TOPICAL DISCU55I OF AMERICAN HiSIORV TEACHERS' MANUAL AND COURSE OF STUDY IN HISTORY AND CIVICS W. C, DOUB Class ^EzkJlSl BookiirL5i_ GoppghtN" COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF AMERICAN HISTORY CONSTITUTING A TEACHERS' MANUAL AND COURSE OF STUDY IN HISTORY AND CIVICS FOR USE IN THE ELEMENTART SCHOOLS BY WILLIAM C. POUB, A. B. (Stanford University) Ex-Superintendent of Schools for Kern County, California Author of '■^Educational ^uestions,'^ "Grammar by the Inducti-ve Method,' ^''Topical Discussion of Geography, ^^ etc. W^t flfllliitaket: a Eap Company (incorporated) PUBLISHERS SAN FRANCISCO 1905 stp ^i lyoi) OOP> Copyright, ig04 h TV. C. Doub Copyright, igos hy W. C. Doub PREFACE This little volume is a working manual for the teacher and constitutes a course in history and civics for the elementary schools. Many able educators have been consulted in the prepara- tion of this course, and it is believed to be so complete in every detail that boards of education can adopt it as the course in his- tory and civics without further reference to these subjects in the school manual or regular course of study. This course has been prepared with especial reference to the regular text-books. Teach- ers and pupils frequently complain that the regular or official text on history is too difficult, and it is hoped that this course will be of great assistance to them in the use of this text. The dis- cussions, references and questions in this volume are intended for the direct help and assistance of the teacher, the object being to reduce the teacher's work to a minimum and to provide at the same time a broad and progressive course in history and civics. In order to further assist the teacher, a pupil's outline for use in connection with this course of study has been prepared and is bound under a separate cover. Special attention is directed to "Questions for Class Recitations" and "Questions for Composi- tions and Examinations," which follow each general topic or chapter in the work for the seventh and eighth grades. A few years ago it would have been necessary to have accom- panied this little volume with an explanatory word regarding the nature of the work for which it provides. Happily, that time is now passed, for nearly all the better teachers and schools in the United States are now doing the work for which the course of study herein outlined makes specific provision. The com- bining of the work in civics with that on history is one of the most valuable features of this course, and a feature which has been thoroughly tested in the schools of the East with most satis- factory results. William C. Doub. San Francisco, August i, 1905. TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE 3 BOOKS II HISTORY AND CIVICS IN THE LOWER GRADES 15 Third Year Grade 17 Fourth Year Grade 20 Fifth Year Grade 21 Sixth Year Grade 22 INTRODUCTORY 25 Conditions Favorable to the Discovery of America 27 Ancient Ideas of the World 27 False Ideas of the World Not Due to Lack of CiviHzation 27 Conditions in Europe Hindering Exploration 28 Conditions Leading to Exploration 29 Discoveries and Explorations 31 Spanish Discoveries and Explorations 31 EngHsh Discoveries and Explorations 31 French Discoveries and Explorations 31 Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations 31 Dutch Discoveries and Explorations 32 Disposition of Territory in the New World 32 Decline of Spanish Powder 32 Spain's Eearly Supremacy on the Sea 32 Defeat of the Spanish Armada 33 The American Indian 34 Origin of Name 34 Classification According to Civilization 34 Appearance and Manner of Living 35 Character 36 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 39 Origin, Growth and Political History 44 Virginia 44 Maryland 46 North and South Carolina 47 Georgia 48 Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay Colonies 49 Connecticut and New Haven 51 Rhode Island 51 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS New Hampshire and Maine 51 New York 59 New Jersey 60 Delaware 61 Pennsylvania 61 The French in North America 68 French Explorations and Settlements 70 Contrast of French and English Settlements 70 Relations of the French with the Indians 71 Early Conflict between the French and the English 71 The French and Indian War 72 Institutional Life in the Colonies "]•] Industrial Conditions 86 Social Conditions 93 Government 102 Religion : Growth of Religious Liberty 113 Education 117 ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS 130 American Institutions: Changes in. and from where Derived. .. 131 Government in England 131 Transfer of English Rights and Institutions to America 134 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 136 Causes and Beginnings 138 Causes of the Revolution 138 The Beginnings of the Revolution 141 Campaigns 144 The Campaign to Separate New England from the Other States, and the Campaign against Philadelphia and the Middle States 145 Campaign against the Southern Colonies 147 Results of the War 148 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 155 The Nature of the National Government 157 The Northwest Territory 158 Conditions of Money and Business 159 Anarchy and Rebellion 160 The Constitutional Convention 160 The Constitution 163 Organization of the New Government 165 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE. .. . 168 The Period of European Interference 174 Origin of American Neutrality in European Affairs 174 TABLE OF CONTENTS 7 The Jay Treaty 175 Breach with France 176 The Alien and Sedition Acts 176 The Virginia and Kentucky Resohitions 177 The Purchase of Louisiana 177 European Interference with American Commerce 178 The War of 1812, or the War for Commercial Independence 179 The Hartford Convention 182 The Purchase of Florida 182 The Monroe Doctrine 183 Financial Legislation : the Tariff 184 Hamilton's Financial Measures 184 Jefferson and Gallatin's Financial Policy 185 The National Bank and State Banks 186 Tariff Legislation 186 Political Parties 187 Rise of Political Parties 187 Fall of the Federalist Party 188 The Republican Party 189 Growth of the Nation 190 Growth in Territory and Population 190 Movement of Population 190 Results of Westward Expansion 191 Growth of National Unity 194 Institutional Life 195 Industrial Conditions 196 Social Conditions 198 Government 199 Religion 200 Education 200 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 209 Political Methods and Political Parties 213 Meaning of Jackson's Election 213 Political Methods 213 Political Parties 215 Financial Legislation : the Tariff 217 The Tariff 217 Destruction of the National Bank 218 The Panic of 1837 219 The Independent or Sub-Treasury System 221 Growth of the Nation in Territory and Population 221 The Oregon Territory 221 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS Annexation of Texas 221 The Mexican War 222 The Slavery Question 223 The Abolition Movement 223 Expansion of Slave Territory ; The Compromise of 1850 225 The Kansas-Nebraska Bill 226 The Struggle for Kansas 227 The Dred Scott Decision 227 The Lincoln-Douglas Debates 228 The Election of Lincoln 228 Institutional Life 229 Industrial Conditions 229 Social Conditions 231 Government 232 Religion 232 Education 233 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 243 Comparative Resources of the North and the South 247 Available Soldiers, Commanders and Military Supplies 247 Financial Resources, Facilities for Transportation 247 Secession and Beginnings 248 The Right of Secession 248 Secession 249 The Fall of Fort Sumter 249 The Battle of Bull Run 249 Campaigns 250 Scope and Nature of Campaigns ; Method of Treatment 250 The Eastern Campaign 250 The Western Campaign 252 The Campaigns of 1864-1865 254 The Work of the Navy in the Civil War 255 Blockade of the Southern Ports 255 Commerce Destroyers 256 The Revolution in Naval Warfare 256 Results 257 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION.... 262 Reconstruction of the Seceded States 267 Relation of the Seceded States to the National Government 267 Death of Lincoln : His Character and Ability 267 Reconstruction Policy of Lincoln and Johnson 268 Reconstruction Policy of Congress 268 Some Results of Reconstruction .' 270 TABLE OF CONTENTS 9 Political Methods and Political Parties 270 Political Methods 270 Political Parties 271 Financial and Industrial Legisation 272 Financial Legislation 272 Tariff Legislation 274 Industrial Combinations 275 Foreign Relations 277 Purchase of Alaska 277 Treaty of Washington 277 Application of the Monroe Doctrine 277 Growth of Arbitration 27(S The Spanish-American War 279 Isthmian Canal 282 Institutional Life 282 Industrial Conditions 283 Social Conditions 287 Education 288 BOOKS I BOOKS FOR PUPILS 1. Fiftli Year Grade McMurry — Pioneers on Land and Sea 2. Sixth Year Grade The official Primary History Text on American History McMurry — Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the West 3. Seventh and Eighth Year Grades (a) The official Grammar School Text on American History (b) Doub — Pupil's Outline in American History This Outline need not be used if the pupil has a copy of Doub's grammar school history of the LTnited States. (c) Hart — Source Readers of American History These readers are for supplementary use — Numbers i and 2 are to be used in the seventh year grade, and numbers 3 and 4 in the eighth year grade. The Hart Source Readers and McMurry's Pioneer History Stories may be purchased by the pupil or with school funds. All these books will be of distinct value to the pupil in his school work, and most parents, therefore, will desire that their children own them. Hart's Source Readers are of especial value. There are four of these readers, — "Colonial Children," "Camps and Firesides of the Revolution," "How Our Grandfathers Lived," and "Romance of the Civil War." The material in each reader consists entirely of the writings of the men and women who lived during the period of which that reader treats. This enables the pupil, at least to some 12 BOOKS extent, to see things and to feel about things that took place then, as these men and women saw and felt. In order to have the material in these readers better suited to grammar school work, the spelling and language of some of the selec- tions have been slightly changed but in every case the thought has been retained. It is strongly urged that "Col- onial Children" and "Camps and Firesides of the Revolution" be read in connection with the seventh-grade work, and that "How Our Grandfathers Lived" and "Romance of the Civil War" be read in connection with the eighth-grade work. It is suggested that these four readers be made a part of the subject-matter of the regular reading course for these two grades. Pupils find these books as interesting as novels. The Pupil's Outline in American History has been pre- pared for use in connection with this Manual, and contains the same topics, questions and references. The pupil need not have a copy of the Outline, however, if he has a copy of Doub's History of the United States because the latter con- tains these same topics and questions and gives an ample discussion of each topic. II BOOKS FOR GENERAL READING AND REFER- ENCE 1. FiftJi Year Grade Books and material on English, state and local history (see suggestions under Fifth Year Grade, page 21). 2. Sixth Year Grade Books and material on the history of the United States (see suggestions under Sixth Year Grade, page 22). 3. Seventh and Eighth Year Grades Specific references are given to Doub, McMaster. Mace, Gordy, Thomas, and Montgomery. If the teacher desire she can easily cite references to any other text. There should be enough copies of these books in the BOOKS 13 library for reading and ready reference, but if Doub's grammar school history of the United States is in the hands of the pupil, no other text need be used for ref- erence. There should be in each library, however, books and material of a more general nature, such as the American History Leaflets, Old South Leaflets, Elson's Side Lights on American History, and a number of the books designated below for the use of teachers. The teacher should secure for the library much of this ma- terial and should give special directions regarding its use in connection with the various topics. HI BOOKS FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS Doub's Topical Discussion of American History is to be used by the teacher as a manual and course of study in his- tory and civics. Even when his history of the United States is being used as the regular text, this Topical Discussion is designed to be of much value to the busy teacher in preparing for the recitation. Those teachers wishing to make fuller preparation should have access to a text like Channing's Students' History of the United States and such of the fol- lowing as may be available : Elson's History of the LTnited States ; the L^nited States in the Cambridge Modern His- tory Series, A^olume VH ; Lodge's Short History of the English Colonies in America ; and Fiske's Discovery of America, Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, The Beginnings of New England, New France and New England, The Amer- ican Revolution, and the Critical Period of American His- tory. If possible, a copy of each of these books should be in the school library and should be purchased with school funds. Most of the books here designated for the use of the teacher will be read and studied with interest by more than half the pupils in the seventh and eighth grades, and especially is this true of the Fiske books. 14 BOOKS IV ABBREVIATIONS USED IN CITING REFERENCES D. Doub's History of the United States H. I Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. i H. II Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. 2 H. Ill Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. 3 H. IV Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. 4 Mc. McMaster's School History of the United States Ma. Mace's School History of the United States G. Gordy's History of the United States T. Thomas' History of the United States M. Montgomery's History of the United States HISTORY AND CIVICS IN THE LOWER GRADES HISTORY AND CIVICS IN THE LOWER GRADES This outline of work for the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth year grades has no direct connection with the other subject-matter of this manual. This manual on American history has been pre- pared on the supposition that the pupil, when he begins the sev- enth-year work, has made no previous study of history and civics. It is generally recognized, however, that it is most desirable to give history and civics a place in the lower grades. This outline has been prepared for the specific purpose of meeting this demand. It is hoped that the plan of work which follows will prove sug- gestive and valuable to those progressive teachers and schools that desire to give history and civics their proper places in the intermediate grades. The main object for doing this work in the lower grades is to reenforce the work along other lines ; to give the pupil some preparation for the formal study of these subjects in the higher grades ; and to give those pupils who must leave school before they reach the more advanced grammar grades some knowledge of American history. The plan as outlined below makes most of this work a part of the work on the other subjects. As arranged, the elementary work on history and civics constitutes much of the language work, and provides much ex- cellent material for the pupil's general reading. This correlation economizes the time of the teacher and pupil, and tends to pre- vent an overcrowding of the course of study. THIRD-YEAR GRADE All the work here outlined for the third grade is to be pre- sented orally by the teacher. After the teacher has presented the topic of the month in story form, different pupils should be re- quired to stand and retell the story. Either before or after this oral retelling of the story by different members of the class, a pupil should be required to pass to the blackboard and write the story as the class reconstructs it. This constitutes the best pos- 18 . HISTORY AND CIVICS sible work on language, and usually secures the active interest and co-operation of every pupil. Under the sym])athetic guidance of the teacher, each pupil, by actual practice, is learning how to use capitals and the simpler marks of punctuation ; he is learning something about the use and selection of words, and about para- graphing and other principles of language construction. As the ])upils reconstruct the story for the pupil at the board, they should be led by the teacher to discuss and to apply these simpler prin- ciples of constructive grammar, and to learn new ones- as the com- plexity of their language requires their use. After the different pupils have retold the story orally, and after the class has recon- structed it on the board as indicated above, each pupil should be required to reproduce it in the form of a composition, and nothing but his best work should be accepted by the teacher. From the standpoint of language, the work on one history story is of much more value to the pupil than would be a dozen lessons like those contained in the average language book. This work on the history stories, together with similar work on literature stories, and on original compositions on other subjects, should constitute nearly all the language work in the first six grades of the elementary schools, and a large part of that work in the seventh and eighth grades. In presenting the history work of each month, the teacher should weave it into story form and make it just as interesting as possible. It should always be borne in mind, however, that the stories or talks of the teacher on each topic should be true to historical fact. The talks on the topics of the first and second months — Government in the Home and Government in the School — should impress on the pupil the necessity and object of govern- ment. It may be rather difficult to present these two topics in story form, but the work on civics sliould begin with the child's personal environment. In the fourth grade the work on civics deals with city, county, and district government, and in the fifth grade with state government. The work on civics in these three grades should give the pupil a general idea of local and state government, and prepare him for the more formal studv of gov- ernment in the seventh and eighth grades. The other topics of hi the Lozi'cr Grades 19 this grade can be presented easily in story form of the most interesting nature. The pupil will be deeply interested in the origin of Thanksgiving and the conditions under which the Pil- grims ate the first Thanksgiving dinner. The topic of the fourth month, the Story of Christmas, can be presented in story form along the same general lines. The boyhood of Washington, Franklin, Lincoln, and Grant can be made most interesting to children in story form, and will introduce them to the most inter- esting periods of our history. FIRST MONTH Talks on Government in the Home SECOND MONTH Talks on Government in the Schools Thanksgiving. Christmas THIRD MONTH FOURTH MONTH FIFTH MONTH Boyhood of Washington SIXTH MONTH Boyhood of Franklin SEVENTH MONTH Boyhood of Lincoln. EIGHTH MONTH Bovhood of Grant 20 HISTORY AND CIVICS FOURTH-YEAR GRADE In studying" the topic of the first month, the pupils will be very much interested in talking with their parents and others about the life and hardships of the early settlers of the neighborhood and county. They should be encouraged to secure all the informa- tion possible in order that they may become fairly familiar with the early history of their county and city. The topics of the sec- ond month, Local Government, should receive careful considera- tion. The pupils should secure a good idea of the government of the school district and city. They should learn how school districts are formed; how school trustees and members of city boards of education are elected ; how teachers are elected ; the object for maintaining schools ; and why parents are so willing to be taxed for the support of the public school system. From this month's work the pupil should also learn about county and city government. He should learn how county and city officers are elected, and the general duties of the same. Some of the pupils will no doubt be acquainted with some of the county and city officials, and this personal element should be emphasized as much as possible. It is not supposed, of course, that the pupils will secure a thorough knowledge of local government from this month's work, but they should secure a general idea of the same and should have created in them a desire to learn more about the government of the school district, county, and city. The his- tory work of the other six months of this grade is to be presented as indicated by the suggestions on the third-grade work. FIRST MONTH Early History of the Neighborhood and County SECOND MONTH Local Government THIRD MONTH Columbus FOURTH MONTH Sir Walter Raleigh In the Lozver Grades 21 FIFTH MONTH Captain John Smith SIXTH MONTH Miles Standish SEVENTH MONTH William Penn EIGHTH MONTH Daniel Boone FIFTH-YEAR GRADE The history work for this grade should deal with English liistor} and with the histor\- of the state in which the pupil lives. An interesting hook on each of these subjects should be selected. It may be difhcult in some cases to find a suitable book for the work on state history, but there are a number of books on English history that have been prepared especially for intermediate grade work. The one selected should cover the subject judiciouslv and should be true to historical fact. McMurry's Pioneers on Land and Sea may be read in addition to or in place of these stories in English history. These books should be made a part of the subject-matter of the regular reading course. The treatment of the subject-matter of the books selected should be in accordance with the suggestions on the work of the third grade, and should be made to constitute an important part of the pupil's language v^'ork. During one month of this grade the government of the state in which the pupil lives should receive careful consideration. From the time devoted to this subject the pupil should understand the object of state government and the reasons for dividing it into the legislative, executive, and judicial departments. He should learn the official titles of the different state officers, how they are elected, and the general powers and duties of each. 22 HISTORY AND CIVICS SIXTH-YEAR GRADE The history work of this grade should be of such a nature as to give the pupil valuable knowledge of the early history of the nation, and to create in him a desire to read history. This is deemed very important because many pupils never attend school after this grade. The work of the sixth year should also lay a good foundation for the formal study of history in the seventh and eighth years. Of all the books now in print, McMurry's " Pioneer History Stories " seem to be distinctly the best for securing these results. There are three volumes of these stories : " Pioneers on Land and Sea," " Pioneers of the Mississippi Val- ley," and " Pioneers of the Rocky Mountains and the West." As indicated in the Fifth Grade work it is perhaps better to have the first book of this series read in the Fifth Year. While these three volumes are as interesting as a novel, they are true to his- torical fact, which is of great importance. It is recommended that these books be made a part of the subject-matter for the regular reading course, but that the topics be treated in accordance with the suggestions on the work of the third grade. These books make excellent subject-matter for the regular reading course, and this correlation tends to check the all too prevalent habit of crowding too much work into the elementary schools. If in addi- tion to reading these " Pioneer History Stories " a more formal study of history be desired in this grade, some good primary text on the subject should be used. SEVENTH YEAR WORK INTRODUCTORY A CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA (By way of general reference for this chapter, each pupil should read the first number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 1-53.) I Ancient Ideas of the World D. 2; M. 1-2 II False Ideas of the World Not Due to Lack of Civilization D. 2-3 III Conditions in Europe Hindering Exploration D.3-5 IV Conditions Leading to Exploration 1. Increasing Importance of Commerce D. 5-6; Mc. 9-10; Ma. 2-3; G. 1-2 2. Need of New Trade Routes D. 6-8; Mc. lo-ii; Ma. 4; T. 7-9; M. 4-9 B DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS I Spanish Disconkries and Explorations D. 8-14; H. I. 4-6; 10-19; Mc. 11-14, 17-22 ; Ma. 6-16; G. 2-6, 8, 12-17; T. 7-16; M. 14-18; 23-27, 28-31 IT En(;lish Dlscoveries and Explorations D. 14-16; H. I. 7-8, 23-25; Mc. 14, 26-29; Ma. 13, 17-21 ; G. 6-7, 19-24: T. II, 14-16; M. 18-20, 33-38 ill I'^KKNCH Discoveries and Explorations D. 16-19; Mc. 26-29; Ma. 16-17; G. 89-94; T. 16-17; M. 27-28, 31-33 26 INTRODUCTORY IV Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations D. 19; H. I. 10; Mc. 26-29; Ma. 4-5; G. 7-8; T. 12; M. 20-22 V" Dutch Discoveries and Explorations D. 19; Mc. 36-39; G. 64-68; T. 22-23; M. 67-69 C DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW WORLD D. 19-21 D DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER I Spain's Early Supremacy on the Sea D. 21-22 II Defeat of the Spanish Armada D. 22-23 E the AMERICAN INDIAN I Origin of Name D. 24; Mc. 66; Ma. 21 ; T. 11 ; M. 15 II Classification According to Civilization D. 24-26 ; Mc. 68 ; Ma. 24 ; G. 76-77 ; T. 4-6 f. Savage Indians 2. Barbarous Indians 3. Half-Civilized Indians III Appearance and INTanner of Living D. 27-28; H. I. 95-97, 116-119, 121-T25; H. it. 72-76; Mc. 66-68; Ma. 23-24; G. 78-85; T. 1-4; M. 40-44 IV Character D. 28-29; H. I. 113-114, 116-T19; Mc. 69-70; Ma. 22-23; G. yy; M. 45-46 INTRODUCTORY CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA I Ancient Ideas Concerning the World Although the New World has existed and has been inhab- ited by mankind and by the lower animals for many thou- sands of years, it was totally unknown to the people of the Old World until a little more than four hundred years ago. For more than six thousand years the people of Europe believed that the earth was flat, and that it was covered with water except that part occupied by Europe, Asia, and Africa. They had no idea that North America, South America, and Australia existed. They did not even know how large Asia and Africa were. Some of them were acquainted with west- ern Asia and northern Africa, but they did not know how far these continents extended. Marco Polo and a few others had visited China and had heard of Japan, but this was all that the people of Europe knew of eastern Asia, and they knew still less about southern Africa. Although great civil- ized nations had existed around the shores of the Mediter- ranean Sea for probably more than six thousand years, the people of these nations thought that the earth was many times smaller than it is. They believed that there was noth- ing but darkness and terrors beyond the small part which they knew about, and that evil spirits and great monsters would destroy any one who ventured into this unknown space. II False Ideas of the World Not Due to Lack of Civili- zation This wrong idea which the people of Europe had for so many thousand years, regarding the extent of the land and the shape of the earth, was not due to lack of a high state of 28 INTRODUCTORY civilization. The people of Greece more than twenty-three hundred years ago and the people of Rome more than two thousand years ago were much better educated than were the people of Europe four hundred years ago, when Columbus discovered the New World. The civilizations which these ancient Greeks and Romans produced excelled in many ways the civilization which existed in Europe during the time of Columbus. The literature, the sculpture and the fine, noble buildings produced by them have never yet been excelled, and in some things along these lines we cannot do as well as was done in ancient Greece and Rome. Ill Conditions in Europe Hindering Exploration While the people of Europe at the time the New World was discovered were not so intelligent along many lines as were the Greeks and Romans, they lived under conditions which would cause them to think more about the extent of the land and the shape of the earth, and hence they would naturally have a greater desire to find out the truth about these matters. The Greeks and Romans occupied the penin- sulas of Italy and Greece, which together are not so large as the state of Texas, and less than one-twenty-seventh as large as the lest of Europe. Half-civilized people lived in all the other parts of Europe except those parts conquered by Rome. The Greeks and Romans were kept busy defending themselves against these people and were finally compelled to submit to them. They had all they could do to learn about Europe and the other continents around the Mediterranean Sea, without trying to explore the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and they seem to have had no desire to do so. Aris- totle, a Greek philosopher who lived twenty-two hundred years ago, believed that the earth was round and that eastern Asia could be reached by sailing west from western Europe. Some other philosophers who lived between the time of Aristotle and the discovery of America had the same idea, but the people of Greece and Rome, and later those in the Conditions Favorable to tlie Discovery of America 29 rest of Europe, were too busy with the affairs and conditions in the Old World to think seriously about these ideas, or to attempt to put them into practice by sailing west out over the Atlantic Ocean. V Conditions Leading to Exploration It was quite different a little more than four hundred years ago when the New World was discovered. More people lived in Europe then than ever before, and through natural advancement and the influence of Greek and Roman laws, literature, and ideas, all Europe had become civilized. Hav- ing occupied all of Europe, having become more intelligent and progressive, it is but natural that many of the practical and educated men of Europe, as well as the philosophers, should ask themselves the question — what lies beyond the water? This desire to know more about the size and shape of the earth, together with the improvement in shipbuilding and the practical use of the compass for the purpose of navi- gation, would soon have led to the exploration of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and to the discovery of America, even if the condition of commerce, which is discussed below, had not made the business men of Europe extremely anxious to se- cure some new way by which they could reach the rich products of India and eastern Asia. I. Increasing Importance of Commerce The Greeks and Romans traded a great deal with the people of Asia, but when the Roman Empire was destroyed about fourteen hundred years ago by the half-civilized peo- ple of central Europe, this commerce was almost ruined. During the seven hundred years from the time of the fall of the Roman Empire (476 A. D.) to 1200 A. D., Europe traded very little with Asia, the people of Europe being only half-civilized. About six hundred years ago the people of Europe had become settled in well organized govern- ments, were becoming better civilized and educated, and 30 INTRODUCTORY were becoming better acquainted with Asia and the things produced there. The merchants of Europe began to trade the woods, metals and other things which it produced to the people of Asia for the spices, pearls, silk, gems and other things which they produced. By 1400 A. D. this trade had increased until it constituted a great commerce or interchange of products between the peoples of Europe and Asia. Great commercial cities grew up, whose pros- perity depended largely on this commerce. Venice and Genoa were two of the most important of these cities, and their merchants carried on an immense trade with Asia. From the commercial cities on the coast, the rich products of Asia were sent inland to the different parts of Europe, and naturally there was an increasing demand for these comforts and luxuries. 2. Need of Nezv Trade Routes The goods which Europe sent to Asia and which Asia sent to Europe had to be carried by ships and by caravans over one of three routes. These routes were by way of the Black and Caspian seas and thence overland to India ; across Syria to the Persian Gulf and thence by ship to In- dia ; and by way of Egypt to the Red sea and thence by ship to India. Now it so happened that the Turks, during the time that this trade between Europe and Asia was increas- ing, were gradually over-running the western part of Asia, which included the territory over which these trade routes passed. The Turks made it a regular business to capture the caravans conveying these goods and to murder those in charge. By 1490 A. D. they had almost destroyed the great commerce between Asia and Europe. It became necessary to give up this trade or to find some new route over which the goods might be conveyed. This caused the merchants and sailors of Europe to give the question of finding a new route serious consideration. Some main- tained that if the earth were round, eastern Asia could be Discoveries and Explorations 31 reached by sailing west from Europe. Among this num- ber was Christopher Cokimbus. On the third day of August, 1492, he sailed from Palos, Spain, with three small ships and ninety men to test the correctness of this theory. Other men had talked and philosophized about the earth being round, but Columbus was the first to test a scientific theory by bidding good-by to the known world, sailing out into the unknown seas and facing the terrors which superstition for ages had planted in the mind of man. It was an act as brave as history records. The track- less ocean was his highway ; faith in a scientific theory his guiding star. DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS I Spanish Discoveries and Explorations The Spanish people discovered and explored most of the West Indian Islands, Florida, the southwestern part of the United States, Mexico, Central America, and South America, except Brazil. The principal Spanish explorers whose work had direct relation to the United States or to determining the extent and shape of the earth were Columbus, Ponce de Leon, Balboa, Magellan and De Soto. II English Discoveries and Explorations The English discovered and explored the eastern part of North America from Florida to Canada. The principal Eng- lish explorers were the Cabots, Drake, Gilbert and Raleigh. III French Discoveries and Explorations The French explored the larger part of the Mississippi Valley and the eastern part of Canada, including the region of the Great Lakes. The principal French explorers were Cartier, Champlain, Marquette, Joliet and La Salle. IV Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations The Portuguese made no explorations in North America, but Americus Vespucius, while in the employ of the King of Portugal, explored the coast of Brazil in South America. 32 INTRODUCTORY V Dutch Disco\'i>:ries and Explorations Holland explored and settled the present state of New York. Henry Hudson was the principal explorer, DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW WORLD It was customary for the captain of a ship or the commander of a fleet when he discovered land in the New World, to take possession of it in the name of his sovereign. Thus the nations of Europe based their claims to territory on the "right of discovery." It was on this so-called right that Spain claimed most of the West Indies, all of South America except Brazil, Central America, Mexico, Florida, and the Southwestern part of the United States ; England, the Atlantic Coast from Canada to Florida ; France, all the territory drained by the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence and their tributaries; Holland, New York; and Portugal, Brazil. England granted her territory in North America to companies and to individuals, and established some crown colonies, which were under the direct control of the sovereign. Many of these grants made by the English sovereigns were described as extend- ing from "sea to sea," that is from the Atlantic to the Pacific. As these grants did not always extend due east and west, they fre- quently overlapped, and in after years caused considerable trouble owing to conflicting claims. DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER I Spain's Early Supremacy on the Sea For more than eighty years after the discovery of America, Spain was the most powerful nation of the world. She was practically mistress of the seas, having a larger navy than any other nation. This gave her an immense advantage in securing lands and forming settlements in the New World. So long as she was stronger on the seas than any other na- tion, she could control, to a large extent, the development of America. She had secured far more of this new territory than any other nation. She was obtaining a large amount of money from the mines of Mexico and Peru. All this tended to increase her influence in both Europe and Asia. Decline of Spanish Power 33 II Defeat of the Spanish Armada But Spain was soon to lose this proud leadership among the nations of the world. England sent an army to assist Holland in its attempt to regain independence from Spain. Sir Francis Drake and other bold English sea captains cap- tured the Spanish treasure ships which were on their way from Mexico and Peru. They even sailed into the Spanish harbors and destroyed vessels in sight of the people. Drake called these acts "singeing the King of Spain's beard.'' These acts so enraged the Spanish King, Phillip II, that he determined to invade England and annex it to his kingdom. In 1588 he collected a fleet of about one hundred and fifty ships which carried more than three thousand cannon. This fleet was considered so powerful that it was called the In- vincible Armada. It was thought by many military men on the continent of Europe that England would be conquered. The English people were thoroughly aroused, but they were not frightened. They were putting forth every effort to col- lect a fleet with which to meet the Armada. The English navy contained but thirty-eight ships, and most of these were small and poorly equipped. But the merchants gave their ships freely for the purpose of defense, and a fleet was col- lected though it was small as compared with the Spanish fleet. Lord Effingham, Drake, Hawkins and other English sea cap- tains were placed in command. No greater sea fighters than some of these men ever lived. The Spanish commanders did not compare with them in ability. When the Invincible Armada entered the English channel, the English fleet did not make a direct attack, but hung on its flanks, destroying- ship after ship, and in a long running fight drove the Armada through the channel into the North Sea. The defeated Spaniards could not return to Spain through the English Channel, and were forced to sail around the north of Scot- land where storms destroyed so many of their ships that not more than one-third of them finally reached Spain. This crushing defeat of the Invincible Armada had a most im- portant bearing on the history of the New World. It marked 34 INTRODUCTORY the beginning of Spain's decline on both land and sea. She has been growing weaker ever since. It also marks the be- ginning of England as a sea power. She soon became mis- tress of the seas and has since held this position. All this meant that England and not Spain should have most to do in shaping the growth of America. Erom this time on Erance was England's only serious competitor in colonizing North America. THE AMERICAN INDIAN I Origin of Name When Columbus discovered the New World he thought it a part of Asia. He thought the islands a part of the East Indies, and accordingly called the inhabitants Indians. The name was afterwards applied to all the native inhabitants of America. II Classification According to Civilization 1. Savage Indians The savage Indians lived in North America. They oc- cupied Alaska, all the Rocky Mountain region except part of Arizona and New Mexico, all the territory west of these mountains, and the territory in the north between Hudson Bay and the Pacific ocean. They were divided into several tribes, among the more important being the Apache. 2. Barbarous Indians The barbarous Indians also lived in North America. In the United States they occupied all the country east of the Rocky Mountains, and in Canada all the country south and east of Hudson Bay. The only Indians who had any real influence on the history of the United States oc- cupied the territory between the Mississippi River and the Atlantic Ocean. They are divided into three general di- visions or races, Maskoki, Iroquois and Algonquin. Each division or race consisted of a number of tribes, each tribe The American Indian 35 of a number of clans, and each clan was composed of a number of families. Each race spoke a different language. The Maskokis occupied all of the southern states east of the Mississippi, except a portion of Tennessee and North Carolina. They included a number of tribes, the more im- portant ones being the Creeks, Choctaws and Chickasaws. The Iroquois race was the strongest one in North America, and it had more influence on the history of the United States than any other. It occupied New York, Pennsyl- vania, the country between Lakes Huron and Erie, the northeastern part of Ohio, and the larger portion of North Carolina, and Tennessee. The more important tribes of this race were the Five Nations in New York, the Hu- rons north of Lake Erie, and the Cherokees of Tennessee. The Algonquin race occupied all the country east of the Mississippi between Tennessee and North Carolina on the south, to Labrador on the north, except that part occupied by the Iroquois. The more important tribes of this race were the Powhatans of Virginia, the Delawares of Dela- ware, and the Mohegans and Narragansetts of New Eng- land. 3. Half-Civilized Indians The half-civilized Indians occupied the mountain regions from New Mexico to Chili. Among the more important races were the Pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico, the Aztecs of Mexico, and the Incas of Peru. They built cities and temples, constructed military roads, raised various products, and made fine cloth. Appearance and Manner of Living All American Indians were alike in some respects. They had black hair, black eyes, a copper-colored skin, high cheek bones, and no beard. The barbarous Indians raised some ag- ricultural products, but secured most of their food by hunting and fishing. They lived in huts and wigwams, and the women did most of the hard work. This mode of livine re- 36 INTRODUCTORY. quired a large territory for a small number of people, and therefore the number of Indians was always small. IV Character Although the Indian was kind and hospitable to friends, he was by nature cruel, revengeful and treacherous. He was brave and would suffer torture without complaint, but in war he used all the tactics of a coward, never making a fair open fight if he could avoid it. He delighted in torturing prisoners, and in murdering women and children. In domestic life he was lazy and filthy. But with all these faults he was intelli- gent, proud and haughty, and could never be enslaved. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA Questions for Class Recitations (In connection with the questions which follow, each pupil should read the first number of Hart's "Source Readers in American History," pp. 1-53. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Explain fully what the people of the Old World for a long time believed about the shape and size of the earth. For about how long did the people have these wrong ideas? How much of the world was known before the New World was discovered? (Each pupil should draw a map of the world as known before the time of Columbus.) Describe the civilization of ancient Greece and Rome. How does this civilization tend to prove that the failure to discover the New World long before it was discovered was not due to ignorance on the part of the people of Europe? Explain fully the conditions which caused the Greeks and Romans to take so little interest in learning more about the shape and size of the earth. What effect did the barbarian invasions have on the civilization of southern Europe ? Before the time of Columbus, what conditions prevented the people of the other nations of Europe from discovering the New World? What did some of the philosophers who lived during this long period believe regarding the shape and size of the earth ? Explain carefully how the general advance in education and civilization made the people of Europe anxious to learn more about these things. Give a care- ful discussion of the growth of commerce up to about the time Columbus discovered America. Explain how commerce was carried on between En- Questions and Topics 37 rope and Asia. Explain carefully what interfered with this valuable com- merce. Explain fully in what way this led to the discovery of America. (Each pupil should draw a map that will show the three trade routes between Europe and India, and that part of those routes that fell into the hands of the Turks.) DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS Questions for Class Recitations For what was Columbus searching when he made his voyage in 1492? Discuss his four voyages to the New World. Explain why he and other men in Europe were disappointed at the result of his discoveries and ex- plorations. Who were the Northmen? When did they visit America? What part of America did they visit? Why are they not considered the real discoverers of the New World? Why were their voyages to America not very important? Describe the discoveries and explorations of Balboa. Describe the discoveries and explorations of Magellan. Describe the discoveries and explorations of Ponce de Leon. Of De Soto. Describe the voyages and explorations of the Cabots. Of what value were these explorations to England? Give a full description of Drake's voyage around the world. Describe the attempt of Gilbert and Raleigh to estab- lish a colony in the New World. Describe the work of Cartier. Give a full description of the explorations of Champlain. Tell what you can of the work of Joliet and Marquette. Give a full description of La Salle's work. Why was the New World called America instead of being named for Columbus? Tell what you can of Henry Hudson and his work. (Each pupil should draw a map that will show plainly the route of each of the explorers and the part of the New World discovered and explored by each nation.) DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW WORLD Questions for Class Recitations What was the "right of discovery"? What part of the New World did Spain claim by this right? What did England claim? What part did France claim? What territory in America did other nations claim by the right of discovery? How did England dispose of her territory in the New World? Why did this cause trouble in later years? (Each pupil should draw a map of North and South America, and indicate on said map the territory that was claimed by each of the European nations that claimed any of this territory.) DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER Questions for Class Recitations How did the power of Spain compare with that of other nations at the time of Columbus? How did this help her in America? How did 38 INTRODUCTORY Spain's possessions in America help build up her influence in Europe? How did the EngHsh sea captains injure Spain, and who were the most noted of these captains? Why did the king of Spain make war on Eng- land? Describe the Invincible Armada. How did the English fleet com- pare with the Spanish fleet? Which nation had the better commanders? Describe the battle between the Armada and the English fleet. What was the effect of the defeat of the Invincible Armada on Spain? What effect did it have on England's sea power? How did this affect North America ? THE AMERICAN INDIAN Questions for Class Recitations. Why were the native inhabitants of America called Indians? What is the difference between savage and barbarous Indians? Between bar- barous and half-civilized Indians? Where did the savage Indians live? What part of America did the barbarous Indians inhabit? Into what races were the barbarous Indians divided? Where did each race live? How did these races differ? Name the most important tribes of each race of the barbarous Indians. Where did the half-civilized Indians live? How did they differ from the savage and barbarous Indians? What Indians had the most influence on the history of the United States, the savage, the barbarous, or the half-civilized? Why was this? (Each pupil should draw a map that will show plainly the territory which the savage and barbarous Indians occupied in North America. This map should also show plainly the territory occupied by each race and tribe of the bar- barous Indians that lived east of the Mississippi.) In what ways were all North American Indians alike? Tell all you can about the way they lived. Why were there not more Indians in so large a country? Describe the nature and habits of the Indian. Why did the white man not make slaves of the Indians as he did of the negroes? Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the conditions that prevented the discovery of the New World before the time of Columbus. Discuss the conditions that led to the dis- covery of America. Discuss the voyages of the Northmen to America. Discuss the Spanish discoveries and explorations. Discuss the English explorations. Compare the explorations of the Spanish with those of the English in respect to location and importance. How do the French ex- plorations compare with those of the Spanish and English? Discuss the claims of the various nations to the territory of the New World. Discuss the decline of Spanish power and its effect on America. Compare the savage, barbarous and half-civilized Indians in respect to civilization and location. Describe the appearance of the American Indian and his man- ner of living. Discuss the character of the Indian. THE THIRTEEN COLONIES ORIGIN, GROWTH AND POLITICAL HISTORY (For general reference to this period, each pupil should read the first number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 65-162.) A THE SOUTHERN COLONIES I Virginia 1. Origin D. 36-38; Mc. 29-32; Ma. 25-27; G. 26-27; T. 19-21 ; M. 52-57 2. Character of Early Settlers D. 38-39; H. I. 175-177; Mc. 27-30, 97-98; G. 27-29; M. 57-58 3. Origin of Representative Government in America D. 39-41 ; Mc. 33 ; Ma. 30, 32-33 ; G. 33 ; T. 22 ; M. 59-60 4. Virginia Made a Royal Province D. 41 ; Mc. 34; Ma. 35-36; T. 39-40; M. 62 5. Quarrels Between the People and the Royal Gov- ernors D. 42; Ma. 36-39 6. Sir William Berkeley D. 42-43 ; Ma. 36-39 ; G. 35 ; M. 62-65 7. Bacon's Rebellion D. 43-44; Ma. 39-40; G. 35-36; T. 40-41; M. 65-66 II Maryland I. Origin D. 44; H. I. 143-146; Mc. 34-36; Ma. 41-42; G. 37-38; T. 36-37; M. 103-104 40 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 2. Nature of Government D. 45; Mc. 35; Ma. 42-43; G. 38; T. 37-38; M. 105 3. Religious Disputes D. 46; Mc. 35-36; Ma. 43-45; T. 38-39; M. 105-107 III North and South Carolina 1. Origin D. 46-47; Mc. 54-55; Ma. 45; T. 42-44; M. 113-115 2. Character of Colonists D. 47-48; Ma. 47-49, 97; T. 44; M. 115 3. Government D. 48; Ma. 46-47; T. 42-43; M. 115-116 IV Georgia 1. Origin: Character of Settlers D. 48-49; Mc. 57-58; Ma. 49-52; T. 57; M. 122-124 2. Government D. 50; T. 57-58; M. 125-126 B NEW ENGLAND I Origin and Growth in Population I. Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay Colonies (a) Origin of Puritans and Separatists D. 50-51; Mc. 40; Ma. 53; G. 41-42; M. 76-77. (b) Persecution of Puritans and Separatists D. 52; H. I. 180-181 ; Mc. 41; Ma. 53-54; G. 42-43; T. 24; M. yy Origin, Groivth and Political History 41 (c) The Founding of Plymouth Colony D. 52-54; H. I. 133-136; Mc. 41-46; Ma. 54-57; G. 44-45 ;T. 25-28; M. 78-82 (d) The Founding of INIassachusetts Bay Colony D. 54-55; H. I. 25-28, 136-140; Ma. 57-59; G. 46-50; T. 28-30; M. 82-85 2. Connecticut and New Haven D. 55-56; Mc. 50-51; Ma. 61, 72-y2>; G. 50-52; T. 35-36; M. 98-99. loi 3. Rhode Island D. 56-57; Mc. 49-50; Ma. 61-75; G. 52-56; T.- 33-35 ; M. 86-88 4. Neiv Hampshire and Maine D. 57-58; Mc. 47-48; Ma. 69-70; T. 36; M. 96-98 II Government in Early New England 1. The Virginian and the Puritan: Union of Church and State D. 58-59; Mc. 48; Ma. 59; T. 32-33; M. 62-63, 86, 96 2. Local Government: The Town Meeting D. 59; M. 81, 96 3. Government Under the Charters D. 60-62; Mc. 46-50; Ma. 67, 69; T. 31-33; M. 85-86 4. Nezv England Confederacy (a) Origin D. 62-63; Mc. 51-52; Ma. 64-65; G. 56; T. 64; M. 90 (b) Nature D. 63 ; Mc. 52 ; T. 65 ; M. 90 (c) Defects and Value D. 63-64; T. 65; M. 90 42 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES III Rfxations of the English with the Indians 1. The Indians and the Pilgrims D. 64-65; H. I. 28-30; Ma. 66; G. 46; T. 62; M. 81-82 2. The Peqiiod War D. 65-67; Mc. 71 ; Ma. 71 ; G. 86; T. 64; M. 88, 99-100 3. The Indians and the Puritans D. 67-69; Mc. 71 ; T. 62-63; M. 88 4. King Philip's War D. 69-70; Mc. 72; Ma. 66; G. 87-89; T. 65-6^^, M. 93-94 IV Under the Royal Governors 1. Annulling of the Charter of Massachusetts Bay Colony (a) First Attack on Charter D. 71-72; G. 58-59 (b) The Confederacy and the Commonwealth D. 72; T. 70 (c) Quarrels Between Charles II and Massa- chusetts D. 72-72, ; M. 95 (d) The Charter Annulled D. 7z; Mc. 53; M. 95 2. Ride of Sir Edmund Andres D. 74-75 ; Ma. 68, 74; G. 60-61 ; T. 72-75 ; ^I. 95 3. Sccnring of Royal Charters by Rhode Island and Connecticut D. 75-77; Mc. 52-53; T. 34, 75; M. 102 4. Neiv England from i68q to T766 D. 77; Mc. 53; T. 75; M. 95. 97-98 Origin, Growth and Political History 43 C THE MIDDLE COLONIES I New York 1. Discovery and Settlement D. 78-79; Mc. 36-39; Ma. 77-78; G. 64-66; M. 67-70 2. Character of the Colonists D. 79-80; H. I. 174; Mc. 38, 102; Ma. yy, 97; T. 48; M. 70-72 3. Government Under the Dutch D. 80-81 ; Ma. 79-83 ; G. 66-68 ; M. 71-73 4. The Colony Under English Control D. 81-82; Mc. 55; Ma. 83-85; G. 68-69; T. 46; M. 74 5. Under the Royal Governors D. 82-83; Ma. 84-85; G. 69-70; T. 47-48 II New Jersey 1. Origin D. 83-84 ; Mc. 55 ; Ma. 86-87 ; T. 49 ; M. 75 2. Political History D. 84 ; Mc. 55 ; Ma. 87-89 ; T. 49-50 ; M. 75-76 III Delaware D. 84-85 ; Mc. 56-57 ; Ma. 85-86 ; T. 56-57 ; M. 1 1 i-i 13 IV Pennsylvania 1. Origin D. 85-87 ; Mc. 55-56 ; Ma. 89-90 ; G. 71 ; T. 52-53 ; M. 118 2. Settlement and Growth D. 87; Ma. 91-94; G. 72, 73; T. 54-56; M. 119, 122 3. Government D. 87-89; Ma. 95; G. 73; T. 54-57; M. 120 4. The Province Under Deputy Governors THE THIRTEEN COLONIES ORIGIN, GROWTH AND POLITICAL HISTORY THE SOUTHERN COLONIES [ Virginia 1. Origin In 1606 James I, King of England, granted the land from about Cape Fear to the mouth of the Potomac river to a company of London merchants called the London Company. This company sent out colonists who in 1607 founded Jamestown, this being the first permanent English settlement in America. The colony did not prosper at first but was saved from total destruction by the work of John Smith, and later put on its feet by the arrival of Lord Dela- ware with provisions and about five hundred more set- tlers. The colony now became firmly established, and more colonists came over every year. By 1620 there were more than four thousand ; in 1670 there were more than forty thousand; and in 1750 this number had increased to more than five hundred thousand. 2. Character of Early Settlers The London Company was organized for the purpose of making money, and the earliest settlers came over for the same purpose. Very few of them intended to make homes and remain here permanently. Some called themselves gentlemen ; some were criminals from the jails of England ; and many were lazy and worthless. These men were gov- erned by men appointed by the company. Captain John Smith and Sir Thomas Dale being the ablest of these early governors. Gradually a better class of men came into the colony. They came from the better class in England and came for the purpose of making homes for themselves and their families. Origin, Grozvth and Political History 45 3. Origin of Representative Government in America By 1619 the population of Virginia had reached four thousand. Most of these settlers were from the middle class of England and were accustomed to help make their laws and to levy their own taxes. They now asked the London Company to allow them to elect a body of men to help make the laws. Their request was granted and a legislative body called the House of Burgesses was elected by the settlers. This was the first law-making body elected in America. 4. Virginia Made a Royal Province The London Company came to be very powerful, and was controlled by the Puritans who were the political and religious enemies of King James L Accordingly he had the company's charter annulled, and in 1624 Virginia be- came a royal province, whose governor was appointed by the king. The people still elected the House of Burgesses which helped make the laws. 5. Quarrels Betiveen the People and the Royal Governors During nearly all the time that Virginia was a royal province, from 1624 to 1776, there was contention between the king and the royal governors on the one side and the colonists on the other, as to whether the latter should have any voice in law making. The kings and the royal governors wished to do away with the power of the House of Burgesses, but the people would not permit it. The constant friction between the people and the royal govern- ors tended to cause the colonists to lose their respect and love for England, and this was indirectly one of the causes which led to the Revolutionary War. 6. Sir William Berkeley One of the most important of the royal governors of Virginia was Sir William Berkeley. His long rule was 46 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES noted especially for two things : the large immigration of English colonists, and his steady opposition to the rights of the people. He was, perhaps, the most tyrannical of the royal governors. 