland, on the Orontes: 1. Antiochia, Antioch, the Capital, (where the disciples were first called Christians); 2. Epiphanea, (0. T. Hamath), Hamah ; Heliopolis or Balbec, near the source of the Leontes ; (with a magnificent temple of the sun); to the S.E., Damascus, one of the most ancient cities in the world; E. of Antioch, Chalybon or Bercea, Aleppo. In the Desert: Palmyra or Tadmor, (the city of Zenobia, with whom Longinus the philosopher resided, destroyed a.d. 273). On the Euphrates: 1. Samosata, Someisat, (the birth-place of Lucian) ; 2. Zeugma; 3. Thapsacus, (famed for its ford, by which Cyrus in his expedition, Darius in his retreat, and Alexander previous to the battle of Arbela, crossed the Euphrates). PHOENICIA.— Cities. — On the coast: 1. Tripoli s, Tara- bulus or Tripoli; 2. Byblus, Jebeil; 3. Berytus, Beirout; 4. Si don, jSaida, (famed for its commerce and manufac- tures of glass) ; 5. Sarepta, for some time the residence of Elijah ; 6. Tyrus, Tyre or Sur, (celebrated for its mari- time wealth, enterprise, commerce, and colonizing activity: taken, B.C. 332, after a siege of seven months, by Alex- ander) ; 7. Ptolemais, Acre, one of the oldest Phoenician cities. PAL^ESTINA vel JVDMA.— In Scripture called Canaan, The Land of Promise, The Land of Israel, and The Holy Land. TRIBES. — W. of the Jordan: 1. Asher; 2. Naphthali; 3. Zebulon; 4. Issachar; 5. a half tribe of Man ass eh; 5* 54 GEOGRAPHY. 6. Ephraim; 7. Dan; 8. Simeon; 9. Benjamin; 10. Judah; E. of the Jordan: a half tribe of Manasseh, 11. Gad; 12. Reuben. After the death of Solomon the land was divided into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah DIVISIONS. — 1. N., Galilaea (divided into Galilaea Su- perior, Galilee of the Gentiles, and Galilaea Inferior. Lower Galilee). 2. Centre: Samaria. 3. S. : Judaea. 4. Batanasa ; 5. Peraea, both beyond the Jordan. GALILEE. — Cities. — In the N. : Dan ; E. of this, Cae^area Phi lip pi vel Pane as, Banias. On the borders of the Sea of Galilee: 1. Capernaum (our Saviour's usual place of residence) ; 2. Bethsaida (the city of Peter, Andrew, and Philip); 3. Tiberias (built by Herod Antipas, in honour of Augustus Caesar). W. of the Lake: Dio Cae- sarea vel Sepphoris, Sefurieh; 2. Cana (where our Lord wrought his first miracle at the marriage-feast). 5. of Cana: 1. Nazareth (the residence of Joseph and Mary) ; 2. Nain, where the widow's son was restored to life. SAMARIA. — Cities. — Near the centre: Samaria, aft. Sebaste, (founded by Omri, king of Israel; it was the Capital of the ten tribes until taken by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, b.c. 721). S. of this, 1. Shechem or Sychar, afterwards Neapolis, Nablous; 2. Shiloh, (where Joshua erected the tabernacle); S.E., Archelais, founded by Archelaus, son of Herod. On the coast: Caesarea, or Turris Stratonis, Kaisariyeh, (the residence of the Roman Procurators). JUDiEA. — Cities. — On the coast: Joppa, Jaffa, a very ancient maritime city; in the N., Bethel, S.E. of this Jericho or Hierichus, (taken and destroyed by Joshua) ; S. of Bethel, Emmaus, afterwards Nicopolis. W. of the northern extremity of the Dead Sea: Jerusalem vel Hierosolyma (originally Jebus, the city of the Jebu- sites), the Capital of the Jewish nation from the time of GEOGRAPHY. 55 David, b.c. 1048; destroyed by Titus, a. d. 70; the city was situated on four hills, 1. Zion (or the Upper City), on which a fortress was erected by David; 2. Acra (or the Lower City) ; 3. Mori ah, on which the temple was built; 4. Bezetha ; at the foot of Mt. Moriah was the brook Ke- dron, which flowed into the Dead Sea ; N.E. of Jerusalem, Bethany and the Mt. of Olives; S. from Jerusalem, 1. Bethlehem, the birth-place of David and of Our Blessed Saviour; 2. Hebron, the burial-place of Abra- ham, Isaac, and Jacob. Five principal cities of the Philistines: 1. Gath; 2 Ekron or Accaron; 3. Azotus or A s h d o d, famed for its temple to Dagon; 4. Ascalon; 5. Gaza. PEILEA and BATAN^IA. — In Persea: 1. Heshbon; 2. Ramoth Gilead; 3. Bethabara, on the Jordan. In Batansea and N. of Peraea: DECAPOLIS, comprising, 1. Canatha; 2. Hippus; 3. Gadara; 4. Capitolias; 5. Abila; 6. Scythopolis; 7. Pella; 8. Gerasa; 9. Dium ; 10. Phila- delphia. THE CITIES OF REFUGE.— W. of the Jordan: l.Kedesh; 2. Shechem; 3. Hebron. E. of the Jordan: 4. Golan; 5. Ramoth Gilead ; 6. Bezer. SEVEN HEATHEN NATIONS. — 1. The Hittites; 2. Gir- gashites; 3. Amorites; 4. Canaanites; 5. Peiizzites; 6. Hivites ; 7. Jebusites. ARABIA. Arabia. BOUNDARIES. — N., Syria and Chaldsea.; E., Sinus Persicus; S., Erythrseum Mare, Arabian Sea; W f iEgyptus, Egypt; Sinus Arabious, Bed Sea or Ara- bian Gulf; Dirse, Straits of Babel MandeL 56 GEOGRAPHY. MOUNTAINS. — In the N., between the two branches of the Red Sea: Mt. Sinai and Mt. Horeb; Mt. Hor, near Petra. DIVISIONS. — N.W., ARABIA PETR^EA; W. and S., ARABIA FELIX ; E. and in the interior, ARABIA DE SERTA. TRIBES, &c — N., Idumsea; W., Nabathsei; S., Sabsei, Cap. Saba or Mar i aba, 0. T. Sheba. In Arabia Petraea: Petra. 0. T. Tribes bordering on Palestine : Ammonites, Moabites, Midianites, Edomites, Amalekites. COUNTRIES between PONTUS EUXIftUS, Black Sea, and HYRCANUM MARE, Caspian Sea. I. SARMATIA ASIATICA, Circassia, and S. E. part of Russia in Europe. — Boundaries. — N.E., R. Rha, Volga; S. E., Caspium Mare, Caspian Sea; S., Caucasus Mons; W., Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea, and R. Ta- nais, Don. II. COLCHIS or MA., Cfuriel, Imeritia, and Mingrelia.— Boundaries. — N., Mons Caucasus; E., Iberia; S. Armenia; W., Pontus Euxinus. Chief River. — Phasis, Faz (which has given its name to the pheasant, said to have been first brought to Greece from its banks). Towns. — On the Phasis: Cyta, (where Medea was said to have been born). On the N. W. coast: Dioscuri as, Iskuria, (a considerable trading city). III. IBERIA, Georgia. — Boundaries. — N., C au c a s u s ; E., Albania; S., Armenia; W., Colchis (inhabitants, Iberes or Iberi). Chief River. — Cyrus, Kour, (tributaries, Cambyses and Alason). Tribe.— W., Moschi. GEOGRAPHY. 57 IV. ALBANIA, SJiirvan and part of Daghistan. — Bound- aries. — N., Sarmatia Asiatica; E., Hyrcanum Mare; S., R. Cyrus, Kour ; W., Iberia. Mountain. — Caucasus Mons. ARMENIA PROPRIA, vel MAJOR. Armenia and part of Georgia. BOUNDARIES.— N., Colchis, Iberia, and Albania; E., a point at the junction of the Araxes and Cyrus; S., Me- dia, Assyria, and Mesopotamia; W., R. Euphrates. MOUNTAINS. — Mons Ararat, Imbarus Mons, Niphates Montes. RIVERS. — 1. Araxes, Aras (rising in the country of the Chalybes), with its tributary, Harpasus, falls into the Caspian; 2. Euphrates, formed by two branches from the N. and E., and flow S., into Sinus Persicus, The Persian Gulf; 3. Tigris, with its tributaries, Nymphaeus and Nicephorius. LAKE. — Arsissa Palus, Lake Van. TOWNS. — On the Araxes: Artaxata. On the Tigris: Ainida. On the Nicephorius: Tigranocerta (founded by Tigranes, son-in-law of Mithridates, king of Pontus). MESOPOTAMIA. Algesira. MESOPOTAMIA, so named from its position between the rivers Euphrates (W.) and Tigris (E.), was bounded on the N. by Masius Mons, Armenia, and Taurus Mons; S., by Babylonia. 58 GEOGRAPHY. RIVER. — Chaboras or Aborrhas, Khabour (a branch of the Euphrates). DIVISIONS. — N.W., Osroene; N.E., Mygdonia. TOWNS. — On the Euphrates: 1. Nlcephorium, EaJckah (built by order of Alexander); 2. Cunaxa (battle, b. c. 401, Cyrus the Younger defeated and slain by Artaxerxes his brother. The Greek auxiliaries of Cyrus commence their return to Greece, usually called the retreat of the Ten Thousand). Between the two rivers: 1. Edessa, (0. T. Ur), TJrfdh, the Capital of Osroene; 2. Charrse, the Haran of the 0. T., (death of Crassus, and defeat by the Parthians, B.C. 53); 3. Nisibis, Cap. of Mygdonia, and a very important place as a military post. BABYLONIA AND CHALD.EA. Irak Ardbi. BOUNDARIES. — N., Mesopotamia; E., R.Tigris; S., Persicus Sinus; W., Arabia. Cities. — Babylon, rui?is, on the Euphrates, founded by Nimrod, about b.c. 2000, and taken by Cyrus, B.C. 538 ; it was built in the form of a quadrangle, on both sides of the Euphrates, and was distinguished for its extent and mag- nificence. Its chief buildings were: 1. The Tower of Belus;2.The01dRoyal Palace; 3.The New Palace, with the hanging gardens (i. e. gardens laid out in the form of terraces over arches). S. of Babylon: Borsippa (the chief residence of the Chaldasan astrologers), and Seleucla, on the Tigris, for a long time the Capital of W. Asia. GEOGRAPHY. 59 COUNTRIES East of the EUPHRATES and TIGRIS. I. ASSYRIA, Koordistan. — Boundaries. — N., Armenia; E., Media; S., Susiana; W., R. Tigris. Rivers. — Flowing into the Tigris: Zabatus vel Lycus, Zab ; Del as or Sill a, Diala. Divisions. — N., Aturia; Centre, Adiabene; S., Sit- tacene. Cities. — On the Tigris: 1. Ninus or Nineveh, near Mosul, (the Capital of the great Assyrian monarchy, de- stroyed by the Medes and Babylonians, b. c. 606) ; 2. Ctesiphon (the usual winter residence of the Parthian monarchs). E. of the Tigris: Gaugamela, (the scene of the last and decisive battle between Alexander and Darius, b.c. 331, usually called the battle of Arbela, from its proximity to that town). II. MEDIA, North-west part of modern Persia, Irak. — Boundaries. — N., Armenia, R. Araxes, and Caspium Mare; E., Hyrcania and Aria; S., Persia and Su- siana; W., Assyria, Divisions. — N., Atropatene; Chief Town, Gaza. S., Media Magna. Chief Towns. — JScbatana, Humadan, (near Mt. Orontes, the residence of the Median, and latterly of the Persian kings. The city was built without walls, on the slope of a hill, on the summit of which stood the royal castle, surrounded by seven walls, with battlements). N. E. of Ecbatana : Kcwrtwu. rtvXat, a mountain-pass ; near this the Nicaean plains, famed for the breed of white horses. III. SUSIANA or SUSIS, Khuzistan. — Boundaries. — N. , Assyria; E., Persia; S., Sinus Persicus; W., R. Tigris. Rivers. — Choaspes, Kerah; Coprates, Abzalj and Pasi-Tigris, Karoon (?), fall into the Tigris. 60 GEOGRAPHY. Tribes. — Cossse, Elamltse. Capital. — Susa (0. T. Shushan), on the Choaspes (tho winter residence of the Persian monarchs). IV. PERSIA or PERSIS, Persia. — Boundaries. — N., Me- dia; E., Carmania; S., Sinus Persicus; W., Su- siana. Cities. — Persepolis (the burial-place of the Persian kings); Pasargada (founded by Cyrus the Great, in memory of his victory over Astyages, the last king of Media, b.c. 559). COUNTRIES South of the R. OXUS, Jihon. I. HYRCANIA, Astrabad. — Boundaries. — N. and E., Par- thia; S., Media; "W., Caspium Mare. II. PARTIIIA, Khorassan (inhabited by a very warlike people). — Boundaries. — N., Scythia; E., Aria; S. and S.W., Media; W., Hyrcania. Capital. — Hecatompylus (founded by Arsaces). III. ARIA or ARIANUS, East part of Khorassan and N. of Afghanistan. — Boundaries. — N., Parthia; E., Bac- triana and Indo-Scythia ; S., Gedrosia; W., Car- mania and Media. Divisions. — N., Margiana (famed for its wine) ; Centre, Drangiana [River: Etymandrus, flowing into Aria Palus, Lake Zurrah) ; S., Arachosia. Tribe. — Paropamisadse (at the foot of Paropamisus Mons vel Caucasus, Eindoo-Koosh. Capital. — Aria vel Artacoana, Herat. IV. BACTRIANA or BACTRIA, Bokhara.— Boundaries.— N., Oxus, R. Jihon; E. and S., Paropamisus Mons, Hindoo-Koosli ; W., Aria. GEOGRAPHY. 61 Capital. — Backtra, Balk (the winter-quarters of Alex- ander, b.c. 329). V. C ARMANI A, Kirman. — Boundaries. — E., Aria and Ge- drosia; S., Sinus Persicus ; W. and N.W., Persia. Divisions. — Carmania Propria and Carmania De- serta. Capital. — Caramana, Kirman. VI. GEDROSIA, Beloochistan. — Boundaries. — N., Aria; E., Paropamisus Mons, JSdla Mts. ; S., Erythraaum Mare, Arabian Sea; W., Carmania. Mountains. — Parsici Montes, near the centre. Tribes. — Ichthyophagi, Oritae, and Arabitse, on the coast. Capital. — Pur a. COUNTRIES North of the OXUS. I. SOGDIANA, part of Turkestan and Bokhara. — Bound- aries. — N., R. Jaxartes, Sihon or Sirr ; E., Imaus Mons; S., R. Oxus, Jihon or Amou; W., Sea of Aral (unknown to the ancients.) Cities. — Maracanda, Samarkand (the Capital); Cyro- polis, on the Jaxartes (founded by Cyrus). II. SCYTHIA (Independent Tartary and Mongolia), the name given to the large tract of country N. of the Caspian Sea, R. Jaxartes, and Emodi Montes, Himalaya Mts., and E. of Sogdiana and Bactriana. Scythia was divided by Imaus Mons, Altai Mts., into Scythia intra Imaum, on the N.W., and Scythia extra Imaum, on the S.E. Tribes, &c. — Sacse and Massagetas; E. of Scythia extra Imaum, S eric a, N.W. part of China, inhabitants the Seres, famous for their manufactures of silk (the coun- try was regarded as the native region of the silk-worm.) 6 62 GEOGRAPHY. INDIA. Hindostan, Birmah, Siam, Cochin Cliina, and Malaya. BOUNDARIES.— N., Emodi Monte s, Himalaya Mts., and Scythia; S., Gangeticus Sinus, Bay of Bengal, and Indicus Oceanus, Indian Ocean; W., Erythrseum Mare, Arabian Sea, and Paropaniisus Mons, Hala and Soliman Mts. RIVERS. — I. N.W., Indus, Indus, with its five tributary streams: 1. Hydaspes, Jelum ; 2. Ace sines, Chenaub ; 3. Hydraotes, Ravee; 4. Hyphasis, Gharra or Beeas ; 5. Zaradrus, Sutlej. II. Ganges, Ganges. III. Dyar- danes or (Edones, Burrampooter. DIVISIONS.— W. of the Ganges, India intra Gangem; E. of the Ganges, India extra Gangem. TOWNS, &c — On the Indus: Taxila, Attock (near which Alexander crossed the river). On the Hydaspes: Buce- phala, Jelum (built by Alexander, in memory of his favourite horse Bucephalus, which died and was buried here, B.C. 327). Malli, a tribe on each side of the Ace- sines, Chenaub ; their Capital is supposed to have been on the site of the fortress of Moult an. On the Ganges: Pallbothra, Patna, the Capital of the Prasii. ISLANDS, &c— Taprobane vel Salice, Ceylon; Jabadi? Ins., Sumatra; Aurea Chersonesus Malaya; E. of which, Magnus Sinus, Gulf of Siam. AFRICA BOUNDARIES. — N., Mare Internum, Mediterranean; E., Arabia, Sinus Arabicus, Red Sea, and Erythrseum Mare, Arabian Sea; W., Mare Atlanticum, Atlantic Ocean. BAYS. — Syrtis Major, GulfofSidra; Syrtis Minor, Gulf of Cabes. STRAIT. — Fretum Herculeum vel Gaditanum, Straits of Gibraltar. RIVERS. — Nil us, Nile, remarkable for its periodical inun- dations ; some few miles below Memphis the river divided into three branches, but now into two, E., Ostium Phatni- ticum, at Damietta, W., Ostium Bolbitlnum, at Rosetta, which flows through a low land, called from its shape (resembling the fourth letter of the Greek language) "Delta," and fell into the Mediterranean. The seven ancient mouths, from E. to W., were: 1. Pelusiac; 2. Saitic; 3. Mendesian ; 4. Phatnitic, or Bucolic ; 5. Sebennytic ; 6. Bolbitic ; 7. Canopic. Of these the fourth and sixth were artificial. LAKES. — Near the western mouth of the Nile, L. Ma- reotis; S. of this, L. Moeris. E. of the Nile, L. Sir- bonis. (63) 64 GEOGRAPHY. JEGYPTUS. Egypt. BOUNDARIES. — N., Mediterranean; E., Arabia and Sinus Arabicus, Red.Sea; S., ^Ethiopia; W., Libya. DIVISIONS. — 1. N., iEgyptus Inferior or Delta; 2. Middle: Heptanomis; 3. S., iEgyptus Superior vel Thebais. ^GYPTUS INFERIOR vel DELTA.— Cities.— Between L. Mareotis and the Sea, Alexandria, with two harbours (the Capital of Egypt under the Ptolemies, founded by Alexander, b.c. 332, and famous for its learning and com- merce ; the library is said to have contained 400,000 volumes). Opposite to Alexandria: the island Pharos, with a famous light-house, built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, B.C. 283. E. of Alexandria: Canopus, near Aboukir (its inhabitants were proverbial for their luxury). In the Delta: 1. Naucratis, founded by the Milesians, the only place in Egypt where Greeks were permitted to settle and trade) ; 2. Sais (the ancient Capital of Lower Egypt — it contained the palace and burial-place of the Pharaohs) ; 3. Buslris, with the temple of Isis ; 4. Buto (with an oracle of the Egyptian goddess Buto). E. of the Delta: 1. Pelusium (surrounded by swamps, and called, from its situation, the Key of Egypt); E. of this, Casius Mons, with a temple of Jupiter ; here also was the grave of Pom- pey; 2. He Hop ol is, or On, O.T. (with a celebrated temple, the chief seat of the worship of the Sun) ; 3. Bubastis (where the great annual festival to the goddess Bubastis, or the Moon, was held). HEPTANOMIS. — Cities. — On the W. side of the Nile: 1. Memphis or Moph, the Capital (near which were the celebrated Pyramids) : of its splendid buildings the chief were, the Palace of the Pharaohs and the temples of Apis and Serapis; 2. Crocodilopolis or Arsinfte GEOGRAPHY. 65 (the chief seat of the worship of the Crocodile) : near this, the famous Labyrinthus, containing 3000 apartments, in which the kings and sacred crocodiles were buried ; 3. Oxyrhyncus, Behneseh, so called from the fish of that name there worshipped. ^EGYPTUS SUPERIOR vel THEB AIS. — Cities. — On the W. side of the Nile: 1. Ptolemais, Menshieh (an import- ant city under the Ptolemies) ; 2. Abydos, with a M em- no nium, (i. e. a building erected by, or in honour of Memnon), and a temple of Osiris; 3. Thebae vel Dios- polis, on both sides of the Nile, Capital of Thebais, and the most ancient residence of the Egyptian kings : this city, called the hundred-gated (sxatofxrcv'Koi,), possessed many magnificent buildings, the ruins of which now enclose a space two miles in length; 4. Elephantine, and 5. Philae, on two small islands, with many architec- tural remains. On the E. side of the Nile: 1. Syene, Assouan, the S. frontier city of Egypt; 2. Coptos, Kofi, (the central point of commerce between India and Arabia, by way of Berenice, on the Arabian Gulf). At the N. of the Red Sea: Cleopatris vel Arsinoe, Suez. South of Egypt: ^Ethiopia, Nubia, Senaar, Kordofan, and Abyssinia. Rivers. — Astapus and Astaboras, flowing into the Nile. City. — Meroe (the Capital of the powerful kingdom of Heroe), with a famous oracle of Ammon. NORTHERN COASTS OF AFRICA. DIVISIONS. — I. Libya, Barca, with the provinces; 1. Mar- marica; 2. Cyrenalca. II. Tripolitana vel Regio Syrtica, Tripoli. III. Africa Propria, Tunis, with Zeu- gitana and Byzacium vel Emporia. IV. Numidia, 6* 66 GEOGRAPHY. Algiers. V. Mauritania, Morocco and Fez, divided into Mauritania Caesariensis, E., and Mauritania Tin- gitana, TV. LIBYA, Barca. — Towns. — In Marmarica. — On the coast : Paraetonium, El-Bareton ; S. of this, Oasis of Amnion, famous for its temple, visited by Alexander; W. of Parseto- nium, Catabathmos, generally considered the boundary between Egypt and Cyrenaica. In Cyrenaica: Cyrene, the chief city (founded by Battus, B.C. 631), the birth-place of Aristippus, the philosopher, and Callimachus, the poet ; S.W. of Cyrene, Barce, Barca, chief town of the Barcitae. On the coast: 1. Ptolemais; 2. Berenice, the fabled site of the Gardens of the Hesperides. TRIPOLITANI, Tripoli.— Towns.— On the coast : 1. Leptis Magna vel Neapolis; 2. Oea, Tripoli; 3. Sabrata (these three cities formed the African Tripolis). Tribe. — On the coast: Lotophagi or Eaters of the Lotus, the taste of which was so delicious, that those who eat of the fruit lost all desire to return to their native country. AFRICA PROPRIA, Tunis, divided into Byzacium and Zeugitana. — Towns. — In Byzacium. — On the coast: 1. Tacape, Cabes ; 2. T haps us, Demas (battle, b. c." 46 r Caesar defeated the Pompeian army) ; 3. Leptis Minor, Lamta; 4. Hadrumetum (the Capital of Byzacium under the Romans). Inland: Tritonis Palus, El Sibkah (in which Minerva is said to have been born, and hence called "Tritonia"). In Zeugitana. — On the coast: 1. Tunes, Tunis; 2. Carthago, the Capital of Africa, situated at the head of a bay, formed by two promontories, Her- maeum Prom., C. Bon, and Apollinis Prom., C. Fa- rina. The Tyrian colony of Carthage was said to have been founded by Dido, about b. c. 853 — its citadel was termed Byrsa (Bvpoct, "a hide"), in reference to the manner in which the portion of land for building the first city was GEOGRAPHY. 67 obtained by Dido (destroyed, B.C. 146, by Scipio Africanus the Younger) ; 2. Utica, near the mouth of the BagrSdas, the second city in Africa, and even more ancient than Carthage (the birth-place of Cato, whence he received the surname of Uticensis). Inland: Zama (battle, B.C. 202, Hannibal defeated by Scipio, and the Second Punic war ended). NUMIDIA, E. part of Algiers. — Town.