BHk ^ HBHH te^MM Class Book. COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT HISTORICAL FICTION Chronologically and Historically Related BY JAMES R. KAYE, Ph.D. Author of Chart History of the World; The Key to the Treasury; The Chart Bible: Essentials of History; Students' Bible Manual, etc. Published and Copyrighted by the SNOWDON PUBLISHING COMPANY CHICAGO, ILL. 1920 f ** /V ©CU576264 SEP -4 m CONTENTS PART I. THE ANCIENT ERA CHAPTER I. EGYPT 4 I. Prior to the Christian Era 4 Period of the Hyksos Kings 7 Reign of Thothmes III 8 Thebes 9 Period of Rameses II 10 Period of Rameses XIII 12 Period of Ptolemy II 12 II. The Christian Era 13 The Second Century 14 The Third Century 15 The Fourth Century 17 The Fifth Century 18 CHAPTER II. ASSYRIA 22 Semiramis 23 Reign of Tiglath-Pileser III 24 CHAPTER III. PERSIA 26 The Fall of Babylon 27 Reign of Cambyses II 29 Reign of Xerxes 1 30 CHAPTER IV. GREECE 33 The Persian Wars 35 Pausanias 37 Age of Pericles 38 The Peloponnesian War 40 Period of Alexander the Great 43 CHAPTER V. CARTHAGE 46 The Punic Wars 47 Hamilcar 47 Hannibal 48 Fall of Carthage 50 The New Carthage 51 CHAPTER VI. THE ROMAN REPUBLIC 54 Mithridates and Spartacus 56 Julius Caesar 58 iii iv CONTENTS CHAPTER VII. THE ROMAN EMPIRE 61 I. Period of Expansion — From Augustus to Trajan 62 The Augustan Age 63 Reign of Tiberius 65 Reign of Claudius 69 Reign of Nero 72 Reign of Vespasian 76 Reign of Titus 79 Reign of Domitian 81 Reign of Nerva 82 Reign of Trajan 83 II. Period of Prosperity and Decline — From Hadrian to Diocle- tian 84 Reign of Hadrian 85 Reign of Marcus Aurelius 86 Reigns of Decius and Valerian 88 Reign of Diocletian 89 III. Last Years of the Empire — From Constantine to the Fall of the Empire 91 Reign of Constantine 91 Reign of Valentinian 93 Reign of Theodosius 93 Reign of Honorius 94 Invasion of the Huns 97 CHAPTER VIII. THE TRANSITIONAL PERIOD 98 I. The Eastern Roman Empire 100 II. England '. 103 The Arthurian Period 103 Early England— To the Time of Egbert 105 PART II. THE MEDIEVAL ERA THE MEDIEVAL ERA Ill CHAPTER I. THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE 113 CHAPTER II. FRANCE— TO THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 116 Reign of Louis VII 117 Reign of Philip Augustus 119 Reign of Philip IV 121 CHAPTER III. ENGLAND— TO THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 123 I. To the Norman Conquest 124 Reign of Alfred the Great 124 Reign of Edwy 127 Reign of Ethelred II 127 The Danish Kings. . . 128 Return to the English Line 129 Edward the Confessor 129 Reign of Harold 130 CONTENTS y II. The Norman Period / 131 Reign of William the Conqueror, l/ 132 Reign of William Ruf us 133 Reign of Henry 1 136 Reign of Stephen 137 III. The Angevin or Plantagenet Kings 139 Reign of Henry II 139 Reign of Richard 1 143 Reign of John 146 Reign of Henry III 148 Reign of Edward 1 151 Reign of Edward II 156 CHAPTER IV. THE CRUSADES 159 The Various Crusades 160 The First Crusade 161 The Third Crusade 162 The Children's Crusade 164 CHAPTER V. ITALY— TO THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. 166 CHAPTER VI. THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 173 Reign of Edward III 174 Reign of Richard II 179 Reign of Henry IV 181 Reign of Henry V 183 Reign of Henry VI 185 CHAPTER VII. SCOTLAND. PERIOD OF THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 189 Reign of James I 189 Reign of James II 191 CHAPTER VIII. ITALY. PERIOD OF THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 194 CHAPTER IX. BELGIUM. PERIOD OF THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 200 CHAPTER X. GERMANY-BOHEMIA. TO THE CLOSE OF THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR 204 CHAPTER XI. THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE 209 CHAPTER XII. ENGLAND. FROM THE FALL OF CON- STANTINOPLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 215 I. Wars of the Roses 215 Reign of Henry VI 215 Reign of Edward IV 217 Reigns of Edward V and Richard III 221 II. House of Tudor 226 Reign of Henry VII 226 CHAPTER XIII. FRANCE. FROM THE FALL OF CON- STANTINOPLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMER- ICA 231 Reign of Louis XI 231 Reign of Charles VIII 236 vi • CONTENTS CHAPTER XIV. ITALY. FROM THE FALL OF CONSTAN- TINOPLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA.. 233 CHAPTER XV. SPAIN. FROM THE FALL OF CONSTAN- TINOPLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA.. 244 PART III. THE MODERN ERA THE BRITISH ISLES THE MODERN ERA 251 CHAPTER I. THE HOUSE OF TUDOR 253 Reign of Henry VIII 253 Scotland During the Reign of Henry VIII 259 Reign of Edward VI 261 Reign of Mary 263 Reign of Elizabeth 268 CHAPTER II. FROM THE AGE OF ELIZABETH TO THE COMMONWEALTH 278 Reign of James 1 278 Reign of Charles 1 282 CHAPTER III. THE COMMONWEALTH 288 CHAPTER IV. FROM THE COMMONWEALTH TO THE HOUSE OF HANOVER 295 Reign of Charles II 295 Reign of James II , 303 Reign of William III 306 Reign of Queen Anne 310 CHAPTER V. FROM THE STUART DYNASTY TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 315 Reign of George 1 316 Reign of George II 321 Reign of George III 333 CHAPTER VI. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION TO THE ACCESSION OF QUEEN VICTORIA 339 Period of the French Revolution 33® The Napoleonic Era 345 P_egency and Reign of George IV 348 Reign of William IV 351 CHAPTER VII. THE VICTORIAN AGE 354 Rebecca Riots 355 Daniel O'Connell 355 The Irish Famine 356 The Disruption 357 The Chartist Agitation 358 The Prison System 359 The Crimean War 359 The Cotton Famine 361 The Fenian Rebellion 362 Home Rule and Land League 362 Affairs in India 363 CONTENTS vii FRANCE CHAPTER I. FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO LOUIS XIV 368 Reign of Francis 1 369 Reign of Henry II 374 Reign of Charles IX 376 Reign of Henry III 379 Reign of Henry IV 382 Reign of Louis XIII 384 CHAPTER II. FROM THE ACCESSION OF LOUIS XIV TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 391 Reign of Louis XIV 392 I. Administration of Mazarin 392 II. The Acme of Absolutism 395 III. Period of Decline 399 Reign of Louis XV * 405 Reign of Louis XVI 409 CHAPTER III. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 413 To the National Convention 415 The National Convention 418 The Directory 426 CHAPTER IV. THE RISE AND EMPIRE OF NAPOLEON. 430 I. The Consulate 431 II. The Empire 434 The Third Coalition 436 The Fourth Coalition 437 Conflict with England — Peninsula War 440 The Fifth Coalition 444 Invasion of Russia 446 The Sixth Coalition 448 The Waterloo Campaign 450 CHAPTER V. RESTORATION AND SECOND REPUBLIC 455 Reign of Louis XVIII 455 Reign of Charles X 456 Reign of Louis Philippe 456 The Second Republic. Presidency of Louis Napoleon 458 CHAPTER VI. THE SECOND EMPIRE AND THIRD RE- PUBLIC 461 Reign of Napoleon III 461 I. To the Franco-German War 461 II. The Franco-German War 464 The Third Republic 472 viii CONTENTS AMERICA I. To the American Revolution To the American Revolution 475 CHAPTER I. DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST 477 CHAPTER II. THE FOUNDING OF THE COLONIES 482 Virginia 482 Massachusetts 484 New Netherland 489 Carolina and Georgia 491 CHAPTER III. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 494 II. The American Revolution CHAPTER I. THE WAR IN NEW ENGLAND AND CANADA 500 The Stamp Act 500 The War in New England 501 The War in Canada 505 CHAPTER II. THE WAR IN THE MIDDLE STATES 508 CHAPTER III. NAVAL WARFARE OF THE REVOLUTION 515 CHAPTER IV. THE WAR IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. . . . 519 The Treason of Benedict Arnold 522 Closing Events of the War 524 III. Organization — Development — Sectionalism Organization — Development — Sectionalism 526 CHAPTER I. TO THE WAR OF 1812 528 Administration of George Washington 528 Administration of John Adams 530 Administration of Thomas Jefferson 531 CHAPTER II. THE WAR OF 1812 535 Administration of James Madison 535 CHAPTER III. FROM THE WAR OF 1812 TO THE CIVIL WAR 543 Administration of James Monroe 543 Administration of Andrew Jackson 545 Administration of Martin Van Buren 548 Administration of James K. Polk 550 The Mexican War 550 Administration of Zachary Taylor 552 Administration of James Buchanan 554 CHAPTER IV. THE CIVIL WAR 557 Administration of Abraham Lincoln To the Capture of Vicksburg 558 From the Fall of Vicksburg to the Capture of Savannah 561 Closing Events of the War 565 CONTENTS ix IV. Period of Expansion CHAPTER I. TO THE WAR WITH SPAIN 568 Administration of Ulysses S. Grant 570 Administration of Grover Cleveland 571 Administration of Benjamin Harrison 572 Administration of Grover Cleveland 573 CHAPTER II. THE WAR WITH SPAIN 575 Administration of William McKinley 575 DOMINION OF CANADA Dominion of Canada 580 CHAPTER I. CANADA UNDER FRANCE 581 CHAPTER II. CANADA UNDER GREAT BRITAIN 590 To the Reign of Queen Victoria 590 The Victorian Era 592 GERMANY— AUSTRIA Germany — Austria 598 CHAPTER I. FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 599 Reigns of Maximilian I. and Charles V 600 CHAPTER II. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 606 CHAPTER III. FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE PEACE OF PARIS 611 Silesian and Seven Years' Wars 612 CHAPTER IV. THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION AND EMPIRE 616 To the Franco-German War 616 The Franco-German War 620 ITALY CHAPTER I. TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON 621 Contentions of Invaders 621 From the Council of Trent to Waterloo 627 CHAPTER II. ITALY SINCE THE FALL OF NAPOLEON.. 634 I. To the Revolution of 1848 634 II. The Unity of Italy 636 CONTENTS SPAIN CHAPTER I. FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO ISABELLA II 640 I. To the Reign of Philip III 640 II. From Philip III. to Philip V 644 CHAPTER II. REIGN OF ISABELLA II 647 HOLLAND— BELGIUM Holland— Belgium 651 CHAPTER I. FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE RE- VOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS ,.. 652 CHAPTER II. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 658 RUSSIA— POLAND CHAPTER I. FROM IVAN IV. TO CATHERINE II 666 I. From Ivan IV to Peter the Great 667 Reign of Ivan IV 667 To the Reign of Michael 669 Reign of Alexis 669 II. Reign of Peter the Great 670 III. From Peter the Great to Catherine II 673 CHAPTER II. FROM CATHERINE II TO THE PRESENT TIME 676 Reign of Catherine II 677 Reign of Paul 1 679 The Napoleonic Era 680 Reign of Nicholas 1 680 Reign of Alexander II 681 JAPAN— CHINA I. The Commercial Treaty with Japan 683 II. The Boxer Rebellion 684 III. The Russo-Japanese War 685 AFRICA I. The Portuguese Enterprise 688 II. The Kaffir Wars 688 III. The Ashanti War 689 IV. The Zulu War 690 V. The South African War 691 Conclusion 693 Index 695 FOREWORD The peculiar distinction of historical fiction lies in its historical significance and relations. The design of the writers of such fic- tion is not simply the reconstruction of some historical period or event. The past is restored and made to live again. It is re- vived but it is also vivified. The novelist is not simply the histo- rian, just as he is not, properly speaking, a historian. His work is not a treatise on history, but he uses historical facts as the groundwork or setting of his larger purpose. He imparts a living significance to the by-gone events as the historian does not. He does not talk about the characters or report their deeds. They live, talk, and act for themselves in his representations. In a word, his work is that of delineation, characterization, interpreta- tion. But it is this as distinct from non-historical fiction, as deal- ing with the actualities of the past in the events and affairs of the world. The ruling purpose of this volume is expressed in the title — it is to interpret this class of fiction chronologically and historically. To do this in the manner designed it is necessary to bring forward the history of those periods and events which constitute the histor- ical setting of the fiction in each instance. In this manner the reader is made familiar with the facts, or the facts forgotten for the time being are brought back to recollection. The intelligent understanding of this body of fiction requires some such historical procedure. The reader of any of these works may not be familiar with the facts. In such a case, to have the history briefly sketched in the manner in which it is here done and brought into such close relation to the stories precludes the necessity of resorting to the historical treatise for the facts. Again, what is true of the ordinary facts of history relative to the historical setting of this fiction is equally true of the philosoph- ical, theological and other ideas that hold a dominant place in some of these works. That is true of such interests as Stoicism, Epicu- reanism, Neo-Platonism, Athanasianism, Arianism and other forms of the world's thinking. The treatment of these matters, and others of similar import that appear in the works of these FOREWORB authors, is in line with the general purpose as set forth in the historical sketches. As regards the "Historical Outlines," in many instances but a limited portion of the whole period has any place in the stories written. But the Outline not only gives in this form the period as a whole, but it enables the reader to get the historical approach to those moments that are specifically treated. The value of a treatise of this order is enhanced by the com- pleteness of the index. In this feature of our work special care has been taken to satisfy the most critical demands. In placing this work before the public the author's aim is to bring these productions of the world's great workers into more direct connection with the facts with which they deal than has ordinarily been done by works dealing with historical fiction. The author entertains the hope that this treatment of the subject will not only inspire a deeper interest in the world's best books of this class, but place the reader in a position to understand aright their point of view. Oak Park, 111. J. R. K. HISTORICAL FICTION Chronologically and Historically Related PART I THE ANCIENT ERA History should be studied from the standpoint of cause and effect. That is but a superficial understanding of history that can give a list of events but cannot supply the causal relation. Emer- son has said that history is biography ; but that explains it only in a measure. If the study of history is but the study of the indi- vidual, the social unit, the question remains, how are we to under- stand the individual? How connect the particulars with general principles ? The last statement distinguishes the deeper meaning of his- tory. History is something more than a series of events, some- thing more than a string of historical beads with the string ignored or left out of account. The philosophy of history is the relation of particular events to their underlying causes and conditions. Not until this relation is discovered, and the laws and processes by which certain things have become inevitable are understood, can it be said that history has been invested with its true meaning. To understand why certain things operative in the Roman State for example, produced certain necessary results, is not only to grasp their significance in regard to Rome, but to establish that larger generalization, that the same causes operative under like conditions will produce like results. When it is said that the whole of history is represented by an individual life several things are suggested. The first is, that the whole expresses the characteristics of the parts. The individual man is the measure of a community of men. The nation composed of individuals is subject to the law of individuals. The nation, as also the race, must pass through its various evolutions from 2 HISTORICAL FICTION infancy to youth, maturity and old age, under the same deter- mining processes as govern individual development. And the understanding of this process relative to the individual life is the key to that larger racial development. The study of history is the discovery of the seeds in their germination, perceiving the environments and operation of forces upon that hidden life, and watching for the bud, the blossom, and the flower as necessary stages in the process. The root may lie in Egypt and the flower appear in Greece. It is essential in this all-important study that we follow these movements from nation to nation, from age to age, in order properly to articulate the parts, and thus interpret the present by all the contributions of the past. We can no more separate the modern from the ancient than we can separate the man from the boy. The elements of boyhood come to modification and maturity in manhood. In large measure they explain the man. So it is in regard to the vital relation that exists between these great eras of human history. Human conditions and processes had their beginning in an- tiquity. The ideas of the ancients were in many respects imper- fect and crude. So are those of the child. We see ourselves in that childhood of the race seeking the solution of human problems. That early life was conscious of all those emotions and interests common to humanity. Their social and religious instincts were given expression according to their enlightenment. They did not create those instincts, they discovered them, and by them strug- gled to find their larger self. They sought for social unity without fully understanding the social unit. Thus it is, that historical fiction that properly understands and appreciates the events and conditions of antiquity aims to present in a vital way the life, thought and ideals of that time. It speaks the language and expresses the moods of that age. It introduces us to our racial childhood. It sets forth in a more vivid and real- istic form the struggles, defeats and triumphs of the past, and thus not only narrates but interprets our life of ages ago. Human history has been organized into somewhat arbitrary divisions upon a chronological basis. In historical treatises these divisions are not always the same. By some the ancient era is considered to terminate with the fall of the Roman Empire in the West, A. D. 476. Others extend the period to the time of Charle- magne. The medieval era, according to some, closed with the fall THE ANCIENT ERA 3 of Constantinople in 1453, while others date the modern era from the discovery of America. From the fall of Rome in 476 to the time of Charlemagne in 800 is a transitional period. In our division of these periods the ancient extends to the time of Charlemagne including the transi- tional period, while the medieval extends" to the time of the dis- covery of America in 1492. The modern, therefore, extends from 1492 to the present time* CHAPTER I EGYPT I. PRIOR TO THE CHRISTIAN ERA As a nation the Egyptians have the greatest antiquity of any people known to us. How far back that antiquity extends is a point upon which scholars are not agreed. There is the same lack of agreement relative to Egyptian chronology. Manetho, an Egyptian priest, who belonged to the third century B. C, compiled thirty of the Egyptian dynasties from the time of Menes to the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses II. The Old Empire comprised the first ten of these dynasties ; the Middle Empire, as it is desig- nated, the next seven ; the New Empire, the next three. During the remaining dynasties Egypt was, in the main, under the domi- nation of other powers. The contributions of this ancient state to the world's civiliza- tion have been very great. Access to extensive quarries enabled her to rear those mighty structures, the pyramids, on the west bank of the Nile, upon which the ages have looked down. The Cheops Pyramid, consisting of 2,300,000 massive blocks of stone, is an expression of that greatness. In some respects, in the building art the ancient Egyptians have never been surpassed. Rawlinson's statement is noteworthy: "It is doubtful if the steam-sawing of the present day could be trusted to produce in ten years from the quarries of Aberdeen a single obelisk such as those which the Pharaohs set up by dozens." We are indebted to the Egyptians for the division of the year into 365 days. This calendar Julius Caesar introduced into the Roman Empire, and with the slight change made in the sixteenth century, has been adopted by nearly all the world to the present time. To Egypt the Greeks and Romans were greatly indebted for the germs of much of their culture. Greek philosophers sat at the feet of Egyptian priests and thus did Egypt contribute to that brilliant civilization of the Greeks. "We are," says Sayce, "the heirs of the civilized past, and a goodly portion of that civil- 4 THE ANCIENT ERA 5 ized past was the creation of ancient Egypt." She lit the torch of civilization and passed it on to the West. Again, it was in Egypt that the early Israelites found a home, and under the most favorable conditions developed into a strong people prepared to begin their national existence in their own land that should affect the destinies of the human race. It was in Egypt that the child Christ found a refuge from the murderous Herod, and like his nation came forth from her to his own land to accomplish the most significant work of any member of Adam's race. It would be strange if a nation having such a history should not be a rich field for the writers of fiction. Indeed, it is a most inviting field for the historical novelist, which will appear in the works to which we are about to give attention. The purpose of the following historical outline, and of all such outlines in this volume, is to set forth the historical movement, and thus relate the periods for the specific relation of the historical fiction to the periods in which they have their setting. Thus these outlines furnish the approach to those periods and events with which we are particularly concerned. Historical Outline: I. The Old Empire. Dynasties i-io. 1. Menes, Founder of the First Dynasty, and the first three dynasties (about 4500-3700 B. C). 2. The Fourth Dynasty (about 3700-3500). The kings of this dynasty reigned at Memphis. They are called the Pyramid Kings — builders of the pyramids. II. The Middle Empire. Dynasties 11-17. Following the Sixth Dynasty is a period of obscurity. Memphis recedes from view and Thebes comes forth, the seat of royalty. 1. The Twelfth Dynasty (about 2500-2300), or, according to some scholars, 2000-1800. This dynasty was one of the most brilliant periods in Egyptian history, and was spoken of as the Golden Age. 2. The Hyksos, or Shepherd, Kings (about 2000-1575). Apepi I. Science and letters seem to have flourished during his reign. 6 HISTORICAL FICTION Apepi II. Flourished about 1650 B. C. Little is known of either of these kings, and only a few scanty memorials of them have been found. The date of their conquest of Egypt is doubtful. War chariots now appear for the first time upon the mon- uments. III. The New Empire. 1. The Eighteenth Dynasty (about 1575-1358). a. Expulsion of the Hyksos Line by the Theban prince Amasis, who became the first sovereign of the Eighteenth Dynasty. b. Thothmes III (about 1 500-1450). One of the great- est conquerors and builders among the Pharaohs. 2. The Nineteenth Dynasty (about 1359- 1253). a. Rameses I. b. Seti I (about 1356- 1347). c. Rameses II (about 1347-1280). d. Manephtha (about 1275). 3. The Twentieth Dynasty. a. Founded by Setnokpt. b. Rameses III (about 1210). C. The nine, following Rameses III, reigned peacefully to about 1 100. IV. Egypt Under Foreign Domination. 1. Ethiopians form Dynasty Twenty-five. 2. The Twenty-sixth Dynasty. a. Psammeticus I, 663-610. He drove out the foreign- ers and became the founder of this dynasty. b. Necho II, 610-594. c. Psammeticus II. d. Apries, 588-569. e. Amasis II, 569-526. f. Psammeticus III. Reigned one year. 3. Egypt under Babylonian and Persian control. Taken by Cambyses, 525, and became a Persian province. 4. Conquered by Alexander the Great, 332. 5. The Graeco-Egyptian Empire of the Ptolemies. THE ANCIENT ERA 7 a. Ptolemy I, 323-283. b. Ptolemy II, 283-247. c. Ptolemy III, 247-222. d. Ptolemy XIII, 80-52. e. Cleopatra, 52-30. Daughter of Ptolemy XIII. End of the period of the Ptolemies. 6. The Battle of Actium, B. C. 30, and Egypt annexed to the Roman Empire. Period of the. Hyksos Kings Comparatively little is known of these foreigners. The word Hyksos signifies Shepherd Kings. Many scholars incline to the view that they were wandering tribes of Arabia and Syria. Just when they usurped the throne of Egypt is a matter of consider- able speculation. Various dates are given for their conquest of Egypt, and there is the same difference of opinion as to the length of time they held the throne. According to some authorities they ruled from B. C. 2200 to 1700; according to other accounts from 2000 to 1500 or 1575 ; still others limit the time to about 100 years. One thing seems certain — that their expulsion was followed by the Eighteenth Dynasty. There is also lack of agreement among scholars as to the pe- riod of the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt. Those who incline to the period of the Hyksos rule lay stress upon the fact that it would be more probable that Joseph was made prime minister by a foreign, than by an Egyptian, king; also, that when Jacob came to Egypt Joseph instructed him that if Pharaoh should in- quire about his occupation he should tell him they were shepherds. It is the opinion of others that Rameses II was the oppressor of the Israelites. We shall have occasion to note this view when we come to that reign. Apepi, or Apophis, is the name of two kings of the Hyksos line. Little is known of either. Apepi II seems to have flourished about B. C. 1650. Several monuments bear his name. In the British Museum is a papyrus which contains a legendary account of the strife that arose about religious matters between this king and Sekeneur, Prince of Thebes. From this it would seem that dur- ing this reign the war for Egyptian independence began. The author of the story given below evidently supported the 8 HISTORICAL FICTION view that the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt was during the period of the Hyksos Dynasty, as seen from the introduction of Joseph into the story. Animal worship holds a significant place in the author's work. The Egyptians regarded certain animals as emblems of the gods and hence made them the objects of wor- ship. Some were even regarded as real gods. The scarab, or beetle, for example, being an emblem of life, was held in greatest reverence. To kill a sacred animal, even by accident, placed the life of the person committing the deed in great danger. The Egyptians believed that the spirit of Osiris became em- bodied in some bull. When Apis, as the sacred bull was called, died, it was an occasion of great mourning. He was embalmed and buried with great ceremony, and then was instituted a search throughout the land for the calf born at the moment that Apis died, having certain bodily markings, for into this calf the soul of Osiris entered when it departed from Apis at his death. The Story The Stonecutter of Memphis. 1904. William P. Kelly This story has its setting in the reign of Apepi II, the last Pharaoh of the Hyksos Kings. He is personally introduced. The author seeks to give a clear representation of this period in Egypt. Animal worship plays a significant part in that the heroine, charged with killing a sacred cat, must suffer the penalty of being sold into slavery. From this sentence she is rescued by the media- tion of the prime minister Joseph. Reign of Thothmes III For this period in Egyptian history the reader is referred to the historical outline. The Hyksos Kings were expelled by Amasis, the founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Thothmes was one of the greatest kings of this dynasty. He was called the Alexander of Egyptian history. During his reign and by his con- quests the empire reached its greatest expansion. He conquered the region between the Euphrates and the Mediterranean, which conquests were recorded on the walls of the temple of Karnak. A great part of this temple at Thebes was constructed by him. What remains of it constitutes the most majestic ruin in the THE ANCIENT ERA 9 world. His building operations in the Nile valley were numerous. One of his great obelisks may be seen in Central Park, New York, another in Constantinople and another beside the Thames in London. The Story The Cat of Bubastes. 1888. George A. Henty The author (1832-1902) was born at Trumpington, England. He was educated at the Westminster School and Caius College, Cambridge. During the earlier part of the Crimean War he served in the British army. As war correspondent of the London Standard he accompanied the contestants of the Austro-Italian, Turco-Servian and Franco-German Wars. In 1868 he joined the Abyssinian Expedition, and in 1873 the Ashanti Expedition. He took part in Garibaldi's Tyrolean campaigns, and was with the Prince of Wales in his travels through India. In the main, his books are historical novels, adapted to boys, and was a most pro- lific and popular writer. The Cat of Bubastes is a tale of Egypt in the time of Thothmes III. It sets forth the expedition of the king in his conquest of a people called the Rebu. In connection with the preceding story we noticed that that author placed the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt in the time of the Hyksos Kings. Henty, in this story, has them in Egypt during the Eighteenth Dynasty, and has Moses appear in the reign of Thothmes III, in which case, the Exodus occurred about forty years later. Thebes Menes was the founder of the First Dynasty, and tradition declares that he built the city of Memphis. The kings of the Fourth Dynasty, called the Pyramid Kings, reigned at Memphis. During the period of obscurity following the Sixth Dynasty Mem- phis is lost to view and Thebes becomes the seat of power. The Theban temples, raised by the later Pharaohs, are a standing testi- mony to the greatness of this period. As Lenormant says, "Thebes, in spite of all the ravages of time and of the barbarian, still presents the grandest, the most prodigious assemblage of buildings ever erected by the hand of man." io HISTORICAL FICTION The Story The Witch Queen of Khem. 1909. Eno Fitzgerald In this romance the author has laid the scene in Thebes in the period of its distinction as the seat of royalty. Period of Rameses II By referring to the historical outline the reader will note that Rameses was the third king of the Nineteenth Dynasty. His predecessor, Seti I, was a great warrior and builder. One of his most important wars was with the Hittites, whose capital was Carchemish on the Euphrates. They were a powerful people and a menace to Egyptian interests in Syria. Seti gained a great victory over them. Rameses conducted campaigns against this same people, but did not seem to be so fortunate. Instead of subduing them he concluded a peace with them which placed the Hittites on an equality with the Egyptians. Rameses then mar- ried the daughter of the king of the Hittites. His reign, extend- ing over a period of sixty-seven years, is given by ancient writers the most exalted place in Egyptian history. The Hittites are first mentioned in connection with Abraham who purchased from them the Cave of Machpelah in Hebron. Their empire at one time extended over a large part of Asia Minor and Syria. It is the opinion of some scholars that it was Rameses II who oppressed the Israelites, and that it was during the reign of his son Manephtha that the Exodus occurred. It is pointed out that an inscription found in 1896 shows that in the fifth year of Manephtha Israel was already settled in Palestine, and that an earlier date must be sought for the Exodus. On the other hand, it is clear from the Amarna Letters, written about B. C. 1400, that at that time Israel had not entered the Promised Land. Thus it would seem that the date of the Exodus must be placed in the interval between these two limits, or, in round num- bers, about 1400 and 1250. The Stories Uarda. 1877. Georg M. Ebers The author (1837-1898) was born at Berlin, Germany. He was a student of Egyptian life and devoted himself to the study of Egyptology. After spending an extended time in the East, THE ANCIENT ERA II in 1870 he was made professor of Egyptology at Leipsic. He is the author of a number of learned works, the most important of which are Egypt and the Books of Moses, and Through Goshen to Sinai. The most famous of his historical novels is Uarda. As the author tells us, it was while studying the monuments of Thebes, that solemn city of the dead, and while riding in the silent desert, that the germ of this story was born. He knows his Egypt well and describes the habits, customs and ruling ideas of the time. Uarda, a beautiful Greek girl of royal blood, with her mother Xanthe, had been carried away a captive to Thebes, While Rameses is away at war a plot to seize the throne is con- cocted, and in the battle of Kadesh he is betrayed with a view to his defeat and destruction. Rameses, in his conflict with the Greek king and his Asiatic allies, is wholly victorious at Kadesh, and as the former is brought into the presence of Uarda he cries out "Xanthe, Xanthe! Is your spirit free from Hades? Are you come to summon me?" He sees in her the picture of his lost daughter of years ago, and Uarda, after these years of separation from her people, proves to be his grand-daughter. This fact is absolutely established by the means of a jewel, one-half of which was in the keeping of Uarda, and the other half, which completed it, and which had belonged to Xanthe, was then being worn by the other daughter of the Greek king, who is also present. The son of Rameses and Uarda are lovers and are fully pledged to each other by the two kings. He marries her in her own land, the land of the Danaids, and after the death of her grandfather he ruled over many islands of the Mediterranean and became the founder of a great race, whjle "Uarda's name was held in tender remembrance by their subjects." In connection with this same general period may be noted the two following works : The King's Treasure House. 1886. Wilhelm Walloth This is a romance of ancient Egypt prior to the Exodus. The World's Desire. 1891. Henry Rider Haggard and Andrew Lang This story introduces the Exodus of the Israelites. 12 HISTORICAL FICTION Period of Rameses XIII Rameses XIII was followed by nine kings of little importance (Rameses IV-XII), all bearing the same name. During this period Egypt shows a steady decline. These nine kings were mere tools in the hands of the priesthood of Ammon. It was about B. C. noo when Her Hor (Smendes), the high priest of Ammon of Thebes, dethroned Rameses XII and himself took the crown. He was the founder of the Twenty-first Dynasty. His building operations at Karnak were considerable, and it is believed that it was he who stored away the royal mummies which were discov- ered by Brugsch Bey in 1881. The Story The Pharaoh and the Priest. 1897. Aleksander Glovatski This famous Polish writer (1847-) * s distinguished for his life-like portraits of children, and the manner in which he depicts peasant life and animal peculiarities. His humor conceals a deep sympathy for the unfortunate to which is added a masterful power of character analysis. This story deals with what has already been indicated by the preceding statement. It sets forth the conflict between the throne and the hierarchy, the king and the priest, the secular and the ecclesiastical. The priest finally dominates the situation and be- comes the Pharaoh. Period of Ptolemy II Our next romance brings us a long step forward in Egyptian history as the reader will observe by noting again the historical outline. We pass over a period of eight centuries. During this time Egypt fell under foreign domination. The Twenty-fifth Dynasty was that of the Ethiopian rule. Psammeticus I drove out the foreigner and became the founder of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty which extended to B. C. 525. This was followed by the Babylonian and Persian control. Egypt was conquered by Cam- byses in 525 and became a Persian province. In B. C. 331 Alex- ander the Great conquered Persia in the battle of Arbela, having already in the year preceding conquered Egypt. THE ANCIENT ERA 13 Following the death of Alexander in 323 his empire was di- vided between his four generals. Ptolemy I secured the govern- ment of Egypt. He made Alexandria a center of Greek culture and founded the famous Alexandrian library. As a patron of learning and literature he induced philosophers, artists and poets to settle in the city. He erected the Pharos, or lighthouse, to guide the fleets of the nations to his capital. Polemy II pursued the policies of his father in the mainte- nance and extension of intellectual interests. It was by his order that the Hebrew Bible, known as the Septuagint, was translated into Greek, one of the most important versions of the Old Testa- ment. Arsinoe became the wife of her brother, Ptolemy II, the beginning of the series of sister-marriages which were in accord- ance with the Egyptian custom and equally opposed to the Greek tradition. She held a large place in her husband's affections, who named after her the capital of the Fayum. He employed the abilities of the architect Dinochares to erect to her a splendid tomb and memorial temple. In matters of government she seems to have been of considerable assistance to Ptolemy. As indicated by the historical outline, the last sovereign of this line was the beautiful Cleopatra. The Story Arachne. 1898. Georg M. Ebers The scene of this historical novel is laid in Alexandria in the reign of Ptolemy II. Arachne is a statue, and from the disquisi- tions on realism in art one could imagine the time to be the present century. Greek art, the sculptors and their models, are set forth. In rather striking contrast to the aesthetic is the moral degenera- tion of society of the Court under the control of Queen Arsinoe and her associates. II. The Christian Era The Graeco-Egyptian Empire of the Ptolemies came to an end B. C. 30, and Egypt was annexed to the Roman Empire. When, in the time of Theodosius, the Roman Empire was divided into the Western and Eastern Empires, Egypt became a province of the Eastern. What might be noted as historical periods would really be Roman periods, as Egypt was now a part of the Roman State. 14 HISTORICAL FICTION The Second Century It was during the peaceful reign of Augustus (B. C. 31-A. D. 14) that Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea. His crucifixion occurred during the reign of Tiberius. Following that reign Christianity, by the labors of the Apostles, spread throughout the Roman Empire. Under Nero (A. D. 54-68) began the persecu- tion of the Christians. The second century opened with the reign of Trajan (98-117), who extended the boundaries of the empire. To Trajan, the Younger Pliny writes regarding the Christians, and speaks of their creed as a "contagious superstition that had seized not only cities but the lesser towns also, and the open country." Because of their refusal to sacrifice to the gods Trajan had many of them put to death. The period of the Antonines extended from 138 to 180, and ended with the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the Stoic — a man of such lofty thoughts, and of such sympathies, that his writings approach nearer to the spirit of Christianity than any writings of the pagan world. It is probably true that, embracing in a single view all the countries included in the Roman Empire, the second century of the Christian Era marks the happiest period in their history. Under Roman rule Alexandria was the second city of the Empire, and remained the chief center of trade after Constanti- nople became the capital of the East. It was the chief seat of Greek learning and science. It was here that Christianity came into conflict with pagan systems in which old established theories were opposed by the new doctrines then spreading over the world. The Stories Narcissus. 1879. William Boyd Carpenter The author (1841-), an English clergyman of the Estab- lished Church and Bishop of Ripon, was born at Liverpool. He was educated at St. Catherine's College, Cambridge. He has enjoyed considerable distinction in being appointed Hulsean lec- turer at Cambridge and Bampton lecturer at Oxford. From 1882 to 1884 he was canon of Windsor. He visited the United States and delivered the Noble lectures at Harvard. He also had the distinction of being chaplain in ordinary to Queen Victoria, Ed- ward VII and George V. He is well known through his religious writings, but is better known to the general public by his novels. THE ANCIENT ERA 15 This tale deals with this period of the Roman Empire. It is a portrayal of Christian conditions as they existed in Alexandria, Rome and Athens. As already noted, it was a period when Ro- man Paganism was attempting by bitter persecution to extirpate the new religion. Thais. 1890. Anatole France "Anatole France'' is the assumed name of Jacques Anatole Thibault. He is a noted French critic, generally recognized as the most distinguished novelist, "the most graceful humorist, the most mordant ironist, and the purest stylist of contemporary France." This tale, Thais, of ancient Egypt and Alexandria, deals in an ironical way with the prevailing and antithetical conditions of the period. Strongly contrasted are the epicure and the recluse. Religion, philosophy and asceticism are viewed from a sceptical angle. The leading character is a degenerate who became a re- cluse. In his hermit life, influenced by his own moral reformation, he resolves upon the conversion of the courtesan, Thais, in whom he was interested in the days of his carnal life. He succeeds in his purpose ; Thais is converted, but he loses his own salvation by his thoughts constantly dwelling upon the physical attractions of the one turned from worldly to spiritual interests. The Third Century Following the reign of Commodus (180-192), for nearly a century the emperors, called "The Barrack Emperors," were elected by the army. The general character of this period is dis- tinguished by the fact that twenty-one of the twenty-five emper- ors came to their death by violence. Internal disorders prevailed while the barbarian hordes invaded the empire to rob and destroy. In A. D. 193 the empire was put up for sale by the soldiers. The highest bidder was Didius Julianus, a wealthy senator, with whom the deal was closed for the sum of about $12,000,000. From this time to the reign of Diocletian, Septimius Severus, Caracalla, and the Thirty Tyrants held the throne. During the closing years of the century Rome was under the rule of Diocletian (284-305). One of the most bitter persecutions of the Christians was inaugu- rated by him which continued for a long period after his reign. The story noted below has to do with these days of the Empire in Egyptian life. 16 HISTORICAL FICTION Epicureanism Two systems of Grecian philosophy, Stoicism and Epicurean- ism, were developed contemporaneously. Zeno, the founder of the former, was born about B. C. 340, and Epicurus, the founder of the latter, about B. C. 342. The Stoics declared that life should be in conformity with nature, that the individual should be wholly subordinated to the universal, thus excluding every personal end. Hence pleasure, which of all ends is the most individual, must be sacrificed. Pleasure, according to Cleanthes, is no end of na- ture and is not in conformity with nature. The blessedness of the moral energy of the soul is hindered and abated by pleasure, hence the latter is an evil. In opposition to Zeno, Epicurus taught that pleasure is the chief good. While Zeno taught that virtue should be sought for its own sake, and because the obligation to be virtuous lay in the character and claims of virtue itself, the Epicureans taught that the end to be sought was pleasure, and that virtue was a means to that end, and not an end in itself. Epicureanism had a large following in Greece. It will readily be seen how that during the period of moral corruption of the Roman Empire these doctrines would be espoused by many. Full indulgence was af- forded every appetite and craving for pleasure. The principles of Christianity came into uncompromising con- flict with this theory of life. The two systems were utterly in- compatible. The former emphasized the relation of the indi- vidual to the whole and to the Divine Government, enunciating the moral order to be obeyed and followed. It held forth the seriousness of life, both with reference to the present life and its relation to the future state of the soul. The Epicurean was not concerned with a future life, and devoted himself entirely to the present and the largest amount of personal pleasure. "Let us eat and drink for tomorrow we die" was his ruling idea. To- day's existence, and not tomorrow's cessation of existence, was his concern. The Story The Epicurean. 1827. Thomas Moore The author (1779- 1852) was born in Dublin, Ireland. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1799 went to the Middle Temple in London to study law. His preference for liter- THE ANCIENT ERA 17 ature almost immediately diverted his course. His Anacreon and Poetical Works of the Late Thomas Little, brought him rec- ognition. His genius was peculiarly expressed in his Irish Melo- dies, and on these his reputation mainly rests. Lalla Rookh, an Eastern romance, brought him $15,000. For the Life of Lord Byron he received $25,000. This prose romance, The Epicurean, comprises philosophy, religion, archaeology. It portrays Egyptian life in the early days of Christianity when the latter came into conflict with Greek pagan thought, particularly Epicureanism. It describes the ad- ventures of an Epicurean philosopher. From Epicureanism he is converted to Christianity, and he falls under the persecution of the Memphian priesthood. The Fourth Century Our next story brings us to the closing period of the fourth century, to the time of Theodosius (379-395). In 379 he was selected by Gratian as his partner in the Empire. He defeated the Goths in 382. In 312 was fought the battle of the Milvian Bridge and Constantine made Christianity the religion of the court, and placed it on an equal footing with the other religions of the Empire. But the measures of Theodosius against heathenism were such that it was a crime to enter a pagan temple, and in 392 the private worship of the Lares and Penates was prohibited. SERAPIS The worship of Serapis, an Egyptian deity, was introduced into Egypt during the time of Ptolemy I. It is related by Plut- arch that Ptolemy was given in a dream the image of a god. He was ordered to remove it from where it was and consequently brought the colossal statue which he set up in Alexandria. This was declared to represent the god Serapis. A beautiful temple was constructed at Alexandria, called the Serapeum, for the statue of Serapis. "The Egyptians themselves never acknowledged him in their pantheon ; but he was the principal deity in the Greek and Roman towns of Egypt. Forty-two temples are said to have been erected to him in Egypt under the Ptolemies and Romans ; his worship extended also to Asia Minor and was introduced into Rome by Antoninus -Pius." The setting up of this statue in its temple was the last hold of the pagans in Alexandria after the 18 HISTORICAL FICTION introduction of Christianity. By the order of Theodosius in 389 the image and its temple were destroyed. The Story Serapis. 1885. Georg M. Ebers The historical setting of this story is Alexandria in the time of Theodosius. While Christianity had come to the ascendency in the Roman Empire, there was still a conflict between Pagans and Christians which is brought out in this story. The destruc- tion of the image and temple of Serapis is of leading interest. The heroine is a girl of the pagan faith which it is difficult for her to renounce, and while she is surrendering to Christianity, the grandeur of the pagan worship still appeals to her. The Fifth Century The Roman Empire, comprising the Eastern and Western, was united practically for the last time under Theodosius. Be- fore his death in 395 he assigned the government of the East to his son Arcadius, and that of the West to his son Honorius. It was not designed that these appointments should affect the unity of the empire. The new century opened with these sons as the sovereigns of the Roman Empire, and the first invasion by Alaric (A. D. 402- 403). From this Italy was delivered, but in 405-406 occurred the invasion of German tribes from beyond the Rhine, who filled the plains of Italy. Three years later Honorius provoked a revolt among thousands of Gothic mercenaries whose kinsmen beyond the Alps, led by Alaric, joined them, besieged Rome and com- pelled the city to pay an enormous ransom. To the pagans the sack of Rome was a judgment from the gods for the abandon- ment of their worship ; the Christians saw in it the fulfillment of prophecy as uttered in the Book of Revelation. While these events were transpiring in Rome, in Alexandria Christianity and Neo-Platonism were in conflict, and Hypatia, the expounder of the latter, was delivering her lectures. Neo-Platonism The last movement in Greek philosophical thought was Neo- Platonism, the center of which was Alexandria. "Its representa- THE ANCIENT ERA 19 tives were at one and the same time Greek thinkers and Hebrew seers. While the Neo-Platonists were laboring to restore, in mod- ified form, the ancient Greek philosophy and worship, the teachers of Christianity were fast winning the world over to a new faith. The two systems came into deadly conflict. Christianity tri- umphed. With the triumph of the Christian Fathers the work of the Greek philosophers, as living personal teachers, was ended ; but their system of thought will never cease to attract and influ- ence the best minds of the race." Plotinus (A. D. 205-270) of Lycopolis in Egypt was the most important representative of Neo-Platonism. In the fourth cen- tury his system passed over to Athens and became established in the Academy. It represents the last struggle, the exhaustion and dissolution of the old philosophy. It was the last attempt to resolve the dualism between the subjective and the objective. Neo-Platonism was an attempt to attain to absolute truth, to comprehend the absolute. It did not seek to do this by acquiring knowledge, or by intellectual or dialectic processes, but by ecstasy, by an immediate beholding by a mystical illumination or exalta- tion of spirit. To do this, or be this, would require the resolving the self into the absolute, a mystical absorption into the Deity, and consequently a mystical self-destruction of the individual. Thus in its attempt by means of ecstasy to attain its highest prin- ciple from which all else was derived, and as Schwegler says, "not by means of self-conscious thinking, nor by any natural or rational way, it is evident that ancient philosophy, instead of be- coming perfected in Neo-Platonism, only overleaps itself to its own self-destruction." Hypatia Hypatia (355-415) was the daughter of Theon, a celebrated mathematician and astronomer of Alexandria. She had been carefully taught by her father and became a famous Greek philos- opher of the Eclectic School. She lectured on philosophy at Alexandria and was the teacher of many students from the East. In this city she was the chief expounder of Neo-Platonism. She was not only a woman of great learning, but was equally distin- guished for her beauty and purity of character. She was not allowed to enjoy her distinction and popularity unmolested. Cyril, bishop of Alexandria, was jealous of her standing and influence. 20 HISTORICAL FICTION She was accused by the clergy of exerting undue influence over Orestes, prefect of Alexandria, against Cyril. They created a tumult, and a mob led by monks attacked her, dragged her through the streets into a church, stripped off her clothing and killed her. The Story Hypatia. 1853. Charles Kingsley The author (i 819- 1875), an English clergyman, graduated from Cambridge with high honors. He became famous both as a preacher and writer. He devoted his energies to the welfare of the working classes and wrote two novels dealing with social and economic problems. In 1859 he became professor of modern his- tory at Cambridge, and in 1869 was made Canon of Chester. Hypatia, or, New Foes With an Old Face, Kingsley's brilliant novel, has its setting in the circumstances given above — the con- flict between ruling ideas in Alexandria. Hypatia, the expounder of Neo-Platonism, holds the center of the stage, while crowded into the scene are Greeks, Romans and other races. The number of incidents and interests introduced, in such striking and dra- matic manner, creates remarkable variety. The life, work and death of Hypatia are vividly portrayed. A young Christian monk, Philammon, is the leading male character. In the monastery on the upper Nile he is consumed with a desire to save others from sin and its consequences. He comes to Alexandria and becomes bewildered by the classic culture by which he is surrounded. The influence of Hypatia upon him is very great, and his faith becomes unsettled by the sureties of the philosophy with which Christianity is in conflict. The problems created by these new studies and cir- cumstances are illustrated by the following extract : "But his faith in Christianity? What had become of that? What usually happens in such cases. It was not dead ; but never- theless it had fallen fast asleep for the time being. He did not disbelieve it; he would have been shocked to hear such a thing asserted of him; but he happened to be busy believing something else — geometry conic sections, cosmogonies, psychologies and what not. And so it befell that he had not just then time to believe in Christianity. He recollected at times its existence; but even then he neither affirmed nor denied it. When he had solved the THE ANCIENT ERA 21 great questions — those which Hypatia had set forth as the roots of all knowledge — how the world was made, and what was the origin of evil, and what his own personality was, and — that being settled — whether he had one, with a few other preliminary matters, then it would be time to return, and with his enlarged light, to the study of Christianity ; and if, of course, Christianity should be found to be at variance with that enlarged light, as Hypatia seemed to think . . . why, then — what then? . . . He would not think about such disagreeable possibilities. Sufficient for the day was the evil thereof. Possibilities? It was impossible . . . Philos- ophy could not mislead. Had not Hypatia denned it as man's search after the unseen? And if he found the unseen by it, did it not come to just the same thing as if the unseen had revealed itself to him? And he must find it, for logic and mathematics could not err. If every step was correct, the conclusion must be correct also ; so he must end, after all, in the right path — that is, of course, supposing Christianity to be the right path — and return to fight the Church's battles, with the sword which he had wrested from Goliath the Philistine. . . . But he had not won the sword yet : and in the meanwhile, learning was weary work; and sufficient for the day was the good, as well as the evil thereof," CHAPTER II ASSYRIA The nations of the Euphrates region form a group of kindred people who had a common civilization. Assyria brought forth the first great civilization of this region, and for centuries was destined to exert a great influence in her relations with Babylon, Egypt, Syria, Phoenicia and Palestine. The deeds of her kings are preserved on bricks, cylinders and obelisks describing such achievements as the conquest of forty-two countries by one king, the conquest of Syria, Phoenicia and Palestine, the new political system that was created, the conquests in Central Arabia, and other great deeds. The distinction of Assyria lay in her conquests rather than in culture. Devoted from the beginning to war and pillage their monuments exhibit the cruelty and brutality to which they sub- jected their enemies. The excavations at Nineveh exhibit some- thing of their building operations. They surpassed the Baby- lonians in architecture and sculpture, but were inferior to them in the other arts and sciences. It is believed that Assyrian culture came from Babylon, but the creative power that belonged to the latter was wanting in the Assyrians. They lacked in the sense of beauty, and their art was a pictorial representation of events. Their religion was the same as the Babylonian, Asshur being the tutelary deity, Astarte cor- responding to Ishtar of the Babylonians, and Bel having equal significance with both nations. It was about B. C. 1800 that their rulers, who had their cap- ital at Asshur, began to make their presence felt in this region, and it was probably a century prior to this time that the first set- tlers came from Babylonia. Thus the empire existed for a period of about thirteen centuries. The fall of Assyria occurred in B. C. 606 when Nineveh was taken and destroyed by the Medes and Persians. It will be seen that the fall of Assyria antedated that of Egypt by nearly three centuries, and about 116 years after she put an end to Israel in B. C. 722, and carried the ten tribes into 22 THE ANCIENT ERA 23 captivity. The kingdom of Judah survived her for the brief period of twenty years. The fall of Assyria left two other great nations of this group to continue the struggle, to subdue empires, bring forth their civil- ization, raise Orientalism to its greatest height and establish one dominant fact in the historic development of the race. Historical Outline Tiglath-Pileser I, B. C. 1120-1100. Control over Babylonia. Devotion to the Arts. Assurnazipal III, 883-858. Conquests and extension of the Empire. Tiglath-Pileser III, 745"7 2 7- Political organization. Sargon II, 722-705. Founder of the greatest dynasty of Assyria. Carried Israel into captivity, 722. Sennacherib, 705-681. Expedition against Hezekiah, King of Judah. Esarhaddon, 680-668. Asshur-bani-pal, 668-626. Patron of art and literature. The Golden Age of Assyria. Fall of Assyria, 606, by the Medes and Babylonians. Semiramis The ancient Greek legends ascribe the building of Nineveh and the founding of Assyria to the mythical Ninus and his queen Semiramis. In these matters the cuneiform inscriptions are re- garded more authoritative. These do not record the name of Ninus, while that of Semiramis does not appear until the ninth century B. C. Having no place in the cuneiform records, this mythical Assyrian queen owes her fame, if not her actual exist- ence, to Greek legends. At the siege of Bactra, through her beauty and bravery, she won the love of Ninus, king of Nineveh, and be- came his wife. She was, however, the wife of Onnes, the gov- ernor of Nineveh. He refused to surrender her to Ninus upon the demand of the latter, and despairing of retaining her, took his own life. When Ninus died she became the sole sovereign of Assyria. She built Babylon and the temple of Bel and conquered the surrounding countries. She reigned forty-two years and re- 24 HISTORICAL FICTION signed the throne to her son Ninyas. Some accounts say she was murdered by him, others, that she flew up to heaven in the form of a dove. Some of her deeds are identical with those of the goddess Ishtar as set forth in the Nimrod epic. The Stories Sarchedon. 1871. George John White Melville The author (1821-1878) was born near St. Andrews, Scot- land. In 1839 ne entered the army and seven years later became captain of the Coldstream Guards. During the Crimean War he served in the Turkish cavalry. He has been called the founder of the fashionable novel of the high-life sporting variety. Sarchedon is a tale of Semiramis, dealing with Assyria and Egypt of that time. The hero is characterized by his qualities as a soldier, and Ishtar, who dominates his affections, is distinguished for her purity and beauty. Baalism occupies a distinctive place. What is of peculiar interest is the fact that the author does not hesitate to bring into the story events that belong to Egyptian his- tory several centuries prior to this time. Semiramis. 1907. Edward Henry Peple The author (1869-) was born at Richmond, Va. He received his education in the high school and academy. In 1895 ne re ~ moved to New York, and until 1902 served as expert accountant. The works by which he is best known are A Broken Rosary, Mal- let's Masterpiece, The Prince Chap, The Littlest Rebel, A Pair of Sixes, Semiramis. This tale, Semiramis, is based on the legendary account that invests this queen with the interest that attaches to her as the wife of Ninus, who is declared by this legendary history to be the founder of Nineveh. For these facts the reader is referred to the historical statement above. Reign of Tiglath-Pileser III As given in the historical sketch, this king ruled Assyria from B. C. 745 to 727. He was a man of great resourcefulness and restored the empire to the high position it attained prior to the THE ANCIENT ERA 25 disorder into which it had fallen. The peculiar distinction of this king lay in his political organization in which he displayed special talent. An element of weakness in the policy of Assyria under former kings was in placing the kings of conquered states over their own dominions as tributary to Assyria. This system played into the hands of the revolutionary spirit whenever it might assert itself. Tiglath-Pileser removed this danger by plac- ing Assyrian viceroys over the conquered states which he reduced to provinces. Contemporary with Tiglath-Pileser was Ahaz, king of Judah (B. C. 735-715). Ahaz was the father of Hezekiah, under whom occurred the second great revival in Judah. Ahaz, menaced by the king of Syria and the king of Israel, formed an alliance with Tiglath-Pileser to protect him against these kings. Such an alli- ance was a mistake, not only because it was divinely forbidden, but because it involved Judah in entanglements that placed her under obligations to the stronger state. The following story brings out the alliance between these two kings. The Story The Assyrian Bride. 1905. William Patrick Kelly The historical setting of this story is to be found in the time and circumstances given above. Nineveh and Jerusalem are brought together. A young Hebrew officer is sent to Tiglath-Pileser to solicit assistance for Ahaz, king of Judah. He falls in love with a young Assyrian woman, the heroine of the story. This is a vio- lation of the principles of Judaism which prohibited intermar- riage with heathen peoples. Bringing his bride to Jerusalem was bringing into conflict Judaism and pagan idolatry. The Temple, the center of the Jewish religious system and safeguarded by Di- vine appointments, is desecrated by the heroine, and as a retribu- tion she is smitten with leprosy which brings her to a miserable death. The husband escapes the punishment of losing an eye through his father, who imposed the sentence, bearing the penalty and suffering the loss of one of his eyes. Thus is set forth the con- sequence of these interrelations of Jew and Gentile. CHAPTER III PERSIA The Persians, descended from Aryan stock, inhabited the southern part of the plateau of Iran. The Medes settled in the mountain regions of the north-west. The latter at first were the leading people. Under Cyrus the Medes and Persians became one state just twenty years prior to the fall of Babylon by Cyrus, while from the beginning of this union to the fall of Persia by Alexander the Great was a period of 227 years. Babylon, the First Universal Empire, lasted for about one hun- dred years ; Persia, the Second Universal Empire, lasted a little more than twice as long. In the prophecy of Daniel, the Hebrew prophet, in his vision of the Historic Man comprising the Four Universal Empires, Babylon is represented as the head of gold, and Persia as the arms and breast of silver. In these great world movements Babylon and Persia constitu- ted Orientalism representing a materialistic civilization as con- trasted with the intellectualism of the Greeks and the social order of the Romans. The Universal Empires mark a new era in human history and development. It began with the lower which held sway until the fall of Persia. Man was capable of something higher than what Orientalism represented, and for the realization of these higher ideals he constructs new empires by which to attain his larger self-expression. Persia alone of this group of states sustained a national edu- cational system. The Persian boy was trained to great endurance and to support himself under privation. In his moral training absolute regard for the truth was a basic principle. While the Persians contributed nothing to science they became famous in architecture, the finest example of which was the Great Palace at Persepolis, destroyed by Alexander. They were not an intellectual people ; they were soldiers fitted to rule, and, with Babylon, were representative of the material order. 26 THE ANCIENT ERA 27 Historical Outline Cyrus the Great, B. C. 558-529. Founded a great world empire. Conquest of Lydia. Conquest of Babylon (538), and restoration of the Jews (536). Cambyses II, 529-522. Conquest of Egypt, 525. Darius I, 521-484. Conquest of the Punjab. Defeated by the Greeks at Marathon, 490. Xerxes I, 484-464. Battle of Salamis, defeated by the Greeks. Decline and fall of the empire. Period of internal strife. Darius III, 336-330. Fall of Persia by Alexander the Great, 331. The Fall of Babylon From Nabopolassar (B. C. 625-605), founder of the New Babylonian Empire, to the fall of the empire in 538 was a period of less than one hundred years. The first of the four universal empires, it came to its greatest distinction under Nebuchadnezzar (605-561), whose colossal architectural operations made Babylon the wonder of the ancient world. In 538 Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jerusalem and carried to Babylon the greater part of the Jewish people. This brought to an end the kingdom of Judah. Among those carried into captivity, at an earlier date, was Daniel the prophet. With Nebuchadnezzar the glory of the New Empire passed away. An Aryan kingdom, having a strong energetic sovereign, was advancing. This sovereign, Cyrus, met Nabonidus, king of Babylon, in the open field and defeated him. It is the prophet Daniel who gives us such a graphic account of Belshazzar's feast, the miraculous handwriting on the wall announcing the doom of Babylon. Belshazzar, the son of Nabonidus, probably reigned conjointly with his father. 28 HISTORICAL FICTION The Stories Belshazzar. 1902. William Stearns Davis The author (1877-) was born at Amherst, Mass. He grad- uated from Harvard University in 1900. He was lecturer at Rad- clifle College, instructor at Beloit College, Wisconsin, and associate professor of history at Oberlin College. In 1909 he became pro- fessor of history at the University of Minnesota. His story, Belshazzar, has its setting in the historical facts just related — the fall of Babylon. Istar of Babylon. 1902. Margaret Horton Potter Among the Babylonian gods Sin was the Lord of the Moon, the local god of Ur in Babylonia and of Harran in Mesopotamia. He is often called the father of Shamash (the Sun). The Baby- lonians believed the Moon had an influence upon vegetation. Ishtar, the Lady of Heaven, is identified with the star Venus. In this story Ishtar, the daughter of the moon-god, takes the form of a beautiful woman. Cyrus, the founder of the Persian world empire, his son Cambyses, who followed him on the throne, and Daniel the prophet, one of the Hebrew captives during the Babylonian exile, figure in the story. Zoroaster. 1885. Francis Marion Crawford The author (1854- 1909) was an American novelist, but in the main resided in Europe. He was born in Italy, a son of the sculp- tor, Thomas Crawford. He was educated in America, England and Germany. His first story, Mr. Isaacs, a story of modern India, brought him immediate recognition. As a novelist he does not deal with tangled psychological problems, but has in a marked degree the art of the born storyteller. In this Persian romance, Zoroaster, the conditions in Persia at the time of the fall of Babylon, and following that event, are fully portrayed. The feast of Belshazzar is represented. The scene is laid in the time of Darius and Daniel. In the Book of Daniel we have the account of the distinction to which Daniel was raised in being placed at the head of the one hundred and twenty THE ANCIENT ERA 29 princes, and who, in a spirit of jealousy, conspired to bring about the death of the prophet. Reign of Cambyses II Cambyses (B. C. 529-522), son of Cyrus the Great, did not long hold the throne of the Medes and Persians. His brother Smerdis was made Viceroy of Iran. Dominated by his own great design, Cambyses invaded Egypt in B. C. 525 and defeated Psam- meticus III in the battle of Pelusium. In the following year Memphis, the capital, fell and he was soon the conqueror of the entire valley of the Nile. When he attempted to conquer the Ethiopians he met with a serious defeat. He had caused his brother Bardiza (Smerdis) to be murdered, and received news that Gaumata, the pseudo-Smerdis, who im- personated Bardiza whom he resembled, had seized the throne in his absence. The people at this time did not know that Bardiza had been assassinated. Cambyses was startled by this bold at- tempt to impersonate one whom he was satisfied was dead and at once set out for Persia. He never reached his capital, but died at Ecbatana. The Story An Egyptian Princess. 1864. Georg M. Ebers The author (1837- 1898) studied at Keilhau and Quedlinburg, and at Gottingen University took up the study of law. In 1858 he devoted himself to philosophy and archaeology, and the follow- ing year to Egyptology. He went to Egypt, Arabia and Nubia in 1869, and returning home was given the chair of Egyptology at the University of Leipsic. In 1872 he returned to Egypt and unearthed important inscriptions and a papyrus that now bears his name. This story was written during an extended illness of the author, and has been translated into many European languages. It is a story of Cambyses II and relates to the time of Amasis and Psammeticus III in Egypt. Under the escort of Bart j a (Smerdis) the handsome brother 3 o HISTORICAL FICTION of Cambyses, Nitetis, the beautiful daughter of the Egyptian king, comes to Babylon to vved Cambyses. The latter comes to believe, what is wholly untrue, that she loves Bart j a, and a vicious plot is hatched by the eunuch to ruin the Princess. To this end he em- ploys his brother Gaumata (the pseudo-Smerdis), who bears a striking resemblance to Bart j a. The plot succeeds in implicating the innocent Bartja who, with others, is sentenced to death by the king, while the Princess is to be grossly humiliated and punished. Phanes, commander of the Greek mercenaries in Egypt, comes to Babylon at that time, stumbles on to the plot and discovers the culprits and satisfies the king on these points. The plotters make their escape. Cambyses pleads the forgiveness of the Princess, but it is too late for she has taken poison from which she soon expires. Overwhelmed, the king demands action, war, anything to smother his remorse, and Phanes, who had fallen into disgrace in Egypt has sworn revenge. He reveals to the king the secret that Nitetis was the daughter of Hophra, whose throne Amasis had usurped, and persuades him to wage war upon Egypt and claim the throne of Amasis as the husband of Hophra's daughter. Here the story ends and history supplies the facts of the con- quest of Egypt. Croesus, King of Lydia, Darius and other lead- ing personages are introduced. Reign of Xerxes I For his place in Persian history the reader is referred to the Historical Outline. The Jewish captivity of seventy years expired with the decree of Cyrus in B. C. 536, which restored them to their own land to rebuild their temple. This was two years after the fall of Babylon. Palestine now became a Persian province, and the historical books of the Old Testament that relate to this period are Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther. The story of Esther natu- rally gave rise to the question, with what Persian king was Ahasuerus identified? And it is well known that almost every Medo-Persian king from Cyaxares to Artaxerxes III has been declared to be the Ahasuerus of the Book of Esther. We are no longer in doubt regarding this matter. It has been definitely estab- lished by the cuneiform inscriptions. Prof. A. H. Sayce, an ac- cepted authority says, "Ahasuerus and Xerxes are the same name, and there is only one Xerxes to whom the account in the book of Esther can refer. That is the famous Xerxes I. Thanks to the THE ANCIENT ERA 31 decipherment of cuneiform inscriptions, we now know that the Persian kings did not have two names, so that the old attempt to identify Xerxes of Esther with Darius or Artaxerxes can never be renewed." The reader of this book of the Old Testament will call to mind how that Ahasuerus, inflamed with wine at his great feast, de- manded that his queen Vashti be brought in to exhibit her beauty. Refusing to degrade herself in such a manner the king divorced her. In the seventh year of his reign he married Esther, a beauti- ful Jewess, who concealed her parentage. Through her the plot of Haman to destroy all the Jews of the empire was frustrated, and Haman died on the gallows. It is one of the most stirring stories of the Bible. Darius I, the father of Xerxes, in his expedition against Greece, was defeated in the battle of Marathon (B. C. 490). Before he could put into execution another expedition he died. His son Xerxes raised an army of 2,317,000 men, according to Herodotus, which included his naval forces. This is no doubt a great exag- geration as the Persian army could not have exceeded 600,000 men. Leonidas the Spartan with 6,300 men held the pass of Ther- mopylae against this great force until, by an act of treachery, a secret byway was revealed to the Persians, and then all was lost. In the same year (480), in the naval battle of Salamis, Xerxes was defeated and retreated into Asia. His pride and his hopes were broken and finally was slain in his own chamber, The Stories The Star of Love. 1909. Florence M. Kingsley The historical events just noted, Thermopylae and Salamis, are introduced into the story. It deals mainly with the two queens, Vashti and Esther. It was in the third year of his reign that Xerxes made his sumptuous feast for his nobles which lasted for 180 days at which time Vashti refused to obey the order of the king. In the seventh year of his reign (477) he married Esther as is set forth in the historical statement. It was about this time that Pausanias the Spartan was making his traitorous overtures to Xerxes, as is given in the following chapter. 32 HISTORICAL FICTION Hadassah, Queen of Persia. 1912. Agnese Laurie Walker Hadassah was the earlier Jewish name of Esther. The facts are related in the book of Esther, 2 :?, which state the relation of Esther to Mordecai. Esther was an orphan and was brought up by her cousin, Mordecai, on account of whom Hainan's conspiracy was concocted. In this story of Esther in the Persian Court the life of the Court is well portrayed. CHAPTER IV GREECE No state had a more distinctive place in the world's develop- ment than did ancient Greece. She overthrew Persia and became the Third Universal Empire, the body and thighs of brass of Daniel's historical image. In the rise of this new world power there is something vastly more than the superiority of Grecian arms. The universality of a state is not simply a general conquest of nations, but a spreading of its ideas and ruling principles. Through its universal con- quests the larger universality is made possible. The race in the hands of such a conqueror receives a new impress and passes through new moulds. It is stamped with the mark of a new era which registers, in the history of humanity, its passage from one stage to another in its development. Geographical and physical conditions have had an important bearing upon the destiny of nations. Britain's insular position is a vital factor in her greatness. The physical features of Greece designed it for the development of small states preventing them from becoming a single nation under a central government. Her civilization developed a new order of things by which the citizen instead of the king is made the central idea, thus approaching the modern conception that the individual is the social unit. The central ideas of this civilization were political and intellectual freedom. Of all ancient peoples the Greek was the universal man. An- other distinguishing trait of the Grecian character was originality. Whatever came to their hand, formed by others, they recon- structed and stamped it with a purely Grecian conception. "When w r e leave Asiatic ground, and come into contact with the Greeks, we find ourselves in another atmosphere. A spirit of humanity, in the broad sense of the term, pervades their life. A regard for reason, a sense of order, a disposition to keep everything within measure is a marked characteristic. Their sense of form — includ- 33 34 HISTORICAL FICTION ing a perception of beauty, and of harmony and proportion — made them in politics and letters the leaders of mankind. Their language without a rival in flexibility and symmetry and in per- fection of sound, is itself, though a spontaneous creation, a work of art." Such a people living in a genial and invigorating climate, fanned by the breezes of mountain and sea, arose in the midst of materialistic conditions with a new ideal — the creation of the per- fect man by intellectual processes. Historical Outline I. The Heroic Age, B. C. 2000-1 100. The Greek Heroes. The Argonauts. Trojan War. Dorian migration. II. The Formative Age, 1 100-500. 1. Peloponnesus in B. C. 500. Ruled by Spartans. Re- publican Oligarchy. 2. Athens in B. C. 500. Supremacy in Middle Greece. Draco, Solon, Pisis- tratus. III. The Golden Age, 500-429. 1. The Persian Wars, 500-479. First expedition of Darius against Greece, 492. Second expedition, 490. Battle of Marathon. Invasion of Xerxes. Thermopylae, 480; Salamis, 480. Pausanias. Battle of Plataea, 479. 2. The Athenian Empire. Athens rebuilt. Piraeus fortified. Treachery of Pausanias. The rising of Pericles, 460. 3. The Periclean Age, 445-429. Democracy Under Pericles. Brilliant period in art, architecture, literature, phil- osophy. IV. Period of Conquest and Decline, 431-146. 1. The Peloponnesian War, 431-404. Expedition of Alcibiades to Sicily, 415. Battles of Arginusae, 406, and Aeguspotami, 405. Fall of Athens, 404. THE ANCIENT ERA 35 2. Spartan and Theban supremacy, 404-362. 3. The Macedonian Period, 359-323. Philip II, 359-336. Alexander the Great, 336-323. Conquests — Asia, Egypt, Persia, India. 4. Division of the Empire. 5. Greece a Roman province, B. C. 146. The Persian Wars The Persian Empire, extending its power to the Aegean Sea, had subdued the Greek cities of Asia Minor, and her aim was to crush the cities of European Greece. Sardis was destroyed B. C. 500. Then after a long siege Miletus was taken, and the remain- ing cities of Ionia were sacked and destroyed. Having crushed the Ionian revolt Darius decided to punish the Athenians for the aid they had rendered the Ionians. His first expedition was a failure. For the second expedition he mo- bilized an army of 120,000. The Greeks met them in the plain of Marathon and and won a decided victory. One of the decisive battles of the world, it marks the turning point in the history of humanity. The battle decided that no longer the despotism of the East, with its repression of all individual action, but the free- dom of the West, with all its incentives to personal effort, should mark the future centuries of history. The tradition of the fight forms the prelude of the story of human freedom and progress. While engaged with preparations for another great invasion of Greece Darius died, and his son Xerxes coming to the throne put into execution his father's plans. The Greeks, numbering about 7,000 men under Leonidas, king of Sparta, met this vast army at the pass of Thermopylae. An act of treachery betrayed to the Persians a path leading over the mountains to the rear of the Spartans. The latter fought to the last man, but Thermopylae became a sacred spot to all future generations of Greece. The Greek fleet lay in the Gulf of Salamis waiting for the Persian fleet to strike. Deceived by the ruse of Themistocles Xerxes ordered his fleet to attack. From the shore he watched the battle and saw his fleet of 200 ships destroyed. In the following year (479) the Greeks, with the largest army they had ever raised, under the command of Pausanias, again de- feated the Persians in the battle of Plataea, and on the same dav, 36 HISTORICAL FICTION at Cape Mycale in Ionia, another great victory was won by their land and naval force. The Stories A Victor of Salamis. 1907. W. Stearns Davis It was this conflict with the powerful Persian state that brought forth Themistocles, a man of genius, the creator of the naval power of the Athenians. Possessed of shrewd statesmanship, he saw the need of a strong navy, and his policy succeeding at Sala- mis, he became the salvation of the state. A Victor of Salamis deals with the invasion of Xerxes. The hero of the tale is both an athlete and warrior. Thermopylae and Leonidas take their place in the story, and also Salamis, Plataea, Themistocles and Xerxes. It also describes the Isthmian games. The great festivals of the Greeks were the Olympian games in honor of the Olympian Zeus ; the Pythian, held in honor of Apollo ; the Nemean, in honor of Zeus of Nemea; the Isthmian, in honor of Poseidon on the Isthmus of Corinth. The Olympian games occurred every fourth year and consisted of foot-races, boxing, chariot racing, etc. The competitors must be qualified by special training. These festivals exerted a powerful influence upon the social, literary and religious life of the people in stimulating among the Hellenic states a com- mon literary enthusiasm. Into the Pythian, Nemean and Isth- mian festivals were introduced contests in oratory, history and poetry. The artist exhibited his masterpiece, and the poet and historian contributed their best productions. Three Greek Children. 1889. Alfred J. Church The author (1829-1912) was born in London. He was edu- cated at King's College, London, and Lincoln College, Oxford. He was ordained in 1853. During the years 1870-72 he was the head master of Henley Grammar School, and was afterwards professor of Latin in University College, London. He was a prolific writer and is best known for his retellings of classical tales and legends for young people. In this story, Three Greek Children, the author portrays home life in Athens. It deals with the same historical period and events THE ANCIENT ERA 37 as does the preceding story — Marathon, Piraeus, Salamis and the Isthmian Games. The Lemnian. 1912. John Buchan The leading interest of this story is the battle of Thermopylae. (See historical sketch.) The graphic account of the famous battle is given by an islander who happened to be present, and watched the Spartans in their heroic resistance of the great Persian force. Pausanias Pausanias was in charge of the Greek army of 110,000 men at the battle of Plataea (479). The Persian army was practically annihilated which reflected great honor upon Pausanias. This great success turned his head, and he decided that the circum- stances were auspicious for his ambition to become tyrant of all Greece. He treacherously proposed to Xerxes, the Persian king, that he co-operate with him, and as the price of his treachery be given the rule of Greece as the viceroy of Xerxes. This proposi- tion was accepted by Xerxes. Pausanias was called to account by the Ephors at Sparta. Taking refuge in the sanctuary of Athena at Sparta, the doors were fastened and every means of escape from the building were cut off. He was left to die of starvation. The Story Pausanias the Spartan. 1875. Bulwer-Lytton This English author (1803- 1873), after graduating from Cam- bridge, spent some time in Paris. He became estranged from his mother on account of his marriage which she did not approve. This threw him upon his own resources, and, to support himself, he turned his attention to literature. His productions brought him great popularity because of the interest his stories inspired. His life passed through the stirring scenes of the Napoleonic Era, the War of 181 2, the Crimean War and the Franco-German War. This unfinished historical romance, the last of the author's works, comprises history, love and tragedy. It has its setting in the time of Pausanias. By a mistake he killed the woman he loved as she came to his couch by night. 3§ HISTORICAL FICTION Age of Pericles There is little danger of exaggerating the influence of this brief period of about fifteen years upon the civilization of the world. During this time Athens brought forth more distinguished men in the realms of statesmanship, philosophy, art and poetry than have been produced by all nations in any period of the world of equal length. In B. C. 509 a democratic government was set up under the new constitution proposed by Clisthenes. When Pericles became the leader in Athens Athenian democracy had in him its great representative. In his attempt to create a land empire in central Greece he encountered great opposition on the part of Sparta, whose jealousy of this growing strength of Athens stimulated her to invest her power in the aristocracy of the Cities of Boeotia. In this conflict the Athenians were at first successful, but at Coronea (447) the Spartans gained a great victory followed by the Thirty Years' Truce which provided that each of the two cities should not interfere with the subjects of the other, or com- pel any city not of these confederations to join either, only as they freely chose to do so. Alcibiades, the nephew of Pericles, was an Athenian general and politician. He was brilliant but dissolute and profligate. He came under the instructions of Socrates, but the great philosopher was unable to change the course of his reckless habits. He at- tained a political ascendency and played a leading part in the affairs of the state. His great rival and opponent was Nicias, who argued against the project of Alcibiades of sending an expedition to Sicily. Socrates, following the Sophistic School, was the founder of a new and constructive development in Grecian philosophy. His wife was Xanthippe, who did not sympathize with his philosoph- ical speculations, notwithstanding the fact that her husband in his ethical system was surpassed only by the Man of Galilee. Nature was not very kind to this great soul in the matter of his person for he was probably as ugly and ungainly a personage as could be found in Athens. He wrote nothing, but as the teacher of Plato the truth he uttered was saved to the world. Aristophanes (450-385), the great writer of comedy, exercised his abilities in ridiculing the Sophists, the most noted of whom were Protagoras, Gorgias and Prodicus. THE ANCIENT ERA 39 Anaxagoras (about 500-427) had the distinction of being the first of the Greek thinkers to find in Mind the fundamental ground of all things. He was the teacher of Pericles. His basic concep- tion was the turning point in Greek philosophy. Sophocles (496-405) was the leader of tragedy at Athens. The central idea of his dramas is, "that self-will and insolent pride arouse the righteous indignation of the gods, and that no mortal can contend successfully against the will of Zeus." The following stories will indicate why these brief notices have been given dealing with the great interests of this period. The Stories The Stranger from Ionia. 1911. William P. Kelly The historical setting of this story is the age of Pericles. Such leading personages are introduced as Socrates, Alcibiades, Xan- thippe the wife of Socrates, Nicias and the son of Pericles. Spe- cial importance attaches to the conflict between aristocracy and democracy at Athens. The young stranger from Ionia falls in love with a young Athenian woman. It is not possible for them to be legitimately wedded in Athens, but the same obstacle did not exist in his country, and she flees with him to Ionia to become his wife. Pericles arid Aspasia. 1836. Walter Savage Landor This English poet and prose writer (1775-1864) was born at Ipsley Court, Warwickshire. As a pupil at Rugby he distinguished himself in Latin verse, but was compelled to leave that school on account of his bad temper. In 1793 he entered Trinity College, Oxford, where other troubles awaited him on account of the manner in which he expressed his republican views and his uncon- ventional habits. Leaving Oxford on these accounts brought him into conflict with his father. In Wales he wrote Geber, which was admired by Coleridge, Southey and Shelley. In 1808 he served under Blake in Spain. In Florence in 1858 he was assisted by Browning. "Landor's was a powerful personality connecting the earlier and later poets of the nineteenth century. His prose rises at times to magnificence." The social position of women in Greece was not high, and the Grecian wife did not exert the refining influence common to 40 HISTORICAL FICTION modern home-life. For social and intellectual companionship men sought a class of highly cultured women known as Hetaerae. The most brilliant representative of this class was Aspasia, the friend of Pericles. Her accomplishments attracted to her home such men as Socrates and Anaxagoras. Aspasia was associated with Pericles in a way condemned by modern morality. She was accused of being impious, and was saved from this accusation only by the pleading of Pericles before the court. Being a native of Miletus, she could not become the wife of Pericles, as marriage with a foreign woman was illegal according to Athenian law. Her son by Pericles was legitimated by a special decree of the people. Landor's story portrays the brilliant character of this Golden Age of Greece in its intellectual grandeur, and also the social life of Athens at this time. Among the great personages that figure in the historical presentation are Sophocles, Anaxagoras, Aristoph- anes, Alcibiades and Socrates. This work is considered the most remarkable example of Landor's dialogues. Aspasia. 1881. Robert Hammerling In this romance of art and love the author makes prominent the immoral characteristics of Aspasia. This is not emphasized by Landor in his work as noted above. The Peloponnesian War As noted by the Historical Outline this war began B. C. 431, and lasted for a period of twenty-seven years. Between Athens and Sparta was constant jealousy so that a conflict between these rival cities was not difficult to precipitate. The immediate causes of the war lay in the part Athens took in the conflict between Corinth and Corey ra relative to the commerce of the islands and coast towns of Western Greece, and the blockade of Potidaea by Athens. Sparta, as the head of the Dorian alliance, was appealed to by Corinth. After listening to the facts presented by the depu- ties Sparta decided that Athens had acted unjustly and declared war. The Peloponnesians ravished Attica, but the Athenians were strongly defended by their walls. A plague broke out in the city, however, which swept away one-fourth of the population. Among the victims was Pericles himself. By the battle of Martinea Sparta was re-established in her leadership in the Peloponnesus. THE ANCIENT ERA 41 Following the taking of the island of Melos by the Athenians (416), Athens embarked upon an enterprise that was destined to be attended with far-reaching results comprising the Hellenic world. From the city of Egesta in Sicily had come to Athens an appeal for help against the city of Selinus. Nicias succeeded in securing the attention of the people in a meeting of the Ecclesia, and pointed out the great mistake in sending a fleet of sixty vessels to Sicily and thus attempt, under existing conditions, to extend their conquests. Opposed to him was Alcibiades, the leading spirit in this undertaking. He painted a picture of conquest in Sicily and the raising of Athens to glorious heights. In his reply to this speech Nicias, in setting forth the folly of attempting a thing of such vast proportions, only succeeded in firing the imagination of the people and making them the more anxious to engage in such an enterprise. Alcibiades was one of the generals in command of the expedi- tion. No sooner had it reached Sicily than Alcibiades was sum- moned to return to Athens to answer a charge of impiety, that he had participated in the mutilation of the statues of Hermes just before the departure of the expedition. Instead of returning to Athens and there being at the mercy of his enemies, he fled to Sparta and played the traitor by giving the Spartans such advice and information as would destroy the work of the Sicilian expedi- tion, and by other movements greatly damaged Athenian interests. The advice was followed and the expedition came to an igno- minious end. Notwithstanding the awful loss both in men and ships this disaster involved, the Athenians set to work to raise another army and create a new navy. Alcibiades was called to Athens to make restitution for his treachery by guiding these new plans and taking command of the army. But he had ruined Athens far more com- pletely than he could now save her. After having some distinc- tive victories he was defeated, and rather than face his country- men he sought refuge in flight. In the naval battle of Arginusae (406) the Athenians were victorious, but in the following year the Spartan general Lysander captured the Athenian fleet at Aegospotami, which brought the war to an end. This victory sealed the fate of Athens. Be- sieged by land and sea she was compelled to surrender. The Long Walls and fortifications were demolished. "The dominion of the 42 HISTORICAL FICTION imperial city of Athens was at an end, and the great days of Greece were past." The Stories On the Knees of the Gods. 1908. Mrs. Anna B. Dodd The period in which the scene is laid in this story was that of the expedition to Sicily under the command of Alcibiades, and that became so directly related to the fall of Athens. Socrates, the great philosopher, who passed through this period has a place in these events. The love interest in the story is that of an Athe- nian of noble birth, who falls in love with a slave. The events carry us to Athens, Corinth and Syracuse, all so closely associated in the Peloponnesian War. The Fall of Athens. 1894. Alfred J. Church In the battle of Arginusae, mentioned in the historical sketch, in which the Athenians were victorious, twenty-five of their ships were wrecked in the conflict. Forty-five or more ships were com- missioned to rescue the crews of these ships, while the others pursued the Spartans. A heavy storm arising they were unable to reach the wrecks and the crews perished. The fact that no one was to blame for this misfortune did not prevent the Athenian Assembly from condemning to death the generals who had com- mand of the fleet. Socrates the philosopher raised his voice against this rash act, but was unable to save the generals. This story, The Fall of Athens, deals with this event of the war and the victory of Lysander in the battle of Aegospotami. It por- trays the fall of Athens and the destruction of the walls and forti- fications. The story carries us over to the period of the Spartan supremacy to the great event of the Retreat of the Ten Thousand. These Greeks were mercenaries of Cyrus, the brother of the Per- sian king Artaxerxes II, whom he attempted to dethrone. Cyrus was slain in the battle. The Greeks selected Xenophon to lead them back home, and this expedition was one of the most memo- rable retreats in history. Xenophon has given the account of this expedition. He is introduced into the story and the Retreat is related. The closing event of the story is the condemnation and death of Socrates. In a former sketch we have spoken of the place and THE ANCIENT ERA 43 distinction of this great soul in Grecian philosophy. He had exposed the ignorance and pretensions of many who posed as teachers of wisdom. They now charged Socrates with the intro- duction of new gods and corrupting the youth. The charges were false. What he had said in criticising the Athenian democracy told against him in this trial. In the end the sentence of death was passed, and Socrates drank the cup of hemlock. Period of Alexander the Great With the rise of Macedonia Greece entered upon a new era of its history which attained its first distinction in the reign of Philip II (359-336). He opened the way for the conquests of his famous son, and secured the union of the Macedonian monarchial and military system with Hellenic culture. Alexander was twenty years of age when he followed his father upon the throne. His great work extended over the brief period of thirteen years (B. C. 336-323). One of the greatest in- fluences in his life was that of his tutor, Aristotle the philosopher, one of the most intellectual men of all time. This great teacher implanted in the mind of the young prince a love of literature and philosophy, and through his inspiring companionship and lofty conversation exercised over the eager, impulsive boy an influence for good which Alexander himself gratefully acknowledged in later years. During this brief period of thirteen years Alexander had altered the course of human history. He gathered the world of his day within the scope of his conquests. But no greater mistake could be made than to interpret his mighty achievements simply in terms of conquest, of the territorial expansion of his empire. He aimed at great results even though in the end the results ex- ceeded his aims. Over Egypt and Western Asia he spread Hellenic civilization. He brought together the East and the West and was thus to prepare the way for their ultimate unity. One great result of his conquests was that "the distinction between Greek and bar- barian was obliterated, and the sympathies of men, hitherto so narrow and local, were widened, and thus an important prepara- tion was made for the reception of the cosmopolitan creed of Christianity." A further preparation for the spread of Christian teachings lay in the universal language of culture which was given the world. 44 HISTORICAL FICTION His father paved the way for his achievements and opened up for him a great opportunity, but opportunity is only such when one has the genius to appreciate and grasp it, and Alexander pos- sessed that genius. As one writer has forcibly said, "when we consider the rapidity, extent, number and importance of his con- quests, Alexander must be regarded as the greatest prodigy of history. No other man has accomplished results so many, astound- ing, and important in so brief a period." The Stories The Golden Hope. 1905. Robert H. Fuller Battle of the Granicus Early in the year B. C. 334, at the head of an army of 35,000 men Alexander set out to conquer the Persian Empire. Darius III was then on the Persian throne. On the banks of the Granicus he met the Persian army and gained a decisive victory which opened the door of Asia Minor to the conqueror. Battle of Issus In the following year, in the plain of Issus, Alexander encoun- tered a Persian army of over half a million men completely de- feating it. Darius making his escape from the battle fled to Susa to mobilize another army and stop the progress of the Greeks. Siege and Fall of Tyre To protect his movements and to prevent his communications with Greece from being closed Alexander entered Phoenicia and laid siege to Tyre, which continued for seven months. By the con- struction of a mole, a remarkable piece of work, Tyre was taken. Influenced by these operations, Palestine and Philistia surrendered to the Macedonian. Battle of Arbela Returning from Egypt where he founded the city of Alexan- dria, Alexander started toward Persia to effect the conquest of that state. Darius had sent a proposal offering him all the Persian prov- inces west of the Euphrates. Alexander refused the terms, de- claring "There cannot be two suns in the heavens." On the plains of Arbela, near Nineva, Darius had gathered an army of a million THE ANCIENT ERA 45 men, according to some authorities, made up of various races, while the army of Alexander consisted of about 47,000, including cavalry. By discipline and organization the Macedonians over- threw the Persian force which broke into a wild flight, Darius once more escaping from the field. Arbela was one of the decisive battles of history bringing to an end the Persian Empire and its conflict with Greece, and opened the way for the extension of Grecian civilization over Western Asia. Fuller's story, The Golden Hope, is remarkable for its histor- ical scope in tracing this period from the accession of Alexander to the throne through these great events we have just sketched. Along with these scenes of Alexander's conquests the story intro- duces Aristotle, the teacher of Alexander, and Demosthenes the orator, who died the year following the death of Alexander. A Young Macedonian in the Army of Alexander the Great. 1890. Alfred J. Church The historical interests of this story are similar to those of the preceding relative to the battle of the Granicus, the siege of Tyre and battle of Arbela. When Darius, the Persian king, escaped from the field at Arbela he fled to Ecbatana. Closely pursued by Alexander he left this city to seek a refuge in a remote corner of his empire. Before Alexander could overtake him he was assassinated by one of his generals. The body was sent by Alexander to the mother of Darius. The death of Darius appears in the story. By his remarkable conquests Alexander's empire stretched from the Ionian Sea to the Indus. He chose as his capital the City of Babylon, which, as the center of his empire, he believed would enable him to accomplish his plan of Hellenizing the world. While pursuing these great ends he was seized by a fever and died at the age of thirty-two years. The story deals with Alexander in this closing period in his capital at Babylon. CHAPTER V CARTHAGE Carthage was the most important city established by the Phoe- nicians. It was founded as a trading post probably about B. C. 850. It was situated upon the northern coast of Africa, about twenty miles south of Utica and near the site of modern Tunis. It had every advantage in the point of location, having one of the best harbors of the African coast. It was built on a peninsula about three miles wide and was defended on all sides by walls. At the height of its greatness Carthage is said to have had a population of 700,000, which, most likely, exceeded that of Rome. She built the largest navy of any of the peoples of that day, and her increase in power enabled her to secure dominion over the Phoenician colonies of northern Africa. From Corsica and Southern Spain she received tribute. For more than five hundred years Carthage and Rome had been enlarging their bounds and developing sources. The territories of the former were scattered while those of the latter were more compact and nearly related. This was one adv; Rome had over her rival, and again there were elements of strength in the Roman political system which did not exist in the Carthaginian. The Roman state was the most wonderful pol organization that had ever been established, and was creating a system whereby every free man should enjoy full citizenship. On the other hand, Carthage was a despotic oligarchy. One great advantage Carthage had over Rome lay in her navy, which was the best equipped fleet that had ever been placed upon the Mediterranean. Rome had practically no navy and no expe- rience in that mode of warfare. According to Polybius when the Romans crossed over to Sicily they had not a single galley, and carried their armies across by the means of boats borrowed from the Greeks. Thus we see how these two states, that were to come into deadly conflict, developed, and the distinguishing differences be- tween them. 46 THE ANCIENT ERA 47 The Punic Wars These wars, with intervals in between, extended over a period of 118 years. The word "Punic" is from the Latin Poeni, signi- fying Phoenicians. It was applied by the Romans to the Cartha- ginians as they were Phoenician colonists. There were three wars : 1. The First Punic War, B. C. 264-241. The defeat of Carthage. 2. The Second Punic War, 218-201. Hannibal's victories. Exhaustion and defeat of Carthage. 3. The Third Punic War, 149-146. The destruction of Carthage. In B. C. 264 the island of Sicily, with the exception of a part of the eastern coast, was in possession of Carthage. For two hun- dred years there was a continual conflict between Carthage and the Greeks for the possession of the island. By pretending that their friends on the island needed their protection the Romans entered into this struggle. Their first victory gained for them the submission of many cities that had been under the control of Syracuse, a Greek city, and Carthage. When the king of Syracuse saw that Rome would come off victorious he abandoned the Car- thaginians, with whom he had been allied, and joined forces with the Romans. The war was carried into Africa where the Romans met with a crushing defeat and their fleet destroyed by a storm. The Carthaginians, after being defeated in the battle of Panormus, sought peace, but Rome continued the war. Rome lost four fleets in this first war, and the last that sank beneath the waves broke the Roman spirit. Hamilcar A few years before this first war ended (247), Hamilcar Barca was given command of the Carthaginian forces. He was the father of Hannibal and a great general. His operations on the island of Sicily brought great uneasiness to Rome. But in B. C. 241 another Roman fleet gained a complete victory over that of Carthage and the latter sued for peace. She surrendered all claims to Sicily and paid a large indemnity. There was an interval between the first and second wars ex- tending from 241-218, during which time Hamilcar was sent to Spain, where Carthage hoped to make new conquests and thus 48 HISTORICAL FICTION make up her losses to Rome. Hamilcar devoted his abilities to the organization of a state consisting of Iberian tribes, and worked the gold and silver mines in the southern part of the country. His great desire was to make Spain a point of attack against Rome. After bringing the whole southern and eastern part of the country under Carthaginian rule he was slain in battle against the Vettones in B. C. 228, about ten years before the breaking out of the Second Punic War. The Story Salammbo. 1862. Gustave Flaubert The author (1821-1880) was born at Rouen, France. He was the son of a surgeon and seemed to inherit a power of psychic diagnosis. His works are distinguished for their faultless style, each production being the work of years. His Madame Bovary gave the formula of the modern novel. He had no sympathy with democracy. Wishing to conceal the disease to which he was sub- ject (epilepsy) he became more and more a recluse. Salammbo, the heroine of this historical romance, is a Car- thaginian princess, the daughter of Hamilcar Barca and sister of Hannibal. Carthage is besieged by the mercenaries who have not received their pay and have revolted against the city. Matho, the leader of the mercenaries loves Salammbo. He succeeded in steal- ing the sacred mantle of the goddess Tanit. Salammbo is com- missioned to recover the mantle ; she does this by going to the tent of Matho at night, and beloved by him, has little trouble in influencing him to surrender the talisman. Carthage puts down the revolt and executes the mercenaries. Matho is subjected to hideous torture as he runs the gauntlet through the streets, and dies at the feet of Salammbo. These r es are portrayed by the author with remarkable vividness. Hannibal Hamilcar, up to this time, was the greatest general the Car- thaginians had produced. His remarkable genius reappeared in his son Hannibal. When his father died he was nineteen years of age. At the age of twenty-six he was unanimously chosen by the army as its leader. When a child of nine years Hamilcar led him to the altar, and with his hands upon it, he swore eternal hatred to Rome. He himself declared, in pursuing his great under- THE ANCIENT ERA 49 taking, that he was stimulated by the sacred obligations of a vow that could not be broken. In two years he had extended the power of Carthage to Ebro. The Romans had formed an alliance with the city of Saguntum in Spain. In B. C. 219 Hannibal laid siege to it, knowing full well that it would precipitate another war with Rome, which he sought rather than tried to avert. Rome remonstrated but Han- nibal took the city. In the following year (218) began the Second Punic War, B. C. 218-201. With a force of 100,000 men Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees and the Rhone, and then over the Alps. The extreme hardships encountered reduced his arms to 20,000 men, with which force he proposed to attack the Roman State having on its lists 700,000 foot soldiers and 70,000 cavalry. In the battle of Trebia the com- bined forces of Sempronius and Scipio were drawn into an am- buscade by Hannibal and were nearly annihilated. The Gauls flocked to his standard, and reinforced, he met the Romans at Lake Trasimenus. Trapped between the lake and the hills the Romans were decisively defeated. In the following year (216) the Romans faced Hannibal in the battle of Cannae with 80,000 men, while the latter had about one-half that number. By re- markable strategy Hannibal surrounded and bunched the Roman army. But few of the Romans escaped, and when the news was carried to Rome the city was thrown into a state of wild conster- nation. To call Hannibal out of Italy the Romans carried the war into Africa. At Zama, near Carthage, Hannibal met with his first and final defeat (202). Carthage was at last exhausted and sued for peace. The most desperate struggle ever waged by rival powers for empire was ended. The Stories The Young Carthaginian. 1886. George A. Henty In the beginning of the story the scene is laid in Carthage, whose political and social conditions are represented. The story then follows the historical movement, describing the taking of Saguntum in Spain, the crossing of the Rhone and the Alps fol- lowed by the battles of Trebia, Lake Trasimenus, Cannae, the war in Africa, etc., as given in the historical sketch. 50 HISTORICAL FICTION Aneroestes the Gaul. 1899. E. M. Smith This story deals with the early stages of the Second Punic War. It follows the movements of the Carthaginian forces under Hannibal in Gaul, crossing the Alps and the campaign in Italy. The Lion's Brood. 1901. Duffield Osborne The author (1858-) was born in Brooklyn, N. Y. In 1879 he graduated from Columbia and practised law in New York from 1 88 1 to 1892. Turning his attention to literature he pro- duced several works. Those by which he is best known are, The Spell of Ashtaroth, The Robe of Nessus, The Secret of the Crater, The Lion's Brood. Hamilcar was fond of speaking of his sons as the "lion's brood," hence the title of this story. It deals especially with the first years of the Second Punic War, and among these events the battles of Lake Trasimenus and Cannae. Fall of Carthage The close of the Second Punic War saw Carthage completely exhausted. She again sued for peace, and paid a much larger indemnity than at the close of the first war. Scipio was received at Rome with great honors and was given, in recognition of his accomplishments, the surname Africanus. The war had its dam- aging effect upon Italy likewise. She suffered a loss of 300,000 men in battle and the extinction of scores of towns. In the interval between the Second and Third Wars the second and third Macedonian wars occurred, also the war with Antiochus III of Syria. One of the terms imposed upon Carthage at the close of the Second Punic War was that she should not make war against any ally of Rome. Having Carthage at this disadvantage, the king of Numidia, an ally of Rome, began to harass and plunder the Carthaginian territory. An appeal to Rome, instead of securing justice, brought about the greater injustice to her in Rome's sup- port of the Numidian outrages. At last in self-defence they raised an army and met the Numidians in battle, but were defeated. This gave Rome the pretext she wanted for the destruction of Carthage. For the defence of their city every sacrifice was made after they had been treacherously disarmed by the Romans. For four years THE ANCIENT ERA 51 they held out against the besieging army, then Scipio Africanus Minor decided to take it by storm. When the Romans entered the city, instead of a population of 700,000, they found about 50,000 men, women and children. The torch was then applied and Carthage was wiped out of existence (146 B. C). The Story Lords of the World. 1898. Alfred J. Church In this story the author has given a description of the fall of Carthage and Corinth and the campaigns of the two Roman con- suls, Scipio Africanus Minor in Africa and Lucius Mummius in Greece. In the year that Carthage fell the same fate befell Corinth in Greece. Following the third Macedonian war, because the cities of the Achaean League had not exhibited an enthusiastic attitude towards Rome, a thousand citizens were taken from these cities and placed in Italy as hostages for a period of seventeen years. Among them was the historian Polybius, who has given us the record of these events. These hostages were then permitted to return home. They created the most bitter feelings toward Rome and in Corinth this was especially exhibited. This brought the Roman legions under Lucius Mummius, who defeated the Greeks, looted Corinth of its treasures and destroyed the city. Thus it is that the Lords of the World deals with both of these events, the fall of Carthage and the fall of Corinth and the cam- paigns of the two Roman consuls. The New Carthage In the year B. C. 29 Augustus, in the third year of his reign, rebuilt Carthage, which became one of the finest cities of the Roman Empire. Great events have taken place since Carthage was restored. The life and ministry of Christ have established a new religion in the world. Christianity has spread over the Roman Empire and the Christian Church has become firmly established. Then came the fires of Roman persecution in the attempt to exter- minate the new religion. These stirring events of these first cen- turies of the Christian era will be considered in their proper order when we come to the chapter on the Roman Empire. New Carthage, now a part of this world empire, is witnessing 52 HISTORICAL FICTION an altogether different struggle than that of the days of Hannibal and the Punic Wars. The new religion has taken root in her as in other cities of the empire, and the conflict that is being waged is a spiritual conflict to which Rome brings the material weapons of her warfare. Cyprian, a Latin father of the early Church, was a native of Africa. Prior to his conversion to Christianity he had attained to considerable distinction as a teacher of rhetoric. His conversion occurred about A. D. 246, and in two years he was made bishop of Carthage. The following year saw Decius on the throne, and the next year he instituted his persecution of the Christians. Ow- ing to this persecution Cyprian withdrew from Carthage but re- turned the following year. In 258 the emperor issued an edict which required that the bishops, presbyters and deacons should immediately be put to death. In compliance with this order in September of that year, in Carthage Cyprian received the martyr's crown. The Stories Lapsed, Not Lost. 1877. Elizabeth R. Charles The stories of this popular English novelist (1828-1896) touch almost every century and every country of Christendom. Her first work, Tales and Sketches of Christian Life appeared in 1850. Her last sixteen productions, brought out by the Society for Pro- moting Christian Knowledge, were published between 1885 and 1896. Her noteworthy work, and by which she is perhaps best known, is The Schonberg-Cotta Family, a story of the German Reformation. Lapsed, Not Lost has its setting in Carthage under the histor- ical conditions just set forth in the sketch — the Decian persecu- tion as it touched the Christian life of that city during the bishopric of Cyprian, who holds a place in the story. The Farm of Aptonga. 1902. John M. Neale The auther (1818-1866) was born at London. In 1840 he graduated from Trinity College, Cambridge, and was ordained by the Church of England in 1842. He was considered the best classical scholar of his year. He was one of the founders of the Cambridge Camden Society. For a time he acted as chaplain and THE ANCIENT ERA 53 tutor of Downing College. During this time he came under the influence of the Oxford movement. His religious views created an opposition that hindered his advancement along ecclesiastical lines. Harvard University conferred upon him the degree of D. D. He is probably without a superior as a translator of ancient Latin and Greek hymns, and has written extensively on a great variety of subjects. The Farm of Aptonga deals with the same period and condi- tions as were set forth in the preceding story — the persecutions under Decius and Valerian when Cyprian and many others in Carthage were martyrs to the Christian faith. Aptonga is south of Carthage and was the scene of the same persecution. Callista: A Sketch of the Third Century. 1855. Cardinal John Henry Newman The author (1801-1890) was born in London and was educated at Trinity College, Oxford. He graduated with classical honors and was elected fellow of Oriel College. Under Bishop Whately he was vice-principal of Saint Albans Hall. His tract on the elasticity of the Thirty-Nine Articles drew upon him severe criti- cism by the university authorities and resulted in his secession to the Church of Rome in 1845. I* 1 l &79 ne was created a cardinal. He replied to William E. Gladstone on the Vatican Decrees. He is the author of the beautiful hymn sung in all religious denomina- tions regardless of creed, Lead Kindly Light. Callista is the heroine of Newman's historical romance. She is a beautiful Greek girl of various accomplishments — a sculp- tress, a singer, a dancer, and in all of these is distinctive. Agellius, a Christian, is her lover. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, is instru- mental in her conversion to Christianity. She falls under the persecution and yields her life as a martyr. Her death exerts a great reviving influence over the Church at Sicca. Agellius be- comes a bishop and he too suffers death as a martyr, and with Callista is canonized. CHAPTER VI THE ROMAN REPUBLIC There are three distinct stages in Roman history : Rome as a Kingdom, Rome as a Republic and Rome as an Empire. In these studies the interest lies in the Republic and Empire. When the monarchy was overthrown the Romans instituted measures for the reconstruction of the government, and entered upon that period of her development in which she became distinc- tive as the Fourth Universal Empire. The Historic Man of Daniel's Prophecy, to which we have already referred in connec- tion with the other Universal States, comes to its completion in this last Universal Empire — Babylon, the head of gold; Medo- Persia, the arms and breast of silver ; Greece, the body and thighs of brass ; Rome, the legs of iron representing in the two limbs the Western and Eastern Empires ; and the ten toes the ten states of these two general divisions. Greece and Rome are the two great nations of antiquity. Greece developed rapidly a brilliant civilization that has been called the enigma of Providence. Rome developed more slowly and represented an altogether different development. Greece was the representative of the intellectual order, Rome, of the social order. While Greece by her philosophy, art and literature has exerted a profound influence upon modern thought, Rome is supreme in the realm of law and government. Historically Rome occupies a larger place than Greece, and is in herself of grander proportions. "Her history," says Matson "is marked by a sure growth to greatness and to power. If less ideal than Greece, she is more practical ; if less versatile, she is more stable. In all her history she is constantly gaining, and her gains add to her power and glory. Mighty and victorious in war, she grows to a vast empire. Her wisdom is in her laws and their administration. Into her bosom, as into a vast receptacle, flows whatever constitutes the riches and wisdom of the ancient world." A state so great in deeds, and affecting so profoundly the fu- 54 THE ANCIENT ERA 55 ture of mankind, furnishes unusual opportunities for the writer of historical fiction, and, as we shall see, these opportunities have been grasped and appreciated. Historical Outline I. The First Period, B. C. 509-367. Full Political Rights of the Plebeians. The Formulation of Roman Laws. The Twelve Tables. The Valerio-Horatian Laws. The Licinian Laws. II. The Second Period, 367-264. Conquest of Italy. 1. End of the Etruscan Power. 2. The Samnite Wars. The First, 343"34L The Second, 326-304. The Third, 298-290. 3. War With Tarentum and Pyrrhus, 282-272. III. The Third Period, 264-146. The Punic Wars. 1. The First Punic War, 264-241. 2. The Second Punic War, 218-201. 3. The Third Punic War, 149-146. IV. The Fourth Period, 131 -31. Decline and Fall of the [Republic. 1. From the War in Sicily to the Death of Sulla, 133-78. Period of the Gracchi. War with Jugurtha, King of Numidia, 111-106. War with the Cimbri and Teutones, 113-101. War with Mithridates, 88-84. Sulla and his Constitution. 2. From the Death of Sulla to the End of the Republic, 78-31- a. To the First Triumvirate, 78-60. War with and Death of Mithridates, 74-63. Catiline's Conspiracy, 64-62. The First Triumvirate: Caesar, Pompey Crassus. b. To the Second Triumvirate, 60-43. Caesar's Gallic Wars. Caesar's Conquests ; Defeat of Pompey. 56 HISTORICAL FICTION Death of Caesar, 44. The Second Triumvirate: Octavius, Antony, Lepidus. c. Last Years of the Republic, 43-31. Brutus and Cassius Defeated at Philippi, 42. Antony and Cleopatra. Battle of Actium, Antony and Cleopatra De- feated by Octavius, 31. End of the Republic. Mithridates and Spartacus The Social War (B. C. 91-89) arose from the demands of the Italian allies for full Roman citizenship. These allies consisted of the peoples conquered by the Romans but did not share the rights of citizenship as did those who inhabited the capital. While this war was still in progress a new danger threatened Rome in the ambitions of Mithridates, king of Pontus. He became master of Asia Minor and issued a decree that every Italian in Asia on a certain day should be slain, which order was fulfilled. He then entered Greece and secured the alliance of the Greek cities against Rome. Sulla at the head of the Roman forces defeated Mithri- dates, but after the death of Sulla in B. C. 78, he raised another army with the determination of driving the Romans from Asia. Defeated by Lucullus, he was compelled to seek refuge in Ar- menia. But in B. C. 6y he was victorious and recovered the larger part of his dominions. Pompey, having control of the East, was commissioned to conduct the war against Mithridates. He com- pletely defeated and routed his forces near the Euphrates. Rather than fall into the hands of the Romans, he killed himself and thus was removed one of Rome's greatest enemies. During this same period occurred the conflict with pirates who infested the sea. Thousands of people who had been ruined by war, proscriptions, confiscations, became desperate and banded themselves together into a sort of pirate state. They preyed upon the commerce of the seas and sought refuge in fortified places they had built. They controlled an immense fleet, and dockyards and naval supply stations. They committed all sorts of depreda- tions. Pompey was commissioned to clear the seas of piracy. To this end he was furnished a force of 120,000 men and 200 ships. THE ANCIENT ERA 57 Within a remarkably brief period he had driven piracy from the seas and captured their fortresses. It was during the Third Mithridatic War that Rome con- fronted a new danger in the person of Spartacus the gladiator. Compelled to serve in the army, he deserted and placed himself at the head of a band of robbers. He was captured and placed in a gladiatorial school at Capua, where men were trained in the art of fighting and used for public exhibitions. Spartacus formed a conspiracy with two hundred other slaves, who made good their escape and gathered thousands of other gladiators and disaffected slaves from every quarter. They completely defeated four Ro- man armies sent against them, and controlled a large part of Southern Italy. In this situation Crassus, at the head of an army, trapped Spartacus and his force near Rhegium. The latter was defeated and Spartacus was slain in the battle. The Stories Prusias. 1882. Ernst Eckstein The author (1845-1901) was born at Giessen, Germany. His first contributions to literature were made in France. Several stories resulted from his travels in Spain and Italy. For several years he was the editor of a literary journal in Leipzig, also a comic weekly. He was a brilliant humorist and produced many sketches of this order. Three historical events enter into this story, Prusias — the Mithridatic War, the conflict with Spartacus, and the Spanish uprising. Prusias is employed as a tutor in a home at Capua, where the gladiatorial school was established, and in which Spar- tacus was confined. Prusias is made the agent of Mithridates, and is betrayed by the woman who exercises her wiles as the plots and intrigues are created. Spartacus in his daring scheme plays an important part. Two Thousand Years Ago. 1885. Alfred J. Church This story deals with this same period, the time of the Social and Civil War. The historical sketch has stated the leading occur- rences of the time relative to Spartacus, the conflict with the pi- rates and the defeat of Mithridates. The story relates the experi- ences of a Roman youth, who is cast into this maelstrom of events. 58 HISTORICAL FICTION Julius Caesar When Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44) came upon the stage of action the Roman Republic was rapidly approaching its end. Ambitious leaders had control of the government. Caesar, Cras- sus and Pompey formed the First Triumvirate. In this coalition each agreed to contribute to the interests of the other two in this joint enterprise of securing the control of public affairs. The conspiracy of Catiline had failed, exposed by Cicero, but from the crumbling state of the Republic it was clear that its days were numbered. Given the right to conquer Gaul, Caesar, with four legions of soldiers, embarked upon the military career that was destined to make him master of the Roman world. He spent nine years in Gaul and conducted nine campaigns: First, the defeat of the Helvetii. Second, the campaign against the Belgae, the defeat of four allied tribes. Third, the total defeat of the Venetii. Fourth, defeat of two German tribes, who invaded Gaul. Fifth, invasion and nominal subjugation of Britain. Sixth, subjugation of revolt- ing Gallic tribes. Seventh, defeat of Vercingetorix, who headed a revolt of the Gallic nations. Eighth and ninth, the final subju- gation of all Gaul. In the meantime Pompey had joined the senatorial party against Caesar, which secured a decree ordering the disbanding of Caesar's army. The latter at the head of his legions at once crossed the Rubicon and marched toward Rome. As he crossed the stream he exclaimed, 'The die is cast." Pompey and the senate fled to Greece. Within a few weeks' time Caesar was master of Italy. Entering Greece he defeated Pompey in the battle of Pharsalia( B. C. 48), and was appointed dictator of Rome. In the Alexandrian War which followed he placed Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemies, on the throne of Egypt. Passing through Pontus he defeated Pharnaces, son of Mithridates, and sent to Rome the announcement of the victory in the three words, Veni, Vidi, Vici — "I came, I saw, I conquered." After his great achievements, at a public festival, he was of- fered the crown which he refused. He was made dictator for life by the senate with the title Pontifex Maximus and Imperator, and, while not king, had vested in him absolute rulership. These distinctions he did not long enjoy. On the 15th of March of the THE ANCIENT ERA 59 year in which these honors were conferred upon him, in the senate hall, he fell under twenty-three dagger thrusts of assassins among whom was Brutus, upon whom he had bestowed gifts and favors. At the head of Pompey's statue fell the greatest man their race had brought forth, or would ever again produce. Caesar has been called the greatest Roman. In his thought lay the Roman Empire rising out of the wreck of the Republic. He was the architect, the designer ; his successors reared the struc- ture. The greatness of Caesar found expression in four ways : as a general, statesman, orator and writer. As warrior and states- man he was the representative of Rome, and "the first creative spirit of the Roman Empire." The Stories Marcus, the Young Centurion. 1904. George Man- ville Fenn The author (1 831 -1909), who was also an English journalist, was born at Westminster. He was a contributor to various jour- nals — Chamber's Journal, Star, Once a Week. In 1870 he became editor of CasselVs Magazine and three years later the proprietor of Once a Week. His extensive writings of boy's stories have had a wide circulation in many countries, being widely read in the United States. The historical setting of this story is the Gallic War as outlined above in the historical sketch. A young Roman is visited by Ju- lius Caesar, and a portrayal of the great general and statesman is given. The young Roman participates in Caesar's Gallic War, and the part he plays is set forth. A Friend of Caesar. 1900. William Stearns Davis This story in its historical scope takes us through the period of Caesar's conquests from the crossing of the Rubicon and the bat- tle of Pharsalia to the closing days of the Republic. Cleopatra is introduced into the story. In these situations it describes the adventures of Quintus Drusus, the Roman nobleman. Cleopatra (B. C. 69-30), queen of Egypt and the last of the Ptolemies, was made, by her father, joint heir to the throne with her brother. Deprived of her share in the government she ap- 60 HISTORICAL FICTION pealed to Caesar and through him secured her rights. She sided with the triumvirs in the civil war at Rome, and after the battle of Philippi she met Antony at Tarsus. Falling a victim to her charms he forgot Rome and spent his time in her company and at her festi- vals and entertainments. In the battle of Actium she fled with her ships and Antony followed her. Under a false report that she was dead Antony slew himself. Failing to fascinate Octavius as she did Antony, and fearing that he intended to carry her to Rome, she killed herself by placing upon her breast a poisonous asp. The great Roman general and statesman, Julius Caesar, is a conspicuous character in many English and European plays, the chief of which is Shakespeare's. It cannot be said that the bard of Stratford has done justice to this great soul. The following extract is from the criticism of Max Beerbolm: "He (Caesar) appears merely as a subordinate figure, with very little time to disport himself on the stage. Our notions of the real Caesar is a notion of such awe, he looms so largely over us that we could not possibly be illuded by a stage-figure of him unless it were a central and dominant figure, elaborately created. Also, we think of Caesar always as a man of enormous power, a conqueror, a bender of wills ; whereas here he is presented as a purely passive figure in the hands of fate and of a few men who disliked him. Histor- ically this presentment of him is right enough, but dramatically it is no good at all." CHAPTER VII THE ROMAN EMPIRE Following the battle of Philippi in which Brutus and Cassius were defeated (B. C. 42), the Roman world was in the hands of two men — Antony in the East and Octavius in the West. Daz- zled, as was Julius Caesar, by the beauty of Cleopatra, Antony surrendered himself to the Egyptian queen, forsaking his wife Octavia. When rumors reached Rome that it was Antony's pur- pose to make Alexandria the capital of the Roman Empire and place the son of Julius Caesar and Cleopatra upon the throne, Octavius was looked to by all parties to save the Empire and the sovereignty of Rome. The result was the battle of Actium (B. C. 31), the crushing of Antony and Cleopatra and the end of the Republic. The battle of Actium brought to an end both the Republic and the hundred years of strife in the state. Out of the fragments of this great state is to be formed an Empire. It must have seemed an impossible task to gather up these broken elements and reor- ganize them into a new structure. And yet such a political fabric was created, and was to continue for another five hundred years. During this extended period Rome is to exercise her mighty power in the consummation of her mission. As a world-power the Roman Empire extended from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, a distance of more than three thousand miles, and from the Danube and the English Channel — later from the firths of Scotland — to the cataracts of the Nile and the African desert. Its population was somewhere from eighty to one hundred and twenty millions. Over all the Empire extended the system of Roman law, the rights and immunities of which belonged to Roman citizens everywhere. It was by this extension of Empire that Grecian culture became the common property of the nations, and thus the two great civili- zations carried their joint influence to the world at large. In her historic position Rome is most distinctive. No nation can ever be what Rome has been as the "mistress of the world." 61 52 HISTORICAL FICTION The Roman Empire was practically the world of its time. "What- ever was outside of it was out of relation to it, so as scarce to be considered as a part of the historic world." Regarding the greatness of this political structure Merivale's statement is worthy of note : "The establishment of the Roman Empire was, after all, the greatest political work that any human being ever wrought. The achievements of Alexander, of Caesar, of Charlemagne, of Napoleon are not to be compared with it for a moment." The following extended list of stories based upon the Roman Empire will indicate in what manner the writers of historical fic- tion found in this period of the Roman state a rich field for this department of literature. I. PERIOD OF EXPANSION From Augustus to Trajan Historical Outline i. Augustus (Octavius), B. C. 31-A. D. 14. Period of universal peace. Birth and boyhood of Jesus. 2. Tiberius, A. D. 14-37. Pilate, governor of Judea. Ministry and death of Jesus. 3. Caligula, 37-41. 4. Claudius, 41-54. Subjugation of Britain. 5. Nero, 54-68. Introduction and spread of Christianity. Burning of Rome, 64. Beginning of the persecution of the Christians. 6. Galba to Vitellius, 68-69. 7. Vespasian, 69-79. Destruction of Jerusalem, 70. 8. Titus, 79-81. Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. 9. Domitian, 81-96. Extension of the Empire in Britain by Agricola. 10. Nerva, 96-98. 11. Trajan, 98-117. THE ANCIENT ERA 63 The Augustan Age The Roman Empire was in its infancy when occurred the greatest event in human history — the advent of Jesus Christ. The internal strife during the last century of the Republic had re- duced Rome to such a state that its dissolution rather than its continuance might be more easily conceived. It was by the wis- dom and strength of Augustus that she was raised from a state of weakness to the might of the Empire. By his measures the prov- inces arose from the unsettledness that prevailed to a condition of security and improvement and were given a strong civil service. The one outstanding fact of this period of forty-five years — the reign of Augustus — was the remarkable state of peace that prevailed throughout the Empire. The gates of the temple of Janus were open in times of war and closed in times of peace. Prior to this era they were open, but now they were closed. In- stead of the clash of arms, literature and art flourished. It was the Golden Age of Latin literature. Vergil composed his im- mortal epic, Horace his celebrated odes, Livy his history and Ovid his Metamorphoses. It was in the midst of this happy state of things when all the world was at peace, that Christ, the Prince of Peace, was born in Bethlehem of Judea. "The event," says Meyer, "was unher- alded at Rome ; yet it was filled with profound significance, not only for the Roman Empire, but for the world." The Stories Vergilius. 1904. Irving Bacheller The author (1859-) was Dorn at Pierpont, N. Y. Following his graduation from Saint Lawrence University he was connected with various papers — the Daily Hotel Reporter of New York, the Brooklyn Times, and the New York World. By the means of a syndicate he also secured material for magazines. Three of his novels had their setting near his early home, the best known of which is Eben Holden. The central interest of Vergilius is the advent of Jesus. Au- gustus favors the young Roman patrician, Vergilius. On a mission to Rome he learns that the great Messianic event is expected and awaited with deep interest. Antipater, the son of Herod the Great, and Salome are introduced into the story. 64 HISTORICAL FICTION Doris, the mother of Antipater, the first wife of Herod, was cast off, then recalled and finally robbed of her wealth and ban- ished. Antipater hated his father, both for himself and his treat- ment of his mother. He laid plots for Herod's assassination. Augustus left the sentence of Antipater in the hands of his father. Five days before Herod's death he had his son executed. Ben Hur. 1880. Lew Wallace The author (1827-1905) was born in Brookville, Ind. He re- ceived a common school education and began the study of law, which he practiced at intervals in Crawfordsville, Ind. He par- ticipated in the Mexican War with the rank of lieutenant. He was a member of the Indiana state legislature in 1848. At the outbreak of the Civil War he entered the service as colonel of an Indiana regiment, was appointed brigadier general in 1861, and for dis- tinguished services at Fort Donelson was made major general. In 1878 he was elected governor of New Mexico, and in 1881 was appointed minister to Turkey. Ben Hur, a Tale of the Christ, covers the last third of the reign of Augustus and the large part of that of Tiberius. In a general way it describes the struggle between Rome and Judaism by means of the conflict between two individuals, a Roman and a Jew. Ben Hur is of a noble family in Jerusalem. His false friend, Messala, unjustly seeks his downfall by charging him with the attempt to murder the Roman governor. He suffers the loss of his posses- sions and is sent to the galleys. His bravery in defending his gal- ley against robbers results in his being adopted by Arrius the tribune. He defeats Messala, who was a Roman patrician, in a chariot race. Messala vents his hatred on Ben Hur because he is a Jew, but keeps it concealed until by a favorable opportunity he is able to betray him, and then steals his wealth. The person and work of Christ are set forth. He cures of leprosy the mother and sister of Ben Hur and the latter becomes a Christian. Jesus of Nazareth. 1908. S. C. Bradley As in the case of Ben Hur this story belongs to the reign of Augustus and that of Tiberius. The first period of the life of Christ extends to the time of his public inauguration at his bap- THE ANCIENT ERA 65 tism, the second, his ministry. The New Testament gives us but one glimpse of the boyhood of Jesus, the scene in the temple. This story, Jesus of Nazareth, invests what has been called "the years of silence" with such events and scenes in which the imagination would paint our Lord's life in his home in Nazareth. Reign of Tiberius In his twenty-eighth year Tiberius became consul and was afterwards adopted by Augustus as his heir. His mother, Livia Drusilla, became the wife of Augustus. Tiberius was characterized by a tyrannical and suspicious nature. He retired to the island of Capri and spent his time in self-indulgence. Spies kept him in- formed of what went on in Rome, and many innocent persons were the victims of his tyranny and suspicions. It was during his reign that Jesus was crucified. The peaceful era of Augustus had passed away. The Stories Psyche. 1905. Walter S. Cramp When Tiberius retired from Rome he appointed Sejanus as the commander of the praetorian guards. He was a man of cor- rupt character. In his hands was left the management of the affairs of Rome. He put to death Drusus, the son of Tiberius, and planned the death of the emperor so as to accomplish his de- signs in securing the throne. Tiberius had him executed. This love-romance, Psyche, deals with the time of Tiberius and introduces Sejanus, also Nero and his mother Agrippina, who was the fourth wife of Claudius ; Drusus, and Caligula, the suc- cessor of Tiberius, also appear in the story. Neaera. 1886. John W. Graham The island of Capri lies in the Gulf of Naples, being five miles long and two miles wide. It was here that Tiberius spent the last seven years of his life. The ruins of his palace are still to be seen. The island contains a wonderful cavern called the Blue Grotto. In this retreat Tiberius lived a dissolute life. It was here that he received reports of all that happened in Rome, and from here he issued his edicts involving the death of many people. 66 HISTORICAL FICTION This story, Neaera, gives a portrayal of Apicius, Sejanus the prefect of Tiberius, and other historical personages. A centurion falls in love with a beautiful girl, who is discovered finally to be an heiress. Another woman loves the centurion, whose jealousy and general vileness are exhibited in the plot to have the girl car- ried away to Capri. In this connection the story describes the natural beauty of the island and the vileness and criminality asso- ciated with this historic place. Emmanuel: The Story of the Messiah. 1889. William Forbes Cooley The New Testament furnishes the data for this story, present- ing, as it does, the life of Jesus in the Training of the Twelve. Thomas, who called peculiar attention to himself by doubting the declaration of the other disciples relative to the resurrection of Jesus, is given special notice. The story is a delineation and in- terpretation of motives and conduct as set forth in the history of Jesus in these human relations. Under Pontius Pilate. 1906. William Schuyler The record of Christ's ministry is given in the form of a cor- respondence between Caius Claudius Proculus and Lucius Domit- ius Ahenobarbus. The recorder of these events is the nephew of Pontius Pilate. He is converted to Christianity. One of the chief characters of the work is Mary Magdalene. A Son of Issachar. 1890. Elbridge S. Brooks There is much that supports the view that Judas Iscariot, hein- ous as was his betrayal of Jesus, had no idea that his act would involve the death of his Master. He had seen him before in con- flicts with the Jewish authorities and he escaped unharmed. His mercenary instincts grasped at the opportunity of winning thirty pieces of silver. The two leading characters of this romance are the betrayer of Jesus and the son of the widow of Nain, whom Jesus raised to life (Lu. 7:12-15). In this story the author puts forth much effort in the analysis of the motives of Judus and in working up THE ANCIENT ERA 67 a case in their defence. It involves intrigues and revolts against the Romans and Herod. The Court of Pilate. 1906. Roe R. Hobbs The author (1871-) resides in Louisville, Ky. He is also the author of Zaos and Gates of Flame and is a contributor to maga- zines. Pontius Pilate, the fifth procurator of Judea, was a narrow- minded man lacking force of character. He created disturbances among the Jews at the beginning of his governorship. The Jews, having no power to inflict capital punishment, when they con- demned Jesus to death they brought him to Pilate for the execu- tion of their sentence. He found no fault in Jesus, but fearing for his position among the Jews yielded to their demands. In A. D. 36 Vitellius, prefect of Syria, removed him from office. Ac- cording to Eusebius he committed suicide. He was a weak char- acter, aspiring to public office and craving distinction. These facts and those pertaining to the Jews under Roman authority are set forth in this story. Under these political stric- tures the Jewish animosity is accentuated. This conflicting situa- tion is represented by the love of two women, one a Jewess and the other a Roman, for a centurion under Pontius Pilate. Herodias. 1877. Gustave Flaubert Herod Antipas was the son of Herod the Great by his wife Malthace. When his father died he was appointed tetrarch of Galilee. Readers of the Gospels will recognize this Antipas as the Herod who put to death John the Baptist at the request of Herodias, his unlawful wife, because of John's condemnation of that marriage. She had not forgotten the great preacher's de- nunciation. At the time of the trial of Jesus, Antipas was in Jerusalem, and Pilate, to whom Jesus was sent by the Jewish officials, saw a way out of his dilemma by sending Jesus to Herod when he learned that Jesus was a Galilean. Herod Antipas was accused of plotting with the Parthians ; he was called to Rome and was banished to Gaul, where he died (A. D. 39). These historical facts constitute the setting of Flaubert's story, Herodias. 68 HISTORICAL FICTION Barabbas. 1893. Marie Corelli This English novelist (1864-) was born in Italy, but received her education in England and France. In her childhood she was adopted by Charles Mackay as his daughter, Minnie Mackay. In 1886 appeared her first work, The Romance of Two Worlds. Thelma, Sorrows of Satan, The Master Christian and Barabbas are widely read. According to the account in the Gospels Barabbas was guilty of sedition and murder, and being a rebel came under the con- demnation of Roman law. As a murderer he was answerable to the civil code. It being the custom at the Passover season to extend pardon to a criminal, when the proposition was made to the Jews whether it be Jesus or Barabbas who should receive this clemency, so great was their enmity toward Jesus that they chose Barabbas. The interest in Marie Corelli's story gathers about the last scenes in the life of Jesus — the betrayal by Judas and the cruci- fixion. The author has given us an analysis of the motives of both Judas and Barabbas. Saul of Tarsus. 1906. Elizabeth Miller Following the death of Stephen, the first Christian martyr, persecution drove the Christian disciples from Jerusalem. In their dispersion the truths of the gospel were carried into many parts. Saul was a native of Tarsus, a city of Cilicia. He was of Jewish descent, of the tribe of Benjamin. In some way, through his father, he possessed the rights of Roman citizenship, and, as Lardner supposes, through some service that had been rendered by some ancestor to the Roman state. Tarsus was the rival of Alexandria in matters of philosophy and learning, and no doubt Saul had come under these intellectual influences. In Jerusalem he became a student under the great Jewish teacher Gamaliel in the prosecution of his studies in the learning of the Jews. He is first brought to our notice by the New Testa- ment historian in connection with the martyrdom of Stephen. A zealous Jew, and believing that Christians were a menace to Juda- ism, he accepted a commission to arrest all such and bring them THE ANCIENT ERA 69 as prisoners to Jerusalem. It was while on his way to Damas- cus that he was miraculously converted to Christianity, and the inquisitor became the great Apostle to the Gentiles. In this story, Saul of Tarsus, four great cities figure — Rome, Alexandria, Jerusalem and Damascus. They all sustain a vital relation to the early days of Christianity. The preaching of the Gospel began at Jerusalem ; in Alexandria Christianity came into conflict with Paganism; in Rome began the persecution of the Church ; at Damascus Saul became a convert to the new faith. These facts are given place in this story, with Saul of Tarsus the prominent character. Stephen, the first Christian martyr, and such historical characters as Tiberius, Caligula, Agrippa and Herod also appear. Also, Mary of Magdala, called Magdalene, probably because of the town Magdala in Galilee, where she is supposed to have lived. This Mary has been mistakenly identi- fied with the Mary who anointed the feet of Jesus in the house of Simon, who is described as a "sinner." There is no good ground for the identification of Mary Magdalene with this Mary. Reign of Claudius Claudius followed Caligula upon the throne. One important governmental change under him was the admission of Gallic nobles to the senate. In B. C. 55 Julius Caesar invaded Britain, defeated the British chief Cassivelannus and laid the people under tribute to Rome. For about one hundred years they were left unmolested. But in A. D. 43 Claudius conquered the south of Britain and made it a Roman province. The demand for gladiatorial contests sig- nalized this period and Claudius gratified it by a naval battle in which 19,000 gladiators participated. His fourth wife was Agrip- pina, who poisoned him with mushrooms so as to bring her son Nero to the throne. The Stories The Crown of Pine. 1905. Alfred J. Church Corinth was situated on the isthmus which joins Peloponnesus to the continent of Greece. It was destroyed by order of the Ro- man senate B. C. 146. The Corinth of New Testament times was rebuilt by Caesar as a Roman colony and attained to wealth and 70 HISTORICAL FICTION luxury, and with other Grecian cities was distinguished for its immorality. It was here that the Isthmian Games were held. While in this city St. Paul lived with Aquila and Priscilla, who, like him, were tent-makers. He preached in the Jewish syna- gogue and wrote, while here, the two epistles to the Thessalonians, which were his first epistles. On two other occasions he visited this city. This story deals with the two centers, Rome and Corinth, dur- ing this time. Paul and his evangelical labors figure in the story. The Isthmian Games are introduced. They were so-called be- cause they were celebrated on the Isthmus of Corinth. They consisted of such exercises as foot, horse and chariot racing, box- ing and wrestling. They occurred the first and third year of each Olympiad. The victorious participants were awarded wreathes of pine leaves. The White Shield. 1904. Caroline A. Mason Galatia was the ancient name of an extended region in Asia Minor, so-called from the Gallic inhabitants who lived between Paphlagonia, Pontus, Cappodocia, Lyconia, Phrygia and Bythnia. Under Augustus it became a Roman province. The Apostle Paul twice visited this region and addressed one of his letters to the Galatian people warning them against Judaizing teachers. In B. C. 36 Amyntas received from Antony a large cession of territory, Galatia with parts of Lyconia and Pamphylia, and at the battle of Actium (B. C. 31) he was supported by Amyntas and Polemon. Polemon II was the ruler of Pontus A. D. 37-63, his mother Tryphaena being associated with him until the year 54. Christianity was introduced into Iconium by Paul and Barna- bas. The region was again visited by Paul on his second mission- ary journey. Associated with these visits is the legend of St. Thekla. As it has come down to us the legend was composed by a presbyter of Asia and has probably some historical basis. "It rightly traces St. Paul's journey from Pisidian Antioch along the Royal Road that connected Antioch, the military center, with the garrison city, Lystra, relating how on the way he was induced by Onesiphorus (who was with Paul during his imprisonment in Rome and rendered him special service) to diverge from that road and go across the hill country to Iconium. It tells that Queen THE. ANCIENT ERA 71 Tryphaina (of Pontus) had estates somewhere in this neighbor- hood; and this may well be true as she was granddaughter of Polemon, who formerly possessed Iconium. It rightly makes her a relative of the Roman Emporor, Claudius." This story, The White Shield, is based upon this legend in which Thekla is associated with St. Paul and the Queen Tryphaina. The leading historical characters are Paul, Onesiphorus, Try- phaina, the Roman governor of Galatia and Thekla, the daughter of Theokleia of Iconium. Persecution drives Thekla from Ico- nium to Antioch, where she is again condemned but is saved from death. Tryphaina, the queen, becomes an expounder of the truths of Christianity. Pomponia. 1867. Mrs. J. B.Webb It was through his generals, Plautius and Vespasian, that Clau- dius subjugated the southern part of Britain, which they called Britannia. Agricola was the first of the Roman generals who had been in Britain who in any measure reconciled the people to Roman rule. He sailed around the island and discovered the Orkneys. He was the father-in-law of Tacitus, who wrote his biography in which is given an excellent account of Roman rule in Britain. This story, Pomponia, covers the period from the Roman con- quest of Britain to the Neronian persecution of the Christians. The work of Plautius in the subjugation of the southern part of the country is set forth. It describes the crimes of Claudius, who was poisoned by his wife Agrippina. Nero, the son of Agrippina, as emperor, and also Poppaea, enter into the events. Pomponia is brought to trial. The burning of Rome, A. D. 64, the deed charged up to the Christians by Nero to divert suspicion from himself, and his merciless persecution of them, are set forth. A Story of Ancient Wales. 