7. Bacon's Rehcllion Governor Berkeley's refusal to protect the people on the frontier from Indian raids forced them to defend them- selves. Nathaniel Bacon organized a force for this pur- pose, and for this was declared a rebel by Berkeley. After Bacon's death Berkeley regained his power and punished Bacon's followers with such severity that the people were still more aroused against the oppressive rule of the royal governors. II Maryland 1. Origin King Charles I granted to George Calvert, Lord Balti- more, the territory including the present states of Mary- land and Delaware. Lord Baltimore's purpose was to provide a home for English Catholics. Two hundred col- onists came over in 1634 and founded the town of St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Potomac. In 1688 the popu- lation of the colony had increased to about twenty-five thousand, and in 1760 there were more than one hundred forty-five thousand people living in Maryland. 2. Nature of Government By the terms of the charter Lord Baltimore and his de- scendants had authority over the new colony almost equal to that of the English king, but the people had the right to assist in making the laws. 3. Religions Disputes Several years after Maryland was first established, large numbers of Puritans came into the colonv. Later the Origin, Grozvth and Political History 47 Episcopalians became strong also, and most of the political history of the colony is closely related to religious con- tentions among the Catholics, Puritans and Episcopalians. North and South Carolina 1. Origin In 1663 King Charles II granted the territory between Virginia and Florida to eight of his friends among whom were Sir William Berkeley, the Duke of Albemarle, the Earl of Clarendon, and the Earl of Shaftesbury. Before this charter was issued a few English colonists had made a settlement on Albemarle Sound and these were soon joined by others. The first settlement in South Carolina was made on the southern side of Charleston Harbor in 1670, and ten years later Charleston was founded. Other settlements were soon made in both North and South Caro- lina, the most important being around Charleston and on the Cape Fear River. But during the first thirty-five years the growth in population was not rapid. At first South Carolina was most populous, the settlements around Charleston in 1682 having a population of about three thousand. At the close of the seventeenth century the population began to increase more rapidly. In 1750 there were about ninety thousand people living in North Caro- lina, and about eighty thousand in South Carolina. 2. Character of Colonists The colonists of North and South Carolina came from various nations and were members of different churches. Many came because of religious persecutions at home. This mixed population represented strength and deter- mination. 3. Government The proprietors to whom the king had granted the two colonies belonged to the Church of England, and their 48 THE Tl-JIRTEEN COLONIES efforts to keep all who did not belong to their church from taking any part in the government caused constant trouble between the governors, whom they appointed, and the people. The people insisted on helping make the laws and soon secured the right to elect legislative bodies. Because of frequent and serious disorders in the government the charter was annulled in 1729, and North and South Caro- lina each became a royal province. IV Georgia 1. Origin: Character of Settlers In 1732 King George II granted to James Oglethorpe and twenty other men the territory between South Carolina and Florida for the purpose of making homes for men who were imprisoned for debt in England. Rich men gave money and Parliament voted a sum to aid these debtors to make another start in the new colony which was called Georgia. Oglethorpe was appointed governor, and in 1733 he, with thirty-five families, made the first settlement in the last English colony to be established in America, by found- ing the city of Savannah. Augusta was founded the next year and five years later another settlement was made at the mouth of the Altamaha. The colony at first was not pros- perous. In 1752 there were less than five thousand people living in Georgia, but from this time on the population increased more rapidly and had reached about fifty thous- and in 1766. 2. Government Oglethorpe was appointed governor before leaving Eng- land and continued to hold that office until 1743. The charter placed the government entirely in the hands of the proprietors, and the colonists assisted very little in making the laws. After Oglethorpe returned to England the affairs of the colony got into very bad shape, and in 1752 the colony was made a royal province. Origin, Grou'th and Political History 49 NEW ENGLAND I Origin and Growth in Population I. Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay Colonies (a) Origin of Puritans and Separatists Because the Pope would not grant him permission to divorce his wife and marry Anne Boleyn, one of her maids, King Henry VIII of England induced Parlia- ment to pass a statute which declared him and not the Pope the head of the Catholic Church in England. Henry did not wish to make many changes in the Church of England, as the Catholic church in England was then called, but many of the English people did, and after the reform was begun by the king, it could not easily be checked. Some withdrew from the church altogether and were therefore called Separatists. Some wished to remain in the church and reform or purify it, and these, therefore, were called Puritans. (b) Persecution of Separatists and Puritans The Separatists were not permitted to withdraw peacefully from the Episcopal or Established church, and to establish churches of their own. In many cases their property was taken from them, they were sent to jail and the leaders were put to death. In 1607 some of them escaped from England and settled in Holland. At first the Puritans joined in these persecutions, but soon they themselves began to be persecuted, and some of them joined the Separatists in Holland. (c) The Founding of Plymouth Colony The Separatists and Puritans who had fled to Holland did not wish to remain there, because they were afraid that their children would acquire the speech, habits, and manners of the Dutch. They wished to find a place where they could live and worship in peace and still re- main British subjects in British territory. They had 50 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES heard of the success of the Jamestown colony and de- cided to estabHsh a home for themselves and their children in the New World. In 1620 about one hundred of these Separatists, called Pilgrims, because of their wanderings, sailed for America in the Mayflower. On December 21st they landed on the coast of the present state of Massachusetts and founded the colony of Ply- mouth. The first winter was a severe one and more than half of the colonists died of cold, hunger, and dis- ease. However, in the face of all discouragements these men and women clung to their new home persistently. In 1630 the colony contained only three hundred sixty persons, in 1640 about three thousand and in 1670 it had reached eight thousand. (d) The Founding of Massachusetts Bay Colony Charles I, who became king in 1625, was strongly op- posed to both the religious and political ideas of the Puritans. The persecutions of the Puritans became worse and worse, and so they also decided to settle in the New World. In 1628 some of the leading Puritans purchased from the Plymouth or New England Com- pany a large tract of land in Massachusetts lying be- tween the Charles and the Merrimac Rivers and extend- ing from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean. Soon after- ward a small party of Puritans, led by John Endicott, settled at a place called Naumkeag and changed the name to Salem. In 1629 the King granted to the men who had purchased this tract of land a charter which created a corporation called the Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay. During the same year about four hundred emigrants crossed to this territory and settled at Salem, thus making it larger than Plymouth, which had been founded nine years before. During 1630 more than one thousand Puritans came to New England and settled the towns of Charleston, Boston, Roxburg, Dor- Origin, Groiiili and Political History 51 Chester, Watertown, and New Town (later called Cam- bridge). By 1635 the number of colonists in the differ- ent settlements in Massachusetts amounted to about five thousand. 2. Connecticut and Nczv Hai'en In 1636 the towns of Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield were founded by settlers from the INIassachusetts Bay Colony. These three towns remained a part of Massachu- setts until 1639, when they agreed to unite and were then known as the colony of Connecticut. In 1638 a wealthy congregation of Puritans from England founded New Haven, and around this town grew up other towns. These towns united and became the colony of New Haven. These two colonies kept up a separate existence until 1662, when Connecticut attained a royal charter which annexed to her the New Haven colony. The united colony prospered and its advance in wealth and population was rapid. By the time of the Revolution, Connecticut contained about two hundred thousand inhabitants. 3. Rhode Island The settlement of Rhode Island was due largely to re- ligious and political troubles in Massachusetts. Roger Williams, a Puritan minister, was banished from Massa- chusetts on account of the political and religious doctrines he taught. With his followers he bought land from the Indians and made a settlement called Providence. Other towns were founded by Anne Hutchinson and Samuel Gorton, and later all these united under the title Rhode Island. 4. Nezv Hampshire and Maine The earliest settlements in the territory later known as New Hampshire were two trading posts at Dover and Portsmouth, established in 1636 by John Mason and Fer- 52 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES dinand Gorges. In the territory known as Maine but few settlements were made. It was never known as one of the colonies except as a part of Massachusetts. II Government in Early New England I. The Virginian and the Puritan: Union of Church and State The early settlers of Virginia and a large portion of those of the other southern colonies, did not come to the New World in order to escape from religious persecution. They belonged to the Episcopal or Established Church of England and therefore were under the protection of the government in religious matters. They came to the New World for the sake of adventure and more especially be- cause they could make a better living for themselves and their children. They were thorough believers in the civil and political liberty which Englishmen enjoyed, and they and their descendants were as stout in the defense of those rights in the struggle with the English kings which ended in the Revolution, as were the people of New England. The colonists of New England, unlike those of Virginia, came to America mainly because of religious persecution in England. Many of them were men of wealth and were graduates of the English Universities of Oxford and Cam- bridge. They planned to and did establish a state based on Puritan ideas of religion and government. This does not mean that the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colo- nies were places where religious liberty existed. The Puri- tans persecuted those who preached any doctrine other than Puritanism just as severely as they themselves had been persecuted in England by Episcopalians. From the very first in Massachusetts the Church and State were very closely united. The laws provided that no one should vote or hold an office of any kind unless he were a mem- ber of a Puritan church or congregation. This form of government in which the Church and the State are thus connected is known as a Theocracv. Origin, Grou'th and Political History 53 2. Local Government: The Tozun Meeting The large immigration into Massachusetts Bay Colony called for the immediate organization of a definite form of government. As a rule the Puritans came over as congre- gations, and each congregation established a small town. The freemen of each town, which included the adjacent country, met at the meeting house or town hall and elected town officers and transacted all the town business. 3. Government Under the Charters The charter granted to the Massachusetts Bay Company provided for the election of a governor and a deputy gov- ernor, and of a committee of eighteen members called as- sistants. These officers when assembled constituted what was known as the General Court. A little later representa- tives were elected from each town. These met in a separate legislative body and soon secured more power in the gov- ernment than the governor and assistants. Government in the other New England colonies was much the same. In Rhode Island and Connecticut the Church and State were entirely separate. Connecticut differed from the other colonies in that she had a written constitution made and adopted by the people. 4. New England Confederacy (a) Origin There were certain conditions in early New England which might at any time require the colonies to act to- gether. In order to be ready in case of attacks by the Dutch, French or Indians on the frontier, all the New England colonies except Rhode Island formed a con- federacy. Rhode Island was excluded because of her unsettled religious and political conditions. (b) Nature The confederation was not a real union, but a mere agreement to act together on certain general questions. 54 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES The government was in charge of eight commissioners, two elected from each colony. The commissioners had entire control of questions arising between the colonies and the Indians, or a foreign power. (c) Defects The commissioners had no power to enforce their acts ; the government was simply advisory. This lack of power made the Confederacy a weak form of union. Another weakness was that each of the colonies had the same power in the government, while they differed widely in population and wealth, Massachusetts having more inhabitants and paying more taxes than all the others combined. This caused ill feeling and weakened the Confederacy. (d) Value The Confederacy was especially valuable during the war with the Indians, 1675-78. It was also of value to all the English colonies in America as it served to pre- pare men's minds for unity of action a hundred years later when union became absolutely necessary in order that the colonists might maintain their rights. Ill Relations of the English With the Indians 1. The Indians and the Pilgrims Up to about 1635, the colonists of New England were not troubled by the Indians. The Pilgrims found few In- dians in the region in which they settled. With these they made a treaty of peace which was faithfully kept both by the Indians and the English for more than fifty years. The attitude of the Indians further inland was also friendly at first. 2. Pequod War The steady advance of the English into the Indian ter- ritory roused the dislike and jealousy of the Indians. This Origin, GroxvtJi and Political History 55 feeling soon led to warfare which broke out between the Pequods and the settlers. This war resulted in the de- struction of the entire tribe, the most powerful tribe in New England, and the effect upon the other Indians was such that they did not attack the English for nearly forty years. 3. The Indians and the Puritans The dealings of the Puritans with the Indians were, on the whole, just and honorable. The Puritans converted many of the Indians to Christianity, and tried to educate and to civilize them but without much success. The Indian and the Puritan did not understand each other. The Indian had no conception of what private ownership of land meant, and when he saw finally that selling the land to the Eng- lish meant giving it up forever and being put out of the territory, he became unfriendly. The Indians also re- sented having their chiefs called to account for the mis- deeds of the members of the tribes. 4. King Philip's War When Massasoit, who had made the early treaty of peace with the English, died, and his son Philip became chief of the Wampanoags, the growing dislike and distrust of the Indians for the English broke out in a war. This war began in 1675 and lasted three years with dreadful effect upon both the English and the Indians. It was much more serious than the Pequod w'ar. Over four thousand well armed Indian warriors were united against the Eng- lish. A great deal of life and property was lost, and a heavy debt was incurred by the English. The three tribes of Indians engaged were almost completely destroyed. The end of this war marks the end of Indian power in New England. It was a contest between the people of a weak race who owned the soil, and the invaders who belonged to a higher and stronger civilization. As is usually the case, the more vigorous and higher civilization triumphed. 56 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES IV Under the Royal Governors I, Annulling of the Charter of Massachusetts Bay Colony (a) First Attempts King Charles I hated the Puritans and seized upon complaints made by people who had been banished from Massachusetts and others who were jealous of her power, as an excuse to attack her government. He demanded the charter in 1635 but Massachusetts refused to give it up and trouble at home kept him from sending an army to compel obedience. (b) The Confederacy and the Commonwealth In 1642 war broke out in England between Charles I and Parliament. In 1643 the New England Confederacy was formed, and from that time until the defeat of the King's army in 1649, New England was practically inde- pendent of outside power. During the time when Crom- well and Parliament ruled England without a king. New England continued to conduct her affairs about as she pleased, with little interference from the home govern- ment. (c) Quarrels Between Charles II and Massachusetts When Charles II came to the throne in 1662 he made certain courteous and reasonable demands of Massa- chusetts Bay Colony regarding the acknowledging of his authority, religious toleration for Episcopalians, and extending the right to vote to the members of other churches. The Colony refused to comply with these demands but war in Europe prevented Charles from taking action against it until 1675. (d) The Charter Annulled The Massachusetts Bay Colony had annexed New Hampshire and Maine. The heirs of Mason and Gorges to whom this territory had originally been granted, claimed that the territory belonged to them. King Origin, Grozvth and Political History 57 Charles sent over a commissioner to investigate affairs in the colony, regarding its compliance with his demands, the state of feeling among the people, the colony's rights to New Hampshire and Maine, and the enforcing of English laws. The commissioner's report was very un- favorable to the colony, and in 1684 the charter was annulled. 2. Ride of Sir Edmund Andros In 1685 Sir Edmund Andros was appointed governor of all New England, and of New York and New Jersey. One main object of the English government for this ac- tion was the union of all the northern colonies, in order to be better prepared for any attack of the French from Canada. The plan or method of bringing about this union could not have been much worse. Andros was directed to seize the charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island, but this he was unable to do. He abolished the legislature of Massachusetts and levied taxes and arrested men with- out due process of law. While his rule was very despotic and arbitrary, it should be remembered that the leaders of the Puritan party did all they could to anger him, even going so far as to oppose strongly the establishment of an Episcopal church at Boston. James 11 was just as despotic with his people in England as his governor was with them in New England. In 1688 James was forced to leave England, and William, Prince of Orange, became king. As soon as the people of Massachusetts heard of this the\ arrested Andros and placed him in jail. Connecticut and Rhode Island re-established governments under their char- ters, and continued this form of government down to the time of the Revolution. New Hampshire from this on had a royal governor, but the people elected the lower branch of the Legislature, which was by far the more important part of the law-making body. 58 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 3. Securing of Royal Charters by Rhode Ishvid and Con- necticut When Charles II came to the throne, Rhode Island and Connecticut each sent a pleasing and flattering address to the king and secured charters which .provided for a most liberal form of government. By this charter New Ha- ven was annexed to Connecticut. 4. Massachusetts and Nezv Hampshire from i68p to 1/66 Massachusetts hoped that the new king would give her back her beloved charter, but she was disappointed. She was granted a new charter which gave her the right to elect a legislature or law-making body, and which provided that no taxes could be levied except by this legislature. The people of Massachusetts, therefore, could not be taxed except by themselves, a right dear to all Englishmen, and one which the people of all the colonies were determined to have. The charter also provided that no man should be denied the right to vote or to take part in the government because of his religious ideas. Under the old charter the governor was elected by the people ; but under the new charter he was appointed by the king. All laws passed by the legislature had to be sent to the king for his ap- proval before they became effective. This was not so libe- ral a government as that enjoyed by the people of Rhode Island and Connecticut, but the people of Massachusetts had to live tmder it until the Revolution, when all the colonies became independent of England. As the new charter annexed the colony of Plymouth and the territory of Maine to the Massachusetts Bay Colony the people of these two places also lived under the government of this charter. From 1689 to 1776 Massachusetts and New Hampshire were governed by royal governors appointed by the English kings, and by a legislature elected by the people. During the greater part of this time the governors and the people were quarreling about taxes and laws. All these quarrels caused the people to care less and less for Origin, Grozvth and Political History 59 the mother country and served to prepare them for com- plete separation from England. THE MIDDLE COLONIES I New York 1. Discovery and Settlement In 1609, Henry Hudson, an English sailor employed by a Dutch commercial company, discovered the river which now bears his name, and explored the country bordering it. The Dutch called the territory New Netherlands and im- mediately began to send settlers over to secure the valuable fur trade of the region. The first settlement was made on Manhattan Island in 1614 and other towns soon sprang up along the Hudson, on Long Island, and on Manhat- tan Island. In 1655 the territory now known as New Jersey and Delaware was taken by the Dutch and made part of their colony. 2. Character of the Colonists While the territory was claimed and held by the Dutch, the settlers came from all parts of Europe. These first settlers came simply for trading, not for the purpose of making homes. In order to encourage permanent settlers, valuable grants of land along the Hudson were given to men bringing to New Netherlands fifty permanent set- tlers. These grants were called patroonships, and the men receiving them, patroons. This brought in many settlers, but more men of the better class came in later when cheap ownership of small holdings of land was promised. 3. Government Under the Dutch While this colony was under the Dutch control the people had very little voice in the government. The gov- ernor was appointed by the company, and although he had a council to advise him, he really had all the power in his own hands. Peter Stuvvesant stands out as the ablest of 60 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES all the Dutch governors. His rule was arbitrary and he paid little attention to the rights of the people, but the wealth and population of the colony more than doubled under his administration. 4. The Colony Under English Control New Netherlands by its position divided the English colonies into two parts, and for that reason, as well as on account of its commercial value, the English desired its possession. So in 1664 the English king, Charles II, sent over a small fleet and took possession of the entire colony. In 1673 the Dutch again obtained control of this terri- tory, but only for one year. The English king granted this province to James, Duke of York and Albany, and the name of the colony was changed to New York. The Duke granted the southern part of the territory to two English- men as a separate province under the name of New Jersey. 5. Under the Royal Governors When the province was given to the Duke of York, a charter was given the people, which was based on the New England charters, but did not give the people so many rights in the government. In 1685 James became King of England and New York thus became a royal province. From this time the government was carried on along the same lines as the other royal colonies, that is, with a governor and council appointed by the king and an assembly elected by the people. As in New England, there was a great deal of trouble between the legislature and the governor. The people never gained as much power in law-making as they did in New England or the southern colonies. n New Jersey I. Origin The real history of this colony begins in 1664 when the Duke of York granted the territory between New York Origin, Grozvtii and Political History 61 harbor and Delaware Bay to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, giving it the name New Jersey. Settlers came in from New York, New England and Europe, and the province grew steadily in population and wealth. J. Political History When the proprietors received the grant of New Jersey they established a liberal form of government wnth a gov- ernor and council appointed by themselves, and an as- sembly elected by the freemen. Owing to some trouble in managing the colony. Lord Berkeley sold his share to the Quakers, and the province was divided into East and West Jersey. The Quakers organized a more liberal govern- ment in the western part, while East Jersey was organized on the same lines as the whole province had been. In 1682 William Penn and some associates became the proprietors of East Jersey. Continual trouble between the province and the proprietors led the proprietors to give up their rights in 1702, and the two provinces were united and placed directly under control of the Crown. III Delaware The first colony of any importance in this territory was established by Sweden in 1638. Thirteen years later this territory was taken by the Dutch, and, with New Jersey, made a part of New Netherlands. When the English con- quered the Dutch, Delaware remained a part of New York until 1682 when William Penn obtained a grant to it as a part of Pennsylvania. In 1702 Delaware organized a sep- arate legislature and became a separate province, but re- mained under the governor of Pennsylvania. IV Pennsylvania I. Origin In 1681 Charles II granted a tract of land extending from the Delaware river westward and containing forty thousand square miles, to William Penn, in payment of a debt owed by the Crown to his father. Penn's plan was 62 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES to found a colony for the Quakers who were persecuted in England. As his colony had no sea coast, Penn bought the rights to Delaware and governed it as part of Pennsyl- vania. In 1702 Delaware was made a separate colony with a separate legislature, though it remained under the same govcnor as Pennsylvania. 2. Settlement and Grozvth Penn put his plan before the people promising just gov- ernment, religious freedom, protection of personal rights and cheap land. As a result, large numbers of Quakers from England, and settlers from all parts of Europe, es- pecially Germany, came to this new territory at once. The growth of this colony was more rapid than that of any other American colony. 3. Government When Charles II granted Pennsylvania to William Penn he placed some restrictions on his government, the most important being that all laws must be approved by the king, and that the king might tax the people of the colony directly. Penn established a very democratic form of government in the colony, the law-making power being given to a legislature of two houses, both of whose mem- bers were elected by the people. Penn acted as governor, but did not retain much power. Later he took away some of the power given the people. 4. Province Under Deputy Governors When Penn left the colony in 1701 he made a new con- stitution by which the Assembly elected by the people had the power to make all the laws, and the governor and council appointed by the proprietor were merely advisory. The colony was left in charge of a deputy governor and secretary, and the government was carried on in this way until the Revolution. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS THE SOUTHERN COLONIES Questions for Class Recitations. (In connection with the questions on the "Origin, Growth, and Pohti- cal History of the Thirteen Colonies," each pupil should read the first number of Hart's ''Source Readers in American History," pp. 55-162. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," p. ix.) What caused the English to renew their attempts to colonize in the New World? Explain fully the relations between the Virginia Company and its two branches,— the Lon- don and the Plymouth companies. Describe the government which the general charter provided for these three companies. What territory was granted to the Virginia Company? What part of this territoi-y was granted at first to each of its branch companies? (Each pupil should draw a map that will show plainly the territory granted to the main or Virginia Company, and the sub-grants of this territory to the London and Plymouth companies.) What was the object of the London Company in sending settlers to America? Describe the condition of the Jamestown settlement during the first year, and the work of John Smith. What was the character of the early settlers? Why did they come to the New World? Describe the government of the colony under Thomas Dale, and the condition of the colony under his rule. What is representative government? Describe its origin in America. What is a royal province or colony? Explain carefully how and why Virginia became a royal province. Did this change affect the law-making power of the people? Describe in a general way the relations between the royal government and the people. What were the general results of these relations? How long was Sir William Berkeley governor of Vir- ginia? What caused his term of office as governor to be divided? For what two things was his long rule especially noted? Describe Bacon's Rebellion, discussing its cause and results. Discuss the origin of Maryland and its growth in population. Con- trast Virginia and Maryland with regard to the object of settlement. What is a proprietary colony? Describe the difference between the proprietary colony Maryland and the royal province Virginia in regard to the selection of governor. Contrast Maryland and Virginia in regard to the rights and powers the people had in the government of each colony. Explain care- fully how religious disputes affected the political history of Maryland. Describe the relations of Virginia and Maryland. Describe the origin of North and South Carolina and their growth in population. Compare the granting of this territory with the granting of 64 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES Virginia to the London Company. What is the form of government that first existed in the Carolinas called? Describe the character of the early settlers. Why did they settle in these two colonies? What rights did the people of these two colonies have in the government when it was first organized? Explain carefully how the religious beliefs of the people affected their political rights. Explain carefully to what extent the people con- trolled government in these two colonies. What caused these two colonies to become royal provinces? Describe briefly the growth of these colonies, giving the names and locations of the larger towns. Describe the origin and growth of Georgia, and give the reason for its settlement. What was the character of its early settlers ? Describe the growth of this colony. Why was the colony not more prosperous? What powers did the people have in the government? In what way was South Carolina benefited by the founding of Georgia ? When and why did Georgia become a royal province? Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the object of the settlement and the character of the settlers of each of the southern colonies. Compare these colonies with respect to growth in wealth and population. Discuss the origin of representative government in America. Compare the southern colonies with respect to the rights of the people in government. Discuss the relations between the royal governors and the people. (Each pupil should draw a map of the southern colonies. This map should show the boundaries and the more important cities, mountains, and rivers of each colony.) THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES Questions for Class Recitations. Explain carefully why King Henry VIII. had himself declared the head of the Catholic church in England. Did he wish to destroy or make many changes in the doctrines of the church ? How did the Episcopal church come to be established? Describe the origin of the Puritans. Describe the origin of the Separatists. How did the Separatists diflfer from the Puritans? How were the Puritans and Separatists treated? Why did the Separatists go to Holland? Why did they wish to leave Holland and go to America? Why were they called Pilgrims? Did they intend to settle in Massachusetts? Describe the first year of the life of the Plymouth colony. Explain carefully the conditions that caused the Puritans to wish to leave England and come to America. How did the Puritans obtain land in America? What settlements were made by the Puritans in Massachusetts? Compare the growth of the Plymouth colony with that of the Massachusetts Bay colony. Describe the origin and growth Questions and Topics 65 of the Connecticut colony. Describe the origin and growth of the New Haven colony. How did the Connecticut and New Haven colonies be- come united? What caused the settlement of Rhode Island? Tell what you can about Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson. Describe the growth of Rhode Island. What was the character of the first settlements in New Hampshire and Maine? Compare the object of the settlers of New England with that of the settlers of Virginia in coming to America. Give a careful discussion of religious liberty in each of the New England colonies. What kind of government did they establish? Explain carefully how the life and gov- ernment of the people were affected by the fact that they came over in con- gregations, each congregation settling together. Discuss the town meet- ings, explaining their nature, powers, and who could take part in them. Tell what you can about the beginning of representative government in New England. Compare this with the beginning of representative govern- ment in Virginia. Give a careful discussion of the government provided for by her charter. Show that it was not necessary in all the colonies for a man to be a church member in order that he might vote. Describe the government of Plymouth colony. Give a careful description of the gov- ernment of Connecticut and Rhode Island. In what way did the govern- ment of Connecticut differ from that of all the other colonies? By a care- ful discussion show that in New England the people controlled the law- making branch of the government. What caused the formation of the New England Confederacy? Why was Rhode Island not admitted to this Confederacy? Describe the nature of the government provided for by the Confederacy. Why was it not a strong union? Of what value was the Confederacy ? Explain carefully why the Indians at first did not trouble the Pilgrims. Explain carefully why later they became unfriendly. Discuss the causes and results of the Pequod War. How did the Puritans treat the Indians as a rule? Why were the Indians and the Puritans not able to get along well together? Discuss the causes of King Philip's War. Compare this war with the Pequod War. Give a careful discussion of the results of King Philip's War, and explain how this war affected the future relations of the people of New England with the Indians. Explain carefully why Charles I. disliked the Puritans. For what causes (lid the Puritans banish people from Massachusetts? Describe the quar- rels between Massachusetts and Charles I. Discuss the relations between New England and the English government during the time that Crom- well and Parliament ruled England. When Charles II. became king, what demand did he make on the Massachusetts Bay colony? Were these demands reasonable? Explain fully all the conditions and circumstances that caused the charter of this colony to be annulled. Explain all the circumstances and conditions that enabled Connecticut and Rhode Island 66 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES to secure new charters at this time. Explain carefully the nature of the government for which these charters provided. Explain why many people in Massachusetts did not object to having the charter of their colony an- nulled. Explain carefully how Governor Andros created strong opposition to his rule in Massachusetts. Explain carefully how his rule afifected Connecticut and Rhode Island. Why did the king wish to unite all New England under one governor? How was the rule of Governor Andros brought to an end? Explain carefully the nature of the government pro- vided for by the new charter which the new king granted to Massachu- setts. How did this charter affect Plymouth colony and Maine? Indicate briefly the condition of government in each of the New England colonies from 1689 to 1776. Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the religious conditions in England leading to the settlements of New England. Describe the settlement of each of the New England colonies. Compare the New England colonies with the southern colonies in respect to the object of their settlement and character of their settlers. Discuss the Puritan ideas of government as shown in the government established in New England. Compare the New England and the southern colonies in respect to the power of the people in the government. Discuss the relation between the Indians and the settlers of New England. Dis- cuss the annulling of the charter of the Massachusetts Bay colony. Com- pare the relations between the people and the royal governors in New England with those between the people and the royal governors in the southern colonies. THE MIDDLE COLONIES Questions for Class Recitations Explain fully how the Dutch secured New York. Compare carefully the settlement of Virginia and of Massachusetts with regard to purpose of settlement. Why was New York at first called New Netherland? De- scribe the character of the early settlers. Describe the policy adopted for inducing settlers to come to the colony. Describe the government of New York by the Dutch. Tell what you can of the work of Peter Stuyvesant. Discuss the conquest of New York by the English. Explain carefully the conditions that caused New York to become a royal province. Compare the government of New York by the English with its government by the Dutch. Give a careful discussion of the relations of the people with the royal governors. Describe the origin and growth of New Jersey. Describe the govern- ment established in this colony by the proprietors. Why was the colony Questions and Topics • 67 divided? Describe full}' the conditions which caused this colony to be made a royal province. Describe the origin and growth of Delaware. Give a full and careful explanation of the conditions that caused William Penn to found a colony in America. Describe the settlement of Pennsyl- vania and its growth in population. Why did Penn buy the right to Dela- ware? Explain the origin of the Mason and Dixon line and its relation to slavery. Describe the character of the early settlers of Pennsylvania. Describe the government established by Penn. Compare the rights of the people in the government of this colony with their rights in the govern- ment of the other colonies. Describe the government of the province under the deputy governors. Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the causes leading to the settlement of each of the middle colonies, and compare them with the causes of the settlement of New England and the southern colonies. Compare each of the middle colonies with the New England and southern colonies in respect to government, bringing out the powers of the people in the government of each. Com- pare the middle with the southern and New England colonies in respect to the character of their settlers. Compare the growth of the middle colonies with the growth of the New England and the southern colonies. THE THIRTEEN COLONIES THE FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA (In connection with this chapter, each pupil should read the first number of Hart's Source Readers in American History, pp. 71-150.) I French Explorations and Settlements D. 96-99; Mc. 60-65; Ma. 117-121; G. 89-94; M. 28, 126-130 II Contrast of French and English Settlements D. 99-101 ; T. 89-90; M. 131 III Relations of the French with the Indians 1. Value of Indian Friendship D. loi ; Mc. 70-71; Ma. 118-119 2. Enmity of the Iroquois D. 101-104; Mc. 72-73 IV Early Conflict Between French and English 1. Conditions Making Conflict Inevitable D. 104-105; Mc. 76; Ma. 121 2. Conditions Leading to English Success D. 105-106 3. King William's, Queen Anne's and King George's Wars, 1689-1748 D. 106-107; Mc. 76-81; Ma. 122-124; T. 85-87; M. 131-134 V The French and Indian War, 1754-1763 I. Beginnings D. 108-114; H. II. 138-141; Mc. 81-88; Ma. 124-129; G. 95-103; T. 90-96; M. 135-139 The French in North America 69 T/ie War Under Pitt's Direction, 17 58-1 763 D. 114-118; H. II. 146-150; Mc. 89-90: Ma. 129-133; G. 103-106; T, 97-100; M. 139-140 Treaty of Peace: Results of the War D. 118-119; Mc. 90-91; Ma. 133-135; G. 106- 107; T. loo-ioi ; M. 141-142 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES THE FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA I French Explorations and Settlements The French explored the Mississippi Valley and the ter- ritory north of the Great Lakes and the English colonies. Cartier and Champlain were the first important explorers of the country along the St. Lawrence. Champlain established several permanent settlements, among them being Port Royal, Quebec and Montreal. From these early settlements made between 1603 and 1612, later explorers pushed on through the region of the Great Lakes and discovered and explored the Mississippi river and valley. Joliet, Marquette and La Salle were the foremost explorers of the Mississippi river and its tributaries. La Salle giving the name Louisiana to this territory. Thus in 1682 the French claims in America included all the territory from the Appalachian to the Rock} Mountains, the region of the Great Lakes, and the country north of the English colonies, including Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. II Contrast of French and English Settlements The difference between the French and the English colo- nies was due largely to the difference in the purpose and man-: ner of settlement. The English came to make homes, while the French came for the money to be gained from the fisheries and the fur trade ; to convert the Indians ; and to gain more territory for France. Consequently the English built up strong and prosperous farming communities along the coast, while the French spread their claims over as much territory as possible, but made few permanent settlements, most of those made being mere military trading posts. Thus while the territory occupied by the English colonies was small as compared with that claimed by France, the population of the The French in North America 71 English colonies by 1750 had reached almost two millions while the total French population in North America was less than one hundred thousand. III Relations of the French with the Indians 1. Value of Indian Friendship As the French were very anxious to secure the fur trade, and as the Indians controlled most of this, it was necessary for the French to be on friendly terms with them. The French were very successful in winning this friend- ship, and this was the real source of their power. Except in the case of the Iroquois the French were much more successful in dealing with the Indians than were the English. 2. Enmity of the Iroquois By aiding the Algonquins in a battle against another tribe, the French early gained the bitter hatred of the Iro- quois or Five Nations, the most powerful Indian confede- racy in North America. As the Iroquois occupied the territory between the St. Lawrence country and the Eng- lish colonies, the French were compelled to move westward in their advance, and were kept from occupying New York, and from coming in contact with the English. This gave the English time to develop and gather strength for the coming contest. IV Early Conflict Between French and English I. Conditions Making Coniiict Inevitable When the English colonists had settled up most of the territory east of the Appalachian Mountains it was but natural that they should pass over these mountains into the Ohio Valley in search of new farming lands. When they did this it meant that the two nations must fight. If the English occupied this valley the French in Canada 72 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES would be separated from those in the southern part of the Mississippi valley, and thus the French plans for a great Empire in America would be overthrown. 2. Conditions Leading to English Success The permanent character of the English colonies, and the greater size of the English population made it impos- sible for the French to check the steady advance of the English. 3. King William's, Queen Anne's and King George's Wars, i68p-i/'48 These three wars were caused by trouble between France and England in Europe. It was but natural that the conflict should extend to the French and English colo- nies in America. But the results of these wars in America were not important. In each war the French and their Indian allies destroyed some English settlements on the frontier, and massacred the settlers. All that the English in America gained was Nova Scotia and some military training. During King George's War they captured Louisburg, an important military post, but by the treaty at the close of the war it was returned to France. The French secured no new territory. V The French and Indian War, 1754-1763 The fourth and last war between the French and English in the New World began, not in Europe, as had the other three, but in America. The first battle of this war was fought in 1754. This was two years before war was formally de- clared between France and England, and during this time several battles had been fought. In 1756 the war between the French and English in America became a part of one of the greatest wars of modern times. England and Frederick the Great of Prussia united against France, Spain, Austria, and Russia. In Europe this war was known as the Seven The French in North America 73 Years' War, and lasted from 1756 to 1763. In America it was known as the French and Indian War and lasted from 1754 to 1763. In a most heroic struggle, Frederick the Great, aided by England, was a match for his combined enemies in Europe and by the treaty signed in 1763 by all the nations engaged in the war, Prussia did not lose a foot of territory. The war was most disastrous to France. The treaty which closed it marked the temporary end of French Colonial Em- pire, but France has since secured some valuable colonial possessions. She lost all her possessions in North America, and nearly all of those in India. England secured the greater part of the territory that France lost, and gained more by the the war than any other nation. I. Beginnings The passing of English settlers over into the Ohio valley caused the French to construct a series of forts from Lake Erie to the site of the present city of Pittsburg. A small force under command of Washington was sent against Fort Duquesne, the last of these forts built, but was de- feated by a much larger force of the French and their Indian allies, and was forced to surrender. This was Washington's first and only surrender. After Washington's defeat England sent over a thou- sand soldiers under General Braddock to aid the colonies. This army was increased by the colonies, and with a force of about twenty-two hundred, Braddock marched from Virginia against Fort Duquesne. He was surprised on the march by a force of French and Indians from the fort, and defeated with great loss. This defeat was largely due to Braddock's ignorance of frontier methods of fighting. Expeditions sent by the colonies against Niagara, Crown Point and Ticonderoga were unsuccessful, and during the next two years the important forts of Oswego and Wil- liam Henry were captured by the French. 74 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 2. The War Under Pitt's Direction, 1258-I/63 William Pitt became Prime Minister of England in 1757, with full control of military operations. He was the greatest war minister England has ever had. He at once reorganized the English army, removing the incom- petent officers and replacing them with men of ability. He raised a force of fifty thousand soldiers for the war in America, half of which was furnished by England and half by the colonies, and placed it under competent gen- erals. From the time Pitt came into power the English were almost uniformly successful. Three of the most impor- tant French forts, Duquesne, Frontenac, and Louisburg, were captured by the English in 1758. The capture of Quebec and of Montreal in 1759 and 1760, completed the overthrow of the French in America. 3. Treaty of Peace: Results of the War Although the last battle of the French and Indian War was in 1760, the treaty of peace was not signed until the end of the Seven Years' War in 1763. Among other things, this treaty gave to England all the territory east of the Mississippi except the island on which New Orleans stands. To Spain was given this island and all the territory west of the great river. France retained nothing in North America except two small islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The results of the war made it plain that the English language and English institutions should be su- preme in North America. The English colonies could now develop in peace so far as any foreign nation was con- cerned. The war brought about conditions which helped to bring on the Revolution, and the training which the colonists received in this contest with the French prepared them for the conflict with the Mother countrv. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS THE FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA Questions for Class Recitations (In connection with the questions on the French in North America, each pupil should read the second number of Hart's "Source Readers in American History," pp. 71-150. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Compare the Spanish and English colonies in the New World with regard to purpose of settlement. Describe the Spanish settlements made in the territory which now comprises part of the United States. Why did Spain not make more settlements in this territory? How was this related to the French and English colonies in North America? Give a careful description of the explorations and settlements made by Cartier and Cham- plain. Why is Champlain called the "Father of New France"? What part of the continent was explored by Joliet and Marquette? Discuss La Salle's explorations. (Each pupil should draw a map showing the routes of these explorers and the territory claimed by France by virtue of these explorations.) Describe the manner in which the explorers took posses- sion of the country for France. Explain carefully how the French and English colonies differed as to purpose of settlement. Explain carefully how this affected the character of the settlements of the two nations. Com- pare the English and French colonies in respect to location, extent, and size of population. What caused the great difference in population? Why did the French wish to be friendly with the Indians? How did they gain the friendship of the Indians? Explain carefully why the Eng- lish were less dependent on the Indians than were the French. How did the French make enemies of the Iroquois? Explain carefully how this affected the growth of the French colonies. How did the friendship of the Iroquois for the English affect the growth of the English colonies? How did the French occupy the territory which they claimed ? Explain carefully why the English and the French colonists were sure to come into conflict lin North America. Why was it natural that the English should pass over the Alleghanies into the Ohio Valley? Why did the French wish to prevent this? Explain carefully why the French were unable to check the westward advance of the English. Tell what you can about King William's War. About Queen Anne's War. About King George's War. Tell what you can of the nature and results of the Seven Years' War in Europe. How was the French and Indian War in America connected with the Seven Years' War in Europe? Why did the French build a series of forts from Lake Erie to the site of the present city of Pitts- 76 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES burg? Why did the EngHsh object to this? Tell all you can about Wash- ington's expedition against Fort Duquesne. What was the effect of Wash- ington's defeat on the Indians in the Ohio Valley? What was its effect on the English ? Explain carefully why the English colonists were so slow in preparing for war. Give a careful discussion of Braddock's march and defeat. (Each pupil should draw a map that will show the position of all the French forts in the West, and the place where Braddock was defeated.) Describe the result of the English expeditions against Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point. What was the effect of all these defeats on the English ? Describe the success of Montcalm in 1756 and 1757. (Each pupil should draw a map that will illustrate all the battles fought in Canada and on the northern frontier of the English colonies.) Give a careful discussion of William Pitt and his war policy. Describe the taking of Louisburg. How did the capture of Louisburg aid the English? Describe fully the capture of Quebec. Compare the French general Montcalm with the English general Wolfe in character, ability, and courage. What was the effect of the war on the history of America? What was the direct effect on the English colonists? (Each pupil should draw a map that will show all the changes in territory that were caused in America by this war.) Questions for Compositions and Examinations Compare the French and English settlements in location, extent, pur- pose of settlement, character, and population. Discuss the relations of the French with the Indians. Compare the attitude of the French toward the Indians with that of the English. Discuss the enmity o^ the Iroquois to the French and its effect on colonial history. Describe the conditions which made war between the French and English inevitable. Discuss the conditions leading to English success in this struggle. Discuss in a general way King William's, Queen Anne's, and King George's wars. Discuss the Seven Years' War in Europe and its connection with the French and Indian War in America. Discuss the scope of the French and Indian War. Describe the work of Washington in this war. Discuss the work of Pitt. Discuss the results of the war, including territorial changes and political effects. THE THIRTEEN COLONIES INSTITUTIONAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES D. 125-129 A INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS D. 130 I Commercial Industries 1. The Southern Colonies (a) Products D. 130-134; H. I. 63-64, 156-159; Mc. 104; Ma. 31, 114-115; G. 116; T. 40-44; M. 58-59, 1 16-117, 124 (b) Plantations Ma. 115-116 1. Relation to Growth of Cities and Manu- factures D- 134-135; ^Tc. 104 2. Relation to Growth of Slavery D. 135-136; Mc. 105; M. 61 2. Neiv England (a) Occupations 1. Agriculture D. 136-137; Mc. 101-102; Ma. 113; G. no; M. 86 2. Manufactures D. 137-138; Mc. 98-99; Ma. 113-IM; T. 80-81; M. 97 3. Fisheries. Trade and Commerce D. 138-139; H. I. 139-140; H. II. 50-51, 59-60; Mc. 101-102; Ma. 114; M. 86 78 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES (b) Relation of Physical Conditions to Slavery D. 139-140 3. The Middle Colonics (a) Occupations 1. Agriculture D. 140-141 ; H. I. 147, 159-161 ; Mc. 103; Ma. 114; G. 118 2. Manufactures D. 141-142; Mc. 103; Ma. 113, 114; M. 76 3. Commerce D. 142-143; H. II. 37-39; Mc. 103; Ma. 114 (b) Relation of Industrial Conditions to Slavery D. 143-144 II Professional Life 1. The Ministry D. 144-148; T. 32-33; M. 149 2. Medicine D. 148-149 3. Lazv D. 149-150 B SOCIAL CONDITIONS (In connection with this subject each pupil should read the first number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 165-169, and the second number, pp. 1-69.) D. 150-153; H. I. 67-70, 160; Mc. 93-94, 100; T. 83-84; M. 147-148 Institutional Life in the Colonies 79 I The Southern Colonies 1. Classes of Society (a) The Negro Slave D. 153-159; H. I. 157-159; H. II. 34-35; Mc. 105; Ma. 98-99; M. 61 (b) Indented Servants D. 159-161; H. I. 175; Mc. 97-98, 105; Ma. 98; T. 42; M. 61-62 (c) The Middle and Upper Classes D. 161-165; H. I. 149-152; Ma. 98-99; M. 146-147 2. Dress and Amusements D. 165-168; H. I. 152, 224-229; H. II. 19-26; Ma. 99-107; G. 116-118; T. 81; M. 147-148 II New England 1. Classes of Society Ma. 98-99 (a) Slaves (b) Indented Servants (c) The Middle and Upper Classes D. 168-170 2. Social Distinctions D. 171 ; Ma. 99 3. Dress and Amusements D. 172-173; H. I. 152-155, 180-182, 192-194; H. II. 26-27, 39-42, 211-212; Ma. 99-107; G. 144-145; T. 81 III The Middle Colonies I. Classes of Society Ma. 98-99 80 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES (a) Slaves (b) Indented Servants D. 174-175; H. I. 174, 184, 188-191; H. II. 52-55 (c) The Middle Class (d) The Upper Class D. 175-176; Mc. 38; Ma. 99-107; G. 119- 121 ; T. 105; M. 70-71. 