— Cirta, the Capital, the city of Syphax and Masinissa. Tribe. — Massy li. MAURITANIA, Morocco, Fez, and part of Algiers. — Towns. — On the coast: 1. Cartenna, Tennez ; 2. Siga; 3. Tin- gis, Tangier; 4. Sal a, Sallee. S. of Mauritania: Atlas Mons, Mt. Atlas. Tribes. — S. of Atlas Mons, Numidia and Africa Propria, Gaetuli, E. of which Garamantes, dwelling in the region Phazania, Fezzan, Cap. Garama, Mourzouk. ISLANDS. — In the Atlantic : Insulae Purpurariae, pro- bably the Madeira, S. of which Insula) Fortunatae, Canary islands, in which the ancients suppo. ed the Elysian fields to be situated; Hesperidum Insulae, Cape Verdt Islands, )r the Bissagos group. MYTHOLOGY. THE TWELVE OLYMPIAN OR NATIONAL DEITIES OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. JUPITER (Zev?), son of Saturn and Ops, king of gods and men, and the most powerful of all the deities. He was educated in a cave on Mount Ida. When a year old he made war against the Titans, in the cause of his father Saturn, and liberated him. He is usually represented as sitting on an ivory or golden throne, holding in his hand thunderbolts. He bore a shield or goat-skin called iEgis. NEPTUNE (lloasri&v), son of Saturn and Ops, and chief deity of the sea ; he was on this account entitled to more power than any other god except Jupiter. He is repre- sented as carrying the trident, or three-pronged spear, attended by dolphins. Amphitrlte was his queen. VULCAN ("HfjxxKJT'os), son of Juno ; the god of fire, and patron of all workers in iron and metals : his palace, which was in Olympus, contained his workshop, in which he made many ingenious and marvellous works, both for gods and men. His abode is said by some to have been in a volcanic island. The Cyclops were his workmen. MARS ("Apj/j), the god of war; son of Jupiter and Juno. He presided over gladiators, and was the patron of manly and warlike exercises. He is generally represented as riding in a chariot, drawn by furious horses, called Flight and Terror. In the Trojan war he is said to have taken the part of the Trojans. In Rome he received the most unbounded honours* (68) MYTHOLOGY. 69 MERCURIUS ( c Epp?$), son of Jupiter and Maia ; messenger of the gods, and deity of eloquence, commerce, and the a ts. He conducted the souls of the dead into the lower world, and is usually represented with a winged hat and sandals, bearing the caduceus in his hand. Hermes was born on Mount Cyllene, in Arcadia. APOLLO, son of Jupiter and Latona ; god of music, medi- cine, augury, painting, poetry, and all the fine arts. He was born, with his sister Diana, near Mount Cynthus, in Delos, an island in the iEgean Sea. When he grew up he slew the serpent Python, which infested the country near Delphi, and established the famous oracle. He received the surname of Phoebus from his connexion with the Sun (Qol&o$, the bright). JUNO ("Hpa or "Hpjy), the daughter of Saturn and Ops, sister and wife of Jupiter, and queen of all the gods. She was born at Argos (some say Samos), and is noted for her jealousy and severity to the illegitimate children of Jupiter. MINERVA or ATHENA ('Afl^ or 'A0^a, noWLaj), daughter of Jupiter, said to have sprung from his forehead com- pletely armed. She was goddess of wisdom, war, and the liberal arts, the guardian and aider of heroes, and pre- siding goddess of Athens. She is always represented with a helmet, breast-plate (or iEgis), and shield ; on the latter was the Gorgon's head. Her favourite bird was the owl, which was sacred to her. VESTA ('Ecm'a), the goddess of the hearth, and also of fire. Her worship was introduced into Italy by iEneas. The fire on the altar in her temple was never allowed to go out ; but, when such was the case, it was kindled again by the rays of the sun. The priestesses dedicated to her ser- vice were called Vestals. CERES (Arjuiqtrjp), daughter of Saturn and Rhea (or Ops) ; goddess of corn and plenty, the same as Isis of the Egyp- tians. She was mother of Proserpine, and is represented holding a sceptre or torch, and a garland of ears of corn round her head. 70 MYTHOLOGY. VENUS ('A^po&V^), daughter of Jupiter and Dione and wife of Vulcan, the goddess of love and beauty, queen of laughter, and mistress of the graces and pleasures. Venus is sup- posed to have sprung from the foam of the sea near the island of Cyprus or Cythera. In the contest for the golden apple of beauty, Paris awarded it to Venus, in preference to Pallas and Juno. Her favourite birds were swans and doves, her sacred flowers the rose and myrtle. DIANA ("Apt spit), daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and sister of Apollo ; the goddess of woods and hunting. On earth she was called Diana, in heaven Luna, in the lower world Proserpina or Hecate. Note. — The deities of the Romans were adapted to those of the Greeks, with which they do not entirely correspond. MINOR DEITIES. iEOLUS, a king of the iEolian Islands. He is fabled to be the god of the winds, from his foretelling the changes of the winds and weather. iESCULAPIUS fAffxtojrftos), the god of medicine, instructed in this science by Chiron. He was worshipped throughout Greece ; and his temples, which were built in healthy places, on hills, or near wells, were not only places of wor- ship, but frequented by sick persons. AMMON, a surname of Jupiter, worshipped in Libya, and afterwards in Egypt. AMPHITRITE, a NEREID or OCEANID, wife of Neptune, and goddess of the sea. APIS, the bull of Memphis, worshipped by the Egyptians. He was allowed to live but about twenty-five years, and was then slain and secretly buried ; but if he died a natural death, he was buried publicly, with great solemnity. ASTRiEA, daughter of Zeus and Themis; goddess of justice She lived on earth during the golden age ; but the wicked- ness of mankind drove her to heaven during the brazen MYTHOLOGY. 71 and iron ages. She was placed among the constellations, under the name of Virgo, and is represented holding a pail of scales in one hand, and a sword in the other. AURORA (Eds, "Eco$), the goddess of the morning, daughter of Hyperion, and wife of Tithonus son of Laomedon. She is represented as setting out before Helios her brother, drawn in a chariot by four white steeds, and dispelling darkness and sleep. BACCHUS (Dionysus, AkWjos), the god of wine, son of Jupiter and Semele the daughter of Cadmus of Thebes. He is usually represented as an effeminate youth, crowned with ivy and vine leaves. BELLONA, the Roman goddess of war, and companion of Mars. She is usually described as his wife, and repre- sented armed with a scourge, to animate the combatants. CUPIDO or AMOR ("Epcoj), the god of love ; the son of Venus and Zeus (some relate of Mars and Mercury). He is usually represented as carrying a bow and arrows, which he darts into the bosoms of gods and men. FAUNI, rural deities, represented as half men and half goats. FLORA, the goddess of flowers among the Romans. FORTUNA (Tv%rj), daughter of Oceanus ; the goddess of for- tune. From her were derived riches and poverty, pleasures and misfortunes. The Romans paid great attention to this goddess, and had eight temples dedicated to her at Rome. FURI^E or DIR^E, called by the Greeks Erinyes ('Epwves) or Eumenides {Evfitvlbss), three goddesses sprung from Ge and the blood of Uranus, namely, Tisiphone, Alecto, and Megozra. They haunted the impious with remorse for their crimes. GE or G.ZEA (iSJ or Tata), also called by the Romans TELLUS and TERRA, was the personification of the earth, and as such was worshipped by the ancients as a deity. GENIUS, the guardian or protecting spirit of each man's life. Such spirits were called by the Greeks dai/xovse, by the Romans Genii, and were regarded as the ministers of Zeus, and guardians of men and justice. Hesiod numbers the Dsemones at 30,000. 72 MYTHOLOGY. GRATIS, the three goddesses presiding over all elegant arts and social enjoyments. They are generally represented dancing. Their names were Aglaia (splendour), Euphro- syne (joy), Thalia (pleasure). HADES or PLUTO ('Ai%), god of the {unseen or) nether world He is also known as Orcus, Tartarus, and Bis. The word Hades is also frequently used to designate the infernal regions. HEBE vel JUVENTAS, daughter of Jupiter and Juno ; the goddess of youth. She was for some time cup-bearer to the gods, to which office Ganymede succeeded; she was also employed by Juno in preparing her chariot, &c. She was supposed to have the power of making aged persons young again. HECATE, a Titan goddess, whose power extended over heaven, earth, and sea. Also a name for Diana or Pro- serpina. HELIOS, called SOL by the Romans, god of the sun; brother of Aurora. HORiE, daughters of Zeus and Themis. Originally the god- desses of the seasons, but in later times of order and justice. They were three in number, Eunomia (good order), DlkS (justice), Irene (peace). HYGIEA or HYGEA, the goddess of health ; daughter of iEsculapius. She is represented as a virgin, draped in a long robe, and feeding a serpent from a cup. HYMEN vel HYMEN^EUS, the god of marriage ; described by some as the son of Bacchus and Venus, by others as the son of Apollo and one of the Muses. IRIS, the goddess of the rainbow, and the messenger of the deities, particularly of Juno. ISIS, a celebrated deity of the Egyptians, described as tho wife of Osiris ; goddess of the earth, and deity of the moon ; inventor of the cultivation of wheat and barley. JANUS, a Roman deity ; god of the temple of war. He is represented with two faces, sometimes with four heads. Numa dedicated a temple to Janus, open in times of war, and closed in times of peace. MYTHOLOGY. 73 LARES, inferior gods at Home, who presided over houses and families, and were divided into Lares publici and Lares do- mestici ; all the latter were headed by the Lar familiaris, regarded as the founder of the family. Their images stood on the hearth, and offerings were made to them daily. LUNA or SELENE, daughter of Hyperion ; the goddess of the moon, identified afterwards with Diana. MANES, the general name for the souls of the departed. They were regarded as gods, and received divine honours. MOMUS, the god of pleasantry, wit, and satire ; driven from heaven by the gods for turning all their actions into ridicule. MORPHEUS, son of the deity Somnus, and god of dreams. MUSiE, goddesses who presided over poetry, &c. They were the daughters of Jupiter and Mnemosyne (Memory), and nine in number : 1. Clio, the muse of History ; 2. Euterpe, of Lyric Poetry; 3. Thalia, of Comedy; 4. Melpomene, of Tragedy ; 5. Terpsichore, of Choral Dance ; 6. Erato, of Amatory Poetry; 7. Polyhymnia, of Rhetoric and Elo- quence; 8. Urania, of Astronomy; 9. Calliope, Epic Poetry. At the Olympian banquets they sang to Apollo's lyre. Their favourite haunts were the hills Pindus, Helicon, and Parnassus. NEMESIS, daughter of Nox, goddess of vengeance, and always prepared to punish the wicked and reward the good. NEREUS, a deity of the sea, and father of the fifty Nereides. He* is represented as an old man, and described as the wise old man of the sea, at the bottom of which he dwelt. NYMPH^E, a numerous class of female deities, generally divided into two classes, viz. land and water nymphs. The chief land nymphs were : 1st, Oreades, of the mountains and grottoes; 2d, Napoeae, of the forests, glens, and groves; 3d, Dryades and Hamadryades, of the woods and trees. The chief water nymphs were: 1st, Oceanldes, or ocean nymphs, three thousand in number ; 2d, Nereides, or sea nymphs, fifty in number (among them we find Amphitrite, Thetis, and Galatea) ; 3d, Naiades, a general name for those nymphs presiding over either rivers, lakes, brooks, or springs ; 4th, Potameldes, or river nymphs. 74 MYTHOLOGY. OCEANUS, the god of water ; son of Uranus and Ge ; repre- sented as an old man, sitting on the waves of the sea. OSIRIS, a great Egyptian divinity, husband of Isis, and god of the Nile. lie taught the use of the plough, and is some- times represented as the deity of the sun. PALES, the divinity of sheep-folds and pastures among the Romans. Px\N, the god of shepherds ; son of Hermes. He was usually represented as a monster with two small horns on his head, ruddy complexion, flat nose, and with the legs, tail, and feet of a goat. He resided chiefly in Arcadia, and is said to have invented the pipe with seven reeds, called Syrinx, from a nymph of that name whom he loved. PAX, the Roman goddess of peace ; daughter of Zeus and Themis, PENATES, the household gods of the Romans, called Penates from being placed in the innermost part (in penitissima parte) of the house ; they were generally made of wax, ivory, silver, or clay. PIICEBE, a name given to Diana as goddess of the moon (Luna) ; Apollo, her brother, being surnamed Phoebus, god .of the sun. PHCEBUS, expressive of brightness, a surname given to Apollo as god of the sun. PLUTO, the son of Saturn and Rhea ; god of the infernal regions. He is described as gloomy and inexorable ; on which account, as none of the goddesses would marry him, he bore off Proserpine by force. He is also known as Orcus, Hades, Dis, &c. PLUTUS, son of Ceres and Iasion ; the god of wealth. Jupiter is said to have deprived him of sight, that he might not bestow his gifts on the righteous alone. POMONA, the goddess of fruits among the Romans. PRIAPUS, a deity who presided over gardens, and was wor- shipped as a protector of flocks, goats, bees, and fishing. PROSERPINA vel PERSEPHONE, daughter of Jupiter and Ceres, and wife of Pluto as queen of the lower world. She presided over the death of mankind. MYTHOLOGY. it) PROTEUS, a sea deity (the prophetic old man of the sea), remarkable for his custom of assuming different forms -when consulted. He is described as a subject of Neptune, whose flocks (the seals) he tended. PARC^E vel MOIR^E, the Fates, powerful goddesses, who presided over the life and death of mankind. They were three in number, viz. : Clotho, or the spinning fate, who presided at the birth; Lachesis, who spun out all the events of each man's life, and assigned his lot or fate ; Atropos, the inflexible fate that cannot be avoided, who cut the thread of life. SATURNUS (Kpoi'os), a son of Ccelus and Uranus, and the father of Jupiter. As the god of time he is represented as an old man, holding a scythe in his right hand. SILENUS, a rural deity; an attendant on Bacchus. Usually represented in a state of intoxication, and never seen with- out his wine-bag. SILVANUS, a Roman deity, who presided over the woods and forests. THEMIS, daughter of Uranus and Ge ; the mother of Astraea, Irene, the Parcce, &c, &c. She is the personification of Law and Equity. THETIS, one of the sea deities or Nereides (daughters of Nereus), and the mother of Achilles. URANUS, CCELUS, or HEAVEN, a Titan; the most ancient of all the gods ; father of Saturn, Oceanus, &c. VERTUMNUS, the Roman deity who presided over plants and flowers. HEROES, MYTHICAL PERSONS, &c. ACHERON, a river of the lower world, over which the dead were first conveyed : the word is sometimes used to desig- nate the whole of the infernal regions. ADMETUS, son of Pheres and Periclymene, king of Pherse, iD Thessaly, husband of Alcestis, and one of the Argonauts. 76 MYTHOLOGY. ADONIS, a beautiful youth, the favourite of Venus ; at his death she transformed him into the flower called Ane- mone. iEACUS, son of Zeus and JEgina : he was so famed through- out Greece for his justice and piety, that he was called upon to settle the disputes not only of men, but sometimes of the gods ; on his death he became one of the thre« judges in Hades. JEGJEON (vide Briareus). ALCESTIS, daughter of Pelias, and wife of Admetus, who, having on the day of his marriage neglected to sacrifice to Artemis, Apollo reconciled the offended goddess, and induced the Fates to deliver Admetus from death, if his father, mother, or wife, would die for him ; Alcestis died in his stead, but was brought back from the lower world by Hercules. AMAZONES, a nation of female warriors, said to have come from the Caucasus, and settled near the river Thermodon, in Pontus ; Hippolyte was their queen. ARIADNE, daughter of Minos and Creta ; she fell in love with Theseus, who married her, but afterwards forsook her. ATLAS, one of the Titans, who is generally represented as supporting the world on his shoulders ; which task was allotted him in consequence of his having, with the other Titans, made war upon Zeus (vide Titanes). BELLEROPHON, son of Glaucus a Corinthian king. To be purified from the murder of his brother Bellerus, he fled to Prcetus, king of Argos, by whom he was sent to Iobates, king of Lycia, his father-in-law, who ordered him to slay the monster Chimaera, thinking he would perish in the contest; but Bellerophon, having obtained the aid of Pe- gasus, the winged horse, conquered the Chimsera : he was also sent against the Amazons, and encountered the bravest of the Lycians, always returning victorious. Iobates, see- ing it was hopeless to kill the hero, made him his successor, and gave him his daughter in marriage. Some relate that Bellerophon attempted to fly to heaven on Pegasus, but Zeus sent a gad-fly to sting the horse, which threw off the MYTHOLOGY. 77 rider, who became lame or blind, and wandered about the earth till the day of his death. BRIAREUS vel vEGEON, a famous giant, who had 100 hands and fifty heads, called by men iEgaeon, and only by the gods Briareus. He is said to have conquered the Titans, when they made war on the gods. CALYPSO, one of the ocean nymphs who dwelt in the mythical island of Ogygia, on which Ulysses was ship- wrecked. CASTOR, son of Jupiter and brother of Pollux, distinguished for his skill and management of horses. Castor and his brother enjoyed immortality, and were called the Dioscuri. CENTAURI, a race inhabiting Mount Pelion, in Thessaly, represented as half men and half horses ; Chiron was the most celebrated of the Centaurs (vide Pirithous). CERBERUS, the dog of Pluto : he guarded the entrance to Hades, and is said by some to have had fifty heads, by others only three; his den was near the spot where Charon landed the dead. CHARON, a son of Erebus (darkness) : he conducted the souls of the departed in a boat over the rivers Acheron and Styx to the lower regions, for an obolus (about l%d.) ; as all the dead were obliged to pay, a small coin was usually placed in the mouth of the deceased. CHIRON, the most celebrated of the Centaurs : he lived on Mt. Pelion, and was famed for his knowledge of hunting, medicine, music, and prophecy ; he instructed the chief heroes of his age, namely, Hercules, Jason, Achilles, Pe- leus, &c, and was wounded accidentally in the knee by a poisoned arrow shot by Hercules in his contest with the Centaurs. After his death, Chiron was placed among the constellations by Zeus. CIRCE, a mythical sorceress, daughter of Sol and Perseus, celebrated for her knowledge of magic and venomous herbs. COCYTUS, a river in Epirus, and tributary of the Acheron , it was supposed to be connected with the lower world, and hencft was described as one of the five rivers of hell. 78 MYTHOLOGY. CYCLOPES, a race of men of gigantic stature ; they had but one circular eye in the centre of their forehead, whence the name Kvx"ku>Tts<; ; they were three in number according to Hesiod, and called Arges, Brontes, and Steropes ; but this number was afterwards increased. DiEDALUS, the most ingenious artist of his time: he in- vented sails for ships, and made wings with wax and feathers for himself and son Icarus ; with these they toot flight from Crete : but the heat of the sun melted the wa* on the wings of Icarus, and he fell into the part of th* ocean called after him the Icarian Sea. DAPHNE, daughter of the river-god Peneus in Thessaly, o^ Ladon in Arcadia : she was much beloved by Apollo, and fearful of being caught by him, was changed into a laurel tree, which thence became the favourite tree of Apollo. DEUCALION, son of Prometheus, and king of Phthia in Thessaly, saved with his wife Pyrrha, on account of theiff piety, when Zeus destroyed by a flood the race of men. On the waters subsiding, Deucalion and Pyrrha offered a sacrifice, and consulted the oracle of Themis how the human race might be restored ; the oracle ordered them to cast behind them the bones of their mother, which they interpreting to be the Earth, threw stones behind their backs, when those thrown by Deucalion turned into men, and those by Pyrrha into women. ELYSIUM, a place in the lower world, the abode of the vir- tuous after death: the Elysian regions are placed by some in the middle region of the air or ocean ; by others in the moon and sun ; and by others in the centre of the earth, near Tartarus. ENDYMION, a youth celebrated for his beauty and per- petual sleep. EREBUS (signifying darkness), a deity of hell ; the word is applied to the gloomy regions, the abode of the wicked as well as of the good, and is distinguished both from Tar- tarus and Elysium. EUROPA, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia: her beauty captivated Zeus, who, taking the form of a bull, mingled MYTHOLOGY. 