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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2011 with funding from 
 The Library of Congress 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/oswegonormalmethOOfarn 
 
THE 
 
 OSWEGO NORMAL METHOD 
 
 -OF- 
 
 TEiCHIiG GEOGRIPH! 
 
 PREPARED FOR THE PRACTICE DEPARTMENT OF THE 
 
 OSWEGO STATE N'ORMAL AND TRAINING 
 
 SCHOOL OF OSWEGO, N. Y. 
 
 AMOS W. FARNHAM 
 
 TEACHER OF GEOGRAPHY METHODS, AND PRINICTPAL OF PRACTICE SCHOOL. 
 
 SYRACUSE, N. Y. ^NVx2i^4$'*\ 
 
 0. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER 
 
 1896 
 
 Copyright, 1896, by C. W. Bardeen 
 
G13 
 
 C. W. BARBEEN, SYRACUSE, 
 
TO THE PRACTICE TEACHER, 
 
 the present dependence of the practice school, and the 
 future reputation of the Normal school, these helps 
 on geography teaching are regardfully inscribed by the 
 
 Author. 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 The author desires to express his gratitude to Miss 
 Margaret K. Smith of the Oswego Normal School, for 
 valuable suggestions in connection with this work. 
 
 Mr. Charles B. Scott of the Oswego Normal School, 
 and Mr. G-eorge E. Bullis, Superintendent of Schools, 
 Oswego, have given helpful criticisms on the material 
 and its arrangement. A. W. F. 
 
 Oswego, May 21, 1896. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Geography, at best, is a very complex subject. It 
 includes the earth and all that pertains to it, as well as 
 something of its relations to other planets. The sub- 
 ject is practically inexhaustible. It is the study of a 
 lifetime. It begins with the child when he first enters 
 the world, and only ends with him when he takes his 
 exit from it. The question with the teacher is, how 
 much of this study belongs to the life in the school. 
 To what extent is he responsible for giving direction to 
 this study. 
 
 It would seem sufficient to demand that he lay good 
 foundations, and get the pupil started in the right 
 direction. If this is a correct premise, then the first 
 duty by the way of laying the foundation is to lead the 
 child to properly observe everything in nature about 
 him, — the air, the water, the sky, the clouds, the temper- 
 ature, the animals, the plants, the rocks, the soil, the- 
 hills, the valleys, the streams, the habitations, the occu- 
 pations, — in short all that pertains to that part of the- 
 earth which he knows, and its environments. He 
 must also become master of the necessary terms with 
 which to express the ideas gained by his observations.. 
 
 If the teacher leads the child to do this preparatory 
 (3) 
 
4 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 
 
 work well, he has discharged an important part of his 
 work in teaching geography. The child now knows 
 all of geography that his senses can reveal to him. He 
 has gained the power of accurate observation, infer- 
 ence, and expression. He can readily express his ideas 
 in words, by drawing and painting, by modeling and 
 constructing. 
 
 This prepares him for the next step in his progress, 
 and he now steps out from the known to the great 
 unknown. The foundation is laid upon which he is to 
 build. He now goes from the real, the actual, to the 
 imaginative, the ideal. He is no longer confined to 
 that small portion of the earth that lies within the ken 
 of his vision, but he takes in th^ whole, of which this 
 is but a small part. His knowledge of the depressions 
 and elevations, the smaller water-sheds and water 
 basins, the streams, his village, city or town, and the 
 occupations of the people about him, prepares him to 
 form some conception, vague and inaccurate though 
 it may be, of the great continents, with their vast 
 mountain masses, plateaus, continental water-sheds, 
 basins, and river systems, and their relation to the pro- 
 ductions, occupations, and homes of the people. 
 
 Thus far the teacher may go with his pupils, and if 
 this is wisely done he has discharged his duty. He has 
 prepared the way for future study, — for the better 
 understanding of all that will need interpretation as 
 
PEEFACE ^ 5 
 
 the life study goes on, and for the intelligent filling in 
 of details. 
 
 All this evidently was in the thought of the author 
 of this little book, and it seems to me to be admirably 
 presented. It is not designed for memory work. It is 
 full of good suggestions for the teacher ; not a guide 
 for him to follow blindly and implicitly, but rather to 
 point out directions in which he may lead his pupils, — 
 outlines of work to be executed in accordance with the 
 conditions and circumstances, the environments and 
 thought or ingenuity of the teacher. . 
 
 While the author has in mind his pupils in training, 
 at the same time the book is equally suggestive to all 
 teachers of geography, and I predict for it a useful 
 career. The plan, the order of arrangement, the ex- 
 clusion of unnecessary details, all seem to me very 
 commendable. And I take pleasure in endorsing it as 
 an embodiment of my own idea as to the method of 
 teaching geography. I am proud to recognize among 
 our corps of teachers one who is capable of doing such 
 excellent work in this most difficult subject to teach. 
 His modesty led him to shrink from giving to the pub- 
 lic this valuable little treatise designed for a much 
 more restricted use, and the only part I claim in its 
 production and publication is the suggestion and en- 
 couragement given to do what he has so skilfully 
 executed. E, A. SHELDOisT. 
 
 Oswego, May 6, 1896.- 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 KEASONS FOR TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 11 
 
 BOOKS OF REFERENCE 13 
 
 C JUNIOR— FOURTH GRADE 17 
 
 I. Position words 19 
 
 II. Right, left, front, back . . 31 
 
 III. The school -room. 31 
 
 IV. Horizon 31 
 
 y. Cardinal points 33 
 
 yi. Plan of school-ro.om 33 
 
 yil. Plan of school block 35 
 
 yill. Streets of the city •. 35 
 
 IX. Description of the city 37 
 
 X. Inhabitants of the city 33. 
 
 XL Government of the city 36 
 
 XII. Surroundings of the city 36 
 
 B JUNIOR— FIFTH GRADE 45 
 
 XIII. The seasons 47 
 
 Xiy. Atmospheric phenomena 49 
 
 Xy. Brook basin — field lesson. 51 
 
 Xyi. Pond 58 
 
 Xyil. The county 59 
 
 A JUNIOR— SIXTH GRADE 61 
 
 Xyill. The earth as a planet 63 
 
 XIX. The sun .' 77 
 
8 .METHOD OF TP]ACHI^'G GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Page 
 XX. The moon 77 
 
 XXI. Eclipses 81 
 
 XXII. The planets 82 
 
 XXIII. Thestars 83 
 
 XXIV. Comets 85 
 
 C SENIOK— SEVENTH GRADE 87 
 
 XXV. The earth as the home of man 89 
 
 B SEXIOE— EIGHTH GRADE 97 
 
 XXVI. The continent as a whole 99 
 
 A SENIOR— NINTH GRADE 103 
 
 XXVII. A country 105 
 
 LESSON PLANS AND CRITICISMS .109 
 
 CRITICISM ON GEOGRAPHY LESSON 115 
 
 I. Report of lesson 117 
 
 II. Method .118 
 
 III. Subjective technique 118 
 
 IV. Objective technique 119 
 
 V. Statistics 120 
 
 VI. Results 120 
 
 VII. Judgment 121 
 
GEO&EAPHY METHODS 
 
KEASONS FOR TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 
 
 1. To explain the development of man by imparting 
 knowledge of continental structure and climate^ and of 
 their influence upon man, mediate and immediate. 
 
 2. To cultivate the imaginative and sesthetic nature. 
 The study of geography cultivates systematically the 
 
 imagination, whose products develop emotions of beauty, 
 which-, in turn, develop the emotion of grandeur. 
 
 The mental picture of the hill or lake which gives 
 beauty to the surrounding landscape, may in time, 
 become the image of the lofty mountain or the expanse 
 of ocean. 
 
 3. To explain and illumine history. 
 
 History is a record of the deeds of the human race. 
 The civilization and progress of a joeople depend very 
 largely upon the structure and climate of their country. 
 
 4. To develop a broad philanthropy. '^ To know the 
 world is to love the world. ■'^ 
 
 5. To develop a spirit of investigation. Thus : 
 
 a. What has caused Chicago to grow so rapidly ? 
 5. Why is more attention paid to the dairy in 
 Oswego County at present than formerly ? 
 (11) 
 
12 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 
 
 c. Why have the elevators on our river never beeii 
 rebuilt ? Etc. 
 
 6. To temper man's judgments with regard to human 
 weaknesses caused by natural environment, e. g. 
 
 How should we regard the social conditions of the 
 Eskimos, the Hottentots, and the Fiji Islanders ? Etc. 
 
 7. To develop man's reverence for human progress. 
 Study the geography of Holland and the development 
 
 of agriculture and commerce. 
 
 8. To furnish the basis of other sciences : such as 
 ethnology, history, etc. 
 
 9. To influence character. 
 
BOOKS OF REFERENCE 
 
 Local Geography 
 
 Bardeen^s Geography of tlie Empire State, G. W. 
 Bardeen. 
 
 Physical (jeography 
 
 Gruyot's Physical G-eography, American Booh Co. 
 
 Geikie^s Primer of Physical Geography, American 
 Booh Co. 
 
 , Tarr^s Elementary Physical Geography, Macmillan 
 <& Co. 
 
 National Geographic Monographs, American Booh 
 Co. 
 
 Huxley^s Physiography, Macmillan S Co. 
 
 Gee's Short Studies in Nature Knowledge, Macmil- 
 lan & Co. 
 
 Astronomical Grcograpliy 
 
 Jackson^s Astronomical Geography, B. C. Heath 
 S Co. 
 
 The Planet Earth, B. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 Bowen^s Astronomy by Observation, American 
 Booh Co. 
 
 Meteorology 
 
 Loomis's Treatise on Meteorology, Harper & Brothers. 
 (13) 
 
14 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGEAPHY 
 
 Davis's Elemeatary Meteorology, Ginn t§ Co. 
 
 G-reeley's American Weather, Dodd, Mead & Co. 
 
 Easser's Law of Storms, Norie <& Wilson, London. 
 
 Abercrombie's Principles of Forecasting by Means of 
 
 Weather Charts, Edioin Stanford, Charing Cross^ 
 
 London. 
 
 Commercial Greography 
 
 Chisholm's Handbook of Commercial G-eography^ 
 Longr}ians, Green & Co. 
 
 Keltic's Applied G-eography, Geo. Pliiliid & SonSy 
 London. 
 
 Tilden's Commercial G-eography. 
 
 Geography Taught by the Traveler 
 
 The Boy Traveler Series, Harper & Brothers. 
 
 The Zigzag Journeys Series, Estes & Lauriat. 
 
 The Family Flight Series, D. Lotlirop & Co. 
 
 Footprints of Travel, Ginn S Co. 
 
 Children of the Cold, Cassell & Co. 
 
 Old Ocean, Interstate PublisMng Go. 
 
 Johonnot's Geographical Reader, American Booh Co. 
 
 Rand-McNally Grammar School Geography. 
 
 Frye's Complete Geography, Ginii S Co. 
 General Geography 
 
 The World and its People, Silver, Burdett <& Co. 
 
 Picturesque Geographical Readers, Lee & Shepard. 
 
 Our World Reader, Ginn S Co. 
 
 Geographical Statistics 
 
 Spafford's American Almanac, American Neius Go. 
 
BOOKS OF BEFERENCE 15 
 
 Science of Greography 
 
 Gruyot's Earth and Man, Charles Scrihier's 8o7is. 
 
 Ritter's Comparative Geograpliy, Americayi Book Co. 
 
 Eitter^s G-eographical Studies, American Booh Co. 
 
 Fryers Child and Nature, Hyde Parh PuUisliing Co. 
 Metliods of TeacMug Geography 
 
 Red way ^s Manual of Geography, D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 McMu'i-ry^'s Special Method in Geography, Public 
 School PuhUshing Co. 
 
 Parkers How to Study Geography, American Booh Co. 
 
 Fryers Geography and Sand Modeling, Ginn <& Co. 
 
 King^s Methods and Aids in Geography, Lee & 
 Shejmrd. 
 
 Geikie^s The Teaching of Geography, Macmillan <& Co. 
 
 BrownelFs How to Use Globes, Andreius S Co. 
 
 Whitens Elements of Pedagogy, American Booh Co. 
 Wall Maps of Physical Geography 
 
 Guyot^s, Kiepert^s, Rand-Mc^NTally. 
 
C JUNIOR— rOURTH GRADE 
 
GEOGRAPHY— PREPARATORY WORK 
 
 I. Position Words 
 
 ahout = on every side of. 
 
 above = higher in place. 
 
 across = from side to side. 
 
 after = behind in place ; later in time. 
 
 against — in opposition to ; facing. 
 
 among = mingled with. [Used with regard to 
 more than two parties.] 
 
 along = by the length of. 
 
 around = on all sides of ; from one part to an- 
 other of. 
 
 at = nearer in place. 
 
 lefore = in front of. 
 
 behind = on the other side of. 
 
 below = not so high. 
 
 beneath = in a lower place. 
 
 between = in the intermediate space of. [Used 
 with regard to two parties.] 
 
 beyond — on the farther side of. 
 
 by = not far from. 
 
 doiun = in a descending direction. 
 (19) 
 
20 rOUETH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 in = within limits. 
 
 into = from the exterior to the interior. 
 
 near = not far from. 
 
 off = distant from ; not on. 
 
 on = touching the upper surface of a thing 
 
 and supported by it. 
 over = from side to side ; above in position and 
 
 covering. 
 through = from one surface or limit to the opposite. 
 to = motion made in the direction of a place, 
 
 and arrival. 
 toward = in the direction of. 
 under = in a lower position and covered. 
 up = from a lower to a higher plane. 
 
 upon = on. 
 
 within = in the interior part of. 
 without = on the outside of. 
 
 Note. — The use of the above words should be illus- 
 trated with objects in view. 
 
 The ideas of relation of position should be clearly 
 developed, and expressed in full statements. 
 