2. Dress and Amusements D. 176-179; H. II. 17-19, 184, 187 C GOVERNMENT I Local Government The County, Tozvnship and Parish D. 179-191 II Colonial and State Government D. 191-192 1. State Government D. 192 (a) Legislative Department D. 192-193 (b) Executive Department D. 193-194 (c) Judicial Department D. 194-195 2. Colonial Government— Departments D. 195 (a) Legislative Department D. 196-197; H. II. 61 ; Mc. 106, 33, 35, 46, 57; T. 104, 22, 31-32, 43; M. 60, 85-86, 105 Institnticnal Life in the Colonies 81 (b) Executive Department D. 198-200; Mc. 106-107; H. II. 61 ; T. 31 ; M. 64-66, 76, 95, 105, 120 (c) Judicial Department D. 200 3 Colonial Government — Classes D. 198 (a) Charter Government D. 198; Mc. 105; G. 123-127; T. 104-105 (b) Proprietary Government D. 198; Mc. 105-106; T. 104 (c) Roval Government D. 199; Mc. 106-107; T. 105 III National Government D. 201-202 IV Relation of Colonial Government to Present State Government D. 202-203 D RELIGION: GROWTH OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY I Religious Liberty at the Present Time D. 203-204 II Religious Persecution in Europe D. 204-205; Mc. 36, 41, 47, 49; M. 76-77 III Religious Persecution in the Colonies D. 205-207; Mc. 36, 48; Ma. 111-113; T. 75-78; M. 62, 83, 86-88, 91-93, 94, 104-107 IV Churches Have Not Been Responsible for Religious Persecution D. 207-208 82 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES V Religious Liberty in the United States: Causes of Its Growth D. 208-209 E EDUCATION (In connection with this subject each pupil should read the first number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 201-233.) I Comparison of Colonial Schools with Those of the Present Time D. 210 II Condition of Schools in England D. 211 III The Southern Colonies D, 211-214; H. I. 216-217, 224-226; Ma. 40-41, 108, 109; G. 116; T. 82; M. 62 IV New England D. 214-219; H. I. 109-111, 206-210, 214-216, 232-233; Ma. 63-64, 107, 108, 109; G. 113; T. 81-83; M. 88-89, 149 V The Middle Colonies D. 219-222; H. I. 218-224; Ma. 108, 109; G. 119; M. 1^9-150 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES INSTITUTIONAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES The Five Institutions INTRODUCTORY Five institutions or organizations exist among the people of every nation, state, city, and community. They are business, or industrial life; society, or social life; the state, or government; the church, or religion ; and the school, or education. These five institutions, in one form or another, may always be found, even among savages. All that any community, or its individuals, can think or do, must be thought or done along one or more of these lines. They include the entire life and work of every person and community. Relation of the Individual to these Five Institutions Among civilized people these institutions are plainly marked, and every person bears some relation to each of them. The nature of his work in relation to one or more of them determines to what extent he is useful or harmful to the community, state, or nation. The useful, intelligent citizen follows some business or occupation successfully ; he contributes to the happiness and social life of the people in whose society he lives ; he takes an active interest in government or politics ; he takes an active inter- est in ethical or religious questions ; and he interests himself in the educational affairs of his community. Importance of the Study of Institutional Life What is true of an individual in this respect is true also of a nation. It is very important, therefore, in studying the history of a nation to study carefully its institutional life. A nation should be judged not so much by the battles which it has fought, or by the territory which it owns, as by the condition of its insti- 8t THE THIRTEEN COLONIES tutions. So far we have been studying the colonies mainly as related to their political history, or the institution of government, which includes among other things the wars fought and the ter- ritory secured. While it is of importance to learn about the insti- tution of government, it is of even more importance to learn about the other four institutions. We shall now study the con- ditions of these four institutions in the colonies, and review the institution of government. Effect of Topography, Climate, and Soil on Industries In the study of the growth and development of the nation the difference between the topography, climate, and soil of the sev- eral sections deserves the most careful consideration. This differ- ence determined to a certain extent that the South should be, until after the American Civil War, an almost strictly agricultural country ; that much of the land should be divided into large plan- tations ; that almost the entire time and energy of the southern people should be devoted to raising tobacco, rice, indigo, and cotton ; and that the labor of the South should be performed by negro slaves. It also determined to a certain extent that the people of the northern colonies should devote a large part of their time and energy to commerce and manufacturing ; that the agricultural land should be divided into a large number of small farms ; that many different kinds of agricultural products should be raised ; that the labor of the North should be per- formed by freemen instead of by slaves ; and that the social and political conditions of the North should be quite different from those of the South. Effect of Topography, Climate, and Soil on Slavery The difference between the topography, climate, and soil of the North and the South caused this great difference between the industrial, social, and political conditions of the two sections, by making slavery very profitable in the South and of very little profit in the North. Because slave labor could not be used with much profit in the North, slavery soon ceased to exist there ; and Institutional Life in the Colonies 85 because slave labor could be used with great profit in the South, slavery soon became firmly established in that section. The fact that slavery existed in the South and did not exist in the North caused the industrial, social, and political conditions of the two sections to become more and more unlike and to drift farther and farther apart, until the American Civil War destroyed slavery. It follows, therefore, that differences in topography, climate, and soil caused slavery to exist in the South and not in the North ; that slavery caused the industrial, social, and political conditions of the North and South to become more and more unlike ; that the great difference between the industrial, social, and political conditions of the North and South caused the Civil War; and that the Civil War, by destroying slavery, has caused these con- ditions in the two sections to become more and more alike, and has thus unified the nation. From all this it becomes plain that the difiference between the topography, climate, and soil of the North and South, and the different industrial conditions which this difiference brought about, deserve the most careful considera- tion of the student of our country's history. The Topography, Climate, and Soil of the Southern Sec- tion AND OF New England are Distinctly Different By far the larger part of the country formerly included in the southern colonies and in all the southern states that border on the Gulf of Mexico is level, in fact almost flat. This country is drained by broad rivers which flow into the sea or into the Gulf. The soil is naturally very rich ; the rainfall is abundant ; the climate in summer is very hot, and with exception of Mary- land and the northern part of Virginia, mild and pleasant in winter. The surface of New England is made up largely of hills and mountains, and is drained by short, rapid rivers. The soil naturally is not very fertile, and the climate in the winter is cold and severe. Both the broad, fertile plains of the South, and the hills, mountains, and small valleys of New England, were covered with a great, dense forest. 86 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES The Topography, Climate, and Soil of the Middle Colonies The conditions of the topography and cHmate of this section, which embraced the colonies of New York, New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, and Delaware, are about midway between those of the southern section on the one hand and of New England on the other. The soil, unlike that of New England and like that of the southern region, is rich. The rainfall is abundant, which is true also of both the other sections. The climate is not so cold as that of New England, and not so mild and pleasant as that of the southern territory. The surface of the land is not divided into a large number of small valleys, as is the case in New Eng- land ; neither does it consist of broad, extensive plains, as is the case in the southern section. INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS The institution affected most directly by topography, climate and soil is Business, or Industrial life; and it therefore will be the first institution discussed. Farming; engaging in some pro- fession, as law, medicine, or the ministry; mining; manufactur- ing; the carrying on of trade or commerce; and all other things which men do to make a living, comprise the institution which is called Business, or Industrial life. In order to add clearness to the treatment, the professions of law, medicine, and the ministry will be treated under the sub-head — Professional Life in the Colo- nies. The other factors of Industrial life in the colonies will be treated under the sub-head — Commercial Industries. In treating the "Commercial Industries," each of the three groups of col- onies will be taken up separately because the conditions of each group differ from those in the other two groups, and this differ- ence had an important effect on some of the other institutions. [ Commercial Industries I. The Southern Colonies (a) Products Tobacco is and has been from early colonial times one of the chief southern products. After its discovery by Institutional Life in the Colonics 87 the first settlers of Virginia it gained rapidly in popu- larity in England and raising tobacco soon became the chief occupation of the colonists of Virginia and Mary- land. In fact the whole life of these two colonies cen- tered around its production. It was used as money. A man's wealth was counted in pounds of tobacco. Laws were made regulating its production and the quality exported. Rice, indigo and cotton were the principal products of North and South Carolina and Georgia. These three products were as important in the three most southern colonies as was tobacco in Virginia and Maryland, and, like tobacco, they caused the growth of large plantations.* Rice was the most important of these products, especially in South Carolina, which led in its production. Comparatively little cotton was raised until after the Revolution and the invention of the cotton gin. The wealth of the southern colonies came largely from the exportation of tobacco, rice and indigo. Wheat, hogs and cattle were also raised, and resin and turpentine produced. (b) Plantations 1. Relation to Growth of Cities and Manufactures The large number of rivers made it easy for most of the plantations to maintain their own warehouses. The vessels that carried the exports called at these warehouses on the different plantations along the rivers, and brought the things needed by the planter, but which were not produced on his plantation. This custom was the main reason why there were no large cities or manufactures in the southern colonies. There was no inducement for either to grow. 2. Relation to Growth of Slavery The production of tobacco, rice, indigo and cotton required a large amount of labor. Slave labor was THE THIRTEEN COLONIES cheap and well suited to this kind of work, while white labor was extremely hard to obtain. The planter soon came to depend almost entirely on the negro slave for labor, and as the plantations increased in size and num- ber, the demand for slave labor became more and more urgent, and the number of slaves increased rapidly. 2. Neiv England (a) Occupations 1. Agriculture The division of the country into small valleys pre- vented the growth of large plantations in New Eng- land, and the climate and soil prevented the extensive production of any one staple. It was hard for any New England colony to raise more food than it re- quired for its own use, but the variety of products was much greater than in the southern colonies. These conditions made it almost impossible for New Eng- land to become wealthy and prosperous from farming, and the people therefore devoted a large part of their time and energy to fishing, commerce and manufac- turing. 2. Manufactures Although the colonial policy of England hampered the growth of manufacturing, many things were made and the foundation was laid for the great manufactur- ing establishments that sprang up after the Revolu- tion. Shops, where every form of trade was plied, lined the streets of the towns. The farmer made most of his tools and furniture and his wife spun the flax or wool, wove the cloth and made the clothing. The swift running rivers furnished the power for thou- sands of saw mills and grist mills. Institutional Life in the Colonies 89 3. Fisheries. Trade and Commerce One gi«\-at source of wealth was the fisheries, of which the whale and cod were especially profitable. Large quantities of fish and fish oil were exported. The New England colonists gave a great deal of at- tention to commerce. New England built the best ships in the world. She built all her own vessels and many for other nations. She carried nearly all her ex- ports and imports in her own ships, and her ships be- came an important factor in the commerce of the West Indies and of Europe. In spite of her poor soil, and the fact that her imports were much larger than her exports, the wealth from her extensive commerce, to- gether with the industry of her people, made New Eng- land wealthy, and caused the growth of many pros- perous towns and cities. (b) Relation of Industrial Conditions to Slavery In New England natural conditions forced the people into varied occupations in which slave labor could not be used with profit. Slavery, therefore, was gradually abolished and free labor made the basis of industrial life. There was no important class of people in New England that opposed slavery on moral grounds. Its growth was controlled by industrial conditions which were due to topography, climate and soil. 3. The Middle Colonies (a) Occupations I. Agriculture Nearly all kinds of farm products were raised in the middle colonies. The fact that the climate and soil were suited to many products tended to prevent the growth of large plantations and the extensive produc- tion of only a few staples. Farm produce and cattle were raised and sold in large quantities. 90 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 2. Manufactures Manufacturing was carried ora to considerable ex- tent. While there were no large manufacturing es- tablishments, the beginnings were being made. In New York cloth and glass were manufactured and saw mills and grist mills were numerous. In Pennsylvania clothing was made and iron ore was mined and ex- ported. Ships were built at Philadelphia, and the grist mills of Pennsylvania made into flour much of the wheat raised in Maryland and Virginia. 3. Commerce Philadelphia and New York were two of the three leading commercial cities of the colonies. Their ships carried the produce of the colonies to nearly all the civilized nations of the world and brought back goods in return. (b) Relation of Industrial Conditions to Slavery Industrial conditions in the middle colonies made slavery of more value than in New England, but of much less value than in the South. Therefore the number of slaves was smaller than in the southern colonies and larger than in New England. II Professional Life I. The Ministry The ministry was the only one of the three learned pro- fessions that held in the colonies anything like the high position they hold today. In New England especially the ministers were men of fine character, good education, and strong influence. They were the leaders of the people, not only in religion, but in education, literature and even in law making. In later years they lost much of their influ- ence in the government, but retained their leadership in other respects. In the middle colonies also the ministers Institutional Life in the Colonies 91 ranked high. They were able and energetic, and exerted great influeno'p on the life of the people by establishing schools and by improving moral conditions. No one church was so powerful as was the Congregational church of the Puritans in New England, and hence the ministers did not have so much influence in government afifairs. In most of the southern colonies the Episcopal Church was the state church, and it was supported by public taxes. As the ministers received their salaries whether they performed their duties or not, and as many of them were unfit for their work, they exerted much less influence for good than the ministers in the other colonies. After the Revo- lution, when the revenue from public taxes was taken away from the Episcopal Church, it secured a much abler class of ministers and they became a positive factor for good in the community. The ministers of the other churches in the South were able men and tried to establish schools, but without success. Medicine As has been stated before, medicine as a profession amounted to but very little in the colonies, especially before 1750. This profession developed earliest and most rapidly in Pennsylvania and in this respect Massachusetts came next. From the very first in Pennsylvania there were some physicians who had secured their educations in the universities of England and were well qualified to practice medicine. These did all they could to advance the profes- sion. In 1734 the first medical work in the colonies was produced. This was written by Dr. Cadwalder from Lon- don, who later gave a course of lectures on anatomy and physiology, and in 1750 became one of the first physicians of the hospital in Philadelphia. In 1760 Dr. Sheppen and Dr. Morgan established in Philadelphia a medical college which five years later became a part of the University of Pennsylvania. There were fewer quacks in Pennsylvania 92 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES than in any of the other colonies. In New England, and especially in the southern colonies, d|:ug-gists and barbers often practiced medicine and surgery along with their regular occupations, and this was the main reason why the people had so little respect for the medical profession. There were but few good doctors in the southern colo- nies, — fewer than in New England. Many of the ministers of early New England had studied medicine before leaving England. They frequently acted as doctors and were better than most of those engaged in the profession. After these early ministers died the profession for a time fell into the hands of quacks who knew little about medicine.' But the ability of the doctors soon improved and the profes- sion became more and more respected. Just before the Revolution there were many able physicians in New Eng- land and they were highly respected. New England, how- ever, was behind Pennsylvania in the matter of hospitals and medical schools. 3. Law The profession of law \vas of more importance in New England and Pennsylvania than in any of the other colo- nies just as was the case with the profession of medicine. Virginia, however, just before the Revolution, had as many able lawyers as New England and more than Pennsylvania or any of the other colonies. For a long time in New England, and for a longer time in Virginia, there were so few able lawyers, that the profession could hardly be said to exist at all. In Pennsylvania, on the other hand, there were a number of fairly good lawyers from the very first and the profession was held in high esteem, which was not the case in any of the other colonies. But about 1750 the profession of law in New England was repre- sented by a large number of very able lawyers, and a little later the same was true in Virginia. Among the new England lawyers at this time were John Adams, Samuel Institutional Life in the Colonies 93 Quincy, Samuel Gridley and James Otis ; among those in Virginia were Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry and George Mason. These men were just in time to prepare the colonies for, and to guide them through, the Revo- lutionary \\^ar ; and to help make, and to help put into effect, the present Constitution of the United States. Many of them made a world-wide reputation. To their wisdom and good common sense the people of the United States owe a great debt of gratitude. SOCIAL CONDITIONS The amusements of people, the social relations among the vari- ous classes of society, treatment of neighbors, customs of dress, daily manner of speaking and acting toward others, and all other things which interest or amuse men in a social way, constitute the social life of a people. Many of these social factors are closely related to industrial conditions. The social conditions in the southern colonies, in New England, and in the middle colonies, differed, and this difference was due largely to the difference in the industrial conditions in these groups of colonies. In fact, the more closely the history of any nation is studied, the plainer it becomes that its five institutions are closely related. The social conditions of a nation are closely related to each of its other four institutions, — business, government, religion and edu- cation. Therefore, when studying any one of the five institutions in any nation, it is of importance to understand the relation of that institution to each of the other four. At the present time it is not easy to realize how the people in the colonies lived, dressed, and amused themselves. This is due largely to the difference between the conditions which existed in the colonies and those which exist at the present time. It therefore becomes necessary to note carefully some of the conditions which made the social life in the colonies differ so much from the social life of today. Among the more important conditions that affected social life in the colonies were the newness of the country, the 94 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES poor means of transportation and communication and, in the southern colonies, the large plantations and mode of farming. The people of the colonies lived in the edge of a mighty forest that covered the entire country. At times this forest must have seemed to the lonely settlers as vast as the sea and as silent as death. They did not know how far this great forest extended, or what wild animals or races of men it contained. This life in the edge of a great, silent, and unexplored forest, and on the edge of the sea, affected the customs and habits of the people. The effect of this solitude on the lives of the southern people was emphasized by the almost total lack of cities and towns, and by the nature of plantation life. Nearly all the people lived on plan- tations which were usually far apart. This caused the people on the plantations to visit each other less frequently than they would have done had they lived in cities or close together on small farms. The poor means of transportation and communication in colonial times tended to make the life of the settlers still more lonely. The great improvements in modes of travel and communi- cation since then have had a profound effect on social conditions. At the present time people, while eating breakfast, can read in their morning paper about all the important things that have taken place up to midnight of the day before, in all parts of the world reached by the telegraph. Often a new style of dress, or a new invention of some kind, will be used in many parts of the world within a few months after it is first made. It was quite different in the colonies. There were no railroads, or telegraphs, or telephones in the world at that time. People could not travel on the land except by walking, riding or driving. All mail and news had to be carried by the same means, and it should be remembered that there were few roads then and that most of these were usually in a very bad condition. If Boston had burned, it would have been five or six days before the news would have reached New York and many more days before the people in Virginia would have heard of it. This slow means of travel and communication made the life in the colonies, especially in the southern colonies, much more isolated and lonely than it would Institutional Life in the Colonies 95 have been had the railroads and telegraphs existed. It also affected the customs and habits of the people by preventing them from becoming acquainted readily with the customs and habits of others. In studying the social conditions of the colonies it is well to remember all these other conditions which helped to make the social conditions of that time so different from those of today. I The Southern Colonies I. Classes of Society At the time of the Revolution the total population of the southern colonies was about thirteen hundred fifty thous- and. Of this number about six hundred twenty thousand were negro slaves. As a whole the people of the southern colonies consisted of four classes — the negro slave, the white servants, the middle class, and the upper class. The middle class which consisted of those who owned the smaller farms and plantations, shaded gradually into the upper class, which consisted of those who owned the larger plantations. In the three most southern colonies there were only three classes to be found, the middle class being absent in South Carolina, and the upper class being absent in North Carolina and Georgia. (a) The Negro Slave Far below all other classes was the negro slave. He was under the absolute control of his master, and could be bought and sold like any other property. Many of the slaves were savages, brought direct from Africa, and they were kept in dense ignorance in order that danger of insurrection might be lessened. In some of the colonies the negroes far outnumbered the whites, and the white people lived in constant fear of uprisings. This dread is shown plainly in many severe laws relating to the negroes. They were not allowed to leave the plantation to which they belonged without permits, and 96 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES if they ran away might be killed by any one on sight. A white man could not be imprisoi^ed for killing a negro, but he might be fined. These severe laws would indicate that the negroes were badly and evenly cruelly treated, but as a rule such was not the case. The negroes em- ployed on the small farms and as house servants were, as a rule, well treated in all the colonies. On the large plantations of South Carolina and Georgia they did not fare so well, for many of the planters lived in Charles- ton and left the control of their plantation and negroes to overseers, who often overworked the slaves and treated them cruelly. (b) Indented Servants Indented white servants were found in all the colo- nies. An indented servant was a person sold to some one for a certain number of years. During the term of the indenture or contract he belonged to his master, and could not leave without his consent, but after he had served the time specified he became free. These indented servants and the poor whites comprised the second class of society in the colonies, but, because of race and ability, were far above the negro slave. In character they ranged from English, Scotch and Irish prisoners of war to the common criminal. Many boys and girls were stolen in England and sent over to the colonies, and some honest and hard-working, but poor people became indented servants in order to pay for their passage to America. As a class, however, the indented servants were of poor character, for the most part trans- ported criminals and the scum of the cities of England, and when they became free, formed the most undesirable class in the colonies. The laws relating to indented servants were very severe. During their term of ser- vice their condition was little better than that of the negro slave. Institutional Life in the Colonies 97 (c) The Middle and Upper Classes The middle class in the southern colonies was com- posed of traders, merchants and small land holders, while the large land owners composed the upper class. The traders and merchants were held in contempt by the; land owners, but there was no material distinction between the large and the small land owners. The owners of the large plantations were much like the country gentlemen of England, except that they were even more independent and aristocratic. They ruled the colonies in which they lived and w'ere given cordial support by all the other classes. They were brave and emphatic in their defense of English liberty, and from this class came some of the leaders during the struggle for independence. Virginia alone, in this period, gave to the nation Washington, Jefferson, ]\Iadison, Marshall and Henry. The conditions on the large plantations tended to develop men of strong character and ability. There were more than five hundred persons on some of these plantations, and their management required con- siderable ability. Frequently the owners of large plan- tations trained their slaves in the various trades so that very httle outside help was required. 2. Dress and Aninsemcnts In dress the upper classes followed the fashions in London, wearing rich, gay colored silks and velvets, rare laces and jewels, and powdered wigs. The plantations being so large and so far apart, there w^as less social life in the South than in some of the northern colonies. In Charleston, however, there was more gay social life than in any other city in America. The southern land holders possessed great hospitality, and love for social life and out door sports. Horse-racing and hunting were their two principal amusements. Rural field sports were also very popular and were usually under the direction of the planters. 98 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES II New England I. Classes of Society The total population of New England at the time of the Revolution was about seven hundred thousand. Of this population the number of slaves did not exceed fifteen thousand. As in the South, there were four classes of society — the slaves, the indented servants, the middle class, and the upper class. (a) Slaves The small number of slaves in New England was due largely to industrial conditions, and the industrial con- ditions of New England were the result, at least to a large extent, of its topography, climate and soil. The slaves were employed almost exclusively as house ser- vants. They were treated kindly, owing to their close personal relation with their masters, and the laws regard- ing them were much milder than in the South. (b) Indented Servants There were comparatively few members of this class in New England. They were treated kindly, and after they became free, they usually succeeded in going into business for themselves. (c) The Middle and Upper Classes Most of the members of these two classes were of good English stock and there was no distinct line between them. The middle class was composed of farmers, merchants, and tradesmen, and formed the mass of the population. This class was much better educated in New England than in the other colonies. There was as distinct and as strong an aristocracy in New England as in the southern colonies but it rested Institutional Life in the Colonies 99 on a somewhat different basis. The upper or aristo- cratic class was composed not of large land holders but of those whose families for generations had been noted for their wealth and education or service to the government ; of those who were well educated ; of those who had performed valuable public service ; and of those who had been very successful as merchants or in com- merce. 2. Social Distinctions Nearly all offices were filled by men of the upper class. The son of a carpenter or a bricklayer or of any one engaged in a similar occupation could not hold office. In church people were seated according to their social position, and people were compelled to occupy the seats assigned to them. A student on entering college was assigned a position according to the social standing of his father. It is rather surprising that in a new country where labor was considered honorable that so many of the every day affairs of life should have been so much affected by social position. 3. Dress and Amusements The nature of the Puritan religion had a great deal to do with the dress and amusements of the New England people. The Puritan religion made New England life earnest, simple and solemn. It taught that amusements and undue hilarity and pleasure were the works of Satan. The wealthy class wore clothes of fine material but simple in style. The outdoor amusements consisted of hunting, fishing, sleighing and various athletic sports. After New England was placed under the royal governors the church lost much of its power in government affairs and the life of the people became brighter and more cheerful. While theatres were not countenanced until after the Revolution, balls and parties came to be an unquestioned part of social life. L V 1 -y. 100 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES III The Middle Colonies I. Classes of Society At the time of the Revohition the total population of the middle colonies was about six hundred and seventy thousand of which number about sixty-five thousand were slaves. With the exception of the large Dutch land hold- ers along the Hudson and Mohawk rivers in New York, the people of the middle colonies were divided into but three well defined classes — the slaves, the indented ser- vants, and the class corresponding to the middle class in Virginia and in New England. (a) Slaves As in New England, nearly all the slaves were em- ployed as house servants, and consequently they were usually well treated. Although the number of slaves was small, at times there was fear of a slave uprising in the large cities. All such attempts, or even indica- tions of such attempts, met with severe punishment. (b) Indented Servants The number of indented servants was larger than in New England, and they were not so well treated. With the exception of Virginia, Pennsylvania contained more indented servants than any other colony. (c) The Middle Class The great mass of the people belonged to this class which was vigorous, earnest and progressive. There were fewer English in proportion to the population in the middle colonies than in any of the other colonies. New York contained a large number of Dutch, and the German, French, Scotch and Irish comprised a large part of the population of Pennsylvania and Delaware. Institutional Life in the Colonies 101 (d) The Upper Class The only distinct upper class or aristocracy in the middle colonies was made up of the large Dutch land owners, whose ancestors had received grants of land along the Hudson and JNIohawk rivers when the Dutch first settled New York. The owners of these estates had even more authority and power than the large land owners of the South. Each of the larger estates was entitled to one representative in the legislature of the colony. In some cases the owner held almost absolute power over his tenants, even to inflicting the death penalty for violation of laws. 2. Dress and Amusements In the country and small towns the life of the people was quiet and simple. As a rule the clothes were home- made of home spun cloth. The amusements were few and simple, consisting of corn huskings and spinning bees, and of simple out door sports. There was more social life in the country than among the New England farmers. On festive occasions there was a good deal of drinking and dancing. In the cities there was much gay social life. In dress, the wealthier class in Philadelphia and New York followed the London fashions closely, both men and women wearing silk and velvet and rich, bright colored materials. The principal amusements were balls, parties and theatres, and clubs for the young men. With the exception of Charleston, gay social life was enjoyed to a fuller extent in New York and Philadelphia than in any of the other cities in the colonies. 102 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES GOVERNMENT In beginning the formal study of government, it is suggested that a general view of the subject be presented to the pupil by some such discussion as the following: Each pupil attending school lives with his parents, and is therefore one member of a family. He is also a member of the school that he attends. He is a citizen or member of the county in which he lives, and whether he lives in a town, a city, or in the country, he is a member of one of the parts or subdivisions of the county. He is also a member of the state in which he lives, and as the states make up the nation, he is a member of the na- tion, or, as is usually said, a citizen of the United States. Each family, school, subdivision of the county, county, state, and the nation also, have certain rules or laws which are called govern- ment. Each pupil, therefore, lives under several different forms of government. He lives under the government of his parents or guardian ; under the government of his teacher and the school trustees or board of education ; under the government of the city or other division of the county in which he lives ; under the gov- ernment of the county in which he lives ; under the government of the state in which he lives ; and under the government of the United States. Everyone lives under these different forms of government and must obey the rules or laws of each. Men and women of course are not under the rules of the family and school in the same way that a pupil is, but they must obey the general laws relating to the family and school. With so many laws it would seem that the laws of the family, school, county, state and nation would conflict and interfere with each other. They do not, however, and this is most remarkable. All these laws work in harmony. This is not the result of chance or acci- dent. Our ancestors for thousands of years have been working at the different divisions of government and making laws for each. A long time ago when our ancestors were savages the laws were rude and simple. Ever since then the laws have gradu- ally been changed, increased in number and made better, and at the present time they are being changed and made better each Institutional Life in the Colonies 103 year. The laws have been changed and are being changed in order that boys and girls and men and women may live happier and more useful lives. I Local Government I. The County The governments of the state and of the United States are known as the state and national governments and that of the county and all smaller divisions is known as local government. To-day in nearly all the states west of the Appalachian mountains and in many of those east, the county is the most powerful unit or division of local gov- ernment. Its powers and duties are next to those of the state, and they are carried out by a board of men called commissioners or supervisors, who are elected by the peo- ple. In nearly all the counties these county boards must levy taxes and take general charge of the money affairs of the county, look after the schools, construct bridges and roads, and look after the poor. In addition to this board of commissioners or supervisors, there are a number of other county officers, as sheriff, treasurer, assessor, tax collector, superintendent of schools, auditor, recorder and judge. From this it will be seen that the county is a very important unit of government. The county did not always have these great powers, but in all the colonies except New England and South Carolina the county was the most important unit of local government. In New Eng- land it possessed some important powers. In each county there was a county court composed of men elected by the people and of others appointed by the governor, which could interpret the laws in certain cases, lay out public roads, and oversee the township officers. It was not so important as the township, however. In the South, ex- cept in South Carolina, the county had control of all im- portant local affairs. In Virginia the county court whose members were appointed by the governor, acted as a 104 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES judicial body and had general charge of the affairs of the county, such as levying taxes, care of the public money, and appointing some of the county officers. In all the colonies except South Carolina and those of New England, the county was the local unit that elected delegates to the legislature or law making body of the colony. In the middle colonies the county was especially important. The Pennsylvania plan of county government has been adopted by a large majority of the states. In that colony the county board consisted of three commissioners elected by all the people of the colony, and had great power in local affairs. A number of other county officers were elected by the people and considerable power given to them. Each county so far as its local affairs were concerned, was a little republic. Most of the states which have adopted this plan have changed it somewhat. In New York the mem- bers of the county board were called supervisors and were elected by, and represented, the different townships of the county. This plan also has been copied in some of the states. 2. The Township In New England each county consisted of townships. Townships were formed before the early counties were organized. This was due to the fact that the Puritans came over in congregations and established towns. A town in New England included not only the town proper, but the adjacent country also. In New England, there- fore, "Town" and "Township" meant the same in so far as it relates to a unit of local government. These town- ships had by far the most power in local affairs. Meet- ings called town meetings were held by all the voters in the township, and at these meetings people could levy taxes and direct the management of the money raised, could elect delegates to the legislature of the colony, could elect township officers, and could provide for schools. Institutional Life in the Colonies 105 In fact they could act on all the more important local affairs. While the township has lost some of its powers, it is still the most important unit of local government in New England. The principle of township government exists in most of the states at the present time but in a different sense than in Xew England. Most of the country west of the Appalachian mountains has been divided into townships by the government of the United States, and these divisions are often used for purposes of local gov- ernment. In many states the counties have been divided into districts, precincts, or townships, but not the six- mile-square townships established by the National Gov- ernment. These smaller divisions are used simply for the management of purely local affairs, and do not affect gen- eral county government. 3. TJie Parish In South Carolina each county was divided into sub- divisions called parishes or districts, and they were the most important unit of local government. They had much the same power as the township in New England, and the county was of even less importance than in New England. The parish remained the unit of local government in South Carolina until after the Civil War, when the county was given control of local affairs. In Virginia the counties were divided into parishes, but the officers of the parish had little to do except to look after the aff'airs of the Episcopal Church. II Colonial and State Government Next to the county in the affairs of government is the state. The states in matters of government have control of all those things that the people have not given to 'the national government of the United States or which are not controlled by the county or the smaller units of local government. The 106 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES people of the United States have given to the national gov- ernment control of all those things which affect the nation as a whole, and have reserved to the states all other powers of government. That part of these reserved powers which affects more directly the people of the entire state, is given to the state government. The other part of these reserved powers belongs to the county and the smaller units of local government. The division of all these powers of govern- ment, — national, state, and local — is stated and defined in the national and state constitutions, which have been adopted by the people either by direct vote or by representatives whom they have elected. The state constitutions give to the state government the power to outline and define in many ways the powers of local government, but as the state officers are elected by the people, they carry out the wishes of the people in these matters. Thus it follows that in the United States the people are the source of all power, and that they have the power to change a law or even the form of gov- ernment. I. State Government — Legislative Department National, state, and local governments consist of three departments — the legislative, the executive, and the ju- dicial. The legislative department makes the laws ; the executive department executes or enforces them ; the ju- dicial department interprets, or tells what the law means, and applies them to the affairs of life. The legislative de- partment in all the states consists of two houses. The upper house is the smaller, and in every state is called the Senate. The lower house is usually called the Assem- bly or House of Representatives. The legislative depart- ment of the national government also consists of two houses. The upper is called the Senate and the lower the House of Representatives. The legislative department in the county consists of the board of commissioners or supervisors, and the legislative department of cities or Institutional Life in the Colonies 107 Other smaller units of local government consists of similar bodies. The members of the legislative department in all the states and in all the units of local government are elected by the people. The state legislatures have im- portant power and have control of many things, "All of the general laws under which our local governments and schools are organized, those referring to the state and local courts and procedure in these courts, those dealing with the making and enforcement of contracts, the trans- fer of property, marriage and divorce, with the prevention of the spread of diseases, with the incorporation of busi- ness houses — all of these form only a part of the vast num- ber under the charge of the legislatures, the whole, cov- ering a set of subjects of the first importance not only because there are so many, but because all are of such in- terest to us in our home and business life." State Government — Executive Department In all the states the highest executive officer is the Gov- ernor ; in the national government, he is the President of the United States ; and in the larger towns he is called the mayor. In the counties the various county officials attend to the executive business. While the Governor is at the head of the executive department of the state, there are a number of other executive officers in the state who assist in enforcing the laws. Among the other more im- portant executive officers of each state are the Lieutenant- Governor, Secretary of State, Controller, Treasurer, Su- perintendent of Public Instruction, and Attorney-General. The governor is always elected by the people, and so are the other executive officers, except in a few states where some of them are appointed either by the governor or by the legislature. The lieutenant-governor usually presides over the Senate when it is in session and takes the gov- ernor's place if he resigns or dies, and when he is absent from the state. The other executive officers just named 108 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES perform the duties of their various offices. All local offi- cers also must assist in enforcing the laws of the state, and this is a great help to the state officers. The governor is by far the most important executive officer in the state. He is commander-in-chief of the state soldiers or militia, and when the other state or local officers cannot enforce the laws, he may call on the soldiers to assist in their en- forcement. 3. State Government — Judicial Department The judicial department of each state consists of a supreme court and of a number of lower courts. The ju- dicial department of the national department also con- sists of a supreme court and a number of lower courts. Next to the supreme court of the state are the circuit or district courts (in some states) ; next to these are the county courts ; and next to the county courts are the city courts and the justices' courts. The judges in all these courts are elected usually by the people but in several states some of them are appointed by the governor or legislature. The members of the supreme court are elected usually by the people of the entire state, and a judge in a lower court is elected by the people in that division of the state of which he is a judge. The city courts and justices' courts try the less important cases ; the county courts those which are of still more importance and from the last named courts cases may be appealed to the supreme courts. Many cases may be appealed from the lowest courts in the state up through all the others, and some cases may be appealed from the state supreme court to the United States courts. 4. Colonial Government — Legislative Department The colonial governments, like the state governments of to-day, consisted of three departments — legislative, ex- ecutive, and judicial. The legislative department in all Institutional Life in the Colonies 109 the colonies, like those in all the states to-day, consisted of two houses. The lower house was usually called house of representatives, the assembly, or house of burgesses. The members of the lower house, as is the case in all the states to-day, were elected by the people. But there was one important difference. In all the colonies, no one could vote for a member of the lower house or for any other officer of the colony, unless he owned a certain amount of property, whereas to-day in the United States no prop- erty qualification is required of a voter. The upper branch of the legislature in the colonies was called the council and consisted usually of twelve members, called assistants or members of the Governor's council. Except in Connecti- cut and Rhode Island, the members of the council were either appointed by the governor or by the lower house, as was the case in Massachusetts, and approved by the governor. In Connecticut and Rhode Island, the members of the upper house were elected by the people. Thus it becomes plain that except in these two colonies, the gov- ernor, by his power of appointment, practically controlled the upper branch of the legislature. It should be remem- bered, however, that with the exception of Connecticut and Rhode Island, the upper house, or council, had very little to do with making the laws. The main duty of the council was to advise the governor and to assist him in carrying out the duties of his office. 5. Colonial Governuient — Executive Department The executive department in each colony consisted of the governor and the governor's council or upper house of the legislature. In Rhode Island and Connecticut the governors were elected by the people, and in Pennsylvania, Delaware and Maryland they were appointed by the pro- prietors. In all the other colonies they were appointed by the king. The royal and proprietary governors pos- sessed the important powers of vetoing laws passed by no THE THIRTEEN COLONIES the legislatures, and of appointing judges and other offi- cers. They were continually quarrelling with the lower house except in Rhode Island and Connecticut where the governor and both hoiises worked together harmoniously. 6. Colonial Government — Judicial Department The judicial department was merged into the executive department in the colonies, the governor and his council acting as the supreme judicial body of each colony. The minor judicial officers were appointed by the governor, although in a few cases they were elected by the people. 