79 with the herd of Agenor ; when Europa, encouraged by the tameness of the animal, mounted his back, whereupon Zeus rushed into the sea and swam with her in safety to Crete, where she became the mother of Minos, Rhadaman- thus, and Sarpedon. GIGANTES. the giants, sons of heaven and earth, a savage race, destroyed on account of their insolence to the gods. GORGONES, three celebrated sisters, daughters of Phorcyf the sea deity ; their names were Stheno, Euryale, and Me- dusa; they were frightful creatures, and instead of hail their heads were covered with serpents ; they had wings, brazen claws, and enormous teeth. Perseus slew Medusa, whose head was placed in the centre of Minerva's shield, and had the power of turning all that looked at it into stone. HARPYIiE, winged monsters, with the face of a woman and body of a vulture ; they were three in number, Aetto, Ce- Iceno, and Ocypete. HERACLYDiE, a name given to the descendants of Her- cules, who, with the Dorians, conquered the Peloponnesus (b.c. 1104). HERCULES, the most celebrated hero of antiquity: he was the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, and born at Thebes. Juno early plotted his destruction, and her cruelty ren- dered him subject to the will of Eurystheus, king of My- cenae, who imposed on him twelve labours (vide infra). His first exploit previous to entering the service of Eurys- theus, was killing the enormous lion which destroyed the flocks of Amphitryon and of Thespius, king of Thespias : the gods, charmed with the bravery of Hercules, presented him with a complete suit of armour ; Jupiter gave a shield, Apollo a bow and arrows, Mercury a sword, Vulcan a golden cuirass and a club of brass, and Minerva a coat of mail. ITESPERIDES, the celebrated guardians of the golden apples, which Ge gave to Juno on the day of her marriage with Jupiter : they were called the daughters of Atlas and Hes- peris, whence their name ; th^y resided near Mount Atlas, in Africa. 80 MYTHOLOGY HIPPOLYTE, daughter of Mars, queen of the Amazones ; she wore a girdle given her by her father, which was taken from her by Hercules (vide 9th labour). HYPERION, a Titan, son of Uranus (heaven) and Ge (earth), (father of Helios) the sun. HYADES (i. e. the rainy), a name given to seven nymphs, who formed, with the Pleiades, the constellation known by that name. IAPETUS, one of the Titans ; being the father of Prometheus, he was regarded by the Greeks as the father of all mankind. 10, the daughter of Inachus, king of Argos. Hera being jealous of her, Zeus changed her into a white heifer: Hera then sent the hundred-eyed Argus to watch her ; but he being slain by Hermes, the goddess persecuted her with a gad-fly; she swam across the Thracian Bosporus (hence its name Ox-ford), and, after wandering over the earth, gave birth to Epaphus, on the banks of the Nile. IXION, king of the Lapithge, and father of Pirithous. He treacherously murdered his father-in-law, Deioneus, and having proved ungrateful to Zeus, who had purified him, the god condemned him to be tied to a wheel which per- petually revolved in Hades. JASON, the celebrated leader of the Argonautae, in the expe- dition to Colchis ; he was the son of iEson and Alcimede, and brought up by the Centaur Chiron (vide Argonautic Expedition). LAPITHiE, a savage race inhabiting the mountains of Thes- saly ; Pirithous was their king (vide Pirithous). LATONA (Arjtu>), a Titaness, the mother of Apollo and Diana. LEDA, daughter of Thestius, and wife of Tyndarus, king of Sparta ; she was the mother of Helena by Zeus, who visited her in the form of a swan. LETHE, a river in the lower world, whose waters, if the souls. of the dead drank, had the power of making them forget all they had done before (derivation %rfiq, oblivion). MAIA, daughter of Atlas, and one of the Pleiades, the most luminous of the seven sisters. MYTHOLOGY. 81 MEDEA, daughter of iEetes, king of Colchis, celebrated for her skill in music ; she fell in love with Jason, and assisted him in obtaining the golden fleece (vide Argonautic Expe- dition). MINOS, son of Zeus and Europa, brother of Rhadamantlus and the king and legislator of Crete. On his death, Minos became one of the judges of the lower world. NARCISSUS, a beautiful youth, changed into the flowei which bears his name. NIOBE, daughter of Tantalus, sister of Pelops, and wife of Amphion : being the mother of seven sons and daughters, she considered herself superior to Latona, who had borne only two ; for this conduct, her children were slain by Apollo and Diana, she herself being turned into stone. ORION, a celebrated giant, sprung from Jupiter, Neptune, and Mercury ; after his death, Orion was placed among the constellations. ORPHEUS, one of the Argonauts, supposed to be a son of Apollo, and regarded by the Greeks as the most celebrated of the early poets. His skill on the lyre was such that he charmed even Cerberus and the inhabitants of Hades, when he went thither to recover his wife Eurydice, whom he lost by looking back upon before they had regained the earth. PANDORA (rtoH^wpa), a woman so named from having re- ceived every necessary gift: from Venus, beauty; from Mercury, eloquence ; and from Minerva, splendid orna- ments. Pandora was the first woman on earth, and made by Vulcan from clay, by order of Jupiter, who might, by her charms, bring woes upon the earth, because Prome- theus had stolen fire from heaven. She was married to Epimetheus, brother of Prometheus : in his house was a jar or box, which he had been forbidden to open ; but Pandora's curiosity could not resist the temptation, and as soon as it was opened all the evils incident to man escaped, Hope alone being left. Others relate that it was ajar, not a box, which Pandora brought from heaven. PEGASUS, a celebrated winged horse (sprung from the blood of Medusa, me of the Gorgons, when Perseus cut off her 82 MYTHOLOGY. head) : he is described as the thunder-bearer of Jupiter ; "but by later writers as the horse of Aurora. PERSEUS, a famous hero, son of Jupiter and Danae, and husband of Andromeda ; he is said to have founded My- cenae (vide Gorgones). PHAETHON (i. e. the shining), a surname of Sol, commonly known as a son of Sol by one of the Oceanides : he was killed by Zeus with lightning, for his attempt to drive the chariot of the sun across the heavens. PHLEGETHON, a river of hell, in which fire flowed instead of water. PIEMDES, a name given to the Muses, derived from Pieria, in Thessaly, where they were first worshipped. PIRITHOUS, a hero worshipped at Athens, and king of the Lapithse, in Thessaly : at his marriage with Hippodamla the Centaur Eurytion carried her off; which occasioned the war between the Lapithse and Censtaurs, in which the latter were defeated. PLEIADES, a name given to the seven daughters of Atlas — Elect ra, Mala, Tdygete, Alcyone, Celceno, Sterope, Merope. POLLUX, son of Jupiter and Leda, and brother of Castor, famed for his skill in boxing (vide Castor). POLYPHEMUS, son of Neptune, a celebrated Cyclops, who fed on human flesh, and kept his flocks on the coast of Sicily. PROMETHEUS (the Forethinker), the son of Iapetus, one of the Titans. Jupiter, to punish him and the rest of man- kind, deprived the earth of fire ; but Prometheus stole it from heaven, for which Zeus chained him on Mount Cau- casus, where an eagle preyed on his liver for ages : it was ultimately slain by Hercules. PSYCHE ("Vvxri), signifying " the soul," a nymph whom Cupid married : Venus for a time imposed on her the most unpleasant labours, which well-nigh killed her: but Ju- piter, at Cupid's request, conferred on her immortality. PYTHON, a celebrated serpent, lived in the caves of Mount Parnassus, and was slain by Apollo, who, in commemora- tion of his victory, founded the Pythian games. MYTHOLOGY. 83 RIIADAMANTHUS, son of Zeus and Europa, and brother of Minos, king of Crete, from wham he fled to Boeotia, and married Alcmene. From his justice throughout life, he became after death one of the judges of hell. RHEA, OPS or CYBELE, daughter of Coelus and Terra, wife of Saturn, and mother of Jupiter and the gods. SATYRI, the name of a class of demigods, attendants on Bacchus, represented with the legs and feet of a goat, short horns, bristly hair, and pointed ears ; the elder Satyrs were called Sileni. * SIRENES, sea nymphs, who had the power of charming by their songs all who heard them : they are usually stated to have been three in number, the daughters of Phoroys, a sea deity. Ulysses, when sailing near their* abode, stopped the ears of his companions with wax, and tied himself to the mast, to avoid being charmed by their songs, and thus delayed. SPIIYNX, a monster who had the head and breasts of a woman, body of a dog, tail of a serpent, wings of a bird, paws of a lion, and a human voice. STYX, one of the rivers of hell, round which it was said to flow nine times: it was held in such veneration by the gods, that they took oaths by it ; and Zeus caused those who swore falsely to drink of it, which had the effect of stupefying them for a year. TARTARUS, one of the regions of Hades or hell, where the most impious of men were punished. The principal cri- minals were, 1. Tityus, slain by Apollo and Diana for his conduct to their mother, Latona ; in Tartarus his body covered nine acres of land, and a vulture preyed, without ceasing, on his liver. 2. Ixion, fixed by Zeus on a revolv- ing wheel for having aspired to the love of Juno. 3. Tan- talus, who, for having, at an entertainment given by him to the gods, served up the flesh of his son Pelops, was punished with insatiable thirst; he is represented as placed up to the chin in a pool of water, which flowed away when- ever he attempted to taste it. 4. Sisyphus, a son of iEolus, and king of Corinth ; he is said to have greatly 84 MYTHOLOGY. promoted navigation and commerce ; but his wickedness was great, and as a punishment for his crimes, he was condemned in hell to roll to the top of a hill a large stone, which no sooner reached the summit than it rolled down again into the plain. 5. The Dan aides, forty-nine maidens, who, for stabbing their husbands, the sons of iEgyptus, on their wedding-night, were sentenced to iJ 11 a perforated tub with water. Hypermnestra, the fiftieth, spared the life of her husband, Lynceus. TITANES, children of Uranus and'Ge: they were twelve in number, six sons and six daughters, viz. Oceanus, Ceus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, Cronus: Thea, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Tethys. Zeus and his brothers re- belled and waged war against Saturn and the Titans : this contest was carried on for ten years, Saturn's party fighting from Mount Othrys, Jupiter's from Mount Olympus; at length Jupiter released the Hecaton-Cheires (the hundred- handed), the Titans were defeated and confined in Tar- tarus. The name Titanes is also given to the descendants of the Titans. TRITON, a son of Neptune and Amphitrite: he is repre- sented riding over the sea on horses or sea-monsters, hold- ing a trumpet made out of a shell (concha). TYPHON, a monstrous giant, described as having a hundred heads, and vomiting flame. He was no sooner born, than he made war against the gods, who were so terrified that they assumed different shapes, Jupiter a ram, &c. ; eventu- ally, Typhon was crushed by a thunderbolt from Jupiter, and placed under Mount iEtna EAKLY GKECIAN LEGENDS. THE ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION. Athamas, a king of Boeotia, married Nephe'le, by whom he had two children, Phrixus and Helle. On the death of his wife, Athamas married Ino, whose jealousy of her step-chil- dren induced her to destroy them ; they, however, contrived to escape, and attempted to cross the sea to Colchis, on the back of a golden-fleeced ram, given by Hermes. Helle, being unable to keep her seat, was drowned in the strait called from her the Hellespont. Phrixus, having reached Col- chis in safety, offered up the ram to Zeus, and presented the fleece to King Metes, who had received him kindly; the fleece was nailed to an oak in the sacred grove of Mars, and guarded by a dragon. Jason, son of iEson, king of Iolcos, in Thessaly, undertook to recover this fleece. He gave orders to Argus, a son of Phrixus (who was assisted by Minerva), to build a vessel of fifty oars; the ship was named " Argo," from the builder, and those who went on the expedition " Argonautas" (i.e. "sailors of the Argo"). Jason was accompanied by the most re- nowned heroes of the time, to the number of fifty ; among whom were Hercules, Theseus, Pirithous, Castor and Pollux, Telamon, Peleus, Admetus, Oileus, Neleus, Laertes, Mencetius, Orpheus the minstrel, Mopsus the seer, iEsculapius the physician, Tiphys the pilot. After various adventures, the Argo entered the river Phasis, in Colchis, the heroes landed, and Jason immediately informed the king of his mission ; the monarch consented to his taking the fleece, provided he performed the necessary conditions, 8 (85) 86 EARLY LEGENDS RELATING TO THEBES. viz., ploughing a piece of land with the brazen-footed bulla of Vulcan, sowing it with the teeth of the dragon slain by Cadmus, and destroying the armed crop which would spring up. Medea, the king's daughter, fell in love with Jason, and with her assistance he obtained the golden fleece, and left the country, accompanied by Medea. iEetes, finding that Jason had departed, and taken his daughter, got on shipboard, and pursued ; but, to detain him, Medea murdered her brother Absyrtus, and cut him in pieces, so that, while her father was collecting the scattered limbs, the Argo escaped, and eventually arrived in safety at Iolcos. EARLY LEGENDS RELATING TO THEBES. Thebes, the Capital of Boeotia, is said to have been founded (c. b.c. 1500) by CADMUS, son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia. According to the legend, Cadmus, failing to find his sister Europa, who had been carried off by Zeus, settled in Thrace, and being ordered by the Delphic Oracle to build a town where a cow, which he was to follow, should sink down with fatigue, he founded Cadmea, the citadel of Thebes. He also there killed a dragon which guarded a well of Ares, and, by the instruction of Athena, sowed its teeth, from which armed men, called Sparti (i. e. sown), sprung up and slew each other, except five, who became the ancestors of the Thebans. Cadmus was succeeded by his son Polydorus, who was in turn succeeded by his son Labdacus. He was the father of Lai us, the next king, who had a son, CEdipus, by Jo- cast a, the daughter of Menoeceus and sister of Creon. STORY OF GEDIPUS, AND OF THE WAR OF THE SEVEN AGAINST THEBES. An Oracle having foretold that Laius should be slain by his son, (Edipus was exposed at his birth on Mt. Cithaercn, THE SEVEN AGAINST THEBES. 87 but was found by a shepherd, who (from his feet being pierced through) gave him the name of Ol8inovi (i. e. swollen- footed), and brought him to his master, Poly bus, king of Corinth, and husband of Merope or Periboea, and by whom (Edipus was brought up. On attaining manhood, his birthright being called in question, (Edipus consulted the Delphic Oracle, which replied that he was destined to slay his father and marry his mother. Soon afterwards, near Daulis, he met his father in a chariot, and, refusing to make way for him, was struck by Laius, whom he killed, together with the slight escort which attended the chariot. Purposely avoiding Corinth, he arrived at Thebes, where he foiled the Sphynx, a monster who used to murder all those who were unable to solve the riddles which she put to them. (Edipus having explained the riddle of the being with four, two, and three feet, to mean man crawling in infancy, walking in man- hood, and leaning on a staff in old age, the monster was so enraged at the solution, that she threw herself down from the rock on which she was seated. The Thebans, according to their promise, rewarded (Edipus with the hand of their queen, Jo cast a, by whom he became the father as well aa brother of Eteocles, Polynices, Antigone, and Ismene. In consequence of his marriage a plague was sent, and Creon brought back word from Delphi that the murderer of Laius must be banished. Tire si as, the blind seer, forced by (Edipus, revealed to him his crimes ; whereupon Jocasta hung herself, and (Edipus put out his own eyes, was expelled by his sons, and wandered an outcast, under the guidance of his daughter Antigone, to Colonos, in Attica, where he died. Eteocles having violated the agreement with Polynices to reign in turns, the latter fled to Adrastus, king of Argos, married his daughter Argla, and persuaded her father to assist him against Eteocles. Polynices, accompanied by Adrastus, Tydeus, Amphiaraus, Capaneus, Hippo- medon, and Parthenopasus, advanced against Thebes, and each assailed one of its seven gates ; but were all slain except Adrastus ; Eteocles and Polynices falling by each other's hands. Antigone performed the rites of burial over 88 EARLY KINGS OF TROY. Polynices, in defiance of the orders of Creon (who was regent for Lao dam as, son of Eteocles), and was buried alive by her uncle's command; whereupon Haemon, her lover, son of Creon, slew himself in despair. Ten years after the war of the "Seven against Thebes," the descendants fE;ttyoi>oc) of the heroes stormed Thebes, and razed it to the ground. EARLY KINGS OF TROY. 1. TEUCER (c. B.C. 1400?), hence the Trojans were called Teucri. His daughter Batea married — 2. DARDANUS, who came from Arcadia and Samothrace, and built Dardania, hence the name Dardanelles. 