 Children should be led to state what they mean by 
 the use of about , above, across, etc. A sufficient amount 
 of application should follow the development of each 
 idea represented by a position word. 
 
 Be thorough. Bear in mind that this is preparatory 
 work for geography. 
 
RIGHT, LEFT, FRONT, BACK 21 
 
 n. Right, left, front, back 
 
 Illustrative questions 
 
 1. Which hand am I holding up ? [Right hand.] 
 
 2. Show your right hand. 
 
 3. What things do you do with your right hand ? 
 
 4. Point to your right. 
 
 5. Name a pupil at your right, etc., etc., etc. 
 
 Similar for left. 
 
 1. Where am I standing in regard to you ? [Front.] 
 
 2. Where is the table in regard to you ? 
 
 3. Trace front edge of table. 
 
 4. Place these cubes near the front edge of table, 
 
 etc., etc., etc. 
 
 Note. — Lead children to combine terms; e. g., The 
 book is on the right front corner of the table. Similar 
 for left front J right lack, left tack, 
 
 N. B. — See note below Position Words. 
 
 m. The school-room, with terms right, left, front, 
 back, applied. 
 Ask children to point to right wall, left wall, etc., 
 etc. ; to name things in or on each wall ; to state which 
 walls meet, and which do not meet, etc., etc. 
 
 IT. Horizon 
 
 1. The sky is above us. 
 
 2. The earth is below us, — beneath our feet. 
 
 3. The sky seems to rest upon the earth. 
 
22 FOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 4. At the place where the sky seems to touch the 
 
 earth, a circle seems to be formed. 
 
 5. We seem to stand in the center of this circle. 
 
 6. We cannot see beyond this circle. We can see 
 
 only the objects within this circle. 
 
 7. We say that this circle bounds our view. 
 
 8. We call this circle the horizon. 
 
 9. If we change our position the horizon changes. 
 
 10. The higher we stand the larger the horizon is. 
 The lower we stand the smaller the horizon is. 
 
 11. Above the horizon we can see the sun, moon, 
 
 and stars. They are called heavenly bodies. 
 
 12. For us the sun is the most important of the 
 
 heavenly bodies. 
 
 13. The apparent circle which bounds our view 
 
 where the sky and earth seem to meet, is 
 
 called the horizo?i. 
 ]S[0TE. — Ideas underlying statements of matter on 
 horizon should be gained from actual observation. 
 The horizon should be seen from the highest point 
 accessible to the class. The childi-en of the practice 
 school should observe from the cupola of the Normal 
 building or from Asylum Hill. Children should make 
 drawings of the horizon and of their position with 
 regard to it. 
 
 y. Cardinal points 
 
 1. Review terms, right, left, front, bach. 
 
CAEDINAL POINTS ; PLAN OF SCHOOL-ROOM 23 
 
 2. Have children change their positions, and state 
 
 that objects once at their right, are now at 
 their left, or behind them, etc., etc. 
 
 3. Develop ideas of necessity for absolute direc- 
 
 tions, and teach North, South, East, West. 
 
 4. The North Star and afterward the mariner's 
 
 compass should be used to illustrate North, 
 
 5. Teach children how to find the North Star by 
 
 the aid of the Big Dipper. 
 
 6. Correct notions of the points east and west can- 
 
 not be gained from the rising and setting of 
 the sun. Why not ? 
 Semi-cardinal points. 
 
 7. Each child should make a drawing of the dial of 
 
 the mariner's compass representing only car- 
 dinal and semi-cardinal points. 
 
 yi. Plan of school-room with cardinal and semi- 
 cardinal points applied. 
 
 1. Appa7'atus. 
 
 a. Molding board with plane surface of sand. 
 
 [The molding board should be in a horizontal 
 position with its ends pointing towards the 
 ends of the room.] 
 
 b. Tape-line and yard-stick. 
 
 2. Measurements. 
 
 a. Children measure ; class observe ; teacher con- 
 firm. 
 
24 FOURTH GJRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 l. Measurements reduced to a scale. 
 c. Teacher question, and draw in sand ; class 
 observe. 
 
 3. Objects represented. 
 a. Doors. 
 
 h. Windows. 
 
 c. Teacher's table. 
 
 4. Reproduction. 
 
 Drawing reproduced on paper by each child, 
 each step being directed by the teacher. 
 Note. — It should be made possible for each child to 
 face North when he draws his first plan (of school- 
 room). While drawings are in position (i. e., with 
 their represented directions coinciding with the real 
 directions) children should letter them in the cor- 
 responding margins, N., E., S., W. 
 
 5. Edges of paper 
 
 Children should be led to state that the top edge of 
 the paper is the north edge ; the right edge is the east 
 edge ; etc., etc. 
 
 6. Changes of position. 
 
 Children change position of drawings and state that 
 the drawings still show correct positions and directions 
 of objects in the room, and also of the walls of the 
 room. 
 
 7. Drawings on the wall. 
 
 Children place drawings on the north wall and state 
 
PLAIS" OF SCHOOL BLOCK 25 
 
 that the upper edge is now the north edge ; that the 
 right edge is still the east edge ; etc., etc. 
 8. B valuing defined. 
 Because this is a representation of the floor, doors, 
 windows of the school-room, it is called a plan of the 
 school-room. 
 
 YH, Plan of school Mock with cardinal and semi- 
 cardinal points applied. 
 
 1. See (I) below VI. 
 
 2. See (2) below VI. 
 
 3. Ohjects represented. 
 
 a. Frontage of school grounds and of all other 
 
 grounds in block. 
 h. Sidewalk, 
 c. 8hade trees. 
 
 4. See (4) below VI. 
 
 5. See (5) '' VI. 
 
 6. See (6) " VI. 
 
 7. See (7) '' VI. 
 
 8. Plan of school Mock defined. 
 
 Because this is a representation of a portion of 
 the surface of the earth, it is called a map 
 (of the school block). 
 
 Till. Streets of the city in their relation to the 
 school block. 
 
 1. Cardinal points considered. 
 
 2. Location, direction, distance. 
 
26 FOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The term location as it is used in these outlines, 
 implies direction and distmice. Children should make 
 thorough and frequent application of the ideas of car- 
 dinal and semi-cardinal directions during their study 
 of the city and its surroundings. They should also 
 make actual measurements of distance until they can 
 estimate short distances either in feet, yards or rods 
 with considerable accuracy. Children will be inter- 
 ested to know how many minutes it takes them to 
 walk a mile, a half mile, a quarter of a mile. Estima- 
 ting distance by means of time, either absolute or com- 
 parative time, is of greater practical value than by 
 means of standard linear units. '^^How long will it 
 take V is the correlative of ^' How far is it V Child- 
 ren should learn first-hand the length and width of the 
 city blocks, and then they should use these dimensions 
 in calculating city distances. 
 3. Home geography. 
 
 '' The very first step in a knowledge of geography, is 
 to know thoroughly the district where we live.^^ — 
 Ritter. 
 
 ^^ Wherever our home is, there lie all the materials 
 which we need for the study of the entire globe. ^^ — 
 Ritter. 
 
 •^^ The study of our own district is the true key to 
 the understanding of the forms and the phenomena of 
 foreign lands." — Ritter. 
 
DESCRIPTION" OF THE CITY 27 
 
 ^^ Every little nook and shaded corner is but a 
 reflection of the whole of nature." — Humboldt . 
 
 IX. Description of the city 
 
 1. Streets. 
 a. Names. 
 
 l. Directions in which they extend. 
 
 c. Location. 
 
 d. Direction and distance of streets from lake, 
 
 river, and streets that are above, across, 
 below, between, beyond, near, off from, etc., 
 other streets. Children learn distances 
 from actual measurements. 
 
 2. Bridges. 
 
 a. Names. 
 
 b. Location. 
 
 c. Length. 
 
 Note. — Show pictures of Brooklyn bridge, Niagara 
 Suspension bridge, and others. Children note differ- 
 ences in their construction, etc. Show pictures of 
 street scenes in other cities. 
 
 3. Wards, 
 
 a. Number. 
 
 b. Names. 
 
 c. Location with regard to, — 
 
 (1) lake, 
 
 (2) river, 
 
 (3) adjoining wards. 
 
28 FOUETH GEADE GEOGEAPHY 
 
 d. Boundaries — natural and artificial. 
 
 4. Street railways, 
 a. Name. 
 
 h. Location. 
 
 c. Termini. 
 
 d. Length — in blocks ; in miles. 
 
 e. Officers. 
 
 5. Paries, 
 
 a. Names. 
 h. Location. 
 
 c. Extent — length, width, area — equal to two 
 
 blocks. 
 
 d. Uses. 
 
 (1) Resorts, 
 pleasure, 
 
 _ health. 
 
 (2) Mass-meetings. 
 
 Note. — Show pictures of Central Park and others. 
 
 6. PuUic huildings, 
 a. Names. 
 
 h. Location. 
 
 c. Direction and distance from school-house. 
 
 d. Uses. 
 
 e. Occupants. 
 
 7. Educational institutions. 
 a. Names. 
 
 h. Location — direction and distance. 
 c. Uses. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE CITY 29 
 
 d. Occupants. 
 
 e. Officers. 
 
 Note. — Show pictures of similar institutions in other 
 cities. 
 
 8. CliaritaUe institutions. 
 a. Names. 
 
 h. Location. 
 
 c. Uses. 
 
 d. Officers. 
 
 Note. — Present pictures of similar institutions. 
 
 9. Banhs. 
 
 a. Names. 
 h. Location. 
 
 c. Uses. 
 
 d. kinds. 
 
 e. Officers. 
 
 Note. — Present pictures of other banks. 
 
 10. Churches. 
 a. Names. 
 ]). Location. 
 c. Pastors. 
 
 Note. — Present pictures of noted churches. 
 
 11. Manufactories. 
 a. Names. 
 
 h. Location. — Emphasize reasons for location. 
 
 c. Uses. 
 
 d. Officers. 
 
30 FOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Note. — Present manufactured articles, when prac- 
 ticable. 
 
 12. Railway stationfi. 
 
 a. Names. 
 
 b. Location. 
 
 c. Uses. 
 
 Note. — Present pictures of imposing railway stations. 
 
 13. Railroads. 
 
 a. Names. 
 
 b. Direction. 
 
 c. Termini. 
 
 d. Uses. 
 
 e. Officers. 
 
 Note. — Show views of landscapes seen along the 
 lines of our railroads, as well as of others. 
 
 14. Canals. — Same as railroads. 
 
 N. B. — Teach about hydraulic canals and locks. 
 
 15. The lake. 
 
 a. Name. 
 
 b. Location — with regard to the city. 
 
 c. Use. (Commercial use.) 
 
 16. The river. 
 a. Name. 
 
 h. Location — with regard to the city. 
 c. Use. (Commercial use.) 
 
 17. Shipping, 
 a. Kinds. 
 
DESCEIPTION" OF THE CITY 31 
 
 b. Causes. 
 
 c. Results. 
 
 Note. — This work underlies commercial geography. 
 
 18. The fort, 
 a. Name. 
 
 h. Location. [Reason for.] 
 
 c. Uses. [Reasons for peculiar form.] 
 
 d. Officers. 
 
 e. History. 
 
 Note. — Present pictures of our former forts, and 
 also of other forts. 
 
 This work underlies military geography. 
 
 19. The weather station, 
 a. Name. 
 
 h. Location. [Reasons for.] 
 
 c. Use. 
 
 d. Officers. 
 
 (1) appointed by whom ? 
 
 (2) paid by whom ? 
 
 (3) duties of ? 
 
 e. Storm signals. [Name and describe.] 
 /. Excursion to. [Apparatus explained.] 
 g. Weather maps, charts, reports. 
 
 Note. — Geography pupils should make and record 
 daily observations of the weather, noting, — 
 
 (1) frost or dew, 
 
 (2) direction and force of wind. 
 
32 EOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 (3) extent and kind of clouds, 
 
 (4) precipitation [snow, rain, hail, etc.], or fog, 
 
 (5) temperature, 
 
 (6) barometric pressure, 
 
 (7) sun-rise, 
 
 (8) sun-set, 
 
 (9) moon^s phases, 
 
 (10) moon-rise or moon-set, 
 
 (11) morning star, 
 
 (12) evening star. 
 
 ISToTE. — Children early learn to make '^graphic ^' 
 charts of the different aspects of the weather. The 
 daily weather bulletin should occupy a conspicuous 
 place on the black-board. 
 
 20. The life-saving station, 
 a. Name. 
 h. Location. [Reasons for.] 
 
 c. Use. 
 
 d. Officers, — 
 
 (1) appointed by whom ? 
 
 (2) paid by whom ? 
 
 (3) duties of ? 
 
 e. Excursion to. 
 
 (1) Exhibition of service witnessed. 
 
 (2) Apparatus explained. 
 
 Note. — Children should be required to make these 
 observations the subject of written compositions. 
 
rNHABITAiq"TS OF THE CITY 33 
 
 21. City map presented. 
 
 a. Teacher question, children name and locate 
 all places studied ; hence the name of the 
 map. 
 
 h. Teacher lead children to see that people 
 must be acquainted with the city in order 
 to make the map ; and that strangers may 
 learn from the map the location of the 
 streets, public buildings, etc., of the city, 
 — hence the use of the map. 
 
 X. ^Inhabitants of the city 
 
 1. Nationality, 
 
 a. Who of you were not born in America ? 
 5. Where were you born ? 
 
 c. Whose parents were not born in America ? 
 
 d. Whei-e were they born ? 
 
 e. Point toward the land of their birth. 
 /. In what direction are you pointing ? 
 
 g. Then the land of their birth is in what 
 
 direction from us ? 
 A. How did they reach America ? 
 i. How long were they coming ? 
 j. Where did they land ? 
 Ic. Point toward the place. 
 I, Who were born in America ? 
 m. Whose parents were born here ? 
 