1900. Miss H. Elrington The Druids were the priests of the early Gauls and Britons. The orgin of their religion is unknown. The best description we have of them is that by Julius Caesar. Circles of stone, open to the heavens, constituted their temple. Immense ruins still found in Britain are supposed to be remains of their temples. They were fire-worshipers, and criminals and prisoners were often offered by them in sacrifice. Whenever mistletoe, which was held J2 HISTORICAL FICTION in veneration, was found twining about an oak, which was also held sacred, a festival was held around the tree and a sacrifice offered. Their influence over the people was very great. They were the teachers of the people, acted as judges and settled dis- putes. From the time of the Roman conquest their influence be- gan to cease. For seven years after the conquest of Britain by Claudius the southern Britains defended themselves in the woods and marshes against the Romans. In this they were greatly stimulated by their priests, the Druids. But in the year 50 their great chief Caracta- cus, was taken prisoner to Rome, and the Romans reaching the isle of Anglesey, then called Mona, massacred the Druids in their stronghold. The scene of this story is laid in Wales in the region of Ches- ter. It deals with the exploits of the chieftain Caractacus, his capture by the Romans and carried to Rome. It gives a good de- scription of the inhuman treatment of those who were physically defective by the Druids, who offered these unfortunates in sacri- fice. Reign of Nero Nero was the son of Cneius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrip- pina. The latter, the sister of Caligula, was later the fourth wife of Claudius. That Nero became "one of the most tyrannical and licentious wretches that ever lived" is a perfectly just judgment of his character. He not only murdered most of his principal subjects, but also his mother. It was to Nero that Paul demanded the right to make his appeal in his conflict with the Jews at Jeru- salem and when brought before Agrippa. This was prior to the persecution of the Christians as Paul's imprisonment at Rome for two years terminated the year before the burning of Rome. In the year A. D. 64 a fire broke out near the circus where the Jews had their shops which swept the metropolis of the world into a vast heap of ruins. Only four of the fourteen "regions" of the city escaped. It was stated that Nero, a spectator of the conflagration, had declaimed over it a poem on the burning of Troy. That he was the incendiary, through the tools he employed, was firmly believed at the time. The enraged people demanded a victim and, as Tacitus says, Nero falsely charged the Christians THE ANCIENT ERA 73 with the crime. Then followed a carnival of bloodshed such as Rome had never yet seen. The most unspeakable tortures were invented. Those w r ho were crucified no doubt suffered less than those who were torn to pieces by animals, and others covered with pitch and hung up in Nero's gardens and set afire as night torches. Thus began the persecution of the Christian Church that was to continue for decades to the time of Diocletian. Under the Nero- nian persecution the two great apostles, St. Paul and St. Peter, were among the many martyrs of the early Church. The Stories Quo Vadis? 1895. Henryk Sienkiewicz This Polish author (1846-) was educated at the University of Warsaw. He wrote descriptions of his visit to California, a drama and a number of short stories. Then appeared The Tartar Bond- age, With Fire and Sword, and others. His fame, already estab- lished, was greatly increased by the publication of Quo Vadis. It became immensely popular and several dramatic versions of it were produced. This story is a representation of Roman life in the early days of Christianity in which are contrasted the immorality of Pagan- ism and the purity of the Christian religion. The life of the Court and the simple life of the Christians are portrayed. The horrors attending the burning of Rome are graphically described, and the still greater subsequent horrors of the persecution of the Christians. The repulsiveness of Nero's character is portrayed. The luxury loving Pretronius is one of the leading characters. He was regarded at Nero's court as an arbiter in questions of taste and for a long time possessed the highest favor of the Emperor. His death was in keeping with his life. Implicated in the Pisonian conspiracy he decided to destroy himself. His veins were opened, following the banquet he gave his friends, and while the blood flowed he talked with the company on frivolous subjects. Lygia, a beautiful Christian girl, living in the home of a Roman noble, foils the immoral attempts of Vinicius, one of the emperor's guards, who denounces her as a Christian. Her rescue by the giant Ursus in the amphitheater is one of the great scenes of the work. Vinicius is converted by the preaching of St. Paul and St. Peter and becomes the husband of Lygia. 74 HISTORICAL FICTION Darkness and Dawn. 1892. Frederick W. Farrar This English preacher, teacher and writer (i 831 -1903) was born at Bombay, India. He was educated at the University of London and at Trinity College. Under his management as head master Marlborough College became one of the great schools of England. His other distinctions consisted of being chaplain of the House of Commons and dean of Canterbury. As a writer he is the author of philological and biographical works, two of which are widely read — Life of Christ and Life of Saint Paul. His works of fiction, together with those noted, have had a distinctively religious influence upon the reading public. Seneca, the teacher of Nero, says of the moral state of Rome, "All things are full of iniquity and vice. More crimes are com- mitted than can be remedied by force. A monstrous contest of wickedness is carried on. Daily the lust of sin increases ; daily the sense of shame diminishes. Casting away all regard for what is good and honorable, pleasure runs riot without restraint. Vice no longer hides itself, it stalks forth before all eyes. So public has iniquity become, so mightily does it flame up in all our hearts, that innocence is no longer rare : it has ceased to exist." Opposed to this moral corruption stood the Christian doctrines of purity and righteousness ; in the midst of this spiritual darkness shined forth the light of the world in the teachings of Jesus and as exemplified by his followers. The author in Darkness and Dawn sets forth these two con- tending forces distinguishing their essential elements, and the necessary consequences attending each as displayed in the life of their advocates and in their political relations. Glaucia: The Greek Slave. 1904. Emma Leslie Of the visit of St. Paul to Athens we have but a scant record. Undoubtedly one of the greatest sermons of the apostle was the one delivered on Mars Hill of which we have but a brief report. One of the leading facts of the account is that Dionysius the Areopagite, together with a woman by the name of Damaris, were converted to Christianity by this sermon. This is the only refer- ence to Dionysius in the New Testament. From Suidas we learn that he was an Athenian and a man of distinct literary attainments, THE ANCIENT ERA 75 having studied both at Athens and Heliopolis in Egypt; that returning to Athens he was admitted into the Aeropagus, the Council on Mars Hill, which sat in judgment on vice in various forms, as also virtuous conduct, and was especially concerned with blasphemies against the gods. "It was with the greatest propriety that Paul was questioned before this tribunal. Whether or not the apostle was criminally arraigned, as a setter forth of strange gods, before the tribunal, which held its sittings on the hill, may be considered as undetermined, though the balance of evidence seems to incline to the affirmative." It is also stated by Suidas that Dionysius was appointed Bishop of Athens by Paul, which fact is recorded by other eccle- siastical historians. In this story, Glaucia, Paul and the Aeropagite appear in the religious interests of the two great centers, Athens and Corinth, during the Neronian period. Nero. 1889. Ernst Eckstein We have already referred to the character of Nero and the moral depravity of the time. As one writer has said, "In shapes like Nero's, we can clearly perceive how thirst for blood went hand in hand with sensuality; and in the orgies of the age, as for instance in the great festivals which the prefect Tigellinus gave on an artificial island in the lake of Agrippa, the shamelessness was so conspicuous that the wildest carousals of later times do not offer even a resemblance. We know not which is the more shock- ing, the effrontery with which sensuality came forth, or the cunning with which it sought what was more and more unnatural." Into this story, Nero, enter the great events and relations of Nero's life. His mother, Agrippina, who poisoned her husband Claudius so as to place Nero on the throne, and whom Nero murdered, plays her part. Also Seneca, the Roman philosopher, Nero's teacher. He was very wealthy and Nero ordered him to take his life and then confiscated his estates. Nero's two wives, Octavia and Poppaea, and the f reedwoman Acte whom he loved, together with Tigellinus and others who entered into the history of this man who has been characterized as a combination of mud and genius, appear in the story. The story covers the period to his death, when, to escape arrest, he stabbed himself to death. 76 HISTORICAL FICTION The Burning of Rome. 1892. Alfred J. Church We have already stated (see Quo Vadis) what has been the opinion regarding Nero's connection with this event. The fact that the fire broke out in the Jewish quarter suspicion might have been directed to that class. It is possible that the Jews, who so bitterly hated the Christians, managed to divert suspicion from themselves by fastening it upon the new sect. Whether Poppaea Sabina, Nero's consort, and the friend of the Jews, had any part in it, we cannot positively say. French historians try to make out a case by declaring that Poppaea had formed a plot against Nero's mistress Acte, whom they suppose to have been a Christian. The grounds for this assumption are wholly inadequate. In his last epistle, and among the last words he wrote, St. Paul sends his parting greeting to Eubulus, Pudens, Linus and Claudia (2 Tim. 4:21). Pudens and Claudia have been partly identified with the Pudens and Claudia of this story, The Burning of Rome. Claudia, the wife of Pudens, is a British princess. The story deals with Rome and Britain. It describes the burning of Rome which was followed by Nero's persecution of the Christians. It gives us a view of his domestic life relative to his wife Octavia, and his marriage with Poppaea. Boudicca (Boadicea). 1912. C. H. Dudley Ward Queen Boadicea, the widow of a British chief, was treated in such a dastardly manner by the Romans that she raised a revolt, and at the head of the British insurrectionists attacked the Roman settlements, destroyed London by fire and put to death 70,000 of the enemy. After the destruction of London, the Roman general, Suetonius, gained a decisive victory over Boadicea, and to escape falling into his hands she took poison. In Ward's story the British warrior queen is strongly portrayed. It deals with the injustice to which she was subjected, the insur- rection that followed, her defeat and death. Reign of Vespasian Nero was the last of the Julian line, and with his death the family of the great Caesar was now extinct. Nero committed suicide, A. D. 68. During this and the following year Galba, Otho THE ANCIENT ERA 77 and Vitellius sat upon the throne, and were killed in those contests relative to their claims to sovereignty. The soldiers of Vespasian slew Vitellius and placed their commander upon the throne, whose reign was the beginning of the Flavian period (69-96). The ten years of his reign were occupied with great public interests in the imperial city and in military operations abroad, especially in Palestine. The Stories The Gladiators. 1863. George J. Whyte Melville The city of Jerusalem sustained seventeen sieges. Twice it was entirely destroyed. There is no city in the world whose soil has so often been drenched with the blood of its people. From the time of the restoration of the Jews by Cyrus (B. C. 536) to its destruction by Titus in A. D. 70 it had been held by Persians, Macedonians, Syrians, Egyptians and Romans. With an army of 60,000 trained soldiers, Titus, a Roman general under Vespasian, appeared before Jerusalem and began the most disastrous siege of history. It being the Passover season the city was crowded with people from all sections of the country which, according to some authorities, increased the inhabitants in the city to over a million. The Romans met with stout resistance. The city was cut off from all food supplies and was soon held in the grip of famine. Resistance was at last broken and Titus entered the city. Then was fulfilled the prophecy uttered by Christ that not one stone should be left upon another. Zion was ploughed as a field and Jerusalem became a charred ruin. Over a million people had perished, according to some authorities, nearly 100,000 were led away as captives and thousands were reserved to exhibit the triumph of Titus at Rome. The setting of the first part of this story, The Gladiators, is Rome where a British slave wins the love of a beautiful woman of patrician rank. He is not permitted to love her undisturbed as she has inspired the love of a tribune who, in character, is the antithesis of the noble Briton. Following the events in Rome that of the siege of Jerusalem occupies the last chapters. The death of Vitellius, who was dethroned by the soldiers of Vespasian, is graphically described. 78 HISTORICAL FICTION The Forgotten Door. 1909. Frank Cowper Following the death of King Agrippa, the son of Agrippa the tetrarch, the Jewish discontent increased until it reached the revoluntionary stage. Cestius Gallus was the incompetent gov- ernor of Syria. The outrages of the Roman procurators reached a point where the Jews in Jerusalem could no longer tolerate them. They rose in revolt, seized the fortress of Masada and put to death the garrison. To restore order Gallus left Syria and came to Jerusalem. This was in November of the year 66. He secured possession of the northern section and attacked Mount Moriah, the temple mount. The fighting continued for five days, and when victory seemed within his grasp, for no accountable reason he withdrew his forces. Retreating from the city he was pursued by the Jews so hotly that he succeeded in getting out of a ravine in which he was trapped and got back to Antioch by sacrificing the larger part of his army. The Forgotten Door deals with this event, the forces under Cestius Gallus coming to the support of the Roman garrison, and their defeat. It also depicts the massacres within the city. For the Temple. 1888. George A. Henty In A. D. 64 Josephus, the Jewish historian, went to Rome. On his return he found the Jews preparing to break away from Rome. He did his utmost to discourage such a move as utterly useless, that not for an instant could they hope to be successful in such a revolution. Failing to convince his countrymen of this fact he accepted the commission to defend the northern section, Galilee, and for forty-seven days held the town of Jotapata against the Roman army. He was taken with the fall of the city, and was consequently with the Roman army when Titus took Jerusalem. He was one of the great company of Jews that Titus took to Rome. Henty's story describes the siege of Jotapata and Jerusalem. The hero enlists in the service of Josephus, and at the head of a force strives to save the temple. Tarry Thou Till I Come. 1827. George Croly The author (1780- 1860) was born in Dublin. He became the rector of St. Stephens, Walbrook, London. He was a contributor THE ANCIENT ERA 79 to Blackwood's and the Library Gazette. He was an imitator of the style of Byron and Moore. This story of the Wandering Jew was first published under the title of Salathiel. This character was condemned by Jesus as he was on the way to Calvary, to wander over the earth until the Second Advent. He is at the burning of Rome. He also heads the revolt of the Jews against Rome and witnesses the siege and fall of Jerusalem, and the triumph of Titus over the Holy City. It is a strong portrayal of these scenes. The Slaves of Sabinus, Jew and Gentile. 1890. Charlotte M. Yonge This English novelist was born at Otterbourne in Hampshire. She was educated at home and resided in her native place through- out her life. She supported the doctrines of the High Church. She disapproved the workmen's institutes on the ground that the geological teachings there would endanger the faith of those who attended these instructions. For more than thirty years she edited the Monthly Packet, in which many of her novels made their first appearance. Miss Yonge produced 160 books comprising histor- ical and educational works and novels. Her first great success as novelist was The Heir of Radcliffe, the profits of which pur- chased a schooner for the use of a Melanesian missionary. We have seen how the burning of Rome was the occasion of the persecution of the Christians by Nero. It might be supposed that at his death these persecutions would cease when better and more humane emperors came to the throne. Such was not the case. They were grounded in different considerations relative to the Roman state and became more systematic, but were destined to persist for an extended period. Miss Yonge's story deals with these fiery trials which the Chris- tians endured. It did not require much of a charge to bring one under condemnation and death. Sabinus is charged with taking sides with the enemies of the Roman state and Vespasian con- demns him to death. Titus who captured Jerusalem, and Domitian his brother, both sons of Vespasian, appear in the story. Reign of Titus Titus was the eldest son of Vespasian, and when the latter 8o HISTORICAL FICTION returned from Palestine to Rome (69) to take the throne he left Titus to conduct the war in Judea. The siege and fall of Jerusalem have already been described. He followed his father on the throne in a short reign of two years. During this time another great fire swept Rome. It was during this reign that occurred the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum by an eruption of Vesuvius. The Stories The Last Days of Pompeii. 1834. Bulwer-Lytton Under the early emperors Pompeii became a favorite resort of wealthy Romans. In A. D. 79 it was completely buried by Vesuvius to a depth of twenty or more feet by showers of ashes, cinders, pumice stones and streams of volcanic mud. This con- tinued for several days. The people were enabled to remove most of their possessions. In doing so many were lost or overcome in the darkness which enveloped the city, floundering in the ashes, and unable to locate the gates. Their bodies recovered by the excavations centuries afterwards were found in various postures as they sank down in their exhaustion. Pliny, the Elder, the great naturalist, venturing too near Vesuvius to study the erup- tion, lost his life. The city lost to view was forgotten. It was in 1748 when a peasant, in sinking a well, found a painted chamber, some statues and other objects. The excavation of the city was then undertaken. Among the most interesting private dwellings are the villa of Diomedes, the house of Sallust and the house of Marcus Lucretius. Bulwer-Lytton's story is a portrayal of the luxury that char- acterized Roman society of that day as drawn not only from the ancient literature, but from the evidence that came forth from the buried city by the spade of the excavator. Glaucus, the hero of the novel, is loved by Nydia. She is blind and sells the flowers she has woven into garlands in the public places of Pompeii. She was a Greek of noble birth but in infancy had been stolen from her parents and sold into slavery. Glaucus rescued her from her infamous master and her heart went out in passionate love for her rescuer. Glaucus does not suspect this devotion of the blind girl, who, finally, in a state of melancholy is driven to crime and to death. THE ANCIENT ERA 81 The Priestess of Isis. 1910. Eduard Schure This story is a portrayal of Pompeian society, and sets forth the religious ideas prior to the destruction of the city. Reign of Domitian Domitian was the son of Vespasian and brother of Titus. His reign was a period of incessant crimes and cruelties. Under him was instituted the second persecution of the Christians. These as well as the Jews refusing to do homage to his statue by burning incense before it, made them the victims of another reign of terror. The persecutions under Nero and Domitian were mere outbreaks of personal cruelty and tyrannical caprice. The first persecution which was general and designed to obliterate the Chris- tian Church was that under Decius. During the Domitian perse- cution the emperor's niece, Domitilla, was one of the victims. Domitian was finally put to death by members of his own house- hold. It was recognized that Christianity contained many elements in which Heathenism was wanting, and it was debated how these might be incorporated into that system. In creating a parallel, and crowding it to the utmost, several heathen Christs were put forward. Of these the greatest celebrity who was exhibited as a veritable heathen Christ was Apollonius of Tyana. In a biog- raphy of him, written by Flavius Philostratus, by the most fanciful idealization he is represented as a rival of Jesus Christ. He preached in the cities and, in the reports given of his work, per- formed miracles. He urged men to love their neighbors as them- selves. He suffered persecution on account of his reformatory work. His friends did everything to keep him from going to Rome where Domitian was prosecuting his cruelties, to which he replied, "I dare not flee from my enemies, I must fight for my friends." He was cast into prison by Domitian. The Stories Masters of the World. 1888. Mary A. M. Hoppus The manner in which the iniquities and brutalities of Domitian aroused the Roman nobles and his assassination are set forth in this story. It deals also with the plot of Caius Piso. The empress plays a part, and the court life is an important particular. The 82 HISTORICAL FICTION facts just given in the historical sketch will throw light upon that part of the story in which is set forth the trial of Apollonius of Tyana. Quintus Claudius. 1882. Ernst Eckstein The Empress Domitia is a leading figure of this story which portrays Roman life in the time of Domitian. On the one hand, we have the plots of the upper class, and on the other, the secret meetings of Christians to escape the persecutions to which they were subjected. Among the leading Romans of the time intro- duced into the story is Martial, a Roman writer of epigrams. He was born in Spain but came to Rome when young during the reign of Nero. Domitian bestowed upon him the rank of tribune and the rights of the equestrian order. His fourteen books of epi- grams depict the life of imperial Rome. Reign of Nerva Domitian was followed on the throne by what are called "The Five Good Emperors," because of the beneficent manner in which they administered the affairs of the government. They were Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the two Antonines. Nerva reigned for the brief period of sixteen months (A. D. 96-98). The author of the following story evidently supported the view of Biblical scholars who assign the time of the banishment of the Apostle John to this late date. Many scholars incline to a much earlier period and assign his banishment to the reign of Nero. In his first two epistles this apostle refutes the heresy that denied that Jesus came in the flesh. Heretical teachers did not deny that Christ had come, but they denied that he came in the verity of our human nature. They saw in him only a transient apparition of the Divine Nature. This was the denial of the doctrine of the incarnation which denial John refutes. The Story Amor Victor. 1902. O. Kenyon This story deals especially with the character and circum- stances of the Christians at the close of the century. Roman life is represented by the contests in the arena and the profligacy of THE ANCIENT ERA 83 paganism, while contrasted with these are the virtues of the Christians. As noted above, the Apostle John exposed the heresies prevalent in that day, and these enter into the story. John is instrumental in restoring to his Christian faith the robber who had accepted and then renounced Christianity. Reign of Trajan Trajan was the son of a distinguished Roman commander under Vespasian. In his conflict with the Parthians Trajan ex- hibited so lofty a character that Nerva adopted him, and in A. D. 97 created him Caesar. Thus he was the first provincial given this distinction. Under him Dacia was made into a province, emigrants crowded into this district and the modern name Rumania is a monument of this Roman conquest and colonization beyond the Danube. He extended the limits of the empire beyond any point to which they had hitherto been carried by Roman conquest. Christianity was rapidly spreading. The facts regarding the new faith, and the manner in which it was regarded by the Roman rulers, are set forth by Pliny the Younger who was governor of Pontica, and one of the most distinguished men of his age. He wrote a letter to the emperor in which he declared that the new creed was "a contagious superstition that had seized not only cities but the lesser towns also, and the open country." He states that he could find no fault in these converts to Christianity, but because of their obstinacy in refusing to sacrifice to the Roman gods he had ordered many to be put to death. In the year 103 Trajan wrote him the famous letter instructing him not to search for Christians, but to punish them if brought before him, and on no account to listen to anonymous charges. The Story Valerius. 1821. John Gibson Lockhart The author (1794-1854) was educated at the University of Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford. While he studied for the Scottish bar he never practiced law. He contributed to Blackwood's Magazine which had come into existence about that time. He married the daughter of Sir Walter Scott in 1820, and five years later he became the editor of the Quarterly Review. His Life of Scott is his greatest work and the judgment is ex- 84 HISTORICAL FICTION pressed that, with the exception of Boswell's Johnson, it is the best biography in English. Besides his novels he wrote a History of Napoleon and a Life of Burns. Valerius is the titular hero of this novel and is the son of a Roman commander in Britain. After the death of his father he is called to Rome to claim the estates to which he had fallen heir. He wins the love of Athanasia who is a Christian, and who is instrumental in bringing him to an acceptance of Christianity. He marries her and returns with her to Britain. The story sets forth the persecution of the Christians under Trajan. II. PERIOD OF PROSPERITY AND DECLINE Historical Outline From Hadrian to Diocletian I. Period of Prosperity. i. Hadrian, 1 17-138. 2. Aurelius Antoninus, 138- 1 61. 3. Marcus Aurelius, 161-180. II. Period of Decline. 1. Commodus, 180-192. 2. "The Barrack Emperors," 192-284. Elected by the army. Public sale of the Empire for $12,000,000, 193. Septimius Severus, 193-21 1. Caracalla, 211 -21 7. Decius, 249-251. Period of the Tyrants, 251-268. Valerian, 253-260. Five Good Emperors: Claudius, Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, Carus, 268-284. 3. Diocletian, 284-305. Passing of Republicanism. We have seen, by the brief sketches, under the foregoing divi- sion of our study, how the empire expanded from the time of Augustus to the reign of Trajan. We have also seen how in this period came forth the two great events designed to alter the course of human history, i. e., the advent and ministry of Jesus Christ and the establishment of Christianity and the Christian Church. Under the present division of our study we are to trace the THE ANCIENT ERA 85 development of the empire's prosperity and its declension during a period of about 125 years. Christianity remains the great issue in the conflict between it and Paganism, but the end of the period is to witness the end of the persecutions, the impotence of the mighty Roman State in its struggle with truth and the triumph of the Nazarene. Reign of Hadrian Hadrian was a man of administrative ability. He visited the provinces of the empire giving each a close inspection. He went to Britain and safeguarded the Roman possessions by building a great wall, known as the Hadrian Wall, from the Tyne to the Solway Firth. His building operations were extensive, and in Athens he revived in a measure the grandeur of the Age of Pericles. Hadrian forbade the arbitrary and unjust killing of slaves. He gave them the right of trial and to be condemned only when proven guilty. He also prohibited that any one, male or female, should be sold as slaves for disgraceful purposes. The Stories Antinous. 1884. Adolph D. Hausrath The author (1837-1909), a German theologian, was born at Karlsruhe. He received a broad education, having studied at Jena, Gottingen, Berlin and Heidelberg. In his views he followed the Tubingen School. He wrote several historical romances under the pseudonym, George Taylor. Of these Antinous was given extended circulation running rapidly through five editions. It is the story of a soul "which courted death because the objective restraints of faith had been lost." Among his other works were Klytiae and Jetta. In this story, Antinous, the character of Hadrian is portrayed. The ruling principles of Christianity and Paganism are contrasted. Hadrian deified his beautiful page Antinous for whom he indulged an unnatural affection. He was a young Bithynian, and when he was drowned in the Nile in the year 122 Hadrian surrendered himself to uncontrolled grief. Monuments, temples and statues were dedicated to him and even a city was specially set apart for his worship. 86 HISTORICAL FICTION Silanus the Christian. 1906. Edwin A. Abbott The author (1838-), an English school master and theologian, was educated at the City of London School and St. John's College, Cambridge, where he took the highest honors in classical, mathe- matical and theological studies. He took orders in 1862. In 1865 he became head master of the City of London School which he held until 1889 when he retired to devote himself to literary and theological interests. His theology was of a liberal type which was expressed in his writings. His three religious romances, Philo- christus, Onesimus and Silanus he published anonymously. Epictetus (60-94) was born in Phrygia. During his youth in Rome he was a slave but in some way secured his freedom. He became a teacher of philosophy. He and Marcus Aurelius were the last representatives of Stoicism. Christianity, giving a larger place to the affections than did Stoicism, was already fast winning the hearts of men. The leading interest of Epictetus, however, was not so much in Stoicism as an intellectual system, although he adopted its ethics, as in moral and religious instruction. The Epicurean declared that the way to happiness was to enjoy to the full the good things of this life. Epictetus said, abstain and endure — "True happiness is only to be found in tranquillity of spirit wherein man, renouncing all things and calmly accepting what fate appoints for him, allows nothing to disquiet him." This was a fundamental tenet of Epictetus. In Dr. Abbott's story Silanus was a disciple of Epictetus and at Nicopolis listened to his expositions of his system. He was won over to Christianity, and became a disciple of the greater Teacher, the Man of Galilee. In this work are discussed at length the doctrines of sin and death as held by Epictetus, also the Biblical teachings as enunciated by Christ and Paul. Reign of Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius, son and successor of Antoninus Pius, was reared and instructed by Sextus, Plutarch's nephew, Herodes Atticus the orator and L. Volusius Mecianus the jurist. He was brought under the influence of learned men and developed a pro- found interest in the Stoic philosophy. He was separated from a life of studious pursuits at the capital by the necessity of military THE ANCIENT ERA 87 operations against the Parthians who had violated their treaty with Rome. He was an ardent student and follower of Zeno, the founder of Stoicism. "His Meditations breathe the tenderest sen- timents of devotion and benevolence, and make the nearest approach to the spirit of Christianity of all the writings of pagan antiquity." The Stories Marius the Epicurean. 1885. Walter Pater The author (1839- 1894) was born at London. He was edu- cated at Queen's College, Oxford. In 1873 ne published Studies in the History of the Renaissance. In 1887 Imaginary Portraits appeared, and in 1889 Appreciations. For the two schools of philosophy, Stoicism and Epicureanism, with special attention to the latter, the reader is referred to The Epicurean of this work. Marius the Epicurean is a study of the times of Marcus Aurelius relative to these philosophical interests. Marius, the titular hero, is a young Roman noble who fell under the influence of this emperor and his Stoical teachings. While his own phil- osophy was based on Epicureanism it approached very closely to Stoicism. He was profoundly impressed by the Christian religion as it found expression in the Christian life of his time. So deeply was he affected by its principles and the happiness of those who espoused them, that he himself came to the threshold of an accept- ance of the Christian doctrines. The circumstances under which he died were such that he was regarded by the Church as a martyr. Marcus and Faustina. 1904. Frederic Carrel The German tribes were menacing the Roman state. Verus, the brother of Marcus Aurelius, had died and the sole command of the war devolved upon the emperor. He prosecuted it with such energy that the Marcomanni and other tribes were forced to sue for peace. He was called from these conquests by a new danger that threatened him from the East. Avidius Cassius, the Syrian governor and conqueror of the Parthians, rebelled, and was pro- claimed Emperor. As he was no doubt superior to the emperor 88 HISTORICAL FICTION as a general, and was a man of great energy, he might, at the head of the Oriental army, have proved a dangerous rival. Con- cluding a rather unfavorable peace with the Danubian tribes, Marcus Aurelius hastened eastward. Before he reached Asia Avidius Cassius was assassinated and the danger was removed. In this sedition Faustina, the empress, was in treasonable com- munication with Avidius Cassius. These facts furnish the historical setting of this story. The empress is represented as committed to a life of pleasure, the very antithesis of the Stoical teachings of her husband. She is am- bitious to gain the ends for which she sets aside all claims of duty. She is ruled by passion and not by principle. Reigns of Decius and Valerian The period from A. D. 251 to 268 is called the Age of the Thirty Tyrants. Weak emperors held the throne and rivals appeared, sometimes several at the same time, demanding it. It seemed as if the empire would collapse when a succession of five good emperors once more united the parts. These emperors were Claudius, Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, and Carus. It was during the period of disintegration that Valerian was defeated and taken prisoner by the Persian king Sapor in a battle before Edessa in Mesopotamia. We have already called attention to the fact that the persecu- tions of the Christians under Nero and Domitian were outbreaks of personal brutality. The first persecution that was general, and systematically aimed at the overthrow of the Church, was the Decian. That emperor was the first to order a general persecu- tion. He aspired to re-establish the ancient glory of Rome, and, like Trajan, entered into the conflict with the religion that was the enemy of the State. In A. D. 250 he issued an edict that all Christians without exception must recognize the Roman religion in the performance of all the rites. A period of time was given within which they were to sacrifice to the gods, while failure to meet these requirements was punishable by torture. The stead- fastness of the Christians wearied the pagan and there came times of peace. Then the persecution was resumed with greater zeal with new methods for the extermination of the Church. The fall of Decius (A. D. 251) in the war against the Goths THE ANCIENT ERA 89 brought a brief respite. When Valerian came to the throne perse- cutions were revived under new forms. Bloodshed under Decius had signally failed and Valerian adopted the measure of separating the bishops from their churches, and prohibited all religious assemblies of the Christians. But the bishops gathered new churches about them and the seeds of the Gospel fell into other soil. These measures failing to accomplish the desired end, the edict went forth that bishops, presbyters and deacons should be immediately slain, and thus the bloody work began again. Sixtus, Cyprian and others received the martyr's crown. With the defeat and capture of Valerian by the Persians this persecution came to an end. The Story Aemilius. 1871. Augustus D. Crake This English author (1836-1890) was educated at London University and subsequently entered the ministry of the Church of England. His best known historical work is a History of the Church Under the Roman Empire. This story, Aemilius, is based upon the persecutions of the two emperors just sketched, and upon the defeat of Valerian by the Persians. Reign of Diocletian Diocletian, the son of a Dalmatian slave, was placed upon the throne by the army. He brought about a radical change in the administration of the government. To secure regular succession to the throne he appointed Maximian as his colleague, and chose two assistants, with the title of Caesar, who should receive the succession. Maximian's capital was at Milan, while Diocletian selected Nicomedia in Asia Minor as his court. He was sur- rounded by court officials of many different grades. When he appeared in public, which was seldom, he was attired in a gorgeous Oriental costume. By the institution of the new order associating with himself the co-regents, the two Augusti and two Caesars, the danger of rebellion was considerably reduced. A single emperor was too much exposed. But the great expense involved by these changes entailed a system of taxation which greatly contributed to the impoverishment of the empire. Under Diocletian was instituted the last and most severe of the go HISTORICAL FICTION persecutions against the Church. In the persecution of Decius political motives were dominant, while Diocletian was influenced mainly by priests and philosophers. The Christians rendered the unity of the empire, as Diocletian had planned it, an impossibility. In the East they constituted about one-twelfth of the whole population, and in the West about one-fifteenth. A day was appointed upon which all Christians were summoned to sacrifice to the gods. No one was allowed to escape. They were called by name. Then began a persecution that for extent and cruelty surpassed even that of Decius. Throughout the empire the blood of Christians flowed in streams. The Story The Camp on the Severn. 1875. Augustus D. Crake This is a story of Britain under the Roman Empire during the reign of Diocletian. After the death of Queen Boadicea the Romans ruled over the Southern Britains for about 300 years. They drove back the Picts and Scots, a Celtic people, who lived in Northern Britain, and shut them out by strong walls, one of which was the famous wall of Hadrian between the Sol way and the Tyne. Under the Romans the southern part of the island advanced in civilization. Roads were constructed, towns were built and flourished and missionaries arriving, Christianity was introduced. At this time, under the administrative system of Diocletian, Constantius, commonly called Chlorus, ruled Britain. His military ability and the worthy manner in which he ruled Dalmatia secured the recognition of Maximian, the colleague of Diocletian. He married Flavia Maximiana, the step-daughter of Maximian in A. D. 289. This was after he had renounced his wife Helena who was the mother of Constantine. In the apportionment of the provinces Gaul and Britain fell to Constantius. When the Chris- tians were suffering persecution in 303 he exercised toward them great humanity. It is true that, for the sake of appearances, he had caused some churches to be destroyed, but in other respects he left the Christians undisturbed. In 305 the title of Augustus was bestowed upon him. It was during his campaign against the Picts and Scots in 306 that he died at Eboracum, or what is now York. THE ANCIENT ERA 91 III. LAST YEARS OF THE EMPIRE A great change is about to take place in the Roman Empire. That with which this mighty state has been in such deadly conflict is now co rise from a state of persecution to royal establishment. Christianity has triumphed. From Nero to Diocletian every attempt has been made to crush the new force that by its higher and nobler ideals has been undermining the Roman State. It is the creation of a new and last period of this world power. Rome is to be invested by, and brought under the control of, a new great force, the effect of which, however, is not to build up a greater empire as existed in this universal state. On the contrary she enters upon a period of decline, and by both internal and external conditions will come to disintegration and ruin. Historical Outline From Constantine to the Fall of the Empire 1. Constantine the Great, A. D. 306-337. Triumph of Christianity. The state religion. 2. Division of the Empire among the sons of Constantine, 337- ^ 350- 3. Constantius, 350-361. 4. Julian the Apostate, 361-363. 5. Valentinian and Valens, 365-378. 6. Theodosius the Great, 379-395. Final division of the Empire. 7. Honorius, 395-423. Invasion of Italy by Alaric, 402-403. Sack of Rome, 410. Disintegration and beginnings of Barbarian Kingdoms, 410-451. 8. Fall of the Western Empire, 476. Reign of Constantine Constantine was the son of the emperor Constantius Chlorus. When the latter died in 306 he was chosen Emperor of the West by the soldiery. There were six rivals for the throne, and in the conflicts that ensued one of the most important was the battle of the Milvian Bridge, about two miles from Rome. In this battle Maxentius, son of Maximian, who held Italy and Africa, was defeated by Constantine. The standard of the latter was the Christian Cross which he was led to adopt because of a vision 92 HISTORICAL FICTION of a cross bearing the inscription, "By this sign conquer." The battle of the Milvian Bridge altered the whole order of things of the past three centuries. The year following this battle (313) Christianity was placed by the emperor on an equality with other religions as expressed in the edict : "We grant to Christians and and to all others full liberty of following that religion which each may choose." The fire of persecution had burned itself out at the roots. Heathenism had exerted all of its power in vain against the silent endurance of the Christians. The blood of the martyrs had be- come the seed of the Church. Galerius on his death-bed in 311 issued the remarkable edict which put an end to the persecution. In 325 Constantine became the sole head of the Roman Empire. In 329 he removed his capital from Rome to Byzantium, which was called, after him, Constantinople. "Constantine could not, of course, save the Roman Empire. Its life ran out for it had fulfilled its mission of gathering for Christ. Its destiny was to die by the hand of Christianity, because its chief end was to pre- pare for Christianity its first sphere in the world." The Stories No. XIII. The Story of the Lost Vestal. 1885. Emma Marshall This English novelist (1832- 1889) was born near Cromer in Norfolk. Her productions amounted to more than one hundred volumes. She wrote mostly for the young. St. Alban was born at Verulamium near the close of the third century. Verulamium is the modern St. Albans in Hertford- shire. For seven years he served in the army of Diocletian in Rome. He returned to his native place in Britain, where, during the persecution of Diocletian he was put to death as a Christian, and hence is usually styled the proto-martyr of Britain. Tradi- tion states that after the close of the persecutions great honors were paid to his tomb. In 793 King Offa of Mercia built on the spot a church, to which was added a monastery and about which gradually grew up the present town of St. Albans. This story, No. XIII, introduces this martyrdom. It de- scribes Roman life under the two emperors, Diocletian and Con- THE ANCIENT ERA 93 stantine. In its geographical scope it includes Britain, Rome and Alexandria. On the Emperor's Service. 1904. Emma Leslie Aurelius Augustine (A. D. 354-430) was born near Carthage in Africa. He was sent to that city to be educated, which gave him the opportunity of indulging in a life of profligacy. His mother, Monica, one of the saintliest of women of all time, prayed unceasingly for his reclamation and conversion. Her prayers were answered in 383, when Augustine went to Milan, where he came under the influence of the great preacher St. Ambrose and was converted to Christianity. He was a man of great intellec- tual power, and the judgment that "he moulded the spirit of the Christian Church for centuries" is strictly true. During the Ref- ormation his authority was constantly appealed to by both sides." This story sets forth the religious conditions, both Christian and Pagan, during the time of Constantine, as they existed in Africa, Egypt and Syria. It introduces also the two characters of a later period already referred to who have exerted such a pro- found influence upon the world — St. Augustine and his mother Monica. Reign of Valentinian This emperor was chosen by the army as the successor of Jovian. He ruled the Western provinces, while his brother Valens ruled the East. His reign was characterized by wisdom and justice in correcting abuses and in establishing better condi- tions. Much of his time was occupied with the invasions of bar- barians. The Story The Meeting of the Ways. 1908. J. Bowling Baxter This is a story of Britain during the period of Valentinian. It describes the conflict with the Picts and the victory secured by Theodosius. The story is a very excellent portrayal of the life of the time as exhibited in its religious and social surroundings. Reign of Theodosius In 379 the emperor Gratian chose Theodosius for his partner in the empire, and was given Thrace and the Eastern provinces. 94 HISTORICAL FICTION The Goths had invaded these districts and were defeated by Theodosius. Upon the death of Maximus he became sole head of the empire. During this reign an incident occurred that ex- hibited the place of Christianity in the state. An insurrection had broken out in Thessalonica. In a fit of temper, and to satisfy his vengeance, Theodosius invited the people of that city to an exhibi- tion and then had seven thousand of them put to death. For this crime St. Ambrose refused him entrance to the Church until he had done penance in public, to which Theodosius humbly sub- mitted. The Story Leo of Mediolanum. 1909. Gertrude Hollis The first General Council of the Church was convened by Constantine at Nicaea A. D. 325. Christians had become divided on certain great doctrines and were formed into such sects as Arians and Athanasians. Arius was a presbyter of Alexandria, and Athanasius was bishop of the same city. The purpose of this Council was to consider and render a judgment upon these con- flicting creeds. The result was that Arianism was rejected and the Nicene Creed was formulated. The controversy dividing these two sects concerned the nature of Christ. The Athanasian creed declared : "We worship one God in trinity, and trinity in unity, neither confounding the persons nor dividing the substance. For there is one person of the Father, another of the Son, and another of the Holy Ghost. But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, is all one ; the glory equal, the majesty co-eternal." The Arians considered the three persons as differing in essence — three beings — which was "dividing the substance." It is with this great controversy that this story deals, the ob- ject of which is to set forth the triumph of the Catholic position. St. Ambrose, noted for his greatness and wisdom, elected bishop of Milan in 374, is one of the leading characters. He was a warm friend of Monica, the mother of Augustine and the spiritual ad- viser of the latter. St. Augustine and the Emperor Theodosius appear also in the story. Reign of Honorius Under Theodosius the Great the Roman Empire was united THE ANCIENT ERA 95 for the last time. Before his death he assigned the government of the West to his son Honorius, who was then eleven years of age, and the East to his son Arcadius. It was not designed that this division should affect the unity of the Empire. About seven years after the death of Theodosius occurred the invasion of Italy by Alaric (402-403). Great numbers of the barbarians passed through the empire. The Visigoths, led by Alaric, poured through the pass of Thermopylae and laid waste to the peninsula of Greece. They were driven out by Stilicho, the general of Honorius, and crossing the Alps instituted a reign of terror throughout Italy. Again they were defeated by Stil- icho. The same year witnessed also the last gladiatorial combat in the amphitheater. Shortly after the victory of Stilicho Honorius, influenced by rash advisers, brought about a revolt of 30,000 Gothic mercen- aries in the Roman legions by a massacre of their wives and chil- dren held as hostages. The Goths beyond the Alps joined in avenging this act. Alaric crossed the mountains, pillaged cities and appeared before the gates of Rome. The city, following a siege, surrendered. To pay the ransom the images of the gods were stripped of gold and precious stones and the statues melted down. A little later Alaric entered the capital and gave it over to the barbarians. They filled their wagons with its wealth, burned the buildings at night and made the streets slippery with the blood of its people. The Stories Antonina. 1852. William Wilkie Collins The author (1824- 1889) was born at London and studied law at Lincoln's Inn. The friendly relations that existed between him and Charles Dickens was responsible for his turning from law to literature. Antonina was written while he was a clerk in a London firm of tea-merchants, but was not published until 1852. He visited the United States and gave public readings from his own works. From 1851 he and Dickens were intimately asso- ciated, working at times in collaboration. This historical romance is based upon the events in the time of Honorius we have briefly sketched. It describes both the conflict between the Romans and the Goths, and the spiritual contest be- 96 HISTORICAL FICTION tween Paganism and Christianity. These incidents as treated by the author bring out the contrasted types of character. Alaric, the Gothic king, is one of the characters. A Duke of Britain. 1895. Herbert E, Maxwell The Novantia of the Romans was a district in the southwest of Scotland now known as Galloway. Until the end of the 1 2th century it included Carrick, now the southern division of Ayr- shire. This designation has been established for a long time, although it has not been adopted in a civil way. The Bruces were lords of Galloway, and in 1623 the title of earl of Galloway was created. The title is now held by a branch of the Stewarts. This romance of Galloway relates to the period just prior to the evacuation of Britain by the Romans. Cunedda, a tribune of the Picts is appointed by Honorius as Duke of Britain. Stilicho, the general of Honorius, who distinguished himself in his defeat of the Visigoths and afterwards was executed by the jealous em- peror, appears with Honorius in the story. The various classes, soldiers, Christians and Druids, all play their part in the distinc- tion of British and Italian life. The Count of the Saxon Shore. 1887. Alfred J. Church In the period of the barbarian invasions of Roman territory and settlements, one of the most important of these settlements was that in the province of Britain. When Stilicho, the general of Honorius, was compelled to withdraw the Roman forces from Britain in defence of Italy against the barbarians it left Britain unguarded. Taking advantage of this situation the Picts came over the Hadrian Wall and laid waste the fields and towns of the South. Thrown into a panic the inhabitants called upon the Angles and Saxons of the North Sea to aid them against the in- vaders. They did so and drove the Picts out of the land. The country made so favorable an impression upon these allies that they decided to remain. They claimed the country for themselves and became the ancestors of the English people. In Church's story the historical event just noted is followed by a revolt. Carna, an English maiden, is adopted by the Count of the Saxon Shore. Her experiences together with the other events, are forcefully set forth in this story. THE ANCIENT ERA 97 Invasion of the Huns Attila, the leader of the Huns, ruled over a great part of northern Asia and Europe. Theodosius was twice compelled to purchase peace from him. After invading Thrace, Macedon and Illyria he proceeded to the West. It is said that his army num- bered 700,000 men. It was his aim to lay waste to Italy and bring Roman power to an end. Theodoric, the king of the Visigoths, gathered his forces and combined with the Romans against the Huns. The armies met on the plain of Chalons. Theodoric fell, but after a bloody battle the Huns were completely defeated, suf- fering a tremendous loss in dead and wounded. With his shat- tered army Attila made his way across the Rhine. This was in the year A. D. 451. The Stories Attila and His Conquerors. 1894. Elizabeth R. Charles The scene is laid in this period of the invasion of Italy by Attila and the Huns, and the great battle of Chalons. The author in this story gives special attention to Christianity and the Chris- tian life of this period. Attila. 1837. George P. R. James This English novelist and historical writer (1799- 1860) was born in London. He added greatly to his rather limited educa- tion by traveling and reading extensively. Under William IV he was appointed Historiographer Royal. He died in Venice, where he was Consul General. His first writings were in the form of Eastern tales, which won the commendation of Washington Irving. His novels are largely historical and his writings con- sist of nearly 100 productions. His stories, however, are built upon the same general plan, and in this respect lack variety. In this story a young Roman is with the forces of Attila. It affords him an opportunity of witnessing the destructiveness of Attila's army as it moved over Europe, and in its conflict with the Visigoths. The delineations are excellent. CHAPTER VIII THE TRANSITIONAL PERIOD This period extended from the fall of the Western Empire, A. D. 476, to the time of Charlemagne, a period of about 275 years. We have already referred to the fact that some historians include this period in the Middle Ages, that is, they date the Medieval Era from the fall of Rome. In accounting for the great changes that took place we must note the modification of the old society by the comminglings of the Germanic peoples, and the influence of Roman civilization upon these nations. The fall of the Roman Empire was brought about, not sud- denly, but by a gradual process. The army was recruited from the barbarians, who learned from the Romans the art of war, and at the same time were strengthened by training in military disci- pline. Whole settlements of these tribes became established with- in the empire, and at times bartered their military service for territory. Under such training and discipline, and developed by these Roman opportunities, many of the most efficient attained to high places in the army, and consequently exercised their influ- ence and power in respect to the rulers. Another important fact tending to the same result is that most of the Germanic tribes were converts to Christianity before they made their attacks and subverted the throne of the Caesars. In fine, there was a long preparation for the great onset of the bar- barian peoples in the fifth century. It was this ability on the part of the German, possessed of strong intellectual and moral char- acteristics, to set aside his religion and adopt a new one, and to avail himself of the elements of civilization developed by Rome that fitted him to become the conqueror of this people. On the other hand, we must look to the state of things at the heart of the Empire for the cause of its fall. If Rome had not come to a state of decay she would not have fallen under the hand of the barbarian. It was the internal condition and not these 98 THE ANCIENT ERA 99 external circumstances that was largely responsible for her fall. Civil war had greatly reduced the population of Italy and it was a difficult thing to maintain a strong army. Luxury had sapped the vitality of the people. Feasts and other enervating conditions had rendered this people, once so strong and virile, weak and effeminate. Instead of keeping up their robust militia their wealth enabled them to hire foreigners to do their fighting. The Ger- mans were the best soldiers, and in fighting Rome's battles came to commanding positions in the Roman army. With such de- caying and disintegrating conditions sapping the vitality of the people, and a strong warlike race clothing itself with the elements of strength that constituted the power of the State, it is easy to understand how the Empire came to ruin by a people to whom war and conquest were a delight. Another element that entered into the dissolution of the Em- pire was Christianity. Rome was disposed to be tolerant toward other religions that found their way into the empire. Between these religions and Christianity, however, there was an essential difference. The latter affected the relation of the subject to the State in certain particulars. It taught that to follow the forms and indulge the liberties of the Roman religion was a sin, and that the Emperor and State were not supreme. But the Roman religion was a national system and an essential part of the State, and it was by reverence for the emperor that he had gained such influence over his subjects. Hence this attitude to the state re- ligion, and the tendency to alter the distinction of the emperor, precipitated the attempt to exterminate the Christian religion by the different emperors. If Christianity became supreme Rome could not persist. In a comparatively brief time after the disper- sion of the disciples of Christ the Gospel was heralded everywhere. Through the preaching of Paul and others churches were estab- lished and Christian doctrines widely diffused. Christians held offices of the State and were soldiers in the ranks. As one Roman writer declared, they were filling the empire and its official posi- tions. Rome realized her danger and under different emperors prosecuted the work of extermination. We have already seen the futility of the attempts to uproot Christianity, and how at last, after decades of patient suffering, Paganism was vanquished, the Emperor became a Christian and Christianity became supreme in the State. ioo HISTORICAL FICTION Historical Outline The Teutonic Kingdoms i. The Kingdom of the Ostrogoths. It had Ravenna for its capital. This kingdom came to an end in 553 when Justinian determined to seize Italy and Africa. 2. The Kingdom of the Visigoths. These people occupied territory in Gaul, from which they were expelled by the Franks in 507. The kingdom was finally overthrown by the Saracens in 711. 3. The Kingdom of the Burgundians. They established their kingdom on the Rhone. In 534 they were conquered by the Franks. 4. The Kingdom of the Lombards. They captured the city of Pavia in Italy. In 586 they had possession of almost the entire peninsula, which they held for over 200 years. In 774 they were sub- dued by Charles the Great. 5. The Kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons. After the Roman troops were withdrawn from Britain the island was taken by the Angles, Saxons and Jutes. In 827 Egbert, king of Wessex, brought all under his rule. 6. The Kingdom of the Franks. This was the greatest of the German kingdoms. In 451 the Merovingian Dynasty was founded by Meroveus. After 300 years it was overthrown in 751 and the Car- lovingian Dynasty was established. I. THE EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE For fifty years after the fall of the Western Empire the East- ern was threatened with the same danger at the hands of the bar- barians. Had Constantinople suffered the same calamity as did Rome the cause of Christianity would have been dealt a crushing blow. It was in this critical situation that Justinian (527-565) as- cended the throne and brought safety and security to the empire, which at the same time profoundly influenced the West. His two great generals, Belisarius and Narses, overthrew the Vandal kingdom in Africa and the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy and re- covered also the southern part of Spain from the Visigoths. THE ANCTF.NT ERA toi Justinian has been called "The Lawgiver of Civilization," which title he earned by the codification of Roman Law, the Cor- pus Juris Civilis, which preserved the great institutes of Rome to influence the world to the present day. This is the great outstand- ing fact of this reign, the importance of which cannot be over- estimated. Belisarius, to whom Justinian chiefly owed the splendor of his reign, was given command of an army and gained a signal victory over the Persians. In 532 a great revolt arose in Constantinople which was put down by Belisarius, by which he saved the life of Justinian. Notwithstanding his great services to the empire in his conquest of the Vandals, the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, he was accused of treason and cast into prison. Before his death he was released and restored to his honorable position. He and Justinian died in the same year (565). The Stories Blue and Green. 1879. Sir Henry Pottinger Theodora, the wife of Justinian, was the daughter of a bear- feeder of the amphitheater of Constantinople, according to Pro- copius, the reliability of whose authority is very often questioned. He states that she was sent to the stage to make her living. She came into the life of Justinian while he was a patrician, and there being a law against a senator marrying anyone connected with the stage, it required a special dispensation to set aside this law to permit this marriage to occur. The personal antipathy, in fact the actual hatred of Theodora entertained by Procopius, undoubt- edly disqualified him as a true judge of her character. In his Anecdota he has recorded disgusting things of her life, but the exaggerations are so obvious that the report is not very con- vincing. Theodora exercised over her husband a strong influence, which, most likely, was not the best influence. There seems to be sufficient evidence of her lack of principle. But she certainly saved his crown in the great Nika insurrection of 532 when, sup- ported by a splendid courage, she refused to escape when the palace was attacked by the rebels. It was during this same sedition of the "green" and "blue" parties of the circus that Belisarius rendered Justinian a great 102 HISTORICAL FICTION service in effectually crushing the rebels who had proclaimed Hypatius emperor. This story, Blue and Green, a romance of old Constantinople, has its setting in the events just noted. It portrays the bloody scenes of this insurrection in which a large part of Constanti- nople was laid waste and thousands were slain. Both Belisarius and Theodora occupy an important place in the story. In the author's delineation of the latter he takes the very opposite view of that of Procopius as noted above, and presents her in a favor- able light. A Struggle for Rome. 1878. Felix Dahn This German author, historian, jurist and novelist (1834-1912) was born in Hamburg. His parents were famous actors. He re- ceived his education in Munich and Berlin. In the former he be- came Professor of Law, also at Wurzburg and Breslau. His novels in the main deal with Germanic peoples, of whom he wrote a score of stories, and by these he is best known. In the historical statement we noted the great work of Beli- sarius in wresting from the barbarians Africa, Italy and the southern part of Spain. In this story the author deals with these conquests as related to the Ostrogoths. It is of special interest that his portrayal of the character of Theodora the Empress is the very opposite of that of the author of Blue and Green, the preceding story. Dahn, no doubt, accepted as authentic the account of Procooius and makes her a dissolute, instead of a worthy, character. Veranilda. 1904. George Gissing When a boy Theodoric was sent as a hostage to Constanti- nople and there received his training as a Roman noble. In 474 he became king of the Ostrogoths. After fourteen years of war- ring he was given the right to wrest Italy from Odoacer, the usurper of the throne in 476. For five years Theodoric pursued his conquests. He reigned in Rome until his death in 526, being- one of the best of Roman rulers. Then came the conquests of Belisarius and Narses. The Goths fought their last battle near Vesuvius in 552. Narses permitted the defeated army to march out of Italy, and the Ostrogothic nation came to an end. THE ANCIENT ERA 103 The author in this historical romance, Veranilda, describes the destructive effects of these invasions upon Italy. The romantic interest in the story centers about the heroine Veranilda, who is a Gothic princess, and the Roman noble her lover. II. ENGLAND The Arthurian Period About this hero, Arthur, who sometimes is spoken of as King of the Britons and ruled over them in the fifth and sixth centuries, have been woven various legends. The story has been the basis of many poems, among which the most notable is Tennyson's Idylls of the King. Arthur married Guinevere and established at his court the famous Round Table. He defeated the invaders of Britain and brought the land into a state of order. His nephew, Modred, instigated a rebellion while Arthur was in Rome, and upon his return in his attempt to reduce the rebellious knights to submis- sion, he was fatally wounded. To be healed of his wound he was taken to the island of Avalon. The historicity of Arthur has been a much debated question. The history of Geoffrey (in 1136) setting forth the deeds of this hero in his extensive conquests established a general belief in this chieftain and his exploits. When the fictitious character of this so-called history was detected, what was believed concerning Arthur was as strongly rejected. The truth probably lies midway between these two attitudes. That the evidence of Nennius, whose Historia Britonum pre- ceded the work of Geoffrey by about 400 years, is reliable, is ac- cepted by scholars. In this work we are told how Arthur at the head of the armies of the British kings, in twelve great battles defeated the Saxon invaders. What seems to be established is, that Arthur was not a king but a famous general. Miss Jessie L. Weston, author of Arthurian Romances, says, "If we say that he carried on a successful war against the Saxons, was probably be- trayed by his wife and a near kinsman, and fell in battle, we have stated all which can be claimed as an historical nucleus. Into the figure of Arthur as we know him, other elements have entered ; he is not merely an historic personality, but at the same time a 104 HISTORICAL FICTION survival of pre-historic myth, a hero of romance, and a fairy king ; and all these threads are woven together in one fascinating but bewildering web." Sir Thomas Malory, about 1470, wrote his Morte d'Arthur, which embodies in melodious English prose the romantic legends of Arthur. In Arthurian legend the Round Table was a circular marble table constructed for Uther Pendragon by the enchanter Merlin. It came into the possession of Leodegrance, king of Camelard, and on the occasion of the marriage of his daughter Guinevere with Arthur he presented to him the table. Tradition declares that it was modeled after a table made by Joseph of Arimathea, which was fashioned after the one used by Christ and his disci- ples at the Last Supper. One of the seats of the Round Table was always unoccupied and was intended for the one who should recover the Holy Grail. It was fatal for any one else to occupy that seat. In his Morte Arthnre Malory states that this seat was reserved for Sir Galahad, the son of Sir Lancelot and Elaine. The Holy Grail was the legendary vessel that contained the wine used by Christ at the Last Supper. For centuries, according to the legend, it was in the possession of the descendants of Joseph of Arimathea, whose son brought it to England. One of its keep- ers was guilty of a sin and it was taken to heaven. Those who were pure of heart were permitted to behold it. Many of Arthur's knights searched for the Holy Grail. Of these Galahad, Bors and Perceval had a vision of it. Readers of Tennyson are familiar with the use he makes of the legend in his Idylls of the King. The Stories Cian of the Chariots. 1898. William H. Babcock This romance of Arthur's Court deals with the events as set forth by Nennius to whom we have already referred in the sketch. The Saxon invasion and occupation of Kent, Sussex and Essex, with the attending disorders and consternation on the part of the inhabitants are described. The people driven from their homes to hiding-places and places of protection, and the general disinte- gration brought about by the invaders make a strong picture of the time. Into all of this Arthur and his campaigns and his wife Guinevere enter. THE ANCIENT ERA 105 The Clutch of Circumstances. 1908. Dorothy Senior This is a story of the Round Table and the Knights of Arthur as described by the work of Malory. The king of Leinster, Cor- mac, is a prominent character in the story. A Yankee at the Court of King Arthur. 1889. Mark Twain The author, Samuel Clemens (1835-1910), known as "Mark Twain," was born at Florida, Mo. In this small hamlet he re- ceived a limited education, and at the age of thirteen went to work in a printing office. He became a skilled compositor and in this capacity worked in St. Louis, Philadelphia and New York. In 1857 he became the pilot of a Mississippi steam boat upon which he had taken work six years previously. It was in this connection that his pen name must have originated. In sounding the depth of the water the man called out to the pilot, "By the mark, twain," indicating that it was two fathoms deep. During the Civil War he became a reporter for a Virginia City paper. Returning from the Sandwich Islands he attracted considerable notice as a lecturer, and the publication of Innocents Abroad brought him universal fame. In 1884 he connected himself with a publishing firm in New York which became bankrupt, and the heavy losses in which Clemens was involved drove him into the lecture field. It was during his stay of some years in Europe that a number of his books were written. In this story of the Yankee at the Court of King Arthur the humorist has placed a Yankee in the midst of these scenes of Eng- land in the days of Arthur. There are amusing incidents in these incompatible relations, and they are designed by the author to get beneath the veneer of chivalry and bring to light the actual con- ditions that existed. Early England— To the Time of Egbert Following the evacuation of Britain by the Romans in order to stem the barbarian invasion of Italy, the country was left without defence. The first settlement was made by the Jutes. Vortigern, a British chief, in 449 called upon Hengist and Horsa, two chiefs 106 HISTORICAL FICTION from Jutland, to assist him against the Picts who invaded the country. In this conflict Horsa was slain, but Hengist, after the Picts had been driven back, turned against the Britons and settled in the Isle of Thanet. His son Eric founded the kingdoms of East and West Kent. In 477 occurred the Saxon invasion. For sixty years these people drove back the Britons and settled upon the conquered ter- ritory. They founded the kingdoms of the South Saxons, or Sus- sex, West Saxons, or Wessex, East Saxons, or Essex, and Middle Saxons, or Middlesex. In 603 the kingdom of Northumberland was founded by the union of two parties of Angles who entered the country to the north of the river Humber and had established separate kingdoms. Others entered the middle of England and formed the kingdom of Mercia. They were called Angles or Engles. Thus were formed the seven kingdoms sometimes called the Heptarchy, consisting of Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Middlesex, Northumbria, Anglia and Mercia. Some of these kingdoms at- taining superiority would lord it over the others. Edwin (617- 633), king of Northumbria, became an overload of the others; Offa (757-795), king of Mercia, gained the supremacy; Egbert, king of Wessex, finally conquered Northumbria and Mercia and reigned over all the English from the south coast to the Firth of Forth. When the English settled in Britain they were worshipers of the heathen gods Woden and Thor. In 596 some English boys of fair attractive features were sold in Rome* as slaves. They were seen by Pope Gregory, who became so interested in them that an abbot named Augustine, accompanied by forty monks, was commissioned to bring the gospel to the English. Among the first to accept the new faith was Ethelbert, king of Kent, and many of his people. On one Christmas day 10,000 converts were baptized. In some places paganism struggled to maintain the worship of the old gods. Penda, king of Mercia, became the leader of paganism, which brought on a conflict between Mercia and Northumberland in which Penda was killed in 655, and after that there was no force that could resist the moral energy of the new faith. Within less than a hundred years after the landing of Augustine Christianity found almost universal acceptance in Britain. Monasteries and towns grew up, and learning was en- THE ANCIENT ERA 107 couraged. Caedmon of Whitby, taught by the monks, was the first English poet, while Bede (673-735), the first English historian, was an English monk at Jarrow on the coast of Durham. The Stories Builders of the Waste. 1899. Thorpe Forrest Northumbria consisted of two sections, Bernicia and Deira. When Gregory saw the fair English boys in Rome, offered for sale, he was so struck by their beauty he asked to what country they belonged. He was told that they were Angles from Deira, whose king was Ella. What has been called Gregory's punning comment was, "They shall become fellow-heirs with the angels, snatched from wrath (de ira) to sing Alleluia." This story has its setting in the time of the Saxon conquest of Deira. It builds up a love romance between people of the land and of the invader. The Doomed City. 1885. Augustus D. Crake This story describes the defeat of the British by Cuthwulf, the leader of the Saxons, when they seized Evesham, Lenbury and Aylesbury and caused the fall of the important city of Durocina (Dorchester). The missionary activities of Augustine under the appointment of Pope Gregory is one of the interests of the story. The Druidess. 1908. Florence Gay The scene is laid in Devon and the valley of the Severn, where Saxon and Celt came into conflict. Britons and Saxons combine against Cuthwulf, brother of Ceawlin, king of Wessex. Ethelbert and Bertha appear in the story. Ethelbert was king of Kent when Gregory's missionaries reached that section. Bertha, his wife, was a member of the Frankish royal house. She was a Christian and consequently the court was familiar with Christian worship conducted by Bertha's chaplain. This explains in a measure the hospitable reception of the missionaries by Ethelbert, who gave them lodging in his capital, Canterbury, and afterwards accepted Christianity. 108 HISTORICAL FICTION Imogen. 1875. Emily Sarah Holt When Augustine, the missionary, reached Britain he found there a Church of long standing. With this Church the mission- aries attempted to co-operate, but certain difficulties were at once encountered. Augustine was a stickler for forms and usage, while Gregory counselled him to adopt a liberal policy in matters not essential. But instead, he demanded a return to all Roman ecclesi- astical customs in such a peremptory manner, such non-essentials for example as the shaving of the crown of the priest's head, that the British Church refused to affiliate with the new-comers. The Romans then went to the north and made York the northern cen- ter of their work, with Paulinus as their first bishop. The author of Imogen sets forth by this story this situation be- tween the Roman and British Church, and contends that Christi- anity had a far better and purer expression in its earliest introduc- tion of centuries before than was exemplified by the religious ideas and activities of Augustine. The Soul of a Serf. 1910. J. Breckenridge Ellis The scenes of this story are laid on the Baltic shores and in Britain. It describes the conflicts between the Saxons and Angles. Ethelfrith of Northumbria and Penda of Mercia belong to the period and events in which this story has its setting. Edwin, the son of Ella, afterwards the king of Northumbria, is introduced. A Scholar of Lindisfarne. 1902. Gertrude Hollis On the west coast of Scotland lies the small island of Iona. It was there that Columba, a missionary from Ireland, built a monastery, from which point he carried forth his labors for the evangelization of the pagan Highlands of Scotland. To the north of England also went forth missionaries from this little island. Oswald, a prince of Northumbria, fled to Iona. Afterwards when he became king of Northumbria he appealed to Iona to send mis- sionaries to instruct his people. The request was granted in the sending of Aidan. He and his missionary band passed through Northumbria preaching in every town and village. Under the missionary activities of Aidan Holy Isle, a little islet off the east coast of England, became a second Iona. THE ANCIENT ERA 109 A Scholar of Lindisfarne deals with these missionary events and the labors of Aidan. He and Oswald are the principal histor- ical characters. The hero of the story and also his comrades were pupils of Aidan at Lindisfarne. King Penda's Captain. 1909. Mackenzie MacBride We have already noted the fact that Penda, king of Mercia, held to paganism and supported that religion and its gods, Woden and Thor. This story sets forth the conditions in Britain and its many kingdoms in the time of Penda. He allied himself with the Picts, who were the ancestors of the Highlanders of Scotland. He is represented as a man of great resourcefulness, and by his alliance with the Picts succeeded in raising Mercia above all the other kingdoms of Britain. With the aid of his captain, the son of Nechtan, the king of the Picts, he defeats Oswald, king of Nor- thumbria, and also king Sigmund. Penda himself falls in battle (655), but the Pictish captain carries on the war as the continued ally of Mercia. Caedwalla. 1887. Frank Cowper The Isle of Wight is an island in the English Channel directly off Southampton. It is about 23 miles long and 13 miles wide. It now has a population of about 100,000 people. It is noted for its beautiful scenery and mild climate and attracts large numbers of tourists. When the Jutes came to the country under Hengist and Horsa they conquered and settled in Kent and inhabited the Isle of Wight. The Roman Church party as distinguished from the older British Church, had as its leader Wilfrid, a young Eng- lish monk. He was a stickler for uniformity and contended that the Scots should conform to the requirements of Rome, being more cultivated in religious matters. He declared that his author- ity for his customs was St. Peter. Caedwalla, converted from paganism to Christianity, supported Wilfrid, who afterwards be- came bishop of York. In this story Caedwalla defeats the South Saxon king and takes possession of the Isle of Wight, which paves the way for the dominance of the Roman Church. no HISTORICAL FICTION By these 105 stories the Ancient Era, including the Transi- tional Period, has been sketched in many of the great historical events and conditions of these early centuries comprising the vari- ous nations of antiquity. We now enter upon the second great period of history, the Medieval Era. PART II THE MEDIEVAL ERA It has been said that "Rome is the bridge that unites, while it separates, the ancient and the modern world." If we have dis- cerned the fundamental features of antiquity, have grasped the significance of the struggle toward unity, and the great general truths of those early civilizations, we shall then be prepared to take up and follow the historic thread through the following cen- turies. The new age inherits all the attempts of antiquity in the inter- pretation of life ; all of its moral, religious, political and economic ideas. Great elements of civilization lie at hand for it to construct into new systems. Greece has contributed a wealth of art, litera- ture and philosophy. Rome has created a great social order. The Greek was the man of thought, the Roman, the man of action. And, as we have seen, at the fall of Rome a new and mighty force destined to become the next universal power, though of a different order, has come through conflict and bloodshed to establishment — Christianity. With all of these elements at hand it remains for the new age to fit the materials into a new structure. Here are the contribu- tions of antiquity to future ages, contributions that required cen- turies to produce. What use will the new age make of them? We must not forget the political conditions at the fall of Rome. What seems like utter disintegration is often a groping in the dark, the race picking its way amid its limitations, but working slowly toward the light. In such a transitional period it is for us to follow all the paths and discover why they were taken and to what they lead. We shall see that what many times seemed abiding was only provi- sional. It was the best they could do, but a real contribution to the better that was left for another age to develop. Before us lies the spectacle of new great states. How did they arise ? What conditions and forces were operative in their origin ? in ii2 HISTORICAL FICTION How did their mingling, conflicts and co-operation carry the his- torical movement a step forward in the general order? These are questions that arise in the study of this new era of human history. CHAPTER I THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE Charlemagne, Charles the Great (768-814), the first Carlo- vingian king of the Franks, was the son and successor of Pepin the Short. The kingdom of the Franks was the greatest among the Teu- tonic nations. In A. D. 751 the Merovingian Dynasty was over- thrown and the Carlovingian Dynasty established. The transfer of the Roman Empire of the West to the dominion of the Franks was the great event of the eighth century. The name Carlovingian was derived from Charles Martel, the hero of the battle of Tours, the Italian form of Charles being Carlo. By the achievements of Charles Martel in uniting the Franks and driving back the Saracens, and by Pippin's success in the Italian wars inspiring the confidence of the West, the way was prepared for the establish- ment of a great empire under Charlemagne. For more than a thousand years Europe was to feel the influence of his methods of government and his religious and educational ideas. When Charlemagne began his reign Europe had few cities ; the Western Empire was in the hands of the Church; the few roads were infested with robbers, and canals as a means of trans- portation did not exist. He was the founder of modern Europe. In 771, at the death of his brother Carloman, when Charle- magne became sole ruler, his kingdom included all of Gaul and the western part of Germany. He subjugated the southern Gauls, the Lombards, the Saxons, the Avors and conducted a successful expedition against the Moors in Spain, with the result that his kingdom extended from the Ebro to the Elbe. On Christmas day, A. D. 800, he was crowned Emperor of the West, and thus his kingdom included, besides Germany, practically all the territory once embraced in the Western Roman Empire. Charlemagne's place in history has been represented as "a brilliant meteor flashing through the darkness of the Middle Ages. Resplendent while it lasted, its fall was succeeded by profound 113 ii4 HISTORICAL FICTION gloom. But some of his achievements were permanent contribu- tions to civilization." He sought to change the prevailing igno- rance of the time by the establishment of schools, which became centers of learning. "Although his empire fell to pieces, some of the best features of his government remained. The strong centralization of government which he maintained was the ideal of good government in Europe for many centuries. With the end of Charlemagne's reign begins a process which runs through the second half of the Middle Ages — the formation of the modern nations we call Christendom." The Stories Passe Rose. 1889. Arthur S. Hardy The author (1847-) was horn at Andover, Mass. He was graduated from West Point in 1869 an ^ was assistant instructor of artillery till 1870. He was professor of civil engineering and mathematics at Grinnell College, la., 1870-73. He then became professor of civil engineering in the Chandler Scientific School, Dartmouth, N. H., in 1874. During the years 1897-99 he was United States minister to Persia. Following this he was minister to Greece, Switzerland and Spain. Hardy's story is a romantic idyl reflecting the time of Charle- magne, a romance of Franks and Saxons. History, love and imagi- nation are the elements of the story. A gallant young man wins the love of a beautiful waif. The natural attitudes of the people of the time are set forth. Charlemagne figures in the story to- gether with monks and ladies of the Court. For the White Christ. 1905. Robert Ames Bennet During his reign of forty-six years Charlemagne undertook fifty-two campaigns, the principal ones being against the Lom- bards, the Saracens and the Saxons. In 778 he gathered his forces for a great campaign against the Mohammedan Moors in Spain. In this he was victorious and regained for Christendom the north- ern section of the peninsula. But in crossing the Pyrenees on his return march his army was attacked in the rear by the Gascons and Basques and was utterly overwhelmed in the pass of Ronces- valles. It was with the Saxons, a pagan German tribe, that Charle- magne was most frequently in conflict. For thirty years they re- THE MEDIEVAL ERA ii5 sisted his attempts to subjugate and Christianize them. Follow- ing one of the nine successive rebellions of this tribe, Charlemagne put to death 4,500 prisoners. This was in the year 782, and was the one distinctive act of cruelty of his reign. Bennet's story deals with this period setting forth the struggle with pagan and Mohammedan forces. At the time that Charle- magne is mobilizing his warriors for the invasion of Spain, re- ferred to above, Olver, a young viking, saves Roland and Charle- magne's daughter. Olver and Roland are with the Frankish forces when they are destroyed by the Gascons and Basques at the pass of Roncesvalles, and Olver alone escapes from this disaster. The massacre of the 4,500 Saxon prisoners is set forth. Olver loves the Emperor's daughter and Fastrada marries the emperor. The crossing of the Rhine and defeat of the Saxons under Wittikind, the year following the act of cruelty noted, enter into the story. CHAPTER II FRANCE. TO THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR When Charlemagne died in 814 he was succeeded by his son, Louis the Pious, who was utterly devoid of his father's abilities. His troubles began when he decided to set apart a portion of his kingdom for his youngest son Charles as he had done for his other sons. The latter opposed this additional division of the empire, and when Louis died in 840, Charles (called Charles the Bald) and Louis the German allied themselves against Lothair, the oldest son of Louis the Pious. The result was the bloody battle of Fontenay (841), in which Charles and Louis were vic- torious. In 843 the treaty of Verdun was concluded, in which Louis received the eastern third of the empire beyond the Aar and Rhine ; Charles received the western third east of the Rhone and Scheldt ; Lothair received the section lying between and Italy. The central authority of the empire of Charlemagne was de- stroyed by the division of the territory, invasions, civil wars and the feudal system, all of which induced disintegration. When the Capetian line came into possession of the French throne in 987 France was a bundle of feudal fragments. Under this line of kings these separate elements were unified into a firm monarchial system, national unity was secured and from this new order France took its rise. This dynasty, from Hugh Capet to Charles IV, ruled France for a period of 341 years (987-1328), or almost the entire period from the rise of France to the Hun- dred Years' War. During this time occurred that great move- ment known as the Crusades. It arose during the reign of Philip I and ended in the reign of Philip IV, about thirty-eight years be- fore the close of the dynasty. The following outline sets forth the historical movement to the Hundred Years' War/which began during the first reign of the House of Valois. Historical Outline Hugh Capet, 987-996. Founder of the Capetian Dynasty. Robert Capet, 996-1031. More of a monk than a king. 116 THE MEDIEVAL ERA 117 Henry I, 1 031-1060. Declension of royal power. Philip I, 1060-1108. Increase of royal power. Beginning of Crusades (1 096-1 291). Norman conquest of England. Louis VI, 1 1 08- 1 137. Louis VII, 1137-1180. The Second Crusade. Philip II, 1 180-1223. Conflict with England. Third and Fourth Crusades. The Albigensians. Simon de Montfort. Louis VIII, 1223-1226. Louis IX, 1 226- 1 270. Founding of the Inquisition. War with England. Philip III, 1270-1285. Philip IV, 1285-1314. Wars with Aragon, England, Flanders. First Estates-General of France, 1302. The conflict with Pope Boniface VIII concerning papal tem- poral power. Louis X, 1314-1316. Left no male heir. The question of the right of women to rule decided in the negative. Philip V, 1316-1322. Charles IV, 1 322-1 328. Last of the Capetians. Died without a son. The English claim for Edward III. Philip of Valois, 1 328-1350. Beginning of the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)- Reign of Louis VII The marriage of Louis VII with Eleanor, heiress of Aquitaine, resulted in the acquisition of that large territory. On grounds of misconduct on her part he secured a divorce from a council of the French clergy and which she equally desired. She at once married Henry of Anjou, who was recognized by Stephen as his successor, and Henry ascended the English throne as Henry II, the first of the Angevin or Plantagenet kings. Eleanor's Aquitanian inheri- tance was now transferred to Henry, greatly increasing his do- n8 HISTORICAL FICTION main, and bringing the Plantagenet kings into still more deadly- rivalry with the Capetian rulers. Saint Bernard, abbot of the Cistercian monastery of Clair- vaux, became the preacher of the Second Crusade, which occurred in this reign. He was a man of great ability and culture, and is considered by some as the most important figure of the twelfth century and "in some respects the most typical man of the Middle Ages." Through his influence Louis VII and Conrad III of Germany led the forces of the Second Crusade. The Stories The Lady of Tripoli. 1910. Michael Rarrington The scenes of this story give it a wide geographical range — Aquitaine, Tripoli, Genoa, Marseilles, Syracuse, Aries and other places. Rudel, the Prince of Blaye, is the leading figure, together with Odierna, the widow of Raymond I of Tripoli. Marcabru the troubadour is the friend of Rudel. St. Bernard of Clairvaux, as noted in the sketch above, is appealing to the Christian powers to organize a Crusade to snatch from the Saracen the Holy City. In His Name. 1873. Edward Everett Hale The author (1823-1909), the son of Nathan Hale, was born at Boston, Mass. In 1839 ne was graduated from Harvard Uni- versity and entered the Unitarian ministry. Following his pasto- rate at Worcester, Mass., he became pastor of the South Unita- rian Church at Boston, which he served for forty-five years. He took a leading part in reform and progressive movements, was a lecturer of great ability and the writer of many works. He has been called "The American Defoe." Among his writings are his- torical works of importance. He was appointed chaplain of the United States Senate in 1903. Peter Waldo was the founder of the Christian sect called Waldenses. He was a wealthy citizen of Lyons and in the year 1 170 sold his possessions for the benefit of the poor and devoted himself to preaching. His followers were called the "Poor Men of Lyons," and were subjected to many persecutions. They set- tled in the Cottian Alps, southwest of Turin. Waldo's aim was the reformation of the clergy, the preaching of the Gospel to all THE MEDIEVAL ERA 119 in their own language and the return to the simple Christian life. His followers abandoned the doctrines and traditions of the Roman Church and grounded their faith wholly in the Bible as their sole religious authority. In His Name is a description of the simple Christian life of this sect who suffered heavy persecution. The heroine is the daughter of a weaver who lived in Lyons, and who was related to the founder of the sect. Reign of Philip Augustus Philip II, son of Louis VII, was given the title Augustus by the chronicler Rigord "because he enlarged the boundaries of the state." He banished the Jews and confiscated their property. He joined Richard I of England in the Third Crusade, but quarreled with him and returned to France. During this Crusade Richard was made a prisoner, and while such Philip invaded Normandy. He had too able an enemy in Richard, but in the reign of John, who lacked the ability of Richard, Philip's opportunity arose. He confiscated the possessions of John in France, and all English fiefs, except Aquitaine, came into his possession by the battle of Bouvines in 1214. These extensive possessions placed Philip in a position of great prestige and power. During Philip's reign a movement was inaugurated to crush out various heretical sects that had arisen. Among these especially was the sect known as Albigenses, the name springing from the town of Albi near Toulouse. At this time Languedoc (southern France) was wholly unlike northern France in matters of culture and language. These people of the south readily embraced the doctrines of the Albigenses, who were openly opposed to the whole social organization. Pope Innocent III declared their doctrines to be a menace both to the Church and society. When a com- missioner, sent by the Pope, had been slain by a knight of Ray- mond VI of Toulouse, the Pope demanded an armed expedition against the heretics, which conflict continued from 1209 to 1229. Philip refused to take part in this crusade, but many lords re- sponded to the papal call. Among these was Simon de Montfort, father of the English earl, who took a prominent part in this war of revolting cruelty. It extended through the reign of Louis VIII. At last, in 1229, a treaty was made between Louis IX and the new count of Toulouse in which the latter suffered the loss of part of 120 HISTORICAL FICTION his estates to the king, and the balance, at the count's death, to go to the king's brother Alphonse, who was to marry the daughter of the count. The Stories Philip Augustus. 1831. George P. R. James King John, England's worst king, was chosen by the Great Council after the death of Richard I, in preference to Arthur his nephew. The latter he basely murdered. This story deals with the lawless conditions in France at the close of the twelfth century, and also the affairs of England during the reign of John. The weakness and wickedness of the English king are described, and among his deeds that of the murder of Arthur. It sets forth the conflict between Philip II and John, and the defeat of the latter in the battle of Bouvines, as given in the sketch above. The Heart's Key. 1905. Maurice H. Hewlett The author (1861-) was born in London, where he also re- ceived his education and was called to the bar in 1891. He had already received some recognition as a writer and decided to de- vote himself to literary labors. The Forest Lovers which appeared in 1898 greatly added to his reputation. Other works, dealing in the main with medieval times, have contributed to this department of literature, and are characterized by an interesting style and excellent sentiment. The Heart's Key deals with this same lawless period of France, and delineates in striking representation scenes of love and hatred. The scene gathers about a fortress not far from Toulouse. The Albigenses. 1824. Charles R. Maturin The author (1782-1824), an Irish novelist and dramatist, was born in Dublin. After receiving his education at Trinity Col- lege, Dublin, he became curate of Loughrea and then of St. Peter's, Dublin. His first three novels were subjected to the most bitter criticism. Nevertheless there was a peculiar talent displayed in them that seemed to escape the notice of the critic. It attracted THE MEDIEVAL ERA 121 the attention of Sir Walter Scott. He recommended Maturin to Byron, and through their influence he succeeded in having his tragedy of Bertram produced at Drury Lane in 1816. The lead- ing parts were carried by Kean and Miss Kelly. A sequel to Maturin's Melmoth was written by Balzac. This story deals with the historical facts relative to the Albi- genses set forth in the sketch. Montfort's persecution of this sect was followed by civil war in Southern France, which is brought out in the story. Montfort is compelled by Raymond VI and his son to surrender Beaucaire, and forced into the city of Toulouse he was killed when the city was in a state of siege. The Albigenses pass through trying scenes from which they finally emerge triumphant. The Most Famous Loba. 1901. Nellie K. Blisset This story relates to the same time and events as the preceding story. Reign of Philip IV By marrying Joanna, queen of Navarre, Philip added to his domain Champagne and Navarre. Flanders was a fief of the French crown, but so prosperous had it become through its rich soil, its manufactures and industries, that the count of Flanders attained to considerable independence. Philip decided to annex Flanders to his domain. In the battle of Courtrai in 1302 the knights of Philip were defeated by the tradesmen of Flanders. Other battles followed in which the Flemish soldiers distinguished themselves. Two things of special importance occurred in the reign of Philip : one was his contest with Pope Boniface VIII. It re- solved itself into the question whether European states in tem- poral matters should be under the domination of the Pope. When Boniface attempted to excommunicate and depose Philip the agents of the latter made the Pope a prisoner at Anagni and han- dled him without regard to his office. He was then an aged man and the shock was such that he died within a few weeks. The other matter which gave distinction to the reign of Philip was the calling of the first Estates-General of France in 1302, which cor- responded somewhat to the English Parliament. 122 HISTORICAL FICTION The Story A Lady of France. 1910. Beryl Symons The scene is laid in Paris in the reign of Philip IV. It sets forth in a graphic manner the designs of the king in seizing Flan- ders and the victory of the tradesmen in 1302 in the battle of Courtrai as set forth in the sketch above. Among the characters introduced are Philip and the Queen, Molay, the last Grand Master of the Templars, which order was established in 11 18 and its Grand Master had the rank of a prince, Bishop Guichard, Marigny and other leading personages. CHAPTER III ENGLAND. TO THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR One of the most interesting and profoundly important devel- opments in history is that of the British nation. Her growth and marvelous expansion, her institutions and ideals constitute her the greatest empire in the world. "England," says Matson, "is the great leading nation of the modern world. In a simple compari- son of the two as nations, she far surpasses Rome in almost every respect. Counting all her possessions, she surpasses her in extent of territory, population and wealth; and besides these, in com- merce and manufactures, in material resources, and in intellectual and moral power and influence. Such a superiority she must in- deed have, in order that her relative position in the world may be at all comparable to that of Rome. In other words, her superiority to Rome must correspond to the superiority of the modern over the ancient world. Of all nations she unquestionably best repre- sents the modern world. Like Rome, she had a slow and steady growth ; but, unlike Rome, this growth has resulted in a free and representative government, possessing all the essential elements both of stability and progress, thus insuring her a long and pros- perous future." When we take into account the centuries of her evolution, her great world-wide relations and the vicissitudes through which she has passed it is not strange that Great Britain has been such a rich field for the historical novelist. The period we are now to consider extends from the reign of Egbert to that of Edward III, including three distinct periods — first, from Egbert to the Norman Conquest ; second, the Norman Period; third, the Angevin Period. The first of these periods divides into three sections : that of the English kings from Egbert to Ethelred II ; that of the Danish kings from Sweyn to Hardi- canute ; the return to the English line, Edward the Confessor and Harold. This was followed by the second general period which exerted an influence upon English life by the hardihood, thrift, intelli- 123 124 HISTORICAL FICTION gence and superior organization of the invaders. During the An- gevin period occurred the conflict with royal despotism, and the rise of the Commons as a new force in government. The Magna Charta established the liberties of the people. During this same period was waged the conflict between England and Scotland, resulting in the independence of the latter. Thus we see through what stages England passed during these centuries of the Middle Ages. The events will be noted sufficiently to set forth the fiction in its historical character and relations. I. TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST Historical Outline I. English Kings. 1. Egbert, 802-839. 2. Ethelwulf, 839-858. 3. Ethelbald, 858-860. 4. Ethelbert, 860-866. 5. Ethelred I, 866-871. 6. Alfred the Great, 871-901. 7. Edward the Elder, 901-925. 8. Athelstan, 925-940. 9. Edmund I, 940-946. 10. Edred, 946-955. 11. Edwy, 955-959. 12. Edgar, 959~975- 13. Edward the Martyr, 975-978. 14. Ethelred II, 979-1016. II. Danish Kings. 1. Sweyn, 1013-1014. 2. Canute, 1 01 6- 1035. 3. Harold, 1035-1040. 4. Hardicanute, 1040- 1042. III. Return to the English Line. 1. Edward the Confessor, 1042- 1066. 2. Harold, 1066. Reign of Alfred the Great In the closing years of the eighth century the Danes began to plunder England, and by the middle of the ninth century they THE MEDIEVAL ERA 125 were forming settlements. It was under these conditions, when they had distributed themselves over Wessex, that Alfred the Great came to the throne. The period of Alfred is the most signifi- cant in this period of the English kings. We are told that in the year of Alfred's accession (871) nine general battles were fought with the Danes south of the Thames. For seven years the struggle with these invaders continued, but they were finally compelled by Alfred to accept the treaty of Wedmore. With the defeat of the Danes Alfred gave his attention to the strengthening of his kingdom, both in a military and educational way. But the conflict with the Danes was not at an end. Before the close of his reign the struggle was renewed, which was carried into the four following reigns. They were again subdued and their section, known as Danelaw, was brought under English control. The Stories A Lion of Wessex. 1901. Tom Bevan The kings of Wessex became the lords of the English people. Before Alfred came to the throne he assisted his brother Ethel- red I in his war with the Danes. Both appear in this story, which sets forth their military achievements in these conflicts in Wessex and on the border of Wales. Wulnoth the Wanderer. 1908. H. E. Inman At the age of twenty-two Alfred was king of a wasted country and he determined to secure its freedom. After fighting for seven years he was defeated at Chippenham. Gathering his followers he made another desperate attempt and gained a signal victory at Ethandun near Chippenham, and forced Guthrum, the Danish leader, to make the treaty at Wedmore, already referred to. This story deals with these conflicts with the Danes and their defeat at Ethandun. Edmund, king of the East Saxons, is slain. At the King's Right Hand. 1904. Mrs. E. M. Field This story deals with the incursions of the Danes and their success at Chippenham where Alfred suffered defeat. It carries us on through the events to Ethandun, where the tide turned and Alfred came off victorious. Scenes in Norway are introduced. 126 HISTORICAL FICTION The Dragon and the Raven. 1885. George A. Henty This story sets forth the co-operation of Ethelred and Alfred in these struggles with the Danes, and the death of the former. It describes the stirring scenes of several battles — Kesteven, Ash- down and Isle of Athelney. In the latter the Danes are again defeated. The Dragon of Wessex. 1911. Percy Dearmer After Alfred's defeat at Chippenham he was compelled to flee to the hills for safety. It was during this period of retirement that the legend of permitting the cakes to burn in the house where he found refuge belongs. The Danish army was under the leader- ship of Guthrum. After gathering his followers about him at Athelney in the swamps of Somersetshire, and a few days before the battle of Ethandun (Edingdon), in which he was so victorious, Alfred succeeded, under disguise, in getting into the Danish camp, and secured the information he wanted regarding the strength and position of the Danish army. Dearmer's story gives these conflicts to the battle of Ethandun and introduces the Danish leaders as also those of the English. The domestic relations of Alfred are described in the introduc- tion of the queen, Ealhswith, and their children. The events fol- lowing the defeat of the English at Chippenham form an important part of the story. King Alfred's Viking. 1898. C. W. Whistler After the defeat of the Danes and ceding to them the eastern portion of Mercia known as Danelaw, during the peace that fol- lowed Alfred not only built fortresses but also a fleet for the de- fence of the country against the Danes at sea. Ships were sta- tioned at intervals along the coast. He divided the people into two parts, each to take their turn in going to war, or in remaining at home to cultivate the land. In this story a Norseman is in charge of Alfred's fleet whose achievements in the Orkneys are described. Special attention is given to the fighting on land, in Somerset, the battle of Ethan- dun, etc, THE MEDIEVAL ERA 127 God Save King Alfred. 1901. E. Gilliat This story takes us to Winchester, Rochester and London. In the first of these places we see Alfred again in his home life with descriptions of his queen, Ealhswith. The Danes besiege Roches- ter and London is restored. Alfred's successor, Edward the Elder, is introduced into the story. Reign of Edwy Edwy was one of the few incapable sovereigns of the line of Alfred. Edward the Elder, Athelstan, Edmund, Edred and Edgar were strong rulers. Edwy was soon deposed and Edgar, assisted by Dunstan, followed him with a vigorous reign. Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, exercised almost royal power over England. His object was to bring the Church, both laity and clergy, to a higher spiritual life. England was far from being a united people. There were many factions and they were all brought under the beneficent sway of Dunstan. The Danes were permitted to be governed by their own laws. Education was encouraged. He held the nobles in check and as far as possible secured justice for all. In rebuking the lax conditions he was sent by Edwy into exile. In taking a position against the monks Edwy excited a rebellion, and the papal party led by Dunstan was strong enough to have the king deposed, and Edgar came to the throne. During the reign of Edgar, Dunstan was given freedom of action and was the one person most instrumental in holding the country together. The Story Edwy the Fair. 1874. Augustus D. Crake The opening scene of this story is the court of Edred, Edwy's predecessor, at the close of his reign. The central importance of the story lies in the work of Archbishop Dunstan and his relations to Edwy, as noted in the sketch above. Reign of Ethelred II Ethelred the Unready, as this king was called, refused to listen to the advice of others and lacked essentially in wisdom. Norway and Denmark were powerful opponents of England and a strong king was the demand of the hour. Ethelred possessed no such strength, and in his misgovernment the country again separated 128 HISTORICAL FICTION into petty states and became a prey to the Danes. In 1002 he ordered that all Danes in England who could be seized should be massacred. The Danes retaliated and Sweyn and Canute began the conquest of England. In 1013 Ethelred was compelled to take refuge with his brother-in-law, the duke of Normandy, but in 1014 Sweyn died suddenly and Ethelred was restored to his throne. He died two years afterwards. The Story King Olaf's Kinsman. 1898. Charles W. Whistler Olaf was king of Norway and the kinsman was a Thane of Ethelred. Olaf secures the young Thane, who serves the king and participates in the king's exploits and the battle of Maldon, in which Olaf was victorious. The Danish Kings As already noted, when Sweyn died, Ethelred, who had been forced to flee, was restored to his throne. Canute, the son of Sweyn, renewed the conflict with Edmund Ironside, the son of Ethelred. Edmund ruled half of the land, but in 1016 was assassi- nated. He won several victories over Canute, who had been elected king by another party. Edmund was defeated at Ashing- don and was compelled to yield the midland and northern counties. He reigned seven months. Canute was then accepted as king by all the English people. Thus the Danish king ruled over Denmark, Norway and England. He proved to be a good and popular king and brought peace and prosperity to the land. His sons, Harold and Hardicanute, held the throne after him for seven years. They did not possess the strong traits of their father, and when Hardicanute died the English sent for Edward, the son of Ethelred the Unready, which brought back the sovereignty from the old line of Wessex. The Story The Ward of King Canute. 1903. Ottilie A. Liljencrantz This story deals with the conflict between Canute and Edmund Ironside and the defeat of the latter at Ashingdon. As already noted, Edmund surrendered the northern counties, but Canute, in THE MEDIEVAL ERA 129 the division of sovereignty committed to him the rule of the south. When Edmund was assassinated Canute became the ruler of the whole land. RETURN TO THE ENGLISH LINE Edward the Confessor With Edward a new people and a new great force entered the affairs of England. Edward's mother, Emma, was a Norman, and he had been brought up in Normandy. Rollo, the chief of the Danes, or Norsemen, coming to France about the time of Alfred the Great, married the daughter of the French king, and reigned as Duke over the part of northern France which was now called Normandy, after the new settlers. It was in this land that Edward, half Norman, was reared with his cousin, William, Duke of Nor- mandy. Coming to England at the call of the English people as their king Edward brought with him Norman priests and nobles, gave them lands and installed them in offices, which displeased his sub- jects. Godwin, Earl of Wessex, whose daughter Edith became the wife of the king, placed a check upon these nobles. In 105 1, Eustace of Boulogne, Edward's brother-in-law, caused a riot by attempting unlawfully to place his French followers in English houses at Dover. Godwin became involved in the fighting that followed, was outlawed and was compelled to leave England with his sons. He returned the same year and compelled the king to make terms. Foreign influence was checked and Godwin's family was raised to an influential position in the affairs of the state. During the time of Godwin's absence the Duke of Normandy visited Edward. The question of sovereignty lay in the hands of the Witan, but it appears that Edward promised the Duke that he should be his successor. So devoted was Edward to matters of religion that the Church bestowed upon him the name Edward the Confessor. For more than half of his reign his absorbing interest was the building of the Collegiate Church of St. Peter, better known as Westminster Abbey. It was the noblest monument of the early dominance of Norman ideas in England. Edward saw in Godwin's son, Harold, his brother-in-law, ele- ments of strength and statesmanship, and committed to him largely 130 HISTORICAL FICTION the affairs of government. Harold met the demands upon him in a wise and masterly manner, and Edward, just before his death, advised that he be elected his successor, which was done by the Witan the day Edward died. The Story Elgiva, Daughter of the Thegn. 1901. Ryles D. Griffiths This story deals with Welsh conditions in the days of Edward the Confessor. The Welsh chieftains became a disturbing element and needed a strong hand to bring them to order. The strong arm, as brought out in the story, was Harold. Reign of Harold After Edward had promised William of Normandy the throne of England at his death, Harold was shipwrecked upon the Nor- man coast. He was cared for by William, who promised him his daughter in marriage for his oath that he should support William's claim to the English crown. Thus William had the promise of Edward and the oath of Harold. If such a promise was made William, Edward revoked it in recommending that the Witan elect Harold as his successor. When William heard that Harold was made king he prepared to invade England to take the throne by force. He appealed to Rome and the Pope urged him to carry out his purpose. The sanc- tion of the Pope brought many volunteers to his standard. Other foes were harassing England, and Harold did not exhibit his usual sagacity in raising an army for the protection of his throne, and failed to watch the movements of his enemy. The Norman army reached Hastings and Harold secured for his forces a splendid position on the Hill of Senlac, a few miles from Hastings, where now the town of Battle stands. The battle waged for several hours when, by a ruse, William secured the fa- vored position and rushed the battle to a close. Harold was slain, and the battle of Hastings, one of the decisive battles of history, was destined to have a far-reaching influence upon the British people. On the spot where the battle was fought and won William redeemed a pledge he made, and reared the Abbey known as Battle Abbey. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 131* The Stories Wolf the Saxon. 1895. George A. Henty When Godwin died in 1053 Harold, his son, became the Earl of Wessex. While William was preparing to invade England the country was threatened on every side, but especially from the north, where Harold Hardrada, the Norwegian king, and the last of the great vikings, was invading the land. To meet this force Harold marched to York, a distance of 300 miles. At Stamford bridge he engaged Harold Hardrada in a desperate battle and won a brilliant victory. In this story the author takes us back to the time when Harold was shipwrecked and the advantage that William took of his situation, practically held as William's prisoner, in receiving from Harold the oath as given in the sketch above. The invasion from the north is described and the battle of Stamford Bridge. Then follows the Norman invasion and the battle of Hastings (1066). Harold. 1848. Bulwer-Lytton Harold is the titular hero of this love romance founded on the Norman Conquest. As in the case of the preceding story, the author gives a full description of the battle of Stamford Bridge and follows the events to the battle of Hastings and the defeat and death of Harold. Edward, William and other historic per- sonages are introduced. II. THE NORMAN PERIOD Harold was the last of the Saxon kings. The battle of Hast- ings was the beginning of a new era in English history. The south of England surrendered to William, a deputation from Lon- don offered him the crown, and on Christmas day, 1066, he was the lawfully crowned king of England. But England was far from united. The north revolted against Norman rule and a bloody conflict ensued. The severity of William's measures crushed the revolt so that even Hereward, the most courageous of the English leaders, submitted and entered his service. Malcolm Canmore, king of Scotland, had furnished a refuge for the English and William entered Scotland and forced Malcolm to regard himself as the vassal of the king of England. High offices in State and Church 132 HISTORICAL FICTION now passed into Norman hands, and William erected the structure of his government. Though cruel and ruthless William "was yet no lawless tyrant. He had indeed a passion for order, and his claim to be the lawful successor of Edward the Confessor made him the champion of the English system." Historical Outline i. William the Conqueror, 1066- 1087. 2. William Rufus, 1 087-1 100. 3. Henry I, 1 1 00- 1 135. 4. Stephen, 1135-1154. Reign of William the Conqueror The following stories deal mainly with the revolt set forth in the sketch above and the crushing of the same by William. The Stories The Sword and the Cowl. 1909. Edgar Swan The Norman nobles were insolent and oppressed the English and did not hesitate to insult the English women. The general revolution followed. The revolt in the southwest ceased when William took Exeter, which was the stronghold of the rebels. In the north, under the English earls, Edwin and Morkere, the re- volt was more stubborn. William resorted to the most cruel and drastic measures in quelling the revolt, which was aided by Sweyn of Denmark. He wasted Northumberland, destroyed the towns and slew the people regardless of sex or age. But a small band of patriots remained, and these led by Morkere and Hereward found refuge in the Isle of Ely, but these were taken in 1071. This story, The Sword and the Cowl, takes up these historical events from the battle of Hastings to the fall of Exeter, the re- bellion of the English earls in the north, the assistance rendered by the Danes, the putting down of the revolt and the crushing of the little band at Ely. Hereward the Wake. 1866. Charles Kingsley Hereward ("the Wake" is an addition of later times), whose resistance to William the Conqueror made him famous, was a tenant of Peterborough Abbey. In 1070, aided by Danish in- THE MEDIEVAL ERA 133 vaders, he stormed Peterborough and then entered the struggle against William's rule, making his desperate stand in the Jsle of Ely. When he was captured by the Normans he made his escape with his followers through the fens, cutting his way through the Norman forces. He finally submitted to William and entered his service. That his exploits made an exceptional impression on the popular mind is certain from the mass of legendary history that clustered round his name. He became in popular eyes the cham- pion of the English national cause. Kingsley's tale of the "Last of the English" sets forth this period of resistance to the Norman rule. Hereward is of a wild and turbulent nature who returns home from abroad after the battle of Hastings to find his family slain and the ancestral hall in possession of the invaders. After recovering his patrimony he takes refuge on the Isle of Ely. His mother is Lady Godiva. The Camp of Refuge. 1846. Charles MacFarlane This story deals with the same facts as the one preceding, giving a graphic description of the exploits of Hereward in his struggle with the Normans at Ely. The Siege of Norwich Castle. 1892. M. M. Blake Norwich is noted for its ancient buildings, several of them dating back to the Middle Ages, while ancient gates and fortifica- tion still stand. In the center of the city is the old Norman castle, built about the time of the events we are now considering. This story relates the attempt to divide the land into three duchies, i. e., Mercia, Northumbria, Wessex, by the Earls of Here- ford and Norfolk and the Saxon Waltheof . It is the final struggle against the Norman and was crushed under the leadership of the Bishop of Worcester. Reign of William Rufus On his deathbed William the Conqueror expressed in a letter to Archbishop Lanfranc his wish that his second son William suc- ceed him on the throne. Robert, an older son, was the lawful heir from the standpoint of hereditary right. Returning to England William was crowned king practically on the authority of the 134 HISTORICAL FICTION Archbishop. He was energetic and impulsive, but did not possess the persistent determination that characterized his father. He put into execution oppressive measures and subjected land-holders to every form of tyranny, ignored the wills of the dead and spent his extorted money upon a mercenary army. Following the death of Lanfranc ne made bishops of men wholly unworthy of the office. He virtually bought Normandy and added it to his king- dom. He subjugated South Wales and defeated Malcolm III of Scotland in the latter's attempt to invade England. His ruthless taxation deprived the country of much cultivation, and was in every essential sense a bad king. The Stories Odo. 1900. Edwin Harris One of William's greatest struggles was with the barons. In the first year of his reign they revolted, their leader being Odo, bishop of Bayeux. Their object was to have him deposed and place his brother Robert upon the throne. He stormed their cas- tles and strongholds and drove Odo into exile. This story deals with these events. Rochester Castle, held by the followers of his brother Robert, is besieged by William. In the Days of Anselm. 1901. Gertrude Hollis The fame of Lanfranc, the prior of Bee, attracted Anselm and he became a monk of that monastery at the age of twenty-seven. When Lanfranc was given the abbocy of Caen Anselm was made the prior of Bee and held this office for fifteen years, and through his scholarly energies Bee became the most learned center in Eu- rope. It was during this period that he compiled his first philo- sophical and religious works, the dialogues on Truth and Free Will and his two famous works, the Monologion and Proslogion. The teachings of Anselm set forth the relation of reason to re- vealed truth, and thus elaborated a rational system of faith. While he held that faith must antedate knowledge he insisted that, faith being held, the reason for that faith must be demonstrated. After the death of Lanfranc William refused to appoint a suc- cessor and for five years sold the offices of the Church. He was then taken dangerously ill, and believing that death was at hand THE MEDIEVAL ERA 135 he began to make reparation for the wrongs he had committed against the Church, and among other things appointed Anselm as Archbishop. The latter tried to escape this responsibility but finally yielded to the demand. William did not die and became indignant with himself that the terrors of death had led him to make the concessions to the Church. The position taken by the latter was that the clergy owed allegiance to the Pope alone. Wil- liam charged Anselm with a lack of fidelity in his office, and for the balance of his reign sent him into banishment. A deadly con- flict continued between the Church and the State. In the Days of Anselm is a story of these times and conditions setting forth this conflict just referred to. It is a strong descrip- tion of the circumstances of the appointment of Anselm, one of the purest souls of the Middle Ages, to the Archbishopric. It carries the history to the death of Rufus. Gerald the Sheriff. 1906. Charles W. Whistler We have already sketched the oppressions of William, and the heavy hand he laid upon the barons who attempted to place Robert upon the throne. His chief minister was Ranulph Flam- bard, who afterwards became bishop of Durham, and who insisted that land was held from the crown only during the holder's life- time, and that the king had a right to make his own conditions in turning the land over to the heir. It is with these oppressions of the king and Ranulph that this story deals. The invasion of Anglesea (formerly Mona), and sea-fights figure in the story. The King's Stirrup. 1896. Mrs. E. H. Mitchell In August of 1 100 William joined a hunting party in the New Forest. He became separated from the rest of the party and his dead body was found by some peasants with an arrow piercing his heart. It was believed that a Frenchman, Walter Tyrell, shot him by accident. He took an oath that such was not the case, that he did not commit the deed. It is more likely that he met his death at the hand of some peasant who was one of the many vic- tims of his tyranny. The body was carried to Winchester and laid in the Cathedral, but it was refused the burial rites of the Church. 136 HISTORICAL FICTION This story is a Tale of the Forest. It portrays William and describes the circumstances of his death in the New Forest. Henry, who succeeded William as Henry I, figures in the story, also Walter Tyrell, who was accused of having shot the king. The story deals with the oppressions of William as exhibited in the sufferings and privations of an Anglo-Saxon family. Reign of Henry I Henry was the Conqueror's youngest son. While selfish, he was a man of intelligence and ability. As soon as he was crowned he issued a Charter that guaranteed the freedom and rights of the people, the removal of unjust burdens from the Church and the cessation of evil customs that oppressed the land. He im- prisoned in the Tower Ranulph Flambard, who had been the chief minister of William's tyranny, and restored Archbishop Anslem. He married Edith, the daughter of Malcolm of Scotland, which was regarded with favor. Edith was of English royal blood. Her name was changed to Matilda. The barons, who attempted to escape from the oppressions of William by bringing Robert to the throne, attempted the same thing in the case of Henry, know- ing that he was a strict ruler. Under the easygoing Robert their power and liberties would have been greatly increased. Between these two parties the conflict waged for five years, but in the battle of Tenchebrai in 1106 Henry won a great victory, and shut Robert up in prison, where he remained until his death. In the course of this reign an English nobility was established as also many English liberties. Industries arose and commercial conditions improved. The courts were reformed and placed on a solid basis. The Story Pabo the Priest. 1899. Sabine Baring-Gould While Henry was improving the civil life and institutions the Church was not so fortunate. Anselm contended that the ecclesi- astical order should not be under the control of the State and should be given full right to govern her own affairs. This Henry was not willing to grant, and demanded the right to appoint bis- hops and invest them with their spiritual authority. The result was that Anselm was again sent into exile. He was recalled after three years and a compromise was effected by which the clergy had the right to elect their own bishops, but the election had to be THE MEDIEVAL ERA 137 made in the King's Court, and the bishops must do homage to the king for their lands. The author of this story ( 1834-) was born at Exeter. He was educated at Cambridge and became a clergyman of the English Church. Among his works are Iceland, Its Scenes and Sagas; Curious Myths of the Middle Ages; The Origin and Development of Religious Belief and his novels, Mahalah, John Herring, Court Royal, etc. In this story the author deals with the ecclesiastical conditions in the time of Henry I as related to the free Welsh Church. By placing this Church under his harsh government he hoped to break the resistance of the people who were a source of disturbance. The scene is laid in various places in Wales and Henry and De Wind- sor are among the characters. Reign of Stephen This reign was one extended period of crime and cruelty, misery and bloodshed. Taking advantage of the opposition to their monarch being a queen, as Henry I left no male heir, and before Matilda could be crowned, Stephen, the son of Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror, was crowned king. His reign was one of the darkest in English history. He won the support of the people by titles and promises. The barons returned to inde- pendence and power. They built castles and plundered the peasan- try. They sacked and destroyed towns, and for seventeen years the general disorder prevailed. The Stories The Serf. 1902. Cyril R. Gull The purpose of the author is to give a description of the state of society in the time of Stephen. It is not a beautiful picture. The times necessitated the reverse. It is a portrayal of the seamy side of that life. The outrage perpetrated by the lord is avenged, and he is put to a revolting death. For King or Empress. 1903. Charles W. Whistler When Stephen was crowned a large number of barons kept their oath to support the cause of the Empress Matilda and civil war broke out. In 1141 a synod at Winchester recognized Ma- 138 HISTORICAL FICTION tilda as queen. She held the West. Disintegration resulted and England was reduced to a state of anarchy. Matilda was driven from the kingdom, but in 1153 her son Henry came to England with an army. To stop the war and restore order the Archbishop of Canterbury induced Stephen to name Henry as his heir, which he did, and thus the situation between the king and Matilda was compromised. This story has its setting in Somersetshire and Norwich. The central interest lies in the civil war just indicated. Armadin. 1908. Alfred Bowker Attention has already been called to the civil war that arose when Matilda asserted her claim to Normandy and England, hav- ing the support of many of the barons. This disturbed condition gave the barons the opportunity of fighting other nobles with whom they had private quarrels. It was a period of anarchy. Castles were besieged and when the master was captured he was deprived of food and exhibited to the besieged so as to induce the surrender of the castle. While the king alone was supposed to have the right to build strongholds, many nobles, especially during the reign of Stephen, built castles and fortified places without the permission or authority of any one. While Matilda retired from the contest her son Henry of Anjou continued the struggle with some success until the king was in- duced to accept Henry as his heir. Thus peace was secured, and in the Treaty of Wallingford Henry and Matilda took oaths of allegiance to Stephen, while Stephen's supporters did homage to Henry as the successor of Stephen. Bowker's story relates these facts of the civil war in the time of Stephen. It describes what has already been stated regarding the besieging of castles, giving the siege of Wolvesey Castle, the builder of which was Henry de Blois. The retirement of Matilda from the conflict, and the events of the struggle to the peace of Wallingford are set forth. A Legend of Reading Abbey. 1846. Charles MacFarlane Reading Abbey was founded by Henry I, in which he himself was buried in 1135. This story, like the preceding one, sets forth in a striking man- THE MEDIEVAL ERA 139 ner the conflict between Stephen and Matilda. These scenes are described as they are witnessed by a monk of Reading Abbey. Brian Fitz Count. 1887. Augustus D. Crake The chaotic state of the period, the cruelties attending the civil war, and the dominant features of this medieval life are set forth in this story. Bryan Fitz Count is a supporter of Matilda and her claims. The imprisonment and escape of the Empress are given as also the siege of Wallingford Castle. It is a realistic picture of these days of the barons and of castle building. III. THE ANGEVIN OR PLANTAGENET KINGS Historical Outline 1. Henry II, 11 54-1 189. 2. Richard I, 1189-1199. 3. John, 1 199-12 16. 4. Henry III, 1216-1272. 5. Edward I, 1272-1307. 6. Edward II, 1307- 1327. 7. Edward III, 1327-1377. 8. Richard II, 1 377-1 399. Henry II, the son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Matilda, was the first of a new line of kings. The name Angevin is derived from Anjou in France, which was the birthplace and inheritance of Henry. Plantagenet seems to have been derived from the fact that Henry's father wore a sprig of the broom flower planta gen- ista, either as a badge or because of his hunting expeditions over the heaths covered by this plant, and was given the name Geoffrey plante de genet. With this line of rulers England entered upon a new great de- velopment. From Henry II to King John the foundations were laid for national unity, and from the reign of Henry II to the be- ginning of the Hundred Years' War was carried forward the process of forming the people into a united nation. The develop- ments of this period were destined to exert a great influence upon the nation's future. Reign of Henry II As stated above, peace was concluded between Stephen and Henry by an oath of allegiance to the former and the paying of 140 HISTORICAL FICTION homage to Henry as his successor, hence, being thus acknowledged by both sides he came to the throne as its only and rightful claimant. He was a man of an active, restless nature, and as the king of France said, "The king of England does not ride or sail, he flies." He was a man of striking physique, sympathized with suffering, was despotic and yet an advocate of justice, possessed a high- strung temperamental disposition, and was, by his unusual com- bination of qualities calculated to leave a deep impression upon his time. In both a military and civil way Henry compelled the barons to recognize him as the master of his kingdom. He organized a standing army. The estates of the barons were strongholds and had often shielded criminals by refusing an entrance to the royal officers. But Henry's statute of Clarendon required the barons to appear before the county courts, and not to hinder his officers from the discharge of their duty. Henry's last years were full of sorrow. His sons supported the barons against the king as did his wife Eleanor. When dying his servants robbed him of every valuable within reach. But not- withstanding this "his work lived after him. It was really he who brought baron and churchman alike under the sway of Eng- lish law, who saved England from feudal anarchy, and made jus- tice uniform and the king's arm effective through all the land." The Stories The Love Story of Giraldus. 1907. Alice Cunningham The great activity of the time of Henry was not confined to matters of state; it took also a literary form. The king sur- rounded himself with men of learning and various treatises ap- peared. Representative of these was Polycraticus by John of Salisburg in which educational, political and moral questions are discussed at length. The writers of history of the two preceding reigns had died out and a new group now appeared who were closely associated with Thomas Becket. Among these was Gerald de Barry, or Giraldus Cambrensis, as he called himself, whose work on Ireland and Wales described the military operations against them at that time. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 141 In this story this historian relates the facts. Disappointed in love he devotes himself to ecclesiastical interests. During this same period a body of verse appeared the author of which was Walter Map, Archdeacon of Oxford, in which he holds up to ridicule the vices of the time and particularly the irregularities of the clergy. This writer appears in the story. One of the leading figures is Eleanor, wife of Henry II. She was Eleanor of Aqui- taine and she brought to her husband her paternal heritage of Poitou, Guienne, and Gascony and thus greatly enlarged his do- minions. The narrator gives an excellent description of persons and events of the French Court. Dolphin of the Sepulchre. 1906. Gertrude Hollis The great quarrel of Henry's reign was with the claims of the Church. Since the days of Hildebrand the Church contended against royal jurisdiction. Henry declared the Church had no right to decide questions of property, which should be disposed of by the king's courts ; that it was too lenient in the punishment of the clergy and had no right to submit to the Pope matters that be- longed to English common law. In 1164 the Council of Clarendon was called for the discussion of these questions, the results of which was the document known as Constitutions of Clarendon. It restricted the rights of the Church, and required that suits be brought to the king's courts and declared against the right to appeal to the Pope from the Church courts without the special grant of the king. One of the first acts of Henry II was the appointment of Thomas Becket as his chancellor. He was acting as Archdeacon of Canterbury when Henry came to the throne, and was respon- sible for many of the reforms of the early part of Henry's reign. When he was made Archbishop of Canterbury by Henry he de- voted his energies wholly to these interests and resigned his chan- cellorship. When the Constitutions of Clarendon were drawn up, to which the king required Becket to put his seal, the latter de- clared, "Never, never, while there is a breath left in my body." Believing that his life was in danger, Becket went to France and Henry confiscated his estates and those of his friends and rela- tives. After six years he returned to England and was allowed to take charge of his office. He put into execution a system of 142 HISTORICAL FICTION punishments, excommunications of those who had opposed him and had ravished his estates. When these acts were brought to the king, while he was in one of his fits of anger, for which he was noted, he cried out, "Will none of the cowards who eat my bread rid me of this turbulent priest ?" There is not sufficient grounds for the view that Henry intended by this statement the murder of Becket, but four of his knights so understood it and murdered the Archbishop in the cathe- dral of Canterbury. Henry took an oath declaring his innocence of the murder, gave large sums of money for religious purposes, extracted several im- portant clauses of the Constitutions of Clarendon and made a pil- grimage to the tomb of Becket, walking barefooted through the city, and submitted to the most humble penance. This story deals with Henry's conflicts with the Church precipi- tated by the Clarendon Constitutions. Becket holds the center of the stage. His fear that his life was in danger at the hands of the king's attendants which took him to France, and while there tried to induce the Pope to place England under an interdict, his return and subsequent murder in the transept of the cathedral, are leading events in the story. Fair Rosamond. 1839. Thomas Miller In the historical sketch above was noted the manner in which Henry's sons, in his last years, supported his enemies. His wife Eleanor, disguised as a man, did the same, and Henry deprived her of her liberty. The author in this story makes out that Henry at an earlier time had secretely married Rosamond Clifford. His portrayal of Eleanor is not flattering. The story also deals with the stirring events of Henry's conflict with the church, the strife between him and the Archbishop and the assassination of the latter. The Betrothed. 1825. Sir Walter Scott The author (1771-1832) was born in Edinburgh. He was a sickly child and contracted a lameness that remained with him through life. He chose the profession of law and practiced it with success for a time, but his interests were in literature. He pub- lished the first of the "Waverly" novels anonymously in 1815, but THE MEDIEVAL ERA 143 it became known, as others of the series appeared, that he was the author, and his fame was at once established. In 1826 he be- came associated with a friend in a publishing enterprise in Edin- burgh, which failed and he became bankrupted. To liquidate the heavy indebtedness in which this involved him he turned his abili- ties as a writer to account. Within two years' time he had paid over to his creditors the sum of nearly $200,000. His strength was overtaxed and in 1830 he had a stroke of paralysis and two years later died at Abbotsford. As a novelist he ranks with the foremost in this field. "Although many of his works are lax and careless in structure, yet if a final test in greatness in the field of novel writing be the power to vitalize character, very few writers can be held to surpass Sir Walter Scott." This story has its setting in the time of Henry II. The time is that of the Third Crusade, and the Archbishop is enjoining those who are in conflict in the border warfare to end these hostilities and unite their forces in the Crusade. Henry's son Richard Coeur de Lion accompanies his father to the siege of the Castle of Garde Doloureuse and takes it by storm. This castle was on the Norman frontier. The keeper of the castle has as his guest the Prince of Powys-Land, and a fierce conflict arises over the question of Gwenwyn marrying Lady Eveline Berenger. Sir Hugo de Lacy is the Constable of Chester and Lord of the Marches. His be- trothed is Lady Eveline Berenger, the heroine of the novel. Sir Hugo leaves her under the protection of his nephew, Sir Damian de Lacy, while he joins the Crusade. She falls in love with the nephew, but faithfully kept her troth with Sir Hugo until his re- turn. When he discovers that she loves the nephew he is generous and gives her her freedom. She marries the nephew. Reign of Richard I Richard Coeur de Lion ("Lion-heart") resembled his father, Henry II, in at least one respect — his uncontrollable temper and fits of anger. He was not equal to his father in statesmanship, but believed in justice and religion and was a skillful military leader. He has been called "a splendid savage." He was proud and cruel, but was not lacking in courage. At the close of Henry's reign the Mohammedans recaptured Jerusalem and a new Crusade was organized to take the Holy City out of their hands. Into this Third Crusade Richard threw 144 HISTORICAL FICTION his zeal and energies and became its most prominent leader. He sold everything that could be sold to raise money for this expedi- tion, and set forth with the greatest army that had ever left Eng- land. He won victories but failed egregiously in accomplishing the restoration of Jerusalem. He quarreled with the King of France, his rival in this venture, and only succeeded in securing from the Sultan Saladin a truce which gave Christians the right of access to sacred places for a period of three years. On his return home he was shipwrecked and captured and held for a ransom by the emperor in Germany. His brother John bribed the emperor to hold him a prisoner, which he did for over a year, and the people were heavily taxed to pay the huge ransom. His last years were spent in wars with Philip of France. It was while he was besieging a castle that he was mortally wounded. The Stories Richard Yea-and-Nay. 1900. Maurice Hewlett Richard I was called Richard Yea-and-Nay because of his mercurial temperament, his readiness to change plans upon which he had fully determined. This story comprises history, adventure and characterization What has been said of the characteristics of Richard in the histor- ical sketch is exemplified in Hewlett's story. The adventures in connection with the Crusade are described. The personality of Richard is delineated and his relations with women are especially noted. He is exhibited as a man of strong passions, fiercely in love, mutinous towards his father, whose old age is portrayed. The heroine, Richard's lady-love, is sometimes contrasted with Berengaria of The Talisman, as far exceeding the latter as a romantic character. The story abounds in brilliant pageantry and people who are genuine flesh and blood. Ivanhoe. 1819. Sir Walter Scott This story was dictated to amanuenses while the author was enduring great physical suffering. It is a remarkable presenta- tion of medieval life. It is the most popular of his novels, and consequently, as Leslie Stephen notes, was Scott's culminating suc- cess in the book-selling sense. THE MEDIEVAL ERA H5 The scene is laid in England in the time of Richard I. Ivanhoe is the hero of the novel. He figures as the disinherited son of Cedric of Rotherwood, disinherited because of his. love for Rowena, the heroine. As the guardian of Rowena, Cedric had designed that she should become the wife of his son Athelstane the legitimate heir to the Saxon monarchy, which Cedric is plot- ting to restore. Rowena, however, prefers Ivanhoe. The hero accompanies Richard I to the Crusades. Upon his return to England he appears disguised as a palmer at a tourna- ment at Ashby and triumphs over Brian de Bois-Guilbert, who is a brave but cunning and dissolute commander of the Knights Tem- plar. After declaring Rowena queen of the tournament he casts aside his disguise. His father still rejects him and is befriended by the Jew, Isaac, and his beautiful daughter, Rebecca. Rebecca loves Ivanhoe, which she realizes is hopeless, knowing that he loves Rowena. The three are made prisoners and confined in a castle, and when Bois-Guilbert comes to her she spurns him. He demands that she be tried for sorcery and she demands a trial by combat, which being granted she chooses Ivanhoe as her cham- pion. Ivanhoe slays Bois-Guilbert and secures her freedom. The observations of Andrew Lang, the novelist, on this story are interesting and instructive. "Ivanhoe, like an honorable gen- tleman, curbs his passion for Rebecca and is true to Rowena, though we see that the memory of Rebecca never leaves his heart. Ivanhoe behaves as in his circumstances Scott would have be- haved instead of giving way to passion. It would have been more to the taste of today if the hero had eloped with the fair Hebrew, but then Ivanhoe and Rebecca are persons of honor and self-con- trol. I found in Scott's papers a letter from an enthusiastic schoolboy, a stranger — 'Oh, Sir Walter, how could you kill the gallant cavalier and give the lady to the crop-eared Whig?' This was the remark of the natural man. Scott kept the natural man in subjection." Robin Hood, the traditionary outlaw and popular hero, is in- troduced. The mysterious stranger appearing under various names, accomplishing wonderful feats, at length makes himself known to Richard I — "Call me no longer Locksley, my Liege, but know me under the name which, I fear, fame hath blown too widely not to have reached even your royal ears — I am Robin Hood of Sherwood Forest.'* 146 HISTORICAL FICTION Reign of King John Richard had no children, hence John his next oldest brother then living claimed the throne. But Geoffrey, John's older brother who was dead, had a living son, Arthur, who according to the cus- tom of inheritance, had a prior right to the throne. The fact that he was a mere child and in France, and because the law of progeni- ture was not fully established, and John had long lived in England, were reasons why Richard preferred John to his nephew as his successor. The claims of Arthur, however, were supported by a large body of barons and the king of France. John was one of the worst kings of England. As one writer has said, "Sweeping verdicts are rarely just, but we can find no ground for thinking John less base than he is painted. He proved a traitor to his indulgent father, and to Richard who made every effort to win his love ; it is probable that he murdered the son of another brother. He betrayed in turn every class in the state — the barons, the clergy, the people." It was in the hope of securing Normandy that Philip Augustus of France supported the claims of Arthur. Following the refusal on the part of John to attend a feudal court the king of France pro- ceeded to take Normandy, Anjou, Maine and Poitou and these con- tinental possessions were lost to England, and John was thrown back wholly upon that kingdom. In everything he failed. He lost in his contest with Pope Innocent III ; in 121 5 an outraged nation confronted him at Runnymede and compelled him to sign the famous document, the Magna Charta, and thus was made to sub- mit to his subjects ; he denounced the charter and the barons of- fered the crown to Louis of France, but fortunately at this crisis John died, possibly, as Shakespeare depicts, of poison. His vices had united England ; his death reunited her in favor of his innocent son, Henry, against the foreign leader. The Stories Wolf's Head. 1899. E. Gilliat This story brings us into Sherwood Forest and the scenes asso- ciated with the outlaw, Robin Hood, and introduces that character as the Earl of Huntingdon. Another scene is that of Berkhamp- stead Castle. Following the battle of Hastings William the Con- queror, after taking Dover, Canterbury, Winchester, burned THE MEDIEVAL ERA 147 Southwark, crossed the river at Wallingford and occupied a strong position at Berkhampstead. King John and the death of Arthur is a leading interest in the story. As noted in the sketch Philip of France supported the claims of Arthur and prepared to lay siege to Chateau Gaillard built by Richard to bar the way from Paris to Rouen, the Norman capital. It was then that Prince Arthur fell into John's hands and was seen no more, and was doubtless murdered by John. Royston Gower. 1838. Thomas Miller Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury, died in 1205, and the monks of Canterbury elected a new archbishop which John opposed. The strife, in which the Pope was involved, continued for a considerable time and at last the Pope recommended the election of Stephen Langton. John refused to accept the Pope's nominee and insisted upon his own being elected. The Pope then laid England under an interdict. All religious services were or- dered to be suspended, also marriage ceremonies and the reading of burial services. John possessed little religious feeling and cared nothing about the people being thus deprived of these re- ligious ordinances and institutions. The bishops who obeyed the interdict he banished. When the Pope prepared to absolve the people from their allegiance to him, John realized that he had little or no support on the part of his subjects to oppose this measure, and hearing of plots being formed against him, surrendered to the Pope on every point, and agreed to accept the election of Langton as archbishop. This story has to do with this period of the Pope's interdict, and the scenes are laid in Sherwood Forest and Nottingham. Runnymede and Lincoln Fair. 1866. John G. Edgar The historical sketch above has outlined the disordered condi- tion into which John's reign plunged the country, the territorial losses and at last the compulsion brought to bear upon him in signing the Magna Charta. The latter event took place at Runny- mede, a meadow on the right bank of the Thames. Out in the river is a little island, and here it is said the actual signing took place. When John repudiated his signing of the charter the barons 148 HISTORICAL FICTION offered the crown to Louis of France, but as the latter was prepar- ing to take it John died and his son Henry was crowned king. This did not stop Louis and he proceeded to take what had been offered him. At Lincoln and on the sea near Dover he met the English forces under William Marshall, Earl of Pembroke, and was defeated. Seeing that the nation was united on the new king, Louis gave way and retired. This story deals with this general state of things during John's reign and the conflict with Louis, and carries us into the reign of Henry III. The Constable's Tower. 1891. Charlotte M. Yonge Hubert de Burgh, the great justiciar, the last of the statesmen trained under Henry II, was dismissed by Henry III in 1232. In this story he is the Constable and the one who held Dover Castle against the siege of Louis of France as set forth in the statement above. It also describes the naval combat near Dover referred to. The reader is referred to Shakespeare's King John, the first of his historical dramas, the hero of which is King John. F. J. Furnival says that as long as John represented England, defied the foreigner and opposed the Pope he is a hero. But regarded from the standpoint of his moral character he is a coward and sneak. "See how his nature comes out in the hints for the murder of Arthur, his turning on Hubert when he thinks the murder will bring evil to himself, and his imploring Falconbridge to deny it." Reign of Henry III It was in the midst of the confusions brought about by John that Henry, at the age of nine, ascended the throne. His reign was one of the longest in English history, covering a period of 56 years. He was a man of a refined and kindly disposition but lacked ambition and military ability, and independence in matters of judgment and the forming of a policy. He was neither depend- able nor trustworthy. This was exhibited in the manner in which he broke his promises. His marriage with Eleanor of Provence brought her relatives and attendants in large number to England looking for favors and offices in church and state at the hand of the king. By letting the Pope use England's credit for a war in Sicily an enormous debt accumulated. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 149 Unqualified to rule his people, in 1258 Parliament demanded that a committee of 24 be given the power of the king. He was to all intents and purposes deposed by this measure and Simon de Montfort rose to great power. When Henry decided to revoke these provisions the matter was finally submitted to the king of France, Louis IX, who decided in favor of Henry and in 1263 war broke out. The king and his party were in the end victorious, Simon de Montfort was slain and peaceful conditions were re- stored and maintained until the death of Henry in 1272, The Stories The Rout of the Foreigner. 1910. Gulielma Zollinger It will be readily understood that such men as Peter, who was a Poitevin, and had been made bishop of Winchester and was at one time chancellor, and being for a long time the principal adviser of the king, would exert his influence in behalf of foreigners in securing them protection and appointment to office. This story deals with this situation setting forth the effect of this foreign occupation of the land as in the case of Eleanor's relatives and their dependents. Boniface of Savoy, the queen's uncle, became Archbishop of Canterbury. The result of Henry's liberal dealings with these foreigners was another swarm of rela- tives from Poitou on his mother's side by her second marriage. Large expenditures of money incurred by the foreign clerks whom Henry employed exasperated the English people, and so incensed had they become over this condition of things forced upon them that the queen herself, as she passed up the Thames, was attacked by Londoners, and her life was in danger. The historical sketch has indicated in what way Stephen Lang- ton was related to the strife between the Pope and King John and his final election to the Archbishopric. When Hubert de Burg was dismissed by Henry in 1232 Pierre des Roches and others from the king's continental state of Poitou gathered about the king, while such lawless foreigners as Falkes de Breaute held royal castles and defied Henry's ministers. All of these personages appear in the story. 