3. ERICTHONIUS, his son, was the wealthiest of mortals, and was succeeded by his son — 4. TROS, hence Troja, Troy; he was the father, by Cal- lirhoe, of — 5. ILUS, after whom Troy was called Ilium. The brothers of Ilus were Assaracus (grandfather of iEneas) and Ganymede s, who was carried off by Zeus to be his cup-bearer, in place of Hebe. Tros was compensated for his loss by a present of horses. Zeus also gave Ilus the Palladium, or image of Pallas, with the promise that, as long as it remained in Troy, the city should be safe. 6. LAOMEDON, son of Ilus, and husband of Strymo. Jupiter condemned Neptune and Apollo to serve him for a year ; the former built the walls of his city, the latter became his shep- herd. Upon his insolently refusing them their wages, Nep- tune sent a sea-monster to ravage the country. He si one, the daughter of Laomedon, was chosen by lot as a sacrifice to appease this scourge ; but Hercules came to her assistance, and offered to save her if the king would give him the horses of Zeus. After Hercules had slain the monster, Laomedon refused to fulfil the conditions he had agreed to ; the hero therefore slew him and all his sons, except Priam, whom Hesione ransomed with her veil. 7. PRIAM (i. e. ransomed, itplaiwx), originally called Podarces, married Hecuba, by whom he had Hector, Paris, Helenus, DeiphSbus, LEGEND OF THE TROJAN WAR. 89 Polydorus, Troilus, also Creusa, Laodice, Polyxena, Cassandra, and other children. At the taking of Troy, he was slain by Pyrrhus at the altar of Zeus, before which his son Polite s had just fallen by the same hand. LEGEND OF THE TROJAN WAR. b.c. 1194 — b.c. 1184. To the marriage of Peleus, king of the Myrmidons, in Thessaly, and Thetis, parents of Achilles, all the deities were invited, except the Goddess of Discord ( v Epc$), who, in revenge, threw among the guests a golden apple, inscribed " To the fairest." Juno, Venus, and Minerva each claim- ing it, Jupiter referred the decision to Paris, also called Alexander, a son of Priam, and at that time a shepherd on Mt. Gargarus (a part of Mt. Ida), on which he had been exposed at his birth, owing to his mother Hecuba having dreamed that she had brought forth a firebrand, which should devastate Troy. Paris, at the risk of drawing down on himself and on his country the resentment of the two other goddesses, awarded the apple to Venus, who had pro- mised him the most beautiful woman for his wife. This was Helen, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, and wife of Mene- laus, king of Sparta, whence Paris carried her off, together with the treasures of her husband. Upon the commission of this outrage, the various Grecian chieftains, who had been suitors of Helen, collected at Aulis, in Bceotia, an army of about 100,000 men, and a fleet of 1186 ships, and placed them under the command of Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, brother to Menelaus, and the most powerful of the Greeks. Before, however, the expedition started, Menelaus and Ulysses attempted a fruitless negotiation at Troy. Agamemnon hav- ing, at Aulis, killed a stag sacred to Diana, a pestilence was sent on his followers, and a calm detained their vessels. Calchas (the son of Thestor) the Grecian soothsayer, ordered him to appease the anger of the goddess by sacrificing his 8* 90 LEGEND OF THE TROJAN WAR. daughter Iphigema. Diana, however, substituted a stag as a victim, and carried off Iphigema to be her priestess at Tau- ris, where she subsequently delivered her brother Orestes, when he was on the point of being sacrificed to Diana. The Greeks, on their arrival at Troy, drew their ships on shore, and surrounded them with a fortification ; but being unable to take the city, they blockaded it, and ravaged the neighbouring country. Among the spoils of Chrysa (one of the captured cities) was Chryseis, who fell to the lot of Agamemnon. On his refusing to release her, Chryses, her father, obtained from Apollo, whose priest he was, the inflic- tion of a pestilence on the Greeks. Calchas having declared the cause of the plague, Chryseis was released, and Aga- memnon consoled himself by taking away B rise is from Achilles, into whose hands she had fallen at the capture of Lyrnessus. Achilles, being deeply enraged, refused to take any further part in the war ; at last, finding that the Greeks, from being deprived of his aid, were worsted, and even their ships assailed with fire, he permitted his friend Patroclus to put on his armour, and lead his Myrmidons to the fight. Patroclus was slain by Hector; and Achilles, in consequence, roused by grief and resentment, and being furnished by his mother with fresh armour, forged by Vulcan, rescued his friend's dead body, and burnt it. He then pursued Hector thrice round the walls of Troy, slew him, tied him to his chariot, and dragged him to the ships. The aged Priam ransomed in person his son's corpse, and buried it: with this event, the subject of the Iliad of Homer closes. The same poem also relates several single combats between the various heroes, in which the gods and goddesses often take part; Juno, Minerva, Neptune, Mercury, and Vulcan, espousing the side of the Greeks, while Mars, Phoerbus, Diana, Venus, and Latona, aid the Trojans. Homer also gives an account of the slaughter, by Ulysses and Diomedes, of Rhesus, king of Thrace, and the carrying off his snow-white horses before they drank of the Xanthus, And fed on the Trojan plains; which had they done, Troy, ac- cording to a prediction of an oracle, could not have been taken. GRECIAN HEROES, ETC. 91 Helenus (son of Priam), who had deserted from tho Trojans, having foretold that the presence of Pyrrhus or Neoptolemus (son of Achilles and Deidamia) and Phi- loctetes was necessary for the success of the Greeks, thft former was brought by Ulysses from the court of his grand father, Lycomedes, king of Scyros ; and afterwards eitho he or Diomedes aided Ulysses in bringing Phiioctete*, who had been bitten by a serpent nine years previously, and left behind at Lemnos by the Greeks, on their way to Troy. Philoctetes, being cured on his arrival, employed against the Trojans the arrows Hercules had given him, and mortally wounded Paris. The carrying off the Palladium from Troy is ascribed to Diomedes and Ulysses ; and the latter hero has also the credit of contriving the huge wooden horse (constructed by Epeus, with the aid of Minerva), which Sinon, a pretended deserter, persuaded the Trojans had been left by the Greeks, on their departure for the Peloponnesus, as an atonement for carrying off the Palladium, and made of a large size, in order that it might not be drawn into the city. Notwithstanding the opposition of Lao coon (who, with his two sons, was killed by serpents sent by Pallas), the in- fatuated Trojans drag the horse within their walls, and Sinon by night releases the Greeks who had been concealed in it. Meanwhile the Grecian army, which Lad retired only to Tenedos, arrives, and the ill-fated city is sacked and burnt. iEneas, however, escapes, with his father, son, and house- hold gods (his wife, Creusa, being parted from him in the confusion) ; and, after many adventures, he reaches Italy, and founds Lavinium. GRECIAN HEROES, &c, CONNECTED WITH THE TROJAN WAR. ACHILLES, son of Peleus and Thetis ; leader of the Myrmi- dons from Piithiotis, in ThesfcdJy. His mother gave him the choice between a long but inglorious life, and one of 92 GRECIAN HEROES, ETC. renown and short duration ; the latter of which he chose. Thetis, knowing his fate, concealed him, when a child, among the daughters of Lycomedes, king of Scyros ; but Ulysses discovered his place of concealment. He was re- luctantly led to the Trojan war, of which he was the chief hero, and, after exhibiting deeds of great prowess, he was slain in battle, at the Scsean Gate, before the capture of Troy ; but some say he was shot by Paris in the heel, the only part of his body which was vulnerable, Thetis having held him there when she dipped him in the Styx. AGAMEMNON, son of Atreus and grandson of Pelops, and commander-in-chief in the Trojan war. On his return to Mycenae, he was slain by his wife, Clytemnestra, daughter of Tyndarus, who had married JEgisthus in her husband's absence. Orestes, aided by his friend Pylades, avenged his father's death. AJAX, son of Olleus, king of the Locrians. On his return from the war, he was drowned by Neptune, for setting at nought the god's assistance during a shipwreck, in which his companions perished. Virgil relates that he was dashed on a rock by Minerva, in whose temple he had insulted Cassandra, at the capture of Troy. AJAX, son of Telamon, king of Salamis, and inferior only to Achilles in bravery. Ulysses having defeated him in the contest for the armour of Achilles, he became mad, and slaughtered a flock of sheep, imagining them to be the Greeks ; on discovering his mistake, he committed suicide. By Tecmessa he had a son, Eurysaces, named after his father's broad shield. ANTILOCHUS, son of Nestor ; slain at Troy by Memnon, after many deeds of bravery. AUTOMEDON, charioteer and companion of Achilles, and afterwards of Pyrrhus. CALCHAS, the soothsayer who foretold the length of the Trojan war, and died of grief because Mopsus excelled him in his art. DIOMEDES or TYDIDES, son of Tydeus and Deipyle ; king of Argos. On his return from the war, finding his wife, GBECIAX HEROES, ETC. 93 ^Egialea, married to Hippolytus, he went to ^Etolia. As he was returning, a storm cast him on the coast of Daunia, in Apulia, where he is said to have founded several towns, Arpi, Beneventum, Brundusium, Yenusia, &o HELENA, daughter of Zeus and Leda. On the death of Paris, she married his brother, Deiphobus, but afterwards became reconciled to her former husband, Menelaus. EDOMENEUS, son of the Cretan Deucalion, king of Crete ; one of the bravest warriors on the side of the Greeks. It is said that he sacrificed his son (who first met him on his return) to Xeptune, owing to a rash vow he had made in a storm. LAODICE or ELECTRA. After the murder of her father, Agamemnon, she sent her brother, Orestes, to King Stro- phius, in Phocis, where he became intimate with Pylades, whom Electra married, after she had incited Orestes to avenge his father's death. MACHAOX, son of JEsculapius, and surgeon of the Greeks. MENELAUS, son of Atreus, and husband of Helen, by whom he had Hermione, wife of Xeoptolemus. MERIOXES, a brave warrior, who came with Idomeneus from Crete. XEOPTOLEMUS or PYRRHUS, son of Achilles; called Xeoptolemus (^05, rt(r)dte/wo$), because he came late to the Trojan tear, and Pyrrhus (rtvppoj), from the bright red colour of his hair. He was slain at Delphi. XESTOR, son of Xeleus, king of Pylos, in Elis, and the most venerable of the Greeks, by whom he was greatly respected for his wisdom, oratory, and skill in war. PATROCLUS, the intimate friend of Achilles. He was son of Mencetius, the brother of iEacus, who was grandfather to Achilles. PHILOCTETES, the best archer in the Trojan war. He was the friend of Hercules, who gave him his poisoned arrows, as a reward for setting fire to the pile on Mt. (Eta, on which Hercules burnt himself. PHCEXIX, son of Amyntor. He fled to Peleus, king of 94 GRECIAN HEROES, ETC. Tnessaly, who made him ruler of the Dolopes, and tutoi of Achilles, whom he accompanied to the Trojan war. PYRRHUS. See Neoptolemus. STHENELUS, son of Capaneus, and friend of Diomedes. TALTHYBIUS, herald of Agamemnon. TEUCER, son of Telamon, king of Salamis, who refused tc receive him on his return from Troy, because he had not avenged his half-brother Ajax's death. Teucer sailed to Cyprus, and there founded a second Salamis. ULYSSES CObvaasvi), son of Anticlea and Laertes, king of Ithaca. To avoid going to the Trojan war, he feigned madness, by yoking an ox and an ass together, and plough- ing the sea-shore, which he sowed with salt. Palamedes detected him, by placirig his infant son, Telemachus, before the plough, which the father stopped. After he left Troy, he underwent a variety of adventures, which are related in Homer's " Odyssey." He blinded the Cyclops Polyphemus, who had devoured six of his companions. After encountering various dangers from the Sirens (vide Mythol.), from shipwreck, and at the islands of iEolus, iEea (inhabited by the sorceress Circe, who changed his associates into swine), Sicily, Ogygla (where he was de- tained by Calypso, vide Mythol.), and Scheria, he reached Ithaca. In the meantime, the hand of his wife, Penelope, had been sought by numerous suitors, whom she had de- clined answering till she should have finished a web or robe for Laertes ; this she contrived to delay, by undoing by night her day's work. At last Ulysses, after an absence of twenty years, arrived in the disguise of a beggar ; and, after vanquishing the suitors in drawing the bow of Eury- tus, he slew them, by the aid of Telemachus and Minerva, and was recognized by his wife and aged father. TROJAN HEROES, ETC. 95 TROJAN HEROES, &c. ACESTES, son of the Sicilian river-god Crimlsus, and the Trojan Egesta or Segesta. He aided Priam in the Trojan war, and afterwards, together with Elynius (son of An- chises), hospitably received iEneas, who built the towns of iEgesta and Elyme, in Sicily. AENEAS, son of Anchises and Venus, and one of the bravest of the Trojans. By his wife, Creusa (who was parted from him in the confusion at the taking of Troy), he had a son, Ascanius or lulus. After escaping from Troy, he wan- dered over the JEgean and Ionian Seas to Sicily, and La- tium, in Italy, where he married Lavinia, daughter of the king La tin us, and built Lavinium. Latinus and Turnus, king of the Rutuli, having fallen in battle, iEneas succeeded to their power, but was slain by Mezentius, king of the Rutuli. Virgil, by an anachronism, represents JEneas as visiting Dido, queen of Carthage, who fell in love with him, and burnt herself alive on his leaving her. ALEXANDER. See Paris, page 89. ANCHISES, father of iEneas by Venus. Having accom- panied his son after the fall of Troy, he died in Sicily, and was buried on Mt. Eryx. ANDROMACHE, daughter of Eetion (king of Thebes, in Cilicia), and wife of Hector, by whom she had Seaman- drius or Astyanax. At the capture of Troy, her son was thrown from the walls, and she became the prize of Pyrrhus, but afterwards married Helenus, king of Chaonia, in Epirus. ANTENOR, one of the wisest of the Trojans. He advised the surrender of Helen before the war began. After it was over, he is said to have founded Patavium {Padua), in Italy. CASSANDRA, daughter of Priam; loved by Apollo, who gave her the gift of prophecy ; but, on her offending the god, he caused her prophecies to be discredited. At the taking of Troy, she was insulted by Ajax, son of Oileus, yb TROJAN HEROES, ETC. in the temple of Minerva. She afterwards became the prize of Agamemnon, and was murdered, at Mycenae, by Clytemnestra. CORCEBUS, a Phrygian; son of Mygdon. He fought at Troy with the hope of marrying Cassandra, but was killed by Peneleus or by Pyrrhus. PEIPHOBUS, son of Priam, and, next to Hector, the bravest among the Trojans. On the death of Paris, he married Helen, and was slain by Menelaus at the capture of Troy. GLAUCUS, grandson of Bellerophon, a % Lycian ally of the Trojans, slain by Ajax. HECTOR, eldest son of Priam, the bravest of the Trojans, and husband of Andromache. He slew Patroclus, and he himself fell by the hand of Achilles. HECUBA, daughter of Dymas, or of Cisseus, king of Thrace, and wife of Priam. After the fall of Troy, she was taken by the Greeks to the Thracian Chersonesus, where, accord- ing to Euripides, her daughter, Polyxena, who had been beloved by Achilles, was taken from her by Ulysses, and sacrificed by Pyrrhus. On the same day, Hecuba also be- held the murdered corpse of her son, Polydorus, cast on the shore. He had been entrusted to the care of Poly ni- ne stor, king of the Chersonese, by whom he was mur- dered, for the sake of the riches he had brought with him. Hecuba, in revenge, enticed Polymnestor to come to her, under pretence of revealing some Trojan treasure, when she blinded him and slew his sons. HELENUS, son of Priam, gifted with prophecy ; he fell to the lot of Pyrrhus, after whose death he married Andro- mache. When iEneas came to Epirus, Helenus foretold his destinies. MEMNON, son of Tithonus and Aurora, an Ethiopian princej who came to the assistance of his paternal uncle, Priam, and was slain by Achilles. PANDARUS, a Lycian archer; slain by Sthenelus or Dio- medes. PARIS or ALEXANDER, son of Priam, vide page 89. PRIAM, vide page 88. TROJAN HEROES, ETC. 97 SARPEDON, son of Zeus and Laodamia, a Lycian prince; renowned for his valour. He was slain by Patroclus. Apollo, by order of Zeus, cleansed Sarpedon's body from blood and dust, covered it with ambrosia, and entrusted it to Death and Sleep to carry into Lycia to be buried. TROILUS, son of Priam and Hecuba, or of Apollo ; slain by Achilles. Note. — After their death, many of the Grecian and Trojan war- riors were worshipped as heroes, and had various temples erected to GREEK ANTIQUITIES. THE INHABITANTS OF ATTICA were divided into three classes: I. Tlontai, or freemen; II. M&OLxot, or foreigners settled in the country ; III. Aoixot, or slaves. THE INHABITANTS OF SPARTA were divided into two classes : I. Srtapr iaia.i and Hspioixot,, town and provincial free- men ; II. EtWrsj, slaves. MAGISTRATES. The fornr of government at Athens was, as in »Aany states, frequently oiianged: it began with Monarchy, and, having passed through a Dynasty (in which the power was con- fined to one family) and Aristocracy, ended in Demo- cracy. Theseus may be called the first king, and Codrus the last, after whom (b.c. 1045) the Athenians elected the Archons, who were the chief magistrates at Athens, nine in number; their power was originally for life, but was afterwards limited to ten years, and latterly to one. The names and offices of these magistrates were distinct: the President was styled 6 "Ap^wv or frtwj'Vjiioj^ from the year being called after, and registered in, his name; the second was called j5aaa.s uj ; the third, tto9J/j.apx°Si or commander-in-chief; and the remaining six, OsofAoOstcu, or legislators. The functions of the "Ap^uv were : 1. To provide for the celebration of the feasts, as the Dionysia, &c. ; 2. To settle disputes arising between neighbours and citizens, and to determine all causes between married people; 3. To take (93) MAGISTRATES. 99 care of orphans, provide them tutors, and superintend their estates. The duties of the Bastteus were : 1. To superintend the fes- tivals, and especially the Eleusinia ; 2. To settle all disputes respecting the priesthood, and judge those accused of impiety. The duties of the Uo^i/xapxos were : 1. To celebrate rites in honour of Mars and Diana ; 2. To have under his care all foreigners and strangers, and settle actions brought against them ; 3. To superintend the wars, over which he had the chief command, and thence received his name. The functions of the (dsa/xodstac were connected with the administration of justice, such as, 1. Receiving indictments, bringing cases to trial, and appointing the day of sitting ; 2. Annually revising the code of laws ; 3. Drawing up agree- ments with foreign states, &c. ; 4. Examining the magistrates, and taking the votes in the assemblies. THE ARCHONS were elected by lot, and, before they were admitted to office, passed i.n examination as to their family, age, past conduct, &c, and took oath that they would observe the laws, administer justice, and accept of no presents. Inferior Magistrates. — 1. Ol ev8sxa, the eleven, elected one from each of the ten tribes ; and, to complete the number, there was added a rpafifiatsv^, or registrar. 2. ^vXop^ot., who presided over the tribes. 3. A-^^op^ot, the chief magistrates of the Ar ( pi,ov, or boroughs in Attica. 4. A^tap^ot, six in num- ber, assisted by thirty inferiors ; they fined those absent from the Assembly, took the votes of those present, and kept the public registers. 5. Nofxoditai, 1000 in number; the} 7 inspected old laws, and, if found useless, caused them to be abolished by an act of the people. The Ephori. The *E$opoi, or "overseers," were the chief magistrates at Sparta ; they were five in number, and elected annually, from and by the people, without any qualification of age or pro- perty. Though at first only judicial officers, in time their authority became so great, that even the two hereditary kings of Sparta, as well as the magistrates, were prosecuted or sus- 100 ASSEMBLIES. pended at their discretion. They had the superintendence of the public morals, convened the public assembly, levied troops, &c, &c, and had great influence in the most import- ant matters. Every month they exchanged an oath with the kings, promising to defend the royal authority, provided it did not violate the laws. The tribunal of the Ephori was the apx^ov or ityopeiov, a Council Hall in the Forum. ASSEMBLIES. 'Exxtytfto, THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY of the citizens at Athens, in which they met to discuss matters of public inte- rest. This assembly had the power of making laws, electing magistrates, proclaiming war, &c. ; the place of meeting was either the Agora (ayopa) or Pnyx (rtvv^), in later times, the theatre of Bacchus. The magistrates who presided in the Assembly were : 1. Prytanes (rtpvtdvsvs), who summoned the people, and announced the subject for decision ; 2. Proedri (rfpofSpoc), who occupied the front seats ; 3. in^'td'tr^, or Pre- sident, chosen by lot from the Proedri. The usual manner of giving votes was by holding up the hand, called x^potwia, and as soon as the voting was ended, the Proedri examined the suffrages, and pronounced the decree, tyrfiiapa, so called from the <$rj$ot,, pebbles, which, together with beans (xvapot,), were sometimes used in voting. «H frtiKfj 97 *-<*> risptaxooiw, THE SENATE OF THE FIVE HUNDRED. The institution of this body is attributed to Solon, in whose time the Council consisted of only 400 mem- bers ; but, on the tribes being remodelled by Cleisthenes, B.C. 510, the Council was increased to 500, and the members were divided into ten sections of fifty each, and were called Prytanes (rtpvrumj) : they presided in the Council, as well as the Assembly, during thirty-five or thirty-six days, so as to complete the lunar year of 354 days. Each tribe presided in turn, and the period of office was called a Prytany (rtpvtcwsia). The members of the Council remained in office for a year, at JUDGES AND COURTS OF JUSTICE. 