34 FOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 2. History. — Told in stories and pictures of life in 
 Germany, France, Ireland, etc , as the case 
 may be, — especially stories and pictures of 
 child-life. 
 
 a. Sports. 
 
 h. Occupations. 
 
 c. Clothing — Styles of dress 
 
 d. Food. 
 
 e. Observance of Christmas and national holi- 
 
 Patriotism. — Material for lessons on home and 
 
 native land. 
 a. Object. — To develop power of reflection. 
 h. Point. — To develop ideas of and give terms, — 
 
 (1) House of my birth. 
 
 (2) Dwelling-house. 
 
 (3) Birth-place or native place. 
 
 (4) Dwelling-place. 
 
 (5) Home or country or native land. Also 
 
 develop some sense of the significance 
 of home and country. 
 
 c. Matter. 
 
 (1) The house in which I was born is the 
 
 house of my birth. 
 
 (2) The place to which the house of my birth 
 
 belongs is called my birth-place or my 
 native place or my native city. 
 
INHABITANTS OF THE CITY 35 
 
 (3) The house in which I live is called my 
 
 dwelling-house or my home. 
 
 (4) The place in which I live is called my 
 
 dwelling-place. 
 
 (5) The region or country in which my dwell- 
 
 ing-place lies is called my home or my 
 country. 
 
 (6) Every person ought to know something 
 
 about his home or country. 
 
 (7) Every man remembers his home kindly. 
 
 When he is away from his home, he 
 thinks with pleasure of returning. He 
 has pleasant memories of home. 
 
 (8) Every man feels that he owes something 
 
 to his country. When it is in dangc;^ 
 
 he will do all he can for it ; he will die 
 
 for it, if necessary. 
 
 N'OTE. — The above matter should be prepared in 
 
 lessons in such a way that children will feel some of the 
 
 force of the expression ^'Our Country". 
 
 Stories told and pictures shown of life in America^ 
 especially of life in New York, New England, the 
 West, and the South. Stories and pictures of the 
 Revolution. 
 
 Meaning of Our Flag, Lincoln^s birthday, Washing- 
 ton's birthday. Arbor day. Decoration day. Fourth of 
 July, Labor day, general election day, and Thanks- 
 giving. 
 
36 FOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 N. B. — In the indicated story work, do not lose sight 
 'Of the fact that you are teaching geography. Only 
 true stories should be told. Fairy tales, legends, and 
 fables have no place here. Do not present outline 
 jnaps. Good blackboard sketches are better now. 
 
 4. Occupations, 
 
 a. In what ways are the people of this city 
 earning their living ? 
 N. B. — Do not ask children to tell in what ways 
 their parents are earning their living. Why not ? 
 
 Note. — Present pictures of different kinds of occu- 
 pations. 
 
 5. Number. (Population, especially school popu- 
 
 lation.) 
 
 XI. The government of the city 
 
 1. Officers. 
 
 a. Names. 
 ]). Number. 
 
 c. Duties. 
 
 d. Term of office. 
 
 e. Salaries. 
 
 2. Election tickets presented, and manner of vot- 
 
 ing explained. 
 Note. — This work underlies political geography. 
 
 XII. The surroundings of the city 
 
 1. The river. 
 a. Name. 
 
TH^ SUEROUifDINGS OF THE CITY 
 
 t. Position with regard to the city. 
 
 c. Source. 
 
 d. Mouth. 
 
 37 
 
 Banks 
 
 materials, 
 names. 
 
 ( eastj west. 
 / right, left. 
 
 /. Bed |^loP«-'-'»Pids- 
 
 I precipice — falls. 
 
 9- 
 
 Channel. 
 
 number. 
 
 li. 
 
 Windings < 
 
 size. 
 
 causes. 
 
 uses. 
 
 i. 
 
 Current. 
 
 J- 
 
 Silt in river. 
 
 Tc. 
 
 Dimensions, — length, width, deptli 
 
 I, 
 
 Islands in. 
 
 
 ' flowing. 
 Character of water ^ cold, 
 fresh 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 water-supply. 
 
 
 
 ice-supply. 
 
 n. 
 
 Uses < 
 
 food-supply, 
 water- road. 
 
 
 
 wai 
 
 er-power. 
 
38 rOUETH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 ' name. 
 0. Tributaries <j definition. 
 
 ^ parts, uses, etc.^ as of river. 
 Note. — So far as possible the river itself should be 
 studied. Excursions should be made to get facts first- 
 hand, whenever practicable ; after which teacher repre- 
 sent the river on molding board, and children draw it 
 on paper. 
 
 2. The laJce. 
 
 a. Name. 
 
 b. Position with regard to city. 
 
 c. Shore 
 
 materials. 
 
 points. j peninsula. 
 
 bays. ( cape,— promontory. 
 
 Note. — Children should make drawings of sections 
 of the shore to show height, formation, projections and 
 indentations. 
 
 d. Foot — outlet — St. Lawrence. 
 
 N. B. — Teach inlet. Oswego river, Genesee river. 
 
 e. Head. * 
 
 slope. 
 
 /. Bed 
 
 ' precipice. 
 
 ^^ ( force. 
 
 a. Waves •< ,. ^ 
 
 i action on shore and stones. 
 
 Note. — Children bring to class water-worn stones. 
 
I. Uses 
 
 THE SURROUiTDIKGS OF THE CITY 39 
 
 also stones not water-worn, and compare their form 
 and surfaces. 
 
 Ji, Dimensions — length, width, depth. 
 i. Islands in. 
 NoTP]. — Present yiews of the Thousand Islands. 
 
 ' standing. 
 /. Character of water i cold. 
 ^ fresh. 
 
 ^ ( proof of. 
 
 Ic, Curvature ■< 
 
 / what inference ? 
 
 water-supply. 
 
 ice-supply. 
 
 food-supply. 
 
 water-road. 
 m. Teacher represent lake on molding board, 
 and children draw it on paper. Do not 
 present the outline map. 
 
 3. Harior. 
 a. Name. 
 h. Location. 
 
 p,.^, . , \ How 2ret there ? 
 
 c. Silt m water -l 
 i How get it out ? Why ? 
 
 d. Dimensions — length, width, depth. 
 
 e. Uses. 
 /. Care and expense of ? Assumed by whom ? 
 
 4. Pier, 
 a. Name. 
 
40 FOUKTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 h. Location. 
 
 c. Dimensions — length, width, height. 
 
 d. Uses. 
 
 e. Care and expense of. Assumed by whom ? 
 
 5. LigJit-lioiises. 
 a. Names. 
 
 h. Location. 
 
 c. Height. 
 
 d. Uses. 
 
 e. Lights — kind of. 
 
 ( salary. 
 ^- ^^'^l^^'- j paid by ? 
 
 g. Care and expense of ? Assumed by whom ? 
 Note. — Present pictures of noted light-houses. 
 
 6. Public roads. 
 a. Name. 
 
 h. Directions. 
 
 c. Lead where ? 
 
 d. Width — 3 or 4 rds. wide. 
 
 e. Controlled by Avhom ? 
 
 7. Cemeteries, 
 a. Names. 
 i. Location. 
 c. Officers. 
 
 8. Fair grounds, 
 a. Name. 
 
 l. Location. 
 
THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE CITY 41 
 
 c. Uses. 
 
 d. Officers. 
 
 9. Asylum MIL 
 a. Name. 
 
 h. Location with regard to the city. 
 
 c. Comparative_^height. 
 
 " top (summit)j 
 
 d. Parts \ bottom^ or foot (base), 
 
 sides^(slopes) — length of. 
 
 e. Materials. 
 
 f outlook, 
 /. Uses <( health — state of the atmosphere, 
 (^ beauty. 
 Note. — Present pictures of other hills, some of which 
 should be very high (mountains). Children name parts 
 as shown in pictures. 
 
 10. Plain and valley. 
 
 Note. — Ideas of plai7i and valley should be developed 
 when excursions are made ; their locations noted, forms 
 compared, and lastly definitions made by the children. 
 
 The teacher should at all times make as careful 
 preparation for an excursion as for laboratory work or 
 as for a recitation. 
 
 11. The country. — (Observe from highest point 
 
 accessible to the class, as well as during 
 excursions.) 
 
 ( hills, ridge of hills ; 
 a. Land forms •< ,, 
 
 i valleys, plains, swamps. 
 
c. Soil < 
 
 42 FOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Note. — Observe the relation of valleys to hills. 
 
 ^^ ^ ( brooks, creeks ; 
 
 0. Water forms ■{ 
 
 I springs, ponds. 
 
 Note. — Observe the relation of water forms to land 
 forms. Compare ponds and swamps, observe likenesses 
 and differences. Observe the relation of hills to springs, 
 and of springs to streams. 
 
 Nature. — G-ravel, sand, loam, clay. 
 Color. — Gray, brown, black. 
 Sources. 
 Depth. 
 
 Fertility. — Very fertile, fertile, poor 
 or sterile. 
 
 Note. — Collect soils in bottles or boxes and label 
 each. 
 
 ( sandstone, 
 
 ) boulders (not native). 
 
 Note. — Collect and label minerals. 
 
 r for food (vegetables, fruits, 
 I grains), 
 
 e. Plants, — Uses { for lumber, 
 for fuel, 
 for medicine. 
 
THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE CITY 
 
 43 
 
 Note. — Specimens of native wood observed. Ob- 
 serve differences in color, odor, hardness, arrangement 
 of fibers (graining). 
 
 kinds, 
 uses. 
 
 /. Animals < 
 
 domestic 
 
 kinds. 
 
 wild 
 
 uses. 
 
 g. Products . 
 
 animal 
 
 vegetable 
 
 mineral 
 
 Note. — Present stuffed specimens or pictures of 
 native wild animals. Visit the zoological laboratory. 
 
 milk, butter, cheese, 
 
 meats, 
 fats, eggs, feathers, 
 hides, hair, glue, 
 
 fertilizer, etc. 
 vegetables, fruits, 
 grain, fodder, hay. 
 
 { sandstones, bricks, 
 1 pottery, drain-tiles. 
 
 ' farming. 
 
 gardening. 
 
 dairying. 
 h. Occupations <[ stock-raising. 
 
 poultry-raising. 
 
 quarrying. 
 ^ brick-making. 
 
44 
 
 FOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Hamlets 
 
 names. 
 
 direction from the city. 
 distance from the city. 
 number of inhabitants, compared 
 with each other and with the 
 city. 
 
 f commercial. 
 /. Relations with the city { educational. 
 
 social. 
 
B JUNIOE— FIFTH GRADE 
 
a. Spring < 
 
 XIII. The Seasons 
 
 months of ; 
 
 comparative length of day and 
 
 night ; 
 general temperature ; 
 atmospheric products ; 
 sports of children ; 
 occupations determined by season; 
 holidays. 
 l. Summer — See Spring. 
 
 c. Autumn — See Spring. 
 
 d. Winter — See Spring. 
 
 Note. — Children make daily reports of the weather, 
 rising and setting of the sun, etc., and record the same 
 in a B. B. tabular view. 
 
 Children learn how to use the almanac, to make 
 individual records on paper, to average, to summarize, 
 and to make weekly reports, stating at what hours 
 observations were made. They should note points in 
 the horizon which mark the sunrise and the sunset. 
 
 Children draw horizon on paper the twenty-first day 
 of each month, locate their own position, the cardinal 
 and semi-cardinal points and the points of sunrise and 
 
 sunset. 
 
 (47) 
 
48 FIFTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Children compare these points from month to month, 
 state from what time to what time they decrease in dis- 
 tance ; from what time to what time they increase in 
 distance ; and when they are nearest together, and 
 when farthest apart. 
 
 Children led to observe when the shortest day occurs ; 
 when the day and night are of equal length, and when 
 the longest day occurs. 
 
 Children led to state that the sun moves through 
 space, and that it seems to move from east to west. 
 Similar regarding the moon. Children asked to note 
 at evening th« positions of certain stars in the heavens, 
 as the evening star, etc. ; then, before retiring, note 
 their positions again, and state as they have already 
 stated regarding the sun and moon. 
 
 Teach what twilight (two lights), and what evening 
 and morning twilight are. 
 
 Children should measure the shadoAV of a fixed object 
 at noon, the twenty-first day of each month. This 
 measure in feet and fraction of a foot, or inches and 
 fraction of an inch, should be recorded. 
 
 Children compare these measures from month to 
 month, state from what time to what time they increase 
 in length, from what time to what time they decrease 
 in length, and note the date when the shadow is the 
 , longest, when it is the shortest, and when its length 
 is half the sum of its longest and shortest lengths. 
 
ATMOSPHEEIC PHENOMEI^A 49 
 
 Lead children to observe that the longer the shadow, 
 the shorter the distance of the sun from the horizon. 
 
 Lead children to connect the shortest day, the low 
 noon sun, its southerly position at rising and setting 
 with the cold weather of winter. 
 
 Lead children to connect the opposites of the above. 
 
 N. B. — Do not present the globe. Do not attempt 
 to explain these phenomena at this stage of the work. 
 These facts, however, may be learned first-hand, and 
 will render the study of astronomical and mathematical 
 geography far easier in later lessons. Children may 
 learn that things are so, long before they are able to 
 learn luhy they are so. 
 
 XIT. Atmospheric phenomena. 
 
 1. Observe the rise and fall of water in the river. 
 
 2. Observe effects of rains and melting snows upon 
 
 the rise of the river. 
 Observe the effect of continued drought upon 
 the fall of the river. 
 
 3. The water of the earth flows to the sea (ocean) 
 
 in brooks, creeks, and rivers. 
 
 4. During its course, a part of it rises into the air 
 
 in the form of vapor. 
 A part of the water of the sea rises into the air 
 in the form of vapor, 
 o. This vapor condenses into clouds. 
 
50 FIFTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 6. The clouds are driven by the wind over the 
 
 whole earth. 
 When they are heavy and full of water (vapor) 
 they are dark gray, often nearly black. 
 