7. Colonial, Government — Classes Colonial government may be divided into three classes, on the basis of the manner of selecting the governor. In the charter government the people chose the governor. In the proprietary government the proprietor selected him, and in the royal government he was appointed by the king. But these names as to form of government are of very little importance. The important facts are that in all the thirteen colonies the lower, and by far the more important, branch of the law-making body was elected and controlled by the people ; that in all the colonies except Connecticut and Rhode Island, the council or upper house of the legislature was not elected by the people, but was appointed by the governor; and that in all the colonies, with the same two exceptions, the governor was not elected by the people, but was appointed either by the king or by the proprietor. (a) Charter Government A charter government was one established by a writ- ten contract between the king and the colonists, stating the share which each should have in the government of the colony. This charter or contract could not be changed legally without the consent of both parties. Institutional Life in the Colonies 111 During the eighteenth century, Connecticut and Rhode Island were the only real charter colonies. Massachu- setts was about half charter and half royal. (b) Proprietary Government A proprietary government was established when the king granted a large tract of land to some individual, who, by the terms of the grant, had the right to organize a colony and to appoint the governor. During the eighteenth century, Pennsylvania, Delaware and Mary- land were the only proprietary colonies. (c) Royal Government In the case of a royal colony, the king appointed a governor. The royal colonies were directly under the control of the king, but as stated above, the people con- trolled the legislative department. During the eighteenth century all the colonies, except the charter and pro- prietary colonies, were royal colonies. III National Government The national government of the colonies was the same as that of England. The English Parliament and the English king were the highest government authority in England and they were also the highest government authority in the col- onies. The English king and Parliament bore, in a general way, the same relation to the colonies that the national gov- ernment of the United States at the present time bears to the various states. When the people of the colonies became in- dependent, they established the national government to take the place of the English king and the English Parliament. IV Relation of Colonial Government to Present State Government We have already seen that local government to-day is the direct outgrowth of local government in the colonies. From 112 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES a study of colonial government it becomes plain, that the legislative, executive and judicial departments of the state governments in the United States at the present time are simply the modification and expansion of these departments in the colonies. The colonial legislature consisted of a lower and an upper house. The lower house corresponds to the lower house in the state legislature to-day, and there have not been many important changes in its nature. The council, or upper house, in the colonies corresponds to the state sen- ate, or upper house, in the state legislature at the present time, but the council has undergone a great change. The members of the senate are elected by the people and the senate has as much power in making laws as the lower house. The governor is at the head of the state executive department to-day, as he was at the head of that department in the col- onies, but he is elected by the people. The same close re- lation between colonial times and the present time, exists in the judicial departments. The different courts in the col- onies correspond closely with the courts in the states at the present time, except that most of the judges are now elected by the people, and are separate and distinct bodies, whereas in the colonies the courts were often the legislative and ex- ecutive departments. The colonial governments of Connecti- cut and Rhode Island were so much like those of to-day, that their charters were adopted as their state constitutions and remained in efifect until long after the Revolution, the only important change being the omission of the king's name in the public records and documents. The charter of Con- necticut remained the constitution of that state until 1818, and the charter of Rhode Island remained in efifect until 1842. The greatest change in government since colonial times has been in the election of officers, and in the right to vote. Nearly all officers — local, state, and national — are now elect- ed by the people, whereas in the colonies many of them were appointed. In the colonies no one who did not own a cer- tain amount of property could vote for any officer of the Institutional Life in the Colonics 113 colony, or for any local officer. At the present time no prop- erty qualification is required of any voter anywhere in the United States. All this means that the people have become much more democratic since colonial times. RELIGION: GROWTH OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY I Religious Liberty at the Present Time If the government of any civilized nation at the present time should kill or imprison or punish in any way, a person because he belonged to a certain church, its action would be severely condemned by almost every one. Scarcely any one to-day believes that a man should be killed or punished in any way because he may be a member of the Methodist, Presbyterian, Catholic or any other church. The right of a person to think and to act in religious matters as he may de- sire, so long as he does not interfere with the rights of others, is now conceded by almost everybody. So thoroughly is this principle established and accepted that the government of the United States, or of any other civilized nation, would use its entire power to protect its citizens in their rights to enjoy quietly and peacefully their religious ideas. II Religious Persecution in Europe The right of a person to enjoy quietly and peacefully his religious ideas is called "religious liberty." Strange as it now seems people have enjoyed religious liberty but for a very short time. Less than two hundred and fifty years ago, men and women were put to death in almost every nation, simply because they wished to belong to some other church than the one protected by the government. In Spain, France and Germany thousands were killed for this reason and many more were imprisoned or otherwise punished. Hundreds were put to death in England for the same reason. In all of these countries men and women were burned to death and 114 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES tortured in other ways, because they would not uphold the established or state church — that is the church protected by the government. In 1686 thousands of Huguenots were mas- sacred in France. Women and children were dragged from their beds in the night and murdered because of their re- ligious ideas. From 1685 to 1700 fully two hundred thous- and Huguenots left France in order to escape these religious persecutions. From 1550 to 1650 more than one hundred thousand perished in the religious wars of Europe. HI Religious Persecution in the Colonies These persecutions for religious reasons were not restricted to the Old World. Some of the English colonies in America did the same thing. For a long time in Massachusetts, men and women were not permitted to establish any church ex- cept the Congregational or Puritan church, or to teach or preach any religious doctrine except that of the Congrega- tional church. The government of Massachusetts whipped, imprisoned, and banished men and women because of their religious ideas. These persecutions did not stop with such punishments. Four Quakers were hanged in Boston — two men in 1659, O"^ woman in 1660, and another man in 1661. These four people were hanged by order of the court, and because they demanded the right to preach the doctrine of their church. It is absolutely incorrect to say that the Puri- tans came to New England for the purpose of establishing religious liberty. They came to the New World in order to escape the persecutions of the Episcopal church in Eng- land. They had no intention whatever of permitting any church to be established in New England except the Congre- gational church. Some of the other colonies were almost as severe as the colonies of Massachusetts and New Haven. In Virginia there were severe laws against the members of all churches except those of the Episcopal church. Members of other churches were imprisoned and banished from the colony. The Catholics first settled Maryland and granted Institutional Life in the Colonics 115 religious liberty to every one in the colony, but as soon as the members of the Episcopal church secured control of the colony, they passed severe la\YS against the Catholics and the members of other churches. With but few exceptions, Cath- olics were persecuted in all the colonies. Rhode Island was very liberal in religious matters. Pennsylvania establishe!s 145 their large and hostile populations, alone, and to try to subdue the other states which contained fewer people and in which they hoped to find many people friendly to them. They thought that if they could get control of most of the other states, Virginia and New England would be compelled to submit. After the capture of Boston by Washington, the king and his ministers and generals, therefore, planned three general campaigns — two against the middle states and one against the far southern states. One was to capture New York City, and to secure control of the Hudson river and of as much of the state of New York as pos- sible. The success of this campaign would have been of great value to the British, because it would have given them control of a direct line of communication between New York City and Canada, and as the English had control of the sea, this would have completely separated New England from all the other states. The object of the other campaign against the middle states was to capture Philadelphia, the largest city in x^merica, and to secure control of as much of Pennsylvania and New Jersey as possible. By the southern campaign the British hoped to capture the cities of Charleston and Savannah, and to secure control of Georgia, South Carolina and North Carolina. T The Campaign to Separate New England from the Other States, and the Campaign Against Phila- delphia and the Middle States These two campaigns were carried on at the same time. They extended over two years and ended in failure. They began in July, 1776, when a British army of 25,000 men under General Howe and a large British fleet under his brother. Admiral Howe, arrived at Staten Island from Halifax. They ended in June, 1778, when the British evacuated Philadel- phia and concentrated all their northern forces in New York city. New York city was captured by the British in August, 1776, and was used as the basis of operations for both these campaigns, and also for the southern campaign. It was the last city evacuated by the British at the end of the war. As 146 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION a result of three months' fighting, Howe had captured New York city and had slowly driven Washington a short dis- tance up the Hudson, but the American army was about as large and as well prepared for battle as when the fighting began, although it was much smaller than the British army under Howe. In a short time, however, the meddling of Congress and the treachery of Lee compelled Washington with but a small part of his force to make a hurried retreat across New Jersey into Pennsylvania. Then in this darkest hour of the war came the capture of Trenton and his bril- liant work which compelled the British to withdraw from nearly all New Jersey. As a result of four months' fighting the British held New York city and a few outlying posts. The attempt of General Carleton to march down the Hudson from Canada, join Howe at New York city and thus separate New England from the middle states, was a complete failure. In the spring of 1777 the British renewed their cam- paigns for the capture of Philadelphia and for the separation of New England from the other states. Burgoyne with an army of 8,000 men was to capture the Fortress of Ticon- deroga and march down the Hudson. St. Leger with a force of about 2,000 men was to capture Oswego on the east shore of Lake Ontario and march across New York to the Hudson and join Burgoyne. Howe with some 18,000 men was to move up the Hudson and meet Burgoyne. Before doing this he decided to capture Philadelphia. This proved to be a mis- take. He succeeded in capturing Philadelphia, but the ex- cellent generalship of Washington compelled him to consume about four months in doing this and it was then too late to assist Burgoyne. On October \y — a few days after Howe entered Philadelphia — Burgoyne was forced to surrender at Saratoga on the upper Hudson. The capture of Phila- delphia was of but little value to the British, for they were able to hold only as much territory as was actually occupied by their troops, while the surrender of Burgoyne was a great injury. As a result of this surrender, France soon made an alliance with America. This compelled the British to Campaigns 147 evacuate Philadelphia in the spring of 1778. On its march from Philadelphia to New York City the British army was attacked by Washington at Alonmouth, and had it not been for the treachery of Lee, this battle would have resulted in a serious disaster to the English. The British now concen- trated all their northern forces in New York city. Thus the two northern campaigns of the British ended in failure. In the fall of 1778 the British began their southern campaign, which was the third and last one and which was also to end in failure. After the battle of Monmouth the British made no further real attempt to carry on the war in the North, but con- fined their operations to sending out marauding expeditions and to stirring up the Indians on the frontiers. The more important events in the North during the remainder of the war were the storming of Stony Point by the Americans, the treason of Arnold, and the total defeat of the Indians by Clark and Sullivan. The brilliant work of Paul Jones and of the American privateers is also worthy of special notice during this latter period of the war. II Campaign Against the Southern Colonies From an English standpoint this campaign was, for a time, successful. Savannah was captured, and Georgia and part of South Carolina were overrun. Several American armies were utterly destroyed. But when the inefficient Gates was superseded by Greene, the tide turned in favor of the Ameri- cans. At King's Mountain and at the Cowpens small Brit- ish forces were entirely destroyed. The indecisive battle of Guilford Courthouse so weakened the British army that Cornwallis, with Greene in pursuit, retreated to Wilmington, North Carolina. With the exception of Charleston and Savannah, Greene soon forced the British to evacuate all of South Carolina and Georgia. ^Meanwhile Cornwallis marched north and fortified Yorktown. Here he was attacked by the combined French and American forces and compelled to surrender, October 19, 1781. Cornwallis's surrender prac- ticallv ended the war. 148 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION Ri':suLTS OF THE War As the news of the surrender at Yorktown spread through the states, the people gave themselves over to general rejoicing. There were bonfires in almost every village, for the people knew that the surrender of Cornwallis, following, as it did, Greene's great campaign in the south, ended the war. \Mien the news reached Paris, flags were flung to the breeze, nearly all the houses were illuminated, and the French, like the Americans, gave them- selves up to general rejoicing. When Lord North heard the news he walked the floor of his room in great excitement exclaim- ing, " Aly God, it is all over, it is all over, it is all over ! " When Charles Fox, one of the leaders of the House of Commons, heard it, he sprang from his chair with a shout of joy. Many of the leading statesmen of England were equally as glad as Fox that Cornwallis had been captured. Lord North, who had been prime minister since 1770, was soon forced by the Llouse of Commons to resign and the king was forced to appoint in his place the leader of the Whig party that had always been friendly to the Americans and opposed to the war. The fall of Lord North marked the end of the king's personal rule in England. Never since then has a king of England attempted to rule. The people, through the House of Commons, have controlled the government and made the laws and the king has simply reigned. The sur- render at Yorktown, therefore, was a glorious victory for English- men as well as for Americans. The Americans had fought to uphold the liberties of Englishmen, just as their ancestors in England had often done in the years gone by. On September 3rd. 1783, a treaty of peace was signed at Paris, which ended the war between England on one side and France, Spain and the United States on the other. The new nation secured the terri- tory extending from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, and from the Great Lakes to Florida ; England secured the right to navigate the Mississippi, and the Americans obtained the right to fish on the Newfoundland Banks ; the republican spirit received a remarka1)le siimulus tbrouc:hout the world. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. Questions for Class Recitaticns (In connection with the questions on the American Revolution, each pupil should read the second number of Hart's "Source Readers in American History," pp. 153-309. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) What was King George's attitude toward popular government? Explain fully why he desired to secure control of Parliament. How did he succeed in doing this? Explain quite fully why Parliament wished to tax the colonists. Was it the duty of the colonies to help pay the cost of the French and Indian War, and to help support the British soldiers in America? Why did the colonists object to paying the taxes levied by Parliament? Why was King George anxious to take up this quarrel with the Americans? Discuss the Navigation Acts, explaining quite fully why they were passed. Why did the colonists not seriously object to these laws? Why were general search warrants, called Writs of Assistance, issued in connection with these laws? Explain why the Americans objected to these Writs. What efifect did the issuing of these Writs have on the peopiej Explain how the Stamp Act violated the right of taxation. How was this Act regarded by the Americans? Describe the action of Virginia against this Act. What action was taken by the other colonies ? Discuss the Stamp Act Congress, mentioning its origin, composition, and work. Describe how the people treated the stamp dis- tributors and the stamped paper. Why did the Stamp Act never go into efifect? Why did the English merchants have it repealed? What was the Declaratory Act and why was it passed? Describe the Townshend Acts. How were they received by the Americans? Why were all the taxes levied by them repealed except the tax on tea? Why was the tax on tea retained? Explain quite fully how the tea imported under this tax was received by the Americans. Discuss the work of Samuel Adams ii^ relation to the "Boston Tea Party." Discuss the "Boston Massacre." What led to the passage of the Repressive or Intolerable Acts ? Describe each of these acts. What efifect did they have on the Americans ? Explain carefully and fully how the Stamp Act, The Townshend Acts, and the attempt of the English government to send Americans to England for trial led to union of action on the part of the colonies. Explain care- fully what led to the appointment of the first permanent Committee of Correspondence. Explain fully what led to the calling of the First Con- tmental Congress. Discuss carefully the work of this Congress. What led the xA.mericans to make active preparations for war? Describe these 150 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION preparations. Describe the work of Samuel Adams in connection with these preparations. Who were the minute men? Describe the battles of Lexington and Concord. What was the effect of these battles on the Americans? (Each pupil should draw a map showing the direction of Lexington and Concord from Boston, and the British line of march.) Discuss the work of the Second Continental Congress. Describe the battle of Bunker Hill. Describe the siege and capture of Boston by Washington. (Each pupil should draw a map of the neighborhood of Boston, showing the position of the English and the American troops during the siege of Boston and in the battle of Bunker Hill.) Describe the capture of Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point. Discuss the petition sent to the king by the Second Continental Congress in July, 1775, and also the resolutions passed by that Congress at the time. What do this petition and these resolutions show as to the feeling of the Americans toward England? What were Washington's attitude and feeling on the question of independence when he first took command of the army? Name the conditions and events that caused the American people within the next year to declare their independence of Great Britain. Why did King George hire foreign soldiers to fight in America? How was this regarded in Europe and in America? Tell what you can of the patriotic writings of Thomas Paine and their efifect on the people. When and why were state governments formed? How did the formation of these governments aid in the growth of the desire for independence? Describe the passage of the Declaration of Inde- pendence. What was the nature of the Declaration? How was it received by the Americans? How was the opinion in England divided regarding this war? What was the attitude of the other nations of Europe toward England? Were the Americans united in favor of the war? How did the United States com.pare with England in wealth? What was the source of its greatest weakness? In what respects had the United States the advantage of England in this war? CAMPAIGNS In what way did the battles of Lexington and Concord and the siege of Boston influence the British plans of campaigns? Describe carefully the three general campaigns adopted by the British after the siege of Boston. Explain carefully the object of each. Describe the capture of New York by the British. (Each pupil should draw a map illustrating the battles around New York City.) Explain how the disobedience of Lee after the surrender of Fort Washington injured the American cause. In what way was Lee captured by the English? Describe the retreat of Washington through New Jersey. Describe the capture of Trentort by Washington. Explain how Washington Questions and Topics 151 soon after the capture of Trenton succeeded in compelling the British to give up nearly all of New Jersey. (Each pupil should draw a map illustrating the work of Washington from the time he began his retreat across New Jersey until he went into winter quarters at Morristown.) Describe the invasion of Canada by Montgomery and Arnold. What two campaigns did the British renew in the spring of 1777? Describe the campaign which resulted in the capture of Philadelphia by the British. (Each pupil should draw a map fully illustrating the cam- paign which resulted in the capture of Philadelphia, and also the battles which followed immediately after its capture.) In what way did Wash- ington's work in this campaign assist in the capture of Burgoyne and his army? Describe fully the conditions and battles which led to the surrender of Burgoyne. (Each pupil should draw a map illustrating the campaign which resulted in the surrender of Burgoyne.) What effect did Burgoyne's surrender have on the English government? What effect did it have on the Americans? How did it assist in bringing about an alliance between France and America? How did the results of this alliance in Europe assist the Americans? How did this alliance affect the policy of the English government toward America? Why would not the Americans accept the liberal terms offered by the English govern- ment. Describe the condition of the American Army at Valley Forge. Why did the British leave Philadelphia in June, 1778? Describe the battle of Monmouth. Describe the storming of Stony Point. Discuss the treason of Arnold. After the battle of Monmouth why did the English army give up all the country in the middle and New England states except the city of New York and the country close around that city? What did the British hope to gain by stirring up the Indians on the frontiers of Pennsylvania and Nev/ York? Describe how Clark and Sullivan completely defeated the Indians. Describe the work of the American navy and privateers. Describe the attempt of the English to capture Charleston in 1776. Why did the British not renew the c.impaign against the South until after 1778, when their two northern campaigns had practically failed? Describe the southern campaign from the capture of Savannah in the latter part of 1778 to the capture of Charleston in 1780. Describe the work of the Americans under such southern leaders as Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and Williams. Describe the campaign of Gates that resulted in his defeat at Camden. Give a full discussion of Greene's southern campaign. What was the importance of this campaign? (Each pupil should draw a map- illustrating these southern campaigns.) Give a full description of the campaign which led to the surrender of Cornwallis. How was the news of this surrender received in America, France, and England? What effect did it have on the war? When and 152 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION where was the treaty of peace signed that ended the Revohition? What territory did this treaty give to the United States? Discuss some of the other provisions of this treaty that affected the United States. Why was the success of the Americans in this war a great victory for Enghshmen as well as for Americans? Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the causes of the American Revolution. Discuss the first period of the Revolution. (This period ended with the evacuation of Boston by the English.) Discuss the principles for which the Americans were fighting during this first period. Discuss the campaigns against the middle states. Discuss the campaign w-hich had for its object the separation of New England from the middle states. Discuss the cam- paign against the southern states. Discuss the campaign which led to the surrender of Cornwallis. Discuss the effect of the Revolution on political liberty in America and in Europe. Subjects for Special Study and General Review. (A careful study of the subjects which follow should constitute the review for the seventh-grade work in history and civics. The pupils should have ample time for the study of these subjects, and should be permitted free access to available material when preparing these papers for written discussions.) Give a written discussion of Conditions Favorable to the Discovery of America. Give a written discussion of Earlj' Discov- eries and Explorations in North America. Give a written disctission of The American Indian. Give a written discussion of the Origin, Growth, and Political Historj'^ of the Southern Colonies. Give a written discussion of the Origin, Growth, and Political History of th-e New England Colonies. Give a written discussion of the Origin, Growth, and Political History of the Middle Colonies. Give a written discussion of the French in North America down to and including the French and Indian War. Give a written discussion of Industrial Conditions in the Colonies. Give a written dis- cussion of Social Conditions in the Colonies. Give a written discussion of Religion in the Colonies. Give a written discussion of Education in the Colonies. Give a written discussion of the Origin of American Institutions. Give a written discussion of the American Rexolntion, iiK-luding its Causes and Results. EIGHTH YEAR WORK TH^i: CRITICAL PERIOD THE CRITICAL PI^RIOD I The Nature of the National Government D. 3J5-3J7: Mc. tjS-tjo. T55-150. 103: Ma. loS-ioo: (,r. 104; r. i^i-i^j, 154-155, 108-170; M. 150. 10 J, iSo II TiiK XoKiiiwEST Territory; ThI': (^"tRnixANOK of 17S7 P. 3-7-,UH); Mo. loo-ioj; Ma. jo^-joo; C 107-108; r. iS-'-iS^ ; M. 100-101 III CoNiMru>NS OF Money and Business D. 3J9-331 : II. II. 2t8-jjo: Mc. 163-165. 198-200; Ma. 100; Ci. 105-100; r. 15.1-158; M. 173-174. i8t)-u)ii IV An.\K011V ANP Kl-.lU'l.l.lON 1>. 331-33J; Mc. i(^; Ma. jixvjoj ; C. 100-107; T. 170-171 ; M. 100 V TiiK CoNsri ro rioN.vL Connkntion 1. l-rt'itts /.(-(/(//'//i,' /() the Conii'iition P. 33_'-334 : Mc. 105; Ma. JOJ-J03. jo6; C 108, joo : T. 1 70- 1 7 1 2. Org.viication of the Conzrittioii: Character of Mem- bers n. 334-330: M*.'. i''(^: .\Ia. J07 ; C. joo-joi ; T. T7_'-i73; M. \iu 3. Makliii:; the Lonstitiitioii — The Three Creat Com- oro in ises '^- .vV'341^: M"-'. K17: M.i. jo7-_m 1 ; T. 173-174; M. ii)J, Note 3 156 THE CRITICAL PERIOD VI The Constitution 1. Legislative Department "^ D. 341-3-42; Mc. 169, 197; T. T77-178 2. Executive Department D. 342-343; Mc. 168, 198; T. 178-179 3. Judicial Department 1^- 343-347; ^fc. 169, 197; T. 179 4. Ratification D. 347-349; Mc. 169-170; Ma. 211-213; T. 174- 176; M. 193 VII Organization of the New Government D, 349-351 ; Mc. 170-173; j\[a. 221-223; T. 181-182 thu critical period The Nature of the National Government Although the Treaty of Paris ended the war, the conditions in the colonies from the standpoint of both business and gov- ernment continued very serious indeed until the ratification of the Constitution in 1788. In many ways the years between 1783 and 1789 were the most dangerous and important in the history of the United States. The period covered by these years has been aptly and fittingly called by Fiske " The Criti- cal Period of American History." The bad condition of affairs during this period was due mainly to the fact that there was no strong central government in the United States. From the beginning of the Revolution until 1781, the Conti- nental Congress directed and attended to the general affairs of the states. There was no other form of national govern- ment. This Congress had no legal standing. It was not created by any constitution or law, and hence its powers and duties were not defined in any way. It tried to do those things which were necessary to carry on the war with success, but as it had no power to enforce its acts or laws, its efforts were not always successful, and as a result Washington's plans were often injured. It could not raise soldiers, levy taxes, or regulate commerce — three powers that a national government must have if it wishes to live and have its laws obeyed. All Congress could do was to ask the states to do certain things. It could not do them itself, neither could it compel the states to do them. Sometimes a state granted the request of Congress, and sometimes it did not. In 1781 — about two years before the war closed — a sort of written constitution went into effect. This constitution is known as the Articles of Confederation. It was prepared by Congress and submitted to the states in 1777, but not ratified by all the states and put into effect until 1781. This constitution simply put into written form and legalized the powers which 158 THE CRITICAL PERIOD Congress had already assumed and enjoyed. Congress was still the national or general government for all the states, and it had no more powers than it hdd before this written constitution or agreement had been adopted by the states. In some ways it had less power. It could not even request the states for soldiers or money unless a majority of the delegates from each of nine states voted in favor of making such request, whereas before, Congress could pass any meas- ure if but seven states voted for it. This was indeed a weak form of government and naturally did not secure the respect of the American people or of foreign governments. Even when the war was going on, the states often did not grant the requests of Congress, and after the actual pressure of war had been removed, each state did about as it pleased. Con- gress had no power to carry out its treaties and agreements with foreign governments, and as a result these governments, between 1783 and 1789, came to have less and less respect for the United States. The American people were to blame for this weak and inefficient national government. They were afraid that a strong central government would try to take away their rights as the government of England had tried to do. It required five hard and dangerous years after the end of the war to convince them that a strong central government was necessary to their happiness and to the welfare of the new nation. II The Northwest Territory; The Ordinance of 1787 The most important law enacted by Congress under the Articles of Confederation was that known as the Ordinance of 1787. This law provided for the organization and govern- ment of what was then called the Northwest Territory. This territory included what is now the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin. During the greater part of the Revolution it was claimed by Virginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York, but Maryland refused to ratify the Articles of Confederation until these states agreed to cede it to Congress, thus making it the common property Conditions of Money and Business 159 of all the states. By 1786 the states had given up their individual claims and this vast territory came under the direct control of- Congress. The Ordinance of 1787 pro- viding for the government of this territory is very important, as it has been the basis of the government of all new terri- tory since acquired by the United States, except that acquired in the recent war with Spain. The more important pro- visions of the ordinance were those providing for the form- ing of new states out of this territory, and forever forbidding the existence of slavery in the Northwest Territory. A very important result of the cession of the Northwest Ter- ritory to Congress was that it tended to keep the states from separating during the critical period of our history. Ill Conditions of Money and Business The lack of good money in the United States during the Critical Period, and the bad condition of business caused great distress. No gold or silver money was made by the United States until 1793, and all the hard money used was the coin of other nations. After the Revolution nearly all of the hard money in the United States was paid out for imported goods which were much needed by the Americans and which were sent over in great quantities from England. During the Revolution Congress issued large sums of paper money to carry on the war, but as it soon became plain that Congress could never redeem this money, it very quickly became almost worthless. During the Critical Period there was a strong desire for paper money, which was issued by some of the states, and which, like the Continental Currency issued by Congress, soon became worthless. This worthless paper money and the lack of hard money caused conditions to become worse and worse. The people could not pay their taxes, and Congress had to borrow money for the running expenses of the government. Congress could not compel the states to comply with its request for money, and the credit of the United States became very poor among foreign nations. These bad conditions showed the need of a stronger central 160 THE CRITICAL PERIOD government, and this need was brought home more sharply to the people by the disputes among the states regarding the levying of import duties on one anothc. s products, and con- flicting land claims. IV Anarchy and Rebellion The disputes of the states over territory led to the raising of troops by some of the states, and while all these disputes were finally settled without actual warfare, they indicated plainly that war between the states might break out at any time. The refusal of Massachusetts to issue paper money led to the breaking out of an open insurrection — known as Shays's Rebellion — against the state authority. Some 2,000 men took up arms, and it required more than 4,000 state troops to put down the insurrection. Such conditions alarmed all thinking people, and made them ready to sanction a central government that would be strong enough to protect life and property in all the states, and that would give peace and prosperity to the nation. V The Constitutional Convention I. Events Leading to the Convention The desirability of opening up and settling the country west of the Alleghanies led to a meeting of delegates from Maryland and Virginia at Washington's home in 1785 to discuss plans for improving navigation on the upper part of the Potomac river and for building roads in the new western country. During this meeting, which was held at Washington's suggestion, Washington suggested that Maryland and Virginia hold a joint convention for dis- cussing further the building of roads and canals, and for discussing uniformity of trade laws. Later it was decided to invite delegates from all the states to attend this conven- vention, but when the meeting assembled at Annapolis in September, 1785, it was found that only five of the states were represented. The delegates, therefore, did not at- tempt to settle any of these questions, but passed a reso- The Constitutional Convention 161 lution suggesting to all the states that they send delegates to a convention to be held at Philadelphia in May of the following year. Congress recommended to the states that they appoint such delegates, and all the states did so except Rhode Island. 2. Organisation of the Convention: CJiaracter of Members The Constitutional Convention is distinctly American, and the one that framed our National Constitution is by far the most important one ever held in America. It was composed of fifty-five members and represented all the states except Rhode Island. In almost every case the states sent their ablest men, and it is no doubt true that never before or since have so many able men come together for the purpose of discussing government. Washington, Franklin and Madison were the chief men in the conven- tion, but others were of only a little less importance. Al- though their work was to be very important, but few of the members had a definite idea of what they were to do, because the resolution which called the Convention simply stated in a general way that it was called for the purpose of providing a better central government for the United States. Washington was elected president of the Con- vention, and it sat with closed doors, everything being kept secret until its work was complete. 3. Making the Constitution — The Three Great Compromises Some of the members of the Convention were afraid that the people would not ratify a constitution that provided for a strong central government, and they therefore suggested that the work of the Convention be restricted to revising the Articles of Confederation. It was soon decided by the advice of Washington and other leaders, to make a new constitution instead of trying to patch up the old one. Sev- eral plans for the new constitution were submitted to the convention by delegates from the various states. The Virginia plan, among other things, provided for a national 162 THE CRITICAL PERIOD legislature of two houses, the members of the lower house to be elected by the states according to their population or wealth, and those of the upper house to be elected by the members of the lower. This plan would give the large states much more power than the small states. The New Jersey plan proposed that the national legislature should consist of one house in which all the states should have the same number of representatives. This would give the small states an advantage and the government would be simply a league of states as before. The matter was finally settled by a compromise, but not until the discussion had nearly broken up the Convention. It was agreed that the national legislature should consist of two houses. The lower house, called the House of Representatives, was to be composed of members elected directly by the people, and the number of members from each state was to be deter- mined by the number of people in that state. The upper house, called the Senate, was to be composed of two mem- bers from each state, and they were to be elected by the state legislatures. This was the first great compromise of the Convention. The next compromise was between the northern and southern states over the question as to whether the slaves should be counted as population when apportioning representatives to a state. The southern men wished to have all the slaves counted, while the northern members did not want any of the slaves counted as pop- ulation. It was compromised by agreeing to allow five slaves to count as three white people when estimating population and national taxes. The third great compro- mise was over the question of commerce and the importa- tion of slaves. All the southern states were opposed to giving the new government complete control of commerce. South Carolina and Georgia wanted the right to continue the importation of slaves, but nearly all the other states were opposed to this. Finally it was agreed that Congress should have complete control of commerce and that slaves might be imported until i< The Constitution 163 VI The Constitution 1. Legislative Department The new Constitution provided for a national legisla- ture, called the Congress of the United States, composed of two houses — a lower house, called the House of Rep- resentatives, and an upper house called the Senate. The members of the lower house are elected by the people for a term of two years. The national government therefore acts upon each individual citizen, while the government under the Articles of Confederation acted upon the states. This is a most important difference, as it makes our pres- ent central government, a national government, while un- der the Articles of Confederation the government was simply a confederation of states. The members of the Senate are elected by the state legislatures for a term of six years. They represent the states and not the people directly. All the powers not granted to the national gov- ernment by the Constitution or prohibited to the states by it, still belong to the states, or the people. The Constitu- tion, however, gave the new government all the power necessary for a strong national government. 2. Executive Department The Constitution created a strong executive department. The head of this department is called the President of the United States. He is Commander-in-Chief of the army and navy of the United States, and in addition to other important duties, he must defend the Constitution and execute the laws passed by Congress. There is also a vice-president elected at the same time and in the same manner as the President. In order to assist the President, Congress has, from time to time, created a number of ex- ecutive departments, whose secretaries constitute the Presi- dent's Cabinet, and are consulted by him on important matters. In addition to his executive duties the Presi- dent takes an important part in legislation since he may 164 THE CRITICAL PERIOD veto any bill passed by Congress, and such bill cannot then become a law unless it is passed in each house of Congress by a two-thirds vote. 3 Judicial Department The Constitution created a judicial department which was to consist of a Supreme Court of the United States, and of such inferior courts as Congress might see fit to establish. By the wise legislation of Congress the judicial department has become of great importance in our govern- ment. In addition to the Supreme Court, which is at the head of the department, a number of lower courts have been created by Congress. All the judges of all these courts are appointed by the President, but each appoint- ment must be confirmed by the Senate. It is the duty of these courts to interpret and apply the laws that relate to the national government. The Constitution, the laws passed by Congress, and the treaties of the United States are interpreted by the regular United States courts. Cases may be tried first in the District Courts, then appealed in succession to the Circuit Courts, Circuit Court of Appeals, and to the Supreme Court. In all cases the decision of the Supreme Court is final. The Supreme Court may declare an act of the President's, or a law passed by Con- gress unconstitutional and therefore null and void. Thus the Supreme Court is at the very head of the national government. No other judicial body in the world has such power, and in establishing such a body the Constitutional Convention created a new principle of government. 4. Ratification When the Constitution was given to the states for rati- fication the people soon became divided into two parties, and there began one of the ablest and most remarkable campaigns in the history of America. Many feared that the central government provided was too strong and might become unjust and overthrow the rights of the people. Organization of the Nezc Government loo Those favoring the ratification of the Constitution were called Federalists, and those opposed, Anti-Federalists. Hamilton and Madison were the leaders of those who favored the Constitution, and they did a magnificent work in urging its adoption. The Constitution provided that it should go into effect as soon as ratified by nine states. The nine states necessary had ratified the Constitution by March, 1788, and the others soon followed. VIT Organization of the New Government By the ratification of the new Constitution, the govern- ment created by the Articles of Confederation came to an end. The first presidential election under the Constitu- tion occurred in January, 1789. Washington received every vote, and thus became the first President of the United States. John Adams received the next largest number and became vice-president. Congress at once proceeded to organize the different departments of gov- ernment in accordance with the Constitution. It passed laws organizing the judicial department, and establishing four cabinet departments. Thus came to an end the Critical Period of American History, and thus went into effect the present Constitution of the United States, QUESTIONS AND TOPICS THE CRITICAL PERIOD. Questions for Class Recitations Why may the time between 1783 and 1789 be called ''The Critical Period of American History?" Describe the nature of the national govern- ment during the Revolution until the adoption of the Articles of Con- federation in 1781. Describe the nature of the national government pro- vided for by the Articles of Confederation. In what way did the Articles of Confederation assist to bring about the bad condition of affairs that existed during the Critical Period? During this period why were the people opposed to creating a strong central government? To what territory did the Ordinance of 1787 apply? Describe in full the government provided for by this ordinance. Discuss the importance of this ordinance with regard to slavery and the government of the territories of the United States. Describe fully the conditions of money and business during the Critical Period. What brought about these conditions? Give a careful discussion of the more important results of these conditions. Describe fully what is meant by "Anarchy and Rebellion" during the Critical Period. How did this threaten the life of the nation? How did these disturbances assist in preparing the way for the adoption of a strong central government? Describe fully the events leading to the Constitutional Convention. Tell what you can about the men that composed the convention. How was the convention organized? Did the convention exceed the purpose for which it was called? Describe fully each of the three great com- promises of the convention. (In studying the national government in accordance with the questions which follow, the pupil should make constant use of the Constitution.) For how many departments of government did the new Constitution provide? Compare this plan of government with that which existed during colonial times and also with that which exists in the states at the present time. Describe in a general way the legislative department created by the Constitution. What powers and duties belong to the House of Representatives that do not belong to the Senate? What are the reasons for this? What powers and duties belong to the Senate that do not belong to the House of Representatives? What are the reasons for this ? Describe the general powers and duties of Congress. How are senators and representatives elected? What is the reason for having a senator's term of office longer than that of a representative? Describe in a general way the executive department created by the Constitution. How are the President and Vice-President of the United States elected, Questions and Topics 167 and for how long a term? Describe in full the President's Cabinet and its general powers and duties. Describe fully the general powers and duties of the President. What power has the President in legislation? What are the duties of the Vice-President? Describe in a general way the judicial department created by the Constitution. Describe briefly the different classes of United States courts. Discuss the general powers and duties of the judicial department. Compare with regard to its power the Supreme Court of the United States with the supreme courts of other nations. When the Constitution was submitted to the people for their approval, why were many opposed to its ratification? Explain fully what is meant by Federalist and Anti-Federalist during the campaign for the ratification of the Constitution. Who were some of the leading Federalists and Anti- Federalists? Who wrote "The Federalist," and what was its effect on the campaign for the ratification of the Constitution? Discuss briefly the campaign which resulted in the ratification of the Constitution. Discuss the organization of the new government. Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the nature of the national government during the Critical Period. Discuss the conditions of the country during the Critical Period. Discuss the Ordinance of 1787. Discuss the events which led to the Constitutional Convention. Explain fully the three great compromises. Discuss the national government provided for by the Constitution. Discuss the ratification of the Constitution. NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE A THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE (In connection with the study of period of European interfer- ence, each pupil should read the third number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 217-315.) I Origin of American Neutrality in European Affairs, 1793 D. 356-362; Mc. 206-207; Ma. 227-228; G. 217-219; T. 189-190; M. 198-199 II The Jay Treaty, 1795 D. 362-364; Mc. 207-209; Ma. 229-230; G. 219; T. 1 90- 19 1 ; M. 202-204 HI Breach with France, 1799-1800 D. 364-367; Mc. 210-214; Ma. 230-232; G. 220-221; T. 194-197; M. 204 IV The Alien and Sedition Acts, 1798 D. 367-369; Mc. 211-212; Ma. 232; G. 221-222; T. 195; M. 205 V The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, i 798-1 799 D. 369-370; Mc. 212-213; Ma. 232-235; G. 222-22^; T. 195-196; M. 205 VI The Purchase of Louisiana, 1803 D. 370-374; Mc. 218; Ma. 237-238; G. 229-232; T. 201-204 ; M. 208-209 VII European Interference with American Com- merce, 1800-1812 I. Decrees and Orders in Council, 1806-18 10 D- 374-376; Mc. 224-227; Ma. 241-243; G. 237- 239; T. 210-21 1 ; M. 211 The Period of European Interference 169 2. Jefferson's Embargo Policy, 180/-180Q D. 376-378 ; Mc. 226-228, 250 ; Ma. 244 ; G. 239- 241 ; T. 211-212; M. 211-212 VIII The War of 1812, or the War for Commercial Independence, 1812-1814 1 . Causes D. 378-379; H. III. 228-231 ; Mc. 231 ; Ma. 244- 247; G. 242-244; T. 215; M. 215-217 2. The War on Land D. 379-385; H. III. 274-312; Mc. 233, 235, 238; Ma. 247-248; 251-255; G. 246, 247-248, 249- 250; T. 216-223; M. 217-218, 222-224 3. The War on the Sea D. 385-387; H. III. 223-255; Mc. 234-237; Ma. 248-252, 253 ; G. 244-246, 246-247, 248 ; T. 217-220; M. 218-220, 222-223 4. Results D. 387 (a) Treaty of Peace, 18 14 Mc. 239 ; Ma. 255 ; G. 252 ; T. 223-224 ; M. 224 (b) Commercial and Industrial Results Ma. 257 ; M. 224 (c) Effect on the Nation Mc. 239 ; Ma. 255-256 ; G. 252 ; T. 229 IX The Hartford Convention, 1814 D. 387-389; Ma. 256; G. .251 ; T. 224-225; M. 224 X Purchase of Florida, 1819 D. 389; Mc. 260-262; Ma. 258-259; T. 230-231; M. 227 170 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE XI The Monroe Doctrine, 1823 D. 389-392; ]Mc. 262-265; Ma. 267-268; G. 254-256; T. 238-240; M. 232-233 B FINANCIAL LEGISLATION : THE TARIFF I Hamilton's Financial Measures, 1790-1791 D. 393-398; Mc. 198-202; Ma. 223-226; G. 211-213, 214; T. 184-186; M. 197-198 1. Tariff Duties 2. Excise 3. Funding of National Debt 4. Assumption of State Debts 5. Establis/iment of the United States Bank II Jefferson and Gallatin's Financial Policy, 1801- 1809 D. 398-399; Ale. 216-218; Ma. 236 III The National Bank and State Banks D. 399-400; Mc. 255-257, Ma. 224, 256; T. 226-227 IV Tariff Legislation 1. The First Tariff Act, lySp D. 400-401; Mc. 197; Ma. 223; T. 184; M. 197, 24611 2. Grozvth of the Idea of Protection D. 401-402; Mc. 303; Ma. 241, 257; T. 231, 232, 240, 248 ; M. 245-246 C POLITICAL PARTIES I Rise of Political Parties D. 402-405; Mc. 170, 202-203; Ma. 221, 224, 225-228, 230; G. 211, 220, 263; T. 174-175, 189; M. 195 GroTvth of the Nation 171 II Fall of the Federalist Party D. 404-405; ^ic. 211, 259; Ala. 232-235, 245; T. 195, 198, 225, 228 III The Republican Party D. 405-408; Mc. 215, 229, 259-260, 277, 297-301 ; Ma. 235-236, 256; G. 224-226; T. 198-201, 228-229, 241- 242 ; M. 206 D GROWTH OF THE NATION (In connection with the study of this subject, each pupil should read the third number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 143-215.) I Growth in Territory and Population D. 408; Ale. 241, 244-246, 266-268; Ala. 237, 238-240, 258; G. 226, 229, 232, 254; T. 244 II AIOVEMENT OF POPULATION D. 408-410; AIc. 241-242; Ala. 214, 221; G. 229, 232 1. Causes 2. Direction III Results of Westward Expansion 1. Formation of States D. 410-412; AIc. 243-245: Ala. 257-259 2. Internal Improvements D. 412-413; AIc. 251-252, 279-286; Ala. 216-218; 260-264; T. 209, 233-235, 245; AI. 231-232, 235-236 3. Struggle Over Slavery: The Missouri Compromise, 1820 D. 413-415; AIc. 274-276; Ala. 219, 259-260; T. 235-238; AI. 227-231 IV Growth of National Unity D. 415-417; ^^a. 255 172 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE E INSTITUTIONAL LIFE I Industrial Conditions D. 418; Mc. 301-303; Ma. 215-216 1. Manufacttires D. 418-421 ; Mc. 249-250; Ma. 216 2. Agriculture D. 421-422; Mc. 248-249; T. 244 3. Commerce D. 422-423; Mc. 248-249; Ma. 215, 241, 257 4. Transportation and Communication D. 422-427; H. III. 84-104; Mc. 252-253; Ma. 216-218, 240, 260-264; G. 207, 228, 234, 256, 259-263 ; T. 212, 233-235, 244 II Social Conditions (In connection with the study of this subject each pupil should read the third number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 1-142.) D. 427-428; H. III. 56-61, 126-138, 143-149; Ma. 218-219 III Government D. 428-429 IV Religion D. 429-430; H. III. 53; Ma. 219 V Education (In connection with this subject, each pupil should read the third number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 317-371.) D. 430-431 ; Ma. 264-266 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE The history of the United States from the time the new gov- ernment was organized in the spring of 1789 to the beginning of the Civil War in 1861, may be divided into two periods. The first period extends from 1789 to about 1828, and the second period from about this date to the Civil War. This division is based on strictly historical grounds, and is not made simply as a matter of convenience. The history of the United States during each of these periods was shaped and controlled by many forces and conditions, but there were certain causes and conditions that had the main or controlling effect upon the history of each period. During the greater part of the first period, the interference of foreign nations in the affairs of the United States had a pro- found, important, and controlling effect on our history. A large part of the legislation of Congress related either directly or indi- rectly to this interference. This constant meddling in our affairs by Europe led finally to another war with England, which secured for the United States the proper respect and consideration of all the other nations. The main or controlling force in the history of the United States during the second period was the question of slavery in its relation to the westward growth of the nation in territory and population. During both periods the growth of the United States in territory, wealth and population was most rapid and important, but the main question in relation to this growth during the first period was European interference and the main question during the second period was slavery. During the first period, however, slavery was quietly becoming more and more firmly established in the South, but the pressure of foreign nations on the United States and the manner in which the west- ern country was settled, kept this question fairly quiet. The opposition to Europe during the first period tended to unite the American people and to create in them a patriotism and love for the nation and the National government, and to break down the idea of state sovereignty that existed when the Constitution was 174 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE adopted. During this first period, however, slavery was quietly causing the social and the industrial conditions of the North and South to become more and more unlike, and during the second period this resulted in bitter discussions that ended in a dreadful Civil War. It therefore becomes plain that the controlling forces or conditions in the history of the United States from 1789 to about 1828 were European interference in our affairs and the rapid growth of the nation in territory and population, and that the controlling force or condition in our history from about 1828 to 1861 was the slavery question in relation to this continued rapid growth of the nation in territory and population. Because of these controlling forces and conditions, the first period will be called. National Growth and European Interference, and the second period will be called. Westward Expansion and Slavery. THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE I Origin of American Neutrality in European Affairs, 1793 In 1793 war broke out between France and England. The people of the United States were in favor of assisting France. To do this meant the destruction of American commerce, and war with the English and Indians along the frontier of the United States. It also meant that the United States would be involved in European struggles which did not affect American affairs. The time had come when the United States must decide whether she would meddle in European affairs which did not concern her particularly and which must often involve a useless loss of life and property, or whether she would remain neutral. Washington foresaw the vast importance of this decision, and after mature delibera- tion announced in a proclamation that the policy of the United States should be non-interference in European affairs. This decision marked Washington as a statesman of the highest rank. The people all over the United States, in mass meet- ings and through the press, were urging the government to The Period of European Interference 175 assist France, but Washington held fast to his purpose, and was finally sustained by Congress. This action on Washing- ton's part was made doubly hard by the presence in America of Genet, an agent of the French government, who roused great enthusiasm among the people, and swung public opin- ion to the side of the French. By the treaty made with France during the Revolution, the United States was under obligations to aid France in case of war with Great Britain. The United States, however, was not called upon by the French government to fulfill these obligations. The American government would have been placed in an awkward position had such a demand been made. Thus was born American Neutrality and the United States has ever since held stead- fastly to this principle. The importance to the United States of this principle or unwritten law can hardly be overesti- mated. It has saved this nation from many a bloody and use- less war, and has permitted it to develop its natural resources unmolested by European quarrels and conflicts. The United States under Washington established the unwritten law that she should not interfere in the affairs of Europe which did not concern her and thirty years later, under Monroe, she es- tablished the unwritten law that no European nation should interfere with strictly American affairs unless directly con- cerned. The Jay Treaty, 1795 Some important questions had been left unsettled by the treaty of 1783 at the close of the Revolution, and the war between France and England gave rise to other difficulties, especially concerning American trade. The English insisted on enforcing what is known as the "Rule of 1756" which provided that a neutral could not enjoy in time of war a trade prohibited in time of peace. For instance : The Americans were not allowed to trade with the French West Indies in time of peace, but when the war broke out with England, the French wxre glad to open their West Indian ports to 176 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE American commerce for the sake of obtaining supplies. By the Rule of 1756, which Great Britain now put into force, this trade was forbidden to Americans, and thus their com- merce was greatly injured. Another contention arose re- garding the right of England to impress British sailors from American vessels into the British navy. England claimed the right to search American vessels anywhere on the seas for British sailors, and to forcibly remove them to British ships. In order to settle these various difficulties, Chief Justice Jay was sent by Washington to England to make a treaty. Some of the provisions of the treaty were not favor- able to the United States and there was much adverse dis- cussion before the treaty was finally ratified. While the treaty was not very favorable to American interests it accom- plished its purpose — the avoidance of war with England at that time. III Breach with France, 1796-1799 The Jay treaty gave to England valuable commercial rights. France was irritated by the Genet afifair and the Neutrality Proclamation, and the Jay treaty, favorable as it was to England, still further exasperated her. The Genet affair had done much to turn American sympathy from France, and the insults to the American representatives in France — the X. Y. Z. afifair — roused the indignation of the United States. For awhile diplomacy seemed unable to avert war between the two countries. In fact fighting actu- ally began on the sea, but the uniform success of the Ameri- can navy and a change of government in France caused her to re-open diplomatic relations and war was averted. IV The Alien and Sedition Acts, 1798 The firm stand taken by the Federalists in the trouble with France made Adams and the Federalists very popular, but the passage by Congress of several laws, known as the Alien and Sedition Laws, brought them suddenly into great dis- favor. The violent and abusive attacks on the administra- The Period of European Interference 177 tion and the Federalist leaders by the Republican papers, a large number of whose editors were foreigners, led to the passage of these laws. The first law against aliens raised the period of residence necessary for naturalization to four- teen years. The act known as the Alien Act gave the Presi- dent power to deport from the United States any foreigners whom he considered dangerous to the country. The Sedi- tion Act gave the President and the officers of the govern- ment the right to imprison and fine those who uttered or wrote anything of a seditious or treasonable nature against the government, or even anything which tended to defame the government or any of its officers. The Sedition Act was aimed against the press, and was the first and last attempt of the national government to interfere with its freedom. V The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 1798- 1799 The Alien and Sedition Laws were fiercely attacked by the Republicans led by Jefferson and Madison. They felt that the Federalist party was using its power in the government to destroy the rights of the people. This feeling took definite shape in the legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky, which passed resolutions on the subject. The Kentucky resolutions were drawn up by Jefferson and were quite radical. They stated that the Constitution was a compact between sovereign states, and that laws passed by Congress which were judged un-constitutional by a state might be declared null and void by that state. The Virginia Resolutions were drawn up by Madison. They also called the Constitution a compact, and put forth nullification as the rightful remedy in case of the passage of laws in violation of the Constitution. Both of these series of resolutions are of great importance because they were the first definite expression of the doctrine of State Rights as opposed to National Sovereignty. VI The Purchase of Louisiana, 1803 The Mississippi river was the main outlet for the commerce of all the American territory between the Alleghanies and 178 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE the Mississippi, hence the possession of the mouth of the great river was a matter of great importance to the settlers of this region. So long as Spain held this, there was little to be feared by the Americans, for Spain was a weak nation, and by a treaty made in 1795 allowed the United States the right of deposit — that is, the right to land merchandise, or to transfer it from river boats and steamers to sea-going vessels — at New Orleans. In 1802 Spain ceded the entire Louisiana territory, including the mouth of the Mississippi, to France. This was a just cause of alarm and protest for the Americans. Napoleon, who was master of France and very powerful in continental Europe at that time, had plans for building up an American Empire, and seemed to be in a position to do so. The closing of the port of New Orleans to American trade at the time of the transfer of the territory from Spain to France brought forth such a protest from ihe western settlers that Jefiferson sent a commission to France to try to buy the territory at the mouth of the river. Na- poleon at first refused, but the failure of an expedition to San Domingo, and the renewal of war with England led him to change his mind and he offered to sell not only the land at the mouth of the river, but the whole of the Louisiana ter- ritory to the United States. He was afraid that England might get possession of this territory, and, if France must lose it, he preferred that it should belong to the United States. The price paid for this vast domain was only $15,000,000. During the administrations of Washington and Adams, Jefferson had advocated a strict construction of the Constitu- tion, but in the purchase of Louisiana he gave it a looser construction than the Federalists had ever dared to give. VII European Interference with American Commerce, 1800-1812 I. Decrees and Orders in Council, 1806-18 10 From 1803 to 181 5, France and England were continu- ously at war. Each nation tried to injure the other by de- The Period of European Interference 179 stroying its commerce. In order to do this the British b> "Orders in Council" and Napoleon by "Decrees," would declare the ports of the other to be in a state of blockade, although they were unable to make such blockade effective by actually keeping war vessels at the ports declared blockaded. England and France both claimed the right to take as prizes all merchant vessels trading with the enemy in violation of the commercial regulations which each had issued. This policy, if carried out, would have resulted in the destruction of American commerce. The United States, however, maintained that a neutral state had a right to trade freely with either of the nations at war, unless her ports were actually blockaded. From 1803 to 1809 the dispute on this point between the United States and the two nations at war, England and France, was al- most continuous ; and on several occasions it came very nearly involving the United States in war. In fact it would have done so had it not been for the weak attitude of Jefferson. 