101 the end of which they were obliged to give an account of their conduct (svdvvrj) ; and previous to entering office, they sub- mitted to the 8ox(,(xaoia, or scrutiny into their private character. rspovoia was the name given to the Council of Elders, yepovtes, or Senate at Sparta ; it was composed of the two Kings and twenty-eight citizens, who had reached at least their sixtieth year. They were elected by the people, and were irresponsible. The functions of this Council were : 1. To propose measures to be laid before the Popular Assem- bly ; 2. To discharge the highest offices of government ; 3. To sit as the supreme criminal tribunal ; and, 4. To watch over the public morals. JUDGES AND COURTS OF JUSTICE. THE COURT OF AREOPAGUS. — This was the most ancient and venerable seat of justice in Athens ; it derived its name from 6 "Apsioj nuyoj (the hill of Mars), because, it is said, Mars was the first criminal tried. The court was com- posed of ex-archons who had discharged their office un- blamably, and of the most distinguished citizens : the num- ber of judges varied at different times. They were termed apsi07ta,yltat, and took cognizance of all crimes, vices, and abuses, such as robbery, murder, poisoning, arson, &c. ; they overlooked religious matters, and punished severely for im- piety and contempt of holy mysteries. So great was their power, that they sometimes even annulled the decrees of the Popular Assembly. THE HELIASTS, so named from their court, jjtooui, were a body of Judges chosen by lot, and varied in number; some- times the Yfkuxvtoi were 6000 in number. They took cogni- zance of affairs of the greatest importance, but were not per- mitted to pass sentence until they had taken oath to decide according to the decrees of the people. THE DLETET^E. THE FORTY. — The faunae were inferior judges who settled private disputes, subject to an appeal before the Heliasts. They were chosen yearly from 9* 102 PUNISHMENTS. the $>t#xu,, or tribes, and were required to be fifty or sixty years of age. The Forty, ot -teaeapdxovta, were also inferior judges, who annually took a circuit through the Demi, and decided causes where the matter in dispute did not exceed 10 drachmae. COURT OF THE EPHET^E. — The tyta* were judges, fifty-one in number, selected from noble families, and re- quired to be more than fifty years of age. Their jurisdiction extended to cases of justifiable and unintentional murder ; when judging of the former, they sat at the Delphinium — when of the latter, at the Palladium. AMPHICTYONES were members of the a^ixtvwia, which was a confederation formed for mutual security, and for the protection of a temple at which the members assembled to transact business and celebrate their festivals. The most celebrated was the Delphic Amphictyonia, originally com- posed of twelve tribes, whose deputies met annually at Delphi in the spring, and at Thermopylae in the autumn. The Council itself was called Pylaea, 7oj) ; 2. By a rope (|3po^oj) ; 3. By poison ((pdp/xaxov) ; 4. By stoning (*x0o/3oto'a) ; 5. By fire (rtvp) ; 6. By the cross (fftfaupdj), &c, &c. TEMPLES, PRIESTS, AND SACRIFICES. The objects employed in the worship of the gods were either temples (vaas, 86/xo$), consecrated groves or en- closures (tifjiEvoi), or altars (|3cO(itoj). The temples were generally built in an oblong or round form, and adorned with columns. The larger temples were divided into three parts : 1. 7tp6vao$ or rtpoSojitoj, the vestibule ; 2. radj, 0*7x0$, or oiSvtov, the temple or habitation of the deity whose statue it con- tained ; 3. drtioOobonos or drjsavpo^, the chamber in which the treasures of the temple were kept. The priests, set apart for the service of certain gods or temples, were called lepsls, apytijpes, Svoaxoot : divines and 104 ORACLES. wizards, \ma.vtn^ or fcortpo'rtot. They foretold events from signs (lepcrfa, ojj^ar'a), such as thunder and lightning ; from the song and flight of birds, especially of prey (oU>u>vo7to%oi,, otwio-tal, 5f|t6s opw$) ; or from dreams, 6viipo7t&kov. The sacrifices were of three kinds. I. Occasionally human. II. Animal, called Ispeiov, viciima, Jiostia. The victim was in early times burnt whole, and termed holocaust ; but in Homer's time the thighs (fitjpol, ptjpa) were inclosed in fat and consumed, from which omens were often taken. As the gods were supposed to delight in a number of victims, a hundred bulls (txarofify) were often sacrificed. The word hecatomb is also used to signify any large sacrifice. The animals sacrificed were usually oxen, sheep, and goats, with- out blemish (tfstetos). Previous to being slain, the head of the victim was strewed with barley and salt (ov'kozvtai, mola salsa), adorned with garlands, and a tuft of hair was cut off from the forehead as a beginning (owap^, primitite) of the sacrifices ; the animal wfis then killed by drawing back the head (omi^juu) and cutting the throat. III. Unbloody sacrifices. These were: 1. Libations (%oifiai, artovbai, or %oai) of wine, milk, and honey, &c. ; 2. Cakes (rtixcwot), dishes of fruit (xspva), &c, &c. ORACLES. The word oraculum was used by the ancients to describo the revelations of the deities to men. The responses were sometimes given in verse, or written on tablets ; and their meaning was always ambiguous and obscure. The most celebrated oracles were: I. ORACLE OF ZEUS, at DODONA, the most ancient in Greece, founded by Pelasgians. The oracle was given from lofty oaks, which were said to have human voices and the spirit of divination, and were hence called the " prophesying or speaking oaks." With regard to this fable, the fact appears to be, that those who gave the oracles were men, and when consulted mounted an oak, and ORACLES. 105 there gave the replies. The decisions of the oracle were afterwards given by two or three old women (called 7t8%sia8is). As this word also signifies doves, the fable originated respect- ing the oracles being delivered by doves. The usual form in which the oracles were given at Dodona was in hexameter verse. II. ORACLE OF APOLLO, at DELPHI. This oracle, the most celebrated of antiquity, was situated on Mt. Par- nassus, in Phocis, supposed by the ancients to be the centre of the world. The oracle was at first called Pytho; the priestess was named Pythia. In the innermost sanctuary the statue of Apollo was placed, and on an altar before it burnt an eternal fire; in the centre of the temple was a small opening in the ground, from which the most intoxicating vapours arose ; over this chasm the Pythia took her seat on a high tripod when the oracle was to be consulted, and the suf- focating fumes caused her to utter sounds which were taken down by the Prophetes, and were believed to contain the revelations of Apollo. The Pythia was always a native of Delphi, not allowed to marry ; and bound, after once enter- ing, never to leave the service of the god. The times for con- sultation, as well as the number of priestesses, were from time to time changed, to meet the wants of those who flocked to the oracle. Valuable presents were required to be made, and hence this temple exceeded all others in splendour, riches, and magnificence. It must, however, be borne in mind, that many of these valuables were only deposited in the temple for the sake of safety. The replies were always returned in the Greek tongue, and usually in hexameter verse, in the Ionic dialect. They had at all times a leaning in favour of Doric Greeks. The chief of the remaining oracles were — I. Of Zeus: 1. The oracle at Olympia, in Elis ; 2. Zeus Ammon, in Libya, N.W. of Egypt, II. Of Apollo: 1. At Abse, in Phocis; 2. At Delos, in the iEgean Sea ; 3. Of the Branchidse, at Didyma, in the territory of Miletus ; 4. At Claros, near Colo- phon, in Ionia. III. Of Heroes: 1. Oracle of Trophonius, at Lebadea, in Boeotia ; 2. Of Amphiaraus, near Thebes, and at Oropus, between Boeotia and Attica. 106 'festivals. FESTIVALS. Festivals were instituted — 1. In honour of the gods, fir benefits received from them ; 2. In order to procure some favour; 3. In memory of deceased friends, who had done good service for their country ; 4. As a season of rest to labourers, that, as a recompense, some days of ease and refreshment might be obtained. The chief festivals among the Greeks were : — 'ASwvta, in honour of Venus and Adonis. The solemnity lasted two days ; the first was given up to mourning and lamentation, the second to mirth and joy. 'Avdsotripia, the chief of the Dionysian festivals, celebrated, in honour of Bacchus, for three days ; the first called Htdoiyla,, second, Xot j, third, Xvtfpot. 'Artowovpia, celebrated at Athens, and lasted three days. The first called Aoprtfta, because each tribe assembled at an entertainment ; second, 'Avdppvais, because victims were offered to Jupiter ; third, Kovpfwrts, because the young children born that year were then taken to have their names enrolled in the public register. Aowj)j^^optci, celebrated every ninth year by the Boeotians, in honour of Apollo ; when an olive bough, adorned with garlands, was carried in procession ; on the top of the bough was a globe, the emblem of the sun or Apollo. Atowcaa, four festivals celebrated in honour of Dionysus or Bacchus, and observed at Athens with great splendour. The wildest mirth abounded at the various Dionysiac festivals ; some wore the dress of satyrs, others comic dresses, others, dancing ridiculously, personated madmen, and shouted Evot Bdxzs, w *Iax%s, 'Iw Bdxzs- Choruses were sung at these fes- tivals, called Dithyrambs, and theatrical representations were also given. 'Etevolvta, the most celebrated and mysterious solemnity in Greece (sometimes called, by way of eminence, Mvatrpia), was observed every fourth year at Eleusis, in Attica. The mysteries were divided into (iixpd, in honour of Proserpine, FESTIVALS. 107 ana /u.*yaxa, in honour of Ceres; they lasted nine days: on the first day the worshippers first met together ; second day, they purified themselves by washing in the sea ; third day, they sacrificed ; fourth day, they made a solemn procession, in which the xcOuddiov, or holy basket of Ceres, was carried ; fifth, the women ran about with torches ; sixth, the statue of *Iax%os, crowned with myrtle and bearing a torch, was carried from Ceramicus to Eleusis in procession ; seventh, there were sports ; eighth, the lesser mysteries were repeated, and those were initiated who did not enjoy that privilege; on the ninth, and last day, two earthen vessels filled with wine were thrown down, and the wine spilt was offered as a libation. ©fff^o^opta ("the lawgiver"), in honour of Ceres; celebrated by the Athenians -with great pomp and devotion ; the wor- shippers were free-born women, assisted by a priest and by certain virgins, kept at the public charge. The women were dressed in white for four or five days before the festival, and on the 11th of the month Pyanepsion, they carried the books of the law to Eleusis, where the festival commenced, and lasted three days. IIara0»jMua, an Athenian festival in honour of Minerva, the protectress of Athens ; it was instituted by Erichthonius, who called it 'A0»jwua ; but afterwards revised by Theseus, who, having united all the Athenians into one body, called the festival nara^ycua. There were two solemnities called UavaOrivcua ; ixsyaxa, the greater, celebrated once in five years, and fxixpa, the lesser, celebrated once every year. The chief difference between the two festivals was, that at the greater one, which was attended with more solemnity, the Peplus, or garment of Minerva, was carried in procession to her temple on the Acropolis. The solemnities, games, and amusements of the Panathensea were : rich sacrifices, foot, horse, and chariot-races, gymnastic and musical contests, and the lam- padephoria, or race with torches ; at these festivals the works of Homer and other Epic poets were recited, philosophers disputed, and the people indulged in a variety of amuse- ments ; the chief solemnity, however, was the procession in which the greater part of the Attic population took part. 108 PUBLIC GAMES. These festivals were at first celebrated for one day, but were afterwards prolonged for several. The prizes awarded were vases, containing oil from the sacred olive-tree of Athena, on the Acropolis. PUBLIC GAMES. These were instituted in honour of the gods or of deified heroes, and the victors, especially in the Olympian games, received the highest honours. On their return home they rode in a triumphal chariot into the city, a portion of the wall being thrown down to give them admittance ; they were honoured with the first places at all shows and games, were maintained at the public charge, and great honour descended to their relations. The games were called 'Aywvsj, and the principal exercises used in them were : I. Apduos, Cursus, running ; II. Akjxoj, throwing the discus ; III. "Afyta, Saltus, leaping ; IV. IIvyuTJ, Pugilatus, boxing; V. Iftxty, Lucta, wrestling. These five exercises were called by the Greeks 7tevta97jw, Pentathlon, by the Romans, Quinquertium. Some, however, instead of *vypr p place axovttov, jaculum, throwing the spear. I. Apo^oj, running; this game was performed in a space of ground called otdhov vel avtoj, containing 125 paces. There were four kinds of races : 1. atdfoov ; 2. SiovXoj, running twice over the stadium ; 3. S6uz°$> running seven times ; 4. otoIit^, running armed. II. Ataxoj, the discus, was a round quoit of stone, brass, or iron ; sometimes a heavy mass called oo%o$ was used instead of the discus, which was thrown by the help of a thong. III. "AA.ua, leaping ; this'exercise was sometimes performed with empty hands, and sometimes with weights of lead or stone, called ofctfjjpej, which were carried in their hands or upon the head and shoulders. IV. Ilvyujj, boxing ; in this exercise balls of stone or lead were sometimes held in the hand, and the cestus was used, PUBLIC GAMES. 109 which was the name given to the bands of leather, sometimes loaded with iron and lead, and tied round the hands to harden the blows. V. IIaa.97, wrestling ; this was the most ancient of the exer- cises, and was performed in the Xystus, a covered portico ; in which two naked men anointed with oil, and sprinkled with dust, folded themselves in one another's arms, and en- deavoured to throw each other to the ground. There were two kinds of wrestling ; one in which the wrestlers contended on their feet, and another in which they threw themselves down, and contended rolling on the ground. [The Pancra- tium, Ttoyxpat't.oj/, was an exercise which consisted of wrestling and boxing.] The four solemn games in Greece, called aywv? 5 Ispol, were : I. The Olympic; II. Pythian; III. Isthmian; and IV. Nemean. THE OLYMPIC GAMES. — These were celebrated in honour of Zeus Olympius, and were held at Olympia, a town in Elis, whence they received the name Olympian. Their institution is assigned to Hercules by some, but it is impos- sible to say with any accuracy who was the real founder. They were for some period neglected, until the time of Iphitus, who re-instituted the solemnity ; but it was not till b. c. 776, when Corcebus won the foot-race, that the Olympiads were employed as a chronological era. The games were cele- brated every fifth year, in the Attic month Hecatombseon, and continued five days, from the 11th to the 15th inclusive, the interval of four years between each celebration of the festival being called an Olympiad. The Eleans had the management of the games, and appointed the judges, who were chosen by lot from their number. Women were not allowed to be present. Those who intended to contend were obliged to swear that they were freemen, not guilty of any sacrilegious act, and had spent the proper period (ten months) in preparatory exercises. The wrestlers were chosen by lot, and the exercises, in addition to those mentioned in the last section, were horse and chariot-races, in which, as in several of the other exercises, boys contended. There were also con- 10 110 PUBLIC GAMES tests in which musicians, poets, and artists, strove for the victory. The victors in these games were rewarded with wreaths of wild olive, and statues in the grove of Altis ; and still more substantially on their return to their own cities, as mentioned before. THE PYTHIAN GAMES were celebrated in honcur of Apollo, at Delphi, anciently called Pytho, whence the name Pythian. The common tradition is, that the games were in- stituted by Apollo himself, after he had overcome the serpent Python. They were at first celebrated every ninth year (ivvaetypLs) ; but afterwards at the end of every fourth year (fi£vtastt]p^), and comprehended the space of four years, com- mencing with the third year of each Olympiad. The games lasted several days, and the exercises were the same as those of the Olympic games. Some say that the solemnity was at first a musical contention, and that a song (to which a dance was performed) consisting of five parts was sung, in which Apollo's contest with the dragon was represented. The re- wards, when there was only a musical performance, are said to have been gold and silver ; but when gymnastic exercises were introduced, garlands of laurel, palm, or parsley, were presented to the victors. THE NEMEAN GAMES were celebrated in honour of Zeus, at Nemea, near Cleonas, in Argolis, every third year. The institution of these games is assigned both to the Seven against Thebes, as well as to Hercules, after he had slain the Nemean lion. The various exercises were chariot and horse- racing, and the pentathlon. The reward of the victors was at first a chaplet of olive-branches, but afterwards a garland of parsley was awarded. THE ISTHMIAN GAMES were so called from the Corin- thian Isthmus, where they were celebrated. At the narrowest part of the Isthmus stood a temple (Fanum Neptuni), near which was a theatre and stadium of white marble, where the games took place. Some say they were instituted in honour of Palsemon, or Melicertes, son of Athamas, king of Thebes ; others, in honour of Neptune. The games took place every MILITARY AFFAIRS. Ill third year, and the exercises were the same as those of the other sacred festivals ; the rewards were chaplets of pine ; at one time ivy was used. The Isthmian games were held in great veneration, on ac- count of the religion by which they were consecrated, as well as on account of their antiquity. MILITARY AFFAIRS. Divisions of the Army. The Grecian armies consisted of free bodies of men, whom the laws of the country obliged, when arrived at a certain age, to appear in arms: at the age of eighteen, the Athenians were appointed to guard the city ; at twenty, they were sent to foreign wars ; at sixty, they were allowed to retire. The army was composed of three classes of soldiers: 1. In- fantry, hs^ol; 2. Charioteers, qvloxot; 3. Cavalry, ImsIs. The foot soldiers were divided into, 1. 'OTtfaVcu, who wore heavy armour, and fought with broad shields and long spears ; 2. ^Ckol, light-armed men, who engaged with darts, arrows, and slings ; 3. H.£Ma(rta,l, who were armed with * small shield called HeMy. Arms. These were divided into two classes : 1. Arms for the pro- tection of the body ; and, 2. Those used to injure an enemy. I. The defensive arms, which protected the body: 1. xpdvog, xopvj, xvpirj, or 7ispi,xsq>a'kala, helmet, made of brass or of the skins of animals, and surmounted by a crest (ko°0 ; 2. 0u>pa|, cuirass, made of hemp (twisted into cords, and woven close together), of brass, or of leather covered with brass ; 3. xvqtil&ss, greaves, for the front of the legs, made of brass or other metal ; 4. aortis, a round buckler, made either of osiers twisted together, or of wood covered with leather, and bound round the edge with metal; in the centre was a projection called Ojuijxxkoj or fitao/xfyduov, a boss, upon which a spike was 112 MILITARY AFFAIRS. sometimes placed. The 0vp*oj was an oblong shield (corre- sponding to the Latin scutum), and the TtiMy a small shield used in the Greek army, by a body of men named from using it risMadTfai. II. The offensive arms: 1. tyx°i an d 86pv, the spear and lance, usually made of ash ; the point, aixw, "was of metal ; 2. £(4>oj, the sword, suspended by a belt (rsXa^cov) from the shoulder; 3. a^ivrj et rtitoxuj, pole-axe ; 4. *6%ov, the bow, said to have been invented by Apollo, who communicated his in- vention to the Cretans, who became first-rate archers : the arrows, which were called &&*}, oletoL, and totiv^ata, were made of light wood and pointed with metal ; 5. axovtiov, the javelin, of which there were various kinds ; 6. otyevbow], the sling, which was commonly used by the light-armed soldiers. THE CHIEF OFFICERS OF THE ARMY were, 1. rtoxi- jwap^oj or general (vide Magistrates) ; 2. otpatijytK, ten in num- ber, one elected from each tribe : they conducted all military affairs at home and abroad; 3. raltop^ot, ten in number, elected by the tribes : they had the care of marshalling the army, directing the marches and encampments, and discharg- ing the soldiers convicted of misdemeanours ; 4. iVtrtap^ot, two in number: they commanded the cavalry; 5. $v"kapxot, ten in number, elected by the tribes, subordinate to the tVtrtop^oc: the inferior officers received their names from the number of men they commanded. Among the Lacedaemonians, the supreme command was vested in one man (usually a king of Sparta), who was attended by a body-guard of horsemen, trtrtsij, 300 in number. THE DIVISIONS OF THE ARMY.