 7. Water falls from the clouds in the form of rain, 
 
 hail or snow. 
 
 8. When the water vapor is in the air near the 
 
 earth it is condensed on the plants in the 
 form of dew. 
 Frozen dew is called hoar frost, or rime. 
 
 9. When the air near the earth is heavily laden 
 
 with water-vapor, there is mist or fog. 
 
 10. Clouds, rain, hail, snow, sleet, mist, fog, 
 
 dew, and frost are aqueous atmo spheric phe- 
 nomena. 
 
 11. The atmosphere (the air) surrounds the earth. 
 
 12. It varies at different times and in different 
 
 places. 
 
 13. It may be warm or cold, moist or dry, pure or 
 
 impure. 
 
 14. In spring the air is generally damp and cool, 
 
 sometimes foggy. 
 
 15. In summer the air is generally dry, warm, and 
 
 sultry. 
 
 16. In autumn — (See 14). 
 
 17. In winter the air is generally dry and cold. 
 
BROOK BASIN" — FIELD LESSON^S 61 
 
 18. Air moving from a certain direction is called 
 
 according to its rapidity, zephyr, breeze,, 
 gale, hurricane. 
 
 19. The state of the atmosphere (the air) in regard 
 
 to heat or cold, moisture or dryness, purity, 
 or impurity, for a short period of time is 
 called iveather. 
 
 20. The state of the atmosphere in regard to heat 
 
 or cold, moisture or dryness, purity or im- 
 purity, for a long period of time is called 
 climate. 
 The prevailing weather of a region for a long 
 period of time, is called climate. 
 
 21. Three kinds of climate are distinguished ; hot, 
 
 cold, and temperate. 
 Note. — Local climate observed and distinguished. 
 
 22. The condition of the land is influenced by 
 
 winds and climate, as very fertile, fertile, etc. 
 
 XT. Brook Basin— Field Lessons 
 
 1. Preliminary questions — ansivers found in 
 nature, 
 a. How deep into the land does rain go ? 
 I. What stops it ? 
 
 c. In what direction does it flow then ? 
 
 d. Why do not rains finally fill the soil ? 
 
 e. What becomes of the water ? 
 /. Where will it come out ? 
 
52 FIFTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 g. What is water springing from the earth 
 
 called ? 
 Ji. Where does most of the water of springs 
 
 go? 
 i. Where does water in brooks come from ? 
 y. Where does the water in brooks go ? 
 h. In what direction must a brook flow ? 
 I. Why do some brooks flow more rapidly than 
 
 others ? 
 m. Why do brooks wind about ? 
 n. What do brooks do for the land through 
 
 which they flow ? 
 0. Which holds water longer^ sand or loam ? 
 p. What are all the uses of ^ water in the soil ? 
 2. Brooh. 
 
 a, Name — special. 
 
 t. Location — direction and distance from the 
 
 school-house. 
 
 c. Source. _ 
 
 d. Mouth. 
 
 e. Direction of flow. 
 
 ( right, left ; 
 /. Banks \ ) cardinal directions. 
 
 I materials. 
 g. Bed — The hollow which holds the brook. 
 h. Channel. 
 
Current < 
 
 BKOOK BASIK — FIELD LESSONS 53 
 
 A moderate flow 
 equals 6f rods per 
 rapidity ■{ minute. 
 
 A torrent flow equals 
 100 rods per minute. 
 
 f slope, 
 
 deter- J ( number, 
 
 mined by j windings -< 
 
 [^ ( size. 
 
 " number. 
 
 size. 
 
 y. Windings <J causes. 
 
 I 
 
 uses 
 
 to brook, 
 to man. 
 
 Jc. Silt. 
 I Delta. 
 
 r length. 
 m. Dimensions <j width. 
 (^ depth. 
 71. Islands in. 
 
 f flowing. 
 0. Water ^ cold. 
 (^ fresh, 
 water-supply, 
 food-supply. 
 
 Note. — Observe the relation of^(e), (g), (i), (j), (k), 
 (m), and (n), to the character of the slopes. 
 
 p. Uses 
 
54 FIFTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 3. Tributary. 
 
 a. Name — special. 
 J. Definition. 
 
 c. Number. 
 
 d. Location, parts, etc., as of brook. 
 
 4. System, 
 
 a. Definition. 
 
 h. Name — special. 
 
 5. Basin. 
 
 a. Definition. 
 
 h. Name — special. 
 
 c. slopes. 
 
 (1) Definition. 
 
 (2) Number. 
 
 ( source, right, left. 
 
 (3) Names \ • 
 
 ( apply cardinal directions. 
 
 (4) Direction. 
 
 ( comparative. 
 <5) Length \ 
 
 ( absolute. 
 
 ( number. 
 (6) Breaks } 
 
 ( parts compared. 
 
 {7) Degree (whether gradual or steep). 
 (8) Soil (differences from brook to water- 
 parting). 
 
 f kind. 
 {9) Vegetation ^ quantity. 
 
 [ quality. 
 
BROOK BASII^ — FIELD LESSORS 55 
 
 Note 1. — Children collect soils from different parts 
 of the slope, label them with regard to locality, study 
 them in the class-room, note differences, give reasons 
 for the differences, and observe the relation of the 
 character of the soil to the kind, quantity, and quality 
 of the vegetation. 
 
 Note 2. — Present pictures of slopes, and lead child- 
 ren to state the character of the drainage. 
 
 f Open (slopes on three sides from 
 
 , „. , the water-parting). 
 a. Kinds <( x- n/ 
 
 I Closed (slopes on all sides from 
 
 1^ the water-parting). 
 
 i water-parting (definition). 
 e. Boundary I 
 
 ( shore-line (definition). 
 
 Note. — Lead children to observe that the water-part- 
 ing of the brook basin is the crest of the ridge of land. 
 /. Shape. (Open basins generally triangular.) 
 g. Size. 
 Note. — Teacher present, children find, brook basins 
 in pictures. Teacher and children mold brook basin 
 just studied. Teacher sketch brook basin on black- 
 board. Children draw same on paper. 
 QUESTIONS 
 Teacher. — If the stones we see about us were used to 
 build a tight wall across the open side of this brook 
 basin, what would be the effect upon the flow of the 
 brook ? 
 
56 FIFTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Children. — It would stop the flow. 
 
 T. How long would it stop the flow ? 
 
 O. Until the basin was full ; or, until the water had 
 reached the top of the wall ; or, until the water reached 
 the lowest place in the water-parting. 
 
 T. What will the water in the basin then be called ? 
 
 G. A pond. 
 
 T. And what kind of basin would the basin then be 
 called ? 
 
 C. A pond basin. 
 
 T. Where would the brook and its tributaries be 
 then ? 
 
 C. At the bottom of the pond. 
 
 T. What would all the land covered by the pond be 
 of the pond ? 
 
 C. The bed of the pond. 
 
 T. What would the water-parting be of the pond ? 
 
 G. The bank or shore of the pond. 
 
 T. In what respect would the water of this pond be 
 unlike the water of the brook ? 
 
 G. It would be still water or standing water. 
 
 Here lead the children to state that when man aids 
 in the formation of a pond, it is called an artificial 
 pond ; that when nature alone forms a pond, it is called 
 a natural pond. 
 
 Children name natural ponds in the vicinity of the 
 school-house, one of which may be studied for the fol- 
 lowing lesson. 
 
BROOK BASIK — FIELD LESSONS 57 
 
 The work on artificial pond helps the child to a 
 clearer notion of what a pond really is, — of its bed, 
 slopes of bed, inlets and outlet, and its islands. 
 
 The bed of the pond is uneven. Some of the high 
 portions are little hills. Several of these hills are not 
 entirely covered with water, and their tops form islands 
 in the pond. 
 
 If the foot of the pond were reduced to the level of 
 the slopes at their lower edges, then the inlets would 
 become tributaries of the outlet ; and the outlet and its 
 tributaries would form a brook system. 
 
 MATTER TO BE USED IN DEVELOPING IDEAS OF 
 BROOK BASIN 
 
 1. A small stream of water flowing through the 
 
 land, is (sometimes) called a brook. 
 
 2. A small stream of water flowing through the 
 
 land, and into a brook, is a tributary of the 
 brook into which it flows. 
 
 3. A brook and all its tributaries is a brook syste7n. 
 
 4. All the land drained by a brook and its tribu- 
 
 taries, is a brook basin. 
 
 5. Land surface which is neither horizontal nor 
 
 vertical is a slope. 
 
 6. Two slopes meeting at their lower edges, form 
 
 the bed of the stream. 
 
 7. A brook basin is a combination of slopes. 
 
58 FIFTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 8. The slope in which a. stream rises is called the 
 
 source slope. 
 
 9. The slope on the right side of a stream, is 
 
 called the right slope. 
 
 10. The slope on the left side of the stream, is 
 
 called the left slope. 
 
 11. A basin enclosed on three sides only is an open 
 
 dasin. 
 
 12. A basin enclosed on all sides is a closed basin. 
 
 13. The line from which water flows in opposite 
 
 directions, is a water-parting. 
 
 14. Two slopes meeting at their upper edges, form 
 
 a water-parting. 
 
 15. The water-parting is a part or the whole of the 
 
 bounding line of the brook basin. 
 
 16. The line which separates two brook basins is a 
 
 water-parting. 
 
 XVI. Pond 
 
 1. N'ame — special. Reasons for name. 
 
 2. Definition. 
 
 3. Position — direction and distance from school- 
 
 house. 
 
 4. Parts. 
 " number — two. 
 
 f right and left. 
 
 names { cardinal directions ap- 
 a. Shores ^ y ^^-^^^ 
 
 according to height. 
 
 kind , 
 
 according to material. 
 
THE COU]S"TT 59 
 
 ^. Foot (consider outlet and inlets). 
 
 c. Head. 
 
 d. Bed. 
 
 f length. 
 
 e. Dimensions ^ width. 
 
 1^ depth, 
 number. 
 
 /. Islands in 
 
 form. 
 
 ' standing. 
 g. Water <j cold. 
 ^ fresh. 
 •5. Uses. 
 
 a. Water supply. 
 h. Ice supply. 
 c. Food supply. 
 l^OTE. — Teacher present pictures of ponds. Child- 
 ren find and name parts. Teacher and children mold 
 pond in sand. Children draw map of pond, using a 
 -scale. 
 
 XTn. The county— county map presented 
 
 Note. — Eeview work on city map, especially with 
 ireference to wards and natural features. 
 1. Towns. 
 a. Number. 
 l. Names. 
 H. Elvers. 
 a. Name. 
 
60 riEIH GEADE GEOGEAPHT 
 
 h. Location. 
 
 c. Course. 
 
 d. Flows into. 
 
 e. Islands in. 
 /. Uses. 
 
 3. Lakes. 
 
 a. Name. 
 h. Location. 
 
 c. Islands in. 
 
 d. Uses. 
 
 4. Falls. ^ a, Name. 
 
 5. Mountains. | 
 
 6. Mines. } i. Location, 
 
 7. Quarries. 
 
 8. Oaves. 
 
 9. Railroads. 
 
 c. Uses. 
 e IX, 13, 14. 
 
 10. Canals. 
 
 11. Cities. 
 
 12. County-seat. 
 
 13. County officers. 
 a. Names. 
 
 1). Duties. 
 
 c. Term of office. 
 
 d. Salaries. 
 
A JUNIOR— SIXTH GRADE 
 
XTIII. The earth in space— one of the planets 
 
 !N'OTE 1. — Eeview, with objects, sphere, surface, 
 spherical surface, diameter, and circumference. Pre- 
 sent sphere, and lead children to state how much of its 
 surface can be seen at one time. 
 
 Lead children to discover that a spherical surface 
 obstructs the view between two given points. 
 
 Lead children to discover that a plane surface does 
 not obstruct the view between two given points. 
 
 Eeview cardinal points, si^iid position of 7iorth star. 
 
 Have children trace the apparent course of the sun 
 from sunrise to sunset. 
 
 Note 2. — Plain spheres, not globes, should be used in 
 this work. 
 1. Shape. 
 
 a. If a man travel eastward from l^ew York and 
 
 continue in the same direction, he will in 
 time come to New York again. 
 
 b. If a man travel westward from San Fran- 
 
 cisco, CaL, and continue in the same 
 direction he will in time come to San 
 Francisco again. 
 Query. — That a man may be able to continue his jour- 
 ney eastward or westward, and return to his starting 
 
 (63) 
 
64 SIXTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 place^ what shape do you think the earth must be in 
 these directions ? 
 
 c. Wherever men may be on the ocean they see 
 
 the masts of a ship in the distance^ before 
 they see the body of the ship, although the 
 body is larger than the masts. 
 
 d. Wherever seamen approach the shore, they 
 
 see the highest points of land first. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (1) What is there between ships at sea and 
 
 ships at the shore ? 
 
 (2) What, do you think must be true of 
 
 the surface of the ocean, that men 
 can not see the whole of distant 
 objects at one time ? 
 
 (3) Since the ocean covers about three- 
 
 fourths of the surface of the earth, - 
 what shape do you think the whole 
 surface of the earth is ? 
 
 (4) Then what is the earth, thinking of its 
 
 shape ? 
 2. Revolution. 
 Note. — Eecall a ride on the cars. When you looked 
 through the car window, what was peculiar about the 
 appearance of the objects you saw ? (Rocks, trees, etc.) 
 In what direction did they appear to move, thinking of 
 the direction of the cars ? While you looked at the 
 
THE EARTH AS A PLAi^ET 65 
 
 rocks, trees, etc., what seemed true of your own 
 motion ? 
 
 a. Near what point do we first see the morning 
 
 sun ? 
 h. ]^ear what point do we last see the evening 
 sun ? 
 
 c. How does the sun seem to move with regard 
 
 to the earth ? 
 
 d. Once all people believed this ; now it is be- 
 
 lieved only by ignorant people. It has 
 been proved that the earth moves around 
 the sun, that it moves from west to east, 
 and that it takes a year for the earth to 
 return to a given starting point. 
 
 e. The moving of the earth around the sun, is 
 
 called a revolution. 
 
 f. The course of the earth around the sun, is 
 
 called the orlit of tJie earth. 
 
 g. Since the earth is a sphere, how much of its 
 
 surface must be in sunlight at one time ? 
 
 h. What do we call the period of time from sun- 
 rise to sunset ? 
 
 i. What do we call the period of time from sun- 
 set to sunrise ? 
 