150 HISTORICAL FICTION Simon De Montfort. 1902. Edwin Harris Simon de Montfort's father was a noble of Aquitaine who became conspicuous for his persecution of the Albigenses. Simon came to England to claim the estates, the title to which came through his mother. He married the widow of William Marshall, Earl of Pembroke, who figured in the early part of Henry's reign. She was Henry's sister Eleanor and he feared his brother-in-law. Simon was a keen, ambitious, unscrupulous man and clearly saw that the time had come to give the people a larger place in the government. Thus he became the leader and champion of English liberties and was greatly loved by the people. When the Provi- sions of Oxford in 1258 so greatly curtailed the power and author- ity of Henry, Simon rose to power, and his friends came into pos- session of the great offices of state. In 1264 the nobles under Montfort took up arms to' force the king to carry out his promises, and in the battle of Lewes the latter was defeated and was com- pelled to accept humiliating terms. Montfort now assembled Par- liament (1265), which was the first Parliament at which repre- sentatives of the boroughs were present. Edward, Henry's son, who had ranged himself on the side of Simon, now took the king's cause and defeated Montfort in the battle of Evesham in 1265, in which Montfort was slain. The young and able prince made an agreement with the rebels called the Dictum of Kenilworth, and granted the reforms demanded. This story represents Montfort as an ambitious monster sac- rificing all rights and claims of others to his own unscrupulous demands. It sets forth the conflicts between the forces of Mont- fort and those of the king, the barons refusing to accept the rul- ings of Louis IX as given in the historical sketch, and the battle of Lewes in Kent in which Montfort was victorious. It sets forth the escape of Edward from his guards while out riding, and the gathering of his forces in support of the royal cause. It de- scribes the battle of Evesham in the following year and the defeat and death of Montfort. The Forest Prince. 1903. Bryan W.Ward This story deals with the same period and events. The wars of the barons, Edward, Montfort and the two great battles given above. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 151 The Red Saint. 1909. Warwick Deeping In this story the author sets forth the bad effects of foreigners flocking into the country as given in the historical sketch. Miracles are performed by the beautiful saint whose foes suffer retribution in the battle of Lewes. The three historical personages, the king, his son Edward, and Montfort appear in the story. De Montfort\s Squire. 1909. Frederick Harrison This period was famous for the many scholars that gathered about the universities and who occupied ecclesiastical positions. Men thought more deeply and clearly along certain lines than had been true of earlier periods of the middle ages, and learned Englishmen became famous lecturers at Paris, Bologna and other universities. Among these was Roger Bacon (1214-1294), one of the most profound and original thinkers of his day. He made such researches in physics that the ecclesiastics charged him with practicing "black art," and he was sent to Paris, where he was held in confinement for ten years, and after securing his liberty was again thrown into prison for a similar period. His great work, Opus Majus, discusses philosophy, religion, language, optics and experimental science. In this story this great scholar appears as one of the charac- ters, together with Montfort and Prince Edward. The two great battles of Lewes and Evesham are related as in the preceding stories. Reign of Edward I Edward I, son of Henry III, was born at Westminster. We have already noted the active part he took in the Barons' wars, first on the side of Simon de Montfort and afterwards in support of his father and his defeating Montfort in the battle of Evesham. He participated in a Crusade with Louis IX of France, which ac- complished nothing of importance, and it was while returning from Palestine that he learned of his accession to the throne. Upon reaching England in 1274 he was crowned. Two years following his coronation he began the conquest of Wales, and within eight years had annexed it to England. Edward was a constitutional reformer. He sought the good of England by permanent good government. He had passed through the 152 HISTORICAL FICTION school of experience in being so actively connected with the inter- ests of his father and from this had gathered wisdom. He was as truly a great legislator as he was a constitutional reformer. The series of laws of this reign stand in the front rank of English statutes. It may be truly said that he was the greatest of Angevin kings. His great object was to bring under one government all the British Isles. "The thirteenth century was above all things the age of the lawyer and legislator, and in this field Edward's work may well challenge comparison with that of Frederick II of Sicily, and Louis IX and Philip IV of France." Following the damaging reign of John and that of his weak son, Henry III, Edward brought the nation to a state of order and curbed the power of the clergy. He is known as "the English Justinian" because of his beneficent influence upon the laws of his country. One of the most important events of his reign was the power conferred upon a Parliament to levy taxes, a Parliament in which the people of England were to be represented. The Stories The Lord of Dynevor. 1891. Evelyn Everett Green Wales, aided by its geographical conditions, had maintained a certain independence. The Welsh people had never forgotten that at one time they were the rulers of Britain in the days of their Celtic forefathers. Prince Llewellyn, a man of energy and ability, had ambitions for the independence of his country and the expul- sion of the English invader. Wales, however, was far from a state of high civilization ; a murder could be atoned for by the payment of a fine, and it was perfectly proper to put to death seamen wrecked on their coast. Edward concluded that the best way to solve the Welsh prob- lems was to annex Wales to England. In the treaty of Conway (1277) he compelled Llewellyn to release to him four border coun- ties, which he made English shires, and placed them under English legislation. In the rebellion that followed Llewellyn was slain. His brother David was drawn to the scaffold, hanged, beheaded and quartered. Wales was then annexed to England, and the son of Edward, who was born in Wales, was made the Prince of Wales. From that time the title has been conferred upon the heir to the English throne. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 153 This story deals with this period of Edward's conquest of Wales. The scene is laid about Dynevor and other castles, with Llewellyn as the leading figure. Edward and his children appear in the story. The Scottish Chiefs. 1810. Jane Porter Edward was brought into relations with Scotland on account of the matter of Scottish succession. When the Maid of Norway, granddaughter of Alexander III of Scotland, died, there were two claimants to the throne, Baliol and Bruce, and the Scottish estate being unable to decide the issue appointed Edward as the arbi- trator. He decided in favor of Baliol, who in turn gave Edward homage. In 1294 these relations were altered when Edward made war upon France and the latter formed an alliance with Scotland. Two years later Baliol was defeated at Dunbar and was forced to surrender his crown. The Scotch coronation stone was carried to London, and Scotland was placed under the English regent. Scotland, however, was not conquered. Sir William Wallace (1274-1305), one of the Scottish national heroes, entered into this contest. He was outlawed in early life, and in 1297 was placed at the head of a body of insurgents. He is described as a man of mighty frame and strength, a commander of men. While besieg- ing the castle of Dundee he heard that Surrey and Cressingham were advancing upon Stirling. He met them there and in the battle of Stirling Bridge totally defeated the English. He then conducted a series of raids into northern England, and was made the guardian of Scotland. At Falkirk in 1298 he was defeated by Edward after a brave resistance. For several years he carried on a guerrilla warfare, but in 1305 he was betrayed to the English near Glasgow, was taken to London, tried, condemned and exe- cuted for treason. Robert Bruce (1274-1329), another of the national heroes, be- fore his accession to the throne was known as Earl of Car rick. Previous to 1304 he was first on the Scottish, and then on the Eng- lish, side, but in that year he united with Lamberton against Ed- ward, who claimed the sovereignty of Scotland. In 1306 he mur- dered Comyn, the rival claimant, at Dumfries, and in the same year was crowned king at Scone. To dethrone Bruce Edward pro- ceeded to Scotland, but died on the way. i54 HISTORICAL FICTION The author of this story (1776-1850) was born at Durham, but at the age of four she removed with her family to Edinburgh, and was thus reared in Scotland. She had the privilege of know- ing Sir Walter Scott, and had the distinction of inspiring him to write Waverly. The Scottish Chiefs is regarded the best historical romance to the time of Scott. It became immediately popular and during the last century was a favorite book, especially in Scotland. Her special acquaintance with the Scottish localities added ele- ments of strength to her work. The historical inaccuracies of the story, and the peculiar form of speech in which she makes her characters converse, have in no manner affected the interest and enthusiasm with which the story is read. What has been set forth in the historical sketch, the conflict between Scotland and England, constitutes the historical setting of the work. The wife of Wallace, Marion, was murdered by the governor of Lanark. This deed so enraged Wallace that he gath- ered his followers about him to fight for Scotland's freedom. That night he and his men fell upon the garrison of Lanark and Wallace buried his sword in the body of his wife's murderer. They capture castles and fight bloody battles. Disguised as a harper, Wallace goes to the court of Edward and effects the escape of Bruce, and both go to France to rescue Helen Mar, who had been abducted. She is the heroine of the romance. She loves Wallace, but knowing his devotion to his murdered wife plays the part of a sister. On the day of his execution Wallace marries her, saying, "Oh, Helen, thy soul and Marion's are indeed one; and as one I love ye!" When Bruce is crowned in 1306, the fol- lowing year, so great is her grief by the past it recalls, that she dies. In Burns' "Scots Wha Hae," the spirit of that early day is clearly expressed: Scots, wha hae wi' Wallace bled, Scots wham Bruce has aften led, Welcome to your gory bed Or to victorie ! Now's the day and now's the hour: See the front o' battle lour, See approach proud Edward's power — Chains and slaverie ! THE MEDIEVAL ERA 155 Wha will be a traitor knave ? Wha can fill a coward's grave ? Wha sae base as be a slave ? — Let him turn and flee ! Wha for Scotland's king and law Freedom's sword will strongly draw, Freeman stand or freeman fa', Let him follow me ! By oppression's woes and pains, By your sons in servile chains, We will drain our dearest veins But they shall be free ! Lay the proud usurpers low ! Tyrants fall in every foe ! Liberty's in every blow ! Let us do or die ! In Freedom's Cause. 1884. George A. Henty This story has its historical setting in the facts already set forth relative to the deeds of Wallace and Bruce. The capture of Lan- ark, the battle of Stirling Bridge, in which Wallace had a signal victory and the battle of Falkirk, where he was decidedly defeated but escaped, refusing the king's clemency. The story carries us into the reign of Edward II in setting forth the contest with Robert Bruce, the battle of Bannockburn and independence of Scotland. Castle Dangerous. 1831. Sir Walter Scott The Douglas family was an ancient noble family of Scotland, famous in Scotch history, romance and poetry. As Scott says, they often cast their coronet into the scale against the Crown. From William de Douglas (1175-1213) was descended "the good Sir James" who fought with Bruce at Bannockburn, and who, after Bruce's death, endeavored to fulfil his last request to carry his heart to the Holy Land. It never reached its destination, how- ever, but was brought back and buried in Melrose Abbey. "The 156 HISTORICAL FICTION power of the family was so great that it was commonly said : 'No man may touch a Douglas, nor a Douglas 5 man for if he do he is sure to come by the worse'. The family continually engaged in feuds and warfare on the border, especially with the Percy fam- ily. A famous member of the family was Archibald, called Bell the Cat. At a meeting of nobles who were debating about a plan to get rid of one of the king's favorites, and who should do it, he started up exclaiming, 'I will bell the cat.' " This castle was a keep belonging to the Douglas family. In the conflict between the English and Bruce it changed hands re- peatedly, and was called "Castle Dangerous" by the English be- cause it was always retaken from them by the Douglas. In this story a young knight has laid upon him a condition by the lady whom he desires to marry. The condition is that he hold the Douglas Castle for a year and a day. If he succeeds in doing so she will become his wife. The English knight enters into combat with Sir James Douglas to secure the castle. At the same time a battle is in progress between Edward and Robert Bruce. When the word comes of Bruce's victory the knight sur- renders to Douglas and he is then commanded to surrender to his lady love. Reign of Edward II When Edward I died on his way to meet Bruce he left three commands for his son : First, to subdue Scotland ; second, to send his heart to the Holy Land; third, never to recall Piers Gaveston whom he had banished. All of these conditions he dis- regarded. There could scarcely be a greater contrast between two men occupying the same position than between Edward I and his son Edward II. The latter returned with the body of his father which was buried at Westminster, and deliberately recalling Gaveston and placing him at the head of the government he devoted him- self to revelry and all manner of excesses. During his reign he was either under the control of favorite ministers or that of insurgent barons. A parliament was finally called and he was charged with many offenses and incompetency, and was declared to be no longer king. Eight months later he was murdered in Berkeley Castle by order of Lord Mortimer. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 157 The Stories The Chevalier of the Splendid Crest. 1900. Herbert Maxwell Piers Gaveston was the son of a Gascon knight and a close companion of Edward in his early years. As already noted, in utter disobedience to his father's dying command Edward at once recalled him from his banishment and made him his minister. He lavished upon him every favor. Thinking himself secure in hav- ing the support of the king he displayed the most contemptuous attitude to the powerful lords. Parliament finally took the gov- ernment from Edward and sent Gaveston to Ireland. He soon returned and fell into the hands of Lancaster and other nobles who, without granting him a regular trial, took him to Blacklow Hill and beheaded him (1312). In Maxwell's story Piers Gaveston is made to play the part of the knave and scoundrel. Edward is also one of the histor- ical personages. While the king was spending his time in rev- elry Robert Bruce was conquering all the territory that had been lost under Edward I. At last, roused by the fact that Bruce was about to march over the border he raised an army, greatly in excess of the Scotch army, and met Bruce at Bannockburn near Stirling. Bruce dug pits in front of his position so that when the English cavalry charged, the horses fell into these and the English forces were thrown into hopeless disorder. In the midst of this confusion a body of Scotch camp followers, pre-arranged by Bruce, started from an adjacent hill, and the English believing it to be an additional army beat a hasty and scattered retreat, leav- ing 30,000 dead on the field. The independence of Scotland was won. This was the year 13 14. These events are taken up in this story with interesting details of the battle and the field of Ban- nockburn. The Siege of Leed's Castle. 1906. Edwin Harris Following the death of Gaveston, already set forth, the Des- pensers became the favorites of Edward. They belonged to the old nobility of England. Bestowing upon them land and power Edward purchased their support and for years they virtually ruled the kingdom. Hugh de Spenser and his father supported 158 HISTORICAL FICTION Edward against Lancaster. They were driven by the barons from the land but soon returned and civil war broke out. In 1322 Lancaster, who had executed Gaveston, met his death at the hands of Edward. This story deals with this rebellion. Leed's Castle held by Sir John Colepeper is besieged by the king's forces and finally surrenders. At Boroughbridge the insurgent lords under Badles- mere are defeated, and the leaders, Lancaster and Colepeper, are hanged and quartered. Dudley Castle. 1904. C.G.Gardner Edward's wife, Isabella, was the sister of the French king. Suffering much at the hands of Edward she took her child to France. She returned at the head of an army, with her favorite nobleman, Lord Mortimer, to overthrow her husband and crush the Despensers. The latter fell into her hands and she executed them causing them to endure horrible tortures. Edward had fled with them to Wales but he was captured. As already noted, Parliament declared him unfit to reign and his son was proclaimed king. While Edward lived his wife and Mortimer were not safe. They tried to put him out of the way by exposing him to disease over a charnel-house, but failing in this they murdered him in his bed in Berkeley Castle. This story, like the preceding one, has its historical background in this struggle between the barons and the king. It sets forth the defeat of Lancaster, and strongly portrays the parts played by Despenser, the queen and Mortimer. CHAPTER IV THE CRUSADES The religious conflicts carried on during the Middle Ages be- tween the Christian nations of Western Europe and the Moham- medans of Eastern Europe and Western Asia were called Cru- sades. Their object originally was to obtain free access for pil- grims to the Holy Sepulchre, but they developed into a contest for possession of Jerusalem itself. While the Mohammedan persecution of Christian pilgrims was an important cause it would be a mistake to suppose that it was the only cause of the Crusades. It might not be far from the truth to say that they were the occasion for the vigorous life of the time to find expression in chivalry and activity, and, of course, religious sentiment. "The Crusades were a new chapter in the long warfare of Christendom with Mohammedanism. In the Middle Ages there were two worlds utterly distinct — that of the Gospel and that of the Koran. In Europe, with the excep- tion of Spain, the Gospel had sway ; from the Pyrenees to the mouths of the Ganges, the Koran. The border contests between the two hostile parties on the eastern and western frontiers of Christendom were now to give place to a conflict on a larger scale during centuries of invasion and war." The Crusades awakened a profound enthusiasm in all classes, yearning for a broader theater of action, their energies cramped by their narrow confines in the overcrowded state of Europe. Princes and nobles entered into this enthusiasm, both to crush the Moham- medan and to distinguish themselves in military action. The Crusades covered a period of nearly two centuries. They are divided into seven as follows : First, 1095-1099. Led by Godfrey of Bouillon, and preached up by Peter the Hermit Second, 1147-1149. Led by Louis VII and the Emperor Kon- rad, at the instigation of St. Bernard. Third, 1189-1192. Led against Saladin, the Sultan of Syria 159 160 HISTORICAL FICTION and Egypt, by Richard Coeur de Lion of England and Philip Augustus of France. Fourth, 1 202- 1 204. Led by Baldwin of Flanders and the Doge of Venice. Fifth, 1 228- 1 229. Led by Ferdinand II, Emperor of Ger- many. Sixth, 1 248- 1 254. Seventh, 1270. Led by Louis IX of France. While these Crusades failed to accomplish their main object and the Mohammedan was left in possession of Jerusalem, they did not fail to greatly influence modern civilization. In this move- ment millions of lives were sacrificed, and much that was done in the name of Christ was wholly antithetical to modern ideas of Christianity and humanity. The warriors went forth wearing over their armor the symbol of the Cross, hence the meaning of the word Crusade, derived from the Latin crux, signifying a cross. The Various Crusades The Crusaders. 1905. Alfred J. Church Peter the Hermit had accompanied other pilgrims to Jerusalem, and on his return had given such a description of the wretched condition of Christians in the East to Pope Urban II as to enlist his support and influence in their behalf. In 1095 the Pope pre- sented the matter to the Council of Clermont in a manner that seized upon the sympathy, enthusiasm and imagination of all Europe. The result was that armies were at once organized and in 1096 started for the East. Among the leaders were Godfrey of Bouillon, Baldwin his brother, Robert of Flanders, Robert of Normandy, Raymond of Toulouse. They conquered Nicea and marched upon Antioch which they took in 1098, and from there proceeded to Jerusalem, their number reduced to about 20,000 men. After a bitter struggle the city was captured and Godfrey of Bouillon was made ruler of the city This story gives a general view of the Crusades from their inception by the preaching of Peter the Hermit to the Crusade of St. Louis. In 1248 Louis IX at the head of a French army started for Egypt. They took Damietta. They were then defeated, most of the army taken prisoners including the king whose ransom re- quired the surrendering of Damietta and a great sum of money. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 161 In 1270 he made another expedition and reached the northern coast of Africa. At Tunis he and many of his knights died of the plague. These expeditions are set forth in Church's story. The first two Crusades are described by the Wandering Jew. Assuming the responsibility for the death of Jesus he is condemned to wan- der over the earth till the Second Advent of Christ. He partic- ipates in many of the great events of history : he is at the burn- ing of Rome in A. D. 64 ; he heads the Jewish revolt in Palestine and is present at the fall of Jerusalem, A. D. 70 ; he leads Alaric against Rome ; he induces Mohammed to inflict punishment upon the Christians for maltreating the Jews ; he conducts the Crusaders to Jerusalem to drive the Saracen from the Temple which they had profaned. The First Crusade God Wills It. 1902. William Stearns Davis At Clermont in France, Pope Urban II addressed an open-air gathering of thousands of people urging them to organize a Cru- sade against the Saracen. He declared that Christ himself would lead them to Jerusalem. He exhorted them to bring their wars and discords to an end and devote their energies to the wresting of the Holy Land from the accursed race, and for this they would receive an everlasting reward. So aroused was the great assembly by these words from the head of the Church that they cried out, "God wills it ! God wills it !" To this the Pope replied, "When you go forth to meet the enemy this shall indeed be your watch- word, 'God wills it'/" This will explain the title of the author's story. This tale of the First Crusade details the adventures of a young Norman who joins the Crusade as atonement for a crime he had committed. He marries a Byzantine princess who again is stolen from him by the Egyptian Emir. It is while the French are storming Jeru- salem under Godfrey that he again finds his wife under most un- usual circumstances. Count Robert of Paris. 1831. Sir Walter Scott It was during the reign of Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118), when Christian Europe became alarmed over the advance of Mo- hammedan power, that the Crusade movement began. 162 HISTORICAL FICTION This is a story of the First Crusade. The hero, Count Robert of Paris, is a French nobleman. His wife Brenhilda accom- panies him. He is in the camp of Alexius Comnenus, Emperor of Greece, at Scutari where also is Hereward, a Saxon Crusader, one of the emperor's guards. In a combat with battleaxes Here- ward is vanquished by Count Robert. He then enlists under the latter's banner. It is a happy situation for him, however, as he makes the discovery that Agatha, the maid of Brenhilda, is his Saxon lady-love Bertha. The hero participates in the siege and capture of Constantinople. The Third Crusade The immediate cause of the Second Crusade was the conquer- ing of Edessa and putting its garrison to the sword by the viceroy of Mosul, the ruler of the confederated Mohammedan states of Syria. This outrage enlisted the powers of Saint Bernard, abbot of the Cistercian monastery of Clairvaux, who became the preach- er of this Crusade. He was the most important figure of the twelfth century. So great was his influence that two monarchs, Conrad III of Germany and Louis VII of France, were inspired by him to conduct this new Crusade. They passed down the valley of the Danube and crossed Bul- garia to Constantinople. The expedition was so miserably man- aged that it was an egregious failure. The Germans perished in Asia Minor at the hand of the Turks and the hardships endured, while the French army that was compelled to make the journey by land was practically destroyed. Of the two great armies only a few reached Palestine. These losses by poor management had a salutary effect in the organization of the Third Crusade. Greater care was taken to eliminate the causes of such lamentable losses. The capture of Jerusalem in 1187 by Saladin aroused all Europe and called for another Crusade. All sorts of privileges and benefits were prom- ised those who would enlist. Richard I of England, Philip Augus- tus of France and Frederick I of Germany, the three most power- ful kings of Europe, undertook the conduct of this Crusade. While crossing a mountain torrent in Asia Minor Frederick was drowned which disorganized completely the German expedition. The other two expeditions were delayed by the quarrel be- tween Richard and Philip. At Messina the two leaders agreed THE MEDIEVAL ERA 163 to unite their forces, but the quarrels between them were re- newed, and after the taking of Acre Philip returned to France. He had taken an oath that he would not invade any of Richard's territories during his absence, which he broke as soon as oppor- tunity arose. Richard advanced within sight of Jerusalem when he was compelled to withdraw. He then received word that his brother John had joined Philip in a rebellion against him and he set out for home. Trying to make his way through Germany in disguise he was recognized and was imprisoned by the duke of Austria whom he had offended, and was held in captivity for two years. Aside from a truce concluded with Saladin covering a period of three years, during which time pilgrims should be free to visit the Holy Sepulchre, and that the seacoast should belong to the Crusaders, the Crusade accomplished nothing. The Stories The Talisman. 1825. Sir Walter Scott This is one of the most popular of the author's tales. It is full of color, mystery, plot and counter-plot. The acts of Ken- neth of Scotland in protecting Richard against his enemies are full of life and vigor. He fights bravely against Saladin, but falls a victim to a jest played by Berengaria, queen consort of Richard, and is handed over to Saladin by Richard. He returns disguised as a Nubian slave and saves Richard's life from an assassin, and champions the cause of Richard in a trial by combat with the traitor, Conrad of Montserrat. Casting off his disguise he be- comes the suitor of Edith of Plantagenet. Edith is a kinswoman of Richard and attendant upon Berengaria. Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt and Syria and founder of the Ayubite dynasty, is Richard's chief adversary. As strong men they admired each other. Saladin was fond of disguising him- self and seeking adventures. He appeared in the disguise of Hakim a physician, and visits Richard in his sickness. He gave him a medicine in which the "talisman" had been dipped, and the king recovered. He appeared in disguise as Sheerkohf of Kurdistan when he fought with Kenneth. He presided over the trial by combat when Kenneth vanquished Conrad of Montserrat. Of him Hazlitt says : "Of all Sir Walter's characters the most 164 HISTORICAL FICTION dashing and spirited is the Sultan Saladin. But he is not meant for a hero, nor fated to be a lover. He is a collateral and inciden- tal performer in the scene. His movements therefore remain free, and he is master of his own resplendent energies, which pro- duce so much the more daring and felicitous an effect." The hero of the story is David, Earl of Huntington, who as- sumes the name of Kenneth of Scotland and enters the service of Richard in Palestine. The story strongly contrasts the Oriental with the Occidental character. The Assassins. 1902. Nevill M. Meakin In this romance of this Crusade an Arab is the hero. He is under allegiance to the Sheik of the Mountain who is the chief of the assassins. The three historical personages, Saladin, Philip Augustus and Richard play their parts. The story is distinctive for color and action. Winning His Spurs. 1897. George A. Henty This juvenile story describes the adventures of a boy begin- ning at Evesham in England and extending to the continent and Palestine. The fervent preaching stimulating an interest in the new Crusade, when word came of the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, is related. It sets forth the events in connection with the crusading armies and describes Richard's capture by the Duke of Austria and his return home. The queen consort also appears. Brothers in Arms. 1884. F. B. Harrison This story carries us through this Crusade from the taking of Messina and sacking it by Richard, to the capture of Acre and the return to Europe. It then describes the quarrels and feuds carried on between the ancient family of Douglas in Scotland and the Percy family and others. The Children's Crusade Between the greater Crusades were minor expeditions. Of the latter the Children's Crusade was the most remarkable. In 1 21 2 it is estimated that about 50,000 boys and girls were enlisted in this unusual expedition. A band of German children made their THE MEDIEVAL ERA 165 way to the Mediterranean, great numbers dying by the way. Few of this company returned home. The French expedition met at Marseilles. They were induced by merchants to take passage on their ships under promise that they would be carried to Palestine. Two of the ships were wrecked, and the children on the other ships were sold as slaves in Alexandria. The Story The Sign of Triumph. 1904. Sheppard Stevens This is a story of the French expedition which is estimated at about 30,000 children. Their adventures and subsequent slav- ery are related. Notwithstanding the fact that the Crusades failed to accom- plish the end for which they were instituted they nevertheless contributed to the civilization of the age materially, politically and intellectually. Through the transportation of crusaders and their supplies the Italian cities greatly developed in wealth. Prutz the historian declares that "It was not simply during the Crusades, but as a result of them, and of the commerce which they had called into being, that money became a power — we might almost say a world-power." Again, the Crusades contributed to the modification of the political and social organization of Europe. The feudal nobles, particularly in France, lost much of their power by the loss of their people and resources, and the lower classes became greatly stronger and social progress was enhanced. In matters of thought and culture it may be said that the in- fluence of the Crusades was most important and enduring. The civilization of the Saracens was in some respects much higher than that of the western world. In their intercourse with the Greeks and Saracens the crusaders discovered a higher conception of things than what they had been accustomed to. New ideas and new habits they had picked up they brought back home and put to use and thus gave them extension. England profited by the Crusades in a special degree. Isolated as she was the Crusades brought her into the general life of Europe and that, too, at a time when these nations were being stirred by the same great interests. CHAPTER V ITALY. TO THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR To the title Roman Empire was added the word Holy by Fred- erick Barbarossa. Thus Holy Roman Empire was the name given to the State established by Charlemagne. While theoretically all Christian countries of Western Europe were included in the Holy Roman Empire, as a matter of fact only Italy and the countries that acknowledged the king of Germany constituted it. By the treaty of Verdun (843) Lothair secured Italy, and until the middle of the tenth century the country was in a state of po- litical chaos. It became a prey to corrupt local nobles, and the papacy, suffering under like conditions, was incapable of defend- ing her. In 951 Otto I led an army into Italy to restore order, and in 962 was crowned Emperor by the Pope. This relation between Italy and Germany was injurious to the former as it destroyed all hope of nationality in her political organization. When the death of Otto III occurred in 1002 the male line of Otto the Great ceased and the crown fell to Henry II ( 1002-1024) . From this time antagonism to German domination became active and revolts were frequent. City states were formed such as Genoa, Pisa, Milan, Florence and Venice, and Frederick I sur- rendered all rights as pertaining to the Lombard League. In the eleventh century the two factions arose known as the Guelphs and the Ghibellines taking opposite sides regarding Ger- man rule, and finally the Hohenstaufen Dynasty, that ruled Ger- many from 1 1 38 to 1268, came to an end. With the overthrow of the dynasty the kingdom of the Two Sicilies was secured by Charles of Anjou. In 131 2 when Henry VII attempted to restore the German rule it was defeated by the Guelphs. In this attempt he abandoned the policies of his predecessors and wasted his energies on an Italian expedition which cost him his life (1313). From about the beginning of the Hundred Years' War (1337) 166 THE MEDIEVAL ERA 167 to the close of the fifteenth century the history of Italy consists of records of strong cities and leading families who held control, while the lesser cities lost distinction. The Stories The Sorceress of Rome. 1907. Nathan Gallizier Otto III was but three years old when his father died, and during the period of his minority his mother and afterwards his grandmother acted as regents. When he was declared of age lie was crowned Emperor. Otto was a dreamer, combining, re- ligious fervor with dreams of empire. He was quite devoid of practical abilities. Leaving Germany he made Rome his capital which was quite in line with his imperial ideals. Here he estab- lished an elaborate court system in the way of officials and lofty ceremonies. Rebellious tendencies prior to his coronation again broke out. Instead of handling the situation with courage and force he was stung by what appeared to him as ingratitude on the part of the Romans, and in this frame of mind wandered about Italy until his death. This story presents to us the plot of Stephania the attractive wife of Crescentius the Roman senator. Infatuated by her beauty, Crescentius permits his wife to lead Otto on so as to encompass his death and thus free Rome from German rule. She grows to love him but follows the dictates of patriotism and betrays him. In the revolution that follows the Germans are defeated. Over- whelmed by the act of Stephania Otto hangs her husband and escapes to Paterno. To this place Stephania follows him, and finding him ill reveals to him her real love for him, then poisons him and herself as retribution to the spirit of her husband. The Pilgrim. 1910. Arthur Lewis Gregory is the name of sixteen Popes and two antipopes. Gregory VII was elected to the papacy in 1073 and was Pope for twelve years. His object was to establish a theocracy giving the Pope sovereign power both in ecclesiastical and political affairs. 168 HISTORICAL FICTION His principles are set forth in a memorandum found among his papers in which he laid down the nine propositions : i. The Roman pontiff alone may rightly be called "universal". 2. He only can depose and reinstate bishops. 3. He only can establish new laws for the Church and unite or divide dioceses. 4. No council or synod, without his approval, can be called general. 5. No earthly person may call the pope to trial or pronounce judgment on him. 6. No one who appeals to the papacy may have sentence passed against him by any other tribunal. 7. The Roman Church has never erred, and never shall err. 8. The Roman Pontiff has the right to depose Emperors. 9. He may absolve the subjects of unjust princes from their allegiance. Gregory's whole conduct was the exemplification of these principles. In 1075 ^ e abolished lay investiture and thus cut off the authority of the princes over the clergy. This decree Henry IV refused to accept, and Gregory summoned the emperor to ap- pear before a council at Rome to meet the charges made against him. Henry in turn called upon a council at Worms to depose the Pope, and the latter excommunicated the emperor. This measure placed Henry in such a difficult situation that at Canassa he yielded to the Pope, submitted to a humiliating pen- ance and was given absolution. Gregory declared that for three days, with bare feet and clad in wool Henry stood before the gates of the castle before he would admit him to his presence. This was the greatest victory the papacy ever won over the temporal power, but retaliation came when Henry caused the Pope to be deposed by the Council of Brixen and an antipope, Clement III, to be elected (1080). For three years Gregory remained a pris- oner in the castle of Saint Angelo, but was liberated and died in retirement. His last words were, "I have loved justice and hated iniquity, therefore I die in exile." This story, The Pilgrim, deals with these events of the time of Gregory VII. It portrays the grandeur of the Pope's Court and describes the contest between him and Henry IV. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 169 A Son of the Emperor. 1909. Newton V. Stewart In 1209 Frederick II took over the government of Lower Italy and Sicily, but it was not until 121 2 that he was crowned emperor. The two tasks he set before himself were the subjugation of Lom- bardy and the bringing of all Italy under the crown, and confining the Popes to their religious office. He was involved in constant trouble in Germany and Italy, but he was one of the ablest Ger- man emperors. We have already referred to the two factions, the Guelphs and Ghibellines. The quarrels of these factions began as a strug- gle of rival families, but it developed into a warfare of contend- ing principles. The Ghibelline faction was the Hohenstaufen party and contended for a strong monarchical government and for imperial rule over Italy. The Guelphs, on the other hand, stood for the very opposite — opposition to the monarchy and the freedom of Italy. "Broadly speaking, the Guelphs were papal- ists, the Ghibellines imperialists ; the Ghibellines were the party who desired a strong government, the Guelphs the party who pre- ferred particularism ; the Ghibellines would bring in the German, the Guelphs would cry Ttaly for the Italians.' " In the midst of these conflicting conditions Frederick main- tained himself in Italy with success supported nobly by his son Conrad. When a revolt was stirred up in Germany by the en- emies of the emperor, Conrad succeeded in holding many of the nobles and most of the cities true to their allegiance to his father. In 1239 Frederick came into an open rupture with the Pope, "and there began the last stage of the fatal struggle of papacy and empire, which brought political ruin to both powers." The Pope excommunicated the emperor and called a council to be held at Rome which Frederick prevented by capturing the fleet that had on board most of the commissioners. Finally misfortunes came upon the emperor. His camp was captured, then his favorite son Enzio was taken captive and suf- fered imprisonment for a considerable period. In 1250 Frederick was seized by a disease and died after a brief illness. In this story the author sets forth the disturbing conditions of this period in Italy relative to the opposing contentions of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. The conflict between the papacy and political forces is also given. The enterprises of Frederick, his 170 HISTORICAL FICTION dominating ambition to unite Italy under the imperial rule are de- scribed and strongly presents the support that Frederick received from his son Conrad in the accomplishment of these plans. It details the facts relating to Frederick's favorite son Enzio in- cluding his capture and imprisonment. Castel Del Monte„ 1905. Nathan Gallizier When Frederick II died the Hohenstaufen Dynasty was draw- ing to an end. His reforms died with him, and in the hands of his successors his empire crumbled away. To secure his inheritance in Italy his son Conrad IV was compelled to abandon Germany. He reigned but four years. For twenty years Germany was given up to the anarchy of the Great Interregnum, during which robber barons ruled by "the law of the fist", and no king was universally recognized. In Italy Conrad maintained himself until his death -in 1254. After the death of Frederick the Pope refused to recognize the Hohenstaufen house, but after the death of Conrad, Manfred, a half-brother, kept the dynasty alive until 1266 when- he fell in the battle of Benevento. The hopes of the Hohenstaufens now centered in Conradin, son of Conrad IV. To crush this last hope the Pope made a treaty by which the crown of Silicy should be given to Charles of Anjou, brother of the French king. Conradin brought a small army into Italy in 1268. Charles met this army and defeated it. He then seized the young king and beheaded him, and thus brought to an end the house of Hohenstaufen. This story deals with these closing years of this house. It describes the plotting against it especially when Manfred came to the throne. It sets forth the progress of the conspiracies to the battle of Benevento in 1266. The Hill of Venus. 1912. Nathan Gallizier There were three orders that arose for the purpose of defend- ing the Holy Land against the Saracen. They were the Order of Teutonic Knights, the Knights Templar and the Knights Hos- pitaler of St. John. The first was composed of Germans while the other two consisted mainly of French. "The Hospitalers wore a white cross on a black mantle, the Templars a red one on white, and the Teutonic Knights a black cross on a white ground. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 171 The members of these orders were monks, vowed to poverty, chastity and obedience ; but they were also knights of noble birth, trained to arms and bound to perpetual warfare against the in- fidel. They constituted a permanent force of military monks res- ident in the Holy Land, with their own grand masters, fortresses, domains and treasuries. In course of time they acquired immense possessions in Europe also. After the end of the crusading epoch the Knights Hospitaler, taking refuge in Cyrus, in Rhodes and finally in Malta, preserved an independent existence until the close of the eighteenth century." In this story the son of the Grand Master of the Knights Hos- pitaler is compelled by his father to become a monk. He was born out of wedlock and his becoming a monk was in expiation of the sin pertaining to his birth. The historical background is largely that of the preceding story by the same author, such as the battle of Tagliacozzo in which Charles of Anjou defeated Conradin fol- lowed by the beheading of the latter. Those who were directly connected with the fall of the Hohenstaufen house are introduced. The God of Love. 1909. Justin H. McCarthy Beatrice Portinari (1266-1290), the poetical idol of Dante, was the daughter of a wealthy citizen of Florence. When Dante first met her in her home she was nine years of age. He saw her but once or twice and of him she probably knew very little. Dante was about the same age as Beatrice when he first saw her, and the love she awakened in him he has described in the New Life which is an account of his early years. In his great poem, the Divina Commedxa, the shade of Vergil appears and conducts him through the "Infernal Regions". Be- yond this Vergil may not go, but Beatrice will conduct him through Paradise. In the earthly Paradise above purgatory Dante beholds Beatrice in a scene of surpassing grandeur. He ascends with her into the celestial Paradise, and after wandering over seven spheres he comes to the eighth where he has a view of "the glorious com- pany which surrounds the triumphant Redeemer." The year after the death of Beatrice Dante married Gemma Donati. It was after this that he wrote his great work. McCarthy's story is based upon these facts relative to Dante and Beatrice. 172 HISTORICAL FICTION Marco Visconti. 1881. Tommaso Grossi This story falls in the time of the Crusades when Frederick II conducted his expedition to the Holy Land. The Pope had excommunicated him in 1227 because of delaying his crusade on the ground that a pestilence had broken out on the ships in which he was to carry his troops. He set out the following year, however, before the Pope had absolved him, and as an excom- municated person the Pope hindered him in every way. He suc- ceeded in making a truce by which the Christians were to hold Jerusalem for a period of ten years. This Italian author (1791-1853) was born at Bellano. He dedicated this story to Manzoni who encouraged him in his work. This story belongs to this period of Frederick II when the emperor was in conflict with the Pope, and when the country was torn with feuds and dissensions. It deals with these bitter feuds especially those of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. It is a portrayal of love and revenge that entered into these strifes, duels and as- sassinations. CHAPTER VI THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR This extended conflict between England and France resulted from various causes. The French assisted David Bruce in Scot- land against the support the English gave another claimant; Flanders, a French fief, carried on an extensive wool trade with England. Philip IV ordered the arrest of all Englishmen in Flanders, and to maintain their trade with the English the peo- ple formed an alliance with England against France. Another cause was England's possession of Guienne which had been seized by the French. But the cause that was especially operative was the claim of Edward III to the throne of France. He based his claim upon the fact that his mother Isabella was the sister of the French king, while Philip IV was only his cousin. This claim was groundless as by the Salic law of France succession to the throne could not descend through the female line. To maintain such a war drained both countries of men and money and laid the people under heavy taxation. By it England lost all her possessions in France excepting Calais, and while this was a gain to France, yet the latter was reduced to a deplorable condition. Historical Outline England France Edward III, I 327-1371. Philip VI, 1328-1350. Claimed the crown of First of the House of France. Valois. Beginning of the Hundred Claims of Edward III, 1328. Years' War. Battle of Crecy, 1346. Battle of Crecy, 1346. Capture of Calais, 1347. Capture of Calais, 1347. Battle of Poitiers, 1356. 173 174 HISTORICAL FICTION Richard II, 1377- 1389. Son of the Black Prince, Watt Tyler's Rebellion, 1381. Defeated by Bolingbroke. Henry IV, 1399-1413. First of the House of Lan- caster. Henry V, 1413-1422. Revived the claims of Ed- ward III to the throne of France, 141 5. Battle of Agincourt, 141 5. Henry VI, 1422-1471. Loss of territory in France, 1422-1453. Successes of Joan of Arc. Expulsion from France. Retention of Calais. John, 1 350-1 364. Defeated at Poitiers, 1356. John taken prisoner at Poi- tiers. Charles V, 1364- 1380. War with Edward III. State reduced to bank- ruptcy. Charles VI, 1 380-1422. War renewed. Defeated at Agincourt, I4I5- Charles VII, 1422-1461. Siege of Orleans raised by Joan of Arc and victory at Palay, 1429. Coronation of Charles. Death of Joan of Arc, 1431. The following division of the period under the English kings will be less complicated, and will admit the various stories in their chronological relation, without the omission of any we wish to use, that could not be done as well under another form of division. Reign of Edward III The reign of Edward covered a considerable portion of this period of warfare. During this time were fought the two great battles of Crecy and Poitiers, and between these two events the taking of Calais by the English. The superiority of the English in naval warfare was exhibited in the battle of Sluys when the large French fleet was defeated in the Flemish harbor. The first stage of the war during this period extended from the battle of Crecy to the taking of Calais. For 200 years Calais remained an English town. The second stage extends from the battle of Poitiers to the peace of Bretigny, 1360, by which a large part of France came under Edward's rule while he surrendered his claim to the crown. The third stage (1367-74) was a period THE MEDIEVAL ERA 175 of loss to the English. Charles V would not risk an open battle but kept up a system of skirmishing that irritated the English. The Black Prince returned to England and the French recov- ered all their territory except Calais, Bordeaux and Bayonne. The taking of Calais insured safety to English ships in the Channel, and a brisk trade was maintained with Normandy, Flanders and Gascony. Flemish weavers came to England who taught the people cloth-weaving. In France conditions were much worse. The population was reduced and the taxes drained the resources of the people. Between plague and war the land was being devastated. King John had little capacity for government. Five years after his coronation the war was renewed which was fatal for his reign. In the midst of the deplorable and depleted condition of France a new trouble was added in a great rising of the Jacquerie. For nine years after the treaty of Bretigny the two countries en- joyed a respite, and France was considerably recuperated. Charles V reopened the war, having all the advantage on his side, and re- covered much of the territory held by the English. The Stories Bertrand of Brittany. 1908. Warwick Deeping Bertrand du Guesclin was a low-born Breton and a first-class general, a man of splendid military judgment and capacity and these he employed to the great advantage of France at the close of this period under Charles V in the restoration of French terri- tory. In the early stages of the war and prior to the battle of Crecy, there was little real fighting. It took the form of plunder- ing and marauding expeditions. This story deals with the early years of Bertrand du Guesclin and the vicissitudes through which he and his wife passed. The contest between the English and Bretons at Rennes is described. Rennes was formerly the capital of Brittany. Crecy and Poitiers. 1865. John G. Edgar In 1346 Edward crossed the Somme and took a position at Crecy on rising ground. This compelled the French to climb the slope in making a charge. The French cross-bow was no match for the English long-bow which mowed down the French forces. 176 HISTORICAL FICTION The English infantry thus armed was greatly superior to mounted and mailed knights. It was a decisive victory for the English due to the archers and the skill of Edward III. It was in this battle that Edward, called the Black Prince (because of the color of his armor), won his knightly spurs. At Neville's Cross David II of Scotland was defeated and captured, and then Edward laid siege to Calais which surrendered, and over which the English flag waved for more than 200 years. Ten years after the battle of Crecy Edward, the Black Prince, was devastating the south of France when a French army under King John met him near Poitiers. So greatly were the English outnumbered that Edward agreed to return spoils and prisoners and sign a treaty of peace for seven years, but John would not grant the plea. Again the superiority of English skill won the day, and King John was captured and carried to London where he was held for four years. This victory brought the southern provinces to the English; they were made into a separate prin- cipality by the king and given to his son, the Black Prince. The Black Prince returned to England in 137 1. He was ill and irritable and affairs in the country were in a troublesome state. Then it was that Charles V restored much of the terri- tory Edward had taken, and under these conditions both the king and the Black Prince died in 1377. This story takes us from the invasion of France when Edward crossed the Somme through the great events of Crecy, the battle of Neville's Cross, Poitiers, to the death of the Black Prince. In 1346, the year of the battle of Crecy, King Edward founded the famous "Order of the Garter," a body of knights which still continues as one of the oldest and most honored knightly orders of Europe. The institution of this order is one of the interests of this story. Hugh the Messenger. 1905. Gertrude Hollis Calais maintained a vigorous resistance to the siege which, together with piratical acts on the part of the garrison at an earlier time, determined harsh terms of surrender on the part of Edward. He stipulated that the lives of the people would be spared if six of the leading citizens would present themselves to him, barefooted and bareheaded with ropes around their necks, and having the keys of the city. Six citizens, one of whom was THE MEDIEVAL ERA 177 Eustace de St. Pierre, volunteered to give their lives for their fellow-citizens. When Edward ordered their execution Queen Philippa, who was present, pleaded for their lives, and con- strained him to spare them and set them at liberty. This story is based upon these events, the mediation of the queen, the taking of Calais, while the Black Prince and others appear in the story. Sir Nigel. 1906. Arthur Conan Doyle In 1348 a new foe appeared that could not be met with the machinery and the arts of war. It was the Black Death, so- called because of the dark spots upon the body. So fatal was it that few whom it attacked recovered. Before this terrible plague all classes and ages succumbed. It swept over the land reaping a frightful harvest. During the fourteen months that it carried on its awful work London lost half of its population. Terror-stricken people fled to the convents, many times to find that no sacred place was immune, and in many instances to find that every monk had perished. Industry and business were demoral- ized. This English novelist (1859-) studied at Edinburgh and from 1882 to 1890 practiced medicine at Southsea. He then aban- doned his profession for a literary career as he had already at- tained some success in that field. His detective, Sherlock Holmes, at once made him famous. Among his historical novels are Micah Clark and The White Company. For his services during the Boxer War and his support of the British policy he was knighted in 1902. In this story the early life and troubles of Sir Nigel are de- scribed, especially the ravages of the Black Death. He is in- duced by Chandos to go to the wars as his squire. The battle of Poitiers is well presented as is also the portraiture of Edward. Ill, the Black Prince and other historical characters. The Cross of Pearls. 1903. Mrs. Catherine Mary Bearne Following Crecy and Poitiers France was in a deplorable state. To the peasants who had suffered most from the war the disasters of the two great battles were explainable on the ground 178 HISTORICAL FICTION that France had been betrayed by the nobles. The result was a great uprising on the part of the peasants called the Jacquerie. While it was confined to the northern part of France it took on a most ferocious aspect. "The peasants seemed turned by their sufferings into wild beasts, and the nobles retaliated in like man- ner. The revolt was soon put down, and the lot of the peasant, who was now dreaded as well as despised, became worse than before." In this story the author deals with this peasant uprising and the incidents directly connected with these troubles. French life and customs are splendidly delineated. The White Company. 1890. Arthur Conan Doyle The life and reign of' Pedro, king of Castile and Leon, fall in this period. He was born at Burgos, 1334, the son of Alfonso XI whom he succeeded in 1350, three years after the taking of Calais by the English. In 1353 he married Blanche de Bourbon, sister of the French king, but soon deserted her for his mistress, Dona Maria Padilla, whose relatives he placed in the highest offices in his kingdom. He has been justly called "Pedro the Cruel." He put to death two of his brothers. An insurrection was raised against him by his brother Henry which he put down, and devoted the balance of his reign to establishing his authority over his enemies and to wars with Aragon and Granada. In the year 1366 Henry, at the head of a force, returned from France where he had taken refuge and reasserted his claims to the throne. In this he was supported by the Pope, by Aragon and France. Pedro secured the assistance of Edward the Black Prince, and Henry was crushed at Navarre in 1367. He then subjected the vanquished forces to such cruelties that Edward became disgusted with him and refused to have any further as- sociation with such a monster, and returned to France with his army. The Black Prince by becoming involved in this alliance both shattered his health and became entangled in debt. In the autumn of the same year Henry raised a large force. In 1369 he scattered Pedro's army at Montiel and took Pedro prisoner. He was taken to a tent and Henry engaged him in a single combat and slew him. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 179 These events constitute the historical setting of this story. It sets forth the operations of the English troops under the Black Prince, giving special attention to the captain of the troops. It is a portrayal of hard vigorous warfare. Du Guesclin and others are introduced. Reign of Richard II Richard was the son of the popular Black Prince. His ideas of the power of the king were not shared by his subjects. He came to the throne when war with France was renewed and England was rapidly losing the territory she had gained under Edward III and the Black Prince. Labor troubles were becom- ing active and discontent on the part of the laborer was brewing. Into these situations a new great personality entered, John Wycliffe, who translated the Bible into English and raised his voice against the evils in the Church. His disciples were known as the Lollards. WyclifTe opposed even the authority of the Pope. His socialistic doctrines regarding poverty and labor did much to create the increasing restlessness and the Peasants' Re- bellion. Richard carried things with a high hand actuated by his own principles of the rights of sovereignty. He planned to become an emperor, imposed taxes that were illegal and conceived the overthrow of the power of Parliament. In the elections a parlia- ment was packed that gave him every power and met all his de- mands. When he returned from Ireland Henry was waiting to make him his prisoner and charge him with his crimes. The charges held and he was deposed, and a few months afterwards was found dead in Henry's castle, probably starved to death. Charles V was on the throne of France for only two years after the accession of Richard, so that for the balance of the lat- ter's reign Charles VI was the king of France. His insanity, • however, disqualified him to exercise these functions and rivalry for control became rampant. The king's cousin, John of Bur- gundy, one of the rivals, had his opponent, the king's younger brother Louis, murdered, and civil war broke out. The people were crushed with taxation and the Parisian mob held high car- nival. Thus we see the state of the two countries during this period of the war. i8o HISTORICAL FICTION The Stories The Seven Knights. 1910. Marion Fox When Edward died John of Gaunt, Richard's uncle, came back to power. The country was short of money and a poll-tax was levied on each person, and each year was increased, and with the increasing taxation discontent increased to the breaking point. A poll-tax collector insulted the daughter of a tiler and the latter killed him. It needed but just such a spark to set the country ablaze. Outbreaks spread rapidly over the various counties under the leadership of John Ball, "J ac kstraw" f Essex and Wat Tyler of Kent. The mobs were easily incensed and deeds of violence began. A hundred thousand men under Wat Tyler marched to London. They burned the palace of John Gaunt and murdered the archbishop in the Tower Palace. The young king, sixteen years old, rode among the mob, and when Tyler raised his hand in a threatening manner to the king the mayor of London stabbed him. It threw the people into a frenzy and they cried out "Our captain is killed." In a moment the king and his small party would have been slain, but Richard dashed up to them crying out, "I am your captain, follow me." He gave the people written charters abolishing their oppressions and the mob dispersed. This is known as Wat Tyler's Rebellion of 1381. This story sets forth the condition of the cime leading to this rebellion under Tyler. John Ball was one of the agitators and he preached to great crowds. The story is strong in its char- acterization of him. At this time popular poems were written in the language of the common people, the most famous of which was "Piers Plowman" formerly thought to have been composed by William Langland of whom we know practically nothing. This dreamy poem has a rhythm which caught the ear of the people and its popularity was very great. In this story the author of this poem is strikingly presented. He was a man of deep earnest- ness and deplored the evils of his time. The Banner of St. George. 1900. Miss Mary Bramston This story deals with the same events and the same characters. The scene is laid at St. Albans. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 181 Long Will. 1903. Florence Converse As already noted, Piers Plowman was a poem of the common people. There are still in existence some thirty-six manuscript copies of it made before the invention of printing. The title of the poem became the common appellation of a poor laboring countryman. This American author (1871-) was born in New Orleans. After graduating from Wellesley College in 1893 sne became a member of the editorial staff of the Churchman in which capacity she remained for eight years. She then joined the staff of the Atlantic Monthly. In this romance is given the story of William Langland, aw thor of the poem, both in his home life and in the Court of Rich- ard. The leading figures of the time are introduced. John Ball, Tyler and "J ac k:straw" as he called himself, one of the agitators of the rebellion, John Gower the poet, a contemporary and friend of Chaucer, who wrote the chronicle of the insurrection under Richard II, and Goeffrey Chaucer, the most famous poet of the period and one of the most popular of English poets of all time, author of The Canterbury Tales. The story is an excellent dis- tinction of the period. Reign o£ Henry IV Henry IV was the first of the Lancastrian kings. When Par- liament deposed Richard in 1399 it placed Henry on the throne, hence he was not the direct heir to the throne. Placed on the throne in this manner Henry must pay more attention to the wishes of Parliament, and could hold his throne only by sub- servience to this power, and at the same time by strong resistance to his enemies. He was a man of literary tastes and had a keen mind. He effected nothing in the way of reforms ; his whole at- tention was devoted to safe-guarding his kingship. One of the most significant events of his reign was the law against heresy in 1401 by which the burning of heretics was permitted. Charles VI was on the throne of France during the entire period of Henry's reign as will be noted by the Historical Out- line. As already set forth above, his insanity disqualified him to act, and during this period the rivalries for the control of the 182 HISTORICAL FICTION government kept the country in a state of agitation and unrest. The people were crushed with taxes. During this period there was a lull in the war. Charles V had taken advantage of the retirement of the Black Prince to England broken in health, and the growing apathy of Edward III in his old age, and had recovered much of French territory. Calais, Bordeau and Bayonne were the only important places in the hands of the English. There were but partial renewals of the war during this period. The Stories Both Sides the Border. 1899. G. A. Henty The weakness of Henry IV seemed to offer to Wales her op- portunity for securing her independence. The Welsh castles were held by English nobles and against these Owen Glendower raised a revolt. He had the support of the Welsh people and was pro- claimed the Prince of Wales. He captured several castles and harassed the border counties of England. This revolution was greatly aided by a conspiracy against Henry by two powerful noblemen, the two Percies, earls of Northumberland and Wor- cester. They joined Glendower. The combined revolution was strengthened by the support of "Harry Hotspur," son of the earl of Northumberland and so named because of his fiery temper, but a famous soldier, and the Earl of Douglas, a Scottish noble- man. Henry met these combined forces in the battle of Shrewsbury in 1403 and defeated them. Hotspur was slain and the two earls were taken prisoners. Glendower still held out in Wales. He was supported by Edmund Mortimer, who claimed the throne being in the line of Edward III. A scheme for the division of the kingdom was worked out, but Henry met the crisis and broke up the rebellion and restored Wales to submission, but Glendower was never taken. This story describes the defeat of Douglas by the Percies at Homildon Hill in 1402, and the revolt under Glendower. It gives the account of the federation of these forces against Henry, the breaking up of the rebellion at Shrewsbury and the death of Henry Hotspur. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 183 Kinsman and Namesake. 1909. Richard Stead In the rising of the North against Henry, Archbishop Scrope had sympathized with the rebels, and had dealings with them. He was a man of high character and had rendered valuable as- sistance in placing Henry upon the throne. But these facts, to- gether with his office, had no influence with the enraged Henry, who without a trial, had Scrope and the Earl of Nottingham be- headed. This story deals with this uprising in Yorkshire, and the ac- tivities of the Archbishop in support of the rebellion. Henry IV appears in the Shakespearean play that bears his name. In Richard II he is called Bolingbroke. "Henry IV," says Dowden, "is the same Bolingbroke who has been so greatly conceived in King Richard II ; only he is no longer in the full force of his manhood. He is worn by care and toil, harassed by the troubles of the unquiet times, yet still resolved to hold firmly what he has forcibly attained. There is a pathetic power in the figure of this weary, ambitious man, who can take no rest until the rest of death comes to him.' , Reign of Henry V Henry V was a man of scholarly traits, of high moral char- acter, possessed of soldierly capacity and a statesman. He was stern but a man of just and generous impulses. He had always been a soldier. He believed he had a right to the throne of France and he revived the claims of Edward III. The war was renewed and Henry's brilliant success, not only greatly increased his prestige in Europe, but rendered secure his position at home. In the treaty of Troyes it was agreed that Katharine, daughter of Charles VI, should become Henry's wife ; that he should be regent of the kingdom and succeed to the throne ; England and France were to be for all time united under one king. It will be noted, by referring to the Historical Outline at the beginning of this chapter, that Henry and Charles V died the same year. The remains of Henry lie in Westminster Abbey. "He had tried to unite to his realm another, many times larger and more populous, but the French and the English were peoples each strong in national spirit, and each resolved not to bear the yoke of the other, and this temper no royal marriage, no written treaty, or military array could permanent!/ change." 184 HISTORICAL FICTION The Stories A Champion of the Faith. 1893. J. M. Callwell We have already indicated the rising of the Lollards under the teachings of Wy cliff e. They preached equality and the rights of the poor, and were held in fear by both king and parliament. Following the reign of Henry IV they regarded themselves suffi- ciently strong to overturn the government. Their propaganda and doctrines were encouraged by Sir John Oldcastle who took the title of Lord Cobham, who had great estates in Kent and Here- fordshire. The Emperor Sigismund who was responsible for the death of John Huss the reformer, visited Henry V and stim- ulated his zeal for the orthodox religion. Henry was fond of Oldcastle and pleaded with him to alter his attitude regarding the heretical doctrines, but met with no success. It was arranged by the Lollards to seize the king and over- throw the government, and so strong had they become that a crisis was created. Henry laid hold of the leaders, and heretics were burned at the stake among whom was Oldcastle. In this story the author deals with this period of the Lollard conspiracy in which Oldcastle and his death figure. Henry V, Duke Humphrey and others appear in the story. In the renewal of the war with France Henry landed near Harfleur. The captur- ing of this point cost him one-half of his army and he decided to return to England by way of Calais. This victory is an interest in this story. Agincourt. 1844. George P. R. James Conditions in France were favorable to England's renewing of the war. Charles VI was insane, nobles were quarreling and disputing and the country was constantly in danger of civil war. When Henry lost half of his army at Harfleur and decided to return to England he found himself facing a large French army at Agincourt. Gunpowder had been invented and artillery was now in use. The French force that was drawn up to intercept the English army on its way to Calais was five times as strong as the latter. The ground had been ploughed and the mud was deep, and while the French were hampered by this condition the Eng- lish poured upon them a storm of arrows and swept down and THE MEDIEVAL ERA 185 crushed them. Ten thousand French lay dead upon the field, and the English once more scored a victory more decisive than Crecy and Poitiers. But this great victory, so far from uniting the quarreling factions in France, had the opposite effect of in- creasing the bitterness of their feuds. John of Burgundy was slain, and the new Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, gave his whole support to the English side. This story draws from all sources in setting forth the grandeur of the accession of Henry and the glory of his great victory at Agincourt. It is strong in its portraitures of court life and of leading personages, among them Philip the Good. Henry V appears in Shakespeare's Henry IV. "The Prince" says Dowden, "whom Shakespeare admires and loves more than any other person in English history, cares little for mere reputa- tion. He does not think much of himself and of his own honor ; and while there is nothing to do and his great father holds all power in his own right hand, Prince Hal escapes from the cold proprieties of the court to the boisterous life and mirth of the tavern. He is, however, only waiting for a call to action, and Shakespeare declares that from the first he was conscious of his great destiny, and, while seeming to scatter his force in frivolity, was holding his true self, well guarded, in reserve." Reign of Henry VI It will be noted by the Historical Outline that Henry VI and Charles VII succeeded to the throne the same year. Henry was but an infant when his father died, and the young king's uncle, John, duke of Bedford, acted as regent. Henry was character- ized by timidity. He was precocious as a scholar and inherited his father's literary tastes but lacked his strength, his aggressive- ness and dominating qualities. He founded Eton College and King's College, Cambridge. His gentle, weak nature made him an easy tool in the hands of others. He was subject to fits of in- sanity, so that during this period England was really under the government of great nobles never at peace among themselves. Henry's reign was one long tragedy. "There is no sadder tale in all history than that of the gentle and virtuous Henry VI, sur- rounded by raging factions which destroyed his friends, his only son and finallv himself." 1 86 HISTORICAL FICTION In the death of Charles VI France was relieved of an insane king, and England had in Henry VI a king who was subject to attacks of insanity. The treaty of Troyes provided that upon the death of Charles VI the throne should pass to the king of England, and both nations be under the rule of one sovereign. What national spirit prevailed in France maintained the claims of the Dauphin. His resources were so limited, however, that he did not have much to encourage him, and for the first seven years of his reign the quarrels about him were so bitter that little was done in the way of the war. It was not until a new spirit, a new factor, wholly unlooked for suddenly appeared that the whole situation was changed, that France arose with a new might and expelled the English from the land, and thus brought to an end the Hundred Years' War. The Stories The Days of Jeanne D' Arc. 1897. Mary H. Catherwood Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, the French national heroine, was the daughter of humble parents, born at Domremy, 141 2. At the time of her appearance in history the English were the masters of France north of the Loire. According to a version of a proph- ecy by Merlin, which was current in the native province of Joan and with which she was undoubtedly familiar, France was to be overwhelmed with calamities, but was to be delivered by a virgin out of the forest of Domremy. At the age of thirteen she believed that she was spoken to by heavenly voices, and at the age of fif- teen the voice commissioned her to go and fight for the dauphin of France and liberate her country. Following these impulses, in male attaire, she gained access to the court of Charles VII. She so impressed Charles that he en- trusted her with the command of an army. Dressed in warlike equipment, with sword and banner, she placed herself at the head of the French troops. Within ten days she raised the siege of Orleans and other victories followed. The dormant national spirit was fanned into a mighty life, the national courage was kindled anew and the troops swept everything before them. The national heroine became the dread of the English. Joan conducted the young prince to Rheims, where the kings of France were anciently accustomed to hold the coronation cere- THE MEDIEVAL ERA 187 monies, where he was crowned July 17, 1429. Believing her mission to be accomplished she was about to return to her home, but Charles persuaded her to remain with the army to which she consented. In a battle with the Burgundians the French were defeated and Joan was taken prisoner. She had aroused the jeal- ousy of the king's advisers, and when she was turned over to the English for the sum of about $3,000, no effort was made to save her. She was tried as a sorceress and witch, and after a shameful and unjust trial was condemned to be burned at the stake, which fate she suffered in 1431 at the age of nineteen. An Englishman witnessing her execution cried out, "We are lost ; we have burned a saint !" The greatest blot on the fame of Charles VII "is the ingratitude he showed in making no effort to rescue from death the brave girl, who, more than any one else, saved for him the throne of France." This American novelist (1847-1902) was born at Luray, Ohio. She graduated from the college at Granville, Ohio (1868), and then settled at Newburgh-on-the-Hudson, where she began writ- ing stories for the magazines. To this earlier period belong several novels. A series of historical romances then appeared illustrat- ing French Canada, The Story of Tonty, etc. In this story the author made a careful study of her heroine, the Maid of Orleans. The story deals with this last period of the war, and the part played by Joan of Arc in the restoration of France. She portrays particularly the qualities of character of this girl of the common people who obeyed her remarkable call to duty and self-sacrifice. Charles VII and other historical char- acters play their parts in the story. A Monk of Fife. 1895. Andrew Lang This English writer (1844-) received his education at Edin- burgh Academy, St. Andrews University and Balliol College, Oxford. At the latter he distinguished himself as a student. He has written along various lines. He made translations of Homer and Theocritus, and his selected fairy tales fill several volumes. He has also written ballads and light verse. In this story the monk belongs to Dumferline in Scotland. He became an archer in this period of the war, and was brought into familiar contact with Joan of Arc. The story deals with the dis- 1 88 HISTORICAL FICTION tinctive service rendered by her and abounds with exciting epi- sodes in these days of France's recovery. Noemi. 1895. S. Baring-Gould This story deals with the conditions in France during the reign of Charles VII as bearing upon this closing period of the war. It is a story of Rock-Dwellers, and the fortress on the Dordogne holds an important place in the narrative. Held by Rebels. 1906. Tom Bevan Parliament was in session at Leicester devising measures by which existing financial and political evils may be overcome when news came that a formidable rebellion had broken out under the leadership of a man who called himself Mortimer, but who in reality was an Irishman by the name of Jack Cade. He had killed a woman of Sussex, fled to France and there fought against the English. He took advantage of the restless state of things in Eng- land created both by the defeats in France, the burdensome taxes and the lawless murder of the Duke of Suffolk. Cade mustered his men on Blackheath and at Sevenoaks de- feated and routed the king's force. The rebels entered London and beheaded the king's treasurer. The Chancellor offered the insurgents pardon which they accepted and started for home. But Cade was suspicious of the pardon and opened the jails and or- ganized a new force out of the prisoners. He became a mere plunderer and his men quarreled over the booty. Cade tried to escape but was caught by the sheriff in a garden at Heathfield and was killed in being captured. This story is a portrayal of these events, the rebellion in Kent under Cade, and the taking of London by the rebels. In setting forth the life and work of Joan of Arc poetry, as well as fiction, has supplemented history. It was Schiller who led the way in his tragedy, The Maid of Orleans. By these stories this extended period of strife and struggle has been well represented and portrayed. They have set before us in a vivid and living manner the great scenes and events, and have also given us an interpretation of the times and leading char- acters. They also set before us an estimate of values pertaining to the deeper things of life as we find them, not only in the period we have just studied, but as they appear in every age. CHAPTER VII SCOTLAND. PERIOD OF THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR Under a former section we had occasion to deal with the period of the conflict between Scotland and England. Those were the days of Edward I and Edward II, the days of William Wallace and Robert Bruce. It was in 13 14 that Bruce won the independ- ence of Scotland by the battle of Bannockburn. He was the great- est of the Scottish kings. He died in 1329 and was succeeded by his son David II. A new conflict with England arose and by the success of the English arms at Neville's Cross in 1346 the Scotch king was compelled to do homage to England. Robert II succeeded to the throne in 1371 and with him began the Stuart Dynasty. In the main, the kings of this line were able men, but coming to the throne as some of them did in their minority played into the hands of the nobles and greatly increased their power. In the wars with England during this period Robert held himself aloof and allowed the barons to carry on the conflict. In 1390 he was followed by Robert III, a man utterly incapable of dealing with the turbulent conditions of the time, and before his son, a man of large ability, could take the throne the country was in the hands of scheming agents. When James I succeeded to the throne the country was in a state of disorder. During his reign and through his forceful meas- ures order was introduced, the nobility had its power curtailed and commerce and industry were greatly advanced. The reign of James was brought to an end by assassins in the closing years of the Hundred Years' War. The reign of James II to the close of the war was a period of conflict with the house of Douglas. The latter placed itself in open rebellion to the throne. These dis- orders we shall have occasion to note in connection with the stories. The Stories REIGN OF JAMES I The Caged Lion. 1870. Charlotte M. Yonge James I of Scotland (1406-1437) was the second son of Robert III. At the age of eleven years his father decided he should re- 189 190 HISTORICAL FICTION ceive his education at the court of France. While on his way- there he was captured by an English ship. His father, a weak man, wholly unqualified to cope with the stormy spirit of the age, was so affected by the capture of his son that he died the following year of a broken heart. While James was held a prisoner in England, having been acknowledged as king of Scotland on the death of his father (1406), Albany became regent, and it is not unlikely that it was through him that James was captured and held for so many years a prisoner. When Albany died (1419) negotiations for the release of James began, and in 1424 he was crowned king at Scone. The education he received in England qualified him for his kingship, and fitted him to become one of the strongest monarchs of his age. Before leaving England he married Jane Beaufort, cousin of Henry V. In 1436 he married his daughter to the dauphin of France, afterwards Louis XI, and thus strengthened the relations between the two courts. This story deals with James during the period of his captivity. It details his capture by the English when on his way to France, and the years from 1405 to 1423 spent in England. As noted above, it was after the death of Albany that negotiations began for his release, so that he was a prisoner in England for eighteen years, and had reached the age of twenty-nine when he began to reign. Catherine Douglas. 1905. Rachel Willard During the captivity of James and while others were in control of the government the nobles had greatly strengthened their power. James at once adopted measures to curtail this power. This brought him into conflict with the nobles. The taxation of the people had also given rise to discontent. The result was that a conspiracy arose against the king. Sir Robert Graham gathered a band of 300 conspirators and led them to the abbey of Black Friars at Perth, where James was at the time. Graham slew James with his own hand, but in their hurry the queen was allowed to escape. So great was the indignation created by this brutal murder that everyone of the band was brought to justice, while Graham was tortured to death at Stirling. James was a man of letters and sought the highest good of his people and his country. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 191 This story sets forth the turbulent conditions in Scotland during this reign, and the operations of the king in his attempt to introduce order into the kingdom. It sets forth the conspiracy under Graham and the assassination of the king. Among the his- torical personages is Archibald, the fifth Earl of Douglas, who was prominent in the French wars, and, dying in 1439, was buried in the church of Douglas, where his tomb still remains. A King's Tragedy. 1905. May Wynne This story deals with the same events as those of the preceding story. Kennedy, the king's faithful servant, has learned of the plot to murder the king and of Graham's plans. He was prevented from getting to James with the facts and thereby foiling the plot of the conspirators. Reign of James II When James I was assassinated his son was but seven years of age. After his coronation his mother took him to Edinburgh Castle to insure his safety. She became alarmed at the conduct of William Crichton, the governor of the castle, and escaped to Stirling. His reign is marked by the conflict with the powerful house of Douglas which refused to yield to the authority of the king. The Stories The Black Douglas. 1899. Samuel R. Crockett William, the sixth Earl of Douglas, after succeeding to the earl- dom had incurred the enmity of William Crichton, from whom the mother of James II had escaped. The young king was at the castle as he had been seized by Crichton. The latter invited the Earl of Douglas, who was a young lad eighteen years of age, to pay a visit to the young king, who was then about nine years of age. Reach- ing the castle William found there his brother David. A form of trial was conducted and then both boys were beheaded. The author (i860-), a Scotch novelist, was educated at the University of Edinburgh. Following his graduation he traveled extensively in Europe, Africa and Asia. From 1886 to 1894 he was a minister at Penicuik. The works by which he is best known are The Stickit Minister, The Standard Bearer, The Banner of Blue, Bog-Myrtle and Peat and others. 192 HISTORICAL FICTION In this story the author deals with the historical facts just re- lated — the murder of William and David Douglas, which holds a principal place in the story. The scenes are laid in Edinburgh, Galloway and Stirling. The story is full of action and rather extravagant in the classes of persons introduced. Maid Margaret of Galloway. 1905. Samuel R. CROCKETT William, eighth Earl of Douglas, was a man of an independent turbulent spirit. He held a large part of southern Scotland and hence wielded great power. James II appointed him Lieutenant- Governor. When he returned from Rome in 145 1 he found that William Crichton had been influencing the actions of the king which placed Douglas in a secondary position. He lost the king's favor and then openly defied the king's authority. Securing the support of his own dependents and the co-operation of the Earls of Crawford and Ross he ravished the lands of the king's friends and made himself an independent prince. He had married his cousin, Margaret Douglas, the "Fair Maid of Galloway," and thus reunited the possessions of the house of Douglas. The king ar- ranged for an interview with him at Stirling. Douglas became so insolent during this interview that James stabbed him in the throat, and Sir Patrick Gray completed the deed. His titles and estates were left to his brother James. The latter at once took up arms to avenge his brother's death, but instead of pursuing this course he became reconciled to the king. This is a story of Margaret of Galloway, the wife of the mur- dered Douglas. It sets forth the historical facts and circumstances given in the sketch. It deals also with the leading fact of the pre- ceding story. These stirring, stormy times are strongly portrayed. The Captain of the Guard. 1862. James Grant This British author (1822- 1887) was born at Edinburgh. For seven years he lived at Newfoundland and returning to England became an ensign in the British army. In 1846 he published his first novel, The Romance of War. He published many works bearing a military stamp. Among these are Bothzvell, Dick Rod- ney, The White Cockade, Mary of Lorraine. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 193 The scenes of this story are laid in Galloway, Edinburgh and Flanders. It deals with the reign of James II, and his conflicts with the house of Douglas. The Mawkin of the Flow. 1898. Ernest W. Hamilton Buccleuch is a glen in Selkirkshire, Scotland. In an early day it was a stronghold of the clan whence the title of the dukedom is derived. This was one of the most ancient and renowned ducal families in Scotland. It traces its descent from Sir Richard le Scot ( 1 249- 1285) . The ancestor who first became historically dis- tinctive was Sir Walter Scott of Brauxholm and Buccleuch (1490- 1552). He was a powerful border chieftain of the time of James V. His illustrious namesake founded the Lay of the Last Minstrel on some of the events of the career of the great chieftain. This is a tale of this period describing the escapades of a peasant girl, who awakens the affections of the Buccleuch in dis- guise. CHAPTER VIII ITALY. PERIOD OF THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR The period from 1305 to 1447 in Italy was distinctive in its history in the establishment ot five great powers : the Papacy, the Republics of Venice and Florence, the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples. Before 1300 the authority of the German emperors was completely set aside. The duchy of Milan was created in 1395, and in 1420 Venice reached the zenith of her power. From 1434 the Medici became supreme in Florence. In this political development Italy had approached self-government. In 1435 Alfonzo, who was called the magnanimous, had united for the first time since 1282 the crowns of Sicily and Naples. His reign of twenty-three years was the best period in the history of South Italy. In Milan the Visconti family, Dukes of Milan, rose to great- ness from the time of John, Archbishop and lord of Milan. Gian Galeozzo became the duke in 1378, and attained to the greatest power and wealth of the Italian despots. He extended his do- minion almost to Venice, overcame Lombardy and was commenc- ing operations to seize Tuscany when, in 1402, he became a victim of the plague. In Florence, following the great plague of 1348, the people rose against the merchant princes and soon the city became an oligarchy under the leadership of the powerful Abizzi family. Then the Medici steadily rose, and in 1433 in their conflict with the Abizzi came off victorious. The temporal power of the popes was lost when they were transferred to Avignon, but when Gregory XI returned to Rome and their exile came to an end in the election of Urban VI the popes again became the rulers of Italy. In Nicholas V, who died in 1455, the temporal power of the papacy became strongly estab- lished. Thus we see the general political situation in Italy during the period of the Hundred Years' War, the period to which the fol- lowing stories belong. 194 TPIE MEDIEVAL ERA 195 The Stories Rienzi, the Last of the Tribunes. 1835. Bulwer-Lytton Cola di Rienzi (1 312- 1354) was incited to his revolutionary agitation by the assassination of his brother by a Roman noble, and he determined to save Rome from the oppression of the barons. The leaders of the Guelph party selected him as the spokesman of a deputation to the papal court at Avignon, to lay before Clement VI the necessity of returning to Rome to protect the citizens from their oppressors. In 1347 he assembled his friends at Mount Aventine, an oath was taken to establish a republican government, and a series of laws was proposed. Driving the senators out of the city Rienzi took the title of tribune of liberty, peace and justice. At first he exhibited a strict regard for the general good, but he became am- bitious and overbearing. Unable to resist the barons he spent two years in solitude. He then delivered a prophecy to Charles IV at Prague, that within eighteen months a new Pope would be elected, that Charles would reign in the West and Rienzi would hold the East. Charles did not regard him a safe man to be at large and threw him into prison. The feuds between the great families were creating a state of anarchy, and the people, believing that Rienzi might render some good service in restoring order, had him released from Prison. He was received with great enthusiasm at Rome, but within two months his measures became so unbearable that an enraged mob turned upon him and put him to death. Bulwer-Lytton's story is a presentation of Rienzi in this polit- ical setting. It exhibits the man in his attempt to secure the liberty of the people. It sets forth the disorders in Rome, the prey of feudal anarchy ; the municipal government reduced to impotence ; the strifes of the families of Colonna, Orsini and Sorelli. The Sword Decides. 1908. Marjorie Bowen Joanna I, queen of Naples (1343-1382) and after 1356 queen of Sicily and Countess of Provence, was the daughter of Charles, Duke of Calabria, and of Maria of Valois. She succeeded to the throne on the death of her grandfather, Robert the Wise. She was the wife of her cousin Andrew, the brother of Louis the Great, 196 HISTORICAL FICTION King of Hungary. This marriage was concocted while they were children as an expedient to satisfy the rival claims of the two branches of the house of Anjou. The will of Robert the Wise pro- vided that Joanna should become queen when she had reached the age of twenty-five (she was born in 1327), but she secured the authority of the Pope and came at once to the throne. Andrew, through the influence of his brother, Louis the Great, was also crowned. In the second year following this coronation Andrew was assas- sinated, and it was the general belief that Joanna had instigated the deed at the hands of the conspirators, and to avenge his brother's death, Louis declared war. In 1347 Joanna married Louis of Taranto, but Louis the Great captured Naples and took the crown. The deposed queen and king returned to Naples with a force and expelled the Hungarian garrison. Louis proposed a compromise, i. e., that Joanna should submit to a trial for the murder of her husband and if found guilty she should surrender her kingdom to Louis the Great. To this she agreed, and in 1352 the papal court declared her innocent, and the kingdom was re- stored to her and her husband. Charles of Durazzo claimed the right to the crown of Naples as a papal fief and Urban crowned him king. He was a cousin of Joanna, and prior to her last mirriage (she had been married four times) she had chosen Charles as her successor, but changed her will in favor of Louis of Anjou, brother of Charles V of France. By the combined efforts of the Pope, Louis the Great and Charles of Durazzo she was seized and put to death. This story is based upon this history of conspiracy and crime as related to Andrew, the first husband of Joanna. Jehanne of the Golden Lips. 1910. Frances G. Knowles Foster Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), Italian novelist and poet, was remarkably precocious as a boy. His fame rests on his great work Decameron. It comprises one hundred tales, supposed to have been told by a company of people who for ten days were in a country home near Florence while the city was swept with the plague. These stories are full of wit and beauty, and by this work the author became the father of Italian prose. He was also the THE MEDIEVAL ERA 197 author of valuable dictionaries of classical mythology and geog- raphy. Petrarch was also a Florentine and was the contemporary of Boccaccio. He passed from one court to another and longed for a revival of the ancient glory of the Imperial City, and was the first one in the field to gather Latin manuscripts. These two men contributed greatly to the revival of learning, and the fifteenth century brought forth a host of humanists who continued the work of Boccaccio and Petrarch. The latter by his Sonnets estab- lished the fact that the Italian language was adapted to lyric poetry. More than any other city Florence was the cradle of Italian culture. The first to produce a native literature, her vernacular became the written language of Italy. One is dazzled in contem- plating the great souls who imparted so much of her glory — Dante, Giotto, Donatello, Leonardo, Michelangelo, etc. It was during this period of the revival of learning in Florence, the home of so much greatness and genius, that Joanne flourished and the events connected with her reign occurred. In this story, which relates to the first few years of her reign, the historical facts, as set forth in the sketch, are related. Together with other leading personages of the time Boccaccio is introduced. The Court of Joanne was famous for its magnificence, and was quite in keeping with the time. Ridolfo. 1906. Egerton R. Williams Perugia, a city of central Italy, was one of the twelve cities of the Etruscan League. Before the Middle Ages it became a posses- sion of the Popes. The Baglioni was a noted family of Perugia. In this city were two parties, the aristocratic and democratic. The Baglioni belonged to the former. Frederick Barbarossa appointed Ludovico Baglioni as the imperial vicar of Perugia. In 1393 a street fight occurred in this city in which 70 men were killed by the people ; among those killed were two Baglionis. In this upris- ing the entire aristocratic party was driven from the city. The power of the Baglioni extended from the close of the fourteenth to the middle of the sixteenth centuries. This story deals with this period of the Baglioni in Perugia, giving a portrayal of the plottings, ruthless despotism and crimes of the time. It is a good description of the power and activities of this historical family. 198 HISTORICAL FICTION The Love Story of St. Bel. 1909. Bernard Capes Siena lies about fifty miles south of Florence. During the Middle Ages the city was an important art center, and was the birthplace of several renowned painters and sculptors. The cathe- dral dates from the thirteenth century, while among other churches of note is the Chapel of St. Catherine. Saint Catherine of Siena (1347-1380) was the daughter of Jacomo Benincasa. She was one of the most distinguished saints of the Dominican Order, which she entered early in life. She was a mystic and was extreme in her asceticism, and in the extraordi- nary mortifications she practiced. She declares that things were revealed to her in visions and claimed the gift of prophecy, and went so far as to call herself the bride of Christ, receiving from him peculiar favors, having his wounds impressed upon her body. She exercised some political influence, and in some measure was instrumental in the return of the Pope from Avignon to Rome (1377). In their negotiations with Gregory XI the Florentines employed her services. She did some writing in the way of de- votional pieces, letters and poems. In 1461 she was canonized by Pope Pius II. In this story Catherine is the leading historical character. The scene is laid at Siena. In a mix-up feud St. Catherine plays an important part in the influence she brings to bear upon the fighting factions. Brazenhead the Great. 1911. Maurice Hewlett In the twelfth century Milan was the most powerful of the city republics. In 131 1 the house of Visconti triumphed over that of La Torre, and the duchy of Milan was established in 1395. The family of the Visconti became supreme over the larger part of Lombardy. Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan (1391-1447), was the last of the Visconti Dynasty, and in 1450 the ducal house of Sforza was established. The Sforza Dynasty flourished until the duchy was taken possession of by Charles V, 1535. Filippo Maria Visconti in 1441 engaged the services of the cele- brated condottiere Francesco Sforza. A condottiere was a mili- tary chief of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries who sold his services and those of his troop to any state or monarch at war. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 199 Filippo was Sforza's greatest patron. He conferred upon Fran- cesco the hand of his daughter, and her dowry consisted of Cre- mona and Pontremoli. By force and strategem this Italian warrior became duke of Milan in 1450, which succeeded the Visconti dynasty at that time, and his authority extended over all Lom- bardy, and even Genoa came under his sway. This story deals with this period in Milan in which Francesco Sforza is brought into relationship with the Duke of Milan. Brazenhead sells his services to Filippo Maria Visconti to commit whatever murders may be required of him by the duke. CHAPTER IX BELGIUM. PERIOD OF THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR Originally the Netherlands included the territory comprised by the present kingdoms of the Netherlands and Belgium. In the fourteenth century the dukes of Burgundy ruled the entire terri- tory. In 1384 Philip the Bold secured Flanders and Artois, while Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, the last duke of Burgundy, through her marriage with the Archduke Maximilian of Austria, the Low Countries became a possession of the house of Haps- burg. Thus from the time of the Roman occupation this section of Europe was claimed first by one power and then by another. The principal historical facts with which we are now concerned will be noted in connection with the stories. The Stories The Lion of Flanders. 1838. Hendrik Conscience In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the industrial sections throughout Europe which were attaining to importance, rose against the feudal system. Bruges, the capital of West Flanders, is sixty miles northwest of Brussels. In the Church of Notre Dame, whose spire is 290 feet high, are the remains of Charles the Bold and of his daughter, Mary of Burgundy. In 1430 Philip the Good founded here the order of the Golden Fleece. It was here that Jan Van Eyck (John of Bruges), the supposed inventor of oil painting, was born. The citizens of Bruges, as also of Ghent, were immensely wealthy through their extensive woolen industries. In the Middle Ages Bruges became, not only one of the leading commercial centers of northern Europe, but from 1240 to 1426 it was a leading mart of the Hanseatic League. Courtrai is a town in the province of West Flanders. In 1302 the citizens of Bruges and Ghent rose against the French. Their 200 THE MEDIEVAL ERA 201 forces numbered about 20,000, while those of the French num- bered 47,000. The battle was fought beneath the walls of Cour- trai, and the Flemings won a great victory over their foes. More than 700 pairs of golden spurs worn by the French nobility were gathered by the Flemings, and from this time the battle was called the "Battle of the Spurs." This story has its setting in these days of the prosperity of these two cities of Belgium. It describes the rising against the feudal system which was greatly weakened by the battle of Courtrai. These events are followed to the final conflict just indicated — the splendid victory of the Flemish forces. The White Hoods. 1828. Anna Eliza Bray Jacob van Antevelde (1300-1345) was a brewer of Ghent. He was selected by his fellow-citizens as the leader of the popular party in Flanders in its opposition to Count Louis of Flanders. In 1338 he was made the captain of the forces of Ghent, and for several years he acted somewhat in the capacity of a sovereign. Finally a movement was started that favored making the Black Prince, son of Edward III of England, the governor of Flanders. This created such opposition that an insurrection broke out in which Artevelde was slain. The struggles against the Count of Flanders continued and Philip, the son of Artevelde, was selected by the Flemings to lead the revolt against the count. The forces under Philip cap- tured and plundered Bruges, its burghers having sided with the Count. Philip gained a great victory and was acknowledged as governor by nearly all communes of Flanders. Charles VI of France then sent a French army to restore Louis and in the bat- tle of Rosebecque in 1382 Philip's forces were overwhelmed, and he with thousands of Flemings were slain. This English novelist (1790- 1883) was born in London. She wrote considerable historical fiction and also works of travel. In 1870, at the age of 80, she issued three French historical novels. This story gives a splendid description of these cities of Flan- ders, and follows accurately the history of this time when the people under the leadership of Philip van Artevelde were strug- gling against the rule of Louis Count of Flanders. 202 HISTORICAL FICTION A Turbulent Town. 1884. E. N. Hoare This story deals with the same events following them to the battle of Rosebecque and the death of Philip van Artevelde. Old Margaret 1871. Henry Kingsley The battle of Rosebecque restored the authority of the nobles, and in 1384 Flanders and Artois fell to the house of Burgundy by the marriage of the Duke, a scion of the French crown, with Margaret, daughter of Louis II, Count of Nevers, the last ruler of these provinces. John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy (1404-1419), was as- sassinated and was succeeded by his son, Philip the Good (1419- 1467). He began to rule at the age of twenty-three. It will be remembered, in connection with the story of England of this same period, that in the treaty of Troyes (1420) Henry V of England was recognized as heir to the French crown. Philip at once en- tered into the treaty which acknowledged this succession. Bed- ford, who became regent of France, married Philip's sister. Philip endeared himself to his subjects, and under his rule Burgundy enjoyed prosperity and peace. During his reign Namur was annexed in 1429, Brabant and Linburg in 1430, in 1433 the Countess Jacqueline ceded to him Hainant, Holland and Zea- land, and in 1443 Luxemburg was annexed. He was succeeded by his son Charles the Bold, the last Duke of Burgundy. This English novelist (1830-1876) was the brother of Charles Kingsley, author of Hypatia, and other works of fiction. He received his education at King's College, London, and Wor- cester College, Oxford. In 1858 he went to Australia as a col- onist. Returning to England he contributed extensively to mag- azines, and for a time was editor of the Edinburgh Daily Review. Among his best known novels are Geoffrey Hamlyn, Austin El- liott and Ravenshoe. Old Margaret is a story of the time of Philip the Good. It sets forth in a manner characteristic of Kingsley the life of Ghent and its industries. There flourished at this time the two Van Eycks, Hubert and Jan, brothers, the famous painters of the Flemish School. They lived first at Bruges, but removed to Ghent about 1420, about the time that Philip the Good succeeded his THE MEDIEVAL ERA 203 father. They were famous for several things: they invented a method of painting in oil and thus revived an art that had been lost, which contributed greatly to modern art ; they were the first to introduce naturalism into art; they greatly improved the art of painting on glass. Kingsley introduces these famous painters into his story. CHAPTER X GERMANY-BOHEMIA. TO THE CLOSE OF THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR In a former section we had occasion to give considerable at- tention to the period of the Hohenstaufen emperors which be- gan in 1 138, and is the most famous in German medieval history. The marriage of Henry VI brought him the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, which continued to remain under the rule of the Hohenstaufens until 1265. This carried its own disadvantage and loss as it took the attention of the sovereigns from Germany to a greater or less extent. From the time of Philip of Swabia to the fall of the Hohenstaufens was a period of internal strife and contentions with the Popes. For nineteen years after the death of Conrad was the period known as the Great Interregnum. The crown was practically offered for sale to the highest bidder. Among the bidders was Richard of Cornwall and Alphonso of Castile who offered the largest bribes. They were elected, but their power was not in- creased. During the fourteenth and for a part of the fifteenth cen- turies interest in German history diminishes. "The imperial crown was passed around from one house to another and was openly offered to the highest bidder, the only care of the electors being to choose a prince not strong enough to endanger their au- thority." In 1356 Charles IV issued the Golden Bull defining the rights and duties of the imperial electors, the manner of electing the emperors, etc. Bohemia was tributary to Germany from the early part of the tenth century to the fourteenth during which time her inter- ests were greatly enhanced. So strong did she become that from the last quarter of the thirteenth century to the beginning of the fourteenth, or for a period of about thirty years, its sway reached from the Elbe to the Adriatic and Bohemia became one of the most powerful kingdoms of Europe. The house of Luxemburg 204 THE MEDIEVAL ERA 20; then gained control, and several of the kings of Bohemia were also emperors of Germany. This fact is indicated in the following outline : Historical Outline Germany Frederick II, 1215-1250. Conrad IV, 1250- 1254. Rudolph I, of Hapsburg, 1273- 1291. Founder of the present house of Austria. Adolphus of Nassau, 1292- 1298. Albert I, 1298-1308. Of Haps- burg. Henry VII, of Luxemburg, 1308-1313. Louis the Bavarian, 1 314-1347. Charles IV, of Luxemburg, 1347-1378. Wenceslas (Wenzel), 1378- 1400. Rupert, of the Palatinate, 1400- 1410. Sigismund, 1411-1437. Last Luxemburg Emperor. Albert II, of Hapsburg, 1438- H39- Frederick III, 1440-1493. Bohemia Ottocar II, 1 253- 1 278. John of Luxemburg, 1310-1346. Charles IV (of Luxemburg), 1 346- 1 378. Wenceslas, 1378-1419. Sigismund, 1419-1437. Podiebrad, 1458-1471. The Stories The Wanton. 1909. Frances Harrod The ambitions of Frederick II, Emperor of Germany and King of Sicily, relative to the subjugation of Lombardy, and the limitation of the office of the Popes, brought him into continual conflict both in Germany and Italy. In a former section consider- able attention was given to the strife between Frederick and the papacy. The Council held at Lyons in 1245 was the thirteenth General Council. At this Council Frederick was declared to be guilty of perjury, heresy and sacrilege. He was also declared to 206 HISTORICAL FICTION be deposed, and hostilities were opened and organized against the Hohenstaufen. In 1 167 the Lombard League was formed by the Lombard communes against the emperor, and in 1 183 the cities of the League secured their liberties. This story deals with the time of this emperor in Germany, the pronouncements of the Council of Lyons, and the conflict be- tween Frederick and the papacy. The Boy and the Baron. 1901. Adeline Knapp During the Great Interregnum, following the passing of the Hohenstaufen House, Germany was practically without a head. "The decentralizing forces long at work in Germany seemed completely triumphant. The imperial domains passed into the hands of the princes. The feudal barons, secure in their strong castles, ruled as they pleased; peasants were tortured and op- pressed, and merchants were robbed at will ; 'fist-right' — the rule of the strongest — was the only law the nobles recognized." In 1272 the Pope ordered a new election, and Rudolph of the house of Hapsburg, and founder of the present house of Austria, was raised to the throne. In 1276 he vanquished Ottocar II of Bohemia and forced him to give up Austria, Styria and Carinthia. In 1278 Ottocar renewed the war and was defeated and slain. This story is concerned with the lawless state of things in Germany, and the manner in which the barons appropriated what- ever they could seize. It sets forth the measures of Rudolph in correcting this state of things and securing regard for royal authority. Crushed Yet Conquering. 1892. Deborah Alcock John Huss of Bohemia (1369-1415) was a religious reformer. After studying theology and philosophy at the University of Prague he became a professor in the university in 1398. He severely denounced the criticisms of the Church of the writings of Wycliffe of England, and commended Wycliffe and his work. Pope Alexander issued a proclamation laying prohibitions upon preaching, which Huss defied. He was summoned to Rome to defend his principles, which he ignored, and was excommunicated. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 207 Together with Jerome he started a campaign against papal indul- gences, and was expelled from Prague. He then wrote a treatise denying all Church authority. Assured by Wenceslaus the king and Emperor Sigismund of a safe conduct, he appeared before the Council of Constance in 141 4. His doctrines were condemned, he was burned at the stake and his ashes cast into the Rhine. The work of Huss, however, did not cease with his death. It resulted in the establishment of the Moravian Church. The Mora- vians built the town of Herrnhut, in Saxony, which is still the headquarters of the Church, and from this point their doctrines have spread throughout Germany, England and America. This story deals with the work of this reformer leading to his martyrdom, and lays special emphasis upon the influence of the teachings of Huss as they are perpetuated by the Church in which they are embodied. In 1377 the papacy returned to Rome from Avignon. The demand was for an Italian Pope, and when Urban VI was elected by the cardinals, his methods were so violent that they then attempted to dismiss him and appointed in his stead Clement VII. A schism was created that lasted for forty years. A conference to bring about a joint abdication of both Popes was called for, but it never convened. It was then that Charlier de Jean Gerson, a French theologian, zealously urged a general council by which to end the schism. This Frenchman is an important personage in the story. The Gleaming Dawn. 1896. James Baker The followers of Huss, so far from being intimidated by the action of the powers in taking his life, took up arms in defense of their principles, which was the beginning of the Hussite Wars (1419). In John Ziska they had a strong leader. They captured Prague. A crusade was then organized against them, but they repeatedly defeated the troops of Sigismund, who, in that year, had come to the throne of Bohemia. They also devastated large sections of Germany. When Ziska died in 1424 they found an- other leader in Procopius, who distinguished himself by his vic- tories. In 1426 they were victorious in the battle of Aussig, and in 1427 in the battle of Mies. This story has its setting in these historical events. In a former section is detailed the case of John Oldcastle, who was 208 HISTORICAL FICTION burned as a heretic in 14 17, or two years after the martyrdom of John Huss. Oldcastle is introduced into this story. It describes the storming and taking of Prague by the Hussites, and their vic- tories as set forth above. The Cardinal's Page. 1898. James Baker In 1429-30 the Hussites ravaged Saxony, Franconia and Ba- varia. In the following year they were victorious at Taus. This story is a continuation of these wars, setting forth the victories of the Hussites, and the defensive measures against their operations. Cardinal Beaufort of England, the son of John of Gaunt, a loyal and patriotic subject and whose vast means more than once saved England in her extremities, is one of the personages in this story. Wenzel's Inheritance. 1880. Annie Lucas There were two parties of the Hussites. The Taborites were of a radical and extreme type and carried things to an excess. The Calixtines were a much more moderate party. They became alienated from the Taborites by their excesses, and when they secured certain concessions, such as the right to preach in the Bohemian tongue and the reform of clerical disorders, they acknowledged Sigismund as king. This compromise was effected at the Council of Basel in 1433, and was called the Compactata of Prague. In the following year the Taborites were vanquished by the Calixtines at Bohmisch-Brod and their leader, Procopius, was slain. They declined as a political party, and finally became merged in the Bohemian Brethren. This story sets forth these affairs relative to the Hussites, and carries the history beyond the point of the period within which we are now confined. CHAPTER XI THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE Theodosius the Great divided his dominions between his two sons. Arcadius received the East and became the first of the Byzantine emperors. As a separate dynasty this empire lasted for a thousand years. Basil I was the founder of the Macedonian dynasty, which continued from 867 to 1057. During the reign of Basil Sicily was conquered by the Saracens, who also carried on their depreda- tions in the Peloponnesus. To withstand these Saracenic inva- sions Leo II, son of Basil, called upon the Turks for assistance. The increase of the Mohammedan power created great appre- hension in Christian Europe, and it was during the reign of Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118) that the Crusade movement be- gan, as has been fully set forth in that section of our study. The Latin Empire (1204-1261) was established when Constantinople was taken by the Crusaders, the first emperor of which was Bald- win of Flanders. This empire never attained to any great strength, and in 1261 Michael Palaeologus, emperor of Nicaea, took Constantinople and brought the Latin Empire to an end and restored the Greek Empire. From this time the dynasty of the Palaeologi continued until the fall of the empire in 1453. The great menace that now threat- ened the empire was the advent of the Ottoman Turks, the name being derived from their sultan, Othman. In 1330 they took Nicaea and Nicomedia, which made them the ruling power in Asia Minor. Thirty years afterwards the Sultan Amurath ex- tended his conquests to Adrianople, Macedonia and Albania. Be- fore another century had passed an army of 400,000 Turks under Mohammed II were at the gates of Constantinople. Following a siege of fifty-three days the city fell and the Byzantine Empire disappeared (1453). Historical Outline Arcadius, 395-408. Theodosius II, 408-450. 209 210 HISTORICAL FICTION Leo I, 457-474- Zeno, 474-491. Justin I, 518-527. Justinian, 527-565. Mauritius, 582-602. Heraclius, 610-641. Leo the Isaurian, 717-741. Irene, 780-802. The Macedonian Dynasty, 867-1057. Basil I, 867-886. Leo II, 886-912. Nicephorus Phocas, 963-969. John Zimisces, 969-976. Basil II, 976-1025. Isaac Comnenus, 1057-1059. Alexius Comnenus I, 1081-1118. Manuel Comnenus, 1143-1180. Baldwin I of Flanders, 1204-1205. Latin Empire. Michael Palaeologus, 1261-1282. Overthrow of the Latin and restoration of the Greek Empire. Andromicus Palaeologus, 1282- 1328. John Cantacuzenus, 1341-1355. John Palaeologus, 1 355-1 391. Manuel Palaeologus, 1 391 -1425. John Palaeologus II, 1425-1448. Constantine Palaeologus, 1448-1453. Fall of the Eastern Empire. The Stories Sir Raoul. 1905. James M. Ludlow This American Presbyterian clergyman and author (1841-) was born at Elizabeth, N. J. In 1861 he graduated from Prince- ton University, and in 1864 completed his theological training at the same institution. He held pastorates in the states of New York and New Jersey. The Fourth Crusade was instigated by Pope Innocent III in 1202. Its promoters were Boniface of Montferrat, who was appointed leader, Geoffrey de Villehardouin, Baldwin of Flanders and Louis of Blois. They started from Venice, bnt instead of THE MEDIEVAL ERA 211 going to the Holy Land, as was their original intention, they captured the town of Zara in Dalmatia, which was followed by the capture and sack of Constantinople. Here they established a Latin Empire, with Baldwin I of Flanders as Emperor. This empire was overthrown in 1261. Enrico Dandolo was made doge of Venice in 1192. He was one of the principal leaders of the expedition of the Venetians in this Crusade. His republic shared in the partition of the Byzantine dominions at this time. A few years ago a document was unearthed according to which there was an agreement between the Moslems and Dandolo that bound the latter to prevent any invasion of Moslem territory', and for which the Moslems were to grant trade rights to Venice instead of to western cities. If this document is authentic, then it would appear that this Crusade was in violation of this contract, as far as the Venetians were concerned. This story is based upon these facts, including the Crusade, with the scenes laid in Venice, Italy, Germany, Constantinople. Baldwin of Flanders, who, with Dandolo and other historical per- sonages figure in the story. Baldwin's reign in Constantinople was brief as his death occurred in 1205. The Captain of the Janizaries. 1886. James M.Ludlow Scanderbeg (1404-1467), whose real name was George Cas- triota, was an Albanian. As a guarantee for the allegiance of the Albanian chiefs, in 1423 he was delivered to the Turks as one of the hostages. His intelligence and fine appearance so attracted Amurath II that he was placed in the palace and trained in Islam- ism. In 1443 ne escaped with 300 Albanians and occupied the town of Croia. This so encouraged the Albanians that they rose in revolt, and in a month's time Scanderbeg had expelled all the Turks from the country. The following year at the head of an army of 15,000 he utterly defeated a Turkish army nearly three times as large, and the same fate befel three other armies sent against him. Amruth II took the field himself and at Croia was vanquished. He defeated the Turks in 22 pitched battles. Scanderbeg received congratulations from the Pope and the rulers of Naples and Aragon. Following the capture of Constan- tinople by the Turks in 1453, Mohammed II in 1461 made satis- factory terms with Scanderbeg and the latter went to Italy, where 212 HISTORICAL FICTION he espoused the cause of the Arogonese in Naples against the partisans of the house of Anjou. In this story Scanderbeg is the leading historical character. The facts just noted constitute much of the historical setting. Moslem ideas and customs and the place of the Koran in the life of the people are detailed. The Janizaries, of whom Scanderbeg was one, occupy an important place. The first regular standing army of the Turks called "J a m za ~ ries" (new soldiers) was formed by Orkhan in 1330. This army was composed largely of young Christian prisoners, who were forced to accept Mahomet. It became an honor to be admitted into their ranks, a privilege sought by many young Turks. At times the Janizaries, who lived in barracks, numbered 100,000, while the regular militia, scattered over the empire, numbered from 300,000 to 400,000. An Ago, or chief, was the head of the whole force and enjoyed great distinction, having vested in him unlimited power over his army. In war they were celebrated for bravery, and from their number was formed the sultan's body- guard. As their power increased they hatched conspiracies, and sul- tans and viziers were assassinated. Various attempts were made to disband them. Not until 1826 did these attempts succeed. It was effected by Sultan Mahmond II, who created a new militia after the order of European armies. Under the flag of the prophet he forced the Janizaries into their barracks and set the torch to them, and about 8,000 perished in the flames. About 15,000 were executed, and over 20,000 were banished. From that time this military order has ceased to exist. The Prince of India. 1893. Lew Wallace With an overwhelming force Mohammed II in 1453 began the siege of Constantinople. Every means was employed. Foreign engineers had built the Turkish cannon, which were on a larger scale than had ever before been used. Constantine Palaeologus was the last monarch of the Byzantine Empire and he made a brave defence. After a siege of fifty-three days the Janizaries burst through the gates. Constantine was slain, thousands made captives and the city plundered. The treasures were taken from the Church of St. Sophia, and it was made a Mohammedan mosque. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 213 A thousand years after the fall of the Western Empire the Eastern Empire ceased to exist. "But it had not existed in vain ; for all through the Dark Ages when the Roman civilization of Western Europe had succumbed to the barbarians, the precious legacy of the ancients was guarded and preserved for the modern world. And, furthermore, the Byzantine Empire stood as a bulwark against the barbaric hordes of Asia until the growing nations gathered strength to withstand their onsets. When we realize that without it all that was best in the world's past would have been lost, all that is best in modern civilization retarded for hundreds of years, then only is the true significance of the Byzan- tine Empire understood." In this story the hero assumes the character of the Wandering Jew. He is with Mohammed II during the siege, and has a special grievance against Constantine. It is the night before the taking of the city and the Prince of India says to Mohammed: "'To- morrow I will leave the herd to the herd. In the currents of the fight I will hunt but one enemy — Constantine. Judge thou my cause/ Then he told of Lael — of his love for her — of her abduc- tion by Demedes — his supplication for the emperor's assistance — the refusal. Steadily the sun arose. Half the street was in its light, the other half in its shade ; yet the struggle endured. . . . Suddenly a louder shouting arose behind them. They who could looked to see what it meant, and the bravest stood still at the sight of the Janizaries swarming on the galley. Over the roasting bodies of their comrades, undeterred by the inextinguishable fire, they had crossed the ditch, and were slaying the imperial body- guard. Up rose a wail! 'The Janizaries, the Janizaries!' Through the knot of Christians it passed — it reached Constan- tine in the forefront, and he gave way to the antagonist with whom he was engaged. " 'God receive my soul !' he exclaimed ; and dropping his sword he turned about and rushed back with wide extended arms. "'Friends — countrymen — is there no Christian to kill me?' "While those nearest stared at him . . . there came a man stooped, withered, very white haired, a black velvet cap on his head . . . .men in the heat of action forgot themselves — such power was there in the eyes of the apparition. The man in velvet stood before the Emperor. "'Prince of India!' 214 HISTORICAL FICTION "'You know me? It is well; for now I know you are not beyond remembering. Remember the day I prayed you on my knees to lend me your power to save my child, stolen for a purpose by all peoples held unholy. Behold your executioner !' He stepped back and Nilo, who had followed his master unnoticed, sprang into the master's place and drew the assegai across the face of the astonished emperor Constantine — never great till that moment of death, but then great forever — fell forward upon his shield, calling in strangled utterance : 'God receive my soul.' " When the struggle is over and the city is taken the Prince of India comes back to consciousness of himself and recalls the mo- ment fourteen centuries before when he struck the Man of Sor- rows, and by Him was condemned to perpetual existence by the words, "Tarry Thou Till I Come" CHAPTER XII ENGLAND. FROM THE FALL OF CONSTAN- TINOPLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA I. WARS OF THE ROSES No sooner was England through with the long, wearisome and burdensome Hundred Years' War, which ended in 1453, than she was plunged into another — a war at home — that was to keep the country in a state of strife and unrest for another thirty years. Henry VI of the house of Lancaster was on the throne, but no child as yet had been born to him and his wife Margaret. The Duke of York was the heir to the throne. After Bedford's death he had been regent in France. His great rival was the Duke of Somerset, Edmund Beaufort, the son of the rich cardinal. He succeeded in having Somerset arrested and Parliament made the Duke of York Protector. In the meantime a son was born to the king and queen and York was no longer heir to the throne. Henry, who had been insane, recovered his reason and restored Somerset, and then York determined to settle the matter of his claims by force of arms. He gathered his followers in the north and the Earl of War- wick, the "king maker," supported his claims. Thus we have the cause of these wars. The badge of the Yorkists was the white rose, and that of the Lancastrians the red rose. Reign of Henry VI We have already, in connection with the Hundred Years' War, noted the characteristics of Henry. He married Margaret of Anjou, daughter of the Duke of Lorraine and Anjou and titular king of Naples, Sicily and Jerusalem. Margaret was a strong suppor'er of Suffolk and Somerset, and a bitter enemy of the Duke of York and of Gloucester. In her violent political attitudes she was the antithesis of her mild husband, who was so disquali- fied by fits of insanity. 215 216 HISTORICAL FICTION The Stories The Triple Crown. 1912. Rose Schuster This story carries us through the various incidents of Henry's life, his marriage with Margaret and the vicissitudes of the Wars of the Roses. His marriage was very unpopular in England. His spells of insanity and recovery are dealt with, and his death. He was taken prisoner several times by the Yorkists, and in 1471 was found dead in the Tower, probably murdered, as was gen- erally believed, by the order of Edward IV. The Queen's Man. 1905. Eleanor C. Price When the king recovered from his spell of insanity he termi- nated the Protectorate of the Duke of York, which brought the Somerset party again into power. York, seeing that his influence was at an end, raised troops and met the king's forces at St. Albans (1455). The battle lasted half an hour. Somerset was slain, together with other Lancastrian nobles, the king was wounded and the Duke of York victorious. The death of Somerset de- prived Margaret of her most trusted counsellor. She was obliged to take refuge in Scotland. The battle of Northampton was in favor of the Yorkists and York was acknowledged as heir to the crown. This, however, would deprive Margaret's son of the succession. She raised an army and met the Yorkists at Wakefield (1460). She was vic- torious and the Duke of York was slain. In this story these two first battles of the war are described and the king and queen are introduced. In the romantic part of the story no complications are entered since the Earl, who serves the queen most loyally, is in love with a girl whose family sup- ports the Lancastrian cause. The Black Arrow. 1888. Louis Robert Stevenson The author (1850-1894), a Scottish poet, essayist, and writer of fiction, was born in Edinburgh. After studying law and being admitted to the Scottish bar he found that his inclination and ability were in the field of literature. He gathered materials for some of his books during his travels in France and Belgium. He crossed the ocean as a steerage passenger and traveled across the American continent to California in an immigrant train so as to THE MEDIEVAL ERA 21; describe his experiences in The Amateur Emigrant and Across the Plain. In 1890 he settled in Samoa. Treasure Island, Prince Otto, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and other works brought him large success. This story comprises history and adventure. It is a juvenile romance of the Wars of the Roses. An heiress escapes from the man she is being compelled to marry by a rascally guardian. It happens that they cross each other's pathway, and as she is dis- guised as a boy, he has no suspicion of her sex. They have wild adventures at the hands of outlaws, and their comradeship de- velops into a true affection. Richard of Gloucester is a distinctive character in the story. The Men of Harlech. 1896. William Greener The scene is laid in Wales in the time of Henry VI and Ed- ward IV and sets forth the strife of the two houses for the crown. The besieging of Harlech Castle by the forces of York holds an important place in the story. Reign of Edward IV Edward (1461-1483) was the son of Richard, Duke of York, and Cicely Neville, sister of Richard, Earl of Salisbury. He en- dangered his position by marrying Lady Elizabeth Grey, the daughter of Richard Woodville, a baron of the house of Lancaster. The Earl of Warwick and the Nevilles were planning a French alliance and this marriage created great disfavor. It was a secret marriage (1464), and the breach between Edward and Warwick increased steadily and at last in 1467 relations were severed. Ed- ward's brother, the Duke of Clarence, supported Warwick's atti- tude, and the king's popularity greatly suffered. The Stories In Steel and Leather. 1904. Robert H. Forster After Margaret gained the victory at Wakefield she proceeded towards London and was met at St. Albans by Warwick. The Lancastrians gained the day, the king was released and Warwick was compelled to retire. This was the second battle fought at St. Albans (1461). 218 HISTORICAL FICTION Edward IV was a born soldier. He met the Lancastrians at Towton (1461) and won a bloody battle. The Lancastrians were overwhelmed by their defeat. After this battle Margaret retired to Scotland, collected forces and, early in 1464, invaded England. She took several castles and was supported by Somerset and the Percies. The Yorkists under Montague met the Lancastrians at Hedgeley Moor in Northumberland and totally defeated them. Sir Ralph Percy was slain. This story deals with the war as it was waged in Northumber- land. The defeat of Margaret and the Lancastrians by Montague is well set forth. Red and White. 1883. Emily S. Holt Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, was the richest and greatest of English barons. Six hundred armed followers were at his command. He regarded himself as the guardian of the fortunes of the house of York. He loved power and was ambitious to secure it. Warwick was the English Bismarck of the fifteenth century, with this difference, that as a great baron he had himself wealth and resources to rival those of the king. Again, he was the cousin of the king whom he served. We have already noted the rupture between Warwick and Edward and the fact that Clarence, the king's brother, was sup- porting Warwick in the position he had taken. Edward, by proofs he had gathered, was now certain that Warwick and Clarence were plotting against him. In 1470 Louis XI had brought about a reconciliation between Margaret and Warwick. In the same year Warwick returned from France with an army and Edward fled to Flanders. In 1471 he returned with an army and met Warwick at Barnet on Easter Day. The tide of fortune was turned from Warwick when Clarence, his son-in-law, deserted him and joined his brother. It was a bloody battle. Warwick was slain and Edward was victorious. With Warwick disposed of Edward now turned his attention to Margaret. Edward, the son of Margaret and Henry VI, who was created Prince of Wales in 1454, after the battle of Towton accompanied his mother to Scotland. In 1470 he married Anne Neville, daughter of the Earl of Warwick. Edward IV overtook the forces of Margaret at Tewkesbury (1471). The Yorkists THE MEDIEVAL ERA 219 were victorious. Margaret's son Edward was in the battle and was slain, or was put to death immediately afterwards. Edward returned to London, and on the same night Henry VI died in the Tower, and, as generally believed, by Edward's order. This story covers a considerable period of the war. It carries the history from the time of the battle of Wakefield and the second battle of St. Albans through the leading events as related to the movements of Warwick, Edward and the battles at Barnet and Tewkesbury. In other words, the events as set forth in the sketch above. It also includes the death of Margaret's son. The historical personages of the sketch are introduced in the story. In the Wars of the Roses. 1891. Evelyn E. Green We have traced in a general way the circumstances of Prince Edward, son of Margaret and Henry VI. His birth shattered the hopes of the Duke of York, and in the attempts of the latter to force his claims to the throne he fell in the first battle. Prince Edward, in support of the claims of his house, is put to death after the battle of Tewkesbury. As the result of these contentions thirteen battles have already been fought. Following the death of Prince Edward and Henry VI Margaret herself remained in prison till 1476. Louis XI ransomed her by the payment of 50,000 crowns. She ended her life in retirement and poverty. This is a story of Prince Edward in these days of war, of peril and bloodshed, and ending at last in his own death at the hands of those who contested his claims. The Last of the Barons. 1843. Bulwer-Lytton In this admirably constructed work, crowded with historical materials, the subject matter is worked out and related with un- usual care and presented in a most effective manner. It sets forth the antagonism that arose between Warwick and Edward IV. It not only deals with the events as in the extended description of the battle of Barnet, but it is an interpretation of these times, the state of society and the ruling motives of the principals. The ra- pidity with which incidents, revolutions and movements follow one another is amazing, and the historicity of events is well sustained. Lytton regarded Warner, the inventor, one of his best conceptions, 220 HISTORICAL FICTION while the inventor's daughter was another of his favorites. Rich- ard III is introduced, and in a strong paragraph the fate of the son of Edward IV is anticipated. Edward has returned in tri- umph from the battle of Barnet in which Warwick was slain. The crowd has raised the cry : "Long live the king and the king's son!" and the story adds, "Mechanically, Elizabeth turned her moistened eyes from Edward to Edward's brother, and suddenly clasped her infant closer to her bosom, when she caught the glit- tering and fatal eye of Richard, Duke of Gloucester — Warwick's grim avenger in the future — fixed upon that harmless life, destined to interpose a feeble obstacle between the ambition of a ruthless intellect and the heritage of the English throne !" Jane Shore. 1905. Joyce E. Muddock This historical character, Jane Shore, was born about 1450, and according to one account died about 1527, while by others it is placed nearly twenty years earlier. In 1470 she deserted her husband, William Shore, a London goldsmith, to become the mistress of Edward IV, over whom her attractions and accom- plishments seem to have exerted a strong influence. Following Edward's death she lived with Lord Hastings. In 1483 Richard charged her with attempting to injure him by sorcery. The thing that most likely disturbed Richard, and what was the real reason for his accusation, was the fact that she was employed to serve political purposes as an intermediary in the interests of Hastings and the Woodville party. Richard had her arraigned before the ecclesiastical body on the charge of harlotry and witchcraft, and she was compelled to do penance in the open streets, "going before the cross in procession upon a Sunday with a taper in her hand." After the death of Hastings the Marquis of Dorset served her ends, but he was banished and she was cast into prison at Ludgate. Here she seems to have attracted Lyons, the king's solicitor, who married her. In 1714 Nicholas Rowe wrote his tragedy, Jane Shore, in which the author makes her husband, William Shore, come to her rescue in her disgrace, but he is seized by the agents of Richard, and Jane dies. This story has its setting in these facts and circumstances and gives the relations Jane Shore sustained to the king and Hastings. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 221 Edward IV appears in Shakespeare's historical dramas, Henry VI and Richard III, in which his profligacy is exhibited. Reign of Richard III When Edward IV died in 1483 his son was crowned king. He was then thirteen years of age. He was at Ludlow when his father died and set out at once for London. Richard, Duke of Gloucester, met the young king and his brother, his nephews, at Stony Stratford, and on May 4 they reached London. The coronation was fixed for June 22. Richard seems to have been recognized already as Protector. Edward and his brother were lodged in the Tower. A few days before the time fixed for the coronation Hastings, Grey and Rivers were be- headed. On June 22 Dr. Shaw delivered a sermon in which he declared that Edward's two sons were illegitimate, Edward hav- ing been married, or at all events betrothed, to Lady Eleanor Butler previous to his marriage with Elizabeth Woodville. The two brothers were confined in the Tower, and between June and October of 1483 they were assassinated by the order of Richard, their uncle. That there can be no doubt about this is clear from the investigations of Mr. Gardiner, who sums up the facts in the following statement : "Some time after Richard had set out on his progress he sent a messenger named John Green to Sir Robert Brackenbury, the Constable of the Tower, command- ing him to put his two young nephews to death. This order Brackenbury would not obey, and Green returned to his master at Warwick. Richard was greatly mortified, but sent Sir James Tyrell to London with a warrant to Brackenbury to deliver up to him for one night all the keys of the Tower. Tyrell thus took the place into his keeping, and engaged the services of Miles Forest, one of those who kept the Princes' chamber, and John Dighton, his own groom, to carry out the wishes of the tyrant. These men entered the chamber when the lads were asleep, and smothered them under pillows; then having called Sir James to see the bodies, buried them at the foot of a staircase." The details of the murder were obtained from a confession made by Sir James Tyrell in 1502, when he was imprisoned in the Tower on a charge of treason. This confession was confirmed by a discovery made in the reign of Charles II. Under the stair- case leading to the chapel in the White Tower, were found buried 222 HISTORICAL FICTION the skeletons of two young boys, whose ages would correspond with those of the princes. It will be remembered that Edward IV secretely married Elizabeth Woodville, the daughter of Richard Woodville, Earl Rivers, which displeased Warwick and started the breach between them. In the Wars of the Roses her father fought on the Lan- castrian side, but Edward raised him to high honors. He was made Constable of England and was created Earl Rivers, and his sons were also given distinctive positions. In 1469 Sir William Conyers headed a rebellion. The rebels found fault with the in- fluence of the queen's friends. They defeated the royal troops at Edgecote, then seized Earl Rivers and his son, and put them to death at Coventry. Richard III was the son of Richard Duke of York, who was killed at Wakefield in his attempt to maintain his claim to the throne. Richard was therefore brother to Edward IV and the Duke of Clarence. He fought in the battle of Tewkesbury on the Yorkist side. In 1472 he married Anne Neville, the widow of Prince Edward, son of Margaret and Henry VI. Anne was the daughter of the Earl of Warwick. His brother Clarence also married a daughter of the Earl, and Richard's marriage involved him in a fierce quarrel with his brother relative to the Earl's inheritance. Lord William Hastings (1430-1483) was a favorite of Ed- ward IV, from whom he received grants of land and was raised to high positions. He commanded part of the army at the battle of Barnet. He had also supported Richard against the Wood- villes. In June, 1483, at a sitting of the Council, Richard charged the queen and her friends with a plot against his life. The queen's party was headed by Hastings. The latter was suddenly seized by the orders of the Protector, and, without a trial, was hurried off to execution on a charge of conspiracy. The reason for this sudden execution was not because of a plot against his life, but because Hastings was unwilling to support Richard's nefarious schemes for obtaining the throne. Hastings had married Mar- garet Neville, sister of the Earl of Warwick, hence the connection between him and Richard through their wives. The Duke of Buckingham, by his marriage with Catherine Woodville, daughter of Earl Rivers, made him the brother-in-law of Edward IV. He was the chief agent in obtaining the crown THE MEDIEVAL ERA 223 for Richard III, it being claimed that the latter's right to the crown lay in the illegitimacy of the sons of Edward IV. Richard had not been king many months before a rupture between him and Buckingham was created, mainly because of Richard's refusal to allow him any portion of the inheritance of the Bohuns to which Buckingham had a claim. His relations with the king were severed, and influenced by the Bishop of Ely he planned an insurrection having as its objec- tive the placing of Henry, the Earl of Richmond, on the throne. The Woodville party supported the plan, which should be effected by Buckingham leading a revolution in the west of England, and by Richmond landing his forces in the south. The force that Buckingham raised in Wales was not only small, but his move- ments were hindered by the rains that had swollen the rivers and had broken down the bridges over the Severn. Unable to secure provisions the majority of his men deserted him and he took refuge in Shropshire. His place of concealment was betrayed by one of his men, he was captured, taken to Salisbury and exe- cuted without trial. The Stories Beatrix of Clare. 1907. John R. Scott The sketch of the events pertaining to Richard III, and those with whom he had to do, contains the historical facts that consti- tute the background of this story. It takes up these various in- terests from the time of the death of Edward IV, the operations of the Woodvilles, the execution of Grey and Rivers, the stormy scene in the Council at which time Hastings was rushed to his execution, the death of the Princes, Buckingham's insurrection, its failure, his capture and death, etc. Instead of portraying Richard as a monster the characterization is quite to the contrary. Other historical personages are introduced. Francis Lovel was one of Richard's chief favorites and advisers. He was made Constable of the Household. He fought in the battle of Bosworth (1485), and also the battle of Stoke (1487), and was supposed to have been slain in the latter, but in a secret chamber at Minster a skeleton was found, and it is probable that he escaped to the house and there died. Richard Ratcliffe was in the confidence of Richard III. and 224 HISTORICAL FICTION it was he who induced Richard to abandon the plan of marrying his niece Elizabeth. William Catesby was one of Richard's min- isters, and had been aided in securing his advancement by Lord Hastings. He deserted Hastings when the latter fell into disre- pute with the king. He was captured at the battle of Bosworth and by the orders of Henry VII was put to death. These three leading advisers of Richard — Catesby, Ratcliffe and Lovel — are held up in contempt with him in the well-known contemporary rhyme : "The Cat, the Rat, and Lovel the Dog, Rule all England under the Hog." Morton was appointed Bishop of Ely and Chancellor by Ed- ward IV. He was looked upon with suspicion by Richard, who gave him into the keeping of the Duke of Buckingham. We have already noted his part in Buckingham's rebellion. He escaped to Henry Tudor on the Continent and became one of his principal advisers. When Henry became king, Morton was made one of the Privy Council, and in i486 Archbishop of Canterbury. He was created a cardinal in 1493. All of these historical personages appear in the story. Under the Red Rose. 1910. Escott Lynn Henry VII was the son of Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond, and Margaret the Great granddaughter of John of Gaunt. After the battle of Tewkesbury, Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke, took his nephew to Brittany for safety. .Henry was then fourteen years of age. Edward IV used every means to get him into his power, and Richard had a special agent in Brittany taking note of Henry's movements. The English exiles saw in him their only hope. Morton was his adviser, and he and his mother furnished him all the money in their power. In 1485 he landed at Milford Haven in Pembroke, where the Welsh gave him a cordial welcome. At Shropshire he was joined by the Talbots. Richard advanced to meet him, and the two armies came together near the little town of Bosworth. The battle was decided by Lord Stanley, who was the brother of Henry's step-father, Justice of North Wales and Constable under Richard III. Henry met him at Atherstone on his way to meet THE MEDIEVAL ERA 225 Richard. He went over to Henry's side and it was agreed that he should keep out of the fight until the critical moment had come. This plan was pursued and at the right moment Stanley joined Henry's forces. When Richard saw that he was betrayed and deserted he cried out "Treason, treason !" Richard was defeated. The crown was picked up on the field of battle and placed by William Stanley on the head of Henry, who was at once saluted as king by the whole army. Stanley was made Lord Chamberlain and was one of Henry's counsellors. He made continual demands upon the king, which alienated the latter. He became mixed up in the affair of War- beck, who claimed to be the son of Edward IV. He was arrested for treason with the evidence submitted, was condemned and executed (1495). This story deals with the history from the close of the reign of Edward IV to the battle of Bosworth. From the coronation of Richard the events that have been outlined in the sketch enter into the story — the doing away with the Princes, the operations of the Lancastrians, etc., and the final scenes in Richard's life begin- ning with Henry's landing in the country. The leading persons are introduced. The Woodman. 1842. George P. R. James This story deals with the same period — the time of Richard III and the battle of Bosworth. The battle of Bosworth brought to a close the Wars of the Roses and the Plantagenet Dynasty. The following list gives the battles in their chronological order: First Battle of St. Albans — 1455 — Yorkist victory. Battle of Blore Heath — 1459 — Yorkist victory. Battle of Northampton — 1460 — Yorkist victory. Battle of Wakefield — 1460 — Lancastrian victory. Battle of Mortimer's Cross — 1461 — Yorkist victory. Second Battle of St. Albans — 1461 — Lancastrian victory. Battle of Towton — 1461 — Yorkist victory. Battle of Hedgeley Moor — 1464 — Yorkist victory. Battle of Hexham — 1464 — Yorkist victory. Battle of Edgecote — 1469 — Insurgent victory. 226 HISTORICAL FICTION Battle of Loosecoat Field — 1470 — Yorkist victory. Battle of Barnet — 1471 — Yorkist victory. Battle of Tewkesbury — 1471 — Yorkist victory. Battle of Bosworth — 1485 — Defeat of Richard and end of the Plantagenet rule. Shakespeare's Richard III takes up the history after the battle of Tewkesbury and ends with the fall of Richard at Bosworth. II. HOUSE OF TUDOR Reign of Henry VII The Tudor family was of Welsh origin. Owen Tudor fought on the Lancastrian side during the Wars of the Roses, and mar- ried the widow of Henry V. The fortunes of the family were founded by the marriage of the Earl of Richmond with Margaret, daughter of the Earl of Somerset, the heiress of the illegitimate branch of the house of Lancaster. The latter adopted Henry, Earl of Richmond, as the only possible candidate for the throne, and was the one about whom the English exiles built their hopes. Defeating Richard in the battle of Bosworth, he took the crown as Henry VII and married Elizabeth, the daughter of Edward IV, thus uniting the warring factions, the house of York and the house of Lancaster. Henry was a man of strong character and strong principles. He was a great builder. He had a tender regard for his mother. She founded St. John's and Christ's Colleges at Cambridge, and divinity professorships in the two universities. She also trans- lated parts of The Imitation of Christ into English. Henry's reign was disturbed by repeated insurrections, and he had the annoyance of such impositions as those of Warbeck and Simnel. The principal task Henry set himself was the elimination of old factions, and establishing a firm and settled government for the people, and in this he succeeded. His policy of curbing the power of the feudal nobility was highly beneficial. Their hosts of armed retainers were henceforth to be illegal. He encouraged British shipping and built up English manufactures, creating entire free trade between England and Flanders. Thus under this reign the nation passed from an unsettled and turbulent state to a condition of order, security and prosperity. The Tudor dynasty THE MEDIEVAL ERA 227 continued for a period of 118 years, as indicated by the following outline. Historical Outline. Henry VII, 1485- 1509. Henry VIII, 1 509- 1547. Edward VI, I547"i553- Mary, I553-I55& Elizabeth, 1 558-1603. The Stories The Captain of the Wight. 