— The whole body was called otpcutvd ; the van, (isturtov vel mpwT'os £t>yo? ; the wings, xspaifa ; the rear, ovpd vel "ff^ar'os £Vyoj. Minor divisions : 7te(*7tds, a party of five soldiers ; 'koxos, a party of twenty-four or twenty-five, sometimes of only sixteen; tdfa vel exatov- tnpzla, a company of 100 or 120 ; $>atoiy§, a body of troops in close order, whose chief weapon was a long spear. The whole army of the Spartans was divided into fiopcu, regiments, and toxoc, companies, the number of men each contained is uncerta: n. NAVAL AFFAIRS. 113 NAVAL AFFAIRS. The vessels of the Greeks may be divided into two classes : I. Naves Oner arise, otoeafos, fyoptyyoi, atpoyyvixu, rtWa, ships of burden, generally made of a bulky form, and chiefly propelled by sails. II. Naves Bellicse, tfpojpnj, tstpr-psts, rtsvrfpsis (triremes, quadriremes, quinqueremes), war-galleys, propelled chiefly by oars, and distinguished from each other by the number of banks of oars. The most usual number of banks was three, four, or five, which gradually ascended in the manner of stairs. The most common ships of war in the earlier times were long vessels (naves longce) called rtsvtrjxovtopot, with fifty rowers, twenty-five on each side. The principal parts of the vessel were : 1. tfporftj or atslprj (carina), the keel ; 2. rtpwpa or fiitco7tov (prora), the prow ; 3. jxsaoxoi'Ka, or middle part of the ship ; 4. 7tpv(tvt] (puppis), the stern; 5. rttevpal (latera), the sides of the ship; 6. xataatp^fxata, the decks or hatches ; 7. I6u»xta (transtra), the benches on which the rowers sat: the upper were called Opcwoi, (the rowers 0pawVcu), the middle £vyd (the men ^vyltm), the lower 0aa.a^o$ (the rowers 0aft.a / utV(u) ; 8. s^o%ov (rostrum) or beak : this con- sisted of a beam pointed with brass, and was used for the purpose of sinking and disabling the enemy's vessels ; 9. avt%o<; (sentina), the hold ; 10. tfpa^f, the bulwark. The tackling, &c, used in navigation were: 1. tWoj (mains), the mast; 2. xipar'a, xtpaiat (antennai), the yards; 3. latlov (velum), the sail ; 4. tojtsla, the cordage, comprising o%oivla (funes), the cables, no8sg (pedes), the ropes attached to the lower corners of the square sail, and vnipai, the ropes fastened to the two ends of the yards ; 5. rtyj8d%iov (gubernaculum), the rudder, usually two large oars, placed on each side of the stern ; 6. oia|, the tiller or handle of the oar ; 7. ayxvpa, the anchor ; 8. xu>7tat or ipstfjiot (remi), the oars : their blades were called n^d-tai, (palmidcv), and were fastened in their holes by leather thongs, tportol (stropM) ; 9. xovtoi. (conti), punting poles. 10* 114 PRIVATE LIFE OF THE GREEKS. The 8si$lv was a mass of metal suspended from the yaids, which, being thrown into an enemy's ship, by its weight either shattered or sank it. The two principal manoeuvres in commencing an engage- ment were the bux7Ckovs, or breaking the line, and 7tspi7tijovs, or outflanking the enemy. The chief naval officers were: 1. atohnpxos, vavap^o?, or otpa?rjyo$, the prcefectus classis, or admiral ; 2. JTtwr'otavj, the vice-admiral ; 3. rpojpop^os, or captain of a trireme ; the captains of other vessels receiving their titles from the num- ber of ranks of rowers their vessels contained. The common sailors were called vuvtcu, (naidce), the rowers ipstai, the soldiers who served at sea i7ti$dtaA [classiarii milites), marines ; xvfitpvqttjs (gubernator), the helmsman or pilot. On landing, the ancients used to haul their vessels on shore (avi%xetv, subducere) by means of (b%xol, pulvini) rollers. To launch them, was termed xad&xsiv (deducere). PRIVATE LIFE OF THE GREEKS. Meals. There were four daily meals taken by the early Greeks: 1. apwtov or axpattaixa, the morning meal or breakfast; 2. Sslrtvov, or dinner ; 3. bsCkivov, or afternoon meal ; 4. hopnov, supper. The Greeks of a later age partook of three meals : 1. dxpariu^a, 2. aipcatoi', 3. ShtCvov : corresponding to breakfast, luncheon, and dinner. It was customary among the ancient Greeks to sit at meat; but after luxury prevailed they re- clined on couches, xfavcu, that they might drink at greater ease. Two guests usually reclined on a couch, but some- times a greater number, who were then placed according to rank. priyate life of the greeks. 115 Dress. The Greeks in ancient times used no covering for the head, but afterwards they wore hats called nl'Koi. The general name for clothing was sodfe. The inner garment of men, as well as of women, was x^ v -> a tunic ; but women of wealth wore a robe called syxvx"Kov xitwiov. The exterior garments were : 1. i/xdtcov or $apoj, a cloak (Lat pallium) ; 2. ^Aatva, a thicker garment for cold weather ; 3. ^awoA^f (Lat. pcenula), a round garment without sleeves ; 4. ifyFG-tpLs. a great coat ; 5. tpLjSov, a threadbare coat worn by philosophers and the poor ; 6. etoXri, a long garment reaching to the heels ; 7. x*- a pv$, a military cloak. On^the feet were worn : 1. vTtoBr^to-, or shoes bound under with thongs ; 2. xprjrtlds j, slippers. Kcdonva* were buskins, or boots worn by tragedians. Funerals. The Greeks attached great importance to the burial of the dead, as they believed the souls could not enter the Elysian fields unless their bodies were buried ; and it was therefore looked upon as a grave charge on the character of a man to have neglected the burial of his relations. The follovrina, customs were connected with the Greek funeral. As soon as any one had expired : 1. the eyes were closoa by the nearest relative ; 2. the mouth was shut ; 3. the face was covered ; 4. all the members of the body were stretche4 out ; 5. the body was washed and anointed with oil ; 6. wrapped in a handsome garment, and decked with ehaplefa and flowers; 7. laid out (rtp69saii) on a couch (xXivq), witb the feet towards the door; 8. a small coin (d/3oAo?) was place*! in the mouth, as Charon's fare for carrying the soul over thst assumed the form of Tragedy, when Thespis, about B.C. 535, introduced between them the representation Spa/ia iizctcroStov, of a story or plot by a single actor (v-rroKpiTfjs), who was separated from the chorus, and played many parts in succession. iEsehylus added a second actor, and thus founded the dialogue. Sophocles introduced a third actor. (144) ANC1EJNT GREEK WRITERS. J 45 EURIPIDES, bom at Salamis, b.c. 480; died at Mace- donia, B.C. 40G, in his seventy-fifth year. He is said to have written ninety-two plays, by some ; by others, seventy-five, nineteen of which have reached us, viz. : Medea, Electra, Orestes, Iphigema in Aulis, Iphigenla in Tauris, Andromache, Trojan Captives, Hecuba, Ion, The Suppliants, Children of Hercules, Phoenician Damsels, Raging Hercules, Alcestis, Hip- pclytus, Rhesus, The Bacchanalians, Helen, The Cyclops. Comic. ARISTOPHANES, born at Athens, about b.c 444; died about b. c. 380. Works : fifty-four plays, of which eleven remain perfect: Acharnians, Knights, Clouds, Wasps, Peace, Birds, Thesmophoriazusce, or Feasts of Ceres, Jjysistrata, Frogs, Ecclesiazusce, or Female Orators, Plutus. The other writers of the " Old Comedy of Greece" were Epicharmus, born b.c. 540; Phormus, about b.c 480; Crates, b.c 450; Cratinns, b.c 445 ; Eupolis, b.c, 434, The poets of the "Middle Comedy" were Antiphanes, B.C. 380 ; Eubulus, Alexis, Anaxandrides, and Araros, b. c 375 ; Timocles, b.c 336. Of the "New Comedy" were, MENANDER, born at Athens, b.c 342, educated under Theophrastus ; died b.c 291. Works: upwards of 100 come- dies, of which only fragments remain. PHILEMON, born at Soli or Syracuse, flourished about b. c. 330, Works : ninety-seven comedies, of which only frag- ments are extant ; the other writers were Philippides, Di- philus, Apollodorus flourished b.c 336 to 300; PosicUppus, b.c. 289. Lyric. ANACREON, born at Teos, in Ionia, about b.c 563; died, aged eighty-five, about b.c 478. Works: Of five books, sixty- eight poems and fragments are extant ; many of the odes are considered spurious, SAPPHO, born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, flourished about b.c. 610. Her poems formed nine books, of which only frag- ments are extant. 13 146 ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. ALCiEUS, born at Mitylene, in Lesbos, nourished about b. c. 604. He is said to have been the inventor of the " bar- biton," or harp. Of his works, only a few fragments of war- songs remain to us. PINDAR, born at Thebes, in Bceotia, B.C. 522; died, pro» bably in his eightieth year, b.c. 442. Works: Eplnicia, or triumphal odes describing the four national games of the Greeks ; four books entire, and numerous fragments, remain. The other lyric poets, fragments of some of whose worka we have, are Alcman, b.c. 670; Stesichorus, b.c. 612; Simo- nides, b.c. 540; Bacchylides, b.c. 452. Pastoral. THEOCRITUS, born at Syracuse, flourished b. c. 284-280. Works : Thirty poems known as Idyls, twenty-two epigrams, and a few fragments, are extant, which may be divided into pastoral, lyric, epic, mimetic, and epigrammatic BION, born near Smyrna, flourished about B.C. 280. Of his works, fragments are alone extant. MOSCHUS, born at Syracuse, flourished about b.c. 250. Of his works, only four of his Idyls, an epigram, and three small fragments, are extant. PROSE WRITERS. Historians. HERODOTUS, born at Halicarnassus, in Caria, b.c 484; died subsequent to b.c. 408, exact period unknown. His history, which embraces a period of about 240 years (from the time of Cyrus), is divided into nine books, called by the names of the Muses. THUCYDIDES, born at Athens, b.c. 471; died in exile, probably at Scaptesyle, in Thrace, b.c. 391, aged eighty. Works : History of the Peloponnesian War, in eight books, which he brought down to the twenty-first year, and Xenc- phon concluded to the twenty-eighth. ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 147 XENOPIION, born about b.c. 445, educated in the school of Socrates ; died about B.C. 359, beyond ninety years of age, probably at Corinth. Works : Anabasis, in. seven books ; Hellenica (the continuation of the history of Thucydides), in seven books ; Cyropaedia (memoirs of Cyrus), in eight books ; Memorabilia, in four books ; Agesilaus ; The Athenian Re- public ; The Lacedaemonian Republic ; De re Equestri ; Hip- parchicus ; Cynegeticus ; Hiero ; Apology of Socrates; Sym- posium ; (Economicus. POLYBIUS, born at Megalopolis, in Arcadia, about b.c. 203 ; died b. c. 121, in his eighty-second year. Work : A Universal History, in forty books (of which only five remain entire), commencing b. c. 220. DIODORUS SICULUS, born at Agyrium, in Sicily, flou- rished b. c. 60-30. Work : A History of Egypt, Persia, Syria, Media, Greece, Rome, and Carthage, in forty books, of which fifteen and some fragments are extant. DIONYSIUS OF HALICARNASSUS flourished b.c. 29-7. Work : Antiquities of Rome, in twenty-two books (of which eleven now remain), comprising the History of Rome for 312 years down to b.c. 264. PLUTARCH, born at Chseronea, in Boeotia; died about a. d. 140. He was sent on an embassy to Rome, where he opened a school. He was honoured by Trajan with the ap- pointment of governor of Illyricum. Works : Lives of Illus- trious Men, Moralia. Orators. PERICLES, born at Athens, about b.c. 499; died b.c. 429. The first Greek orator, surnamed, from the grandeur of his style, the Olympian. LYSIAS, born at Athens, b.c. 458; died b.c. 378, aged eighty. Of his orations, thirty-four are extant, remarkable for their purity of style. ISOCRATES, born at Athens, b.c. 436; died b.c. 338, in his ninety-eighth year, being unable to survive the blow the liberty of his country received at the battle of Chaeronea. 148 ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. As Isocrates was prevented by timidity from addressing the national assemblies, he opened a school in Athens, where he distinguished himself by the number, character, and fame of his pupils. Only twenty-one of his orations have come down to us ; he is said to have written sixty. DEMOSTHENES, born at Athens, b.c. 382; died at Ca- lauria, by poison, b. c. 322. Of his orations, which have been always celebrated as the most perfect models of eloquence, sixty-one are extant, viz. : seventeen political orations, forty- two judicial, and two show speeches. ISiEUS flourished about b. c. 360. He was the instructor of Demosthenes. Works : sixty-four orations, of which eleven are now remaining. ^ESCHINES, born b.c. 389; died at Samos or Rhodes, B.C. 314. Works: nine epistles and three orations, of which the orations alone are extant. The other Greek orators are Demades and Hyperides ; they flourished about b.c. 335. Medical Writers. HIPPOCRATES, born in the island of Cos, about b.c. 460; died at Larissa, in Thessaly, b. c. 357, in his 104th year. Of his works, more than sixty in number, the majority being written by his disciples and followers, only a few are genuine : Pracenotiones, or Prognosticon ; Aphorismi ; De Morbis Popu- laribus, or Epidemiorum ; De Ratione Victus in Morbis Acutis, or De Diceta Acutorum; De Aere, Aquis, et Locis; De Capitis Vulneribus. GALEN, born at Pergamum, a.d. 130; died about a. d. 200. Works, under the name of Galen : eighty-three Treatises {genuine) ; nineteen, genuineness doubted ; forty-five spurious , nineteen Fragments ; fifteen Commentaries on the works of Hippocrates. ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 149 MATHEMATICIANS. EUCLID flourished at Alexandria, in the time of the first Ptolemy, b.c. 323-283, and was the founder of the Alexan- drine Mathematical School. Works extant: The Elements, in thirteen books, the fourteenth and fifteenth being added by Hypsicles ; The Data, containing 100 propositions ; The Division of the Scale ; a Treatise on Optics, &c. ARCHIMEDES, born at Syracuse, b.c. 287; slain at the taking of Syracuse, b. c. 212. Works extant : On Equipon- derants and Centres of Gravity ; The Quadrature of the Para- bola ; On the Sphere and Cylinder; The Dimension of the Circle; Spirals; Conoids and Spheroids; The Arenarius ; On Floating Bodies; Lemmata. Archimedes is said to have con- structed engines used for military and naval purposes, and many machines, among which was the water-screw ; but his most famous invention was a kind of orrery, representing the movements of the heavenly bodies. GEOGRAPHERS. STRABO, born at Amasia, in Pontus, about b.c. 54; died about a. d. 24. Works : a work on Geography, in seventeen books ; this is entire, with the exception of the seventh book. Strabo wrote a history, in forty-three books (in continuation of that of Polybius), which is lost. PAUSANIAS, born in Lydia(? ), flourished about a. d. 170. Works : Periegesis, or Itinerary of Greece, in ten books. FABULIST. iESOP flourished about b.c 570. He was originally a elave, but received his freedom from Iadmon, his master The Fables now extant in prose, attributed to iEsop, are said to be spurious. • 13* 150 ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. SATIRIC WRITER. LUCIAN, born at Samosata, in Syria, about a.d. 120; died about the end of the century. Works : Dialogues, comprising The Dialogues of the Gods, twenty-six in number ; Jupiter Convicted; Vitarum Audio, or Sale of Philosophers ; Thi Fishermen, &c. ; The Dialogues of the Dead, comprising Icaro Menippus, Charon, &c. CRITIC. LONGINUS flourished about a. d. 250. He opened a school at Athens, in which he taught philosophy, criticism, rhetoric, and grammar; but afterwards went to the East, where he became the tutor of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, on whose capture he was put to death, a. d. 273. Work : On the Sub- lime, riept "t^ovj, a great part of which is extant. PHILOSOPHERS. THALES, the Ionic Philosopher, born at Miletus, b. c. 636 ; died about B.C. 546. One of the founders in Greece of the study of philosophy. He maintained water was the first principle of all things. PYTHAGORAS, born at Samos ; flourished b.c. 540-510 He travelled in Egypt and the East, and finally settled at Crotona, in Italy, whence he is called the Italic Philosopher. The whole discipline of his sect is represented as tending to a lofty serenity and self-possession. They believed in the transmigration of souls ; and it was one of their maxims, that " every thing should not be told to every body ;" hence all that was done and taught by the members was kept a pro- found secret to all but themselves. ANCIENT GREEK WRITERS. 151 SOCRATES, born near Athens, B.C. 469; died B.C. 399. Socrates was the first who turned his thoughts to the subject of Ethics ; in discussing which, he employed the dialectic or interrogative system, termed from him the Socratic. Not- withstanding his efforts to promote the welfare of mankind, he was accused of corrupting the Athenian youth, and was sentenced to drink poison. PLATO, born at Athens, b.c. 429 or 428; died b.c. 347. He was the founder of the Academic School, and in his writings are preserved the doctrines of Socrates, whose dis- ciple he was. The writings of Plato have come down to us complete ; they are in the form of dialogues, which are closely connected with one another, and may be divided into three series. ARISTOTLE, born at Stagira, in Macedonia, B.C. 384; died b. c 322, at Chalcis, in Euboea. He was the founder of the Peripatetic School, so called, either from his delivering his lectures in the shady walks (rtsplriatot,) surrounding the Lyceum, or while walking up and down (rtcptrtarw). His numerous writings comprise works on, 1. Dialectics and Logic; 2. Tlieoretical Philosophy, Mathematics, Natural His- tory, &c. ; 3. Practical Philosophy or Politics, Ethics, &c. ; 4. Works on Art. ZENO, the founder of Stoic Philosophy, born at Citium, in Cyprus. Birth and death uncertain. Flourished about B.C. 280. After many years' study, and having sufficiently deve- loped his peculiar philosophical system, he opened his school in one of the Porticoes at Athens {Stoa Pcecile), and hence his disciples were called Stoics. The Stoic philosophy recog- nised real good only in virtue, and enjoined a life in accord- ance with nature. EPICURUS, the founder of the Epicurean School, born in the island of Samos, B.C. 342; died b.c. 270. He is said to have written 300 volumes, of which the principal was a work on Nature, in thirty-seven books. The theory of the Epicu- reans represented pleasure as constituting the greatest hap- piness, and must therefore be the chief end of man. ANCIENT BOMAN WBITEBS. POETS. N. B. — The chief works of the writers are mentioned, though all may not come under the same classified heads. Epic. ENNIUS (Quintus Ennius), born at Rudise, in Calabria, B.C. 239. He lived on intimate terms with Scipio Africanus, and died b. c. 169, aged seventy. The Romans regarded Ennius as the "father of their poetry." Work: Fragments only extant, though Ennius wrote Annates (i. e. a history of Rome, from its foundation to his own times), an epic poem, in eighteen books. VIRGIL (Pub. Virgilius Maro), born 15th of Oct., b.c. 70, at Andes, a small village near Mantua; educated at Cremona and Mediolanum [Milan) ; died 22d of Sept., b.c 19, in his fifty-first year, at Brundusium (Brindisi). Works : JEneid, in twelve books ; Bucolics, ten short poems (Pastorals) ; Georgics, an agricultural poem, in four books. SILIUS (C. S. Italicus), born about a.d. 25; died about his seventy-fifth year. Work: Punica, in seventeen books.- LUC AN (M. Anngeus Lucanus), born at Corduba, in Spain, a.d. 39 ; died a.d. 65, in his twenty-sixth year. Work: The Pharsalia, in ten books, alone extant. VALERIUS FLACCUS flourished in the reign of Vespa- sian ; he was a native of Padua, and died a. d. 88. Work : Argonautica, an unfinished poem, in eight books. STATIUS (P. Papinius), born at Neapolis, about a.d. 61 ; died about a.d. 96. Works: Theuaid, in twelve books; Silvce, a collection of occasional poems, in five books. (152) ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 153 Elegiac. OVID (P. Ovidius Naso), born at Sulmo, in the country of the Peligni, 20th of March, B.C. 43. He was descended from an ancient family, and enjoyed the favour of Augustus, by whose edict (a.d. 9) he was suddenly exiled, without even a trial, to Tomi, a town near the mouths of the Danube, where he died, in the sixtieth year of his age, a.d. 18. Works: Amores, three books ; Epistles, twenty-one in number ; Ars Amatoria; Remedia Amoris, one book; Metamorphoses, fifteen books ; Fasti or Roman Calendar, twelve books, six only ex- tant; Tristia, five books (written at Tomi); Epistolos ex Ponio, four books; Minor Poems; Nux, or The Complaint of the Nut-tree ; Ibis, a satire, &c. TIBULLUS (Albius Tibullus), born about B.C. 54; died about B.C. 18 ; was of the Equestrian order: his patron was Messala. Work : Elegies, four books ; the genuineness of several poems in the third and fourth books is doubted. PROPERTIUS (Sex. Aurelius), born about b.c. 51; year of death unknown. He enjoyed the friendship of Maecenas, Virgil, and Ovid. Work : Elegies, four books. Lyric. HORACE (Q, Horatius Flaccus), born at Venusia, in Apu- lia, Dec. 8, B.C. 65. His father was a collector of taxes, and paid the greatest attention to his son's education, who fre- quented the best schools at Rome, and visited Athens to com- plete his education. He lived on most intimate terms with Maecenas, a Roman knight, and obtained the patronage of Augustus. Horace died Nov. 17, b. c. 8, aged fifty-six. Works : Odes, five books ; Satires, two books ; Epistles, two books ; a poem, De Arte Poetica. CATULLUS (Valerius Catullus), born at Verona, B.C. 87; died about b.c. 47. Works extant: 116 poems, on various topics, composed in different styles and metres. 