 J. What is the length of the period of time 
 from sunrise to sunrise ? 
 
 h. Then how often do we have a period of sun- 
 light ? 
 
66 SIXTH GEADB GEOGRAPHY 
 
 I. Upon what does the earth depend for its 
 light ? 
 
 m. Since the earth depends upon the sun for 
 light, having none of its own, and since it 
 revolves around the sun, it is called d^ planet 
 of the sun, 
 
 n. Planet means wanderer. 
 
 0. The exact time in which the earth revolves 
 around the sun, is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 
 minutes, and 48 seconds. 
 
 p. Because each year contains almost three 
 hundred sixty-five and one-fourth days, 
 every fourth year is reckoned three hun- 
 dred sixty-six days. 
 
 q. To which month is the extra day added ? 
 
 r. Why do you think it is added to this month 
 rather than to any other ? 
 
 s. What is a year of three hundred sixty-six 
 days called ? 
 
 t. Because every fourth year leaps forward a 
 day, it is called leap-year. 
 
 u. What is a year of three hundred sixty-five 
 days called ? 
 
 3. Rotation. 
 
 a. Since the sun does not move around the 
 earth, and since it takes the earth a year to 
 move around the sun, what must occur to 
 
THE EARTH AS A PLAKET 67 
 
 give us a period of sunlight every twenty- 
 four hours ? 
 h. Since the earth is a sphere^ it must turn on 
 a diameter. 
 
 c. The turning of the earth on a diameter is 
 
 called the rotation of the earth, 
 
 d. What does the rotation of the earth produce ? 
 
 e. How often does the earth perform a rotation ? 
 
 [Illustrate direction of rotation.] 
 /. The diameter on which the earth rotates is 
 
 called the axis of the earth, 
 g. The axis extends through the earth north 
 
 and south. 
 h. The ends of the earth^s axis are called poles, 
 i. The northern end of the earth^s axis is the 
 
 north pole, 
 j. The southern end of the earth's axis is the 
 
 south pole. 
 h. The north pole is the most northern point of 
 
 the earth's surface. 
 I. The south pole is the most southern point of 
 
 the earth's surface. 
 m. The north pole points toward the north 
 
 star. 
 Note. — Teacher present a plain sphere, and say, 
 '' For a few moments, let this represent the earth." ^ 
 (1) Touch two points between which the axis may 
 
 extend. 
 
68 SIXTH GKADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 (2) In what directions does the axis extend ? 
 
 (3) Hold the sphere so that the axis will extend 
 
 in its true directions. 
 
 (4) Eotate the sphere as the earth rotates. 
 
 (5) Touch the most northern point of the sphere. 
 
 (6) What does this point represent of the. earth ? 
 
 (7) To what does it point ? 
 
 (8) Touch the most southern point of the sphere. 
 
 (9) What does the point represent of the earth ? 
 
 (10) How often does the earth perform a rotation ? 
 
 (11) How often does the earth perform a revolu- 
 
 tion ? 
 
 (12) How many days in a year ? 
 
 (13) How many rotations does the earth perform 
 
 during one revolution ? 
 
 (14) How many motions has the earth ? 
 
 (15) Teacher get terms, daily or diurnal motion ; 
 
 also yearly or annual motion, 
 4. Size. 
 
 a. It has been found by calculation that the axis 
 
 of the earth is the shortest diameter of the 
 
 earth. 
 5. The axis of the earth is called the polar 
 
 diameter of the earth, 
 c. The polar diameter is twenty -six miles shorter 
 
 than the longest diameter of the earth. 
 d. Because the polar diameter is the shortest 
 
THE EARTH AS A PLANET 69 
 
 diameter, what do you think is true about 
 the shape of the earth at the poles ? 
 e. If a man could travel on the longest diameter 
 through the earth at the rate of 300 miles 
 per day ; it would take him almost 26^ 
 days to make the journey. What is true 
 about the length of the longest diameter 
 of the earth ? 
 
 Note. — The longest diameter of the earth is 7,925 
 miles. 
 
 /. If a man travel at the rate of 300 miles per 
 day, he may travel around the earth in 
 about 83 days. About what is the circum- 
 ference of the earth ? 
 NoTE.^The greatest circumference of the earth is 
 24,899 miles. 
 
 g. The circle which measures the greatest cir- 
 cumference of the earth is, at all points, 
 half-way between the poles. 
 h. The circle which measures the greatest 
 circumference of the earth is called the 
 equator, 
 i. In geography, a circumference is called a 
 circle, therefore the greatest circle of the 
 earth is called the equator, 
 j. A diameter terminated by the equator is 
 called an equatorial diameter. 
 
70 SIXTH GKADE GEOGEAPHY 
 
 Ic. An equatorial diameter is longer than any 
 
 other diameter. 
 Z. An equatorial diameter is twenty-sis miles 
 longer than the polar diameter. 
 Note. — Children show with sphere what is meant by 
 the axis of the earth, and state which diameter it is 
 with regard to length and location. Children locate 
 longest diameter and give special name. Children 
 compare equatorial and polar diameters with regard to 
 direction and length. 
 5. Hemispheres. 
 Note. — Teach hemispheres with plain spheres and 
 Tiemispheres. 
 
 a. The equator divides the earth into two equal 
 
 parts. 
 Each part is called a hemisphere. '^Hemis- 
 phere '^ means half-sphere. 
 h. Since the equator is a circle, and [since it 
 divides the earth into two equal parts, it is 
 called a great circle. 
 
 c. What is the hemisphere north of the equator 
 
 called ? 
 
 d. What is the hemisphere south of the equator 
 
 called ? 
 6. Latitude. 
 Note. — Teach latitude with plain spheres. 
 
 a. Distance north and south from ^the equator 
 
 is called latitude. 
 
THE EARTH AS A PLAKET 71 
 
 l. Distance north, from the equator is north 
 latitude. 
 
 c. Distance south from the equator is south 
 
 latitude. 
 
 d. Places in the northern hemisphere are in 
 
 north latitude. 
 
 e. Places in the southern hemisphere are in 
 
 south latitude. 
 /. In what latitude is the north pole ? Why ? 
 g. In what latitude is the south pole ? Why ? 
 h. Where does latitude begin ? Then in what 
 
 latitude is the equator ? 
 ^. Where does latitude end ? What amount of 
 distance have the poles from the equator ? 
 Then what latitude have the poles ? 
 Note. — When latitude and longitude are taught in 
 close succession of time, the terms are usually con- 
 founded. Hence, it is better to defer the teaching of 
 longitude for a while. 
 
 Because the teaching of longitude is deferred, the 
 teaching of eastern and western hemispheres is neces- 
 sarily deferred. 
 
 At this point review or teach ohjectively the table of 
 circular measure. Emphasize the fact that circular 
 measure deals with distance, and that its minutes and 
 seconds must not be confounded with minutes and 
 seconds of time. 
 
72 SIXTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Lead children to see that the length of a degree varies 
 with the size of the circle. 
 7. TJie Seasons. 
 
 Note. — Review objectively axis, and terms, vertical, 
 horizontal f oUique, perpendicular, inclined, inclination, 
 and orbit. 
 
 Review source of the earth^s light, names of the months 
 in order, time of shortest day and of longest day, time 
 when day and night are equal, time of lowest mid-day 
 sun, and of highest mid-day sun. (See indicated work 
 in note under XIII.) 
 
 a. Teacher lead children to find surfaces which 
 may be parallel to all points of the straight 
 edge of a ruler. Children or teacher give 
 term plane surface. 
 h. A plane surface is often called a plane. 
 
 c. A surface, any two points of which may be 
 
 joined by a straight line, so that every point 
 of that line will be in the surface, is a plane. 
 
 d. The space bounded by the earth^s orbit, is 
 
 called the plane of the earth's orlit. 
 
 e. Illustrations. 
 
 (1) Out a large disc of paper. Draw a colored 
 line around its margin. Place paper in 
 horizontal position. What may the 
 colored line represent ? What may the 
 paper within the line represent ? 
 
THE EAKTH AS A PLANET 73 
 
 (2) Describe a large circumference on black- 
 board. What may the circumference 
 represent ? 
 What may the space inclosed represent ? 
 /. Teacher describe a circumference on black- 
 board (west blackboard if possible), draw its 
 horizontal diameter, and its vertical diam- 
 eter, and divide upper right quadrant into 
 four equal parts by drawing radii. 
 
 Children state at each step what the teacher 
 has done. Children hold rulers to repre- 
 sent the vertical diameter, and then incline 
 them to the right (which should be north) 
 a trifle more than one-fourth of a quadrant. 
 
 Children state that one-fourth of a quadrant 
 equals 22^°. Teacher tell children that 
 the inclination exceeding 22^ degrees is one 
 degree, hence the amount or inclination is 
 23i degrees. 
 
 Children hold spheres so that their axes are 
 vertical, and then incline them northward 
 23^ degrees. 
 
 Teacher hold inclined sphere (say) at the 
 southern point in the colored margin of the 
 paper disc. (See III. in e.) 
 
 Children state what the margin of the paper 
 and the sphere represent. 
 
74 SIXTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Children state that since these objects repre- 
 sent the o^'Mt, the plane of the earth's orlit, 
 and the earth, then the earth^s axis is in- 
 clined 23^ degress to X^iq plane of the earth's 
 orlit. 
 
 Children show the inclination using black- 
 board circumference. 
 g. Teacher question for position of sun in earth's 
 
 orbit. 
 h. Teacher illustrate position of earth in its 
 orbit on March 21, and the relation of the 
 position to the light of the sun. 
 
 Similar work with reference to June 21, Sep- 
 tember 21, and December 21. 
 
 The teacher state that these dates are really the 
 dates when the seasons begin. The seasons 
 are caused by the inclination of the earth^s 
 axis to the plane of the earth's orbit. 
 8. Zones. 
 
 a. Children represent poles and equator on a 
 plain sphere. 
 
 Teacher illustrate what is meant by vertical 
 rays of the sun, and when rays are vertical 
 at the equator. 
 
 Teacher illustrate northern limit of vertical 
 rays ; locate (direction and distance from 
 the equator) and represent the circle which 
 bounds the limit. . 
 
THE EAETH AS A PLA^-ET 75 
 
 This circle is called the Tropic of Cancer, 
 h. Teach objectively that when the sun^s rays 
 are vertical at the Tropic of Cancer, the 
 sun lights the earth 23-| degrees beyond the 
 north pole. During a rotation of the earth, 
 the line of light describes a circle. 
 Teacher locate (direction and distance from 
 
 the north pole), and represent the circle. 
 This circle is called the Arctic Circle, 
 o. In a similar way, teacJi and locate. Tropic of 
 
 Capricorn and Antarctic Circle. 
 d. G-et from children the terms. Polar circles. 
 North Polar circle, and South Polar circle. 
 ^. The divisions of the earth^s surface made by 
 the tropics and polar circles, are called zones, 
 f. Teach boundary, width, climate, and name 
 of each zone. 
 IN'OTE 1.— Teach what is meant by small circles of the 
 earth and parallels. 
 
 Note 2. — Children locate tropics and polar circles 
 with regard to latitude. Children give exact latitude 
 of tropics, polar circles, and yoles. Children state the 
 distance in degrees of each pole from the equator and 
 of one pole from the other, and note the relation of the 
 •distance to the circumference of the earth. 
 9. Longitude. 
 
 a. The circumference of the earth north and 
 south is called a meridian circle. 
 
76 SIXTH GEADE GEOGKAPHY 
 
 h. A meridian circle divides the earth into two 
 equal parts. 
 
 c. Since a meridian circle divides the earth into 
 
 two equal parts, it is called a great circle. 
 
 d. How many meridian circles may there be ? 
 
 e. One-half of a meridian circle, extending from 
 
 one pole to the other, is called a msridian. 
 
 f. The meridian passing through Greenwich, 
 
 England, is called ih.Q prime meridian. 
 
 g. Distance east or west from the prime mer- 
 
 idian, is called longitude. 
 
 h. Teach and distinguish between east and toest 
 longitude. 
 
 i. The meridian circle 20 degrees west from 
 Greenwich divides the earth into eastern 
 and western hemispheres. Why this meri- 
 dian circle ? Why not some other ? 
 
 /. Questions. 
 
 (1) Where does longitude begin ? Then in 
 
 what longitude is the prime meridian ? 
 
 (2) What amount of distance have the poles 
 
 from the prime meridian ? Then what 
 longitude have the poles ? 
 
 (3) What latitude and longitude has a place 
 
 where the prime meridian crosses the 
 equator ? 
 
 (4) What is the greatest longitude a place 
 
 can have ? 
 
THE SUN — THE MOOK 77 
 
 (5) What longitude may it be called ? 
 
 (6) Whether it is east or west longitude upon 
 
 what will it depend ? 
 
 XIX. The Sim 
 
 1. The sun is a sphere of the fiercest fire. 
 
 2. The sun gives light and heat because it is white- 
 
 hot. 
 
 3. The sun rotates upon its axis once in tv/enty-fiye 
 
 days. 
 
 4. The size of the sun is to the size of the earth, as 
 
 the size of a sphere two feet in diameter is to 
 the size of a sphere one-fifth of an inch in 
 diameter. 
 Note. — Teacher draw blackboard circles to show com- 
 parative sizes. 
 
 5. The sun appears small because it is so very far 
 
 from us. 
 