1888. Frank Cowper Sir Edward Woodville was the brother-in-law of Edward IV, the latter having married his sister Elizabeth, and was also uncle to the queen of Henry VII, his wife Elizabeth being the daughter of Edward and Elizabeth. In 1488, in the first years of Henry's reign, he led an expedition of 400 men to aid the Duke of Brit- tany. The king had distinctly declared that any such expedition having in view any such object should not be fitted out in or leave England. The expedition created indignation in France, but it laid upon Henry the necessity of assuming a position relative to the dispute between Brittany and France. At St. Aubin the French were victorious and the small Eng- lish force was practically destroyed, Lord Woodville himself being slain. Public feeling in England was raised to a high pitch, and Henry was compelled to act in the matter. The result was that troops were dispatched to the support of Brittany, while a secret understanding regarding the matter existed with Charles VIII of France. When Woodville organized his expedition he was Governor of the Isle of Wight. The facts pertaining to this expedition constitute the historical setting of this story, a romance of Carisbrooke Castle in this year of the expedition (1488). Carisbrooke is a village in the Isle of Wight adjoining Newport, which was formerly the "new port" of Carisbrooke. It is noted principally for its castle, which is sup- posed to have been built by the Saxons. It was enlarged in the eleventh century, was captured by Stephen in 11 36 and in the time of Richard II resisted the attacks of the French. It was in this castle that Charles I took refuge in 1647, and was held for 228 HISTORICAL FICTION fourteen months. After his execution his two youngest children were confined here. Other facts regarding the Isle of Wight can be located by referring to the Index. The Yellow Frigate. 1855. James Grant James III of Scotland (1460-1488), son of James II, was a bad ruler, a man of avaricious and cowardly disposition. In 1469 he married Margaret, daughter of Christian, king of Denmark and Norway. She received as her dowry the Orkney and Shet- land Islands. Because of his favorites a conspiracy was raised against him by the Scottish nobles and several of the king's favor- ites were hanged. In 1488 he raised a large army in the north and met the insurgent lords at Sauchieburn, near Stirling. He was defeated and took refuge in a building called Beaton's Mill, near Bannockburn. Here he was slain, but who his assassin was is not known. This story has its setting in these facts. It brings out the rebel- lion on the part of the nobles and the defeat and death of James. The conflicts with the English on the Firth of Forth are also described. The Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck. 1830. Mary Woll- stonecrof t Shelley This English author (1797-1851), wife of the poet, Percy Shelley, was born in London. Her education was supplemented by the intellectual stimulus imparted by the distinguished visitors at her father's house. In 181 4 she left England with Shelley, whose acquaintance she made a few months before, and which developed into a strong affection. At this time the poet's troubles with his wife Harriet exasperated him, but this unhappy problem was solved in 181 6 by her death. He at once married Mary God- win and in the main it was a happy union. She wrote romances and did journalistic work. Perkin Warbeck (1474-1499), the son of a Flemish Jew, was one of the greatest impostors in history. During the reign of Henry VII he claimed that he was Richard, Duke of York, the younger of the two princes, the son of Edward IV, who was mur- THE MEDIEVAL ERA 229 dered in the Tower by the order of Richard III. And he suc- ceeded in making some people believe and support his claim. According to the facts gathered regarding him he settled in Lon- don in the reign of Edward IV. When his father died in Tournay he went to Antwerp and managed to interest Margaret of York, duchess of Burgundy, in his claims. She seemed to see in him a resemblance to the family of York, and determined to set him up as a pretender to the English throne against Henry VII. His pretentions met with so much success in other parts that Charles VIII of France invited him to Paris. This support did not serve him for long, however, as Henry had stipulated in his treaty at Estaples in 1492 that no protection or assistance should be rendered this pretender. He now returned to Margaret of Burgundy, who acknowledged him as her nephew, honoring him on all occasions as the "White Rose of England." Then began in England a system of conspiracies against Henry, but the effi- ciency of his spies rendered them abortive. Sir William Stanley, who aided Henry so essentially in the battle of Bosworth, Sir Simon Montfort and Lord Fitzwalter, supporters of Warbeck, were executed. These occurrences brought the pretender to action, and in 1495 he attacked the coast of Kent. It was a dismal failure, and he returned to Flanders only to be driven out because such was required by the treaty between the two countries. Warbeck now crossed over to Scotland and the Scottish king received him as Richard IV. The king's sincerity in supporting his claims is seen in the fact that he married him to a kinswoman, Lady Catherine Gordon, daughter of the Earl of Huntly and on her mother's side, a cousin of James IV, the present monarch. But the enthusiasm of James cooled and he requested Warbeck to leave the country. After attempting another raid on England he was captured and placed in the Tower. From this he attempted to escape and was executed in 1499. His wife, who was taken prisoner with him, became an attendant to the queen of Henry VII, and finally married Sir M. Cradock. This story gives the history of this pretender, his claims, the support they received, his reception in Scotland and marriage with Lady Gordon, his raids, capture and execution. The author was fully convinced that he was in truth the Duke of York and set forth the evidence in support of his claim, The facts regarding 230 HISTORICAL FICTION the murder of the Princes can be located by referring to the Index. The story also deals with another pretender, Lambert Simnel. He was the son of a baker, and figures in one of the insurrections against Henry VII. In this revolt he set himself up as Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick, son of the murdered Duke of Clarence, the latter the brother of Edward IV. The real earl was placed in the Tower when Henry ascended the throne in 1485 to prevent him from asserting his Yorkist claims to the throne, since his father was dead. He left the Tower but twice, the first time to be exhibited in the streets of London to expose Simnel's impos- ture, and the second time when he was beheaded for his co-opera- tion with Warbeck, then a prisoner in the Tower, to secure posses- sion of the Tower and raise an insurrection. Simnel had support in Ireland among those who favored the house of York. In Flanders, as in the case of Warbeck, he se- cured the friendship of Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV. Her court was made the meeting place of the conspirators, and Henry promptly imprisoned her in an English nunnery. The rebels proceeded to attack Newark. Henry's forces met them at the village of Stoke and completely defeated them. Simnel was spared, and was taken into the royal service as a scullion. These facts form a part of this story. A King of Vagabonds. 1911. Beth Ellis This story is based on the same events as the preceding rela- tive to Warbeck, in which his wife figures, also those who adhered to his claims, and Henry VII. CHAPTER XIII FRANCE. FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTI- NOPLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA Reign of Louis XI Louis (1461-1483) was the son of Charles VII. Under the rule of the latter France recovered from the disorders of the Hundred Years' War and gained greatly in strength. Under the reign of his son this constructive work was continued. The object of Louis was to effect the consolidation of France, and in order to raise the monarchical system to supremacy, to overthrow completely the power of the great vassals and to expunge from the country every form of feudal independence. Louis was an unscrupulous ruler. He adopted cunning meth- ods and committed himself to intrigue to gain his ends. Never- theless he was very successful in accomplishing his great task of the absolute establishment of the throne, and allowed nothing to check his policy. He encouraged and developed industries ; manufacturing and commercial interests were advanced. In all this he was cold-hearted, and exhibited a suspicious and cruel nature. Louis had been affected by two strokes of apoplexy, and in the last two years of his life the fear of death seized him and preyed upon his mind. He confined himself in his castle and devoted his whole thought to ascetic indulgences. The Stories Quentin Durward. 1823. Sir Walter Scott Burgundy is the name of a large and important province of France. The duchy was conferred upon Philip the Bold in 1363, and from his accession the territory and power of Burgundy had a steady increase. Charles the Bold, in 1467, succeeded his father as Duke of Burgundy. He was killed in the battle of Nancy in 1477. The 231 232 HISTORICAL FICTION agents of Louis had stirred up a revolt in Liege, a city of Bur- gundy, and it was impossible for Louis to extricate himself from the serious position in which this involved him without making a humbling submission to the enraged Charles the Bold. Charles proposed to himself the important task of consolidat- ing the territories over which he ruled. They were scattered and segregated. They consisted of the duchy and county of Bur- gundy, the county of Flanders, a number of fiefs in the Nether- lands. His ambition was to change his title from that of Duke to King. The cunning intrigues of Louis made Charles his life- long enemy. In pursuing his ambition to restore Burgundy as a kingdom Louis succeeded in getting the Swiss Republics to take up arms against him. In 1476 Charles was vanquished by the Swiss at Granson and Morat. In the following year he was overwhelmed at Nancy by Rene of Lorraine and his Swiss mercenaries, and Charles was slain. He was the last Duke of Burgundy. The duchy was seized by Louis XI. The Netherlands and Franche Comte remained in possession of Mary, daughter of Charles, who carried the for- tunes of the house into a house still more fortunate than her own, by her marriage with the Archduke Maximilian, son of the Em- peror Frederick. Quentin Durward is considered by many one of the best of Scott's works. In Britain it did not create great enthusiasm at first, but finally became immensely popular. In Paris it aroused an unusual interest. "It was Scott's first venture on foreign ground, and the French were delighted to find Louis XI and Charles the Bold brought to life again by the Wizard of the North. The delineations of these two characters are considered as fine as any in fiction or history." In speaking of the preparation of the new work, following a spell of sickness, Scott says, "My idea is a Scotch archer in the French king's guard in the time of Louis XI, the most picturesque of all times." The story deals with the time and events of which we have spoken, the opposition to Charles the Bold fomented by Louis. The hero, Quentin Durward, is a nephew of Ludovic Leslie. He enlists in the Scottish Guard of Louis XI. In a boar hunt he saves the king's life. He is successful in pressing his suit with the Countess of Croye and eventually marries her. He is the THE MEDIEVAL ERA 233 Monseigneur de la Croye of Anne of Geier stein, by Scott. In that story he is in the service of Charles the Bold. As noted in the sketch, Louis had, without intending it, re- vealed to Charles his intrigues, and placed himself in a most humiliating position. This fact plays an important part in the plot of this story. The Countess of Croye is a ward of Charles the Bold. To escape from a marriage wholly distasteful to her she fled to the court of Louis. Quentin Durward meets her for the first time, after saving the king's life, and knows her as Jacqueline and proceeds immediately to fall in love with her. But the price by which her hand is to be won is the slaying of William de la Marck, the "Wild Boar'*' of Ardennes. He is a notorious robber and murderer, and has been excommunicated by the Pope because of his many crimes. It is Quentin Durward who brings him to bay. Among the historical characters is Jean de la Balue, minister of Louis, Cardinal and Bishop of Auxerre (1422-1491). His head was turned by sudden elevation and political advancement. He yielded, in a moment of weakness, to the suggestions of Creve- coeur and induced Louis to visit the Duke of Burgundy in Pe- ronne, and that ended so disastrously. The Duke's Vengeance. 1910. Michael W. Kaye The Duchy of Aquitaine in the south of France included Guienne, Perigueux, Limoges, Auvergne, Saintonge, La Marche, Poitou and Gascony. Aquitania was the southwestern division of Gaul; Guienne, with narrower limits, embraced the region of the Garonne and Dordogne. It was first brought into connection with England by the marriage of Henry II with Eleanor, heiress of the last duke of Aquitaine. It will be remembered that the possession of Guienne by the English was one of the causes of the Hundred Years' War, at the close of which Aquitaine was incorporated into the French Kingdom. This story describes the scheming in which Louis XI, Charles the Bold and Duke of Guienne are involved. Anne of Geierstein. 1829. Sir Walter Scott In the historical sketch the facts have been given relative to the part of Louis XI in stirring up the Swiss against the purpose 234 HISTORICAL FICTION of Charles the Bold in consolidating his territories into a king- dom. The result was the defeat and death of Charles and the seizing of the duchy by Louis. This story covers these events setting forth the conflict in which the Swiss are involved with the quarrel of Louis and Charles. It describes the battles of Granson and Morat in which Charles was defeated, and in the following year (1477) the battle of Nancy, in which the Swiss had such a signal victory and Charles was slain. Anne of Geierstein is the titular heroine of the story. She is the daughter of Count Albert of Geierstein, the president of the secret tribunal of Westphalia. She is popularly known as "the Maiden of the Mist." Quentin Durward, the hero of Scott's novel of that title, is Monseigneur de la Croye of this story. A young Englishman is the hero. He wins the love of the daughter of a Swiss noble, and is involved in the conspiracy to kill the Duke of Burgundy as required by the Secret Tribunal. Yolando, Maid of Burgundy. 1906. Charles Major When Louis XI came to the throne he was confronted by a formidable league, at the head of which were his own brother, Charles of Berri, the Duke of Burgundy and the Duke of Brit- tany. It was called the "League of the Public Weal." In 1465 it compelled Louis to grant the treaty of peace. We have already noted that Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, united the for- tunes of her house, upon the death of Charles, with those of Maxi- milian, son of the Emperor Frederick. Many rulers had coveted her splendid possessions, and there were five who sought her hand, among whom were the dauphin, son of Louis XI. The Arch- duke was the successful suitor and Mary's possessions became merged with the possessions of the House of Hapsburg. This American lawyer and popular novelist (1856-1913) was born at Indianapolis. He practiced law at Shelbyville, Ind. His first great success, When Knighthood Was in Flower, brought him distinction. Then followed other works, Dorothy Vernon, Yolando, etc., which have been widely read. This story sets forth the union of these possessions of Mary and Maximilian by the union of their lives. It describes the con- THE MEDIEVAL ERA 235 flict between Charles the Bold and the Swiss, culminating in the battle of Nancy and the slaying of the duke. The treaty referred to above holds a place in the story. Notre Dame de Paris. 1831. Victor Hugo The author (1802- 1885), French dramatist, novelist and statesman was born at Besacon. At the age of twenty he was writing verses. As a dramatist his aim was to overthrow the classic drama in France, and his Cromwell made him the leader of the romantic school. He was elected a member of the French Academy in 1841, having been twice rejected, and was made a peer by Louis Philippe in 1845. He had a distinctive place in the Revolution of 1848, in which he became one of the leaders of the democratic party. He was exiled in Brussels and finally settled in Germany until 1870. His Les Miser able s appeared in ten lan- guages on the same day. He returned to France and was elected a member of the National Assembly. He wrote one of his best novels, Ninety-Three, when he was over seventy years of age. This story deals with the conditions in France at the close of the reign of Louis XI. It describes the architecture of Paris and the life of the time in a marvelous manner. It gives an accurate idea of the social and religious conditions of Paris in the Middle Ages. Everywhere the tragic note is found. The scenes of this story are laid in and about the old cathedral of Paris. Esmeralda, the gypsy girl, accompanied by her goat and with tambourine dances in the streets of Paris. She is a beautiful creature, scarcely clothed, but of pure and innocent character. She loves a captain of Louis XI, but no one loves her as does the hunchback bell-ringer, Quasimodo, one of Hugo's best conceptions. Esmeralda can regard him only with pity. He is bow-legged, has but one eye and lives in a far off corner of the Cathedral. When she is accused by the mob of being a witch she rushes to the belfry, seeking the protection of the hunchback. He hides her until Claude Frollo, the archdeacon induces her to come with him. She refuses to reciprocate the base passion with which he regards her, and enraged at her attitude gives her over to the mob, by whom she is hanged. Her death is avenged by Quasi- modo, who flings the archdeacon over the battlements of the Cathedral. Two years later his skeleton was found in a cave 236 HISTORICAL FICTION holding the skeleton of Esmeralda. After hanging her the mob had cast her body into the cave and there he had found it. A King's Scapegoat. 1905. Hamilton Drummond This story delineates the character of Louis XI, the greedy, cunning man, the man who loved intrigue, who indulged in cruelty and cared only for the success of his schemes. These character- istics are exhibited in his attempt to steal the heir to Foix and seize his possessions. When his nefarious scheme fell through, the failure would have plunged him into still greater crimes, but death intervened. Reign of Charles VIII Louis XI was succeeded by his son Charles (1483-1498). He was but thirteen years of age when his father died, and during his minority his sister Anne was appointed regent. It was a wise choice for she administered the government with ability. When Charles came to rule in person France was in a prosperous condi- tion. It was during his reign that French interference with Italy began, which was attended with far-reaching effects relative to both countries for an extended period. The Story A Maid of Brittany. 1906. May Wynne Brittany is a peninsula projecting into the Atlantic between the English Channel on the north, and the Bay of Biscay on the south, and thus forms the extreme western portion of France. It was formerly an independent kingdom, then a duchy of France. It is now a French province. The question of Brittany was left unsettled in the Treaty of. Bretigny between France and England (1360), but it was decided at the battle of Auray, in which the French were defeated in 1364. The decision was in favor of the house of Montfort. In the early period of England's second struggle with France Brittany supported England. But Arthur of Richmond broke with the English and supported Charles VII. In 1488 the death of Francis produced a European contest for the hand of his daughter Anne which, despite the exertions of Henry VII, resulted in her marriage with Charles VIII, and the THE MEDIEVAL ERA 237 ultimate annexation of Brittany to France. Thus the old ally of England became a province of her hereditary enemy. This story portrays the deeply seated antagonism that ex- isted between the French and the people of Brittany. The union of Brittany with France occurred in 1491 when the duchess Anne married Charles VIII. CHAPTER XIV ITALY. FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTI- NOPLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA During this period Italy enjoyed prosperity and tranquility. The wars of this period were designed either to hold Venice in check or to advance the ambition of the papacy. The period has been rightly called "the age of despots." In almost every city a despot or absolute ruler appeared. It became so estab- lished that in many instances the office came to be hereditary in some families, as, for example, the house of Este at Ferrara, the Scalas at Verona, the Visconti, and afterwards the Sforzas, at Milan. The period of this despotic domination by noble families was in every way favorable to the arts and literature which were greatly advanced. The same was true of the increase of wealth and the greater luxury that prevailed. But the people ceased to do their own fighting; they employed others for this the same as they would employ service for any purpose. The cities placed their interests in the hands of mercenary troops (condottieri), and gradually the smaller cities passed under the sway of the stronger states. By the middle of the fifteenth century Italy, prosperous and peaceful, was in the lead of the countries of Europe in all that pertained to culture, the leader in the great revival of arts and letters. Prominent in this revival was Tuscany which had pro- duced Dante and Giotto. But amid all this splendor, in 1495, just as Italy emerged from this period, began the terrible era of foreign aggression. The Stories The Romance of Fra Lippo Lippi. 1909. A. J. Anderson In the early Renaissance the introduction of oil painting brought this art to a new development. It greatly increased the 238 THE MEDIEVAL ERA 239 power of expression. This appears in the productions of the Van Eycks, Menling and others. The Florentine school pro- duced Verrochio, the teacher of Leonardo da Vinci, who so greatly added to the knowledge of anatomy, and Ghirlandajo, the master of Michelangelo. This school was distinctive for its vigorous naturalism. While the Umbrian school was charac- terized by its deep religious sentiment it lacked the vigor and power of the Florentine school. Fra Filippo Lippi, who died in 1469, was a painter of the Florentine school. He came under the instruction of Masaccio. His works were noted for their expression of human sympathy, their warmth and transparency of color. He was peculiarly the representative of this school. Between 1452 and 1464 he ex- ecuted the frescoes in the Cathedral of Prado. They contain scenes in the life of John the Baptist and that of St. Stephen. The work of Lippi was continued in a worthy and distinctive manner by his son who inherited his father's talent. In this story the author portrays Lippi as a lover. In 1455 he bought a house at Prado and was appointed chaplain of the nunnery of Santa Margherita. Before this time he had become infatuated with Lucrezia Buti, a nun, who was his model for St. Margaret in his Madonna della Cintola, an altarpiece painted for the nuns. After purchasing his house he brought there Lucrezia and there her sister Spinetta and three other nuns joined her. This continued for two years when the five return- ing and expressing full repentance the nuns were reinstated. The Cloister and the Hearth. 1861. Charles Reade This English novelist (1814-1884) was born at Ipsden and was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, and held high offices in the University. His literary career began as a dram- atist. In his Hard Cash he exposed the abuses connected with the lunacy laws and lunatic asylums. It created considerable criticism to which he replied. He conducted personal investiga- tions in many cases of false imprisonment under the guise of lunacy. This story is a tale of the Middle Ages, and is not a story of one country but of many. It is commonly regarded the author's 240 HISTORICAL FICTION greatest work. Sir Walter Besant declared it to be the greatest historical novel in any language, while Swinburne expressed the conviction that "a story better conceived, better constructed or better related, it would be difficult to find anywhere." Another writer says of it, "As a picture of the manners and customs of the times it is almost unsurpassable; yet pervading the whole is the strong, clear atmosphere of romantic drama never allow- ing the somewhat ample descriptions to predominate the thrilling interest with which the story is charged." The hero travels from Holland to Italy passing through Ger- many and France. The state of these countries of that time is described with a fulness and accuracy that indicates the im- mense amount of attention and research devoted to the history of the period. The hero, by deceit and cunning is separated from his betrothed, a girl of unusual character, and travels exten- sively meeting many adventures. When he returns he hears that she is dead, which is not the case, and becomes a monk. When he finds her he also discovers that he is a father, and the son destined to be none other than the great Erasmus. The author explains in a few words: "The child, who lived to become the great Erasmus, was already winning a famous name at school when Margaret (the mother) was stricken with the plague and died." A Jay of Italy. 1905. Bernard Capes During this period literature, by which Italy had been so dis- tinguished, had lost the originality of the fourteenth century. Between the Piccinini and Sforzas war had become a paying business. "Nowhere," says Hallam, "had religion more utterly passed out of men's minds. The expiring genius of Italian lib- erty was still contested by fruitless conspiracies." Galeazzo Sforza, Duke of Milan, was a monster of cruelty and vice. In 1476 at the porch of the Cathedral of Milan he was stabbed to death by Olgiati and two others who seemed to consider that the liberty of their degenerate land depended upon the life of one individual. In this story a boy of generous religious impulses is inspired by the conviction that he has been commissioned to preach the Gospel to the vile court of Galeazzo Sforza. For a time his ef- THE MEDIEVAL ERA 241 forts were attended with some success, but he eventually fell a victim to the suspicions of the monster. The assassination of the latter is set forth in this story. Richard Hawkwood. 1906. H. N. Maugham The Medici family from 1434 became supreme in Florence. By successful commercial enterprises it rose to wealth and power. The family was expelled in 1494 and was restored in 15 12. It was again expelled in 1527 and was finally reinstated in 1530. Lorenzo de Medici, who was called the Magnificent, was the most noted member of the family. He became head of the Flor- entine state in 1469. By his munificence he attained great popu- larity. He was a patron of learning and the arts, established academies and made collections of books. The Popes, Leo X, Leo XI and Clement VII were of the Medici family. Catherine de Medici was the wife of Henry II of France, and Maria de Medici was the wife of Henry IV of France. This is a story of this famous Florentine family in the time of Lorenzo de Medici. Hawkwood was the great-grandson of Sir John Hawkwood the English condottiere in Italy who died in 1394. Richard Hawkwood served Lorenzo. He is aware of the conspiracy of the Pazzi against the life of Lorenzo which arose in 1478. This conspiracy and the murder of Giuliano de Medici are described. What is said above regarding the distinctive character of this period under the intellectual influence of Lorenzo is well portrayed. In 1469 Lorenzo became practically the head of the Floren- tine state. The Pazzi were a powerful clan and were among his bitterest enemies. By competing with them in business affairs he endeavored to weaken their power and if possible ruin it. When the large property of Giovanni Borromeo was about to be transferred to them, Lorenzo had a statute executed that changed the right of possession. This act created such a fury that the Pazzi, and another enemy of Lorenzo, Archbishop Sal- viati, with the assistance of the nephews of the pontiff, deter- mined to exterminate the Medici family. While Lorenzo and his brother Giuliano were worshipping in the Cathedral of Florence the conspirators slew Giuliano, and only by desperate resistance did Lorenzo escape the same fate by succeeding in getting into the 242 HISTORICAL FICTION sacristy. From the palace windows he hung several of the Pazzi, others were cut to pieces and many were banished. Sandro Botticelli figures in the story. He was an Italian painter of the Florentine school (i 447-1515). He took his name from the goldsmith in whose shop he was employed. He exhibited artistic talent of such high order that he was placed under the famous painter Fra Filippo Lippi, the statement of whom is given above. Here he caught the passion and inspiration of his master to which he contributed his own artistic spirit and appre- ciations. In the faces of his Madonnas is a pathetic and tender expression for which he was celebrated. The galleries of Europe contain many of his works. He" became a devoted disciple of Savonarola which drew his attention from his art, in his later years, and bestowed it upon theology. The Royal Pawn of Venice. 1911. Mrs. Lawrence Turnbull The Island of Cyprus was taken by Richard I in 1191, but was conferred on the house of Lusignan in 1192 — a noble French family of the age of the Crusades. One of the last representa- tives of this house married a Venetian lady, Caterina Cornaro (1454- 1 510), and Venetian sway was established in 1473. In 1 571 it was seized by the Turks. In 1878 Great Britain raised objections to the treaty of San Stephano between Russia and Turkey on the ground that if it were allowed to stand it would have amounted to the formal dissolution of the Turkish power in Europe. An international congress was called at Berlin under the presidency of Bismarck. British diplomacy triumphed, and as a reward for her friendship Cyprus was transferred by Turkey to Great Britain to be administered by that government. Since that time Cyprus has been under English rule, subject to nominal Turkish suzerainty. The Queen of Cyprus, Caterina Cornaro, is the subject of this story which deals with the facts relative to the fortunes of the island, and the marriage of this Venetian lady with the king of Cyprus. She was born in Venice of a patrician family, and in 1472 became the wife of James II of Lusignan, king of Cyprus. Eight months later he died and she succeeded him as Queen of THE MEDIEVAL ERA 243 Cyprus. The Republic of Venice was afraid that a marriage might be contracted between her and Alfonso, the hereditary Prince of Naples, and in 1489 they compelled her to renounce the throne and leave the island. She came to Venice where she was received with great distinction. She has been the favorite subject of romances and the heroine of some operas. CHAPTER XV SPAIN. FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTI- NOPLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA In 573 Spain became the seat of the Gothic kingdom. This kingdom was overwhelmed in 711 by the Arab and Moorish in- vaders who obtained the mastery of nearly the whole of Spain. After the downfall of Musa the government was in the hands of emirs appointed by the Caliph of Damascus. In 756 the Moorish power in Spain attained to its greatest prosperity. It was during this period that the kingdom of Leon grew in extent and power. In the latter part of the eighth century Charlemagne con- quered the northwestern portion of the peninsula, and in the ninth century Navarre was founded and became a powerful kingdom. In 1033 Sancho the Great of Navarre established the kingdom of Castile. Its central position afforded it greater op- portunity for expansion and enabled it to become the most pow- erful of the Spanish states. In 1035 Sancho established the in- dependent kingdom of Aragon, which was the last Christian king- dom formed in Spain. From 1085 to 1248 the power of the Moors was broken by Alfonso the Valiant, Alfonso the Noble, James the Conqueror of Aragon, and St. Ferdinand of Castile and Leon. Ferdinand II, the last sovereign of Aragon, by marriage with Isabella, Queen of Castile, in 1469, by the conquest of Granada in 1492 and that of Navarre in 15 12, united the whole of Spain under one rule. The last Moorish stronghold in Spain was Granada. This consolidation of the kingdom, the discovery of America and the possession of large parts of the New World raised Spain to a high place among European states. The Stories Mercedes of Castile. 1841. James Fenimore Cooper The author (1789-1851) was born in Burlington, N. Y. He studied at Yale but was expelled in his third year. He was the 244 THE MEDIEVAL ERA 245 first American novelist who became well known in Europe. He knew the forest well, and his service in the United States navy made him acquainted with the sea and furnished him materials for his novels. He spent seven years in Europe, and his appre- ciation of European culture led him, upon his return home, to make invidious comparisons that subjected him to bitter cen- sure. His were the first novels of forest and prairie life, and his vivid descriptions and stirring narratives excited enthusiasm. Cooper had boasted to his wife that he could write a better novel than those of the romantic type which were appearing in his time. It resulted in the production of his first work, Precaution. Mercedes of Castile is a story of the court of Ferdinand and Isabella during the time of Columbus. A companion of the great explorer has a sweetheart who is in the Spanish Court. While on his journeys this lover falls in with an Indian Princess. She greatly interests and attracts him chiefly because she bears a strong resemblance to his lady love. He is instrumental in sav- ing her life and brings her to Spain. The common result fol- lows: the sweetheart is jealous, but the lover succeeds in es- tablishing his loyalty. Under these new conditions the princess is converted to Christianity. The lover was true to the lady of the court, but had a warm regard for the Indian, and this place she held in his affections enabled her to die fully contented. The Knightly Years. 1912. W. M. Ardagh For more than half a century Portugal had been in advance of the other nations in the work of discovery. The special in- terest lay in finding a new route to India. The work of Prince Henry the navigator resulted in the discovery of the Madeira Islands, the Canary Islands and the Azores. Toward the end of the fifteenth century the Canary Islands were wrested from the Portuguese by Spain. The inhabitants were subdued and the islands became populated by Spaniards. They now constitute the large portion of the inhabitants. The Canaries form a Span- ish province, Santa Cruz being its capital. There is a cluster of thirteen islands, all of which are mountainous and volcanic. The principal peak is that of Teneriffe, which rises to a height of 12,000 feet. 246 HISTORICAL FICTION This story deals with the life in these islands at the time they were seized by Spain, which was in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. These were exciting times created by the new discov- eries. From the fine climate and fertility of the Canaries arose the former name of Fortunate Islands. The Magada. 1910. W. M. Ardagh Gran Canaria, or Grand Canary, ranks third in size among the Canary Islands and is situated about 74 miles from the North- west coast of Africa. In 1402-05 a French adventurer, Jean de Bethencourt, captured several of the islands. About 78 years after this time the islanders were conquered by Spain, and Tene- riffe, the largest, fell to the Spaniards in 1496. It is with the capture of these islands that this story deals. A nun in these islands is called Magada. The Black Disc. 1897. Albert Lee Ferdinand was the son of John II. He succeeded his father on the throne of Aragon and Sicily in 1466 as Ferdinand II. By his marriage with Isabella, Queen of Castile and sister of Henry IV, he became king of Castile, Isabella sharing with him the royal dignity. He died in 1516, twelve years after the death of Isabella. As noted in a previous sketch, the Moorish dominion in Spain had been almost entirely overthrown by the early part of the thir- teenth century by the united forces of Castile, Aragon and Na- varre. After the union of Castile and Aragon the united kingdom set to work to conquer what still existed of the power of the Moors in Spain. The struggle continued for ten years and in 1492 the Spanish forces entered Granada, the capital of the Moors, and brought to an end their dominion in Spain. At that time Granada had a population of 400,000. This story deals with this last period of Moorish dominion in Spain. These ten years of conflict in which the strength of the Spanish arms is well displayed, ending in the fall of Granada, is vividly portrayed in a strong setting. Boabdil was the last Moor- ish king of Granada. In 1482 he expelled his father, Abu 1 Hasson, and in the following year he himself was overthrown by the Spanish army near Lucena. He was taken prisoner but THE MEDIEVAL ERA 247 was released when he agreed to pay a stipulated tribute. He returned to Granada, where he hoped to secure his throne in a struggle against his father and uncle. This civil war greatly re- duced the Moorish power, and the matter was finally settled in 1492 by Ferdinand. The Moors under Boabdil fought coura- geously but were entirely overwhelmed. There is a spot still known as "The Last Sigh of the Moor," and the story runs that when Boabdil at this point took a last look at Granada he burst into tears. His mother standing beside him declared, "You may well weep like a woman, for what you could not defend like a man." Fair Margaret. 1907. Henry Rider Haggard Torquemada, a Dominican friar, in 1483 was appointed In- quisitor-General for Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella. He was the organizer of the Spanish Inquisition, having its tribunals at Seville, Cordova and Toledo. He became infamous for the bar- barity he exercised in this capacity. Even for this age, charac- terized by the spirit of intolerance and persecution, his severity was so excessive that Pope Alexander VI appointed four col- leagues to hold him in check. In 1492 he brought about the expul- sion of the Jews from Spain. Within four days from the time when the tribunal first sat six Jews were burned at the stake. It is stated by Mariana that during the fifteen years of Torquemada's inquisitorship two thousand suffered death, besides seventeen thousand who underwent forms of punishment less severe than that of death. This English novelist (1856-) was born at Norfolk and re- ceived his education in the Grammar School of Ipswich. He was admitted to the bar, but gave up his profession for literary pursuits. He traveled widely. His works are not distinguished for artistic excellence or value, but the manner in which the stories are constructed and incidents are set forth get a grip on the atten- tion of the reader. While this story deals with England during the reign of Henry VII the interest belongs principally to Spain in the time of Ferdi- nand and Isabella. It describes the cruelties of the Inquisition in the treatment to which the Jews were subjected, as noted above. 248 HISTORICAL FICTION In this story a Jew becomes a Christian, but his daughter under- goes a series of awful experiences under the measures of the In- quisition. In Spain the Jews were noted for their intellectual advancement. They were allowed religious liberty and were nearly on terms of equality with the Moors. This was radically altered in the fourteenth century, when they were required to be baptized and accept Christianity. Those who refused to re- nounce Judaism were subjected to severe persecution. In the time of Ferdinand and Isabella they were required to accept the Christian religion or leave Spain in a state of utter poverty. Thousands left, leaving money and all possessions behind them. Leila. 1838. Bulwer-Lytton The historical setting of this story is the conquest of the Moors under Ferdinand and Isabella. Muza, the general of Boabdil, the last Moorish king of Granada, is in love with the heroine, a beautiful Jewess. Her father, who is a sorcerer, gives her as a hostage for the Jews. Thus committed to Ferdinand and Isabella, through the influence of the latter and Torquemada she is con- verted to Christianity. Her father is so enraged at this advantage taken of her circumstances as a hostage for her race, and rather than have her committed to these new religious convictions, as she is about to take the nun's veil, he slays her. He is then torn to pieces by the enraged mob. The Alhambra. 1832. Washington Irving The Alhambra was the citadel and palace of the Moorish kings of Granada. It was surrounded by a wall having a circuit of over two miles and containing many towers. The erection of this citadel was begun about the middle of the thirteenth century and was completed early in the fourteenth century. In 1492 it was captured by the Spanish. While it has suffered much both through the mutilations of Charles V and Philip V, and also by fire, it is still the finest example of Moorish art in Spain, and has inspired the admiration of artists and has been copied by archi- tects. As described by Washington Irving: "The Alhambra is an ancient fortress or castellated palace of the Moorish kings of Granada, where they held dominion over this their boasted ter- restrial paradise, and made their last stand for empire in Spain. THE MEDIEVAL ERA 249 The palace occupies but a portion of the fortress ; the walls of which, studded with towers, stretch irregularly round the whole crest of a lofty hill that overlooks the city, and forms a spire of the Sierra Nevada or Snowy Mountain." The space which the fortress occupied was capable of holding an army of 40,000 men. This American author (1783-1859) was born in New York City. He was educated for the legal profession, but soon turned his attention to literature. The years spent in Great Britain were among the most pleasant years of his life. He became well ac- quainted with Walter Scott, and his great admiration for the famous novelist is often expressed in his writings. In 1829 he was appointed secretary to the United States Legation at Madrid. Life in Spain peculiarly attracted him. His genius was cosmopol- itan rather than national. "There is in his writings a spirit larger than art and higher than genius, which wins not so much admira- tion as love, such as the author in his own person would win." The Alhambra, which brings out the color of Moorish and Spanish romance, is fascinating in the manner in which the legends and tales of this historic place abounds. The Author's description of his personal interest in these ruins and the manner in which they affected him is given in a single paragraph : "The peculiar charm of this old dreamy palace is its power of calling up vague reveries and picturings of the past, and thus clothing naked realities with the illusions of the memory and the imagina- tion. As I delight to walk in these Vain shadows' I am prone to seek those parts of the Alhambra which are most favorable to this phantasmagoria of the mind ; and none are more so than the Court of Lions and its surrounding halls. Here the hand of time has fallen the lightest, and the traces of Moorish elegance and splendor exist in almost their original brilliancy. Earthquakes have shaken the foundations of this pile, and rent its rudest towers, yet see — not one of those slender columns has been dis- placed ; not an arch of that light and fragile colonnade has given way ; and all the fairy fret-work of these domes, apparently as unsubstantial as the crystal fabrics of a morning's frost, yet exist after the lapse of centuries, almost as fresh as if from the hand of the Moslem artist." As we come to the close of this second general division of our study, and glancing over the centuries which it represents, we can 250 HISTORICAL FICTION see the manner in which the Middle Ages have attracted and in- spired the historical novelist. In these stirring times when nations were struggling into life, times of strife and conflict, the writers of this great body of fiction have taken a position, have watched the movements, the restlessness of these centuries and have inter- preted the life of the time and the motives and measures of those who were so vitally operative in this great historical procedure. And this is the real value of historical fiction. It supplements the historian. It adds to the mere facts the touch of real life and re- stores the past in the living men and women in all the attitudes and activities of their life. We see them in their living and their loving, their striving and fighting, their defeats and triumphs, and in it all groping in the dark seeking a larger individuality and emerging into the light of a higher civilization. It now remains for us to see in what respect the Modern Age has advanced beyond these conditions, and in what manner and degree it has contrib- uted to the solution of our life's great problems. PART III THE MODERN ERA In passing from one era to another in human history it would be a mistake to suppose that in reaching a new era we are actually separated from the preceding. These divisions — Ancient, Medi- eval, Modern — are arbitrary distinctions as specified by historians with a lack of agreement as to the limits of these periods. From a certain point the race enters a new form of development, and it marks the beginning of a new era. What has been sought by the preceding has, in a measure been found, and thus it becomes a mile-stone in human progress. There is no actual separation from the past, however, it is simply the past extending and realizing itself in the future. The man does not leave the boy only in the sense that he does not remain a boy. The boy will not leave the man. What is distin- guished in the one stage or epoch comes to maturity in the other. The man started in the boy, and the boy ends in the man. In like manner are we to regard the epochs of history. The modern inherits the ancient and medieval, adds to this inheritance by its contributions and thus carries the process forward to maturity. During this modern era of our life, beginning with the dis- covery of America, discoveries and inventions have revolutionized society ; knowledge has been greatly increased ; the masses have been elevated and the rights of the individual as the social unit have been regarded; institutions have developed with increasing intelligence and the whole movement has been toward a larger individuality and personal freedom. In line with this great advance in discovery, science, invention, the writing of fiction is peculiarly a modern characteristic. In the seventeenth century the modern novel began with Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe," following Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" but eliminating the allegorical in the narration of the details. Then came the contributions of Swift, Richardson, Fielding, Smollett, 251 252 HISTORICAL FICTION Sterne and Goldsmith. Late in the eighteenth and early in the nineteenth centuries the "novel of manners," as it has been called, began with Frances Burney's Evelina, and found its highest ex- pression in the works of Jane Austin. In Scott the historical novel was raised to high perfection and was carried forward by Bulwer-Lytton, Dickens, Kingsley, George Eliot, Collins and many other writers. Thus as we follow the course of the Modern Era we shall find, what we should expect to find, an expansion in the social, indus- trial, intellectual, political and religious interests of the race. And this development is accomplished by the great body of indi- viduals, and not by a few men. That the "history of any people may be resolved into the biographies of a few great men," as de- clared by Emerson, is not strictly true. The struggle for greater liberty, for emancipation from present and past confinements, has been led by individuals, but it has been the outgrowth of exist- ing conditions in which the people as a whole, and not simply the leaders of the people, have essentially participated. It would be strange if this Modern Era with its marvelous achievements, its great advance in all fields, its stirring events, did not greatly inspire the writer of historical fiction, and furnish him with his largest opportunity in his delineation and interpreta- tion of these times. THE BRITISH ISLES CHAPTER I THE HOUSE OF TUDOR This house began with the reign of Henry VII, which fell within the last period of our study. The house of Tudor extends to the close of the reign of Elizabeth. It is a period of great activity in English affairs in its political, religious and intellectual development. It is a time of strife, a breaking up of old orders and emerging into clearer atmosphere and larger appreciations of individual rights and liberties. The period comes to its consum- mation in its military successes, the establishment of Protestant- ism and in its Golden Age in literature. Historical Outline. Henry VII, 1485-1509. Inauguration of the Tudor Dynasty. Henry VIII, 1509- 1547. Act of Supremacy, Henry the su- preme head of the Church. Edward VI, 1 547-1 553. The Act of Uniformity. Mary, 15 53- 15 58. Execution of Lady Jane Grey. Religious persecution. Elizabeth, 1 558-1603. Establishment of Protestantism. The Reformation in Scotland. Execution of Mary Queen of Scots. The Spanish Armada. Shakespeare. The Golden Age in Literature. Reign of Henry VIII Henry, son and successor of Henry VII, passed through a stormy ecclesiastical period precipitated by his domestic relations. The Pope refusing to grant him the divorce from Catherine, he secured it through the universities, and setting aside the authority of the Pope declared himself the supreme head of the Church. This, however, was in no sense designed by him as a Reforma- tion measure in England. He was married six times. Catherine 253 254 HISTORICAL FICTION was divorced, Anne Boleyn was beheaded, Jane Seymour, the mother of Prince Edward, died in 1537, Anne of Cleves was divorced, Catherine Howard was executed, Catherine Parr sur- vived him. Henry was a man of energy and possessed strong mental qual- ities, divinity being his favorite study. He belonged to the century that was one of the most remarkable in history, the century that witnessed the results of the mental activities, which had for a con- siderable period been preparing the way for a great change. The Stories When Knighthood Was in Flower. 1898. Charles Major Charles Brandon, the Duke of Suffolk, served as general in this reign. Mary, the sister of Henry, had married Louis XII of France and soon after his death was married to Brandon. In the king's will their issue were preferred to those of his elder sister, Margaret of Scotland. Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop of York, was a man of great ability. Under Henry his progress was rapid and brilliant and he soon occupied the position of royal Counsellor. His primary object was the reformation and the aggrandisement of the English Church. But his fall was as conspicuous as his rise. He lost the king's favor because of his indecision regarding the divorcing of Catherine, and at the same time aroused the indignation of Anne Boleyn. His enemies, largely because of his heavy tax- ation, rose against him, his property was forfeited to the crown and was finally arrested on the charge of treason, but died on his way to London. In this story the relations with France are set forth and espe- cially the marriage of Mary with Louis XII. Her subsequent marriage with the Duke of Suffolk figures in the story. It deals with the period in the life of Wolsey when he was rising to em- inence and power, when Henry had appointed him to the See of Tournay and a little later promoted him to the bishopric of Lin- coln. THE MODERN ERA 255 The White Queen. 1899. Russell M. Gamier This story deals with the same events as the preceding story. The Holy League had been formed against Louis XII of France and Henry gladly joined it. Strife between the two countries followed, but Henry could not continue the war as his allies sought a truce. He made peace with Louis by giving his sister Mary in marriage to him, while she was then in love with Bran- don. This story emphasizes the sacrifice on Mary's part in sub- mitting to this union for the sake of the situation in which the king and country were placed. The Tragedy of the Dacres. 1911. E. E. Crake When Maximilian Emperor of Germany, of the house of Austria died in 15 19, the question of succession was raised. The contest lay between Francis I and Charles V, the latter being elected. The support of England was desired by both sides, and an interview was arranged by Francis on the plain of Ardres with such magnificence that it was known as the "Field of the Cloth of Gold." When Henry saw that he was being used as a tool he withdrew from the conference. This event, with all the magnificence and pomp attending it, is taken up by this story. It then carries us forward twenty-one years to the incident of the execution of Dacres. He was the Lord of Hurstmonceaux, a young nobleman. In company with some friends he went on an expedition of deer stealing which re- sulted in the killing of one of the foresters. Dacres was con- victed of murder, and although his friends did everything in their power to have the king intervene and spare his life, he refused to do so on grounds of justice. These events of the expedition, trial and execution are brought out in the story. At the Sign of the Golden Fleece. 1900. Emma Leslie John WyclifTe, of a much earlier day, realizing the popular ignorance of the Bible, undertook a translation of it which was completed about 1382 and was scattered among the people. This translation was made from the Latin Version of St. Jerome, 256 HISTORICAL FICTION known as the Vulgate. But this was in manuscript form, and what was needed was a Bible in printed form. This was under- taken by a Cambridge scholar, William Tyndale (1484-1536). By this time the knowledge of the Greek text had made considerable progress among learned men, and Tyndale translated the New Testament from the Greek text of Erasmus. It was printed at Worms in 1525 and secretly introduced into England. The bishops made every effort to secure the copies and burn them. While at work on the Old Testament he was arrested at Antwerp and put to death as a heretic by order of Charles V. Following this, Miles Coverdale (1488-1568) brought out his translation, not made from the original, but as the result of a comparison of the Vulgate and the German translations. It was dedicated to Henry VIII, and received his sanction, and the reading of the Bible was expressly commended. This story deals with this period of Bible translation setting forth the contentions of the two parties, those that favored the Greek text, and those that contended for the Vulgate, the Latin text. Tyndale and Coverdale figure, also Thomas Cromwell who aided Coverdale in bringing out his version. The Baron's Heir. 1911. Alice W. Fox Thomas More (1478-1535) author of Utopia, entered the House of Commons in 1504. He was made a member of the Privy Council and became closely associated with Henry VIII, and assisted him in his book against Luther. He was made Speaker of the House of Commons and in 1529 became Lord Chancellor. He emphatically opposed Henry VIII in constitu- ting himself the supreme head of the Church. He declined to take the oath of supremacy, was sent to the Tower, convicted and beheaded. In 1533 Henry married Anne Boleyn, and in 1536 she was convicted of a heinous charge by Henry and beheaded. This oc- curred one year after the execution of Thomas More. This story, which deals with these characters, relates to an earlier period when More was enjoying his advancement, and when Anne was a young girl, and about the time when she re- turned from the French court where her father had taken her. Cardinal Wolsey and Erasmus figure in the story. THE MODERN ERA 257 Westminster Abbey. 1854. Emma Robinson The process by which the English Church separated from the Roman Church rested upon three grounds : "First, dissatisfac- tion with the practical operation of the papal headship ; second, a desire to reform the clergy, and render the Church more use- ful; third, a conviction that the system of the medieval Church had in many ways deviated from the teachings of Christ and the apostles." In the time of Henry VIII Wolsey was in favor of Church reform. He suppressed thirty monasteries and turned the revenues into educational institutions. We have noted the manner in which Henry overturned the papal headship in con- nection with divorcing Catherine. Translations of the Bible were made, and it came more into the hands of the people. By a com- bination of things the old order began to give way, and reformed doctrines were being discussed and embraced. This story takes up these religious changes taking place in England, and the causes involved in the new order of things such as the king's trouble with the Pope, the breaking up of the mon- asteries and the influence of such men as Latimer, Ridley, Cran- mer and others. The House of the Wizard. 1900. Mary Imlay Taylor Catherine, the first wife of Henry VIII, was the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. In 1492 a treaty was made be- tween the sovereigns of the two countries to secure a closer friendship by intermarriage. Catherine was sent to England and became the wife of Henry's brother Arthur who died, and when Henry came to the throne his first act was to marry Catherine. He was then eighteen years old, and she was six years his senior. Her children, with the exception of Mary, died in infancy. Anne Boleyn appeared on the scene and Catherine lost the affections of her husband. When the question of divorce arose she ap- pealed to Rome and her claim was supported. She lived in re- tirement in one of the royal manors, and died at Kimbolton in J 536. On her deathbed she wrote Henry a letter assuring him of her forgiveness, and committing to him their daughter Mary. This is a story of Catherine's last days in Kimbolton. It carries us into the other scenes of Henry's life relative to Anne Boleyn who was executed the same year that Catherine died. 258 HISTORICAL FICTION The Fifth Queen and How She Came to Court. 1906. Ford M. Hueffer It was Thomas Cromwell who suggested to Henry that he could solve this divorce problem by declaring himself supreme head of the Church. He became Chancellor and held in his hands the chief authority in things secular and spiritual. Four hun- dred monasteries were suppressed and their revenues passed to the crown. He told the clergy what they should preach about. The execution of More .and Fisher indicated in what way dis- obedience would be punished. His hand was felt everywhere, and he had almost full control over the king. After the death of Jane Seymour Cromwell proposed to Henry an alliance with the German Protestant princes by means of a marriage with Anne of Cleves. She met Henry at Rochester but failed to impress him as favorably as did her portrait which he received. The matter had gone too far, and there was noth- ing left for him to do but submit to the distasteful marriage. He let his hand fall heavily upon Cromwell for getting him thus in- volved, and eventually Cromwell was executed for treason. The marriage with Anne was finally annulled on three grounds : that she had been previously contracted to the Duke of Lorraine ; that Henry had not inwardly given his consent ; that the mar- riage had never been consummated. Certain concessions made to Anne secured her consent to the separation. Catherine Howard, Henry's fifth wife, was the daughter of Lord Edmund Howard. She was characterized by levity and frivolity, but her beauty and vivacity attracted Henry. He mar- ried her in 1540. That she was guilty of improper conduct with at least one of her former lovers is quite certain. After being married a little over a year she was charged with adultery and sent to the Tower. Culpeper and Derham, two of her paramours, were beheaded, and in 1542 the same fate befell her. This story sets forth the effect of Catherine Howard's coming with her beauty and liveliness into the life of Henry following his utter disappointment in Anne of Cleves. Thomas Cromwell figures in the story in setting forth his measures and the spy sys- tem he had instituted, and the conflict between the new order and the old faith. THE MODERN ERA 259 Privy Seal: His Last Venture. 1907. Ford M. Hueffer The same events as set forth in the sketch above are dealt with by this story. The sequel to this story, The Fifth Queen Crowned, carries the events to the execution of the queen. Scotland During the Reign of Henry VIII The reign of James IV of Scotland (1488-15 13) fell in the reigns of Henry VII and Henry VIII. His father, as noted in a former sketch, was killed in the battle of Sauchieburn (1488). It was James IV who for a time supported the claims of War- beck. In 1502 he married the Princess Margaret of England, and Scotland joined the English and Spanish alliance. In 1512 new complications arose over the capture of some Scotch ves- sels in the Downs, and at this time the entreaties of the queen of France to protect French interests led James to undertake the campaign that ended at Flodden Field (1513). In this battle the Earl of Surrey by crossing the river Till cut off all communica- tions between James and Scotland, while the Scotch failed to at- tack the English in passing over the river. Instead of following up the advantage secured by defeating the right wing of the English arms, which would possibly have won the battle for the Scotch, the soldiers started to pillage the English stores. The work of the English archers won the day. At a point in the bat- tle, in holding back a force far greater than his own, King James was slain. The English won the battle by a small enough margin, and the Scotch, after the battle, held their position on Flodden Field until the next day. James was a brave soldier and good administrator. The Stories The Arrow of the North. 1906. Robert H. Forster In this story the author deals with the border conflicts. James IV, after the death of his father, had to be on guard against a plot of Henry VII to seize him. The battle of Flodden is well described, and the facts and scenes are accurately presented. In the King's Favor. 1899. Joyce E. Muddock This same historical event is vigorously presented by this story — the battle of Flodden Field and the bloody conflict of the forces when King James fell in the heat of the battle. 26o HISTORICAL FICTION James V was but two years old when his father fell at Flod- den, and the affairs of Scotland were placed under the regency of the Duke of Albany. In 1528 amid the quarrelings of the great nobles, Angus, Argyle and Errol to strengthen their power, James took the government in his own hands. The lawless borders and Highland clans kept James busy for a few years. He aroused the indignation of his uncle, Henry VIII, his mother being the Princess Margaret, and Henry declared war and defeated the disorganized Scotch army at Solway Moss. A few days after James died at Falkland, having received, just before his death, the news of the birth of a daughter who became the famous Mary Queen of Scots. A King's Masquerade. 1910. May Wynne A powerful family headed by Sir John Armstrong, had al- most independent control of the border country between Eng- land and Scotland, and the "debateable land." The Armstrongs were regarded by the Scotch government as robbers and finally James V decided to crush them. With a strong force he invaded their territory. Sir John met him in great state accompanied by a train of gentlemen. The king's forces at once took him and his brother Thomas and hanged them (1528). In this story James runs the risk of going into this lawless country of the Armstrongs after the event just narrated which nearly cost him his life. At the time of the hanging of the Arm- strongs James was about seventeen years of age. Henry VIII is the hero of Shakespeare's historical play. In this he stands out in his abounding self-reliance, one who has full confidence in his mastery whatever be the circumstances, and his attitude of triumph over those who have fallen and are cast down. The portrait that is most strongly drawn of Henry VIII in foreign literature is to be found in Calderon's drama, "The English Schism." This relates the quarrel with the Church. Henry is relieved of the responsibility of this and it is laid upon Cardinal Wolsey. The relations with Anne Boleyn and the char- acterization of her constitute a leading element in the drama. The character of Wolsey is strongly drawn— his arrogance, ambition, deceptiveness set forth in conjunction with the nobler qualities THE MODERN ERA 261 of his nature. The spirit of resignation in which he accepts his fall is presented in the soliloquy in which he bids farewell to his greatness. Reign of Edward VI Edward (1547-1553) was the son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour. He was brought under the instruction of divines of the reform order, and he zealously espoused the new doctrines. He had a studious turn of mind and devoted himself to religious interests. To maintain Prostestantism he altered the will of Henry VIII, and in his own will he excluded Mary and Elizabeth from the succession in favor of Lady Jane Grey, the daughter of Henry's niece the Countess of Suffolk, which was subscribed to by the Privy Council. His writings clearly indicate that he possessed a keen intellect and was a man of unusual erudition. The Stories The Maid of London Bridge. 1893. Somerville Gibney In 1549 an insurrection was raised under the leadership of a tanner of Wymondham in Norfolk, Robert Ket. It threatened to destroy the upper classes, and demanded social reforms. Ket collected a force of 16,000 men and camped near Norwich. He as- sumed the title of King of Norfolk and Suffolk. A daily court was convened at which all captured landlords were tried. He seized Norwich and drove out the Marquis of Northampton. The Earl of Warwick, after cutting off Ket's provisions, forced him to a battle. Thousands were slain in the fighting but the rebel- lion was crushed. Ket and the leaders were hanged. Some priests were hanged from their church steeples, with the old service books, which they wished to see restored, tied round their necks. In this story are described this agrarian insurrection, the tan- ner and his native place, the mustering of his force and their camp, their capture of Norwich and finally their defeat by War- wick. The latter, who was later the Duke of Northumberland, was he who induced Edward to alter the will of Henry in favor of Lady Jane Grey his daughter-in-law. He figures in the story. 262 HISTORICAL FICTION The Royal Sisters. 1901. Frank Mathew Mary was the daughter of Henry VIII by his first wife Catherine of Aragon, and Elizabeth was his daughter by his sec- ond wife, Anne Boleyn, and was therefore the younger of the two. Edward's adherence to the reform doctrines has been re- ferred to, and the measures he adopted to uphold Protestantism in naming Lady Jane Grey as his successor. This story relates to the events at the close of Edward's reign. It sets forth the plotting and scheming for the throne, the Duke of Northumberland and his son Guildford, husband of Lady Jane Grey, on the one side, and Mary and Elizabeth as the ones vitally interested in the throne, on the other. Arundel was one of the Council under the will of Henry to assist in man- aging the government during Edward's minority. He consented, but unwillingly, to the changing of Henry's will. Afterwards he and the rest of the Council declared in favor of Mary, and was afterwards a partisan of Mary Queen of Scots. He is one of the characters of this story. No Cross, No Crown. 1893. Deborah Alcock In 1539 Cardinal Beaton succeeded to the Archbishopric of St. Andrews, Scotland. He was a bitter persecutor of the Protes- tants as the Reformation proceeded in Scotland. His cruelties incurred the hatred of the reformers. A plot for his assasina- tion, to which Henry VIII was a party, was concocted, and it is also possible that George Wishart, one of the Scottish Protestant preachers, had a part in this plot. The latter incurred the wrath of Beaton who had him burned at the stake (1546). Beaton watched the martyrdom of Wishart from his castle window, and the story is that Wishart called out to him that from that window his dead body would be flung. On May 29 of that year he was assassinated and his body cast out of the window. During the great plague of 1544 Wishart stood on the stonewall of St. An- drews and preached to the people from the text, "He sent his word and healed them," Ps. 107 120. These facts relating to these times of the Scottish Reforma- tion, the preaching of Wishart and the plague are detailed by this story. THE MODERN ERA 263 The Monastery. 1820. Sir Walter Scott This story relates to this period of the Reformation in Scot- land after the battle of Pinkie Cleuch in 1547. The English forces were led by the Protector Somerset and Earl of Warwick, and the Scotch by the Earl of Huntly. The latter had first the advantage, but were scattered and defeated by a great charge of the English. Boniface, who is Lord Abbott of St. Mary's in the sequel to this story, The Abbot, has sought the seclusion of the cloister for the sake of quiet, but the turbulent times have deprived him of this and as he says was "dragged into matters where both head- ing and hangings are like to be the issue." Sir Piercie Shafton, who is a relative of the Duke of Northumberland and a grand- son of old Overstich the tailor, indulges the euphuistic style of speech that prevailed in the court of Elizabeth, but overdid it. In this character this form of speech is held up to ridicule. A mysterious spirit, the White Angel of Avenel, keeps guard over the interests of the Avenel family. Before any member of the family died she wails and shrieks. Lady Alice Avenel, the widow of the Baron of Avenel. In The Abbot her daughter Mary ap- pears as the Lady of Avenel. Reign of Mary In the sketches above we have already indicated important facts regarding Mary, the daughter of Henry VIII by Catherine his first wife. Various marriages were planned for her. She was a precocious child and received a good education. Every attempt was made, during the reign of Edward VI, to compel her to ac- cept the new service book which she refused to do. They en- deavored to keep Mary and Elizabeth in ignorance of the death of Edward until Lady Jane Grey, Edward's choice, should be proclaimed queen, and this proclamation was made in various parts of the country. She reigned for less than two weeks. At the head of a large following Mary was proclaimed queen (1553- 1558), and her first act was to liberate the Catholic bishops who had been imprisoned, and then cast into prison some of the prom- inent Reformers, Latimer, Cranmer and Hooper. Mary's marriage treaty with Philip of Spain, son of Charles 264 HISTORICAL FICTION V, was the beginning of an unhappy and disastrous reign. The statutes against the Pope since the twentieth year of the reign of Henry VIII were repealed, and the persecuting statutes of earlier days were revived under which Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley and many clergymen went to the stake, and thus she won for herself the title of "Bloody Mary" in her attempt to restore the Catholic religion. She was devotedly attached to her Church, and be- lieved her measures were justified as the means to the end to be secured. The Stories A Queen of Nine Days. 1903. Edith G. Kenyon Lady Jane Grey (i 537-1554) under the instruction of Robert Ascham became an accomplished scholar in Latin, Greek and Hebrew. She was as beautiful as she was accomplished. As Froude says, "She has left us a portrait of herself drawn by her own hand, a portrait of piety, purity and free noble innocence un- colored, even to a fault." When Mary seized the crown Lady Jane Grey, who had been a queen but a few days, was cast with her husband into prison. Her husband was Lord Guildford Dudley, the son of the Duke of Northumberland. While they were in prison Wyatt's rebel- lion was holding the center of the stage. Sir Thomas Wyatt was one of the leaders against Mary. It was inspired by the general feeling of opposition to Mary's marriage with Philip of Spain, and its object was to have her deposed in favor of Elizabeth. He organized the rising in Kent with remarkable ability. They failed to capture London at the propitious moment and the rebel- lion failed. Wyatt was captured. Every attempt was made to extort from him a statement that would implicate the Princess Elizabeth, but failed. He was then executed. Lady Jane Grey protested that she had no interest in securing the throne, but to no avail. After the Wyatt rebellion had been disposed of she and her husband were executed on Tower Hill, a mere girl seventeen years of age. Ridley, Bishop of London, fearing that the reform movement would suffer at the hands of Mary, joined in the attempt to place Lady Jane Grey on the throne. He declared that both Mary and Elizabeth were illegitimate and had no right to rule. He was THE MODERN ERA 265 imprisoned in the Tower for eight months, but was afterwards, on a charge of heresy, executed with Latimer. This is a story of these times and conditions. The beautiful character of Jane Grey is finely delineated, and is made the un- willing agent of her relatives regarding the throne. It portrays her imprisonment, and the Wyatt rebellion is introduced. The character of the young queen in going to her death is well ex- hibited. Ridley appears in this story, making his appeal for the enthronement of Lady Jane. The Tower of London. 1840. William Harrison Ainsworth This English novelist (1805- 1882) was born at Manchester. He studied law, but some work in journalism led him into a lit- erary career. He stated that the Tower of London "was written chiefly with the aim of interesting his fellow-countrymen in the historical associations of the Tower." It is a good example of the vigorous style of romance peculiar to Ainsworth. He is us- ually characterized as a popular, rather than a great, writer. This story is concerned with the events of the preceding story as related to the imprisonment and execution of Lady Jane Grey. The following as given in the story, is the scene in which Lady Jane Grey seeks the mercy of the queen : "Accompanied by Cuthbert, she presents herself at the Tower, and, obtaining an audience with Mary, flung herself at her feet. T am come to submit myself to your highness's mercy* she said, as soon as she could find utterance. 'Mercy?' exclaimed Mary scornfully. 'You shall receive jus- tice, but no mercy.' T do not sue for myself,' rejoined Jane, 'but for my husband. I have come to offer myself for him. If your highness has any pity for me, extend it to him, and heap his faults on my head.' "Queen Mary was deeply moved. Had not Gardiner inter- vened, she would undoubtedly have granted the request; but Gardiner suggested that the price of the pardon should be the public reconciliation of Lady Jane Grey and her husband with the Church of Rome. T cannot,' said Jane. T will die for him, but I cannot destroy my soul alive.' " 266 HISTORICAL FICTION The Wyatt rebellion is also set forth in the story, and what bearing it sustained to the execution of Lady Jane Grey and her husband. The reader is referred to the "Imaginary Conversation be- tween Roger Ascham and Lady Jane Grey," by Walter Savage Landor. In the Days of Queen Mary. 1911. E. E. Crake Cardinal Pole was one of the opponents of Henry VIII in seeking a divorce from Catherine, and the separation of England from the papacy. In the contest that ensued he went to Italy and was made a cardinal by Paul III. He sustained large relations there and came near to being elected Pope. He was the leading representative of English Catholicism, and constantly stirred up the Catholic powers against Henry. Mary restored him to Eng- land and made him Archbishop of Canterbury. In ecclesiastical matters he was her leading adviser, and took an important part in conducting the persecution of the reformers. Following Mary's marriage with Philip II of Spain the Eng- lish and Spaniards won a brilliant victory at St. Quentin (1557) over the French which resulted in a loss to the English who had left the town without forces and supplies, and it was captured by the Duke of Guise in 1558 and lost to the English forever. This story has its setting in these facts in the reign of Mary combining these religious, ecclesiastical and military events, and the relations existing between England and Spain. The Queen's Tragedy. 1906. Robert Hugh Benson In general opinon the persecutions of Mary have stained her character so that it is difficult to think of her in any other light. To most people she appears as a monster of cruelty in consider- ing the scores that went to their death during the five years of her reign. She believed supremely in the Catholic religion, and in reviving the persecution statutes of Henry IV, under the work of Pole, she believed that these measures were the best means to ac- complish the Catholic restoration. It is sometimes said that Mary was not aware of the extent of the martyrdoms, and gave them comparatively little attention THE MODERN ERA 267 on account of the depression she suffered owing to her bodily condition. It must also be remembered, however, that at one time Cardinal Pole, her chief adviser, shrank from the severity of her acts in regard to the heretics. This story undertakes to justify this queen and to place her in a more favorable light. It gives a strong portrayal of her court. We have already in the sketch referred to the burning of Cran- mer, Latimer and Ridley at Oxford in front of Baliol College. These scenes are described by the story. Lest We Forget. 1901. Joseph Hocking This English author (i860- ) was born at St. Stephen's, Corn- wall. He was a clergyman of the Wesleyan denomination. He was prize-man at Crescent Park College, and completing his studies in Owen College, Manchester, he entered the ministry in 1884. He then traveled extensively in Syria, Palestine, Greece, Turkey and Egypt. His first novel was Jabez Esterbrook which was followed by a score of others. This story covers the reign of Mary. It details the period setting forth the religious conflict that occupied such a large place in this reign. Stephen Gardiner, a celebrated prelate and states- man figured largely in Mary's affairs being one of her chief ad- visers. He had formerly been in the service of Henry VIII as Secretary of State, but had been in prison during the time of Edward's reign. The merciless manner in which he dealt with those who sympathized with Wyatt's rebellion cost him the sup- port of some of the members of Mary's Council. It is quite likely that the measures adopted by the queen in her persecution of the Protestants were devised and operated by him. Gardiner and Pole figure in this story which also describes the satisfaction that passed over the country when this reign came to an end and Elizabeth succeeded to the throne. The cor- onation of the new queen is set forth at the close. Other stories dealing with this same period are : The Protestant (1828) by Mrs. Anna E. Bray. 268 HISTORICAL FICTION In Perilous Times (1902) by Bessie Merchant. House of Torment (1910) by C. R. Gull. Reign of Elizabeth Elizabeth (1558-1603) was the daughter of Henry VIII by his second wife, Anne Boleyn, who was beheaded when Elizabeth was three years of age. When Edward VI came to the throne she was placed under the care of Catherine, the Queen Dowager, who shortly afterwards married Seymour, who was suspected of trying to win the affections of Elizabeth. After the death of Catherine her studies were pursued under Roger Ascham. She took no part in the plotting to place Lady Jane Grey on the throne. We have noted that she was suspected at the time of the Wyatt rebellion, and was placed in the Tower for about three months. When Elizabeth succeeded to the throne England was de- void of money and resources and was at war with France. She undertook at once to secure a religious settlement, and followed her father in the separation of the English Church from the su- premacy of the Pope. Marriages were proposed but she refused all offers realizing that she was between both the Protestant and Catholic situations. In Mary Queen of Scots lay a greater dan- ger as she was next in order of succession to the English crown. By promising to recognize her as her successor she tried to get Mary to resign her claim, but Mary hoped to win Scotland back to Catholicism. Elizabeth united in a remarkable degree vigor and prudence, but she also had the support of able counsellors to aid her in the administration of affairs. She lived in perilous times, and the fortunes of England were interwoven with her personal security. "She found England discouraged, disunited and poor ; she left it with a strong national spirit, prosperous and resolute. England in her reign made great advances in every way, and then first assumed the chief characteristics which still distinguish it." Her reign was one of the most illustrious in English history. It was the age of religious Reformation, and England under Elizabeth stood for the new religious order. In this age were the begin- nings of England's colonial empire. In literature it was the Golden Age, and the names of Spenser, Shakespeare and Bacon have contributed to its glory and renown that shall never pass away. THE MODERN ERA ■■ 269 The Stories The Lonely Queen. 1911. Henry C. Bailey Elizabeth had reached the age of twenty-five when she suc- ceeded to the throne. During this time she passed through the period of her education ; she had endured the evils and strife of the time, had witnessed the last four marriages of her father and had gained a large experience of the world and the difficulties which beset her. This story carries us through the scenes of Elizabeth's life from the time she was a young child to the first few years of her reign. It sets forth the influences with which she was surrounded, and the conditions under which her life was developed. The wives of Henry VIII together with the leading historical char- acters of this period brought out in the foregoing, appear in this story. Basil the Jester. 1896. Joyce E. Muddock In 1558 Mary Queen of Scots married the Dauphin of France who received from the Scottish commissioners the title of King of Scots, as Mary was then Queen of Scotland. This was the year of Elizabeth's accession to the throne. The following year Mary became queen of France on the death of Henry II, and in 1560 her husband, Francis II, died, and the following year she returned to Scotland. She was now brought into conflict with John Knox, the fa- mous Scottish Reformer, but her beauty and wit made her popu- lar with the people. In 1565 she married Darnley to the disgust of the people. His vices rendered her unhappy, and at his in- stigation David Rizzio, her favorite, was murdered in her pres- ence in Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh. In this year her son James was born and Darnley was assassinated. In 1567 she was compelled to abdicate in favor of her son during whose minority Murray was appointed regent. This period and these events of Mary are brought out in this story. The period is coincident with that of Elizabeth's reign as ^set forth in the preceding story. The same period is covered by The Queen's Maries (1864) by G. J. Whyte-Melville, beginning with her return to Scotland after the death of Francis II. 270 HISTORICAL FICTION At Sea Under Drake. 1899. C. H. Eden Elizabeth's accession to the throne was the beginning of Eng- land's sea power. Francis Drake in 1570 started on a voyage to the West Indies. In 1572, for losses he had endured at the hands of the Spaniards, he made an attack on Nombre de Dias without result. In 1577 Elizabeth permitted him to make another expedi- tion in which he plundered the Spanish towns Chili and Peru, seized a great amount of booty, and in his return trip to England had circumnavigated the globe. He was knighted by the queen. This story deals with the first of these expeditions, and sets forth the early days of England's great seamen and their deeds. When Hawkins Sailed the Sea. 1907. Tinsly Pratt Sir John Hawkins was one of the most enterprising seamen of the time of Elizabeth. He was the founder of the English slave trade. In 1562 he carried several hundreds of negroes from Africa to America. In his expedition in 1567 he fell in with a much stronger Spanish force and lost much in the way of men and property. He then became the leader in harassing Spain, and haunted the Spanish Main. It is this expedition when Hawkins, with a great cargo of negroes fell into the hands of the Spanish seamen and suffered the loss just noted, that is detailed by this story. It sets forth how he not only had to fight the Spaniards, but also the storms. Both well. 1851. James Grant When Mary Queen of Scots fled to Dunbar Castle following the assassination of Rizzio, the Earl of Bothwell supplied the force for her protection, and from this time he became closely associated with her. He afterwards returned with her to Edin- burgh. In 1567 he planned and effected the murder of Darnley, Mary's husband, and in the same year having secured a divorce from his wife, Lady Jane Gordon, he married the queen. A con- federacy of the leading barons, however, compelled him to flee to Dunbar and then to the Orkneys. Driven to sea he was ar- rested by a Spanish war-ship off the coast of Norway on a sus- picion of piracy and was taken to Denmark. He was imprisoned THE MODERN ERA 271 at Malmoe for six years, then at Dragsholm for five years, where he died. He was an unscrupulous border chief, and the strange thing is that for him Mary could have the slightest affection. In this story the author has traced the career of Both well. Following his message to the Danish king he is brought into the life of Mary, and then compassed the murder of Darnley in Edin- burgh, having the house in which he was blown up with gun- powder. Mary was suspected of being implicated in this plot. The story follows on to BothwelFs love-making and marriage with the queen, his being driven from the country and his cap- tivity. The author, on his mother's side was related to Sir Walter Scott. He wrote "The Romance of War" when twenty-three years of age and wrote more than fifty novels. When he died in 1887 he was penniless. The opinion of one writer is that "for fertility of incident, rapid change of scene, and skilful intermin- gling of historical with imaginary people and events, Bothwell is not surpassed by any of the romances that came from its author's fertile pen." The Abbot. 1820. Sir Walter Scott Following the defeat and escape of Bothwell Mary was taken by the insurgent nobles to Lochleven Castle. She was forced to sign a document abdicating in favor of her son. For nearly a year she remained in captivity and succeeded in escaping. She then made an effort to recover her power she had signed away. She was defeated by the forces of Murray, the regent for her son, and fled to England to appeal to Elizabeth for protection. Instead of receiving protection she was made a prisoner. This story is the sequel to The Monastery. Edward Glenden- ning of the former story reappears as the Abbot, the last abbot of St. Mary's. Under the ruling conditions of the time he was "turned out of house and homestead," but he now devotes his energies to the securing of Queen Mary's release. Roland Graeme, a foundling, served as a page in the house of Sir Halbert Glendenning, Knight of Avenel. He enters the service of Mary Queen of Scots and is imprisoned in Lochleven Castle. He plays a gallant part in conjunction with the loyalists in securing her 272 HISTORICAL FICTION escape. He had fallen in love with Catherine Seyton, the heroine of the novel, who is a maid of honor to Mary, and it was she who had fired him with enthusiasm for the cause of the queen. She is the daughter of Lord Seyton, and the difference in their social position was rather inconvenient. But he marries her and then discovers that he is the heir to the barony of Arundel, and the social difference is eliminated. Kenilworth. 1821. Sir Walter Scott Kenilworth is four miles from Warwick. It was here that the famous "Dictum de Kenilworth" was drawn up in 1266, and it was here that Edward II was imprisoned at the time he was deposed in 1327. It was given by Elizabeth to the Earl of Leices- ter, and it was here that he gave the famous entertainment in 1575. ; Leicester was the son of John Dudley, Duke of Northumber- land. In 1549 he married Amy Robsart, and it is said had an active part in bringing about her death at Cumnor in 1560. The time was auspicious in favoring his aspirations but the charge has never been absolutely established. "The probable truth is, as Froude points out, that she w r as murdered by some one who wished to see Dudley married to Elizabeth. " He was a handsome man and soon won the attention of the queen. She became very fond of him and in 1564 created him Earl of Leicester. She would not marry him herself, as she refused all offers of marriage, but she commanded him to seek the hand of Mary Queen of Scots. But his affections were for the queen of England. In 1578 he in- curred her displeasure by secretly marrying the Countess of Essex. When he was given command of the troops in the Low Countries he exhibited his utter incompetency to fill a responsible position. Froude's description of him is undoubtedly correct: "He combined in himself the worst qualities of both sexes. With- out courage, without talent, without virtue, he was the handsome, soft, polished, and attractive minion of the Court." One of the things that inspired Scott to write Kenilworth was the ballad of "Cumnor Hall," in which the story of Amy Robsart appears. Elizabeth appears in many romances and dramas, but in none is her character more finely delineated than in this story. Tt is most likely that Scott's success in the portrayal of Mary THE MODERN ERA 273 Queen of Scots in "The Abbot" led him to do the same for her great rival. According to Scott her character was "strangely com- pounded of the strongest masculine sense with those foibles which are chiefly supposed proper to the female sex. Her subjects had the full benefit of her virtues, which far predominated over her weaknesses." To the Earl of Leicester she showed, says Scott, "all those light and changeable gales of caprice and humor, which thwart or favor the progress of a lover in the favor of his mis- tress, and she, too, a mistress who was ever and anon becoming fearful lest she should forget the dignity or compromise the authority of the Queen, while she indulged the affections of a woman." Leicester is the hero of this romance. Sir Walter Raleigh appears in the story. The palace of Kenilworth inspires a profuse description, and the famous entertainment given the queen by Leicester in 1575, when she visited Kenilworth, is given an im- portant place in the story. Unknown to History. 1882. Charlotte M. Yonge When Mary Queen of Scots escaped from Lochlevin Castle she made a new attempt to recover her power with a force of 6,000 men. She was defeated at Langside (1568) and then fled to Elizabeth for protection. From that time on she became the prisoner of the English queen and remained so for about nineteen years. Her place of imprisonment was frequently changed, the last being Fotheringay Castle, Northamptonshire. In 1583 Sir Francis Walsingham detected Babington's con- spiracy which implicated Mary. There is no doubt about his be- ing her enemy. One view taken is, that he would go to any length to bring about her execution ; another is, that he was too honorable a man to forge any of the letters so as to produce them as evidence against her. While Babington was a page at Sheffield he had been fasci- nated by the charms of Mary. Ballard, a Jesuit, easily persuaded Babington to participate in a plot by which Elizabeth was to be assassinated and Mary placed on the throne. Six of the conspira- tors were chosen to commit the deed. But Walsingham, by his clever spy system, had some of his agents admitted to the secret, unknown to the conspirators. In a letter to Mary Babington had 274 HISTORICAL FICTION revealed to her the whole plot, which letter passed through the hands of Walsingham. She replied to the letter encouraging the conspirators and urged them to act quickly. This letter sealed her fate. Fourteen of the conspirators were seized and executed. This was in 1586. As already noted, there is a difference of opinion as to whether Walsingham had any part in concocting the plot through his agents so as to procure — manufacture — evidence against the queen. Froude takes the ground that the charge is utterly false. Mary was tried and convicted of having a part in the plot to assassinate Elizabeth and was sentenced to be executed. There was a long delay before Elizabeth signed the warrant, but at last did so, February, 1587. Mary received the news with dignity and calm which did not desert her on the scaffold. She was beheaded at Fotheringay February 8, 1587. Elizabeth declared that she issued no order that the warrant should be carried into effect, and thus tried to free herself of personal responsibility. This story details these various events. It presents to us Mary's captivity in England for the long period in which she was held in honorable confinement. It sets forth the Babington con- spiracy, Mary's trial and execution. Other stories: One Queen Triumphant (1889), by Frank Mathew, giving the last period of Mary's captivity, the plot, the trial, and execution. Come Rack! Come Rope! (1912), by R. H. Benson, present- ing Mary in a most favorable light, a pious woman and wholly innocent of any complicity in the plot, and full of stirring events. Westward Ho! 1855. Charles Kingsley While the great Armada, which was created by Philip II of Spain to attack England delayed, Drake made a daring raid into Cadiz harbor, where he "singed the king of Spain's beard" by destroying the ships and stores gathered there. This Armada was fitted out by Philip partly to avenge the death of Mary Queen of Scots. On the last night of her life Mary wrote to Philip urging him to invade England and avenge her death. Catholic Europe was embittered by Mary's execution and France acted with Spain. It seemed also to Philip that England was not prepared to meet the formidable attack he proposed to deliver. THE MODERN ERA 275 In 1588 the great Armada started for England. It contained about 150 ships and carried 19,295 soldiers and 2,680 pieces of artillery. But the ships were poorly constructed for the Channel. The English fleet under Lord Howard consisted of 30 ships of the Royal Navy and a large number of volunteer ships, and was ably assisted by Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher, Raleigh and other seamen. The Spanish vessels were built too high and were top- heavy. The English vessels were smaller and more easily handled. They followed the principle always followed by the British navy of trusting to rapid and accurate artillery fire instead of boarding the enemy. The flagship of the Armada fell into the hands of Drake, and the English demonstrated their superior seamanship. Fire ships sent among the Spaniards created a panic, and they were wholly unprepared for the daring of the English seamen. The work of destruction was carried forward by the storm when the Armada retreated. Only 67 vessels returned home ; the defeat was complete and discouraged any further attempt to restore Catholicism on the part of Spain by force of arms. In this historical romance by Kingsley the hero is Sir Amyas Leigh, and his voyages and adventures are set forth in the story. This character is rather exaggerated from the physical point of view, but he is endowed by the author with strong poetic feelings, a high appreciation of beauty and an abundance of good nature. The one thing that disturbs his geniality is the thought of Span- iards, for he feels that if he has any distinctive. mission it is to wipe that race off the earth. The story is charged with the spirit of daring adventure that characterized such men as Drake and Hawkins in their attacks upon Spanish possessions. It reaches its consummation in detailing the destruction of Philip's Armada. The daring work of burning the Spanish provision ships in the harbor of Cadiz by Drake before the Armada set out, which is referred to in the sketch, is set forth in the story, A Fair Prisoner (19 1 2), by Morice Gerard. Other stories : Clare Avery (1876), by Emily S. Holt. Under the Foemaris Flag (1896), by Robert Leighton. The Sea Devils (1912), by J. E. Burton. 276 HISTORICAL FICTION The Queen's Hostage. 1906. Harriet T. Comstock This age of Elizabeth was an expression of energy unusual in human history. And in none of its great achievements was this more true than in literature. This golden age of English letters was created by such men as Spenser in the field of poetry, Bacon in the field of science and Shakespeare, Marlowe and Jon- son in the field of the drama. "Such activity no doubt was the result of many causes, long in preparation ; but one of these was certainly the freedom of thought and intellectual stimulus which came with the religious Reformation. ,, Shakespeare, the analyist of human nature, was one of the greatest products of this age and its greatest creator and expres- sion in the realm of literature. His genius is coincident with his incomparable productions which distinguish the depth, breadth, versatility and amazing creations of his mind. "He had a mind so comphesensive, complete and original that, while appropriating materials which he found, he transformed them by the enrgy of his genius into new and wonderful creations." This story introduces us to scenes in London ; it acquaints us with its life, takes us to the Court of Elizabeth and entertains us in the theater. It introduces us to its famous characters and by its delineations gives us that nearer view of the Queen, Shake- speare and Jonson. It takes one of the works of the great bard of Stratford — Love's Labour's Lost — and places it upon the stage in the manner in which it gives a description of the play. This drama belongs to the first period of Shakespeare's productions. Other stories : A Gentleman Player, by Robert N. Stephens. The Failure of a Hero, by Mary Bramston. A Maid of the Malvems, by T. H. Porter. These stories deal with these great days in literature and the men who produced it. Gowrie. 1851. George P. R. James In the closing years of Elizabeth's reign occurred what is called the "Gowrie Conspiracy" (1600), shrouded in more or less mystery, and that related to James VI of Scotland, son of Mary THE MODERN ERA 277 Queen of Scots. The king was hunting in Fifeshire and fell in with Alexander Ruthven, the Master of Gowrie, who told James that he had a Jesuit at his house, which was near Perth, and who had in his possession a large sum of money. He invited James to come to the house and share in the robbery of the Jesuit. When they reached the house, instead of a captive, James was confronted by an armed servant of the earl, Henderson by name, and was informed that he was a prisoner. The purpose was to kidnap the king and take him by sea to Fastcastle. Ruthven reminded James of the execution of Lord Gowrie, his father, in 1584. Before Ruthven could act James raised an alarm which brought his attendants, and his page, Sir John Ramsay, forcing his way into the room stabbed Ruthven. In explanation of this affair the king's enemies declared that James was the instigator of the plot for the purpose of doing away with the Ruthvens. Evidence, however, established the fact that there was a con- spiracy between Ruthven and his brother to carry off or kill the king. It is also said that Elizabeth was aware of the plot. In this story the responsibility for the plot is laid upon the king as was charged up to him by his enemies at the time, the object of which was to get rid of Ruthven. In Swinburne's Cliastelard, the hero falls in love with Mary Queen of Scots. His place in Swinburne's play, however, is sub- ordinate to that of the queen, "whose character he has conceived with inexhaustible subtlety and depth, and represented with a rarely equalled perfection of light and color and fire." The reader's attention is also called to : Schiller's Maria Stuart, one of his most famous works. Macaulay's The Armada. Samuel Johnson's preface to his editon of Shakespeare is one of the best criticisms of the work of the great master. CHAPTER II FROM THE AGE OF ELIZABETH TO THE COMMONWEALTH Before her death Elizabeth had named as her successor James VI of Scotland, son of Mary Queen of Scots. With his accession began a new development in government, or, more correctly, there was to be realized more fully what all along had been the distinc- tive fact in English history. The difference between France and England during this period was this, that while in the former absolutism was being more and more established, in England the supremacy of Parliament was steadily developing. Even Elizabeth had come to realize the growing power of the people, but by her tactful manipulations she managed to hold control. But things had changed, and what had been the "murmuring Parliament of Queen Elizabeth devel- oped into the mutinous Parliament of James I and the rebellious Parliament of Charles I, and the end was the 'glorious revolution' of 1688, which brought William III to the throne." James was dominated by the idea of the "divine right of kings," and although the expression had not yet come into use, the doctrine was maintained by many. James did not admit that he was responsible to Parliament or the people, but to God alone. And, as noted, when he and his descendents attempted to enforce that idea, and to disregard the demands of the people, there fol- lowed a political eruption that forever abolished the idea of the absolute authority of the monarch, and democracy became the ruling principle of the kingdom. Reign of James I James (1603-1625) was one of the most learned rulers in Europe. He was a Protestant, but disliked the extreme views of the Puritans, who were becoming more and more insistent in their demands. He maintained a liberal attitude to the Catholics, but his preferences and sympathies were for the Established Church as he found it in coming to the throne. 278 THE MODERN ERA 279 While James held exalted views of his personal responsibility, he had little or no respect for the opinions of others, and his egotism and vanity kept him from recognizing in others real ability. The result was that his ministers were unwisely chosen. It was because of this disposition that so characterized him that led the Duke of Sully to speak of him as "the wisest fool in Christendom." When James declared that Parliament should not meddle with the deep matters of state, and that privileges rested only on the will of the king, Parliament promptly replied that "the liberties, franchises, privileges and jurisdictions of Parliament are the ancient and undoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of England," and that all matters pertaining to the king and the state were matters in which Parliament had the right of freedom of speech. The Stories Arabella Stuart. 1844. George P. R. James Arabella Stuart was the cousin of James I, the niece of Lord Darnley, and great-granddaughter of Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. Elizabeth had declared that she would name her as her successor if she should become displeased with the conduct of James. When James came to the throne, while there was no actual opposition, yet the feeling was entertained by some that Arabella, being a native of England, had a greater right to the throne. The main plot probably had as one of its objects the deposition of James and placing Arabella on the throne while she knew nothing of such designs. In 1610 she married Sir William Sey- mour, who was a member of the Suffolk branch of the royal family. The king opposed this marriage. Seymour was sent to the Tower, and while Arabella was being taken to Durham she escaped and took ship for France. Seymour had escaped from the Tower and got to Ostend. Before his wife could reach Calais she was captured and placed in the Tower. She became insane and died four years after being confined in the Tower. These events, the courtship and marriage of these two people, and the plot to place her on the throne, constitute the historical setting of this story. This author in Gowrie charged that other 280 HISTORICAL FICTION plot up to James, and in this story does not picture him in a favor- able light. The Bye plot was a movement of a number of Catho- lics, among whom were Griffin, Markham and Copley, who op- posed the king's policy, and determined to seize him and compel him to dismiss his ministers and grant more leniency to Catholics and Puritans. The plot was poorly managed and failed. Some of the leaders were executed and some banished. This affair is set forth in the story, also the circumstances attending the murder of Overburg, of whose influence the king became jealous, and who opposed Rochester's proposed marriage with Lady Essex. He was placed in the Tower for refusing the king's diplomatic post, and Lady Essex managed to get him poisoned. The Fortunes of Nigel. 1822. Sir Walter Scott Sir George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, secured the favor of James I by amusing the king in his leisure hours. When Carr lost the king's favor Villiers took his place and was created Earl and then Marquis. He became one of the richest noblemen in England. He became arrogant and self-centered. He got mixed up with the affairs of the Palatinate, the crown of which had been placed upon the son-in-law of James, undertook a commis- sion to Spain, was defeated in his plan, returned home and advised a declaration of war against Spain. It was during this trouble that James died. Villiers was stabbed by a discontented officer while preparing an expedition for the relief of Rochelle during the trouble with France. This story deals with the early days of the reign of James, and gives a description of the Court. It is a fine portrayal of the king. The Duke of Buckingham is introduced as also Charles, the successor of James. Lord Malcolm of Dalgarno is a profligate young nobleman, who under the guise of friendship, gets Nigel, a young nobleman, mixed up with disgraceful resorts, taking advan- tage of his lack of experience. He brought disgrace upon Lady Hermione, who exposed him, and married her only to add to the wrongs he had already inflicted upon her. Guy Fawkes. 1841. William H. Ainsworth At the beginning of the reign of James arose the Catholic conspiracy known as the Gunpowder Plot. When they discovered THE MODERN ERA 281 that James had no intention of exercising toleration towards them in remitting the laws against recusancy, or not conforming, a plot was formed and matured by Robert Catesby, Winter and Wright in 1604. Others joined the conspiracy among whom was Guy Fawkes, who had served for a long period as a soldier in Flanders and was in close connection with the English Jesuits. The plan devised was that Fawkes should have barrels of gun- powder placed in cellars adjoining the Parliament buildings, and these should be exploded when the king and the Prince of Wales were present. An insurrection should then be raised. One of the Catholic members of Parliament received a letter warning him not to be present on the day set apart (November 5). An investigation was at once instituted and the buildings searched. Fawkes had been left in charge of the powder and was captured. He and the leaders were executed, and the result was that the laws against Catholics were made all the more severe. From that time November 5 has always been commemorated in England as "Guy Fawkes Day." This story is based upon these events. It sets forth the re- ligious conditions that gave rise to this plot, and what the Catho- lics had to endure by the existing legislation. The working out and ultimate failure of the plot, and the end of those involved, are clearly described. The Splendid Knight. 1905. Henry A. Hinkson Sir Walter Raleigh (1 552-1618) was the half-brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, whom he accompanied on a voyage of dis- covery to Newfoundland. He organized three expeditions to America. He took an active part in the defeat of the Spanish Armada. When James came to the throne he lost the prestige he had at the court, and was charged with having a part in the plot to place Arabella Stuart on the throne. He was found guilty and sentenced to be executed. The sentence, however, was not carried out, and for twelve years he was a prisoner in the Tower, during which time he wrote his History of the World. James was financially embarrassed, and to raise money needed he re- leased Raleigh to conduct an expedition to Guiana in search of a gold mine that had been heard of on an earlier voyage. The mine was not found, but they attacked a Spanish village and some 282 HISTORICAL FICTION of its people were killed. This was at a time when James could not afford to offend Spain. Irritated by their lack of success relative to the gold mine, and to please Spain for Raleigh's attack on the Spaniards, James sent him to the block (1618). These facts form the historical background of this story, which describes the expedition and the fruitless search for the treasure. The Star Chamber. 1854. William H. Ainsworth James utilized the old privilege of the crown relative to grant- ing monopolies in trading. For example, in the manufacture of glass he would deprive those who were already engaged in the business of the right to do so, and give it to a company of his own selection, and prohibit the importation of glass manufac- tured outside of the country. Other monopolies consisted of the licensing of inns, and the making of gold and silver thread. This whole system was condemned by the House of Commons, which did not spare its criticism of those engaged in the business who were servants of the king. The special object of their attack was Sir Giles Mompesson. On condition of paying a certain por- tion of extorted money into the royal treasury he had been allowed to demand whatever license he pleased of the proprietors of inns. Thousands of innkeepers who had been guilty of no offense what- ever, he had heavily fined, and those resorts that it was decided should be closed up because of their wanton character, he issued licenses to. Mompesson was a member of Parliament, and that body condemned him for his practices in a most drastic manner. He was required to walk along the Strand with his head to his horse's tail, was heavily fined and imprisoned for life. This historical case, the trial and sentence of Mompesson, is set forth in this story and as illustrating the abuses of the time relative to this system of monopolies. James and his son Charles and other historical personages are introduced. Reign of Charles I When Charles I (1625-1649) came to the throne he was im- bued with the ideas of his father, James I, regarding the absolute authority of the king. He was like his father, too, in that he had no respect for the opinions of others, or for those who disagreed THE MODERN ERA 283 with him. But in matters of learning and intelligence he was inferior to his father. He was even more self-willed and arbi- trary, and was not dependable in matters of being bound by prom- ises given. In the third year of his reign was enacted the Petition of Rights (1628), a new, great instrument of the Constitution, and in importance second only to the Magna Charta, since it settled in favor of the nation most of the constitutional questions then in dispute. The question of the limitation of the king's rights and powers that held throughout the reign of James became the crucial question in the reign of Charles, that was to be settled one way or the other. It was the period of conflict between the king and the Parlia- ment. When Charles dissolved Parliament in 1629 it was the last that was called for eleven years. "The problem had arisen as to whether the king or Parliament was, in the last resort, the supreme law of the country, and the king was determined to solve it in his own way." And consequently Charles made the attempt to rule without a Parliament, and thus it became the period of the personal government of Charles I. This conflict between the king and Parliament, and the solu- tion of this problem as to who was the supreme ruler of the coun- try, and the manner in which the problem was solved, will be brought out in the treatment of the stories. The Stories The Dogs of War. 1900. Edgar Pickering For eleven years Charles attempted to rule the country without a Parliament. He tried to impose upon Presbyterian Scotland a church service similar to the English, and Scotland was ready for war. In 1641 he called a Parliament which lasted for just three weeks. It refused to support him in a war against the Scotch. Then came the famous Long Parliament. The dispute between the king and the Parliament was becoming more and more bitter, and unless one or the other yielded a civil war would soon be precipitated, and this alternative soon followed. The king went to Nottingham to prepare for war, and those who favored his side followed him there. These were called "Cavaliers," while the Parliamentary army were known as "Roundheads," because 284 HISTORICAL FICTION their hair was cut short, and not allowed to fall in long curls on the neck. The first battle was fought at Edgehill (1642). It was some- thing of a drawn battle. They fought for half a day and faced each other for the night and the next morning, then both armies marched away. The fighting for a time was in favor of the king. Then a Scotch army was secured by Parliament. At this point there came upon the stage of action the man who was to become such a mighty factor in shaping the policies of England for a period — Oliver Cromwell. At Marston Moor the king met the Scotch and English forces. Cromwell was at the head of a cavalry troop known as the "Ironsides." He was a deeply religious man of the Puritan party. It was largely due to him and his well trained men that the parliamentary forces won a complete victory at Marston Moor. At Naseby (1645) Cromwell again defeated and scattered the king's army, and at the same time secured the king's cabinet containing copies of his letters showing that while negotiating with Parliament he was planning to bring a foreign army into England. Charles was now defeated in every contest, and in 1646 he surrendered himself to the Scotch army, by which he was handed over to representa- tives of the Parliament. In this story the hero is in the service of Cromwell. It sets forth the work of Cromwell before he was placed in more dis- tinctive positions in the war. The story follows the course of the war from the battle of Edgehill to that of Marston Moor and Naseby and the operations at Bristol. Rupert was sent by the king to besiege it. He offered such generous terms that the town surrendered to the loyalists. Other stories : The Adventures of Timothy (1907), by Edith C. Kenyon, dealing with the same period of the war. It introduces Jeremy Taylor of Oxford. Hugh Gwyeth: a Roundhead Cavalier (1899), by Beulah M. Dix. In Spite of All (1901), by Edna Lyall. Hopton, who assisted in raising the king's army ; Archbishop Laud, who was impeached by the Long Parliament and executed in 1645 5 Cromwell and others are introduced into the story. THE MODERN ERA 285 A Legend of Montrose. 1819. Sir Walter Scott The Earl of Montrose (1612-1650) at first espoused the cause of the Covenanters and was at the head of their troops in the Highlands. It was the old Scotch custom for those who were the adherents of some cause to commit themselves by a Specific bond to support each other to the end. The Covenant, that had so much to do with the Scottish Reformation, was such a bond. When Charles I, in 1638, attempted to impose upon the Scotch Church the liturgy of the English Church, the Scotch people re- belled and revived the Covenant of 1581, which at that time was concerned with Catholicism. This Covenant, in opposition to an act of Charles, was signed by people of every class throughout Scotland, and the word "Covenant" became the war-cry of the Presbyterian party. As already noted, when hostilities broke out between Charles and the Parliament, the latter appealed to Scot- land for military aid. As a condition to granting that aid the Scotch demanded that the Parliament pledge itself to the demands of Presbyterianism. Consequently the doctrines of the Church were formulated in the body of divinity known as the West- minster Confession, which is still the rule of faith of the Presby- terian Church. Until 1641 Montrose led the Scotch forces against the king, but being refused the supreme command of their army, he passed over to the side of the royalists, the king creating him a marquis in 1644. He conducted a victorious campaign against the Cove- nanters, defeating them at Tippermuir, Aberdeen, Auldearn, Alford and Kilsyth, but in 1645 ne was defeated at Philiphaugh by David Leslie, and in Scotland the cause of Charles was ruined. In 1650 when he attempted another invasion of Scotland in the interests of Charles II he was defeated and executed at Edin- burgh. In this story Scott has given us the campaign of Montrose in the north of Scotland in support of Charles I. One of the inter- esting characters is Dugald Dalgetty, the Laird of Drumthwacket. His sword is for sale to the highest bidder, and he finally enters the service of Monteith. He is a braggart, but he is also brave and has initiative. Commenting upon his character, Andrew Lang says : "Dugald is a garrulous pedant and may be styled one of Scott's bores, but he never bores us, whether he sets forth 286 HISTORICAL FICTION his simple reasons for serving the king's army and not the Cove- nanters ; or criticises the various services of Europe ; or lectures on the propriety of fortifying the sconce of Drumsnab ; or faces Argyll in Inverary or masters him in the dungeon, or wheedles the Presbyterian chaplain ; or mocks the bows and arrows of his allies, the Children of the Mist; or swaggers about in the fresh glories of his title of Knight Banneret." Amyas Egerton, Cavalier. 1896. Maurice H. Hervey The army, called the New Model army, was victorious in prac- tically every engagement till there was no organized royalist army in the field. Charles was shut up in Oxford and was compelled to surrender, which he did to the Scotch army and was imprisoned in Holmby House, Northamptonshire. So the war seemed to be over, and Parliament decided to disband the army but refused to pay them their wages. The army refused to be disbanded and issued a declaration that it would hold together until peace was assured and the government settled. It became suspicious of Parliament and decided to hold the king in their own custody. He was kept at various points — Newmarket, Hampton Court, Caris- brooke and other places. During this period negotiations between Charles and the Par- liament were conducted. In the hope of getting to France he eluded his jailors at Hampton Court and escaped to the Isle of Wight, and placed himself under the protection of the governor of Carisbrooke Castle. Civil war was renewed, and after Crom- well and Fairfax had again suppressed the royalists the army returned to London and demanded that Charles should be executed for the bloodshed he had caused. A High Court of Justice was created by the Commons, con- sisting of 135 persons, to try the king for treason. The trial was held in Westminster Hall. The cousin of Cromwell presided. The king was charged with having attempted to destroy the liber- ties of the people, and of being a tyrant, traitor and murderer. He refused to answer to the charge, declaring that the court had no lawful authority from the people of England by which to try him ; that he was responsible to no human tribunal. He declared "I fear not death. Death is not terrible to me ; I bless my God I am prepared." He was convicted and sentenced to be executed. THE MODERN ERA 287 When, on January 30, 1649, ne stepped upon the scaffold and saw the crowds thronging the streets, he said, "I am the martyr of the people, :" and then died under the axe. While this execu- tion created sympathy for the king "it tended to dispel the halo of sacredness which had surrounded royalty." This story describes the progress of the war to the surrender of the king. His escape from Hampton Court to the Isle of Wight, with an attempt to rescue him, are detailed. The closing scenes of the trial and execution are portrayed. Other stones : Holmby House (i860), by G. J. Whyte-Melville. The Prisoner of Carisbrooke (1904), by S. H. Burchell. The Cavaliers (1895), by S. R. Keightley, which gives the at- tempt to rescue the king from Carisbrooke. These stories deal with the general facts as given above. CHAPTER III THE COMMONWEALTH The execution of Charles I was the consummation of the strug- gle between royalty and its theory of absolute authority and Par- liament as representative of the people. The great error of Charles lay in trying to "substitute the personal will of Charles Stuart for the legal will of the King of England." The Commonwealth was now formed under the declaration of the Commons that "the people are under God, the source of all just power." Taking upon themselves the right to act in the name of the people, "they decreed the abolition of monarchy and of the House of Lords, and declared England to be a Common- wealth, or free state, with an executive council of forty-one members." After Cromwell had turned out the Rump Parliament a writ- ten constitution, called the Instrument of Government, was adopted, in which Cromwell was named Lord Protector of Eng- land, Scotland and Ireland for life. Oliver Cromwell (1599- 1658) was a native of Huntington. In 1628 he was elected mem- ber for Huntington, and in the Long Parliament represented Cam- bridge. He was especially active in religious matters, and decided to leave the country if the Grand Remonstrance did not pass. We have already noticed the service he rendered Parliament as com- mander of the troops in the Civil War, and the manner in which his ability, decisiveness and dispatch were exhibited. Cromwell's government, by his foreign policies, brought to England a greater respect abroad than had been the case since the reign of Elizabeth. In 1656 Parliament offered the crown to Cromwell, which he refused. He matched his age more com- pletely than any other man. "The age was great, great in oppor- tunities and events, and called for a great man ; and among not a few who were more than ordinary, who were clear-sighted, true and patriotic, he was the one great man — great because he 288 THE MODERN ERA 289 was strong and wise, because he had the mind to perceive and the will to do what needed to be done." Cromwell was the best representative of his age, and we must understand the Commonwealth largely in terms of its Protector. The government did not have its roots in the nation and was per- sonal rather than national, and could not hope to survive the man who had called it into being and sustained it. It continued for the brief period of eleven years (1649- 1660). The Stories Castle Omeragh. 1903. Frank F.Moore In 1649 Cromwell went to Ireland to put down the rebellion that had arisen. He stormed and captured Drogheda and put the entire garrison to the sword. This act he justified on the ground that he was avenging the massacre there of eight years before, and also as a drastic measure to prevent future bloodshed. Some towns were terrified into submission, but Wexford held out and suffered the fate of Drogheda. In this campaign, within a few months Leinster, Kilkenny and Clonmel were taken. This British novelist and dramatist (1855-) was born at Lim- erick, Ireland, and received his education at the Royal Academical Institution, Belfast. His novels, as a rule, are of a sensational type and incorporate incidents of the author's travels. This campaign is set forth in this story. It describes the ex- tinction of the garrison Drogheda and CromwelPs following suc- cess. Another story by the same author, the sequel of this story, is Captain Latymer, which describes the conditions in Ireland dur- ing this period. Harry Ogilvie. 1856. James Grant In the conflict between the Parliament and Charles I several of the ships of the Parliament went over to Prince Charles, son of Charles. With these he made an attempt to blockade the Thames, but was compelled to retire to Holland. Following the execution of his father, he assumed the title of King and was proclaimed King of Scotland at Edinburgh. He came to Scotland, took the Covenant and in 165 1 was crowned at Scone. His cause was 2 9 o HISTORICAL FICTION hopeless, and what contributed to that fact was the lack of unity among his followers. In this story the author takes us back to the events of the Civil War from the royalist point of view. We have in a former sketch presented the facts regarding the Covenant, and this figures in this story. It follows on to the events in the career of the Prince as stated above. Cavalier and Covenant. 1895. George Eyre-Todd The coronation of Charles at Scone took Cromwell into Scot- land. The great majority of the Scots, under the leadership of the Earl of Argyle, head of the great Campbell clan, demanded that Charles should rule as a Presbyterian king. In September (1650) Cromwell, with a much smaller force, inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Scots under David Leslie, an able commander, at Dunbar. He captured 10,000 prisoners. He then occupied Edinburgh. Charles was with Leslie and thought that he could bring about a royalist uprising by marching into England while Cromwell was engaged in the Highlands. But a Scotch invading army did not secure for Charles a warm reception. Cromwell pursued Leslie and the king, but did not overtake them until they had reached Worcester. He attacked them in two divisions. Charles made the first attack, but was thrown back into the town where the two divisions of the Parliament army came together and drove the royalists through the streets. So complete was the de- feat that the cause of Charles seemed utterly ruined. This story, in which history dominates, sets forth the situation in Scotland in connection with Charles and Presbyterianism. It brings forward the movements of Cromwell and the defeating of Leslie at Dunbar. The story carries us forward to the next great move, the crushing of Charles in the battle of Worcester. Wanderer and King. 1903. O. V. Caine When Charles was defeated at Worcester he was about twenty years of age. He escaped from the battle, but not a regiment of his army reached the border. Thousands who escaped death in the battle perished afterwards, while half of the nobility of Scotland were in the hands of Cromwell, who abolished the Scotch Parlia- THE MODERN ERA 291 ment, but allowed them to send thirty members to the Parliament at London. When Charles escaped from the battle he found refuge in the house of John Giiford of Boscobel, Shropshire. Lord Derby placed him in charge of some woodcutters named Penderell. He was concealed for several days, but so hotly was he pursued that it was necessary for him to be hidden in an oak tree in the Boscobel woods. He finally made his escape and got on board a ship that landed him in France. For nine years he wandered about France, Germany and the Low Countries, and his reception was according to the manner in which the monarchs and ministers of these countries feared Cromwell. A few faith- ful followers accompanied him. These wanderings of Charles constitute the historical setting of this story. It describes the manner in which he was befriended in making his escape to the ship, and his subsequent experiences in his wanderings. Other stories : The House of the Oak (1911), by H. A. Hinkson. Boscobel; or the Royal Oak (1872), by W. H. Ainsworth. Patricia at the Inn (1906), by J. C. Snaith. Scouting for a King (1910), by Ernest Protheroe. These stories deal with this period following the battle of Worcester. Woodstock. 1826. Sir Walter Scott This story belongs to this same period of the flight of Charles. He comes to Woodstock, and the Roundhead who loves the daugh- ter of the keeper of the Park treats Charles in such a generous manner that it commends him most favorably to the daughter, Colonel Desborough is introduced. He was one of the commis- sioners sent by Parliament to arrange for Woodstock Palace and Park becoming national property. Prince Rupert the Buccaneer. 1901. Charles J. C.Hyne Prince Rupert (1619-1682), it will be remembered from our study of the time of Charles I, was given command of the Royal- ist cavalry and figured in all the battles of the Civil War until the 292 HISTORICAL FICTION surrender of Bristol cost him the loss of his command. He was then given command of the fleet and exhibited ability in the man- ner in which he kept away from Blake. In 165 1, however, Blake's opportunity came, and he inflicted on Rupert such a crushing defeat that the latter lost most of his ships. With the few that escaped destruction he fled to the West Indies and carried on a buccaneering warfare against the English merchant ships. He then went to France, and after Charles II came to the throne he did good service under Monk. This story describes these events from the time of Blake's victory to the operations of the buccaneers. It is a vivid repre- sentation of the character and achievements of the Prince and the men in his service. Scapegrace Dick. 1886. Frances M. Peard Robert Blake (1 599-1657) was a member of the Long Parlia- ment. In 1649 ne was appointed one of the commanders of the navy, and did efficient service as noted above in his destruction of the large part of the Royalist fleet in Malaga Harbor. In 1852 he had a sharp engagement with the Dutch in the Straits of Dover. He again met the Dutch under Van Tromp. The naval force of the latter was greatly superior and Blake was defeated and com- pelled to take refuge in the Thames. In 1653 tne English again encountered the fleet of Van Tromp, and after a hard fought bat- tle the English won a great victory. Van Tromp was slain. Re- ceiving the command of the Mediterranean fleet, he sailed into the harbor of Teneriffe in the face of the fire from the forts, and captured a large fleet of galleons. These naval operations under Blake in his conflict with the Dutch and the Spaniards are set forth by this story. Friend Olivia. 1890. Amelia E. Barr This American novelist (1831-) was born in England. After her marriage with Robert Barr in 1850 she went to Texas, where she lost her husband and three sons by the yellow fever. She then removed to New York. She has written many novels since she began writing in 1872, her first work being Romance and Reality, THE MODERN ERA 293 The sect known as Quakers owe their origin to George Fox. He began preaching about 1647, an d from that time was either traveling or in prison. At the beginning of the Commonwealth they had established assemblies in Lancashire and received the protection of Cromwell. They as well as other dissenters suf- fered from the Acts of Uniformity and the Corporation Act. When James II came to the throne they petitioned him for tolera- tion, and at this time had the support of Penn, who became a Quaker in 1667, and received from the king the land lying between Maryland and New York and founded the colony called after him — Pennsylvania. One of the leading articles of its constitu- tion granted freedom of conscience to all who acknowledged the "one eternal God." The word "Quakers" seems to have arisen either from the fact that they sometimes trembled from religious emotion, or from the use that Fox made of the expression "trem- ble at the word of the Lord." This story relates to this period of the early days of this new sect, and is a study of its characteristics. It also treats the Puritans of this time with magnanimity. During the time of the English Reformation a difference arose between the moderate Reformers and those who contended for the greater simplicity in the form and ceremonies of worship. Those who refused to subscribe to the liturgy and ceremonies of the Church were branded as "Puritans." Penruddock of the White Lambs. 1903. Samuel H. Church In establishing his government Cromwell had difficulties to contend with. The Puritan party was divided. "The Levellers," led by John Lilburne, demanded democratic equality. Republi- cans who had formerly supported Cromwell, such as Vane and Ludlow, became opposed to his government, refusing to acknowl- edge it. The right of Cromwell to rule was questioned by lawyers. In the midst of these divisions and disturbing tendencies Cromwell yielded nothing, but declared that his government was the only established one in England, and he laid his hand heavily upon the disputants. In 1655, at Salisbury, Colonel Penruddock led the royalists in a revolt which the troops of Cromwell immediately suppressed. 294 HISTORICAL FICTION These conditions during this period of the Commonwealth are dealt with by this story. It describes the uprising under Pen- ruddock and its suppression. It introduces a great many historical personages such as the Duke of Ormonde, the most powerful nobleman in Ireland, who was made lieutenant-general of the king's forces in 1641 and afterwards was with Charles II in his exile. Edward Whalley, the cousin of Cromwell, who distin- guished himself in the battle of Naseby, and who had charge of Charles I while imprisoned at Hampton Court, is introduced. The King's Signet. 1909. Morice Gerard George Monk (1608- 1670) returned to England from abroad at the time the Civil War began. He was undecided for a time which side to support, but finally concluded he would join the forces of Ormonde, which came from Ireland to assist the king. He was made major-general of these troops. He was made a prisoner in the battle of Nantwich, and was kept in the Tower for two years. He was then given command of the English forces in Ulster and convinced Cromwell of his military ability. He was made commander of artillery of the parliamentary forces in 1650 and so distinguished himself in the battle of Dunbar, in which David Leslie was crushed, that Cromwell left him there to complete the subjugation of Scotland. When Cromwell died he marched to London, and when he saw the strength of the roy- alist sentiment he determined to restore the monarchy and sent for Charles II. Monk reaped the highest rewards in the Restora- tion. He was created Duke of Albemarle and lieutenant-general of the forces and received a perpetual annual pension of $35,000. The essential relation of Monk to this period is brought out in this story, which carries us forward to the Restoration. CHAPTER IV FROM THE COMMONWEALTH TO THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. Reign of Charles II. Richard, the son of Cromwell, succeeded his father as Pro- tector, but he lacked his father's ability and could not hold the support of the army. The Rump was soon restored and Richard was forced to abdicate. It became clear to the people upon the death of Cromwell, that the only hope of establishing a settled form of government and preventing a state of despotism by the army lay in the restoration of the monarchy. We have just noted the part played by Monk in the Restoration and in calling Charles out of exile. He entered London in triumph (1660) and signed the Declaration of Breda. This was a manifesto sent by Charles to Parliament, in which he granted a free pardon to all "who within forty days after the publishing hereof shall lay hold upon this our grace and favor and shall by any public act declare their doing so." It granted amnesty for all political offences during the Civil War and since ; it provided that the king should rely upon a free parliament for advice and toleration in matters of religious opinion. Things went well for a time, but finally Parliament allowed him the rights that the former Parliament had refused to his father and fought to prevent him securing. To obtain money to maintain his extravagant court, he employed illegal measures. He was a grossly immoral man and had many mistresses to whom were born at least twelve illegitimate children, among whom were James, Duke of Monmouth, Charles Beauclerc, son of Nell Gwynn and the ancestor of the Dukes of St. Albans, and Charles Lennox, son of the Duchess of Portsmouth and ancestor of the Dukes of Richmond. The Stories The Coming of the King. 1904. Joseph Hocking. In 1648, the year prior to the death of Charles I, Lucy Walters became the mistress of Charles II. She was the daughter of a 295 296 HISTORICAL FICTION Welsh gentleman. James, Duke of Monmouth, was born to them, and she lived with Charles in Holland in the time of the Com- monwealth. She came to England in 1656 while Cromwell was Protector and was placed in the Tower from which she was soon released. The facts pertaining to his birth stood in the way of the Duke of Monmouth when he claimed the throne, and his supporters declared that his mother had been secretly married to Charles II. No proof of this was furnished. In this story is set forth the relation that Charles sustained to Lucy Walters, and the matter of the certificate as proof of this marriage. The Third Act of Uniformity (1662) required, that in or- der to maintain a universal agreement in public worship, and to guarantee national peace, that all ministers use the Book of Com- mon Prayer, and those who refused to do so should be deprived of their livings. The result was that about 2,000 ministers, many of them men of great ability and of the highest character, were expelled from their livings, were forbidden to hold dissenting religious meetings, and were debarred from the profession of teaching. One of the greatest souls who fell under this Act of Uniformity was John Bunyan (1628-1688). He was the son of a tinker of Elstow near Bedford. He served as a soldier in the Civil War. He joined the Baptists at Bedford and undertook to teach them. Being of a dissenter body he was imprisoned for twelve years (1660- 1670) and again in 1675. During this im- prisonment he wrote his religious allegory, The Pilgrim's Prog- ress, a picture of the spiritual life, that has been translated into more languages than any other book except the Bible. In this story the situation created by the Act of Uniformity in dispossessing ministers of their living, and the sufferings of others, are portrayed. The Touchstone of Fortune. 1912. Charles Major. At heart Charles was a Catholic, if he could be considered anything at all religiously. His brother James, Duke of York, who was also his heir, adhered to the Catholic Church. The Test Act (1673) was passed excluding Catholics from administrative offices. This would necessarily exclude the Duke of York from THE MODERN ERA 297 the succession, and it gave rise to the two parties, the Tories and the Whigs. Anne Hyde, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon, be- came the maid of honor to the Princess of Orange and in 1660 was privately married to the Duke of York. The queen-mother did her best to have the marriage annulled. It failed, and she was then publicly acknowledged as Duchess of York. She was the mother of two daughters, Mary and Anne. In 1670 she be- came a Catholic. Sarah Jennings entered the household of the Duchess of York and the most intimate friendship sprang up between her and Anne the Duchess. In 1678 Sarah married Colonel John Church- ill, afterwards Duke of Marlborough. The Churchills exercised such an influence over Anne that she joined the party of the Prince of Orange. John Churchill was raised to the peerage by James, but when William of Orange appeared in England Church- ill deserted James and passed over to William. James, son of Charles II by Lucy Walters, in 1662 was created Duke of Monmouth and apartments in Whitehall were given to him. Eleanor Gwynn (usually spoken of as Nell) was a beautiful girl of poor parentage and an orange girl at a theater. She at- tracted Charles II and became his mistress, and by him had two sons. She was one of the Ladies of the Bedchamber to the Queen. Her generous disposition secured for her great popular- ity. These and other historical personages appear in this story in their various relations and interrelations together with the sister of Sarah Jennings whose love interests are given. The King's Guerdon. 1906. James Blythe James, brother of Charles II, was created Duke of York im- mediately after his birth. In the Civil War he was captured when Oxford surrendered, but disguised as a girl he managed to escape to Holland. He returned with Charles in 1660 and was made Lord High Admiral. He was given command of the fleet. The commercial rivalry between England and Holland demanded that the one or the other establish supremacy upon the seas. War was declared in 1665 with James in command of the English fleet. The latter won a bloody victory off Lowestaft, and at this 298 HISTORICAL FICTION time seized the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam and trans- formed it into New York. These events, describing this naval victory, are dealt with by this story. Before the war was over a great plague swept London which carried off thousands of inhabitants. It paralyzed business and the ordinary movement of life. With the passing of the plague came the great fire in 1666, and two-thirds of London were laid in ruins. These disasters for a time impressed Charles and his profligate court seriously. These calamities are set forth in this story. Other Stories : The events of these two calamitous years, 1665-66, are set forth by the following stories. A Set of Rogues (1896) by Frank Barrett. Old St. Pauls (1841) by W. H. Ainsworth. When London Burned (1895) by G. A. Henty. Whitefriars. 1844. Emma Robinson In 1678 England was shaken by an imaginary conspiracy known as the Popish Plot. Titus Oates, a disreputable clergyman of the English Church, declared before a magistrate that he was in possession of a plot having gotten himself into the secrets of the Jesuits. He declared that twenty-six thousand pounds had been raised to be paid as a reward for the persons who should kill the king; prominent leaders were also to be slain; with the aid of a French army James was to be placed on the throne in defiance of the Test Act, and the Jesuits were to be raised to the highest positions in the land. Within a few days the magistrate was found murdered which at once established in the minds of the people the validity of the story of Oates. The panic seized the public and did not subside for two years. Leading Roman Catholics were cast into the Tower. Stafford was imprisoned for two years and then beheaded. On the testimony of Oates, that probably had not in it a grain of truth, thirty-five men were executed. The following year a bill was introduced to exclude James, the Duke of York, from the succession to the throne on the ground of the Test Act, he being a Roman Catholic. It was rejected in the House of Lords in 1680. THE MODERN ERA 299 In 1683 a conspiracy was formed by some of the extreme Whigs, after the failure of the Exclusion Bill, to murder the king and James. This was to take place at the Rye House in Herfordshire, and has been called the Rye House Plot. Nothing came of it, but Russell was condemned on the statement of one witness and was executed ; the Earl of Essex died in the Towef and Sidney was executed. These events form the historical basis of this story, and all of these personages appear. Purple Love. 1908. Morice Gerard William Prince of Orange was the son of William II of Orange and Mary, the daughter of Charles I of England. He was born in 1650 and was reared under the aristocratic party in the Netherlands. The three things in which he was deeply in- terested were politics, military matters and the doctrines of Calvinism. The Dutch had elected him Stadholder, Captain- General and Admiral-General, and these offices were extended to his descendants. This interested Charles II, the uncle of William, and he determined to have him married to his niece Mary, daughter of James, Duke of York. These facts and relations are brought out in this story which presents William of Orange as he comes to England as Mary's suitor. The story describes his qualities that secured for him the favorable regard of the Court and the affection of Mary. Sir William Temple is also introduced. It was he who in 1668 se- cured the formation of the Triple Alliance against France and the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. When the Cabal ministry fell the Lord Treasurer offered him a Secretaryship of State, but he re- fused this and became ambassador at the Hague. When Danby was impeached and sent to the Tower Charles looked to Temple as the one man who could guide matters in the situation caused by the Popish Plot. Peveril of the Peak. 1823. Sir Walter Scott "For the main idea of the tale Sir Walter was indebted to some papers found by his younger brother, Thomas Scott, in the Isle of Man. These papers gave the story of William Christian, who took the side of the Roundheads against the high-spirited 300 HISTORICAL FICTION Countess of Derby, and was subsequently tried and executed, ac- cording to the laws of the island, by that lady, for having de- throned his august mistress and imprisoned her and her family." The Earl of Derby, James Stanley, was appointed by Charles I as Lord-Lieutenant of Derbyshire. He fought in the Civil War, but the king came to distrust him and he was forced to retire to the Isle of Man. Lathom House was bravely defended by the Countess, Charlotte. The Earl joined Charles II and was taken prisoner in the battle of Worcester, was condemned and be- headed. The Countess continued to hold the Isle of Man till it was taken by Fairfax in 1651. In this story Colonel William Christian for many years sup- presses his Puritanical principles in the interest of the Roman Catholic Countess of Derby. It reaches a point where his con- science will not permit him to continue this policy and he sur- renders the Isle of Man to the Parliamentary army. When Charles II comes to the throne the Countess is restored to sov- ereignty in the island and she has Christian shot as a traitor. Edward, the brother of William Christian, is a plotter and false to every one. He was educated as a Puritan, and by the most clever hypocrisy held the confidence of the people. He is the father of Fenella, whom he has trained as a tool by which to accomplish his dastardly vengeance. Pie himself is the instru- ment of the Duke of Buckingham. This character, Edward, was a mere creation of Scott's imagination and did not know that William had a brother by that name. Scott says, "As I was not aware that such a person had existed, I could hardly be said to have traduced his character." As already noted, Fenella, in this story, is the daughter of Edward, but he had given her to believe that she was the daughter of his brother William, and that her first and supreme duty was to avenge his death. She spends her girlhood in the household of the Countess of Derby as a pretended deaf-mute. Thomas Colonel Blood is a historical character. He was an Irish soldier. He joined a conspiracy in 1663 t0 seize Dublin Castle, but the plot was discovered. He seized the Duke of Or- monde in the streets of London intending to have him hung at Tyburn, but the Duke escaped. In this story he is. an emissary of the second Duke of Buckingham who also figures in Scott's THE MODERN ERA 301 Woodstock. The Duke declares that he is a scoundrel after his own heart and paints him as a murderer and hypocrite. This is the longest of all of the Waverly Novels and perhaps the most involved in its characters and incidents. Old Mortality. 1816. Sir Walter Scott In another connection we have spoken of the Covenant and the Solemn League and Covenant. The Covenant was not only a declaration of belief, but it demanded that others subscribe to the same belief. It was after the renewal of the Covenant in 1638 that the name Covenanters was first taken, but it is usually associated with those who by force of arms defended the Pres- byterian faith and form of government during the reign of Charles II. The Covenant had been declared to be a seditious oath, and consequently those who had taken it and were bound by it were regarded as rebels, but the measures adopted in treating them even as such were unjustifiably extreme. We have already spoken of the Act by which thousands of ministers were ejected from their parishes. Their congregations gathered about them on the hillsides and in the glens where they held their services. These gatherings were called "conventicles," and the Act declared that it would be seditious for such meetings to be held, or for the ousted ministers to preach to their people. In defence of their religious faith and rights the Covenanters de- clared against such a law, and resorted to arms to secure such rights. The result was a widespread rebellion. John Graham of Claverhouse was commissioned to suppress the rebellion. The Cameronians, socalled from Richard Cameron the author of the Sanquhar Declaration, were also called Cove- nanters because of their absolute adherence to the Covenant. Against the Covenanters and Cameronians Claverhouse led the royal troops. At Drumclog the Cameronians were holding a meet- ing when the troops came upon them and the latter were de- feated. James, the son of Charles II by Lucy Walters, was sent to Scotland to check the rebellion. At Bothwell Bridge a fierce battle was fought. The insurgents held a strong position by the Clyde, but the royal troops had the greater resources and won a complete victory. Claverhouse pursued his relentless measures in 302 HISTORICAL FICTION scouring the country with his troops, and slaying those who re- fused to take the Abjuration Oath, and the sufferings of the Covenanters were extreme. But they maintained their faith, and when William came to the throne the ousted ministers were re- stored to their pulpits and subscribing to the Covenant ceased to be a seditious oath. In various places in Scotland can be found the graves of the Covenanters. In Scott's story "Old Mortality" is an actual per- son. It is the nickname of Robert Paterson (1715-1801) who, with his gray horse, wandered among the cemeteries repairing and cleaning the gravestones of the Covenanters. Scott's friend, Joseph Train, suggested that in these circumstances lay a good novel, and that a story about Claverhouse might be put into the mouth of Old Mortality. "Who is Old Mortality?" asked Scott. "Never shall I forget," says Train, "the eager interest with which he listened while I related to him what I knew of old Robert Paterson, the wandering inscription cutter." In 1793 Scott met Paterson. The story sets forth the history of the conflict between the Covenanters and Claverhouse and James the Duke of Monmouth. The battle of Drumclog and that of Bothwell Bridge are de- scribed. John Balfour is a leader in the Covenanter army. Un- der Scott's description he is daring and violent and not afraid of consequences. In justifying the murder of Archbishop Sharp he says to Morton, "My conduct is open to men and angels. The deed was not done in a corner ; I am here to avow it, and care not where, or by whom, I am called on to do so ; whether in the council, the field of battle, the place of execution, or the day of the last great trial." Sharp was Archbishop of St. Andrews. When sent to London to beg for the establishment of Presbyte- rianism in Scotland he betrayed the cause. He was one of the chief persecutors of the Covenanters and his cruelties were so excessive that a band of Covenanters murdered him near St. An- drews. Other Stories: Describing this same period of persecution and rebellion. For Crown and Covenant (1902) by Cyril Grey. Bible and Sword (1905) by P. H. Hunter. The Men of the Moss-Hags (1895) by S. R. Crockett. THE MODERN ERA 303 Reign of James II James, Duke of York (1685-1701), was the brother of Charles II. In the foregoing he has figured considerably in the reign of Charles especially with reference to the attempts to pre- vent his accession to the throne on the ground of his adherence to the Catholic Church. He came to the throne with the determina- tion of attaining to absolute power, and of restoring the Roman Catholic religion. To this end he accepted a pension from Louis XIV. Instead of accomplishing his purpose he created a revolu- tion, was deserted by all and forced to leave his throne and go to France and spend the balance of his life in retirement. The facts of this reign in greater detail appear in connection with the stories. The Stories The Brown Mask. 1910. Percy J. Brebner When James II was crowned, James, Duke of Monmouth, the illegitimate son of Charles II by Lucy Walters, who was exiled by his father because of his associations with those who had designs against the government, returned from Holland and set up his claim as the lawful king. He denounced James II as a usurper. He declared himself the champion of Protestantism. His little army met the royal troops at Sedgemoor and was completely routed. Judge Jeffreys was sent down by James II to the insurgent district to try the rebels who had participated in the Monmouth rebellion and held what is known as the Bloody Assize. He sentenced to death between two and three hundred persons, and had hundreds of others banished, and for this James made him Lord Chancellor. As a matter of fact some of the trials of this judge were travesties of justice. The Duke of Mon- mouth appealed to James for mercy, but in nine days after the battle of Sedgemoor he was executed on Tower Hill. In these events this story has its historical setting. It de- scribes the claims and rebellion of James and his defeat. The Bloody Assize is set forth with Judge Jeffreys the leading figure. Micah Clarke. 1888. Arthur Conan Doyle When the Duke of Monmouth returned from Holland he landed at Lyme and marched to Taunton, Bridge water, Wells 3 04 HISTORICAL FICTION and Frome, and all these places declared his legitimacy and he was solemnly proclaimed. This story is the account given by a follower of the Duke, and narrates the rebellion from its inception, the claims of James, the gathering of adherents, the march and final defeat at Sedge- moor. Deb Clavel. 