154 ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. Tragic. LIVIUS ANDRONICUS, the earliest Roman poet. Frag- ments of his work are extant. SENECA (L. Annaeus, vide infr.). Ten of his tragedies are extant ; they are written in iambic senarii, interspersed with choral parts. Comic PLAUTUS (T. Accius Plantus), born at Sarsina, a village in Umbria, about b. c. 254 ; died b. c. 184, aged seventy. Works : twenty-one Comedies, of which twenty are extant. TERENCE (P. Terentius Afer), born at Carthage, b.c. 195 ; died b. c. 159, in his thirty-sixth year. Works : six Comedies, viz.: 1. Andria; 2. Hecyra ; 3. Heauton-timorou- menos, or "the Self-tormentor;" 4. Eunuchus ; 5. Phormio ; 6. Adelphi, i. e. " the Brothers." He is said to have trans- lated 108 of Menander's Comedies when he went to Greece. Didactic. LUCRETIUS (T. Lucretius Carus), born at Rome, b.c. 95; perished by his own hand, B.C. 51, in his forty-fourth year Work : De Rerum Naturd, in six books, containing upwards of 7400 lines. SATIRISTS. HORACE, vide supra. PERSIUS (A. Persius Flaccus), born at Volaterrae, in Etruria, 4th of Dec, a. d. 34 ; died 24th of Nov., a. d. 62, aged twenty-seven. Work extant : six Satires. JUVENAL (Decimus Junius Juvenalis), born at Aquinum, in the reign of Claudius. Works extant : fifteen Satires. ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 155 EPIGRAMMATIST. MARTIAL (Marcus Valerius Martialis), born at Bilbilis, in Spain, a.d. 43. He resided for thirty-five years at Rome, where he obtained the patronage of the Emperors Titus and Domitian. He died at Bilbilis, about a.d. 104. Work: Ep% grammata, fourteen books. FABULIST PHiEDRUS, originally a slave, brought from Thrace or Macedonia to Rome, but eventually became a freedman of Augustus. Work: The Fables of JEsop, translated, with some alterations, into Latin iambics. HISTORIANS. CESAR (Caius Julius Caesar), born 12th of July, b.c. 100; murdered 15th of March, b. c. 44, being stabbed, in the Senate- house, with twenty-three wounds : among the conspirators was his intimate friend Brutus. Works : Commentarii de Bello Gallico, in seven books (an eighth is added by another hand) ; and Commentarii de Bello Civili, in three books. The books De Bello Alexandrino, Africano, and Hispaniensi, are spurious. CORNELIUS NEPOS flourished in the time of Julius Caesar. Work extant : Yitoz Excellentium Imperatorum, a short biography of twenty-two Grecian and two Carthaginian generals. SALLUST (C. Sallustius Crispus), born b.c. 86, at Amiter* num, in the Sabini ; died b. c. 34. Works : Catillna, a his- tory of Catiline's conspiracy ; Jugurtha, a history of the wars of the King of Numidia ; Histories, fragments alone extant. LIVY (Titus Livius), born at Patavium, b.c. 59; died k. d. 17. Work : History of Borne, from its foundation to the 156 ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. death of Drusus, b.c. 9, in 142 books, of which thirty-five are extant, viz., books 1-10, and 21-45, besides fragments and notices of contents [Epitomce). VALERIUS MAXIMUS flourished during the time of Ti- berius. Work: Factorum Dictorumque Memorabilium libri ix., a collection of facts and anecdotes, &c. TACITUS (Caius Cornelius Tacitus), born a.d. 57, at In- teramna(?). Works: De Situ, Moribus, Populisque Germa- nice ; Agricola, a biography of his father-in-law ; Historice ; Annates, a history of Rome, from the death of Augustus to that of Nero ; Dialogus de Oratoribus (? ). CURTIUS (Quintus Curtius Rufus) flourished in the reign of Vespasian (?). Work: De Rebus Gestis Alexandri Magni, in ten books, of which two books are wanting. SUETONIUS (Caius Suetonius Tranquillus) flourished during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. Works extant: Vitas xii. Imperatorum ; De IllUstribus Grammaiicis ; De Claris Rhetoribus. FLORUS (Lucius Annseus Florus) flourished in the time of Trajan (?). Work: Epitome de Rebus Gestis Romanorum, four books. JUSTIN (M. Junianus Justinus) flourished under the An- tonines. Work : An abridgment of the Historice Philippicce of Trogus Pompeius, in forty-four books. EUTROPIUS flourished under Constantine and Valens. Work : Breviarium Historice Romance, in tea books, ORATOR, &n. CICERO (Marcus Tullius Cicero), born b.c. 106; murdered b. c. 43, at the instigation of the Triumviri. Works : of Ora- tions, fifty-six are extant. Rhetorical works : De Inventions, or Rhetor ica ; De Oratore, three books ; Brutus, or De Claris Oratoribus; Orator ad Brutum, or De Optimo Genere Dicendi ; Topica, a work on evidence; De Partione Oratoria; De Optimo Genere Oratorum. Philosophical works: De Republica, in six ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. 157 books, of which Somnium Scipionis has been preserved ; De Legibas, three books ; Academica, divided first into two, and afterwards into four books, one of which, and a fragment of the second, we possess; De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, five books ; Disputationes Tusculance, five books ; De Natura Deo- rum, three books ; De Divinatione, two books ; De Fato, a fragment ; Cato Major sive de Senectute ; Lcelius sive de Amir cilia ; Paradoxa Stoicorum ; De Officiis, three books. Epis- tolary writings : Epistolm ad Diversos, sixteen books ; Epis- toloz ad T. Pomponiam Atticum, sixteen books ; Epistolai ad Quintum Fratrem, three books. EPISTOLARY WRITERS. ATTICUS (Titus Pomponius Atticus), born B.C. 109 ; died in his seventy-seventh year, b. c. 32. He corresponded with CICERO (vide supra). PLINY (Caius Plinius Csecilius Secundus, surnamed the Younger), born a.d. 61; died a.d. 114. Work: Epistolce, in ten books. Of his Orations, the Panegyricus on Trajan is alone extant. WRITERS ON PHILOSOPHICAL SUBJECTS, &c. SENECA (Lucius Annasus Seneca), born about a.d. 1; died a.d. 65, in the reign of Nero. Works: 124 Letters on Philosophical Subjects ; QuoBstiones Naturales, seven books. CICERO (vide supra). Natural History. PLINY (Caius Plinius Secundus Major, the Elder), born a.d. 23 ; died in the eruption of Vesuvius, a.d. 79, aged fifty- six. Work : Historia Naturalis, in thirty-seven books, alone ~emains of his numerous writings. 14 158 ANCIENT ROMAN WRITERS. Agriculture. CATO (Marcus Porcius Cato Censorius), born B.C. 234; died b. c. 149, aged eighty-five. "Works : A Treatise on Agri- culture, the most ancient Latin prose work extant ; Origines, a history of Rome from B.C. 753-151. VARRO (Marcus Terentius Varro), born B.C. 116; died B.C. 28. Works: De Lingua Latina, a" fragment; Be Re Rustica, a fragment alone extant. COLUMELLA (Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella), con- temporary of Seneca. Work : De Re Rustica. Architecture. VITRUVIUS (Marcus Vitruvius Pollio), born at Verona; nourished in the time of Caesar and Augustus. Work: De Architectura, in ten books. Medicine. CELSUS (Aulus Cornelius Celsus) flourished in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. Work: De Medicina, in eight books. Grammar and Criticism. QUINTILIAN (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus), born a.d. 40; died about a. d. 118. Works : Institutiones Oratorios, in twelve books ; a collection of Declamations is by some also ascribed to Quintilian. AULUS GELLIUS flourished in the time of the Anto- nines. Work : Nodes Atticce, in twenty books, of which tho eighth is wanting. SCHOOLS OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY. I. The IONIC SCHOOL, founded by Thales, from WHICH SPRUNG I 1. THE SOCRATIC SCHOOL, founded by Socrates. Disciples : Xenophon, iEschines, Phaedo, Euclid, Plato, Alci- biades, &c. 2. CYRENAIC SECT, founded by Aristippus. Flou- rished about b.c. 370. 3. MEGARIC or ERISTIC SCHOOL, founded by Euclid of Megara, b.c 399. 4. ELI AC or ERETRIAC SCHOOL, founded about b.c. 395, by Phaedo of Elis, whose doctrines were similar to those of Socrates. 5. THE ACADEMIC SECT, founded by Plato. 6. THE PERIPATETIC SECT, founded by Aristotle, succeeded by Theophrastus, Straton, Lycon, Ariston, &c. 7. THE CYNIC SECT, founded by Antisthenes. Dis- ciples : Diogenes Crates, and Hipparchia, his wife. 8. THE STOIC SECT, founded by Zeno, succeeded by Cleanthes, Ariston, Antipater, &c. II. The ITALIC SCHOOL, founded by Pythagoras, FROM WHICH SPRUNG: 1. THE ELEATIC SCHOOL, founded by Xenophanes. Flourished b.c 540-500. Disciples: Parmenides, Zeno ; both of Elea, in Italy, Democritus, Protagoras, &fc. 2. THE HERACLITEAN SECT, founded by Hera- clitus. Flourished b.c 513. 3. THE EPICUREAN SECT, founded by Epicurus. 4. THE SCEPTIC SECT, founded by Pyrrhon. (159) TOPOGRAPHY OP ATHENS. ATHENiE, the Capital of Attica, is said to have been founded by Cecrops, about b. c. 1556 ; it was called from its founder Cecropia, and afterwards Athenae (al 'Afloat), in honour of Minerva ('Advpy), the protectress of the city. It was divided into two parts, 1. THE ACROPOLIS, or UPPER CITY {axportoUi, Kexportia, 57 ow>co rtoUs), and THE LOWER CITY (rj xatm 7t6u$). The Acropolis or Citadel was a steep rock, about 150 feet high, 1150 feet long, and 500 feet broad, surrounded by a wall, and approached from the W. by the Propylsea (rtportiAaia), a colonnade of Pentelic marble. The summit was covered with temples, statues, &c. The most beautiful of the temples were, 1. the Parthenon, sacred to Athene, with a statue of the goddess by Phidias, thirty-seven feet high, and carved in gold and ivory. 2. Erechtheum, or temple of Neptune, with the temple of Athene Polias and the Pandroseum. Between the Par- thenon and Erechtheum stood the colossal bronze statue of Athene Promachos (seventy feet high, whose helmet and spear were first visible from the sea), cast by Phidias. THE LOWER CITY was built in the plain round the Acropolis, and was surrounded by walls ; the chief gates of which were: the Thriasian or Dipylon, leading from the inner to the outer Ceramicus and the Academia ; and the Piraean gate, leading to the Piraeeus. The chief districts: Colyttus, on the N. of the Acropolis; Melite, on the E. ; Limn ae, on the S. ; Ceramicus (Kfpo^iEixo?, or the "Potter's Quarter"), in the W. Hills: Areiopagus, W., and Pnyx, S.W., of the Acro- polis. (160) TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 161 The chief buildings of the Lower City were: 1. The Temple of Olympian Zeus ('Oxv^rttfiov), founded by Pisistratus; 2. The Temple of Theseus (&rjaslov), erected by Conon, and was used as a sanctuary for slaves ; 3. UavOeov, a temple dedicated to all the gods, a magnificent building, supported by 120 marble pillars; 4. The Temple of the Eight Winds (vide page 172), surmounted by a weather- cock; 5. The Odeum ('QShw), built by Pericles, and origin- ally intended for musical festivals, but afterwards used as a court of justice ; 6. The Bouleuterion, Bov'Ksvtripiou, or Senate-house; 7. The Prytaneum, Upv-tartlov, or place of assembly of the Prytanes (vide Gr. Antiq.); 8. The Great- Theatre of Dionysus, S.E. of the Acropolis; 9. Por- ticoes (2tW), or covered walks, in which seats (ifs'Spac) were placed. The Porticoes were sometimes adorned with paintings by the best masters, as, 10. The Poecile (atoa 7toixi"kri), N.W. of the Acropolis, adorned with frescoes of the battle of Marathon; 11. 'Ayopat, corresponding to the Fora at Rome, places both for public assembly and all matters of traffic and public business; 12. The Pnyx (n^i), W. of the Acropolis, the place in which the ancient assemblies were held. Without the City: TheAcademia, where Plato taught; The Cynosarges, where Antisthenes taught; The Ly- ceum, where Aristotle instructed his disciples, the Peri- patetics; The Stadium, for public games. 14* TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME ROMA, the Capital of Italy, is said to have been a colony frnn Alba Longa, and to have been founded by Romulus, B.C. 753. The original city comprised only the Mons Pala- tinus ; it was surrounded by walls, which followed the line of the Pomoerium, a kind of symbolical wall, the course of which was marked by stone pillars. On the increase of the inhabitants of the city, one hill after another was occupied, to the number of seven (vide pages 28, 168). Servius Tullius divided the city into four regiones or districts, which re- mained unchanged till the time of Augustus, who divided the city into fourteen regiones. THE FORA AND CAMPI. The Forum was an open space of ground of an oblong form, in which the people met for the transaction of business, or used for markets. The prin- cipal Fora at Rome were: 1. Forum Romanum, or simply the Forum (the narrow or upper end of which was occupied by the Comitium) ; it was surrounded by public buildings, and adorned with statues of celebrated men, &c. 2. Forum Julii or Caesaris. 3. Forum Augusti. 4. Forum Tra- jan i. The CAMPI were large open spaces of ground covered with grass, planted with trees, and adorned with works of art. The chief was the Campus Martius, or " Plain of Mars," where the Roman youth exercised. There are said to have been 215 streets in Rome ; Visa and Vici were the broad streets, and Angiportus the narrow streets. The finest street was the Via Sacra, from the Colosseum to the Forum. The Suburra was a crowded dis- trict, betveen the Esquiline, Quirinal, and Viminal. (162) TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 163 TEMPLES. Of these, there are said to have been 400 in Rome, the chief of which were: 1. Templuin Jovis, or Capitolium, built on the Capitoline Hill. It was com- menced by Tarq. Priscus, and dedicated B.C. 507. Three times was it burnt down, and as often rebuilt, but with far greater splendour than before, by Domitian, about a.d. 81. The building was in the form of a square, 200 feet each side ; it was approached by 100 steps, and contained three temples {celled), consecrated to Juno, Jupiter, and Minerva. In the building were kept the Sibylline Books, and there the Con- suls, upon entering office, sacrificed, and took their vows. THE ARX, or Citadel of Rome, was situated near the Capitol, on the N. summit of the Capitoline Hill. 2. The Pantheum, in the Campus Martius, built by Agrippa, b. c. 27 ; it is still extant, and used as a Christian church ( Santa Maria delta Boto?ida) . It is the largest circular build- ing of antiquity, and in form resembles the Colosseum, Re- gent's Park. The numerous temples were dedicated chiefly to Jupiter, Juno, Mars, Janus, Saturn, Fortuna, &c. The principal of the CIRC I, or places for chariot and horse- racing, was the Circus Maximus, between the Palatine and Aventine Hills ; it is said to have contained seats for 385,000 persons. Among the THEATRES, the chief were: 1. The Thea- trum Pompeii, the first stone theatre built in Rome (b.c. 55); 2. Th. Marcelli. Of the AMPHITHEATRES, the Amphiteatrum Flavium, or Colosseum, was the most magnificent ; it was commenced by Vespasian and com- pleted by Titus, a. d. 80 ; it furnished seats capable of con- taining 87,000 persons. THERMAE. These buildings were distinct from the com- mon Balnese or baths, as, besides baths, they contained places for athletic games and sports, public halls, porticoes, libraries, &c. ; the chief were: 1. Thermae Antonini; 2. Th. Dio- cletiani; 3. Th. Constantini; 4. Th. Caracallse. THE BASILICiE were numerous at Rome ; they were buildings which served as courts of law, or places of meeting for merchants and men of business THE PORTICOES 164 TOPOGRAPHY OP ROME. were covered walks, supported by columns, used as places of recreation or of public business. Of THE CURIAE or Senate-houses, the chief was Curia Hostilia, in the Forum ; it was used as the place of assem- bly for the senate until the time of Caesar. The other chief buildings were the Palaces (e. g. Palatium, Domus Aurea Nei'onis) ; the Triumphal Arches (Arcus Fabianus, Ar. Titi, Ar. Trajani, Ar. Constantini) ; Aqueducts {Aqua Appia, Aq. Marcia, Aq. Julia, Aq. Claudia); Monuments ( Mausoleum Augusti, M. Hadriani) . Of the Columns were : Col. Rostrata, in the Forum, in honour of the naval vic- tory of Duilius, B.C. 260; Col. Trajani, 117 feet high, now surmounted by a statue of St. Peter. Of THE ROADS leading out of Rome, the principal were : 1. "Via Appia, from the Porta Capena to Brundusium ; 2. Via Flaminia, or Great North Road from the Porta Flaminia; 3. ViaAurelia, the Great Coast Road through Etruria and Liguria from the Porta Janiculensis, GEBEK AND ROMAN DIVISION OF TIME. GREEK. In early times, the Greeks divided their years by the recur- rence of the seasons, the rising and setting of the constella- tions Orion, the Pleiades, &c. Afterwards, having adopted the lunar month of about twenty-nine days and thirteen hours as a division of time, they endeavoured to adjust this to the solar year of 365 days five hours and forty-nine minutes, so that the seasons should regularly occur at the same periods of the calendar year, and that the end of the year should not be in the middle of a month. As the twelve lunar months contain only 354 days, intercalary or additional months {fiijvBs i^6%^oi) were inserted to make up the defi- ciency. The errors of the early calendars of Thales, Solon, and Cleostratus, were rectified by Me ton, who, b.c. 432, introduced a cycle of nineteen years, at the end of which period the position of the earth, with reference to the sun and moon, became the same. Calippus, and after him the celebrated Hip parch us (c. b.c. 150), corrected the slight inaccuracies of Meton's system. The cycle of Hipparchus consisted of 304 years, with 112 intercalary months. The twelve Attic months contained thirty and twenty-nine days alternately ; the former termed full (rttypws), the latter hollow [xol'koi), months. Their names, derived from the va- rious festivals held in them, were, 'Exato/xficuujv, Mttayertviw, Boqbpofiiuiv, Mcufmxtripiwv, Hvavstyuv, 'Avdiatqpiuv, IlofffiSfwv, Ta.y.ri'kbCiv, 'E?jxtyr{$o'kul>v, Mowv^twy, ©apy^twy, Sxtp/jo^optav. 