 6. The sun is millions (91-J) of miles from the 
 
 earth. 
 
 7. It takes eight minutes for light to go from the 
 
 sun to the earth. 
 
 8. The sun really sets eight minutes before it seems 
 
 to set. 
 
 XX. The Moon 
 
 Note.— So far as possible, let the moon tell her own 
 story. When she cannot be understood let simple ap- 
 paratus, stereopticon views, good pictures, and plain 
 diagrams, be her interpreters. 
 
78 SIXTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 1. The moon is a sphere. 
 
 2. The diameter of the moon is a little more than 
 
 one-fourth as long as the diameter of the earth. 
 Note. — The diameter of the moon is two thousand 
 one hundred sixty-five miles. 
 
 3. The moon appears small because it is so far 
 
 from us. 
 
 4. The moon is thousands (240) of miles from the- 
 
 earth. 
 
 5. When the moon looks like a circle, it is said to 
 
 hQfull. 
 
 6. When the moon looks like a crescent, it is said 
 
 to be new or old. 
 
 7. When the ends of the crescent point towards our 
 
 left, it is new moon. We see the new moon in 
 the west at evening. 
 
 8. When the ends of the crescent point towards 
 
 our right, it is old moon. We see the old moon 
 in the east in the morning. 
 Note. — The period of time from one new moon to 
 another is called lunation. 
 
 9. When the moon is full it is called half-moon, 
 
 because it has then performed one-half of its 
 lunation. 
 The half-moon shows just one-half of its surface* 
 10. When the moon looks like one-half a circle, it. 
 is called a quarter. 
 
THE MOOIf 79 
 
 When the moon is a qnarter, it shows just one- 
 fourth of its surface. 
 
 11. The quarter before full moon is called first- 
 
 quarter, because the moon has then performed 
 the first quarter of it lunation. 
 The moon when first quarter shines the first half 
 of the night, and sets at midnight. 
 
 12. The quarter after full moon is usually called 
 
 last quarter, although the moon has then per- 
 formed but three-quarters of its lunation. 
 The moon when last quarter shines the last half 
 of the night. It rises at midnight. 
 
 13. The full moon that occurs nearest the twenty- 
 
 first of September is called the Harvest moon, 
 
 14. The Harvest moon rises but a little later (about 
 
 twenty-three minutes) for several successive 
 evenings, and thus affords light for collecting 
 the harvest. 
 
 15. The changes of the moon's illuminated surface 
 
 from a thin crescent to a circle and from a 
 circle to a thin crescent are called phases. 
 
 16. The moon's phases show that the moon has no 
 
 light of its own. 
 
 17. If we were on the moon, the earth would pre- 
 
 sent to us phases similar to those which the 
 moon presents to us now. 
 
 18. The bright portions of the moon's surface are 
 
80 SIXTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 highlands in sunlight. The dark portions are 
 lowlands in the shadows of the highlands. 
 
 19. The bright and dark portions of the moon's sur- 
 
 face taken together look like a face. The face 
 is called the '^ man in the moon^^ 
 
 20. The surface of the moon is covered with steep 
 
 rocks, volcanic craters, and long mountain 
 chains. 
 
 21. The moon, like the earth, was once a burning 
 
 star. 
 
 22. The moon revolves around the eai'th from west 
 
 to east once in about twenty-seven and one- 
 third days. 
 
 23. The moon rotates on its axis from west to east, 
 
 in exactly the same time that it revolves 
 around the earth. 
 
 24. Because the moon rotates upon its axis and 
 
 revolves around the earth in exactly the same 
 time, it always presents the same side to us. 
 
 25. The moon with the earth is revolving around 
 
 the sun at the rate of about one thousand miles 
 per minute. 
 
 26. Because the moon revolves around the earth 
 
 and, at the same time, revolves with the earth 
 around the sun, it is called a satellite (of the 
 earth). 
 
ECLIPSES 81 
 
 XXI. Eclipses 
 
 !N"0TE. — Use simple apparatus, stereopticon views, 
 good pictures, and plain diagrams, but do not lose sight 
 of the heavenly bodies. 
 
 1. When the moon passes between the earth and 
 
 the sun it hides the sun partially or wholly 
 from our view. We then say there is an eclipse 
 of the sun. 
 
 2. When the moon partially hides the sun from our 
 
 view, we say there is a partial eclipse of tlie 
 sun. 
 
 3. When the moon wholly hides the sun from our 
 
 view, we say there is a total eclipse of the sun. 
 
 4. An eclipse of the sun is called a solar eclipse. 
 
 5. When the shadow of the earth partially or 
 
 wholly hides the moon from our view, we say 
 there is an eclipse of the moon. 
 
 6. Teach partial eclipse of the moon. 
 
 7. Teach total eclipse of the moo7i. 
 
 8. Teach lunar eclipse. 
 
 9. In an eclipse of the moon we always see a shadow 
 
 with a circular edge moving across the moon. 
 This shadow is known to be the shadow of the 
 earth, and it is always the same whatever part 
 of the earth may be facing the moon at the 
 time. To cast a circular shadow in any posi- 
 tion, the earth must be a sphere. 
 
82 SIXTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 XXII. The Planets 
 
 1. Eeview what has been taught regarding the 
 
 earth as a planet, the body around which it 
 revolves, the direction in which it revolves, 
 the source of its light and heat, and the mean- 
 ing of the term planet. 
 
 2. There are other planets which revolve around 
 
 the sun from west to east at different distances 
 from it. 
 
 3. All of the planets receive their light and heat 
 
 from the sun. 
 
 4. The names of the planets in their order from 
 
 the sun are. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, 
 Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. 
 
 5. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, are 
 
 each larger than the earth. 
 
 6. Mercury, Venus, and Mars, are each smaller 
 
 than the earth. 
 
 7. Jupiter is the largest of the planets. 
 
 8. Mercury is the smallest of the planets. 
 
 9. Mercury is not seen by us often, and then only 
 
 near the horizon for a few minutes after sun- 
 set or before sunrise. 
 
 10. Each planet except Mercury shines with a steady 
 
 light. 
 
 11. Venus is the most brilliant of all the planets. 
 
 Objects in its light cast decided shadows. 
 
THE STAES 83 
 
 Venus is called the morning star when it shines 
 
 in the east, and the evening star when it shines 
 
 in the west. 
 
 I^^OTE. — Lead children to distinguish Venus, Mars, 
 
 and Jupiter, and to note the character and the color of 
 
 their light. 
 
 Present stereopticon views, pictures or blackboard 
 drawings, to show the comparative sizes of the planets, 
 as well as to illustrate their relative distance from the 
 sun. 
 XXIII. Tiie Stars 
 
 1. The stars are spheres of the fiercest fire. 
 
 2. The stars shine because they are white-hot, 
 
 3. The stars shine with a twinkling light. 
 
 4. A group of stars always moving in the same 
 
 direction and at the same distance from each 
 other, is called a constellation. 
 The dipper is a part of the constellation called 
 the Great Bear. 
 
 5. In the whole heavens the stars which can be 
 
 distinctly seen with the naked eye, do not 
 exceed six thousand. Since only one-half of 
 the heavens is visible at once, then only 
 three thousand stars can be seen at one time. 
 
 6. At night we often see a belt of pale light span- 
 
 ning the sky, and frequently dividing it into 
 two nearly equal portions. This belt is called 
 the Milky Way. 
 
84 SIXTH GEADE OEOGEAPHY 
 
 7. The milky way is composed of millions (at 
 
 least eighteen millions) of stars so faint and 
 apparently so near together that the eye can 
 see only a dim, continuous glitter, 
 
 8. Some stars seem smaller than others, because 
 
 they are farther from us. Some stars are 
 really smaller than others. 
 
 9. Some stars shine with greater brightness than 
 
 others. 
 
 10. The brightest stars are called stars of the first 
 
 magnitude. 
 
 11. Some stars shine with a reddish light, some 
 
 with an orange, some with a blue, and some 
 with a white light. 
 
 12. Stars which shine with their own light, and 
 
 seem never to change their position, are called 
 fixed stars. 
 
 13. The sun is a fixed star. The North Star is a 
 
 fixed star. 
 
 14. Light goes from the North Star or Polar Star 
 
 to the earth in forty-five years. 
 
 15. Sometimes we see what appear like stars fall- 
 
 ing from the sky. - They are not stars, but 
 7neteors. 
 
 16. Bodies which are illuminated by a fixed star 
 
 around which they revolve, are called planets, 
 Note. — In teaching the above, the children should 
 
COMETS 85 
 
 be led to observe the character of the light of the stars, 
 the Dipper, the Milky Way, the difference in the bright- 
 ness and color of stars, the North Star as a fixed star, 
 and meteors. 
 XXiy. Comets 
 
 1. Sometimes strange bodies resembling stars with 
 
 long shining trains appear in the heavens. 
 These bodies are called comets. 
 
 2. The star-like part is called the head (or nucleus) 
 
 of the comet. The long shining train is called 
 the tail of the comet. 
 
 3. Comets move more rapidly than any other 
 
 heavenly bodies. 
 Note — Show stereopticon views, pictures, and black- 
 board drawings of comets 
 
C SENIOE— SEYENTH GRADE 
 
XXY. The Earth as a Whole— The Home of Man 
 
 JS"OTE. — The following questions will suggest a review 
 which should precede the study of the earth as a whole. 
 
 1. What is the earth, thinking of its shape ? 
 
 2. In what directions does the earth^s axis extend ? 
 
 3. What is the inclination of the earth^'s axis in 
 
 degrees ? 
 (Here the teacher should present a simple physical 
 globe free from all astronomical attachments^ and place 
 it in position as to direction and inclination of axis.) 
 
 4. What is this, thinking of its shape ? 
 
 5. In what directions does its axis extend ? 
 
 6. What seems to be the inclination of its axis ? 
 
 7. Since this is a sphere whose axis extends north 
 
 and south and inclines 23|- degrees^ what may 
 it represent ? 
 
 8. Since this sphere represents the earth, luliat of 
 
 the earth may its surface represent ? 
 
 9. Of what is the surface of the earth composed ? 
 10. Then what may the surface of this sphere repre- 
 sent ? 
 
 (Here the children should be led to state what color 
 represents water, and what represents land ; how the 
 extent of water surface compares with the extent of 
 
 (89) 
 
90 SBYEN^TH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 land surface ; that the water surface may be traversed 
 without crossing the land, but that the land surface 
 cannot be traversed without crossing the water.) 
 
 11. Since the surface of this sphere rejDresents the 
 
 land and water as they are found on the surface 
 of the earth, what is this sphere called ? 
 
 12. How much of the surface of the earth repre- 
 
 sented on the globe, can be seen at one time ? 
 
 13. What must be done to see the other half ? 
 (Here get expression of ideas of hemisphere, meridian 
 
 circle, eastern and western hemispheres. Teacher rotate 
 the globe so that each hemisphere may be represented. 
 Locate poles, equator, northern and southern hemis- 
 pheres. 
 
 Teacher present physical map of the hemispheres and 
 lead children to compare its representations with the 
 representations of the globe.) 
 
 14. Because this is a drawing of the earth's surface 
 
 on a plane, what is it called ? 
 With the aid of the physical hemisphere map and the 
 physical globe, teach what is indicated in the following 
 tabular view : 
 
 1. Continents. 
 
 a. Number. 
 
 b. Names. 
 
 c. Form. 
 
 d. Relative size. 
 
THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 91 
 
 e. Relative position. 
 /. In what hemispheres ? 
 g. Boundaries. 
 Defijs'ITIoi^' : — The great land divisions of the sur- 
 face of the earth are called continents, 
 
 2. Oceans. 
 
 See 1, above, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, same. 
 
 DEFiiq-iTiOiT : — The great divisions of the sea made 
 by the continents are called oceans. 
 
 Note. — The story of Columbus briefly told and his 
 voyages traced on the map and globe. 
 
 3. Islands. 
 
 Note. — Show pictures of islands. Have children 
 recall islands which they have seen. 
 a. Continental. 
 t. Oceanic. 
 c. Distribution — near what continent or in what 
 
 ocean 
 
 Note. — Show pictures of continental and oceanic 
 islands, also any noted islands ; name and locate each 
 on map and globe. 
 4. Coast Line. 
 
 Definition : — The land next to the sea is called the 
 coast. The line where the land and sea meet is called 
 the coast li?ie. 
 
 Note. — Show pictures of noted coasts. Locate these 
 coasts on map and globe. 
 
92 SEVENTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 a. Continental irregularity. 
 }). Land projections — peninsulas or capes. 
 Teacli names of peninsulas and capes. 
 
 (1) Position — from what part of what con- 
 
 tinent ? 
 
 (2) Adjoining waters — arms of what ocean ? 
 c. Water projections — gulfs or bays. Teach 
 
 names of gulfs and bays. 
 
 (1) Position — from what part of what 
 
 oceans ? 
 
 (2) Adjoining lands — projections of what 
 
 continents ? 
 
 Note. — Associate some physical^ commercial, or his- 
 torical event with each projection located. 
 
 Compare the coast line of the continents each with 
 the others, with regard to irregularity. 
 
 Compare the projections of the continents with re- 
 gard to number and size ; also with regard to the direc- 
 tion in which they project. 
 
 5. Relief 
 
 a. World Ridge. 
 Note. — Lead children to observe a ridge, — its direc- 
 tion, length, height, and appearance at the crest ; also 
 to observe the slopes, — their degree and comparative 
 lengths. 
 
 Lead children to observe basin, — the number, com- 
 parative length, and degree, of the slopes which form it. 
 
THE EA.RTH AS A WHOLE 93 
 
 , Lead children to observe the water-parting, the shape, 
 •extent, and lowest part of the basin. 
 
 Children use these concepts to apperceive the world 
 ridge. 
 
 Use relief globe and relief map of the land hemi- 
 sphere. 
 
 (1) Direction. 
 