2. Jefferson's Embargo Policy, i8o/-i8op Jefferson tried to injure first England and then France by having Congress pass what were known as the Non- Importation and the Embargo Acts. The Non-Importation Act forbade the importation of goods from Eng- land. The Embargo was much more severe and for- bade the sending of any goods from the United States to any foreign nation. As the Embargo bore more heavily on America than on any other nation, it was not a success, and was abandoned. A law forbidding commerce with England or France but allowing it with other nations was passed in place of the Embargo Law, and was much better for American commerce. VIII The War of 1812, or the War for Commercial Inde- pendence, 1812-1814 I . Causes The causes of this war were primarily interference with 180 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE American trade, and impressment of American seamen. The character of the United States Congress at this time also had much to do with the bringing on of the war. Very few of the statesmen who controlled affairs during and for a quarter of a century after the Revolution were now mem- bers of the national legislature. Statesmen of a younger generation had come into power. They represented the young and rising democracy of America, and especially of the West. They were full of hope and strength, believed in the future greatness of the United States, and were hu- miliated and annoyed by the continual insults offered this nation by France and England. From the first they were determined to end this humiliation, even though compelled to resort to war. Both England and France were involved in offenses against American commerce and American seamen ; but Great Britain was not only the greater of- fender in these respects, but had also offended in other ways, so war was declared against her. The arrogant bearing of the English leaders toward America was irri- tating to Americans, and the continual Indian troubles on the frontiers, which were due largely to English influence, also caused bitter feeling. 2. The War on Land In this war the Americans were, as a rule, unsuccessful in their campaigns on land. The soldiers were untrained, and the officers, frequently owing their appointments to political reasons, were generally incompetent. Neither na- tion, however, was successful in invading the territory of the other. The two most notable events of the war on land were the capture of Washington and the burning of its public buildings by the British, and the disastrous defeat of an army of British veterans at New Orleans by General Jackson. 3. The War on the Sea Although, at the beginning of the war, the Americans had but twelve vessels as against England's twelve hun- The Period of European Interference 181 dred, the American navy succeeded in winning a series of brilliant victories, and often against great odds. Because of England's superiority in the number of ships, most of the American vessels were finally either driven from the sea or blockaded in the harbors of the United States. Per- haps even more important than the w^ork of the regular navy was the injury which American privateers did to the commerce of England. 4. Results (a) Treaty of Peace The points of dispute which caused the war were not mentioned in the treaty of peace. The treaty provided for the restoration of the conquests of both parties, and arranged for the settlement of boundary disputes and other minor points. (b) Commercial and Industrial Results The main result of this war was the commercial inde- pendence of the United States, and never since then has any nation interfered with American commerce or at- tempted the impressment of American seamen. The restrictions on commerce during the war caused the birth of American factories by compelling the capitalists, especially in the North, to invest in manufacturing rather than in shipping enterprises, and by compelling the people of the country to rely upon home industry for their manufacturing goods. (c) Effect on the Nation The war had the effect of welding the Nation more firmly, and of making it independent not only of Europe, but of its own colonial traditions. It compelled a broader interpretation of the powers of the Constitution. The Nation now took a higher position among the nations of the world than it had held before. 182 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE IX The Hartford Convention, 1814 As one of the principal industries of New England was foreign commerce, the Embargo and Non-Importation policy of Jefferson, and especially the Enforcement Act which pro- vided drastic measures for the enforcement of this policy, bore heavily upon the business interests of that section. The people of New England soon became strongly opposed to these laws which interfered with her commerce. In 1809 the legislature of Massachusetts passed resolutions which in spirit were much the same as the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. New England was strongly Federalist, and was vigorously opposed to Jefferson and the principles of the Republican party. The people of New England were also inclined to be friendly with England because of com- mercial relations with that nation, and were therefore opposed to the War of 1812. As this war progressed, New England became still more strongly opposed to it, and events seemed to indicate that her leaders were contemplating some kind of armed resistance to the national government. In 18 14 dele- gates from the various New England states met in conven- tion at Hartford, Connecticut, to consider plans for unity of action on the part of New England. This convention conducted its proceedings behind closed doors, and drew up resolutions declaring, among other things, that when the Constitution was violated by acts of Congress, it became the duty of a state to interpose its authority. The Conven- tion sent a delegate to Congress bearing these and other resolutions of similar nature, but before the delegate reached Congress, peace was declared. X The Purchase of Florida, 1819 The United States had long wished to secure the Floridas, and during the war of 181 2 had seized a part of West Florida. Spain was unable to govern well her possessions so far from home, and Florida was in a constant turmoil. It was made a refuge by all sorts of criminals, and was the source of con- The Period of European Interference 183 stant trouble to the United States. The invasion of Florida by an expedition under Andrew Jackson which had been sent against the Seminole Indians in Georgia, brought matters to a crisis. This resulted in Spain's selling East Florida to the United States for $5,000,000 and giving up all her claims to West Florida. The United States, at the same time, gave up its claim to Texas. XI The Monroe Doctrine, 1823 About 181 5 Russia announced that she claimed the Pacific Coast from Alaska down to the 51st parallel, and that no foreign vessel should approach within one hundred miles of the shore. It was her evident intention to extend her in- fluence southward and to shut out the United States from the Pacific Coast. John Quincy Adams, as Secretary of State, entered a vigorous protest against these designs of Russia, in which he stated that neither North nor South America was open to further European colonization. Between 1810 and 1822 all of the Spanish-American colonies in North and South America, taking advantage of the weakened condition of Spain, threw off Spanish authority and established inde- pendent republics, which were recognized by the United States as independent powers. These republics included Mexico and all of South America save Brazil, which still belonged to Portugal. In 181 5 nearly all of the European powers, except England, formed what is known as the Holy Alliance, their object being to perpetuate monarchical gov- ernment and to assist Spain in the recovery of her lost pos- sessions. Great Britain proposed that the United States com- bine with her against this Holy Alliance. The United States declined to act in concert with Great Britain, but President Monroe, at the suggestion of Adams, included in his annual message to Congress a statement known as the Monroe Doc- trine. This statement defined the attitude of the United States on the question of European colonization in the New World and European interference with American republics. 184 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE The doctrine has ever since been adhered to by the United States, and in substance is as follows : 1. European nations will not be permitted to establish any new colonies in America or to add any more terri- tory to those already existing. 2. European nations will not be permitted to interfere with the internal affairs of American republics. The Monroe Doctrine was the logical result of the prin- ciple of American Neutrality established by Washington. FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF I Hamilton's Financial Measures, i 790-1791 The new government found the national treasury empty, with a debt of about $54,000,000 on hand, and the credit of the United States both at home and among foreign nations almost worthless. Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, brought forward a plan for placing the financial affairs of the government on a firm foundation. This plan proved him to be one of the ablest financiers in the United States. His plan was as follows : 1. A slight increase in the duties laid by the first tariff. 2. An excise or internal tax to be placed on distilled liquors. 3. The funding of the National Debt. The old bonds of the nation had fallen to twenty-five per cent of their face value. New United States bonds were to be issued for the total face value of the old and exchanged for them. 4. The assumption of state debts. Debts contracted by the states during the Revolution for its support were to be assumed and paid in full by the national government. Financial Legislation 185 5. Establishment of the United States' Bank. The man- agement of the bank was to be private, but the United States was to be a large share holder, reserving the right of examining into its financial condition. His object here was to enable the government to manage its financial affairs more easily and to give stability to money matters throughout the country. After much discussion Hamilton's entire plan for estab- lishing the credit of the national government was adopted. The result of its operation was better than Hamilton him- self had dared hope. The credit of the United States was firmly established, both at home and abroad. It was not long before a dollar's worth of United States bonds was worth a dollar of gold in London, whereas before a dollar's worth of these bonds was worth less than twenty-five cents. The success of this plan tended to give the people confidence in the strength, power, and dignity of the national government. Jeffersox axd Gallatin's Financial Policy, 1801-1809 The public debt of the United States had increased from about $77,000,000 in 1792 to nearly $83,000,000 in 1800. The income had increased in the same period from less than $4,- 000,000 to more than $10,000,000. Jefferson advocated a reduction of public expenses in order to lessen the taxes and to pay the public debt. The Secretary of the Treasury, Al- bert Gallatin, formed a plan for the carrying out of this policy. The reduction in expense was accomplished by re- ducing the army about one-half, and the navy from twenty- seven vessels in commission for service to seven, and by stop- ping all construction of vessels for the navy. This was prac- tically the destruction of the military defenses of the Nation, but this policy, together with other measures, was so suc- cessful in accomplishing its purpose that by 1808 the public debt had been reduced to $45,000,000 and the taxes had been reduced more than $1,000,000. although the expenses of the government had constantly increased, and Louisiana had been bought and paid for in this period. Gallatin's success marks him as a financier of great ability. 18G NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE III The National Bank and State Banks At the time of the estabHshment of the National Bank in 1 79 1 there were only four State banks in existence; when the twenty year charter of the National Bank expired in 1811, there were eighty-eight of these state banks in existence, and in the three years following, this number was more than doubled. In general these State banks were hostile to the National bank, for they hoped to secure its business and the government deposits. Some of the states were interested in these banks, and for that and other reasons took action in their legislatures against renewing the charter of the Na- tional Bank. Many feared the influence of this bank as a monopoly, and also as a corrupt factor in politics. All these and other influences prevented the renewal of the charter in 181 1, and thus during the war of 1812, when most needed, a tried and solid financial system was lacking in the United States. At the close of the war the financial affairs of the nation were in a bad condition and because of this, Congress in 18 16, renewed the charter of the United States Bank for a period of twenty years. IV Tariff Legislation 1. The First Tariff Act, lySp In order to secure revenue for the new government the first Congress at once proceeded to levy import duties. During the discussion of the bill for this purpose, the question as to whether one of the main objects of import duties should be the protection of American industries, was first brought before the American people. The main object of this bill as passed was the obtaining of revenue, but the law was also protective in a small measure. 2. Groii'tJi of t/ie Idea of Protection Up to 1816 there was very little change in the tariff policy of the United States. While the duties were changed and in many cases increased from time to time, the principle Political Parties 18" of tariff for revenue chiefly remained the same. The War of 1812, however, had aided the development of Ameri- can manufactures and their protection and encouragement by the government became a matter of great importance. This led to the passing of a tariff law in 1816 which had for its express purpose the protection of American indus- tries. This principle was established still more firmly by the passage in 1824 of a still higher protective tariff. There was practically no opposition to the tariff policy of the government up to the adoption of the principle of protection. Even in 18 16 the opposition was not strong, but in the few years following it gathered strength, espe- cially in the South. The northern and eastern states had developed valuable manufacturing interests, and these sec- tions were, as a whole, favorable to a protective policy. The South, on the other hand, had remained almost entirely agricultural, and had developed no manufacturing interests of importance. The people of the South, therefore, thought they had nothing to gain by the principle of protection, and became strongly opposed to it. While those in Xew England who were engaged in manufacturing favored a protective tariff, those who were engaged in foreign com- merce were opposed to it from the first. POLITICAL PARTIES Rise of Political Parties Political parties in the L'nited States had their real origin during Washington's administration. They began with the difference of opinion on the part of the people and statesmen of the L'nited States as to the nature of the new government. Section 8, Article I, of the Constitution, after enumerating specific duties of Congress, says that Congress shall have power " To make all Laws which shall be necessary and 188 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer there- of." Washington, Hamilton and Adams were the leaders of those who thought that the Constitution should be loosely interpreted ; that is, that this clause should be taken to mean that the new government should exercise not only the powers specifically granted to it by the Constitution, but that it should also assume such implied powers as might be necessary or even expedient to carry out those powers specifically given to it. They wished to centralize the government, and believed that it should be controlled by the well-born, edu- cated and wealthy classes. Jefferson and Madison were the leaders of those who believed that the Constitution should be strictly construed ; that Congress should assume only such implied powers as were absolutely necessary to carry out the powers specifically given to it. They did not believe that the government should be centralized or controlled by the upper classes. They had faith in the common people, and believed that the affairs of government could be safely en- trusted to them. But while Jefferson held these democratic views, his ideas were very different from those represented by the rising democracy which came into power with the election of Jackson in 1828. During his administration, Jefferson, in a measure, became converted to the loose con- struction of the Constitution. W'ashington, Hamilton and Adams and their followers became known as the Federalist party, and Jefferson and his party were called the Anti-Fed- eralist or Republican party. H Fall of the Federalist Party During the first years of the government under the Con- stitution the Federalist party was supreme. Washington and John Adams were Federalist presidents, Washington's term lasting from 1789 to 1797, and Adams's from 1797 to 1801. To that party must be given the credit of establishing the government upon a sound and not too radical basis. Yet it Political Parties 189 was doomed by its very makeup to early destruction. It was out of harmony with the rising democratic spirit of the Repubhc, and its fall marked not only the end of a political party, but also the passing of the old aristocratic ideas of government from American political life. The chief cause of the fall of the Federalist party was its theory of govern- ment by the leaders rather than by the mass of the people, which was not in accord with the democratic tendencies of the age, and it was this that made the fall of the party per- manent. The passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts brought a great deal of unpopularity on the party, which was further weakened by internal dissensions. The opposition of the Federalists to the War of 1812 gave the death blow to their already fallen party. Ill The Republican Party While the Federalists did not entirely disappear as a politi cal party until after the War of 1812, they lost most of their importance in political life after the election of Jefferson in 1800, and the rest of this period was a period of Republican supremacy. The rapid growth of the West was an important factor in the growth of the Republican party. The new states carved out of the territory west of the Alleghanies repre- sented the rising democracy of the republic — the belief that one man is as good as another irrespective of his wealth or birth. The effect of this belief in American politics is first seen in the election of Jefferson, and later in the election of the war congress of 1811-12. Jefferson was the first Repub- lican president, holding that office from 1801 to 1809. He was followed by Madison, 1809-1817. Monroe, who was president from 1817 to 1825 was nominally a Republican president, but his administration was characterized by an almost total lack of party feeling, so much so that this period is commonly known as the " Era of good feeling." John Quincy Adams was the fourth of the Republican presidents, and it was during his administration that the party broke up into personal factions. 190 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE GROWTH OF THE NATION I Growth in Territory and PopuLx\tion At the close of the Revolution the territory of the United States extended from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, and from Canada to Florida. Of all this vast area of over 800,000 square miles, less than 300,000 were occupied ; and of the 3,000,000 inhabitants, the great mass lived east of the Appalachian mountains. By the end of this period (1828) the area of the United States had increased — through the acquisition of the Louisiana territory in 1803 and of Florida in 1819 — to more than 2,000,000 square miles, of which 600,000 were settled. The population had reached nearly 12,000,000, the increase in the West being much more rapid than in the East. n Movement of Population 1 . Causes From early colonial times settlers had been slowly mov- ing westward in search of new homes, chiefly along the Ohio. The depression in business affairs immediately after the Revolution led to a great increase of migration westward, and to the settling of the territory between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi. It was true throughout this period — in fact even to the present day — that when- ever there were hard times in the East with lack of busi- ness and scarcity of money, there was a rush of settlers westward. Land was cheap, fertile and well watered, and men welcomed the opportunity to build up homes and fortunes in a new country. The immigration of foreigners also aided this movement, though at that time it had not become a factor of great importance. 2. Direction All this migration was along two definite courses which ran westward in parallel lines from the northern and Growth of the Nation 191 southern sections of the country bordering on the Atlantic. A.s the settlers moved from these sections, they carried with them into the new territory, their customs and institutions, and thus the nation developed along parallel lines running east and west. Thus in the southern part of the western territory the same industrial and social conditions prevailed as in the southern states, and slavery became established with the settlement of the country. In the northern part of this new territory the ideas and institutions of the northern Atlantic states prevailed, and consequently slavery was not established. Ill Results of Westward Expansion 1. Formation of States In the organization of this new territory, the Ordinance of 1787 was followed. The rapid settlement of the west- ern lands soon led to the formation of new states in ac- cordance with the provisions of this Ordinance. The first state carved out of this western country, Kentucky, was admitted into the Union in 1792, and others soon followed. In 1828 the Union contained twenty-four states — almost twice the original number — of which nine were in the Mississippi valley. Thus the influence of the West became an important factor in national affairs. In charac- ter the constitutions of these states were very democratic — much more so than in the East. This was due to the con- ditions of frontier life where every man stood on an equality with every other man, dependent on his own efforts. 2. Internal Improvements The rapid growth of the West and the consequent increase in the volume of its commerce made it necessary and valuable to both the East and West to open up high- ways between the two sections. The matter of building roads, bridges, canals, and improving the rivers by the aid 192 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE of the national government was early taken up by Congress and became a political issue. The first work of this kind undertaken by the government was the building of the Cumberland road between the Ohio river and the Potomac. Although internal improvements were constantly dis- cussed, nothing more was done by the national government during this period. The states however took up the work. New York completed the Erie Canal in 1825, and this canal has become an important factor in the nation's commerce. Other states also built important canals, roads and bridges. 3. Struggle Over Slavery: The Missouri Compromise, 1820 The westward expansion of the nation led to the first struggle over slavery. Slavery had existed in all the colo- nies, but the fact that slaves could not be used with profit in the North brought about the abolition of slavery in New England and in nearly all the middle states, and its prohibition in the Northwest Territory. The fact that there were but few slaves in the North caused a moral sen- timent to grow up slowly against slavery there, and this sentiment aided the industrial conditions in causing its abolition. In the South, on the other hand, slavery had become still more firmly entrenched in the industrial and social life. As has been said, the settlers of the western territory moved directly west from the Atlantic states, carrying their institutions with them. Consequently, as this territory was organized into states, these states were free or slave, according to the convictions of the settlers and to whether the states lay north or south of the Ohio river. The application of Missouri, the first state lying wholly west of the Mississippi, for admission into the Union led to a discussion of the extension of slavery into the Louisiana territory, which was finally settled by the Missouri Compromise. This compromise had its origin in the desire of the free and the slave sections of the nation each to prevent the Grozith of the Xatiou 193 other from securing the larger number of representatives in the United States Senate. The northern states, having a larger population than the southern, would always have a majority in the House of Representatives. The southern states, knowing this, were determined to control as many votes in the Senate as the northern states, and thus be in a position to prevent any legislation injurious to slavery interests. In order to retain this control a slave state must be admitted into the Union with every free state. Up to 1818 this plan had been followed carefully and of the twenty-two states then forming the Union, eleven were free and eleven were slave. To preserve this balance required that the territory included in the Louisiana Pur- chase should be half slave and half free. The North was determined that slavery should not be admitted into this new territory. When in 1818 ^Missouri applied for admission as a state, violent discussion arose. The House would not permit Missouri to enter as a slave state, and the Senate would not allow slavery to be prohibited. In 1820 Maine applied for admission to the Union as a free state. The southern members of Congress would not consent to the admission of Maine unless Missouri were allowed to enter as a slave state. As a compromise it was finally decided : (i) Maine should be admitted as a free state, and Mis- souri as a slave state. (2) The Louisiana Purchase should be divided by the parallel of 36° 30' and in all territory north of the line, excepting Missouri, slavery should be forever pro- hibited. It was generally thought that this Compromise had settled the dispute regarding slavery by restricting its area, but because of the acquisition of new territory, and be- cause of the difference in the industrial and social con- ditions of the North and South, it could result only in post- poning the final conflict. 194 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE IV Growth of National Unity Just as at the time of the Revolution the danger from England had forced the colonies to act in unity, during this period the continual interference of Europe in American affairs, directly and indirectly, in a general way tended to the growth of American national unity. Especially was this true of the war of 1812. The resentment of English and French outrages united the people as nothing else had done and the successful conclusion of the war strengthened this unity of feeling. This war practically ended direct inter- ference of the European nations in American affairs and left the nation united and in a position to develop a true national life. The acquisition of Louisiana was nationaliz- ing in its effects, for in its purchase, organization and gov- ernment the national government was forced to assume and exercise powers far greater than any specifically granted by the Constitution. This forced the Republican party to adopt the nationalizing policy to which it was at first so much opposed, and as the Republican party was supreme from 1801 to the end of this period, its work in advancing this policy was of great importance. The rapid growth of the West was a most important factor in the growth of national unity. The men who settled this new country went into the West under the protection and government of the nation, not of the state ; their state governments had to be created by their own efforts, and naturally were subordinate to the national government in every way, in their minds. There was no state jealousy which would tend to hinder the exer- cise of national authority, hence the influence of the West was strongly for nationality. The Supreme Court of the United States in a series of important decisions established still more firmly the supremacy of the national government, and in many cases specifically defined the limits of the state governments. Among the more important of these cases were: Institutional Life 195 (i) McCulloch vs. Maryland. In this case the state of Maryland attempted to tax the United States Bank, but the Supreme Court held that it could not be taxed because it was in part a national institution. (2) Fletcher vs. Peck. In this case the court held that the state of Georgia could not revoke grants of lands even if they had been obtained by fraud, because it would be the violation of contract which the national constitution says shall not be impaired. (3) Dartmouth College Case. In this case New Hamp- shire attempted to modify the charter of Dartmouth Col- lege, but the court held that it could not be done because it would impair the obligation of contract. The chief influence working against the growth of nation- ality was slavery. While it was not an active factor during this period, yet it was surely though slowly undermining the unity of the nation by causing the North and South to develop industrially and socially along entirely different lines. Thus different interests sprang up in the two sections, and the con- ditions which caused the conflict of the following period were definitely shaping themselves. The attitude of the two sec- tions of the country, and the strength of slavery in the South, is shown in the ]Missouri Compromise which was the first struggle of the long conflict that came to predominate all questions and to threaten the existence of the nation. INSTITUTIONAL LIFE During the period from 1789 to 1828, institutional life in the United States was gradually changing from colonial conditions. In the matter of government and social life, there was a marked growth toward democracy. The aristocratic forms, ceremonies and distinctions based on class, were gradually dying out except in the South. The democratic ideas that led to the election of Jackson in 1828, worked a great change in social conditions. This 196 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE period also witnessed the beginning of the industrial growth and expansion of the nation. In religious affairs a much more liberal spirit gradually developed, and there was also a distinct improve- ment in education. I Industrial Conditions The underlying factor of the industrial development of the nation, especially in the South, during this and the following period was slavery. While its importance as an industrial factor was not recognized at this time, it was determining to a large extent the development of the nation by causing the development of different interests in the northern and south- ern sections. The invention of the cotton gin and the great improvement in weaving machinery which increased many fold the demand for raw cotton in both Europe and America, made slaves of more value not only in the cotton raising states but also in those states that raised slaves for the market. These conditions served to fasten slavery still more firmly on the South, while in the northern states where slavery did not exist to any extent, other interests grew up. Slavery caused the laborers from foreign countries to avoid the South and to go into the North where free labor prevailed. Thus the North rapidly outgrew the South in free population. Since by the character of its labor, the South could take little part in the commercial and manufacturing development of the nation, it soon began to fall behind the northern states in wealth. Thus the two sections of the nation continued to drift apart industrially. I . Manufactures At the time of the adoption of the Constitution, American manufacturing consisted chiefly of the household manufac- ture of articles of common use. Inventions of machinery and the great increase in the amount of cotton raised by the South led to the early establishment of cotton mills in New England, and this industry increased until by 1828 Institutional Life 197 hundreds of thousands of men and women were employed in the many great factories in which were invested many milhons of dollars. The rise of woolen mills was nearly as rapid though not beginning so early. The iron industry was developed in Pennsylvania to a considerable extent, and the foundation laid for its greater development in the following period. Jefferson's Embargo Policy and the War of 1812 were very beneficial to American manufactures, for by shutting out foreign commerce they forced the people to establish manufactures of various kinds, and by the injury done to commerce they served to turn capital to manufacturing instead. By 1816 the manufactures had become of such importance that it was deemed neces- sary to establish a protective tariff for their encouragement. By 1828 the value of manufactures in the United States amounted to many hundreds of millions of dollars. This advance had taken place almost entirely in the northern states, the South having done very little in the way of building up manufactures or commerce. AgriculUire During this period the nation was, as a whole, agricul- tural. Although other industries had been established in the northern states, the South had remained entirely agri- cultural. This, as has been stated, was due largely to slavery. At the time of the formation of the Constitution there had been a strong sentiment against slavery in some of the southern states, but this gradually died out after the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793. This invention made the cotton crop one of immense value in the South. Rice, tobacco and cotton were the great southern staples, but Virginia and neighboring states became wheat producers also during this period, and raised large quan- tities for export. In the middle and northern states large amounts of food products were raised and exported, but 198 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE commercial and manufacturing interests took much of the attention of the people of those sections. The western country was almost entirely agricultural. 3. Commerce Commerce now became a very important factor in national development. During the Revolution the com- merce of the nation was almost entirely destroyed, but it soon sprang up again. The constant warfare of European nations in the first part of this period gave America a great opportunity, and a large foreign commerce was built up by the middle and northern states. Jefferson's Embargo policy and the war of 181 2 for a time hindered the develop- ment of commerce, but in general the period was one of great commercial prosperity and expansion. 4. Transportation and Connmmication While the means of transportation and communication existing in 1828 seem very poor when compared with those of the present time, they were far in advance of those of the colonies. The invention and introduction of steam- boats was the main feature of improvement in trans- portation during this time, and was very important in its efifect on both industrial and social conditions. The steam- boat was one of the main factors in opening up the wes- tern country which exerted so much influence on the whole institutional life of the nation. The building of roads, canals, and bridges by the various states also had an important effect on industrial conditions, because it brought the sections of the country together and broadened the field of industrial expansion. II Social Conditions During the first part of this period the social conditions were much like those of Colonial times, the same aristo- cratic ideas in a measure prevailing. But there was a distinct Institutional Life ■ 199 advance during this period, especially during the latter part, in democratic ideals and modes of living. This was due largely to the development of the West, which was very democratic, owing to the manner of its settlement and to the equality of its settlers. This growth in democracy is shown in many ways. Washington was inaugurated with a great deal of pomp and ceremony ; this was largely done away with by Jefferson, and still greater simplicity was introduced by later Presidents in accordance with the democratic ten- dencies of the times. At the time of the adoption of the Constitution the dress of the wealthier classes was very rich and elaborate, as during colonial times ; this too was changed gradually, men of all classes coming to wear more nearly the same style and quality of clothing. The growth in dem- ocracy is also shown in the extension of the franchise. While in 1800 only about one person in thirty-five could vote, by 1828 about one person in ten had the privilege of the suffrage. This change was due to the abolishing of property and other qualifications, in w4iich the new western states led. These democratic ideas were introduced much more slowly in the South on account of the plantation system of living, and the holding of slaves, which served to keep up class dis- tinctions which were rapidly dying out in the commercial and manufacturing states. Ill Government There was little change in the institution of government during this period, the main lines of the development of the United States in this respect having been laid down during the preceding periods. The organization and government of all the newly acquired territory was based on the Ordinance of 1787. The formation of state governments proceeded on the same lines as those of the state governments formed during the Revolution, which in turn were based on the gov- ernments of the colonies. Changes in the national govern- ment consisted merely in the rational development of the principles of the Constitution. 200 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE IV Religion During this period the old intolerance was broken down and complete religious liberty was established. At the time of the Revolution religious qualifications were required of public officers and in many cases of voters, in nearly all the states. These were largely done away with during the period immediately following the Revolution, and Church and State soon became completely separated in all the states. Many new sects came into existence, and national organizations of the various churches were formed. V Education While the advance in education and in the intellectual life of the nation is not so remarkable as that in other respects, the improvement over the conditions of Colonial times is considerable. Common schools were established throughout the western country as they were also in the eastern part of the United States. These schools were provided for by the sale of public lands, and by taxation. Numerous academies and colleges sprang up, and high schools began to be es- tablished in the East. Improved methods of teaching and study were introduced to some extent, and greater attention was paid to the sciences than during the colonial period. In the matter of the general education of the people there was a distinct advance, this being a natural part of the demo- cratic tendencies of the period. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS Questions for Class Recitations Into what two periods does the history of the United States between 1789 and i860 naturally divide itself? Explain fully why the first period may be called National Growth and European Interference. Explain fully why the second period may be called Westward Expansion and Slavery. THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE. Questions for Class Recitations (In connection with the questions on The Period of European Inter- ference, each pupil should read the third number of Hart's "Source Readers in American History," pp. 217-315. See "Explanatory and Sug- gestive," page ix.) Who made the laws of France about the time Wash- ington was first elected President of the United States? Compare the powers which the French people had in making their laws at that time with the power which the American people had in making their laws. Describe the way in which the French government and the nobles treated the common people. How did this treatment cause the French people to feel toward their government? In what way did the American Revolution and the part which France took in it help to cause the French Revolution? Describe some of the things which took place in France during this Revolution. In what way were these acts the natural result of the bad treatment which the French people had received from their government? How did the French Revolution lead to war between France and England? Explain fully why the French expected the Americans to help them in this war. Describe the work of Genet in the United States. Describe fully the attitude of the Americans toward France in this war. What was the attitude of Washington? Explain the Neutrality Proclamation. Explain fully why the principle of American Neutrality in European Affairs which this proclamation established is of very great importance in the history of the United States. How is this principle related to the Monroe Doctrine? Explain the Rule of 1756. Illustrate how it was applied to America. Describe the Impressment Policy of Great Britain. How did this policy afifect America, and how was it received by the Americans? What was the general attitude of the English government toward the United States after the American Revolution? How was the war with England averted at this time? What was the nature of the Jay Treaty? How was it received by the American people? How was it received in France? What 202 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE was the effect of the Genet affair and the Neutrality Proclamation on France? Explain the X, Y, Z Affair. What effect did this treatment of the American commissioners have on the American government and the American people? Describe the preparations for vi'ar with France, and the few battles which took place between some of the war vessels of the two nations. How was war between France and the United States averted ? How did the firm stand which the Federalists took in the trouble with France cause the people to feel toward the Federalist party? What led to the passage of the Alien and Sedition Laws? Explain the Alien Laws. What was the object of these laws? To what extent were they enforced? Explain the Sedition Act. What was the object of this act? To what extent was it enforced? How were the Alien and Sedition Acts received by the people? What effect did their passage have on the Federalist party? Upon what grounds did the Republicans oppose the Alien and Sedition Acts? How did these laws lead to the passage of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions? Who was the author of each set of these resolutions? Explain carefully the principles which these resolu- tions stated. In what respect did the Kentucky and the Virginia Resolu- tions differ? What would have been the effect on the national government if the principles stated in the resolutions had been carried out? How were the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions received by the legislatures of the other states? Why are these resolutions important? Why did the United States and especially the people in the western part desire to have control of the Mississippi? When Spain had control of it, what rights did she grant the United States, and why were these rights of great value to the western people? Why did the United States object to Spain ceding Louisiana to France? When it became known that France had secured this territory, what conditions made Jefferson anxious to buy the territory at the mouth of the Mississippi with as little delay as possible? What conditions in Europe made Napoleon willing to sell the entire Louisiana Territory? Why did he sell it to the United States ? When did Napoleon secure control of the French government and bring the French Revolution to an end? Describe briefly the relation of France to the rest of Europe from 1803 to 1815. Why did France and England each try to destroy the commerce of the other? Explain carefully the British "Orders in Council" and the French "Decrees." When is a port actually blockaded? Explain carefully how the Orders in Council and Decrees injured American commerce. Describe the way in which the British at this time were enforcing the so-called "Right of Search." What do you think the United States should have done under these circumstances ? What was Jefferson's attitude toward the army and navy? What was his policy toward England and France? Questions and Topics 1103 Describe the Embargo Act. Describe the Enforcement Act. What was the effect of the Embargo Act on England and France? What was its effect on the United States ? In what way did the Non-Importation Act differ from the Embargo Act? Discuss or review the causes and conditions which led to the War of 1812. Explain carefully in what important respects the Congress which met in December, 181 1, differed from those which immediately preceded it. Why would the nature of the new Congress naturally lead to war? Why was war declared against England instead of against France? Describe the condition of the American army at the beginning of the war. Describe the condition of the navy at this time. How would the poor condition of the army and navy naturally affect the success of tne Americans in the war? What other conditions at the beginning of the war tended to prevent American success? Describe the war on land during the year 1812. Describe the war on land during the year 1813. Describe the war on land during the year 1814. Describe the battle of New Orleans. Explain why this battle would not have been fought if the War of 1812 had taken place since 1850. Describe carefully the war on sea. State the terms of the treaty of peace. Describe carefully some of the more important results of the war. Why were the people of New England opposed to Jefferson's embargo and non-importation policy and to the War of 1812? Discuss the causes of the Hartford convention. What was the object of holding this con- vention? What did this convention do? Compare the work of this convention with the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. Why did the United States wish to buy Florida? What caused Spain to become willing to sell it? What were the terms of the purchase? Describe the conditions which led to the formation of the Holy Alliance. What was the object of this alliance? Why did Great Britain and the United States object to its proposal to help Spain recover the Spanish-American colonies? Describe the claim of Russia on the Pacific coast at this time. Describe the attitude of Secretary Adams on this question. Explain carefully all the circumstances and conditions that caused Monroe to insert in his message to Congress the statement known as the Monroe Doctrine. Explain the Monroe Doctrine and show how it is related to the principle of American Neutrality in European Affairs. Explain carefully why the period of European Interference ends with the Monroe Doctrine. Questions for Compositions and Examin.a.tions Discuss the reason for dividing the history of the United States between 1789 and i860 into the periods of National Growth and European Interference, and W^estward Expansion and Slavery. Discuss the origin of the principle of American Neutrality in European Affairs, and explain 204 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE why this principle has been very important in the history of the United States. Discuss the conditions leading to the Jay Treaty and the results of the treaty. Discuss the breach with France. Discuss the Alien and Sedition Acts and the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. Discuss the conditions leading to the purchase of Louisiana. Discuss the causes of the War of 1812, including Orders in Council, Decrees, and embargo policy of Jefferson. Discuss the war on land. Discuss the war on sea. Discuss the results of the war. Discuss the Hartford convention. Discuss the Monroe Doctrine, including its causes and effects. FINANCIAL LEGISLATION : THE TARIFF Questions for Class Recitations Explain fully the financial condition of the national government at the time Washington became President. What was the object of the first tariff? Explain fully each part of Hamilton's financial plan. How was his plan received by Congress? What effect did the adoption of Hamilton's financial measures have on the credit of the United States? Explain carefully how these measures strengthened the national govern- ment. In what condition were the financial affairs of the national govern- ment at the time Jefferson became President? How did Jefferson propose to reduce taxation and the national debt? To what extent were he and Gallatin successful in doing this? Explain how their measures affected the army and navy. Discuss the rise of state banks. What prevented the renewal of the charter of the United States Bank in 181 1? What caused its renewal in 1816? What is meant by a tariff as used in connection with national legis- lation? Explain carefully what is meant by a tariff for revenue only. Explain carefully what is meant by a tariff for revenue and for the pro- tection of home industries also. Discuss the value of the principle of protection as used in connection with the tariff. What was the object of the first tariff law that Congress passed? What was the main object of all the tariff laws that were passed by Congress before 18 16? Explain carefully how the war of 1812 led to the passage of the protective tariff law of 1816. Discuss the growth of the idea of protection. Discuss the growth of the principle of the protective tariff. Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the object, nature, and result of Hamilton's financial plan. Discuss the object, nature, and result of Jefferson and Gallatin's financial policy. Discuss the history of the United States Bank during this period, including the rise of state banks and their effect on the United States Bank. Give a careful discussion of the history of the tariff during this period. Questions and Topics 205 POLITICAL PARTIES Questions for Class Recitations Explain carefully what caused the rise of political parties and why they continue to exist. What is the value of political parties? What was the first great question that caused the people of the United States to divide themselves into political parties? Explain carefully the mean- ing of what is called the elastic clause of the Constitution. Explain care- fully what is meant by the "loose interpretation of the Constitution." Explain carefully what is meant by the "strict interpretation of the Con- stitution." State which of these two interpretations tends to create a strong national government, and give reasons for your answer. Name some of the more important leaders of the Federalist party. Name the Federalist Presidents and state when each was President. Ex- plain carefully the main principles and ideas of this party. Describe briefly the work of the Federalist party. Explain how the ideas of this party were out of harmony with the spirit of the times. Discuss the conditions and the things that caused the Federalist party to lose control of the government, and finally to cease to exist. Name some of the more important leaders of the Republican party. Name the Republican Presidents, and state when each was President. Explain carefully the main principles and ideas of this party. Discuss the decline and fall of the Republican party. The promises on which the Republican party secured control of the government involved what two general principles? Explain in what way this party carried out one of these principles? Explain carefully the conditions and circumstances that caused it not to carry out the other promise to any extent whatever. Ex- plain why the party in power usually gives a loose interpretation to the Constitution, and why the party out of power usually opposes this. Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the origin and value of political parties in the L^nited States. Discuss the principles, growth, and decline of the Federalist party. Discuss likewise the principles, growth, and decline of the Republican party. GROWTH OF THE NATION Questions for Class Recitations (In connection with the questions on the Growth of the Nation, each pupil should read the third number of Hart's "Source Readers in Ameri- can History," pp. 143-215. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Compare the area of the United States at the close of the Revolution with its area at the end of the period of National Growth and European 206 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE Interference. Compare the settled area of the nation at these different times, showing the direction in which the settled area was growing. Com- pare the population of the United States at the close of the Revolution with the population in 1828. (Each pupil should draw a map illustrating the growth of the total and settled areas of the United States during this period.) Describe carefully the condition that caused so many people to settle during this period in the country between the Mississippi and the Appalachian Mountains. What conditions have always caused a rush of settlers westward? Explain carefully what is meant by the statement that the population moved westward in parallel lines from the northern and southern Atlantic coast states. Explain carefully how this caused industrial and social conditions to differ in the northern and southern sections of the western country. Discuss the formation of new states in the western territory. Why were the constitutions of these western states more democratic than those of the eastern states? What is meant by internal improvements as used in national affairs? How did the growth of the West make the matter of internal improvements a question of national importance? Describe care- fully the internal improvements made during this period by the national and state governments. Explain carefully how the Ordinance of 1787 affected slavery in the western territory. How was the question of slavery settled in that part of the western territory south of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi? Why did the application of Missouri for admission to the Union cause a struggle over slavery? What had caused the gradual abolition of slavery in the North? What had caused slavery to become more firmly established in the South? How did this difference between the North and the South affect the question of the extension of slavery into the Louisiana Territory? Explain carefully all the conditions and circumstances that led to the Missouri Compromise. Explain the terms of this compromise. How did this compromise affect the question of slavery? How did the interference with American affairs by Europe aid the growth of American national unity? What was the effect of the War of 1812 on national life? How did the purchase of Louisiana and Florida aid the growth of national unity? Explain carefully how the rapid develop- ment of the West aided this growth. Explain carefully how some of the Supreme Court decisions strengthened the national government. Explain carefully how slavery was gradually causing the North and the South to drift farther and farther apart. Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the growth of the United States in territory and population during this period. Discuss the causes of the rapid growth of the West. How were industrial and social conditions in the West directly related to Questions and Topics 207 those in the East? Discuss the formation of new states in the western territory. How was the question of slavery settled in the western territory east of the Mississippi? Discuss the causes, terms, and results of the Missouri Compromise. Discuss the growth of national unity during this period. INSTITUTIONAL LIFE Questions for Class Recitations. What is meant by the statement that during the period from the close of the Revolution to 1828 institutional life in the United States was gradually changing from colonial conditions? What was the nature of the change in industrial conditions? What was the nature of the change in the institutions of social life and government? What was the nature of the change in the institutions of religion and education? (Before continuing farther with this work the pupil should review care- fully the subject of "Institutional Life in the Colonies." This review is very important and should not be omitted.) Describe briefly the condition of manufactures in the colonies. Ex- plain carefully how the Embargo Acts and the War of 1812 caused the growth of American manufactures. In what way was the invention of machinery related to the increase in the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods? What relation had the cotton gin to this increase? De- scribe briefly the growth of the manufacturing industry in the United States up to about 1828. In what part of the nation did this growth take place? Why did manufactures not develop in the West during this period? Explain carefully why manufactures were not developed in the South. Discuss carefully the causes of the growth of the cotton industry. What were some of the other important farm products of the South? Discuss the condition of agriculture in the West and in the northern Atlantic states. Explain how the growth in manufacturing and agriculture affected the commerce of the nation. Explain carefully how the growth of the West brought about conditions that made better means of transporta- tion and communication very desirable. Describe carefully the effect that the invention of the steamboat had on transportation. Describe some other important improvements that were made in the means of transportation during this period. What were some of the more impor- tant inventions and discoveries made up to 1828? How do they compare with those that have been made since? (In connection with the questions on Social Conditions, each pupil should read the third number of Hart's ''Source Readers in American History," pp. 1-142.) Discuss the changes which took place in the man- ners and customs of the people during the period of National Growth 208 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE and European Interference. Describe the classes which existed in south- ern society during this time. Explain carefully why there had been scarcely any changes in southern society since the Revolution. Explain how the growth of democratic ideas affected class distinctions in the North. Discuss the effect of the West on class distinctions in the North. Discuss the effect of the West on class distinctions in the East. Explain the relation of Jackson's election to the destruction of class distinctions. Explain carefully the changes which took place in the national govern- ment during this period. What kind of state governments did the west- ern states have? How did the state governments of the East and West differ as to nature? What caused the state governments during thia period to become more democratic? What changes in religious condi- tions occurred during this period? (In connection with the questions on Education, each pupil should read the third number of Hart's "Source Readers in American History," pp. 317-371.) What was the condition of education in the United States from the close of the Revolution to about 1810? What was the cause of this? In what way was and is the public land directly related to the common school system? Describe the improvement that took place in the schools during the latter part of this period. Who were some of the more important American writers of this period? Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the nature of the institutional changes that took place during this period. Discuss the growth and development of manufactures. Dis- cuss the growth of agriculture. Discuss the growth of commerce, and the improvement in the means of transportation and communication. Discuss the changes in social conditions. Discuss the changes in gov- ernment. Discuss the condition of education. WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY A POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES I Meaning of Jackson's Election D. 443-446; Mc. 301; Ma. 268-273; T. 249-251; M. 240-241 II Political Methods 1. The Spoils System D. 446-447 ; Mc. 294-295 ; Ma. 273-274 ; G. 266 ; T. 251-252; M. 241-242 2. Party Organisations, the Nominating Convention, and Campaigns D. 447-450; Mc. 306, 315-316; Ma. 274; T. 275- 276; M. 258-259 III Political Parties 1. The Democratic Party D. 451-452; Mc. 311, 312, 346, 352-353- 360-361 ; Ma. 268-271 ; T. 286, 306, 316, 322 2. The Whig Party D- 452-453 ; Mc. 307, 312, 316, 334-335» 352; Ma. 268-271 ; T. 248, 306 3. The Republican Party D. 453-454; Mc. 354-355. 363; Ma. 325-326; G. 305-306; T. 315-316, 322 B FINANCIAL LEGISLATION : THE TARIFF I The Tariff 1. TJie Tariff of 1828; Nullification and Secession D- 454-457 ; Mc. 303-305 ; Ma. 295-297 ; G. 267- 271 ; T. 247-248, 254-256 ; M. 245-249 2. The Compromise Tariff of 1833 and the Walker Tariff of 1846 D. 457-458; Mc. 305; Ma. 299; T. 256; M. 249 210 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY II Destruction of the National Bank D. 458-460; Mc. 305-308; Ma. 274-275; G. 271-272; T. 253-254; M. 245 III The Panic of 1837 1. Era of Speculation D. 460-461; Mc. 308-309; Ma. 275-276; T. 272; M. 253-254 2. The Specie Circular D. 461 ; Mc. 309; G. 2y6-2'/j; T. 272 3. Distribution of the Surplus D. 461-462; Mc. 309-310; T. 270-271 4. The Crisis D. 462; Mc. 3 10-3 1 1 ; G. 277; T. 272; M. 253 IV The Independent or Sub-Treasury System D. 463; Mc. 311-312; Ma. 276-277; G. 278-279; T. 273-274, 296; M. 254-255 C GROWTH OF THE NATION IN TERRITORY AND POPULATION I The Oregon Territory D. 464-467; Ma. 238-240, 280, 283, 304-305 II Annexation of Texas, 1845 D. 467-469; Mc. 320-322; Ma. 303-306; G. 290; T. 284-287; M. 262 III The Mexican War, 1846-1848 Ma. 306-314 1. Causes D. 469-470; ]\Ic. 326; G. 290-291; T. 289-290; M. 265-266 2. Campaigns D. 470-472; Mc. 327-328; G. 291-292; T. 290- 293 ; M. 266-268 The Slavery Question 211 3. Results D. 472-474; Mc. 333-334; G. 292-293; T. 293; M. 269 IV The Oregon Boundary, 1846 Mc. 322-326; G. 284-286; T. 294-296; M. 264-265 D THE SLAVERY QUESTION I The Abolition Movement 1. Groivth of Sentiment Against Slavery D. 475-476; Mc. 334-336, 343, 352, 357; Ma. 299; G. 286-287; T. 270, 303, 308; M. 275-276, 283 2. Rise of Abolitionists D. 476-477; Mc. 313; Ma. 299-300; T. 267-268 3. Anti-Abolition Sentiment D. 477-478; Mc. 313-314; Ma. 301; G. 287; T. 269 4. The Gag Resolutions D. 478-479; Mc. 314-315; Ma. 301-302; G. 287- 289 ; T. 269 TI Expansion of Slave Territory: The Compromise OF 1850 D. 479-482; Mc. 337-343-; Ma. 310-321; G. 294-299; T. 297-298, 301-303; M. 269-270, 2/2-2y4 III The Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854 D. 482-484; Mc. 347; Ma. 321; G. 303-305; T. 309; M. 278-279 IV The Struggle for Kansas, 1854-1861 D. 484; Mc. 347-352, 357-358; Ma. 322-325; T. 313- 314; M. 279-280 V The Dred Scott Decision, 1857 D. 484-486; Mc. 355-356; Ma. 326; G. 299-301, 310- 313; T. 316-318; M. 279-280 212 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY VI The Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 1858 D. 486-488; Mc. 358-359; Ma. 327-329 VII The Election of Lincoln, i860; Secession, 1860-1861 D. 488-490; Mc. 363, 378-382; Ma. 329-337; T. 323- 328; M. 286-290 E INSTITUTIONAL LIFE I Industrial Conditions D. 491-492; Mc. 285-291, 365-376; H. IV. 41-44; G. 306-310; T. 258-264, 281-282, 304-308, 310-312; M. 249-251, 257, 290-292 1. Means of Transportation and Communication: Other Inventions D. 492-500; Mc. 285-291, 368-370, 372, 374-375; Ma. 285-294 ; G. 272-275, 282-284 ; T. 259-264, 281, 308; M. 237-238, 249-250, 257 2. Agriculture D. 500; Ma. 286-288; T. 310 3. Manufactures and Mining D. 500-501 ; Mc. 289, 337-338, 370-374 ; Ma. 288- 290; T. 259, 263-264, 304, 320; M. 277, 249, 270-272, 284-285 4. Commerce and Cities D. 501-504; Mc 374; T. 304 II Social Conditions D. 504-506; H. IV. 1-74; Mc 375; T. 265-267; M. 239-240 III Government D. 506-509 IV Religion D. 509; Mc 291-292; Ma. 283-284; T. 282-284; M. 255-257 V Education D. 509-511 ; Ma. 284-285; T. 265-266; M. 251-252 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY As has already been stated the characteristics of this period were the westward growth of the nation in population, wealth and ter- ritory, and the struggle over the extension of slavery into this western territory. During the preceding period the nation had thrown off its colonial traditions and had become independent of Europe in fact as well as in name. The nation had rid itself of European interference and the great question of slavery and other important domestic questions which had been gradually shaping themselves, now came to the front, and the life of the nation centered around them during this entire period. POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES I Meaning of Jackson's Election The election of Jackson marks the beginning of a new epoch in the history of the United States. It marks the ad- vance of democracy far beyond that of the time of Jefferson. To a considerable extent this was due to the development of the West. The new western states represented the rising democracy — the belief that one man is as good as another, irrespective of his wealth or birth. All of the Presidents before Jackson, however, belonged to the wealthy, cultured, and aristocratic class. Jackson was one of the common people. His life had been an almost continuous struggle with poverty and adverse circumstances. He was blunt in manner and speech, headstrong and independent. He typi- fied the rough frontier life of the western states. His elec- tion marks the complete triumph of democracy in the United States. II Political Methods I. The Spoils System The Spoils System consists in the giving of as many offices as possible to those who have helped elect success- 214 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY ful candidates. Almost every officer up to the President of the United States has the power of appointing men and women to office. If the candidate elected be a Demo- crat he usually appoints Democrats to office ; if he be a Republican he usually appoints Republicans. It does not matter how faithfully an officer may have performed his duties, his position is usually given to some member of the successful party, and often the new officer is less com- petent than the one whose place he fills. As a result of this condition of affairs, public business frequently suffers serious injury. Jackson was responsible for the introduction of the "Spoils System" into the politics of the United States. He claimed that rotation in office was democratic and a good thing ; that to the victor belonged the spoils of office — that the successful candidate might fill the offices under his control with personal followers. During the first nine months of his administration, Jackson removed more than one thousand men from office, whereas all of the preceding Presidents together had removed less than one hundred, and then only for good cause, and not on account of their political connections. Since Jackson's administration the officers of both parties have appointed men and women to office because of their political influence. During the last twenty-five years the evil effects of this policy have been greatly lessened by the enaction of national legislation known as the Civil Service Laws. These laws compel the President of the United States to select certain officials by means of examination, and the officers thus selected cannot be removed except for just cause. 2. Party Organizations, The Nominating Convention, and Campaigns Strong party organizations or "machines" had already been built up in many of the cities, and during Jackson's administration the organization of national parties as they Political Methods and Political Parties 215 exist at the present time first came into existence. It was at this time also that party platforms first came into use. Up to Jackson's second term the candidates for presi- dent and vice-president of the United States had always been nominated by a caucus of party leaders in Congress or by state legislatures. The growth of democratic ideas led the people to demand a more direct control of such nominations, and as a result the candidates for the presi- dency and vice-presidency in the campaign of 1832 were nominated by national party conventions composed of delegates elected by the people of the various states. Up to the beginning of this period comparatively little interest was taken in presidential elections by the people at large. The presidential electors were not nominated by, nor responsible to, any political party, and therefore the people had little partisan interest in their election. Under these circumstances the electors exercised a more or less independent choice. The growth of democracy, however, changed this. After the candidates for presi- dent and vice-president came to be nominated by national party conventions, and the presidential electors in the various states came to be nominated by state party con- ventions, thus being practically pledged to vote for their party nominees, it became necessary to introduce new and active campaign methods in order to rouse the interest of the people and to win popular support for the candidates. Stump-speaking, torch-light processions, and spectacular displays of various kinds, such as would rouse enthusiasm among the people, were a part of this new order of things. This method of conducting a campaign has been continued to the present time, and is used in elections for public officers of all kinds. Ill Political Parties During Jackson's administration parties became thoroughly re-organized. Jackson's followers were called Democrats and those opposed to his policy, under the leadership of Clay 216 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY and Webster formed the National Republican party, later calling themselves Whigs. 1. TJie Democratic Party The Democratic party as organized in Jackson's time has never been broken up, although the leaders and issues have changed, and it has been and is at the present time a powerful party. The Democratic presidents during this period were Jackson, 1829-1837; Van Buren, 1837-1841 ; Polk, 1845-1849; Pierce, 1853-1857; and Buchanan, 1857- 1861. The first issue upon which the Democratic party took a stand was the National Bank which it succeeded in destroying. Later in this period slavery became the pre- dominant issue, and the Democrats as a party were pro- slavery, though in the campaign of i860 the party split on this issue. The most important work of the Demo- cratic party during this period was the establishment of the Independent Treasury System, the Annexation of Texas, the inauguration and management of the war with Mexico, the reduction of the tariff in 1846 to an almost free-trade basis, and the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854. 2. The Whig Party The general principles on which the Whig party was formed under the leadership of Clay and Webster w'ere broad construction of the Constitution, internal improve- ments by the aid of the National government and a pro- tective tariff. The Whig party was the one great rival of the Democratic party between 1834 and 1852, and twice succeeded in gaining control of the National government — in the Harrison-Tyler administration, 1 841-1845, and in the Taylor-Fillmore administration, 1849-1853. This party did not succeed in putting into effect any of its most important principles. While the Compromise of 1850 was Financial Legislation 217 a Whig measure, it was an unfortunate measure for the party as it aHeaated many in the North where a large part of the Whigs' strength lay. The Whigs tried to avoid taking a definite stand on the slavery question and it was this attitude that caused their downfall early in the fifties. 3. The Republican Party The development of the slavery issue caused changes in the Democratic party, the breaking up of the Whig party and the rise of several minor parties in the latter part of this period. The various elements of all these parties that were opposed to the extension of slavery united to form a new party which took the name Republican. This party rapidly gained strength in the North, and in i860 under the leadership of Lincoln first carried the National election. FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF I. Tlie Tariff of 1828; Nullification and Secession Just before the presidential election of 1828, Congress enacted a tariff law which, because of its high and absurd duties, is known as the "Tariff of Abominations." The tariff was bitterly denounced in the southern states. The North had developed large manufacturing interests which, it was claimed, needed a protective tariff for encourage- ment. The South had remained entirely agricultural, and the southerners claimed that a high tariff was of no ad- vantage to them, but rather a disadvantage as it tended to raise the price of those things which they had to buy, and did not raise the price of those things which they sold. Protests were made by the legislatures of several of the southern states. Calhoun, speaking for the South, drew up an "Exposition" setting forth the doctrine that the nation was a mere compact of sovereign states ; that a state 2i8 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY could nullify a law of Congress which it judged to be oppressive and unconstitutional ; anc'i that a state had the constitutional right to withdraw from the Union. The legislature of South Carolina, taking this view of the ques- tion, passed resolutions nullifying the tariff laws. Jack- son, however, threatened to hang as traitors all who forci- bly resisted the collection of tariff duties. His firm stand, together with a modification in the tariff, checked the seces- sion movement. 2. The Compromise Tariff of 18^3 and the Walker Tariff of 1846 The strong opposition of the South to the "Tariff of Abominations" led to its modification in 1832 and in the following year to the passage of a Compromise tariff law which provided for the gradual reduction of tariff duties during a period of ten years until the low rates imposed by the tariff of 1816 should be reached. The limit provided by the Compromise Tariff was reached in 1843. By that time the idea of free trade had gained strength and this brought about the passage of a new tariff law in 1846 which made still further reduction in the tariff rates, and changed the method of assessing duties. II Destruction of the National Bank The National Bank, chartered first in 1791 and re-charter- ed in 1816 was the repository of government funds and agent for the government in the management of its financial affairs. The fact that this bank was under the general super- vision of the national government gave it a certain stability, and the existence of such a bank tended to keep the financial affairs of the nation on a solid basis. Jackson, however, was strongly opposed to this bank, claiming that it had be- come a political machine and was an "un-American mon- Financial Legislation 219 opoly." Four years before its charter expired he accom- plished its destr^uction by securing the withdrawal of all the national funds from the bank. These funds he had placed in state banks. Through his influence Congress refused in 1836 to renew the bank's charter. Ill The Panic of 1837 1. Era of Speculation The distribution of the government deposits among state banks brought about the creation of a large number of state banks which proceeded to issue paper money to an amount far in excess of the gold and silver which they kept on hand for the purpose of redemption. A great deal of speculation was carried on at this time, owing to the open- ing up of the western country and to the advance in in- dustrial conditions. The great amount of paper money issued increased this speculation by making it easy for the people to borrow money. 2. T/ie Specie Circular A large part of the money paid for government land was the paper currency of the state banks, and a large part of the national taxes was also paid in the same money. As the state banks had issued a great deal more currency than they had gold and silver to redeem, the people who held this paper money could not exchange all of it or nearly all of it for gold and silver. This caused the people to look upon paper money with suspicion, and as a result a dollar of it became of less value than a dollar of gold or silver. Jackson saw that the government could not continue to accept this paper money for the payment of taxes, because it would result in a loss to the government as it was of less value than gold or silver. He therefore issued an order that all United States taxes must be paid in gold or silver, and that the payments for public land must be made 220 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY in the same money. This order of Jackson's is known as the Specie Circular because it provid|?d that all payments made to the government by its citizens must be made in specie — that is, in gold or silver. This circular of Jack- son's caused the people to become still more suspicious of the paper money issued by the state banks, and caused this money to become of still less value. 3. Distribution of the Surplus By the middle of 1836 all the national debt had been paid and a surplus of over $40,000,000 had accumulated and had been placed in the state banks. Congress passed a bill providing for the distribution of this surplus by in- stallments among the various states as loans. This dis- tribution made necessary the removal of the government deposits from many of the state banks, thus greatly re- ducing their supply of hard money. This, together with the Specie Circular, caused paper money to become almost worthless. 4. The Crisis The Specie Circular caused men to take their paper money to the banks at once and ask for gold and silver in return. But the banks had not the gold and silver with which to redeem it, for, as has been stated, many of them had issued a far larger quantity of paper money than they could redeem even with the government funds which they had on deposit, and the sudden removal of these government deposits made their condition still worse. As a result they were compelled to close their doors. Paper money, being thus discredited, declined rapidly in value; specie pay- ments were everywhere suspended ; hundreds of business firms failed ; thousands of men and women lost everything they had possessed ; factories were forced to suspend opera- tion ; and thus financial panic swept over the nation. Growth of the Nation in Territory and Population 221 IV The Independent or Sub-Treasury System President Vai,] Biiren, in order to protect the national gov- ernment, induced Congress to pass what is known as the Independent Treasury Act. By the terms of this act the United States was enabled to erect in the various states such government buildings as should be required in wdiich to de- posit the public money of the nation. This system, com- monly known as the Sub-Treasury System, still exists and has proven very satisfactory. GROWTH OF THE NATION IN TERRITORY AND POPULATION I The Oregon Territory The territory on the Pacific Coast between the forty-second parallel and the parallel of 54° 40' was called Oregon, and was claimed by both England and the United States. Both nations sent settlers into this territory and held it jointly. The large immigration of Americans into Oregon made the United States anxious to settle the northern boundary defin- itely and to acquire as much of this territory as possible. In order to make the North willing to admit Texas into the Union, the Democrats took up the acquisition of this entire territory, and made it, together with the annexation of Texas, the issue in the election of 1844. According to their promise, after the annexation of Texas, the Oregon matter was taken up and the present bovmdary line was agreed upon with England. II Annexation of Texas, 1845 By the treaty of 1819 the United States ceded to Spain its claim to Texas, and when Mexico became independent of Spain two years later, Texas was included in the new Re- public of Mexico. The Mexican government was very lib- 222 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY eral in granting tracts of land to settlers in this territory, and Americans in great numbers — especially from the South — took advantage of this policy and settled in Texas. During Jackson's administration offers were made to [Mexico for the purchase of Texas but were refused. Meanwhile coloniza- tion went on steadily with the definite purpose on the part of the southern leaders of the ultimate annexation of Texas to the United States in order to secure a valuable area for the expansion of slavery. When the American settlers became strong enough they rebelled against Mexico and in a few battles defeated the Mexican army. They then, in 1836, established the Republic of Texas, though Mexico did not recognize its independence. The next step — annexation — was strongly opposed by the northern states because of slavery which existed and would surely expand there. How- ever, in 1845 Texas was admitted to the Union, and thus the slave area was greatly enlarged. The western boundary of this new territory was undecided, and the United State's sent troops to enforce its claims, thus virtually forcing war upon Mexico. Ill The Mexican War, 1846-1848 1. Causes The causes of this war were the desire on the part of the South for more slave territory which led to the annexa- tion of Texas, and the occupation by United States troops of territory on the Rio Grande claimed by Mexico. 2. Campaigns This war was a series of successes for the American army. There were but two campaigns — one under Taylor on the Rio Grande, and another under Scott, who cap- tured Santa Cruz and then marched upon and captured the City of Mexico. The Slavery Question 223 3. Results The territori;!^! result of this war was the acquisition by the United States of the territory including California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico and part of Colo- rado. The United States paid Mexico $18,000,000 for this territory. The war re-opened and extended the slavery question, and its political results, therefore, were of the utmost im- portance. Representative Wilmot of Pennsylvania pro- posed an amendment known as the " Wilmot Proviso " to a bill pending in Congress. This proviso represented the position of the North regarding slavery in the territory secured from Mexico, and declared that slavery should not exist in any of this territory. It failed to pass Congress, but its discussion throughout the country tended to create a still stronger feeling between the North and the South on the slavery question. THE SLAVERY QUESTION I The Abolition Movement I. Grozuth of Sentiment Against Slavery Industrial conditions in the North led to the gradual abolition of slavery. Still more slowly a moral sentiment against it had grown up, and by the close of the War of 1812 the two interests — industrial and moral — had brought about abolition of slavery in all the New England and mid- dle states save Delaware, and the prohibition of slavery in the Northwest Territory. In the South, on the other hand, slavery had become still more firmly entrenched in the industrial and social life. The growth of the strength of slavery in the South was shown plainly in the Missouri Compromise. For fourteen years after this Compromise there was a lull in the agitation on the question of slavery, but the abolitionists then brought it forcibly to public at- tention. 224 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 2. Rise of Abolitionists The number of people actually f pposed to slavery on moral grounds was very small up to 183 1. At that time an abolition paper called "The Liberator" was started by. William Lloyd Garrison, and abolition societies were form- ed throughout the North. The Abolitionists advocated the immediate freeing of the slaves, and circvilated pamphlets, papers and magazines throughout the United States, setting forth their doctrines. Although the Abolitionists were very active, the number of people in the North who wished to interfere with slavery in the Southern states, increased very slowly, and was not large before the beginning of the Civil War. 3. Anti-Abolition Sentiment The slave holders were enraged by the activity of the Abolitionists, and were driven into defending slavery on both moral and constitutional grounds. They insisted that the Abolitionists encouraged slave insurrection, and that they should be suppressed by force. In the North also the feeling against the Abolitionists was strong. Their meet- ings were broken up by mobs ; their printing presses were destroyed ; their leaders were threatened with death, this being actually inflicted in one case. As the Abolitionists did not cease their work, but continued even more actively, much of their anti-slavery literature was taken from the mail by mobs, and burned. A bill was even introduced into Congress, with the full approval of President Jack- son, to prohibit the sending of such "incendiary publica- tions" through the mail. Though this bill failed of passage after warm debate, it showed the strength of the feeling that prompted it. 4. The Gag Resolutions Anti-slavery agitators sent in large numbers of petitions to Congress concerning slavery. At first these petitions were received but not granted. In 1836, however, the The Slavery Question 225 southerners secured in the House of Representatives the passage of a resohition that all petitions relating in any way to slavery should not be received. This was fittingly called the "Gag Resolution." John Quincy Adams, then an old man, and a member of the House of Representatives, labored faithfully against this violation of the right of pe- tition, but the resolution passed after long and angry de- bates, and remained in force about eight years. This refusal on the part of the House of Representatives to receive petitions from the people was a violation of the Constitution of the United States. It was the violation of a right held especially dear by English-speaking people, because it was one of those rights which had cost them centuries of bloodshed and struggle to secure. The great mass of the northern people had little use for the Aboli- tionists, but they denounced severely the attempt to inter- fere with the right of petition. This action therefore tended to create a strong feeling in the North against the attitude of the South on the slavery question, and the action of the few Abolitionists united the South in strong opposition to the North. TI Expansion of Slave Territory: The Compromise of 1850 The addition of the vast territory secured from Mexico to the United States opened up a great area for the expansion of slavery, and the rapid settling of this newly acquired terri- tory brought the whole question of slavery forcibly before the people. The discovery of gold in California in 1848 led to the rapid settlement of that territory and in 1849 the inhabi- tants of California formed a constitution and applied for ad- mission as a free state. During the discussion that followed, the feeling became so bitter in the North and in the South that threats of disunion were openly made in both sections. Demands were made by both the North and the South. The South demanded the right to take slaverv into any territory 226 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY of the United States and the passage of a strict fuo^itive slave law. The free states demanded that slavery should not be allowed to go into any new states, or territories, and that it should be abolished in the District of Columbia. The two sections were also diametrically opposed on the question of the admission of California as a free state. Webster and Clay, alarmed as to the outcome, introduced and urged com- promise measures. These measures are known as the Com- promise of 1850, and the essential points were: (i) California was to be admitted as a free state, while Utah and New Mexico were to be organized as territories without any provision as to slavery. This practically nulli- fied the Missouri Compromise, for while that measure was passed to settle the slavery question in the Louisiana terri- tory, it was but natural that the parallel of 36° 30' should be considered as extending with the acquisition of new territory, as the boundary line between free and slave territory. (2) The slave trade was to be prohibited in the District of Columbia. (3 A strict fugitive slave law should be passed by Congress. After violent discussion this compromise was ad- opted. While, as in the case of the Missouri Compromise, many thought that the slavery question was now settled, the Compromise of 1850 was but a temporary measure, and secured merely a short lull in the slavery agitation. Ill The Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854 The Fugitive Slave Law, which was part of the Compro- mise of 1850, was energetically made use of by the slave owners of the South, and this served to create a more intense feeling against slavery in the North. "Uncle Tom's Cabin," though an unjust representation of the slavery system, was a powerful instrument in intensifying this feeling. Under these conditions the Democrats elected Pierce to the Presi- dency, and secured control of both Houses of Congress. The The Slavery Question 221 leaders of both parties were anxious to let the slavery ques- tion rest, but Senator Douglas introduced a bill, known as the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which provided for the organiza- tion of Kansas and Nebraska into territories, and which expressly stated that the question of slavery should be left to the people of these territories. As Kansas and Nebraska were both entirely north of 36° 30', this was a violation of the Missouri Compromise, and the bill was strongly opposed on that account by the Free-soilers. The bill as finally passed, however, provided expressly for the repeal of the Missouri Compromise and thus re-opened the slavery question in all this western territory. IV Struggle for Kansas, 1854-1861 As soon as the Kansas-Nebraska Bill was passed, a long, severe struggle for Kansas began. Since this territory would be free or slave as the settlers should decide, both the North and the South hurried in settlers in order to secure a ma- jority of voters. In addition to the actual settlers a large number of men came into Kansas from Missouri temporarily for the specific purpose of carrying the election for slavery by force and fraud. By illegal methods they succeeded in electing a wholly pro-slavery legislature. As the free-state settlers had not been allowed to vote, they formed a govern- ment of their own and asked for admission to the Union. The struggle which followed was a bloody one and lasted until 1861, when it was settled by the admission of Kansas to the Union as a free state. V The Dred Scott Decision, 1857 Dred Scott was a slave taken by his master from Missouri into the free state of Illinois, and then into territory, which by the Missouri Compromise was to be forever free. On his return to Missouri he sued for his freedom on the ground that slavery could not exist on free soil, and therefore his residence in the free North had made him free. The Su- 228 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY preme Court of the United States held that a slave was not a citizen, but property, and therefore had no rights in the courts. This meant that neither the Congress of the United States nor the legislature of a state or territory could inter- fere with slavery. It meant that slavery could exist in all the northern states and in all the western territory. This de- cision still further embittered the North. VT Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 1858 In 1858 Stephen A. Douglas, a leading Democrat, was a candidate for re-election to the United States Senate from the state of Illinois. Abraham Lincoln was the Republican candidate, and a series of debates between the two men was held in the various towns of Illinois during the campaign. In these debates the principles of "squatter sovereignity" the Dred Scott decision, and other phases of the expansion of slavery were ably discussed. While the Democratic candi- date won the election, the debates served to bring Lincoln into national prominence, and to put the issues on slavery for- cibly before the people. Some of the admissions forced from Douglas concerning the control of slavery by Congress, alien- ated the extreme Southern Democratic party in the following presidential election. VII Election of Lincoln, i860 Lincoln's position on the slave question was made plain in the Lincoln-Douglas debates, in which he declared that he was emphatically opposed to the extension of slavery, and that the nation must in time become all slave or all free. The majority of the people in the North agreed with him. While the Republican party disclaimed any intention of interfer- ing with slavery in the states where it existed, the South rec- ognized that the election of Lincoln to the presidency meant that slavery would not be further extended, and therefore considered it necessary, in order to preserve the institution of slavery, to withdraw from the Union. This withdrawal marks the beginning of the Civil War. Institutional Life 329 INSTITUTIONAL LIFE During the period from 1828 to i860 there was a marked de- velopment in the United States along institutional lines. This statement, however, applies more especially to the North and West, for in many ways institutional life in the South remained almost stationary. The growth and application of liberal demo- cratic ideas had an important effect on county, state and national government. There was great development in the North and West along industrial lines, and a marked growth in social, re- ligious and educational matters. The South did not have her share in this general advancement, for slavery caused her to re- main almost strictly agricultural, and thus her institutional life was becoming more and more unlike that of the rest of the nation. Events were soon to prove that these diverging lines of growth could not be brought together peaceably. I Industrial Conditions This period was one of wonderful industrial advance- ment for the nation as a whole. Foreign immigration, im- portant inventions, improvements in machinery of all kinds, and the marked improvement in transportation and communi- cation with the consequent opening up of the country, were all factors in this industrial advance, and resulted in the building up of great manufacturing and commercial inter- ests, the building of cities, and the development of new in- dustries. White labor was unable to compete with slave labor, consequently not only foreign immigrants passed by the slave holding states and went into the North and North- west, but a large number of the white laborers whose homes were in the South left their old homes and went North where free labor prevailed. Free labor is necessary for advancement along commercial and manufacturing lines, and hence the South was shut out from developing its immense natural resources along these lines and was kept at almost a stand- 230 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY still industrially. The northern free states in i860 outnum- bered the southern slave holding states in white population by about 10,000,000, or more than two to one. Since agri- culture tends to scatter population, and manufacturing and commerce tend to centralize it, many cities sprang up in the North but very few in the South. 1. Means of Transportation and Communication: Other Inventions The first railroad was built in the first years of this period and by i860 there were about 30,000 miles of rail- ways in operation in the United States. This enormous growth had a most important efifect on industrial condi- tions. It opened up large areas of new country to trade and greatly cheapened the cost of transportation, thus mak- ing many industrial changes. During this period street horse-cars were first put into use in the cities. In 1844 the first telegraph line in the world was constructed and by i860 telegraph lines were in operation throughout settled parts of the country. The telegraph and the steam rail- way have done more to do away with sectionalism than any other influence, for they have brought all parts of the country into close contact, and thus have made for the unity of the nation. 2. Agriculture Agriculture continued to be the one great industry of the South. The great demand for cotton by the northern and the English manufacturers caused cotton to become the chief southern product. In the northern and northwest- ern states large amounts of food-stuffs, particularly wheat and corn were raised and great quantities were exported. 3. Manufactures and Mining The manufacturing interests which had their rise in the preceding period increased wonderfully during this period. Institutional Life 231 The many new inventions, including the reaper, the sewing machine, improvements in agricultural and household im- plements as well as in machinery for factories, and the extensive use of steam engines of various kinds were a part of, and were stimulating to, the great advance in manu- factures. By i860 the value of the manufacturing indus- tries had reached several thousand millions, and more than a million people were given employment in the factories. Great progress was made during this period in the de- velopment of the iron industry. This was due largely to the increased demand caused by the building of railroads, bridges, and machinery of all kinds. Pennsylvania was the center of the iron industry. Coal at this time first began to be used as a fuel in place of wood, and this caused the de- velopment of coal mines. The mining of gold and silver and other minerals began to be carried on in the western states during the latter part of this period. The real de- velopment of the mineral resources of the country, how- ever, took place in the period following the Civil War. 4. Commerce and Cities While an important commerce, both domestic and for- eign, had been built up in the preceding period, it was now greatly improved and extended. This was due largely to the improved methods of transportation together with the growth of manufactures. By the end of this period American domestic and foreign commerce combined had become greater than that of any other nation. The rapid growth of commerce and manufactures was closely related to the rapid growth of cities. II Social Conditions Socially, as well as industrially, the South was at a stand- still. Class distinctions remained about the same. The new democracy which was leveling all classes in the North and 232 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY West exerted but little influence here. Class privileges had largely disappeared in the northern and western sections of the country during the preceding period. It was at this time that great improvements in the conditions of the work- ing classes began to be made in the way of better modes of living, higher wages and shorter hours. III Government As has already been stated, the growth and application of liberal democratic ideas during this period, had a marked effect on government in the United States. This is indicated by the election of Jackson, and the origin of national nom- inating conventions. Especially was this shown in the many new constitutions formed by new and old states during this time, in which the powers of the governors and legislatures were in many cases limited. The judicial department was also brought more under popular control by changes in the method of selecting judges. In many cases where the judi- cial oflficers had been appointed for terms lasting during good behavior, they were now elected by the people for compara- tively short terms. The town and county governments were made more democratic, particularly in the new western states, by the enlarging of the number of officers elected directly by the people. Municipal government now first be- came important, for before this time both the number and size of the cities were small. As in the case of the state and county governments, the government of the cities was very democratic. IV Religion About 1830 a great wave of religious enthusiasm together with a general reforming spirit swept over the whole nation, and resulted in the rapid growth of church organizations, especially of the Evangelical sects. In the latter part of this period, slavery caused a division in many of these churches and diflferent branches were formed, such as North and South Institutional Life 233 Methodists. The Mormon church had its rise at this time, and the persecution of its members on account of their doc- trines led to its migration into the West where it formed a sort of state of its own. V Education This was a period of mental awakening and intellectual advance in many directions. The public school system con- tinued to grow with the country. High schools, academies, and colleges made a distinct advance in all parts of the Union. Thousands of newspapers and magazines were published, and some of our best American authors, including Long- fellow, Whittier, Holmes, Bryant and Lowell among tiie poets, and Bancroft, Parkman. Motley and Prescott among the historians, wrote at this time. Henry Ward Beecher, Hawthorne and Wendell Phillips also belonged to this period. It is noticeable that most of this advance along educational lines took place in the non-slave holding states. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS Questions for Class Recitations Over what part of American history does the period of National Growth and European Interference extend? What were the main features or characteristics of this period? Over what part of American history- does the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery extend? What were the main features or characteristics of this period? Explain carefully the relation between the main features of these two periods. POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES. Questions for Class Recitations Describe some of the main results which the growth of liberal demo- cratic ideas brought about during the period of National Growth and European Interference. Explain how the first six Presidents of the United States represented the upper or aristocratic class of society. For how long did these men control the national government? To what class did both Washington and Jefferson believe the higher officials of the national government should belong? What were their ideas as to who should vote? Explain carefully in what way the election of Jackson was contrary to the ideas of Washington and Jefferson. Discuss the character of Jackson, and show how his election marks the complete triumph of democracy in the LTnited States. Explain carefully the differ- ence between the democracy of Jefferson and the democracy of Jackson. (This question deserves the most careful consideration.) Upon what basis were men appointed to office under the national government before Jackson was elected President? Give a careful explan- ation of the Spoils System. When, by whom, and why was this system introduced into national politics? Discuss the evil effects of the Spoils System. How has Congress in recent years tried to overcome the evil effects of this system? What is a presidential elector? How is the number of presidential electors to which each state is entitled, determined? Why did those who framed the Constitution desire that the President should be elected by electors instead of directly by the people? Give a careful explanation of how the electors were chosen during the early history of the nation under the Constitution. Explain carefully how this affected the interest which the people took in the election of the President. Explain carefully how the growth of democratic ideas affected the manner of electing electors. How did this affect the interest which the people took in the presidential election of 1824 and the one of 1828? Questions and Topics 235 Before the presidential campaign of 1832 how were the candidates for President and Vice-President nominated? How were they nomi- nated in the campaign of 1832? What is the object and the composition of national nominating conventions? What was the origin and what is the nature of national poHtical platforms? Explain carefully how the complete state and national organization of political parties gave the people control of, and increased their interest in, presidential elections. Give a full explanation of the nature and object of the campaign methods which the complete organization of political parties brought about. Why, in what way, and when did the Republican party break up? What new parties were formed during this period, and when were they formed? Who were the Democratic Presidents during this period, and over what years did the term or terms of each extend? Explain the principles of the Democratic party. What was some of its most impor- tant work? Who were the Whig Presidents, and over what years did the term of each extend? Discuss the principles of the Whig party. Explain carefully why these principles were not carried out when this party was in power. What effect did this have on the party? What caused the organization of the Republican party, and what was therefore one of the main principles of this party? Questions for Compositions and Examinations Compare, by a discussion, the main features or characteristics of the period of National Growth and European Interference with the main features or characteristics of the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery. Give a careful discussion of the meaning of Jackson's election. Discuss the Spoils System, including its origin, development, and effect. Give a careful discussion of this subject, — manner of electing presidential electors, including the effect of the change in the manner of electing. Discuss the origin and result of national nominating conventions, plat- forms, and campaigns. Discuss the reorganization of political parties during Jackson's first administration. Discuss the principles and impor- tant measures of the Democratic party during this period. Discuss the principles of the Whig party and the cause of its fall. Discuss the origin of the Republican party. FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF. Questions for Class Recitations Explain carefully why the tariff of 1828 is known as the Tariff of Abominations. Explain carefully how this tariff came to be passed. Why had the South become opposed to the protective principle of the tariff? How was the tariff of 1828 received in the South? Compare the 236 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY doctrine stated in the exposition and protest of South CaroHna with the doctrine stated in the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, and in the Hartford convention. In what way had Calhoun changed his views on these questions? What do you think caused him to do this? What is meant by the right of nullification? Describe carefully the trouble which the national government had with South Carolina over the question of the tariff. What were the terms of the compromise tariff of 1832? What other changes were made in the tariff during this period? When was the first and the second charter of the United States Bank granted, and when did each of these charters expire? What is meant by a monopoly? Explain why Jackson was opposed to the United States Bank. Explain the way in which this bank became the main issue in the presidential campaign of 1832. Explain how Jackson succeeded in destroying the United States Bank. Explain carefully how the destruc- tion of the United States Bank caused the organization of many state banks. Explain what led to the issuing of large sums of paper money. What is hard money? Why was this paper money not so good as hard money? Explain the meaning of speculation. Explain carefully how the distribution of the government money among the state banks, and the making of paper money by these banks, led to a great deal of specu- lation at this time. What first caused the paper money that was issued by the state banks to become of less value than gold or silver? What is meant by specie? What is meant by specie payment? Explain care- fully why Jackson issued his specie circular. How did this circular cause paper money to become of still less value? Describe the conditions that caused a surplus of forty million dollars to accumulate to the credit of the United States during the years 1835 and 1836. What was done with this surplus ? Explain carefully how the distribution of the surplus to the various states caused the value of paper money to become still less. When the paper money became almost worthless, how was business affected? What is the condition of business when a financial panic is said to exist? Describe the condition of busi- ness during the financial panic of 1837. Describe the Independent or Subtreasury System. How did the panic of 1837 lead to the establish- ment of this system? Questions for Compositions and Examinations Give a full discussion of the tariflf of 1828 and the trouble which the national government had with South Carolina over this tariff. Give a full discussion of the United States Bank, showing clearly how its destruc- tion led to the financial panic of 1837. Discuss the Independent Treas ury System. Questions and Topics 237 GROWTH OF THE NATION IN TERRITORY AND POPULATION Questions for Class Recitations What were the boundaries of the United States at the close of the Revolution? Describe the increase in the territory of the United States between the Revolution and 1820. Explain carefully the importance to the United States of the territory secured during this time. Why were Jefferson and other leading Americans anxious to secure the Oregon country, and why was the territory of special value to the United States? Explain events leading to the final settlement of the Oregon question, and the terms of the treaty that settled this question. Explain carefully the conditions that caused the South to desire to secure more slave territor3^ Why was the South especially anxious to secure Texas ? Dccribe the settlement of Texas by the Americans. Was there anything unusual about this advance of the Americans into Texas ? Explain carefully how Texas became independent of Mexico. Why was the South strongly in favor of annexing Texas, and why was the North opposed to this? Explain how the annexation of Texas and the Oregon question became important issues in the presidential cam- paign of 1S44. Explain carefully how the annexation of Texas brought on the Mexican War. Do you think the United States was justified in beginning this war? Give reasons for your answer. Briefly describe General Taylor's campaign. Briefly describe General Scott's campaign. Give the time, place, and explain the terms of the treaty that ended the war with Mexico. How was additional territory secured from Mexico in 1853? Explain carefully how the United States secured all the territory which it secured from the beginning of the American Revolution to the begin- ning of the Civil War. Explain the value to the United States of each addition in territory. How did the growth of the United States in population during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery com- pare with its growth in territory? What states were formed in the great central plain during this period? Discuss the growth in popula- tion of the Oregon Territory. Discuss the growth of California and its admission to the Union. Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the entire controversy between England and the United States over the Oregon Territory. Discuss the conditions and events which led to the annexation of Texas. Discuss the causes, campaigns, and results of the war with Mexico. Discuss quite fully the growth of the United States in territory and population, including the importance of this growth. 238 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY THE SLAVERY QUESTION Questions for Class Recitations Explain why the question of slavery during this period would be related naturally to the growth of the nation in territory. To what extent did the Missouri Compromise settle the question of slavery? De- scribe the gradual abolition of slavery in the northern states, and explain carefully the re^asons for this. What was the feeling in the South toward slavery from about the close of the Revolution to 1800? What was the cause of this feeling? Explain carefully the conditions which caused the South, after about 1800, to become more and more in favor of slavery, and which caused slavery to become more and more firmly rooted in southern industrial, social, and political life. What is meant by abolition and Abolitionists as related to the slavery question? Describe the growth of the abolition sentiment in the North, and explain the attitude of the Abolitionists toward slavery. On what grounds did the Abolitionists force the South to defend slavery? Describe fully how the people in the South and most of those in the North treated the Abolitionists. Why did the Abolitionists send peti- tions to Congress? Explain the attitude of the southern members of Congress and of many of the northern members toward these petitions against slavery. Explain what is meant by the Gag Resolutions. In what way did these resolutions violate the Constitution of the United States? What effect did these resolutions have on the people of the North? What effect did the slavery petitions and their discussion in Congress and by the press have on the people of the South? Explain very fully why the South was very much opposed to the admission of California as a free state. Why was the North strongly in favcr of admitting California into the Union as a free state? In what way was the question of slavery in relation to the territory secured from Mexico first brought up for discussion in Congress? Explain the con- ditions that caused Clay and Webster to submit and urge the adoption of the Compromise of 1850. Explain carefully each provision of this compromise, and the effect or bearing of each of these provisions on the slavery question. What was "Uncle Tom's Cabin," and what was its effect on the slavery question? In what way did the Fugitive Slave Law and the strong attempt of the South to enforce it affect the slavery question? Explain carefully what was meant by the doctrine of Popular or Squatter Sover- eignty. Who was the author of this doctrine? How did it affect the question of slavery in all the western territory? Explain carefully the provisions of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Explain fully how the doctrine of popular sovereignty as applied in the Kansas-Nebraska Bill affected Questions and Topics 239 the settlement of Kansas. How did the struggle in Kansas influence the people of both the North and the South in regard to the slavery question? What were the conditions that led to the Dred Scott Decision? State clearly the principles of this decision, and explain carefully what would have been their efifect on slavery if they had been fully carried out. What general effect did the Dred Scott Decision and the Kansas- Nebraska Bill have on the people of the North? Explain carefully the conditions that led to the Lincoln-Douglas Debates. Explain the main phases of the slavery question that were discussed in these debates. Explain the attitude of both Lincoln and Douglas on these questions. What effect did these debates have on the people of the nation ? What effect did they have on the future of Lincoln and Douglas in connection with the presidential campaign of i860? Explain carefully why the election of Lincoln caused some of the southern states to secede. Explain very fully how the topography, climate, and soil of the east- ern part of the United States caused slavery to be abolished in the North and not to be abolished in the South. Explain carefully how the inven- tion of improved weaving machinery and the cotton gin affected the growth of slavery in the South. Explain fully to what extent the differ- ence in the topography, climate, and soil of the North and South was the real or fundamental cause of the American Civil War. In your opinion, what would have been the result, so far as slavery is concerned, if the colonists who settled in the South had settled in the North, and those who settled in the North had settled in the South? What general effect was slavery having on industrial conditions in the South? If slavery had been quietly restricted to the cotton-raising states and the border slave states, and if the question of slavery had not become an important issue between the North and South, what do you think would have finally been the fate of slavery in the southern states? Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the conditions affecting the growth of slavery. Discuss the rise of the Abolitionists, and the effect of their work on the slavery question. Discuss the Gag Resolutions and their effect on the slavery question. Discuss the conditions which led to the Compromise of 1850, and the provisions and results of this compromise. Discuss the Kansas- Nebraska Bill and its effect on the slavery question. Discuss the Dred Scott Decision. Discuss the Lincoln-Douglas Debates, including in this discussion the conditions which led to these debates, the principles dis- cussed in them, and their results on the future of slavery. Beginning v/ith the difference between the topography, climate, and soil of the North and South, give a careful discussion of the causes which led to the American Civil War. 240 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY INSTITUTIONAL LIFE Questions for Class Recitations What was the nature of the growth along institutional lines during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery? What were the con- ditions or factors which caused this growth? Compare the industrial growth of the South with that of the North and Northwest. Explain carefully what caused this difference. Compare the North and South with regard to population and cities, and give the causes for the differ- ence which existed between the two sections in these respects. Review briefly the improvement in means of transportation and com- munication that was made during the period of National Growth and European Interference. Explain fully what might have been the effect on the nation if the railroad and the telegraph had not been invented. Explain why the nation is smaller to-day for purposes of business and government than was the state of New York or the state of Pennsylvania before the railroad and telegraph came into use. In what way did the railroad help to settle up the country? Explain carefully how railroads helped the growth of the feeling of national unity. Discuss what the results would be to-day if all the railroads and all telegraph lines were destroyed. Describe the origin of railroads in the United States and the charac- ter of those first built. Describe carefully the growth of railroads in the United States up to i860. Describe the origin of the telegraph and ihe growth of telegraph lines in the United States up to i860. Describe the origin of the trans-Atlantic cable. Explain carefully the value of the telegraph. Describe briefly the growth of inventions in the United States from 1790 to i860. Name some of the more important inventions made during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery. Describe the origin of the sewing machine, and explain its importance to industrial condi- tions. Describe the origin of the reaper and the threshing machine, and explain their importance to industrial conditions. Describe carefully some of the other inventions and discoveries made during this period, and explain the value of each. Indicate in a general way the value to mankind of all these inventions and discoveries. Describe the condition of agriculture in the different sections of the country. Explain carefully how the invention of new machinery affected the growth of agriculture. What can you say about the development of the great mineral resources of the nation? Explain how the invention of new machinery affected the growth of manufactures. What was the condition of the manufacturing industry in i860? How did its condition then compare with its condition to-day? Explain how the growth of agriculture and manufactures affected the growth of commerce. What Questions and Topics 241 was the condition of American commerce in i860, and how does its con- dition now compare with its condition then? What was the condition of the American shipping industry at that time, and how does its condi- tion now compare with its condition then? Explain carefully the effect of agriculture, manufactures, and commerce on the growth of cities. Show plainly how the growth of cities in the North and South during this period illustrates this principle. In what way was slavery connected with the growth of cities in the South? What was the most important change in social conditions during the periods of National Growth and European Interference and Westward Expansion and Slavery? Discuss each of the classes which existed in southern society during the latter period. Explain carefully why these sharp class distinctions still existed in the South. Give a full and care- ful discussion of the causes which tended to destroy class distinctions in northern society. Explain the efifect of these causes or principles on social relations in the North. How did the railroads aiifect the man- ners, customs, and amusements of the people? Compare the amusements of the people in the country with the amusements of those in the cities. Explain the conditions which enabled the people to have better food and better clothes. What was the nature of the change in government during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery? Explain in what way this was true with regard to the changes in national government. Explain in what way it was true with regard to the changes in state government. Explain in what way it was true with regard to changes in local govern- ment. Explain in what way and why these changes did not apply to the South. Explain carefully why the judicial department of govern- ment is so very important. Explain carefully why the selection of judges is of so great importance. Why may the election of judges by popular vote be unwise and result in injury? If you were voting for a man for the position of judge, and there were several candidates, how would you decide for which one to vote ? What was the nature of the changes or growth in religious conditions during this period? How did this growth affect the standard of morals among the masses of people? Review briefly the condition of education during the period of National Growth and European Interference. De- scribe carefully the growth of the public school system during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery. Describe the conditions which existed during this time that caused rapid improvement in the public schools after the Civil War. What was the condition of literature during the period of National Growth and European Interference? What was its condition during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery? Name some of the more important writers of this period, and one of the more important works of each. Explain carefully the effect that 242 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY the work of these men had on the masses of the people. In what way did the work of these men affect Hterature and education after the Civil War? What effect did the Civil War have in this respect? Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the nature of the industrial changes which took place during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery. Discuss the improve- ments in the means of transportation and communication, and the effect of this improvement on the industrial and social life of the nation and on the growth of national unity. Discuss some of the other important inventions and discoveries of this period, and their effect on the indus- trial life of the nation. Discuss the growth of agriculture and manu- factures. Discuss the growth of commerce and cities. Discuss the changes in social conditions. Discuss the changes in government. Dis- cuss the changes in religion. Discuss the growth of literature and the public schools. THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (In connection with the study of this subject each pupil should read the fourth number of Hart's Source Readers.) COMPARATIVE RESOURCES OF THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH I Available Soldiers, Commanders and Military Supplies D- 525-526; Mc. 422-424; Ma. 340-341; G. 320-321; T. 332-335. 341 ; M. 298-299 II Financial Resources: Means of Transportation D. 526-528; Mc. 423; Ma. 340-341; G. 320-321; T. 360-361; M. 333 SECESSION AND BEGINNINGS I The Right of Secession D. 529-531 ; G. 318 II Secession D- 531-535; Mc. 378-381; Ma. 332-337; G. 319; T. 323-325; M. 292-297 III The Fall of Fort Sumter D- 535-537; Mc. 382; Ma. 337-339; G. 322-324; T. 326, 328, 330, 331 ; M. 294-296 IV The Battle of Bull Run D- 537-538; Mc. 387-388; Ma. 341-343; G. 324-327; T. 336-337; M. 300-302 CAMPAIGNS I Scope and Nature of Campaigns: Method of Treatment D. 538-541; G. 328; T. 338; M. 302 244 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR II The Eastern Campaign 1. The First Advance on Richmond D. 541-543; Mc. 392-394; Ma. 343. 354-357; G. 336-342; T. 340; M. 310-312 2. The Battles of Antietann and Fredericksburg D. 543-544; Mc. 394; Ma. 357-359; G. 342; T. 347-348 ;M. 313-314 3. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation D. 544-546 ; Mc. 394-396 ; Ma. 358-359 ; G. 348- 350; T. 349-352; M. 314 4. The Battles of Chancellorsznlle and Gettysburg D. 546-548 ; Mc. 396 ; Ma. 359-362 ; G. 343-347 ; T. 353-356; M. 315-317 III The Western Campaign 1. The Western Commanders D- 548-550 2. Union Successes in Western Tennessee D- 550-553; Mc. 388-391; Ma. 348-352; G. 331- 336; T. 341-343. 353; M. 305-308 3. The Capture of New Orleans D- 553-554; Mc. 391-392; Ma. 352-353; G. 336; T. 346; M. 308-310 4. The Battles of Pcrryville and Murfreesboro: Result of the Year's Work — 1862 D- 554-556; Ma. 353-354; T. 348; M. 313-314 5. Capture of Vicksburg D. 556-557; Mc. 397-398; Ma. 362-364; T. 356- 357; M. 317-320 6. Chickamauga and Chattanooga D- 558-559; Mc. 398-399; Ma. 365-366; G. 351- 354; T. 357; M. 320 7. Result of the Year's Work — /^<5j D- 559 The Work of the Nai'y in the Civil War 245 IV The Campaigns of 1864-1865 1. The War in the West and the South D. 560-562 ; Mc. 399-406 ; Ma. 372, n^-yj^ \ G. 357-361; T. 367-374, 380; M. 322-333 2. The War in Virginia D. 562-565; Ma. 369-372; G. 355-357. 365-367; T. 382 ; M. 322-323, 324-326 THE WORK OF THE NAVY IN THE CIVIL WAR I. Blockade of the Southern Ports D. 565-566; Mc. 410-412; Ma. 344-345; G. 328-329; T. 332-333. 358-375; M. 302-303 II Commerce Destroyers D. 566-568; Mc. 412-414; Ma. 345-347; G. 329; T. 358-359, 375 ; M. 303-304 III The Revolution in Naval Warfare D. 568-569; Mc. 414-417; ^la. 347-348, 373 > G. 329- 331; T. 343-346; M. 303-305 RESULTS D. 570; Mc. 419-424; Ma. 379-385; G. 369-370; T. 386- 388; M. 315, 337 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR The real causes of the Civil War were much deeper than the political events which led up to it. As has already been stated, the fundamental causes of this war are to be found in the differ- ence in the topography, climate and soil of the North and South, and in the introduction of slavery into the English colonies. The effect of these conditions in developing two civilizations in the two sections of the country differing in almost every way, and the consequent growth of antagonism between the North and the South, have been rather fully treated in preceding topics. To sum up the conditions leading inevitably to war : The topography, climate and soil of the United States made slavery profitable in the South and unprofitable in the North. This led to the gradual abolition of slavery in the North and to the gradual growth there of a sentiment against it. In the South, on the other hand, industrial conditions tended to establish slavery permanently, and the whole social and industrial life of the South became firmly moulded around the institution of slavery. The North, resting upon a foundation of free labor, developed its resources and outgrew the South rapidly in population and wealth. The South, because of the nature and effect of slave labor, was falling behind the North in nearly all respects. It had come to regard negro slavery as morally right and something to be protected and encouraged. Long before the outbreak of the Civil War, southern society rested so firmly on slavery that to destroy it meant, in a certain sense, the destruction of southern institutions. It is no wonder, therefore, that the statesmen and slave owners of the South would not for a moment consider the abolition of the slavery system. By i860 the North and the South had become two peoples, socially and industrially. The statesmen of the South foresaw that it was only a question of time when the slave states must leave the Union, or give up slavery, and thus wreck the founda- tions of southern society. They chose to fight rather than do this. The people of the North, under the same circumstances, would Comparative Resources of the North and tlie SoutJi 247 probably have followed a similar course. In other words, there were conditions which made the Civil War inevitable. It was caused by forces beyond the control of the people of either section. It dealt with one of those questions in advancing civilization that must usually be settled by the sword. COMPARATIVE RESOURCES OF THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH I Available Soldiers, Commanders, and Military Supplies The total population of the United States in i860 was about 31,000,000. There were not more than 6,000,000 white inhab- itants in the states that seceded and not less than 20,000,000 in those states that supported the national government. There were many men of military training in both the North and the South and a few of great military genius, but the ablest military leaders of the North did not secure command of the Federal army until several years after the war began, while the southern armies were commanded by the ablest southern generals from the very first. In the beginning the South had the advantage in the way of military supplies, which had been stored in southern arsenals before the outbreak of hostilities. But as the North tightened the blockade and prevented the bringing in of war material from England, the South, having no manufactures of her own, became severely handicapped because of the scarcity which prevailed. It was not until the outcome of the war had practically been decided that the necessary fac- tories were put into operation for supplying the needs of the southern armies. The North, being a manufacturing country, with factories already in operation, was able to pro- vide itself with the necessary military supplies. II Financial Resources: Facilities for Transportation When the blockade stopped the export of their cotton and tobacco, the southerners became reduced to dreadful straits for money. To meet this condition an immense amount of 248 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR paper money was issued just as had been done by the Conti- nental Congress during the Revolution, and, Hke the Conti- nental Currency, this Confederate money soon depreciated in value until it became almost worthless. In the North, on account of a much stronger credit, the government was able to sell immense quantities of bonds, and to issue paper money without its depreciation to any very great extent as com- pared with the currency of the Confederacy. On account of its industrial activity, the North was also able to raise large sums from taxation. Before and during the war a vast network of railroads was being woven between the various northern states. When the crisis came, the North was able to transport soldiers and military supplies from one point to another with compara- tively little delay. In the South, on the other hand, railroads were comparatively few and poorly equipped, nor had they the iron for replacing worn-out rails, nor the workmen to repair and keep the lines in working order. There was no lack of agricultural products, but much distress and even threatened starvation was caused both to the soldiers and the other inhabitants because of the poor means of distribu- tion. SECESSION AND BEGINNINGS I The Right of Secession The constitution is silent on the question of secession. Many people held that there was no legal nor constitutional objection to secession. The other view is that the adoption of the constitution by the " people " of the United States and not by the "states" denies to any state the legal right to secede. Many maintain that although the southern people were mistaken, most of them believed that the North was trying to deprive them of their rights and liberties, and that this gave them the natural right to take up arms in defence of those rights and liberties as their forefathers had done in the past. Secession and Beginnings "'^49 II Secession The admission of California as a free state and the result of the Kansas trouble convinced the southern leaders that there could be no hope of the further extension of slave territory. The election of Lincoln furnished the opportunity or excuse for withdrawing from the Union. The southern leaders now believed that secession was the only means of saving slavery. In December, i860, South Carolina seceded and shortly afterwards six other southern states followed. Delegates from these states met at Alontgomery and organ- ized the Confederate States of America. Jefferson Davis was elected President and Alexander Stephens, Vice-Presi- dent. III The Fall of Fort Sumter The new government immediately began taking possession of all the federal property in the seceded states. President Buchanan made no serious attempt to prevent this. When Lincoln was inaugurated he took steps to save this property to the L'nion. He declared that no state had a right to secede, and that he would uphold the law. The seceding states could not be an independent nation and be under the federal law, so this meant civil war. Lincoln attempted to send supplies to Fort Sumter and this led to its bombard- ment and capture by the Confederates. The effect of the fall of Fort Sumter on the North was to arouse the people to an effort to uphold the Union. Lin- coln called for seventy-five thousand men, and this made the border slave states withdraw. IV The Battle of Bull Run The real war began at Bull Run, where the Union army attacked the Confederates. The Union army was defeated, and this showed the North the difficulty of the task of subduing the South. The South felt that this battle would end the war, but the movement in the North toward raising new armies soon caused the southern people to realize that a great conflict had just begun. 250 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR CAMPAIGNS I Scope and Nature of Campaigns: Method of Treat- ment The federal government planned three great military move- ments with a view of forcing the South back into the Union. One was to move directly toward Richmond. This with the protection of Washington was the work for the Army of the Potomac. A second was to get control of the Missis- sippi, cutting off the Confederate states to the westward. This was the work for the Army of the West. A third plan was to blockade the southern ports and cut off all com- munication by water with the outside world. This called for an immense navy. To meet these armies the Confed- erate states organized the Army of Northern Virginia, and several western armies. A number of ironclads were con- structed to defend the seaports and to break up the blockade. The Army of Northern Virginia was fortunate in having the same commander throughout the war. This cannot be said of any other army either north or south. Robert E. Lee, the commander in Virginia, was one of the ablest gen- erals the new world has produced and the numerous suc- cesses of the Army of Northern Virginia were due in a large measure to his leadership. For the sake of clearness the campaigns will be taken up under the following heads : (i) The Eastern Campaign, taking up the struggle in the East up to the time that Grant takes command. (2) The Western Campaign, including the operations in the West. (3) The Campaign of 1864- 1865 will include the work of Grant as Commander-in-Chief. II The Eastern Campaign I. First Advance on Richmond After the disastrous battle of Bull Run, the troops around Washington were placed under the command of Campaigns 251 McClellan, and called the Army of the Potomac. The proposed work of this army was to capture Richmond. Two plans were proposed for reaching Richmond. The authorities at Washington thought that the better way was for the army to proceed directly South. ^IcCIellan ob- jected to this, on account of the many rivers in the path, beside which strong fortifications had been erected by the Confederates. He advised that soldiers be landed from transports at Yorktown, Virginia, and from there pro- ceed against Richmond. McClellan's plan prevailed, and in the spring of 1862, with an army of 100,000 men, he was transferred to the vicinity of Yorktown. After several months of hard fighting the campaign ended in failure. 2. BatPlcs of A)itictain and Fredericksburg In August, 1862, McClellan was ordered back to defend Washington. A month later, the armies of Lee and Mc- Clellan met at Sharpsburg, or Antietam, in western Mary- land. Here a great battle was fought, with the result that Lee was compelled to retreat across the Potomac and for the time abandoned his idea of invading the North. As McClellan did not follow Lee with sufficient energy to meet the approval of the authorities at Washington, he was re- moved and Burnside was placed in command. In Decem- ber, 1862, Burnside was defeated at Fredericksburg, and his command was given to General Hooker. 3. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation On September 22, 1862, in the face of the defeats of of the Union armies Lincoln took a firm stand on the slavery question and issued his Proclamation of Emanci- pation. This applied only to those states in open rebel- lion and it was intended purely as a military measure to cripple the seceding states. The whole North, however, believed that in case the North was successful, this meant the end of slavery in America, as was actually the case. 252 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 4. Battles of Cha)icellorsville and Gettysburg In the spring of 1863 Hooker crossed the Rapidan, only to meet with a terrible defeat at the hands of Lee's army at Chancellorsville. In this battle Stonewall Jack- son, one of Lee's ablest generals, was accidentally killed by his own men. Encouraged by his victory over Hooker, Lee again attempted to invade the North. Amid great excitement throughout the North, Hooker was removed, and General George A. Meade given command of the Army of the Potomac. The two armies met at Gettys- burg, a village in southeastern Pennsylvania. Here, on the first, second, and third days of July, 1863, was fought one of the greatest battles in the history of the world. Lee's army was defeated, and he never again attempted to carry the war into the enemy's country. Meade did not pursue Lee's shattered forces. The Army of the Potomac fought no other great battles until after Grant assumed command of all the armies of the United States, in March, 1864. Ill The Western Campaign 1. The Western Commanders The leading commanders in the West on the Union side were Grant, Sherman, Thomas, and Sheridan. Grant stands out as the most successful Union commander. His success was due to his persistence. Next to Grant was Sherman, Grant's right hand man in the western cam- paigns. Thomas was one of the most reliable commanders in the North while Sheridan was the most brilliant cavalry commander. 2. Union Successes in Western Tennessee In the early part of 1862, Grant was placed in command of the Union forces at Cairo, Illinois. His first important work was the capture of Forts Henry and Donaldson, on the Cumberland River. These forts commanded the Ten- Campaigns 253 nessee and Cumberland Rivers, which Grant wanted to open. After three days of fighting-, Buckner, as com- mander of the Confederate forces, asked Grant what terms would be granted him if he should surrender the fort, together with his force of fifteen thousand men. Grant replied, "No terms, except unconditional and imme- diate surrender, can be accepted." Buckner surrendered under the terms mentioned, and thus Grant won the firsi great Union victory. Grant now moved up the Tennessee and fought the battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing. Albert Sidney Johnston, in command of the Confederate army, was killed and his army forced to retreat. 3. Capture of New Orleans While Grant was operating in Tennessee, Farragut was moving with his fleet against New Orleans. It was im- portant to take this city for two reasons : To cut off supplies that were coming from Texas and Mexico, and to open up the Mississippi. Farragut silenced the forts and secured the city's surrender. 4. Perryznlle and Miirfrecshoro : Result of the Year's Work— 1862 The Confederates made a desperate attempt to regain Eastern Tennessee after the loss of so many important posts. Bragg led an army from Chattanooga and met the Union army under Buell at Perryville in Kentucky. Bragg retired to Chattanooga and next marched north- ward and met Thomas and Sheridan at Murfreesboro. Bragg again retired to Chattanooga. This ended the campaign for 1862. Grant had during the year made great headway, while in the East the northern armies were being defeated by Lee. 5. Capture of Vickshiirg Grant's next important work was the siege and capture of Vicksburg. Vicksburg was a well fortified city on the 254 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR Mississippi, defended by thirty-seven thousand soldiers under the command of Pemberton. After a siege of seven weeks, the city was compelled to surrender on the fourth day of July, 1863, just one day after the defeat of Lee at Gettysburg. Port Hudson surrendered five days later, and the Federal government had secured control of the Mississippi from Minnesota to the Gulf. These events were the beginning of the end, and the cause of the South from this time onward steadily declined. 6. Chickammiga and Chattanooga After Vicksburg, Grant centered his efforts against the Confederates in Tennessee. A bloody battle was fought at Chickamauga, where Thomas saved the Union army from defeat. Grant next turned his attention to Chattanooga, at which place Bragg had defeated Rosecrans and laid siege to the Union army. Under the direction of Grant, the two bril- liant battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge were fought. The Confederates under Bragg were driven southward toward Atlanta. 7. Result of the Year's Work — 1863 This ended the campaign of 1863 in the West. Again Grant had succeeded in his work. Since he began opera- tions, he had with Farragut's help opened up the Missis- sippi, captured Vicksburg with a wholeConfederate army and had driven the Confederates out of Kentucky and Tennessee. In the East, with the exception of Gettysburg, Lee had successfully resisted the Army of the Potomac. This contrast caused Lincoln and the whole nation to look to Grant as the man to lead the army against Lee. IV The Campaigns of 1864-1865 I. War in the West and South In March, 1864, Grant was made Commander-in-Chief of all the Union forces. He gave his personal attention The Work of the Navy 255 to the Army of the Potomac, but directed the movements of all the Federal troops. Sherman was placed in com- mand at Chattanooga. He moved South, captured Atlanta, and then made his famous march to the sea. 2. The War in Virginia Early in the spring of 1864, Grant took command of the Army of the Potomac, consisting of about one hun- dred twenty thousand men. He moved his army south- ward, crossed the Rappahannock and entered the Wilder- ness. Here he met Lee's army of sixty thousand men, and a terrible struggle ensued. In one month Grant lost sixty- four thousand soldiers, but he forced Lee to retreat and take up his position within the fortifications of Richmond. Grant laid siege to the city. Sherman's march through the South and Sheridan's raids with his cavalry had cut off a large part of Lee's provisions. Lee evacuated Rich- mond and attempted to escape, but Grant surrounded his army and forced a surrender at Appomattox Court House, a little place about seventy-five miles west of Richmond, April 9, 1865. The surrender of Lee marked the end of the Civil War, although some of the other southern armies did not surrender until a little later. THE WORK OF THE NAVY IN THE CIVIL WAR I Blockade of the Southern Ports At the beginning of the war the national government, in order to cripple the Confederacy as much as possible, decided upon a complete blockade of the southern ports. Until this blockade was effected, the South could export cotton, sugar, and tobacco, and import arms and other military supplies. To accomplish this blockade, the national government had at first about twenty-four vessels, but it built and equipped a navy with marvelous rapidity, and by the close of the year 1861, had the blockade fairly effective. There were more than three thousand miles of coast for the Union vessels to 256 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR watch, however, and many vessels, known as blockade-run- ners, would slip past the Union vessels in the night and suc- ceed in bringing supplies to the Confederates. During the war, more than fifteen hundred of these blockade-runners were taken or destroyed by the Union fleet. II Commerce Destroyers While the North was busy in perfecting a blockade of the southern coast, the Confederates were fitting out vessels called Commerce-Destroyers. It was the business of these vessels to watch the great highways of commerce and to destroy as many Union merchant ships as possible. The most famous vessels of this kind were the Florida, the Ala- bama, and the Shenandoah, all of which were fitted out in England. They did an immense amount of damage to the Commerce of the North during the war. In 1872, a board of arbitration, to which the case had been submitted, decided that England should pay the United States the sum of fifteen million dollars on account of the injury done to American commerce during the war by the Confederate Commerce- Destroyers which had been fitted out in English ports. This settlement is known as the Geneva Award. III The Revolution in Naval Warfare In the early part of 1862 the Confederates raised a vessel which had been sunk in the navy yard at Norfolk, Virginia. They covered it with a double plating of iron, and chris- tened it the Virginia. This was the first ironclad warship ever constructed. With this vessel the Confederates de- stroyed several of the larger Union war vessels at that time lying in Hampton Roads, Virginia. Before it had completed the work of destruction at that port, the Monitor, an iron- clad vessel built in New York by John Ericsson, arrived on the scene. A battle took place between the two vessels which was to be the most important single event of the war, proving as it did that a few ironclad vessels could destroy the largest Results 257 wooden navy afloat. A complete revolution in naval con- struction now took place, and the great wooden war-vessels of the world were rapidly supplanted by iron-protected fighting-machines. RESULTS The main results of the Civil War were the destruction of slavery, the great industrial development of the South, which the destruction of slavery made possible, the enfranchisement of the negro, and the race problem which this enfranchisement created and which has not yet been settled. Since the war the industrial development of the South has been extremely rapid. Iron and coal fields second to none in the world have been discovered. The production of cotton has vastly increased. Manufacturing estab- lishments of every kind have been springing into existence. Many large manufacturing establishments are moving their machinery from New England into the South. Another important result of the w^ar has been the unification of the nation. Sectional feeling has almost vanished because slavery, its cause, has been removed. During the Spanish-Ameri- can War ex-Confederate soldiers fought side by side with Federal soldiers who had been their old opponents in the Civil War. Other results of the war were the destruction of more than six billion dollars' worth of property and the loss of about seven hundred thousand of the best men of the nation, the South losing almost as manv of these as the North. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS RESOURCES OF THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH Questions for Class Recitations (In connection with the questions on the Civil War, each pupil should read the fourth number of Hart's "Source Readers in American History." See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Explain briefly how the difference in the topography, climate, and soil of the North and South was the main or fundamental cause of the American Civil War. Begin- ning with the Missouri Compromise, explain briefly the political events which led directly to this war. Explain carefully how the South in two respects had an advantage of the North at the beginning of the Civil War. After the war began, why was the North able to secure ample military and other supplies, and why was the South unable to do so? Compare the Union states with the Confederate states in regard to popu- lation, and explain the causes of this difference. In what way was the difference in population of advantage to the North? Compare the North and the South in regard to means of transportation, and explain how the difference between the two sections in this respect affected the result of the Civil War. Discuss the financial resources of the North and South during the war, and explain how the difference between the two sections in this respect affected the result of the war. Discuss the industrial resources of the North and South, and explain how the difference be- tween the two sections in this respect affected the result of the war. Explain the general effect on the result of the war of the difference between the general resources of the North and South. SECESSION AND BEGINNINGS Questions for Class Recitations Explain the two views which had been held regarding the right of secession. What is your opinion on this question? Explain very care- fully those principles of the Constitution which indicate that no state had the legal or constitutional right to secede. Explain what is meant by the natural right of a person to defend and protect his life and liberty. Assuming that no state could secede or withdraw from the Union in accordance with the Constitution, by what right can the secession of the southern states be justified? What did the southern people believe the North wished to do in regard to their rights and liberties? Explain how this belief would justify the action of the southern people in regard to the war. Explain why the admission of California to the Union as Questions and Topics 259 a free state and the result of the struggle in Kansas made the southern leaders anxious to withdraw from the Union. Why did the southern leaders decide to bring about secession when Lincoln was elected Presi- dent? Discuss the secession of the southern states and the formation of the Confederate States of America. What was the attitude of the Confederacy toward the national prop- erty within its borders? What was Lincoln's attitude toward this prop- erty? What was his attitude as to the legal right of a state to secede? What did he declare his policy would be on these questions? Why was the Confederacy bound to oppose his policy? Why were these two views sure to lead to war? Describe the fall of Fort Sumter. What effect did the fall of this fort have on Lincoln and on the people of the North? Explain the effect Lincoln's call for soldiers had on the people of the Confederacy and on the people of some of those slave states which had not seceded. Describe the battle of Bull Run. What effect did this battle have on the national government? What effect did it have on the people of the North? What effect did it have on the people of the Confederacy? CAMPAIGNS Questions for Class Recitations Why cannot the campaigns of the Civil War be discussed very fully in a history of the United States for school use? What larger history will you be able to read on the battles and campaigns of the Civil War? What was the general object of the national government in the war? What armies did it organize? What work in the war was assigned to each of these armies? What was the general object of the Confederacy in this war? What armies did it organize? What work were these armies expected to do? In what respect did the Army of Northern Vir- ginia differ from the other armies? Describe the character and ability of General Lee. What will each of the campaigns outlined in this his- tory include? Give a rather full discussion of the first advance on Richmond. (Discussing a battle as used in these questions means to. state the con- ditions or circumstances that led to the battle, describe the battle, state the results, and give the importance of these results.) Discuss the battles of Bull Run, Antietam, and Fredericksburg. Give a careful ex- planation of Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. Explain the proclama- tion which he issued regarding slavery, on January i, 1863. Explain carefully just how and to what extent these proclamations affected slavery. Why did Lincoln free the slaves in the Confederacy? In what way did this affect the war? Explain Lincoln's plans regarding slavery 260 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR in the loyal free states, and state with what success it met. Discuss the battles of Chancellorsville and Gettysburg. Why was the battle of Gettys- burg a serious defeat for the Confederacy? Discuss the general results of the Eastern Campaign. Why was the Army of the Potomac not more successful in accomplishing what it was expected to accomplish? (At this point each pupil should draw a map that will give a clear and com- plete idea of the Eastern Campaign.) Describe the character and ability of General Grant. Describe the character and ability of General Sherman. What can you say about Thomas, Sheridan, and other Union commanders of the West? Why was it important for the Union armies to capture Fort Henry and Fort Donelson? Describe the capture of these two forts. Discuss the battle of Pittsburg Landing. What other cities did the Union army capture soon after this battle? Why was it valuable for the national government to secure possession of New Orleans? Give a rather full discussion of the capture of this city. Discuss the battles of Perryville and Mur- freesboro. Compare carefully the result of the Western Campaign for 1862 with the result of the Eastern Campaign for this same year. Give a full discussion of the capture of Vicksburg. Give a full discussion of the battles of Chickamauga and Chattanooga. Compare carefully the result of the campaign in the West for the year 1863 with the result of the campaign in the East of that year. Explain what effect the Western Campaign had on the reputation of Grant and his position in the army. In considering the contest between Grant and Lee in the East, what conditions should receive careful consideration? (At this point each pupil should draw a map giving a clear and complete idea of the Western Campaign.) What were Grant's plans for the war after he became Commander in Chief? Discuss the capture of Atlanta. Discuss the contest between Thomas and Hood. Discuss Sherman's "March to the Sea." What did Sherman do after he had captured Savannah? Give a careful discussion of Grant's campaign in the East from May 4 to June 12, 1864. What did Grant do after he decided that he could not capture Richmond by direct advance? What was the result of Lee's attempt to draw Grant away from the siege at Petersburg and Richmond? Describe the siege of Petersburg and Richmond. Discuss the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia. (At this point each pupil should draw a map giving a clear and complete idea of the campaigns of 1864-1865.) THE WORK OF THE NAVY Questions for Class Recitations Explain why the Confederacy could not supply enough war material for its armies and manufactured goods for its people. Explain fully Questions and Topics 261 why the national government was so very anxious to blockade the Con- federate ports. What was absolutely necessary in order to blockade these ports? Describe the condition of the American navy at the beginning of the Civil War. Describe its condition at the end of that war. To what extent was the North successful in blockading the Confederate ports? Explain how this hastened the end of the war. Explain in what way the navy gave direct assistance to the Union army in its land campaigns. What is a commerce destroyer? What was the object of the Con- federates in building and equipping these vessels? Why did the English government permit these vessels to be built in England? Discuss the Geneva Award. Explain in what way these Confederate commerce destroyers did a great injury to the American shipping industry in addition to the value of the ships which they actually destroyed. Describe the Virginia (Merrimac) and the Monitor. What was the result of the first day's work of the Virginia? What effect did this have on the national government and on the people of the North? Describe the battle between the Virginia and the Monitor. What was the effect of this battle on the future construction of war vessels? RESULTS Questions for Class Recitations State and explain some of the main results of the Civil War. Explain why the war tended to unify the nation. Give some illustrations that tend to prove this. Questions for Compositions and Examinations Give a careful comparison and discussion of the resources of the Union and Confederate states. Discuss secession and the right of seces- sion. Discuss the fall of Fort Sumter and the first battle of Bull Run. Discuss the scope and nature of the campaigns of the Civil War. Give a full discussion of the Eastern Campaign. Give a full discussion of the Western Campaign. Give a full discussion of the campaign of 1864- 1865. Discuss the work of the navy in the Civil War. Discuss the results of the war. RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SECEDED STATES I Relation of the Seceded States to the National Government D. 578 ; Mc. 427 ; Ma. 386 ; G. 374-375 II Death of Lincoln : His Character and Ability D. 579-581; Mc. 427-430; G. 367-368; T. 390-393; M. 338 III Reconstruction Policy of Lincoln and Johnson D- 578-579. 581-584; Mc. 429-431. 439; Ma. 386-388; G. 375-376; T. 392-395. 402; M. 338-341 IV Reconstruction Policy of Congress D. 584-586; Mc. 430-431; Ma. 388-390; G. 376-380; T. 392-394; M. 338-339 V Some Results of Reconstruction D. 586-587; Mc. 431; Ma. 390-396; G. 380-383; T. 394-395; M. 339-341 POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES I Political Methods D. 588-590; Ma. 405; G. 414, 421-422; T. 417, 427- 428, 451 ; M. 357, 363, 376-377. 381 II Political Parties D. 591-592; Mc. 439, 442-448, 462-470, 475-476, 484- 486; Ma. 396-402, 403-404, 406, 408, 411, 414, 415; G. 385, 411, 428; T. 395-396, 408-409, 413. 416- 419, 434-436, 447. 452-455. 475-477. 501-502 Financial and Industrial Legislation 263 FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION I Financial Legislation 1. The National Debt and the National Banking System D. 593-594; Mc. 421; T. 364 2. Resumption of Specie Payment D. 594-595 ; Mc. 420, 437-438, 445-446 ; Ma. 398- 400, 403 ; G. 407-408, 412-413 ; T. 361-362, 414, 425 ; M. 355, 356 3. Gold and Silver Standards D. 595-596; Mc. 448-449. 467, 471-472, 485; Ma. 412; T. 422-423, 448, 456, 475, 500; M. 349- 350, 374, 378, 403 II Tariff Legislation D- 596-597; Mc. 419-420, 466, 473, 476; Ma. 408, 409, 413, 415; G. 425-427; T. 429, 441-442, 446- 447, 472 ; M. 373, 380, 383 III Industrial Combinations 1. Corporations, Trusts and Labor Organisations D. 597-598; Mc. 459-461, 464; Ma. 439-442; G. 408-410, 417, 427; T. 438-439» 473; M. 363-368 2. Laws Relating to Corporations, Trusts and Other Organisations D. 598-599; Mc. 443-444, 465; T. 437-438; M. 359» 365, 370 FOREIGN RELATIONS I Purchase of Alaska, 1867 D. 600; Mc. 450-451 ; Ma. 395; G. 404-405; T. 397; M. 342 264 RECONSTRUCTION. DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION II Treaty of Washington, 1871 D. 600-601; Mc. 450; Ma. 395-396; T. 405-407; M. 352 III Application of the Monroe Doctrine 1. The French in Mexico, 1861-1867 D. 601 ; Mc. 449-450 ; Ma. 394 ; G. 364 ; T. 398-399 2. The Venezuela Boundary, i8py D. 601-602; Mc. 474; Ma. 414; G. 427-428; T. 477-478; M. 381-382 IV Growth of Arbitration 1. Application of the Principles of Arbitration D. 602-604; T. 445, 455, 473; M. 379 2. The Hague Tribunal, i8pQ (To be discussed by the teacher.) D. 603; M. 403 V The Spanish-American War, 1898 1 . Causes D. 604; Mc. 476-477; Ma. 446-450; G. 430-431; T. 479-485; M. 388-390 2. Campaigns (a) Naval Warfare D. 604-605 ; Mc. 477-480 ; Ma. 450-453 ; G. 431-435; T. 486-489; M. 391-393 (b) The War on Land D. 605 ; Mc. 479-480 ; Ma. 452 ; G. 433-434 ; T. 489-492; M. 393-395 3. Results (a) Territorial D. 605-606; Mc. 480-483; Ma. 454-456; G. 435; T. 494-495. 497-5oo; M. 395-398 Institiitiunal Life ^65 (b) Political D. 606; Mc. 483; Ma. 455, 457, 460; G. 435-436; T. 495-496; M- 396-398 VI The Isthmian Canal (To be discussed by the teacher) D. 606-607; Ma. 461-462; M. 404 INSTITUTIONAL LIFE I Industrial Conditions D. 608 I. Inipro-i'cd Means of Transportation and Cominunication D. 608-610; Mc. 434-435. 456; Ma. 415-417. 41/- 418; G. 399-400, 440; T. 396-397. 399-401, 410, 414, 464; M- 341-342. 344-346 2. Other Inventions and Discoveries D. 610-61 1 ; Mc. 459 ; Ma. 420-422, 434-438 ; G. 403-404; T. 464; M. 349-351 3. Manufactures and Agrictdture D. 611-613; Mc. 454, 457, 459; Ma. 418-424, 426- 427; G. 388-390; T. 415, 464; M. 347, 351, 373. 375. 400 4. Commerce and Population D. 613-615; G. 393-396; T. 464, 500; M. 383- 384, 405 5. The Nezv South D. 615-616; Mc. 454; Ma. 428-434; G. 385-392; T. 432-434. 