1901. Mary E. Palgrave The Rye House Plot, to which reference has been made in the preceding section, occurred about two years previous to Monmouth's rebellion. Following the battle of Sedgemoor Elizabeth Gaunt was burned at London for assisting Burton, one of the conspirators of the Rye House Plot, to escape. This incident is introduced into this story which deals with the rebellion and the Bloody Assize. Other Stories : Dealing with these same events. Urith (1891) by S. Baring-Gould. Anthony Wilding (1910) by Rafael Sabatini. By Dulvercombe Water (1902) by Harold Vallings. A Cuirassier of Arran's. 1900. Claude Bray When James, in 1687, issued a Declaration of Indulgence, which swept away certain Acts of Parliament, England became alarmed. The opposition to his administration which every- where was manifested, made him all the more arbitrary. In 1688 he demanded that the Anglican clergy read on two successive Sundays his Declaration of Indulgence which provided that per- sons holding office should be subjected to no religious tests, thus abolishing the Test Act. Seven bishops, one of whom was Wil- liam Sancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury, presented to him a pe- tition of refusal to obey the order. They were thrown into the Tower by the king and were tried for seditious libel. When the verdict of acquittal was given it was received by the people with great enthusiasm and satisfaction. The conditions were ripe for revolution. On the day the bishops were acquitted leading statesmen sent an invitation to William of Orange to take the throne. From a former reference it will be remembered that he came to England previously and THE MODERN ERA 305 secured as wife Mary, the daughter of James. Moreover he had become the chief antagonist of Europe against the schemes of Louis XIV who supported the policies of James. William landed in England with 14,000 men carried in 500 ships. He declared to the people he had come to secure to them their rights and to establish a free Parliament. The followers of James, including his daughter Anne, slipped away from him and he fled to France. These events, beginning with the occasion of the Revolution, the trial of the bishops, the landing of William, James deserted by his troops and his flight to France, are detailed in this story. Be- fore James left for France he destroyed the writs of summons for Parliament and dropped the Great Seal into the Thames, which fact also appears in the story. Under Three Kings. 1907. William K. Hill The scope of this story ranges from the closing days of Charles II and the reign of James to the flight of the latter. One of the first acts of James was to proceed against Titus Oates for perjury. The panic he precipitated in regard to the Popish Plot has already been set forth. He was flogged almost to the point of death. This incident is introduced into the story. In 1687 John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, opened com- munications with William of Orange, and when the latter ap- peared in England Churchill took sides with him. He received high favors at his hands, but in 1690 he began to correspond with James, and when it was discovered he professed repentance and received the king's pardon. His schemes led William to wholly distrust him, and in 1692 he deprived him of all his offices. His various measures for securing William's favor for his own aggrandizement are introduced in this story. The Sword of Freedom. 1911. Captain Charles Gilson The conditions leading to the Revolution, the call for Wil- liam, the opposition to James and the landing of the Dutch troops in England are well described by this story. Robert Sunderland, who is one of the historical personages was a leading minister of James II whom he found to be a man of ability, and devoid 3o6 HISTORICAL FICTION of scruples and could be used in his schemes. When the Revolu- tion occurred he was driven into exile, but afterwards returned and managed to insinuate himself into William's favor. Other Stories: A Merry Heart (1893) by H. May Poynter. Mistress Dorothy Marvin (1895) by John C. Snaith. The Chariots of the Lord (1909) by Joseph Hocking. In Taunton Town (1895) by E. Everett Green. Reign of William III The year that William and Mary were placed upon the throne of England as joint sovereigns (1689) the Bill of Rights ap- peared which settled controverted constitutional questions. Free- dom of speech in Parliament and the right of petition was se- cured. The Bill of Rights added to the Magna Charta of 1215, and the Petition of Rights of 1628 completed the structure of the constitutional monarchy. When, after 1688, the rulers of Eng- land depended upon a vote of Parliament in coming to the throne, the supremacy of Parliament became an established fact and was no longer open to question. The Stories A Man's Foes. 1895. Euphans H. Strain William Mountjoy held office in Tyrconnel's administration in 1689. He was colonel of an Irish regiment. The county of Ulster supported William III, and Mountjoy was sent there to create an opposite feeling. He went to Londonderry and En- niskillen refused to listen to his proposal. Tyrconnel, to get rid of him, sent him on a mission to St. Germains. He sent Rice with him to tell James that Mountjoy was a traitor. He was cast into the Bastile where he was held for three years, and then was exchanged for Richard Hamilton. He then became a Whig and rendered service in William's army and fell in the battle of Steinkirk (1692). In 1689 James brought an army against Londonderry into which place 30,000 Protestants of Ulster had crowded. The peo- ple called out "No surrender" and placed their men upon the walls. Major Baker and Rev. George Walker were appointed THE MODERN ERA 307 governors. Then the siege began, which, according to Macaulay, was the most memorable in the annals of the British Isles. It con- tinued for 105 days and the people were reduced to a state of famine. Kirke was sent by William to raise the siege. When they entered the town they found that the garrison had been re- duced to 3,000 men. In this story the situation in Ulster at this time is described; the strife between the Protestant and Catholic factions. The siege of Londonderry is an important episode, Mountjoy is one of the historical personages. Boyne Water. 1826. JohnBanim The Jacobites (from Jacobus, the Latin form of the name James) were the followers of the Stuart cause after the Rev- olution of 1688. Although the expulsion of James II was ef- fected with remarkable ease, William was yet to fight for his crown. James felt that he could depend upon the Catholic popu- lation of Ireland, and when he arrived the Irish Parliament ac- knowledged his claim and the people supported its attitude. It was necessary that William to be secure on his throne should hold England, Scotland and Ireland. James had no difficulty in raising an army in Ireland. He took up his position at the River Boyne. It was so strong that Schomberg tried to dissuade William from making an attack. Schomberg was sent to capture and cross the bridge of Slane and turn the Irish right. The French marched to meet him which left the Irish to face William. With his cavalry he crossed the river and the Irish infantry fled, while the Irish cavalry fought well. Their leader, Richard Hamilton, was taken prisoner. Early in the day James fled. This battle of the Boyne (1690) had an important bearing upon the subjugation of Ireland. James left his able general Sarsfield in command. William seized Dublin and a number of towns. Limerick was the last to hold out, but after a siege, and the men being allowed to cross over to France if they wished to do so, the city surrendered. Those who refused to take the oath of allegiance forfeited their estates. The Catholics were deprived of political rights, and a century of hardship settled down upon the country. 3 o8 HISTORICAL FICTION This Irish novelist (1798-1842) was born at Kilkenney. It was his ambition, in conjunction with his brother Michael, to produce a number of stories that would accomplish for Ireland what Scott's novels were doing for Scotland. Their works hold a recognized place in literature. They contain many strong de- lineations of character, and set forth the dark places in Irish life and history. This story is well worked out along historical lines in setting forth this Jacobite rebellion and the military operations. The battle of the Boyne and siege and capitulation of Limerick are described. The political situation, Sarsfield, the general of James, and the two kings are well presented. Orange and Green. 1887. George A. Henty Patrick Sarsfield, who was defeated in the battle of the Boyne, insisted upon making a stand at Limerick and compelled William to raise the siege. He quarreled with the French general St. Ruth and disregarded the advice to avoid a battle after the fall of Athlone. He commanded the reserve at the battle of Aghrim, and by some mistake was not given the order to charge. Instead, he covered the retreat. He was again opposed in his advice to make a stand at Limerick. He failed to hold the city, and the ma- jority of the garrison, with Sarsfield, accepted the terms offered and went into the French service. This story covers these military operations in the fall of Athlone, Aghrim and Limerick, and renders a judgment on the position of Sarsfield following the contest at Limerick. Two boys, one a Protestant and the other a Catholic, figure in the story. Other Stories : Leixlip Castle (1883) by M. L. O'Byrne. In Sarsfield' s Days (1906) by Miss L. McManus. An impor- tant incident is the manner in which Sarsfield surprised the Eng- lish artillery in the first siege of Limerick and compelled the English to raise the siege. My Sword for Patrick Sarsfield (1907) by Randall McDon- nell. THE MODERN ERA 309 The Glen O'Weeping. 1907. Marjorie Bowen The massacre of Glencoe (1692) left a dark stain on the reign of William III. In the Highlands of Scotland there was still an adherence to James. They defeated the royal forces at Killiecrankie. A proclamation required that all who followed Viscount Dundee, who was killed at Killiecrankie, to take an oath of allegiance by the last day of the year. Maclan, the head of a small branch of the McDonalds living in the valley of Glencoe delayed taking the oath until the last day, and in order to reach one to receive the oath was compelled to go to Inverary, and was six days late in making the oath. A warrant was signed by Wil- liam authorizing the wiping out of the population of Glencoe. A body of soldiers appeared in the glen who disarmed suspicion by acting in a friendly way. They were entertained by the clansmen for two weeks, giving them a merry time. Then upon a given signal they fell upon their hosts slaying over forty men, women and children. Those of the latter who escaped died of cold and starvation in the mountains. The Master of Stair, the king's minister in Scotland, who was an enemy to the clan used this opportunity to get revenge, but the fact remains that William signed the order and supported the perpetrators of the deed. This story deals with this incident, and attempts to get the blackness out of the deed by finding grounds for its justification. The story is good in delineation and description. JohnDeane. 1883. William H. G. Kingston In 1698 Admiral John Benbow was sent with a squadron to the West Indies to try and settle the trouble which had arisen between the Spanish and English settlers. In 1700 he was made Vice-Admiral, and was commissioned to influence the Spanish colonies to disown Philip of France who claimed the crown of Spain. At Jamaica he heard that Du Casse had arrived with a French squadron to suppress the English slave trade. Coming in sight of this squadron off St. Domingo, the captains of Benbow's three best ships refused to join in an attack. For four days Ben- bow fought them with his own ship. Benbow was badly wounded and was taken to Jamaica where he died. 310 HISTORICAL FICTION John Deane of this story was with Benbow in the West In- dies. He is present at the operations of Sir George Rooke (1650- 1709) who had rendered distinctive service in the war with France. When the war was renewed he took command of the English fleet and stormed Vigo, and in 1704 he captured Gibraltar which has ever since remained in British possession, which gives England a commanding position at the Atlantic entrance of the Mediterranean. In the same year Rooke won a great victory off Malaga. This English novelist (1814-1880) is distinguished as a writer of books for boys. He was born in London. While writing po- litical articles he lived for a considerable time in Oporto. After assisting in the commercial treaty with England in 1842 he was knighted and pensioned by the government of Portugal. After returning to England he interested himself in the welfare of sailors. He wrote over 100 books. These events are described by this story in setting forth the relation sustained to them by John Deane. Reign of Queen Anne Anne (1702-1714), the last of the Stuart sovereigns, was the daughter of James II and Anne Hyde, and sister of Mary the wife of William III. By order of Charles II she was trained in the Protestant faith under the care of Dr. Henry Compton and was deeply religious. Her interest in the good of her people won their love and she was called "The Good Queen Anne." Her goodness, however, could not make up for her lack of ability. She was a pure, pious woman, but in qualities of mind and judgment was not competent to grapple with the difficult problems of her reign, the struggle between Whigs and Tories for control of the government. Incessant war lasting for eleven years filled her reign with strife and bloodshed. The two leading features of this reign were the long war of the Spanish Succes- sion, and the union of England and Scotland (1707) forming the Kingdom of Great Britain. This act of union provided that the Scottish Parliament cease to exist, and that Scotland be repre- sented in both houses of the English Parliament. THE MODERN ERA 311 The Stories The Sword of Gideon. 1905. John E. Bloundelle- Burton John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, led England's armies. It is said that while Anne ruled England, Marlborough and Sarah his duchess ruled the queen. These two have already come un- der considerable notice in our preceding studies which can be easily located by means of the Index. Marlborough was a greater soldier than he was a statesman. His chief ally was Sidney Godolphin, a man of considerable statesmanship and financial ability. When Sarah was in the household of Anne a great in- timacy sprang up between the two women which continued through the years. It was the Churchill influence largely that led Anne to announce to William of Orange her consent to his coming to England but in 1691 she became estranged from the king. The relations between Anne and Sarah were in no sense affected when the latter's husband in 1692 fell into disgrace. The War of the Spanish Succession was declared in 1702, and Marlborough was made Commander-in-Chief of the English and Dutch forces. The war was caused by the refusal of Louis XIV to stand by the agreement he made with William III relative to the matter of Succession. He had also acknowledged the Pre- tender as successor to the English throne. William, on the other hand, had established an alliance between England, Holland and the Empire. Marlborough at once went to Holland to capture the French garrisons that Louis had established in the Spanish Netherlands. Liege, Venloo and other towns were taken, which cut off the French from the Lower Rhine. This story belongs to this period and describes the early opera- tions of Marlborough in the siege and capture of Liege. Across the Salt Seas. 1898. John E. Bloundelle Burton In 1702, under the Duke of Ormonde and Sir George Rooke, the fleet sailed to Vigo Bay, where the Spanish galleons lay. When the French commander saw that he could not save the vessels he ordered them to be set afire. Eleven men of war were destroyed and the English and Dutch captured ten. 312 HISTORICAL FICTION The battle of Blenheim was fought during the third cam- paign of the war (1704). Louis XIV hoped to strike a blow at Vienna, but Marlborough divined his plan and secured a junction with Prince Eugene. Blenheim was situated on the northern bank of the Danube. The French commander so placed his forces as to leave the center weak, which Marlborough took ad- vantage of and cut the line in two. It won the day. The French troops in Blenheim surrendered. It was a brilliant victory, and the French were driven out of Germany. This story covers these two sets of operations, those at Vigo Bay and the military movements to the battle of Blenheim. One of the historical characters is Sir Cloudesley Shovel, who rose from the position of cabin boy to that of Admiral. He brought home the treasure from Vigo Bay. The Glory of War. 1912. Henry A. Hinkson Marlborough encountered Marshal Villervi at Ramillies (1706), and the victory here secured to the allies the whole of the Netherlands. Italy was lost to France and Louis XIV pro- posed terms of peace, which were rejected. In 1708 was fought the battle of Oudenarde, one of the great battles of the war. The war was becoming unpopular and Marlborough resolved on a decisive blow. The French forces numbered 100,000 and those of the allies 80,000. There was lack of unanimity on the part of the French officers. Their army was completely routed. The operations leading up to this important battle, and this battle of Oudenarde, are carefully described in this story. The leading historical personages who belong to these events are intro- duced, and among them George of Hanover, the next English monarch. The White Gauntlet. 1912. Percy J. Brebner The successes of Marlborough brought him to the acme of power and distinction. But the close friendship that had existed between the Duchess of Marlborough and the Queen for many years had changed. The former had become a radical Whig and her temper had cooled Anne's friendship, and the queen and the Tory party were subjected to her most scathing criticism. THE MODERN ERA 313 In 1709 was fought the battle of Malplaquet. It was the most sanguinary and obstinately contested battle of the war. The desperate resistance of the French, so much greater than they had shown before, turned the battle into a slaughter. The loss of the allies was even greater than that of the French, but Marl- borough and Eugene gained what was sought by their victory — the town of Mons was compelled to surrender. In this story the author gives a good delineation of Marl- borough and the Duchess introducing them to the reader in such a manner as makes possible a just estimate of them. It describes the battle just sketched. Godolphin figures in the story. He held offices at the court of Charles II, and had a seat in Parlia- ment. He became Secretary of State and James made him Cham- berlain to the Queen. The Whigs drove him from office, but on the accession of Anne he was made Lord Treasurer through the influence of Marlborough, the latter's daughter being the wife of Godolphin's son. The Baronet in Corduroy. 1903. Albert Lee In 1709 Dr. Henry Sacheverell preached at St. Paul's Cathe- dral a sermon on "The Perils of False Brethren, Both in Church and State," which struck fiercely at Dissenters and the Whig ministry, especially Godolphin, whom he spoke of as Old Fox. It created such a sensation that 40,000 copies of the sermon were sold. It was proposed that he be impeached, in which Godolphin concurred, while Marlborough opposed it. When brought to trial Sacheverell presented a forceful and uncompromising defence. He was found guilty, but in such a way that it was equivalent to an acquittal. Popular sympathy was wholly with him. The queen presented him with the living of St. Andrews, and for the first sermon he received $500. This story exhibits as one of its interests the streets of Lon- don during this trial, the crowds and their noisy comments. This was the age of Defoe, author of "Robinson Crusoe" ; of Steele, the essayist; Swift, the greatest English satirist; Addison, the poet; and these and others figure in the story. The central fact of the plot is the scheme to bring the Pretender, James Edward Stuart, to England, 314 HISTORICAL FICTION Under the Dome of St. Paul's. 1898. Emma Marshall The great fire of London in 1666 furnished Christopher Wren with the opportunity of exercising his powers. He was the most famous architect of his time. His abilities found expression in his great masterpiece, St. Paul's Cathedral, designed and built by him. He also designed the Palace at Hampton Court, the Church of St. Stephen's, the Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, and other great buildings. Over the north doorway of St. Paul's is a memorial tablet on which are the words, "If you seek his monu- ment, look around you." This story gives us splendid characterization of this great mas- ter, and introduces us to the city of London in its streets and structures. CHAPTER V FROM THE STUART DYNASTY TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION With the death of Anne the Stuart Dynasty ended, and from that time to the present the Hanover Dynasty has ruled Britain. George I, on his mother's side, was the great-grandson of James I of England. Hanover was formerly a kingdom in the northwest of Germany. In 1692 it was made an electorate. In 1714 its elector was George Louis, who became George I of England. To state briefly the stages through which it passed, (1) The dominions of the Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg were erected into the electorate of Hanover in 1692. (2) Its union with Eng- land in 1714. (3) In 1803 it was occupied by the French. (4) It was given by Napoleon to Prussia in 1805. (5) It was ceded to Napoleon by Prussia in 1807. (6) In 1813 it was recovered by the English dynasty. (7) It was erected into a kingdom in 181 4. (8) It was separated from England in 1837. (9) In 1866 it was annexed to Prussia. England owes much to her insular position. It is one of the secrets of her great development and her ruling influence in the world. While passing through the political crises of the seventeenth century it protected her from foreign interference, and the same was true while she was passing through the religious revolution of the sixteenth. During this period she was charac- terized by the sentiment of loyalty and attachment to political liberty. When the quarrel between the loyalists and the anti- papists was at an end, and the House of Hanover succeeded to the throne, the ruling passion became that of liberty. The radical change in British institutions is seen in the fact that beginning with this new period Parliament could do almost anything without the king, while he could do nothing without Parliament. "Against its own government the country defended itself by means of its rights and liberties. It had private rights, whereby the person of an Englishman, his domicile and his purse, 315 3i6 HISTORICAL FICTION were rendered inviolable against all illegal acts ; and public rights, namely, the right of complaint and petition, the right of meeting! the right of association, the right to speak and to write. England was free ; indeed, in the eighteenth century she was the only free nation in the world." Reign of George I In 1698 George (1714-1727) succeeded his father as elector. During the War of the Spanish Succession he was a commander in the imperial army and won distinction by his bravery. As early as 1701 he was selected as the heir to the British crown and as- cended that throne on the death of Queen Anne. For 116 years the "Four Georges" ruled England. George was not popular with his British subjects; he could not speak the English lan- guage, and did not sympathize with English traditions and ideals. During his reign occurred the rising of the Scottish Jacobites, the triple and quadruple alliances against Spain and the failure of the South Sea Company. Believing that all Tories were Ja- cobites, George gave his full support to the Whigs, and from them formed his ministry. The Whigs had the support of the commercial class. They believed in tolerance, and in this were in line with the new age. The Stories Veronica Play fair. 1910. Maud W. Goodwin At the close of the reign of Anne five men and one woman were prominent in the affairs of state. Harley (Earl of Oxford), Henry St. John (Viscount Bolingbroke), the Dukes of Argyle, Somerset, and Shrewsbury, and Lady Masham. As has already been noted, the year before the accession of Anne, George was selected as heir to the British crown to follow Anne. At the close of Anne's reign the civil service and army were being filled with men who were Jacobites and evidently with a view to changing the succession. Bolingbroke declared for the restoration of the Stuart line. Through the influence of Lady Masham, who be- came a favorite with the queen when the Duchess of Marlborough lost her place in Anne's friendship, Harley, who was practically prime minister, was dismissed, and Bolingbroke was made prime minister. In the treaty of Utrecht, at the close of the War of THE MODERN ERA 317 Spanish Succession, he entered into private negotiations with France in violation of all agreements with the allies. On the death of Anne the Whigs seized the government before Bolingbroke could carry out his schemes and the Whigs controlled the Parliament. Knowing that he would be impeached, both be- cause of his Stuart sympathies and his conduct in connection with the treaty of Utrecht, he fled to France, entered the service of the Pretender and was made Secretary of State. He was impeached by the English Parliament and sentence of banishment passed upon him. The opening days of the new dynasty with the political con- tests between the two parties forms the historical background of this story. Into the company of people Alexander Pope, poet and essayist, is introduced. To Bolingbroke he was indebted for the suggestion of the Essay on Man, one of his productions by which he is best known. In this literary circle of Pope, Swift, and Benjamin Franklin, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu appears. This English authoress (1689- 1762) was celebrated for her letters descriptive of Oriental life. It was she who introduced into Eng- land inoculation for small-pox. Beau Nash, under whose leader- ship the city of Bath reached the height of its influence and popu- larity and became a fashionable resort, figures also in the story. It is in Pope's house that the secret marriage takes place between the hero and heroine. Balmoral. 1893. Alexander Allardyce The scenes of this story are laid at Balmoral on the Dee in Scotland, set down in the midst of mountain scenery. The castle is built of gray granite. It is one of the royal residences of Great Britain, and was the favorite autumn residence of Queen Victoria. Also Dunnottar Castle near Stonehaven, which was the scene of the murder of Donald VI by the Danes in 900. It was taken by Sir William Wallace in 1298. In 1645 & was besieged by Montrose, and captured by Cromwell's troops in 165 1. It figured also in the conflict with the Covenanters. The story has its set- ting in the Jacobite rising in Scotland in 171 5 when James Edward Stuart, son of James II, called the Old Pretender, landed in Scotland from France and claimed the throne. At Braemar 10,000 men joined his cause. The Earl of Mar was the leader of 318 HISTORICAL FICTION the Jacobites. Under Derwentwater and Foster a similar risirg took place in the north of England. The English rebellion was crushed at Preston, and in Scotland the revolt ended with the bat- tle of Sheriffmuir. The battle was not decisive, although the Highlanders came off victorious. The Pretender had difficulty in making his escape and about forty of his followers were executed. The hero of the story belongs to the English Jacobites, and the heroine is the daughter of the laird of Balmoral. In their elope- ment they have an exciting flight over the country. Rob Roy. 1817. Sir Walter Scott Rob Roy (Robert Macgregor Campbell, 1665- 1735), a Scottish freebooter, met with reverses in his speculations in cattle-breeding and absconded with the money borrowed from the Duke of Mont- rose. The latter then seized his estate. He secured the friendship of the Duke of Argyle and took up arms against Montrose. He opposed the union of Scotland with England, and joined the Ja- cobite rising in 1715. The scenes of this story are laid in the Highlands and in some parts of the Lowlands of Scotland. It takes us into the region of Loch Lommond, the largest lake in Scotland, a region especially famous for the rare beauty of the scenery and that Scott has so well described in the Lady of the Lake. In the story are combined the affairs of Rob Roy in his deal- ings with Montrose, and his raids in carrying off the duke's cat- tle, and the Jacobite rising. In the terrific onset of the Highland- ers in the battle of Sheriffmuir Rob Roy had command of a body of Macphersons as well as his own clansmen and shared in this impetuous charge. An Englishman becomes entangled with Ja- cobite schemes and plotting in his country and is compelled to go to Scotland, and comes into Rob Roy's district. Scott's interpretation of the character of Rob Roy is based largely upon the popular tradition of Macgregor. "A descendant of the bloodthirsty Dugald Ciahr Mohr, Rob had all his ancestor's love of the sword and capacity for leadership, without his cruelty. His lot was cast in the most ruthless epoch of Scottish history. It was an age of semi-barbarism, when the passion for power was the main thing, when the pillaging of the industrious Saxon was considered the proof of manliness and bravery." THE MODERN ERA 319 Diana Vernon, the brilliant and beautiful mistress of Osbaldi ■ stone Hall is "the most attractive and surely-drawn in all Scott's gallery of portraits of distinguished women," and it is usually conceded that she is peerless among all his heroines. Captain Basil Hall believed that he found her original in a Jane Anne Craunston, who in her girlhood had been a friend and confidante of Scott's. And the fact that "Scott had sent her all the Waverly novels as they appeared with the single exception of Rob Roy, all seemed to confirm the Captain's suspicions." Rob Roy was buried at Balquihidder, and his grave is still pointed out, one of the ancient Sculptured Stones of Scotland having been placed upon its site. Under the Wolf's Fell. 1911. Dorothea Moore This story deals with the same period of the Jacobite rising, in which a boy is used by the Jacobites in furthering their schemes. Sir Robert Walpole, who had been closely related with the affairs of state, and was a leader of the Whig opposition, became prime minister at the beginning of George's reign, figures in this story. Lord Derwentwater, a grandson of Charles II, was deeply im- plicated in the Jacobite rebellion. He was executed when the rebellion was put down at the age of twenty-eight. It was under him and Forster that the rising took place in the north of England. These, together with the king, have a place in the story. Other stories : Dorothy Forster (1884), by Walter Besant, in which the writer of the history of the Forster family and the events of that day is the brother of the leader of the Jacobite forces. Devereux (1829), by Bulwer-Lytton, which introduces many historical personages in the literary realm — Pope, Swift, Steele, Addison — while Bolingbroke holds a leading place. To Arms! (1898), by Andrew Balfour. The indecisive battle of Sheriffmuir is set forth, and the Pretender is introduced. Lucy Arden (1859), by James Grant, gives the facts of the rebellion. The hero participates in the rising, and is fortunate enough not to be captured, or be among those who were executed, and finally wins and marries his lady love. 320 HISTORICAL FICTION Madamscourt. 1901. H. May Poynter When the rising of the Jacobites occurred Bolingbroke was the secretary of James Edward Stuart, the Old Pretender. The treaty of Utrecht required that the Pretender be expelled from France, and he removed to Bar in Lorraine. Bolingbroke had advised against the rising by the Earl of Mar in Scotland and when James returned he blamed Bolingbroke for the failure of the revolt and dismissed him. James was betrothed to Clementina Sobieski, grand-daughter of John Sobieski, king of Poland. On her way to Rome, whither James had gone, she was arrested by the Emperor and made a prisoner. She escaped from Austria and married the Pretender. These events are detailed by this story. For the White Rose. 1903. Wymond Carey The battle of Sheriffmuir and the defeat of the Jacobites at Preston did not bring to an end the attempts to bring about a Stuart restoration. This was attempted by Charles XII of Sweden and Alberoni, the Spanish minister. In 1719 the latter fitted out an expedition to attack England. James was publicly received in Spain. The expedition under Ormonde was broken up in the Bay of Biscay. In the battle of Glenshiel in 1719, when an invasion was made under the Duke of Ormonde, Rob Roy participated in the battle. The defeat of the Duke terminated for a long time the efforts of the Stuart partisans. This spreading of Jacobite intrigues to these countries, and the operations of Alberoni are set forth in this story. Other stories: The Rose-Spinner (1904), by Mary Deane, which combines the two events of this period — the failure of the Jacobites in the last attempt just noted, and the interest that attached to the South Sea Company. Clementina (1901), by A. E. W. Mason, in which are detailed the relations of the Princess Clementina to the Pretender, and the strange position in which the man who loves her is placed in effect- ing her marriage with James. THE MODERN ERA 321 The Lion's Skin. 1911. Rafael Sabatini In 171 1 the South Sea Company was organized in England and given the exclusive right to trade in the South Sea. This company assumed the national debt of ten million pounds and was to receive an interest of six per cent. So great was the con- fidence of the people in this company that its stock rose, and shares were finally quoted at 1,000. Within ten years the national debt had reached thirty million pounds, which the South Sea Company assumed. The success of the scheme developed such a spirit of speculation that the public rushed in to secure stock. Landowners, clergymen, widows were seized with the fever and invested all they had. Then a number of the directors of the company began to dispose of their shares. This created distrust. A panic set in. All were now anxious to sell. In a month the South Sea Company's own stock fell from 1,000 to 175. The ruin was widespread and extended throughout the nation. The confusion created in England by this "Bubble" seemed auspicious for a Jacobite conspiracy. Francis Atterbury, Bishop of Rochester, who refused to sign the bishop's declaration of fidelity and earning thereby the dislike of George I, began in 171 7 to correspond directly with the Pretender. He was forced to leave England and went to France, and was the adviser of the Pretender. In 1721 a Jacobite plot was concocted by five persons — Atterbury, the Earls of Arran and Orrery, Lord North and Lord Gower. They planned to seize the Bank, Exchequer and other places where large amounts of money were held, and pro- claim the Pretender king. The leaders were arrested and the conspiracy dismally failed. These two sets of events, the latter taking advantage of the former, are brought out in this story. Reign of George II George II (1727-1760) shared his father's preference for Hanover and aversion for England. Frederick William, king of Prussia, characterized him as a comedian because of his everlast- ing posing and blustering. He called people by whatever names he pleased. When Walpole attempted to appoint officers in the army George said to him : "I will order my army as I see fit ; for 322 HISTORICAL FICTION your scoundrels of the House of Commons you may do as you please." It was during his reign that the growth of the British Empire was advanced by the conquest of Canada in the midst of the Seven Years' War, and the operations of Clive in India. In giv- ing his estimate of the character of George, Lord Stanhope de- clared that "he had scarcely one kingly quality, except personal courage and justice. Avarice, the most unprincely of all passions, sat enshrined in the inmost recesses of his bosom. Business he understood and transacted with pleasure. But his reign of thirty- one years deserves this praise, that it never once invaded the rights of the nation, nor harshly enforced the prerogative of the crown ; that its last period was illumined by the glories of Wolfe and of Chatham ; and that it left the dynasty secure, the constitution un- impaired, and the people prosperous." The Stories The Heart of Midlothian. 1818. Sir Walter Scott A smuggler by the name of Wilson was hanged at Edinburgh in 1736. It created a riot, and Captain Porteous, of the City Guard, ordered his men to fire on the rioters. Several of them were killed. For this act Porteous was tried and condemned to death, but was reprieved by the government. The enraged popu- lace carried out the sentence by seizing and hanging him. The city was forced to pay to the captain's widow $7,500. It was the opinion of John Ruskin that "The Heart of Midlo- thian" and "Rob Roy" were the best of all the Waverly Novels. This story describes the scenes in Edinburgh connected with the Porteous Riot. Effie Deans, the daughter of Davie Deans, a poor cowfeeder at Edinburgh, has been seduced by George Staunton, the wayward son of the rector of Willingham, and she is imprisoned for child murder. Her half-sister, Jeanie Deans, to save Effie's life, walked from Edinburgh to London to appeal to Queen Caroline. She enlisted the sympathy and support of the Duke of Argyle, who introduced her to the queen. This act placed him in a difficult position as he was not just then standing high in the queen's favor, having opposed the seven measures against Edinburgh following the Porteous Riot. But the queen received him and Jeanie Deans, THE MODERN ERA 323 listened to her appeal and granted a pardon for her half-sister. The queen was at that time acting as Queen Regent during the absence of George on the Continent. Following the pardon Effie marries George Staunton, but spent her widowhood, after living for a time in the fashionable world, in a convent. This story of Jeanie Deans' heroism, according to Scott him- self, is founded on fact. The prototype in real life of Jeanie Deans was Helen Walker (1712-1791), the daughter of a small farmer in the parish of Irongray, Dumfriesshire. The very day of her sister's condemnation she got a petition drawn up and after- wards walked the whole distance to London barefoot. There, with the help of John, Duke of Argyle, she secured a pardon. One of the last acts of Scott's life was to raise a tombstone to her memory in Irongray churchyard. Blackwood's Magazine of August, 1871, commenting upon this story considered that Jeanie Deans was "the cream and per- fection of Scott's work." It describes the qualities of Jeanie's character in presenting the petition to the queen : "There is not one scene in which this high valor of the heart, this absolute good- ness, fails her; nor is there one in which she departs ever so little from the lowliness of her-beginning. She is as little daunted by the Duke and the Queen as she is by the other difficulties she has met and surmounted with that tremulous timidity of courage which belongs to nerves highly strung ; nay, she has even a certain modest pleasure in the society of these potentates, her simple soul meeting them with awe, yet with absolute frankness ; making no commonplace attempt at equality." The Infidel. 1900. Mary E. Braddon The two brothers, John (1703-1791) and Charles (1708-1788) Wesley, were born at Epworth, England. Their father was the rector of the parish. They were both educated at Christ Church, Oxford. John became a fellow of Lincoln College, and lecturer and moderator in classics. In the university the two brothers, together with some companions, formed an organization for the purpose of religious thought and conversation. From the regu- larity of their habits they were called "Methodists." In 1735 General Oglethorpe proposed that they go to Georgia, America, and preach to the colonists. They did so, and after 324 HISTORICAL FICTION three years returned to England. John then visited Herrnhut, the Moravian settlement. Open-air preaching began in 1739, in which the Wesley s were joined by George Whitfield. In their preaching they laid special emphasis on the doctrine of justifica- tion by faith alone. As an itinerant preacher John Wesley would ride many miles during the day, and preach four and five times. It is said that as many as 30,000 people would wait for hours for him to come. The Wesleys never formally separated from the Church of England. They firmly maintained the principle of episcopacy. Charles Wesley contributed greatly to the success of their work by his numerous hymns. The works of John Wesley, published after his death, consist of thirty-two octavo volumes. His mar- riage with Mrs. Vizelle was an incompatible affair and they finally separated. George Whitfield (1 714-1770) became acquainted with the Wesleys at Oxford and joined their religious society. In 1738 he came to America, and his preaching in Georgia was attended with success. He returned to America and established an orphanage, and preached to immense audiences with marked effect. He traveled extensively through England, Scotland and Wales preach- ing, and in Lanarkshire he created one of the greatest revivals of modern times. This English novelist (1837-) was born in London. The story that won for her her first great success was Lady Aadley's Secret. A little over fifty years ago her writings were criticised as sensa- tional and not always of a "proper" type. There was no good ground, however, for this criticism. She has written extensively. This is a story of this new revivalism under the Wesleys and Whitfield, which became a new force, having a profound effect upon the life and thought of the time. The heroine is deeply affected by the work of these revivalists, and after the death of her husband devotes her time and efforts to religious activities. The Coming of the Preachers. 1901. John Ackworth The preaching of the Wesleys from place to place did not always evoke only sympathy and enthusiasm ; their meetings often met with bitter opposition, riot and violence. THE MODERN ERA 325 This story is a picture of the clash between these spiritual forces and the irreligious life out of sympathy with spiritual ideals in a town of England. There are, however, always those who are susceptible to the appeals of religion, and in this story this class is influenced by the Wesleys, and religious interests are organized. Other stories: The Two-Handed Sword (1909), ty Frank Ormerod, in which the two agitations, the political (Jacobite) and the religious are operative. Diary of Mrs. Kitty Trevelyn (1864), by Elizabeth Charles, describing the conditions, morally and religiously, in connection with the revival movement. The Messenger (1907), by F. F. Moore, a description of John Wesley, the preacher and the man. The Eveshams (1902), by J. B. Patton, which illustrates other results of the Wesley movement from the domestic point of view. The Kidnapped Regiment. 1911. Robert Leighton The second Jacobite uprising occurred in 1745. It was a time when Europe was in a state of conflict and agitation. Frederick II of Prussia seized Silesia ; France and Spain formed an alliance against Maria Theresa, who had come to the rule of the Austrian dominions. She was aided by George II and defeated the French at Dettingen. At Fontenoy the British were defeated by Saxe. In the midst of these conflicts Charles Edward, grandson of James II, known as the "Young Pretender," landed in the High- lands of Scotland for the purpose of seizing the throne and re- storing the Stuart rule. At Preston-Pans he defeated General Cope, who commanded the Royalist forces. London was thrown into a panic, and when the Pretender invaded England George II prepared to leave for the Continent. The king's son, the Duke of Cumberland, met the Pretender on Culloden Moor (1746). "This time the Highland charge failed, and Cumberland won the name of 'Butcher' by the awful slaughter that followed ; even the wounded were massacred. There were executions for treason, and England in the end came successfully out of the war. The Stuart cause was finally wrecked." 326 HISTORICAL FICTION This is a story of this Jacobite rising. The hero joins the expedition and witnesses the crushing defeat of the Young Pre- tender at Culloden. Waverley. 1814. Sir Walter Scott Captain Edward Waverley is the titular hero of Scott's first novel of this series, whose "blue eye seemed of that kind which melted in love and which kindled in war." He was of a fickle nature, determined by circumstances, whether he should fight for the king or become a rebel in support of the Pretender. The same was true in his love affairs, for he easily resigned himself to his failure to win Flora Mclvor, and became satisfied with a lesser personality, Rose Bradwardine. Scott himself declared that the Captain was a failure. "The hero," he says to a friend, "is a sneaking piece of imbecility, and if he had married Flora she would have set him up on the chimney-piece as Count Boro- laski's wife used to do with him. I am a bad hand at depicting a hero properly so called, and have an unfortunate propensity for the dubious characters of Borderers, buccaneers, Highland rob- bers, and all others of a Robin Hood description." The prototype of the Baron of Bradwardine, as Crockett points out, "was Alexander Stewart of Invernahyle, on whose valor and magnanimity at Preston-pans the plot of Waverley is made to turn. To Invernahyle Scott owed much of his knowledge of Highland life and scenery. He was 'that friend of my childhood who first introduced me to the Highlands, their traditions and manners/ " The character Fergus Mclvor, is a gallant Highland Jacobite of the passionate and uncompromising type. He was the brother of Flora Mclvor, loved by Waverley. Like her brother, she is a devoted Catholic, and absolutely loyal to the house of Stuart. Her parting with Waverley is a touching scene, after which she enters the convent in Paris. Colonel Kate. 1908. Kathleen and Letitia Mont- gomery Simon Fraser Lovat (i6yo-iy4y) in 1717 supported the Gov- ernment in the Jacobite rebellion, for which he received the family estates. In the rebellion of 1745 he declared himself to be a loyal THE MODERN ERA 327 subject and posed as a loyalist, but gave his clan to fight for the Jacobite cause and in support of the Young Pretender. When his treachery was discovered he was beheaded. The story is woven about the intrigues of Lovat, working both parties to his personal gains. Kate Bristow is a supporter of the Stuart restoration. The rebellion is followed to the battle of Culloden, in which the cause of the Pretender is thoroughly crushed. The Lone Adventurer. 1911. Halliwell Sutcliffe After the battle of Culloden the Young Pretender was in a precarious situation and to escape would require the greatest shrewdness. It was Flora Macdonald, a lady of South Uist, who came to his assistance. By disguising him in woman's clothes he played the part of her maidservant. She possessed remarkable resourcefulness, and succeeded in getting him to the Isle of Skye, from which point he escaped to France. For this service Flora Macdonald was imprisoned in the Tower until 1747. After that she married and came to America, but finally returned to Scot- land. The story is a description of the conditions created by the rebellion of 1745, and the manner in which opinions were divided between the two causes. It portrays the masterful escape of Charles Stuart by Flora Macdonald, and their experiences in the Isle of Skye. The Hearth of Hutton. 1906. W. J. Eccott The battle of Falkirk in 1746 between the royal troops and those of the Jacobites was a victory for the latter. Manchester was occupied for a few days by the Young Pretender. The manner in which the Pretender was greatly assisted in conducting the rebellion by the man of Cumberland, who was thoroughly familiar with the lay of the country and the people, is brought out in this story. Also the occupation of Manchester for a few days, as noted. Other stories: Bonnie Prince Charlie (1887), by G. A. Henty, in which is described the battle of Dettingen two years prior to the Jacobite 328 HISTORICAL FICTION rising of 1745, which was fought during the War of the Austrian Succession, and was a victory for George II. Also the battles of Preston-pans, Fontenoy and Culloden. For the White Rose of Arno (1897), by Owen Rhoscomyl, de- scribing the march to Derby, the chief town of Derbyshire, which was the farthest point reached by the Young Pretender in 1745. For the White Cockade (1905), by J. E. P. Muddock, giving the life and activities of the traitor, Lord Lovat, executed for his treachery. Hills of Home (1906), by Norman Maclean, the royal troops searching in the Highlands for Jacobites, and the escape of the Pretender. Poor Soils of a Day (1902), by Allan McAuley, a story ot the bitter effects of the rebellion and the sacrifices endured. The Prince's Valet. 1907. J. Barnett In the Young Pretender the Jacobite party found a more gal- lant leader than in his father, James II. When he landed in Scot- land in 1745 he had but seven followers. He was then joined by Lachiel and other chieftains. At Culloden his cause was crushed, and the age was not favorable to lost causes. Charles, for five months, remained hidden in the Hebrides and various places, and then returned to France. He visited London in 1750, but gave up politics for drink and debauchery. This story follows the fortunes of Charles in his wanderings *rom place to place after returning to France. It introduces Cameron of Lochiel, who was "a gracious master, a trusty ally, a terrible enemy." He was one of the most stable adherents of James II, and commanded the Camerons at the battle of Killie- crankie. After the death of Claverhouse he refused to serve under Cannon, the Irish commander. He retired to Lochaber, and with the other Highland chiefs took the oath of allegiance to William III. Fortune's My Foe. 1899. John E. Bloundelle-Burton In 1739 England's war with Spain was "Britain's challenge to the world for supremacy in America and India." The commercial clauses of the treaty of Utrecht gave the English a limited permis- THE MODERN ERA 329 sion to trade in South America, which involved constant disputes with Spanish revenue officers and the searching of English vessels, and resulted in the war of 1739, the prelude of the more general War of Austrian Succession. It continued to be waged until the fall of Napoleon. The drift of the times was against peace. When the church bells rang because war was begun, Walpole re- marked, "They are ringing their bells ; they will soon be wringing their hands." Reverses were not long in coming. Admiral Vernon, who served in the Vigo expedition, and at twenty-four was rear- admiral, was sent to the Antilles with a fleet to destroy the Span- ish settlements there, but his fleet was not strong enough and he failed to seize Porto-Bello. In 1741 he appeared before Cartha- gena in the Isthmus of Panama, and met with a disastrous failure. The first part of this story relates to this event — the siege of Carthagena. It then carries us forward to another great engage- ment in 1759, in which a signal victory is won by that intrepid British commander, Sir Edward Hawke. This was the battle of Quiberon, which was fought between the English and French dur- ing the Seven Years' War. Hawke had been blockading the French fleet at Brest, which was under the command of De Con- flans. The latter saw an opportunity of attacking a few English frigates that were cruising about and separated from Hawke's fleet. The French were protected by a rocky shore abounding in shoals and quicksands. Hawke's pilot advised against sailing into such dangerous positions, but Hawke said, "You have done your duty in protesting, but now lay me beside the French Ad- miral." The English won a decisive victory, losing but forty men, while the French lost six vessels. This shattered the French naval power for a time, and for this victory the government be- stowed upon Hawke a yearly pension of $7,500. Like Another Helen. 1899. Sidney C. Grier In the month of June, 1756, Surajah Dowlah, the Nawab of Bengal, became enraged with the English at Calcutta for conceal- ing a fugitive. He came with a force and the town was not well fortified. Drake, the governor, slipped away and Mr. Holwell was placed in control. For forty-eight hours they held out against the assault and were then compelled to surrender. The prisoners, 330 HISTORICAL FICTION numbering 146, were thrust into a narrow room, the prison of the garrison, about twenty feet square with scarcely any means for ventilation. It was one of the hottest nights in the year. Tortured with thrist and suffocation, they struggled for air. The majority died in raving madness, and those who survived did so by standing on the dead bodies of their companions and getting a little air. Twenty-three were alive the next morning. This has been known as the Black Hole of Calcutta. Robert Clive had distinguished himself in India, and was en- trusted with the business of revenging the tragedy, just noted, on Surajah Dowlah. He set out with an army of 3,000 and at Plassey encountered the Nabob's troops, at the head of whom were fifty Frenchmen. The English opened with a heavy can- nonading and then charged their lines. The whole army was routed. The Nabob was the first to fly, followed by about 2,000 of his force. Following the battle Surajah Dowlah was assassi- nated. Calcutta was reconquered and rebuilt by Clive, who was placed at the head of the government. In this story these events are in the form of a correspondence between two girls. It details the taking of Calcutta and the hor- rors of the Black Hole, and the avenging of this crime by Clive in the battle of Plassey and the retaking of the city. Warren Hast- ings was with Clive at this time, and is introduced into the story. Second to None. 1864. James Grant Maria Theresa of Austria in a war with Prussia had at last been compelled to cede Silesia to Frederick the Great. To recover this she formed an alliance with Russia and obtained the support of Saxony and Poland. War had broken out between France and England, and in order to safeguard his German states George II formed an alliance with Prussia. France then formed an alli- ance with Austria against Frederick the Great. Thus began the Seven Years' War (1756- 1763) between these European states — Austria, Russia, France, Poland and Saxony against Prussia and Great Britain. In the end, when peace was concluded at Huberts- burg, Prussia retained Silesia, while between France and England the war crossed the seas and was waged also in America. This is a story of this period which describes the battle of Minden and gives the experiences of a soldier in the service of THE MODERN ERA 331 the Duke of Cumberland. In this battle (1759) the allies were under the command of Ferdinand of Brunswick. Part of his force consisted of about 12,000 British under Lord Sackville. The French had taken Cassel, Munster and Minden. To lure them from their strong position at Minden, Ferdinand left a force of 5,000 men apparently unsupported on the right bank of the Weser. When the Duke de Broglie made an attack upon them he was compelled to draw upon the force at Minden, in which the latter was lost and the French were defeated. The story abounds in action and stirring adventures. The Virginians. 1859. William M. Thackeray This noted English writer (1811-1863) was born at Calcutta, his father at that time being in the service of the East India Com- pany. He was educated at Charterhouse School in Smithfield, and spent two years at Trinity College, Cambridge. After writing for the Examiner and Fraser's Magazine he became a member of the staff of Punch. In Paris in 1855 ne completed The Newcomes. He is the author of five great novels and many shorter stories. This story, which is the sequel to Henry Esmond, in its histor- ical interests ranges from the period of the Seven Years' War, the sketch of which is given above, to the War of the American Revolution. As already noted, the Seven Years' War as related to England and France, crossed the seas to America. William Pitt's ambition was to secure to Britain world wide supremacy, and to humble France to such a degree as to render impossible future rivalry. The French had built a ring of forts to connect Louisiana with Canada. Of these Fort Duquesne was the most celebrated, sit- uated in the upper valley of the Ohio. Edward Braddock in 1754 was made commander of all British troops in America. In 1756 he organized an expedition against Fort Duquesne and was joined by the Virginian troops. He appointed George Washington his aid-de-camp. Benjamin Franklin, who was then postmaster gen- eral of the colonies, also joined him. The latter had warned him regarding the Indian method of fighting, which Braddock treated with contempt. When the Indians started their war-whoop the British, who heard it for the first time, were so frightened that 332 HISTORICAL FICTION they fell back. Washington in this crisis issued his instructions, knowing the nature of this kind of warfare, and these Braddock refused to adopt. The British fired at random into the forest. Five horses were killed under Braddock, and he at last was mor- tally wounded. The battle became a rout, and Washington con- ducted into safety less than half of Braddock's full force. Shortly after this ill-fated expedition the English conquered Fort Du- quesne and renamed it Fort Pitt, in honor of William Pitt, the great War Minister, and when a settlement was formed a few years later it became Pittsburgh, which has earned the world- famed title, 'The Iron City." One of the episodes in the story is the expedition against St. Malo in 1758. St. Malo is a seaport of western France. The bombardment of this place by the English in 1693 was a failure. During a single war the people of St. Malo had seized about 1,500 vessels, from which were taken much gold and other treasure. By the great wealth that came to the ship-owners, both by these seizures and the New World, they were able to send the king large sums of money by which to finance the celebrated Rio de Janeiro expedition in 171 1, and in a similar manner enabled him to con- duct the War of the Spanish Succession. They were not so for- tunate, however, in the third expedition sent against them by the English under the command of Charles Spencer in 1758. In this they sustained a heavy loss on the royal shipping in the harbor of St. Servan. The description of Braddock's foolhardy operations, as noted above, is given in the first section of this story. Washington, Wolfe and many other historical personages are introduced. Es- mond's two grandsons return to England. One of them, a spend- thrift, enters the army and leaves the debts he had incurred for his brother to pay. When the American Revolution breaks out the brothers take opposite sides. Baroness Bernstein is the Bea- trix Esmond of Henry Esmond. She is now an old woman and no longer retains her beauty of earlier years, but is as loquacious as ever, and exhibits her former characteristics. She has survived her two husbands, Bishop Tusher and Baron de Bernstein, and has had some remarkable adventures. The story deals largely with fashionable life in England of this period. The character sketches of the Lamberts are well drawn. THE MODERN ERA 333 Reign of George III George (1760-1820), the grandson of George II, whose father died in 1751, was trained in Anti-Whig principles, and upon his accession proceeded to break up the Whig Houses. Pitt was shorn of power. In 1770 he appointed Lord North as Prime Min- ister, and for twelve years the crown was supreme and North was nothing more than a passive tool in the hands of the king. They were years of disaster and disgrace both at home and abroad. It was the period of American Independence, which, by a policy of coercion, was the loss to England of her American colonies. Thus the years of his reign were filled with great events : the Wilkes Controversy, the American Revolution, the French Revo- lution, the struggle with Napoleon, the Irish Rebellion of 1798. Five years before the conflict with Napoleon came to an end his mind gave way and his son governed as regent for the last ten years of his reign. "Though in politics George was vindictive and stooped to the treachery of setting rival leaders against each other by a malicious use of statements made in the confidence of the royal closet, in his private relations he was strict in morals, simple in tastes and pre-eminently an English gentleman of the better type." The Stories The Fate of Father Sheehy. 1845. Mrs. James Sadlier This Canadian author (1820-1903) was born in Cootchill, Ire- land, and wrote Irish historical novels. That by which she is probably best known is The Confederate Chieftains. She also translated works of a devotional nature. In the middle of the eighteenth century the Whiteboy move- ment resulted from the burdens laid upon the Irish people and was especially strong in Tipperary and Limerick. In 1760 an attempt was made to crush it by the use of troops. The move- ment was led by Captain Danger, as he called himself. Volun- teers were now organized to suppress the operations of the White- boys, which was accomplished for a time by the execution of a priest, Father Sheehy, charged with murder. The movement, some years later, reappeared in Munster, opposed the payment of tithes, disarmed the Protestants and committed all manner of outrages. 334 HISTORICAL FICTION This story deals with this movement, and particularly with the priest referred to, Father Sheehy, who became entangled with their doings, and after being twice tried was executed. Knights of the Road. 1907. Evelyn Everett-Green In the last quarter of the eighteenth century the condition of the English prisons attracted the attention of the distinguished philanthropist, John Howard (1726- 1790). He traveled exten- sively over Europe and at the age of thirty started for Lisbon, but was captured by a French privateer and held in captivity for a time. In 1773 he became interested in the prison system, and examined in person the prisons of the countries of the Continent. He then published a statement on "The State of the Prisons in England and Wales," exposing the existing abuses. It brought the public to attention, led to careful investigation and important reforms regarding these institutions. In 1774, as the result of Howard's work, an act was passed providing that every prisoner against whom the Grand Jury failed to find a true bill should be immediately released. The philanthropic activities of Howard relative to prison con- ditions in England are set forth in this story. It deals especially with Newgate, a celebrated prison in London. The name is de- rived from its location, being at the new gate of the city. It dates back to the twelfth century, but was rebuilt a number of times. From the number of prominent men confined there on political or religious grounds historic interest has always attached to this prison. It was finally demolished in 1902. Held Fast for England. 1892. George A. Henty In 1779 was begun the siege of the great fortress Gibraltar by a combined force of Spaniards and French which lasted until 1783, a siege almost unparalleled in the annals of ancient or modern warfare. The governor of the fortress was George Elliot, afterwards Lord Heathfield. To hold Gibraltar for over three years against such an unusual siege taxed Elliot's abilities and resources to the utmost. So certain were the French of its fall that the capture of the fortress was exhibited on the Paris stage. With such skill and fortitude did the governor meet the occasion that he has gone down into history as "having maintained the most THE MODERN ERA 335 stubborn defence of modern warfare." For this gallant and val- uable service he was raised to the peerage as Baron Heathfield. In 1790 he was about to set out again for Gibraltar, when he died of paralysis. Henty's story describes this great siege, detailing the facts and conditions of this event. Another story dealing with the same instance is by Molly E. Seawell — The Rock of the Lion (1898). It is also an episode in the story As It Happened, by H. M. Wallis. The Great Proconsul. 1904. Sidney C. Grier In 1750 Warren Hastings (1732-1818) went to Bengal as a writer for the East India Company. In Clive's campaign of 1757 he rendered able service, and after the battle of Plassey he be- came a member of the council at Madras, and in 1772 was made Governor of Bengal. In this capacity he began a system of re- forms. In the following year he became the first Governor- General of India. By the same Act Sir Philip Francis was sent to Bengal as a member of the council. Animated by prejudice, he headed the opposition to Hastings, which lessened the power of the latter by keeping him in the minority. A Brahmin, Nuncomar, brought a charge against Hastings and the latter had him arrested for forgery. Sir Elijah Impey, the Chief Justice, tried and hung the Brahmin, which gave Hastings a great victory over his ene- mies, and he secured the majority of the council. With these difficulties removed he now set to work to secure the supremacy of English power in India. In 1780 Madras was threatened by Hyder AH. Hastings placed Sir Eyre Coote in command of all the troops, and his victories restored the English position. In order to raise the large sums of money necessary for his campaigns Hastings resorted to questionable methods. When he returned to England India was in a state of peace, the revenues were on a firm basis and all affairs of government were directed by the English. Sir Philip Francis also returned to England in 1781 and, entering Parliament, he joined the opposition headed by Burke for the impeachment of Hastings. The trial dragged along for seven years and Hastings was acquitted. This story is a history of Hastings' labors in India as set forth above. It sets forth the opposition and prejudice and motives 336 HISTORICAL FICTION of Sir Philip Francis. The Chief Justice, Elijah Impey, and Hast- ings' general, Coote, and other historical personages are intro- duced. Barnaby Rudge. 1841. Charles Dickens Of all the popular risings of the Eighteenth century the Gor- don Riots are considered the most formidable. In 1778 Sir George Savile introduced a bill for the modification of the penal laws against Catholics, which was supported almost unanimously by both Houses. At once associations led by Lord George Gordon were formed in Scotland protesting against the bill, and the agita- tion spread to England. A body of 50,000 met in St. George's Fields, and a great mob forced their way into the House, which then adjourned. The mob then began the work of destruction. They tore down buildings, pillaged the house of Savile, broke open the Newgate prison and released the prisoners, also the pris- oners of Clerkenwell. Lord Mansfield's house with its priceless library was burned. The king insisted on immediate action, and the troops were ordered to put an end to the riot. When the rioters were dispersed there were 200 dead on the streets, and more than that wounded. Twenty-one were executed. Gordon became a convert to Judaism, and died a prisoner in Newgate. The author (1812-1870), one of the great English novelists of the Victorian Age, was born at Portsmouth. He received a limited education, and after working as a clerk in an attorney's office became a newspaper reporter and finally a contributor to the magazines, in which his tales were published. In 1845 ne went to Italy, and when he returned Pictures From Italy was published. In the latter years of his life he gave readings from his own writings, which greatly increased his popularity. One of his most marked characteristics was his dramatic ability. Pos- sessed of a social temperament, he was delighted to have his friends about him. Some of his stories struck heavy blows at existing systems and abuses of the time as in the case of Oliver Twist, which exposed the abuses of the work-house system, and Nicholas Nickleby, which brought into light the manner in which cheap boarding schools were managed. Much of his work con- stituted him a social reformer. In his novels "his world is that of the common people, and his ample and vivid representation of their character and life is one of the chief causes of his immense THE MODERN ERA 337 popularity. The service he thus rendered the masses was in accord with the democratic spirit of the times." This story gives a striking description of the Gordon Riots, or "No Popery" riots, as sometimes called. Barnaby's father was the murderer of Haredale and also the latter's servant, to whom the crime was attributed. He levied blackmail on Barnaby's mother and joined the Gordon rioters. Barnaby is a half-witted lad dressed in tawdry finery, and is the titular hero. His insepa- rable companion is a parrot that he carries in a basket that would call out, "I'm a devil," and "Never say die !" During the riots it learned the war cry of the mob, "No Popery!" Barnaby, for the sake of carrying a flag and wearing a blue bow, joined the rioters. He was lodged in Newgate and made his escape when the prison was burned, but both he and his father were recap- tured, tried and condemned to death. By the influence of Varden, Barnaby was pardoned. George Gordon, the leader of the riots, is a prominent figure in the story. The Surgeon's Daughter. 1827. Sir Walter Scott This story belongs to the time of Tippoo Sultan, the son of Hyder Ali, founder of the Mohammedan kingdom of Mysore. He served under his father during the first Mysore war, and after his father's death carried the war to a successful issue, and in 1784 concluded with the English the treaty of Mangalore. He devoted his energies to three things : the conversion of his subjects to Mohammedanism, the better organization of his army and the building of foundries at Seringapatam for the construction of cannon and other firearms. In this story Tippoo Sultan confers upon a man the gover- norship of a city, for which he is required to bring to India the girl he loves with the understanding that they are to be married, but when she arrives he sells her to Tippoo Sultan. Highland Mary. 1906. Clayton Mackenzie Legge Robert Burns (1759- 1796), the greatest and most essentially Scottish of Scotland's poets, was born about two miles from Ayr, and not far from "Bonnie Doon," and Auld Alloway Kirk. His father was a deeply religious man, and an admirable portraiture of him has been left by his illustrious son in The Cotter's Saturday Night. Robert's education was limited; he was trained in the 338 HISTORICAL FICTION ordinary branches, but he gained most of his knowledge from general reading, and thus nourished the poetic instinct that was essentially a part of his nature. His father died in 1784 and Robert and his brother, Gilbert, secured a small farm at Mossgiel, and here he began to write poems, which at once attracted attention. His songs and poems, struck off at white heat, are instinct with human feeling, and go at once to the heart. He carried a book in his pocket to study in spare moments in the fields, and thus tried his utmost to raise himself above his condition. It was a constant struggle with poverty, and troubles came apace. "The master-mason, Armour, whose daughter was Burns' sweetheart, was said to contemplate prosecuting him to obtain a guarantee for the support of his expected progeny, though he refused to accept him as a son-in-law." Jean Armour abandoned him ; he could not give his name to her child. This unhappy love affair decided him to go to Jamaica, but at that time a book of his poems attracted such favorable attention that he was invited to come to Edinburgh. There he was received and admired and re- turned with $2,500, and took a farm near Dumfries, and here he brought Jean Armour, whom he had married shortly before. Burns always was in love. His brother, Gilbert, said, "He was constantly the victim of some fair enslaver." He had troubles of his own : "enamored of Jean Armour, then on her refusal en- gaged to another, then returning to Jean, then quitting her, then taking her back, amidst much scandal, many blots on his character, still more disgust." At the age of thirty-eight the great lyric poet of Scotland died a pauper. The poet of humanity, he has touched the deepest feelings of the human soul, and has breathed into our life the noblest sentiments of truth and love. This story brings out the love affairs of the poet, his relations with Jean Armour and portrays the beauty of character of Mary Campbell. As already noted he was greatly disturbed by the con- sequences of his love affair with Jean. Under compulsion he had given her a written certificate that she was his wife, but who had been induced to repudiate him. He loved Mary Campbell de- votedly. She died of a fever, and was commemorated by some of his most pathetic poems — "To Mary in Heaven" and "Highland Mary." CHAPTER VI FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION TO THE ACCESSION OF QUEEN VICTORIA PERIOD OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION While America was passing through her Revolutionary Period the conditions were being established in France that were to issue in the French Revolution. These two great events, so close to- gether, were destined to exert a far-reaching influence upon the history of the world. It marks an era in the development of the modern world. Richelieu had laid the groundwork for the abso- lutism of Louis XIV. But absolute government implies the pos- session and exercise of an irresponsible power, which does not permit the freedom of the governed. When the French mind was brought to a true perception of the existing social conditions by the work of the more enlightened, the revolution was the result. When the French Revolution broke out England had just passed through the struggle with her American colonies and lost them, and remained in a state of war and unrest during the period of the revolution, and was to continue so until the close of the Napoleonic era. These were dark days and restless times, the nations in a great struggle against injustice and tyranny, and the demand for freedom and the realization of a larger individuality. The fiction bearing on the American Revolution will be taken up in the American section of our study, and that dealing with the French Revolution belongs to France. The Stories God's Providence House. 1865. Mrs. G. L. Banks The French Revolution extended from 1789 to 1799. W T e are still in the reign of George III, which continued until 1820. In 1 810 his mind gave way and his son acted as his regent. This story is concerned with the growing sentiment in England relative to the emancipation of slaves. Up to this time there had 339 340 HISTORICAL FICTION been no positive enactment regarding this institution of slavery. Thus when Lord Mansfield in 1772 in the case of the negro Som- erset, rendered his decision that slavery could not exist in England, it rested upon no legal basis, and simply expressed the public opinion of the time. About ten years after the Mansfield decision the abolition movement was started by Thomas Clarkson. In this he was greatly assisted by the Society of Friends, and by individuals such as Zackary Macaulay, the father of the historian, and especially Wilberforce. The latter in 1792 secured the support of Pitt and the House of Commons passed a bill for the gradual suppression of the slave traffic. A missionary, John Smith, labored among the slaves, and the complaint was raised regarding him that "to ad- dress a promiscuous audience of colored people, bond and free, by the endearing appellation of 'my brethren and sisters' is what can nowhere be heard except in Providence Chapel." The mis- sionary died in prison, which gave great impetus to the abolition movement. In 1833 the great Emancipation Act was passed. To compensate the planters for their loss by this Act the British Government paid them $100,000,000. A Business in Great Waters. 1899. Julian Corbett The author (1854-), an English barrister and man of letters, was born in Surrey. He was educated at Trinity College, Cam- bridge, and after his graduation practiced law until 1882. He became the special correspondent of the Pall Mall Gazette on the Dongola expedition in 1896. In 1903 he lectured on English his- tory at Oxford. In 1793 began the great war of England against the French Revolution, and continued with but two slight breaks until the fall of Napoleon in 181 5. In its first stage it was a war of re- actionary propaganda, which would make no peace with a "regi- cide" Directory. The Quiberon expedition (1795) was undertaken to assist the Royalist insurgents of La Vendee and Brittany, and consisted largely of French royalist refugees. It landed at the peninsula of Quiberon. At this point a great number of Chouans joined the expedition. They captured the fort at Penthievre, which was THE MODERN ERA 341 recaptured by the Republican general, Hoche, and the invaders, with the exception of about 900, were annihilated. This event is one of the chief interests in this story, which deals with the early period of the war with France. The name "Chouans" was given to bands of the royalist peasantry of Brit- tany, irregular troops, who waged a petty warfare against the republican government. Kathleen Mavourneen. 1898. Randal McDonnell This story has its setting in the events of the Irish Rebellion of 1798. Demands were made to the Government and great con- cessions were granted. Nearly all commercial restraints were removed; a limited Mutiny Act and a Habeas Corpus Act were enacted; the Test Act was repealed; bills for the relief of the Catholics were carried. Two grievances, however, remained : Parliamentary Reform and Catholic Emancipation. It was to secure these that the Society of United Irishmen was formed. When Lord Fitzwilliam, a known friend of the Catholics, was appointed Viceroy, it seemed that every demand would be met, and the expectations of the Catholics seemed about to be fulfilled. But the Viceroy was suddenly recalled, and then came the re- bellion. Theobald Wolfe Tone (1763-1798) was the founder of the Society of United Irishmen, established to secure reforms and Catholic Emancipation, and these as a part of the more general purpose to secure the "rights of man." He was trained in Trin- ity College, Dublin. He thoroughly sympathized with the French Revolution. He was arrested and agreed to go to America, which he did, taking his family with him. In 1797 he went to France to stimulate the French to aid Ireland and if possible to organize an invasion, and he was assured that this would be done and be placed under the command of Hoche. The first expedition, con- sisting of 43 vessels, started, but was driven back by a storm. A second expedition met with foul weather and confronted a supe- rior fleet under Admiral Duncan, and at this point Hoche died. When the Irish Rebellion broke out in 1798 a French fleet sailed for Ireland. It met an English squadron off Lough Swilly and was defeated. The vessel Tone was on struck its colors, and he was made a prisoner. He was tried and condemned for high trea- 342 HISTORICAL FICTION son. He demanded that he be shot and not hung. This was denied him, and while in prison he tried to hang himself and only partly succeeded, but died in great agony from the results of the attempt. These facts bearing on the circumstances of the rebellion and Tone's going to America are set forth in this story. It also de- scribes the battle of New Ross (1799), when General Johnston, with a force of 1,400 men defeated a body of 30,000 rebels, and prevented them from marching on Dublin. It also contains the operations and capture of Fitzgerald. Lord Edward Fitzgerald was a member of the Irish Parliament. He went to the Conti- nent, met Hoche and determined upon a French invasion. He kept up a steady correspondence with France which was communi- cated to Pitt. He was seized but made his escape. A reward of $5,000 was offered for his capture. He was betrayed and in being seized was shot and died from the wound. Plans for the taking of Dublin and the Seal of the United Irishmen were found on him. Other stories: The House in the Rath (1886) by James Murphy, giving Tone's correspondence with Paris, and Fitzgerald plays a part. The Shan Van Vocht (1883) by James Murphy, which carries forward the operations of Tone to the sailing of the expedition, as given in the sketch, and the defeat of the fleet at Lough Swilly. Maurice Tiernay (1852) by Charles Lever, giving the attempts of the French expedition and the capture and death of Tone. The Tiger of Mysore. 1895. George A. Henty During this period England's attention was again called to India. Seringapatam was the capital of the State of Mysore, the realm of Tippoo Sultan. He was defeated in 1791 by Lord Corn- wallis. He now organized a series of intrigues through India and Europe for the destruction of the English in which France was involved. The whole plot was revealed by a proclamation by M. Malartie, the French governor of the Mauritus, before the scheme was completed. Lord Wellesley started operations at once. When the English forces were ready to attack the breach the signal was given, and in the face of the most desperate resist- ance, within seven minutes the British colors were flying over THE MODERN ERA 343 the breach. The column moving in two divisions reached the Mysore gate and stormed the inner ramparts. It created a stam- pede, and in the flight Tippoo Sultan was slain. Within a few hours this garrison, containing 20,000 troops and 287 pieces of artillery and having all the munitions of war, fell, and as Sir John Malcolm declared, "all our labors were crowned by the com- pletest victory that ever crowned the British annals in India. A state that had been the rival of the East India Company for nearly thirty years was on that day wholly annihiliated." And whatever plans Napoleon may have had through the intrigues of Tippoo were utterly crushed. Henty has given us in this novel the story of this war, and the final capture of Seringapatam. The same events are set forth in their wide bearings in The Last Empire by Captain Charles Gilson. Jcnes of the 64th. 1907. Captain Frederick S. Brereton The battle of Assay e was fought in 1803 during the Mahratta War designed to reduce the Peishwa to the position of a depend- ent on the English government, and to establish Scindia, Holkar and the Rajah of Berar as independent sovereigns. General Wel- lesley had an army of 4,500 against the army of Scindia and the Rajah of Berar. The latter was strongly entrenched. Wellesley led his men to the very muzzles of the guns which were pouring an incessant fire. The indomitable courage of the British troops bore down all resistance and the enemy gave way and fled. Five weeks after this victory General Lake encountered the disciplined battalions of the same enemy. The Sepoys held their position to the last, and only retired when all their guns were captured. This was the battle of Laswaree. These engagements are set forth in this story detailing the great success of the British troops in these two battles. In G. A. Henty's story, At the Point of the Bayonet (1901), these battles are of chief interest together with the battle of Bhurtpore. This was a fortress and town eight miles in circumference and well for- tified. It was garrisoned by 8,000 troops of Bhurtpore and the remnant of Holkar's infantry. Improperly provisioned for a siege and attack General Lake made four assaults and was com- pelled to withdraw. 344 HISTORICAL FICTION By Conduct and Courage. 1904. George A. Henty This story deals with memorable events of the war with Spain in the year 1797. The admiral of the Spanish fleet of 2.7 ships being informed that the English fleet under Jervis consisted of but nine ships decided to attack him. Nelson joined the English fleet at Cape St. Vincent having sighted the Spanish fleet on the way. The next morning, before the Spaniards could form in line, the British struck, and by a rapid movement Jervis cut off nine vessels which took to flight. Nelson prevented the main body of the fleet from connecting with these nine vessels. The most im- portant part of the Spanish fleet was captured, and so decisive was the victory that for some time the Spanish fleet was rendered almost powerless. Sir John Jervis publicly thanked Nelson for his great service, while he himself was created an Earl in England. In the same year the battle of Camperdown was fought be- tween the English and the Dutch. The fleet of the latter prepared to cooperate with the French for the invasion of Ireland. The British came in sight of the Dutch nine miles from Camperdown. The signal was given indicating the method of action for the British ships, but the hazy weather prevented the signal from be- ing seen but by a few ships. The Dutch commander, after a des- perate contest, surrendered his ship, which had scarcely enough men alive to man the guns. The other Dutch ships followed his example. Each side had the same number of ships (16). The Dutch prizes were so shattered as to be useless. During this same year occurred the Spithead and Nore Muti- nies. They were the result of the corruption and abuses of the naval system in which the sailors were subjected to unreasonable treat- ment. Again, their pay was not only too low, but their commis- sariat was under the control of greedy men who lined their purses thereby. These two mutinies occurring during the war created a real danger, as every ship refused to sail. It was the tact and wisdom of Lord Howe which conciliated the mutineers and won their full regard. An Act was passed that satisfied most of their grievances. These victories and mutinies are described by this story, the hero having escaped from the French and from pirates who had captured him, and is present in these great engagements, with Nelson and with Howe. THE MODERN ERA ' 345 In Press-Gang Days. 1895. Edgar Pickering This story gives the facts of the mutinies just indicated and sets forth the great services rendered by Nelson. This distin- guished commander (1758-1805) was the son of an English rec- tor, and was rapidly promoted from stage to stage in the naval service of his country. In 1796 he was made Commodore, then Rear-Admiral. He commanded the squadron at the blockade of Cadiz (1797), and commanded a night attack on Santa Cruz which failed on account of darkness, and in which Nelson lost his right arm. In 1798 the French fleet convoyed Napoleon's army to Egypt. For four weeks Nelson searched for the fleet. He finally sighted it off Alexandria. Sailing in two lines the English advanced, one line sailing between the fleet and the shore. The French were taken between two fires. This battle of the Nile began at six in the evening and continued until midnight. By that time the French were too shattered to reply and the entire fleet was either sunk or struck their colors. This great victory ensured the failure of Napoleon's Egyptian expedition as it isolated his army. These great victories of Nelson, together with the expedition against Santa Cruz, are set forth in this story. Another story dealing with the battle of the Nile is In the Days of Nelson (1910) by Captain F. H. Shaw. The Napoleonic Era The Stories Rose of the Garden. 1912. Katharine Tynan This story is a record of the career of Lady Sarah Lennox. George III came to the throne in 1760 and in the following year married the Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Before that time, however, he had a love affair with Lady Sarah Lennox which was nipped in the bud. In these things she seemed to be unfortunate, first, in not being able to secure the young king, and then in marrying a man whom she deserted for another. Robert Emmet. 1909. Stephen Gwynn Robert Emmet (1778- 1803) was in sympathy with the Society of United Irishmen, the object of which was the establishment of the "rights of man." In accomplishing this it aimed to secure, 346 HISTORICAL FICTION among other things, reform and Catholic Emancipation. Emmet was implicated in the Rebellion of 1798 and was expelled from the University of Dublin. He went to the Continent but returned, and in 1803 placed himself at the head of a rough mob, and attempted to capture Dublin Castle and the Arsenal. He was arrested, was tried and condemned for treason, and executed. This attempt on the part of Emmet is set forth in this story, also the manner in which his affection for the daughter of John Curran had a connection with his plot. John Curran entered Par- liament in 1782 and was recognized as one of the most brilliant orators in the assembly. He strongly opposed the measures of Pitt in regard to Ireland. In 181 7 his mind gave way and he com- mitted suicide. Emmet's unhappy fate inspired some of the finest of the "Irish Melodies" of Thomas Moore. Other stones: True Man and Traitor (1910) by M. M. Bodkin. Ravensdale (1873) by Robert Thynne. These stories deal with Emmet and Sarah Curran. Springhaven. 1887. Richard D. Blackmore This English novelist (1825-1900) was born at Longworth, Berkshire, and was one of the most noted novelists of the last generation. He was educated at Blundell's School, Tiverton. He married a beautiful Portuguese girl. After inheriting a fortune in i860 he retired to Teddington where he devoted his time to gardening, of which he was fond, and literature. He came to dis- tinction by his Lorna Doone, the most famous of his heroines, which initiated a new romantic movement in fiction. The Peace of Amiens that Napoleon concluded with England (1802) was rendered abortive when England saw through the treacherous designs of Napoleon. In 1803 war again broke out. Napoleon saw that there was but one way by which he could con- quer Europe and that was by conquering Great Britain. To ac- complish this required that he invade the country, and to this end he mobilized a great army at Boulogne with a large number of transports to carry his troops to England. But Nelson was active and destroyed both the Spanish and French fleets at Trafalgar which again established British supremacy upon the sea. With THE MODERN ERA 347 his fleet ruined Napoleon despaired of invading England and withdrew his army from Boulogne. This story has its historical setting in this plan to invade Eng- land, and makes conspicuous Nelson and Napoleon. The effect of this contemplated invasion upon the English people is set forth by The Sovereign Power (1904) by Violet A. Simpson, and by The Mayor of Troy (1905) by A. T. Quiller-Couch. Trafalgar. 1884. Benito Perez Galdos The battle of Trafalgar was fought in October, 1805, and was the last and most fatal blow inflicted on the naval power of France. The combined Spanish and French fleets were seen sailing out of Cadiz. Nelson followed and at daybreak they were seen about twelve miles away. Villeneuve, the French Admiral, drew up his fleet in double line. Nelson had altogether 31 ships against 40 ships of the Spanish and French fleets. Nelson attacked in two lines. The battle was fiercely contested, but British courage and persistance wore out the enemy. While Nelson's ship, the Vic- tory, was storming the French ship the Redoubtable, and as the latter struck its colors, Nelson was mortally wounded with one of the last shots fired from the latter. He lived long enough to see that he had won his last and greatest victory. The combined fleet was taken by the British, and the victory put an end to Napoleon's hopes of invading England. This Spanish novelist (1845-) was born in the Canaries. He studied law in Madrid but in a short time devoted himself to jour- nalism. In 1889 ne was elected to the Royal Spanish Academy. Few Spanish writers have written so extensively as he, and in the field of fiction he holds a high place in his realistic and psycholog- ical delineations. His sympathies are of the revolutionary type. This great victory is the chief interest in this story. Other Stories: The Yarn of Old Harbor Town (1905) by W. C. Russell, in which we see Nelson in pursuit of the French fleet on his way to Trafalgar. Andrew Goodfellow (1906) by Mrs. Herbert Watson, deal- ing with the same events. 348 HISTORICAL FICTION Roy. 1900. Agnes Giberne Sir John Moore (1761-1809) was a Scotchman but received most of his education on the Continent. He was sent to the West Indies under Abercromby, and exhibited such abilities that he was made Governor. He returned to England and defeated the rebels at Wexford. After the Peace of Amiens he was sent to the Peninsula and was appointed to the command in chief and at every point dis- played his superior military talents. In 1809 he took up a position around the town of Corunna, and awaited the arrival of the Eng- lish transports from Vigo. The French under Sault with a force of 20,000 men attacked Moore who had about 14,000. A flank movement was carried out so successfully that by nightfall the British had driven the French from all positions. The British loss was about 800 men while the French loss was nearly 4,000. Moore won a great victory and covered the embarkation of his army, but lost his life in the action. The historical range of this story carries us from the time of the Peace of Amiens to Moore's victory at Corunna, dealing in a splendid manner with the latter. Sir John Moore holds a promi- nent place in the story. What is also of special interest is the man- ner in which prisoners fared at the hands of the French, and the state of many of the French prisons at this time. In The Fen Dogs Stephen Foreman describes the retreat of Sir John Moore to Corunna. He had advanced up the country, but the conditions were against him, and he was compelled to re- treat to Corunna. Regency and Reign of George IV On account of his father's insanity in 181 1 George IV (1820- 1830) acted as regent until his father's death and succeeded to the throne in 1820. He was a man of dissolute habits, and in or- der to secure the crown disowned the Catholic woman he had secretly married, and ill-treated the German Princess he then married, and divorced her. Because of his fine appearance and taste in attire he was called "the first gentleman in Europe," whereas he was devoid of such a quality. England had little to be proud of in her king. The most important event of his reign was the passing of the Catholic Emancipation Act by the Wellington ministry in 1829. THE MODERN ERA 349 The Stories Forest Folk. 1901. James Prior During the years 1811-1816, the working people of Yorkshire, Lancashire and Nottingham became possessed by the ignorant notion that the introduction of machinery was the cause of all the distress and hardship that the poor of that time were suffer- ing. The Continental war was still draining the resources of the country, but the machinery was blamed for the existing conditions, and the half-starved crowds set to work to destroy all the ma- chinery they could place their hands upon. These were called the Luddite Riots, the name taken from that of a half-witted boy by the name of Ludd who, some time before, had made himself notorious by doing a similar thing with stocking-frames. When the riots were suppressed in one place they broke out in another, and only as prosperity returned did they cease. In this story these scenes of destruction, and the condition of the people of this time are portrayed, emphasizing the real root of the trouble. Strong Mac. 1904. Samuel R. Crockett The siege of San Sebastian occurred in the last campaign of the war in the Peninsula (1813). Wellington planned to cross the Pyrenees and to carry the war into France. The siege was turned into a blockade, and aften ten engagements Sault was forced to retreat. The English suffered from a shortage of suit- able ammunition. Finally the assault was made and the town was carried. Then the castle was stormed and taken, and Wel- lington was free to carry the war into France. This incident of the war appears in this story. The conditions in Galloway during this period are portrayed. Other Stories: The following are descriptive of the manner in which smug- gling and privateering prevailed in these days of warfare, and the breaking up of established order. The Shira (1910) by W. C. Mackenzie. The Vanishing Smuggler (1909) by Stephen Chalmers. 350 HISTORICAL FICTION The Revolution in Tanner's Lane. 1837. William H. White The war was followed by riots in all parts of England owing to the manner in which many farms had been thrown out of cul- tivation, and the lack of harvest which created general distress. The mobs demanded that wheat should be sold at a low price. They declared that the farmers were back of the increased cost of bread, and farm buildings were set on fire and the baker shops looted. The military was called into requisition to suppress these riots. This story aims to give a just picture of the state of life of that time, the condition and circumstances of the people of the middle and still poorer class. In this description the Bread Riots figure. Starvecrow Farm. 1905. Stanley J. Weyman In 1 819 was held at Manchester the greatest of the meetings in which Parliamentary Reform was demanded. A noted re- former, Henry Hunt, was the orator for the occasion. Military provisions had been made to forestall rioting of any sort. About 60,000 people assembled in St. Peter's Field, while from neigh- boring housetops the magistrates watched the proceedings. As soon as Hunt began his address a constable was sent to arrest him. The crowd remonstrated and the militia was ordered to charge. They swept through the disordered mass of people. The victims were left scattered over the field and the Peterloo Meeting has been called the Manchester Massacre, also the Peterloo Mas- sacre. These agitations that were sweeping through the land is the leading interest of this story. The Manchester Massacre is intro- duced, also the Cato Street Conspiracy which occurred in 1820. The latter, a wild plot conceived by a number of misguided men, to assassinate Lord Castlereagh and his ministers. They also planned to start fires in various places in London on the same night, seize the Bank and Mansion House and proclaim a provis- ional government. The facts were brought to the police some time before these things were to take place, and as the conspirators were arming themselves in Cato Street the police attacked and THE MODERN ERA 351 most of them were captured. The leaders were executed and the others were transported for life. Napoleon has fallen and the war is over. We are reserving the Waterloo campaign until we come to France. Other great events of the era will be taken up with the stories where they more properly belong. Reign of William IV George IV left no heirs and was succeeded by his brother William (1820-1837). His education was along naval lines, and while he possessed very ordinary ability he was advanced through the various ranks until he became Lord High Admiral. It was in his reign that the Reform Act was passed, the Poor Laws were reformed and slavery in the colonies was abolished. Of William, Walpole said, "He would have passed in peivate life for a good- natured sailor." While he did not possess the qualities for ruling, his ministers had practically full control of matters, and the king was not in a position to do much harm. The Stories Chippinge. 1906. Stanley J. Weyman This English novelist (185 5-) was born at Ludlow, Shrop- shire. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford. Until 1889 he practiced law and then devoted himself to literature. His repu- tation as a historical Romanticist was established by his novel, A Gentleman of France, which was translated into several lan- guages. In 1819 Lord John Russell made his first motion in favor of parliamentary reform, the great question of which he was the champion during the whole period of his public life. In 183 1 he introduced the first Reform Bill to the House of Commons. On the second reading of the bill, after the most heated debates, it was carried by a majority of one. Parliament was dissolved to meet in June, at which time the reformers were in the majority, and the bill was carried with a large majority. It passed the House of Commons, but was rejected by the House of Lords. The king refused to create new Peers, the ministers resigned and the Duke of Wellington attempted to form a Tory ministry. It o- HISTORICAL FICTION was a hopeless affair and the nation was coming to a state of in- surrection. At last the Lords surrendered, and on June 4 the Bill was passed. In Bristol so great was the popular indignation when the bill was thrown out by the House of Lords that a series of riots broke out. When Sir Charles Wetherell, a bitter opponent of the bill, entered Bristol, the mob took possession of the principal streets and set fire to some houses. Wetherell's carriage was surrounded and was pelted with stones. For two days the riots continued, and then the militia was brought into action and some people were killed. These stirring events that brought the nation to the point of frenzy are well described by this story. The riots in Bristol, and the demonstrations in London are vigorously set forth. Wetherell figures in the story. Felix Holt, the Radical. 1866. George Eliot The author, whose name was Mary Ann Evans (181 9- 1880), was born at Asbury, England. She mastered Italian and German, which enabled her to bring out a translation of Strauss' "Life of Jesus," her first important literary work. She then wrote for the "Westminster Review." In 1856 she took up fiction and her first work appeared in Blackwood's Magazine. In her novels she deals with ordinary people and describes them in their everyday life, their joys and sorrows. Her novels, however, are weighty with thought. They exhibit the strength and originality of a mind more masculine than feminine. The thought element is the first consideration of her work. From an evangelical faith she dntted into the philosophy of Positivism, having no certain faith in God or immortality. When her friend George Lewes died she mar- ried J. W. Cross and died the same year. This story has never been as popular as some of her other novels. The hero is the advocate of the rights of the working man. The narrative portrays the social and political life at the time of the great Reform Bill agitation (183 1-2). The scene is laid in the Midlands and covers a period of about nine months. Esther's refusal to marry money and the future that wealth would secure to her, and her marriage to the man she loved whose circum- stances were of a humbler type, are in line with the basic prinr*- THE MODERN ERA 353 pie of the story. She fully realizes what she is renouncing and knows what she is choosing of her own free will. The ground of her renunciation is condensed into a couple of sentences : "She could not tell him (Felix Holt) that at Transome Court, all that finally seemed balanced against her love for, was the offer of a silken bondage that arrested all motive, and was nothing better than a well-cushioned despair. A vision of being restless amidst ease, of being languid among all appliances had quickened her resignation of the Transome estates. ,, CHAPTER VII THE VICTORIAN AGE Queen Victoria (1837-1901) was the daughter of Edward, duke of Kent, fourth son of George II. She was born at Ken- sington Place. Her father died when she was an infant, and she was reared by her mother with scrupulous care. She succeeded to the throne at the age of eighteen, and in the point of length her reign was unprecedented in the world's history. The per- sonal reign of Louis XIV was shorter than hers, as is seen by subtracting the period during which he was under a regent. Within a brief time the young queen demonstrated to her sub- jects that their sovereign not only possessed unusual clearness of judgment, but was a woman of the highest qualities of goodness, by which she at once won their love and esteem. In 1887 was celebrated the Golden Jubilee, the fiftieth year of her reign, and in 1897 was celebrated the Diamond Jubilee. All of the colonies were represented, and a wonderful procession moved through the streets of London, viewed by millions of people. Three years after this great event the death of Victoria was mourned over the entire world. She was one of the greatest sovereigns, not only of Great Britain, but of human history. During this administration there were eighteen changes of government. The chief events of this reign were the rebellion in Canada, the abolition of the Corn Laws, parliamentary reform, enfranchisement of the Jews, the Catholic Emancipation Act, the Crimean War, wars with Afghanistan, Abyssinia and Zulu tribes, the South African War and the Australian federation. This reign was a period of great prosperity and peace at home, and of amicable foreign relations. In literary interests the Victorian Age has often been com- pared with the Elizabethan. It is easier to estimate the latter as we are not so close to it. In the Elizabethan the drama was given special distinction, whereas in the Victorian, fiction largely super- seded the drama. The Victorian Age represented a great advance in thought and society toward democracy. Intelligence was more general, society more complex and consequently literature is more 354 THE MODERN ERA 355 varied. It is the age of fiction, and the period itself, furnishes a rich field in great things for the writer of the historical novel. Prime Ministers Melbourne, 1 835-1 841. Disraeli, 1868. Peel, 1841-1846. Gladstone, 1868-1874. Russell, 1 846- 1 852. Disraeli, 1874- 1880. Derby, 1852. Gladstone, 1880-1885. Aberdeen, 1852-1855. Salisbury, 1885. Palmerston, 1855-1858. Gladstone, 1886. Derby, 1858-1859. Salisbury, 1886-1892. Palmerston, 1859-1865. Gladstone, 1892-1895. Russell, 1 865- 1 866. Salisbury, 1895- 1902. Derby, 1866-1868. The Stories Rebecca Riots The Gate-Openers. 1912. Kathleen and Letitia Montgomery In Wales in 1843 a band of lawless Welshmen raised a riot regarding the turnpike-gates. There was a general opposition to the toll system and this sentiment found expression in a lawless manner by the acts of this band. They were called "Rebecca Rioters" because they dressed in women's clothes, and the leader and his adherents were known as "Rebecca and her daughters." This uprising against the system referred to is presented in this story ; the acts of this band in keeping up a little reign of terror. Other stories : Rose Mervyn (1889), by Anne Beale, setting forth this same agitation. In Dewisland (1904), by S. Baring-Gould. Daniel O'Connell A Lad of the O'Friels. 1903. Seumas MacManus This story belongs to the time when Daniel O'Connell, the Irish patriot and agitator (1775- 1847), was putting forth his 356 HISTORICAL FICTION efforts in behalf of Ireland. He was distinguished for his legal and oratorical abilities. He was elected to Parliament in 1828 for the County of Clare, but being a Catholic was not permitted to take his seat. His triumph came in the following year when the Duke of Wellington granted the Catholic claims. In Ireland he was called the "Liberator," and was adored by the people. In 1 841 he assembled large gatherings in Ireland and agitated the repeal of the Union. Peel and the government determined to put down this propaganda and he was prosecuted for conspiracy. He was found guilty and sentenced to a year's imprisonment and a fine of $10,000. The House of Lords, however, reversed this de- cision. His influence in Ireland was unprecedented. This Irish novelist and short story writer (1868-) was born at Mountcharles. He first devoted himself to teaching, and began to contribute verse and prose to periodicals. The native humor and drollery by which his works are characterized have made him attractive to British and American readers. This story brings out the conditions in Ireland at this time of O'Connell's activities, and the attention given to these political issues by the people. The Irish Famine Castle Daly. 1875. Annie Maria Keary The failure of the potato crop in Ireland in 1847 caused the greatest suffering, indeed so great that notwithstanding the repeal of the Corn Laws, and the assistance rendered the sufferers, many perished. Many emigrated to America. The population de- creased from eight to five millions. The famine resulted in great changes in the cultivation and ownership of land, and the adop- tion of the system of competition and free contract. At this time arose the Smith O'Brien revolt. O'Brien was an active opponent of O'Connell. From 1835 to 1849 ne repre- sented Limerick. His mania seemed to be to establish an Irish Republic with himself as president. He began his agitations in the South and incited a large number to take up arms and attack the police at Bonlagh Common. O'Brien escaped, but was after- wards captured and sentenced to death, which was commuted to transportation. In 1856 he was pardoned and restored to Ireland. THE MODERN ERA 357 This English novelist (1825- 1879) was DOrn m Yorkshire. Her literary career began with tales for children. Among her productions are Early Egyptian History, The Heroes of Asgard, Janet's Home. This period of suffering from the famine, and this uprising of O'Brien, are leading events of this story. It portrays the social condition of the time, the ravages of the famine in the supreme suffering of the people, contrasted with whom are the landowners. The Disruption Inchbracken. 1883. Robert Cleland By the Veto Act and the rescinding of the Act, of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church a great change took place in the ecclesiastical affairs of Scotland. A vital question of the Church had been whether ministers should be inducted into par- ishes regardless of the wishes of the congregation. In 1843 tne Veto Act of the General Assembly declared that no minister should be placed over a congregation against the will of the people, and this was also declared to be a fundamental law of the Church. This Act, however, was proven to be illegal, and the rescinding of it led to the great Disruption. More than a third of the ministers withdrew from the Established Church and founded the Free Church, which differed from the other in having no support from the State, and in giving each congregation the right to elect its own pastor. The United Presbyterian Church went a step fur- ther and declared that the Church should not only not receive the stipend from the Government, but that the Government should have no part in the councils of the Church. In 1900 these two Churches formed the United Free Church of Scotland. This story gives a picture of this time of the Disruption and the establishment of the Free Church. It is a picture of what was common in those days when the ministers who supported the Veto Act left their parishes and with their adherents, sometimes a small number, secured a place of worship and became estab- lished in the new order. The privations often endured by this large body of the Scotch clergy are well presented in A Daughter of the Manse (1905), by Sarah Tytler, 358 HISTORICAL FICTION The Chartist Agitation Alton Locke, Tailor and Poet. 1850. Charles Kingsley A new party in England that was known as Chartists arose in 1838 and continued for ten years. Some of the reforms they supported, generally known as the "People's Charter," were Manhood Suffrage ; Equal Electoral Districts ; Vote by Ballot ; Annual Parliaments; Abolition of Property Qualifications for Members. This cause advocated excited meetings and processions which had to be suppressed. Enormous petitions containing over a mil- lion signatures were sent to the House of Commons. Riots occurred in several cities. It was proposed that the petitioners be heard, which was opposed by Peel and Macaulay. Finally in 1848, the year of the great Revolution in Europe, a huge meeting was decided upon, from which a petition of five million signa- tures should be sent to the House of Commons. It looked as if a great uprising might take place in London, and the Duke of Wellington took military precautions and added a vast body of men to the constabulary. The meeting failed through the differ- ences of the leaders, and finally the organization died out. Kingsley 's story deals with the social problems of this time. He devoted his personal energies to the uplift and betterment of the working classes, and this story takes a socialistic form in the broad sense of the term. It attacks the "sweating" system, and deals with the state of things in connection with the Chartist movement. The titular hero, Alton Locke, has aspirations to rise above the sordid conditions under which he lives. He finds himself alone, out in the world to shift for himself and hires out as a tailor. He comes in touch with the sweating dens and the condi- tions they breed. He takes to writing poems, by which to support himself, but finally returns to his Chartist friends. In the depre- dations of that organization he becomes innocently entangled in the burning of some property, and spends three years in prison. After leaving the prison he lives but a short time. Mr. Leslie Stephen has compared Kingsley's hero with George Eliot's "Felix Holt." Of the latter he says, "There is a painful excess of sound judgment about him. He gets into prison, not THE MODERN ERA 359 from leading a mob, but for trying to divert them from plunder by actions which are misunderstood. He is very inferior to Alton Locke, who gets into prison for a similar performance," and his further criticism is, that "in trying to make him an ideal of wis- dom, George Eliot only succeeds in making him unfit for his part." The Prison System It Is Never Too Late to Mend. 1856. Charles Reade This author conducted a personal investigation of the abuses of the lunacy laws, and to expose these abuses wrote Hard Cash. He took the same interest in prison reform, and "It Is Never Too Late to Mend," is a story with a purpose. Its object is to illustrate the abuses of prison discipline in England and Australia. In this story Robinson is a prisoner in one of the prisons, and is subject to the most inhuman and barbarous treatment. The Warden's plan was to require him to do soinething^that he could not do and then torture him in the jacket. And as Reade says, "Robinson saw the game, and a deep hatred of his enemy fought on the side of his prudence. This bitter struggle in the thief's heart harmed his soul more than all the years of burglary and petty larceny. All the vices of the old gaol system were nothing com- pared with the diabolical effect of -solitude on a heart smarting with daily wrongs." The Chaplain, Mr. Eden in the story, inves- tigated this prison system and fought it. Hawes, the Warden, was brought before an official inquiry and was compelled to give up his place. The Crimean War The Coil of Carne. 1911. John Oxenham This English novelist was educated at Victoria University, Manchester. He was a business man for a number of years and then traveled considerably over Europe and America. Devoting his attention to literature was at first a matter of amusement, but finally a professional interest was established. Crimea is a peninsula of southern Russia situated between the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea. It is about 200 miles long and no miles wide. The chief town and port is Sebastopol. It was taken by the Russians in 1783, and under Catharine II was begun the great naval arsenal of Sebastopol. 360 HISTORICAL FICTION Russia and Turkey were ancient enemies, and in the weakness of Turkey in the middle of the nineteenth century there was danger of Russia grasping the possessions of Turkey in the Eastern Mediterranean. To seize Constantinople would give her the balance of power in Europe and England's road to India might be closed. It was therefore necessary that England support Tur- key against any aggressions on the part of Russia. Matters were brought to a crisis when Russia demanded the protectorate over the Greek Church throughout the Turkish Em- pire. Failing in this she occupied the Danubian principalities. Evacuation of these demanded by Prussia and Austria made Crimea the seat of the war. War was declared against Russia by England, France and Turkey in 1854. In the month of September the allies landed their troops, and five days afterwards the battle of Alma was won. The Russians occupied the heights of Alma and poured a heavy fire into the allies as they climbed up, but reaching the top the British won the battle at the point of the bayonet. The allies now marched on to Sebastopol to capture the forti- fications and destroy the base of Russia's power. It was laid under siege. As a base of operations the British occupied the harbor of Balaclava. The Russian cavalry advanced towards this point, but was checked by Sir Colin Campbell's Scotch High- landers and the Heavy Brigade of cavalry. The Russian force, twice as large, was driven back in confusion. The French now came into action. Lord Ragan seeing the Russians retiring with the guns of a battery, sent an order to Lucan to follow and harass their retreat. But by the time the Light Brigade was ready to carry out the order the Russian cavalry had reformed. From some misunderstanding of the order given, and the verbal instruc- tion of Nolan, Lucan considered that he was under orders to make the attack. Lord Cardigan seeing that a charge, as the enemy was now formed, would be useless, remonstrated, but he followed the order and led 673 men through a storm of shot and shell through the long valley against the whole Russian army. They broke through the enemy's lines and struggled back through an- other galling fire, leaving half of their number dead and wounded on the field. It is one of the most famous charges recorded in history, and has been immortalized by Tennyson's "Charge of the THE MODERN ERA 361 Light Brigade at Balaclava." A French officer watching from a hill exclaimed, "It is magnificent, but it is not war." When Sebastopol fell into the hands of the allies the war was practically over. The allies had possession of Crimea and the Russians sued for peace. The independence of the Ottoman Empire was guaranteed. All captures made by the war were restored. This story sets forth all the great actions of the war — the battles of Alma, Balaclava, Inkermann and the fall of Sebastopol. It also describes the terrible sufferings to which the troops were subjected during the winter of 1854-55. The food was insuffi- cient, there were few nurses and the hospitals were under miser- able management. Cholera broke out and nearly half of the army was carried off. Florence Nightingale was commissioned as superintendent of a group of volunteer nurses. Her great ability and judgment introduced system into the hospitals, and her ministrations brought untold comfort and consolation to the wounded and the dying. Other stories: The Interpreter (1858), by G. J. Whyte-Melville, who served in the Turkish army during the war. A Gallant Grenadier (1901), by Captain F. S. Brereton. Blair at Balaclava, by Escott Lynn. The reader is referred to the "Charge of the Light Brigade at Balaclava," by Tennyson, and "An Incident in the Crimean War," by Bayard Taylor. The Cotton Famine Probation. 1880. Jessie Fothergill The American Civil War was attended with serious results to the cotton industries in England. The blockading of the Confed- erate coast rendered impossible the shipping of cotton. In Lanca- shire, where so much depended upon the supply of cotton and the livelihood of so many people was involved, the mill-owners were finally compelled to close their mills. About two millions of people were reduced to destitution. In 1862 was started the Cot- ton District Relief Fund, for which several millions were sub- scribed. A system of loans was organized to relieve the situation until the famine came to an end in 1865. 362 HISTORICAL FICTION This English novelist (1851-1891) was born in Manchester. She secured recognition by The First Violin in 1877, which was a great success. Her father was a wealthy cotton manufacturer, and her novels portray life as it is to be found in the factory towns of the north of England. They are distinctive for the excellent manner in which characteristics are analyzed and strongly presented. This story has its setting in this industrial situation in Lanca- shire, and the distress and poverty created for the want of cotton. A wealthy girl holding positive views of the rights of woman figures in the story. The Fenian Rebellion The Wearing of the Green. 1886. R. A. King In Ireland and the United States was formed the Fenian brotherhood about 1864. Its object was to separate Ireland from England and set up an Irish Republic. Many were arrested and convicted of treason and sent to prison, including O'Donovan Rossa, one of the leading conspirators. In Canada, what is called the "Fenian Raid," occurred in 1866 by the American Fenians, but it was quickly crushed. Various other attempts were made in Ireland, which were suppressed, and in 1871 a raid was put down in America by United States troops. When the Fenian prisoners were released many of them were cordially received in America, but the back of the movement was broken and it passed away. In this Irish romance this seditious movement figures. A good picture of this organization is also to be found in The Dun- ferry Risin', by J. J. Moran. The operations of the insurgents, and the state of the poorer classes in Ireland at this time are de- scribed in Ismay's Children, by Mrs. May Hartley. Home Rule and Land League The Bad Times. 1907. G.A.Birmingham Isaac Butt (181 3- 1879), son of an Irish Protestant clergyman, an active opponent of O'Connell, sat in Parliament for Youghal (1852-1865). He defended Smith O'Brien, the insurrectionist. He was elected as Home Rule member for Limerick in 1871, and THE MODERN ERA 363 took the lead of the new party. He was driven off the field by Parnell, who organized the Land League. This is a story of the Home Rule Movement and of the rela- tions sustained to it by Isaac Butt Norah Moriarty. 1886. Amos Reade Charles S. Parnell (1846-1891), when elected for Meath, entered upon a policy of Parliamentary obstruction, and became the leader of the Home Rule party. His great success lay in his ability to unite all Irish parties opposed to English rule, to elimi- nate the former methods of agitation and have these conducted on constitutional lines. He took advantage of the suffering and hard- ship caused by poor harvests (1878-1880) to organize the Land League movement. In 1881 the whole system of Irish tenures was altered by Mr. Gladstone. The Land League was then sup- pressed, but came to life again in the form of the National League, of which Parnell was elected President. The position taken by the League was that the land belonged to the Irish people, and it attacked the "rack rents," by which the tenant paid to the landlord all that he could possibly pay. When Parnell and others were sent to jail for illegal agitations, the Land League was abolished. The institution and workings of this league are set forth in this story. One policy of the League was to terrorize landlords and tenants into supporting and not opposing it, by a system of boycotting. This entailed considerable hardship, and the distress arising from this and other things in connection with it, are por- trayed. Affairs in India To Herat and Cabul. 1901. George A. Henty Herat in Afghanistan is a city of great antiquity, situated on the high road from India to Persia. Since the middle of the eight- eenth century, when the Afghan monarchy was established, Herat has been to a greater or less extent under the control of Cabul. In 1838 the Persians attempted to capture the city, at which time the English supported the inhabitants of the city. Lieutenant Eldred Pottinger, at the head of the Afghans, withstood a famous siege by the Persians until Great Britain informed the Shah that 364 HISTORICAL FICTION if he entered Herat he would have on his hands a war with Bri- tain. The siege was immediately raised. About twenty years after that England forced the Shah to acknowledge the independ- ence of Herat, and in 1863 it was incorporated with Afghanistan. The siege of Herat by the Persians, and the resistance under the leadership of Eldred Pottinger are detailed by this story. Clevely Sahib. 1896. Herbert Hay ens In 1835 Lord Auckland was appointed Governor-General of India. Within six months a political crisis of such seriousness arose that he was unequal to the situation, and relied wholly upon the judgment of those about him. When the ex-king, Shah Shu j ah, attempted to regain his power, he was defeated by Dost Mahomed, ruler of Cabul. An army of 21,000 men marched on Candahar, Shah Shujah was crowned and the British entered Cabul. Warning that a spirit of rebellion was brewing was unheeded by the British authorities, and in 1841 the storm broke. Sir Alexander Burnes and other officers were assassinated. In a conference with Akbar Khan, the son of Dost Mahomed, the British envoy, Sir W. Macnaugh- ten, was murdered. The British garrison of 4,500 accompanied by about 12,000 camp followers, left the country, but perished in the mountain passes. But one man reached Jellalabad. Ghanzi fell to the Afghans. General Pollock organized a strong expedi- tion, forced the Khyber Pass, relieved Jellalabad, defeated Akbar Khan and captured Cabul. In 1842 the appointment of Lord Ellenborough brought Auckland's administration to a close. These historical events, from the dethroning of Shah Shujah to Pollock's expedition and the seizure of Cabul, are set forth in this story. Through the Sikh Wan 1894. George A. Henty In 1845 a Sikh army of 60,000 men and well equipped en- camped close to Ferozepore. Sir Hugh Gough, commander-in- chief of the British army, marched to the front, a distance of 150 miles in six days. The Governor-General declared war and con- fiscated the Sikh districts south of the Sutlej. A terrific struggle at Fgrozeshar for two days resulted in the entire defeat of the THE MODERN ERA 365 Sikh army. Then followed the rout of the army at Sobraon, and the English army entered the Punjab. In Lahore a seditious spirit was engendered, and the two lead- ing chiefs of the Punjab only waited for a favorable opportunity. In 1848 the Sikhs proclaimed a religious war, and the whole Punjab arose in revolt. Lord Gough assembled the English army at Ferozepore. The army of Shere Singh, holding a better posi- tion and being better munitioned, won the battles of Ramnuggur and Sadoolapore. At Chillianwallah, after a fierce struggle, the Sikhs were forced to retreat. The rebellion was brought to a close at Guzerat, where the heavy guns of the British shattered the Sikh line. The rebels laid down their arms, and in 1848 the Punjab was annexed to the British territories. Both of these wars are set forth in Henty's story, giving the various actions and the taking of the Punjab with a good descrip- tion of the country. In Times of Peril. 1883. George A. Henty The rapid progress of European civilization in Hindostan, which it seemed could not but eventually absorb all the native institutions may be regarded as a general cause of the Indian Mutiny (1857-1858). Lord Dalhousie's threat to remove the Mogul's family from Delhi added to the disaffection that was breeding. It only required one thing more to fan into rebellion the prevailing discontent. The new Enfield rifles had just been introduced among the native troops, and the cartridges were greased with the fat of pork, which, according to the Mohamme- dan belief, made them unclean. It was believed that this greasing of the cartridges was designed to destroy Hindoo caste, and the result was an open rebellion. Lord Canning denied that there was any such design, and issued a proclamation explaining why the cartridges were so treated. It did not allay the suspicions, and at Meerut the officers of three regiments were massacred. This story deals with these conditions, the breaking up of the mutiny and the events that followed. It takes up the happenings at Delhi. The three regiments marched to Delhi, and the Euro- peans of that city were slaughtered. Three other regiments killed their officers and entered the city. The Punjab remained loyal 366 HISTORICAL FICTION and aided the English in suppressing the revolt at other points. Then began the siege of Delhi by the British forces. It was fortified by bastions sixteen feet high and solid masonry twelve feet thick. The rebels were 30,000 strong and well provisioned. The siege guns opened a terrific assault upon the walls, and when a breach was made the troops poured into the city, where the struggle continued for six days. The great Mogul King was taken prisoner and the city was captured. When Havelock marched into Cawnpore, after defeating Nana, he found that the Europeans had all been murdered. At Lucknow Sir Henry Lawrence was besieged and Havelock marched on to relieve him. He scattered the besiegers and entered the city only to find himself besieged. Sir Colin Campbell, at the head of the Scotch Highlanders, marched to the relief of Lucknow. The city was stormed for days, the rebels were beaten, and the city was taken. Sir Colin Campbell then crushed the revolt in Oude and Rohilkhund. Jessie Brown, a Scotch servant, is the heroine of a poem entitled, The Relief of Lucknow, by Robert S. Lowell. She was shut up in the besieged city and was the first to hear the playing of the bagpipes of the coming High- landers that announced the arrival of British relief. In joy she cried out : The Highlanders ! Oh, dinna ye hear The slogan far awa? The McGregors? Ah, I ken it weel; It is the grandest of them a\ The assistance rendered by the Sikhs greatly aided the stamp- ing out of the rebellion. They "were only too grateful for the blessings of English rule to rise against their benefactors. The most important political result of the Indian Mutiny was the transference of the entire administration of Hindostan from the East India Company to the crown." These great activities in crushing this rebellion are described by this story. Other stones: On the Face of the Waters (1896), by Mrs. F. A. Steel, in which the history of the rebellion is set forth and the historical personages are introduced. THE MODERN ERA 367 The Dilemma (1876), by G. T. Chesney, a striking presenta- tion of the events of the Mutiny. The Peril of the Sword (1903), by Colonel A. F. Harcourt, portrays especially the events at Cawnpore and Lucknow. A Hero of Lucknow (1904), by Captain F. S. Brereton. These two hundred or more stories have traced this great period in English history from the time the House of Tudor came to the throne to the close of Victoria's reign. They embrace the great development, movements and events of the Modern Era, together with pictures of the manners and customs of the times. Our interest, however, lies preeminently in relating this body of fiction with the history in which it has its setting in accord with the fundamental aim of these studies. THE MODERN ERA — FRANCE CHAPTER I FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO LOUIS XIV Ages are distinguished from one another by great changes or new developments. It is necessary that we have an intelligent appreciation of the fundamental forces that are operative in these transitions. If such did not exist in the Medieval Era there would have been no Modern Era. What constitutes the latter is not simply the element of time, a mere chronological distinction, it signifies a new state of things, new conceptions, developments and institutions. If the forces creating these had not been opera- tive in the former age we would still be in that age, and the fact that we had reached a certain point in years would make no differ- ence. One may grow out of his boyhood in the matter of years and yet be in a state of boyhood in his ideas, intelligence and de- velopment. He cannot be called a man in terms of maturity. The intellectual changes in the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- turies, together with the history of the Church, are of vital signifi- cance as pertaining to the growth of modern states. In both situations it was a great struggle towards larger understanding and appreciations. The Church was a human affair and exhibited its limitations and the limitations of the time; but in the Church a Divine element was effective, seeking its fuller expansion and its true distinction. That element was Christianity that, in its great essentials, was so often misinterpreted. As a new spiritual power it was introduced into the world in the Ancient Era and became the ruling power of the Medieval Era, and is the dominant spiritual force of the Modern Era. By transformng first of all the individual, it vitally affects the family, society, the state and the nation. It quickens and enlarges thought, purifies and elevates morals and gives a new and higher 368 THE MODERN ERA 369 significance to life. It promotes education and general intelli- gence, gives to literature a new character and to art a new inspira- tion. Embodied in the Church and expressed in creed and ritual, it is in itself a spirit and a life transcending the external, over- flowing its receptacles, and affecting more or less directly or indi- rectly all within the sphere of its influence. Adapted to all times, to all nations and to manifold forms, it contains within itself ele- ments which insure its perpetuity and its progress. Hence it is the great civilizer. It is the vital principal of modern civilization, the principle of reform and of true progress." Without this ruling force in the world there would have been no Renaissance and no such intellectual development that was so effective in the transition from the medieval to the modern. And without that fuller and freer expression of Christianity itself that came by the Reformation, in which the Church became a new expression and a new power, it would have ceased to be a domi- nant force in the world's larger unfolding. Thus it is that the Renaissance and the Reformation constitute that general move- ment, contrasted and yet vitally related, which effected the pas- sage from the one era to the other. Reign of Francis I With Francis (1515-1547) and his times begins the era ot Modern France. He was moulded under the influence of his mother, Louise of Savoy, and his sister Marguerite. Both Francis and Charles V of Germany laid claim to the duchy of Milan, in which the Pope favored Francis. The latter defeated the Swiss in the battle of Marignano, but in 1525 Charles won a great vic- tory over him at Pavia, by which he secured Milan and took Francis prisoner. As the price of his freedom he surrendered all claims to Italy, but as soon as he was free he broke the agreement and renewed the war. In our study of Henry VIII we noted the meeting of the kings in the Field of the Cloth of Gold, socalled because of the magnifi- cance displayed. In this Francis was greatly desirous of winning over Henry and securing his support. When Henry saw that he was being used as a tool he ceased to be interested. It is said that his coolness towards Francis originated from a friendly bit of wrestling sport during this meeting, in which the French king 370 HISTORICAL FICTION succeeded in throwing Henry, whose sensitive vanity was so humiliated that his attitude to Francis was at once altered. Francis was vain, capricious and untrustworthy. His kindly attitude to the religious reform party was more out of considera- tion for his sister Marguerite, for he had no interest in tolera- tion as such. When he saw it would be to his advantage to wage a war against heresy he did so, as in the case of the Waldenses, and his reign which opened so auspiciously closed amid ever deep- ening gloom. The Stories Faithful, but Not Famous. 1872. Emma Leslie By the time the Reformation had taken definite form in France it had become well established in Germany and Switzerland under Luther and Zwingli. In France the Sorbonne had branded the study of Greek and Hebrew as heresy, while Lefevre translated the New Testament from the original. The bishop of Meaux opened his diocese to the preachers and writers whom his friend Lefevre recommended, and encouraged their translation of the Scriptures. In this -they had also the support of the king's sister, Marguerite, who was kindly disposed towards all sentiments of a high and humane order. In the reform movement young and fer- vent reformers, such as William Farel, eagerly sought after new ideas and intellectual interests, and favored whatever came from Germany. At first the attitude of Francis seemed favorable to the new movement. When certain deputies requested him to sup- press learned works of the reform order, he said, "I do not wish to have those folks meddled with ; to persecute those who instruct us would be to keep men of ability from coming to our country." This story deals with the early days of the Reformation in France. It sets forth the influence of the Swiss Reformation in the work of Lefevre and Farel, and the translation of the Scrip- tures. In the middle of the thirteenth century it became a difficult matter to properly accommodate the large numbers of students who came to the University of Paris with proper places in which to live. Their boarding places were in no way connected with the academic institution itself. It occurred to Robert de Sorbon the propriety of having the students live where they studied. Secur- ing the consent of the king he established the first of the Colleges THE MODERN ERA 371 of the University of Paris, the famous Sorbonne. This was a society of secular ecclesiastics, living in common and having the necessaries of life, and devoting themselves to theological study and gratuitous teaching. It was at the Sorbonne that the first printing press was set up. In this story the Sorbonne figures prominently. Renee. 1908. Henry Curties In 1 501 Louis XII consented to affiance his two year old daughter, Claude, to Ferdinand's grandson, Charles of Austria, then about the same age. Her dowry should consist of the duchies of Milan, Burgundy, Brittany and Blois, the treaty containing the universal clause, "If by default of the Most Christian King, or of the queen, his wife, or of the Princess Claude, the aforesaid marriage should not take place, the Most Christian King doth will and consent, from now, that the said duchies of Burgundy and Milan and the countship of Asti, do remain settled upon the said Prince Charles." These treaties were in every sense disadvantageous to France, and Louis decided to consult the nation as to the best way of un- doing the mistake. It was declared that the treaties were null since the territory of the kingdom was inalienable. The States- General urged the king to marry the Princess to his heir Francis, and at that time Ferdinand was not in a position to prevent this, and thus Louis released himself from this treaty. Francis de- lighted him, but his marriage with Claude had been the most troublesome affair connected with his domestic life. The mar- riage was not proclaimed or celebrated until after the death of the queen, Anne of Brittany. This marriage of Francis with the Princess Claude has a place in this story in which Renee figures. At the beginning of the reign of Francis was fought the battle of Marignano (now Melig- nano), near Milan, in which the large army of Swiss mercenaries was completely routed. It was the most brilliant victory of this reign, and was called the strife of giants. On the battle field Francis was made knight by Chevalier Bayard. By this battle he accomplished what he sought, the conquest of Milan, and en- tered that city in triumph. This great victory is an important episode in this story, as also the meeting of the kings on the "Field of the Cloth of Gold," referred to above and treated in 37^ HISTORICAL FICTION connection with Henry VIII, which the reader can easily locate by means of the Index. Chevalier Bayard (1476-1524) is introduced. He was the model of all the virtues of chivalry, and during the reigns of Charles VIII, Louis XII and Francis I he won great victories over the Italians, Spaniards and English. He had much to do with this victory at Marignano. He was a man of unblemished honor. A Ward of the King. 1898. Katharine S. MacQuoid The Duke of Bourbon, the Constable of France, distinguished himself at the battle of Marignano. Through the enmity of the king's mother he came into disfavor with Francis I. Stung by the treatment he received he formed an alliance with Charles V, whom he promised he would attack Burgundy as soon as Francis had crossed the Alps, and secure the rebellion of five provinces. In this conspiracy it was designed that France should be over- turned, and be divided between Spain and England. Pavia was the second city in the duchy of Milan, and it was the purpose of Francis to make sure of this and other principal strongholds. In the desperate battle of Pavia (1524) the French were defeated. When Francis was advised to surrender to the Duke of Bourbon he replied, "No, rather die than pledge my faith to a traitor; where is the viceroy of Naples?" He became the prisoner of Charles V. These events, the conspiracy, the battle, defeat and Francis a prisoner, form the historical setting of this story. Francois de Faix, Countess of Chateaubriant, is one of the characters. Francis had many mistresses, but this one, noted for her beauty and intel- ligence, exerted a very strong influence over him, as did Anne de Pisseleu. The Gage of Red and White. 1904. Miss Graham Hope Jeanne d'Albret was the only daughter of Henry II of Navarre and Marguerite the sister of Francis I. The princely house of Bourbon was opposed to the house of Guise. The head of the former was Antoine. The Bourbons were next of kin to the reigning line, Antoine being first prince of the blood. He was dis- THE MODERN ERA 373 qualified for decisive, aggressive action by his fickle, careless and easy-going disposition. He married Jeanne d'Albret and became titular king of Navarre. Their son was the celebrated Henry of Navarre, the hero of the Huguenots and the founder of a new dynasty in France. In this story Jeanne is sought by the Duke of Guise, Francois le Balafre, Lieutenant-General of the kingdom, who had defended Metz against Charles and had taken Calais, and sought also by Antoine de Bourbon. She accepted the latter. The Guise family was founded by Claude of Lorraine, who was made Duke of Guise by Francis I in 1527. His daughter, the wife of James V of Scotland, was the mother of Mary Queen of Scots. Francois le Balafre was his son, so called because of a wound on his face received at the siege of Boulogne. Ascanio. 1843. Alexandre Dumas This French novelist (1802-1870) was the grandson of a ne- gress "from whom he inherited many characteristics, both phys- ical and mental." In Paris he became assistant secretary to the Duke of Orleans. His drama, Henry III, brought him recogni- tion. He took up fiction with a view to producing a series of novels that would cover the course of French history with the re- sult that nearly 300 books bear his name. In many of these he merely sketched the plots while others did the work. Francis I brought Italian artists to the capital and introduced the architecture of the Renaissance. The old palace of Fontain- bleau was restored by Italians, and this mode of architecture be- came established all over the country. Accompanying this intro- duction of architecture was the Italian taste in painting and sculp- ture, and the men who were brought to the court of Francis for this purpose were such artists as Andrea del Sarto, Francesco Primaticcio, and Benvenuto Cellini. The setting of this story is the coming of the sculptor, Ben- venuto Cellini (1 500-1 571) to the Court of Francis. Many his- torical personages are introduced among whom are Charles V. Clement Marot, the first poet of any note in the new age, and was one of the many writers whom Margaret of Navarre, sister of Francis, brought to her Court, and Rabelais one of the most 374 HISTORICAL FICTION celebrated writers of the time whose "pages are full of the youth- ful vigor and the mighty hopes of the lusty new age." Reign of Henry II Henry (i 547-1 559) the son and successor of Francis I had some of his father's traits — his prodigality and immorality — but lacked his better qualities. He was under the influence of favor- ites, and instead of following the advice of wise ministers he had his favorites occupy their places. The Duke of Montmorency, who had been dismissed from the court of Francis, had placed in his hands by Henry the control of affairs, while the king was wnder the dominating influence of his mistress Diane of Poitiers. The Reformation was making rapid strides in France. At the close of Henry's reign there were 2150 reformed churches. The adherents of the new faith were subject to bitter persecution. Francis I never allowed himself to witness any of the executions while Henry, during whose reign of twelve years there were ninety-seven executions for heresy, was present when some of these took place. The reign of Henry added little of importance to history. During this time Calias was lost to the English. He married Catharine de Medici who became active in state affairs during the reign of her son Francis. Henry came to his death by accident at the hand of the Count of Montgomery, a Scotch nobleman and captain of the guards. In the midst of a great tournament Henry wished to break a lance with the Count. They broke their lances skilfully, but Montgomery, failing to drop the piece in his hand at the proper moment, a splinter of it pierced the king's eye. After eleven days of suffering he died. The Stories The Two Dianas. 1846. Alexandre Dumas This story embraces most of the reign of Francis I, that of Henry II and of Francis II. Henry entered into an alliance with the Pope to deliver Italy from the Spaniards. The latter invaded Picardy under Emmanuel Philibert and gained a decisive vic- tory over the French under Montmorency at St. Quentin. At the same time war broke out with England which ended in 1588 when THE MODERN ERA 375 the Duke of Guise captured Calais after being in English posses- sion for over two hundred years. The engagement at St. Quentin and the taking of Calais are strikingly set forth in this story. The young Count Montgomery is in love with Diana, daugh- ter of Diana of Poitiers, but discovers that her father, Henry II who acknowledges that he is her father, has had her married to another. Her husband dies and Montgomery, who still loves her, has his hopes destroyed by Henry who reveals to him the secret of his birth, i. e., that Diana of Poitiers was his father's mistress, in which case he would be the half brother of the woman he loved. He rescues her from the convent which she entered when it is taken by the English. The account of the accidental death of the king at his hands, as given above, is also introduced. Montgom- ery enters the religious wars as a Huguenot, is seized and ex- ecuted. The story also contains the account of the Huguenot plot fol- lowing the accession of Francis II, in which La Renaudie, who had the management of the plot, was slain. The Page of the Duke of Savoy. 1846. Alexandre Dumas Emmanuel Philibert (1 528-1 580), Duke of Savoy, served un- der Philip II. He led the Spanish forces against those of Henry II when the latter attempted the deliverance of Italy, and gained a decisive victory at St. Quentin. When the war was closed in 1559 France had utterly failed to gain a foothold in Italy and peace was concluded. To seal the peace compact Philip married the daughter of Henry, while Emmanuel Philibert married the king's sister. It was in the midst of the festivities celebrating these unions that Henry met with the accident that cost him his life, as set forth above. In this story the Duke of Savoy holds a central place, and the conflict at St. Quentin and Calais are events. A large number of historical personages are introduced. Representatives of the Pro- testant and Catholic factions appear, and during the long period covered by the story the abdication of Charles V in 1556 occurs, also the part taken in state affairs after the death of Henry by his wife, Catharine de Medici. 376 HISTORICAL FICTION Orrain. 1904. Sidney Levett- Yeats We have already referred to the powerful influence exerted upon Henry II by his mistress, Diane of Poitiers. Catharine de Medici of the powerful Medici family of Florence, the wife of Henry II, was a remarkable woman. For some years after her marriage with the French king her real personality did not come to view. "That marriage had been only a detail in the political schemes of Henry and the pope, and she soon found herself lonely and neglected in her new home. In these trying circumstances she comforted herself with singular submissiveness. Even when her husband became king she still remained in the background, never asserting her position, and scarcely protesting against the domination at Court of Henry's mistress, Diane of Poitiers. It was only on the accession of her young and fragile son Francis that her real qualities, moral and intellectual, began to appear. Henceforth, till her death in 1589, she was one of the ruling spirits of the age." In this story the point of historical interest is the position of these two women in the Court of Henry II. It distinguishes them in the attitude of rivalry, the queen in her position as such, and Diane the favorite of the king. Reign of Charles IX Charles (1 560-1 574) came to the throne on the death of his brother Francis II. He was then ten years of age, and his mother, Catharine de Medici, who acted as regent during his minority, continued to exercise powers in the affairs of State. It was her policy to hold the favor of the Bourbon party, which at that time was close to the throne, and Antoine of Bourbon was appointed Lieutenant-General of the kingdom. The bitter conflict between the Guises and the Huguenots, the Catholic and Protestant par- ties, kept the state in turmoil and terror. The Chancellor de- clared that the Regent and her counsellors wanted to devise some common ground of agreement, and the government called to- gether representatives of the two religious parties. Beza, a fa- mous scholar, headed the Protestant representation. Little came of it, as it degenerated into bitter disputes. In 1562 the Protes- tants were declared to be rebels which deprived them of legal pro- tection. THE MODERN ERA 377 The reign of Charles was a reign of bloodshed and terror in which his mother was the chief instigator. That a massacre such as that of Bartholomew could take place is a clear indication of the state of the times ; it also shows how powerful the reform movement was becoming, and yet to what point France had yet to advance to secure and safeguard the rights and liberties of the individual. The Stories A Cardinal and His Conscience. 1901. Miss Graham Hope One of the greatest forces of the Reformation was John Cal- vin (1509- 1 564). He was born in Noyon, France, and was edu- cated at the Colleges of La Marche and Montaign, Paris. While studying law at Bourges he learned Greek, and the reading of the New Testament brought him to an acceptance of the Protestant doctrines, which he began preaching at Bourges. Under the in- fluence of the queen of Navarre, sister of Francis I, these doc- trines were popular in Paris and Calvin came to that city. When active measures were taken by the king against the new religion Calvin and others took refuge in Basle. The Reform movement was spreading throughout the coun- try and had become organized having a definite creed. For the latter fact Calvin was largely responsible in the publication of his Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536. This epoch-making work was prepared in Switzerland, and is a landmark in the his- tory of French Protestantism. He was the great constructive force of the Reformation. His system of Protestant theology and ethics, "claiming as it did the fixity and finality of the older creed, became a nucleus about which French religious thought quickly consolidated. Protestantism now gained substance and definiteness as well as popularity. Many members of the nobility, and of the wealthy middle classes, openly went over to it." Among the Catholic leaders was Charles, Cardinal of Lor- raine. He was a scholar and an eloquent preacher ; he had shrewd- ness and capacity for affairs. But he was essentially unprinci- pled and possessed a jealous, vindictive disposition. He became the controlling power in the internal administration of the state in the midst of Calvin's great work in the organization and spread of Protestantism. He brought his entire influence against the 378 HISTORICAL FICTION new movement. The execution of DuBourg, because he raised his voice in Parliament for toleration, together with his dying speech, filled the ranks of the Protestants from the student body of Paris. The Protestants, who had quietly borne their suffer- ings, now began to talk of armed resistance. Vast numbers who had little or no sympathy with the reform doctrines passed over to their side in opposition to the Guises and their diabolical rule. The heroine of this story espoused the Calvinistic doctrines. The story deals with the time of this religious contest when Cath- arine de Medici was the ruling power in the state. Cardinal of Lorraine is the leading character in the story. It was to him and the Duke of Guise that Francis II, husband of Mary Queen of Scots, committed all the affairs of state, both of whom being uncles of Mary. The Man at Arms. 1840. George P. R. James That the Protestants could place no reliance upon the prom- ises of the government was clearly indicated by the decree of Catharine de Medici which prohibited, under pain of death, all religious meetings, and that all Protestant ministers should leave the country within two weeks. At Jarnac (1569) the Huguenots were defeated and their brave leader Conde was slain. Coligny now became the head of the Protestants, although Henry of Na- varre, son of Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre, who had trained him in the Protestant faith, was appointed general-in-chief. Again the Huguenots under Coligny were defeated at Moncontour. When Catharine saw that she could not stamp out Protestant- ism by such measures she made concession regarding their pub- lic worship confined within certain districts. These reverses at Jarnac and Moncontour and the death of Conde are described by this story having its setting in this period of these religious wars. It then takes up the crowning event of these conflicts — the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. In 1572 Jeanne d'Albret died and her son Henry (afterwards Henry IV) became king of Navarre. On August 18, 1572, he was married to the daughter of Catharine de Medici who now decided to strike Protestantism a fatal blow. To unite in the celebration of Henry's marriage Huguenots had come from all parts of the THE MODERN ERA 379 country. Coligny, while leaving his house was shot at by an as- sassin employed by Catharine, and lost a finger instead of his life. A furor was raised in the city, and Charles IX declared the assassin should be brought to account. Catharine fearing the disclosures that might be made induced her weak son Charles to believe that Coligny had designs on his life, and planned with him a general massacre of the Huguenots in the city. To this he gave his consent, and sent out his secret order for the commission of this monumental crime. The mar- riage festivities of Henry of Navarre were still proceeding when on the night of August 24 the assassins received the signal to strike. Coligny was among the first to fall, murdered in his bed- room and his body thrown out in the street. The murderers held high carnival until, as writes a contemporary chronicler, "it filled the streets with such horror that even their Majesties, who were the authors of it, could not restrain their fear in the Louvre." From Paris the fanaticism spread to other parts until, it is esti- mated, 70,000 Huguenots were murdered throughout the coun- try. While the slaughter was going on in Paris Henry of Na- varre was held prisoner, and saved his life by going to mass. Europe stood agast, and Catharine to save herself compelled Charles to go before Parliament and take upon himself the whole responsibility for the deed. From that moment remorse fastened upon him and carried him to his grave within a year. In his dying moments he saw the victims of his crime and blood everywhere, and was shaken by the agonies of horrors, abandoned by all save his old Huguenot nurse. Other Stories : St. Bartholomews Eve (1893) by G. A. Henty, describing Jarnac, Moncontour and the massacre. For the Admiral (1906) by Herbert Hayens, in which the siege of Rochelle, following the massacre, is set forth. The House of the Wolf (1890) by Stanley J. Weyman. A King's Treachery (1909) by Albert Lee. Henry of Navarre (1904) by May Wynne. Reign of Henry III Henry, Duke of Anjou and king of Poland, brother ot Charles IX, succeded to the throne (1 574-1 589). His mother once more 380 HISTORICAL FICTION became the ruling power behind the throne. Henry of Navarre, who had been forced to accept Catholicism, as noted above, now took up his residence in Poitou and openly rejected Catholicism. The reign of Henry III was a period of war, intrigue and an- archy. The formation of leagues on the part of Catholics had become quite general, so that it became an easy thing for the Duke of Guise to create the Catholic League, the objects of which should be supported by all Catholics throughout the country. While the avowed object of the League was the extermination of the Re- form movement, the Duke of Guise, its leading spirit, intended to make it serve his own ends against the king. The latter was becoming unpopular, and following the Duke of Anjou the Prot- estant Bourbons would be in line for the throne. Through the League, by getting the Duke of Anjou out of the way, the Duke of Guise hoped to become king. The Stories Marguerite de Valois. 