 (2) Length traced. 
 
 (3) Eelative height. 
 
 (4) Highest place in. 
 
 (5) Lowest place in. 
 
 (6) Form — horse-shoe. 
 
 (7) Slopes — their degree and comparatiye 
 
 lengths. 
 5. Primary Highlands. 
 
 (1) Location. 
 
 (2) Number (4). 
 
 (3) Names. 
 
 (4) Comparative length, width, and height. 
 Note. — Show pictures of portions of primary high- 
 lands. 
 
 c. Secondary Highlands. 
 
 (1) Location. 
 
 (2) Number (4). 
 
 (3) Names. 
 
 (4) Comparative length, width, and height. 
 Note. — Show pictures of portions of secondary high- 
 lands. 
 
94 SEVENTH GRADE GEOGRAPHT 
 
 d. Lowlands^Great Plains. 
 
 (1) Location in continents. 
 
 (2) Number (4). 
 
 (3) I^ames. 
 
 (4) Physical characteristics of each. 
 
 (5) Comparative extents. 
 
 ^OTE. — Show pictures of portions of lowlands. As-- 
 sociate physical, commercial, or historical facts witb- 
 each. 
 
 6. Drainage. 
 
 KoTE. — Review world ridge. TJie contifiuous moun- 
 tain chain encircling the land masses of the globe, is 
 called the world ridge. 
 
 a. World water-parting formed by the crest of 
 
 the world ridge. 
 
 b. World-Basins. 
 
 (1) Location — formed by ? 
 
 (2) Number (2). 
 
 (3) Names. — Atlantic and Pacific. 
 
 (4) Form. 
 
 (5) Comparative extent and depth. 
 
 (6) Great plains located in. 
 
 c. World Eiver Systems. 
 
 Note. — Review brook systems, — location of sources ^ 
 (highlands) dependence of direction^ lengthy rapidity 
 of flow, and the final reservoir. 
 (1) Atlantic Systems. 
 
THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 95 
 
 Note. — Children observe here the characteristics of 
 the Atlantic Slope as represented on the physical globe 
 and physical hemisphere map. 
 
 Children infer the characteristics of the rivers, find 
 the principal rivers and name them, study pictures of 
 these rivers, and facts of interest concerning them. 
 
 Study La Plata river, Amazon, Orinoco, Mississippi, 
 St. Lawrence, Mackenzie, Lena, Yenesei, Obi, Dwina, 
 Ehine, Danube, Nile, and Congo. 
 (2) Pacific Systems. 
 
 Note. — Teach in the order named for Atlantic 
 Systems. 
 
 Study Colorado, Columbia, Hoang-Ho, Ganges, 
 Indus, Zambezie. 
 
 Children observe in the study of rivers that rivers 
 flowing down the same slopes are parallel, and that 
 rivers flowing down adjacent slopes often meet and form 
 a river that flows down the line formed by the meeting 
 of adjacent slopes at their lower edges. 
 
 7. Olimate. 
 
 Note. — Eeview climate and recall definition. 
 a. Zones. 
 
 8. Winds. 
 
 Note. — Review wind. 
 a. Causes. 
 h. Kinds (variable, periodical, constant). 
 
 c. G-eneral direction. 
 
 d. Different zones characterized by what winds ? 
 
•96 SEVENTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 9. Rainfall. 
 
 a. Formation of clouds and rain. 
 h. Distribution of vapor. 
 c. Amount of rainfall. 
 
 10. Ocean currents. 
 
 Note. — Study currents with the aid of globes, maps, 
 and blackboard drawings. 
 a. Location. 
 1). Direction of flow. 
 
 c. Names. 
 
 d. Temperature. 
 
 11. Soil — regions of great fertility and of great 
 
 sterility. 
 Note. — Children base their inferences upon climate 
 and relief. Children locate great deserts. 
 
 12. Products. 
 
 a. Agricultural — Wheat, corn, rice, cotton. 
 5. Grazing — Meats, fats, hides, wool. 
 
 c. Lumbering — Building materials. 
 
 d. Mining — Coal, iron, copper, silver and gold. 
 So far as may be consistent, present products 
 
 in their raw and in their manufactured 
 state. 
 
 13. People. 
 
 a. Eaces — Show pictures. 
 h. Distribution. 
 Note. — Show globe or map whose colors represent 
 the distribution of the races. 
 
B SENIOR— EIGHTH GEADE 
 
XXTI. A Continent as a Whole — Use Eelief Maps. 
 A. North America. N. B. — Pupils mold and draw- 
 each continent studied. 
 
 1. Position. 
 
 a. With regard to other continents. 
 h. " an oceans. 
 
 c. '^ " " hemispheres. 
 
 d. " '' '' world ridge. 
 
 2. Form. 
 
 a. Approximate form. 
 
 h. Continental irregularity. 
 
 c. Land projections — peninsulas or capes, 
 
 (1) Position — from what part of the conti- 
 
 nent. 
 
 (2) xidjoining water — arms of what oceans. 
 
 d. Water projections — gulfs or bays. 
 
 (1) Position — from what part of what oceans. 
 
 (2) Adjoining lands — what peninsulas or 
 
 capes. 
 
 3. Islands — Gontinental. 
 a. Names. 
 
 1). Position. 
 
 (1) With regard to the continent. 
 
 (2) In what water. 
 
 c. Formation. 
 
 (99) 
 
100 EIGHTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 4. Extent. 
 
 a. In latitude. 
 1). In longitude. 
 
 c. In linear miles — length and breadth. 
 
 d. In square miles — area. 
 
 5. Relief. 
 
 a. Primary Highlands. 
 
 (1) Name. 
 
 (2) Position. 
 
 (3) Direction. 
 
 (4) Extent. 
 
 (5) Ranges. 
 
 {a) Peaks — names, heights. 
 (J) Volcanoes — names, heights. 
 
 (6) Slopes. 
 
 {a) Directions. 
 {b) Extent. 
 
 (7) Valleys. 
 
 (8) Plateaus. 
 
 h. Secondary Highlands. 
 Note. — See order for Primary Highlands. 
 
 c. Islands. 
 
 Note. — Relief of islands compared with relief of con- 
 tinent. 
 
 d. Lowlands. 
 
 (1) Name. 
 
 (2) Position. 
 
 (3) Extent. 
 
A CONTINEi^T AS A WHOLE 101 
 
 (4) Physical characteristics. 
 
 6. Drainage. 
 
 a. Great water-partings — crests of what high- 
 lands. 
 
 §. Grreat basins — name, position, form, and ex- 
 tent of each. 
 Note. — For the study of individual basins, see XV, 5. 
 
 c. Great river systems. 
 
 (1) Principal river described. 
 
 (2) Principal tributaries described. 
 
 d. Lakes. 
 
 7. Climate — Temperature, moisture, healthfulness. 
 a. With regard to zones. 
 
 h, ^' '' '' seasons. 
 
 c. '' '^ " particular localities. 
 
 d. ^' ^^ ^' prevailing winds. 
 
 e. '^ '' '^ adjacent waters. 
 
 8. ^0^7. 
 
 a. Kinds. 
 
 (1) Origin — glacial, alluvial, diluvial, m 
 situ, etc. 
 
 (3) Formation — sandy, clayey, loamy, mar- 
 
 laceous, etc. 
 (3) Fertility. 
 
 9. Natural productions, 
 
 a. Vegetable — physical characteristics of region. 
 h. Animal— '' " " " 
 
 c. Mineral— '' '' '' '' 
 
102 EIGHTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 10. People. 
 
 a. Eaces. 
 
 h. Distribution. 
 
 11. Countries. — Use political maps. 
 
 a. Position — in the continent. 
 
 b. Boundary — especially natural. 
 
 c. Extent. 
 
 d. Belief. 
 
 e. Drainage. 
 /. Climate. 
 g. Soil. 
 
 li. Productions. 
 i. People. 
 
 (1) Dominant race. 
 
 (2) Leading occupations — manufacturing 
 
 cities. 
 
 (3) Leading commercial cities. 
 
 (4) Leading commercial routes — sea-ports. 
 
 (5) Government — capital cities. 
 
 (6) Eeligion. 
 
 (7) Education — educational centers. 
 B. South America — See North America. 
 0. Europe— 
 
 D. Asia— 
 E Africa— 
 F. Australia— 
 
A SENIOE— NINTH GRADE 
 
XXyil. A Country — Use relief, political, and his- 
 torical maps. 
 Note. — The teacher's port-folio and scrap-book will 
 be daily requisites. Personal accounts of travel, the 
 stereopticon, and text-books, must serve when practic- 
 able. 
 
 1. Name. 
 
 a. Derivation. 
 
 2. Position. 
 
 a. Continental, peninsular, or insular. 
 h. Latitudinal and longitudinal. 
 
 3. Boundaries, 
 a. Natural. 
 h. Political. 
 
 4. Extent. 
 
 a. Length, 
 
 b. Breadth, 
 
 c. Area. 
 
 5. Relief. 
 
 a. Mountains, 
 
 (1) systems, 
 
 (2) ranges, 
 
 (3) peaks — volcanoes. 
 
 1). Plateaus, 
 
 (105) 
 
106 iflNTH GEADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 (1) extent, 
 
 (2) character. 
 
 c. Plains, 
 
 (1) extent, 
 
 (2) character. 
 
 d. Valleys, 
 
 (1) extent, 
 
 (2) character. 
 
 6. Drainage, 
 a. Rivers, 
 
 (1) general direction of flow, 
 
 (2) characteristics, 
 
 (3) tidal or tideless, 
 
 (4) deltafication, 
 
 (5) navigability, 
 («) distance, 
 (Z*) time. 
 
 I, Lakes, 
 
 (1) outlets, 
 
 (2) inlets, 
 
 (8) navigability. 
 
 7. Coast. 
 
 a. Length. 
 
 Z». Indentations —harbors. 
 
 c. Kind — material, height. 
 
 8. Rainfall. 
 
 a'. Frequency. 
 
A COUNTRY 107 
 
 h. Amount. 
 c. Causes. 
 9. Climate. 
 
 a. Temperature — causes ? effects ? 
 h. Moisture — causes ? effects ? 
 c. Healthfuluess. 
 
 10. Soil. 
 
 a. Origin — glacial, alluvial, diluvial, eolian, m 
 
 situ. 
 h. Kind — sandy, gravelly, clayey, loamy, etc. 
 c. Fertility. 
 
 11. Productions. 
 a. Mineral. 
 
 h. Vegetable — cultivated, forest. 
 
 c. Animal — domestic, wild. 
 
 d. Manufactured. 
 
 12. InJiaMtants. 
 a. Number. 
 1). Eace. 
 
 c. Origin. 
 
 d. Language. 
 
 e. Characteristics, 
 
 (1) physical, 
 
 (2) social. 
 /. Industries. 
 
 13. Imports, 
 a. Kinds. 
 
108 l^INTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 h. Amount. 
 c. From whom. 
 
 14. Exports, 
 a. Kinds. 
 h. Amount. 
 c. To whom. 
 
 15. Means of transportation. 
 a. Land routes. 
 
 h. Water routes. 
 
 16. Government, 
 a. Kind. 
 
 h. Chief executive, 
 
 (1) term of office, 
 
 (2) salary. 
 c. Eevenue. 
 
 17. Political subdivisions. 
 
 18. Cities. 
 
 a. Capital. 
 
 b. Metropolitical. 
 
 c. Sea-port. 
 
 d. Manufacturing. 
 
 e. Population of. 
 
 19. Religion, 
 
 20. Education. 
 
 a. Institutions, 
 
 (1) kinds, 
 
 (2) location. 
 
 21. History. 
 
LESSON PLANS AND CRITICISMS 
 
Practice teachers meet weekly by grades, to discuss 
 their work. The topics of discussion are, — 
 
 a. Logical arrangement of subject matter. 
 1). Illustrative material. 
 
 c. Presentation of lesson. 
 
 d, Eeviews. 
 
 These plans are then written and submitted to the 
 critic teacher. 
 
 A few of them are given here as illustrations. 
 
 Occasionally a lesson is given by one teacher, and 
 criticised by the others, who write their criticisms and 
 then submit them to the critic teacher for his judg- 
 ment. To illustrate this feature of the work a single 
 criticism by a practice teacher is added. 
 
 (110) 
 
LESSON PLANS— See XXIY, 5 
 Monday 
 
 Teacher take class to cupola of Normal building 
 and point to highest portions of land in view, and lead 
 children to state that these are ridges of land. 
 
 Pupils determine cardinal points from the cupola. 
 
 After pupils have determined the cardinal points 
 have them locate the direction of some one ridge, say 
 the one extending south from the Fair Ground. 
 
 Pupils observe that many ridges may be seen from the 
 cupola, and that all do not extend in the same direc- 
 tion, but that the greater number extend from north to 
 south or nearly so. 
 
 Pupils estimate the length of the ridge considered, 
 also its height. 
 
 Its length and height compared with other ridges 
 that may be seen. 
 
 Pupils observe that the highest portion of the ridge 
 forms an irregular line which may be readily seen 
 against the sky or the ridge beyond the one studied, 
 and state that this line is called the crest of the ridge. 
 
 By questioning, teacher get from pupils that the sides 
 of this ridge from the crest down to its lowest portion 
 are called the slopes ; that the slopes of this particular 
 
 (111) 
 
112 LESSOi^ PLAINTS A.ND CRITICISMS 
 
 ridge are gradual ; that the slopes are of unequal 
 lengths ; that the shorter slope is the steeper, and the 
 longer slope more gradual. 
 
 Tuesday 
 
 Oral reproduction of what was taught Monday. 
 
 Pictures of ridges shown. 
 
 Eidge making on sand-board. 
 
 Eeview of terms ridgey crest, slopes, etc. 
 