465 ; M. 360-362 6. The Development of the Nezv West D. 616-618, Mc. 454-458; G. 393-402; T. 465; M. 381 266 RECONSTRUCTION. DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION II Social Conditions D. 618-619; Mc. 460; Ma. 431-432; T. 439-440, 461 III Education 1. Nature of Development D. 619-621 ; Ma. 432, 442-446; G. 390, 441-444; T, 466-471 ; M. 402 2. The Public Elementary School System D. 621-622 3. The Public High School System D. 622; Ma. 444; G. 442 4. Universities, Colleges and Special Schools D. 623 ; Ma. 440 ; G. 442 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SECEDED STATES I Relation of the Seceded States to the National Government When the Civil War closed, the governments of the Confed- eracy and of the states forming the Confederacy were com- pletely broken up, and the nation was confronted with the serious problem of restoring the South to its proper political and constitutional relations to the national government. In order to restore these states to their proper places it was necessary first to determine into just what relation to the national government they had been placed by secession. Some, among whom were Lincoln and Johnson, held that states could not secede and therefore the southern states had never left the Union; that the attempted secession had merely had the effect of destroying the constitutional privil- eges of those taking part; that these privileges might be restored through the pardoning power of the President; that as soon as state governments were re-established these states could resume their former places in the Federal gov- ernment. Others maintained that secession had reduced the southern states to the condition of territories, and that Con- gress could manage these territories just as it pleased. The view which prevailed ultimately was a medium one, — that the southern states had not lost their statehood, but that they had lost their constitutional rights as states, and that Congress had the power to restore these rights at its discretion. II Death of Lincoln : His Character and Ability In the midst of the rejoicing over the termination of the war, Lincoln was shot down by a half-crazed sympathizer of the South. In some respects he is the most remarkable man 268 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION in American history. Born in abject poverty and raised in a wilderness, by his energy he raised himself to the highest place in the nation. A man of lofty character and ability, and possessed of a great amount of common sense, he car- ried the nation through the greatest crisis in its history. III Reconstruction Policy of Lincoln and Johnson Lincoln, acting on his theory regarding the political rela- tion of the seceded states to the national government, issued a proclamation in December, 1863, in which, with some exceptions, he promised to pardon all those in rebellion who would lay down their arms and take an oath to support the Constitution and all laws or proclamations concerning the emancipation of slaves. He also promised that a new state government might be organized in a seceded state as soon as the number of persons taking the oath in that state was one tenth as large as the number that had voted in i860, and that such state would then be given full recognition by the national government. Four states reorganized upon this basis. After Lincoln's death the same policy was pursued by Johnson in reconstructing the remaining seceded states, but his work was not allowed to stand by Congress which was determined to have a voice in the reconstruction. IV Reconstruction Policy of Congress The Emancipation Proclamation had freed the slaves only in the seceding states. In order to abolish slavery throughout the Union the Thirteenth Amendment was proposed by Con- gress in January, 1865, and was ratified by the necessary number of states during the year and proclaimed in force in December. Many of the southern legislatures deemed it necessary to enact certain laws for the control of the freed- men. These laws restricted the freedom of the ex-slaves, and stirred up strong feeling in the North by causing people to believe that the South was trying to re-enslave the negro. Reconstruction of Seceded States "C'Q In order to protect and aid the ex-slaves, Congress, early in 1865, passed a measure which provided for the establish- ment of what was called the Freedmen's Bureau. The severe labor or vagrancy laws passed in many of the southern states in 1865 and 1866, led Congress to continue this bureau to 1870, and to enlarge its duties and powers for the aid and protection of the freedmen. The radical Republicans had gradually gained control of Congress by 1866, and they were strongly opposed to John- son's lenient reconstruction policy. Congress proposed the Fourteenth Amendment, which made the negro a citizen. The southern states refused to ratify this amendment. Con- gress then passed a Reconstruction Act which required the seceded states to ratify this amendment before they might send Senators and Representatives to Congress. This com- pletely overthrew the reconstruction work done by Johnson. Six of the seceded states soon complied with this recon- structive act. The ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment by these six states completed the number necessary to make it a part of the constitution. In July, 1868, it was declared to be in full force and effect. The refusal of the southern states to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment giving the negro the rights of citizenship led to the passage by Congress of a series of acts limiting the President's power and placing severe restrictions on the southern states. The Reconstruction Act itself provided for the division of the southern states into military districts each under the command of an army officer. This act made it necessary for the seceded states to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution before being re-admitted to the Union, the Thirteenth Amendment having already been made a part of the Constitution, It also fixed such condi- tions upon the suffrage in these states that the voting lay almost altogether in the hands of former slaves and immi- grants from the North — " carpet baggers," as they were called — who flocked into the South after the war to profit 270 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION by conditions there. By thus shutting out the southerners from voting, Congress secured in six of the states the forma- tion of conventions that would ratify the proposed amendment. In February, 1869, Congress proposed the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution. This gave the negro the right to vote. Those states which had refused to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment were now obUged to ratify both the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments before they could re-enter the Union. Having been ratified by a sufficient number of states the Fifteenth Amendment went into effect in March, 1870. With its ratification by the last of the seced- ing states in 1 871, the political reconstruction of the South came to an end. V Some Results of Reconstruction Johnson's impeachment grew out of the reconstruction affair. He vetoed nearly all the measures enacted by Con- gress, and they were passed over his veto. Stanton, his Secretary of War, was opposed to him and he attempted to remove Stanton, contrary to a law passed by Congress. He was impeached and acquitted. The reconstruction acts are largely responsible for the race question in the South today. Under " carpet bag " and negro rule, backed up by the military arm of the government, the southern states were robbed of many millions of dollars. This and the enfranchisement of the negro has kept the race question alive. POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES T Political Methods The chief change in political methods since the Civil War is the introduction of the Australian ballot system and its adoption throughout the Union. This removed opportunity for fraud and protected the secrecy of the ballot. It was a Political Methods and Political Parties 271 most important reform. A marked advance in the political methods is shown by the enaction of Civil Service Laws by which the appointment of many federal officers must be made on the basis of ability and not on the basis of political service. In 1 87 1 Congress passed a Civil Service Reform Act. This law gave the President the power of selecting a commission which should devise a better plan for the appointment of men to all offices under his control. Grant was anxious to enforce this law and better the Civil Service, but the members of Congress, desiring the offices for political purposes, refused to vote money to carry out the reform. As a result, it proved of little value. In 1883, Congress passed the "Pendleton Civil Service Act." This law gave the President the power of making appointments to office by means of examination, and officers thus appointed could not be removed so long as they did their work well. President Arthur placed a large number of offices under this civil service regulation, and President Cleveland increased the number. Many of the best citizens of the United States hope that this law marks the beginning of the downfall of the Spoils System. II Political Parties During most of the time since the Civil War, the Republi- can party has had control of the national government, but the Democratic party has always been strong enough to exert a powerful influence, and has twice succeeded in electing a president. Of the eleven presidents since 1864, Lincoln, Johnson, Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Arthur, Harrison, Mc- Kinley and Roosevelt were Republicans, while Cleveland served two terms as a Democratic president. Immediately after the close of the war the chief political issue was the reconstruction of the seceded states. Since then the two main political issues between the Democratic and Republican parties have been the money question and the tarifif question, although, of course, there have been many minor issues. The many industrial and social questions have given rise to a num- 272 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION ber of other political parties. Among these are the Populist or People's party, the Prohibition party, and the Socialist party. FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION I Financial Legislation I. The National Debt and the National Banking System The finances of the national government were in a bat! state at the beginning of the Civil War, the treasury beiui; entirely empty. Consequently the government was forced to begin borrowing money soon after the war began. T lu supply of gold was soon exhausted and Congress was forced to issue paper money. About $500,000,000 of this paper money was issued during the war, and it was made a legal currency for all kinds of business, although no one could require the government to exchange gold or silver for it. Besides this paper money, the government issued bonds to the value of more than $1,000,000,000. During the Civil War the National bank system of the United States was established. This system is entirely different from the United States Bank destroyed by Jack- son. It was established for the purpose of creating a market for the sale of United States bonds, in order that money might be secured to carry on the war. The law which established this system provides that not less than five persons, with a combined capital of not less than $100,000 may establish a national bank. They must invest a sum amounting to at least one third of their capital in United States bonds, and the government will then give them bank notes, not exceeding in value ninety per cent of the par value of these bonds. A tax levied by Congress on the notes of state banks caused most of them to become national banks, and thus the national government was able to sell large quantities of its bonds. The national banking system is now an important feature of the financial system of the United States. fiiiaticial and Industrial Legislation 273 2. Resumption of Specie Payment During the Civil War gold and silver largely disappeared from circulation, and paper money was in use throughout the country. In order to bring the finances of the country back to a gold and silver basis, Congress passed a law in 1864, which provided that the Treasury Department should pay out gold and silver in return for paper money, all the paper money thus secured to be destroyed. Within four years the amount of paper money in circulation was reduced from nearly $500,000,000 to $356,000,000. The destruction of so much paper currency caused a scarcity of money, and in response to the demand of the people, specie pay- ment was discontinued in 1868. In 1879 it was resumed and the finances of the country have ever since been on a hard money basis. 3. Gold and Silver Standards Standard money is money that must be accepted in pay- ment for all debts, and the material out of which this money is made must be coined by the United States mints practi- cally free of charge for any one who takes the material to the mint and complies with the regulations. Until 1873 both gold and silver were standard moneys in the United States, — that is, any one possessing either gold or silver could have it coined into money. In 1873 the coinage of silver as a standard circulating medium was partially dis- continued, and in 1876 the coinage of silver as a standard money was abolished. In 1878 it was again made a stan- dard money, but the amount the government could coin during each year was limited. The law providing for this is called the Bland Silver Bill. In 1890 Congress passed what is known as the Sherman Act. This law directed the Secretary of the Treasury to buy about $15,000,000 worth of silver each year. After 1891 it was provided that the silver bought need not be coined, but silver certif- icates for 4,500,000 ounces of silver must be issued each 274 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION month and these redeemed in gold and silver. In order to protect the gold reserve in the United States Treasury, the Sherman Act was repealed in Cleveland's second ad- ministration. In the spring of 1900 Congress passed a law which declared, in substance, that the gold standard would be maintained in the United States. II Tariff Legislation Tariff, as used in national legislation, is a tax levied on goods brought into the United States from another country. One of the main objects of a tariff is to obtain the money required for meeting the expenses of government and the payment of the national debt. Another object is to protect home industries. Many believe that tariff duties should be so levied as to protect the manufacturing and agricultural interests of the country. This means that all goods which can be produced in the United States should be required to pay an import duty so as to secure a better home market for home products and thus increase home production. On the other hand many believe that a protective tariff raises the price of goods and products and benefits only those who pro- duce the articles on which an import duty is levied. These people therefore believe that a tariff should be levied for the purpose of revenue only, and that tariff duties should be levied only on such articles as are used by the wealthier classes. The majority of the people of the United States, however, believe that, in addition to raising a revenue for the expenses of the government one of the main objects of tariff duties should be the protection of home industries. During the war high tariff rates were levied in order to raise money to meet the expenses of the war, and in order to protect the manufactur- ing interests which were being heavily taxed. Since the war the tariff has remained strongly protective in nature. The Wilson Bill, passed during Cleveland's second administration, modified the tariff in many respects, but it retained a large number of protective features. During McKinley's adminis- Financial and Industrial Legislation 275 tration, a tariff with full protective features was restored, and is still in operation. The principle of a protective tariff is becoming more and more an accepted part of the economic policy of the United States. Ill Industrial Combinations I. Corporations, Trusts and Labor Organisations A corporation is an organization recognized by law, and empowered to transact a certain kind of business, as though it were one person. The wonderful industrial progress of the United States has made it possible for men to amass large fortunes. These fortunes, singly or in combinations, have been used for the purpose of building long railroad lines, developing large mining interests, and carrying on other great enterprises. They have often taken advantage of the great power which they possess in order to crush out smaller enterprises having less financial backing. A vast corporation often takes the place of many individual busi- ness concerns. For example, the Western Union Telegraph Company was organized in 1886 out of forty small tele- graph companies. Many lines of railroads have been com- bined into a few trunk lines. The Standard Oil Company has taken the place of any number of smaller oil companies. When great corporations were first organized they were brought into sharp competition with other corporations engaged in the same lines of business, and prices were kept at a low mark. The people received the benefit of this competition. The corporations soon learned that it was to their advantage to form combinations, thus avoiding competition with one another. Vast combines or trusts have now been formed in almost every line of business. In order to protect themselves against the combinations of capital referred to above, and to better their condition, many of the laboring people of the country have combined at different times and under various names. Most of these labor unions have united and formed state federations, 276 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION and the state federations are represented in what is known as the American Federation of Labor, which exercises general control over nearly all the labor unions in the United States. By their combined efforts, the labor unions have shortened the hours of labor, raised wages and accom- plished many other things which, taken together with the natural advantages and great industrial development of the United States, have raised the condition of the American laborer above that of any other nation in the world. 2. Lazvs Relating to Corporations, Tnists and Other Organizations The aggressive, and sometimes illegal methods of great corporations and trusts, and the recent unjust and un- American demands of some labor unions, constitute one of the greatest problems now before the American people for solution. Corporations and trusts and labor unions are no doubt beneficial and necessary to our industrial develop- ment, but it has become quite evident during the last few years that the great mass of the American people must see to it that they do not infringe upon, nor interfere with, the great principles of personal freedom and personal initia- tive in business and labor, which have made possible the great growth of the American nation. Already laws having this object in view have been passed by both the national and state legislatures. Among such laws is that known as the Interstate Commerce Act passed by Congress in 1887. This law provides for the supervision of railroads by a national commission whose duty it is to prevent unfair discrimination between shippers, and to prevent combina- tions formed for the purpose of destroying competition and raising prices. Among the laws passed with special reference to labor, are the Contract Labor Law, which pro- hibits any person in the United States from importing foreign laborers under contract, laws restricting Chinese immigration, and laws making eight hours a full day's labor in certain kinds of government employment. Li Vurcigu Relations 2?7 1903 Congress created the new executive department of Commerce and Labor. JMany states have passed laws regulating railway fares, and restricting the powers and defining the duties of corporations and trusts. FOREIGN RELATIONS I Plrchase of Alaska, 1867 In October of 1867 the United States purchased Alaska, a territory containing 590,000 square miles, from Russia lor about $7,000,000. At that time Alaska was thovight to be valuable only for its furs, fisheries and lumber, but valu- able mineral deposits have since been opened there, and it no doubt possesses other valuable resources. [I Treaty of Washington, 1871 The treaty of Washington provided for the settlement by arbitration of the questions in dispute between the United States and Great Britain. These questions were : The dis- puted boundary line between British Columbia and the ter- ritory of Washington, the rights of American fishermen in Canadian waters, and the claim of the United States for damages for the destruction of American commerce during the Civil War by vessels fitted out in British ports. This last mentioned is known as the "Alabama Claims " and was settled by the board of arbitration which awarded $15,500,000 damages to the United States. This treaty is important, because it is the first notable example of the voluntary arbi- tration by two great nations of questions in dispute. fll ArPLICATION OF THE jMONROE DoCTRINE I. The French in Mexico, 1861-186/ During the Civil War a French Army had been sent into Alexico, and a French Empire had been established with Maximilian, an Austrian Archduke, as Emperor. 278 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION Soon after the close of the war, the Secretary of State intimated to the French government that the United States was now in a position to enforce the principles of the Monroe Doctrine, and the French soldiers were at once removed from Mexico. 2. The Venezuelan Boundary, i8gy Great Britain and Venezuela could not agree upon the boundary between their territory in South America. Vene- zuela appealed to the United States and the United States asked Great Britain to submit the question to arbitration in accordance with the Monroe Doctrine. Great Britain claimed that the world had outgrown that doctrine. On receiving a note from the British government containing these views, Cleveland, with the authority of Congress, appointed a commission to determine the boundary in dis- pute. In a proclamation to Congress he stated that when the boundary line had been determined by the commission, the United States would fight if necessary in order to main- tain it, England then consented to have the matter sub- mitted to arbitration. The firm stand of Cleveland served as a notice to the world that the United States would strictly enforce the Monroe Doctrine. In 1902 several European powers blockaded some of the Venezuelan ports with a view of collecting debts due from Venezuela. Through the influence of this government the matter was referred to the Hague Tribunal. All of these incidents tended to show Europe that the American people were going to keep the Monroe Doctrine in force. It is perhaps recognized by Europe today more than ever before as a fixed principle in regard to the affairs of the New World. IV Growth of Arbitration r. Application of the Principles of Arbitration The principle of arbitration has for some time been em- ployed in the settling of domestic difficulties in the United Foreign Relations 279 States, such as disputes between laborers and their em- ployers. This has been particularly effective in the settle- ment of great strikes which have threatened the various industries of the nation, and even in some cases the welfare of the whole nation. An instance of this latter kind may be found in the great coal strike of 1902-1903 in the Pennsyl- vania coal fields, which was settled by arbitration after causing great injury to industries and untold suffering among the people of the nation. As has been stated, the settlement of disputes between Great Britain and the United States by a board consisting of arbitrators appointed by outside nations was the first notable application of arbi- tration to international affairs. It marked a distinct advance in the settlement of international questions and has since become recognized as the best way in which to deal with many international difficulties. 2. The Hague Tribunal, i8gg In 1899, at the suggestion of the Czar of Russia, dele- gates from twenty-six nations met at the Hague in Holland for the purpose of providing for a permanent Court of Arbitration for the settlement of difficulties be- tween nations without their going to war. The work of this conference met with the heartiest approval of the various nations of the world, and as a result the Hague Tribunal of Peace has been established. It is the object of this tribunal to settle all such questions arising between nations as may be submitted to it justly and fairly, and to thus promote the peace and welfare of the world. The United States has been among the foremost in urging the principles of arbitration. V The Spanish-American War^ 1898 I. Causes The remote cause of this war was the Spanish mis-gov- ernment of her West Indian possessions, which caused con- tinual rebellion among the inhabitants and endangered 280 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION American property interests there. Moreover the American people felt a great deal of sympathy for the people who were struggling to establish a republican government, and against whom a cruel and bloody warfare was being waged to crush this rebellion. The immediate cause of the war was the destruction of the American battleship Maine, in the harbor of Havana, with the loss of more than two hundred and fifty sailors. It has not yet been proven, but it was generally believed that the destruction of the vessel was due to the Spaniards. At any rate it served to arouse the people of the United States and led directly to the war for the independence of Cuba. 2. Campaigns (a) Naval Warfare The American navy decided the success of the United States in this war. Two naval battles were fought, one ofif the southern coast of Cuba, and one in the Philippine Islands which belonged to Spain, and where a part of the Spanish navy was stationed. In these two battles the Spanish navy was practically destroyed, without the loss to the American forces of a single ship, and with the loss of but one man. With her navy destroyed, Spain could not hope to make any effective resistance on the land, either in the Philippines or in the West Indies. (b) The War on Land The chief land campaign of the war had for its object the capture of Santiago. Two vigorous battles were fought at El Caney and San Juan before the city was captured by the Americans. Another successful cam- paign was begun at Porto Rico, but was soon stopped by the declaration of peace. A third army was sent to the Philippines, where it aided in the capture of the chief city, Manila. Foreign Relations 281 },. Results The war itj>l2lf was of comparatively little importance, but its results are of great importance to the United States. As an immediate result Cuba became independent of Spain and the United States gained considerable territory in the management of which she has entered upon some new policies. (a) Territorial Results By the treaty of peace after the close of the war the United States acquired the Philippine Islands, Guam, Porto Rico and other Spanish West Indian Islands, giv- ing Spain in return $20,000,000. This war had shown the military value of the Hawaiian Islands, and they were also annexed to the United States in 1898. The annex- ation of Hawaii had been proposed to the United States before, and would very likely have taken place in any event, but the war hastened it. (b) Political Results The political effect of this war is far reaching and may vitally affect the policy of the United States. If these possessions are treated as colonies, the United States may be compelled to mix in Asiatic and European affairs, thus to a certain extent abandoning the principle of neutrality established by Washington, to which the United States has always strictly adhered. Previous to the acquisition of this territory all of the country acquired by the United States had been practically unsettled, leav- ing for the American people the development of its resources and its preparation for becoming an integral part of the Union. Most of the territory acquired from Spain during the recent war is thickly populated, and if it be held as colonial possessions, and the constitution of the United States be not permitted to extend over it, a new principle will have entered into the American 282 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION government. These questions belong to the future, and their solution will make some of\ the most important work of American statesmen. VI The Isthmian Canal As early as 1850 the building of a ship canal through some part of Central America was discussed, and a treaty made between England and America regarding the neutrality of such canal when built. From time to time treaties were made concerning a canal to be built through Central America, but nothing was accomplished. The Spanish-American war em- phasized the value of such a canal, and in 1901 the matter was taken up again. A second treaty was then made with Eng- land, guaranteeing the neutrality of the proposed canal, but giving the United States the right of ownership and defense. The construction of the canal was then taken up by Congress. Two routes were proposed, one by way of Nicaragua and the other by way of Panama. A large sum was appropriated for the construction of the canal and negotiations were at once begun with Colombia for a canal by way of Panama. Upon the rejection by Colombia of the treaty giving the United States the power to construct the canal, Panama revolted and established a republic which was at once recog- nized by the United States and the other leading nations. The United States succeeded in making very favorable ar- rangements with the government of Panama and the treaty arranged by representatives of the United States and Panama was promptly ratified by both governments in 1904, and work on the canal was at once begun. INSTITUTIONAL LIFE The development of the institutional life of the United States since the Civil war has been remarkable, particularly along indus- trial lines. There has been very little change in the conditions of Government and Religion, except the natural development Institutional Life 283 along lines laid down in the previous periods. Socially some ne^\ factors have entered jnto national life, and educationally the ad- vance of the nation has been marvelous. I Industrial Conditions The industrial progress of the United States since the Civil war has not been equalled in any other period of the world's history. This industrial development has affected the entire institutional life of the nation, and has made the United States the wealthiest nation in the world. I, Improved Means of Transportation and Conimunication The development of the United States in these respects during the last forty years is remarkable. In i860 there were 30,000 miles of railroads ; at the present time there are over 200,000 miles and new roads are constantly being built. In i860 there were no railways west of the Mis- souri river. The first line reaching the Pacific was com- pleted in 1869 and four other transcontinental lines have since been built, and, together with their branches, have penetrated every part of the West. The railroads have been a most important agency in national industrial and social development. Realizing this, the government has done much to encourage the building of railroads. For this purpose it has given to railroad companies more than 200,000,000 acres of land and $60,000,000. In addition to railroads, street-car systems are in use in all the cities and even in the larger towns and in thickly populated sub- urban districts. The use of electricity as a motive power has caused great improvements in transportation. Great steamship lines have been organized, and transportation by water much improved. The successful laying of oceanic cables has been accomplished during this last period, and now nearly all parts of the civilized world are in close communication. The telephone, too, has been invented and perfected within the last thirty years. The effect of 284 RECONSTRUCTION. DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION this j^reat advance in means of transportation and com- munication can hardly be overestipiated. It has aided the industrial growth of the nation by making it possible to develop the great natural resources of the country, especially of the interior part. It has also had a profound effect on the industrial development of the country by creating an immense home market for the products of all parts of the nation. If the railroads did not exist, a large share of the products of many parts of the United States would never find a market. The improved means of transportation and communication have also exerted a great and beneficial influence on the nation socially by bringing the people into closer touch, doing away with sectionalism, and thus promoting the growth of a true national life. 2. Ot/icr Invoitions and Discoveries More inventions have been made during this period than in any other period in the world's history. These cover nearly every field of production and activity. The period is marked by the very rapid development of electricity as a power. The period is also remarkable from the stand- point of discoveries in the various branches of science. 3. Manufactures and Agriculture In i860 the manufactured products of the United States were valued at $4,000,000,000. The estimated annual value of the present output from its factories is over $12,000,000,000, being greater than that of any other country in the world. The growth of the iron and steel industries is most remarkable. In i860 England led the world in the production of iron and steel. Now the United States is far in advance of that country. This is but a single instance of the rapid growth of manufacturing inter- ests in the United States. Over 5,000,000 people are em- ployed in her factories. Nearly all of her large cities are Institutional Life 285 hives of industrial enterprise, and the products of her factories are carried to the markets of every country in the world. Agriculture continues to be one of the leading industries. The developing of the Middle \\'est and the Pacific Coast has placed the United States in the front rank of agricul- tural nations. The building of railroads and the exten- sion of irrigation have been important factors in this agricultural development. Stock raising has also become an important industry in the West. Immense amounts of food stufifs are raised and exported by the United States and they form one of the chief sources of the wealth of the country. The United States furnishes 80 per cent of all the cotton raised in the world, and its annual exports of provisions, bread stuffs and cotton have a value of about $800,000,000. 4. Commerce and Population The growth of commerce has kept pace with that of manufactures. On both the Atlantic and Pacific Coast are located great ship-building concerns, where not only American vessels, but also vessels of all kinds for foreign nations are built. The products of American factories and farms are carried to all parts of the world in American vessels. The total foreign commerce of the United States exceeds that of any other nation, and her domestic com- merce is several times greater than that of any other nation. At the present time (1905) the population of the United States, not including Alaska and the territory secured as a result of the Spanish-American War, is about 80,000,000, or about two and a half times what it was at the close of the Civil War. The immense foreign immigration since the Civil War has had a most important effect on industrial conditions in the United States. Without the labor of these immi- 286 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION grants many of the great industries could not have been built up. Their labor has been valuable particularly in the building of railroads and in tne working of mines. Of late years, however, the immigrants have been of a lower class, and have come in such numbers that many believe that the continued practically unliriiited admission of immigrants is becoming a serious menace to our insti- tutions, and that Congress should pass stringent laws concerning immigration. 5. The Nezsj South The abolition of slavery produced a revolution in the labor system of the South. Before the War, as has been stated, slavery had been the corner stone of southern society. With the emancipation of the slaves this society passed away, and on its ruins rose a " New South," having free labor as its foundation. The South has gained greatly by this change. The production of cotton has more than doubled since i860. At that time the capital invested in southern manufacturing industries was so small as to scarcely require mentioning. There is now invested in machine-shops, mills and workshops more than $50,000,000 of capital. Thousands of miles of railroads have been built. Coal and iron mines have been opened up. Atlanta, Chattanooga, New Orleans, Augusta, Birmingham, and other southern cities now have manufacturing establish- ments which rival those of the North and West. 6. The Development of the Neiv West The discovery of gold and silver and other mineral mines in the Rocky Mountains and in the country lying west of these mountains early caused a great stream of immigration to start westward. At first the covered wagon was the principal means of transportation. Later came the overland stage-coach, and later still railroads reaching to the Pacific. These railways have had more influence Institutional Life 287 on the development of the West than any other single factor. The recent discoveries of immense oil fields in California promise to make the Pacific Coast a more im- portant manufacturing region, by supplying a cheap fuel, the lack of which has been a serious drawback to manu- facturing interests on the coast. The utilization of the mountain streams by converting their force into electric power is also furnishing cheap motive power. Another important factor in the development of the West has been the extensive use of irrigation by which arid lands have been made fertile, and homes for thousands of settlers have been created. The fact that the national govern- ment has decided to assist in reclaiming western lands by irrigation should result in greatly increasing the pro- ductive farming area of the West. II Social Conditions There have been many changes in the social conditions during this time. Some of these changes have been for the better and some for the worse. The more important factors that have tended to change and modify the social conditions of the nation during this period are the negro question, the immense foreign immigration, the great in- dustrial advance with the resulting creation of vast private fortunes, and the improvement in means of transportation and communication. The last factor has done more than anything else to break down localism in manners and cus- toms, and to unify the social life of the nation. The com- ing to the United States of so many of the worst classes of Europe is having an undesirable effect on social condi- tions, because these immigrants congregate in large cities and do not readily assimilate American customs and ideals. The negro question which was created by the emancipation and enfranchisement of the negroes, more vitally concerns the South. The solution of this question rests largely with the people of the South, and in this work they deserve the 288 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION sympathy and co-operation of every citizen of the nation. Industrial education, such as is beinp- carried on under the direction of Boolcer T. Washington, at the Tuskeegee Institute in Alabama, promises to be the most important factor in the solution of this problem. The great industrial development of the nation has tended, on the whole, to ad- vance social conditions, because it has enabled the great mass of the people to have better homes, better clothes, better food, and more luxuries, and to enjoy more fully the pleasures of social life. On the other hand the tendency of large private fortunes is to create class distinctions based on wealth. While there are some undesirable tendencies and conditions in the social life of the nation, the great improvement along industrial lines has caused and is causing a steady improvement in social conditions. Ill Education 1. Nature of Development In no respect has the advance of the United States since the Civil War been more marked than in the matter of edu- cation, and especially is this true in the South. This great advance in education throughout the United States is seen in the present condition of the public school system and in numerous institutions of higher education ; in the num- ber and quality of newspapers and magazines ; in institutes, conventions and clubs of various kinds, which have for their object mutual improvement; and in the number of museums, libraries and art galleries. 2. The Public Elementary School System. The free elementary public school system as it exists in the United States to-day has been built up and developed almost entirely since the Civil War. There were public schools before the Civil War and they were doing excel- lent work, but there were not many free public schools be- Institutional Life 289 fore that time and in efficiency and equipment those schools were far inferior to those of to-day. Just before the Civil War the people were beginning to demand free pub- lic schools as a right, and this soon resulted in placing the general management of the school system under the control of state school officials and in the levying of state school taxes. This was a new principle in education, for before, such matters had been left almost entirely in the hands of city and county officials. At the present time the constitu- tions of nearly all the States make ample provision for the maintenance of the free public schools. Nearly all of the states west of the Alleghany miountains, under the direction of Congress, set aside, at the time of their organization, certain lands in each township for the support of public schools. In most cases these lands have been sold, and the money obtained from their sale constitutes a school fund, the interest on which is used for school purposes. When additional money is needed it is raised by direct local and state taxation. Although each state has its own school system, and there is a wide difference as to the length of school terms, qualifications and salaries of teachers, courses of study and similar matters, there are strong forces at work which tend to make the schools uniform throughout the United States. Among these forces are state and national edu- cational associations, and the National Bureau of Educa- tion, the latter being under the direct control of the national government. 3. The Public High School System The advance in high school education during this period, has been as great and as important as the improvement in the elementary schools. The whole public high school sys- tem has been developed largely within the last forty years, the number of high schools doubling within the last ten years. The high schools have been aptly termed the col- 290 RECONSTRUCTION. DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION leges of the common people. Their service in strengthening the work of the elementary schools and in giving the young people of all classes an opportunity for a higher edu- cation, can hardly be overestimated. Many of the public high schools in the United States to-day offer courses of study of as high grade as did Yale and Harvard a hundred years ago. 4. Universities, Colleges and Special Schools The growth of the state universities is one of the most notable features of the advance in education. Nearly every state in the Union has established an institution of this kind, supported by taxation, grants of public land, and ap- propriations by the legislatures. Several great institutions of learning and numerous smaller colleges have been es- tablished throughout the United States by private individ- uals. These institutions of higher education are havii^g an important effect on American character and ideals. There have been established within the United States during this period many special schools, among which are normal schools for the training of teachers ; medical schools for the training of physicians and surgeons ; law schools for the training of lawyers ; and many other technical schools for the training of men and women along profes- sional and technical lines. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS RECONSTRUCTION OF THE CONFEDERATE STATES Questions for Class Recitations What was the condition of government in the seceded states at the close of the Civil War? Explain the question which this condition brought before the national government. Explain carefully each of the three views which were held regarding the relation of the seceded states to the national government. To what extent did Lincoln carry out his views, and what did he say his future policy in the whole matter would be? Describe the death of Lincoln. How was his death received by the northern people? Explain why the news of his death was received with sincere sorrow and regret by the entire civilized world. Why was his death an especially great loss to the South? Describe the early life of Lincoln. Discuss Lincoln's character and ability. Compare Lincoln's and Johnson's policies of reconstruction. Explain how and to what extent Johnson carried out his policy. Read and ex- plain the Thirteenth Amendment. Explain the nature of the laws which the new state legislatures of the South passed for the control of the negroes. Why did the South pass these laws? What effect did the passage of these laws have on the northern people? Explain carefully how Congress, when it met in December, 1865, treated the reconstruction policy of Johnson. Explain the creation, power, and purpose of the Freedmen's Bureau. Explain the relation and feeling which existed between Congress and Johnson over the Freedmen's Bureau and other matters of reconstruction. Read and explain the provisions of the Four- teenth Amendment. Explain carefully how this amendment was re- ceived in the South, and why it was so received. By this time what was the attitude of the people of the North on the question of recon- struction? Explain carefully the plan of reconstruction provided for in the Reconstruction Acts. How did the seceded states receive these acts? Read and explain the provisions of the Fifteenth Amendment. In what way was this amendment connected with the end of the political recon- struction of the South ? Discuss the impeachment of President Johnson. Explain how the reconstruction policy of Congress enabled northern immigrants and the negroes to control for a time some of the state legislatures of the South. How did the southern people feel about this? How would you have felt? Explain the relation between the race question and the recon- struction of the seceded states. Give your opinion as to the wisdom of making the Fifteenth Amendment a part of the Constitution. 292 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES Questions for Class Recitations Explain the Australian ballot system. Explain carefully why the adoption of this system was a very important advance in political methods. Why is it very important for the people to take an active part in the selection of candidates for office? How may they do this? Describe the Spoils System, and explain carefully the bad results of this system. Explain carefully the object of the Civil Service Laws. Give the history of these laws in the United States and what they have accomplished. Discuss the leaders and principles of the Republican party since the Civil War. Discuss the leaders and principles of the Democratic party during this period. Discuss the leading issues between these two parties during this period. Discuss the conditions causing the formation of other parties. FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION Questions for Class Recitations What was the condition of the finances of the national government at the beginning of the Civil War? Why did the government find it necessary to issue paper money? What is a national bond? Why did the government issue bonds during the war? Describe the national bank system. Why was it created? What action did Congress take against the state banks? What is specie payment? When the paper money was first issued, could it be exchanged for gold and silver money? What effect did this have on the use of gold and silver money in business affairs? Explain what is meant by the resumption of specie payment in 1864. What effect did this have on the amount of paper money in circulation? After 1864, when and for what reason was specie payment discontinued, and when was it resumed? Explain fully what is meant by standard money. Up to 1873, what was standard money in the United States? Explain carefully how silver since 1873 has gradually lost its position as a full standard money. Explain carefully the two main objects for which tariff duties are levied. Explain the two different views regarding the value of the pro- tective principle of the tariff. What is your opinion as to the merits of the protective system? Beginning with the Civil War, trace and explain the tariff legislation of the nation. What is a corporation? For what purposes are corporations organ- ized? What is a trust? Give some examples of vast corporations or trusts. In what ways are they beneficial, and in what ways are they Questions and Topics 293 harmful? What is a labor union? Why were labor unions organized? In what way have they benefited the working classes? What is meant by personal freedom and personal initiative in business and industry? (This question should receive a most careful discussion by teacher and pupils.) Explain carefully how freedom in business and industry and fair, open, and honest industrial competition are principles that are abso- lutely necessary to the prosperity and happiness of the American people. Why is it necessary that the people see to it that great combinations do not interfere with these principles ? Explain in what ways certain com- binations have done so or have threatened to do so already. Describe those laws which have already been passed for the purpose of restricting the powers and defining the duties of corporations, trusts, and other combinations. FOREIGN RELATIONS Questions for Class Recitations How did the United States secure Alaska? Describe the territory. Of what value is it to the United States? Explain how the seizure of the Confederate commissioners on the British vessel Trent created a strong feeling among the northern people against Great Britain. Why was the government of the United States not very anxious after the Ci\il War to settle the disputes between this country and England? Discuss the provisions of the Treaty of Washington. Explain the final results secured by the provisions of this treaty. Why is this treaty of special importance? Describe the conditions in Mexico during the Civil War. Explain how the principles of the Monroe Doctrine applied to these conditions. Discuss the Venezuelan boundary dispute, and the application of the Monroe doctrine to this case. How did the Monroe Doctrine apply to the recent blockade of the ports of Venezuela? What effect did all this have on the Monroe Doctrine? (The teacher should consult magazines covering this period for material on this topic. The American Reviezv of Reviews is especially valuable.) What is meant by arbitration? Describe the appointing of a board of arbitration. Give examples of its use in settling difificulties between laborers and their employers in the United States. Of what value is arbitration in cases of this kind? Give instances of the applica- tion of the principle of arbitration to international affairs affecting the United States. Discuss the establishment of the Hague Peace Tribunal. Give a history of this tribunal and its work. What can you say of its probable value to mankind? Discuss the causes of the Spanish-American War. Discuss the lead- ing naval battles of this war, and discuss their effect. Describe the 294 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION campaign for the capture of Santiago. (Each pupil should draw a map illustrating the important battles of this war.) Discuss the terms of the treaty of peace. Tell all you can about the character and conditions of the territory acquired by the United States through this treaty. How did the Spanish- American War affect the annexation of Hawaii? (Each pupil should draw a map showing the territorial acquisitions of the United States as a result of this war.) How is the territory acquired by this war governed at the present time? Compare the government of Hawaii with that of the Philippine Islands. Compare the conditions in the territory acquired from Spain with those in the territory previously acquired by the United States. Why was a different policy adopted in the government of this new territory from that followed in the organiza- tion and government of the other territory of the United States? In what way, if in any, do the results of the Spanish-American War tend to violate the principle of American neutrality established by Washing- ton? In what way may the Spanish-American War cause a new prin- ciple to enter into the government of the United States? Tell all you can of the history of the Panama Canal. (Each pupil should draw a map showing the two routes proposed.) Discuss the importance of this canal, and estimate its probable value to the United States and to the commerce of the world. INSTITUTIONAL LIFE Questions for Class Recitations Discuss the nature of the changes in the institutional life which have taken place since the Civil War. Explain very carefully why the period between 1828 and i860 will always stand unique and unrivaled in the history of the world as regards means of transportation and com- munication. (This last question deserves very careful consideration.) Describe the nature and value of those new inventions and discoveries which have affected means of transportation and communication since i860. Describe the increase in railroad mileage since i860. Explain carefully how this wonderful growth of the railways of the nation has affected industrial and social conditions. Compare the number and nature of the inventions made since the Civil War with those made during the period before that war. How did the people of the United States continue to compare with the people of other nations in regard to the making of inventions and discoveries? Describe the inventions made for the practical application of electric power. What is your opinion concerning the future use of electricity for practical purposes? Explain carefully how the invention of new machinery and the in- creased production of iron, copper, gold, and silver goods have caused the rapid development of the mineral resources of the nation. In what Questions and Topics 295 way have the new inventions and the increased production of useful machinery caused an increased production of manufactured goods and agricultural products? (This question deserves very careful considera- tion.) Describe briefly the growth of agriculture during this period. Describe briefly the growth of manufactures during this period. What is your opinion regarding the future growth in the United States of the agricultural and manufacturing industries? Explain the relation between the growth in the farming and manufacturing industries and the growth in commerce, cities, and population. Compare the foreign commerce of the United States with the foreign commerce of other nations. Discuss the domestic commerce of the United States, explaining the causes of its growth, and comparing it with the domestic and foreign commerce of other nations. Compare the population of the United States in i860 with its population in 1905. What have been the causes of this rapid growth? Describe the growth of the cities during this period. Explain carefully what have been the causes of this growth. Why is this unusual tendency to crowd to the cities thought to be against the best interests of the nation? Compare the growth of the South during this period with her growth during the period before the Civil War. What were the causes of this change? How did the abolition of slavery afl'ect the building of rail- ways in the South? How did it affect the growth of manufactories and the production of cotton? How did it affect the growth of population? Compare the growth of the West during this period with the early settle- ment and growth of the other sections of the United States. Compare the population of this western country in i860 with its population in 1905. Explain carefully the growth of the West in means of transporta- tion and communication, and in wealth and commerce. What can you say as regards the probable future growth of the western country? Explain carefully each of the more important factors that have brought about changes in the social conditions of the nation since the Civil War. Explain how improvement in means of transportation and communication affected social conditions during this period. What effect has the immigration of undesirable people from the nations of Europe had upon the social conditions of the nation? Explain the importance of the race question to the social conditions of the nation. How has the great industrial growth of the nation affected social conditions? What is your opinion concerning the continued improvement in social conditions? How does the growth of education in the United States since the Civil War compare with the industrial growth ? What things give evi- dence of this educational growth? Explain carefully how this great educational advance indicates a bright future for the nation. In what vital way is the question of teachers' salaries related to the growth of education? Give a very careful discussion of the growth of the elemen- 296 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION tary public school system. Give a very careful discussion of the growth of the public high school system. Give a very careful discussion of the growth of colleges, universities, and special schools. What is the especial value to the nation of these schools of higher and special education? Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the relation of the Confederate states to the national gov- ernment at the end of the Civil War. Discuss the death, character, and ability of Lincoln. Discuss the reconstruction policy of Johnson. Discuss the reconstruction policy of Congress, including a careful discussion of the results of this policy. Discuss the changes in political methods which took place during this period. Discuss the political parties of this period and their position on the leading political issues. Give a careful discus- sion of the nation's financial legislation. Beginning with i860, give a careful discussion of tariff legislation in the United States. Give a careful discussion of corporations, trusts, and other combinations. Discuss the Treaty of Washington. Discuss the application of the principles of the Monroe Doctrine during this period. Discuss the growth of arbitration in domestic and international affairs. Discuss the Spanish-American War and its territorial results. Discuss the ways in which the form of government adopted by Congress for the territory secured from Spain tends to introduce new principles into the government of the United States. How may the results of the Spanish-American War modify the principle of American neutrality in European affairs? Discuss the history and importance of the Isthmian Canal. Give a careful discussion of the industrial growth of the nation during the forty-five years between i860 and 1905. Discuss the growth of the West during this period. Discuss the changes in social conditions which have occurred since i860. Give a careful discussion of the growth of schools and education in the United States since i860. Subjects for Special Study and General Review (A careful study of the subjects which follow should constitute the review for the eighth-grade work in history and civics. The pupiL should have ample time for the study of these subjects, and should be per- mitted free access to available material when preparing these papers or written discussions.) Beginning with the Revolution, give a written discussion of the Growth of the United States in Territory and Population. Beginning with "Institutional Life in the Colonies," give a written discussion of the Growth and Change in Industrial Con- ditions. Beginning with "Institutional Life in the Colonies," give a writ- ten discussion of the Growth and Changes in Social Conditions. Be- ginning with "Institutional Life in the Colonies," give a written Questions and Topics 297 discussion of the Growth and Changes in Government. Beginning with "Institutional Life in the Colonies," give a written discussion of the Growth and Changes in Religion. Beginning with "Institutional Life in the Colonies," give a written discussion of the Growth and Changes in Education. Beginning with the "Critical Period," give a written discussion of the Growth and Changes in Financial Conditions and Finan- cial Affairs. Beginning with the "Critical Period," give a written dis- cussion of the Tariff Policy of the United States. Give a written dis- cussion of the Growth of Slavery in the United States. Give a written dis- cussion of the American Civil War, including its causes and the recon- struction of the seceded states. Beginning with Washington's first admin- istration, give a written discussion of the Foreign Relations of the United States, including the period of European Interference, the War with Mexico, and the Spanish-American War. Beginning with Washington's first administration, give a written discussion of the Growth and Changes in Political Parties and Political Methods. Str Hi^ 1905 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 011 446 710 8