1845. Alexandre Dumas Marguerite of Valois, as already noted above, was the wife of Henry of Navarre and the daughter of Catharine de Medici. She was now queen of Navarre. It was not a happy marriage and they finally lived apart. He secured her consent to a divorce which was granted by the Pope in 1600. He then married the Pope's niece, Maria de Medici, and by the birth of three sons the hopes of a successor in his own line were now established. This story begins with the events of the Massacre of Barthol- omew. It describes the activities of Philip of Spain, who, by the means of his secret tools, labored to engender religious warfare in France. The plot to call upon Germany and England for aid in support of the disaffected elements resulted in the death of the plotters. An Enemy to the King. 1898. Robert N. Stephens The Duke of Guise, through the League, tried to secure the disinheritance of Henry of Navarre, and the latter in turn de- clared that the League and its leaders were directly responsible for all that France had so long suffered. The king, Henry III, under his mother's instigation and the support of the Guises re- THE MODERN ERA 381 scinded all privileges granted the Reformers and prohibited pub- lic worship, and the Pope supplemented this with an edict that Henry of Navarre, being a heretic, had no claims on the throne. Anarchy reigned throughout the country. In the War of the Three Henries, Henry of Navarre secured a great victory over the king's army at Coutras (1587). The Duke of Guise came into great favor by driving out the German allies of the Protestants, which popularity so enraged the king that he sent the Duke a message forbidding him to come to Paris. But he came amid the enthusiasm of the people. The Duke of Anjou being dead the scheme of Guise was to create a break between the king and Henry of Navarre and this he had already accomplished. He was summoned to the king's apartments and was assassinated by the latter's bodyguard. The murder of the Duke threw Paris into a fury of madness. In the midst of this Catharine de Medici died, the Sorbonne declared that the king had no further claims upon the allegiance of the people, and Henry joined forces with Henry of Navarre. A young monk became convinced that he was divinely ap- pointed to end the king's career. He succeeded in getting into his camp, and by a ruse getting the king alone he plunged a knife into him. The assassin was at once slain by the guards. The king died the next morning, the last of the line of Valois. The utter confusion and plotting for power as just set forth are brought out in this story. The edicts against Protestants, and the scheming of the Duke of Guise to bring about a rupture between the king and Henry of Navarre, and the war that re- sulted, are leading features of the story. The King's Mignon. 1909. John E. Bloundelle-Burton When the Duke of Guise received his great ovation at Paris, as described above, and in which Henry III saw to what extent the country had turned against him, he convened tne btates-Gen- eral at Blois. He had decided to crush the League which the Duke of Guise was using so greatly to his advantage. The result of the conference was that he was forced to confirm the appoint- ment of the Duke as Lieutenant-General of the kingdom. It was then that he called the Duke to his apartments and had him as- sassinated and then in triumph carried the news to his mother, 382 HISTORICAL FICTION and declared that now he could be king indeed. He soon dis- covered that he had made a fatal mistake. This story takes up this page of history and relates this scene. Jacques Clement, the monk who slew the king in the camp of Henry of Navarre, is a character in the story. A Gentleman of France. 1893. Stanley J. Weyman This story relates to the time just prior to the accession of Henry IV. The hero, Gaston de Marsac is a nobleman who has been reduced to an impoverished state. He is a loyal adherent of Henry of Navarre. He is adventurous but thoroughly chival- rous. He becomes implicated in a plot to abduct Mademoiselle de Vire, the niece of Turenne. It was a delicate mission commit- ted to him, but he performed it so well, that in the face of pecu- liar difficulties, he won the high regard and also the heart of the high-spirited heiress. Other Stories: Henry of Guise (1839) by G. P. R. James, giving a good por- traiture of the Duke and the king, the assassination of the former figuring largely. The Coming of Navarre (1909) by O. V. Caine, which gives the destruction of the Armada in 1588, and distinguishes the ris- ing of the Duke of Guise and his assassination the same year. House of Valois. Philip VI, 1328-1350. Louis XII, 1498-1515. John the Good, 1350-1364. Francis I, 15 15-1547. Charles the Wise, 1364- 1380. Henry II, 1547- 1559. Charles VI, 1 380-1422. Francis II, 1 559-1 560. Charles the Victorious, 1422-1461. Charles IX, 1 560-1 574. Louis XI, 1461-1483. Henry III, 1574-1589. Charles VIII, 1483-1498. Reign of Henry IV Following the strenuous times of war and intrigue, and every attempt to keep Henry of Navarre from the throne, he succeeded Henry III as Henry IV (1 589-1610). The House of Valois passed away with Henry III and the rule of the House of Bour- bon now begins. The large towns still supported the League, and THE MODERN ERA 383 Henry had to fight his way to the throne. He besieged Paris for four months and brought it almost to a state of starvation. He allowed 6,000 starving people to escape, saying "Paris must not become a graveyard ; I do not wish to reign over the dead." He believed that the only way for him to save the nation was to espouse Catholicism, and thus meet the fanaticism on every hand, and by this means secure toleration for the Protestants. It re- quired courage to do this, but it was a step dictated by political wisdom and patriotism. "Paris," he said, "was well worth a mass." Henry now took measures to bring the country to unity and prosperity. English seamanship and French resistance brought about the decline of Spain and Philip's ideal of Empire, and from this danger France was saved. The Peace of Nantes (1598) brought to an end the religious wars, granting to Protestants re- ligious rights and freedom of conscience. Henry's queen, Maria de Medici, was crowned in 1610, and on the day following the coronation Henry was stabbed by a fanatic. His reign was a benediction to his country, and he was entitled to the designation — The Regenerator of France. The Bourbon Dynasty. Henry IV, 1589-1610. Louis XVI, 1774-1792. Louis XIII, 1610-1643. Louis XVII, Never Crowned. Louis XIV, 1643-1715. Louis XVIII, 1814-1824. Louis XV, 171 5-1774. Charles X, 1824- 1830. Following the Revolution of 1830 the branch of the Bourbons known as the House of Orleans succeeded to the throne. The Stories One in a Thousand. 1835. George P. R. James Following the death of Henry III, Henry IV deteated May- enne at Arques, the leader of the forces of the League. At Ivry in Normandy he almost annihiliated the Leaguers in 1590. Before the battle began Henry addressed his men : "My companions, I am resolved to die or conquer with you. If you lose sight of the standards and colors keep my white plumes always in view, for there you will find the road to victory and glory." He remained in the thickest of the fight, turned the enemy to flight and pur- sued them to the very gates of Nantes. 384 HISTORICAL FICTION The events of the war at the time Henry III was killed appear in this story and constitute, as it were, an approach to the con- flicts of Henry with the League and this battle of Ivry. The Duke of Mayenne, one of the characters, was the leader of the forces of the League. The Helmet of Navarre. 1901. Mrs. Bertha B. Runkle This American novelist was born at Berkley Heights, N. J. Her stories, The Truth About Tolna, The Scarlet Rider, and others have won attention. The siege and the taking of Paris created in the Huguenot followers of Henry feelings of vengeance for St. Bartholomew, and it required all his skill to keep them from excesses. The block- ade about the city was complete, and the starving people at last began to cry out "Give us bread !" Anything that could be eaten was devoured. Pestilence tramped on the heels of famine. The people called for peace, the Governor threw open the gates and Henry marched into the city amid the cries of the people, "Vive le Roi !" This scene of Henry's final conquest for the throne, entering Paris with an escort of 5,000 men, is described by this story. The Abbess of Vlaye. 1904. Stanley J. Weyman Following Henry's coronation but three provinces held out against him — Burgundy, which he subdued by the victory of Fontaine ; Francaise, Picardy, reduced by the capture of Amiens ; Brittany, which submitted in 1598. The war with Spain was brought to a close by the treaty of Vervins. It is this last struggle and the subjugation of these last prov- inces in which this story is interested. It contains much action, and gives a good description of the state of France in these early days of Henry's rule. Reign of Louis XIII Louis (1610-1643) was but nine years old when his father, Henry IV, was assassinated, and his mother, Maria de Medici, became regent of France. She was not a woman of great intel- ligence, and was in no sense characterized by such abilities as THE MODERN ERA 385 Catharine de Medici possessed. Her policy was weak and vacil- lating, she was banished from the Court and various ministers took control of affairs. A new great force now appeared in the person of Cardinal Richelieu who was to exercise a ruling influence in shaping the policies of this period. The Italian, Concini, was made Secretary of State. He was ambitious and presumptious, and to get rid of this plotter Louis entered into a conspiracy and the Italian was shot as he was entering the Louvre. "Now I am King," said Louis, and the people gathered about him glad that the tyrannical foreigner was out of the way. Throughout his reign Louis was almost completely under the direction of Richelieu who induced him to participate in the Thirty Years' War. The ambition of the latter was to raise France to a high place among the nations, and to resist the Hapsburg Houses of Austria and Spain so that France might expand to the limits of ancient Gaul. The Stories Cardillac. 1909. Robert Barr The young king, Louis XIII, was encouraged to indulge in falconry, having been kept from public affairs by his mother and the Italian Concini. To get him absorbed in falconry they se- cured as a companion Charles d'Albert de Luynes, who was an expert in this respect. This companion and Vitry, Captain of the Guard, were the conspirators who joined with Louis in the murder of Concini. At this point, Maria, the mother of Louis, between whom there was bad feeling, went to Blois, and as she left Paris the insults of the people indicated that her interest in public af- fairs was at an end. She attempted to bring about a civil war, and escaping by way of a window from Blois joined the Duke of Epernon. Luynes, the companion of the king, was now the real ruler, the king being devoted to hunting expeditions. Richelieu, the ad- viser of the queen, counselled her to become reconciled with the king, and that was effected. Luynes had assumed the office of Constable of France. After sacking Monheur he died. While ruled by his greed of power he exhibited more ability in the han- dling o f affairs than the Italian whose place he filled. 3 86 HISTORICAL FICTION The relations of Luynes to the king and his place in public af- fairs are brought out in this story. It relates to this period of the Queen's fall, and her retirement to Blois and describes her ex- periences in that place. My Lady of Intrigue. 1910. Humfrey Jordan The policy of Richelieu was to increase the power of the Crown by crushing the Huguenots, to establish an absolute des- potism and to make France a leading power in Europe. He de- clared that "whilst the Huguenots keep foot in France, the king will never be master at home, nor be able to undertake any glori- ous enterprise abroad." He then proceeded to build a fleet to aid him in his designs. Intrigue was the order of the Court, not only the schemes of Richelieu, but those "set on foot by cabals of Princes of the Blood, and the high dames of the Court, to com- pass Richelieu's ruin, together with that of the Queen-mother." This man, Cardinal Richelieu, a man of genius and power, who won the triumph of France, masterly and merciless, never swerving from his purpose, has had the torments of his struggle and his complex character portrayed by Michelel: "One can easily understand that he was always ill. The insufficiency of his resources, the continual effort to invent impossible money; on the other hand, the Court intrigues, the prick of no one knows how many invisible insects, were something to keep him in a ter- rible agitation. But even that was not enough; twenty other devils haunted this restless soul, like a house swept and garnished — the battle of women, tardy gallantries ; moreover, theology and the wild desire to write, to make verses, tragedies ! What tragedy could be more gloomy than his very person! Macbeth is gay in comparison. And he had attacks of violence in which his inner fury would have strangled him, had he not, like Hamlet, massa- cred tapestries with the blows of his dagger. More often he swallowed his bitterness and fury, covered everything with the outward seeming of ecclesiastical decency. His powerlessness, his passion, turned within, worked themselves out on his body ; the red iron burned his soul, and he was near to death." In this story Richelieu in this mesh of intrigue and his designs regarding the Huguenots are well described. As noted, his pur- pose was to undermine the Hapsburg supremacy, and Queen THE MODERN ERA 387 Anne of Austria appears in the story. Never had women been more influential in Court intrigues, and in this story Madame de Chevreuse (Marie de Rohan), the widow of Luynes (see above), was the leader of intrigues. It was she who tried to influence the young queen in regard to Buckingham which incurred the furious anger of the king, and the hatred of Richelieu for Buckingham which had its effect upon the policies of France and England. Another character in the story is Gaston of Orleans, the brother of the king whose baseness and treacherous scheming Richelieu had defeated, who raised an insurrection in 1832. The Three Musketeers. 1844. Alexandre Dumas This story should be read in connection with Twenty Years After and The Vicomte de Bragelonne. Dumas' stories are of peculiar value in giving much of French history, if read in their historical order. In The Three Musketeers and the other two works mentioned, D'Artagnan, the greatest of the author's heroes, is presented from the time he arrived in Paris to the end of his life. This "char- acter is drawn largely from the genuine memoirs of Charles de Batz-Castlemore (1623-73), who assumed the name d'Artagnan (his mother was a Montesquieu-d'Artagnan) when at the age of seventeen he set out for Paris with a letter of introduction to Troisvilles, Commandant of the Musketeer Guards." As soon as he entered Paris he succeeded in fighting three duels with the most distinguished duelists of the Musketeer Guard and by his deportment won their friendship. These three Mus- keteers were Athos, who in real life was Armand de Sillegue ; Aramis and Porthos, who in real life was Isaac de Portau. These four from this time on, shared each other's fortunes and mishaps in their many adventures in France and England. Richelieu issued an edict against duelling. The father of D'Artagnan advised his son to fight duels, and the more so be- cause they were forbidden. He would thus be exhibiting courage in two' ways — in breaking the law and in running the risk of being killed. The four comrades render a service to the French queen in turning the design of Richelieu and the female agent in his em- ploy. Queen Anne had indulged her spite by intriguing with 388 HISTORICAL FICTION Spain so as to increase the troubles of Richelieu. The four be- came entangled in various political situations. The Duke of Buckingham was given command of a fleet to aid the Protestant town of La Rochelle in its rebellion against Louis XIII. At the Isle of Rhe he was driven off by a stronger force. He had been impeached by Parliament and was in dis- favor. Parliament ordered that he be removed from office. He was preparing a second expedition for the relief of La Rochelle when, on leaving the dining room where he had breakfasted, he was stabbed by a discontented officer (1628). This event is introduced in this story. Knighthood's Flower. 1906. John E. Bloundelle- Burton On the plea that the treaty of Montpellier had not been com- plied with the inhabitants of the Protestant city of La Rochelle rose in revolt. It was a powerfully fortified city, and the strong- hold of this party. Richelieu called it a "nest of wasps." In 1627 Buckingham came with a fleet from England to aid the city, but made a failure of his attempt and returned to England. Riche- lieu now determined upon the destruction of La Rochelle. It was so strongly fortified that by a line of fortifications he cut off the city on the land side, and closed the harbor by a gigantic dike. The mayor of the city, Jean Guiton, laid his dagger upon the table and declared he would slay the first person who spoke of surrender. For fifteen months the city was besieged and cut off from provisions. Famine took off the besieged by thousands. Leather and cats were almost luxuries. At last La Rochelle capit- ulated and the king marched into the city. The lives of the people were spared and their religious liberties ensured, but its fortifica- tions were destroyed. The historical setting of this story is this event of the siege of La Rochelle. The Bravest Gentleman in France. 1908. Herbert Hayens Gaston, Duke of Orleans, the king's brother, was weak, cow- ardly and treacherous. He had married the sister of the Duke of THE MODERN ERA 389 Lorraine and also had a strong supporter in Montmorency, the Governor of Languedoc. The people were ready to support their governor against Richelieu because their political independence was endangered by the measures taken in suppressing the Hugue- not revolt. By the aid of the Duke of Lorraine Gaston raised an army of brigands. They were badly fed and engaged in pillaging as they passed through the country. At Castelnaudary in Lan- guedoc they met the royal forces and were decisively defeated. By abandoning his allies Gaston, by profuse expressions of re- pentance and promises for the future, secured the king's pardon. Montmorency was exceedingly popular, and the people petitioned that his life be spared. Their prayers were of no avail ; Richelieu was unmovable, and the Governor's head fell beneath the axe. This story traces these events of the conflict between Riche- lieu and Montmorency, the insurrection of Gaston, the battle and defeat of the insurrectionists and the death of the Governor. Cinq-Mars. 1847. Alfred Victor de Vigny The Marquis of Cinq-Mars (1620-1642), a French courtier, as a boy was placed in the Court of Richelieu. His fine personal appearance won for him the favor of Louis XIII, and at the age of nineteen was made Grand Equerry. He allowed himself to be used as a tool by the enemies of Richelieu, and he tried to poison the king's mind against his minister. Then began negotiations and intrigues. The Duke of Bouillon, who was given command of the army of Italy by the king, was drawn into the plot against Richelieu. In the plot, too, were the Duke of Orleans and the queen. Negotiations with Spain for an army were entered into, a copy of which fell into the hands of Richelieu. The conspira- tors were arrested. As usual Gaston, the king's cowardly and contemptible brother, wept himself into the king's pardon, but was sent to Blois to remain for the rest of the time. The Duke of Bouillion saved his life by surrendering his fortress of Sedan. M. de Thou, the intimate friend and fellow-plotter of Cinq-Mars, went to the block. As the former marched to his death he ex- claimed, "Enough of this world ; away to Paradise." Cinq-Mars wrote his mother, "Now that I make not a single step which does not lead me to death, I am more capable than anybody else of esti- mating the value of the things of this world." He refused to 39Q HISTORICAL FICTION have his eyes bandaged and kept them upon the axe until the blow was struck. The author (1799- 1863), a French poet and novelist, in 181 6 entered the Royal Guard. In 1828 he devoted himself entirely to literature. His poems raised him to a leading position in the new romantic school of poets. His celebrated drama, Chatterton, appeared in 1835. The historical novel, Cinq-Mars, attracted much attention. This story describes the events of this conspiracy against Rich- elieu and brings upon the stage of action those concerned in the plot. Cinq-Mars is the titular hero. His execution is set forth. "De Vigny paints Richelieu as he appeared to the contemporary French nobles — the organizer of espionage and assassination — and also in his better self as the masterful uncrowned king of France, sending his crowned manikin to the front to fight like any obscure captain, while he himself planned the victories that set France at the head of Europe." CHAPTER II FROM THE ACCESSION OF LOUIS XIV TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION During the next century and a half France is to pass through two stages in her political history. What Cardinal Richelieu de- signed and exerted all his energies to secure under the reign of Louis XIII came to fruition in the Absolutism of Louis XIV. Had he lived to that time he would have seen the political struc- ture upon which he labored so assiduously completed. These principles so carefully worked out and applied in the one reign came to their fullest expression and operation in the next. The reign of Louis XIV was a brilliant period in certain respects, and Absolutism, the supremacy of the Crown, had the best oppor- tunity of attaining its highest distinction and justifying its claims. That is one stage. In the second, Absolutism fails. From the supremacy of the Crown France passes through that national experience in which the individual awakens to a sense of his prerogatives. The outcome of that awakening was destined to be one of the greatest Revolutions of history. With the develop- ing consciousness of the race Absolutism could not persist. It was out of harmony with the fundamental characteristic of the modern era. It was altogether contrary to that to which the ages had been struggling, and to attain to which the past had been a scaffolding to be torn down when humanity had realized its true individualism. Passing from the supremacy of the Crown to that of society and the social unit France became an object-lesson, not only to itself, but to the world. Such a period, combining so much of the great and grand in its first stage, and the dissolution of these political ideals in the next, furnished a rich field for the writers of historical fiction. For the delineation and interpretation of these events the novel- ists hare given us many excellent works. 391 392 HISTORICAL FICTION Reign of Louis XIV Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great (i 643-1 715), succeeded his father, Louis XIII, at the age of five. Anne of Austria, widow of Louis XIII, was proclaimed by Parliament as Regent, and to be given liberty of action guided by her own judgment. The Council of Regency, which Louis XIII had advised who should have control over the acts of Anne, was annulled by the Parliament. This long reign represents three distinct periods, the first being that of the Administration of Mazarin, who died in 1661, when Louis had reached the age of twenty-three ; the second, the Cul- mination of Absolutism, from the beginning of his personal reign to the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685; the third, the Period of Decline, from 1685 to the close of the reign. I. Administration of Mazarin Just before his death Richelieu requested that Cardinal Ma- zarin (1602-1661) be appointed his successor. He received his education under the Jesuits in Rome and Spain. He made the acquaintance of Richelieu in connection with the negotiations which followed the French wars in Italy, and the latter was quick to appreciate the abilities of the Italian. He became a French subject in 1639, and from that time until Richelieu's death was in close association with the great minister. In his personal traits he was affable and yet cold, but had that versatility that enabled him to accommodate himself to men and conditions. Unlike Richelieu, he won the admiration and regard of women. He was also unlike his predecessor in that he was self-seeking, while Richelieu was controlled by a sincere consid- eration for the good of the people. Mazarin never allowed public interests to take precedence over his personal aims and ambitions. Into the triumphs of Richelieu the new minister entered, and for eighteen years, under the Queen's Regency, is to guide the affairs of State. The Stories Life and Adventures of John Marston Hall. 1834. George P. R. James Between 1648- 1652 a contest existed in France that was known as the Fronde, the word derived from the sling used by the boys of France in their fightings, and was first applied to the opponents THE MODERN ERA 393 of the Court by some speaker in a debate and afterwards was used to designate the opponents of royalty. The first Fronde was a movement on the part of Parliament to curtail royal authority. The second Fronde was a movement by the great nobles to in- crease their power. In the first instance, Parliament refused to recognize certain decrees regarding taxation, and when Mazarin arrested two mem- bers of Parliament an insurrection broke out in which the Parlia- ment was victorious. The Court was compelled to accede to its demands. In its struggle for constitutional rights the Parliament was wholly justifiable. This story has its setting in the events of the first Fronde. Both Conde and Turenne figure in the story. The former, known as the Great Conde, was a famous general. He defeated the Spanish at Rocroi in 1643. At the outbreak of the insurrec- tion of the Fronde he sided with the Court. At the head of the royal army he defeated the Parisians and became dazzled by his successes. He placed himself at the head of a new party and held Mazarin in contempt. The latter then imprisoned him. When he was released he continued his opposition to the Court and opened negotiations with Spain. Both Conde and Turenne were generals in the Thirty Years' War. Both fought on the side of the Crown, but were always opposed to each other. Mazarin and the Queen Regent also appear in the story. Twenty Years After. 1845. Alexandre Dumas In this story the exploits of the four, D'Artagnan, Porthos, Athos, Aramis, are recounted. They take service under Mazarin and support him in the insurrection of the Fronde. In England it is the period of the Revolution, the conflict between Charles I and the Parliament, which can be located in these studies by ref- erence to the Index. The four Musketeers are commissioned by the French minister to aid Cromwell in England in support of the Parliamentary troops, but do the very contrary in trying to prevent the execution of the king. My Sword's My Fortune. 1904. Herbert Hayens The Second Fronde was that of the nobles and was quite different from the first, having as its basic purpose the acquisition of power on the part of the nobles. It was a movement of trivial 394 HISTORICAL FICTION ambitions "broken up into contentious factions, complicated by personal jealousies and squabbles, corrupted by the influence of dissolute women, entangled in love intrigues." And this was true of such men as Conde and Turenne, who exhibited as little political wisdom and were as unreliable as the worst characters that followed in their train. The ruling principle on the part of the great majority was to get out of the conflict the most possi- ble for themselves. For three years it kept the country in a turmoil. In this story the leading participants in this struggle are set forth in their distinctive positions. It is a conflict between the Court, represented by Mazarin and Anne of Austria, the Queen Regent, and the nobles and their leaders. Conde, who had rendered the Court a service, demanded exorbitant rewards for himself and those with whom he was related, and not only disgusted Mazarin but succeeded in making himself obnoxious to Parliament. The minister arrested him and imprisoned him and his brother Conti and his brother-in-law in Vincennes. Influenced by a personal grievance in the way of a Cardinal's hat, De Retz stirred up the insurrection anew. Turenne, who was in love with the Duchess of Longueville, was induced by her to take the side of the rebels, and he formed an alliance with the Spaniards. When the Parliament petitioned Anne for the release of the prisoners, because of the growing feeling against Mazarin, she was compelled to give them their liberty, and Conde was warmly received by the people. In a brief time he made himself offensive and proceeded to stir up a civil war. Mazarin, who had retired to Cologne, now returned to crush Conde, and once more Turenne came to the minister's support, abandoning the Frondeurs. The two colleagues met in their first clash at Bleneau, and Turenne barely averted a disaster to the royalist cause. Again the two armies met at Porte Saint-Antoine and Conde would have suf- fered a complete defeat, but at the critical moment the daughter of Gaston d'Orleans turned the guns of the Bastile upon Tur- enne's army and opened the gates to Conde's troops. Conde fled to Flanders, others were exiled, among whom was the daughter of d'Orleans, the Fronde was crushed and Mazarin came off victorious. These insurrections and contests and the final outcome are described by this story. THE MODERN ERA 395 Other stories: Stray Pearls (1883), by Charlotte M. Yonge. The War of Women (1845), D y Alexandre Dumas, in which the imprisonment of Conde, as given above, and the part his wife played in the insurrection are set forth. II. The Acme of Absolutism When Mazarin died in 1661 the authority of the Crown was firmly established, the country was at peace and the position of France among the nations was well secured. The work of the two ministers, Richelieu and Mazarin, had paved the way for and made possible the supremacy of the absolutism of Louis XIV. The young king was in his twenty-third year at the death of Mazarin, and could have reigned in his own right some years before, but he seemed content to leave the matter of ruling in the hands of his minister and exhibited no desire to rule. But now that he had taken into his own hand the reins of government, he declared that he was sufficient of himself to rule, did not need a minister and that upon his authority alone should state documents be signed. The acme of absolute monarchy in France was reached in his reign, and his idea of kingship may thus be formulated: "A king is God's representative and vicegerent on earth. His authority is divine because it is vested in him directly by God. No division of such authority is possible, nor can it be delegated to others, since it inheres entirely in the person of the sovereign. He is therefore responsible to God alone. To him, and to him only, belongs the right to initiate and decide. No one else pos- sesses any political power. He who has given kings to the world has willed that they shall be revered as His lieutenants, and has reserved to Himself alone the right to examine their conduct." The Stories The Vicomte de Bragelonne. 1845. Alexandre Dumas This story is the continuation of Twenty Years After. The titular hero is the son of Athos, one of the four Musketeers. The ministry of Mazarin is just closing, and Louis is taking into his own hands the reins of government. He married Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV of Spain, and she and the Queen mother appear in the story with a large number of historical personages, 396 HISTORICAL FICTION and the life of the Court. Fouquet, the minister of finance under Mazarin and Colbert, who succeeded him upon his fall, are related to the movement of affairs. The four Musketeers are involved in the difficulties between the king and Fouquet, and they also take part in the restoration of Charles II of England. A Demoiselle of France. 1910. W. J. Eccott Fouquet, Mazarin's minister of finance, was a man of literary distinction and of unbridled ambition. His arrogant manner and display of wealth aroused the jealousy of the young king. The latter also knew that Fouquet was guilty of criminal methods in his office and proofs of the same were furnished by Jean- Baptiste Colbert. The trial of Fouquet was an extended affair, but at last he was convicted of financial corruption and was sen- tenced to perpetual imprisonment in the fortress of Pinerolo. Colbert now stepped into the place of Fouquet and was given the title of Controller-General, and later was given the charge of the marine, the colonies, commerce, the affairs of the royal household, and was the chief counsellor of the king. The impor- tance of his position in the affairs of State is seen in the fact that "it was to his advice and agency that what was best in the king's administration was really due." The fall of Fouquet and elevation of Colbert hold an impor- tant place in this story. Moliere (1622- 1673), whose real name was Jean Baptiste Poquelin, was the greatest of French dramatists. By the time that Louis XIV in reality became king, his reputation was established by his comedies. He continued to bring out new plays, acting the comic parts himself. He became a great favorite with the Court, and so pleased the king that he made his company the royal company. He contracted an unfortunate marriage with Armande Bejart, an actress twenty years younger than himself, by which the latter part of his life was saddened. His marriage occurred in 1662. A few hours after playing his part in The Imaginary Invalid he died from an apoplectic stroke. Moliere is one of the characters in this story, together with his wife and her sister, who are well delineated, and these relations in the life of the great dramatist constitute an interesting part of the story. THE MODERN ERA 397 His Indolence of Arras. 1905. W. J. Eccott In his dealings with women one of the most abiding attach- ments of Louis was his interest in Louise de la Valliere. She is described as a "gentle, dreamy, fair-haired, blue-eyed girl." That she loved Louis devotedly and sincerely there can be no doubt. She bore him two children. When he ceased to care for her, and she no longer interested him, she entered a convent, where for the balance of her life, a period of thirty years, she committed herself in the most rigid manner to religious devotions. Tiring of the dreamy Louise the attentions of Louis were now bestowed upon the very opposite type of woman — the wife of the Marquis of Montespan. She was proud and overbearing, a com- manding type of character. And these traits combined with others must have attracted Louis, since for fourteen years she remained his chief mistress and bore him eight children. It was in no pas- sive manner that this haughty woman allowed herself to be aban- doned when the time came for Louis to bestow his affections upon another. These two mistresses occupy an important place in this story, also the Bishop of Arras, to whom Mme. de Montespan made her confessions. The Clash of Arms. 1897. John E. Bloundelle-Burton To increase his fame and extend French territory in Europe Louis XIV engaged in four wars. The object of the first was the conquest of the Spanish Netherlands, based upon the fact that his wife was the daughter of Philip IV and that he had a prior claim ; the second, against the Dutch Republic ; the third, against several states that combined to save their interests against his policies and ended with the peace of Ryswick ; the fourth, lasting twelve years, was on account of the succession to the Spanish throne and ended with the peace of Utrecht. The second of these wars was directed against the Dutch Re- public (1672- 1 678), whose prosperity Louis regarded with envy, and hated them for their independence, their republicanism and Protestantism. Conde and Turenne were now the generals of his army, which consisted of 120,000 men. In the Grand Alliance of the Hague Louis, by his ambitions and cupidity in setting out to 398 HISTORICAL FICTION crush Holland, had succeeded in making half of Europe his enemy. By a brilliant strategy Turenne held Alsace, which was regarded as lost. He then invaded the Palatinate and met Montecuculli near the village of S^ssbach. While taking observations of the position of a battery he was struck by a cannon-ball. His death was for France a calamity. In 1678 France agreed to peace. The king's attempt to conquer Holland was an abject failure, and the only gains he realized were Franche-Comte and several places in the Spanish Netherlands. This story has its historical setting in this war and describes the brilliant work of Turenne. The Duke of Marlborough is introduced. He fought with the French against Holland, and distinguished himself at the siege of Maestricht, and afterwards joined Turenne in several campaigns. The Red Neighbor. 1908. W. J. Eccott The great rival of Colbert was the Marquis of Louvois, the Minister for War. While the former was devoting every power to build up the prosperity of France, the latter was laboring just as strenuously to secure its military supremacy. He reorganized the army and made it far more efficient than it had ever been be- fore. These men were for a long time rivals in the king's councils, but in the end Louvois gained the upper hand, and when Colbert died Louvois' place in the king's confidence was definitely secured. He cared little for the welfare of the people, while his whole ambi- tion was for war and foreign conquest. "As a spur, always ready to prick the side of his master's intent, he was henceforth for many years to be the evil genius of the king and the country." In this story Louvois is the leading character. Turenne is introduced and one of the scenes is laid at Sassbach, where Tur- enne was killed in the battle as sketched above. La Fontaine also appears in the story. His early verses won for him recognition, and he was advised to go to Paris. There he established friend- ship with Moliere, Boileau, Racine and other men of note, who admired and appreciated him for the openness and simplicity of his character. But he failed to get into the good graces of Louis XIV, who for some time refused to confirm his nomination to the French Academy. Up to his time he was the first fable-writer THE MODERN ERA 399 who was a poet, "discovering the deep and secret charm of nature, animating it with his inexhaustible and graceful genius, giving lessons to men from the example of animals." III. Period of Decline The death of Colbert was a great loss to France, and to Louis the loss of his wisest counsellor. The war had drained the Treas- ury and the finances of the country lapsed into a state of anarchy. The king's extravagances, bribes and expenditures were directly opposed to the policy and reform work of Colbert and created a serious problem. Not only misfortunes abroad but the conditions at home were sufficient to cause the king the greatest uneasiness. Exhausted France seemed to be on the raw edge of ruin. The finances were in hopeless disorder ; poverty was universal ; even the Court began to feel the pinch of want. Then came bad harvests, the fearful winter of 1709, general famine, and misery among all classes. Under these conditions when Louis opened negotiations for peace the allies demanded what he refused to grant, and that he should not be required to grant. There was but one thing to do, and that was to prolong the war. And now Louis did what he did but this once during his long reign — he set aside his principles of absolutism and made an earnest appeal to the nation in this hour of their great extremity. Its effect upon the nation was electrical ; a wave of patriotism swept over the land and the result was that he was able to put into the field the largest army he had yet sent into the war. When peace came the terms were vastly different from those that had before been dictated. The last hours of Louis were not altogether peaceful. He prayed much and his great anxiety was for the forgiveness of his sins. To the Dauphin he said, "My dear child, you are about to become the greatest king in the world. Never forget the obliga- tions you owe to God. Do not imitate me in my wars. Try to maintain peace always with your neighbors, and to help your people as much as you possibly can. Follow always good counsels, and remember that it is to God that you owe all that you are." But it was by his own despotism and misgovernment that he sowed the seeds of one of the greatest revolutions of history. 4 oo HISTORICAL FICTION The Stories The Frown of Majesty. 1902. Albert Lee The widow of Paul Scarron, the novelist and dramatist, who had through her husband been introduced to the literary life of Paris, was installed in the Court as the governess of the children of Louis by Mme. de Montespan. In this capacity she was very successful and won the affection of the children. The jealousy of the mother was aroused as she began to fear that she had in this woman a rival who might supplant her in the affections of the king. Between these two women a bitter struggle existed for an extended period, but finally, after gaining the interest of the king, Mme. Scarron was presented to the Court as the Marquise de Maintenon. The imperious and self-assertive mistress fought bitterly to retain the king's affection, but shortly after the queen's death in 1683 Mme. de Maintenon was secretly married to the king. This union was destined to exert a powerful influence both upon the life of the king and that of the Court. She was a clear-headed, calculating woman and appeared to be devoutly religious, which some critics declared to be unscrupulous hypocrisy. In any case, she gave to the life of Louis a still more religious direction, as also his policy, and the whole atmosphere of the Court was immedi- ately changed. Among the historical characters introduced in this story Madame de Maintenon occupies an important place. The king became suspicious of the Huguenots, and was dis- posed to believe that they were disloyal to the Crown. This belief, together with his religious bigotry, led to the persecution of the Protestants, and in 1685 he revoked the Edict of Nantes, thereby withdrawing all protection from those of this faith. It is believed that his new wife had something to do in bringing about the revo- cation of this edict. The Protestant clergy were required to leave France within fifteen days, and while their adherents were forbidden to follow them, more than 250,000 made their escape in a short time, who carried to other countries a knowledge of the things in which France excelled. Some of the most desirable people that landed in America were these Huguenots. France lost many of her most skilled workmen. A member of the French Court declared that THE MODERN ERA 401 this bigoted measure on the part of the king was without the slight- est pretext or necessity, that it "depopulated a quarter of the realm, ruined its commerce, armed relatives against relatives and rilled all the realm with perjury and sacrilege." These privations, sufferings and persecution of the Huguenots following these new measures are dealt with by this story. The hero is the victim of a lettres de cachet and hence to be executed, but he makes his escape. In this the story sets forth this diabol- ical system. Lettres de cachet were written by order of the king, countersigned by a secretary of state, and signed with the seal (cachet) of the king. By this system any one might be impris- oned, exiled or executed without trial. It "violated all safeguards of personal liberty, such as are the pride of the English laws with its rights of trial by jury and habeas corpus" Aimee. 1871. Agnes Giberne Various measures were adopted by which to force the Protes- tants to renounce their faith, one of which was the placing of households at the mercy of brutal soldiers called the dragonnades, who took up their quarters in these homes and assumed every liberty. These outrageous measures inflicted upon the Huguenots are described by this story, and also the escaping of the people to England. It takes us to England, where James II is conducting his persecutions with a high hand, and relates the case of the Seven Bishops, who were tried before a packed jury, but were acquitted. On that same day an invitation was sent to the Prince of Orange to invade England. These facts can be located by reference to the Index. Other stories : Asylum Christi (1877), by E. Gilliat, which deals with these persecutions and the escape of many to England, and the insur- rection in the Cevennes, which lasted for three years. The King's Signet (1899), by Eliza F. Pollard, in which Madame de Maintenon is portrayed, and describes the experi- ences of the Huguenots when the Edict of Nantes was revoked. The Huguenot (1838), by G. P. R. James, setting forth the measure of the dragonnades. Louvois, the War Minister, is 402 HISTORICAL FICTION introduced, also Bossuet, who declared that the revocation act was a miracle. Done and Dared in Old France (1907), by Deborah Alcock, in which the sturdy spirit of a preacher is displayed who persisted in returning to minister to his people after the Edict of Nantes had been revoked and all Protestant ministers were driven from France. In the Day of Adversity. 1896. John E. B. Burton Three years after Louis had revoked the Edict of Nantes James II was driven from the English throne, which was given to William of Orange. He was the bitter enemy of Louis XIV and fully understood the religious designs of the French king. James fled to France and was welcomed by his friend Louis, who took up his cause. He was soon at war with the League of Augsburg. The hopes of James were crushed by the battle of the Boyne (1690). The great naval engagement at La Hogue (1692) was such a severe blow to the sea power of France that Louis discov- ered the futility of attempting to restore the Stuart line to the throne of England. In this story the hero is involved in trouble over the heirship to a dukedom, which results in a duel. He is sent to the galleys, from which he manages to escape and reaches an English warship and participates in the battle of La Hogue. Sir George Rooke, who commanded in this battle and led a night attack upon a part of the French fleet which had escaped into the harbor out of reach of the English ships, is introduced into the story. Love Is Life. 1910. Mrs. Stacpoole Kenny On the costly buildings at Versailles and Saint-Germain Louis had expended vast sums of money, as also on royal fetes, which helped to impoverish his treasury. In the great literary produc- tions of the age it was Versailles which gave the law in literature as in everything else. In these things the Court of Louis XIV set the pace for Europe. When the king married Mme. de Main- tenon a profound change was brought about, not only in the life of the king, but also that of the Court. The brilliant fetes which had long been the glory of Versailles were now things of the past. In this story is given a picture of these courts and their life. THE MODERN ERA 403 Sarsfield appears in the story. It will be remembered that he served under James II in Ireland, and after the rebellion was crushed by William of Orange the rebels were given the choice to go to France. Sarsfield and many others entered the French service. He distinguished himself in the battle of Steinkirk under Luxemburg, who, in his military abilities, has often been com- pared with Conde. He took possession of Mons in his conflict with William of Orange, and won the battle of Steinkirk in such a skillful manner as to reflect great credit upon himself. He was worn out both by war and the pleasures of the French Court, for he was even more corrupt in his private life than his age. He is one of the personages in this story. Flower O' the Corn. 1902. Samuel R. Crockett As has already been noted, in various instances ministers who were driven from the country by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes returned to their flocks, facing death in doing so. It created a tremendous enthusiasm in Cevennes ; maidens were inspired with religious utterances that stirred the populace. To stifle this wave of religious fervor M. de Baville had 300 children imprisoned at Uzes, and then sent them to the galleys, but to no avail. The insurrection of the Camisards (so called from the camise or blouse worn by the peasants) in the Cevennes, 1702-04, was led by Jean Cavalier, Roland and others, and was only crushed when the whole region had been devastated. This movement under the leadership of . two shepherd-soldiers was finally put down by Villars. It greatly resembled, in its warlike ardor and pious enthusiasm, the Scotch Cameronians in their struggle for their religious convictions. This story is a striking presentation of this insurrection under Jean Cavalier. It sets forth the religious fervor by which the Camisards were dominated. Other stories : The Cobler of Nimes (1900), by Mary Imlay Taylor. The Scourge of God (1898), by J. E. B. Burton, in which this Camisard revolt is strongly presented. Baville, noted above, and his daughter figure in the story, as also Jean Cavalier, Villars and the queen. 404 HISTORICAL FICTION In the Irish Brigade. 1900. George A. Henty In the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) there were three rivals to the throne : the Dauphin of France, the Prince of Bavaria and the Emperor Leopold. England was brought into the war by the great blunder of Louis XIV when, in violation of the treaty of Ryswick, he captured the barrier fortresses in the Netherlands, and acknowledged as king of England the son of James II, an insult that stung the English people to the quick. In the second period of the war was fought the great battle of Oudenarde (1708) in which the Duke of Marlborough deter- mined to strike a decisive blow. His force, together with that of the allies, amounted to 80,000 against a French force of 100,- 000. The French were utterly routed and suffered a heavy loss, and many prisoners were taken. Then followed the capitulation of Ghent, Bruges and Lille. This story has its setting in this War of the Spanish Succes- sion and describes the battle of Oudenarde in which an officer of the Irish Brigade in the service of the French distinguishes himself. Another story dealing with the same period and events, and that introduces Fenelon and his good work is The Laird's Legacy (1896) by Mary H. Debenham. It was in the reign of Louis XIV that the Golden Age of French literature appeared. Dramatists, essayists, poets, are rep- resented among her men of genius. Corneille founded the classi- cal school of French dramatists, while his younger contemporary, Racine, is styled by a French critic as "the most perfect of our tragedians, and perhaps of our poets." Moliere in his comedies ridiculed the vices of the time. To these may be added the con- tributions of La Fontaine and Fenelon and the writings of Pas- cal. Among the writers of that time are Voltaire, Rousseau and Montesquieu. To this period belonged Descartes, the originator of modern philosophical thought, Fermat the mathematician, Picard the astronomer, Tournefort the botanist, Mariotte the physicist, while among foreign scientists of distinction whom Louis invited to Paris were Cassini, the first director of the Observatory, Huyghens and Roemer. Great was the influence of Louis upon Europe which borrowed his language, and casting away the religious restraints of an ear- lier era abandoned itself to a gay and festive life. About the THE MODERN ERA 405 king the nobility of the French Court swarmed, pressing claims for kingly favor. Culture was encouraged, the king giving his patronage to poets, scholars and artists. Libraries were estab- lished, academies of art and science were founded and opportuni- ties for astronomical observations provided. "The palace at Ver- sailles, and its statues, fountains and gardens, furnished a pat- tern which all the rest of Europe aspired to copy. Everything there wore an artificial stamp, from the trimming of the trees to the etiquette of the ballroom. But there was a splendor and fas- cination which caused the French fashions, the French language and literature, with the levity and immorality which traveled in their company, to spread in the higher circles of other European Reign of Louis XV Louis XV (171 5-1774) was the grandson of Louis XIV. He placed his tutor, Cardinal Fleury, at the head of affairs and after his death (1743) he cared for nothing but pleasure. In 1725 he married Maria, daughter of Stanislas Leszczynski, who for a time was on the Polish throne. Louis fell under the influence of his mistresses, especially Madame de Pompadour and Madame du Barry. It in no sense concerned him how misgovernment would affect the kingdom or the reign of his successors. He felt no responsibility for existing conditions. During his reign it is es- timated that 150,000 lettres de cachet were issued, many of these having been sold for money. The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle re- stored to France her lost colonies, but at the close of his reign the country was burdened with debt and wholly demoralized. The Stories The Chevalier d'Harmental. 1843. Alexandre Dumas In the interval between the death of Louis XIV in 171 5 and the time when Louis XV himself assumed the government, the country was under the regency of the Duke of Orleans, while the Abbe Dubois had the direction of the foreign policy of France, a man utterly unscrupulous in the manner in which he sought power and the means of securing it. Cardinal Alberoni was the minister of Philip V of Spain, who determined to secure for Spain the possessions in Italy which by 406 HISTORICAL FICTION the Treaty of Utrecht were ceded to Austria. It resulted in a war in which Austria, France, England and Holland opposed the de- signs of Spain and completely defeated her. In the meantime, however, a conspiracy took form, largely through the efforts of the wife of the Duke of Maine (a son of Mme. de Montespan, a mistress of Louis XIV), who hated the Regent and plotted to overthrow him. Under the direction of Alberoni she gathered a circle of anti-Orleanist agitators about her which was used by Cellamare, the Spanish ambassador, to create a conspiracy powerful enough to overthrow the Regent and Du- bois. The plot turned out to be a veritable farce. The leaders were shut up in prison for a time while Cellamare was expelled from the country. This plot furnishes the setting for Dumas' novel. It brings out the plan followed by Dubois in allowing the plot to ripen suf- ficiently and then expose it, which he did by securing the arrest of one of the agents with the papers in his possession. This same conspiracy gives the setting of At Odds With the Regent by Burton E. Stevenson. Servants of Sin. 1900. John E. Bloundelle-Burton In 1720 a terrible plague broke out in Marseilles which car- ried off 80,000 people. It occurred at the time of the Mississippi Bubble, the failure of Law's scheme. The Bank, properly man- aged, would have been of great advantage to the country. The people who had invested their money became infuriated and Law had to flee to save his life. Many people interpreted the plague as a dispensation of Providence sent upon France for its par- ticipation in this scheme, but the trouble with that view of the matter is that the punishment fell upon the wrong people. The place and time of this story are Marseilles and the great plague. It sets forth the experiences of a girl subjected to the evil treatment of a duke, and as a felon is sent to New Orleans, from which situation she is delivered by her lover. The Quest of Glory. 1912. Marjorie Bowen In this story is given the account of the retreat from Pragiu in the War of the Austrian Succession. Marshal Bell-Isle was THE MODERN ERA 407 the grandson of Fouquet. It was said of him that he had more wit than judgment, and more fire than force, but he aimed very high. He dreamed that by revising the map of Europe he could form a zone of small states and thus protect France against the schemes of Austria. The shifting conditions in this war were such that France became practically isolated. Bell-Isle's army in Bohemia found itself in great danger. In getting away the Marshal sacrificed 1,200 men, but not a cannon or flag. Chevert still occupied Prague with 6,000 sick soldiers. The Prince of Lorraine called upon him to surrender. Chevert re- plied that if he were not granted the honors of war he would set fire to the whole city and die with it. He made his departure and joined Bell-Isle at Egra. The retreat from Prague was com- pared with the retreat of the Ten Thousand of ancient times. Petticoat Government. 1910. Baroness Orczy In 1745 in the Jacobite uprising, Charles Edward Stuart, the Young Pretender, left Nantes in a privateer accompanied by a French man-of-war. An English ship attacked and disabled the latter so that when Charles reached Scotland he was without sup- plies and had but seven followers. The reader will remember what happened to him and his cause at Culloden, and how, dis- guised in female attire, Flora Macdonald enabled him to escape. This story has its setting in these circumstances in which plots were fomented in connection with the Pretender's claims, and the trip to Scotland to establish them by this new uprising. One of the most notable mistresses of Louis XV was Madame de Pompadour. In his utter unconcern of the consequences fol- lowing misgovernment Louis said, "Things will outlast our time," to which his mistress added, "After us, the deluge !" Through her influence Louis declared the society of Jesuits to be a menace to France, and by a royal edict it was suppressed in 1764. A woman of great beauty and charm she became the ruling star at Ver- sailles. She sought political power and secured it ; she appointed and dismissed officers and interfered in the matter of military campaigns. During the nineteen years that she exercised this control, at times acting practically as the Prime Minister of France, "she absorbed something like 36,000,000 livres from the 408 HISTORICAL FICTION State Treasury, nor did her grasp upon the government relax till the very day of her death in 1764." This woman, representing so much power and prodigality, figures in this story. Other Stories : The Palace of Danger (1908) by Mabel Wagnalls, in which the ruling position of Madame Pompadour in the Court of Ver- sailles is set forth. The Seven Years' War is introduced, the closing struggle between Austria and Prussia for the possession of Silesia, and between France and England for colonial su- premacy on the sea. In these critical times when men like Pitt were handling the destinies of Great Britain Madame Pompadour and her whims were swaying the interests of France. The battle of Rossbach is described, in which the French are defeated by Frederick the Great. The Hand of Leonore (1904) by Hugh Noel Williams, in which the same period is presented, and also relates the battle of Rossbach. The Order of Release. 1912. H. de Vere Stackpoole Another notable mistress of Louis XV was Madame du Barry, by whom he was ruled after 1769. She was even more disrepu- table than her predecessor, Madame de Pompadour. She was a handsome, vulgar woman who would sacrifice her very soul for money and jewels. When France was on the brink of bankruptcy she demanded and received from the funds of the Treasury over 12,000,000 livres, and it is said that within a few years she cost the royal treasury 180,000,000 livres. Her supreme influence over Louis continued for the balance of his life. In this story Madame du Barry appears with Louis and Mar- shal de Richelieu, also the Duke of Choiseul. The latter owed his elevation to Madame de Pompadour. He aspired to restore the high position of France in the councils of Europe. He secured the marriage of the Dauphin with Marie Antoinette. After the death of Madame de Pompadour he had the courage to oppose Madame du Barry and that brought his downfall. His ministry marked the one bright period from the death of Fleury to the end of this reign, and when he left the city after he was dismissed he THE MODERN ERA 409 received the enthusiastic acclamations of the populace. Other historical personages appear in the story, Rousseau, De Launay, etc. Memoirs of a Physician. 1848. Alexandre Dumas Cagliostro (1743- 1795), whose name was Giuseppe Balsamo, was an Italian adventurer. He traveled over various countries — Europe, Greece, Asia, Italy, France, Germany, England — and gathered a certain amount of knowledge that he used for swind- ling purposes. He represented himself as philosopher, physician, alchemist and necromancer. His wife, a clever woman, assisted him in his frauds. In 1785 he was entangled in the disgraceful affair of the diamond necklace, and spent some time in prison. When released he again pursued his fraudulent practices, and finally he was imprisoned for life. His wife shut herself up in a convent. These are the memoirs of this swindler, and the story is the continuation of Joseph Balsamo. It details the events of the reign of Louis XV from the close of the ministry of Choiseul, as given above, and carries us into the first years of the Revolution. It describes the decline of the monarchy. The king and his mis- tress squandered the public money, and his measures brought ruin and misery. Hatred for the king on the part of his subjects in- creased and finally he was seized with smallpox, from which he died, and thus was closed the most disreputable reign in French history. Instead of mourning his death it was the occasion of gen- eral rejoicing. These events and attitudes of the people to their monarch are displayed in this story. Reign of Louis XVI Louis XVI was the grandson of Louis XV. He married Marie Antoinette, the daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria. He came to the throne when the country was demoralized and sunk in debt, and when the American Revolution was just beginning. At the commencement of his reign Louis exercised good judgment in the appointment of Turgot as minister of finance. The latter was a man of ability and intelligence and clearly understood the state of financial ruin to which the government had been brought by extravagance and corruption. His motto comprised three things : "No bankruptcy, no increase of taxation, no loans." Voltaire de- 410 HISTORICAL FICTION clared that his edict establishing free trade in grain was the be- ginning of "a new heaven and a new earth." The measures of Turgot put an end to the lawless profiting under the old abuses which measures created opposition in which the queen joined. The weak king, possessed of little ability, dis- missed Turgot and repealed his reforms. Necker succeeded him, a man of honest intentions, but of limited understanding of the needs of the moment. For 175 years the Estates-General had been ignored, but now in this financial stress the king called upon this body and set aside the principle of absolute monarchy. Absolutism had failed. When that body met and agreed that they would not separate until "the constitution of the realm was established and fixed upon solid foundations" the kingly order was defied and ignored, and the French revolution had begun. In this division of the period, we are following the events to the beginning of the Revolution, and not to the execution of the king. The next chapter will be devoted to the Revolution. The Story The Queen's Necklace. 1849. Alexandre Dumas Marie Antoinette was but fifteen years of age when she mar- ried the Dauphin. Her contempt for ceremonies and the freedom of conduct to which she had been accustomed at home brought her into conflict with the dignity of the Court. It gave rise to scandalous reports, and while the imputations were no doubt groundless, yet they told against her reputation. The queen fully appreciated the fact that she was superior to Louis in mental qualities and power of action, and constantly meddled in the affairs of State. She was antagonistic to liberal ideas and opposed reform measures, and the influence she exer- cised over Louis was for evil and not for good. The two ministers, Turgot and Necker, had insisted upon economy, but the queen carried out her own extravagant notions, consulting no interests but her own. On the festivities at Ver- sailles she squandered money in the most lavish manner, and con- ducted things on a scale of the most prodigal magnificence. The reputation the queen had won for herself was exemplified in the attitude of the people toward her in the matter of the Dia- THE MODERN ERA 411 mond Necklace. This necklace had been made for Madame du Barry, whom Louis dismissed from the Court, and was valued at 1,600,000 livres. It was in the possession of the jeweler. Cardi- nal de Rohan, a vain, dissipated courtier, had lost the favor of the queen, and was anxious to be restored to her good graces. He knew that she was deeply interested in this necklace and wanted to purchase it secretly, and by acting for her in securing it he believed would win her favor and he would retrieve his former position. There was at the Court a notorious adventuress, Jeanne de la Motte, who, together with the charlatan and fraud, Cagliostro, seduced Rohan by promises to secure this necklace for the queen. He obtained it and a forged acceptance of the bill in the name of Marie Antoinette. Then Jeanne sold the necklace and the Cardinal, thus duped, was unable to pay the bill. The matter was brought before the king, and as the Cardinal was about to cele- brate Mass he was arrested and imprisoned in the Bastile. He was tried and acquitted, it being evident that he was the dupe of rogues, while the queen was innocent of any complicity in the mat- ter. The adventuress was placed in confinement. The queen, thus brought into the matter, was anxious to see the Cardinal condemned because of the fact that he committed himself to pur- chasing her favor, together with the fact that the people were well aware of her notorious extravagance and believed she had a part in the scheme. This story contains the account of this scandal. It sets forth the manner in which the adventuress impersonates the queen. The Cardinal had a meeting at night in the garden with a woman whom he supposed to be the queen, and it was whispered to him that he might hope for forgiveness, and thus the queen was com- promised until the impersonator was exposed. Balsamo (Cag- liostro) plays the part of a prophet in this story. Mesmer had brought from Germany his mysterious revelations, from whom the word mesmerism has sprung, and he is introduced. This sketching of the period from the accession of Louis XIV to the conditions under Louis XVI sets forth the stages through which France passed during these three reigns. We see the at- tempt of Absolutism under Louis the Great and its dismal failure under the weak Louis XVI. "Through the memorable winter 4 i2 HISTORICAL FICTION of 1788-89 all France, on the tiptoe of expectation, was awaiting the one great event — the meeting of its ancient representative Parliament — which, as was universally believed, was to inaugu- rate a new era of freedom, justice and prosperity for the entire people." But on the contrary, they were on the verge of a revo- lution that was to shake the nation from center to circumference. CHAPTER III THE FRENCH REVOLUTION There are two ways in which this great Revolution may be considered. To regard it as one would a wild, senseless mob let loose, a work of mere destruction and pulling to pieces, a casting aside of all restraints and an abandonment of all moral and relig- ious institutions with the setting up of the guillotine and the cutting off of heads by the score, a wild, unreasoning frenzy committed to destruction and bloodshed, would be to conceive of a hideous and revolting monstrosity. If it were simply that, it would have had little significance in the affairs of the world. It would have had no effect outside of the tinie of its existence, and would have passed out of sight as a great disturbance, a mam- moth riot, in the hands of a body of uncontrolled, irresponsible people. So far from that being a true or intelligent view, "the French Revolution, considered in its startling and tragic events, in its radical principles and in its momentous results and far-reaching influence, forms one of the most important epochs of modern history. France was but the center, from which burst forth and spread abroad through all Europe this transforming energy. It was an extreme and violent reaction from absolutism in govern- ment and from aristocracy in society ; hence its influence was alike profound on government and society." It was a time of uprooting, destruction, and bloodshed but these were the consequences of existing conditions, of ideas and institutions, from which the people clamored to be free. The peo- ple had awakened to a sense of their condition, the manner in which they had been fettered and deprived of their rights. And in this awakening they came to see the enormity of the political and social crime that had been committed against them. Men had taken note of such democratic institutions as prevailed in Great Britain and set forth the facts, had drawn comparisons and em- phasized the differences. Hence, what lay at the foundation of 413 414 HISTORICAL FICTION this great arising was an awakening of mind and a clearer per- ception of the rights of the individual. The French Revolution was modern to the core. It was a demand for liberty and equality. It was modern in its liberation and elevation of the many; in its struggle and contest with tyr- anny ; in its enthusiasm, aspiration and inspiration ; in its break- ing away from the moorings of an order of things that kept them chained, an absolutism that in principle and practice was rotten to the core. Such a Revolution cannot be justly interpreted from its crimes and excesses. "Neither can it be rightly and fully understood by a near or narrow view. For its clear comprehen- sion there is required a long look backward and forward, at its causes and results, together with an impartial weighing of its good with its evil. It is the mighty movement which convulsed and transformed France, and whose persuasive influence has leavened society and revolutionized governments." The Revolution extended from 1789 to 1799 and may be di- vided into three periods. Historical Outline. I. From the Beginning of the Revolution to the National Con- vention, 1 789- 1 792. 1. The States-General and the Constituent Assembly, 1789-91. 2. The Legislative Assembly, 1791-92. The War with Austria. II. The National Convention, 1792-95. The Republic. 1. The Girondins and Jacobins. 2. Trial and Execution of Louis XVI and Marie An- toinette, 1793. 3. The Revolutionary Government. 4. The Fall of the Girondins. 5. The Reign of Terror, 1793-94. The Fall of Robespierre. The New Constitution. III. The Directory, 1795-99. 1. The Rise of Napoleon. His Campaigns and Expe- ditions. 2. End of the Directory. THE MODERN ERA 415 I. To the National Convention The causes of the French Revolution may be briefly summed up. 1. Arbitrary and corrupt administration of Government. Ex- ecutive ministers and the legislative assembly were under the control of the king, and the king became a despot. Rich offices were sold to the highest bidders. Absolutism became despotism. 2. Loss of respect for the throne. The debauchery of Louis XV and his weak policy dissipated what reverence there had been for royalty. 3. Inequality and favoritism. Those who were able to pay for it were raised to distinction by the king. In 1789 France de- manded equality and fraternity. Nearly two-thirds of all the land was held by the nobles and the clergy, which brought only burdens to the poor. 4. Taxation and legislation. The weight of heavy taxes fell upon the common people, for the collection of which special courts were created. Two hundred and eighty-five law codes existed in the kingdom, and no peasant could know sufficient law to be safe outside of his home district. The legal class almost out- numbered the nobility, and drew their plunder from disputes over intricate laws. Justice as well as office went to the highest bidder. 5. Intellectual awakening. Aside from this the existing con- ditions would never have caused such an eruption. The English system of government had been investigated by Voltaire, who devoted his brilliant literary abilities to the exposure and criticism of the French regime. Rousseau, in his Social Contract, declared that "all power comes from the people, and they alone should determine the manner of their government." As great as was the power that Voltaire wielded, the first place among the pre- cursors of the Revolution is occupied by Rousseau. Mallet du Pan declared that he "had a hundred times more readers among the middle and lower classes than Voltaire." To this same end the works of Diderot and Montesquieu contributed. The cur- rent of thought was thus in a revolutionary direction. Montes- quieu had drawn attention to the liberty secured by the English constitution. Voltaire had dwelt on human rights — the rights of the individual. Rousseau had expatiated on the sovereign 416 HISTORICAL FICTION right of the majority. And to these agencies should be added the influence of the American Revolution, which was just then tri- umphant, and of the Declaration of Independence, with its proc- lamation of human rights, and the foundation of government in contract and the consent of the people. The States-General, the election of which took place during the winter of 1788-89, consisted of 1,200 members. The last sessions of that body were held 175 years before. It emphasized five things : first, the general state of suffering ; second, equal taxa- tion ; third, personal liberty ; fourth, freedom of the press ; fifth, finances to be under the control of the States-General. The Stories The Taking of the Bastile. 1853. Alexandre Dumas The Bastile was the state prison and citadel of Paris, and con- fined persons of rank and victims of the intrigues of the Court, and thus became a synonym of oppression and persecution. In 1789 a Parisian mob attacked the fortress, which was in charge of Governor Delaunay. The Royal Guard with artillery forced the Governor to drop the drawbridge. The Governor was slain and the Bastile was destroyed. Its site is marked by a bronze statue. This was the initial act of the Revolution. The capture of this citadel is one of the most stirring scenes in this story. Leading personages, royal and revolutionary, are introduced. The reader is referred to "The Attack on the Bastile," by Lafayette. The Red Fleur-de-Lys. 1911. May Wynne This story deals with what is known as the White Terror. It was a reign of violence instituted by those who returned to Southern France. It was prosecuted against the Reds for what they had suffered during the revolutionary horrors. The opera- tions of those who figured in this Terror are described by this story. THE MODERN ERA 417 A Golden Trust. 1905. Theo. Douglas In August 1792 was issued a statement that the object of the allies, Austria, Prussia, Sardinia, was to suppress the anarchy in France and to restore the monarchy. It was known that the king was in secret negotiations with Austria, and the result was a tre- mendous outburst of anger. Then followed an attack by an armed crowd on the Tuileries. The Swiss Guard was cut to pieces. The Commune imprisoned the royal family in the tower of the Temple. In the following month panic seized Paris when they learned that the Austrians were on their way to the city. A band of assassins, hired by the Commune, broke into the prisons, which were supposed to be occupied by royalists, and for five days massacred the inmates. The beautiful Madame de Lam- balle was among the victims. Her head was placed on a pike and shown to the queen at a window of the Temple. These horrors are described by this story in which the leaders of this time figure. Other stories : The Queen's Fillet (1911), by P. A. Sheehan, in which is de- scribed the slaughtering of the Swiss Guard. The Year One (1901), by John E. B. Burton. Nicole (1905), by Owen Johnson, which portrays the horrors of the massacre when the Tuileries were stormed. The Reds of the Midi. 1896. Felix Gras The Assembly deprived the king of his military support, and mobilized at Soissons 20,000 federal soldiers drawn from various sections of the country. The battalion from Marseilles marched into Paris singing their famous hymn, the war-song of the French Republic. The words were composed by Rouget de lTsle on the occasion of a body of volunteers leaving Strassburg for the war against Austria and Prussia, and was entitled by him War-Song of the Army of the Rhine. But from the circumstance of this battalion from Marseilles, singing it as they came into Paris, it has come to be called the Marseillaise. This author (1 844-1 901) was born at Malemort, Vaucluse. After settling in Avignon he was for a considerable time a justice of the peace. During this period he was brought into contact with 4i8 HISTORICAL FICTION the originators of the modern Provencal revival. This historical novel, "The Reds of the Midi," was first published in New York. This story is a graphic description of this instance of this gath- ering of the troops. This battalion participated in the storming of the Tuileries. The Girondin. 1911. Hilaire Belloc Following the massacre, noted above, partly the result of the defeat of the French army, on September 20 the tide turned and the French were victorious in the battle of Valmy which for a time quieted the disorder in Paris. The Austrians thus thrown back the prospects looked brighter for French arms. The day following the victory the Legislative Assembly ceased to exist and the National Assembly became a fact. Both the overthrow of the monarchy and the defeat of the Assembly were brought about by the Commune. This story has its setting in the struggle between the French and the Austrians. It describes the battle of Valmy, in which the young soldier of the story, righting with the army of the Republic, is killed. II. The National Convention The Convention was rent by two parties, the Jacobins and the Girondins. The latter were the advocates of moderation, were willing to temporize, and were supported by the middle classes who were disposed to uphold property and order. The Jacobins were radicals of the most uncompromisng type, who made their appeal to the mob. While the Girondins tried to hinder destruc- tive measures, the Jacobins demanded that the Revolution should be carried to greater extremes. There was another point on which they were divided : "the Girondins deriving their support from the provinces, stood for the independence of the Convention and the rights of the departments against the domination of the Commune of Paris. The Jacobins, who depended upon the Com- mune, advocated a strongly centralized government and the su- premacy of the capital in the State." While the Girondins were fairly homogeneous as a class, the Jacobins consisted of a mixed crowd held together by a common hatred for their opponents and by their passion for power. THE MODERN ERA 419 The Stories The Countess de Charny. 1853. Alexandre Dumas In 1790 Louis swore allegiance to the new Constitution brought out under the Constituent Assembly, to which Constitution he entertained the most bitter and hostile feelings. His next move was the most indiscreet thing he could have done, and that was to escape from Paris, which was probably advised by the queen. On June 20 they left the city, but by some misfortune, instead of get- ting to Metz, as they designed, got no further than Varennes. Here they were arrested and brought back to the city. His brother (afterwards Louis XVIII), who fled on the same night, succeeded in getting to Brussels. There was a well-defined sus- picion that the king was scheming with foreign powers, and these were established when a document of his was found that he had left behind in which he declared his hostility to the new Consti- tution. This story follows the events of this period and describes the flight of the king and queen, their arrest and return to the city. The mobilization of troops, the war with Austria, the scene at the Tuileries, and political movements are portrayed. A committee was now commissioned to bring in a report on the king's conduct. Robespierre argued that he should be exe- cuted without any legal process, which was rejected. He was brought before the Convention and charged with conspiracy against public liberty and the safety of the nation. His counsel appointed to defend him were strong men, and at the close of the year (1792) he was found guilty, and when the vote was taken he nearly escaped the death penalty. He had borne himself throughout with dignity, and in the supreme moment his courage supported him. Standing on the scaffold he started to speak, protesting his innocence, but his voice was drowned by the drums and then his head fell by the guillotine. This was in January, 1793- These tragic scenes occupy an important place in this story, in which are introduced the leading personages of the time — Danton, Mirabeau, Robespierre, etc. 4 2o HISTORICAL FICTION No Surrender. 1900. George A. Henty The sensation which the execution of Louis XVI created swept over Europe, which more completely united the foes of France. Reverses came to French arms when the allies took the offensive. While the situation took on serious aspects from abroad new troubles at home arose. The provinces became hostile, and in the west, where monarchical sympathies were alive and active, opposition to the breaking up of the old order manifested itself in the uprising in Vendee. Vendee is in the west part on the Bay of Biscay. When the Republic issued a proclamation that 300,000 men were to be drafted for the army the Vendee rose in rebellion that was attended with frightful consequences. These western provinces were also fired with indignation because of the suppression of the Church, the nobility and the throne. The Girondins had opposed the measure of the Commune for special legislation, and the rabble incited by the utterances of Marat and others demanded the blood of the "anti-patriots." The western and southern provinces favored the Girondins. When the Jacobins arrested twenty-two leaders of the Gironde, the insurrection burst into a flame in Toulon, Bordeaux, Grenoble, Marseilles, Caen, Lyons and other cities. The insurgents in Vendee, under the peasant chief Cathelineau and under the Vendee leader Henri du La Roche jaquelein, swept everything before them. Marat, the Jacobin leader, was assassinated by Charlotte Corday of Caen. At Nantes the Vendeans were re- pulsed in disorder by the forces of Robespierre, but not until the end of the year was the insurrection crushed by Kleber and Marceau. The course of this insurrection is well presented in this story, showing the successes of the insurgents in their movement to the walls of Nantes, and their conflict with the troops of the Republic. Ninety-Three. 1872. Victor Hugo This unusual story of the French Revolution lays the scene in Brittany in 1793. A tower defended by the Royalists is besieged by the Republicans. The setting of the town on fire and the rescue of the children in the tower by the leader of the Royalists is a THE MODERN ERA 421 remarkable portrayal. Leaders of the Revolution, Robespierre and Danton and others are introduced. Storm and Treasure. 1910. H. C. Bailey Great as was the Reign of Terror in Paris, it was by no means confined to that city. In some of the provinces it assumed a still more monstrous form. Lyons was one of the cities that had re- volted and Collot-d'Herbois, Cauthon and Fouche were commis- sioned to treat that city to the Terror, which they did with the most atrocious kind of slaughtering. Carrier, the agent of the Convention, was likewise employed at Nantes. Executions by the guillotine amounted to several hundred a day, but that was too slow and tedious, so Carrier instituted the system of whole- sale drownings (Noyades), and within four months he was able to report some 15,000 victims. This wholesale system of murdering under Carrier is brought out in this story in describing the uprising in La Vendee. The leaders on both sides appear in the story. Other stories: The Red Caps of Lyons (1909), by Herbert Hayens, giving an account of the measures of Collot-d'Herbois and his colleagues in bringing the Terror upon this section. The Adopted (1839), by Mrs. Anna E. Bray, which deals with the wholesale methods of killing at Nantes. La Vendee (1850), by Anthony Trollope, which describes the successes of the insurgents. The White Cockade, by Captain Charles Gilson, in which the Terror in Nantes is portrayed. The Chevalier de Maison-Rouge. 1846. Alexandre Dumas The hero is a royalist conspirator, who, in conjunction with a woman, plans to rescue Marie Antoinette from the Tower. Other conspirators have determined upon the same thing, and have worked out a better plot. The hero's plan conflicts with that of the others and renders it abortive, and he is willing to pay for his blunder with his life. The plot completely fails and the conspira- tors are seized. 422 HISTORICAL FICTION "G. Le Notre, in The Real Maison Rouge (1894), shows that this hot-headed youth was in actual life known as A. D. J. Gonze de Rougeville. He did take a bold part in the attempts to free Marie Antoinette, but he was a less chivalric person than his double in fiction. In fact he was an impostor of plebeian birth, who usurped the name of de Rougeville. He survived until 1814." Marie Antoinette and Her Son. 1867. Louise Muhlbach In January, 1793, the guillotine ended the career of Louis XVI. In October of that year the queen was brought before the revolutionary tribunal charged with having exhausted the treasury and negotiating with the enemies of France. In defending herself against these charges she exhibited great firmness and poise. When the sentence of death was pronounced she received it with perfect calmness, and was supported by the same steadiness when she went to the guillotine the following morning. This German author (1814-1873), whose real name was Klara Mundt, was born in Neubrandenburg. She wrote exten- sively in the field of historical fiction. Her works "are sensa- tional, inartistic, distorted, but show a talent for lively description and narration that gave her a wide but short-lived popularity." This story covers an extended period, including events from 1784 to the execution of the Duke of Enghien, the heir of the Conde family. In the plot against Napoleon, in which Cadoudal was a leading figure, the duke was seized by the orders of Bona- parte and shot, notwithstanding the fact that there was not an iota of proof that he had the slightest part in the plot of Cadoudal. The execution of the queen follows in the order of events as narrated by this story, also a romantic tale of the escape of the young Dauphin, regarding whom other stories deal. Andree de Taverney. 1855. Alexandre Dumas The leading event of this story is the execution of the king and queen. A large number of historical personages, royalist and revolutionary, are introduced — Robespierre, Danton, Lafayette, Dumouriez, Madame de Stael, Madame Roland and others. THE MODERN ERA 423 Monsieur de Paris. 1907. Mary C. Rowsell Following the execution of Marie Antoinette, twenty-one members of the Gironde went to the guillotine singing the Mar- seillaise. On November 8, 1793, less than a month after the execution of the queen, Madame Roland suffered the same fate. She took a prominent part in the Revolution. Her home became a rendevous for the Girondist leaders, of whose cause she was an active supporter. She was cast into prison and from that time to her execution she wrote memoirs in which much of the history of the times is set forth. Then Madame du Barry, the notorious mistress of Louis XV, of whom we have said much in that con- nection, was now brought to trial charged with having squandered the pubHc wealth, which was eminently true, and was executed. This is a story of this once powerful woman in the affairs of State, which describes her execution. Zanoni. 1842. Bulwer-Lytton The events of this story fall in the Reign of Terror. The hero is a Rosicrucian (Rosy Cross). The secret of this order (the existence of which is sometimes questioned) has been guarded by its members. The aim of the Brothers of the Rosy Cross "was said to be the improvement of humanity by the dis- covery of the 'true philosophy,' and they claimed a deep knowl- edge of the mysteries of nature, such as the permutation of metals, the prolongation of life, the existence of spirits and the events occurring in distant countries." The general mystery shrouding the history and purposes of the order have created considerable curiosity. The hero of this story was a member of this order. He com- municates with spirits and has prolonged his life to a great period. He sacrifices his power of supernatural perception and immor- tality by marrying an opera-singer. During the Terror he con- trived to save his wife from the guillotine by substituting himself. Desmoulins, who incited the crowd to violence when the Bastile was destroyed, appears in the story with Robespierre. A Tale of Two Cities. 1859. Charles Dickens This story is a vivid portrayal of the Reign of Terror. Ernest Defarge, a wineseller, is the leader of the Revolutionists in the 424 HISTORICAL FICTION suburb of St. Antoine in Paris. His wife, a vindictive old woman, who sits quietly knitting all day, is his enthusiastic accomplice. Dr. Alexander Manette, a physician, has professional knowl- edge of the shady transactions of a family of the nobility, and that they shall not be menaced by this he is confined for eighteen years in the Bastile, but regains his liberty just at the outbreak of the Revolution. He is taken care of by his daughter, Lucie. Charles Darnay, Marquis St. Evremonde, is the lover of Lucie Manette. She is also loved by Sidney Carton, the principal char- acter of the story. He is a young lawyer, but his talents have been rendered abortive by dissipation. His one redeeming quality is his pure, noble love for Lucie, who is betrothed to Darnay. In physical appearance Carton is Darnay's exact counterpart, and taking advantage of this fact, for the sake of his love for Lucie, manages to substitute himself for her lover in prison and saves him from the guillotine, by taking his condemnation under the name Darnay and thus suffering execution. On the way to the scaffold he is the support and comfort of a sewing girl, and standing upon the scaffold has a vision of Paris : "I see Barsad and Cly Defarge, the Vengeance, the Juryman, the Judge, long ranks of the new oppressors who have risen on the destruction of the old, perishing by this retributive instrument, before it shall cease out of its present use. I see a beautiful city and a brilliant people rising from this abyss, and, in their struggles to be truly free, in their triumphs and defeats, through long years to come, I see the evil of this time and of the previous time, of which this is the natural birth, gradually making expiation for itself and wearing out. I see the lives for which I lay down my life, peaceful, useful, prosperous and happy, in that England which I shall see no more. It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done ; it is a far, far better rest that I go to, than I have ever known." The Mysterious Monsieur Dupont. 1913. Frederick Arthur The outstanding figure in the Reign of Terror is that of Robes- pierre (1758- 1 794). At the opening of the Revolution he was elected deputy to the States-General. He was a Jacobin and be- came the leader of the radicals in the National Convention. Sup- THE MODERN ERA 425 ported by Danton and others he compassed the overthrow of the Girondins. Danton finally became disgusted with the extreme measures employed and Robespierre had him arrested. He made a tremendous fight against his accusers but without success, and fell a victim to the tyranny he had exerted his energies to create ; he and Desmoulins went to the guillotine together. The Reign of Terror was at its height, and the power of Robes- pierre seemed established. The Convention, at the dictation of those who demanded the most extreme measures of the Terror, abolished Christianity and introduced a Cult of Reason. Robes- pierre, who was a deist, was horrified with the atheism repre- sented by the Cult of Reason, and the people were required to accept as the creed of the State "the doctrines of the existence of a Supreme Being, the immortality of the soul and the moral duty of man." The famous statement of Robespierre will be recalled, that "if there were not a Supreme Being it would be necessary to create one." The authority of Robespierre, however, was not absolute. His ascendency alarmed the Convention, and a party in opposition to him arose that accused him of despotism, declaring him a menace to the existing order. He was cast into Luxemburg prison and in 1794, with twenty-three of his adherents, he went to the guillotine, to which he himself had sent so many. On the follow- ing day 71 members of the Commune were beheaded, and on the next day 12, and with these executions the Terror practically came to a close. During the brief period of this Reign of Terror heads fell into the basket of the guillotine by the hundreds, while the women with their knitting sat by counting them as they fell. In this story the family of Dupont, who is a woman disguised, all went to the guillotine. She has dealings with the leaders of the Revolution, and is mixed up with the secret organizations. The Vendean insurrection, the wholesale method of putting the people to death in Nantes, and the fall of the leaders of the Terror, are all crowded into the story. Other stories : The Friend of the People (1894), by Mary C. Rowsell. A Marriage Under the Terror (1910), by Miss Patricia Went- worth, which pictures the scenes in the dungeons and of the tri- bunals, before which the victims are brought. 426 HISTORICAL FICTION In the Reign of Terror (1887), by G. A. Henty, giving the scenes in Paris and the provinces. The Elusive Pimpernel (1908), by Baroness Orczy, giving the scenes at the guillotine and the saving of some of the con- demned. Lazarre. 1901. Mary H. Catherwood History tells us that the Dauphin, Louis XVII, died in prison in 1795. In Louise Miihlbach's story, Marie Antoinette and Her Son, is set forth the theory that he was taken from prison by an officer of Napoleon, went under the name of Baron de Richmond and lived until 1853. In Lazarre his escape from prison was ac- complished and he was taken to America in a state of imbecility. There his reason returned and two courses were open to him : he might return to France and claim the throne, or marry a girl of the common people with whom he had fallen in love. He chose the latter. III. The Directory In 1795, by a new Constitution, the government was placed in the hands of a Directory consisting of five persons, who were selected by the Council of the Ancients from a list furnished by the Five Hundred. The first Directors had been members of the Convention and had voted for the execution of the king. The period of the Directory was a period of dissolution. Fol- lowing the rapacity and bloodshed of the Terror, the people gave themselves over to pleasure, luxury, extravagance and gambling. The ballrooms and theaters were crowded. "From top to bottom of the social scale there was a loosening of the national fibre. Morals and manners were alike depraved. Corruption and venality flourished unchecked. It prepared the way for military despotism, and especially for the dominating personality, who now rose rapidly into prominence, and was shortly to become, not only the controlling force in the destinies of France, but also the greatest figure on the European stage" — Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1799 the Directory came to an end, with which also terminated the period of the French Revolution. THE MODERN ERA 427 The Stories The God of Clay. 1908. H. C. Bailey Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was born at Ajaccio, Cor- sica. At the age of ten he was placed in the military school of Brienne, and later, for a brief period, attended the military school of Paris. He then received a commission as lieutenant of artillery and in 1792 became captain of artillery. During that summer, while in Paris, he saw the mob attacking the Tuileries and said to a friend who was with him, "Why did they let those blackguards in there?" Nevertheless he realized that his own advantage lay in espousing the Jacobin cause. In the following year he was sent to capture Toulon, then in the hands of the British, which conquest was effected by his usual strategy. In 1795 the mob of Paris rose against the Convention. For its defence Napoleon was placed at the head of 5,000 troops. An insurgent force of 40,000 marched to the Tuileries where the Con- vention was in session. With a "whiff of grapeshot" Napoleon cleared the streets, disbanded the National Guard, disarmed the populace and put an end to the outbreak. This story deals with the facts of Napoleon's early years, tracing his military advancement. It describes the scene at the Tuileries when he scattered the huge mob with the "whiff of grape- shot." It was in the following year that he married Josephine who appears in the story. In the same year he had a series of victories over the Austrians and by the battle of Lodi, in which he forced the bridge in the face of a galling fire, he compelled them to seek peace, forced the pope to sign an armistice and thus placed the whole of northern Italy under France. By the Peace of Campo Formio, Austria was made to surrender the Nether- lands and Lombardy. The story in its historical range carries us to the campaign in Syria where he was compelled to abandon Acre, defended by the English under Sidney Smith, who appears in the story, also Nelson, who had destroyed the French fleet, cut- ting off Napoleon's return to Europe. Other Stories: A Pawn in the Game (1908) by W. H. Fitchett, which deals with the massacre at the Tuileries, carries us through the Reign 428 HISTORICAL FICTION of Terror to the protection of the Convention by Napoleon, and through his Egyptian and Syrian campaigns. The Lost Empire (1909) by Captain C. Gilson, in which the period of the Directory is presented. It includes the war in India when Seringapatam was subdued by the British, which facts are fully set forth in our English Studies. The Whites and the Blues. 1867. Alexandre Dumas In the year 1797 the elections added a large body of deputies interested in the restoration of the monarchy, and a Bourbon sympathizer by the name of Barthelemy entered the Directory. The result was that the Republican Directors with the assistance of their adherents, swept their enemies from the Directory, Bar- thelemy and Carnot being compelled to escape from the country, and many others being exiled. The whole country was in a fer- ment of political unrest. The Directory was tottering. Bonaparte received the news and saw, as he expressed it, that the "pear was ripe." Abandoning his army he rushed to Paris, and the doom of the Directory was sealed. The country was with him. The infuriated Republicans set up a wild tumult in which Napoleon was almost dismembered, but the military suppressed the ris- ing and the Directory was at an end. The events of the Revolution are followed by this story through the Terror and the period of the Directory. The election and the clearing out of the enemies of the Republicans, the com- ing of Napoleon to Paris, are described. It was the opportunity for which Napoleon was looking and it brought about his rise to power. Madame Therese. 1863. E. Erckmann — A. Chatrian The scene is laid in a little village of the Vosges in these days of revolution sweeping over the country and finding its way into the villages and hamlets. Madame Therese, who is portrayed as a woman of high appreciations, a rare character, is present with soldier comrades who come into conflict with Austrian troops. She is left for dead on the street. A doctor of benevolent im- pulses rescues her from further harm, takes care of her injuries and then falls in love with her. THE MODERN ERA 429 Alphonse de Lamartine has written on the "Godlessness of the French Revolution," in a novel of that name, to which the reader is referred. CHAPTER IV THE RISE AND EMPIRE OF NAPOLEON Napoleon stands out conspicuously among the great leaders of the world. He was a man of extraordinary force, quickness, dis- patch, intensity, concentration and endurance. Perhaps more than any other man did he combine these qualities in remarkable pro- portion. His career, however, was in the broadest sense histor- ical, and not merely individual. He was essentially a warrior, a conqueror, coming upon the stage of action under conditions fa- vorable to his own aggrandizement. He fought and conquered for revolutionary France. Napoleon has been called the prodigy of modern history. "In military genius and achievements he ranks with Alexander, Cae- sar and Hannibal. Of the eventful history of his own time he is the central figure, the chief actor; that history is in fact his biog- raphy. So is his intrinsic greatness blended with the events of one of the most memorable epochs of modern times that the most studied depreciation fails essentially to diminish it." This striking personality was both the product and creator of his time. In his person the tremendous force of the Revolution was concentrated and found its greatest expression. In him a despotic government came to centralization. It was far from liberty but it left far behind in a remote past the absolutism of Richelieu, Louis XIV and Louis XV which the Revolution for- ever destroyed. For fifteen years the dominance of this man of power was to be felt throughout Europe and the world. But those intrinsic laws by which absolutism was overthrown, rendered it equally impossible for Napoleon and his designs ultimately to succeed. With all his great endowments, his mighty force and transcendent energies, "he had also great weaknesses ; and doubtless his greatest weakness, like that of some other great men, is found in his de- fective moral principle. He was not destitute of the moral, but neither was he subject to it. He sought success with too little re- 430 THE MODERN ERA 431 gard to the means, and was not in harmony with the moral order of the world." I. The Consulate The new Constitution, while it was the work of Sieyes, was wholly in line with the ideas and designs of Napoleon. The Ex- ecutive consisted of three consuls, and Napoleon was elected First Consul, in which capacity he was invested with chief authority, and controlled the largest measure of governmental power. Placed at the head of the army and the State he was practically the Dic- tator of France. Torn by revolution and anarchy, France needed a strong arm It needed unity, centralization, order and prosperity. Napoleon at the very beginning declared, "There are no longer Jacobins, or Moderates or Royalists ; there are only Frenchmen." He cre- ated a strong government, which was followed by the other things that were so greatly the need of the moment. The finances were organized, education was systematized, agriculture and industry were developed. The Church in France was restored, but di- vorced from the State from which it received no support. Catholi- cism, Protestantism and Judaism were made state religions under governmental control. Napoleon was made Consul for life, but he had larger designs. He had dreams of Empire and heirs in his line holding the throne. Royalist agitators played into his hands, and in 1804 the Senate recommended that the Republic be transformed into an Empire. The vote was taken on May 3 with but one dissenting vote, that of Carnot. On November 6, Napoleon became Napoleon I, Em- peror of France. The Stories Sons of Victory. 1904. O.V. Caine As soon as the Consulate was formed and Napoleon had been raised to power he proposed peace to England and Austria, which was desired by the French people. The proposals were rejected. The army on the Rhine was under the command of Moreau, and that on the Italian Riviera was commanded by Massena. Napo- leon then gathered another army which he placed under his own command, and with which he made his celebrated march across the Alps. 432 HISTORICAL FICTION On the plains of Marengo he took the Austrians wholly by surprise and in that battle completely crushed them. When Moreau won his great victory at Hohenlinden the war with Aus- tria ended. England, however, under Nelson brought destruction to the French fleet, and Napoleon was forced to make terms with his invincible foe. In the treaty France regained lost colonies but was required to evacuate the Papal States, the Two Sicilies and Egypt. The French victories are set forth in this story. Joubert was killed at Novi, Massena won a brilliant victory over the Russians at Zurich, which was made possible by the manner in which the great Russian general, Suvoroff, was hampered by the Austrians. This victory saved France. General George. 1903. Moreton Hall There was still a determined opposition of Royalists and Re- publicans to Napoleon's personal rule. As he entered the opera house one night, a body of Republicans attempted to assassinate him, and still another plot almost succeeded. He was well aware that this was a Royalist plot in the point of origin, but he was anxious to crush the Jacobins and used this as a pretext for doing so. Leaders of the party, many of them wholly guiltless, were banished to Cayenne. The Chouan leader, Georges Cadoudal, was at the head of this plot. The conspiracy had its origin in London among members of the Bourbon party. Cadoudal and Charles Pichegru were the chief agents to whom was committed the execution of the con- spiracy. The plot became known. Cadoudal was put to death and his colleague committed suicide. Moreau, who was in the plot, escaped the death sentence and was banished. It was under these conditions that Napoleon was guilty of the judicial murder of an innocent man. To terrorize the Royalists he seized the Duke of Enghien, who was then living by himself in his castle on the Rhine, had him tried in a wholly irregular man- ner, condemned and shot. "It served at least as an object-lesson to show the world that he was capable of defying the plainest principles of morality when by doing so he believed that he could attain a desired end." This crime has remained one of the black- est spots upon the character of Napoleon. THE MODERN ERA 433 This conspiracy, with Georges Cadoudal the chief emissary, constitutes the historical interest of this story. Many historical personages are introduced. Other Stories : Dealing with the same general situation and the leading spirit of these conspiracies are the following stories : The Chouans (1829) by Honore de Balzac. The House of the Combrays (1903) by G. Le Notre. The Companions of Jehu (1857) by Alexandre Dumas. The Hour and the Man. 1840. Harriet Martineau This English author (1802-1876) was born at Norwich. She was of French Huguenot extraction. When a girl she contributed to religious papers, and as a means of livelihood devoted herself to literature. After visiting the United States in 1834 she pub- lished Society in America and Western Travel. She visited the East and then published Eastern Life in which she states the change in her religious beliefs from Unitarianism to Agnosticism. The Republic of Santo Domingo occupies the eastern part of the island of Hayti. Toussaint Louverture, a negro, was born a slave, but contrived to secure some education. In 1791 the slaves raised an insurrection and Toussaint became their leader. Two years later the emancipation of the slaves was proclaimed. When the French government discovered that he possessed both military and political ability it made him general in chief of the troops of Santo Domingo. He defeated the English invasion in 1799 an ^ made himself master of the island having vested in him supreme civil authority. By a constitution that was framed he was made president of Hayti for life. In order for Napoleon to carry out his colonial scheme he saw that it would be necessary to make absolutely sure of the subju- gation of Hayti. He was not satisfied that Toussaint was not planning independence. He sent Leclerc with 10,000 men and Toussiant was compelled to surrender, though assured of personal safety. After six weeks he was arrested and sent to France by order of Napoleon, and within a year died in a fortress in which he was imprisoned. This story presents the achievements of this negro liberator, and is devoted particularly to the period of his activities from the 434 HISTORICAL FICTION time he became the leader of the blacks, and was raised to supreme authority in the island, to his conflict with Napoleon, his surren- der and the ending of his career in the Jura Mountains. The reader will find "Toussaint L'Ouverture" by Wendell Phillips an interesting and valuable statement of this character. II. The Empire Amid all the pomp and display that could be effected, Napo- leon was crowned Emperor of France in Notre Dame, 1804. It was characteristic of him to have the Pope do the most unusual thing, to come to Paris and in person bestow the papal benedic- tion ; and it was equally characteristic of him that he should refuse to receive from the hands of the Pope the symbol of his sover- eignty and should place the crown upon his own head. Whatever this may have signified, that the Church and State were separate institutions, or that the throne was not subservient to the Church, in any case the same thing was emphasized in the following year when in the Duomo of Milan he placed the crown upon his head as King of Italy. For ten years we are to behold the spectacle of this new poten- tate, dominated by the lust for power, trying to realize his dream of a World-Empire. To bring all Europe under his sway is the objective of his ambition. Regarding himself the equal of Alex- ander and Ceasar he felt that the fact must be demonstrated and be given similar expression in imperial creations. To carve his way to fortune this indomitable man brought to the task "his iron constitution, his stupendous genius, his versatility, his in- flexible will, his monstrous egotism, his fatalistic faith in himself and his star, his utter callousness, his supreme contempt of hu- manity and the laws of morality (which he once brutally declared were not made for him), his complete indifference to everything except his own ambitions and interests." Historical Outline. The Third Coalition, 1805. Great Britain, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Naples. Ulm, Trafalgar, Austerlitz. The treaty of Pressburg. The Fourth Coalition, 1806-7. Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Sweden. Jena, Auerstadt, Eylau, Friedland. The treaty of Tilsit. THE MODERN ERA 435 The Conflict with England — The Peninsula War, 1807-14. The Continental System. The blockade against Britain. Possession of Papal States. Capture of Madrid. Napoleon defeated at Saragossa and Valencia. Driven from Portugal by Wellington. French Victories : Durango, Burgos, Espinosa, Tudela. The Fifth Coalition, 1809. Great Britain, Austria, Spain, Portugal. French Victories : Abensberg, Eckmuhl, Wagram. Austria and the treaty of Schonbrunn. Annexation of Papal States. Ney driven from Galicia. The Empire of Napoleon. Rome, Florence, Amsterdam, Hamburg as capital cities. The Illyrian provinces and Ionian Isles, Naples, West- phalia, Spain, Switzerland, Saxony, Bavaria, Wurtem- burg, Confederation of the Rhine. Invasion of Russia, 181 2. The retreat from Moscow, and loss of prestige. The Sixth Coalition, 181 3- 14. Great Britain, Prussia, German States, Spain, Portugal, Russia, Sweden, Austria. French victories at Lutzen, Bautzen, Dresden. French crushed at Leipzig. Napoleon on the defensive. Invasion of France. Abdication of Napoleon. King of the Island of Elba. The Waterloo Campaign, 181 5. The Bourbon Restoration. Louis XVIII. Napoleon's escape from Elba. "The Hundred Days." Waterloo. Banished to St. Helena. For the sake of uniformity and maintaining a greater unity, all stories dealing with the Napoleonic Era, the campaigns and conflicts in the different countries will be treated in this section, and not in connection with the various countries in which these events occurred. This, we believe, will contribute to unity in handling the international relations during the period that Napo- leon was in conflict with Europe. References to this section will 436 HISTORICAL FICTION be made when we come to this era in the treatment of the sepa- rate states. The Third Coalition Napoleon's great objective was the conquest of England. He regarded Great Britain as the most formidable of his enemies, and was the one state that stood in the way of realizing his am- bition. In 1805 Austria, Russia, Sweden and Naples joined with Britain as the Third Coalition against him. Breaking up his camp at Boulogne, at the head of the best equipped army in Europe, he marched across the German States, utterly indifferent to the rights of neutrality. He captured Ulm and an Austrian army. He now moved on to Vienna. This capital had never been, in the course of modern history, in the hands of a foreign foe. The com- bined Russian and Austrian army met Napoleon in the battle of Austerlitz and the former suffered a complete defeat. Napoleon considered that among all his victories that was the masterpiece. It was followed by the Treaty of Pressburg. He divided up the territories and placed over them, as their rulers, relatives and marshals. The Stories Fleur-de-Camp. 1905. A. G. Campbell This story details the events of this Third Coalition and car- ries us through the entire Napoleonic Era. It describes the break- ing up of the camp at Boulogne when Napoleon learned of the coalition formed against him, the march into Austria and his great victories. The story is inclusive of the conquests and fall of Napoleon. War and Peace. 1865. Lyof Tolstoy This celebrated author (1 828-1 910) was born at Yasnoya Polyana a few years after the fall of Napoleon. He took a course in law and Oriental languages in the University of Kazan. He served in the Russian army in the Crimean War, and took part in the siege of Sebastopol. After spending some time abroad he settled down on his estates. He devoted himself to the well- being of the peasants, and for five years he lived their simple life and engaged in their work. His two works, War and Peace and Anna Karenina secured his standing as a writer of fiction, and following these he took up social and religious questions. In 1899 THE MODERN ERA 437 the Resurrection appeared. In his religious views he emphasized the teachings of Christ as the basis of individual development. This story covers^ the Napoleonic Era from the time of the establishment of the Empire, setting forth the various phases of Russian life and the character of this period. It gives us a near view of the time and the people. In dealing with the Third Coali- tion it furnishes a description of Napoleon's brilliant victory at Austerlitz. It is characterized by its philosophical delineations. Trafalgar. 1884. Benito Perez Galdos At Ulm Napoleon learned that his fleet had been destroyed by Nelson in the battle of Trafalgar, that the English were in ab- solute control of the sea, and that his schemes for the invasion of England were shattered. This battle, as described by this story, is set forth in our English Studies of this period. The Fourth Coalition In 1806-7 the coalition formed against Napoleon comprised Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Sweden. Joseph Bonaparte was made king of Naples and Sicily, and Louis Bonaparte king of Holland. In July of 1806 was formed the Confederation of the Rhine. At Jena and Austerstadt the Prussian army was crushed, and Napoleon entered Berlin. In pursuit of Frederick William, the French waded through snow and mud to their knees, and at Eylau was fought one of the bloodiest battles. The victory was a dear one for Napoleon, and the battle is sometimes regarded as indecisive. At Friedland the Russians were defeated and Alex- ander I made peace. The Stories Napoleon and Blucher. 1858. Louise Muhlbach Blucher, the Prussian general, fought at Auerstadt and was also defeated at Rat Kow. After the peace of Tilsit he was em- ployed in the department of war at Koenigsberg and Berlin. The successes of Napoleon in defeating the Prussians and Russians in this period are set forth in this story. Jena, Auerstadt and the taking of Berlin are described. Following the defeat of the Russians at Friedland, Napoleon and Alexander, on a raft 438 HISTORICAL FICTION in the river Niemen, sketched the outlines of the treaty of Til- sit. So thoroughly was Alexander deluded by Napoleon that he signed a secret article agreeing to unite with Napoleon against Britain if the latter refused to make peace. It was not long be- fore the Czar came to realize the insincerity of Napoleon's prom- ises, and in what manner he had committed himself to the working out of the schemes of the conqueror. This treaty, by which Prus- sia lost nearly half of her possessions, out of which was formed the kingdom of Westphalia, is set forth in this story, which car- ries the events to the close of the era. It introduces many histor- ical personages of the time ; the king and queen of Prussia, Blu- cher, Josephine, Talleyrand, and many others. Love and Honor. 1901. M. E. Carr We have referred to the manner in which the new kingdom of Westphalia was formed out of a part of the possessions of Prussia taken by Napoleon. This section lay between the Elbe and the Rhine. Jerome, Napoleon's youngest brother, was made the ruler of this kingdom. This kingdom, together with Holland, over which Napoleon placed his brother Louis, gave him the en- tire control of the seaboard from the Rhine to the Elbe. The affairs of this kingdom under the administration of Jerome are dealt with in this story. Tom Burke of Ours. 1844. Charles Lever This Irish novelist (i 806-1 872) was born in the year to which part of this story relates. The Secretary to the British Embassy in Belgium invited him to Brussels which invitation he accepted, and in that city practiced medicine. After two years he returned to Ireland and became editor of the "Dublin University Maga- zine." He now devoted himself entirely to literary pursuits. Tom Burke of Ours first appeared as a serial story in this magazine. His residence in France enabled him to impart to the story the right coloring. This story is an exciting picture of the events of Napoleon's campaigns and gives a good delineation of the conqueror. The battles of Austerlitz and Jena are well portrayed. The titular hero, an orphan, becomes implicated in an Irish political plot and THE MODERN ERA 439 flees to France. He receives a commission from Napoleon. He is unjustly accused of taking part in the Chouan plot of Georges Cadoudal, which we have fully described, but he stands trial and is saved from the fate of the leaders of the plot through influential persons. He is quite familiar with Napoleon, and in one instance saves his life. He again meets him at the time of his abdication. The Adventures of an Aide-de-Camp. 1848. James Grant During the days of the Directory and the Empire, England rendered Italy valuable support. The victory of Maida is a con- spicuous instance of England's attitude. In the days of Italian emancipation, the days of Garibaldi, Italy had the warm sym- pathy of the English people. This story has its setting in this period when the British troops were active in Italy under Stuart. The battle of Maida is de- scribed. The operations against the French and the adventures pertaining to that campaign are included. The Cross of Honor. 1910. Mary Openshaw The Poles believed that Napoleon would restore to them their liberty. They not only welcomed him, but placed under his com- mand a large body of men. Their action gained little for them. He established under his own control the Duchy of Warsaw, but after his fatal invasion of Russia this duchy lost its independence. The Countess Walewska figures in this story. Count Walew- ski ( 1 810- 1 868), a French statesman, was the son of Napoleon and this Polish Countess. He was born at Walewice, Poland. He joined the Polish army when the Revolution of 1830 broke out in Poland. When Warsaw surrendered he went to France. He figured in important capacities : was sent to Egypt on a diplo- matic mission ; held appointments under the Guizot ministry ; was envoy at Florence and Naples ; became minister of foreign affairs ; in i860 was appointed Minister of State. For this period of the Fourth Coalition the reader is again referred to War and Peace by Count Tolstoy. 440 HISTORICAL FICTION Conflict with England. The Peninsula War Protected by her insular position and her splendid fleet, Eng- land could defy Napoleon, and to accomplish his designs against her he created the Continental System. The aim of this system was to cut England off commercially from Europe. Thus Prus- sia was forced to close her ports to Britain. Portugal was ordered by Napoleon to do the same, and on refusing to obey the order, a French army marched into Portugal. Smuggling became wide- spread, and English goods found their way into the Continent. Against Napoleon's arrogance Spain arose in 1808, and Britain sent her troops to participate in the Peninsular War (1808-14). Over her troops was placed the able commander, the Duke of Wellington. The intrigues and quarrels in Spain contributed to the weakness of that country at this time. The French commander seized Madrid, and the crown was placed on the head of Joseph Bonaparte. The Spanish people rose in revolt as did the Portu- guese. The Stories 'Tention! 1906. G. Manville Fenn In order fully to subjugate Portugal it was necessary for Napoleon to seize Spain. Junot marched into Lisbon, and then began operations against Spain. Napoleon's scheme was some- what favored by a quarrel between Charles V and his son Ferdi- nand. He called an Assembly at Bayonne, forced Charles to abdi- cate and Ferdinand to sign away his sovereign rights. Joseph Bonaparte was then placed upon the throne. This story relates to these happenings in Spain, the dethroning of the king and the uprising of the people. The French were hurled back to the Pyrenees. At Baylen, Dupont was defeated. These same events are set forth in The King's Revoke (1905) by Margaret L. Woods in which the rescue of the Spanish king, Ferdinand VII, is attempted. With Moore at Corunna. 1898. George A. Henty With the rising of the Spaniards and Portuguese against Na- poleon, the Duke of Wellington took command of the forces. At Saragossa and Valencia the French were defeated. This was fol- THE MODERN ERA 441 lowed by Wellington's victory over Junot at Vimiero which com- pelled him to evacuate Portuguese territory. At this point the Convention of Cintra was signed by which the French were per- mitted to leave Portugal with all their stores. Napoleon now took command in Spain and succeeded in plac- ing Joseph on the throne for the second time. In the meantime Sir John Moore was making his way to Corunna. Sault, who had been following him, arrived at this point and the forces came to battle. Sault was defeated and Moore in the moment of vic- tory was killed. Wellington now took command in Portugal where the French were strongly established. Sault had taken Oporto, which was recovered by Beresford. Wellington drove back Sault from Lisbon, and then advanced up the valley of the Tagus. These military operations are set forth in this story. It de- scribes Wellington's victory at Vimeiro, in which are displayed the abilities of the man who was destined to "wear down the brilliant Corsican." It brings forward the Convention at Cintra, following which are traced the movements of Moore under dis- couraging conditions in the way of transport facilities and the stupidity of Spanish authorities. He then learned that the French held Madrid. His retreat to Portugal had been cut off, and Napoleon was drawing him into a net. At Corunna he defeats Sault and dies at the point of victory. Boys of the Light Brigade. 1904. Herbert Strang The Spanish city of Saragossa was invested by the French army in June, 1808. It was defended most gallantly and with remarkable heroism but was finally compelled to surrender. As Joseph Palafax was the hero of this defense, Augustina was the heroine of this historic event. She, "a mere girl, was a peddler of cool drinks in the beleaguered city. From the beginning to the end she was ever in the heat of the conflict, her courage and resource heartening the defenders in the darkest hours of those bloody months. She won the name of La Artillera from having snatched the match from the hands of a dying gunner and dis- charging the piece at the besiegers. It was Byron who gave her the name of the Maid of Saragossa. When he was in Seville 442 HISTORICAL FICTION in 1809 ne use d to see her as she walked daily on the prado, wear- ing the medals and orders decreed to her by the junta." The defence of Saragossa by Palafax is set forth by this story. The Young Buglers. 1879. George A. Henty In July of 1809, Wellington defeated Joseph and Victor in a desperate battle at Talavera, after which victory the peerage of Lord Wellington was bestowed upon him. He met Massena in 1810 at Busaco and drove him back, and in the following year forced him to retreat to Salamanca. In 1812 he besieged Ciudad Rodrigo and after a severe struggle forced it to capitulate. He now marched to Badajos and in one of the bloodiest battles on record captured the place. He now laid siege to the forts of Salamanca ; in ten days they were reduced, and in the great battle of Salamanca he utterly defeated the French. In August of that year he marched in triumph into Madrid. Turning towards the north, he came to Burgos, but was lacking in siege supplies and abandoned the place. In May of 181 3 he sent the French at Douro into full retreat without fighting a battle. Joseph Bonaparte now abandoned every position and made himself strong at Vitoria; but it was useless. Wellington carried his position and administered the most crushing defeat that had been inflicted during the war. Sault now attempted to break the line of the allies, but utterly failed and withdrew. By taking San Sebastian, Wellington was free to devote himself to Sault, and after a most desperate battle the French were completely baffled at every point. In i8i4 Sault concentrated at Orthes. Wellington attacked. For a time the battle was doubtful, but by a brilliant move Wellington scored another great victory. He now occupied Bayonne. In the last move of the war Wellington pursued Sault to Toulouse, which the latter determined to hold. In one of the most terrible battles of the war, Wellington carried the chief positions and then shifted his plan of action by which the French would have been surrounded and crushed. This Sault fully real- ized, and by a masterly movement managed to carry off his troops, leaving Wellington in possession of the field. At that moment the news of Napoleon's abdication came from Paris ,and the War of the Peninsula came to a close. THE MODERN ERA 443 This story traces the course of this war, describing the great movements and engagements as sketched above. It is put in the form of the adventures of two boys, and the history of Welling- ton's great achievements from practically the beginning of the campaign to the battle of Toulouse is set forth. Other stories : Under Wellington's Command (1899), by G. A. Henty, in which several of the great battles are described — Toulouse, Bu- saco, Salamanca, and others. The Spy (1910), by Captain Charles Gilson, which gives a good account of the siege of Badajos. The French had taken this point, and in 181 1, after Beresford defeated them in the battle of Albuera, siege was laid to Badajos. It was necessary to abandon it, but in 1812 Badajos fell. A Young Man Married (1909), by S. C. Grier, giving the inci- dents of the war from 181 2 to Wellington's victory at Vitoria in 1813. Charles O'Malley. 1841. Charles Lever This story established the author's reputation as one of the leading humorists of his day. It is his most popular story. Of him Trollope says, "Of all the men I have ever encountered he was the surest fund of drollery." It is a strong narrative, and the characterizations are striking and natural. The young Irishman, whether in war or in love, seems quite indifferent to eventualities. He is in the service of Wellington in the Peninsular War, and is also in the Waterloo campaign. The interest is perfectly sustained in all the delineations, whether in the vigorous setting forth of events, or in amusing episodes. Major Monsoon is characteristically Irish and is "said to be drawn after the O'Gorman Mahone. Lever used to feast this gentleman daily at his table while the novel was in course of construction. As it appeared serially in the 'Dublin University Magazine,' the Major soon recognized the uses to which he was put, but Lever's wine was so good that he contented himself with an occasional growl at his host when the touches in the portrait seemed a little too free." G. P. Marsh adds that, "Modern English literature has not produced a more Shakespearean — I might say a more original — comic character." 444 HISTORICAL FICTION The Fifth Coalition The Peninsula War seriously drained the strength and divided the attention of Napoleon. "The treacherous seizure of Spain may indeed be regarded as the decisive turning-point in his for- tunes. Talleyrand saw this at the time. At St. Helena, Napo- leon himself admitted it." And this misjudgment was soon to be apparent. The Fifth Coalition comprised Great Britain, Austria, Spain, Portugal. Taking advantage of Napoleon's reverses in Spain, Austria again declared war. Leaving Spain, Napoleon defeated Austria at Abensburg and Eckmuhl (1809) and entered Vienna. But when he proposed to cross the Danube he met a great repulse at Asper by the Archduke Charles. The battle of Wagram, in which he decisively defeated the Austrians, ended the matter. They sought peace and in the treaty of Schonbrunn, Austria ceded Salzburg, part of the provinces of Upper Austria and Carinthia, Carniolo, most of Croatia, the coastland of the Adriatic and large portions of her Polish terri- tory. The dominion of the Illyrian Provinces was then created. The Papal States were now added to the Empire and Holland became a French province. These gains, however, were largely counterbalanced by British successes in Spain and Portugal, in which both Sault and Ney had signally failed. The Stories Andreas Hofer. 1868. Louise Muhlbach One of the striking characters that entered into this conflict was Andreas Hofer (1767-1810), a famous Tyrolean patriot. During the period of the Revolution he led a force of his countrymen against the French, and from that time he devoted his energies unceasingly to the protection of his country against advances by neighboring nations. By the skilful handling of situations, and the bravery of his men, he won victories against forces far out- numbering his own. In 1809 he delivered his country from bondage and became the head of the Tyrolean government. His resources, however, were too limited, and in an insurrection against Bavaria a combined force of French and Bavarians over- whelmed him. In 1810 he was betrayed to the French, and was condemned and shot by the order of Napoleon. THE MODERN ERA 445 Innsbruck is the capital of Tyrol, a province of Austria. It was joined to the house of Austria in the fourteenth century, and since that time has sustained that relation with the exception of a brief period when Napoleon transferred it to Bavaria. Inns- bruck contains several monuments to Tyrolese patriots. The historical setting of this story is this period of the war in which Hofer figured from the time that Innsbruck fell to the execution of Hofer. The military operations of the time are dealt with, and the importance of the battle of Wagram, as the defeat of the Austrians and the ground of the Treaty, is made to appear. Wagram is a village of Lower Austria. It is the scene of this cele- brated victory. Napoleon had under his command 181,700 men and about 450 guns. The Austrian army numbered about 128,600 men and 410 guns ; hence the advantage was considerably on the side of Napoleon. When the first day of the battle closed, the Austrians held the advantage, but by noon of the following day Napoleon had succeeded in turning the Austrian left. While the right and center held firmly, Charles was forced to retreat. Other stories: At Odds (1863), by Baroness von Tautphoeus, in which the interests of Bavaria as affected by the great struggle of this era are dealt with. The history is carried forward to the revolt of Hofer. The political situation is made to appear in the romance of the story. A Red Bridal (1898), by William Westall, a story of the con- test between the Tyroleans, with Hofer at their head, and Napo- leon. Napoleon and Blucher. 1868. Louise Muhlbach Attention is again called to this story because of the part taken by the Archduchess, Maria Louisa. In 1794, when the husband of Josephine was executed by order of the Convention, she paid a visit to Napoleon to thank him for returning to her her husband's sword. She so strongly at- tracted him that two years afterwards they were married. She was a woman of an amiable and pleasing manner, and contributed to his success in attaining to a higher position. She was crowned with him as Empress in 1804. We have already noted Napoleon's 446 HISTORICAL FICTION ambition to have a successor in his own line. As this union was childless, the aspirations of Napoleon to be the founder of a dynasty seemed destined to fail. Consequently in 1809 he di- vorced Josephine, permitting her to retain the title of Empress, and making her a large annual allowance. Their domestic rela- tions had not been happy, but were disturbed by constant quarrels and jealousies. There is no question, however, that his dominant motive in divorcing his wife was because she stood in the way of his dynastic aspirations. Following the defeat of Austria and the Peace of Schonbrunn, he contracted an alliance with Austria and married Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor Francis I (1810). It neither pleased France nor retained Austria as an ally, but it secured for him an heir. In this story Maria Louisa figures with a host of notable personages. Invasion of Russia Napoleon realized, more than ever, that his one implacable foe was Great Britain. She had shown herself in every way superior on the water and had annihilated his fleet, and Welling- ton was fast becoming the master in Spain and Portugal. He could not invade England, and he knew that the British people, fully understanding his designs, would make no terms with him short of breaking his power and bringing him to a complete sur- render. And he fully realized that if he failed in his imperial design it would be Great Britain, by her tireless and sturdy and efficient opposition, more than any other nation, that would com- pass his downfall. The only way, then, to curb his great foe was to weaken her by his blockade system, and thus far it had completely failed to do so. He now called upon the Czar of Russia to aid him in extend- ing his system to the detriment of England. The Czar replied that while he intended to fulfill the obligations of the treaty of Tilsit, it did not require him to take such positions against neutral countries, and refused to comply with Napoleon's request. The result was the assembling in 181 2 of an immense army for the invasion of Russia. As he marched through the country Napoleon laid waste to it. At Borodino his victory was not decisive. He marched on to Moscow only to find a deserted city, THE MODERN ERA 447 while those Russians that remained set it on fire. Alexander refused to treat with him while a French soldier remained in Russia. The man who had come with such a display of power and arrogance was compelled to beat an ignominious retreat. Russian snows more than Russian bullets were silently decimating his army. "The advance across 600 miles of barren country with all the enormous stores necessary for so huge an army had already cost over 100,000 men. The retreat of the ragged and starving horde, harassed by Russians and Cossacks, living on horseflesh, suffering from snow-sickness, frost-bitten, and floundering through the ice and snow, forms a tale of horror which has passed into a legend, and which no pen can exaggerate." The Stories Adventures of Gerard. 1903. A. Conan Doyle The character in this and other stories of Doyle is an officer of the Grand Armee, a bragging, blustering fellow who relates his deeds of prowess. We find him in the Peninsular War, then with Napoleon in his Russian invasion and in the retreat from Moscow. He survives the awful ordeal and participates in the last campaign of the war. Through Russian Snows. 1895. George A. Henty Napoleon crossed the river Niemen in June, 1812, occupied Vilna and then passed on to Smolensk, which he reached about the middle of August. He defeated the Russians, who retreated before him and drew him into the depths of the country, which they laid waste, thus limiting his supplies. He reached Borodino early in September. The Russians under Kutuzoff were defeated in one of the bloodiest battles of the war. Within a week the French were in Moscow, only to find a deserted and burning city which it was impossible to make their winter quarters. The sacrifice of the city was the saving of the country. In this story, setting forth this invasion, Henty has given a good description of the events at Smolensk and Borodino, and the deadly work of frost, famine and disease as the straggling and ragged crowd of Napoleon's "Grand Army" made its way into Vilna. 448 HISTORICAL FICTION Other stones: Kenneth (1850), by Charlotte M. Yonge, describing the re- treat from Moscow. Barlasch of the Guard (1903), by H. S. Merriman, giving interesting accounts of particular things in connection with the invasion, such as secret operations and spy system, the operations at Danzig, etc. Moscow (1906), by Frederick Whishaw, a love story of the campaign. War and Peace, by Count Tolstoy. Attention is again called to this story, which covers the entire era and describes events of the invasion. The Sixth Coalition Napoleon left the wreck of his forces in the snows of Russia and hastened to Paris to raise another army. He had used up nearly half a million of men and his prestige was lost. Welling- ton had recovered nearly all the lost ground, 200,000 French sol- diers were confined in Spain, and Wellington was moving on to the French frontier. The dismal failure of the Russian invasion encouraged a new coalition, comprising Great Britain, Prussia, German States, Spain, Portugal, Russia, Sweden, Austria. All North Germany rose as one man to end the despicable tyranny. Bernadotte, Napoleon's old general, united with Great Britain at the head of the Swedish army. Quickly assembling a new army, Napoleon struck a blow at Russia and Prussia before Austria could come to their assistance, and defeated them at Lutzen and Bautzen (1813). At Gross- beeren, Bernadotte defeated Oudinot, while Blucher was vic- torious at Katzbach. Napoleon defeated Schwarzenberg at Dres- den, but at Leipzig he met with a crushing defeat and was com- pelled to take the defensive. With Blucher and Schwarzenberg on the Rhine, the Confederation of the Rhine dissolving, the French driven from Holland and defeated by Wellington at Vitoria and in the Pyrenees and Wellington now marching into France with the army of Sault fleeing before him, Napoleon realized that the end had come. He made one more determined effort to win, but the allies marched into Paris in March, 181 5, and he was compelled not only to surrender but to abdicate his THE MODERN ERA 449 throne, as was decreed by the Senate. He was exiled to the little island of Elba and was given the kingship of it, "where, it was considered, he could still play at sovereignty without endangering the rest of the world." The Stories Face to Face with Napoleon. 1898. O. V. Caine Napoleon's empire had grown until it included 130 depart- ments. Naples, Westphalia and Spain were governed by mem- bers of his family. Saxony, Bavaria, Wurtemberg and the whole Confederation of the Rhine were under his dominion. This was the situation in Germany when the Sixth Coalition was formed. Under Napoleon's blockading system commerce had decreased and discontent was taking hold of the masses, and the oppressive conditions were felt everywhere. The same was true in France, and "the whole country, now awakened from its intoxicating dream of military glory, began to feel acutely the terrific burdens which military glory imposed upon it, and to murmur at incessant wars undertaken only to gratify one man's lust for territorial aggrandizement, and involving ever-increasing holocausts of victims." This story describes the conditions in Germany in the last two years of the war. It portrays in a striking manner the German States rising as one man to put an end to the despotism holding them in its power. The military operations of this Coali- tion are set forth and especially the crushing defeat of Napoleon at Leipzig, the great "Battle of the Nations," in which after three days of terrific fighting Napoleon lost 70,000 men. Germany's liberation was now an accomplished fact. Blucher, Napoleon and other leading personages enter into the story. The Blockade of Phalsbourg. 1869. Emile Erckmann- Alexander Chatrian This is a story of the closing moments of the war prior to the abdication of Napoleon when the allies entered Paris. The scene is laid in the town of Phalsbourg, which is besieged and remains in that state until Napoleon accepts his defeat and relinquishes his throne. 450 HISTORICAL FICTION The Conscript of 1813. 1864. Emile Erckmann- Alexander Chatrian A conscript of the peasant class witnesses the Grand Army of Napoleon as it proceeds to the North. He is drawn into the ranks, a fact which has a serious effect upon the affairs of his life, and thus illustrates the manner in which war lays its blight- ing hand upon the hopes of life. He participates in the great engagements to the crushing defeat of Napoleon in the battle of Leipzig. Emile Erckmann (1822-1899) was born at Phalsbourg in Al- sace. He became a law student and was admitted to the bar in 1858. Alexander Chatrian (1826-1890) was born at Soldatenthat. The practice of law became distasteful to Erckmann and he pro- posed to Chatrian, who was a fellow-student in the gymnasium at Phalsbourg, that they join forces in authorship. This part- nership lasted for 25 years. The result of this joint authorship was a great series of novels, plays and operas. Napoleon and Blucher. 1858. Louise Muhlbach This story, which covers so much of this general period, pre- sents in a splendid manner this campaign and the great engage- ments to the abdication of Napoleon. The labors of the queen, Louisa, in stimulating the national spirit of her people are well portrayed. The Waterloo Campaign We left Napoleon in exile ruling his little island of Elba after being deposed by the Senate. France was reduced to her boun- daries as they were prior to the Revolution. The Bourbon dynasty was restored by placing on the throne Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI. A policy of intolerance against Protestants, Repub- licans and Imperialists was adopted, and the new government began to fall into disrepute. Added to this, the doings of the Congress of Vienna in dividing among the Powers sections of Napoleon's dominions so disgusted the French that sentiment in France turned in favor of the deposed monarch. Learning of this changed attitude, Napoleon saw an oppor- tunity of regaining his power by striking a quick and decisive blow. In February, 181 5, he escaped from Elba, landed in France THE MODERN ERA 451 with a thousand men and started for Paris. The army rallied about him ; Louis XVIII fled the country ; he presented himself as the liberator of France and the protector of her democracy. He now drew up a Constitution of democratic principles, and thus from March 20 to June 28 began the second period of Napoleon's reign of the "Hundred Days." The Coalition was at once revived and Napoleon was declared to be "an enemy and disturber of the peace of the world." Wellington soon placed an army in Belgium and Blucher had a Prussian force on the Rhine. Between these two armies Napoleon threw his force, aiming to defeat them separately. Surprising Blucher by his rapid movements, he defeated him at Ligny on June 16, and broke the connection between him and Wellington. On the morning of June 18, Napoleon faced Wellington at Waterloo. For ten hours he hurled his columns against Welling- ton's squares of the stubborn British infantry and as often was hurled back. "Never did Wellington better deserve the name of 'the Iron Duke.' " Napoleon now made his last attempt. He gathered the Old Guard, the picked veterans, and ordered them to charge. It was unavailing. Their defeat became a rout. Wel- lington ordered a general advance and the French fled before them. They were pursued all through the night. Waterloo was the grave of all of Napoleon's hopes. The defeated Blucher reached the field of battle at a critical moment, and with Wellington marched into Paris. Napoleon was ban- ished to the British Isle of St. Helena, where he spent his last six years quarreling with his English jailors. The Stories In the Year of Waterloo. 1899. O. V. Caine This story is a good description of Napoleon getting away from Elba, the march to Paris and entrance into the city. His last attempt to regain his power and his final battle are well set forth. Vengeance Is Mine. 1899. Andrew Balfour This Scotch author (1873-) was born in Edinburgh. He studied at the University of Edinburgh and then specialized at Cambridge. He has won for himself distinction as a bacteriolo- 452 HISTORICAL FICTION gist. In 1900 he served as civil surgeon in the South African War. Following this he was made director of the Research Laboratories at Khartoum. He is the author of several medical works as well as historical novels. In this novel we get a glimpse of Napoleon at Elba, and are carried on to Waterloo, in which the charge of the Gordons and the Grays (Highlanders) is depicted. Other Stories : Les Miserabies (1862), by Victor Hugo. This great work contains one of the best accounts of the battle of Waterloo that has ever appeared. With Wellington to Waterloo (1901), by Harold Avery, in which the defeat of Ney followed by that of Napoleon is described. The Shadow of the Sword (1875) by Robert Buchanan. Re- fusing to fight because of religious scruples, a fisherman, under persecution becomes insane and attempts to kill Napoleon before starting to meet Blucher and Wellington. The Great Shadow (1893), by A. Conan Doyle. It contains an excellent description of Waterloo. The Chartreuse of Parma. 1840. Stendhal The author (1783- 1842), whose real name was Marie Henri Beyle, was born in Grenoble. As a boy he went to Milan and fought under Napoleon at Marengo. He returned to Paris and was variously employed. He participated in the fatal Russian campaign of 181 2. When he returned to Italy he created a reputa- tion as a critic of painting and music. The story now under no- tice is his best in the field of fiction, and like his other works "it is discursive and formless ; but is considered remarkable alike for its keenness of analysis and its exposition of the acid, material- istic philosophy of its author." An ambitious Italian manages to enlist under Napoleon and fights at Waterloo. He returns to Italy where exciting adven- tures await him. He is induced by his aunt, the Duchess, to enter the priesthood. A jealous rival attempts to kill him whom he slays in self-defence. He is imprisoned, but by the aid of the Duchess and Clelia, the daughter of the keeper of the prison, he makes his escape. THE MODERN ERA 453 Waterloo. 1865. Emile Erckmann- Alexander Chatrian This story has had a wide circulation in many languages. Joseph Bertha, the clock-maker of Phalsbourg, the native town of Erckmann, tells the story. He despises war, but when it be- comes necessary he will share in the duty of fighting. The story gives an excellent statement of the governmental conditions from the time that Louis XVIII is placed on the throne to the coming of Napoleon from Elba. The following paragraphs illustrate the way in which Joseph Bertha tells the story and give a good de- scription of Waterloo. "The red coats of the English were visible before us when we awoke next morning. At six o'clock I looked at their position, with Zebede, Captain Florentin and Buche, and it seemed to me it was a difficult task before us. It was Sunday, and I could hear the bells of villages, recalling Phalsbourg. But in a very little while we heard no more bells, for at half-past eight our battalion was on its way to the high road in front, and the battle of Water- loo had begun. "I have often heard veterans describe the order of battle given by the emperor. But all I remember of that terrible day is that we marched out with the bands playing, that we got to close quarters with the English, were repulsed, and were assisted by regiments of cuirassiers, that we carried La Haie-Sainte with terrible slaugh- ter at Ney's command. Hougomout we could not carry. "We threw ourselves again and again upon the English squares, and that at last, when regiment after regiment had tried in vain to break the enemy's line, the Old Guard were called up by the emperor. It was the last chance of retrieving the day, the grand stroke — and it failed. "The four battalions of the Guards, reduced from 3,000 to 1,200 men, were assailed by so fierce a fire that they were com- pelled to retire. They retired slowly, defending themselves with muskets and bayonets, but with their retirement and the approach of night, the battle ended for us in the confusion of a rout. It was like a flood. We were surrounded on all sides when Blucher ar- rived. The Old Guard formed a square for the emperor and his officers, and the rest of us simply straggled away, back to France. The most awful thing of all was the beating of the drum of the 454 HISTORICAL FICTION Old Guard in that hour of disaster. It was like a fire-bell, the last appeal of a burning nation." As dealing with the foregoing the reader is referred to the following : Representative Men : Napoleon — Emerson. Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World — Creasy. The Battle of Waterloo (in Childe Harold)— Lord Byron. CHAPTER V RESTORATION AND SECOND REPUBLIC The "Hundred Days" in which France joined with Napoleon in this new outbreak was an expensive enterprise. In the Treaty of Paris, November 1815, the allies exacted an indemnity of 700,- 000,000 francs, the frontiers of France were restored as they were in 1790 and the priceless works of art which Napoleon had car- ried away were returned. For a time 150,000 foreign soldiers were left in France. France was in a weaker position than it had been for more than a hundred years. Reign of Louis XVIII The treaty of Paris confirmed the position of Louis on the throne to which he returned having- learned his lesson. He admit- ted the errors he had made during his brief reign before the re- turn of Napoleon, but the nation was far from being at rest and was divided into two peoples, as Louis declared. There was a violent royalist reaction, and in the south of France a "White Terror" reigned in which those of Bonapartist sympathies were massacred by royalist mobs. The assassination of the Duke of Berry by Louvel was attributed to the influence of liberal ideas, and during the last three years of this reign there were eight con- spiracies against the Government. The Story The Knights of Liberty. 1905. Eliza F. Pollard One of the conspiracies of the reign of Lou^ XVIII was that of the Carbonari, i. e., charcoal-burners, from the Italian word "Carbone" signifying charcoal. Hence it is the name of a secret political society founded in Italy during the time that Murat ruled in Naples. The object of this society was the expulsion of the French from Italy and the setting up of a democratic government. It was afterwards directed against the Bourbon rulers of Italy. 455 456 HISTORICAL FICTION In this story the operations of this organization seeking to overthrow Louis XVIII are set forth. In 1823 such a conspiracy arose in which Lafayette was involved. The plot was discovered the night before it was put into action, and some of the leaders were beheaded. This secret order extended throughout France, Italy and much of Europe. Its members consisted of all classes and were compelled to obey its rulings under pain of death. After 1 81 6 its membership numbered sixty thousand. The activities of various organizations and those of the Count of Artois (afterwards Charles X) are detailed in this story. The Duke of Berry, who was assassinated, was the nephew and heir of Louis XVIII, and the son of the Count of Artois who, during the reign of his brother Louis, systematically opposed all liberal measures. It was declared by the Royalists that the murder of the Duke was the result of liberal ideas, although the assassin on the scaffold announced that he was alone in the deed and that no one else was implicated. Reign of Charles X Charles (1824- 1830) was the grandson of Louis XV and brother of Louis XVIII whom he succeeded. By the time he came to the throne he was too old (67) to modify his views and pre- judices, or to accommodate himself to the new conditions that had arisen. When the Revolution broke out he sought safety in exile, where he remained until the Restoration of the Bourbons. He adopted the most reactionary measures, being opposed to all lib- eral ideas, and so great was the opposition to his policy that he was compelled to abdicate in 1830. The story noted above, The Knights of Liberty, presents his attitude to the government and political tendencies prior to his accession to the throne. Reign of Louis Philippe In 1830 Charles X announced four ordinances which he de- clared to be essential to the safety of the State : the suppression of the liberty of the press ; dissolution of the new chamber ; re- construction of the electoral law ; and the new demand for a new election. Members of the chamber and journalists declared the ordinance to be void, which declaration was supported by riotous THE MODERN ERA 457 demonstrations. It soon developed into what is known as the Revolution of 1830. Then the king tried to recall the ordinance, but the Revolution demanded his abdication. He spent the bal- ance of his life in England. Attention had been turned to Louis Philippe, son of Egalite, Duke of Orleans. He favored the popular cause and fought in the early campaigns of the Revolution. His adherents declared that he was the one to save the nation from both despotism and republican anarchy, and in 1830, he was declared king (1830- 1848). He adopted the English parliamentary system, and Guizot, the prime minister, maintained the British system by which the king was subject to the limitations of the constitution, or as Thiers declared, "The king reigns but does not govern." The rule of Louis Philippe was unpopular with all classes, and in the Revolu- tion of 1848 he was compelled to abdicate, and like his prede- cessor went to England. The Stories The Fiery Dawn. 1901. Mary E. Coleridge When Charles X abdicated the question raised was, who should succeed him. One party declared for Louis Philippe, another for the son of Napoleon, many for the Due de Bordeaux. The latter was the son of the Duke of Berry, the son of Charles X, who was assassinated. He was later known as the Count of Cham- bord, and it was in favor of him, his grandson, that Charles ab- dicated. His mother was the Duchess of Berry, who took up his cause, determined to place him on the throne. In 1832, following the Revolution of 1830, the shock of which was still felt, the Duchess planned a campaign in support of her son. Had he been placed on the throne after Charles X, then she would have been Regent during his minority ; hence her in- terest in the matter was of a double nature. What she now re- gretted was, that in July when the Revolution was on that she did not herself present him to the people "renouncing in his name and her own all ultra-Bourbon traditions and ideas" and thereby perhaps saving the dynasty. Satisfied that there was no hope for her cause in the southern provinces she decided that in La Vendee she would succeed. The day fixed upon for the taking up of arms was May 24, 1832. Three days before that time she was 458 HISTORICAL FICTION waited upon by leaders, the men who would suffer if the insur- rection proved to be a fiasco. They declared there was no hope for success, that had the south supported them La Vendee would have at once joined the insurrection. Nevertheless she deter- mined upon the uprising, and the result was the conflict with the royal troops which involved bloodshed on both sides. The Government now insisted upon measures that would bring to an end these claims of the Duchess. She was made a prisoner and finally sent to Palermo, and in 1870 died in Brussels. This extended sketch is necessary to make clear the historical setting of this story. These attempts to place on the throne her son at the beginning of the reign of Louis Philippe are a leading interest in this novel. Other Stories: The She-Wolves of Machecoul (1858) by Alexander Dumas deals with these same insurrectionary attempts to place the Duke of Bordeaux on the throne in 1832. A Nest of Royalists (1892) by Esme Stuart, having its setting in the uprising. A Romance of the Tuileries. 1902. Francis Gribble The central historical event of this story is the Revolution of 1848, a sketch of which is given below. Related to this new out- break is the career of an estimable girl. The Second Republic. Presidency of Louis Napoleon In 1848 there were four things that contributed to the third Revolution that overthrew the monarchy and was so suddenly precipitated that all classes were taken by surprise. The follow- ing are the four things referred to: "The nation as a whole chafed at what was called spiritless yielding to England on ques- tions of foreign policy ; the Catholic party resented the control of the state over education ; the moderate Liberals were angered by the refusal of any electoral reform ; the working classes were exasperated by the leaning of the government to the capitalist classes." In this state of discontent it would require very little to fan the spark into a conflagration. This occasion took the form of a THE MODERN ERA 459 government edict prohibiting a reform banquet at Paris in Febru- ary, 1848. The riots were first of a simple nature ; they then took on a graver form — a revolt of the republicans against the mon- archy. Twenty rioters were killed, and their bodies carried through the streets were exhibited to the people. On February 24, a Republic was proclaimed and the king abdicated and fled to England. In June it was decreed that all workmen between eighteen and twenty-five should enlist in the army, that the workshops should be closed, and the great horde of men who had come to Paris be sent back to the provinces. A formidable insurrection was the result. The streets were barricaded and a siege was declared. "For four days the battle raged with terrible bloodshed on both sides, among the 5,000 slain being seven generals, two deputies and the Archbishop of Paris, Mgr. Affre, who was shot in a vain attempt to pacify the crowd. The troops eventually got the upper hand, but the young Republic was greatly weakened." The Constitution of the National Assembly (November 1848) provided for a president to be elected for a term of four years. Louis Napoleon, son of Napoleon's brother Louis, was a mem- ber of the Assembly and was elected president by an overwhelm- ing popular vote. The Stories The Mantle of the Emperor. 1906. Ladbroke Black and Robert Lynd This story belongs to the reign of Louis Philippe but it relates to the earlier career of Louis Napoleon, and hence is noted in the present connection. He was dominated by one idea — that he should occupy the imperial throne of his uncle, Napoleon I. When the Italian Revo- lution broke out in 1832 he caught the fervor of it and joined the insurgents. Fired by enthusiasm for Italian liberty he took the oath of the Carbonari. To accomplish his designs, in 1836 he attempted to capture the garrison of Strassburg, which was an amusing failure. Four years later he made a ridiculous attempt to take Boulogne, but only succeeeded in getting himself captured. He was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment in the fortress of Ham. After six 4<5o HISTORICAL FICTION years he made his escape and fled to England. When the Revolu- tion of 1848 broke out he hurried to Paris and secured a seat in the National Assembly, and his election as President of the Re- public followed. These facts constitute the historical basis of this story. It traces the career of this adventurous and ambitious man through these periods of his Italian enthusiasm to his theatrical attempts which resulted in his confinement, and his escape from Ham. A Man of the People. 1871. E. Erckmann — A. Chatrian This is the story of the Revolution of 1848 which brought Louis Napoleon to Paris and paved the way for him eventually to realize his ambitions as Emperor of France. The same events are covered by The Mystery of Marseilles by Emile Zola in which the revolutionary spirit in Marseilles figures. CHAPTER VI THE SECOND EMPIRE AND THIRD REPUBLIC The presidency of the Republic was to Louis Napoleon but a means to an end, a stepping-stone to his design to create an Em- pire of which he, like his great uncle, should be Emperor. In all of his movements this was his dominating purpose. The conflict between Napoleon and the Assembly arose over the question of the revision of the constitution so as to provide for the reelection of the president for a second term. As the constitution was framed he was not immediately eligible for re- election. This change required a three fourths majority of the Assembly, and this was not secured. The time seemed ripe for a coup d'etat, and on the night of December i, 1851, the command of the army having been placed in the hands of the supporters of Napoleon, leading republican and royalist members of the Assembly were arrested in their beds. The people awoke to find decrees posted on the walls which de- clared the Assembly dissolved and universal suffrage restored, and called upon the voters to ratify the action of the president. Those who resisted were shot down, transported or exiled. The action was ratified by an overwhelming majority, and within one year by another tremendous majority of the popular vote, the Empire was formed with Louis as Napoleon III. Thus again was France under the rule of a democratic and military despotism. Reign of Napoleon III I. To the Franco-German War There was considerable difference between the First and Sec- ond Empires, just as there was a vast difference between the two emperors. They were alike in their ambition, unscrupulousness and passion for power, but there the resemblance ended. Napo- leon I was a man of profound genius and ability, a man of ex- 461 462 HISTORICAL FICTION traordinary administrative qualities and keenness of insight. In these and other respects there was no possible comparison be- tween the two men. During this reign, from 1852 to 1870, to the Franco-German War, France joined with England in 1854 in the Crimean War in support of Turkey against Russia. In 1859 Napoleon became the ally of Victor Emmanuel in the conflict between Austria and Sardinia. In i860 occurred the quarrel with Mexico which re- sulted in the imperial form of government in Mexico with Max- imilian as Emperor. But when the French army was withdrawn in 1867 Maximilian was seized and shot. When the Austro- Prussian War ended in 1866 Napoleon looked with uneasiness upon Prussian extension and demanded a reconstruction of the frontier. The result finally was the Franco-German War. The Stories The Flower of Destiny. 1905. William D. Orcutt When Louis Napoleon was a boy it had been planned that he should be married to his cousin Mathilda. Though they seemed to be attached to each other he preferred to choose his own wife, and decided that his action in the matter should not be controlled by any precedent. It was the "reigning beauty of Paris, Mademoi- selle Eugenie de Montijo," who attracted his attention. She was the granddaughter of Captain Fitzpatrick, of an old Scottish family that had married with the Stuarts. She spent some time in school in England, and by those who knew her at that time she is described as "a pretty, sprightly little girl, much given to independence, and something of a tomboy — a character there is reason to think she preserved until it was modified by the exigencies of her position." The following are a few statements of the emporer's announcement of his intended marriage : "I accede to the wish so often manifested by my people in an- nouncing my marriage to you. The union which I am about to contract is not in harmony with old political tradition and in this lies its advantage. . . . Thus impelled, as I have been, to part from the precedents that have been hitherto followed, my marriage is only a private matter. It remained for me to choose my wife. She who has become the object of my choice is of lofty birth, French in heart and education and by the memory of the THE MODERN ERA 463 blood shed by her father in the cause of the Empire. She has, as a Spaniard, the advantage of not having a family in France to whom it would be necessary to give honors and dignities. Gifted with every quality of the heart, she will be the ornament of the throne, as in the hour of danger she would be one of its most courageous defenders. A pious Catholic, she will address one prayer with me to Heaven for the happiness of France. Kindly and good, she will show in the same position, I firmly believe, the virtues of the Empress Josephine." The historical interests of this story extend from the time when Louis escaped from his imprisonment in Ham because of his foolish attempt at Boulogne, to the inception of the Empire in 1852. The portrayal of Eugenie is altogether favorable and rep- resents her as being at one with her husband's aspirations in the legitimate pursuance of his ambitions. Their marriage occurred in 1853. Seated together upon the throne the marriage contract was read and signed by both and then by all the princes and prin- cesses present. Ishmael. 1884. Mary E. Braddon In the historical sketch are given the events leading to the establishment of the Empire. The action of the Assembly and the coup d' etat of Napoleon are strikingly portrayed by this story which covers the larger portion of this period of Napoleon's rule and policies. Between Two Thieves. 1912. Richard Dehan Napoleon "was always making decisive moves without any clear idea as to their practical results." This is seen in his dec- laration to aid Italy in securing her independence as far as the Adriatic. His promise was only partially redeemed. The essen- tial weakness of his character was exhibited both in his direction of this campaign and the outcome of it. Alarmed by the revolu- tionary movement in Italy and the Prussian attitude, he suddenly made peace with Austria. His self-imposed mission was a dismal failure. The Italians and their sympathizers in France were dis- gusted at such half-measures and what they were sure to involve. The humiliation of such a failure was bad enough, but that 464 HISTORICAL FICTION was not all. The annexation of Savoy and Nice at this time by the treaty of Turin and Piedmont could not but create the im- pression that Napoleon was actuated by ulterior motives. It "gave a sinister complexion to the Emperor's action and aroused the suspicions of Europe by suggesting a revival of the first Napo- leon's territorial ambitions." This story describes the political dissoluteness of the empire, and the schemings of the emperor in whose hands the new Con- stitution placed practically absolute authority. The Chambers were rendered powerless, the freedom of the press seriously crippled and the right of public meeting and free speech sup- pressed. His Excellency. 1876. Emile Zola This noted French author (1840- 1902) had achieved consid- erable literary work before taking up his great series on the Rougon-Mac quart Family. The latter as explained by himself was "to give the physiological and social history of a family under the Second Empire." It comprised twenty volumes and set forth the strong impulse in every member of the family to crime and vice. Zola took a deep interest in the Captain Dreyfus affair, and was one of the captain's defenders. This story is a portrayal of the social and political corrup- tions and irregularities of this period. It also describes the re- lation of Napoleon to his counsellors, and deals especially with Rouher, one of his ministers. These chief counsellors and sup- porters, especially the Duke of Morny, the Duke of Persigny and Rouher the advocate, by their advice were largely responsible for many of the defects of his administration. Rouher had charge of his financial interests, and "whoever might be the emperor's ministers, this little clique of his personal adherents — De Morny, Persigny, Saint-Armaud, Fleury, Rouher and Fould — were al- ways around their master, giving him their advice and sharing (so far as he allowed anyone to share) his intimate councils." II. The Franco-German War In less than one hundred years, since Louis XVI succeeded to the throne in 1774, France passed through three Revolutions, created two Republics and two Empires besides the Restoration THE MODERN ERA 465 of the Monarchy for a period of thirty-three years. Added to all of these changes and catastrophes, she is now on the brink of another with all its bloodshed and terror. In the early part of 1870, on the occasion of the union of the two Chambers, President Schneider addressing the Emperor said, "In supporting the Empire by more than seven millions of suf- frages, France says to you : 'Sire, the country is with you ; ad- vance confidently in the path of progress, and establish liberty based on respect for the laws and Constitution.' France places the cause of liberty under the protection of your dynasty." To which the Emperor replied : "Who can be opposed to the pro- gressive march of a dynasty founded by a great people in the midst of political disturbance and fortified by liberty?" These high-sounding and empty phrases would fail to deceive any one cognizant of the real conditions. It required but a blow to shatter this imperial structure in the process of decay, and in less than four months from the time of these lofty expressions the Empire was in ruins and its Emperor a prisoner. The immediate cause of the war was the offer by Germany of the vacant throne of Spain to a kinsman of the king of Prus- sia, Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern. To this France at once ob- jected, and rightly so, since it meant the establishment of a Prus- sian power on its frontier. A protest was made to Prussia which was conceded and Leopold retired. Not satisfied with this, how- ever, Napoleon demanded that the concession be formally an- nounced, and that France be definitely guaranteed that there would be no future recurrence of such an act on the part of Prus- sia. This the latter refused to grant and France at once declared war. The cause, however, lay deeper than this. In 1864 Prussia and Austria joined in a war against Denmark to secure the Bal- tic Duchies. For the unification of Germany, Bismarck had fore- seen the necessity of war with Austria, and his opportunity now came in the division of the spoils which they had just won. Hop- ing to profit out of the war, Napoleon permitted Prussia to crush Austria, and was beaten out of his expected gain at every point by the sagacity of Bismarck. Every proposal was checkmated; Prussia was coming to the ascendency and the French throne was shaken to its foundations. This affair of Leopold and the Spanish throne brought mat- 466 HISTORICAL FICTION ters to a head. The French feeling against Prussia was intense, and Napoleon knew the war would be welcomed. To come off victorious would raise his prestige and put new strength into the staggering empire. "The Empress Eugenie had set her heart upon it for the sake of her son, whose prospects she believed could be secured only by some striking military success." The die was cast and the war was on that was to bring the empire of Napoleon toppling to the ground. The Stories The Drums of War. 1910. Henry de Vere Stacpool In the story the historical section having to do with this pe- riod comes at the close, when the people of France are in a fever of excitement now that war has been declared. This intense feeling is described, after a delineation of the conditions existing during the last years of the Empire. The Plebiscite. 1872. E. Erckmann— A. Chatrian The Prussians for a considerable period had realized that a war with France could not be escaped, and placed themselves in a state of preparedness. When war was declared they were well organized and ready to strike. Napoleon, on the other hand, had failed to calculate what such a war would require. As al- ready noted, it was characteristic of him to take decisive positions unsupported by existing conditions. His army was not half as large as the Prussian army, while the latter was supplemented with a large reserve force. The French army was disorganized by Napoleon's Mexican expedition. Bismarck, who was well pre- pared to precipitate a crisis, knew that France was in no state to match his resources, and could with perfect safety, through the Spanish affair, force the issue. Thus, without any of the re- sources adequate to the occasion, without organization, muni- tions or allies, France plunged headlong into the war. It is this state of unpreparedness in France that is described by this story, as well as the general unfitness of the empire to enter into such a struggle. THE MODERN ERA 467 The Maids of Paradise. 1902. Robert W. Chambers Following the attack on Saarbruck in which the French were defeated, the next day MacMahon's corps at Wissembourg was surprised and cut to pieces. The fugitives spread over the coun- try, and no officer seemed to be around to restore order. The Germans began the war with nearly a million men; the French had about two hundred thousand, with five hundred thousand on their records. So thin was their line it could be broken at any point. Two days after the rout and defeat at Wissembourg, was fought the battle of Worth between MacMahon and the Prussian Crown Prince. The French distinguished themselves by brilliant cavalry charges. They were completely defeated, and only the cavalry prevented the defeat from becoming a rout. These re- verses decided Napoleon to retreat and cover Paris in which de- cision MacMahon concurred. This the Empress strongly op- posed. It was a sad contrast between the cheering of a few days before as the army left for the field and the present prospect. This story gives a fine and stirring description of the battle of Worth. The splendid dashes of the cavalry in this action are well portrayed. The Garden of Swords. 1899. Max Pemberton This English writer (1863-) was born in Birmingham. After graduating ?t Caius College, Cambridge, he became a member of the staff of Vanity Fair, and began writing stories and articles for various periodicals. From 1896 to 1906 he was editor of Cassell's Migazine. In some manner a report reached Paris that the Crown Prince and 26,000 men were made prisoners. The city went wild with rejoicing. At that moment the broken ranks of the French were retreating before the foe. Consternation followed rejoicing when a few hours later came the order from Napoleon, "Hasten prepa- rations for the defence of Paris." The fighting was less than a week old and the French were stunned by these reverses. Then, during the next week, Strassburg was besieged. This story is a description of the war to this point. Inter- woven with the story are the battle of Worth and the siege of 468 HISTORICAL FICTION Strassburg. The scenes through which a French officer and his wife passed bring out the tragic events of these days. The Disaster. 1897. Paul and Victor Marguerite These two brothers, Paul, (i860-) and Victor (1866-), French novelists, were born in Algeria. Their father, a French general, fell at Sedan in this war. They wrote both jointly and individ- ually and produced a series of romances dealing with this conflict. Metz was a strongly fortified city, and in the serious situa- tions in which the French army was being placed, MacMahon and Napoleon were striving to bring as large a force as possible to this city. But no sooner had this been effected than a German army of 250,000 men began to surround them. Their only re- course was to retreat. When Napoleon proposed that Lorraine be surrendered, word came from Paris that such an act would create a revolt. At this point he relinquished his position as com- mander-in-chief to Marshal Bazaine, and was practically dropped out of the army. As soon as this fact was known his authority ceased to exist. After the battle of Gravelotte in which the French showed the greatest bravery but were badly defeated, Bazaine was forced into Metz with a force of 170,000. There he was closely be- sieged. Just one month before, Napoleon had declared war amid the enthusiasm of the populace, and now, with his army suffer- ing defeat and besieged in strongholds, the commander-in-chief shut up in Metz, Napoleon as Emperor had ceased to exist and an anti-Bonapartist general was made military governor of Paris. On October 27, Metz was compelled to surrender after an inten- sive siege of a little over two months. This story is a description of the movements of the war in the north-east section. It is a forceful presentation of the con- ditions created by the siege of Metz and the fall of the city. It is a strong story of these operations. Other Stories: A Bid for Loyalty (1909) by James Blyth, in which the posi- tion is taken that a German bribe influenced the surrender of Metz. In this situation the jewels of the Empress are given for the needs of France. THE MODERN ERA 469 The Virgin Fortress (19 12) by Max Pemberton, giving inci- dents in connection with the siege of Metz. The Downfall. 1892. EmileZola The battle of Gravelotte prevented Bazaine and MacMahon from uniting. While a large German force was left to besiege Metz, the main German army sought MacMahon. The French were concentrated at Sedan, the emperor being with MacMahon's army, and here the Germans found them. All told the army num- bered about 100,000 men. But as Victor Hugo declared, it was a mere crowd of men, without order, without discipline, and ap- parently under no particular anxiety. The following splendid description by Hugo portrays this critical moment of the war : "The army slept soundly on the night of August 31. No cav- alry reconnoissance was made that night; the guards were not doubled. The French believed themselves more than forty miles from the German army. "But that night, while the French army in fancied security, was sleeping at Sedan, this is what was passing among the enemy. "By a quarter to two A. M. the army of the Prince of Saxony was on its march eastward with orders not to fire a shot till five o'clock, and to make as little noise as possible. They marched without baggage of any kind. At the same hour another division of the Prussian army marched, with equal noiselessness, from another direction, on Sedan, while the Wurtemburgers secured the road to Mezieres, thereby cutting off the possibility of a retreat into Belgium. "At the same moment, namely, five o'clock, on all the hills around Sedan, at all points of the compass, appeared a dense, dark mass of German troops, with their commanders and artil- lery. Not one sound had been heard by the French army, not even an order. Two hundred and fifty thousand men were in a circle on the heights round the Sink of Givonne. They had come as stealthily and as silently as serpents. They were there when the sun rose, and the French army were prisoners." The German artillery from the heights covered every part of the valley crowded with men. The French in their disorganized state fought bravely. The fight was simply a massacre. There on September 1, was fought one of the decisive battles of the world — 470 HISTORICAL FICTION a battle that resulted in the surrender of the largest army ever known to have been taken in the field, a battle that dethroned a dyn- asty and changed the form of government in France. MacMahon with his army of 100,000 men and Napoleon surrendered. France was left with her other forces besieged in cities, but without an army in the field. The night of September 1, Napoleon's aide-de-camp carried to the German army this note : Monsieur Mon Frere : — Not having been able to die in the midst of my troops, it only remains for me to place my sword in the hands of your Majesty. I am your Majesty's good brother, Napoleon. To this the Prussian king replied : — Monsieur Mon Frere : — Regretting the circumstances under which we meet, I accept the sword o^your Majesty, and I invite you to designate one of your officers, provided with full powers, to treat for the capitulation of the army which has so bravely fought under your command. On my side I have named General von Moltke for that purpose. I am your Majesty's good brother, William. In Zola's story two soldiers pass through these stirring events and paint a picture of the hardship and suffering contingent upon these operations. The battlefield, hospitals and imprisonment are realistically described. The series of defeats of the French forces reaches the climax at Sedan. After Sedan comes Paris with its untold sufferings and bloodshed. Other Stories : Great Heart Gillian (1909) by John Oxenham, describing the march of the French army to its fateful Sedan, the fight and capit- ulation. A Hero of Sedan (1909) by Captain F. S. Brereton. In Time of War. 1880. James F.Cobb With the remnant of the French army shut up in Metz and Strassburg, after Sedan the way was now open to Paris, the Ger- man army reaching the city September 19. When the news reached THE MODERN ERA 471 Paris of the defeat and surrender of the army, an insurrection immediately followed, the Empire was overthrown and a Re- public proclaimed. The Government of National Defence now formed was headed by Jules Favre and Leon Gambetta. Paris at this time was one of the best fortified cities in the world. But Bazaine, both incompetent and disloyal, surrendered Metz, thus bringing to the capital another great besieging force. Gambetta escaped in a balloon, and in Tours exerted his energies to raise an army to relieve Paris, but in vain. During the siege of nearly five months the misery and suffer- ing in Paris were beyond description. Famine drove the people to every extremity. Butter was five dollars a pound and cab- bages were sold by the leaf. Eggs were sold at three dollars a dozen. The bombardment of the city began in December, no shot having been fired since the beginning of the siege. When face to face with starvation, Paris surrendered, January 28, 1871. In the peace that was signed France was compelled to pay an indemnity of $1,000,000,000, and to cede the greater part of Alsace and Lor- raine including the fortified cities of Strassburg and Metz. This story covers the great events of the war which began August 2, 1870, and ended January 2S, 1871, a period of less than six months. The sufferings during the siege are especially por- trayed. It also sets forth the conflict between the Government and the Commune and the destruction of the latter. In the midst of the prevailing unrest, fears of a monarchical uprising, socialistic contentions and the economic state of the moment, a part of the National Guard rebelled against the new Government established at Versailles. The government set up by them was called the Commune, which adopted the red flag of the socialists. On March 18 the revolt broke out and continued for a little over two months. On May 21 the government troops entered the city, "and there followed a week of the fiercest civil warfare that history records. Insurgents taken with arms in their hands were shot down with- out ceremony. Materially and politically Paris suffered more injury from the Commune than from the Germans. France was in no mood to show mercy ; the Communards were hunted down relentlessly, and more than seven thousands were sent as convicts to New Caledonia in the South Pacific Ocean." 472 HISTORICAL FICTION Other Stories : Under the Iron Flail (1902) by John Oxenham, in which the two great sieges, that of Metz and that of Paris, are of chief inter- est, and carries the events to the crushing of the Commune. Paris at Bay (1897) by Herbert Hayens, tracing the events to the siege of Paris and the overthrow of the Commune. Robert Helmont (1871) by Alphonse Daudet, a portrayal of the siege and the awful sufferings attending it. Ashes of Empire. 1899. Robert W. Chambers The escape of the Empress Eugenie from Paris is an inter- esting incident of this story. When the news of the surrender at Sedan reached Paris the situation became so dangerous because of the threatenings of the mob that ambassadors in the city insisted upon the Empress escaping to a place of safety. Reach- ing a cab in the midst of the howling mob that was denouncing the emperor, they were taken to the home of an American den- tist, Dr. Thomas Evans, who got her safely out of Paris to Deau- ville. Here she was secretly conveyed to the yacht of Sir John Burgoyne and then learned that her son was safe in England. After battling with a terrific storm they arrived in England. After the signing of peace, Napoleon landed in Dover. In 1873 he died at Chiselhurst, and the Empress for more than thirty years con- tinued to live in England in lonely widowhood. Her son was killed in Africa in 1879 m tne Zulu War as a British volunteer. The Third Republic Far greater than the spectacle of the disaster that left France bruised and bleeding and humiliated is the spectacle of the forti- tude, heroism, courage, patriotism and ennobling and inspiring faith in herself by which she arose from the ashes of the empire to a progressive democracy, prosperity, strength and her high place among the nations of the world. What seemed like an irreparable disaster was in fact the hour of rebirth ; she was about to emerge into a more enduring life. "France once more gave magnificent proof to the world of the sterling qualities of her democracy, her unimpaired vitality, her marvelous recuperative power. Shaken as she was she rose from her humiliation with splendid courage and in the sublime faith THE MODERN ERA 473 that the future was still hers. We know today how triumphantly that faith has been justified. " The Story Our Lady of Deliverance. 1901. John Oxenham During this present period in French history a matter that attracted world-wide attention was the Dreyfus case. Alfred Dreyfus was born in Upper Alsace of Jewish parentage in 1859, and came to Paris in 1874. Here he pursued his military studies and rendered efficient service in various regiments. In 1891 his abilities were recognized by his being appointed to the general staff. In 1894, without any intimation whatever, he was arrested on the charge of having furnished to the German government mili- tary secrets. He was tried by a secret court. The evidence pre- sented in support of the charge was wholly inadequate, and utterly incapable of establishing a case. Nevertheless on this flimsy evi- dence he was condemned and imprisoned on Devil's Island. Such injustice created a wave of indignation that swept over the world, which was still further augmented by the treatment he received during his imprisonment. In one way and another the conviction became fixed that Dreyfus was the victim of a das- tardly conspiracy, that it was convenient to make him the scape- goat, and when it was shown by "reliable testimony that Major Esterhazy, an officer of doubtful character, had written the memorandum known as the bordereau, an important document which had been produced against Dreyfus," the conviction re- garding the conspiracy became practically an established fact. This memorandum was apparently in the hand-writing of Drey- fus, but in 1896 another paper was brought to the War Office bearing the signature of Major Esterhazy. The handwriting in this case, which was his genuine signature, corresponded exactly with that of the memorandum, while that of Dreyfus did not. The case took on a serious and far-reaching importance in that high officials became involved and their reputations were ruined. The corruption of the French army was exposed, and the Brisson ministry resigned. In his trial Dreyfus was defended by his brother and especially by Emile Zola, the French novelist, who showed that the charge against Dreyfus was the result of an anti-Semitic army plot. 474 HISTORICAL FICTION In 1899 a new trial was granted in which much of the evi- dence was shown to be forged. Notwithstanding this new de- velopment and the utter inadequacy of the evidence presented he was again condemned, but was pardoned by President Loubet. He now proceeded to establish his innocence, and succeeded in doing so and thoroughly justified by ample proof the faith that had been reposed in his innocence. The facts that could not be ig- nored were set before the Supreme Court of France in 1906, which fully acquitted him, and administered a severe rebuke to his accusers. He was then commissioned as Major in the army and was enrolled in the Legion of Honor. This famous case is the setting of Oxenham's story. It was dedicated to Dreyfus at the time he was imprisoned on Devil's Island, and when he was released he took occasion to express his appreciation of the author's work and its dedication. Thus in these brief sketches, and by the means of this great body of historical fiction, we have traced the evolution of the French people. In all the stress and storm of the revolutions and disasters by which she was shaken we have seen her emerge a greater and stronger nation. In the titanic struggle through which she and the world have just passed her strength, unity, and patriotism have been grandly exemplified with her land deso- lated by warfare and drenched in blood. AMERICA TO THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION The discovery of America to the world was the birth of a new era in the history of mankind. It was more than finding a new portion of the globe ; it was to result eventually in the realization of those principles and institutions which Europe at that time was struggling towards. America was born to the world at a time when the Old World was breaking its fetters, a time of activity and inquiry, when the spirit of bondage was beginning to yield to the spirit of emancipation. The Renaissance was transforming the intellectual, political and social conditions and was creating the new era. Italy was leading Europe in culture, and the nations were gathering new strength. France was becoming centralized; in England the Wars of the Roses had just ended and the two houses were united ; in Germany Frederick III, the last emperor to be crowned at Rome, was in the last year of his reign and Maximilian I about to succeed to the throne; Spain was engaged in the work of conquest. Other great forces were at work. The fires of the Reforma- tion were about to light up the skies of Europe. It was the break- ing up of the old order. The general stir, the revival of learn- ing, new inventions and discoveries were creating a new order. Political and social forces were engaged in the struggle for relig- ious liberty. A new "individualism manifested itself in the devel- opment of a national spirit. Men began to inquire the reason and basis for a world empire, to the maintenance of which the Christian Church had committed itself, and for which it asked the allegiance of the people of Europe." In the search for a new route to India, a new continent arose in the pathway of the discoverers. The Azores had already been discovered in 1441, and Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope 475 476 HISTORICAL FICTION in 1847, believing he had found the path to the Indies. It was a propitious moment for the discovery of America in whose history and civilization the growing sense of liberty was to be given such an expression. Everything was beginning anew to form a new epoch in human history. Thus it was under such conditions of change, discovery, revival and revolution that America came upon the stage of world-action. Already that which America was to exemplify so greatly was taking definite form in the life of Eu- rope, and under these larger impulses the new world was brought to light. The history of America has been a history of liberty, first as an escape from the intolerance of the Old World, then her own national independence, then the emancipation of those within her bounds, and finally in securing the liberty of those that were oppressed beyond her own shores. From the moment of her dis- covery to the present time we can say with Emerson that "America is another word for opportunity." That the writer of historical fiction has in the history of this great New World a most inviting field for the exercise of his talents will fully appear in what is to follow. CHAPTER I DISCOVERY AND CONQUEST For a period of one hundred years, from 1492 to 1592, from Columbus to De Fuca, the work of discovery was prosecuted. Columbus, the discoverer of the New World, was a native of Italy, born at Genoa, but it was Isabella, Queen of Spain, who furnished the means by which he might demonstrate his theories, and hence his discoveries were pursued under the direction of and in the name of Spain and not that of his native land. When he finally reached the new land he supposed that it was India, and for this reason called the natives "Indians," a name which has inaccurately been attached to them ever since. The follow- ing is an outline of one hundred years of discovery. Historical Outline. Columbus — 1492 — Spanish — the New World. The Cabots — 1497 — English — Cape Breton. Sebastian Cabot — 1498 — English — the mainland from Cape Breton to Albemarle Sound. The discoveries of the Cabots were the ground of England's claim to the right to colonize North America. Cortereal — 1501 — Portuguese — New England to Newfound- land. Americus Vespucius — 1 501-1503 — Spanish — Brazil. The name America, from his name attached to the first printed account. Denys — 1506 — French — Gulf of St. Lawrence. Ponce de Leon — 1512 — Spanish — Florida. The ground of Spanish claims to Florida. Balboa — 1513 — Spanish — Isthmus of Darien — Pacific Ocean. Ayllon — 1 520 — Spanish — South Carolina. Magellan — 1 520 — Spanish — South America — Philippine Is- lands. 477 478 HISTORICAL FICTION Cortez — 1 521 — Spanish — Mexico. Verrazzani — 1524 — French — South Carolina to Nova Scotia. Narvaez — 1528 — Spanish — Gulf States. Pizarro — 1532 — Spanish — Conquest of Peru. Cartier — 1534 — French — River St. Lawrence. Basis of French claim to this region. Fray Marcos — 1539 — Spanish — New Mexico. Coronado — 1540 — Spanish — Rio Grande and Colorado Rivers. De Soto — 1 541 — Spanish — Southern States — Mississippi. Caprillo — 1 543 — Spanish — Pacific Coast. Drake — 1578 — English — The Coast to Oregon. De Fuca — 1592 — Spanish — The Coast to British Columbia. From this outline will be noted the dominance of Spanish in- terest in the work of discovery, which brought to her from these new lands vast stores of wealth. After the destruction of the Spanish Armada by the English, her achievements in these re- spects were greatly checked. This charpter covers the period from 1492 to 1606. The Stories Westward with Columbus. 1894. William G. Stables It was m Lisbon, where the young Columbus (1436- 1506) supported himself as a map-maker, that he met the leading navi- gators of the time. Little is known of his boyhood. At the age of fourteen he went to sea. He was actuated, not only by the ambition to open up a new trade route to India, since the over- land routes had been closed by the Turks, but he desired to in- troduce Christianity to the people of Asia. After a long and dis- heartening trip, and just as a mutiny was about to break out among the seamen, land was sighted. The first act of Columbus was to kneel upon the beach and offer thanks to God for his suc- cess. This story traces the career of Columbus from his boyhood in Genoa to his sea-faring life which, in demonstrating his con- victions, issued in his discovery of the new world, and in which the qualities of this great character appear. THE MODERN ERA 479 The Romance of the Fountain. 1905. Eugene Lee- Hamilton Ponce de Leon, Governor of Porto Rico, went to Florida, riot only to find gold, but a spring of which the Indians had told him. This spring, it was declared, possessed marvelous qualities having the power to restore one's youth. Ponce de Leon was no longer young and he desired to renew his youth. Instead of finding the magical spring he discovered Florida. He landed there on Easter Sunday, which the Spanish call Pascau Florida, or Festival of Flowers ; hence the name which he gave this region. This is an interesting story of the labors of this discoverer, and the manner in which the fable of the spring led him to Florida which he tried to colonize, but was slain by the Indians. By Right of Conquest. 1890. George A. Henty This story takes us to Mexico. In 15 19 Cortez (1485-1547) an adventurous Spanish soldier entered Mexico. He had a fleet of eleven vessels, 700 Spaniards and ten small field pieces. When he landed he burned his vessels and thus cut off the means of flight. He fought his way to the Aztec capital. He finally suc- ceeded in conquering the natives whom he treated with great cruelty. The operations of Cortez in the subduing of Mexico are set forth in this story, in which a young Englishman plays a part. The White Conquerors of Mexico. 1893. Kirk Monroe Montezuma was the Aztec emperor of Mexico when Cortez invaded that territory in 15 19. He received the explorers in a friendly spirit, but planned their destruction. Cortez learned of the conspiracy and seized Montezuma as a hostage. The natives rose in revolt which Montezuma tried to quiet. He was struck with a stone and soon expired. The Spaniards were defeated, but in 1 52 1 they returned and forced their way into the city. This story relates these circumstances of the Spanish inva- sion under Cortez, the resistance of the Aztecs and the conquest of these tribes by the assistance rendered Cortez by the Toltecs. 4 8o HISTORICAL FICTION This people occupied the entire central plateau of Mexico and at- tained to a considerable state of civilization. They were finally expelled by the Aztecs. The Virgin of the Sun. 1898. George Griffith Pizarro (1471-1541) entered into the prevailing spirit of ad- venture and discovery in the new world. In conjunction with two others, in 1524 he fitted out an expedition and discovered Peru. Unable to conquer the country with his small force he returned to Spain for reinforcements and reached Peru in 1532. After a severe struggle he succeeded in conquering the country. De Soto, the bosom friend of Pizarro, took also a distinguished part in the conquest of Peru. These two men gained a fortune here, and De Soto was made Governor of Cuba. The City of Cuzco, which was founded in 1020, and was at one time the capital of the Incas, was taken and destroyed by Pizarro in 1535. In this story the conquests of Pizarro and De Soto in Peru are related. The history is carried to the capture of Cuzco. The Inca's Ransom. 1898. Albert Lee The government of the Incas, that of the ruling class of the Peruvian Indians, was the best established of any in the country. The Mayas and Aztecs, however, were a more enlightened peo- ple. The Peruvians excelled in the building of roads. They had an abundance of gold, which they used for ornamenting their palaces and the temple of the Incas. Before Pizarro invaded their country Atahualpa moved his capital to Quito. At a friendly banquet Pizarro, by a treacherous expedient, seized Atahualpa and demanded of him a vast ransom in gold. After securing the ransom he accused him of treason and had him executed. Lima, the capital, was founded by Pizarro, and there he was murdered in I 541. Pizarro's invasion of Peru is fully described by this story, and the avariciousness with which the Spaniards seized the wealth of the country. It sets forth the treachery of Pizarro in seizing the Inca and the ransom demanded. The conflict between the Spaniards and Peruvians is quite minutely presented. THE MODERN ERA 481 Other Stories: The Crimson Conquest (1907) by C. B. Hudson, which por- trays the treachery and vicious methods of the invaders. Under the Southern Cross (1872) by Deborah Alcock, which pictures the people of the conquered territory. Vasconcelos. 1857. William G. Simms Charles V appointed Fernando De Soto as Governor of Flor- ida. This region was considered by the Spaniards to consist of the territory between the Atlantic and the Mississippi. In 1539 De Soto landed in the country with 600 men. They wandered over this region seeking mineral treasures, their Indian guides»assur- ing them they would find such. They expected to find here what De Soto had secured in such large measure in Peru. Reaching the Mississippi in 1541 they ascended it and took a northwesterly course. Their treatment of the natives was cruel in the extreme. Worn out by the fatigue of fruitless searching, in 1542 De Soto was stricken with fever and died, and was buried in the Missis- sippi he had discovered. This period of Spanish Invasion is traced by this story, the wandering of the invaders, and the death and burial of De Soto. They buried him in the river that the Indians might not discover the loss of their leader and thus consider that the band might be more easily attacked. The Sword of Justice. 1899. Sheppard Stevens In 1565 the Spaniards built St. Augustine, Florida, which has the distinction of being the oldest city in the United States. At Port Royal the French had established a colony. Two years later (1564) the French returned under Laudonniere and built a second Port Royal on the river St. John in Florida. These operations were carried on in open defiance of the Spaniards, who had built St. Augustine as a defence against the French. The Spanish governor at that time was Menendez. He uprooted the French colony, and this was the last of French attempts to settle territory in that region. This story has its setting in these days of Spanish settlement, and the conflict with the French in their encroachments upon Spanish domains. CHAPTER II THE FOUNDING OF THE COLONIES Virginia Private individuals had attempted to colonize in the new world, attempts which were very unsuccessful. This led to the forming of colonizing companies chartered by royal grant. From James I, in 1606, a general charter was secured by some men of importance which organized them as the Virginia Company, and authorized them to establish and govern colonies in Virginia. This was the general name for the whole unsettled region, and not confined to the present state of Virginia. The Stories My Lady Pokahontas. 1879. John E. Cooke In 1606 the London Company sent 120 emigrants, who, in 1607, selected a peninsula on the James River for their settlement, which they called Jamestown. It was an unhealthy region, and not well protected from the Indians, who attacked the colony within two weeks of their arrival. The leading figure in this con- nection is Captain John Smith, who has given two accounts of this colony in the True Relation and the General History. In his account he tells us how the Indians were about to kill him, when they had made him a prisoner, and how Pocahontas, the daughter of the great Powhatan placed herself between him and the club and saved his life. This story is omitted from his first account. Smith was the leading man in this little settlement. He fought the Indians and would bring them to a peaceable state until another outbreak would occur. This American novelist (1830- 1886) was born at Winchester, Va. He was the son of a distinguished lawyer and himself took up law. He is perhaps best known by The Virginian Comedians, a Colonial romance. During the Civil War he entered the Con- 482 THE MODERN ERA 483 federate service on Stonewall Jackson's staff. Later he was made inspector general of the horse artillery of the Army of Northern Virginia. Following the war he devoted his time to constant writing. His novels have their setting in military events in Virginia. This story is a good description of this early settlement, the contests with the Indians and the place in the fortunes of this colony occupied by Pocahontas. Smith tells us how, when he was lying on the ground, after being condemned to death, Pocahontas rushed forward when an Indian was about to club him to death, and clasped him in her arms. She was a true friend to the colony, and contrived to give them warning when the Indians were plan- ning an attack upon them. She married John Rolfe, an English- man, who settled in Virginia. When she visited England, at a later time, the King and Queen treated her royally. She died in England. White Aprons. 1896. Maud W. Goodwin Berkeley was appointed Governor of Virginia by Charles II. The colonists became dissatisfied with the manner in which their rights as Englishmen were interfered with by both Governor and King. When the Indians started in to massacre the settlers the latter demanded that troops be sent against the savages, a demand which Berkeley refused. Led by Nathaniel Bacon, a company of armed colonists was formed. Ordered to lay down their arms, they went out and defeated the Indians, and returning found the regular militia waiting for them. In the battle that followed the rebels were victorious. What helped to win the day was the strategy of the rebels in forcing some women friends of the governor to stand in front of them while the garrison were firing their cannon. Bacon was much complimented on his "White Apron Brigade." This uprising is known as Bacon's Rebellion. From this statement the title of this story will at once be ex- plained. The story has its setting in this event. This was the period following the Restoration in England, and the complexion of the times in the Court life and intellectual interests figure in the story. Shortly after this rebellion Bacon died and Berkeley had twenty-three of the rebels executed. He was recalled by Charles 484 HISTORICAL FICTION II, who said, "That old fool has hanged more men in that naked country than I have done for the murder of my father." The Heart's Highway. 1900. Mary E. Wilkins The cultivation of tobacco was the leading industry in Vir- ginia, both because of the ease with which it was handled and the large profits derived from the commodity. This prevented the diversifying of industry, and was a drawback to the develop- ment and civilization of the state. The people raised only enough of food stuffs to meet their own needs. From time to time the attempt was made to prevent over-production of tobacco by limiting the production for certain periods, but the expedient was not successful and created trouble. Tobacco was made the legal currency. Taxes, fines, stipends, etc., were based upon so many pounds of tobacco. This American novelist (1862-), perhaps better known as Mary E. Freeman, was born in Randolph, Mass. She was of Puritan descent. She received her education at Mount Holyoke Seminary, South Hadley, Mass. For a number of years she was secretary to Dr. O. W. Holmes. She occasionally contributed to magazines. In 1902 she married Dr. Charles M. Freeman. She has written extensively, her stories dealing in the main with New England life. This story deals with the conditions in Virginia during this period from 1665 to 1685, and gives an interesting description of the tobacco industry, and its relation to the economic problems of the time. Massachusetts During the time of Elizabeth a religious body arose in Eng- land known as Puritans, who felt that the Reformation did not sufficiently reform. From the Puritans again arose the sect called "Separatists," who refused to remain in the Church. It will be recalled that during the reign of James I many Puritan ministers were driven from their pulpits, prohibited from holding religious services of any kind, and their congregations were scattered. To escape this intolerance a considerable number crossed over to Holland. These people were often called Pilgrims. THE MODERN ERA 485 About two hundred of these industrious people, of unques- tioned piety, under the leadership of Rev. John Robinson, decided to establish a settlement in America. They secured financial aid from friends, the London Company granted them a patent for lands within its charter, and in 1620 they set sail in the Mayflower for America. On this vessel they drew up a "Compact" agreeing to organize as a "civil body politic" for their government, and John Carver was elected as governor. They landed at Plymouth Harbor, near a great bowlder now called Plymouth Rock, December 21, 1620. The colony was free from internal strife ; "it showed that Englishmen could prosper in the cold climate of the northeastern coast ; it established in the New World the great principle of a Church free from govern- mental interference, and founded on the will of the members. Above all, the Pilgrim Fathers handed down to later generations priceless traditions of strength, manliness, patience, uprightness and confidence in God." Thus the principle and policy of these early settlers became the cradle of American liberty. The prayer book and the episcopal authority of the Church of England were abandoned, and they established independent churches, which they called "Congregational." The reader is referred to : "The Emigration of the Pilgrim Fathers," by Edward Everett. "The Landing of the Mayflower" by Edward Everett. The Stories Soldier Rigdale. 1899. Beulah M. Dix In this story are described the landing and establishment of this Plymouth Colony, and the hardships endured in the first months of their new settlement. It was a very cold winter and about one-half of their number died from the cold, poor food and other causes. Others came and the little colony began to succeed. The story introduces Miles Standish, who was the military chieftain of the colony and secured for it splendid de- fence. Carver, their first governor, is also introduced. Saxby. 1884. Emma Leslie The approach to the leading interest in this story is by way of setting forth the intolerant attitude to the religious scruples of 486 HISTORICAL FICTION the Puritans in England, and the decision to come to America, where they could establish their own religious institutions, and exercise their own religious convictions. The trip of the May- flower and settlement of New Boston are set forth. Henry Vane, whose father was a Privy Counsellor, arrived in Massachusetts in 1635. He was a zealous Puritan and a young man of attractive qualities. In the following year he was chosen Governor of the Colony. In 1634 there came to the Colony a Mrs. Ann Hutchinson, who supported the Antinomian religious view, which was regarded by the religious leaders as not only heretical but subversive of good morals and the civil order. She was a woman of keen mind and criticised the preachers and those who adhered to their doc- trines in declaring that we were now under a covenant of grace and not under a covenant of law ; that the evidence of salvation lies in an inward revelation to the soul and not in sanctification as expressed in good works ; that the resurrection is spiritual and takes place at the time of regeneration, and that the personality of the Holy Spirit is directly identified with the soul of the believer. She was a thoroughly pure-minded, pious woman, and Vane strongly sympathized with her view, as did others who stood high in the Church. An ecclesiastical council was held, which decided against these views, and Mrs. Hutchinson was excommunicated. In these theological troubles Vane's leadership was seriously in- volved ; otherwise they might have been solved in a more peaceful manner. Shortly after the decisions of the council he returned to England. Henry Vane and Mrs. Hutchinson, relative to these religious interests, figure in this story. With Musqueteer and Redskin. 1904. W. M. Graydon The Indians contested the rights of the white man to invade their hunting grounds. A large and warlike tribe, the Pequots, greatly disturbed the peace of the settlers. In 1637 a conflict with this tribe occurred, in which John Mason, at the head of a force of 500 men, stormed them in their fort and practically wiped them out. This story describes the hostilities that broke out between the THE MODERN ERA 487 Massachusetts Colony and the Indians at this time, when Miles Standish was in charge of the militia and Vane was governor. Mrs. Hutchinson also appears in this story, for which see the pre- ceding. She migrated to the Dutch territory, and she and her family were massacred by the Indians. John Winthrop also figures. He was the leading statesman of the Colony, "he gave form to the commonwealth, regulated legislation and stood as long as he could for aristocratic government, but in the end yielded graciously to the democracy." He succeeded Vane as Governor, to which office he was elected thirteen times. He took a leading part in the formation of the New England Confederation, and was its first president. In 1636 another colony was founded bordering on the charter limits of Massachusetts, the leading spirit of which was Roger Williams, who was minister at Plymouth and Salem. He estab- lished the principle that "the civil government has nothing to do with religious acts, and that every one should have liberty to wor- ship God in the light of his own conscience." He is introduced into this story. The Making of Christopher Ferringham. 1901. Beulah M. Dix The Quakers, who arose under George Fox in England, in 1648, began to appear in the colonies. Their doctrines were de- clared to be heretical and several colonies passed laws prohibiting the circulation of their books, and the banishment of the Quakers from the colonies. This treatment of sincere and thoroughly pious people clearly indicates that the Puritans, notwithstanding their good and lofty principles, were not free from tyranny and perse- cution in the case of those who differed from them in their relig- ious views. This attitude to the Quakers is dealt with by this story, as also the general order of Puritanical life in Massachusetts. The leg- islation against crime, misconduct and the refusal to attend relig- ious services, etc., give us a good view of the social and religious conditions of the time. Anne Scarlett. 1901. Mary Imlay Taylor At this time the theory was current throughout the world that human beings could "make a personal compact with the devil, 488 HISTORICAL FICTION which would enable them to change their shape, to travel on the wings of the wind, and especially to bring bodily harm to their enemies," in other words to become witches. This delusion found its way into Salem, Mass., and a perfect frenzy broke out in the town. Cotton Mather, a distinguished minister and scholar, be- came greatly interested in the matter, and in 1689 published a work entitled, "Memorable Providences Relating to Witchcraft and Possessions." This work played an important part in the con- demnation and execution of witches. In many instances the most ridiculous sort of evidence was offered against the people who were charged with being "possessed," and in the excitement that prevailed, before the good sense of the people got control, scores of innocent people were put in jail, and nineteen were hanged, and one who refused to plead guilty or not guilty was pressed to death by heavy weights. Many people became so crazed that they declared themselves to be witches, and told of flying through the air and other exploits. The executions were stopped when the wife of Governor Phips fell under suspicion. This witchcraft frenzy, the handling of the delusion, the influ- ence of Cotton Mather's preaching and publication in dealing with witches, are depicted by this story. When the craze ended the people of Salem were conscience-stricken because of the excesses to which it had led them. The execution and imprisonment of these many people will always leave a stain on the history of this time. Other stories : The Black Shilling (1904), by Amelia E. Barr, which sets forth the denunciations of Mather, and the bringing of those alleged to be witches to trial. A Maid of Salem Towne (1906), by Mrs. Lucy Madison, giv- ing exciting instances of this frenzy. The Coast of Freedom (1903), by Adele Marie Shaw, in which the governor of Massachusetts, William Phips, whose wife fell under the suspicion of witchcraft, figures largely. The operations against witchcraft are set forth. Romance of the Charter Oak. William Seton Sir Edmund Andros was appointed by James II as viceroy of New England, New York and New Jersey. His rule was tyran- THE MODERN ERA 489 nical and arrogant and so exasperated the people that some men in Boston in 1689 revolted and put him in prison. At that point William and Mary succeeded to the throne and Andros was sum- moned to England to answer to the complaints made against him. Prior to this time, in 1662, Charles II had granted Connecti- cut a charter which extended to the colonists the right to govern themselves under their own constitution. When James II came to the throne he decided to deprive them of this charter, which he considered too liberal. Andros, the viceroy, was ordered by James to demand that this charter be surrendered. With a body of troops to support this demand he went to Hartford (1687) for the document. But the people of Hartford had hidden it in the hollow trunk of an oak tree, and Andros was unable to secure it. These facts will explain the title of this story which deals with the period of the harsh rule of Andros as noted above. New Netherland The Hudson River was discovered by Henry Hudson, an Eng- lishman, in 1609, and in 1614 the United New Netherland Com- pany built the trading post of New Amsterdam on the site of the present city of New York. The Dutch West India Company was given the monopoly of Dutch trade in America, and little trading posts were established. In 1625 the Island of Manhattan was purchased from the Indians by Peter Minuit for about $26. A single square foot of soil on Manhattan is, in some places, now worth about twenty-five times as much as Minuit paid for the entire island. In 1638 a Swedish royal colony settled on the lower Delaware, but in 1655 it was seized by the Dutch Governor, Stuy- vesant. He was a brave and honest soldier, but was irritable and tyrannical and always had a quarrel on with the people, but the colony grew, and under him the fur trade greatly increased. In 1664 four English war vessels suddenly appeared off the Battery, demanding in the name of Charles II the surrender of New Netherland on the ground that it was English territory. Stuyvesant was powerless to resist, and Dutch rule in this section at once ended, and the entire Atlantic coast from the St. Lawrence River to the Spanish possessions in Florida was in the hands of England. Under English rule the colonies greatly increased. Charles gave to his brother, the Duke of York, New Netherland, 490 HISTORICAL FICTION and the name was changed to New York, and Fort Orange was called Albany, that being another of the Duke's titles. The Stories In Castle and Colony. 1899. Emma Rayner In 1638 the Swedish colony was settled within the limits of the present state of Delaware. They built a fort, which they named Christiana. The Swedish Governor, Printz, built a fort a few miles below the site of Philadelphia. In 1655 tne Swedes attacked the Dutch fort near Christiana. Stuyvesant sent an expedition to the Delaware River, the Swedish forts were cap- tured and Dutch rule over this territory was acknowledged. This story deals with this conflict between these two colonies on the Delaware, and delineates the characteristics of the two governors. The fighting between the two factions is described, culminating in the defeat and loss of the Swedish colony. The Maid of Old New York. Amelia E. Barr The rule of Stuyvesant, as sketched above, is given in this story, as also the delineation of his qualities. When the English called upon him to surrender the territory, he had in his garrison about 250 untrained men. The Governor, in his characteristic manner, fumed at a great rate and declared, "I would rather be carried to my grave than yield," but regardless of his protests his men hoisted the white flag. Stuyvesant wore a wooden leg, having lost his leg in war, and the wooden one was bound about with rings of silver, which won for him the sobriquet of "Old Silverleg." The Begum's Daughter. 1890. Edwin L. Bynner When James II was dethroned by the acceptance of the Eng- lish throne by William of Orange, the government of New York was in the hands of Francis Nicholson and the Council. At this time there was a rumor of a French invasion and of a rising of the papists to aid the French. Jacob Leisler, a German, was an earnest Protestant, and was captain of one of the train-bands. Believing that it was the design of Nicholson to support the cause of James, Leisler took possession of the fort, and took upon him- THE MODERN ERA 491 self the command of the town. He called an Assembly, which declared him Governor of the Fort until orders should come from William. He used the letters that came to Nicholson containing orders, and thus claimed to be Lieutenant-Governor by royal commission as a measure by which to sustain his rule. The people at Albany at first refused to acknowledge him, but when the French inroads began and the slaughter at Schenectady occurred they joined forces and acknowledged him as Governor, and he rendered good service against the French. Henry Sloughton, a man of no character, made Governor by William, did not come to America for some time after receiving his commission. In the meantime Major Ingolsby landed with grenadiers, and Leisler refused to give over to him the Fort until the Governor should arrive. Trouble arose and several were killed, and that moment Sloughton appeared. Leisler and his leaders were arrested, tried and convicted of treason and put to death, the death-warrant for Leisler being signed by Sloughton while drunk and urged by the enemies of the former. Parliament investigated the matter and declared that Leisler's execution was an act of murder, "an act of political vengeance." The author in this story has given an excellent account of these events, the incident being known as Leisler's Rebellion. Carolina and Georgia The growth of the Carolinas was attended by bloody wars with the Tuscarora and Yemassee Indians from 1712 to 1716. At the close of the Tuscarora War the Yemassees began hostili- ties against the southern colony. They instituted their operations in April, 1715, by killing ninety persons at Pocotaligo and the nearby plantations. The people of Port Royal managed to escape to Charleston. It was soon discovered by the colonists that all the southern tribes were united against them. They believed, however, that they could depend upon the support of the western tribes. In this they were mistaken, as these tribes either took the attitude of enmity or neutrality. Governor Craven had at his disposal the small number of 1,200 men who were fit to bear arms, and with this he had to meet a force of 7,000 armed Indians. Cautiously advancing into their country he demonstrated the superiority of the white man over the Indian. He drove these tribes into Florida, and the lands vacated 492 HISTORICAL FICTION by them the colony offered to purchasers. They were soon taken up by about 500 Irishmen. The first settlement in South Carolina was made about 1670, when colonists were sent out by proprietors. In 1680 they moved to Charleston. Rice was used as money. Then came the troubles with Spain and the Indians. In 1729 it became a Royal Colony. The Stories The Yemassee. 1835. William Gilmore Simms The author (1806-1870), novelist, historian and poet, was born and died at Charleston, S. C. His novels deal largely with South- ern life in the Colonial and Revolutionary periods. His frontier romances include The Yemassee, Carl Werner, Pelayo, The Scout, etc. He is also known through his historical works, "A History of South Carolina" and "South Carolina in the Revolution." This historical tale is founded on the author's personal knowl- edge of the American Indian character. It has been said of him that "he has done for the historical traditions of the Carolinas what Cooper did for those of the North and West." This story gives the history of this great Indian invasion of South Carolina, setting forth the activities of the Yemassee and other tribes. It describes the military operations of Governor Craven in driving them out of the state, and at the same time exhibits the strength and characteristics of the Yemassee. Governor Craven is the hero, who is presented as Gabriel Harrison. One of the best of the "horror scenes," which is the best scene in the book, is that in which Matiwan kills her son to save him from disgrace, so that his soul will not be lost. The author resembles Cooper in that he is a master of story-telling. Doris Kingsley, Child and Colonist. 1901. Emma Rayner Between the St. John's and the Savannah Rivers there lay a wide unoccupied strip of country which King George named after himself and called Georgia. General James Oglethorpe was a man of kind and generous impulses who was opposed to the system of imprisonment for debt. He persuaded the king to give him permission to plant a colony of debtors in Georgia. This THE MODERN ERA 493 would enable many unforunate families to provide for themselves a home and a living, and at the same time such a colony would serve as a buffer against the Spanish in Florida. The land west of the Savannah River was thus granted to Oglethorpe in 1732, and in -1733 he landed with thirty-five families and founded Savannah. The king had stipulated that there should be "neither liquor nor slavery trade in Georgia, that no one should own over 500 acres of land, that for twenty-one years the settlers should have no voice in making the laws." Many of Oglethorpe's people were idle and worthless, but with the coming of the High- land Scotch and some Germans, the colony took on new life and development. There was considerable dissatisfaction in the colony. The people wanted larger farms and negro slaves to do the work. They wanted to engage in the liquor business, which brought large profits. Oglethorpe returned to England much disappointed. In 1750 slavery and the liquor traffic were permitted, the settlers were allowed to frame their own laws, and Georgia became a Royal Province. In this story the circumstances regarding the founding of this colony, i. e., as a refuge for unfortunate people, are set forth. The titular heroine is the daughter of one of the families that be- longed to the debtor class. The strange manner in which the governor of South Carolina lands upon the colony a large "cargo" of English people is an important interest in the story. In 1739 war broke out between England and Spain. Oglethorpe, with a force of 800 men, laid siege to St. Augustine, a Spanish strong- hold, but was obliged to retire. When the Spanish attacked the English settlement they were driven back. This was two years later. This historical incident figures in the story. CHAPTER III THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR The question of boundary lines between French and English colonies in North America involved those two countries in three wars: i. King William's War, 1689- 1697. 2. Queen Anne's War, 1702-1713. In this war the English won Nova Scotia. 3. King George's War, 1744- 1748. The capture by New Eng- land militia of Louisburg on the island of Cape Breton. The military career of George Washington began at the age of nineteen, at which time he was made Adjutant General of a military district of his native state of Virginia. His operations against the French and Indians gave him peculiar opportunities for his future work and very valuable experience. At this early day he was distinguished for those qualities that were to be so fully exemplified in coming contests and triumphs. The Stories A Soldier of Virginia. 1901. Burton E. Stevenson The French had broken up an English trading post on the Miami and proceeded to build a line of forts. George Washing- ton, then 21 years of age, was sent to the French to deliver a message from the Governor of Virginia, which demanded their withdrawal from that section. The French refused to do so, and then built Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg). In our English studies of this period in this volume this instance has been fully treated — the manner in which the British under General Braddock, know- ing nothing of Indian warfare, were defeated by the French and Indians. Washington, who understood them and their tactics, undertook to make a suggestion to Braddock, which was curtly resented, and the result was a disastrous defeat. This engagement at Fort Duquesne is the setting of this story, 494 THE MODERN ERA 495 in which Washington and Braddock figure. The battle and the defeat are well described. Four bullets had passed through Wash- ington's clothes, and two horses were shot under him. He was the hero of the day, and saved the British from being annihilated. The Quiberon Touch. 1901. Cyrus T. Brady This American clergyman and author (1861-) was born at Alleghany, Pa. He was graduated from the United States Naval Academy. Ordained by the Protestant Episcopal Church, he was rector of churches in Colorado and Missouri. He was appointed Archdeacon of Kansas and later of Pennsylvania. He served churches in Philadelphia and other cities. At the time of the Spanish-American War he was chaplain of the First Pennsyl- vania Volunteers. He is best known by his historical novels. In 1759, during the Seven Years' War, was fought the battle of Quiberon between the English and French. Sir Edward Hawke had been blockading the French fleet under De Conflans at Brest. While Hawke stood off for a time the French admiral saw an opportunity of seizing a few English frigates before Hawke could come to their assistance. In this he failed. Hawke arrived and the French were driven back from the point of Quiberon to the rocky coast of the Vilaine. It was a dangerous position in which to attack the French on account of shoals and quicksands, but Hawke, contrary to the protests of the pilot deter- mined to do so. The result was a great victory. The English lost but forty men ; two vessels were stranded, but the men were all saved. The French lost six ships. For a time this defeat crushed the French naval power and prevented invasion from that source. This was, from the historical point of view, The Quiberon Touch. This story has depicted this great decisive engagement near Quiberon Bay. With Wolfe in Canada. 1886. George A. Henty Following Braddock's defeat at Fort Duquesne in 1755, the English captured the fort three years later and named it Fort Pitt. In 1759 Niagara, which guarded the Great Lakes, capitulated, and an English garrison was placed there. At Ticonderoga, Montcalm defeated Abercrombie in 1758, at which time Lord 40 HISTORICAL FICTION Howe was killed, one of the greatest defeats the English sus- tained. The fort was shortly afterwards taken by the English. The crowning victory of this campaign was achieved by Gen- eral Wolfe. With a force of 8,000 men, and a fleet of forty- four vessels he pitched camp within four miles of Quebec. The plan was to ascend the St. Lawrence and seize the Plains of Abraham in the rear of the city. When night came the English silently clambered up the almost perpendicular precipice, and at the breaking of the dawn Wolfe's army was ready. The French moved forward. The British reserved their fire until their foe was within forty yards of them and then poured in volley after volley. The French were thrown into confusion. While leading the charge and at the moment of victory a ball pierced the breast of Wolfe, after already being twice shot. As he sank to the earth he heard some one say, "They run, they run!" "Who run?" he asked. "The French are flying everywhere," was the reply. "Do they run already? Then I die happy," said the brave hero, and sinking down died in the arms of an officer. At the same time, Montcalm, the French leader, trying to rally his broken forces, was mortally wounded. "Shall I survive ?" he asked the surgeon. "But a few hours at most," he was told. "So much the better," he said; "I shall not live to witness the surrender of Quebec." Canada now passed under the dominion of England. This series of military operations is set forth in Henty's story, beginning with the defeat at Duquesne, as already given. Then are given the siege and capture of Fort William Henry by the French. There were but 500 English in the fort. After a six days siege, with their ammunition almost exhausted and half of their cannon burst, they were compelled to surrender. They were promised a safe escort to Fort Edward. But the Indians had secured liquor at the fortress, and made furious by drink and against all the exertions of Montcalm, they fell upon the prisoners and massacred a great number. The capture of the fort and this barbarous work figure in this story. The fall of Quebec is especially described. It secured America to Great Britain, placed Wolfe among the immortals, and was a turning-point in modern history. Other stories : Marching on Niagara (1902), by Edward Stratemeyer, giving THE MODERN ERA 497 an account of the action in which Niagara fell and was garrisoned by the English. With Roger's Rangers (1906), by G. W. Browne, describing the exploits of wood rangers in this conflict culminating in the fall of Quebec. The Heroine of the Strait. 1902. Mary C. Crowley The history of the crumbling of French colonial power may be traced by studying the events of the period from 1689 to 1763. She had taken Nova Scotia, Cape Breton and Canada. She set- tled Louisiana and had settlements on the Mississippi. From 1754 to 1757 she was well established in the Ohio Valley. Reverses began in 1758, when one stronghold after another was seized, and when, in 1759, Quebec fell to the British the French hold on Canada was broken. "In 1763 they were compelled to give up every square foot of their splendid empire on the mainland, and retained only the two little islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, south of Newfoundland, and their possessions in the West Indies, including part of Haiti. Thenceforward the Anglo-Saxons con- trolled the destinies of North America." Looking back over our early history we can fully appreciate what it has meant to America that it was Great Britain that had control of her interests and shaped her course in her development, ideals and institutions. She was nurtured during these years under the best and most democratic government in the world. The influence of British colonization, British rule and insti- tutions must ever be taken into account in forming any intelli- gent judgment of the high order of our evolution and civiliza- tion. With the fall of Quebec and Montreal and the passing of Canada under British control the Indians realized that a new order of things would be instituted if England should gain supremacy in America. The French would not have greatly disturbed the life of the Indian. His hunting opportunities would not have been greatly impaired. But not so under the dominion of Britain. The country would be cleared, the timber cut down, farming estab- lished, cities built, in a word, the face of the whole country changed by British industrial aggressiveness. France had assured the Indians that she would return and 498 HISTORICAL FICTION take the country from the British, and thus encouraged, to save themselves and their interests the Indians formed a confedera- tion to strike a decisive blow before the British could become better established and organized. At the head of this confedera- tion was Pontiac, a warrior of the Ottawas, one of the ablest and most patriotic men of his race. The plan of Pontiac's conspiracy was that each tribe should attack and destroy the nearest post. This concerted action was carried out in May, 1763, when ten posts were carried by the Indians, extending from Bedford in Pennsylvania to Michili- mackinac and the garrisons were massacred. Detroit and Fort Pitt received a warning and were able to save themselves. Sup- plies were brought to Detroit by water, and thus defeated the designs of the Indians. Pontiac was at the head of the force that threatened this fort. Colonel Bouquet was sent to the support of Fort Pitt. He knew all about Indian warfare, and while the battle in which he was now engaged was a severe one he finally drove the Indians back in great disorder. With Fort Pitt secured, he marched with a larger army into the Indian country, South- eastern Ohio, and made treaties with the Indians. When Pontiac became satisfied that the French could offer him no assistance he surrendered at Oswego in 1766, and this put an end to Pontiac's conspiracy. This historical novel gives a detailed account of the conflicts in which the French were defeated, and relates the facts of this Indian confederation and uprising under the direction and organi- zation of Pontiac. It explains the plan of the conspiracy and the manner in which his designs became known, which fact resulted in the complete defeat of the Indians. Other stories : A Sword of the Old Frontier (1905), by Randall Parrish, giv- ing the exploits of Coubert and the account of Pontiac's confed- eration against the English. The Fort in the Wilderness (1905), by Edward Stratemeyer, a striking presentation of the operations about the forts, and the crushing of the conspiracy. Wacousta (1882), by Major John Richardson, giving the suc- cesses of the Indians in falling upon the garrisons taken unawares, THE MODERN ERA 499 and their method of dispatching them, and the operations about Detroit. "The Indians of the Northwest" ("Winning of the West"), by Theodore Roosevelt, may be read to great advantage in con- nection with the foregoing. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION CHAPTER I THE WAR IN NEW ENGLAND AND CANADA The American Revolution gave to the world another great, free, independent nation that was to exemplify in a peculiar degree the modern spirit. From every consideration, the independence of America, under whatever conditions it might be effected, was inevitable. The great mission of America could never have been accomplished as a colony of another State, or under the direction of another government, no matter how excellent and democratic that government might be. Only as a free, independent State in control of its own powers, policies and institutions, without the slightest restriction laid upon her by subordination to another people, would it be possible for America to assume her true and rightful position in the world and to contribute to the fullest degree to the development and civilization of the race. And moreover, no one is more intelligently appreciative of this fact today than is Great Britain. Two things were involved in the American Revolution. "Its immediate aim was independence, its ultimate aim or end liberty ; hence it became a war for independence in order to secure liberty. Nevertheless, the contest began for liberty, since this was attacked, and ended in independence, since this was inevitable. But inde- pendence brought a larger liberty. It first gave the opportunity of trying, on a grand scale, without interference and under the most favorable conditions, the experiment of universal human liberty, of allowing to all men the free and full exercise of their natural rights." The Stamp Act The territory ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris (1763) consisted of the Province of Quebec, East Florida, West Florida and the Indian Country. For defensive purposes provi- 500 THE MODERN ERA 501 sion must be made for the expense involved in maintaining 10,000 troops. The policy proposed was that this should be paid for partly by the Crown and partly by the colonies. "The share to be paid by the latter was to be raised ( 1 ) by enforcing old trade and navigation acts; (2) by taxes on sugar and molasses; (3) by stamp act, 1765." The question at issue was not, "Shall America support an army?" but "Shall Parliament tax America?" Against this proposition of taxation the colonists protested by Writs of Assistance, the Virginia Resolutions, Declaration of Rights and Grievances, Non-Importation Agreements. While the Stamp Act was repealed it was insisted that a tax be laid upon tea, paper, glass, lead, and painter's colors. The Stories The Charming Sally. 1898. James O. Kaler The Stamp Act required that all documents, commercial in- struments and newspapers be written or printed on paper stamped by the British government. This act was passed in 1765, The colonies had no representation in Parliament, and this Act led to opposition and riots in America, and a protest to Parliament deny- ing the right of taxation. In this story are described the effects of the Stamp Act upon the colonists when the Act was passed and great quantities of stamped paper arrived from England. The Sons of Liberty was organized, who pledged themselves to oppose this form of tyranny to the end, and to maintain the rights of the colonies. During these agitations business was practically suspended and inactivity in social life prevailed. The Strawberry Handkerchief . 1908. Amelia E. Barr This story has its setting in these days of denunciation of the Stamp Act, and the bitterness and armed opposition it created. The War in New England America had in the British Parliament the support of some of the most eminent statesmen. Lord Camden, in the House of Lords, sustained the rights of the colonies. Before the House 502 HISTORICAL FICTION of Commons, Pitt declared, "You have no right to tax America. I rejoice that America has resisted." But while the other taxes of the Townshend Acts were repealed, the tax on tea was enforced so as to maintain the principle of taxation. A regiment of troops was brought from Halifax and quartered in Boston. The people of Massachusetts were declared to be rebels, and the governor was ordered to arrest any he considered to be guilty of treason and send them to England for trial. These and other things brought the revolutionary feeling to the breaking point. The Stories Daughters of the Revolution and Their Times. 1895. Charles C. Coffin In this story the increasing bitterness and opposition to the measures of the British Parliament are described. In 1770, after the troops were quartered in Boston to frighten the people, a soldier cut down a liberty pole in the park. A little later a party of citizens got into a row with Preston's company and dared them to fire. They discharged a volley, killing three persons and wounding others. This is known as the Boston Massacre. Thou- sands of men assembled under arms. Samuel Adams spoke for the people. The troops under demand were withdrawn from the city, Preston and his company were tried for murder and two were convicted. This event figures in this story. In 1773 three tea-ships anchored in the Boston harbor. Fifty men disguised as Indians boarded the vessels and poured the con- tents of 340 chests of tea into the sea. This is called the Boston Tea Party. The authorities had declared that the tea could not be landed, and while the dispute was proceeding it was thus settled in a very peremptory manner. There was no longer any hope of a peaceable adjustment between England and the colonies, and when General Gage sent his expedition to destroy stores of ammu- nition and seize Hancock and Adams, supposed to be hidden at Lexington or Concord, the war was on. At Lexington the patriots stood ready with loaded guns. Pit- cairn demanded that they throw down their arms, and refusing to do so he ordered his men to fire. This was the first volley of the Revolutionary War. Nearly a fourth of the patriots fell and the British passed on to Concord, where they met with a heavy loss. THE MODERN ERA 503 These two actions fired the country and military organization was pushed forward. These beginnings of the war are set forth in this story. The Green Mountain Boys. 1840. Daniel P. Thompson The author was born at Charleston, Mass. He was a lawyer and politician. He was a graduate of Middlebury College, Mid- dlebury, Vt. By legislative appointment he compiled "The Laws of Vermont." This story won for him great popularity. The fortress of Ticonderoga had cost the British eight million pounds sterling. It contained a vast magazine of stores, and it was of the first importance that this stronghold be captured. In fact the legislature of Connecticut had voted a thousand dollars to induce an expedition against the fort. In 1764 the king decided in favor of the claims of New York to jurisdiction over the Green Mountain territory against the settlers of Vermont. Ethan Allen was appointed to present the cause of the settlers at Albany. The case went against him. He organized "The Green Mountain Boys," a company of undisci- plined provincials, and expelled the New York settlers. A reward of $750 was offered by the Governor of New York for Allen. Following the battle of Lexington, both Allen and Benedict Arnold were anxious to capture Fort Ticonderoga. Allen and his men got there first. On May 10, 1775, when but part of his men had crossed the lake, Allen rushed into the fort. The following is the scene as given by the story : "Captain La Place, who had just leaped from his bed, on hearing the tumult below, soon made his appearance with his clothes in his hand, but suddenly recoiling a step, he stood gazing in mute amazement at the stern and threatening air, and the powerful and commanding figure of the man before him. " T come, sir, to demand the immediate surrender of this for- tress!' sternly said Allen, to the astonished commander. "'By what authority do you make this bold demand of his Majesty's fort, sir?' said the other, almost distrusting his senses. "'By what authority?' thundered Allen, T demand it, sir, in the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress !' 504 HISTORICAL FICTION " The Continental Congress ?' stammered the hesitating officer, 'I know of no right — I don't acknowledge it, sir — ' " 'But you soon will acknowledge it, sir !' fiercely interrupted the impatient leader. 'And hesitate to obey me one instant longer, and by the eternal heavens ! I will sacrifice every man in your fort ! —beginning the work, sir,' he added, whirling his sword furiously over the head of the other, and bringing the murderous blade at every glittering circle it made in the air nearer and nearer the head of its threatened victim, 'beginning the work, sir, by sending your own head dancing across this floor !' " T yield, I yield !' cried the shrinking commandant. "'Down! down, then, instantly!' exclaimed Allen, "and com- municate the surrender to your men while any of them are left alive to hear it/ " The fort that cost Britain forty million dollars was captured in ten minutes without the firing of a shot. The story also sets forth the controversy between New York and Vermont and the part taken in it by Ethan Allen. The scene of the besieging of the cave and the blowing up of the same is well described. The Colonials. 1902. Allen French Learning that the British with a force of 10,000 men under Gage, Howe, Clinton and Burgoyne intended to seize Bunker Hill, overlooking Charleston, the Americans fortified the height adjoin- ing it. Upon this the British opened fire from their ships, and then charged the works of the Americans, who, after their ammu- nition was exhausted, were compelled to withdraw. The story gives a good description of this action. General Joseph Warren appears. He was slain in the battle. The British lost 1,000 men against 450 Americans, killed and wounded. To capture a few more hills with such a loss would soon cost Gage his whole army. The Americans were encouraged rather than dis- couraged by this defeat. Lionel Lincoln. 1825. J. Fenimore Cooper In this story the facts relating to the battle of Bunker Hill are carefully presented. The historical order of events, from the inception of the war, is well traced. THE MODERN ERA 505 My Lady Laughter. 1905. Dwight Tilton When the people of Boston discovered the plans of General Gage, at the beginning of the war, they hid their ammunition in wagons containing rubbish and took it to Concord. On the night of April 18, 1775, Warren sent Paul Revere to ride with all speed through the country to Lexington and give the warning of the British expedition. His ride from Boston to Concord is the sub- ject of Longfellow's poem, The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere. This famous patriot figures in this story, which gives the siege of Boston, and also introduces Washington, John Hancock and Samuel Adams. It will be remembered that the latter presented the case of the people after the Boston Massacre. This American statesman was one of the ablest laborers for American freedom, and was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. Other stories : With Warren at Bunker Hill, by J. O. Kaler, in which great leaders on both sides appear. Dan Monroe (1905), by W. O. Stoddard, which sets forth the early actions of the war. The War in Canada On the day that Ticonderoga was captured by Ethan Allen, the Colonial Congress met at Philadelphia and appointed George Washington as Commander-in-Chief of the army. So greatly did he feel the responsibility of the position that when his name was mentioned he left the hall for a time. His education con- sisted of the common branches. His dignity of manner, sound- ness of judgment and excellence of character distinguished him above most men. He was a member of the Continental Congress which appointed him to his high position. The man who had saved the wreck of Braddock's army at Fort Duquesne was called to build a nation. In a most dignified manner which well befitted the occasion, he accepted the appointment but refused all com- pensation for his services above the actual expense incurred. Fif- teen days after the action at Bunker Hill he entered Cambridge with an escort. The colonies indulged the hope that Canada would sympathize 506 HISTORICAL FICTION with the Revolution and join with them against Britain. To bring about such an attitude an expedition was organized and committed to Schuyler and Montgomery, which was to proceed to Montreal by Lake Champlain and the river Sorel. Montgomery captured St. John and then seized Montreal. Taking other towns which he garrisoned, his force was reduced to 300 men, and with this body he proceeded to Quebec. Here he found another force, from another direction, bent upon the same purpose. Benedict Arnold had set out with 1,000 men, who passed through a winter of awful suffering. Their supplies gave out and every dog that could be taken was eaten ; the roots of trees were used for food as well as their moccasins. As members of this starving band were Morgan, Green, Meigs, noted leaders of the Revolution, and Aaron Burr, who afterwards became Vice-President of the new nation. Taking a position on the Plains of Abraham, Arnold waited for the English to attack, but the latter remained within their fortress waiting for Arnold to make an assault. Withdrawing twenty miles he joined with Montgomery. With 900 men the latter besieged Quebec for three weeks. On the last day of the year, dividing his little force to make a double assault, Montgom- ery, at the head of his men, led an attack. A storm of grape shot came from the fort and the brave leader fell dead. From another point Arnold forced his way into the town and was seriously wounded and Morgan, now in command, was finally compelled to surrender. Fresh troops arrived from England, and the Ameri- cans were driven back from point to point until Canada was en- tirely evacuated. The death of Montgomery was a heavy loss, which was mourned even in England. He was one of the greatest souls of the Revolution. The Stories At the Siege of Quebec. James O. Kaler When Benedict Arnold started out with his expedition from Cambridge he passed up the Kennebec and then through the wil- derness. This story traces his movements to Quebec, setting forth the conditions by the way. It describes the plan of attack upon Quebec, and the death of Montgomery, as noted above. THE MODERN ERA 507 Philip Winwood. 1900. Robert N. Stephens This story covers the whole period of the war from the time of the events in Boston that precipitated hostilities. In this con- nection, however, our interest lies in that section that details the expedition of Montgomery, and that of Arnold, the attack upon Quebec and the failure of the little force altogether inadequate for such an enterprise. CHAPTER II THE WAR IN THE MIDDLE STATES The Declaration of Independence, that was destined to have a place in American history similar to that of the Magna Charta in English history, both having the same central significance in their essential doctrine of liberty, was the declaration of the Con- tinental Congress, endorsed and signed in full August 21, 1776. By this document the thirteen English colonies formally renounced their subjection to the rule of Great Britain, and declared them- selves a free and independent State. The committee appointed to consider the form of the declara- tion consisted of Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, Robert R. Livingston. It was in the main the work of Jefferson. It created the greatest enthusiasm throughout the colonies, and was most effective in contributing to the revolutionary sentiment and purpose. The original docu- ment is preserved in a steel case in the care of the State Depart- ment. The colonies thus united by such a declaration now entered upon another stage of the war. The Stories The Minute Boys of Long Island. 1908. James O. Kaler Under General Howe the British held Boston, which Washing- ton besieged for the entire winter. At the opening of spring he completely outgeneraled Howe by the construction of his fortifi- cations and compelled him to evacuate the city, and the British under an agreement were permitted to go aboard their fleet. The next move of the great commander was to defend New York. He reached the city just as the British were about to strike a blow in that quarter. Completely beaten at Fort Moultrie the British landed a strong force on Long Island. General Putnam had failed to guard the passes on the left of the American army. S08 THE MODERN ERA 509 Unperceived, the English surrounded Sullivan and then it was simply a question as to how much of the army could be saved. Washington came on the field at the close of the battle. A thou- sand of his men lay dead upon the field, and three of his generals were prisoners. He gathered together his shattered forces and decided to withdraw to New York. The heavy fog favored him, for under cover of the darkness, with muffled oars, all night long the soldiers were carried from Brooklyn to New York, one of the most masterly retreats on record. From the rejoicing and enthusiasm created by the Declaration of Independence this story conducts us to Washington's move on New York, which he reached just in time to baffle the plan oi Clinton, and then to the disastrous defeat of the American army in the battle of Long Island. The Red Patriot. 1897. William O. Stoddard The British took possession of New York while the Americans were entrenched above the city. A fire broke out that consumed about 500 buildings. Howe's plan was to cut Washington off from communication with the Eastern States, and in the midst of these manceuvers was fought the battle at White Plains. Night came on and while Howe waited for reinforcements Washing- ton withdrew to the heights of North Castle and finally reached Fort Lee. After defeating the Americans at Fort Washington Cornwallis marched against Fort Lee. Washington saw that to remain would be disaster and with his army of 3,000 men crossed to Newark with the British in rapid pursuit. Washington passed to Elizabethtown, New Brunswick and Trenton. He crossed the Delaware and saw to it that for 70 miles no boats could be secured by the British. The country was apprehensive and disheartened. The British thought the war was ended, and taking advantage of this attitude Washington determined to strike a decisive blow. By crossing the Delaware he could attack the force at Trenton before the English could join their units. Arranging his army in three divisions, on Christmas night, he crossed the Delaware amid the blocks of ice and made the attack as planned from two direc- tions. Taken by surprise the Hessians threw down their arms, and were taken as captives to the other side of the Delaware. 510 HISTORICAL FICTION It was now a question whether Howe would be able to hold a town in New Jersey. Placed in a critical position, Washington determined to escape by night and strike the British at Princeton. The camp fires were kept burning to deceive the foe, and the Americans crept away from the Assampink Creek. The next morn- ing the battle of Princeton was fought in which the British were shattered and fled in disorder. This American author and journalist (1835-) was born at Homer, N. Y. He was educated at Rochester and graduated in 1858. He spent three years farming and then took up newspaper work in Illinois. He edited the Chicago Daily Ledger and the Central Illinois Gazette. For three months at the outbreak of the Civil War he was in military service. From 1861 to 1864 he was private secretary to President Lincoln, and after that engaged in literary work. These great events of the war in New Jersey, after the dis- heartening reverses attending the American arms, are portrayed by this story. Other Stories: In the Camp of Cornwallis, dealing with this campaign, and Washington's Young Aids (1897) by E. T. Tomlinson. Across the Delaware (1903) by J. O. Kaler. The Scarlet Cloak (1907) by Aubrey De Haven, in which the hero of the story passes through this campaign. The Fight for the Valley. 1 904. William O. Stoddard Following the battle of Brandy wine (September 1777) in which Washington was defeated, the taking of Philadelphia by the British, and the repulse of Washington at Germantown, came Burgoyne's invasion with St. Leger. At Bennington the British were badly defeated. St. Leger found it necessary to besiege Fort Stanwix. A large number of Germans who occupied the valley enrolled under the American general Herkimer who came to the relief of the fort. At Oriskany they fell into a trap laid by St. Leger, but they fought so well, after the frontier fashion, that the British were driven back to the fort. Here they found that the besieged garrison had, in the absence of the British, entered the camp of the latter and carried off enough supplies to THE MODERN ERA 511 last them for a considerable period. Arnold came to the rescue with 2,000 men, which assistance placed St. Leger in such danger that he withdrew to Lake Ontario, deserted by his Indian allies. These conflicts in the valley, the failure of St. Leger to take Fort Stanwix, his defeat at Oriskany and the necessity of retire- ment, are detailed by this story. These successes greatly encour- aged the Americans and their forces became decidedly augmented. The crisis was not far removed as far as Burgoyne was con- cerned. Other Stories : In the Valley (1890) by Harold Frederick, in which the sup- port of the Germans who lived in the valley, and who despised the British, together with the engagements of this time, are set forth. The Son of a Tory by Clinton Scollard, in which these same scenes in the Mohawk Valley are portrayed. The Sun of Saratoga. 1897. Joseph A. Altsheler This American author (1862-) was born at Three Springs, Ky. He was educated at Vanderbilt University. From 1885 t0 1892 he was on the staff of the Louisville Courier- Journal, and since that time has been associated with the New York World. He is the author of many books that are widely read. At Bemis Heights, on the Hudson, in September of 1877, Burgoyne forced the army of Gates under the command of Ar- nold and Morgan. The British lost 500 men and did not renew the attack for three weeks. In the next engagement Burgoyne's loss was still greater, and he was in a most precarious position. He might have escaped to Fort Edward and have saved himself somewhat, but instead he went to Saratoga, which proved his Waterloo. He was surrounded by the Americans, was defeated and surrendered his army. Among the prisoners were six mem- bers of the British Parliament. This victory was one of the greatest events of the war as "it saved New York, destroyed the British plan of the war, induced the king to offer concessions (ex- cept independence) and secured the aid of France." The great credit for this success was due to Arnold and Morgan. 5i2 HISTORICAL FICTION It was agreed that Burgoyne's troops should return to Eng- land, and were not to serve again in America during the War. But Burgoyne started trouble over the quarters of his officers, and other things entering in led the Americans to doubt whether the British would keep the agreement and the upshot was that Burgoyne's troops were held as prisoners to the end of the war. This story relates to Burgoyne's invasion and the operations leading up to his withdrawal to Saratoga, his defeat and the sur- render of his army. The story brings forward the antithetical situation of an American soldier and a girl whose parents were pronouncedly British in their sympathy and support, and in this is representative of the two classes of colonists during this period. Valley Forge. 1906. Alden W. Quinby During the winter of 1777 about 20,000 English and Hessian soldiers occupied the city of Philadelphia in warm quarters and well provided for, and spent their time in rioting and pleasure. The situation was vastly different at Valley Forge where Wash- ington went into winter quarters. "Thousands of the soldiers were without shoes, and the frozen ground was marked with bloody footprints. The sagacity of Washington had pointed to a strong position for his encampment. Log cabins were built for the soldiers, and everything was done that could be done to secure the comfort of the suffering patriots. But it was a long and dreary winter ; moaning and anguish were heard in the camp, and the echo fell heavy on the soul of the commander. These were the darkest days of Washington's life." The circumstances of the two armies during this winter are pictured by this story in which the great leaders, Washington on the one hand, and Cornwallis and Howe on the other, appear in their respective positions. Patriot and Tory. 1904. Edward S. Ellis With the return of spring (1778) Clinton took Howe's com- mand, and the English army was ordered to concentrate at New York. Leaving Philadelphia they marched northward. Wash- ington followed them closely and in July occurred the battle of Monmouth. It was Washington's wish that the attack be led by THE MODERN ERA 513 Lafayette. Charles Lee, however, who had just been released from a British prison demanded that he should have that honor and to this Washington yielded. While in prison Lee was plan- ning and plotting to betray the Americans, and his chance had now come. The Americans under him had the advantage, but as soon as the British appeared before him he gave way with scarcely any resistance. When Washington learned the fact he shifted his men so as to check the British and then restored Lee's force and held off the enemy until night. By the next morning the British were moving into New York. Suspecting Lee's treach- ery, Washington denounced him. An investigation followed and he was suspended for a year and was finally dismissed entirely. Special pains have been taken by the author of this story to give us an absolutely accurate portrayal of this engagement and the approaches to it in the events from the time that the armies left their winter quarters. The heat of the day of this battle was excessive and many men died from over-exertion. A brave woman, whose name was Mary Hays, but who was called "Moll Pitcher," aided her husband, a cannoneer, until he fell dead. She then took his place, amid the cheers of the soldiers, and worked the gun through the remainder of the battle. The various particu- lars are well set forth in the story. Other Stories : Joscelyn Cheshire (1901) by Sara B. Kennedy, in which the hero was taken prisoner in the battle of Monmouth, and endured the miseries of the prison ships. In Hostile Red (1900) by J. A. Altsheler. Two American officers pass as Englishmen and have a good time in Philadelphia among the English soldiers who are quartered there for the win- ter. They have a narrow escape, but manage to get away and join Washington's army, and participate in the battle of Monmouth. The Pathfinders of the Revolution. 1900. William E. Griffis This American clergyman, educator and author (1843-) was born in Philadelphia. During the Civil War he served with the Forty-fourth Pennsylvania Regiment, after which, his studies having been interrupted, he entered and was graduated from 514 HISTORICAL FICTION Rutger's College. He accepted the appointment to establish schools in Japan on the American plan, "and was the first Amer- ican teacher in regions beyond the open ports." When the feudal system disappeared he was appointed Professor of physical science in the Imperial University of Tokyo. He prepared the New Japan Series of reading and spelling, and returning to New York in 1874 he completed his theological studies in Union Theological Seminary. The British had made use of the Indian tribe, the Iroquois. After the battle of Saratoga the Indians were sent to raid the western sections of New York and Pennsylvania, the most serious raid being conducted by Colonel John Butler with a force of Tories and Seneca Indians. They overcame an American force near Wilkesbarre and then ravished the Wyoming Valley. The fort was crowded with women and children. Butler promised honorable terms, but as soon as the Indians entered the fort the hatchet and scalping-knife immediately went to work, and plun- dering and burning left the place desolated. In retaliation, an expedition under General Sullivan went through the Seneca country and reduced the population to a lot of starving fugitives. This story is a good description of these devastations on the part of the Indians, and also of the manner in which their power was broken and punishment meted out to them by General Sul- livan. Other Stories: The Red Chief (1905) by E. T. Tomlinson, in which is por- trayed the ruin of the Cherry Valley in the same year at the hands of a similar band of Indians. This valley in Central New York suffered nearly as much as the Wyoming Valley, its people, like- wise, being slaughtered. Marching Against the Iroquois by the same author describes these raids and the operations of General Sullivan. CHAPTER III NAVAL WARFARE OF THE REVOLUTION At the beginning of the war Congress called for thirteen small men-of-war. Before the close of the war a fleet of forty-three additional war vessels was afloat, averaging twenty guns each. Many of these, however, were taken by the British before doing much damage. Our great naval achievements of the war were those of John Paul Jones. He was a Scotchman whose real name was John Paul. He had made several voyages to Virginia where his brother was settled. At the beginning of the war he was given a commission in the navy as lieutenant and raised the first flag on a regularly commissioned American battle ship. In the following year he was made captain. He seized many prizes. While commander of the Ranger he was sailing in the Irish Sea and one night entered the harbor of Whitehaven and accomplished the daring deed of capturing a sloop-of-war of twenty guns. This intrepid captain, realizing what could be done with a small squad- ron, purchased from the king of France four ships, which, together with his own gave him a squadron of five vessels. The Stories Richard Carvel. 1899. Winston Churchill The author (1871-), an American novelist, was born in St. Louis, Mo., and received his education at Annapolis in the United States Military Academy. He became the managing editor of the Cosmopolitan Magazine, and also contributed stories to lead- ing journals. His popularity is due to his four great novels, Richard Carvel, The Crisis, The Crossing and Coniston. After securing his squadron, Paul Jones personally com- manded the largest of the five ships, the Bon Homme Richard, which carried 44 guns. The squadron passed along the coast of Scotland and Ireland, taking many prizes, and Jones determined upon sailing into the harbor of Leith and destroying the ship- 515 516 HISTORICAL FICTION ping. This project had to be abandoned on account of a severe storm. In September, 1779, he sighted forty merchantmen near Hull under the protection of two British men-of-war, the Serapis which carried 50 guns, and the Countess of Scarborough having 28 guns. He at once engaged the Serapis and at the beginning of the battle two of his guns burst. He at once realized that it would be absolutely necessary to board his antagonist. In trying to come alongside, the commander of the Serapis called to him asking if his ship had struck her colors. Jones sent back the answer, "I have not yet begun to fight." With his own hands Jones lashed the two ships together. Then began a hand-to-hand battle on the English ship that lasted for two hours. The British ship was set afire and she was compelled to surrender. The Bon Homme Richard, riddled by cannon shot, had six feet of water in her hold and sank two days later. The two English war vessels were brought into port as prizes, and Jones at once became the popular hero in France and America. To be beaten within sight of their own shores was humiliating to the nation that was a sea power of such distinction. For a long time it was not known where Jones was buried, as he entered the Russian service at the close of the war, and leaving that, took up his residence in France, where he died in 1792. Morris, the United States minister to France, "had the body placed in a lead coffin filled with alcohol, and placed in the vault of the church of foreign Protestants, temporarily, so it could be brought home for burial. But three months later the days of the Terror began, and Jones' casket was hurried into an unmarked grave in the old cemetery of St. Louis. The ground was after- wards built over, and our hero lay under a solid block of build- ings for more than a century." It was in 1905 that Horace Por- ter, the American ambassador, after searching for five years, unearthed the casket, and the remains of our first naval hero were brought home in a man-of-war, under an escort of United States war vessels, and buried at the Naval Academy, Annapolis. Just prior to his death he was offered the command of the navy of the French Republic. Napoleon deplored the death of a man of such naval ability at the age of forty-five and said that"if Jones had lived France would have had an admiral worthy to meet Nel- THE MODERN ERA 517 son at Trafalgar." Jones did not die a pauper as has sometimes been supposed. His fortune amounting to $50,000 was well in- vested and was inherited by his Scotch relatives. He spoke French and Spanish, and was a student of history, literature and philos- ophy, and it is said that he knew as much of seamanship as any man in his Majesty's navy. In this story, the titular hero was reared by his grandfather, Lionel Carvel, of Carvel Hall, Maryland. He is the heir to the family estates. Richard is a most zealous and fiery patriot in his support of the cause of the colonies. This fact furnishes an oppor- tunity for an uncle, Grafton Carvel, to work up a plot against Richard with a view to securing for his son Philip heirship to the estate. He succeeds in getting him kidnapped and put aboard a pirate slaver. The slaver is captured by Paul Jones and he and Richard enter into close companionship. This is prior to the war, and in London the two men have an interesting time in the society of distinguished people. When the war breaks out he enters the naval service under Paul Jones and participates in the battle between the Bon Homme Richard and the Serapis. When the war is over he marries the girl he has always loved from the time of his boyhood. With the Flag in the Channel. 1902. James Barnes This American author (1866-) was born at Annapolis, Md. In 1 89 1 he was graduated at Princeton University. For some time he was connected with Scribner's Magazine, and during 1894-5 was assistant editor of Harper's Weekly. From 1895 t0 I 9 01 ^ e was war correspondent for The Outlook in South Africa, and later was the editor of Appleton's Book-Lover's Magazine. He is the author of a number of historical novels. This story is compiled from journals and documents of an American naval officer. He served under Paul Jones, and had the command of two vessels that operated in the English Channel. The Pilot. 1824. J. Fenimore Cooper This is a love romance in a maritime setting. It describes the achievements of Paul Jones in his naval exploits during the war. The most original character is an old coxswain, Long Tom Coffin. 518 HISTORICAL FICTION Cooper, however, considered that his best delineation was that of the character Boltrope. Opposed to his opinion is the following statement : "We cannot assent to this comparative estimate ; but we admit that Boltrope has not had full justice done to him in popular judgment. It is but a slight sketch, but it is extremely well done. His death is a bit of manly and genuine pathos ; and in his conversation with the chaplain there is here and there a touch of true humor, which we value the more because humor was certainly not one of the author's best gifts." The Noank's Log. 1900. William O. Stoddard This story gives a good account of the state of the American navy at the beginning of the war. Special attention is given to the operations of the privateers. An important phase of the war was the manner in which English shipping was menaced by priva- teersmen. Individuals were encouraged by the government to fit out vessels for this work which were authorized to prey upon English merchantmen, and to take their pay from the sale of the prizes. Many of the prizes were sold in French harbors. The citizens of New England supplying these vessels did a thriving business and reaped vast profits. Massachusetts and Pennsylvania had about 500 ships each, in this service. It is thought that at one time 70,000 Americans were engaged in the work. At the close of the first year of the war the merchants of London declared their loss amounted to nine million dollars. CHAPTER IV THE WAR IN THE SOUTHERN STATES The British now carried the war into the South. Unable to conquer the North, the plan was "to begin with Georgia, the weakest of the Southern States, and roll up the South from that point." To lend encouragement to this move the British were given to understand that the South was much more loyal to their cause. At the close of 1778 Savannah was captured by Clinton. The Loyalists in Georgia and South Carolina supported them, and these two states seemed to pass wholly under British arms. It looked as though the South were lost to the Americans, and many in the South, not particularly in sympathy with the cause of Inde- pendence, swore allegiance to the King. General Gates was sent by Congress to take command where the British had gained a foothold. Washington had commended Greene for that appointment, a brilliant soldier of the type of Washington himself, while Gates was quite the contrary. It is the last stage of the war and the following stories deal with this period. The Stories Scouting for Washington. 1900. John P. True This story goes back to the beginning of the war, when excite- ment and indignation were being steadily intensified by the acts of Britain. The capturing of the American ammunition was another occasion of an outburst on the part of the people. In the course of the war the British officer Tarleton appears who carries Wash- ington's spy into the South, but the latter finally contrives to escape. The character of Tarleton appears in his defeat of the small American army at Waxhaw. When 500 of them surrendered and asked for quarter he replied by shooting down over 100 and leaving 1 50 so badly wounded that they could not be moved. This and the following stories by this author give us a good descrip- tion of these Southern operations. 519 520 HISTORICAL FICTION Morgan's Men. 1901. John P. True At Camden, Gates might have defeated Rawdon had he been more expeditious, but he allowed Cornwallis to come up with reinforcements and Gates suffered a crushing defeat. Following the American victory in the battle of King's Mountain, Greene took charge of the American army. Morgan with 600 men was sent to threaten the British post at Ninety-six. Morgan was a superior officer. He met Tarleton at Cowpens. The latter's force was a little stronger. By the manner in which Morgan planned the battle the British were deceived, and were completely sur- rounded by the American divisions and the latter gained a decis- ive victory. At a critical point of the battle William Washington made a furious charge and scattered the British dragoons. Wash- ington and Tarleton had a personal encounter and Tarleton fled with a sword cut. This story, which is a continuation of the last, shows how Tarleton is drawn away from Ninety-six by Morgan's detach- ment, and Cornwallis' movement northward in the hope of divid- ing the two wings of the American army. When Pickens joined Morgan, the latter's force was increased to nearly 1,000 men. The victory at Cowpens is described, also the manner in which it was reported to the British general. On Guard. 1902. John P. True When the battle of Cowpens was fought, Greene and Mor- gan were 125 miles apart. And now began a race across North Carolina, the two wings of the American army drawing closer, while Cornwallis was exerting every effort to catch Morgan be- fore he should unite with Greene. The rising of the Catawba and Yadkin rivers interrupted Cornwallis in his pursuit and enabled the two wings to come together at Guilford Court House. Rein- forcements increased Greene's army to 4,400 men. While the army of Cornwallis was only half as large it consisted of regulars against which many of Greene's men could not stand. The Amer- icans were defeated with a heavy loss in men and artillery. In this story the pursuit of the Americans through Carolina is described, and the additional movement to the Dan river where THE MODERN ERA 521 reinforcements came to Greene and the recrossing of the river to Guilford Court House where he offered battle. If the American militia had stood firm Cornwallis would no doubt have suffered a great defeat ; but the raw recruits got frightened, broke line and fled and the ranks were thrown into confusion. Scouting for Light Horse Harry. 1911. John P. True Local cavalry leaders played an important part in the South- ern campaigns. The most famous of these was Colonel Henry Lee, the father of General Robert E. Lee, the Confederate leader of the Civil War. Henry Lee was known as "Light Horse Harry," because of his rapidly moving legion. He rendered Greene very great service. Cornwallis proceeded to Virginia leaving the British forces in the Carolinas under Lord Rawdon. Greene marched into South Carolina. A detachment of his force was sent to Fort Watson and compelled it to surrender. Marching to Hobkirk's Hill Greene selected a strong position and waited for Rawdon. The latter was at Camden, but a short distance away. With his entire force he attacked the American camp, which was almost taken unawares. When it seemed that the entire British force would be captured, at a critical point of the battle, some of the best American offi- cers were killed. Their regiments became confused and fell back. Taking advantage of this, Rawdon drove the center and won the day. Greene made a masterly retreat and saved his artillery. These operations from the battle of Guilford Court House are described by this story — the march of Greene to Hobkirk's Hill, the taking of Fort Watson and the victory of the British. Ludlow, in the story, is captured and has an exciting time with Rawdon. Eutaw. 1856. William G. Simms Marion, Lee and Sumter were actively engaged in moving from point to point, cutting off the enemy's supplies, breaking up their communications and striking heavy blows at the Tories. The British fled before the approach of Greene and took a posi- tion at Eutaw Springs. Here was fought one of the fiercest bat- tles of the war. Greene's victory would have been decisive but 522 HISTORICAL FICTION for the conduct of some of his men. Over 500 British were taken prisoners, and south of Virginia all that remained in possession of the British were Charleston and Savannah. Thus the Southern country was practically restored to the Americans. This story deals with this period from the time that Rawdon, after the battle of Hobkirk's Hill, resigned the command of his forces to Colonel Stuart. Greene leaves the heights of the Santee while the British move on to Eutaw Springs, and there the two forces come together. The leaders on both sides are well pre- sented and delineated. The Treason of Benedict Arnold Benedict Arnold was one of the bravest and most efficient officers of the American army. He distinguished himself at Que- bec and Saratoga, and at the battle of Freeman's Farm he exhibi- ted great dash and courage. He was stung to the quick when Congress ignored him and made major-generals of some briga- diers who were far less competent than he and much less deserved promotion. To be sure, at this time charges made by personal enemies and of a purely malicious nature were being investi- gated. After he was wholly exonerated he was made a major- general, but at a lower rank than that to which, by his former rating, he was entitled. He resented the treatment he had received at the hands of Congress, both in this matter and other charges made against him of which he was innocent, and disgusted and embittered he decided to betray the cause he had served so well. Washington held him in high regard, and when Arnold applied to him for the command of West Point it was granted. This was the most important fortress in the United States, the chief reliance for keeping back the enemy. Major John Andre, Clinton's adjutant, was brought into rela- tion with Arnold in conducting the correspondence that passed between Arnold and Margaret Shippen in Philadelphia, whom Arnold married. In September, 1780 Andre and Arnold had a meeting at which time Arnold gave Andre the plans of West Point with full descriptions. Near Tarrytown, Andre was arrested by American pickets, and with the papers found on his person he was taken to the nearest post. Learning of this fact Arnold at THE MODERN ERA 523 once fled to the British. Andre was tried as a spy and executed. The discovery of the treachery saved West Point. Arnold re- ceived a sum of money from the British and a brigadier general's commission. But he was shunned and despised by soldiers and officers. Twenty years later he died in England in great remorse. It is said that just before he died he said to his family : "Bring me the epaulettes and sword-knots which Washington gave me; let me die in my old American uniform, the uniform in which I fought my battles. God forgive me for ever putting on any other. ,, The Stories A New England Maid. 1910. Eliza F. Pollard In 1778 Arnold was appointed to the command of Philadel- phia. It was during that time that he became entangled with the authorities of Pennsylvania out of which grew charges for which he was tried by court-martial. The story deals with the affairs of Arnold from the time he was given this command. Thus the circumstances of this period are related to the things that followed and eventually to the blight- ing of his career by his despicable treachery. What is of special interest in the story is the effort put forth by Arnold's sister to save Andre from the consequences of his part in Arnold's treason. A Traitor's Escape. 1898. James O. Kaler As soon as Arnold learned that Andre had been captured he fled to New York and joined the British. A correspondence had passed between him and the British general, Clinton, and even if it had been proposed by Washington that Arnold be exchanged for Andre, who was condemned to death, it is most likely that Clinton would have felt duty bound to Arnold not to accede to the proposal. This story describes the attempt to capture Arnold after his escape from West Point and his success in getting to the British army. 524 HISTORICAL FICTION Closing Events of the War Leaving Wilmington, Cornwallis marched to Petersburg, Vir- ginia, where he found Arnold at the head of 3,000 British troops. They had burned Richmond and Manchester. Cornwallis now assumed the command of Arnold's troops and with 5,000 men came to Richmond. Here was Lafayette with half as many troops. He withdrew to the north with Cornwallis in pursuit. Cornwallis gave this up and finally made his base at Yorktown. He had now 7,000 men while Lafayette's force now numbered 3,500. Washington with 6,000 men was keeping track of Clinton in New York, and Rochambeau with 5,000 men was at Newport. At this point an offer came from De Grasse in the West Indies to cooperate with the Americans with his fleet. Washington seized the opportunity and De Grasse was requested to blockade Cornwallis. A French and American force of 6,000 now joined Lafayette and in September, 1781, the siege of Yorktown began. De Grasse brought 3,000 additional French troops, and thus the British force of 7,500 at Yorktown was surrounded by 16,000, 7,800 of whom were regulars of the French army. In this extremity in which Cornwallis was placed, Clinton dis- patched Arnold with 2,000 men to raid New London in the hope of drawing Washington from Virginia. With his ships laden with spoils, and his work of destruction accomplished, Arnold returned to New York. The expeditions sent out for the relief of Corn- wallis accomplished nothing. On the night of October 14, a French and an American detach- ment under Alexander Hamilton stormed two redoubts and car- ried them, which achievement left the defences of Cornwallis at the mercy of the besiegers. Under heavy fire his fortress crum- bled, and on the 17th he surrendered and accepted Washington's terms. "After six years' fighting and at great expense, England had proved her inability to subdue the country." America had won her freedom, and took her place as a free and independent State among the nations of the world. The Stories The Scarlet Coat. 1896. Clinton Ross The siege of Yorktown is described in this story. The con- tribution of France to the war and particularly to these closing THE MODERN ERA 525 scenes is stated. It exhibits Cornwallis hemmed in, his defences gone, and compelled to surrender. Other Stories : True to the Old Flag (1884) by G. A. Henty, which traces practically the whole course of the war from the opening of hos- tilities to the surrender of Cornwallis. With Lafayette at Yorktown (1904) by J. O. Kaler, in which Lafayette is the conspicuous personage. Mr. Newton has given the following as the "Causes of Amer- ican Success." 1. Unfailing courage and ability of Washington. 2. The persistent spirit of the American patriots. 3. Alliance and support of the French. 4. The weakness of the British commanders in the field. 5. The inability of the English to send reinforcements to their army because of other wars. 6. General apathy of the British public. ORGANIZATION— DEVELOPMENT- SECTIONALISM The emergence into a new state of being — that of national independence — could not fail to be attended with two great men- tal attitudes : one, the realization of being free, released from a state of subjugation to another power; the other, the profound sense of responsibility in shaping the course of a new nation, the establishment of its institutions and the true interpretation and maintenance of the great central principle for which it struggled. The following brief outline will serve as a sketch of the early period in the process of establishing a government. I. To the Making of the Constitution. 1. The Second Continental Congress, 1777. 2. The Articles of Confederation. 3. Ordinance of 1787 — Free Government and Slavery Excluded from Northwest Territory. 4. Shay's Rebellion. II. Formulation and Ratification of the Constitution. 1. The Meeting at Annapolis, 1786. Five States Rep- resented. 2. Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, 1787. George Washington the Presiding Officer. Represented by 55 Members. (1) The Three Great Compromises. Relative to Representation and Slavery. (2) The Constitution Providing for the Three De- partments — Legislative, Executive, Judicial. (3) The National Legislature as Divided by the Constitution. 526 THE MODERN ERA 527 (4) Establishment of a Supreme Court and Its Province. (5) The Distribution of Power for the Mainte- nance of Liberty. 3. Passing and Ratification of the Constitution. ( 1 ) Federalists — Supporters of the Constitution. (2) Anti-Federalists — Grounds of Opposition. (3) Adoption by States. Delaware the First to Ratify the Constitu- tion, 1787. Seven More by June, 1788. New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, fol- lowed immediately. 4. Provision for the Election of President. CHAPTER I TO THE WAR OF 1812 The era between the close of the war and the adoption of the Constitution has been known as the "Critical Period" of our country. Emerging from the devastations and disintegrations of war, a great, new world that has yet to formulate the principles of its government, and to organize its political system and the great interests of the nation. It might well be called a critical period through which the new state would pass. In passing the Constitution the Federalists believed it to be the best system for the government of the United States. The Anti- Federalists opposed the increase of federal powers, and were afraid that its provisions were inimical to the rights and liberties of the states. After the Constitution was adopted both parties favored the instrument and then differed only as to how it should be interpreted, whether there should be placed upon it a liberal or strict construction. The following incident closes the Journal of the Constitutional Convention by Madison : "Whilst the last members were signing, Doctor Franklin, looking towards the President's chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened to be painted, observed to a few members near him that painters had found it difficult to dis- tinguish in their art a rising from a setting sun. T have', said he, 'often and often in the course of the sessions and the vicissitudes of my hopes and fears as to its issue, looked at that behind the president without being able to tell whether it was rising or set- ting; but now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting sun/ " "Sail On, O Ship of State," by Longfellow, and "Against the Adoption of the Constitution," by Patrick Henry, may be noted in this connection. Administration of George Washington During this period (1789- 1797) the new Government was organized on a permanent basis. The supreme, circuit and dis- 528 THE MODERN ERA 529 trict courts were established. The departments of State, War and Treasury were formed. The first Ten Amendments were adopted. "Washington was an aristocrat by birth, position and inclination. On the other hand, his dignity, self-control, sympathy and unfail- ing judgment made him revered by the masses of the people. Trained by experience, he had the essentials of statesmanship — great character, dignity, rectitude of purpose and knowledge of men." The Stories The Heritage. 1902. Burton E. Stevenson The great number of white settlers pouring into the region north of the Ohio River was resisted by the Indians, who were being crowded out of their old hunting-grounds. In 1790 the government sent a force under General Harmar to subdue them, in which conflict the Indians were victorious. The next year another expedition was sent out under General St. Clair, which was also defeated. It was not until General Anthony Wayne utterly crushed them in the desperate battle of Fallen Timbers that the menace was removed. The historical setting of this story is this settling of Ohio by the whites, the hostilities of the Indians and the two expeditions sent against them. It sets forth the defeat of St. Clair by the famous chief, "Little Turtle," and the subsequent victory of Wayne. These conflicts with the Indians are also described by J. A. Altsheler in his story, The Wilderness Road (1901). The Maid of Maiden Lane. 1900. Amelia E. Barr The first capital of the country was New York. There Wash- ington was inaugurated. Then for ten years the capital was Phila- delphia. The question of the location of the capital gave rise to a heated argument. Northern Congressmen thought it should be somewhere on the Delaware, while Southern members contended for a location on the Potomac. The Potomac site was finally adopted, and the Federal City, named after the first President, was located in the South. The tract was selected by the Presi- dent himself and was named the District of Columbia. It is sixty miles in extent and is governed by Congress. Jefferson was the first president to be inaugurated in Washington. 53o HISTORICAL FICTION The intense interest and heated disputations caused by this question of the Capital are brought forward by this story. This was the first period of the French Revolution, and France being at war with England, America naturally attracted those of the French who were anxious to escape the ravages of the Revolu- tion. These facts, together with our relations with Britain re- garding the matter of her claims relative to the colonies, are lead- ing interests in this story. The reader will find "Washington Abroad and at Home," by Edward Everett, of interest. Administration of John Adams During this period (1797-1801) trouble with France arose, Alien and Sedition Laws were passed, and the Virginia and Ken- tucky Resolutions were drawn up declaring that Alien and Sedi- tion acts are violations of the Constitution, that the Constitution is simply an agreement between States, and that it is the right of each state to decide for itself as to the constitutionality of a law. In 1799 Washington died. This administration was one of the most turbulent in our history. The Story Little Jarvis. 1890. Molly E. Seawell This American author (i860-) was born in Gloucester County, Virginia. She wrote from an early age. She won recognition by the publication of Little Jarvis, and since then her novels have attracted attention. When war broke out between France and England the leaders of the French Republic sent Genet to this country to solicit help in the way of men and money, in other words, to join France in her war with Britain in return for the help she gave us in our struggle. Washington took the ground that we must not meddle with European troubles and stood firmly for neutrality. This greatly embittered France, as also the signing of the Jay Treaty. French cruisers captured some of our merchant vessels, and pri- vate agents declared to the American representatives in Paris that unless we paid a heavy bribe to its chief officers the French Government would make war on us. The French agents were THE MODERN ERA 531 spoken of by Adams as X, Y and Z, without revealing their names. He brought the matter before Congress, and the people declared, "Not one cent for tribute !" Vessels were captured on both sides, and it might have ended more seriously but Napoleon came into power and made peace with America. The story deals with this unfortunate affair. It describes the battle between the Constellation and La Vengeance. Our four- teen men-of-war were dispatched to West Indian waters, where several of our merchant ships had been captured by the U Insur- gent. The Constellation overhauled and defeated this French vessel. A little later occurred the drawn battle with the La Ven- geance, in which the part played by Little Jarvis, who refused to leave his post during the battle, is given by this story. It was during the great excitement created by this war that Joseph Hopkinson, a prominent lawyer in Philadelphia, wrote the stirring song, "Hail Columbia." Administration of Thomas Jefferson This administration ( 180 1- 1809) was the triumph of the Democratic-Republicans, who were now being called Democrats. Jefferson was a Virginian and a graduate of William and Mary College. He was Governor of Virginia, for five years was the American minister to France, and served as Secretary of State. He founded the University of Virginia. He was an idealist and political philosopher. "He had liberal political theories and his exposition of general republican (democratic) ideas still meets' with wide approval. He understood the American people, and molded public opinion as few man have done." The Stories Decatur and Somers. 1894. Molly E. Seawell One of the events of this administration was the war with Tripoli ( 1 801 -1 805). The Barbary States — the Moorish King- doms of North Africa — laid tribute on trade in the Mediterranean. Our ships began to be seized and we were compelled to buy treaties. In 1801 Captain Dale was sent with four men-of-war to protect our commerce, and in the same year Captain Preble was 532 HISTORICAL FICTION sent out with another squadron. In the end peace was secured by which the United States was released from paying tribute in the future. This story deals with this war and especially the two incidents of heroism by which the war is particularly remembered. The warship, Philadelphia, in pursuing the enemy ran aground at the mouth of the harbor of Tripoli and had to be abandoned. The ship was afterwards captured by the Tripolitans, set free, and brought under the protection of their guns. Stephen Decatur sailed into the harbor, boarded the Philadelphia with a crew of about 70 men, drove the Moors from the vessel, filled it with com- bustibles and set it afire. He escaped without the loss of a man. This incident is well described by the story. The other incident was the brave act of Lieutenant Somers and his men. They were sent with the Intrepid, loaded with bombs and powder, to place the vessels in the midst of the enemy's ships and blow it up. Neither Somers nor his men returned, and it was believed that he leaped into the magazine with a lighted torch and thus accomplished his mission. The Code of Victor Jallot. 1907. Edward C. Carpenter The leading event of this administration was the purchase of Louisiana (1803), Napoleon, realizing the difficulty of maintain- ing colonial interests at so great a distance, ordered his minister to sell Louisiana, which he had compelled Spain to cede to France, and had assured Spain that he would not sell. Monroe and Liv- ingston secured the entire province for $15,000,000, which was less than three cents an acre. Napoleon was in great need of the money and was glad to get it, but he also realized what an advan- tage it was to us to secure this section, for he said, "This acces- sion of territory established forever the power of the United States." It included nearly all of the area that now comprises twelve states. This story belongs to this time and the transfer of this great section to the United States. The Spanish and French popula- tion greatly opposed the deal and plots were hatched. It is with one of these that the story is concerned. THE MODERN ERA 533 Blennerhassett. 1901. Charles F. Pidgin This American writer and inventor (1844-) was born at Rox- bury, Mass. From 1863 to 1873 ne was i n mercantile business in Boston. From 1873 to 1903 he was chief clerk of the Massachu- setts Bureau of Statistics and Labor. He is known as the inventor of an electrical adding and multiplying machine, an addition reg- ister and other devices of a like nature. After the duel with Hamilton, whose death aroused popular indignation, Aaron Burr fled to the South. He went into the West and lived with an Irish exile named Blennerhassett, who lived in a fine mansion on an island in the Ohio. With him Burr concocted a treasonable scheme to raise a military force, snatch Mexico from the Spaniards, separate the southern and western states from the country, out of these form an empire and set himself up as dic- tator. He spent two years on this plot, and when he fell under suspicion was arrested in 1807 and tried for treason. For want of sufficient proof he barely escaped conviction, and spent some years in Europe. This story details the facts of this scheme into which Blenner- hassett was drawn. The suspicion aroused, Burr's arrest, the breaking up of the military preparations on the island, the trial and verdict, are well described. Other stories : A Son of the Revolution (1898), by E. S. Brooks, which deals with Burr's enterprise and the growth and development of the western country. Zachary Phips (1892), by E. L. Binner, participation in Burr's scheme by a Bostonian. A Volunteer with Pike. 1909. Robert A. Bennett Among the most important explorations conducted in the new section purchased from Napoleon was that of Captain Zebulon Pike in 1806-7. He and his party traversed Kansas and Colo- rado, a country up to this time unknown to Americans. They gathered much valuable information regarding the region, had dealings with the Indians, encountered hardships and discovered 534 HISTORICAL FICTION Pike's Peak. In New Mexico they were held as prisoners for a time. These interests are quite closely connected in this story, all bearing on the Louisiana Purchase. The relation into which we were brought with Spain, which had ceded this section to Napo- leon, now involved the question of boundary lines. The scheme of Burr relative to this and other sections into which the hero of the story enters is described. The explorations of Pike in the new region, whose expedition is now joined by the hero, are por- trayed. Their experience in Mexico is also set forth. CHAPTER II THE WAR OF 1812 Administration of James Madison Madison, whose administration extended from 1809 to 1817, was a Virginian, and was one of the principal members of both the Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention. England and France were at war, and both countries had tricked America into sending them large quantities of supplies, assuring a large profit and protection. When the ships arrived they were rejected on the ground that no such authority had been given their ministers. During this time British war vessels kept close to the American coast, which not only searched our vessels for deserters from the British navy, but pressed into their service many naturalized American citizens. Congress declared war against Great Britain on four counts: (1) Impressment of American sailors; (2) In- terference with trade with foreign nations ; (3) Capturing Ameri- can merchantmen; (4) Stirring up Indian activities against set- tlers in the West. The Stories Roxy. 1878. Edward Eggleston This American novelist and historian (1837- 1902) was born at Vevay, Ind. He was largely a self-educated man, having by his own efforts pursued the study of Latin, Greek, French and French literature. He was a Methodist circuit rider at nineteen years of age and preached for ten years. He then became editor of the Little Corporal at Evanston, 111., and in 1870 literary editor of the Independent in New York, and later editor of Hearth and Home. The scenes of his most popular novels were laid in South- ern Indiana, such as appear in The Hoosier Schoolmaster, and others. A confederation of the Western tribes of Indians was formed by Tecumseh, chief of the Shawnee tribe of Ohio, assisted bv his brother, "the Shawnee Prophet," the object of which was to 535 536 HISTORICAL FICTION expel the American settlers. It was declared that the British aided this confederation by supplying them with arms and ammu- nition. In 1811 General William H. Harrison took up arms against the Shawnee, and defeated them in the battle of Tippe- canoe Creek. The scene of this story is laid in Indiana in the time of this conflict with the Indians. It describes the prevailing conditions and the defeat of the Indians. Love Thrives in War. 1903. Mary C. Crowley In 181 2 General William Hull led 2,000 men from Ohio to Detroit, making a road for themselves through a dense forest. After crossing the Detroit River, Hull was afraid to attack Gen- eral Brock's force, which was about half as large as his own, an act which thoroughly disgusted his troops. Brock followed him to Detroit and demanded the surrender of the city. Without an effort to defend himself Hull handed over everything, and de- fended his action on the ground that he was afraid the Indians would butcher his men had he resisted. The taking of Detroit left the frontier exposed to Indian raids. The various interests of this story relating to Detroit lead to this event of the war, when Hull so weakly surrendered to Brock. It introduces many historical personages on both sides. When Wilderness Was King. 1904. Randall Parrish Chicago was not organized as a city until 1835, at which time it had a population of about 3,000. On this site Fort Dearborn was built in 1804. The day before Hull surrendered Detroit he ordered the garrison here to evacuate the fort. It consisted of about 100 people, including settlers. A force of 500 Indians mas- sacred about 70 of the party who had been deceived by those who promised to take them to a safe place. On the following day the fort was destroyed. It was rebuilt in 1816 and so remained until 1856. This massacre by the Indian tribes fighting on the side of Bri- tain is described in this story, which does not maintain historical accuracy in its account. THE MODERN ERA 537 A Beautiful Rebel. 1909. Wilfred Campbell In October, 1812, a force of 1,000 men under Solomon Van Rensselaer attacked Queenstown on the Canadian side of the river. The British batteries on the heights of Queenstown were carried by a charge. General Brock rallied his forces and charged but was repulsed, and the brave Brock fell mortally wounded. British reinforcements arrived and the Americans were defeated. A division of 1,200 Americans across the river refused to aid Rensselaer's forces, declaring they were there to defend the United States and not to invade Canada. This so disgusted Rensselaer that he resigned his command. This engagement at Queenstown is portrayed by this story. Commodore Bainbridge. 1897. James Barnes Commodore Bainbridge was in command of the Constitution. On December 29, 1812, after Decatur had captured the British frigate Macedonia, and Captain Porter the Norton, the Consti- tution met the Java off San Salvador. A furious battle raged for two hours. The masts were torn from the Java and her hull was burst with shot. She was reduced to a wreck before striking her colors. Her crew of 400 was transferred to the Constitution and the Java was burned. It was Bainbridge who commanded the Philadelphia during the trouble with Tripoli, which ran aground when chasing a pirate, and was captured by the Tripolitans. Bainbridge and his crew were made prisoners. The officers were treated with respect, but the crew were enslaved. Both of these events in connection with the Philadelphia and the Constitution are fully presented in this story. The defeat of the Java was one of the most important victories of the war. The Constitution, which had also decisively defeated the Guerriere, was fondly called "Old Ironsides." Being too old to be of any further naval service, in 1825 it was proposed that it be broken up. This aroused considerable indignation. Oliver Wendell Holmes, a boy of 16 at the time, gave expression of this feeling in the following poem entitled Old Ironsides, published in a Boston newspaper and circulated about the country : 53% HISTORICAL FICTION Ay, tear her tattered ensign down ! Long has it waved on high, And many an eye has danced to see That banner in the sky ; Beneath it rung the battle shout, And burst the cannon's roar — The meteor of the ocean air Shall sweep the clouds no more. Her deck once red with heroes' blood, Where knelt the vanquished foe, When winds were hurrying o'er the flood, And waves were white below, No more shall feel the victor's tread, Or know the conquered knee — The harpies of the shore shall pluck The eagle of the sea ! Oh, better that her shattered hulk Should sink beneath the wave ; Her thunders shook the mighty deep, And there should be her grave ; Nail to the mast her holy flag, Set every threadbare sail, And give her to the god of storms, The lightning and the gale ! The effect of these lines was so great that the proposal was abandoned. She was restored to her original appearance and can still be seen at the navy-yard in Charlestown, Mass. With Perry on Lake Erie. 1899. James O. Kaler The American forces being defeated in Canada and failing to keep the region of the upper Great Lakes from falling to the British, there was danger that the latter might get possession of the Great Lakes. This was prevented by the splendid work of Captain Oliver H. Perry. He collected a fleet of nine vessels, five of which were built from green timber cut by his men on the banks of the lake. In 1813 he was attacked by six British THE MODERN ERA 539 ships, which outnumbered him, however, in men and guns. Perry's flagship, the Lawrence, was sunk. He rowed through the thick of the fight to another with bullets whistling about him. His vic- tory was complete, which he announced in his famous message to General Harrison, written hurriedly on the blank page of a let- ter : "We have met the enemy and they are ours." In this story this decisive victory on Lake Erie with Perry figuring largely is described. The expedition into Canada, with a view to capturing Toronto, the taking of the city by Dearborn, the return of the troops to Fort George and the retreat of the British to Burlington Bay, combine with Perry's victory in this story to set forth these important events of the war, and regain- ing what had been lost. The reader is referred to : The Sea Fight — Perry on Lake Erie — Irving Bacheller (from "D'ri and I"). Smith Brunt. 1899. Waldron K. Post After sinking the British $hip*Peacock, Captain James Law- rence was placed in command of the Chesapeake, one of the best frigates in the American navy. Captain Broke, of the British frigate Shannon, sent him a challenge to come out of port and fight him. Lawrence had an ill-assorted crew, but he accepted the challenge. It was a brief but obstinate battle. In a short time every officer of the Chesapeake was killed or wounded. Then the brave young Lawrence was struck down with a musket-ball. He fell upon the deck, slippery with blood, and as they carried him below he gave his last order : "Don't Give Up the Ship !" Leaping upon the shattered vessel the British ran up the English flag and towed her as a prize into the harbor of Halifax. There the British tenderly and honorably buried the bodies of Lawrence and Ludlow. The leading interest of this story is the description of this battle. With Porter in the Essex. 1901. James O. Kaler Captain David Porter served on the Constellation in the famous battle with the Insurgent, and was captured when the 540 HISTORICAL FICTION Philadelphia ran aground at Tripoli. On August 13, 1812, Porter captured the British sloop Alert after a single broadside. In the same year, cruising in the Pacific, he captured about $2,500,000 worth of property and hundreds of seamen. In 1814 he was brought face to face with two British men-of-war, the Phoebe and the Cherub, out from the port of Valparaiso, South America. A desperate battle followed in which two-thirds of the American crew were killed or rendered helpless, and Porter was compelled to surrender. Porter's operations and his capture are well described by this story. Midshipman Farragut. 1897. James Barnes David Farragut entered the navy as midshipman at the age of nine. He served in the war of 181 2, in the Mexican War and rendered great service in the Civil War. He was midshipman under David Porter in the Essex and witnessed the great doings of that commander, which, no doubt, had much to do with his own successes at a later period. As a mere boy he became accus- tomed to great and bloody deeds of warfare on the sea. These early experiences of this great commander make a tell- ing story as they are set forth by Barnes in this narrative. Jack and His Island. 1902. Lucy M. Thurston This story deals with the unsuccessful attack on Baltimore. Leaving Washington after burning the Capitol the British fleet came to Fort Henry which guarded Baltimore. This they bom- barded for two days. The American fortifications were able to withstand the attack and the fleet withdrew, passing on to New Orleans. Out of the thunder and smoke of this battle came one of the cherished things of our national interests. The following is a good statement of the incident: "On the day before the battle Francis Scott Key, a Baltimore gentleman, visited the British fleet in the harbor to arrange for an exchange of prisoners. He was not permitted to leave for home during the bombardment, which lasted throughout the whole night. From the deck of one of the THE MODERN ERA 541 vessels he watched anxiously, hour after hour, fearing that the flag of Fort Henry might be hauled down in token of surrender. His great joy at seeing at intervals by the glare of rockets and flash of cannon the 'Stars and Stripes' still floating triumphantly at the dawn of the new day, was expressed in a thrilling song, 'The Star- Spangled Banner/ which he quickly wrote on the back of a letter. A few hours later it was sung in public by an actor in the city. Within a few weeks Americans everywhere were familiar with the verses, and Key had become a national celebrity." How real- istically the scene is painted, and how much the words in that moment meant to Key : "And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there." George W. Cable has given us in "The Cavalier," the "Star- Spangled Banner Scene," that the reader will find interesting. A Herald of the West. 1898. Joseph A. Altsheler The hero in this story figures in two great engagements, the first when Washington was taken and the Capitol and White House were burned. At this time Mrs. Madison made her escape and saved the silverware and other valuables. The second engage- ment was the battle of New Orleans, to which the English fleet sailed. By taking the city the British expected to control the Mis- sissippi. The defences were under the command of Andrew Jack- son, who was a famous Indian fighter. His 5,000 volunteers clad in leather were from the backwoods, and while they had no mili- tary training, they were expert hunters and could hit the mark. On January 8, 181 5, the British advanced. "J ac kson and his sharpshooters quietly arranged themselves behind their hastily built fortifications of earth and logs. They knew no fear; every man of them was as cool as if at a target match in his own frontier town, and fired only when he had selected a redcoat as a victim. Under this unerring aim the British general fell dead, and over two thousand of his brave men were either killed or wounded, while the American loss was only twenty-one." The news of this brilliant victory spread through the country, and Andrew Jackson became known to every soul in the land. 542 HISTORICAL FICTION One remarkable thing about this battle is the fact that a treaty between the two nations was signed at Ghent in Belgium nearly two weeks before this battle was fought, which was not known by Jackson or the British. It took news considerable time in that day to travel such a distance. In this treaty nothing was said about the real causes of the war. During this period Great Britain was greatly handicapped in the matter of supplying men, as also in sending the best of her navy to America, as she was righting Napoleon, sinking his fleets, keeping him out of England and bringing his empire to ruins. A Romance of Arlington House. 1907. Sarah A. Reed One of the interesting facts of this novel is the coming of Lafayette to America in 1824 at the close of Madison's presidency. In 1777 he fitted out a vessel for himself and came to this country and was warmly received by Washington and the army. He was made a member of Washington's staff. He was wounded at Brandywine, and aided in the defeat of Cornwallis at Yorktown. In returning to the United States he was received with great en- thusiasm. Congress voted him $200,000 and a township of land. CHAPTER III FROM THE WAR OF 1812 TO THE CIVIL WAR From the second great war of our history certain benefits accrued to the nation. The Republic came to realize that it was capable of defending itself and could with confidence assert its rights. Another result was that in being deprived by war of those things that had come from Europe we were placed under the necessity of producing them ourselves, and consequently of creating industries and developing our own resources. Again, the war greatly stimulated national pride. We had emerged from the war with great victories to our credit. "Men now saw that the Union had ceased to be an experiment. It had grown to be a strong and enduring nation." Another important result of the war was the tariff of 1816. This was the first protective tariff. When commerce was re- opened with Europe vast quantities of goods came from those countries where labor was much cheaper and undersold American products. Manufacturers at once realized that some measure must be adopted if home products were to be made and sold, as it was impossible to compete with foreign prices. The measure was the tariff of 1816, which protected American industries by placing upon foreign goods much higher duties. These are some of the conditions under which we now began a new era in our national development. Administration of James Monroe This administration (1817-1825) is known as the "Era of Good Feeling." There were no political contests between parties. Monroe was unanimously elected. During his presidency oc- curred the Seminole War, boundary disputes, the Missouri Com- promises, the tariff of 1822, the rise of new parties. One of the most important acts was the Monroe Doctrine. In his annual message in 1823 the President announced that no new European colonies should be planted in America, and that the United States 543 544 HISTORICAL FICTION would not "view with indifference" an attempt by any European power to reduce "an independent nation of North or South Amer- ica to the condition of a colony." The Stories A Captain of Irregulars. 1899. Herbert Hayens The three following stories deal with the happenings in South American States during this period. Until the beginning of the nineteenth century Spain and Portugal had almost entire control of this continent. In 1810 these colonies declared their independ- ence. Chile was successful in her revolt and with the assistance of General San Martin gained her independence. This was pro- claimed in 18 18, and was recognized by a treaty with Spain in 1844. In this story, which gives the struggle of Chile for independ- ence, Jose De San Martin figures largely. He was born in Argen- tina, but was educated in Spain and distinguished himself in the war against France. In 181 5 he organized an expedition for the liberation of Chile. Early in 1817 he gained a brilliant victory at Chacabuco and was then given supreme command of the forces. In 1 818 he achieved another great victory at Maipo. He then organized the government of Chile. This revolution, under the strong direction of San Martin, the struggle with Spanish troops, and the crowning victory at Maipo are fully described in this story. In the Grip of the Spaniard. 1898. Herbert Hayens Simon Bolivar (1783-1830), after studying law in Madrid, returned to South America in 1809 and became a leader in the struggle for independence. He was the most prominent man en- gaged in the liberty of Venezuela, New Granada, Peru and Bolivia, and in bringing these states from under Spanish rule. In 1819, when New Granada and Venezuela were combined into a republic under the name of Columbia, Bolivar was made presi- dent. He formulated the constitution of Bolivia, and his enemies at once concluded that his design was to make himself dictator over Columbia. THE MODERN ERA 545 This story describes the services rendered by Bolivar in the interests of Venezuelan independence ; also the part taken in the struggle by Jose Antonio Paez, one of the leading spirits in South American independence. He was a native of Venezuela. In 1810 he entered the patriot army, and in 1819 was a general of a divi- sion and took a vital part in the battle of Carabobo, by which the independence of Columbia was secured in 1821. He was placed at the head of the revolution terminating in the independence of Venezuela, which chose him as its first president. This story traces these developments to the battle of Carabobo, in which English sympathies materially aided the Venezuelans in gaining their freedom. With Cochrane the Dauntless. 1897. George A. Henty The labors of Thomas Cochrane, Tenth Earl of Dundonald (1775-1860), in behalf of the independence of Brazil, Chile and Peru are well presented by this story. Cochrane was a Scotch- man, and at the age of eighteen showed so much gallantry on board his uncle's ship that, at the age of twenty-five, he was placed in command of a ship. He rendered brilliant service against the French, but when in 1809 he failed in his gallant at- tempt to destroy the French fleet off Brest he was put upon half pay. Prior to this time, as a member of Parliament he became unpopular by exposing certain abuses that existed in the navy. In 1817 he took service in the navy of Chile, Brazil and Peru in securing their independence. This was followed by service in the Greek navy. In 1832 he returned to England and was made a rear-admiral. Administration of Andrew Jackson The hero of New Orleans was elected twice to the presidency (1829-1837). His election marks an important epoch in Amer- ican political history, as he was the first representative of the "common people." It was the triumph of the Democratic party. Jackson was pre-eminently a man of the people. He differed from the former presidents in that they were men of education, whereas he had very little. He had no training in statesman- ship, "but he was honest, fearless, and truly representative of the new democratic principles." 546 HISTORICAL FICTION The Stories She Loved a Sailor. 1899. Amelia E. Barr This is a story of Jackson's administration which gave the spirit of democracy a great impulse throughout the country. The removal of public officials upon the ground of political affilia- tions was the first important event of his presidency. He main- tained the doctrine of the distribution of offices as rewards, or the "spoils system." He vetoed the United States Bank charter and crushed the nullification movement in South Carolina. "South Carolina, by this act, put into practice the doctrine of 'states rights,' assumed the right to nullify acts of Congress, and threat- ened to secede if the United States government tried to enforce these acts." It was during his administration that the question of slavery first entered politics as a distinctive factor. In the early part of his presidency the Black Hawk War (1832) occurred. The Mormon Prophet. 1899. Lily Dougall Joseph Smith (1805-1844) was the founder of the Mormon sect, or the Church of the Latter Day Saints. When 22 years of age he declared that an angel had disclosed to him in a vision the place where the Bible of the western continent had been buried. He declared, that in following the instructions of the angel there was given him the volume on which the doctrines of Mormonism are founded. In 1844 ne was placed in jail at Carthage, 111., charged with violations of the law and was there shot by a mob. The "Book of Mormon," which Smith declared was placed in his hands by the angel, consisted of plates about eight inches long by seven inches wide, about the thickness of tin and bound together by three golden rings. It was about six inches thick. The letters were beautifully engraved. The language of the book was called by Smith "Reformed Egyptian." Smith translated the plates by means of the Urim and Thummin of Scripture, which he declared accompanied the plates, and the Book of Mormon was issued in 1830. Others claimed to have seen the original plates through angelic ministrations, the plates being later returned to the angel. The new sect was persecuted from the time of its inception. THE MODERN ERA 547 They founded the city of Nauvoo in Illinois. Here the editor of a newspaper threatened to expose Smith's immoral practices, and the Mormons destroyed his establishment. This brought about the disturbance that resulted in Smith's death. The Mormons then, under Brigham Young, established themselves in Salt Lake City, Utah. This Canadian novelist (1858-) was born in Montreal. She completed her education at the two Scottish Universities, Edin- burgh and St. Andrews. A considerable portion of her time was spent at Melbourne in Derbyshire, England. Much of her writ- ing is on Canadian subjects. This story gives the character of Joseph Smith and his claims, and sets forth the founding and history of the Mormon Church. Remember the Alamo. 1888. Amelia E. Barr In the War for Texan Independence in 1836, the Catholic mis- sion Alamo, at San Antonio, Texas, was celebrated for the battle fought here. The mission was built of stone and' was surrounded by a wall two feet thick and eight feet high. Within this place was a company of 180 Texans and Americans under Colonel Travis. It was besieged by Santa Anna, the leader of the Mexicans. The latter came upon them so suddenly that there was little oppor- tunity to secure food and ammunition. For seven days they held out against the siege. Artillery was then brought up against the place, and it was captured. The few Texans who survived the fight were nearly all killed in cold blood. This barbarity so aroused the Texans that for the remainder of the war their battle cry was "Remember the Alamo." This explains the title of this story, which sets forth this rising against Mexico, the leading incident of which is the taking of the Alamo. David Crockett is one of the prominent figures. He was a celebrated frontiersman and politician. He served under Andrew Jackson against the Creek Indians, and was three times elected to Congress. He then took up arms in support of Texas in its war for independence against Mexico. He was one of the six survivors when the walls of the Alamo were broken down who were massacred by the Mexicans. Santa Anna is con- spicuous in the story, also Sam Houston, who also served under 543 HISTORICAL FICTION Andrew Jackson. He became the commander in chief of the Texan forces and defeated Santa Anna in the battle of San Jacinto, which secured the independence of Texas. Other stories : For the Liberty of Texas (1909), by Edward Stratemeyer, setting forth the deeds of David Crockett, San Houston and other leaders of the war, and the battle of Alamo. Margaret Ballentine (1907), by Frank Templeton, dealing with this struggle and Alamo. Administration of Martin Van Buren This administration (1837-1841) was darkened by a financial panic that swept over the country in 1837. Money became scarce and credits stopped. The cotton failure in New Orleans had considerable to do with it. "The banks with $38,000,000 in coin could not meet an issue of $525,000,000 in notes. The 'pet' banks suspended, revealing great defalcation of public money. The people, the states, and the federal government were bankrupt." The larger part of the Seminole War falls in this period. The Stories Through Swamp and Glade. 1896. Kirk Monroe In the last years of Jackson's administration occurred the Seminole War. The Seminole was a tribe of the Creek Indians settled in Florida. They struggled desperately to hold their terri- tory, and to prevent their removal beyond the Mississippi. This was effected by a terrible war that lasted for seven years (1835- 1842). The war cost the United States $10,000,000 and 2,000 lives. The tribe was then placed in the Indian Territory. This story relates to this struggle and the ultimate defeat of the Indians. The Blithedale Romance. 1852. Nathaniel Hawthorne The author (1804- 1864), the foremost of American writers of fiction, was born at Salem, Mass. When a boy he spent much time in solitude. A student of Bowdoin College, he had as fellow- Students Longfellow and Franklin Pierce. He did not distinguish THE MODERN ERA 549 himself as a scholar, and graduated at the age of twenty-one. When his friend Pierce was elected president he was appointed to the consulship at Liverpool. He then spent some time in Rome and Florence. The history of literature does not furnish a genius more original than that of this author. His romances "are the production and revelation of his inmost life. His was a secluded spirit that lived in itself. With a brooding mind, he was silent, absorbed in the birth and growth of his own thoughts and fancies. " In 1836 a Transcendental Club was founded by George Ripley, and the School of Transcendentalism was the result. Margaret Fuller (1810-1850) was a brilliant conversationalist and attracted the notice of eminent men in New England. She became closely related with the Transcendentalists and interested in the Brook Farm. This was a socialistic community founded in West Rox- bury, 1841. Among its members were some of the most dis- tinguished Americans, such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Ralph Waldo Emerson, George W. Curtis. It was a co-operative system which required of each member a certain amount of work, the products of all labor being turned into a common stock in which all shared equally. The Blithedale Romance is a thinly disguised account of Haw- thorne's experiences at Brook Farm. In this story Hollingsworth is the leading spirit in the community. He is a strong man, both physically and mentally. He is greatly loved by the gentle Pris- cilla and the passionate Zenobia. Priscilla, the pretty seamstress, is of that fragile type that appeals strongly to her two lovers, Miles Coverdale and John Hollingsworth. She attracts them as Zenobia with all of her charm fails to do, and is brought wholly under the spell of the strong Hollingsworth. Zenobia is a beautiful, brilliant woman. This character may have been suggested to the author, to some extent, by Margaret Fuller, who spent some time at the farm while Hawthorne was there. Her love for Hollingsworth is hopeless as he is in love with Priscilla, and Zenobia drowns herself. "There are few scenes in literature more realistic than the finding of Zenobia's body, in the dead of night, drawn from the dark stream, a crooked, stiff shape, and carried to the farm-house, where old women in nightcaps jabber over it." The finding of Zenobia's body "is the description of an actual occurrence in which Hawthorne partici- 550 HISTORICAL FICTION pated in July, 1843. He accompanied a man to search for the body of a girl who had drowned herself and the incidents appear in this scene in the romance unaltered." Administration of James K. Polk During his presidency (1845-1849) the Sub-Treasury System was established, and in its main features is still the method of han- dling government funds. The tariff of 1846, for revenue only, remained in force until 1861. The Oregon country dispute be- tween the United States and Great Britain created a heated dis- cussion. The political watchwords of 1844 were "The whole 01 Oregon or none," and "Fifty-four forty or fight." During this period occurred : The Mexican War The cause of the war was the boundary line of Texas, but back of that, or involved in that, was the question of slavery. Texas, when a Mexican state, was bounded by the Nueces River, but when admitted to the Union it declared that the Rio Grande was the boundary line, which claim was supported by the United States. General Taylor was ordered by Polk to take possession of the disputed territory. He marched to Fort Brown on the Rio Grande. A small American force was captured by the Mex- icans, and Polk declared that by the act of Mexico a state of war existed, and 50,000 volunteers were at once sent to the front. The Stories Captain Courtesy. 1906. Edward C. Carpenter Americans in California, which was owned by Mexico, formed a little republic of their own in 1846. It was known as the "Bear State," because bn its flag was the picture of a grizzly bear. It contained a star and the words, "California Republic." The grizzly bear was at that time common in the Rockies, and it may be that it was emblematic of resistance. Fremont was exploring in that section at this time, and when trouble with Mexico arose this little republic appealed to him for assistance. He came with a strong exploring party and subdued the Mexicans in several skirmishes. He raised the flag of the United States instead of the flag of California, and joined Com- THE MODERN ERA 551 modore Robert Stockton, who was in command of the Pacific squadron and had taken San Diego in a movement against Los Angeles, which was easily captured. Later Colonel Stephen W. Kearney arrived and defeated the Mexicans in the decisive battle of San Gabriel, which settled the question of United States authority over that section. These events in California, the boundary disputes, the out- rages of Mexicans, the operations of Fremont, Kearney and Stockton and the final defeat of the Mexicans in California are set forth in this story. Fighting with Fremont. 1911. Everett McNeil General Zachary Taylor was ordered to cross the Nueces River and proceed to the Rio Grande. A force of 6,000 Mexicans had crossed the latter and secured a strong position at Palo Alto, which was in Taylor's pathway. At this point the opposing forces met, and after fighting five hours the Mexicans were driven from the field, having lost 100 men. They fell back upon Resaca de la Palma. Getting their artillery well placed, they poured grape-shot into the advancing Americans. The latter charged, took the bat- teries and captured General La Vega. The Mexicans fled in the greatest disorder. These facts relating to these two engagements figure in this story, while the work of Fremont and his armed forced of ex- plorers is especially set forth. The Quest of the Four. 1911. Joseph A. Altsheler After crippling the Mexican at Monterey, Taylor learned that the Mexican general, Santa Anna, had assembled 20,000 men and was on his way to crush him. Establishing his position at Buena Vista he awaited the arrival of the Mexicans. With his army between two mountains, the Mexicans dashed forward and cap- tured some of Taylor's batteries, but Bragg and Jefferson Davis cut them to pieces on the flank. This was the best fought battle of the war. The Mexicans withdrew, leaving their wounded on the field. 552 HISTORICAL FICTION This great engagement, so brilliantly conducted by the Amer- icans, is described in this story. It sets forth the experiences of four companions who get into Mexico and participate in this battle. General Winfield Scott finally assumed command of the American forces. Storming the pass of Cerro Gordo he drove the Mexicans before him, defeating them with greatly inferior numbers. He won a brilliant victory at Molino del Rey, stormed the heights of Chapultepec, and then entered the Mexican capital in triumph. The war was ended. The boundary line was fixed by the provisions of the treaty, and New Mexico and California were added to United States territory. "The most remarkable feature of the contest was the training which it furnished to young officers who later played conspicuous parts in the great Civil War." Among these were U. S. Grant, George G. Meade, Robert E. Lee, Jefferson Davis, Stonewall Jackson, George B. McClellan. It also brought Zachary Taylor to the presidency. Fifty-four Forty or Fight. 1900. Emerson Hough This story deals with the dispute that arose between Great Britain and the United States regarding the Oregon boundary line. The demand of the Americans was, "The whole of Oregon or none," or "Fifty-four forty or fight." The treaty of 1846 with England fixed our northern boundary line at the forty-ninth parallel Administration of Zachary Taylor On the strength of his war record, General Taylor was elected president. One of his daughters was the wife of Jefferson Davis, afterwards President of the Southern Confederacy. In the second year of his presidency Taylor died and Millard Fillmore acted as president for the remainder of the term. The question of slavery was now brought strongly to the front. "The admission of Cali- fornia meant the upsetting of the balance of power between the free and slave states, and permanent superiority of the North in the Senate. The North wished California admitted as a free soil state, and insisted that slavery be abolished in the District of Columbia. The Free Soil Party demanded that there should be no more slave states or territories. The South opposed Cali- THE MODERN ERA 553 f ornia's admission as a free state and complained that the existing fugitive slave law was not enforced." To meet these serious situations Henry Clay submitted his compromises, especially that of 1850, his third great compromise, the concessions of which largely favored the South. John Cal- houn delivered his speech favoring secession. Daniel Webster delivered his speech favoring the compromises so as to avoid secession. William Seward's speech denounced all compromise with slavery "and appealed to a higher law than civil authority." In the end his position proved to be the right one. The Stories The Issue. 1904. George Morgan The existing conditions under slavery are depicted by this story. The issue is the great question now coming steadily and strongly to the fore, and refused to be settled until it was settled right. Uncle Tom's Cabin. 1852. Harriet Beecher Stowe The author (1812-1896) was born at Litchfield, Conn., the daughter of Rev. Lyman Beecher, and sister of the eloquent preacher, Henry Ward Beecher. She married Rev. Calvin E. Stowe of Cincinnati. Uncle Tom's Cabin was published in 1852 and "had perhaps a greater influence than any other piece of fic- tion ever written, and was translated into more than twenty lan- guages and had an unprecedented sale." This influence has been greatly supplemented by the dramatizing of the story. This exposure of the cruelties of slavery was a mighty instrument, an undeniable factor, in the emancipation of the negro. In 1863, the year of the Emancipation Proclamation, she visited the White House. President Lincoln took her hand and said, "Is this the little woman who brought on so great a war?" The story is a terrible indictment against the institution of slavery. One week after the book appeared 10,000 copies were sold, and in less than a year the sale had reached 300,000 copies. While Mrs. Stowe is the author of about forty other stories, it is by this story she will always be best known. 554 HISTORICAL FICTION The hero, Uncle Tom, exemplifies in a high degree the Chris- tian virtues. He is strong physically and he rests his conduct upon the teachings of the Bible, which he carries with him. "He represents in his person the only well-authenticated instance we know, in modern times, of that laudable principle in virtue of which a man presents his left cheek to be smitten after the first has been slapped." Topsy, filled to overflowing with the spirit of mischief, lies and loves to lie for the sake of lying. When she became a Chris- tian these native traits disappear, and she ceases to be her original self. George Harris and his wife Eliza are slaves. When the latter is sold to another slave-owner they make their escape, her escape a thrilling one indeed, and at last join each other in free Canada. George has quite an inventive turn of mind as is evidenced by his hemp-cleaning machine. Little Eva is the daughter of St. Clare, Uncle Tom's owner. She is the mistress and also the friend of Topsy. Her sickness, Uncle Tom's supreme devotion to the little saint, and her death, is one of the most touching scenes in the story. She talked to Uncle Tom as she could not talk to her father, "of these myste- rious intimations which the soul feels ere it leaves its clay for- ever." Tom lay all night on the veranda as her life ebbed out, "and at midnight came the message. Earth was passed and earthly pain; so solemn was the triumphant brightness of that face it checked even the sobs of sorrow. A glorious smile, and she said brokenly, 'Oh — love — joy — peace' and passed from death unto life." It is George Shelby who is present at the death of Torii and hears his last words of Christian triumph. As he kneels by the grave of his old friend, he says, "Witness, eternal God, Oh witness that, from this hour, I will do what one man can to drive out the curse of slavery from my land!" Administration of James Buchanan This administration (1857-1861) carries us to the opening of the Civil War. During this time occurred the famous Lincoln- Douglas debates, the Dred Scott Decision, John Brown's Raid, THE MODERN ERA 555 and in the campaign of i860 Abraham Lincoln was elected Presi- dent. The importance of the Abolition Party may be said to date from the work of William Lloyd Garrison and the formation of the Anti-slavery Society in 1833. Garrison and his adherents went so far as to advocate abolition even if it required disunion. Among those who favored the radical views of that faction of the Society and who supported Garrison, were Wendell Phillips and John G. Whittier. The Stories Diane. 1905. Katharine H. Brown The Ordinance of 1787, bearing on the Fugitive Slave Laws, and the Constitution, specified that slaves escaping into a free state should be delivered to their owners. The method used to enable slaves to escape was called the "Underground Railroad." It was well organized. Certain routes were used, and "stations," certain houses at convenient points, were employed. Northerners friendly to the escaping negroes would conduct them from one of these stations to the next, where they were fed and cared for. "The most common routes were through Ohio and Pennsylvania, the goal of each being Canada. Among the prominent promoters of these enterprises were Gerrit Smith, Theodore Parker, and Levi Coffin. It is believed that fully 25,000 negroes were thus given liberty during the quarter century preceding the Civil War." In this story these instances of fugitive slaves escaping from their masters are portrayed. The abolitionists also figure in the story, and one of them, John Brown, in particular. He is cele- brated as the originator of the Harper's Ferry insurrection. He was seized with the idea of abolishing slavery by having the slaves rise in revolt. His plan of procedure was to capture the arsenal of Harper's Ferry, containing a large supply of arms, and thus arm the slaves for their uprising. In October, 1859, accompanied by eighteen followers, he seized the arsenal, but no negroes ap- peared. Ten of his followers were killed, four escaped and Brown and the other four were captured. Brown was tried for treason and hanged, which action was condemned throughout the North. 556 HISTORICAL FICTION Other stories : Time and Chance (1901), by Elbert Hubbard, in which Brown appears. The Purchase Price (1910), by Emerson Hough, dealing with the slavery issue. "The Burial of John Brown," by Wendell Phillips, may be read in this connection. CHAPTER IV THE CIVIL WAR Administration of Abraham Lincoln The secession of the Southern States was grounded in the doctrine of State Sovereignty, and secession was the immediate cause of the war. The institution of slavery was the cause of secession. Thus the three things closely related in ascertaining the cause or causes of the Civil War were — State Sovereignty, Secession, Slavery. In i860 South Carolina passed her secession ordinance, and declared that her right to secede was grounded in state sovereignty, and was not a violation of the Constitution. Based upon this claim, the reasons for secession were, that the North was determined to check and abolish slavery ; rejected the doctrine of state rights ; misinterpreted the Constitution ; in- sisted that no more slave states should be admitted, and was at- tempting to surround the South with free states ; the election of Lincoln was an expression of the attitude of the North to the South, and a direct attack upon the institution of slavery. It is sometimes overlooked that the purpose of the Republican Party was not the abolition of slavery in the states where that institution was already established, but to prevent its spread into the terri- tories. So intimately were state rights, secession, and slavery related that a war to save the Union and the uprooting of secession would in the nature of the case destroy the doctrine of state rights as interpreted by the South and abolish slavery, the basic cause of the whole disturbance. The Revolutionary War achieved inde- pendence and union, the creation of a nation consisting of many states and united by one central government. It was the Civil War that defended and preserved the Union, the decisive ending of a long conflict and the establishment of the supremacy of the Nation over State governments. From the standpoint of the principles in which our national life was born, "American slavery was the flat contradiction of 557 558 HISTORICAL FICTION American liberty. For the latter was the liberty of man as man, and hence of all men ; while the former was the holding by law of millions of men as property, and thus depriving them of their liberty and of their natural and inalienable rights. Liberty was the positive vital principle of the nation and of the government, and salvery was its denial." All of which is in accord with the great truth uttered by Abraham Lincoln during the campaign when he said, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this Government cannot permanently endure half slave and half free. I do not expect the house to fall, but I do expect it will cease to be divided." To the Capture of Vicksburg The firing upon Fort Sumter, April 12, 1861, by the Confeder- ates opened the Civil War. The forts and arsenals were at once seized by the South. The first military movement of the war took place in the western part of Virginia, from which section the Con- federates were driven by General McClellan. The Stories With Lee in Virginia. 1889. George A. Henty General Irving McDowell began a campaign for the capture of Virginia. Richmond was the Confederate capital. Bull Run is a small stream thirty miles from Washington. Along the banks of this stream was fought the first real battle of the war. The untrained Northern soldiers were driven in confusion from the field by the Southern troops under experienced officers. It was in this battle that General Thomas Jackson won his famous sobri- quet "Stonewall" Jackson. While urging his men to a charge a Confederate officer pointed to him and said, "There is Jackson standing like a stonewall." He was one of the greatest of the Confederate commanders. In this story the movements of the Northern army in Virginia are described, and the defeat of the army under McDowell at Bull Run. The hero is in the Southern army. The Confederates made over the old Merrimac, covered with sheet iron so that it resembled the roof of a barn floating on the water. Two of the best vessels of the Northern fleet were destroyed by her ram. THE MODERN ERA 559 She finally encountered the Monitor, its flat iron surface almost level with the water and carrying an iron turret resembling a cheese-box from which she poured forth her volleys. This famous and unusual battle figures in this story, which carries the history forward through the fighting of 1862, in which in the second bat- tle of Bull Run, the Confederates were again victorious, and also at Fredericksburg, December 13, when the Federals attacked a strong Confederate position and suffered a great slaughter, and so on down through the movements of the war. Traitor or Loyalist. 1904. Henry K. Webster In our studies in English history of this period the reader will remember the manner in which the English suffered for want of cotton which was purchased from our Southern states, and how industries there were paralyzed because of the Union block- ade making it almost impossible for any cotton to be shipped. Consternation spread on both sides of the water. The blockade- runners managed from time to time to break through with car- goes of cotton. This story deals with these conditions, and the vital interests of the people engaged in the cotton trade. The blockade caused the greatest damage done to the South. Other stories : The Young Blockaders (1910) by E. T. Tomlinson. Debenham's Vow (1870) by Amelia A. Edwards, in which running the blockade is well presented. The Captain. 1903. Churchill Williams After capturing Fort Henry, General U. S. Grant marched up the valley of the Cumberland and attacked Fort Donelson. When he was asked what terms he would give he replied, "No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender. I propose to move immediately upon your works." Following this capture he returned to the Tennessee River and fought and won the terri- ble battle of Shiloh. The losses on both sides shocked the coun- try. By the close of 1862 the Federal army and navy were in possession of the Mississippi above Vicksburg, Miss., and from Port Hudson, La., to the sea. 560 HISTORICAL FICTION These operations of Grant, that did so much for the Federal cause, are set forth in this story. The great successes of this gen- eral paved the way for the next great objective point. The Heart of Hope. 1905. Norval Richardson This story deals with the siege and fall of Vicksburg, the ob- jective point just referred to. This was the strongest fortress upon the Mississippi and was called the "Gibralter of the Confed- eracy." In the spring of 1863 Grant and Sherman began opera- tions for its capture. Their force consisted of 75,000 men with a fleet of ironclad gunboats. Shells were poured into the fortifi- cations steadily for weeks, and by June the town was in an awful state of ruination. Their supplies gone, the people lived on horses and mules, cats and dogs. Unable to hold out longer, on July 4, Vicksburg capitulated, the day following the great Union victory at Gettysburg. Port Hudson then fell to Grant and the Missis- sippi was un Constitution of the United States, 526, 530, 555, 568. Constitution, The, U. S. warship, 537. Continental System, Created by Napoleon, 440. CONVERSE, FLORENCE, 181. Long Will, 181. COOKE, JOHN E., 482. My Lady Pokahontas, 482. COOLEY, WILLIAM FORBES, 66. Emmanuel: the Story of the Messiah, 66. Coomassie, Africa, Taking of (1874), 690. COOPER, JAMES FENIMORE, 244. Lionel Lincoln, 504. Mercedes of Castile, 244. Pilot, The, 517. Coote, Sir Eyre, 335, 336. CORBETT, JULIAN, 340. A Business in Great Waters, 340. Corcyra, City of, 40. Corday, Charlotte, assassin of Marat, 420. CORELLI, MARIE, 68. Barabbas, 68. Corinth, City of, 40, 51, 69, 70. Cormac, King of Leinster, 105. Cornaro, Caterino, 242, 243. Corneille, Pierre, 404. Cornwallis, Charles, 509, 512, 520, 521, 524, 525. Coronea, Battle of (B. C. 447), 38. INDEX 707 Corpus Juris Civilis, The (Jus- tinian), 101. Cortez, Adventures of in Mexico, 479. Corunna, Battle of (1809), 348, 441. Cossacks, The, 668, 669, 671. COTTON, ALBERT L., 632. The Company of Death, 632. Cotton Famine, The (England), 361, 362, 559. Council of Blood, The (1567), 660. Count Robert of Paris, 161. Count of the Saxon Shore, The, 96. Countess de Charny, The, 419. Court of Lucifer, The, 625. Court of Pilate, The, 67. Courtrai, Battle of (1302), 121, 122. Courtrai, Flanders, 200, 201. Coutras, Battle of (1587), 381. Covenant, The, 285, 289, 301. Covenanters, The, 285, 301, 302, 317. Coverdale, Miles, 256. Cowpens, Battle of (1781), 520. COWPER, EDITH E., 648. Viva Christina, 648. COWPER, FRANK, 78. Caedwalla, 109. Captain of the Wight, The, 227. Forgotten Door, The, 78. CRAKE, AUGUSTUS D, 89. Aemilius, 89. Brian Fitz Count, 139. Camp on the Severn, The, 90. Doomed City, The, 107.' Edwy the Fair, 127. CRAKE, E. E., 255. In the Days of Queen Mary, 266. Tragedy of the Dacres, The, 255. CRAMP, WALTER S„ 65. Psyche, 65. Cranmer, Thomas, 257, 263, 267. Crassus, 57. Craunston, Jane Anne, 319. Craven, Governor of Carolina, 491, 492. CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION, 28. In the Palace of the King, 643. Zoroaster, 28. Crazy Horse, Sioux chief, 571. Creasy, Sir Edward, Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World, 454. Crecy, Battle of (1346), 174-176. Cremona, Attack of (1702), 633. Cressy and Poictiers, 175. Crichton, William, 191. Crimea, 359. Crimean War, The (1854-56), 359- 361, 462, 481. Crimson Conquest, The, 481. Cripple of Nuremberg, The, 605. Crockett, David, 547, 548. CROCKETT, SAMUEL R., 191. Black Douglas, The, 191. Flower O' the Corn, 403. Maid Margaret of Galloway, 192. Men of the Moss Hags, The, 302. Strong Mac, 349. Croesus, King of Lydia, 30. CROLY, GEORGE, 78. Tarry Thou Till I come, 78. Cromwell, Oliver, 284-294. Commander of Parliamentary forces, 284-287, 393. The Commonwealth, Lord Pro- tector, 288-294. His government, 288. Rebellion in Ireland, 289. Defeat of irince Charles in Scotland, 290. Conflict with the Dutch, 292. Cromwell, Richard, 295. Cromwell, Thomas, 258. Cronje, Boer general, 693. Cross of Honor, The, 439. Cross of Pearls, The, 177. Crowley, Mary C, 497. Daughter of New France, A, 587. Heroine of the Strait, The, 497. In Treaty with Honor, 593. Love Thrives in War, 536. Crown of Pine, The, 69. Cruise of the Thetis, The, 575. Crusaders, The, 160. Crusades, The, 116. Historical Sketch, 159. Causes of, 159. The various Crusades, 160. First, 161, 162. Second, 118. Third, 119, 143, 144, 162-164. Fourth, 210, 211. Sixth and Seventh, 160. Children's, 164, 165. Results of, 165. Crushed Yet Conquering, 206. 708 HISTORICAL FICTION Cuba, Insurrection of, Spanish tyranny, 575. Spanish-American War, 575- 579. Cuirassier of Arran's, A, 304. Culloden Moor, Battle of (1746), 325-328. Cumberland, Duke of (son of George II), 325. Cunedda, Tribune, of the Picts, 96. CUNNINGHAM, ALICE, 140. Love Story of Giraldus, The, 140. Curran, John, 346. Curran, Sarah, 346. Custer, General George, 571. CURTIES, HENRY, 371. Renee, 371. Curtis, George W., 549. Custozza, Battle of (1848), 635. Cutwulf, Saxon leader, 107. Cyprian, Bishop of» Carthage, 52, 53, 89. Cyprus, Island of, 242. Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, 19. Cyrus, King of Persia, 27, 28, 77. Dacres, Lord, 255. DAHLINGER, C. W., 561. Where the Red Volleys Poured, 561. DAHN, FELIX, 102. A Struggle for Rome, 102. Damaris, St. Paul's convert, 74. Damietta, Captured by Louis IX, 160, 161. Dan Monroe, 505. Dandolo, Eurico (Doge of Ven- ice), 211. Danelaw, 125, 126. Danes, The, 125=128. Danger, Captain (W h i t e b o y Movement), 333. Daniel, Hebrew Prophet, 27, 28. Daniel, Prophecy of, 26-28, 33. Dante, Alighiere, 171, 197. Danton, Georges Jacques, 419, 421, 422, 425. Darius I, King of Persia, 31, 35. Darius III, King of Persia, 44, 45. Darkness and Dawn, 74. Darnley, Lord Henry Stuart, 269- 271. DAUDET, ALPHONSE, 472. Robert Helmont, 472. Daughter of New France, A, 587. Daughter of the Manse, A, 357. Daughters of the Revolution and Their Times, 502. D'Aulnay, Ruler of Port Royal, 583. David II, King of Scotland, 176, 189. Davis, Jefferson, Mexican War, 551. President of the Southern Con- federacy, 552. DAVIS, WILLIAM STEARNS, 28. Belshazzar, 28. Friar of Wittenberg, The, 603. Friend of Caesar, A, 59. God Wills It, 161. Victor of Salamis, A, 36. Days of Jeanne d'Arc, The, 186. DEAN, JOHN M., 577. The Promotion, 577. Deane, John, 309, 310. DEANE, MARY, 320. The Rose-Spinner, 320. Dearborn, Fort, Chicago, 536. DEARMER, PERCY, 126. The Dragon of Wessex, 126. Deb Clavel, 304. DEBENHAM, MARY H., 404. The Laird's Legacy, 404. Debenham's Vow, 559. Decameron (by Boccaccio), 196. Decatur and Somers, 531. Decatur, Stephen, 532, 537. Decius, Emperor, 52, 53, 88. Declaration of Independence (American), 508, 509. Declaration of Indulgence, of James II, 304. DEEPING, WARWICK, 151. Bertrand of Brittany, 175. Red Saint, The, 151. Defoe, Daniel, 313. DEHAN, RICHARD, 463. Between Two Thieves, 463. DE HAVEN, AUBREY, 510. The Scarlet Cloak, 510. Deira (Northumbria), 107. Delaunay, Governor of the Bas- tile, 409, 416. Delaware, Washington Crossing the, 509, 510. Delhi, Indian Mutiny, 365, 366. Democracy, Grecian, 38. Demoiselle of France, A, 396. Demosthenes, 45. De Montfort's Squire, 151. Denmark, Conflict with Prussia and Austria, 619. Derby, Countess of, 300. INDEX 709 Derwentwater, James Radcliffe, 318, 319. Descartes, Rene, 404, 664. Desmoulins, Benoit Camille, 423, 425. Despenser, Hugh, 157, 158. Detroit Pontiac's Conspiracy (1763), 498, 499. War of 1812, 536. Dettinger, Battle of (1743), 325, 327. Devereux, 319. Devereux, Captain, 609. Dewey, Commodore George, 576, 577. Diane, 555. Diane of Poitiers, mistress of Henry II, 374-376. Diary of Mrs. Kitty Trevelyn, 325. DICKENS, CHARLES, 336. Barnaby Rudge, 336. Tale of Two Cities, A, 423. DICKSON, HARRIS, 672. She That Hestitates, 672. Diderot, Denis, 415. Dilemma, The, 367. Dimitri IV, Czar of Russia, 666. Dinochares, 13. Diocletian, Emperor, 89, 90, 92. Dionysius, the Areopagite, 74, 75. Disaster, The, 468. Disruption, The (Presbyterian Church of Scotland, 1843), 357. Divina Commedia, The (Dante), 171. Divine Right of Kings, 278, 395. DIX, BEULAH M., 284. Hugh Gwyeth, 284. Making of Christopher Ferring- ham, The, 487. Soldier Rigdale, 485. DIXON, THOMAS, 569. Clansman, The, 570. Leopard's Spots, 570. Traitor, The, 569. Dmitri, Russian imposter, 669. DODD, MRS. ANNA B., 42. On the Knees of the Gods, 42. Dogs of War, The, 283. Dollard, French Captain in Can- ada, 583, 584. Dolphin of the Sepulchre, 141. Dominion Day (Canada, 1867), 593. Domitia, Empress, 81, 82. Domitian, Emperor, 81, 82, 88, Domitilla, Niece of Domitian, 81. Domremy, Native place of Joan of Arc, 186. Don Tarquinio, 627. Donatello, Italian sculptor, 197. Done and Dared in Old France, 402. Donelson, Fort (1862), 559. Doomed City, The, 107. Dorchester (Durocina), 107. Dordogne, Fortress on the, 188. Doris, Wife of Herod the Great, 64. Doris Kingsley, Child and Col- onist, 492. Dorothy Forster, 319. Dorset, Marquis of, 220. Dost Mohammed, Ameer of Cabul, 364. DOUGALL, LILY, 546. The Mormon Prophet, 546. Douglas Castle, 156. Douglas, Family of, 155, 164, 189, 193. Archibald, 156. David, 191, 192. James, Sir, 155, 156. Margaret, 192. William, Sixth Earl of, 191, 192. William, Eighth Earl of, 192. DOUGLAS, THEO., 417. A Golden Trust, 417. Dover Castle, Siege of, 148. Dowager, Empress of China, 684. Downfall, The, 469. DOYLE, ARTHUR CONAN, 177. Adventures of Girard, 447. Great Shadow, The, 452. Micah Clark, 303. Sir Nigel, 177. White Company, The, 178. Dr. Adrian, 659. Dragon and the Raven, The, 126. Dragon of Wessex, The, 126. Dragonnades, The (Persecution of the Huguenots), 401. Drake, Francis, 270, 275. Dred Scott Decision (1857), 554. Dresden, Battle of (1813), 448. Dreyfus, Alfred (the Dreyfus Case) 473, 474. Drogheda' Battle of (1649), 289. Druidess, The, 107. Druids, The, 71, 72, 96. DRUMMOND, HAMILTON, 236. King's Scapegoat, A, 236, Shoes of Gold, 677, 710 HISTORICAL FICTION Drums of War, The, 466. Drusilla, Livia, Mother of Tibe- rius, 65. Drusus, Son of Tiberius, 65. Dubois, Abbe, 405, 406. Du Bourg, Execution of, 378. Dudley Castle, 158. Dudley, Guildford, Husband of Jane Grey, 264. Duelling, Edict against, 387. Duke of Britain, A, 96. Duke's Vengeance, The, 233. DUMAS, ALEXANDRE, 373. Andree de Taverney, 422. Ascanio, 373. Black Tulip, The, 664. Chevalier d'Harmental, The, 405. Chevalier de Maison-Rouge, The, 421. Companions of Jehu, The, 433. Countess de Charny, The, 419. Marguerite de Valois, 380. Memoirs of a Physician, 409. Page of the Duke of Savoy, The, 375. Queen's Necklace, The, 410. She-Wolves of Machecoul, The, 458. Taking of the Bastile, The, 416. Three Musketeers, The, 387. Twenty Years After, 393. Two Dianas, The, 374. Vicomte de Bragelonne, The, 395. War of Women, The, 395. Whites and the Blues, The, 428. § Dumferline, Scotland, 187. Dunbar, Battle of (1650), 290, 294. Dundee Castle, Siege of (1297), 153. Dunferry Risin', The, 362. Dunnottar Castle, 317. Dunstan, Archbishop, 127. Duquesne, Fort (1755), 331, 494. DURAND, JOHN, 688. John Temple, 688. Dynevor, Castle of, 153. Ealhswith, Wife of Alfred the Great, 126, 127.- East India Company, The, 335, 343, 366. Eastern Question, The, 681. EBERS, GEORG M., 10, 29. An Egyptian Princess, 29. Arachne, 13. Burgomaster's Wife, The, 658 In the Blue Pike, 602. Serapis, 18. Uarda, 10. Eboracum (York), 90. Ecbatana, 45. ECCOTT, W. J., 327. Demoiselle of France, A, 396. Hearth of Hutton, The, 327. Red Neighbor, The, 398. His Indolence of Arras, 397. Eckmuhl, Battle of (1809), 444. ECKSTEIN, ERNST, 57. Nero, 75. Prusias, 57. Quintus Claudius, 82. EDEN, C. H., 270. At Sea Under Drake, 270. Edessa, Battle of, 88. EDGAR, J. G., 147. Cressy and Poictiers, 175. Runnymede and Lincoln Fair, 147. Edgar, King of England, 127. Edgecote, Battle of (1469), 222. Edgehill, Battle of (1642), 284. Edith, Wife of Edward the Con- fessor, 129. Edith, Wife of Henry I, 136. Edmund Ironside, 128, 129. Edmund, King of East Saxons, 125. Edred, King of England, 127. Edward the Confessor, 129, 130. Edward the Elder, 127. Edward I, King of England, 150, 151-153. Edward II, King of England, 155- 158, 272. Edward III, King of England, 173-179. Edward IV, King of England, 216-221. Edward V, King of England, 221. Edward VI, King of England, 261-263. Edward, Son of Henry VI, 218, 219. EDWARDS, AMELIA A, 559. Debenham's Vow, 559. Edwin, King of Northumbria, 106. Edwy, King of England, 127. Edwy the Fair, 127. Egbert, King of Wessex, 106. EGGLESTON, EDWARD, 535. Roxy, 535. Egypt, Antiquity and Deeds of, 4. INDEX 711 Eighty Years' War, The (Nether- lands, 1568-1648), 658-663. Elba, Island of, ruled by Na- poleon, 449, 450, 452. Eleanor, Wife of Henry II, 140- 142. Eleanor, Wife of Henry III, 148, 149. Eleanor, Wife of Louis VII, 117. Elgiva, Daughter of the Thegn, 130. ELIOT, GEORGE, 352. Felix Holt, the Radical, 352. Romola, 622. Elizabeth, Empress of Russia, 674, 675. Elizabeth, Wife of Alexander I of Russia, 680. Elizabeth, Queen of England, 267- 276. The State of England, 268. Education and development of Elizabeth, 269. England a sea power, 270. Portrayal of Elizabeth, 273. Captivity and execution of Mary Queen of Scots, 274. The Spanish Armada, 274, 275. Golden Age of Literature, 276. Ella, King of Northumbria, 108. Elliott, George, Governor of Gi- braltar, 334, 335. ELLIS, BETH, 230. A King of Vagabonds, 230. ELLIS, EDWARD S., 512. Patriot and Tory, 512. ELLIS, J. BRECKENRIDGE, 108. The Soul of a Serf, 108. ELRINGTON, H., 71. A Story of Ancient Wales, 71. Elusive Pimpernel, The, 426. Ely, Isle of, 133. Emancipation Act (British, 1833), 340. Emancipation Proclamation (Lin- coln, 1863), 560. Emerson, Ralph Waldo, Representative Men: Napoleon, 454. Emmanuel: the Story of the Mes- siah, 66. Emmet, Robert, Insurrection of, 345, 346. Empires, The Four Universal, 26. Enghien, Louis Antoine, Duke of, 422, 432. Enzio, Son of Frederick II, 169, 170. Ephors, at Sparta, 37. Epictetus, A Roman philosopher, 86. Epicurean, The, 16. Epicureanism, 16, 17, 87. Epicurus, 16. Epworth, England, 323. Erasmus, Desiderius, 240, 256. ERCKMANN, EMILE and ALEXANDER CHATRIAN, 428. Blockade of Phalsbourg, 449. Conscript, The, 450. Madame Theresa, 428. Man of the People, A, 460. Plebiscite, The, 466. Waterloo, 453. Erfurt, University of, 600, 601. Eric, Son of Hengist, 106. Erie Railroad Ring, 570. Espartaro, Baldomero, Spanish general, 648, 649. Esquimos, The, 591. Essay on Man (Pope), 317 Essex, Countess of, wife of Lei- cester, 272. Essex, Earl of, 662. Estates-General of France, 121, 410, 416. Este, Leonora d', 628. Esterhazy, Major (Dreyfus Case), 473. Esther, Book of, 30, 32. Esther, Queen, 31, 32. Ethandun, Victory of Alfred the Great at, 125. Ethelbert, King of Kent, 106, 107. Ethelfrith, King of Northumbria, 108. Ethelred I, 125, 126. Ethelred II, 127, 128. Eton College, 185. Ettore Fieramosca, 625. Eubulus, 76. Eugene, Prince, Austrian general, 312, 313, 633. Eugenie, Wife of Napoleon III, 462, 466, 468, 472. Eusebius, 67. Eutaw, 521. Eutaw Springs, Battle of (1781), 521, 522. Evans, Colonel De Lacy, 648. Everett, Edward, The Emigration of the Pilgrim Fathers, 485. The Landing of the Mayflower, 485. Washington Abroad and at Home, 530. 712 HISTORICAL FICTION Evesham, Battle of (1265), 150, 151. Eveshams, The, 325. Exodus, The Jewish, 9-11. Exposition, Centennial (1876), 571. Eyck, Jan van, 200, 202, 203, 239. Eylau, Battle of (1807), 437. Ezra, Book of, 30. F Face to Face with Napoleon, 449. Failure of a Hero, 276. Fair Margaret, 247. Fair Prisoner, A, 275. Fair Rosamond, 142. Faith and Reason, 134. Faithful, But Not Famous, 370. Falconry, 385. Falkirk, Battles of (1298), 153, 155. (1746), 327. Fall of Athens, The, 42. Fallen Timbers, Battle of (1794), 529 Famine', Irish (1847), 356, 357. Farel, William, 370. Farm of Aptonga, The, 52. Farragut, Captain David, 540. FARRAR, FREDERICK W., 74. Darkness and Dawn, 74. Fate of Father Sheehy, The, 333, 334. Faustina, Wife of Marcus Aure- lius, 88. Fawkes, Guy, 280, 281. Felix Holt, the Radical, 352. Fen Dogs, The, 348. Fenelon, Francois de, 404. Fenian Rebellion, In England (1864), 362. In Canada (1866), 594, 595. FENN, G. MANVILLE, 59. Marcus, the Young Centurion, 59. 'Tention!, 440. Feodor I, Czar of Russia, 669. Ferdinand of Bohemia, 607. Ferdinand of Brunswick, 331. Ferdinand II, King of Spain, 244- 246. Ferdinand V, King of Spain, 641. Ferdinand VII, King of Spain, 440. Ferozeshar, Battle of, 364, 365. FIELD, MRS. E. M., 125. At the King's Right Hand, 125. Field of the Cloth of Gold, 255, 369, 371. Fiery Dawn, The, 457. Fifth Queen and How She Came to Court, The, 258. Fifty-four Forty or Fight, 552. Fight for the Valley, The, 510. Fighting in Cuban Waters, 577. Fighting with Fremont, 551. FINNEMORE, JOHN, 628. A Captive of the Corsairs, 628. Fisher's Hill, Battle of (1864), 564, 565. FITCHETT, WILLIAM H., 427. A Pawn in the Game, 427. Fitzgerald, Lord Edward, 342. FITZGERALD, ENO, 10. The Witch Queen of Khem, 10. FITZHUGH, PERCY K., 587. The Galleon Treasure, 587. Flame of Fire, A, 643. Flanders, 121, 122. FLAUBERT, GUST AVE, 48. Herodias, 67. Salammbo, 48. Fleur-de-Camp, 436. Flodden Field, Battle of (1513), 259. Florida, Discovery of, 479. Flower O' the Corn, 403. Flower of Destiny, The, 462. Fontenoy, Battle of (1745), 116, 325, 328. For Crown and Covenant, 302. For Faith and Fatherland, 660. For King or Empress, 137. For the Admiral, 379. For the Liberty of Texas, 548. For the Temple, 78. For the White Christ, 114. For the White Cockade, 328. For the White Rose, 320. For the White Rose of Arno, 328. Forbidden Name, A, 675. FOREMAN, STEPHEN, 348. The Fen Dogs, 348. Forest Folk, 349. Forest Prince, The, 150. Forgotten Door, The, 78. FORMONT, MAXIME, 627. The She- Wolf, 627. FORREST, THORPE, 107, Builders of the Waste, 107. Forster Family, The, 319. FORSTER, ROBERT H., 217. Arrow of the North, The, 259. In Steel and Leather, 217. Fort in the Wilderness, The, 498. Fortune's My Foe, 328. Fortunes of Nigel, The, 280. Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck, The, 228. INDEX 713 FOSTER, FRANCIS G. K., 196. Jehanne of the Golden Lips, 196. FOTHERGILL, JESSIE, 361. Probation, 361. Fotheringay Castle (Execution of Mary Queen of Scots), 274. Fouquet, Nicolas, 396. FOX, ALICE W., 256. The Baron's Heir, 256. Fox, George, Founder of Quak- ers 293 FOX, MARION, 180. The Seven Knights, 180. FRANCE, ANATOLE, 15. Thais, 15. Francis I, King of France, 255, 369-374, 603. Francis II, King of France, 269. Francis II, King of the Two Sicilies, 637. Franco-German War (1870-71), 464-472, 620. The Causes, 465. The contestants compared, 466. The Struggle, 467-472. Franklin, Benjamin, 317, 331. Franks, Kingdom of the, 113. Frederick V, Elector of Bohemia, 607. Frederick I, Emperor of Germany, 162. Frederick II, The Great, 168, 170, 205, 330, 677. Seven Years' War, The, 613. Silesian Wars, 612, 675. FREDERICK, HAROLD, 511. In the Valley, 511. Free Soil Party, The, 552. Fremont, John Charles, explorer, 550, 551. FRENCH, ALLEN, 504. The Colonials, 504. French Revolution (1789-1799), 413-429. Interpretation of, 413, 414. Causes of, 415, 416. Historical Outline of, 414. Friar of Wittenberg, The, 603. Friedland, Battle of (1807), 437. Friend of Caesar, A, 59. Friend of the People, The, 425. Friend Olivia, 292. Frobisher, Martin, 275. Fronde, Contest of the, The First, 392, 393. The Second, 393-395. Frontenac, Governor, 586, 587. Frown of Majesty, The, 400. Fugitive Slave Law, The, 553, 555. Fuller Margaret, 549. FULLER, R. H., 44. The Golden Hope, 44. Funston, General Frederick, 577. Gadfly, The, 634. Gage of Red and White, The, 372. Gage, Thomas, British comman- der in America, 504. Galahad, Sir, 104. Galatians, Paul's Epistles to the, 70. GALDOS, BENITO PEREZ, 347. Trafalgar, 347. Galeozzo, Gian, 194. Galerius, Roman Emperor, 92. Galilee, 67, 69. Gallant Grenadier, A, 361. Galleon Treasure, The, 587. GALLIZIER, NATHAN, 167. Castel Del Monte, 170. Court of Lucifer, The, 625. Hill of Venus, The, 170. Sorceress of Rome, The, 167. Galloway, Scotland, 96, 193, 349. Gallus, Cestius, Governor of Syria, 78. Gama, Vasco da, Explorer, 688. Gamaliel, Hebrew teacher, 68. Games, Isthmian, 36, 37, 70. Nemean, 36. Olympian, 36. Pythian, 36. Garde Doloureuse, Castle of, 143. Garden of Swords, The, 467. Gardiner, Stephen, 267. GARDNER, C. G., 158. Dudley Castle, 158. Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 637, 638. Garigliano, Battle of (1502), 626. GARNIER, RUSSELL M, 255. The White Queen, 255. Garrison, William Lloyd, 555. Garter, Order of the, 176. Gaston of Orleans, Brother of Louis XIII, 387. Gascons, The, 114, 115. Gate-Openers, The, 355. Gates, General Horatio, 519, 520. Gaul, Conquest of by Caesar, 58. Gaumata (Pseudo-Smerdis), 29, 30. Gaunt, Elizabeth, 304. Gaunt, John of, 180. Gaveston, Piers, 156-158. GAY, FLORENCE, 107, The Druidess, 107. Gembloux, Battle of (1577), 642. 714 HISTORICAL FICTION Gendarme of the King, 614. General George, 432. General's Double, The, 561. Gentleman Player, A, 276. Gentleman of France, A, 382. Geoffrey, Historian, 103. George I, King of England, 312, 316-321. George II, King of England, 321- 332. George III, King of England, 333- 348. George IV, King of England, 348- 351. Gerald the Sheriff, 135. Gerard, Balthazar, Assassin of William of Orange, 661. GERARD, MORICE, 275. Fair Prisoner, A, 275. King's Signet, The, 294. Purple Love, 299. Gettysburg, Battle of (1863), 561. Ghent, Pacification of (1576), 660, 661. Ghibellines, The, 166, 169, 172. Ghirlandago, Master of Michel- angelo, 239. GIBERNE, AGNES, 348. Aimee, 401. Roy, 348. GIBNEY, SOMERVILLE, 261. The Maid of London Bridge, 261. Gibraltar, 310, 334, 335. Gilder, Richard Watson, On the Life Mask of Abraham Lincoln, 567. GILLIAT, E., 127. Asylum Christi, 401. God Save King Alfred, 127. Wolf's Head, 146. Gilmore, When Johnny Comes Marching Home, 567. GILSON, CHARLES, 305. Lost Column, The, 685. Lost Empire, The, 343, 428. Spy, The, 443. Sword of Freedom, The, 305. White Cockade, The, 421. Giotto, Florentine, painter, 197. Girondin, The, 418. Girondins, The, 418, 420, 423, 425. GISSING, GEORGE, 102. Veranilda, 102. Gladiators, School of, 57. Gladiators, The, 77. Gladstone, William E., 336. Glaucia: The Greek Slave, 74. Gleaming Dawn, The, 207. Glen O' Weeping, The, 309. Glencoe, The Massacre of (1602), 309. Glendower, Owen, Revolt of (1402), 182. Glenshiel, Battle of (1719), 320. Glory of War, The, 312. GLOVATSKI, A., 12. The Pharaoh and the Priest, 12. God of Clay, The, 427. God of Love, The, 171. God Save King Alfred, 127. God Wills It, 161. Godfrey of Bouillon, 160. Godolphin, Sidney, Earl of, 311, 313. God's Providence House, 339. Godunof, Boris, 669. Godwin, Earl of Wessex, 129. Goethe and Schiller, 614. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang, 614. GOGOL, NIKOLAI V., 668. Taras Bulba, 668. Golden Book of Venice, The, 629. Golden Bull of Germany, The (1356), 204. Golden Fleece, Order of the, 200. Golden Hope, The, 44. Golden Trust, A, 417. Gonsalvo de Cordova, 625, 626. GOODWIN, MAUD W., 316. Veronica Playfair, 316. White Aprons, 483. Gordon, Lady Catherine, 229. Gordon, Charles G., Governor- General of the Soudan, 596. Gordon, Lord George, 336, 337. Gordon Riots, The (1780), 336, 337. Gorgeous Borgia, The, 626. Gorgey, Austrian general, 618. Gorgias, Sophistic philosopher, 38. Goths, The, Defeated by Theo- dosius, 17, 94. Gough, Sir Hugh, 364, 365. GOULD, S. BARING, 188. In Dewisland, 335. Noemi, 188. Pabo the Priest, 136. Urith, 304. Governor's Daughter, The, 614. Gower, John, 181. Gowrie, 276. Gowrie Conspiracy, The (1600), 276, 280. Graham, John, of Calverhouse, 301. GRAHAM, JOHN W., 65. Neaera, 65. Grail, Holy, The, 104. Granada, Conquest of, 244, 246. INDEX 715 Granicus, Battle of the B. C, 334, 45. Granson, Battle of (1476), 232, 233. GRANT, JAMES, 192. Adventures of an Aide-de-Camp, The, 439. Bothwell, 270. Captain of the Guard, The, 192. Harry Ogilvie, 289. Lucy Arden, 319. Second to None, 330. Yellow Frigate, The, 228. Grant, Ulysses S. Mexican War, 552. Civil War, 559-562, 564, 566. Administration of. 570, 571. Granvelle, Bishop, 654, 656. GRAS, FELIX, 417. The Reds of the Midi. 417. Gravelines, Battle of (1558), 655. Gravelotte, Battle of (1870), 468, 469. Gray, Sir Patrick, 192. GRAYDON, W. M., 486. With Musqueteer and Redskin, 486. Great Britain, Union of England and Scotland (1707), 310. Great-Heart Gillian, 470. Great Proconsul, The, 335. Great Shadow, The, 452. Greece, Daniel's Prophecy of, 33. Geographical peculiarities, 33. Racial Characteristics, 33, 34. GREEN, EVELYN EVERETT, 152. In Fair Granada, 642. In Taunton Town, 306. In the Wars of the Roses, 219. Knights of the Road, 334. Lord of Dynevor, The, 152. Shut In, 662. Young Pioneers, The, 586. Green Mountain Boys, The, 503. Greene, Nathaniel, American gen- eral, 520, 521. GREENER, WILLIAM, 217. The Men of Harlech, 217. Gregory VII, Pope, 167, 168. Gregory XI, Pope, 194. GREY, CYRIL, 302. For Crown and Covenant, 302. Grey, Elizabeth, Wife of Edward IV, 217, 220. Grey, Lady Jane, 261-265. GRIBBLE, FRANCIS, 458. A Romance of the Tuileries, 458. GRIER, SIDNEY C, 329. Great Proconsul, The, 335. Like Another Helen, 329. One Crowded Hour, 637. Young Man Married, A, 443. GRIFFIS, WILLIAM E., 513. The Pathfinders of the Revolu- tion, 513. GRIFFITH, GEORGE, 480. John Brown Buccaneer, 644. Virgin of the Sun, The, 480. Griffith, W. L., Sec. of High Com- missioner of Canada, 597. GRIFFITHS, ARTHUR G. F., 645. Thrice Captive, 645. GRIFFITHS, RYLES D., 130. Elgiva, Daughter of the Thegn, 130. Groningen, Siege and capture of (1593), 662. Grosselliers, French explorer, 584, 585. GROSSI, THOMMASO, 172. Marco Visconti, 172. Guelphs, The, 166, 169, 172, 195. GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO D., 630. Beatrice Cenci, 630. Guesclin, Bertrand du, 175, 179. Guiana (Raleigh's Expeditions), 281, 282. Guichard, Bishop, 122. Guienne, 173. Guilford Court House, Battle of (1781), 520, 521. Guinevere, Wife of King Arthur, 103, 104. Guise, Duke of, 380-382. Guise, House of, 372. Guiton. Jean, Siege of La Rochelle, 388. Guizot, Francois Pierre, 457. GULL, C. R., 137. House of Torment, 268. Serf, The, 137. Gunpowder Plot, The, 280. Gustavus II, Adolphus, King of Sweden, 607-610. Guthrun, Danish leader, 125, 126. Guy Fawkes, 280. Guzerat, Battle of (1848), 365. Gwynn, Nell. Mistress of Charles II, 295, 297. GWYNN, STEPHEN, 345. Robert Emmet, 345. 716 HISTORICAL FICTION H Haarlem, Siege of (1573), 656. Habeas Corpus Act (1679), 341. Hadassah, Queen of Persia, 32. Hadrian, Emperor, 85. Hadrian Wall, The, 85, 90, 96. HAGGARD, HENRY R., 11. Fair Margaret, 247. World's Desire, The, 11. Hail Columbia, 531. HALE, E. EVERETT, 118. In His Name, 118. HALL, MORETON, 432. General George, 432. Haman, 31. Hamilcar, Carthaginian leader, 47, 48. Hamilton, Alexander, 524, 533. HAMILTON, ERNEST, 193. The Mawkin of the Flow, 193. HAMILTON, EUGENE LEE, 479. The Romance of the Fountain, 479. HAMMERLING, ROBERT, 40. Aspasia, 40. HANCOCK, ALBERT E., 570. Henry Bourland, 570. Hancock, John, 505. Hand of Leonore, The, 408. Hannibal, Carthaginian leader, 48, 49. Hanover, House of, 315. George I, 316-321. George II, 321-332. George III, 331-348. George IV, 348-351. William IV, 351-353. Queen Victoria, 354-367. Hanseatic League, The (1241), 200. HARCOURT, A. F. P., 367. The Peril of the Sword, 367. Hardicanute, Son of Canute, 128. Hardrada, Harold, Norwegian king, 131. HARDY, A. S., 114. Passe Rose, 114. Harfleur, Capture of, 184. Harlech Castle, Siege of, 217. Harmar, General, conflict with the Indians (1790), 529. Harold, 131. Harold, King of England, 129, 130. Harold, Son of Canute, 128. HARRIS, EDWIN, 134. Odo, 134. Siege of Leed's Castle, 157. Simon de Montfort, 150. HARRIS, FRANK, 572. The Bomb. 572. HARRIS, JOEL C, 562. Little Union Scout, A, 562. Harris, Townsend, American Con- sul, Japan, 633. Harrison, President Benjamin, 572, 573. HARRISON, CONSTANCE C, 566. The Carlyles, 566. HARRISON, FREDERICK, 151. De Montfort's Squire, 151. HARRISON, F. BAYFORD, 164. Brothers in Arms, 164. Harrison, General William H., 536. HARROD, FRANCES, 205. The Wanton, 205. Harry Ogilvie, 289. HARTLEY, MRS. MAY, 362. Ismay's Children, 362. Hastings, Battle of (1066), 130, 131. Hastings, Warren, 330, 335. Hastings, Lord William, 220-223. HAUSRATH, ADOLPH D., 85. Antinous, 85. Havelock, Sir Henry, 366. Hawaii, Republic of, 573. Hawke, Sir Edward, 329, 495. Hawkins, Sir John, 270, 275. Hawkwood, John, 241. Hawkwood, Richard, 241. HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL, 548. The Blithedale Romance, 548. HAYENS, HERBERT, 364. Bravest Gentleman in France, The, 388. British Legion, The, 648. Captain of Irregulars, A, 544. Clevely Sahib, 364. For the Admiral, 379. In the Grip of the Spaniard, 544. My Sword's My Fortune, 393. One of the Red Shirts, 638. Paris at Bay, 472. President's Scouts, The, 572. Red Caps of Lyons, The, 421. Red White and Green, 618. Scouting For Buller, 693. Haymarket Riot, Chicago (1886), 572. INDEX 717 Hays, Mary ("Moll Pitcher"), 513. Heart of Hope, The, 560. Heart of Midlothian, The, 322. Hearth of Hutton, The, 327. Heart's Highway, The, 484. Heart's Key, The, 120. Hedgeley Moor, Battle of (1464), 218. Heidelberg, 607. Held by Rebels, 188. Held Fast For England, 334. Helena, Mother of Constantine the Great, 90. Helmet of Navarre, The, 384. HELPS, ARTHUR, 673. Ivan de Biron, 673. Hengist, A. Chief of the Jutes, 105, 109. HENHAM, ERNEST G., 595. Menotah, 595. Henry Bourland, 570. Henry Esmond, 331, 332. Henry I, King of England, 136- 138. Henry II, King of England, 117, 139-143. Henry III, King of England, 148, 151. Henry IV, King of England, 181- 183. Henry V, King of England, 183- 185. Henry VI, King of England, 215- 219. Henry VII, King of England, 224- 230, 247. Henry VIII, King of England, 253-261, 369. Henry II, King of France, 374- 376. Henry III, King of France, 379- 382. Henry of Navarre (afterwards Henry IV), 373, 378, 380, 381. Henry IV, 382-384. Henry of Guise, 382. Henry of Navarre, 379. Henry IV, Emperor of Germany, 168. Henry, Patrick, Against the Adoption of the Constitution, 528. HENTY, GEORGE A., 9. At the Point of the Bayonet, 343. Bonnie Prince Charlie, 327. Both Sides of the Border, 182. Bravest of the Brave, The, 645. By Conduct and Courage, 344. By England's Aid, 662. By Right of Conquest, 479. By Sheer Pluck, 690. Cat of Bubastes, 9. Dragon and the Raven, The, 126. For the Temple, 78. Held Fast For England, 334. In Freedom's Cause, 155. In the Irish Brigade, 404. In the Reign of Terror, 426. In Times of Peril, 365. Lion of the North, The, 607. No Surrender, 420. Orange and Green, 308. Out With Garibaldi, 638. St. Bartholomew's Eve, 379. Through Russian Snows, 447. Through the Sikh War, 364. Tiger of Mysore, The, 342. To Herat and Cabul, 363. True to the Old Flag, 525. Under Wellington's Command, 443. When London Burned, 298. Winning His Spurs, 164. With Buller in Natal, 692. With Cochrane the Dauntless, 545. With Frederick the Great, 613. With Lee in Virginia, 558. With Moore at Corunna, 440. With Roberts to Pretoria, 693. With the Allies to Pekin, 684. With the British Legion, 647. With Wolfe in Canada, 495. Wolf the Saxon, 131. Won by the Sword, 610. Young Buglers, The, 442. Young Carthaginian. The, 49. Young Colonists, The, 691. Her Hor (Smendes), 12. Herald of the West, A, 541. Heralds of Empire, 584. Herat, Siege of (Afghanistan), 364. Herbois, Collot-d', 421. Herculaneum, Destruction of (A. D. 79), 80. Herder, Johann Gottfried, 615. Heresy, 82, 119, 181. Hereward, English leader, 131, 132, 133. Hereward the Wake, 132. Heritage, The, 529. Hermes, Statues of, 41. Hero of Lucknow, A, 367. Hero of Sedan, A, 470. 718 HISTORICAL FICTION Herod the Great, 64. Herodias, 67. Herodias, Wife of Antipas, 67. Herodotus, 31. Heroine of the Strait, The, 497. Herrnhut, Moravian headquar- ters, 207, 324. HERVEY, MAURICE H., 286. Amyas Egerton, Cavalier, 286. Hetaerae, Grecian women of Cul- ture, 40. HEWLETT, MAURICE, 120. Brazenhead the Great, 198. Heart's Key, The, 120. Richard Yea-and-Nay, 144. Hezekiah, King of Judah, 25. Highland Mary, 337. Hill of Venus, The, 170. HILL, WILLIAM K., 305. Under Three Kings, 305. Hills of Home, 328. HINKSON, HENRY A., 281. Glory of War, The, 312. House of the Oak, The, 291. Splendid Knight, The, 281. His Excellency, 464. His Indolence of Arras, 397. History Divisions of, 2. Philosophy of, 1. Hittites, The, 10. HOARE, E. N., 202. Turbulent Town, A, 202. HOBBS, ROE R., 67. Court of Pilate, The, 67. Hobkirk's Hill, Battle of (1781), 521. Hochkirchen, Battle of (1758), 613. HOCKING, JOSEPH, 267. Chariots of the Lord, The, 306. Coming of the King, The, 295. Flame of Fire, A, 643. Lest We Forget, 267. Sword of the Lord, The, 602. Hofer, Andreas, Tyrolean patriot, 444, 445. Hoherilinden, Battle of (1800), 432. Hohenstaufen Dynasty, 166, 170, 204. HOLLIS, GERTRUDE, 94. Dolphin of the Sepulchre, 141. Hugh the Messenger, 176. In the Days of Anselm, 134. Leo of Mediolanum, 94. Scholar of Lindisfarne, A, 108. Holmby House, Imprisonment of Charles I, 286. Holmby House, 287. Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Old Ironsides, 537. HOLT, EMILY SARAH, 108. Clare Avery, 275. Imogen, 108. Red and White, 218. Holy Grail, The, 104. Holy Isle, 108. Holy Roman Empire (962-1806 V 66, 598. Holyrood Palace, Edinburgh, 269 Home Rule, Irish, 362, 363. Homildon Hill, Battle of (1402), 182. Honorius, Emperor, 18, 94, 95. HOOD, ALEXANDER N., 636. Adria, 636. Hood, General John B., 565. Hood, Robin, 145, 146. Hooker, General J., 560, 562. Hooper, John, 263. HOPE, MISS GRAHAM, 372. Cardinal and His Conscience, A, 377. Gage of Red and White, The, 372. Hopkinson, Joseph, Hail Columbia, 531. HOPPUS, MARY A. M., 81. Masters of the World, 81. Horace, 63. Horsa, A Chief of the Jutes, 105. 106, 109. Hotspur, Harry, 182. HOUGH, EMERSON, 552. Fifty-four Forty or Fight, 552. Purchase Price, The. 556. Hour and the Man, The, 433. House in the Rath, The, 342. House of the Combrays, The, A 33. House of the Oak, The, 291. House of the Wizard, The, 257. House of the Wolf, 379. House of Torment, 268. Howard, Catharine, Wife cf Henry VIII, 258. Howard, Lord Charles, 275, 662. Howard, John, Philanthropist, 334. HOWARTH, ANNA, 689. Sword and Assegai, 689. Howe, Julia Ward, Battle Hymn of the Republic, 567. Howe, Richard, British com- mander, 344. Howe, Sir William, British gen- eral in America, 508, 509, 512. INDEX 719 HUBBARD, ELBERT, 556. Time and Chance, 556. Hudson Bay Company, The, 585, 590, 595. HUDSON, CHARLES B., 481. The Crimson Conquest, 481. Hudson, Henry, 489, 584. Hudson River, 489, 584. HUEFFER, FORD M., 258. Fifth Queen and How She Came to Court, The, 258. Privy Seal: His Last Venture, 259. Hugh, Gwyeth, 284. Hugh the Messenger, 176. HUGO, VICTOR, 235. Les Miserables, 452. Ninety-Three, 420. Notre Dame de Paris, 235. Huguenots, The, Conflict with the Guises, 376. Defeated at Jarnac, 378. Defeated at Moncontour, 378. Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 378, 379. Policy of Richelieu, 386. Revocation of Edict of Nantes, 400, 401. Huguenot, The, 401. Humbert I, King of Italy, 638. Hundred Days, Napoleon's reign of the, 451, 455. Hundred Years' War, The, 173- 188, 215. Causes of, 173. Historical Outline, 173. Battles: Agincourt, 184. Capture of Calais, 174, 176. Crecy, 174-176. Harfleur, 184. Neville's Cross, 176. Orleans, 186. Poitiers, 174, 176. Sluys, 174. Huns, The, 97. Hunt, Henry, 350. HUNTER, PETER H., 302. Bible and Sword, 302. Huss, John, Bohemian reformer, 184, 206. Hussite Wars (1419-1436), 207, 208. Huston, Sam, Texan Independ- ence, 547, 548. Hutchinson, Anne, 486, 487. Huygens, Christian, 404. Hyde, Anne, Duchess of York, 297. Hyksos Kings (Egypt), 7, 8. HYNE, CHARLES J. C, 291. Prince Rupert the Buccaneer. 291. Hypatia, 18-20. Hypatia, or New Foes with an Old Face, 20. Hypatius, 102. I. Iberville, Pierre d', 587. Iconium, Christianity introduced into, 70, 71. Idylls of the King (Tennyson), 103, 104. Imogen, 108. Impey, Sir Elijah, 335. In Castle and Colony, 490. In Circling Camps, 561. In Dewisland, 355. In Fair Granada, 642. In Freedom's Cause, 155. In His Name, 118. In Hostile Red, 513. In Kedar's Tents, 648. In Perilous Times, 268. In Press-Gang Days, 345. In Sarsfield's Days, 308. In Spite of All, 284. In Steel and Leather, 217. In Taunton Town, 306. In the Blue Pike, 602. In the Camp of Cornwallis, 510. In the Days of Adversity, 402. In the Days of Anselm, 134. In the Days of Nelson, 345. In the Days of Queen Mary, 266. In the Grip of the Spaniard, 544. In the Irish Brigade, 404. In the King's Favor, 259. In the Midst of Alarms, 594. In the Olden Time, 604. In the Palace of the King, 643. In the Reign of Terror, 426. In the Valley, 511. In the Wars of the Roses, 219. In the Year of Waterloo, 451. In Time of War, 470. In Times of Peril, 365. In Treaty with Honor, 593. In Troubled Times, 656. Incarnation, Doctrine of, 82. Inca's Ransom, The, 480. Inchbracken, 357. India, Period of George II, 329, 330. Period of George III, 335, 342, 343. Period of Victoria, 363-367. 720 HISTORICAL FICTION Indulgences, Sale of, 602, 603. Infidel, The, 323. Inkermann, Battle of (1854), 361. INMAN, H. E., 125. Wulnoth the Wanderer, 125. Innsbruck, Capital of Tyrol, 445. INNES, NORMAN, 610. Governor's Daughter, The, 614. My Lady's Kiss, 610. Surge of War, The, 613. Innocent III, Pope, 119, 146, 210. Inquisition, The Spanish, 247, 641, 644, 654, 657. Institutes of the Christian Re- ligion (Calvin), 377. Interpreter, The, 361. Interregnum, The Great, 170, 204, 206. Iona, Island of, 108. Ionia, Island of, 108. Irish Famine, The (1847), 356, 357. Irish Rebellion (1798), 341. Ironsides, The (Cromwell's Troops), 284. Iroquois, The, 514, 583, 584. IRVING, WASHINGTON, 248. The Alhambra, 248. Isabella, Queen of Castile, 244, 248. Isabella II, Queen of Spain, 647- 650. Isabella, Wife of Edward II, 158. Isandhlwana, Battle of (1879), 690, 691. Iscariot, Judas, 66. ISHAM, FREDERICK S., 570. Black Friday, 570. Ishmael, 463. Ishtar, 22, 28. Isle, Rouget de 1\ Author of the Marseillaise, 417. Ismay's Children, 362. Israel, Kingdom of, 22. Israelites in Egypt, 8, 9. Issue, The, 553. Issus, Battle of (B. C. 333), 44. Istar of Babylon, 28. Isthmian Games, 33, 37, 70. It Is Never Too Late to Mend, 359. Ivan de Biron, 673. Ivan the Great, Czar of Russia, 666. Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible), Czar of Russia, 666-668. Ivan, Joint ruler with Peter the Great, 671. Ivan VI, Czar, 675, 677. Ivanhoe, 144. Ivry, Battle of (1590), 383, 384. J Jack and His Island, 540. Jackson, Andrew, War of 1812, 541. Administration of, 545-548. Jackson, Thomas (Stonewall), Mexican War, 552. Civil War, 558-560. Jacob, Father of Israel, 7. Jacobins, The, 418, 420, 432. Jacobites, The, Rising of 1715, 316-320. Rising of 1719, 320. Rising of 1721, 321. Rising of 1745, 325-328, 407. Jacquerie, Rising of the, 175, 178. James I, King of Scotland, 189- 181. James II, King of Scotland, 189- 193. James III, King of Scotland, 228. James IV, King of Scotland, 259. James V, King of Scotland, 260. James VI, King of Scotland, 276, 277. James I, King of England, 278- 282. James II, King of England, 303- 306, 401. James, Duke of Monmouth, 295- 297, 303. James, Duke of York, 296-298, 301, 302. James II, King of Lusignan, 242. JAMES, GEORGE P. R., 97. Agincourt, 184. Arabella Stuart, 279. Attila, 97. Gowrie, 276. Heidelberg, 607. Henry of Guise, 382. Huguenot, The, 401. Leonora d'Orco, 624. Life and Adventures of John Marston Hall, 392. Man at Arms, The, 378. One in a Thousand, 383. Philip Augustus, 120. Woodman, The, 225. Jameson's Raid (1893), 691. Jamestown, Va., Settlement of, 482. Jan Van Elselo, 655. Jane Shore, 220. Janizaries, The, 212, 213. Janus, Temple of, 63. INDEX 721 Japan, American Treaty with (1854), 683, 684. Jarnac, Battle of (1569), 378, 379. Jay of Italy, A, 240. Jay Treaty, The (1794), 530. JEANS, A., 617. The Stronger Wings, 617. Jefferson, President Thomas, 531. Jeffreys, Judge, 303. Jehanne of the Golden Lips, 196. Jena, Battle of (1806), 437, 438. Jennings, Sarah (Duchess of Marlborough), 297, 311-313. Jerome of Prague, 207. Jerusalem, Palestine, 25, 77-79. Time of the Crusaders, 144, 159- 164. Jervis, Sir John, 344. Jesus of Nazareth, 64. Jews, The, under the Spanish In- quisition, 641. Joan of Arc, 186-188. Joanna I, Queen of Navarre, 121, 122, 195-197. John Brown Buccaneer, 644. John Deane, 309. John, King of England, 120, 146- 148, 175. John, King of France, 176. John March, Southerner, 570. John of Austria (see Juan Don). John of Gaunt, 180. John of Gerisau, 619. John Temple, 688. John the Baptist, 67. JOHNSON, OWEN, 417. Nicole, 417. JOHNSTON, MARY, 560. The Long Roll, 560. JOHNSTON, WILLIAM, 691. The Yellow Shield, 691. Joliet, Louis, 585, 586. Jones, John Paul, Commander of the Ranger, 515. Commander of the Bon Homme Richard, 515. Defeat of the Serapis, 516, 517. Death and Burial, 516, 517. Jones of the 64th, 343. Jonson, Ben, 276. JORDAN, HUMFREY, 386. My Lady of Intrigue, 386. Joscelyn Cheshire, 513. Joseph of Arimathea, 104. Joseph, Son of Jacob, 7, 8. Josephine, Wife of Napoleon, 427, 445, 446. Josephus, Jewish Historian, 78. Jotapata, Town of, 78. Jovian, Emperor, 93. Juan, Don (John of Austria), 642, 643. Judah, Kingdom of, 23, 27. Judaism. 25. Julianus, Didius, 15. Junot, Androche, 440, 441. Justinian, Emperor, 100, 101. Jutes, The, 105, 109. Kadesh, 11. Kaffirs, African Tribe, 689. KALER, JAMES O., 505. Across the Delaware, 510. At the Siege of Quebec, 506. Charming Sally, The, 501. In the Camp of Cornwallis, 510. Minute Boys of Long Island, The, 508. Traitor's Escape, K., 523. With Lafayette at Yorktown, 525. With Perry on Lake Erie, 538. With Porter in the Essex, 539. With Warren at Bunker Hill, 505. Karnak, Temple of, 8, 12. Kathleen Mavourneen, 341. Katzbach, Battle of (1813), 448. KAYE, MICHAEL W., 233. The Duke's Vengeance, 233. Kearney, Colonel Stephen, 551. Kearsarge, Defeats the Alabama (1864), 563, 564. KEARY, ANNIE MARIA, 356. Castle Daly, 356. KEIGHTLEY, SAMUEL R., 287. The Cavaliers, 287. KEITH, MARION, 596. The Silver Maple, 596. KELLY, WILLIAM PATRICK, 8. Assyrian Bride, The, 25. Stonecutter of Memphis, 8. Stranger From Ionia, The, 39. Kenilworth, 272. Kenilworth, Dictum of (1266), 150. Kenilworth, England, 272, 273. KENNEDY, SARAH B., 513. Cicely, 564. Joscelyn Cheshire, 513. Kenneth, 448. KENNY, MRS. STACPOOLE, 402. Love is Life, 402. 722 HISTORICAL FICTION KENYON, EDITH C, 264. Adventures of Timothy, The, 284. Queen of Nine Days, A, 264. KENYON, O, 82. Amor Victor, 82. KER, DAVID, 611. The Wizard King, 611. Kesteven, Battle of, 126. Ket, Robert, Insurrection of (1549), 261. Ketteler, Baron von, 684. Key, Francis Scott, The Star Spangled Banner, 541. Kidnapped Regiment, The, 325. Killecrankie, Battle of (1689), 309, 328. Kimberley, Transvaal, Siege and Relief of, 692. King Alfred's Viking, 126. KING, CHARLES, 561. General's Double, The, 561. Rock of Chickamauga, The, 561, 565. King George's War (1744-48), 494. King Olaf's Kinsman, 128. King of Vagabonds, A, 230. King Penda's Captain, 109. KING, R. A., 362. The Wearing of the Green, 362 King Stork of the Netherlands, 661. King William's War (1689-97), 494. Kings, Divine Right of, 278. King's Guerdon, The, 297. King's Masquerade, A, 260. King's Mignon, The, 381. King's Mountain, Battle of (1780), 520. King's Revoke, The, 440. King's Ring, The, 608. King's Scapegoat, A, 236. King's Signet, The, (Gerard), 294. King's Signet, The, (Pollard), 401. King's Stirrup, The, 135. King's Tragedy, A, 191. King's Treachery, A, 379. King's Treasure House, The, 11. KINGSLEY, CHARLES, 20. Alton Locke, Tailor and Poet, 358. Hereward the Wake, 132. Hypatia, 20. Westward Ho! 274. KINGSLEY, FLORENCE M, 31. The Star of Love, 31. KINGSLEY, HENRY, 202. Old Margaret, 202. KINGSTON, WILLIAM H. G ., 309. John Deane, 309. Kinsman and Namesake, 183. KIRKE, VIOLET T., 659. Brothers Five, 659. Kitchener, Lord Horatio, 690. Kleber, Jean Baptiste, 420. KNAPP, ADELINE, 206. The Boy and the Baron, 206. Knight of Poland, A, 681. Knight of Spain, A, 642. Knight of St. John, A, 628. Knightly Years, The, 245. Knighthood's Flower, 388. Knights Hospitaler of St. John, 170, 171, 628. Knights of Liberty, The, 455. Knights of the Road, 334. Knights Templar, 170. Knox, John, Scotch Reformer, 269. Koomati Poort, Battle of (1900), 692. Koran, The, 159, 212. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, 679. Kossuth, Louis, Revolt of (1849), 618. Kruger, Paul, 691, 692. Ku-Klux-Klan, The, 569, 570. Kumasi (see Coomassie). Kunersdorf, Battle of (1759), 613. Lacy, Sir Hugo de, 143. Lad of the O'Friels', A, 355. Lady of Fort St. John, The, 582. Lady of France, A, 122. Lady of the Lake (Scott), 318. Lady of Tripoli, The, 118. Ladysmith, Transvaal, Siege and Relief of, 692. Lafayette, Marie Jean, 422, 513. 524 : 525, 542. La Fontaine, Jean de, 398, 404. La Hogue, Battle of (1692), 402. Laird's Legacy, The, 404. Lake Erie, Battle of (1813), 538, 539. Lally of the Brigade, 632. Lamballe, Madame de, 417. Lamartine, Alphonse de, 429. Lanark, Governor of, 154. Lancashire, Cotton Famine in, 362. Lancaster, House of, 215. Lancelot, Sir, 104. Land League, Irish, 62, 63. INDEX 723 LANDOR, W. SAVAGE, 39. Pericles and Aspasia, 39. Lanfranc, Archbishop, 133, 134. LANG, ANDREW, 11, 145. Monk of Fife, A, 187. World's Desire, The, 11. Langland, William, 180, 181. Piers Plowman, 180, 181. Langside, Battle of (1568), 273. Langton, Stephen, 147, 149. Lapsed, Not Lost, 52. La Rochelle (see Rochelle La). Lasalle, Ferdinand, 618. System of Acquired Rights, 618. La Salle, Robert Cavalier, 585, 586. Last Days of Pompeii, The, 80. Last of Her Race, The, 644. Last of the Barons, The, 219. Last of the Chiefs, The, 571. Last Supper, The, 104. Laswaree, Battle of (1803), 343. Latimer, Hugh, 257, 263, 265, 267. La Tour, Lady, Defender of Ft. St. John, 583. Laud, William, Archbishop, 284. Laurier, Sir Wilfrid, 597. LAUT, AGNES C, 584. Heralds of Empire, 584. LaVendee, 421. La Vendee, Uprising in, 420, 421. Law, John (Mississippi Bubble), 406. Lawrence, Sir Henry, 366. Lawrence, Captain James, 539. Lawton, Henry W., 576, 577. Lay of the Last Ministrel (Scott), 193- Lazarre, 426. League of the Public Weal, 234. LEE, ALBERT, 246. Baronet in Corduroy, The, 313. Black Disc, The, 246. Frown of Majesty, The, 400. Inca's Ransom, The, 480. King Stork of the Netherlands, 661. King's Treachery, A, 379. Prince's Messenger, The, 660. Lee, Colonel Henry ("Light Horse Harry"), 521. Lee, Robert E., Mexican War, 552. Civil War, 560, 561, 564, 566. Leed's Castle, Siege of (1322), 158. Lefevre, Pierre, 370. Legend of Montrose, A, 285. Legend of Reading Abbey, A, 138, 139. LEGGE, CLAYTON M., 337. Highland Mary, 337. Leicester, Earl of, 272, 273. LEIGHTON, ROBERT, 275. Kidnapped Regiment, The, 325. Under the Foeman's Flag, 275. Leila, 248. Leipzig, Battle of (1813), 448-450. Leisler, Jacob, Rebellion of (1689), 490, 491. Leixlip Castle, 308. Lemnian, The, 37. Lennox, Lady Sarah, 345. LE NOTRE, G., 433. The House of Combray, 433. Leo X, Pope, 241. Leo XI, Pope, 241. Leo of Mediolanum, 94. Leon, Ponce de, 479. Leonidas, The Spartan, 31, 35, 36. Leonora d'Orco, 624. Leopard's Spots, The, 570. Lepanto, Battle of (1571), 642. Leslie, David, 285, 290, 294. LESLIE, EMMA, 74. At the Sign of the Golden Fleece 255. Faithful,' But' Not Famous, 370. Glaucia: The Greek Slave, 74. On the Emperor's Service, 93. Saxby, 485. Les Miserables, 452. Lest We Forget, 267. Lettres de Cachet, 401, 405. Leuthen, Battle of (1757), 613. LEVER, CHARLES, 342. Charles O'Malley, 443. Maurice Tiernay, 342. Tom Burke of Ours, 438. Lewes, Battle of (1264), 150, 151. LEWIS, ARTHUR, 167. The Pilgrim, 167. Lexington, Battle of (1775), 502. Leydon, Siege of (1573), 658-661. Liaoyang, Battle of (1904), 686, 687. Liege, Siege and Capture of (1703), 311. Liegnitz, Battle of (1760), 311. Liegnitz, Battle of (1760), 613. Life and Adventures of John Marston Hall, 392. Ligny, Battle of (1815), 451. Like Another Helen, 329. LIL JENCRANTZ, OTTILIE A, 128. The Ward of King Canute, 128. Lily of France, A, 654. 724 HISTORICAL FICTION Limerick, Siege of (1691), 307, 308. Lincoln, Abraham, 557-567. Emancipation P r o c 1 a m ation, 560. Lincoln-Douglas Debates, The, 554. Lindisfarne, 109. Lion of Flanders, The, 200. Lion of the North, The, 607. Lion of Wessex, A, 125. Lionel Lincoln, 504. Lion's Brood, The, 50. Lion's Skin, The, 321. Lippi, Fra Filippo, 239, 242. Little Jarvis, 530. Little Smoke, 571. Little Turtle, Indian Chief, 529. Little Union Scout, A, 562. Livy, Roman Historian, 63. Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, 152, 153. Lochlevin Castle, 271. LOCKHART, JOHN GIBSON, 83. Valerius, 83. Lodi, Battle of (1796), 427. Lollards, The, Followers of Wy- cliffe, 179. 184. Lombards, The, 114. Lommond, Loch, Scotland, 318. London, Destroyed by Boadicea (A. D. 61), 76. Fire of (1666). 298. 314. Plague of (1665), 298. Portrayed, 314. Londonderry, Siege of (1689), 306, 307. Lone Adventure, The, 327. Lonely Queen, The, 269. Long Island, Battle of (1776) 508, 509. Long Roll, The, 560. Long Will, 181. Longfellow, Henry W., The Midnight Ride of Paul Re- vere, 505. Sail On, O Ship of State, 528. Evangeline, 588. Longuerville, Duchess of, 394. Lookout Mountain, Battle of (1863), 562. Lord of Dynevor, The, 152. Lord's of the World, 51. Lorraine, Cardinal of, 378. Lost Column, The, 685. Lost Empire, The, 343, 428. Lough Swilly, Battle of (1798), 341, 342. Louis, Count of Flanders, 201. Louis of Nassau, 658, 659. Louis the German, 116. Louis the Great, King of Hungary 196. Louis the Pious, 116. Louis VII, King of France, 117, 118, 162. Louis IX, King of France, 151, 152, 160. Louis XI, King of France, 219, 231-236. Louis XII, King of France, 255. Louis XIII, King of France, 384- 390. Louis XIV, King of France, Government Under Mazarin, 392. Personal Reign of Louis. 395. War With Spanish Netherlands, 397. War With Dutch Republic, 397, 398. War With Several States, 397. War of Spanish Succession, 397. Period of Decline, 399. Persecution of Protestants, 400, 401. Golden Age of Literature, 404. Louis XV, 405-409. Louis XVI, 409-420. Prior to the Revolution, 409-420. The Revolution, 413-420, 422. Louis XVII, 426. Louis XVIII, 450-456. Louis Philippe, 456-460. Louisiana, Purchase of, 532, 534. Louvois, Marquis of, 398, 402. Lovat, Simon Fraser, 326-328. Love and Honor, 438. Love At Arms, 627. Love Is Life, 402. Love Story of Giraldus, The, 140. Love Story of St. Bel, The, 198. Love Thrives in War, 536. Lovel, Francis, 223. Lowell, James Russell, Commemoration Ode, 567. Lowell, Robert S. The Relief of Lucknow, 366. Lowestaft, Battle of (1665), 297. Lowositz, Battle of (1756), 613. LUCAS, ANNIE, 208. Wenzel's Inheritance, 208. Luchana, Battle of (1836), 645. Lucknow, Siege and Relief of (1857), 366. 367. Lucrezia, Mistress of Lippi, 239. Lucy Arden, 319. INDEX 725 Luddite Riots (England, 1811- 1816), 349. LUDLOW, J. M., 210. Captain of the Janizaries, The, 211. Sir Raoul, 210. Lusignan, House of, 242. Luther, Martin, 600-604, 627, 652. Lutzen, Battle of, 448, 608, 609. Luynes, Charles d'Albert de, 385, 386. LYALL, EDNA, 284. In Spite of All, 284. Lyconia, 70. LYND, ROBERT (See Black, Ladbroke). LYNN, ESCOTT, 224. Blair of Balaclava, 361. Under the Red Rose, 224. Lyons, Council of, 205, 206. Lysander, Spartan General, 41. M Macaulay, Thomas B, The Armada, 277. Macaulay, Zachary, 340. McAULAY, ALLAN, 328. Poor Sons of a Day, 328. MACBRIDE, MACKENZIE, 109. King Penda's Captain, 109. McCarthy, justin h., 171. God of Love, The, 171. Gorgeous Borgia, The, 626. Macdonald, Flora, 327, 407. McDonnell, randal, 308. Kathleen Mavourneen, 341. My Sword For Patrick Sars- field, 308. McDowell, General Irving, 558. Macedonia, 43. MacFARLANE, CHARLES, 133. Camp of Refuge, The, 133. Legend of Reading Abbey, A, 138, 139. Machpelah, Cave of, (Hebron), 10. MacKENZIE, WILLIAM C, 349. The Shira, 349. McKenzie, William L., Revolution of, (1837), 593. MACKIE, JOHN, 595. The Prodigal's Brother, 595. McKinley Tariff Bill, 572. MacLEAN, NORMAN, 328. Hills of Home, 328. McClellan, George B, Mexican War, 552. Civil War, 558, 561. MacMahon, General of Napoleon III, 467-469. McMANUS, MISS L., 308. In Sarsfield's Days, 308. Lally of the Brigade, 632. MacMANUS, SEUMAS, 355. A Lad of the O'Friels', 355. MacMILLAR, JUDE, 577. A Random Shaft, 577. McNEIL, EVERETT, 551. Fighting With Fremont, 551. MacQUOID, KATHERINE S., 372 A Ward of the King, 372. Madame Threse, 428. Madamscourt, 320. Mademoiselle Mori, 636. MADISON, MRS. LUCY, 488. A Maid of Salem Towne, 488. Maestricht, Siege of, 398. Mafeking, Transvaal, Siege and Relief of, 692. Mafia, The, of Sicily, 631, 639. Magada, The, 246. Magdalene, Mary, 66, 69. Magdeburg, Siege of (1631), 608. Magersfontein, Battle of (1899), 693. Magna Charta, The (1215), 146, 147, 508. Mahratta War (India, 1803-18), 343. Maid Margaret of Galloway, 192. Maid of Brittany, A, 236. Maid of London Bridge, The, 261. Maid of Maiden Lane, The, 529. Maid of Old New York, The, 490. Maid of the Malverns, A, 276. Maid of Salem Towne, The, 488. Maida, Battle of, 439. Maids of Paradise, The, 467. Maine, The, American Battleship, 575. Maintenon, Marquise de, 400, 401. Maipo, Battle of (1818), 544. MAJOR, CHARLES, 234. Touchstone, The, 296. When Knighthood Was in Flower, 254. Yolando, Maid of Burgundy, 234. Majuba Hill, Battle of (1881), 691. Making of Christopher Ferring- ham, The, 487. Malaga, Battle of (1704), 310. Malcolm III, King of Scotland, 134. Maldon, Battle of, 128. Malory, Sir Thomas, 104, 105. 726 HISTORICAL FICTION Malplaquet, Battle of, (1709), 313. Malta, Island of, 628. Malthace, Wife of Herod the Great, 67. Man At Arms, The, 378. Man, Isle of, 300. Man of the People, A, 460. Manchester, England, Massacre of, 350. Taken by the Young Pretender, 327. Manephtha, 10. Manetho, An Egyptian Priest, 4. Manfred, Emperor of Germany, 170. Manila, Battle of (1898), 576. Mannheim, Baden, 615. MANNING, ANNIE, 628. The Commentaries of Ser Pan- taleone, 628. Man's Foes, A, 306. Mansfield, Lord, 340. Mantle of the Emperor, The, 459. MANZONI, ALESSANDRO, 631. The Betrothed, 631. Map, Walter, Archdeacon, 141. Mar, Earl of, 317, 320. Marat, Jean Paul, 420. Marathon, Battle of (B. C. 490), 31, 35-37. Marceau, Francois, 420. Marching Against the Iroquois, 514. Marching On Niagara, 496. Marco Visconti, 172. Marcomanni, The, 87. Marcus and Faustina, 87. Marcus, the Young Centurion, 59. Marengo, Battle of (1800), 432. Margaret Ballentine, 548. Margaret of York, 229. Margaret, Regent of the Nether- lands, 654-656. Margaret, Wife of Henry VI, 215- 217. Marguerite de Roberval, 581. Marguerite de Valois, 380. Marguerite of Valois, 380. MARGUERITE, PAUL and VIC- TOR, 468. The Disaster, 468. Maria Louisa, Wife of Napoleon, 445, 446, 450. Maria Therese, of Austria, 330, 612, 675. Marie Antoinette, 408-410, 421, 422. Marie Antoinette and Her Son, 422. Marienburg, Battle of (1702), 672. Marignano, Battle of (1515), 369, 371, 604, 627. Marion, Wife of William Wallace. 154. Marius the Epicurean, 87. Mark of the Cross, The, 674. Marlborough, Duchess of (see Jennings, Sarah). Marlborough, Duke of (see Churchill, John). Marlowe, Christopher, 276. Marot, Clement, 373. MARQUIS, THOMAS G., 581. Marguerite de Roberval, 581. Marriage Under the Terror, A, 425. Mars Hill, Athens, Paul's sermon on, 74, 75. Marseillaise, The, 417, 423. Marseilles, Plague of (1720). 406. MARSHALL, EMMA, 92. No. XIII. The Story of the Lost Vestal, 92. Under the Dome of St. Paul's, 314. Marshall, William (Earl of Pem- broke), 148, 150. Marston Moor, Battle of (1644), 284. Martel, Charles, 113. Martial, Roman writer, 82. Martinea, Battle of (B. C. 362), 40. MARTINEAU, HARRIET, 433. The Hour and the Man. 433. Mary of Burgundy, 200, 232, 234. Mary, Wife of William Prince of Orange, 299, 305. Mary, Queen of England, 262-267. Mary, Queen of Scots, Birth and Parentage, 260, 373. Wife of Francis 11.269. Wife of Lord Darnley, 269. Wife of the Earl of Bothwell, 270. Prisoner in Lochlevin Castle, 271. Prisoner of Queen Elizabeth, 271, 273. The Babington Conspiracy, 273, 274. Beheaded at Fotheringay, 274. Masaccio, Tommaso, 239. Masada, Fortress of, 78. Masaniello, Insurrection of in Naples (1646), 632. Masham, Lady Abigail, 316. MASON, A. E. W., 320. Clementina, 320. INDEX 727 MASON, CAROLINE A., 70. Lily of France, A, 654. White Shield, The, 70. Massena, Andrea, 431, 432, 442. Master of the Strong Hearts, 571. Masters of the World, 81. Mather, Rev. Cotton, 488. MATHEW, FRANK, 262. One Queen Triumphant, 274. Royal Sister, The, 262. Matilda, Wife of Henry I., 136- 139. MATURIN, C. R., 120. The Albigenses, 120. MAUGHAM, H. N., 241. Richard Hawkwood, 241. Maurice of Saxony, 605. Maurice, Son of William of Orange, 662. Maurice Tiernay, 342. Mawkin of the Flow, The, 193. Maxentius, 91. Maximian, 89, 90. Maximiana, Flavia, 90. Maximilian I, Emperor of Ger- many, 600. MAXWELL, HERBERT E., 96. Chevalier of the Splendid Crest, The, 157. Duke of Britain, A, 96. Mayence, Archbishop of, 602. Mayenne, Charles de Lorraine, 384. Mayor of Troy, The, 347. Mazarin, Cardinal Jules, 392-395. Mazeppa, Leader of the Cossack revolt (1709), 671, 672. Mazzini, Giuseppe, 635. Meade, George G., Mexican War, 552. Civil War, 561. MEAKIN, NEVILL M., 164. The Assassins, 164. Medici, Family, 194. Catherine de, 241, 374-378, 381. Ferdinand (Cardinal), 629, 630. Francesco, 629, 630. Giuliano de, 241. Lorenzo de, 241, 621, 622. Maria de, 241, 380, 383, 385. Meeting of the Ways, The, 93. Melanchthon, Philip, 605. Melrose Abbey, 155. MELVILLE, GEORGE JOHN WHITE, 24. Gladiators, The, 77. Holmby House, 287. Interpreter, The, 361. Queen's Maries, The, 269. Sarchedon, 24. Memoirs of a Physician, 409. Memphis, Fall of, 29. Men of Harlech, The, 217. Men of the Moss Hags, The, 302. Menendez, Spanish Governor of Florida, 481. Menes, Egyptian King, 9. Menotah, 595. Mercedes of Castile, 244. MERCHANT, BESSIE, 268. In Perilous Times, 268. MEREDITH, GEORGE, 618. Tragic Comedians, The, 618. Vittoria, 635. Merivale, 62. Merovingian Dynasty, 113. Merrimac, The, Confederate Iron- clad, 558, 559. MERRIMAN, HENRY S., 448. Barlasch of the Guard, 448. In Kedar's Tents, 648. Velvet Glove, The, 649. Vultures, The, 682. Merry Heart, A, 306. Mesmer, Friedrich, 411. Messenger, The, 325. Methuen, Lord (Boer War), 693. Metternich, Clemens Wenzel, 617. Metz, Siege and fall of (1870), 468, 469, 472. Mexican War, The (1846), 450- 452. Mexico, Entered by Cortez, 479. Micah Clarke, 303. Michelangelo, 197, 621. Midshipman Farragut, 540. Milan, Dukes of, 194. Bread Riots in, 639. Milazzo, Battle of (1860), 638. MILLER, ELIZABETH, 68. Saul of Tarsus, 68. MILLER, THOMAS, 142. Fair Rosamond, 142. Royston, Gower, 147. Milvian Bridge, Battle of the (313), 17, 91, 92. Minden, Battle of (1759), 330, 331, 613. Minute Boys of Long Island, The, 508. Mirabeau, Honore, 419. Missionary Ridge, Battle of (1863), 562. Mississippi Bubble (1717-1720), 406. Mississippi, The, 585, 586. Missouri Compromise (1822), 543. 728 HISTORICAL FICTION Mistletoe, Held in Veneration by the Druids, 71, 72. Mistress Dorothy Marvin, 306. MITCHELL, MRS. E. H., 135. The King's Stirrup, 135. MITCHELL, SILAS WEIR, 563. Roland Blake, 563. Mithridates, King of Pontus, 56, 57. Mithridatic War, Third (B. C. 74- 65), 57. Mohammed II, 209, 211-213. Mohammed IV, 612. Mohammedans, The, 159-161. Molay, Grand Master of the Templars, 122. Moliere (Jean Baptiste Poquelin), 396, 398, 404. Molino del Rey, Battle of (1847), 552. Mollwitz, Battle of (1741), 612. Moltke, Helmuth von, 619. Mompesson, Sir Giles, 282. Monsteries, Suppression of, 257. Monastery, The, 263. Moncontour, Battle of (1569), 378, 379. Mongols, The, 666. Monica, Mother of St. Augustine, 93, 94. Monitor, The, Union Warship, 559. Monk, George, 292, 294. Monk of Fife, A, 187. Monmouth, Battle of (1778), 312, 513. Monmouth, Rebellion (1685), 303, 304. Monomotapa, African Chief, 688. Monroe Doctrine, The, 543. Monroe, President James, 543-545. MONROE, KIRK, 479. Through Swamp and Glade, 548. White Conquerors of Mexico, The, 479. Mons, Seizure of (1572), 659. Monsieur de Paris, 423. Montague, Lady Mary Wortley, 317. Montcalm, Louis Joseph de, 495, 496, 589. Montecuccoli, Battle of (1664), 612. Montespan, Francoise, 397. 400. Montesquieu, Charles di, 404, 415. Montfort, Simon de, 119, 121. Montfort, Simon de, Jr., 149-151. Montgomery, Count of, 374, 375. MONTGOMERY, KATHLEEN and LETITIA, 326. Cardinal's Pawn, The, 629. Colonel Kate, 326. Gate Openers, The, 355. Montgomery, Richard, American General, 506. Montmorency, Henry, 389. Montpelier, Treaty of, 388. Montpensier, Duke of, 652. Montreal, Capture of (1775), 506. Montrose, Duke of, 318. Montrose, James Graham, Earl of, 285. Mookerheide, Battle of, 659. MOORE, DOROTHEA, 319. Under the Wolf's Fell, 319. MOORE, F. FRANKFORT, 289. Castle Omeragh, 289. Messenger, The, 325. Moore, Sir John, 348, 441. MOORE, THOMAS, 16. The Epicurean, 16. Moors, The, of Spain, 244, 246, 248. MORAN, J. J., 362. The Dunferry Risin', 362. Morat, Battle of (1476), 234. Moravian Church, The, 207. Mordecai (Book of Esther), 32. More, Thomas, 256. Moreau, Jean Victor, 431, 432. Morgan, Daniel, American Gener- al, 511, 520. MORGAN, GEORGE, 553. The Issue, 553. Morgan's Men, 520. Moriah, Mt. Jerusalem, 78. Morisco Rebellion, The, (1568-70), 642. Mormon Church, 546, 547. Mormon Prophet, The, 546. Mortimer, Lord Roger, 156, 153. Morton, Bishop of Ely, 224. Moscow, 448. Moscow, Napoleon's Invasion of. 447, 448. Most Famous Loba, The, 121. Montezuma, Aztec Emperor of Mexico, 479. Motte, Jean de la, 411. Mountjoy, William, 306, 307. Mr. Salt, 573. MUDDOCK, JOYCE E„ 220. Basil the Jester, 269. For the White Cockade, 328. In the King's Favor, 259. Jane Shore, 220. Scarlet Seal, The, 623. INDEX 729 MUHLBACH, LOUISE, 422. Andreas Hofer, 444. Goethe and Schiller, 614. Marie Antoinette and Her Son, 433. Napoleon and Blucher, 437, 445, 450. Muhlberg, Battle of (1547), 605. Mukden, Battle of (1904), 686,687. Munich, Field Marshal, 674, 675. Munster, Peace of, (1648), 663. MURPHY, JAMES, 342. House in the Rath, The, 342. Shan Van Vocht, The, 342. Mutiny Act, The, 341. Mutiny, The Indian (1857-8), 365- 367. Muza, Moorish General, 248. My Lady Laughter, 505. My Lady of Intrigue, 386. My Lady of the North, 564. My Lady Pokahontas, 482. My Lady's Kiss, 610. My Sword for Patrick Sarsfield, 308. My Sword's My Fortune, 393. Mycale, Battle of (B. C. 479), 35. Mysore War, The (1767), 337. Mysteries of Marseilles, The, 460. Mysterious Monsieur Dupont, The, 424. N Nabonidus, King of Babylon, 27. Nabopolassar, King of Babylon, 27. Nain, Son of the widow of, 66. Nancy, Battle of (1477), 232, 234, 235. Nantes, Edict of revoked, (1685), 400- 402. Peace of (1598), 383. Reign of Terror in, 421, 425. Vendean Insurrection, 420. Nantwick, Battle of, 294. Napoleon I (see Bonaparte, Na- poleon). Napoleon and Blucher, 437, 445, 450. Napoleon, III, Attempt to capture Strassburg and Boulogne, 459. Imprisonment in Ham, 459, 463. President of the French Repub- lic, 460. Second Empire. Napoleon III, 461, 463, 464. Franco-German War, The Cause, 465. The Contestants, 466. The Struggle, 467-472. Refuge in England, 472. Narcissus, 14. Narishkina, Nathalia, Mother of Peter the Great, 670. Narses, General of Justinian, 100, 102. Naseby, Battle of (1645), 284. Nash, Beau, 317. Nathalia, 670. Nashville, Battle of (1864), 565. National League, Irish, 363. Nauvoo, 111., Founded by the Mormons, 547. Nazareth, Home life of Jesus in, 65. Neaera, 65. NEALE, J. M., 52. The Farm of Apotonga, 52. Near the Tsar, Near Death, 673. Nebuchadnezzar, King of Baby- lon, 27. Nectan, King of the Picts, 109. Necker, Jacques, Minister of Louis XVI, 410. Necklace, The Diamond, 411. Nehemiah, Book of, 30. Nelson, Lord Horatio, 344, 345, 347, 427. Nelson, Dr. Wolfred, 592, 593. Nennius, Historian, 103, 104. Neo-Platonism, 18-20. Nero, 75. Nero, Emperor, 65, 69, 72-76. Burning of Rome, 71-73, 76. Persecution of Christians, 71, 73, S8. Crimes of, 75. Death of, 75, 76. Nerva, Emperor, 82. Nest of Royalists, A, 458. Neville, Anne, Wife of Richard III, 222. Neville, Margaret, Wife of Lord Hastings, 222. Neville, Richard (see Warwick, Earl of). Neville's Cross, Battle of (1346), 176, 189. New England Maid, A, 523. New Forest (Death of William Rufus), 135. New London, Raided by Benedict Arnold, 524. New Orleans, Battle of (1815), 541. 730 HISTORICAL FICTION New York, City of, 489. Newgate Prison, London, 334, 336. NEWMAN, CARDINAL JOHN HENRY, 53. Callista, 53. New Ross, Battle of (1799), 342. Nicaea, 160, 209. Council of (325), 94. Nicene Creed, The, 94. Nicholas I, Czar of Russia, 680, 681. Nicias, Opponent of Alcibiades, 38, 39, 41. Nicole, 417. Nieuport, Battle of (1600), 662, 663. Nightingale, Florence, 361. Nihilism, Russian, 681, 682. Nika Insurrection, 101. Nile, Battle of the (1798), 345. Ninety-Three, 420. Nineveh, Capital of Assyria, 22- 24. Ninus, Mythical founder of As- syria, 23, 24. No Cross, No Crown, 262. No Surrender, 420. Noank's Log, The, 518. NOEL, HUGH, 408. The Hand of Leonore, 408. Noemi, 188. Norah Moriarty, 363. Nordlingen, Battle of (1634), 608. Nore Mutiny, The (1797), 344, 345. North German Confederation (1866-70), 616. North, Lord Frederick, 333. Northampton, Battle of, 216. Northampton, Marquis of, 261. Northwest Fur Company, The, 590, 591. Notre Dame Cathedral, 235. Notre Dame de Paris, 235. Notre, G Le, 422. Nottingham, Earl of, 183. Novantia (Galloway), 96. Noyades (Reign of Terror), 421. Nullification Movement, The, 546. Nuremberg, Bavaria, 609, 610. Numidia (Third Punic War), 50. No. XIII, 92. Oates, Titus, 298, 305. O'Brien, Smith, Revolt of (1847), 356, 357, 362. O'BYRNE, MISS M. L., 308. Leixlip Castle, 308. O'Connell, Daniel, 355, 356. Octavia, Wife of Nero, 75, 76. Octavius (Augustus), 61. Odierna, Wife of Raymond I, 118. Odo, 134. Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, Leader of the Barons, 134. Odoacer, King of Italy, 102. Offa, King of Mercia, 92, 106. Oglethorpe, General James, 492, 493. Olaf, King of Norway, 128. Old Margaret, 202. Old Mortality, 301. Old St. Paul's, 298. Oldcastle, Sir John, 184, 207, 208. Olympian Games, 36. On Guard, 520. On the Emperor's Service, 93. On the Face of the Waters, 366. On the Knees of the Gods, 42. On the Old Kearsarge, 563. On the Red Staircase, 671. _ On to Pekin, 685. One Crowded Hour, 637. One in a Thousand, 383. One of the Red Shirts, 638. One Queen Triumphant, 274. Onesiphorus, Companion of St. Paul, 70, 71. OPENSHAW, MARY, 439. The Cross of Honor, 439. Orange and Green, 308. ORCUTT, WILLIAM D., 462. Flower of Destiny, The, 462. Robert Cavalier, 585. ORCZY, BARONESS, 407. Elusive Pimpernel, The, 426. Petticoat Government, 407. Order of Release, The, 408. Orestes, Prefect of Alexandria, 20. Oregon County Dispute (1844). 550, 552. Orientalism, 23, 26. Orkney Islands, 71, 126. Orleans, Siege of (France 1428), 186. Orlov, Alexis, lover of Catherine II, 677-680. ORMEROD, FRANK, 325. The Two-Handed Sword, 325. Ormonde, James Butler, Duke of, 294, 300, 311, 320. Orrain, 376. Orsini, Family of (Italy), 195. Orthes, Battle of (1814), 442. INDEX 731 OSBORNE, DUFFIELD, 50. The Lion's Brood, 50. Osiris, 8. Ostend, Siege of (1601-1604), 662, 663. Ostrogoths, Kingdom of the, 100- 102. Oswald, Prince of Northumbria, 108, 109. Otto I, Emperor of Germany, 166. Otto III, of Germany, 166, 167. Ottocar II, of Bohemia, 206. Oudenarde, Battle of (1708), 312, 404. Our Lady of Deliverance, 473. Out with Garibaldi, 638. Ovid, 63. OXENHAM, JOHN, 359. Coil of Carne, The, 359. Great Heart Gillian, 470. John of Gerisau, 619. Our Lady of Deliverance, 473. Under the Iron Flail, 472. Oxford, Provisions of (1258), 150. Pabo the Priest, 136. Padilla, Dona Maria, 178. Paez, Jose Antonia, 545. Page of the Duke of Savoy, The, 375 PAGE,THOMAS N., 568. Red Rock, 568. Palace of Danger, The, 408. Palafax, Joseph, hero of Saragossa (1808), 441. Palaeologi, Dynasty of, 209. Palaeologus, Constantine, 212-214. Palaeologus, Michael, 209. Palatinate, The, 398, 607. Palestine, 30, 44, 77, 162, 164. PALGRAVE, MARY E., 304. Deb Clavel, 304. Palo Alto, Battle of (1846), 551. Pamphilia, 70. Pan American Congress, The, 572. Panics, Financial (1837), 548; (1873), 570; (1893), 574. Panormus, Battle of, 47. Papineau, Louis, rebellion of, 592, 593. Pappenheim, Gottfried, 609. Paris, 175. Captured by Henry of Navarre (1589), 383, 384. Siege of, Franco-German War (1870), 471, 472. Paris at Bay, 472. PARKER, SIR GILBERT, 587. Pomp of the Lavilettes, The, 591. Seats of the Mighty, The, 589. Trail of the Sword, The, 587. Parker, Theodore, 555. Parliament, English, Long, 283. Rump, 288. Parma, Duke of, 661. Parnell, Charles S., 363. PARRISH, GEORGE RAN- DALL, 498. Bob Hampton of Placer, 571. My Lady of the North, 564. Sword of the Old Frontier, A, 498. When Wilderness was King, 536. Parthians, The, 87. Pascal, Blaise, 404. Passe Rose, 114. Passover, The Jewish, 114. PATER, WALTER, 87. Marius the Epicurean, 87. Paterson, Robert ("Old Mortal- ity"), 302. Pathfinders of the Revolution, The, 513. Patricia at the Inn, 291. Patriot and Tory, 512. Patriots, The, 566. PATTON, JAMES B„ 325. The Eveshams, 325. Paul I, Czar of Russia, 679, 680. Paulinus, Bishop of York, 108. Pausanias, 31, 35, 37. Pausanias the Spartan, 37. Pavia, Battle of (1525), 369, 372, 604, 627. Pawn in the Game, A, 427. PAYNE, WILL, 573. Mr. Salt, 573. Pazzi, The, 241, 242. PEARD, FRANCES M., 292. Scrapegrace Dick, 292. Peasant's War, The (Germany, 1524-25), 598, 604, 605. Pedro, King of Castile, 178. Pekin, China, relief of, 685. Peloponnesian War (B. C. 431- 404), 40. Pelusium, Battle of (B. C. 525), 29. PEMBERTON, MAX, 467. Garden of Swords, The, 467. Virgin Fortress, The, 469. Penda, King of Mercia, 106, 108, 109. 732 HISTORICAL FICTION Peninsular War, The (1808-1814), 348, 440-444, 447. Penn, William, 293. Penruddock, Colonel, 293, 294. Penruddock of the White Lambs, 293. Pepin the Short, 113. PEPLE, EDWARD HENRY, 24. Semiramis, 24. Pequots, Indian tribe, 486. Percy, Sir Ralph, 218. Pericles, 38-40. Pericles and Aspasia, 39. Peril of the Sword, The, 367. Perry, Commodore Matthew, 683, 684. Perry, Oliver H., 538, 539. Persepolis, Palace at, 26. Persian Wars, The, 35. Peru, Discovery and invasion of, 480. Peter the Great, Czar, 670-673. Peter II, Czar, 674. Peter III, Czar, 675, 677-679. Peter the Hermit, 160. Peterborough, Earl of, 645, 646. Peterloo Massacre (Manchester, 1819), 350. Petersburg, Battle of (1865), 566. Petition of Rights (1628), 283. Petrarch, Francisco, 197. Petronius, 73. Petticoat Government, 407. Peveril of the Peak, 299. Phalsbourg, Siege of, 449. Pharaoh and the Priest, The, 12. Pharnaces, Son of Mithridates, 58. Pharos, The, 13. Pharsalia, Battle of (B. C. 48), 58, 59. Philadelphia, Taken by the Brit- ish (1777), 510, 513. Philibert, Emmanuel, 374, 375. Philip II, King of Macedonia, 143. Philip II (Augustus), of France, 119, 120, 146, 162-164. Philip Augustus, 120. Philip IV, of France, 121, 122, 173. Philip the Bold, 200, 231. Philip the Good, 185, 200, 202. Philip II, King of Spain, 274, 642, 643, 655. Philip V, King of Spain, 644, 645. Philip Winwood, 507. Philiphaugh, Battle of (1645), 285. Philippa, Wife of Edward III, 177. Philippi, Battle of (B. C. 42), 60, 61. Philippines, The, Spanish tyranny in, 576. Battle of Manila, 576. Revolt of Aguinaldo, 577. Attack of San Mateo, 577. Philistia, 44. Phillips, Wendell, The Burial of John Brown, 556. Toussaint L'Ouverture, 434. Philostratus, Flavius, 81. Phips, William, Governor of Mas- sachusetts, 488, 587. PICKERING, EDGAR, 283. The Dogs of War, 283. In Press-Gang Days, 345. Picts, The, 90, 93, 96, 106. PIDGIN, CHARLES F., 533. Blennerhassett, 533. Pierre, Eustace de St., 177. Piers Plowman (Langland), 180, 181. Pike, Zebulon, Explorations of, 533, 534. Pilate, Pontius, 66, 67. Pilgrim's Progress, The (Bunyan), 296. Pilgrim, The, 167. Pilot, The, 517. Pinkie Cleuch, Battle of (1547), 263. Piso, Caius, Plot of, 81. Pitt, William, 331, 502. Pittsburgh, Pa., 332. Pizarro, Discoverer of Peru, 480, 481. Plague of 1348 (Italy), 194. Plains of Abraham, Battle on the (1759), 496, 506, 589. Plataea, Battle of (B. C 479), 35, 36. Plato, 38. Plebiscite, The, 466. Pliny (Younger), 83. Pliny (Elder), 80. Plotinus, 19. Plough of Shame, The, 627. Plutarch, 17. Plymouth Rock, 485. Pocahontas, 482, 483. Poitiers, Battle of (1356), 176, 177. Poland, Insurrection of (1864), 681. Third partition of, 679. Pole, Cardinal Reginald, 266, 267. Polemon II, Ruler of Pontus, 70. INDEX 733 Polk, President James K., 550- 552. POLLARD, ELIZA F., 401. King's Signet, The, 401. Knights of Liberty, The, 455. New England Maid, A, 523. Roger the Ranger, 589. True Unto Death, 681. Pollock, Sir George, 364. Poltava, Battle of (1709), 672. Polybius, 46, 51. Pomp of the Lavilettes, The, 591. Pompadour, Jeanne Antoinette, 405, 407, 408. Pompeii, Prior to Destruction of, 81. Destroyed (A. D. 79), 80. Pompey, Defeats Mithridates, 56. Destroys Piracy, 56, 57. First Triumvirate, 58. Defeated by Caesar, 58. Pomponia, 71. Pontiac, Conspiracy of (1763), 498. Poor Sons of a Day, 328. Pope, Alexander, 317, 319. Popist Plot, The (1678), 298, 299, 305. Poppaea, Wife of Nero, 71, 75, 76. Port Arthur, Battle of (1904), 686. Portau, Isaac de (Porthos), 387. Porteous, Captain, 322. Porteous Riot (1736), 322. Porter, Captain David, 539, 540. PORTER, JANE, 153. Scottish Chiefs, The, 153. Thaddeus of Warsaw, 679. PORTER, T. H., 276. A Maid of the Malverns, 276. Porthos (see Portau, Isaac de). Portinari, Beatrice, 171. Portsmouth, Treaty of, 687. POST, WALDRON K., 539. Smith Brunt, 539. Potidaea, Blockaded by Athens, 40. POTTER, MARGARET HOR- TON, 28. Istar of Babylon, 28. POTTINGER, HENRY, 101. Blue and Green, 101. Pougachev (Pugatcheff), Cossack Rebel (1773), 678, 679. Powys-Land, Prince of, 143. POYNTER, H. MAY, 306. Madamscourt, 320. Merry Heart, A, 306. Prado, Cathedral of, 239, Prague, Retreat from, 406. Battle of, 613. PRATT, TINSLEY, 270. When Hawkins Sailed the Sea, 270. President's Scouts, The, 572. Pressburg, Treaty of (1805), 436. Preston Pans, Battle of (1745), 325-328. Pretender, Old (see Stuart, James Edward). Pretender, Young (see Stuart, Charles Edward). Pretoria, Taken by the British, 693. PRICE, ELEANOR C, 216. The Queen's Man, 216. Priestess of Isis, The, 81. Prim, Juan, Revolution of in Spain (1868), 649, 650. Prince, Colonel (Revolution in Canada, 1837-38), 594. Prince of India, The, 212. Prince Rupert the Buccaneer, 291. Prince's Messenger, The, 660. Princes, The Young (sons of Ed- ward IV), 221. Prince's Valet, The, 328. Princeton, Battle of (1777), 510. PRIOR, JAMES, 349. Forest Folk, 349. Priscilla, Friend of St. Paul, 70. Prison System, English, 334, 359. Prisoner of Carisbrooke, The, 287. Privateering (American Revolu- tion), 518. Privy Seal: His Last Venture, 259. Probation, 361. Procopius, 101, 102. Procopius, Leader of the Hussites, 207, 208. Prodicus, Sophistic Philosopher, 38. Prodigal's Brother, The, 595. Promotion, The, 577. Protagoras, Sophistic Philosopher, 38 Protestant, The, 267. PROTHEROE, ERNEST, 291. Scouting for a King, 291. Prusias, 57. Prussia, Her Place in German History, 611, 616. Psammeticus I, 12. Psammeticus II, 29. Psyche, 65. Ptolemy I, 13, 17. Ptolemy II, 12, 13. Pudens, 76. 734 HISTORICAL FICTION Punic Wars, The, 47. Punjab, Revolt of the (1848), 365. Purchase Price, The, 556. Puritans The, 278, 293. Persecution of, 484, 486. Emigration to America, 485, 486. The Mayflower "Compact," 485. Plymouth Colony, 485. Purple Love, 299. PUSHKIN, ALEXANDER S., 678. The Captain's Daughter, 678. Pyramids of Egypt, 4. Pythian Games, 36. Q Quakers, The, 293, 487. Quebec, Settlement of, 581. Battle of (1759), 496, 497, 589, 590. Attacked by Montgomery and Arnold (1775), 506, 507. Attacked by Phips (1690), 587. Queen Anne's War (1702-13), 494. Queen of Nine Days, A, 264. Queen's Fillet, The, 417. Queen's Hostage, The, 276. Queen's Man, The, 216. Queen's Maries, The, 269. Queen's Necklace, The, 410. Queen's Tragedy, The, 266. Queenstown, Attack on (1812), 537. Quentin Durward, 231. Quest of Glory, The, 406. Quest of the Four, The, 551. Quiberon, Battle of (1759), 329, 495. Quiberon Touch, The, 495. QUILLER- COUCH, ARTHUR T., 347. The Mayor of Troy, 347. QUINBY, ALDEN W., 512. Valley Forge, 512. Quintus Cladius, 82. Quo Vadis, 73. R Rabelais, Francois, 373. Racine, Jean, 398. Reclawice, Battle of (1794), 679. Radisson, French Explorer, 584, 585. Rain-in-the-Face, Sioux Chief, 571. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 273, 275, 281, 282. RALLI, CONSTANTINE S., 691. The Strange Story of Falconer Thring, 691. Rameses II, 7, 10. Rameses, XIII, 12. Ramillies, Battle of (1706), 312. Ramnuggur, Battle of (1848), 365. Random Shaft, A, 577. Raoul, Gentleman of Fortune, 662. Raphael, Sanzio, 621. Ratcliffe, Richard, 223. Ratkow, Battle of (1806), 437. Ravensdale, 346. Rawdon, Lord, English General in America, 521. Raymond VI, of Toulouse, 119, 121. Raymond I, of Tripoli, 118. RAYNER, EMMA, 490. Doris Kingsley, Child and Colonist, 492. In Castle and Colony, 490. Read, Thomas Buchanan, Sheridan's Ride, 567. READE, AMOS, 363. Norah Moriarty, 363. READE, CHARLES, 239. Cloister and the Hearth, The, 239. It is Never Too Late to Mend, 359. Reading Abbey, 138. Reason, Cult of (Reign of Terror), 425. Rebecca Riots (Wales), 355. Reconstruction, American, 568- 570. Red and White, 218. Red Bridal, A, 445. Red Caps of Lyons, The, 421. Red Chief, The, 514. Red Fleur-de-Lys, The, 416. Red Neighbor, The, 398. Red Patriot, The, 509. Red River Rebellion (1869), 595. Red Rock, 568. Red Saint, The, 151. Red Shirts, The, of Garibaldi, 637, 638. Red White and Green, 618. Reds of the Midi, The, 417. REED, SARAH A., 542. A Romance of Arlington House, 542. Reform Bill, English (1832), 351, 352. Reformation, The, In England, 266-268, 293. In France, 370-374, 377-388, 400- 403. In Germany, Significance of, 599. INDEX 735 Martin Luther, 600-604. Peasant's War, 604, 605. Augsburg Confession, 605. Smalcaldic League, 605. Thirty Years' War, 606-610. In Holland, 652-663. In Scotland, 262, 263, 269, 285. In Switzerland, 370. Remember the Almo, 547. Renaissance, The, 475, 599, 628. Renee, 371. Rennes, 175. Rensselaer, Solomon van, 537. Resaca de la Palma, Battle of (1846), 551. Resolutions, Virginia and Ken- tucky, 530. Revelation, Book of (Bible), 18. Revere, Paul, 505. Revolution of 1830, in France, 457. Revolution of 1848, In France, 457, 458, 460, 617. In Austria, 617, 618. In Italy, 635, 636. Revolution in Tanner's Lane, The, 350. Revolutionary War in America, The Causes, 500-502. Battles, Bennington, American Victory, 510. Brandywine, British Victory, 510. Bunker Hill, British, 504. Camden, British, 520. Cowpens, American, 520. Eutaw Springs, Indecisive, 521, 522. Guilford Court House, British, 520, 521. Hobkirk's Hill, British, 521. King's Mountain, American, 520. Lexington and Concord, Ameri- can, 502. Long Island, British, 508, 509. Monmouth, American, 512, 513. Montreal, American, 506. Paul Jones Victory, American, 516, 517. Princeton, American, 510. Quebec, British, 506, 507. Saratoga, American, 511, 512. Savannah, British, 519. Ticonderoga, American, 503. Trenton, American, 509. Yorktown, American, 524. Rhine, Confederation of the, 437. RHOSCOMYL, OWEN, 328. For the White Rose of Arno, 328. Richard I, King of England, 119, 143-145, 162-164. Richard II, 179-181. Richard III, 217, 220-226. Richard Carvel, 515. Richard Hawkwood, 241. Richard Yea-and-Nay, 144. RICHARDSON, JOHN, 498. Wacousta, 498. RICHARDSON, NORVAL, 560. The Heart of Hope, 560. Richelieu, Cardinal Armand Jean, 385-390, 392. Richmond, Va. Confederate Capi- tal, 558, 562, 563, 566. Ridley, Nicholas, 257, 264, 265, 267. Ridolfo, 197. Riel, Louis, Rebellion of (1869 & 1885), 595, 596. Rienzi, Cola di, 195. Rienzi, the Last of the Tribunes, 195. Rivers, Earl (see Woodville, Rich- ard). Rizzio, David, 269. Rob Roy (see Campbell, Robert Macgregor). Rob Roy, 318. Robert Cavalier, 585. Robert Emmet, 345. Robert Helmont, 472. Robert of Flanders, 160. Robert of Normandy, 160. Robert II, King of Scotland, 189. Robert III, of Scotland, 189. Robert, Son of William the Conqueror, 133-136. ROBERTS, CHARLES G., 588. A Sister to Evangeline, 588. Roberts, Lord Frederick, 692. ROBERTS, MARGARET, 604. In the Olden Time, 604. ROBERTS, MARY, 636. Mademoiselle Mori, 636. ROBERTS, MORLEY, 693. Taken by Assault, 693. Roberval, Chevalier de, 582. Robespierre, Maximilien, 419-425. ROBINSON, EMMA, 257. Westminster Abbey, 257. Whitefriars, 298. Robinson, Rev. John, Puritan Leader, 485. Robsart, Amy (Wife of Lei- cester), 272. Rochejaquelein, Henri du la, 420. 736 HISTORICAL FICTION Rochelle, La, Siege of (1627), 280, 379, 388. Roches, Pierre des, 149. Rochester Castle, 134. Rock of Chickamauga, The, 561, 562, 565. Rock of the Lion, The, 335. Rocroi, Battle of (1643), 610. Roemer, Olaf, 404. Roger the Ranger, 589. Rohan, Cardinal de, 411. Rohan, Marie de, 387. Roland Blake, 563. Roland, Marie Jeanne, 422, 423. ROLFE, FREDERICK W., 627. Don Tarquinio, 627. Romance of Arlington House, A, 542. Romance of Dollard, The, 583. Romance of Fra Lippo Lippi, The, 238. Romance of the Charter Oak, 488. Romance of the Fountain, The, 479. Romance of the Tuileries, A, 458. Rome, In Daniel's Prophecy, 54. Her Place in History, 54. Fall of the Republic, 61. Greatness of the Empire, 61. . Burning of, 71-73, 76, 79. Fall of the Empire, 98. Romola, 622. Roncesvalles, Pass of, 114, 115. Rooke, Sir George, 310, 311, 402. Roosevelt, Theodore, 576. The Indians of the Northwest, 499. Rose Mervyn, 355. Rose of the Garden, 345. Rose-Spinner, The, 320. Rosebecque, Battle of (1382), 201, 202. Rosecrans, General William S., 562. Roses, Wars of the, Causes of, 215. Battles of, 225. Rosicrucians, Order of, 423. ROSS, CLINTON, 524. The Scarlet Coat, 524. Rossa, O'Donovan, 362. Rossbach, Battle of (1757), 408, 413. Rougeville, Gonze de, 422. Rough Riders, The, 576. Round Table, King Arthur's, 103- 105. Roundheads, The, 283. Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 404, 409, 415. Rout of the Foreigner, The, 149. ROWSELL, MARY C, 423. Friend of the People, The, 425. Monsieur de Paris, 423. Roxy, 535. Roy, 348. Royal Pawn of Venice, The, 242. Royal Sisters, The, 262. Royston Gower, 147. Rubicon, Caesar Crossing the, 58, 59. Rudel, Prince of Blaye, 118. Rudolph I (Hapsburg), 206. Rudolph of Rosenfeldt, 656. RUNKLE, MRS. BERTHA B., 384. The Helmet of Navarre, 384. Runnymede, 146, 147. Runnymede and Lincoln Fair, 147. Rupert, Prince, 282, 284, 291. Ruskin, John, 322. Russell, Lord John, 351. RUSSELL, WILLIAM C, 347. The Yarn of Old Harbor Town, 347. Russo-Japanese War (1904-5), Causes of, 685. Battles, Port Arthur, 686. Mukden, 686. Liaoyang, 686. Sea of Japan, 687. Treaty of Portsmouth, 687. Ruthven, Alexander, 277. Ruyter, Michael, Dutch Admiral, 664. Rye House Plot, The (1683), 299, 304. Ryswick, Peace of (1697), 404. Saarbruck, Battle of (1870), 467. SABATINI, RAFAEL, 304. Anthony Wilding, 304. Lion's Skin, The, 321. Love At Arms, 627. Sacheverell, Dr. Henry, 313. SADLIER, MRS. JAMES, 333. The Fate of Father Sheehy, 233, 234. Sadoolapore, Battle of (1848), 365. Saguntum, Spain, 49. St. Alban, 92. St. Albans, 180. Battles of (1455), 216; (1461), 217, 219. INDEX 737 St. Ambrose, 93, 94. St. Andrews, Scotland, 262. St. Augustine, Fla., 481, 493. St. Bartholomew, Massacre of (1572), 378-380, 659, 660. St. Bartholomew's Eve, 379. St. Bernard of Clairvaux, 118, 162. St. Catherine of Siena, 198. St. Clair, General, 529. St. Domingo, 309. St. Jerome, 255. St. John, 82, 83. St. John, Fort of, 582. St. Malo, Expedition Against, 332. St. Paul, 70-76, 86. St. Paul's Cathedral, 314. St. Peter, 73. St. Quentin, Battle of (1557), 266, 374, 375. St. Stephen, 68, 69. St. Thekla, Legend of, 70, 71. Saladin, The Sultan, 144, 163, 164. Salamanca, Battle of (1812), 442, 443. Salamis, Battle of (B. C. 480), 35- 37. Salammbo, 48. Salem, Mass., Witchcraft in, 488. Salviati, Archbishop, 241. San Domingo, Republic of, 433. San Gabriel, Battle of, 551. San Jacinto, Battle of (1836), 548. San Juan Hill, Battle of (1898), 576. San Martin, Josede, Argentine Patriot, 544. San Mateo, Attack on, 577. San Sebastian, Siege and Capture of (1813), 349, 442. San Stephano, Treaty of (1878), 242. Sancho the Great, of Navarre, 244. Santa Cruz, Expedition Against, 345. Santa Margherita, Nunnery of, 239. Santiago, Cuba, Bombardment of, 576. Naval Battle, 578. Sapor, King of Persia, 88. Saracens, The, 209. Defeated by Charles Martel (732), 113, 115. Defeated by Charlemagne, 114. Saragossa, Battle of (1808), 440- 442. Saratoga, Battle of, 511, 512. Sarchedon, 24. Sardis, Destruction of (B. C. 500), 35. Sarpi, Fra Paolo, 629. Sarsfield, Patrick, 307, 308, 403. Sassbach, Battle of (1675), 398. Sauchieburn, Battle of (1488), 228, 259. Saul of Tarsus, 68, 69. Saul of Tarsus, 68. Savannah, Captured by Clinton (1778), 519. Savile, Sir George, 336. Savonarola, Girolamo, 622, 623. Saxby, 485. Saxons, The, 96, 106, 108, 114. Sayce, Professor A. H., 30. Scanderbeg, 211, 212. Scapegrace Dick, 292. Scarlet Cloak, The, 510. Scarlet Coat, The, 524. Scarlet Seal, The, 623. Scarron, Paul, 400. Schiller, Friedrich von, History of the Thirty Years' War, 614. Maid of Orleans, The, 188. Maria Stuart, 277. The Robbers, 614. Schism, The Great, 602. Scholar of Lindisfarne, A, 108. Scholasticism, 599. Schonbrunn, Treaty of (1809), 444, 446. SCHURE, EDOUARD, 81. The Priestess of Isis, 81. SCHUSTER, ROSE, 216. The Triple Crown, 216. SCHUYLER, WILLIAM, 66. Under Pontius Pilate, 66. Scipio, Roman General, 49-51. SCOLLARD, CLINTON, 511. The Son of a Tory, 511. Scots Wha Hae {Burns), 154. SCOTT, JOHN REED, 223. Beatrix of Clare, 222. SCOTT, SIR WALTER, 142. Abbot, The, 271. Anne of Geierstein, 233. Betrothed, The, 142. Castle Dangerous, 155. Count Robert of Paris, 161. Fortunes of Nigel, The, 280. Heart of Midlothian, The, 322. Ivanhoe, 144. Kenilworth, 272. Legend of Montrose, A, 285. Monastery, The, 263. Old Mortality, 301. Peveril of the Peak, 299. 73% HISTORICAL FICTION Quentin Durward, 231. Rob Roy, 318. Surgeon's Daughter, The, 337. Talisman, The, 163. Waverley, 326. Woodstock, 291. Scott, Walter, of Brauxholm, 193. Scott, General Winfield, 552. Scottish Chiefs, The, 153. Scourge of God, The, 403. Scouting For a King, 291. Scouting For Buller, 693. Scouting For Light Horse Harry, 521. Scouting For Washington, 519. Scrope, Archbishop, 183. Sea Devils, The, 275. Sea of Tapan, Battle of (1905), 687. Seats of the Mighty, The, 589. SEAWELL, MOLLY E., 335. Decatur and Somers, 531. Little Jarvis, 530. Rock of the Lion, The, 335. Sebastopol, Siege of (1854-5), 360, 361. Second To None, 330. Sedan, Battle of (1870), 469, 470. Secession of Southern States, 557. Sedgemoor, Battle of (1685), 303, 304. Sejanus, Prefect of Tiberius, 65, 66. Seminole Wars, (1718), 543; (1835- 42), 548. Semiramis, 24. Semiramis, Queen of Assyria, 23, 24. Sempronius, Roman General, 49. Seneca, Roman Philosopher, 74, 75. SENIOR, DOROTHY, 105. The Clutch of Circumstance, 105. Senlac, Hill of (Battle of Hast- ings), 130. Sepoy Mutiny (see Mutiny, The Indian). Septuagint, The (B. C. 285), 13. Serapeum, The, 17. Serapis, 18. Serapis, Worship of, 17. Serf, The, 137. Seringapatam, 337, 342. Seringapatam, Battle of (1799), 342, 343. Servants of Sin, 406. Set of Rogues, A, 298. Seti I, 10. SETON, WILLIAM, 488. Romance of the Charter Oak, 488. Seven Knights, The, 180. Seven Weeks' War, The (1866), 616, 619. Seven Years' War, The (1756-63), 322, 329-331, 408, 495, 613, 614. Sevenoaks, Battle of, 188. Severn, Valley of the, 107. Seward, William, 553. Seymour, Admiral, 685. Seymour, Sir William, 279. Sforza, Family of (Milan), 198. Francesco, 198, 199. Galeazzo, 240, 241. Lodovico, 624. Shadow of the Sword, The, 452. Shah Shujah, 364. Shakespeare, William, 268, 276, 277. Plays of: Henry IV, 183, 185. Henry VI, 221. Julius Caesar, 60. King John, 148. Love's Labours Lost, 276. Richard III, 221. Shamash, The Sun-god, 28. Shan van Vocht, The, 342. Sharp, Archbishop of St. An- drews, 302. SHAW, ADELE MARIE, 488. The Coast of Freedom, 488. SHAW, F. H., 345. In the Days of Nelson, 345. Shawnee Indians, Conflict with, (1811), 536. She Loved a Sailor, 546. She That Hesitates, 672. She- Wolf, The, 627. She-Wolves of Machecoul, The, 458. SHEEHAN, PATRICK A, 417. The Queen's Fillet, 417. Sheehy, Father, 333, 334. SHELLEY, MARY WOLL- STONECROFT, 228. The Fortunes of Perkin War- beck, 228. Shelley, Percy, 228. Shenandoah Valley, 564, 565. Sheridan, General Philip, 564-566. Sheriffmuir, Battle of, 318-320. Sherman Act, 572, 573. Sherman, General William T., 564, 565. Sherwood Forest, 145-147. INDEX 739 Shiloh, Battle of (1862), 559, 561. Shira, The, 349. Shoes of Gold, 677. Shogun's Daughter, The, 684. Shore, Jane, 220. Shovel, Sir Cloudesley, 312. Shrewsbury, Battle of (1403), 182. Shut In, 662. Sicilies, The Two, 637, 638. Sicily, During the Peloponnesian War, 41, 42. Related to the Punic Wars, 47. Siege of Leed's Castle, The, 157. Siege of Norwich Castle, The, 133. Siena, City of Italy, 198. SIENKIEWICZ, HENRYK, 73. Quo Vadis, 73. With Fire and Sword, 669. Sieyes, Emmanuel Joseph, 431. Sigismund, Emperor, 184, 207. Sign of Triumph, The, 165. Sikh Wars, The (1845-49), 364, 365. Silanus the Christian, 86. Silesian Wars, The (1740-42; 1745- 5), 330, 612, 613. Sillegue, Armand de (Athos), 387. Silver Maple, The, 596. SIMMS, WILLIAM GILMORE, 481. Eutaw, 521. Vasconcelos, 481. Yemassee, The, 492. Simnel, Lambert, 230. Simon de Montfort, 150. SIMPSON, VIOLET A., 346. The Sovereign Power. 346. Sioux Indian Conflict, (1876), 571. Sir Nigel, 177. Sir Raoul, 210. Sister to Evangeline, A, 588. Sitting-Bull, Indian Chief, 571. Skye, Isle of, 327. Slavery, English Slave Trade, 270, 309, 339. Slavery in America, First Entered Politics, 546. Clay's Compromise of 1850, 552, 553. Influence of Uncle Tom's Cabin, 553. Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 554, 556. _ Abolition Party, 555. Relation of, to the Civil War, 557. _ Emancipation P r o c 1 a m ation, 560. Slaves of Sabinus, Jew and Gen- tile, The, 79. Sluys, Siege of (1586), 662, 663. Smalcaldic League, The, 605. Small-Pox, Inoculation for, 317. Smerdis (Bardiza, Brother of Cambyses), 29, 30. Smith Brunt, 539. SMITH, E. M., 50. Aneroestes the Gaul, 50. Smith, Gerrit, 555. Smith, Captain John (Jamestown Settlement), 482, 483. Smith, Joseph, Founder of Mor- mon Sect, 546, 547. Smith, Sidney, Defender of Acre (1799), 427, 428. SNAITH, JOHN C, 291. Mistress Dorothy Marvin, 306. Patricia At the Inn, 291. Sobieski, Clementina, 320. Sobieski, John, King of Poland, 612. Social Contract (Rousseau), 415. Social War, The (Rome, B. C. 91- 89), 56, 57. Socialism in Germany, 618, 619. Society of United Irishmen, 341, 345. Socrates, 38-40, 42. Soldier of Manhattan, A, 589. Soldier of Virginia, A, 494. Soldier Rigdale, 485. Solway Moss, Battle of (1542), 260. Somers, Lieutenant, War with Tripoli, 532. Somerset, Duke of, 215, 216. Son of a Tory, The, 511. Son of Issachar, A, 66. Son of the Emperor, A, 169. Son of the Revolution, A, 533. Sons of Victory. 431. Sophia, Half-Si :er of Peter the Great, 671. Sophists, The, 38. Sophocles, 39, 40. Sorbon, Robert de, 370. Sorbonne, The, 371, 381. Sorceress of Rome, The, 167. Soto, Ferdinando de, 481. Soul of a Serf, The, 108. Soult, Nicholas Jean, 349, 441-444. South America, Brazil, Independence of (1825), 544, 545. Chili, Revolt of, 544, 545. Columbia, Independence of (1821), 544, 545. 740 HISTORICAL FICTION Peru, Independence of (1821), 545. South Sea Company, The, 316, 320, 321. Sovereign Power, The, 346. Spanish-American War (1898), 575-579. The Causes, 575. In Cuba, 576-578. In the Philippines, 576. Spanish Fury, The (The Nether- lands), 660., Spanish Succession, War of (see Succession Wars). Spartacus, The Gladiator, 57. SPEAR, JOHN W., 656. Rudolph of Rosenfeldt, 656. Spenser, Edmund, 268, 276. Spinoza, 663. Spinoza, Baruch, 663. Spion Kop, Battle of (1899), 692, 693. Spirit of the Service, The, 576. Spithead Mutiny (1797), 344, 345. Splendid Impostor, A, 669. Splendid Knight, The, 281. Spottsylvania, Battle of (1864) 563. Springhaven, 346. Spurs, Battle of the, (1513), 201. Spy, The, 443. STABLES, WILLIAM G., 478. Westward With Columbus, 478. STACPOOLE, HENRY DE VERE, 408. Drums of War, The, 466. Order of Release, The, 408. Stael, Madame de, 422. Stair, The Master of, 309. Stamford Bridge, Battle of (1066), 131. Stamp Act, The, 500, 501. Standish, Miles, 485, 487. Stanley, James, Earl of Derby, 300. Stanley, William, 224, 225, 229. Stanwix, Fort, 510, 511. Star Chamber, The, 282. Star of Love, The, 31. Star Spangled Banner, The, 541. Starvecrow Farm, 350. STEAD, RICHARD, 183. Kinsman and Namesake, 183. STEEL, MRS. FLORA A., 366. On the Face of the Waters, 366. Steele, Richard, 313, 319. Steenwijk, Capture of (1592), 662, 663. Steinkirk, Battle of (1692), 306, 403. STENDHAL (MARIE-HENRI BEYLE), 452. The Chartreuse of Parma, 452. Stephania, Wife of Cresentius, 167. Stephen, King of England, 137, 138. Stephen, Leslie, 144. STEPHENS, ROBERT N., 276. An Enemy to the King, 380. Gentleman Player, A, 276. Philip Winwood, 507. STEVENS, SHEPPARD, 165. Sign of Triumph, The, 165. Sword of Justice, The, 481. STEVENSON, BURTON E., 406. At Odds With the Regent, 406. Heritage, The, 529. Soldier of Virginia, A, 494. STEVENSON, LOUIS ROB- ERT, 216. The Black Arrow, 216. STEVENSON, PHILIP L., 609. Black Cuirassier, The, 609. Gendarme of the King, 614. Stewart, Alexander, Protype of Scott's Baron in Waverley, 326. STEWART, NEWTON V., 169. A Son of the Emperor, 169. Stilicho, General of Honorius, 95, 96. Stirling Bridge, Battle of (1297), 153, 155. Stockton, Robert (Mexican War), 551. STODDARD, WILLIAM O., 505. Dan Monroe, 505. Fight For the Valley, The, 510. Little Smoke, 571. Noank's Log, The, 518. Red Patriot, The, 509. Stoicism, 16, 86, 87. Stoke, Battle of, 230. Stonecutter of Memphis, 8. Storm and Treasure, 421. Story of a Cat and a Cake, The, 609. Story of Ancient Wales, A, 71. Story of Tonty, The, 586. STOWE, HARRIET BEECH- ER, 553. Agnes of Sorrento, 621. Uncle Tom's Cabin, 553. STRAIN, EUPHANS H., 306. A Man's Foes, 306. STRANG, HERBERT, 441. Boys of the Light Brigade, 441. Brown of Moukden, 686. INDEX 741 Strange Story of Falconer Thring, The, 691. Stranger From Ionia, The, 39. Strassburg, Siege of (1870), 467. STRATEMEYER, EDWARD, 496. At the Fall of Montreal, 589. At the Fall of Port Arthur, 686. Campaign in the Jungle, The, 577. Fighting in Cuban Waters, 577. For the Liberty of Texas, 548. Fort in the Wilderness, The, 498. Marching On Niagara, 496. On to Pekin, 685. Under the Mikado's Flag, 687. Under Togo For Japan, 687. Young Volunteer in Cuba, A, 576. Strawberry Handkerchief, The, 501. Stray Pearls, 395. Strieltsi, Revolt of the (Russia), 671. Strong Mac, 349. Stronger Wings, The, 617. Struggle For Rome, A, 102. Stuart, Arabella, 279, 281. Stuart, Charles Edward (Young Pretender), 325-327, 328, 407. Stuart Dynasty, The, 189, 315. STUART, ESME, 458. A Nest of Royalists, 458. Stuart, James Edward (Old Pre- tender), 313, 317, 319, 320. Stuyvesant, Dutch Governor, 489, 490. Succession Wars, Austrian Succession (1740-48), 255, 328, 329, 406, 612. Spanish Succession (1701-14), 311-313, 317, 397, 404, 644, 645. Suetonius, Defeats Boadicea (A. D. 61), 76. Suidas, 74, 75. Sulla, Roman General, 56. Sullivan, General, 514. Sumter, Fort (1861), 558. Sun of Saratoga, The, 511. Sunderland, Robert, Minister of James II, 305. Supper, The Last, 104. Surajah Dowlah, 329, 330. Surge of War, The, 613. Surgeon's Daughter, The, 337. SUTCLIFFE, HAL LI WELL, 327. The Lone Adventure, 327. Suvoroff, Alexei, 432, 679. SWAN, EDGAR, 132. Mark of the Cross, The, 674. Sword and the Cowl, The, 132. Sweyn, Danish King, 128. Swift, Jonathan, 313, 317, 319. Swiss Guard, The (French Revo- lution), 417. Sword and Assegai, 689. Sword and the Cowl, The, 132. Sword Decides, The, 195. Sword of Freedom, The, 305. Sword of Gideon, The, 311. Sword of Justice, The, 481. Sword of the Lord, The, 602. Sword of the Old Frontier, A, 498. Sword of Wealth, The, 638. SYMONS, BERYL, 122. A Lady of France, 122. Taborites, The (Hussite Party), 208. Tacitus, 72. Tagliacozzo, Battle of (1268), 171. Taken By Assault, 693. Taking of the Bastile, The, 416. Talavera, Battle of (1809), 442. Tale of Two Cities, A, 423. Talisman, The, 163. Taras Bulba, 668. Tarleton, British Officer in Ameri- ca, 519, 520. Tarry Thou Till I Come, 78. Tarsus, City of, 68. Tasso, Torquato, 628, 629. Jerusalem Delivered, 628. Rinaldo, 628. TAUTPHOEUS, BARON ESS VON, 445. At Odds, 445. Taylor, Jeremy, 284. TAYLOR, MARY IMLAY, 257. An Imperial Lover, 672. Anne Scarlett, 487. Cobbler of Nimes, The, 403. House of the Wizard, The, 257. On the Red Staircase, 671. Taylor, Zachary, Mexican War, 550. Administration of, 552-554. Tea Party, Boston, 502. Tecumseh, Indian Chief, 535. Temple, The Jewish, 25. Temple, Sir William, 299. TEMPLETON, FRANK, 548. Margaret Ballentine, 548. 742 HISTORICAL FICTION Ten Thousand, Retreat of the (B. C. 401), 42. Tennyson, Alfred, Idylls of the King, 103, 104. Charge of the Light Brigade, 360, 361. Tention! 440. Terrible Czar, The, 668. Terror, Reign of (French Revolu- tion), 421, 423, 425, 428. Terror, The White, 416. Test Act, The (England), 296, 298, 304, 341. Tetzel, Johann, 602. Tewkesbury, Battle of (1471), 218, 219. Texas, Independence of (1836), 547, 548. THACKERAY, WILLIAM M., 331. Henry Esmond, 331, 332. Virginians, The, 331. Thaddeus of Warsaw, 679. Thais, 15. Thanet, Isle of, 106. Thebes, 9, 10. Themistocles, 35, 36. Theodora, Wife of Justinian, 101, 102. Theodoric, King of the Visigoths, 97. Theodosius the Great, 17, 18, 93, 94, 97. Theokleia, of Iconium, 71. Theon, Father of Hypatia, 19. Thermopylae, Battle • of (B. C. 480), 31, 35-37. Thessalonians, Paul's Epistles to the, 70. Thessalonica, 94. Thirty Years' War, The (1618- 1648), 598. First Stage, 606, 607. Second Stage, 606-610. Third Stage, 606. Fourth Stage, 606, 610. Peace of Westphalia, 610. Thomas, The Apostle, 66. Thomas, General George H., 562, 565. THOMAS, H. E., 638. The Sword of Wealth, 638. THOMPSON, DANIEL P., 503. The Green Mountain Boys, 503. Thor, The god, 106, 109. Thothmes III, 8, 9. Three Greek Children, 36. Three Musketeers, The, 387. Thrice Captive, 645. Through Russian Snows, 447. Through Swamp and Glade, 548. Through the Sikh War, 364. THRUSTON, LUCY M., 540. Jack and His Island, 540. THYNNE, ROBERT, 346. Ravensdale, 346. Tiberius, Emperor, 65, 69. Ticonderoga, Fort, Taken by Allen (1775), 503. Tientsin, Relief of, 685. Tiger of Mysore, The, 342. Tigellinus, The Prefect, 75. Tiglath-Pileser III, 24, 25. Tilsit, Peace of (1807), 438. TILTON, DWIGHT, 505. My Lady Laughter, 505. Time and Chance, 556. Timothy, Paul's Epistle to, 76. Tippecanoe, Battle of (1811), 536. Tippemuir, Battle of (1644), 285. Tippoo Sultan, 337, 342, 343. Titus, Emperor, 77-79. To Arms! 319. To Herat and Cabul, 363. Tobacco, Cultivation of in Vir- ginia, 484. Tockely, Insurrection of (1682), 612. TODD, GEORGE EYRE, 290. Cavalier and Covenant, 290. Togo, Admiral, 686, 687. TOLSTOY, COUNT ALEXEI K.,668. The Terrible Czar, 668. TOLSTOY, LYOF, 436. War and Peace, 436, 439, 448. Toltecs, The, in Mexico, 479. Tom Burke of Ours, 438. TOMLINSON, EVERETT T., 510. In the Camp of Cornwallis, 510. Marching Against the Iroquois, 514. Red Chief, The, 514. Washington's Young Aids, 510. Young Blockaders, The, 559. Tone, Theobold Wolfe, 341, 342. Tonty, Henri de, 585. TOPELIUS, ZACHARIAS, 608. The King's Ring, 608. Tories, The, 297. Toronto, McKnight's Attack on, 593. Torquemada, Tomas de, 247, 248, 641. Touchstone of Fortune, The, 296. INDEX 743 Toulon, Captured by Napoleon (1793), 427. Toulouse, Battle of (1814), 442, 443. TOURGEE, A. W., 570. Bricks Without Straw, 570. Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de, 404. Tours, Battle of (732), 113. Toussaint L'Ouverture, 433, 434. Tower of London, 221. Tower of London, The, 265. Towton, Battle of (1461), 218. Trafalgar, 347, 437. Trafalgar, Battle of (1805), 346, 347, 437. Tragedy of the Dacres, The, 255. Tragic Comedians, The, 618. Trail of the Sword, The, 587. Traitor or Loyalist, 559. Traitor, The, 569. Traitor's Escape, A, 523. Trajan, Emperor, 14, 83, 84. Transcendentalism, School of, 549. Trasimenus Lake, Battle of, 49, 50. Trebia, Battle of (Punic Wars), 49. Trent, Council of (1545-63), 627. Trenton, Battle of (1776), 509. Trinity, Doctrine of the, 94. Triple Alliance, The (1883), 620. Triple Crown, The, 216. Tripoli, War with (1801-5), 531, 537. Triumvirate, First, 58. TROLLOPE, ANTHONY, 421. La Vendee, 421. Tromp, Maarten van, 292. Troyes, Treaty of (1420), 183, 202. True Heart, 603. TRUE, JOHN P., 519. Morgan's Men, 520. On Guard, 520. Scouting For Light Horse Harry, 521. Scouting For Washington, 519. True Man and Traitor, 346. True to the Old Flag, 525. True Unto Death, 681. Tryphaina, Queen of Pontus, 71. Tudor, The House of, 226, 253. Tuileries, Attack on the, 417-419, 427. Tulips, Cultivation of in Holland, 665. Turbulent Town, A, 202. Turenne, Henri de, 393, 394, 397, 398, 610. Turgot, Robert Jacques, 410. Turks, Ottaman, 209, 611. TURNBULL, MRS. LAW- RENCE, 242. Golden Book of Venice, The, 629. Royal Pawn of Venice, The, 242. Turnout, Battle of (1597), 662. TWAIN, MARK, 105, 109. A Yankee at the Court of King Arthur, 105. Twenty Years After, 393. Two Dianas, The, 374. Two-Handed Sword, The, 325. Two Sicilies, The, 166. Two Thousand Years Ago, 57. TYNAN, KATHARINE, 345. Rose of the Garden, 345. Tyndale, William, 256. Tyrants, The Thirty, 15, 88. Tyre, Siege and Fall of (B. C. 332), 44, 45. Tyrell, Sir James, 221. Tyrell, Walter, 135, 137. TYTLER, SARAH, 357. A Daughter of the Manse, 357. U Uarda, 10. Ulandi, Battle of (1880), 690, 691. Ulm, Taken by Napoleon (1805), 436. Uncle Tom's Cabin, 553. Under Pontius Pilate, 66. Under the Dome of St. Paul's, 314. Under the Foeman's Flag, 275. Under the Iron Flail, 472. Under the Mikado's Flag, 687. Under the Red Rose, 224. Under the Southern Cross, 481. Under the Wolf's Fell, 319. Under Three Kings, 305. Under Togo For Japan, 687. Under Wellington's Command, 443. Ungava, 591. Ungava, Labrador, 591. Uniformity, Act of (1662), 293, 296. Unknown to History, 273. Urban II, Pope, 160, 161. Urban VI, Pope, 194, 207. Urith, 304. Utrecht, Union of (1579), 661. Treaty of (1713), 316, 328. 744 HISTORICAL FICTION Vale of Cedars, The, 641. Valencia, Battle of, 440. Valenciennes, Siege of (1567), 656, 657. Valentinian, Emperor, 93. Valerian, Emperor, 53, 59. Valerius, 83. Valette, Jean La, 628. Valley Forge, 512. Valley Forge, Winter quarters of Washington, 512. VALLINGS, HAROLD, 304. By Dulvercombe Waters, 304. Valmy, Battle of (1792), 418. Valois, House of, 382. Van Buren, President Martin, 548-550. Vane, Henry, Governor of Ply- mouth Colony, 486, 487. Vanishing Smuggler, The, 349. Vasconcelos, 481. Vashti, Wife of Ahasuerus, 31, 32. Velvet Glove, The, 649. Vendee, Uprising in, 420, 421, 425. Venetii, The, defeated by Caesar, 58. Venezuelan Dispute, The, 573. Vengeance is Mine, 451. Veranilda, 102. Vercingetorix, Defeated by Cae- sar, 58. Verdon, Treaty of (843), 116, 166. Vergil, 63. Vergilius, 63. Veronica Playfair, 316. Verrochio, Andre del, 239. Versailles, Court of, 402, 405. Verulamium, 92. Vespasian, Emperor, 77-79. Vesuvius, Eruption of (A. D. 79), 80. Vicomte de Bragelonne, The, 395. Vicksburg, Siege and fall of (1863), 560, 561. Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, 637, 638. Victor Emmanuel III, 638. Victor of Salamis, A, 36. Victoria, Queen of Great Britain, Characterized, 354. Prime Ministers of, 355. Irish Agitation, 355, 362, 363. The Crimean War, 359-361. The Fenian Rebellion, 362. Conflicts in India, 363-367. Vienna, Siege of (1682), 612. VIGNY, ALFRED VICTOR DE, 389. Cinq-Mars, 389. Vigo Bay, Spain, 310-312. Villars, Suppressed the Cami- sards 403 Villeroi, Marshal, 312, 633. Villiers, George (Duke of Buck- ingham), 280, 388. Vimiero, Battle of (1808), 441. Vinci, Leonardo da, 621. Vire, Mademoiselle de, Niece of Turenne, 382. Virgin Fortress, The, 469. Virgin of the Sun, The, 480. Virginia Company, The, 482. Virginians, The, 331. Visconti Family, of Milan, 194, 198, 199. Visconti, Filippo Maria, 198, 199. Visigoths, The, 96, 97, 100, 101. Vitellius, Emperor, 77. Vitellius, Prefect of Syria, 67. Vitoria, Battle of (1813), 442, 443. Vittoria, 635. Viva Christina, 648. Volturno, Battle of (I860), 638. Voltaire, Francois Marie, 404, 415. Volunteer with Pike, A, 533. Vortigern, A British chief, 105. VOYNICH, MRS. ETHEL L., 634. The Gadfly, 634. Vulgate, The, 256. Vultures, The, 682. W Wacousta, 498. WAGNALLS, MABEL, 408. The Palace of Danger, 408. Wagram, Battle of (1809), 444, 445. Wakefield, Battle of (1460), 216, 219. Waldenses, The, 118. Waldo, Peter, 118. Walewska, Countess of, 439. Walewski, Count Alexander, 439. WALKER, AGNESE LAURIE, 32. Hadassah, Queen of Persia, 32. WALKER, FRANCES M. COT- TON, 652. Cloister to Court, 652. Walker, Rev. George, 306. Walker, Helen, Prototype of Jeanie Dean in The Heart of Midlothian, 323. INDEX 745 WALLACE, LEW, 64. Ben Hur, 64. Prince of India, The, 212. Wallace, Sir William, 153-155, 317. Wallenstein, Austrian general, 609, 610. Wallingford Castle, Siege of, 139. Wallingford, Treaty of, 138. WALLIS, A. S, C, 656. In Troubled Times, 656. WALLIS, HENRY M., 335. As It Happened, 335. WALLOTH, WILHELM, 11. The King's Treasure House, 11. Walpole, Sir Robert, 319. Walsingham, Sir Francis, 273, 274. Walters, Lucy, Mistress of Charles II, 295-297. Wanderer and King, 290. Wandering Jew, The, 79, 161, 213. Wanton, The, 205. War and Peace, 436, 439, 448. War of 1812, 535-542. War of Women, The, 395. Warbeck, Perkin, 228, 229, 259. WARD, BRYAN W., 150. The Forest Prince, 150. WARD, C. H. DUDLEY, 76. Boudicca, 76. Ward of King Canute, The, 128. Ward of the King, A, 372. Warren, Joseph, at Bunker Hill, 504, 505. Wartburg, Castle of, 603. Warwick, Earl of (Richard Ne- ville), 215, 217-219. Washington, Capital of the United States, 529, 530. Washington, George, Seven Years' War, 331, 332, 494, 495. American Revolutionary War, 505-525. Administration of, 528-530. Death of, 530. Washington's Young Aids, 510. Wat Tyler's Rebellion (1381), 180, 181. Waterloo, 453. Waterloo, Battle of (1815), 451- 453. WATSON, HELEN H., 347. Andrew Goodfellow, 347. Waverly, 326. Wayne, Anthony, Indian troubles (1749), 529. Wearing of the Green, The, 362. WEBB, MRS. J. B., 71. Pomponia, 71. Webster, Daniel, 553. WEBSTER, HENRY K., 559. Traitor or Loyalist, 559. Wedmore, Treaty of, 125. Weimar, 614, 615. Wellesley, Lord, 342, 343. Wellington, Duke of, Peninsular War, 349, 440-444. Waterloo Campaign, 450-454. In Parliament, 351. Wentworth, Miss Patricia, 425. A Marriage Under the Terror, 425. Wenzel's Inheritance, 208. Wesley, Charles, 323-325. Wesley, John, 323-325. WESTALL, WILLIAM, 445. A Red Bridal, 445. Westminster Abbey, 257. Westminster Abbey, < 129. Westminster Confession of Faith, 285. Weston, Jessie L., 103. Westphalia, Kingdom of, 438. Peace of (1648), 607, 610, 611. West Point, Commanded by Ben- edict Arnold, 522. Westward Ho! 274. Westward With Columbus, 478. Wetherell, Sir Charles, 352. Weyler, Spanish General in Cuba, 575. WEYMAN, STANLEY J., 350. Abbess of Vlaye, The, 384. Chippinge, 351. Gentleman of France, A, 382. House of the Wolf, The, 379. Starvecrow Farm, 350. Whalley, Edward, 294. When Hawkins Sailed the Sea, 270. When Knighthood Was in Flower, 254. When London Burned, 298. When Wilderness Was King, 536. Where the Red Volleys Poured, 561. Whigs, The, 297, 316, 317. WHISHAW, FREDERICK J., 448. Boris the Bear Hunter, 671. Boyar of the Terrible, A, 667. Forbidden Name, A, 675. Moscow, 448. Nathalia, 670. Near the Tsar, Near Death, 673. Splendid Impostor, A, 669. 746 HISTORICAL FICTION Whisky Ring, The, 570. WHISTLER, C. W., 126. For King or Empress, 137. Gerald the Sheriff, 135. King Alfred's Viking, 126. King Olaf's Kinsman, 128. White Aprons, 483. White Cockade, The, 421. White Company, The, 178. White Conquerors of Mexico, The 479. White Gauntlet, The, 312. White Hoods, The, 201. White Mountain, Battle of, 607. White Queen, The 255. White Shield, The 70. WHITE, STEWART E., 590. Conjurer's House, 590. White Terror and the Red, The, 681. WHITE, WILLIAM H., 350. The Revolution in Tanner's Lane, 350. Whiteboy Movement, 333. Whitefriars, 298. Whites and the Blues, The, 428. Whitfield, George, 324. WHITING, MARY B., 627. The Plough of Shame, 627. Whittier, John G., 555. St. John, 583. Wieland, Christof Martin, 614, 615. Wight, Isle of, 109, 227, 286, 287. Wilberforce, William, 340. Wilderness, Battle of the (1864), 562, 563. Wilderness Road, The, 529. Wilfred, Bishop of York, 109. WILKINS, MARY E. (MARY E. FREEMAN), 484. The Heart's Highway, 484. WILLARD, RACHEL, 190. Catherine Douglas, 190. William I, (the Conqueror), 130- 132. William II, (Rufus), of England, 133-135. William III, of England 299, 304, 306-310. William IV, of England, 351-353. William of Orange (William the Silent), 652-662. William III, of Orange, 665. William Henry, Fort, 496, 589. WILLIAMS, CHURCHILL, 559. The Captain, 559. WILLIAMS, EGERTON R., 197. Ridolfo, 197. WILLIAMS, HUGH NOEL, 408. The Hand of Leonore, 408. Williams, Roger, 487. Winchester, Battle of (1864), 564. Winning His Spurs, 164. Winthrop, John, 487. Wishart, George (Scotch reform- er), 262. Witan, The, 129. Witch Queen of Khem, The, 10. Witchcraft, 488. With Buller in Natal, 692. With Cochrane the Dauntless, 545. With Fire and Sword, 669. With Frederick the Great, 613. With Lafayette at Yorktown, 525. With Lee in Virginia, 558. With Moore at Corunna, 440. With Musqueteer and Redskin, 486. With Perry on Lake Erie, 538. With Porter in the Essex, 539. With Roberts to Pretoria, 693. With Rogers' Rangers, 497. With Shield and Assegai, 691. With the Allies to Pekin, 684. With the British Legion, 647. With the Flag in the Channel, 517. With Warren at Bunker Hill, 505. With Wellington to Waterloo, 452. With Wolfe in Canada, 495. With Wolseley to Kumasi, 690. Witt, John de, 664, 665. Wittikind, The Saxon, 115. Wizard King, The, 611. Woden, The god, 106, 109. Wolf the Saxon, 131. Wolfe, James, English general, 496, 589. Wolf's Head, 146. Wolseley, Lord Garnet, Riel's Rebellion in Canada, 595, 596. Relief of Khartoum, 596. Ashantee War, 690. Wolsey, Thomas, Archbishop, 254, 256, 260. Wolvesey Castle, Siege of, 138. Won By the Sword, 610. Woodman, The, 225. WOODS, EDITH E., 576. The Spirit of the Service, 576. WOODS, MARGARET L., 440. The King's Revoke, 440. Woodstock, 291. Woodville, Sir Edward, 227. Woodville, Richard (Earl Rivers), 217, 221-223. INDEX 747 Worcester, Battle of (1651), 290. Worcester, Bishop of, 133. World War, The (1914-1918), 579, 620, 676. World's Desire, The, 11. World's Fair, The Chicago, (1893), 573. Worms, The Diet of (1521), 600, 601, 603. Worship, Animal, 8. Worth, Battle of (1870), 467. Wren, Christopher, 314. Wulnoth the Wanderer, 125. Wurtemberg, Duke of, 614. Wyatt, Sir Thomas, Rebellion of (1554), 264, 266, 267. Wycliffe, John, 179, 184, 206, 255. WYNNE, MAY, 191. Henry of Navarre, 379. King's Masquerade, A, 260. King's Tragedy, A, 191. Maid of Brittany, A, 236. Red Fleur-de-Lys, The, 416. Wyoming Valley (American Rev- olution), 514. Yellow Frigate, The, 228. Yellow Shield, The, 691. Yemassee Indians, Carolina, 491. 492. Yemassee, The, 492. Yolando, Maid of Burgundy, 234 YONGE, CHARLOTTE M., 79. Caged Lion, The, 189. Constable's Tower, The, 148. Kenneth, 448^ Slaves of Sabinus, Jew and Gen- tile, The, 79. Stray Pearls, 395. Unknown to History, 273. York, Duke of, 215, 216. Yorktown, Siege of (1781), 524. Young Blockaders, The, 559. Young, Brigham, 547. Young Buglers, The, 442. Young Carthaginian, The, 49. Young Colonists, The, 691. Young Macedonian in the Army of Alexander, A, 45. Young Man Married, A, 443. Young Pioneers, The, 586. Young Volunteer in Cuba, A, 576. Xanthippe, Wife of Socrates, 38. Xenophon, 42. Xerxes I, King of Persia, 30, 31, 35-37. X-Y-Z Affair, 531. Yankee at the Court of King Arthur, A, 105. Yarn of Old Harbor Town, The, 347. Year One, The, 417. YEATS, SIDNEY K. LEVETT, 376. Orrain, 376, Zachary Phips, 533. Zama, Defeat of Hannibal at, 49. Zanoni, 423. Zara, in Dalmatia, 211. Zeno, Founder of Stoicism, 16, 18. Ziska, John, 207. ZOLA, EMILE, 460, 473. Downfall, The, 469. His Excellency, 464. Mysteries of Marseilles, The, 460. ZOLLINGER, GULIELMA, 149. The Rout of the Foreigner, 149. Zoroaster, 28. Zululand, 690, 691. Zumalacarregui, Thomas, 648. • IV* Deacidified using the Bookkeeper pro< Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: Nov. 2007 PreservationTechnologies A WORLD LEADER IN COLLECTIONS PRESERVATIO 111 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township. PA 16066 (724)779-2111 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 021 956 684