 Wednesday 
 
 Pupils taken to cupola of normal building to observe 
 that as the snow on the several ridges melts and forms 
 water, it flows in different directions ; that snow melt- 
 ing on adjacent slopes, e. g. the east side of the ridge 
 studied and the west side of the ridge on which the 
 asylum is situated, flows down and comes together, and 
 then flows in a direction nearly parallel to the long 
 crests, into the lake ; that all the land included between 
 these crests, whose waters unite and flow into the lake, 
 is called a basin ; and that as the snow melts on the 
 ridge studied, a portion of the water flows in one direc- 
 tion, and another portion in a second direction ; that 
 there is a line on the highest parts of the ridge 
 which corresponds to the crest, where the water parts 
 and flows in opposite directions, and this line is called 
 the water-parting ; that its shape is irregular like that 
 of the crest. 
 
LESS0:N" PLAN'S AND CRITICISMS 113 
 
 Pupils questioned as to the shape^ extent, and lowest 
 portion of the basin. 
 
 Thursday 
 
 Oral reproduction of Wednesday^'s lesson. 
 
 Pictures of basins shown. 
 
 Basin making on sand-board. 
 
 Eeview of terms luater-parting, hasm, extent of 
 hasin, etc. 
 Friday 
 
 Lead pupils to observe and state that ridges vary in 
 height and length ; that the highest and longest moun- 
 tain chains are but the largest ridges of the world. 
 
 Teacher present relief globe or map. 
 
 Pupils point out what represents the ridges (moun- 
 tains) on globe or map. 
 
 Pupils point to longest ridge in South America. 
 
 When pupil has done this, direct him to begin at the 
 most southern point of this ridge and trace it north. 
 
 Lead pupils to see and state that this ridge extends 
 to Bering strait ; that it continues under the surface of 
 the water to the eastern coast of Asia ; thence south 
 west to the Himalayas ; from the western extremity of 
 the Himalayas to Arabia ; across the Isthmus of Suez 
 to Eastern Africa ; and along the eastern coast of 
 Africa south to Cape of G-ood Hope. 
 
 Pupils led to see that this ridge almost encircles the 
 world, on account of which it is called the World Ridge. 
 
114 LESSOIiT PLANS AKD CRITICISMS 
 
 Pupils led to observe the slopes of the World Eidge, 
 their comparative lengths^ and state that the shorter 
 slope is nearest the largest ocean. Observations and 
 statements similar on the longer slope. 
 
 Pupils led to observe and state where the highest 
 and where the lowest points of the World Ridge are. 
 
 Smith Muephy, 
 
 Practice Teacher. 
 
CBITICISM ON OEOaRAPHI 
 
 . LESSON 
 
SEE LESSON PLANS-Monday 
 
 Report of Lesson 
 
 The teacher first removed from the board all mat- 
 ter foreign to the subject^ and placed the illus- 
 trative material ready for use. 
 
 The lesson was a reproduction of the field lesson of 
 the preceding day. The teacher recalled the 
 things which the children had seen^ and de- 
 veloped and wrote upon the board the defini- 
 tions of ridge, crest and slope. 
 
 One statement in which the work " ridge '' was 
 used in defining ^^ ridge ^"^ was accepted as a 
 good definition. 
 
 Incorrect expressions of the children were some- 
 times but not always corrected. 
 
 The teacher asked for full sentences, and accepted 
 broken ones, or disconnected words. 
 
 The teacher did not insist that the children should 
 stand to recite. 
 
 The teacher worked for words, saying, '^''Now, 
 Mary, you say it.''^ 
 
 The teacher tried to keep the children busy while 
 writing upon the board, by asking for the next 
 (117) 
 
118 CRITICISM ON- GEOGRAPHY LESSOi^ 
 
 word, or by having them spell the words, but 
 she did not write rapidly enough. 
 
 The teacher confined her questions as a rule to a 
 few, because she was not familiar with the names 
 of all. Her knowledge of the names was used 
 to good advantage. 
 
 Pictures were shown, and the order was remark- 
 ably good. These pictures were shown while 
 one child was working upon a sand map, and 
 thus the others were kept busy. 
 
 Individual recitation of the matter was begun, but 
 the summary was not finished from lack of time. 
 II. Method — analytic and synthetic. 
 
 III. Subjective Technique 
 
 1. The room was in good condition in regard to 
 
 temperature, ventilation, and neatness. Good. 
 
 2. The apparatus was in good condition — all mat- 
 
 ter foreign to the lesson being removed from 
 the board. Good. 
 
 3. The illustrative material was in order, and 
 
 where it could easily be obtained when needed. 
 Good. 
 
 4. The children seemed ready for work, and the 
 
 teacher's attitude was such as to make them 
 wish to tell what they knew concerning the 
 preceding day's work. Good. 
 
 5. The teacher seemed at ease, and knew what she 
 
CRITICISM 02S^ GEOGRAPHY LESSOIST 119 
 
 was to teach. Her position and manner 
 toward the children were good. Good. 
 6. The teacher did not insist that the children 
 should stand to recite. Not good. 
 
 lY. Objectiye Technique 
 
 1. Object — To cultivate perception, memory, and 
 
 apperception. 
 
 2. Point — To develop ideas of, and give terms, 
 
 ridge, crest, and slope. 
 
 3. Plan. 
 
 Preparation : 
 
 The field lesson of the preceding day was 
 
 recalled and interest awakened. Good. 
 Development. 
 
 The development was logical and to the 
 
 point. Good. 
 Incorrect expressions were not always cor- 
 rected. Not good. 
 Broken sentences and disconnected words 
 
 were accepted instead of full statements. 
 
 Not good. 
 Teacher worked for words. Not good. 
 Teacher did not write on board rapidly 
 
 enough. Not good. 
 Too few were questioned. Not good. 
 Summary — 
 
 Not completed. 
 
120 CRITICISM ON GEOGRAPHY LESSOIS' 
 
 4. Matter. 
 
 A line of hills is called a ridge. 
 
 The irregular line which the top of the ridge 
 
 forms against the sky is called the crest. 
 The sides of the ridge are called slopes. 
 
 0. The illustrative material consisted of pictures 
 and the sand board. The pictures were shown, 
 and helped some but not all to get a better 
 idea of ridge, crest, and slope. JVot good. 
 
 6. The recitation was individual. Good. 
 
 7. The questioning was logical and to the point. 
 
 Good. 
 The teacher often worked for words instead 
 of for thought. Wot good. 
 
 y. statistics 
 
 Pupils present — 14. 
 
 Number interrogated — 9. 
 
 Number interrogated more than once — 4. 
 
 yi. Results in regard to 
 
 Instruction. 
 
 Object — work favorable to its being gained. 
 Good. 
 
 Point gained. Good. 
 
 Language not cultivated. J^ot good. 
 Intercourse. 
 
 Relations between teacher and pupil. Good. 
 
CRITICISM OK GEOGRAPHY LESSOK 
 
 121 
 
 Relations among pupils. Good, 
 Discipline and government — not necessary. 
 yil. Judgment — favorable. 
 
 Oood 
 Room, 
 Apparatus, 
 Illustrative material, 
 Children, 
 Teacher, 
 Preparation, 
 Recitation, 
 Questioning, 
 Instruction, 
 Intercourse. 
 
 Not Oood 
 Positions of pupils. 
 Language, 
 Working for words. 
 Slow board work. 
 Too few questioned. 
 Pictures. 
 
 Helek E. Jokes, 
 
 Practice Teacher, 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 almanac 47 
 
 animals 43 
 
 Asylum Hill 22, 41 
 
 atmospheric phenomena 49 
 
 axis 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 77, 80, 89 
 
 inclination of 73 
 
 banks 29 
 
 basins 92, 93. 101. 112. 113 
 
 kinds 55, 58 
 
 hays 92,99 
 
 bridges 27 
 
 brook 42, 49. 52 
 
 basin 51, 54, 55, 57 
 
 definition 57 
 
 system 54, 57, 94 
 
 canals 30, 60 
 
 cardinal directions 23, 25, 26 
 
 cardinal points 22, 47, 63, 111 
 
 semi-cardinal points 23, 47 
 
 cemeteries 40 
 
 charitable institutions 29 
 
 churches 29 
 
 circular measure 71 
 
 cities 102,108 
 
 city. 
 
 .27 
 
 streets of 25 
 
 description of 27 
 
 inhabitants of 33 
 
 map of 33 
 
 government of 36 
 
 surroundings of 36 
 
 climate 51. 95. 96, 101, 102, 107 
 
 clouds 49, 50, 96 
 
 coast line 91, 92, 106 
 
 comets 85 
 
 Page 
 
 constellation 83 
 
 continents 90, 91, 92, 94, 99, 102 
 
 countries 102 
 
 country 41, 105 
 
 county .59 
 
 map of 59 
 
 crest 55, 92, 94. 101, 111, 112, 117 
 
 criticism on lesson 117-121 
 
 deltaflcation 106 
 
 dew .50 
 
 '' dipper'' 23, 83, 85 
 
 direction 21, 22 
 
 distance .23, 25, 26, 27, 71 
 
 drainage 94, 101, 102, 106 
 
 earth 63, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 89 
 
 axis 70 
 
 circles 70, 75, 76 
 
 circumference 69, 73 
 
 diameter 68, 69, 77, 78 
 
 equator 69, 70, 71, 90 
 
 meridians 76 
 
 motions 68 
 
 orbit 65,72 
 
 plane of 72 
 
 poles 67 
 
 revolution 64 
 
 rotation 66, 67 
 
 shape 63 
 
 size 68 
 
 tropics 75 
 
 zones 74. 95 
 
 eclipses 81 
 
 lunar 81 
 
 solar 81 
 
 partial 81 
 
 (125) 
 
126 
 
 METHODS IN" GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Page 
 total 81 
 
 education 102, 108 
 
 institutions 28 
 
 relations 44 
 
 excursions 31, 32, 38, 41 
 
 exports 108 
 
 fair grounds 40, 111 
 
 field lessons 51 
 
 flag 35 
 
 fort 31 
 
 government 36, 102, 108 
 
 hamlets 44 
 
 harbor 39 
 
 harvest moon 79 
 
 hemispheres... 70. 71, 76, 90, 91, 93, 99 
 
 highlands. ." 93, 100, 101. 105 
 
 hill..... 41,42 
 
 history 34, 108 
 
 home geography 26, 27 
 
 horizon 21 . 22, 47, 82 
 
 definition 22 
 
 imports 107 
 
 inhabitants 107 
 
 islands 37, 39, 57, 91, 99, 100 
 
 lake 30, 38, 39, 60, 101, 106, 112 
 
 latitude 70, 71, 100 
 
 definition 70 
 
 leap-year 66 
 
 lesson plans 110-114 
 
 lighthouses 40 
 
 life-saving station 32 
 
 longitude 71, 75, 76, 77, 100 
 
 lunation 78, 79 
 
 lowlands 94, 100 
 
 manufactories 29 
 
 mariner's compass 23 
 
 measuring 28, 24, 25 
 
 meridian 76 
 
 meridian circle 75, 76 ,90 
 
 Page- 
 
 meteors 84, 85- 
 
 milky way 83, 84, 85 
 
 moon 22, 48, 77, 78. 79, 81 
 
 phases 78. 79 
 
 mountains 80, 94, 105, 113 
 
 nationality 33 
 
 noon shadows 48, 49 
 
 north star 23, 63, 67, 84, 85 
 
 occupations 34, .36, 43. 102 
 
 oceans 91, 92. 99, 114 
 
 currents 96 
 
 parallels 7'5- 
 
 parks 28 
 
 patriotism 34, 35 
 
 peninsulas 38, 92, 99 
 
 people 96, 102, 107 
 
 pier 39 
 
 plains 41, 94, 106 
 
 plane 72, 90 
 
 planets 63, 66, 82, 83, 84 
 
 names of 82 
 
 comparative size 82 
 
 plans 
 
 of school-room 2-3-25 
 
 definition of 25 
 
 of school block 25 
 
 definition of 25 
 
 plants 42 
 
 plateaus 100, 105 
 
 poles 67,71, 76, 90 
 
 ponds 42, 56, 57, 58 
 
 artificial 56 
 
 position words 19, 20, 21 
 
 primary highlands 93, 100 
 
 prime meridian 76 
 
 products 43, 96, 101, 102, 107 
 
 public buildings 28 
 
 public roads 40 
 
 races .* 96, 102, 107 
 
 railroads 30, 60 
 
 stations 30 
 
 rainfall 50, 51, 96, 106 
 
ANALYTICAL IKDEX 
 
 127 
 
 Page 
 
 relief 92, 96, 100, 102, 105 
 
 religion 102, 108 
 
 river 30. 36-38. 49, 59, 95, 101, 106 
 
 satellite 80 
 
 seasons 47, 72, 74, 101 
 
 secondary highlands 93, 100 
 
 shipping 30 
 
 slopes 
 
 55, 92, 93, 95, 100, 111, 112, 114, 117 
 
 definition 57, 58 
 
 kinds 58 
 
 soil 42, 51, 54, 55, 96, 101, 102, 107 
 
 springs 42, 52 
 
 stars. 22, 48, 80, 83, 84, 85 
 
 street railways 28 
 
 streets 27 
 
 sun. .22, 48, 63, 65, 72, 74, 77, 81, 82, 83 
 
 vertical rays of 74 
 
 swamps 41, 42 
 
 towns 59 
 
 Page 
 
 tributary 54, 101 
 
 definition 57 
 
 twilight 48 
 
 valley 41, 42, 100, 106 
 
 wards 27 
 
 water-parting.. 58, 93, 94, 101, 112, 113 
 
 definition 58 
 
 weather 47 
 
 observations 31, 32, 47 
 
 station.. 31 
 
 bulletin 32 
 
 . definition 51 
 
 winds. .95, 101 
 
 world basins 94 
 
 world ridge 92. 93, 94, 99, 113, 114 
 
 world river-systems 94, 95 
 
 zones 74, 75, 95, 101 
 
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