1 1 The following rough memorial lines will aid the memory in remem- bering the Attic months : — Ex — Me to, — Tut vi — Botj — XliSa — Maipdxtrjpi — Tloat tScov Tap — AvOeat — ""EyJxfyrj \\ Movi/fot — ®dpy — XxZpotyop. (165) 166 GREEK AND ROMAN DIVISION OF TIME. The days of the month were divided into three decades or Bets of ten days, numbered from one to ten : thus the first of each decade (i. e. our first, eleventh, and twenty-first) was termed respectively, 7tpu>trj (sc. qfiipa), latdnsvov or apzofxtvov (ixyv6$) — rtpuitq irti 6ixa or fisoovpto$ — rtpioT'^ srt' eixddt, (pQCvovto^ kfflovtos, &c. But in the last decade the days were often reckoned backwards ; thus the first, was called 8 s xdtq $9lvov- t'oj, &c. The first day of the month was also termed T$ovpr[via. {new moon), the last hrj xai via, as belonging both to the old and the new month. The three Homeric divisions of the day were : 1. >fws (morning), afterwards divided into rtpco'C and 7fkrj9ov&>]$ rrjs dyopaj ; 2. juiffov ^ap or psoijiifipui (midday) ; 3. bt'ckiq (after- noon), afterwards divided into rtpoLa and 6-^ia. At Athens the years were called after the chief Archon (frtuwpj), at Sparta after the first Ephor, at Argos after the priestess of Juno. So at Carthage after the Suffetes, at Crete after the Proto-cosmus, and at Rome after the Consuls. Timseus of Sicily (c. B.C. 260) introduced the calculation by Olympiads, or periods of four years, commencing from B.C. 776 (vide Chronology). Thus, b. c. 775 would be the second year of the first Olympiad, b. c. 772 the second Olym- piad, &c. But as the Attic year began at the summer solstice, with the month Hecatonibseon (June and July), the first half of the first Olympiad would be the latter half of b.c. 776, and the latter half of the Olympiad the first of b. c. 775. ROMAN. The Roman year was probably at first divided into ten months, beginning with March. To this division, which is ascribed to Romulus, Numa is said to have added the two months January and February, to have assigned 355 days to the year, and to have adopted a cycle similar to Meton'a Julius Csesar, b. c. 46, employed Sosigenes, of Alexandria, GREEK AND ROMAN DIVISION OF TIME. 167 and Flavius, a scribe, to revise the calendar. The intercalary months were set aside, the solar year was composed of 365 days, and a leap-year inserted every four years. But, as this did not provide for the accumulation of the excess of minutes and seconds, Pope Gregory, a.d. 1582, ordered ten days, be- tween Oct. 4 and 15, in that year to be omitted. This " new style" was not recognized in England till a.d. 1752. The "old," or "Julian style," is still used in Russia. The names of the Roman months are Januarius, Februa- rius, Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Julius, Quintilis and Sextllis (changed to Julius and Augustus, in honour of the two first Caesars), September, Oetober, November, December. The number of days in each month was the same as our own ; but they were divided into Calends, Nones, and Ides. The Calends were the first of every month. In March, May, July, and October, the Nones fell on the 7th, in the other months on the 5th. The Ides were always eight days after the Nones, i. e. on the 13th or 15th. If the day of the month was not one of these three divisions, it was expressed by its distance from the following Calends, Nones, or Ides, as the case might be. Thus, the 31st of December was termed pridie (the day before) Calendas Januarias. But, as the Romans reckoned in both the days to and from which they calculated, Dec. 30 would be the third day before the Calends of January, usually expressed ante diem tertium (or a. d. iii.) Kal. Jan. The Romans (as well as the Greeks) used water- clocks (clepsydrce) and sun-dials {solaria) to measure the divisions of the day. The Consular aera was used in public affairs. In the time of the Caesars, the aera "ab urbe condita" (A. U. C), from the founding of Rome, dated by Varro B.C. 753 (by Cato, B.C. 752), was employed by historians and others. MISCELLANEA HILLS OF ROME. 1. Palatinus, first occupied by the Latins. 2. Capitolinus, occupied by the Sabines, afterwards united to the Latins. 3. Coelius, occupied by the Etruscans. 4. Quirinalis, occupied by the Sabines, afterwards united to the Latins. 5. Aventinus, added by Ancus Martius, who also erected a fort on Janiculum, on the right bank of the Tiber. 6. Esquilinus, added by Servius Tullius. 7. Viminalis, added by Servius Tullius. KINGS OF ROME. 1. Romulus, 2. Numa Pompilius, 3. Tullus Hostilius, 4. Ancus Marcius, 5. L. Tarquinius Priscus, 6. Servius Tullius, 7. L. Tarquinius Superbus, B. C. B. C. reigned 753—716, 37 yeais " 715—672, 43 " « 672—640, 32 " « 640—616, 24 " " 616-^78, 38 " " 578—534, 44 " " 534—510, 25 » (168) MISCELLANEA. 1 TWELVE CAESARS. 1. Julius, B.C. 45 — b.c. 44. 2. Augustus, , " 30— A.D.14. 3. Tiberius, 'a.d. 14— 1 37. 4. Caligula, ' 37— ' 41. 5. Claudius, 1 41— (< 54. 6. Nero, < 54— 1 68 7. Galba, 1 68— " 69 8. Otho, Jan. 15, ' 69— Apr. 16, * 69. 9. Vitellius, Jan. 2, * 69— Dec. 22, ' 69. 10. Vespasian, Dec. 22, < 69— ' 79. 11. Titus, ' 79— 1 81. 12. Domitian, " 81— 1 96. 169 SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD. 1. The Colossus of Rhodes. 2. The Sepulchre of Mausolus, king of Caria. 3. The Palace of Cyrus. 4. The Pyramids of Egypt. 5. The Statue of Jupiter at Olympia. 6. The Temple of Diana at Epheeus. 7. The Walls and Hanging Gardens of Babylon. SEVEN SAGES OF GREECE. 1. Thales, of Miletus. 2. Pittacus, of Mitylene. 3. Bias, of Priene. 4. Solon, legislator of Athens. 5. Cleobulus, of Rhodes. 6. Periander of Corinth (some say Myson), of Laconia. 7 Chilon, of Sparta. 15 170 MISCELLANEA. THE TWELVE LABOURS OF HERCULES. 1. The Fight with the Nernean Lion. 2. The Fight with the Hydra of Lerna, near Argos. 3. The Capture of the Brazen-footed Stag of Arcadia. 4. The Destruction of the Erymanthian Wild Boar. 5. Cleansing the Stables of Augeas, king of Elis. 6. The Destruction of the Stymphalian Birds. 7. The Capture of the Cretan Bull. 8. The Capture of the Mares of Diomedes, king of Thrace. 9. The Seizure of the Girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons. .10. The Capture of the Oxen of Geryon. 11. Obtaining the Golden Apples of the Hesperides. 12. Bringing the Three-headed Dog Cerberus from the lower regions. THE NINE MUSES. 1 Clio, muse of History. 2. Euterpe, Lyric Poetry. 3. Thalia, Comedy. 4. Melpomene, Tragedy. 5. Terpsichore, Choral Dance. 6. Erato, Erotic, or Amorous Poetry. 7. Polyhymnia, Rhetoric, Eloquence. 8. Urania, Astronomy. 9. Calliope, Epic Poetry. THE THREE GRACES. Aglaia (Splendour). Euphrosyne (Joy). Thalia (Pleasure). MISCELLANEA. 171 THE THREE ROKM, OR GODDESSES OF THE ORDER OF NATURE, Ac. (Hesiod). Eunonria (Good Order). Dike (Justice). Irene (Peace). THE THREE FATES. Clotho, ~\ Lachesis, V for attributes, vide Parcae. Atropos, ) THE THREE FURIES, Alecto. Megsera. Tisiphone. THE THREE JUDGES OF HELL. Minos, formerly king of Crete. Rhadamanthus, son of Zeus and brother of Minos. JEacus, son of Zeus, famed for his Justice and Piety. THE FIVE RIVERS OF HELL. Styx. Acheron. Cocytus. Phlegethon. Lethe. 172 MISCELLANEA. THE WINDS. N., 'Artopxr'faf, Septemtrio. N.E., Kotxtaj, Bopeaj (usually N. wind), Aquilo. E., 'AityjTuM'tTjs, Subsolanus. S.E., Eupoj, Eurus, Vulturnus. S., No-foj (prop. S.W.), Auster. S.W., Ai,'-^, Africus. W., Zt'ejwpoj (prop. N.W.), ZepTiyrus, Favonius. N.W., 'A/jyfctjJs, 2xip«v, Corns or Caurus. 'EtyoCcu, northerly winds which blew in the summer. Iapyx, W. or N.W. wind, which blew from Apulia. Atabulus (Hor.) a scorching wind of Apulia. THE ROMAN CALENDAR. For the purposes of administering justice and holding the assemblies, all the days of the year were divided by the Romans into dies fasti and nefasti. The former (dies fasti) were the days on which the praetor was allowed to administer justice ; they were marked in the calendar by the letter F. ; the latter (dies nefasti) were days on which neither the courts of justice nor comitia were allowed to be held. Some days, however, might be partly fasti as well as nefasti, in which case they were marked in the calendar thus, Fp. (i. e. fastus primo), or Np. (i. e. nefastus primo). The Nundinoz (ninth days) were originally market-days, on which the country-people came to Eome to sell the produce of their labour. The nundinse were ferice or sacred days for the populus, while they were real business days for the MISCELLANEA. 173 plebeians (dies fasti), for many years, until the dies fasti and nundinae coincided. Mar ., May, July, Jan , Aug:., Dec, Apr , June, Sep., Feb. 28 days, in Oct., 31 days. 31 days. Nov., 30 days. Leap-year 29. Kalendis Kalendis Kalendis Kalendis 6] 4 \ Ante 3 J Nonas 4 | Ante 3 j Nonas 4 l Ante 3 / Nonas 5 [Ante 4 [Nonas Pridie Nonas Pridie Nonas Pridie Nonas 3j Nonis Nonis Nonis Pridie Nonas 8- 8 1 7 8 1 Nonis 7 7 8 1 6 Ante 6 [Ante 6 Ante 7 5 " Idus 5 f Idus 5 ' Idus 6 Ante 4 * 4 5 " Idus 3 J 3J 3 4 Pridie Idus Pridie Idus Pridie Idus 3 Idibus Idibus Idibus Pridie Idus 19' 18 1 16" Idibus 18 17 15 17 1 17 16 14 16 16 15 13 15 15 % 14 12 02 c3 14 14 7f>ta, 106. 'AvdeaTrjpidJv, 165. dWXo?, 113. i#W7, 112. 'ATtapKTtas, 172. anapxfj, 104. O7rarouj5ia, 106. 'Axt]\iu)Tt]s, 172. 'Apycffrfc, 172. dp^aviov, 115. apuoirayziTai, 101. "Ap*s, 68. dp^rfjpEJ, 103. apiarov, 114. "Apr^us, 70. dp^Eiov, 100. ap%wv, 98. 'AoxX>j7rtos, 70. d(r7Itf, 111. drip.ia, 103. at^Xata, 116. auXdj, 108. , A(ppo5iTT], 70. (3av, 165. yipovTcs, 101. ytpovcla, 101. Tata, 71. r»i 7i. ypafi/jLarevs, 99. A. £acpvti6pia, 106. foiXivdv, 114. (Jmri'Ol', 114. ScX 112. fyKUfcXov, 115. idwXia, 113. £?Xa)T£<;, 98. t 'E.KaTon(3aiu>v, 165k iKar6fi(ir}, 104. fKaTOVTapxi'a, 112. CKKXriala, 100. 'EXa0^j8oXtwv, 165. iXevaivia, 106. erfoXov, 113. ti^Ka, 99. txifidraiy 114. CTriGTdTTis, 100. firtaroXcvi, 114. inwvvfAOs, 98. (189) 190 GREEK INDEX. spiral, 114. iptrpoi, 113, Epprjs, 69. 'Epwff, 71. ioOrjs, 115. 'Eorla, 69. evdvvrj, 101. Eitycw'fos, 71. 'Er^ffiat, 172. Etjpo?, 172. ((pearpls, 115. i7, 69. fipya, 116. "H(pai£??, 103. 'IcptTov, 104. 'ifxaTiov, 115. ?7r7rap^oi, 112. I7r7r£?s, 111, 112. ioriov, 113. icrrd?, 113. K. KatKiaj, 172. Ka\ddiov, 107. Karaarpuypara, 113. Kucpuma, 160. Kepalai, 113. KcpapeiKos, 160. Kf'para, 112, 113. /Cfpva, 104. Ktovts, 116. *Amn, 114, 115. KvrjplSes, 111. KdQopvoi, 115. *coTAov, 117. KOVTOl, 113. KOpi/f, 111. KOvptCjTlS, 106. Kpdvos, HI. KpTjir'tdes, 115. Kpdvoj, 75. Kv(3cpvr}Ti)S, 114. Kvvirj, 111. KV(p(i)V, 103. K(j)Trai, 113. A. Xrj^lap^oi, 99. \i0o(3o\ia, 103. AN/, 172. Ao/ftO!/, 116. Aot/?a/, 104. Ad<£o«r, 111. Ad^oi, 112. Ad^of, 112. MaipaKrrjpi&Vf 185. fidvTUs, 104. ptXlTOllTTa, 115. fxeadKoiXa, 113. Msrayarvidiv, 166. piroiKOi, 98. p.tTU)irov, 113. /^J7/3a, 104. fiopai, 112. Movw^twi/, 165. pwarfipia, 106. N. vaiSia, 116, radj, 103. vavap^oj, 114. vaCrat, 114. vopodinai, 99. Ndros, 172. vovjxrjvla, 166. £tyo f , 103, 112. O. d3oAd f , 115. 'O(5ua\oSy 111. 6v£tpon6\oi, 104. dniad68op.os, 103. GREEK INDEX. inXlrai, 111. ■npvraviia, 100. rpdvt^ai, 116. bnXhtjs, 108. Trpravuoi/, 161. rpdcpt)!;, 113. dp^ijarpa, 116. Trpvravets, 100. TplfilDV, 115. iarpaKiajiog, 102. npdpa, 113. Tpif/papxos, 114» oi>Ao;£i>raj, 104. Iluavci/'iwj/, 165. rpira, 116. ovpd, 112, TTvyjxfi, 108. Tpdnis, 113. TTvXoia, 101. rpoirot, 113. n. jrup, 103. rpo^as, 103. TrayxpaTiov, 109. Tfy»7, 71. rriAv, 109. 2. IIuAAaS, 69. o-avt?, 103. Y. »rava0>7»«ua, 107. crjKos, 103. vtripat, 113. Kt^oi, 111. cfifiara, 104. ino(3oXevs, 117. ttAovoi, 104. (XKrjVfj, 116. vxoSrJuaTa, 115. irsAaWtj, 105. Y.Ki()poct'pwj/, 172. *. ireXraarai, 111, 112. ffdAoj, 108. (paivoXns, 115. JT&TJfc 111, 112. 27rapTiurat, 98. dXay%, 112. ne/jLirds, 112. tnra'pr], 113. VlOV, 115. :rAota, 113. a-par^yd?, 114. ;^Aa?J/a, 115. Trvuf, 161. trrparto, 112. j^Xafivg, 115. rife, 113. crpoyyvAai, 113. X°af, 104, lid. TOlKlXtl, 161. 9. Epicurus, 151. Epirus, 38. Equites, 118, 135. Erato, 73. Erebus, 78. Erechtheum, 160. Eretriac School, 159. Ericthonius, 88. Eristic School, 159 Essedarii, 132, Eteocles, 87. Etruria, 26. Eubulus, 145. Euclid, 149. Eumenldes, 71. Eunomia, 72. Euphrosyne, 72 Eupolis, 145. Euripides, 145. Europe, 13. Europa, 78, 86. Eurus, 172. Euryale, 79. Eurydlce, 81. Eurysaces, 92. Eurystheus, 79. Eurytion, 82. Euterpe, 73. Eutropius, 156. Evocati, 134. Extispices, 12&. INDEX. 195 p. Familia, 143. Fates, 171. Fauni, 71. Favonius, 172. Fenestras, 141. Ferentarii, 134. Feriaj, 130. Feretrum, 142. Fetiales, 128. Flaecus (Valerius), 152. Flamines, 128. Flora, 71. Florus, 156. Follis, 141. Fora, 162. Fores, 140. Fortuna, 71. Forum, 162. Fossa, 135. Fratres Arvales, 129. Frigidarium, 141. Fritillus, 142. Funditores, 134. Furiae, 71, 171. G. Gaea, 71. Galatia, 51. Galea, 134. Galen, 148. Galerus, 139. Galilee, 54. Galli, 129. Gallia, 17. — — Belgiea, 19. Cisalpina, 25. Togata, 25. Cispadana, 25. Transpadana, 26. Ganymede, 72. Ge, 71. Gedrosia, 61. Gellius (Aulus), 158. Genius, 71. Gentes, 143. Germania, 20. Gigantes, 79. Gladiatorii, 131. Gladius, 135. Glaucus, 96. Globus, 136. Gorgones, 79. Graecia, 34. Gratiae, 72, 170. Hercules (labours of), 170. Herodotus, 146. Hesiod, 144. Hesione, 88. Hesperia, 23. Hesperldes, 79. Hipparchus, 165. Hippocrates, 148. Hippodamia, 82. Hippolyte, 80. Hippomedon, 87. Hispania, 15. Gymnicum(Certamen),Histria, 26. 131. H. Hades, 72. Haemon, 88. Hamadryades, 73. Harpagones, 138. Harpyiae, 79. Haruspices, 128. Hastae, 135. Hastati, 134, 136. Heaven, 75. Hebe, 72. Hecate, 72. Hecaton Cheires, 84. Hector, 96. Hecuba, 88, 96. Helena, 89, 93. Helenus, 91, 96. Helios, 72. Hell (rivers of), 171. (judges of), 171. Hellas, 34. Helle, 85. Heptanomis, 64. Heraclidae, 79. Heraclitean Sect, 159. Hercules, 79. Homer, 144. Horace, 153. Horae, 72, 171. Hostia, 130. Hyades, 80. Hygea, 72. Hygiea, 72. Hymen, 72. Hymenaeus, 72. Hyperion, 80. Hypermnestra, 84. Hypocaustra, 141. Hyrcania, 60. Iapetus, 80. Iapyx, 172. Iberia, 56. Ides, 167. Idomeneus, 93. Ignobiles, 119. Ignominia, 126. Illyricum, 22. Hlyris Graeca, 33. Ilus, 88. Imagines, 142. Imperator, 137. Impluvium, 141. 196 INDEX. India, 62. Infamia, 126. Infulse, 130. Intercessio, 125. Io, 80. Ionia, 49. Ionian (States), 51. Iphigenia, 90. Irene, 72. Iris, 72. Isaeus, 148. Isauria, 50. Isis, 72. Ismene, 87. Isocrates, 147. Italia, 23. lulus, 95. Ixlon, 80, 83. J. Janua, 140. Janus, 72. Jason, 80, 85. Jentaculum, 139. Jocasta, 87. Judaea, 53, 54. Judicia, 126. Juno, 69. Jupiter, 68. Jus Imaginum; 119. Justin, 156. Juvenal, 154. Juventas, 72. Labdacus, 86. Lacerna, 139. Lachesis, 75. Laconia, 41. Laeunaria, 141. Leena, 139. Laius, 86. Lanista, 131. Laocob'n, 91. Laodamas, 88. Laodamia, 97. Laodice, 89, 93. Laomedon, 88. Lapithae, 80. Laquearia, 141. Lares, 73. Latium, 28. Latona, 80. Latrunculi, 142. Latus clavus, 120. Laudatio, 142. Latinus, 95. Lavinia, 95. Lecti, 139. Lectica, 142. Leda, 80. Legati, 135. Legio, 134, 136. Lethe, 80. Libatio, 104. Libitinarii, 142. Libya, 66. Lictores, 122. Liguria, 25. Limen, 140. Limnae, 160. Lituus, 128, 135. Livy, 155. Locris, 38. Longinus, 150. Lorica, 134. Lucan, 152. Lucania, 30. Luceres, 118. Lucian, 150. Lucretius, 154. Ludi Circenses, 131. Ludus Trojae, 131. Lugdunensis, 18. Luna, 73. Lupercalia, 130. Luperci, 129. Lusitania, 16. Lustratio, 130. Lycaonia, 51. Lyceum, 161. Lycia, 50. Lycomedes, 91. Lydia, 49. Lysias, 147. M. Macedonia, 32. Machaon, 93. Maeonia, 49. Magister Equitum, 124, Maia, 80, 82. Manes, 73. Manipuli, 134. Manumissio, 119. Manus (Ferreae), 138. Mars, 68. Gradivus, 129. Martial, 155. Matronalia, 130. Mauritania, 67. Maximus (Valerius), 156. Medea, 81, 86. Media, 59. Medusa, 79. Megaera, 71. Megalesia, 130. Megaric School, 159. Megaris, 40. Mellte, 160. Melpomene, 73. Memnon, 96. Menoetius, 85, 93. Menander, 145. Menelaus, 89, 93. INDEX 197 Mensa, 140. Mercurius, 69. Menones, 93 Merope, 82, 87. Mesopotamia, 57. Messenia, 41. Meton, 165. Mezentius, 95. Minerva, 69. Minos, 81. Mirmillones, 132. Mnemosyne, 84. Moesia, 31. Moirae, 75. Mola salsa, 130. Momus, 73. Mopsus, 85. Morpheus, 73. Mors, 126. Moschus, 146. Mulcta, 126. Musse, 73, 170. Mysia, 49. N. Naiades, 73. Napaeae, 73. Narbonensis, 17. Narcissus, 81. Nations (Seven Hea- then), 55. Naumachia, 131. Naves Longae, 138. Pretoria, 138. Nemesis, 73. Neoptolemus, 91, 93. Nephele, 85. Nepos (Cornelius), 155, Neptune, 68. Nereides, 73. Nereus, 73. Nestoi, 93. 17* Niobe, 81. Nobiles, 119. Nomen, 143. Nones, 167. Noricum, 21. Novendiale, 143. Numidia, 67. Nundinae, 172. Nymphae, 73. 0. Oceanides, 73. Oceanus, 74. Ocreae, 134. Ocypete, 79. Odeum, 161. GEdipus, 86. OEnotria, 23. Oileus, 85, 92. Onerariae, 138. Ops, 83. Optimates, 119. Optiones, 135. Orbis, 136. Orchestra, 116, 132. Orcus, 72. Oreades, 73. Orestes, 90. Orion, 81. Orpheus, 81. Osiris, 74. Ostium, 140. Ovatio, 137. Ovid, 153. Ovlle, 121. P. , Paenula, 139. Palaestina, 53. Pales, 74. Palilia, 130. Palla, 139. Palladium, 88, 91. Paludamentum, 135. Pamphylia, 50. Pan, 74. Pancratium, 109. Pandarus, 96. Pandora, 81. Pandroseum, 160. Pannonia, 22. Pantheon, 161. Pantheum, 163. Paphlagonia, 49. Parcaj, 75, 171. Parietes, 141. Parilia, 130. Paris, 88, 96. Parma, 135. Parthenon, 160. Parthenopaeus, 87. Parthia, 60. Pater Patratus, 128. Patres, 119. Minorum Gen- tium, 120. Majorum Gen- tium, 120. Conscripti, 120. Patricii, 118. Patroclus, 90, 93. Pausanias, 149. Pax, 74. Pegasus, 81. Peleus, 89. Pelops, 92. Penates, 74. Penelope, 94. Pentathlon, 131. Peraea, 55. Periboea, 87. Pericles, 147. Peripatetic Sect, 159. Peristylium, 141. 198 INDEX Persephone, 74. Perseus, 82. Persia, 60. Persius, 154. Personae, 117, 132. Phaedrus, 155. Phaethon, 82. Philemon, 145. Philoctetes, 91, 93. Phlegethon, 82. Phocis, 39. Phoebe, 74. Phoebus, 74. Phoenicia, 53. Phoenix, 93. Phorcys, 83. Phormus, 145. Phrixus, 85. Phrygia, 51. Picenum, 27. Pierides, 82. Pila, 135, 141. Pilani, 134. Pileus, 127, 139. Pindar, 146. Pirithous, 82, 85. Pisidia, 50. Plato, 151. Plautus, 154. Plebei, 118. Pliny, 157. . (Younger), 157. Plutarch, 147. Pluto, 72, 74. Plutus, 74. Pnyx, 160, 161. Pocula, 140. Poeeile, 161. Podarces, 88. Polites, 89. Pollicem premere, 132 ' vertere, 132. Pollux, 82. Polybius, 147. Poly bus, 87. Polydorus, 86, 89, 96. Polyhymnia, 73. Polymnestor, 96. Polynices, 87. Polyphemus, 82, 94. Polyxena, 89, 96. Pomona, 74. Pontifex Maximus, 127. Pontifices, 127. Pontus, 49. Popa, 130. Populares, 119. Porticoes, 161, 163. Posidippus, 145. Postes, 140. Potameides, 73. Prsecones, 122. Praefectus, 124, 135. classii, 138. Praeficae, 142. Praslusio, 131. Praenomen, 143. Praetor, 124. Proserpina, 74. Proteus, 75. Prytaneum, 161. Psyche, 82. Pulpitum, 116. Puppis, 113. Pyra, 142. Pyrrhus, 91, 94. Pythagoras, 150. Python, 82. Q. Quadriremes, 113, 138. Quaesitores, 126. Quaestores, 125. Quintilian, 158. Quinqueremes, 113, 138. Quinquertium, 131. R. Ramnenses, 118. Ramnes, 118. Refuge (Cities of), 55. Retiarii, 132. Rex Sacrificulus, 128. Rhadamanthus, 83. Rhaetia, 21. Peregrinus, 124. Rhea, 83. Urbanus, 124. Rhesus, 90. Prandium, 139. Priam, 88, 96. Priapus, 74. Principes, 134, 136. Pro-Consul, 124. Procurator, 125. Proletarii, 133. Prometheus, 82. Propertius, 153. Pro-Praetor, 125. Propylaea, 160. . Prora, 113. Proscenium, 116 Roads, 164. Rogus, 142. Roma, 162. Rome (Hills of), 168. (Kings of), 168. Rorarii, 134. Rostrum, 113. Rudes, 131. S. Sabinum, 27. Sacrificia, 129. INDEX. 199 6ages (Seven), 169. Sagittarii, 134. Sagum, 135. Salii, 129. Sallust, 155. Samaria, 54. Samnites, 132. Samnium, 28. Sappho, 145. Sarmatia, 32. Asiatica, 56. Sarpedon, 97. Saturnalia, 130. Saturnia, 23. Saturnus, 75. Satyri, 83. Scena, 116. Scenici, 131, 132. Sceptic Sect, 159. Scribse, 122. Scutum, 134. Scythia, 61. Selene, 73. Sella Curulis, 124. Senatores, 119. Senatus, 119, 120. Consultum, 120. Seneca, 154, 157. Septemtrio, 172. Servi, 119. Servitus, 126. Ship (Tackling of, Ac), H3. Sibylline Books, 123. Sica, 132. Sicilia, 30. Sicyonia, 42. Signa, 136. Signiferi, 135. Sileni, 83. Silenus, 75. Silius, 152. Silvanus, 75. Simonides, 146. Sinon, 91. Sirenes, 83. Sisyphus, 83. Socci, 139. Socrates, 151. Socratic School, 159. Sogdiana, 61. Sola, 141. Solaria, 167. Sol, 72. Solese, 139. Sophocles, 144. Sparti, 86. Spectio, 127. Sphynx, 83, 87. Sporades, 44. Stadium, 161. Statius, 152. Sterope, 82. Stesichorus, 146. Stheno, 79. Sthenelus, 94. Stoic Sect, 159. Stola, 139. Strabo, 149. Strigiles, 141. Strymo, 88. Styx, 83. Subucula, 138. Subitarii, 133. Subsolanus, 172. Succenturiones, 135. Suetonius, 156. Suovetaurilia, 130. Susiana, 59. Susis, 59. Syria, 53. Syrinx, 74. Tabella, 121. Tacitus, 156. Tali, 141. Talio, 126. Talthybius, 94. Tantalus, 83. Tarraconensis, 18, Tartarus, 72, 83. Taygete, 82. Tecmessa, 92. Telamon, 85, 92. Tellus, 71. Templa, 130. Temples at Rome, 163. Tepidarium, 141. Terpsichore, 73. Terence, 154. Terra, 71. Tesserae, 142. Testudo, 136. Teucer, 88, 94. Thales, 150. Thalia, 72, 73. Theatres at Rome, 163. Theatrum, 116, 132. Thebais, 65. Themis, 75. Theocritus, 146. Thermae, 141, 163. Theseus (Temple of) 161. Thessalia, 37. Thetis, 75. Thracia, 34. Thraces, 132. Thorax, 134. Thucydides, 146. Tibullus, 153. Timocles, 145. Tiphys, 85. 200 INDEX. Tiresias, 87. Tisiphone, 71. Titanes, 84. Titienses, 118. Tityus, 83. Toga, 138. Picta, 137, 139. Praetexta, 123, 139. Virilis, 139. Candida, 138. Trabea, 128. Transtra, 113. Transvectio E«uituin, 130. Triarii, 134, 136. Tribuni Plebis, 125. Milituin, 126, 135. Tribus, 118. Trinacria, 30. Trinundinum, 121. Tripolitana, 66. Triremes, 113, 138. Triton, 84. Troas, 49. Troilus, 89, 97. Tros, 88. Tuba, 135. Tumultuarii, 133. Tunica, 138. Palmata, 137. Laticlavia, 138. Angusticlavia, 138. Turuiae, 134. Turnus, 95. Turris, 136. Tuscia, 26. Tydeus, 87. Tydides, 92. Typon, 84. Tyrrhenia, 26. U. Ulysses, 94. Umbo, 138. Umbria, 27. Urania, 73. Uranus, 75. V. Vallum, 135. Varro, 158. Velites, 134. Venatio, 131. Venetia, 26. Venti, 172. Venus, 70. Vertumnus, 75. Vesta, 69. Vestibulum, 140, 141. Vise, 162, 164. Via Sacra, 162. Viatores, 122. Victima, 130. Vincula, 126. Vindelicia, 21. Vinea, 136. Vinum, 140. Virgil, 152. Virgines Vestales, 128, Vitruvius, 158. Vittae, 130. Vota, 129. Votiva Tabula, 129. Vulcan, 68. W. Winds (Temple of), 18L Wines, 140. X. Xenophon, 147. Xystus, 109. Z. Zeno, 151. Zephyrus, 172. Zeus (Temple of), 161. THE END. 4. FAGAN, STEREOTTPER. C. SHERMAN, PRINTEB. W 80 w ^o< •♦Jib- -ov* :^^.'. >, y^ y*^ Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide .